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THER FISHS

 

 

 

 

 

OF

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

 

BY

FRANCIS DAY, F.LS., & F.Z.8.,_

KNIGHT OF THE CROWN OF ITALY, HON. MEMBER DEUTSCHER FISCHEREI-VEREIN, AND OF THE
AMERICAN FISHERIES SOCIETY, MEMBER OF THE ASIATIC SOCIETY OF CALCUTTA AND
OF THE COTSWOLD NATURALISTS’ FIELD CLUB, ETC., DEPUTY SURGEON-
GENERAL MADRAS ARMY, (RETIRED, ) AND FORMERLY INSPECTOR-
GENERAL OF FISHERIES IN INDIA,

IN TWO VOLUMES.

VOLUME I.

WILLIA"S AND NORGATE,

14, HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON;
anp 20, SOUTH FREDERICK STREET, EDINBURGH.

1880—1884.
A. Cea

LONDON:
G. NORMAN AND SON, PRINTERS, HART STREET,

COVENT GARDEN.
PREFACE,

Twenty years having elapsed since the last editions of the elaborate
treatises on “ British Fishes”? by Yarrell and Couch were published, I
venture to offer to the public a new work on our fish-fauna, wherein I have
attempted to incorporate many of the discoveries of recent times. For
latterly investigations into our fish and fisheries have been pursued with
increased zeal, and many facts ascertained materially modifying some of the
conclusions formerly arrived at. My desire has been to produce a work
useful to the zoological student, fish-culturist, fisherman, and the general
public—all of whdm are more or less interested in the fish-fauna of the.
‘British Isles, whether as regards their geographical, zoological, sporting, or
economic aspects.

As the value of a work of this description is much increased by
illustrations, I have personally delineated every species from nature. Why
I was unable to retain the services of my professional artist the subjoined
letter from the Secretary to the Trustees of the British Museum* will
explain. s

The number of zoologists who have made the fish-fauna of our isles
the subject for their special.study is very considerable, as will be seen by
the following list. While in addition to those who are not specially alluded
to others have also done good servive, either as compilers or investigators
into the habits or other subjects pertaining to one or more of our indigenous
species, recording their discoveries in articles sent to different scientific
publications or in the pages of weekly and other journals, and which, so
far as I have been able, I have referred to under the various species to
which such remarks pertain. ,

In the year 1662, Sir Thomas Browne compiled a list of the Norfolk
fishes, on which he made several interesting observations; in 1684, Sir
Robert Sibbald, in “ Scotie Prod. Nat. Hist.,” describes the fishes of that
country. Willughby and Ray appear to tag been the joint authors of
*‘ Historia Piscium,” published at Oxford in 1686; while in 1713 a
posthunmious work by the latter, entitled “Synopsis Methodica Piscium,”

* “Dear Siz,—Having referred your letter of the 13th to Dr. Gtinther, I learn from him that
as both you and he are engaged in preparing a publication on British Fishes, he thinks it
inconvenient and against the interests of either work that the same artist should be emploved on
both. He has, therefore, intimated to Mr. Mintern that if he is working cuts for you he will
engage another artist for himself. This is a matter which cannot be considered to concern the

Trustees.—Yours; &c.,; Ep. A. Bonn.” (August 20th, 1880.)
a
i PREFACE.

was printed in London, and in it were added some descriptions and figures
of raro Cornish fishes, made by the Reverend G. Jugo, the minister of Looe
in that county, JVallace’s “Description of the Islands of Orkney ”’ was
published in 1693, and contains an account of some of the.fish. Dale, in a °
“ History of the Antiguities of Harwich and Doverscourt,” 1730, devotes a
portion of the appendix (pp. 420-436) to the local fishes. The Reverend
W. Borlase, ¥.x.8., in 1758, published a work on the “ Natural History of
Cornwall,’ in which a portion of chapter xxii and three plates refer to
fishes. Pennant, in his “ British Zoology,” 1776, devoted most of volume ii
and sixty-six plates to fishes: a second edition of this work was published
with additions after his death in 1812. Donovan, between the years 1802
and 1808, brought out his beautifully illustrated work on “ British Fishes,”
in five volumes, containing 120 figures and descriptions. G. Shaw, in his
“General Zoology,” 1800-1819, devotes volumes iv and v (1803-1801),
with 182 plates, to fishes, and has likewise observations on the same subject
in the “ Naturalist’s Miscellany,’ 1789-1813. Turton, in his ‘ British
Fauna,” 1807, devotes from p. 82 to 117 to fish. Colunel Montagu, in the
“ Wernerian Memoirs,” 1811 and 1818, has some observations and figures
of new and little-known British fishes. Patrick Neill gives a “ List of the
Fishes found in the Frith of Forth” (pp. 526-555), in the ‘“ Wernerian
Memoirs,” for 1811. ©. and J. Paget, in their “ History of Yarmouth,”
Hogg in the “Natural History of Stockton-on-Tees,” 1829, and Lubbock
in tho “ Fauna of Norfolk,’ 1845, refer to the local fishes. In 1818, the
« Fauna Orcadensis,” by the Dev. George Low, minister of Birsa and Harray,
appeared ; it had been written between the years 1774 and 1795, and from
page 167 to 230 are given to fish. Fleming, in 1828, in a “ History of
British Animals,” devotes pp. 162-222 to descriptions of fishes. In 1828,
Mrs. Bowdich published some plates of British fresh-water Fishes. Jenyns,
ina “Mannal of British Vertebrate Animals,” 1835, describes the fishes
(pp. 806-524).  Yurrell, in 1835, commenced the first edition of his
“ British Fishes,” completed the succeeding year in two volumes, and
illustrated with nearly 400 wood engravings; the second edition was
published in 18-41, and the third by Sir J. Richardson, r.r.s., in 1859.
Parnell published his “ prize essay on the natural and cconomical history of
the fishes, marine, fluviatile and lacustrine, of the river district of the Firth
of Forth,” in the “ Memoirs of the Wernerian Natural History Society,” vii,
1838, pp. 161-460, with plates xviii to xliv. Johnston, in 1888, at the annual
meeting of the Berwickshire Naturalist’s Club, gave a list of the fishes of that
county. Swainson describes “ Fishes in Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopzedia,”
1839, with figures. Sir W. Jardine, v.n.s., “ British Salmonide,” in 1839,
with large folio plates. Meynell gave a paper on “the Fishes of York-
shire” to the British Association in 1844, Dillwyn, on the “ Fauna and
PREFACE. lil

Flora of Swansea,” 1848, chapter iii, from page 11 to 17, being on the local
fish-fauna. In 1851, Mr. Adam White and.Dr. John Edward Gray published
“List of the specimens of British Animals in the British Museum,” fish
oo 162 pages. Baker gave a paper on the “Fishes of. Somerset-
shire,” in 1851, to the “ Somersetshire Archeological and Natural History
Society,” ix the proceedings of which it is a. Harris, in 1851,
published in volume ix of the “ Zoologist,” a “ List of the fishes of the
Moray Firth ;? Gordon, in 1852, in the same ‘tiation also gave a list of
those from te Moray Firth. In the same year Peach gave a paper to
the British Association on “Some fishes found at Peterhead.” In 1853,
W. Baikie gave a list of the “Fishes of the Orkneys and Shetlands,” in
the “ Zoologist.” Dr. .1. Giinther, ¥.n.s., published between 1859 and
1870 a « Catalogue of the Fishes of .the British Museum,” in eight
volumes. In the appendix to Ferguson’s “Natural History of Redcar,”
is. an account of the fishes of that locality. In 1860, Mrs. Merrifield,
in “A sketch of the Natural History of Brighton and its Vicinity,” gives
a chapter on the “ Fishes.” In 1861, Mr. Iiggins published in the
“ Zoologist ” “ Remarks on some of the fishes of Weston-super-Mare.”
Couch commenced his “ Fishes of the British Isles ” in 1862, and
completed them in 1865, in three volumes, with 252 coloured plates.
In 1864, Gill published in the “ Proceedings of the Academy of Natural
Science of a 1864 (p. 199), a paper “on the affinities of several
doubtful British Fishes.” McIntosh, in the “ Proceedings of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh,” volume v, 1862-65,* gave’a paper on “the Fishes
of North Uist,” and in 1874, in a work on “the Marine Invertebrates and
Fishes of St. Andrews,” describes the latter (pp. 171-185). Dr. Lowe, in the
“Transactions of the Norfolk and Norwich Naturalist’s Society,” 1873-74,
published an account of the “Fishes of Norfolk.” In 1875, Mr. H. Parfitt,
in the “ Transactions of the Devonshire Association for the Advancement of
Science and Literature,” gave an account of the “Fishes of Devonshire.”
In 1876, the investigations of Hdward in Banffshire were published in “ the
Life of a Scotch Naturalist,” and a list in the appendix (pp. 417-429).
Mr. G. Sim includes the observations made by the late Dr. Dyce, in a
“ Catalogue of fish found in the vicinity of Aberdeen ” in the Transactions
of the local Society in 1878. Mr. Dunn, in the “ Journal of the Royal
Institution of Cornwall,’ no. xxii, gave “ Remarks upon some Cornish
Fishes.” Mr. Frank Buckland, in 1878, published a “ Familiar History
of British Fishes,” enlarged in 1880, and termed a “ Natural History

* Subsequent to the publication of part viii of this work and the completion of the addenda,

Dr. McIntosh kindly forwarded to me a specimen of Lumpenus lampetreformis, which Blennoid
had been trawled fifteen miles off St. Abb’s head, and the first recorded British specimen (see,
“ Proceedings of Zoological Society for June,” 1884, with a figure).
8 : a *
iv PREFACE.

of British Fishes,” with woodcuts. In 1879, F. Day, in the “ Proceedings
of the Zoological Society” (p. 742), gave an acount of the “ Fishes of
Weston-super-Mare.” In the same year, the Reverend Mr. Houghton
published an account of the “British Freshwater Fishes,” with coloured
illustrations. In 1881, Mr. Hagle Clarke and Mr. D. Roebuck brought out
the “Yorkshire Vertebrata,” in which pp. 99-133 are devoted to fish. In
1882, Mr. F. Sawyer gave a paper to the “ Brighton and Sussex Natural
History Society” on “ Sussex Fish and Fisheries ;” and Mr. Crellin has
compiled a list of the “ Fishes of the Isle of Man.”

In Ireland, Dr. Rutty (1772) published an “Essay towards a natural
history of the county of Dublin,” and in volume. i, from page 345 to 369 is
devoted to fish; also Harris, in the “History of County Down,” 1744 ;.
Sampson’s “History of Londonderry,” 1802; MceSkimnin's “ History of
Carrickfergus ;”” Dubordiew’s “ History of County Down,” 1802; all have local
lists of fish. Templeton’s “ List of Fishes of Belfast”? was published in the
“ Magazine of Natural History,” in 1837. In 1856, Thompson’s “ Natural
History of Ireland” was brought out, and in volume iv, pp. 69-268, are
collected the various ichthyological papers written by that author. More,
who also published a list‘of “the Fishes of the Isle of Wight,” gave in the
“Journal of the Royal Dublin Society,” volume v, 1866-70, a paper on the
« Fishes of the South-Western Coast of Ireland.” In 1869, Andrews likewise
published a paper on the same subject.

It now becomes my pleasing duty to offer my sincere thanks to those
who have assisted me by obtaining information and specimens, or have
helped my work through the press. Among the former J must particularly
allude to Mr. Matthias Dunn, of Mevagissey, whose intimate knowledge of
fishes and unwearied search after information and specimens, which he has
always been most ready to communicate, have proved of invaluable service.
‘The late Professor Peters, Director of the Berlin Museum ; Professor Hubrecht,
of Utrecht ; and Professor Giglioli, Director of the Vertebrate Museum at
Florence, have likewise given me much assistance. Mr. Sim, of Aberdeen ;
Mr. Kermode, of the Isle of Man ; Mr. T. Carrington, ¥.1.8., late of the West-
minster Royal Aquarium : Dr. Murie, v.u.s., and Mr. G. Brooks, ¥.L.S., have all
assisted me with specimens of marine and fresh-water fishes. Sir J. Ramsay
Gibson-Maitland, Bart., ¥.u.8., has also afforded me invaluable information and
opportunities of investigation at his justly celebrated Howietoun Fisheries.

I have also to offer my best thanks to A. C. Brisbane Neill, Esq., of the
Madras Medical Service (retired) for his invaluable assistance in carrying
‘this work through the press, and ‘thus enabling me to bring out the various
numbers at the periods specified in the original prospectus.
INTRODUCTION.

WHEN commencing to investigate fish and fisheries, it naturally first occurs
to the tquirer to ask what is a fish ? at what geological epoch of time did it

first leave a trace of its existence on the surface of the globe we inhabit ? °

how does it live, move, and continue its kind ?

In a work like the present, a small space only can be given to some of

these various questions, and I have deemed it best to abbreviate, remarks
upon embryology, comparative, anatomy and physiology, as well as the
numerous and diversified systems of classification (referring the reader to the
various treatises on these subjects) in order to dwell more particularly upon
facts that come especially to the notice of the field- pabareiels fish-culturist
and fisherman,

For practical purposes it is highly désirable to endeavour to ascertain what
are the geographical limits within which the various forms of fish life are
found, should the species be migratory, the causes of their migrations, and

how such are dependent on ocean circulation, currents, seasons, temperature,

food, or the necessity for the continuation of their kind. Why is it that
some forms flourish and increase while others dwindle away and decrease ;
what are the effects of light or darkness, depths or the varied physical con-
ditions of the waters in which they reside? Likewise how fish are affected
by storms and electrical disturbances, or in short what are their enemies or
their friends, and conditions tending towards the perpetuation or extermina-
tion of their race ?

When inquiring into what is their favourite food, we have to remember
that in selecting such they must be guided by the faculties of sight, taste, or

smell, perhaps assisted by touch, and possibly by sound, and this leads on

to the consideration of respiration and digestion. Fishes likewise possess

emotions and instincts, sensibility to pain or the reverse, modifications of

form sometimes due to age or sex, and alterations of colour consequent upon
the nuptial season, external relationship or disease.

Some residing at great depths or in dark caverns have théir eyes deficient,
others in the abysses of the ocean possess them enormously developed in
order to utilize every ray of light, while a few likewise living in apparently

*
vi EXTERNAL CHARACTERS.

similar conditions cmit light. Again we find forms sceking refuge in other
animals, or clse as commensals using them as vehicles for conveying them
from one place to another, or fastening on their neighbours for their own
carnivorous purposes. ‘Then there is the breeding of fishes whether natural
or artificial, hybridism and its effects, sterility and its causes ; diseases and
the mode of destruction of fish ; and lastly, fisheries, and how they are.worked.

Fish are the lowest class of the vertebrate division of the animal kingdom,
destined to pass their lives in a watery element, and having their bodies
very diversely modified in order to accommodate them to varied con-
ditions of existence. Some are fitted for salt waters, others for those that
arc fresh, some for residing at great depths, others for shallows, some are
mere, surface swimmers pursuing their finny food, while others, although
similarly surface swimmers, live on minute organisms, and are themselves
pursued by their more powerful neighbours. Some like clear water, others
prefer that which is muddy, the rapid stream, the whirling eddy, the placid
lake or pond, or the mountain torrent, cach possess their fish life, modified
according to circumstances and frequently changing with the age of the
animal.

EXTERNAL CHARACTERS.

Remarking generally on the external form of fishes we see,a comparatively
large head attached directly to the trunk without the intervention of a neck,
while the body tapers off towards the posterior extremity. The regions
into which they are externally divided are those of the head, the body or
» trunk, the tail and the jins.: In such forms as the perch or carp and the
majority of species the head is separated from the’ body or trunk by the
gill-openings ; while the body and the tail have the vent as a division
between them. While external similarity in form is occasionally more
symptomatic of an agreement in the diet on which they feed than on their
zoological relationship.

In this class of animals modifications of form from what are seen in the
more typical perches or carps are exceedingly numcrous. The body may
be laterally flattened, as in the sole (plate evi) strongly depressed as in the
skate (plate clxvi), shortened as in the sun-fish (plate exlviii), elongated and
rounded as in the eel (plate exlii), elongated and compressed as in the
scabbard-fish (plate li), shortened and rounded as in the globe fish (plate
exlvii), or encased in square armour as in the box-fish Ostracion, or the pipe
fishes (plate cxliv). The hcad may, when compared with the size of the body, be
cnormously developed as in the frog-fish (plate xxix), or produced laterally
as in the hammer-headed shark (plate cliv), or the snout may be lengthened
HEAD, MOUTH AND GILL-COVERS. vii

into a weapon of offence as in the sword-fish (plate xlix), or the gar-fish
(plate exxvi), while the tail-fin may bo elongated for a similar purpose as
seen in the fox-shark (plate clvii), or the tail may be capable of prehension
as in horse-fishes (plate exliv, fig. 7). Some are possessed of organs for
attachment as seen on the top of the head in the sucking-fish (plate xxxix),
on the chest as in the lump-sucker (plate lv) and Liparis (plate lvi), or the
mouth may be formed for this purpose as in the lampreys (plate clxxviii).
- In Asia we see a few carps have an adhesive organ behind the lower jaw, as
in Discognathus, while some sheat-fishos as Pseudechencis have them on the
chest, thus enabling them to reside in mountain torrents or rapid streams.

 

Fig. 1. Rep Mutter.
b, maxilla; c, mandible; 0, barbel; h, pectoral fin; 7, ventral fin; &, first dorsal fin ;
1, second dorsal fin ; m, anal fin ; », caudal fin ; q, lateral-line ; , lateral-transverse line.

The head is as a rule divided from the body by the gill-openings, while the
eye sub-divides it into two parts, that in front of this organ being known as
the ante-orbital and that behind it as the post-orbital region: in the former
is the snout wherein are placed the nostrils and generally the mouth. The
space between the orbits is known as the inter-orbital region, while that
below the orbit is the infra- or sub-orbital.

The mouth is subject to great diversity in its external direction, being
either horizontal, oblique, or almost vertical. In some it is semi-circular or
even circular in the lampreys, and inferior in most of the sharks. It may
be very or only slightly protractile, and possess or be deficient in lips: and
sometimes provided with accessory tactile organs in the form of barbels ,
(fig. 1,0).

The gill-covers or opercles in most bony fishes, consist of four pieces, the
posterior and upper of which is the opercle or operculum (page xv, fig. 3, 0),
in front of it the preopercle (fig. 8, p. 0), while of the two lower pieces
the posterior is known as the sub-opercle (fig. 3, s. 0), and the anterior,
situated below the preopercle (and sometimes rudimentary or absent), as the
inter-opercle (fig. 3, v. 0). Although in teleosteans, ganoids and holocephala
Vill EXTERNAL CHARACTERS.

among the elasmobranchs we perceive as a rule a single external gill opening
on either side, or even on the lower surface of the head, a different distribu-
tion is generally seen in the plagiostomes which possess from five to seven,
and among the cyclostomes, which usually have seven as in lampreys,
although it may be single as in the hag ; in these latter, gill-covers as observed
in teleosteans, are absent.

The body or trank commences behind the head, and amongst most bony
fishes is somewhat wedge-shaped, passing by imperceptible degrees into the
tail or caudal portion, the vent generally dividing the two regions, but to
this rule there are many exceptions, for in certain genera the intestine opens
under the throat or near the caudal fin. In some slow-moving or bottom
fishes, the head as in the frog-fish, is depressed, while the entire body may
be compressed into a flattened disc as among the flat-fishes or pleuronectoids
which progress swimming on their sides. Or there may be lateral compression
conjoined to a short body and slow movements as in the dory or the sun-fish ;
or there may be lateral compression with a lengthening of the body as in the
band-fishes. The body is divisible into the back, the sides or lateral surfaces,
and the abdomen or the belly.

The tal or that portion which is continuous with the trunk, is similarly
divisible into, the back, the sides and abdominal surfaces, while should a free
finless portion exist between the hind fin of the back and the tail fin this is
termed the peduncle or free portion of the tail. Among the Chondropterygii
the tail of some rays and skates appears as a slender appendage from the
body, while in some ground forms it seems to act mostly as a rudder.

The skin may be scaled or scaleless, or enclosed in armoured plates, while
should a row of pierced scales pass along the sides they are known as the
lateral-line (fig. 1, 7), the number of scales on which are generally important
as assisting in discriminating the species; while the lateral transverse-row
(fig. 1, p) is of similar use. . ,

The number of fins, as well as their relative positions on the body, are
subject to great diversity ; the presence or absence of some, their situation,
and even their component parts furnishing characters often useful in classifi-
cation. If we examine the composition of the fins, we perceive among the’bony
or teleostean fishes that they consist of two distinct characters of rays, the
first being spinate or having spines destitute of any tranverse articulations, and
each ending ina hard or sharp point; the second being softer, more especially
termed rays, and being simple or composed of numerous pieces articulated
one to another by transverse joints, and which rays may have their outer
extremities branched or else simple and undivided. But irrespective of the
foregoing three forms, modifications are seen as in the outer ray of the
pectoral of many siluroids, or in the anterior dorsal rays as in the barbel
(plate cxxxi), where one or more may take on a bony character, but still
FINS. 1x

during some period of their existence may be found to have the outer
end articulated. Long and‘ delicate filaments are sometimes developed in
connection with fin-rays, and often indicate that the example is young,
as in a horse mackerel, Caranz gallus, wherein their length diminishes
with age, similarly in the.dory; still they are occasionally’ continued
through life, as in an Indian barbel, Barbus filamentosus, and have likewise
been found existing in fishes taken from the deep and nearly still abysses.
of the ocean. Acanthopterygians are forms which, as a rule, possess
in their fins some true spines, which are absent in the soft-rayed or
malacopterygians.

The fins are divisible into such as are single and unpaired, hence termed
“‘azygous,” as those along the median line of the back or dorsal, which
when present may be variously subdivided or modified ; ‘the tail or caudal fin
as a rule is placed vertically at the posterior extremity of the caudal portion
of the body, where it is seen in two very distinct types, in the-generality. of
fishes the two lobes being. equal, when it is termed “‘homocercal,” as in the
perch; whereas in the sharks and some other allied classes the vertebral
colamn is prolonged into the.upper half of the caudal fin, rendering it
unequally lobed or “heterocercal.”” The anal commonly commences behind
the vent, and passes, along the median line of the lower surface; it may be
as variously modified as the dorsal. These median or unpaired fins are.
considered by some to be appendages to the skin, but believed by Balfour
to be the specialized and highly-developed remnants of a once continuous
lateral fin along either side:

But most fishes likewise possess two pairs of horizontal or paired fins, one
ov. the breast or pectorals corresponding with the anterior extremities of
higher vertebrata; while the second or ventral pair, the homologues of the
‘ legs or hind pairs of limbs, when present are variously placed, as under the
throat when they are termed jugular, as in the cod (plate Ixxviii), below
the pectoral fins or thoracic, as in the perch (plate i), or abdomizial when
near the hind end of the body, as in the carp (plate cxxix).

Fins may likewise alter with age, thus their proportionate lengths and
development in the-young of abyssal or deep-sea fishes, as well as in pelagic
forms or those whose sphere of existence is usually restricted to the upper
waters of the open sea, would .seem to be frequently very different to what
obtains in the adult, having caused the immature to be classed in a separate
genus from the same fish when it has attained to its full size. Thus the young.
of the abyssal Luvarus Cuviert (plate xliii and vol. i, page 120), has been
described as Diana semilunata. The pelagic sword-fishes (plate xlix and vol. i,
page 148) have in their earlier stages single, elongated, many-rayed dorsal and _
anal fins, but the anterior portions of both become atrophied with age, while
the central rays disappear, thus leaving two fins in either position. In the pilot
x EXTERNAL CHARACTERS.

fish (plate xlv) the anterior dorsal fin of the fry becomes converted into
free spines in the adult. The black pomfret, Stromateus niyer, when young
has ventral fins present, causing it to have been placed in a distinct genus,
Apolectus stromateus. While in the paired fins we find in the pelagic
tunny (plate xxxvi) that the pectorals become clongated with age, and
Gill observes that in the apodal or forms without ventral fins the body is
eel-like or elongated. I have remarked that a variety of form exists in our -
ten-spined stickleback (vol. i, page 245, plate Ixviii, fig. 4), in which these
latter fins are entirely wanting.

Another mode in which fins change with age is owing to the spines, as of
the dorsal fin, not augmenting in length so rapidly as the soft rays, conse-
quently they may be comparatively shorter in the ‘adulé than in the young.
Even the soft rays in mature fish-are commonly less in their proportionate
height to. the entire length of the specimen than they are in the immature.
The same thing occurs in respect to anal spines, the second being sometimes
the longest in the immature, but becoming shorter than the third in the
mature, which appears most frequently to take place when the second spine
ig the strongest, augmenting in thickness while the third increases in length.
Occasionally there is an excess of a spine and a deficiency of a ray in the
dorsal fin, the anterior one of the latter having assumed a spinous character,
a not infrequent occurrence among the Sparide : or several articulated rays
may be similarly changed. In some forms the number of rays, as in
the Cottide, would seem occasionally to decrease as the species is found
further south. Spiny-rayed fish, preying upon ‘their weaker neighbours,
appear to be more numerous in seas than in fresh waters, while in our inland
waters members of the carp and salmon families usurp their place, these
latter being provided with articulated fin rays.

Fin rays when broken may again unite, if lost they may likewise be
occasionally reproduced, but often in an incomplete manner. Injuries to
the caudal portion of the body sometimes, cause remarkable changes in the
form of the fin, thus in a sole (vol. ii, p. 40) will be found the description of a
specimen in which the caudal fin in being reproduced has become continuous
above and below with the vertical fins. In an elongated Cvilia of the
Indian seas I have several times seen that a forked caudal fin has replaced
the last fourth or fifth of the caudal portion of the body,-which probably
had been lost by accident.

Not only do the component portions of a fin become greatly altered, but
the fin itself may be very dissimilar to what we find in a typical perch or
carp.’ Thus the dorsal fin is entirely absent in the electric cel, Gymnotus,

_of South America: it may be a long single fin, the front portion be spiny,
as in the sca-perch (plate v), or with only soft rays, as in the sole (plate evi) ;
or the fin may be ih two portions, the first being composed of spines, and
FINS. Xi

the second almost entirely of rays as in the red mullct (plate viii), or con-
sisting of soft rays only as in the rock-ling (plate Ixxxix) ; or the fin may
be divided into three parts as in the cod-fish (plato lxxviii) and many other
gadoids. The anterior portion of the dorsal fin may be in the form of free
spines as in some of the sticklebacks (plate Ixviii), or the free spines may
be modified into tentacles as in the angler (plate xxix), or into an adhesive
apparatus as in the sucking-fish (plate xxxix). Or the posterior portion of
the dorsal fin may be present in the form of free rays as in the tunny
(plate: xxxv), or it may be simply a fold of skin containing fat as. in the
salmon (plate cx), which in some conditions of embryonic or early life may
be observed to contain fin rays as in certain salmonoids and siluroids. When
spines are present in the dorsal fin they are usually in its anterior, and rarely
in its posterior portion; but in one British form, the viviparous blenny, a
few are present with articulated rays anterior and posterior to them (plate
Ixi). This fin may likewise unite with the caudal, the latter being continuous
with the anal, as observed in eels (plate exlii), ‘The spines and rays of
which fins are composed can be erected or depressed at will, while some
ogseous and frequently posteriorly serrated rays or spines have a peculiar
joint at their base, which prevents their being depressed in a direct ‘line, as
in the trigger ‘fish (plate exlvi).

The pectoral or breast fin may be absent as in some pipe-fishes, marinc-
eels, &c., but when present is subject to many modifications and assists ini the
performance of functions which at first sight would hardly appear to be
among its duties. Its position is behind the gill-openings, but its form
differs ; thus among the Pediculati, as the angler, it possesses a sort of arm
due to prolongation of the carpal bones, enabling its possessor to employ
the organ as a foot or arm, and thus adapting it for moving about at the
bottom of the-sea; similarly some of the goby family in tropical countries
are enabled to use this fin for progression over. the moist mud. ‘Or the
pectoral fin may be considerably elongated as in the flying-fish (plate cxxviii),
«by which it can be used as a parachute im order to pass through the air.
Portions of the fin may likewise be modified, thus some free rays. may exist
at or near the base of the pectoral fin, and subserve the function of feelers
as in the mango-fish and other polynemi, or these free rays may be shorter and
thicker as in the gurnards (plate xxii), when they become not only useful
as a tactile organ but also for progression. In some forms this difference in
the character of the rays also exists when forming an undivided fin, thus in
’ the pectorals of blennies, as in the common shanny (plate Ix, fig. 2), there are
thirteen rays, the upper seven of which are shorter and more elastic than the
lower six. Under certain circumstances these upper rays are useful in
respiration, as in cases whercin a deficiency of air exists in the water, wheit
they are constantly in motion, sending a current towards the gills. In very
Xil EXTERNAL CHARACTERS.

young fish, as salmonoids prior to the absorption of the umbilical vesicle,
the gills remain more or less uncovered by the opercles, and these fins are
constantly employed in assisting respiration. The six thicker lower rays of
the shanny are thus enlarged and stiff, as they are constantly employed
resting upon or against rocks during progression. ‘In rays and skates this
fin is very largely developed.

The ventral fins are those which are most frequently absent, not only
are they wantig in the large eel-like or apodal class, but occasionally their
absence may not even indicate the specimen being distinct from the form which
possesses them, as remarked upon respecting the ten-spined stickleback,
while their position when present is frequently found to be in widely
different localities on the body (see page ix ante). It is usually a narrow
fin consisting of but few rays, while these may be of most diverse appearance.
It may be restricted to a single spine useful for protective or aggressive
purposes as in the little sticklebacks (plate ]xviii), or in the more developed
unicorn-fish, T'riacanthus, of the Eastern seas ; or it may be a simple bony
ray having a broad extremity as in Bank’s oar-fish (plate lxiv). Or its first
divided ray may be elongated into a tactile organ as in. the burbolt
(plate lxxxvii), or the two fins may be conjoined forming an adhesive sucker
as in the gobies (plate li), or reduced to stiff rays for progression as in the
blennies (plate Ix).

The anal fin may be absent, or if present subdivided as the dorsal, it
likewise when possessing spinous rays has them in the anterior portion of
the fin, while its last few rays may be in the form of finlets as observed
of the dorsal fin.

The caudal fin may be absent as in Bank’s oar-fish (plate lxiv), indistinct
and: often wanting as in some pipe-fishes (plate cxliv), single and with a
rounded posterior extremity, as in some gobies (plate lii), or with the central
rays rather elongated, giving it a lanceolate form as in some tropical gobies,
lunated or emarginate as in the grey mullet (plate Ixvii), cut square at its
extremity as in the wrass (plate lxx). In most bony fishes the tail consists
of an upper and lower portion which although rarely of exactly ‘the same
size are still nearly so: it may.be lobed as in the mackerel (plate xxxii),
while one or more of its rays may be prolonged: in one form of visitor to our
seas the fin is placed somewhat vertically at the end of the tail, as in the
vaagmaer (plate xiii). In forms as Chondropterygians wherein the tail is
heterocercal the spine is continued into the prolonged upper lobe.

Locomotion is doubtless the main use to which the fins of fishes are put,
but even in locomotion other forces are frequently or rather generally brought
into play to assist the fins, whether such is for the purpose of swimming, a
tn the generality of this class, walking as in the angler or frog-fish, ae
as the salmon while ascending rapids when the muscles of the tail are of
LOCOMOTION. ' xii

great assistance, flying as in the flying-fish, floating as’in the globe-fish
aided by. the air sac, creeping under nets as the bass, ‘springing over them
as in the grey mullet, retrograde wriggling as in congers or in some of the
pipe-fishes and which is carried out solely by means of the muscular
system. ‘

Animals havymg such diverse forms of bodies and such variously con-
structed fins as exist in fishes have as a consequence their powers of locomotion
modified. In such as are enclosed in bony cases as the box-fish or Ostracion
voluntary progress ¢an only be made, by means of the fins, whereas in almost
finless forms, as in some eels, movements of the body itself must be the
motive power. During rapid progression the paired fins are pressed closely
against the body, as may be observed in a mullet when pursued, or a
gurnard, but which latter widely expands its pectorals when swimming
leisurely along. Swimming forwards is principally effected in fishes by means
of lateral'or right and left strokes of the caudal portion of the body aided
by the caudal fin, while gentle progression in the same direction may be
effected by slight undulations of the caudal fin-rays. Flat fishes, as soles,
produce a forward motion by vertical or up-and-down strokes of the caudal
portion of the body. The flexible bodies of sharks may bend in more than
one curve when moving rapidly, which is mainly effected by powerful
lateral strokes. Among rays and skates the broad pectoral fins by means
of an undulating movement effect this; while the angel-fish (plate clxiii),
has a sort of mixed motion. In some forms, 4s the horse-fishes or hippo-
campus, the dorsal fin rapidly undulated from end to end after the manner of
an archimedean screw, is the chief motive power. In eels, wherein fins
are very deficient, forward motion is’ effected by snake-like curves of the
body.

‘The pectoral fins are largely employed in keeping the body properly
balanced, or raising the head, and when one of these fins is removed, the
body falls over to that side, or should both be thus treated, the head sinks :
it being largely developed in most sharks and rays, often compensating for
the absence of an air-bladder. It can assist in a forward movement by rapid
strokes towards its body, and likewise in a backward movement by means of
reversed or forward strokes. Also, as already observed, it may be enormously
‘developed as in the flying-fish and form a parachute enabling it’to pass
through the air in order to escape from its enemies. The vertical fins likewise
assist the pectorals in maintaining the proper balance of the body, and incline
it to one side when only one fin acts, or they are able to depress it by their
joint action.

The dorsal and anal fins are mostly restricted in their functions to increase
or diminish the extent of the-lateral surface of the fish by means of their.
being elevated or depressed, and so prevent violent lateral oscillations, or the
XIV EXTERNAL CHARACTERS.

body being turned upside down. There is one exception however to this, as
the sun-fish, whorcin the dorsal and anal fins by mcans of rapid undulations
assist the fish in locomotion ; while a similar action has been observed upon
as scen in the dorsal fin of pipe-fishes.

Experiments made upon ordinary shaped osscous fishes have demonstrated
that should the dorsal and anal fins be removed they roll from sidc to side ;
if one pectoral is cut off they fall over to the side from which it has been
removed; if both, the head sinks: should the pectoral and ventral of one
side be gone, equilibrium is lost; while removal of the tail fin intcrferes

with progression.

SKELETON.

The skeleton or endoskeleton of fishes differs widely im the various
orders, the boncs being less dense in their structure than are those of the
higher vertebrates. In some the skeleton is cartilaginous, in others fibrous
or osscous, while two or more varietics of structure may co-cxist in one
fish, Among those obtained from great depths in the occan some at least
have their bony and muscular systems but feebly developed, and but loosely
connected together by ligaments.

 

Fig. 2. Common Percu.
a, premaxillary ; 6, maxillary ; ¢, dentary ; d, orbit; e, cranium; f, interopercle ; 9g, 9," vertebral

column ; h, pectoral fin; 4, ventral fin; 4%, first dorsal fin; 12, second dorsal fin; m, anal fin;
n,7,' caudal fin,

Tf we examine the skeleton of a teleostean fish, as a perch, we sce a
framework consisting of a vertebral or spinal column, a skull and fins. Tho
vertebral column consists of a varying number of ‘bones or vertebrae, the
bodies of which are excavated at each end, rendering them biconcave or
amphiccelous.* The cavity thus produced by the apposition of two

* The vertebra of the exotic bony pike are “ opisthocelous,” or concave posteriorly and
convex anteriorly. :
SKELETON. : “XV

concave bones is covered in by connecting ligaments, and filled with a
gelatinous substance, the remains of tho notocord: consequently, clastic ‘
balls of semi-fluid consistence exist between each vertebra, enabling them
to move very freely one upon another,

The abdominal vertebra, or those belonging to the trunk, have two
superior or dorsal processes, which pass upwards and coalesce, forming an
arch, the neural arch, which contains the spinal cord. At the summit of
this arch is a spinous elongation, the neural spine. T'wo transverse processes
generally pass outwards from the body of each vertebra, and to them ribs
are commonly articulated.

The caudal vertebrae, or those of the tail, are furnished with neural arches,
and spines as in the abdominal region, but well-developed transverse pro-
cesses are deficient, while along the inferior surface of the bodies of each
vertebra is an arch, similar to the neural arch.on its upper edge, and this

 

Fig. 8. SKvuLu or THE Cop, Gadus morhua:
8,0, Supra occipital; f, Frontal; n, nasal; p,s, Para ‘sphenoid; p,m, pre-maxillary ; ™, max-
illary; d, Dentary; 1, pre-orbital ; .q, Quadrate; h,m, Hyq-mandibular; p,o, Pre-opercle; 0, Opercle;
8,0, Sub-opercle; 4,0, Inter-opercle; c,h, Cerato-hyal; 6, Branchiostegous rays.

lower or heemal arch ‘serves to convey blood-vessels, while from it springs
inferiorly a heemal spine. .

Between the neural spines and the hemal spines certain dagger-shaped
bones are inserted along the median lines of the body, and which are
externally for the purpose of attaching the bases of the dorsal and anal fins.
The hindmost caudal vertebra, usually of small size, articulates posteriorly
with a fan-shaped bone, the, hypural, which along with the last neural and
hemal processes support tho caudal fin. Among the plagiostomes the
xvl SKELETON.

processes of the vertebra are more soldered to the bodies, and not so well
developed. -

The skull, or that portion of the skeleton which is situated at the front
end of the body articulating posteriorly with the first vertebra, is destined
to enclose the brain as well as form the face.. It varies much in form in
different families of fish, and contains too many component parts to be fully
discussed here, but a few remarks are necessary respecting such as more or
less enter into the orbits, mouth and respiratory apparatus.

The suborbital ring of bones, or those which pass round the lower edge of
the eye, consist of several pieces, the anterior of which is generally the largest,
and termed the pre-orbital or lachrymal (fig. 3, 2).

The mouth is formed on several plans. At the front edge of the upper
jaw in the middle line is a tooth-bearing bone, the premaxillary (fig. 3, p. m),
also termed the intermaxillary, which is continued backwards in the form
of a flat process, which in some forms even extends so far as the middle of
the orbit. The premaxillary rests against the toothless maxillary (fig. 8, m),
with which it is in opposition, and the two move together. There arc many
modifications of this form of osseous structure of the upper jaw. Thus in
the salmon the dental portion of the premaxillaries is comparatively decreased
in size, and the maxillary likewise bears teeth.

The lower jaw or mandible consists of two branches or rami, one on
either side connected together anteriorly in the middle line by a ligament,
this portion being termed the symphysis. Each ramus consists of several
pieces, the largest which bears teeth being termed the dentary (fig. 8, d),
while a small one at the hind end of each is termed the articular and
articulates with the quadrate bone (fig. 3, q).

The hyoid arch is attached to the temporal bones by two slender styliform
ones termed stylo-hyoids; this hyoid arch being composed of a central and
two lateral portions. The bones along the two branches commencing from
behind forwards are the “ epihyal ”’ to which the stylo-hyoids are attached :
the ceratohyal to which the branchiostegal rays are attached at their. inner
end, then two small bones termed basihyals, between which the small glos-
sohyal or os linguis extends forwards to the tongue, while a single bone,
the urohyal, passes backwards. This last bone in some fishes extends some
way even to the union of the coracoid bones, thus constituting an isthmus,
separating the two branchial openings.

The five branchial arches, four of which bear gills (see page xlvii) and
‘one is destitute of them, are externally bounded by the hyoid arch; while
inferiorly and along the median line they are attached to a chain of bones,
the basibranchials, which are situated above the urohyal and are anteriorly
connected with the body of the hyoid. These branchial arches pass
upwards, and are attached by hgaments to the under surface of the skull.
SCAPULAR ARCH—VERTEBRE . . xvii

The three anterior branchial arches are each composed of four pieces of
bone, which commencing from their inferior attachment are known as the
hypobranchial, ceratobranchial, the epibranchial. In the fourth arch the
epibranchial is wanting, and superiorly the more expanded upper piece
which generally bears teeth, is known as the superior pharyngeal bone:
while the fifth arch is vomposed of the cerato-branchial only, and termed
the inferior pharyngeal.

The opercular pieces or gill-covers have already been referred to, the
most anterior or innermost articulating with the tympano-mandibular arch °
of the. skull. In some fishés as sharks, rays, and cyclostomes, no. gill-
covers are present, as will be subsequently remarked upon. ;

The scapular arch which supports the pectoral fin is mostly joined to
the occipital bone, and according to Owen and Kitchen Parker, contains
the following bones commencing from above: the supra-scapular (post-
temporal), articulating with which is the scapular (supra-clavicular), and
attached to which is the coracoid (clavicular), while it is united below either
by suture or by ligament to the same bone om the opposite side. To this
last bone are attached two others,.the radius and ulna (coracoid and
scapular), and two rows of small bones placed between the forearms and the
fin, or the carpals and metacarpals. Attached to the clavicular is a two-
jointed bone, the post- -clavicular (epicoracoid).

The ventral fins are attached to a pair of triangular dagger-shaped boues,
the pubic.

Among the teleosteans there are numerous deviations from the percoid
and gadoid forms to which I have principally adverted, many of which will
be referred to in the following pages.

Among the ‘elasmobranchs are to be found examples in which the noto-
cord may be observed without any trace of transverse segmentation up to those
in which there are distinctly ossified vertebrae. As examples of persistent-—
notocords may be mentioned among the plagiostomes the six-gilled shark
(vol. ii, page 308), and the spinous shark (vol. ii, page 323); while among
the Holocephala the: arctic chimera (vol. ii, page 286) commences to
develop rings in the sheath of the notocord. In the majority of sharks, as
the blue shark (vol. ii, page 389), the vertebra have become completely
divided one from another, the’ individual bones being amphiccelous, and a
cavity existing through the centre of the body of each thus permitting an
unbroken continuity of the remains of the notocord. In some forms many
of the anterior vertebra coalesce together, while the. cranium is more or
less in one piece. F

Still further modifications occur in the cyclostomes (vol. ii, page 356),
“wher rein the notocord is not segmentated, but neural arches are represented

by cartilages along: either side of the spinal cord. In the lowest form or
Leptocardii (vol. ii, page 366) the type is exceedingly primitive. .
XVili MUSCULAR AND NERVOUS SYSTEMS.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM.

The chief masses of muscular structure in this class of animals are seen
the great lateral muscles of the body, generally four in number in teleosteans,
and which are arranged longitudinally, but divided by oblique tendinous
bands (fig. 5) of a gelatinous character (and which dissolve on boiling) into

 

Fig. 4. IxtTRrnaL OrGaAns oF Cane.

br, branchiz or gills; cv, heart; f, liver; vn, vn’, swimming bladder; ci, intestinal tract ;
v, ovaries ; u, urethra; «, vent{ uv, oviduct.
numerous flakes or semi-conical masses termed myocommas. These four
longitudinal layers of muscles have the tendinous bands directed much as
follows : the upper series passing downwards and backwards, the succeeding
layer downwards and forwards, the third downwards and backwards, and
the lowest downwards and forwards. These flakes are arched backwards,
bemg convex anteriorly. The number of tendinous intersecting ‘bands
correspond with the vertebrae into which they, are inserted. The various
modifications observed in these muscles, and the systems employed for the
movement of the fins, the jaws, eyes, breathing, &c., it is unnecessary to
enumerate in this place.

NERVOUS’ SYSTEM.
This is subject to very great variation, and the brain, which does not fill
the cranial cavity in adults, is comparatively small in proportion to that of
the general mass of the body.
SLEEP. xix

Does sleep or a periodical season of repose for the organs of the senses,
ever visit fish, or can it be that balmy slumber is to them unknown, is
a question we occasionally see broached. Hybernation during the winter
months in cold latitudes, and «stivation during hot months in tropical
climates, is generally admitted, but not so simple sleep. Some authors
appear to hold to the view that, possessing no eyelids, fish are unable to
sufficiently shut out external influences, and cannot’therefore be supposed
to sleep. Mammals and birds, in short, are sometimes asserted to be the
only animals which are periodically visited by refreshing slumbers, while
such as are in a lower grade merely rest from time to time in their labours,
and withdraw themselves to some quiet nook where they may remain
undisturbed. If all fishes sleep it may be asked how do sharks, dolphins,
black fishes and pilot fishes follow ships long distances during many days
and nights? On the other.hand, if not sleeping, what are the basking
sharks and sun-fishes about, which permit the fishermen to get so close as to
drive harpoons into their bodies before they attempt to get away, or the pike
in'fresh water that allows a noose to be slipped around its head?

Some years since Mr. Hughes gave an interesting account of how
he visited a rock pool at Tenby by candle-light, and noticed several small
fishes at the bottom, among them being the active and artful blennies and
rocklings. They lay perfectly still, not attempting to dart away to a quiet’
corner, and permitted the hand to be introduced, when one by one all were
caught. These fish seemed either temporarily paralyzed by the light or so
sound asleep that their capture was effected with ease.

In rapid waters it has been suggested whether if fish sleep they use their
fins in order to keep their position while in a state of somnolence. In the
tanks of an aquarium I was able to observe a small “ golden tench” lying
in a peculiar and apparently uncomfortable position ; its tail half was sup-
ported by a piece of raised rockwork, while its head was resting on the floor
of the tank, and the slightest amount possible of motion only conveyed to

‘the mind of an observer that he was gazing at anything but a dead

specimen. The succeeding evening I revisited the tench, and perceived the
little golden one as vigorous as its companions, all of which, with a single
exception, appeared to be leisurely enjoying their existence, either by
feeding or in the contemplation of the varied scenes which were constantly
passing in front of their glass enclosure. The solitary exception was
reclining on its back and scarcely moved, but on a closer scrutiny its mouth
could be seen to open every now and then, and the fish gave a short gasp;
the next evening it was swimming ‘about with its fellow-captives and busy
wallowing in the soft sand, some of which it took into its mouth and then
discharged again, and a third tench was now in a somnolent state.

In another tank in the same Institution wrasses could be scen sleeping in
b*
xx NERVOUS AND TEGUMENTARY SYSTEMS.

all sorts of curious positions, mostly at night-time, but likewise occasionally
during the day, especially soon after they had taken a meal. These after-
dinner naps, as well as such as were indulged in at night-time, appear to
be often passed in the same portions of the tank day after day, while the
’ positions assumed by the three-spotted wrasse are by no means less uncom-
fortable than such as are seen occurring among the tench. Blennies have
been observed to occupy the same bed-rooms night after night, while I can
only suppose that the little suckers, Liparis, sleep during the day-time when
they hide themselves in order to be able to move about during the night,
which appears to be their period of activity, as they then search for food.

Among the fishes of India which inhabit the fresh waters perhaps the air-
breathing snake-headed. species gives us the best example of sleeping fish.
In the month of December a few years since, while investigating the
fisheries of Assam, I was with a party engaged in exploring the Sissera
River. We entered a canoe and cautiously ascended the stream. When about
three miles from camp all of a sudden our boatmen ceased pulling, and
pointed to an object lying in the water under the bank, whispering that it
was a large fish fast asleep. We stealthily approached and got within two
yards of the spot, when we easily saw a snake-headed morrul, Ophiocephalus,
about four feet in length, lying perfectly still and apparently fast asleep,
just on the surface of a deep pool in the stream. Our repeating carbine was
silently passed to our crack shot, he steadily raised it to his shoulder, took a
deliberate aim, fired, but we saw the fish no more. Since then I have
frequently seen these fishes in an apparently sleeping condition.

THIRST.

Living as these animals do in a watery medium it would appear that the
sense of thirst must be unknown, or else that it is quenched by means of
endosmosis through the skin. Were this not the case it is difficult to
conceive how the salt water forms could satisfy such a longing.

TEGUMENTARY SYSTEM.

The skin or tegumentary system may be entirely or partially scaleless, or
should scales be present they may be partially imbedded in the skin, the
posterior or external portions of one not overlapping its neighbour, and
termed non-imbricated ; or they may overlap cach other like tiles, when they
are termed imbricate. The powers of resistance against external violence is
augmented when hard substances enter into its composition, consequently
those fishes which are most lable to injury are defended by scales or plates,
SCALFS. XX1

which latter may even constitute a dermal skeleton ; while it appears to be
commonly the case that siluroids are provided with spines for offensive
purposes, and fishes with electric organs are scaleless. Scales as a rule have
their free edges directed backwards, to prevent their forming any impediment
in the water when swimming, and the different forms have been divided.
into cycloid, ctenoid, ganoid, and placoid. ,

Scales on their surface may have fine con-
centric striations, passing parallel with their
outer edge, and others more strongly marked
radiate from near their centres towards their
attached or front border.

Cycloid scales (fig 5, no. 2) are those desti-
tute of any coating of enamel, and with a
smooth or non-denticulated free edge. Cte-
noid scales (fig. 5, no. 1) differ in possessing
denticulations or teeth, often covering a tri-

Fig. 5. 1, Ctenoid scale from angular space at their free extremity or being
Hage ae ee merely restricted to the edge of the scale;

from amblypterus; 4, Placoid scales these last if spiny, have been termed sparoid
from small-spotted dog-fish,

  

3

 

scales, while the foregoing forms pass more
or less gradually one into the other; both forms may be present on
one species of fish. Ganoid scales (fig. 5, no. 3) are furnished with a
coating of enamel, mostly of a tessellated form, and often articulated
one to another. While placoid scales (fig. 5, no. 4) can be considered as
dermal growths or osseous scales, as seen in sturgeons, rays, and some
other forms of fish. ;

Scales of fishes increase in size or grow along with the body of the fish on
which they are placed: thus in the salmon or trout the adult has the same
number as the young, while they are imbricate to the same extent. The
skin consists of the outer layer or epidermis, below which is the true skin,
termed dermis or cutis. The epidermis is originally formed by cells, which
increase in numbers and constitute an outer and a deeper layer. The cells
in the outer layer gradually flatten, and become partially cornified; while
the deeper or malpighian layer is in a more active state of existence, new
cells are constantly being formed, which push the older ones ‘towards the
surface. The cutis or true skin is well supplied with lymphatics and blood
vessels, and has a more active vitality than the more superficial epidermis,
and it gradually protrudes into slight elevations, which are the rudiments of
scales ;- these increase in size, and passing backwards carry with them their
covering of epidermis. At this time calcareous deposits are laid down in
the dermis, while the superimposed malpighian stratum on its lower side
secretes a hard enamel-like substance. Thus botha portion of the epidermis
Xxil TEGUMENTARY SYSTEM—TOUCH.

and likewise of the dermis enters into the primary elements in the formation
of a scale. In some cases in which the-scales are large they push through
the epidermal layer, becoming partly free, as seen in many ctenoid forms, as
perches and sparoids.

TOUCH.

Special organs of touch are developed in fishes in several different manners.
Some, as carps, have highly sensitive’ barbels arranged around their. mouths ;
they are likewise well seen in siluroids or sheat-fishes, which as a rule live in
muddy waters, and ‘have mostly to obtain food by means of the delicacy of
their power of sensation, while their organs of vision are but little developed
(page xxviii). Or these organs may possess more solid bases, but have still a
similar function, as in the sub-mandibular or hyoid barbels of the red mullet
(plate viii), or the modified maxilla of some sheat-fishes, or even the. fin-
rays themselves, which for this purpose have occasionally long filamentous
terminations, as seen in the John Doree (plate xlviii), or be modified into
organs, not only for progression but likewise for sensation, as in the free
pectoral rays of gurnards (plates xxii to xxvii). Or these tactile organs may
be more essentially cutaneous, as the filaments on the snout of the sole
(plate evi), or perhaps more distinctly visible on the lemon sole (plate cvil) ;
while somewhat similar but larger filaments are found on the bodies of some
fish, as the angler (plate xxix). Even papille as round the mouths or on the
lips are highly sensitive, and as has been shown by Leydig and others they
are abundantly supplied with nerves.

The lateral-line* consists of a series of tubes along either side of the hodies
of fish (page vii, fig. 1) and is often known as the muciferous system ; but
although from it mucous is excreted, it is essentially an organ for sensation,
and as such is variously modified. It is continued on to the head, where the
tubes are largely developed in many families, as the scieonoid and cod-fishes ;
or may form several canals, as seen in the Arctic chimera (plate cli). In
osseous fishes the inside of the canal of the lateral-line is lined with epithelial
cells, often differing in form in different families. Into this canal nerves
rarhify, and either terminate in an expansion or anastomose with each other,
as in Plagiostomes. The simple tubes of Lorenzini are restricted to Plagio-
stomes, where their presence, due to their black colour, render them ‘so
apparent in the skate (vol. ui, p. 337, pl. clxvi), they open at the surface of
the skin, do not anastomose one with another, are supplied with nerves, and
filled with a thick gelatinous substance, and may be tactile organs. -

* Dercum proposes to term it ‘the lateral sensory apparatus.
COLOURS. Xxill

COLOURS.

Intimately related to the tegumentary system and the composition of scales
is the subject of colour, Among the finny tribes we may perceive external
colours of the most varied description, some of which are permanent, many
transient, and others again of periodical occurrence. Some of these colours
are due to the influence of light, while they may vary in the same species,
owing to the character of the water which they inhabit ; for should the latter
be opaque and muddy, they as a rule are darker than those obtained from
localities where it is clear, those in running streams are generally lighter
and brighter than when from stagnant pools, or from shallow pieces of water,
than from such as are deep, while fish captured in dark caverns are often
destitute of both colour and vision.

Age and season likewise exercise an influence in this respect, as do also
the state of the health and temporary local emotions. In the very young
one sees but few markings or colours, but these rapidly develop themselves,
more or less distinctly, by the time, or even before, the first breeding season
has been reached, when the brilliancy of the individual has often attained to
its maximum. This nuptial adornment is generally acquired a short time
prior to the breeding season, subsequent to which it usually disappears.
Some see in the colours of these: creatures grounds for assuming the proba-
bility of the descent of many forms from somé common ancestral progenitor ;
thus vertical bands are almost invariable in the young of the various trout,
salmon, and char. However, they are likewise present in many other
families, as Scombresocidw, in which they are usually a diagnostic sign of
the immaturity of the individual. Large spots or blotches, especially when
surrounded by a light margin, are likewise a good reason for suspecting that
the individual has not attaimed ‘its full size. We also see in some forms
longitudinal bands modified, two narrow ones taking the place of a single
wide one, or they may be broken up into blotches. Some fish which are of a
silvery colour in one district are spotted in another, and others which have
no marks on their bodies throughout their lives frequently have the colour
of their fins varying with age.

Pouchet and others have pointed out that the changeable tegumentary
colours of fish depend. more especially upon two conditions. First, we have
iridescence effected by an interference with the rays of light, owing to’ the
presence in the scales of thin plates or ridges, and in these forms the tints
change with great rapidity in accordance with the angle at which they are
viewed :. such lamellar colouring is common among insects, crustacea, and
some fishes—it is beautifully seen in the Dolphin, Coryphena, and the scale
of a common herring furnishes a good example. Secondly, a distinct anato-
mical element, as chromatophores or colour-sacs, which are often high]
XXIV TEGUMENTARY SYSTEM.

coloured, may be present and capable of changing their form under special
influences, which are apparently directly connected with impressions of
colour received by the eye and brought about by the reflex action of the
nervous system. Under'the heading of Pleuronectide (vol. ii, p. 1) remarks
will be found how these flat-fishes rapidly change their colour on differently
coloured bottoms, a obtaining the protection of concealment by adaptation
of colour.

The chromatophores or pigment cells are seen in the early stages of the
eggs of fishes, but as observed by Agassiz, in some we have even two colour
elements in the older stages, immediately before the young fish is hatched,
viz. the black and yellow ; still in the majority of cases the black alone is
present, the yellow element appearing subsequently, and last of all the red.
Pouchet considered the blue pigment merely a dimorphic condition of the
red pigment; the same may also be said of the green. And with the.
growth of the fish the capacity of the chromatophores for expansion rapidly
augments.

In addition to the chromatophores another set of bodies termed
iridocytes, and more or less analogous to excessively thin lamine, have been
observed situated near the surface. By simple combinations of the action of
the red, yellow, and black chromatophores with the iridocytes are obtainable
all the colours producible in fish. These result mainly from expansion
near the surface, or retraction into an inferior layer of the chromatophores,
which thus mixed with the yellow and red, or with the iridocytes at greater
or less depth suffice to preduce the variations of colour.

These pigment cells are likewise said to involuntarily expand owing to
external irritation, as from the muscles of a fish convulsively contracting a
short time prior to death, thus accounting for the rapidly changing tints in
some which are shown subsequent to the period of capture; and the satiny-
red skin of the red mullet is in some places thus produced by fishermen
who scale their fish soon after their being captured.

Its appears evident that the influence of light is mostly felt through the
eye. Pouchet found that turbots if blinded did not change colour, but those
not deprived of sight did: and young hybrid salmonide raised at Howietoun
in which vision was more or less deficient, were observed to be generally lighter
in colour than their fellows, and their fins to become red as they grew older.
‘Whether the degencration of the eye perceived in cave fishes and those of
the deep sea is due to dimness of this organ or an effect of hereditary trans:
mission has yet to be shown. A not infrequent change in some fresh-water
forms is a yellow colour taking the place of the original tint: thug the
normally dull greenish tench may be seen of a brilliant orange yellow,
termed leucaathiopism or xanthochroism. So may likewise the gold carp,
although this latter when in a wild state in China is of a-dull ereen. The
LUMINOSITY. XKXV

temperature of the water, and mixing iron, tan, or gall nuts has also been
found to induce this change of colour (see vol. ii, p. 167). The yellow
colour is due to incipient albinism, for the chromatophores which normally
contain dark ingredients are here filled with yellow pigment, or the first
step towards an entire loss of colouring matter when they become albinos.

Dr. Stark observed that if fish are kept in glass vessels of various colours
such occasions a tendency to their assuming the colour of the vessel in
which they reside, which would aid them in concealment. Mr. Nesbit
concluded that light merely modifies an existing pigment which is absent i in.
pink or albino fish, but which it is powerless to manufacture.

The colour of the flesh may be influenced, as in other groups of animals,
by the food consumed, minute crustaceans, as gammari are reputed to colour
that of the salmonids: while white flesh is occasionally the result of
insufficient food. Ill-health similarly has an etiolating effect.

‘LUMINOSITY.

Another subject closely connected with the tegumentary system is the

existence of certain metameric organs. ‘There are some pelagic or deep-sea
fishes, as Argyropelecus (plate cix, fig. 1), Sternoptyx, Ichthyococcus, Mauro-
licus, Gonostoma, Chauliodus, Stomias, &c., which possess luminous organs
of a circular form, some being as impressions, others as slight prominences
of the skip. A British form exists in the “ pearl-sides’ ” of Yarrell, Maurolicus
Pennantii (plate cix, fig. 2), which is Pennant’s Argentine. These brilliant
spots may be present along the entire length of the abdominal surface or
. even be seen on the head, but their uses have been subject to much
speculation. ~ M’Culloch remarked that, considering at 800 or 1000 feet
depth the light of the sun ceases to be transmitted in the ocean, can animal
luminousress be a substitute for that light? May it not be the means of
enabling its possessor to discover its prey or for its fellows to find one
another? Perhaps a.partial confirmation of this view exists in the fact that
fishes living at great depths or dark places, as,in the Mammoth Caves of
Kentucky or the recently discovered caverns in Algeria, are found to be-
destitute of eyes; but they have no luminous organs, while the deep-sea
forms which possess them have large eyes. This ‘difference would seem
to lend strength to the view that these organs may be for the use of
“the individuals which are furnished with them, for where no eyes exist these
organs are absent.

A few years‘ago it was advanced that these spots were accessory eyes,
possessing a species of lens posterior to the cornea, and a chamber behind
the lens containing fluid. and having a dark lining, which may serve as a
retina: the second form shows a simple glandular structure from which light
XXVi TEGUMENTARY SYSTEM.

may be emitted. In the second form it is evident that this organ could not
be employed for vision, being simply glandular, and possibly used to give
light, acting as a sort of lantern, the function being probably under the
control of the will.
Professor Reinhardt, in 1853, observed on the Astronethes fieldii, Val.
common in the Atlantic Ocean, between 23 deg. and 6 deg. N. latitude
—a fish which possess lenses in these organs. It was only after sunset
that he discovered this fish in a drag-net. It is solely at that time
that the surface of the ocean begins to be crowded by vast swarms
of -Pteropoda and numerous crustacea, and possibly the fish searches
for food among them, following them into greater depths during the day-
time. ‘In two instances I was: so fortunate as to catch the fish alive, when
I saw that it sent forth two strong and vivid greenish hghts, which inter-
mitted momentarily and ceased altogether when the fish died. As the two
individuals only lived a few minutes after being taken out of the net, and as
the luminous appearance only showed itself distinctly in the dark, it was not
until I procured a second spécimen, a number of days after the first was
obtained, that I ascertained with certainty, that the light radiated from a
spot in the forehead, a little before the eyes, starting, as it were, from thence
along the back as far as the first dorsal fin: all the rest of the body remained
-perfectly dark. On examining the whitish speck in the specimen preserved
in spirits, from whence the Jight radiated, a cellular tissue is found underneath,
or rather within the skin, consisting of longish cells or meshes, filled with
an apparently fatty substance. No doubt this is the souree of the phosphoric
light, although I have not been able to trace the substance, at least not in
an aggregate form, beyond the eyes, so as to account for the extent back-
wards of the phosphorescence.” ,
There is likewise connected with the question of sight in fishes the subject
of the luminosity of other animals residing at great depths, and affording
what is known as abyssal light. Along our coasts luminosity of the surface
of the sea may be seen during our warm autumn months, among the exhibitors
of which are numerous small jelly-like animals more especially the Noctiluca.
“In the account of the voyage of the “ Porcupine,” Thompson states, that
towards the north of Ireland in somo places nearly everything brought up
seemed to emit ght, and the mud itself was full of luminous sparks (p. 98). ©
Star-fishes and the latger invertebrates all exhibited this marvellous property
in the Faroes (p. 148). Nordenskidld found during the polar nights in
Spitsbergen in the snow-sledge a number of almost microscopic crustacea
giving evidence of their existence by an intense bluish-white light which
was emitted as soon as the sledge was touched, causing at every step a
bluish-white flame to burst forth.
Few or none who have made voyages to the tropics but must have been
LUMINOSITY. XXVIi

struck with admiration at the luminous radiata and mollusca, while it has
‘been observed that an increase in brilliancy occurs when these animals are
in ‘motion. Dr. Guppy has commented upon a small shrimp in the South
Atlantic which constantly emits a light from its eyes, while long fila-
mentous organs are likewise to be met with showing apparently a brilliant
type of phosphorescence. Among the many curious forms of development
of these tactile organs one is seen on a fish found at the depth of 2700
metres in the Mediterranean Hustomias obscwrus, Vaillant, in which the
tactile organ takes the appearance of a long” filament, which is placed
underneath the lower jaw, and ends in an inflated and rayed knob-like
phosphorescent mass. Some marine invertebrates emit a mucous fluid
possessing luminous properties which are not immediately lost when mixed
with water or other fluids. It is not long since I heard of a gentleman
having purchased a lobster, which he took with him wrapped in paper,
when going by train from Southampton to his house, which was some hours
distant. On arrival his lobster was found to have been kept quite long
enough, and having been removed from its paper wrapper was consigned to
the cook. Some hours after, on going into the dark room wherein the
paper wrapper had been left, he was startled at seeing a dull blue light
coming. from the table. Cautiously advancing, he gave the uncanny object
a poke with a stick, and then found it was the piece of paper which had
inclosed the lobster, and doubtless had become covered with its mucous
secretion. .

Irrespective - of this locally-circumscribed luminosity the luminosity of
animal substances must be slightly touched upon. General. luminosity
in fishes may be seen at tao distinct periods—(1) during life, (2) after
death. The shark is one of the former which has the reputation of
being luminous, the light being believed to come from its abdominal
surface. Shoals of: fish are said to frequently emit flashes of light
which.are visible even at great depths. The sand-launce in some locali-
ties is said to be sought for by moonlight, as at night-time their
silvery brilliancy is more’ striking than it is by day. ‘M’Culloch also
enumerates mackerel, pollack, whiting, pilchards, sardines and gar-fish as
being sometimes accompanied by these lights. Collett speaking of the

‘ Aphia pellucida remarks that in the males in full breeding almost every
part of the body has a faint brownish light, although this is nowhere col-
lected into larger dots, but is more distinct along the transverse impressions
of the muscles. Secondly, we find this general luminosity often exists for
some time in dead fish, commencing a short time subsequent to death and
continuing until decomposition sets in. In the forms which most rapidly
decompose luminosity is most quickly developed. This is well seen in the
cod family, and the basket containing ‘these fish kept for feeding the
XXVill : THE EYE.

seals at the Westminster Aquarium might have been frequently observed in
a dark corner of the building emitting a very suspicious-looking blue light.
This luminous appearance emanates from every part of the animal, whether
at the edges of the scales or on its internal surface when cut open, which,
if closely examined, is found to emit a slight moisture that can be scraped
off, diffused in water, and still remain luminous as observed among inver-
tebrates. :

VISION.

Fishes, as a rule, possess two eyes, symmetrically placed one on either
side of the head, while they are undoubtedly large as compared with what
obtains in other vertebrates, or with the extent of surface in their own
bodies. Their size, however, is modified in accordance with local surround-
ings and their habits. Some frequent muddy waters, where vision would
-be of less service than tactile organs; in such cases appendages for feeling,
as barbels, are more developéd than eyes.. Others again are restricted to
living in dark caves where rays of light can hardly enter. Irrespective of
the foregoing cause of atrophy there are many forms residing in the-dismal
abysses of the ocean where light is unable to penetrate, for solar rays are
computed to be lost at a depth of 200 fathoms or less, while in the fresh
waters of the Lake of Geneva, Professor Forel ascertained that at 30
fathoms photographic paper was entirely unacted upon. Another modifying
influence is whether the habits of the fish are nocturnal or diurnal, the
former, unless residing in dark places, requiring the larger orgatis of vision.

Hyes likewise may be only rudimentally developed, as in the Amphivxus
or the Myaine, wherein they appear as mere dark specks, but still lave a
nerve distributed to them. Or they may have retrograded to so considerable
an extent as to be entirely absent in some forms which have taken up their
abodes in dark caverns, but even here the lens and other constituent
portions of the eye may usually be detected, whereas: examples of the same
species living outside are provided with fully-formed eyes. The optic nerve
may degenerate, or disuse may occasion degeneration, but loss of. light does
not necessarily end thus.

The eyes of fishes are mostly situated in orbital cavities, where they rest
upon a cushion of adipose or gelatinous substance. Their direction is
subject to considerable variation, for although usually placed laterally, as
in the ‘perch, salmon, or carp, they are not invariably so. The star-gazer,
Uranoscopus, has them on the upper surface of its head, where they are
situated somewhat close together. Many Hast Indian siluroids or sheat-
fishes, as Pseudeutropius or Ailia, have them even placed almost under-
neath and directed obliquely downwards and outwards. The sides of the
head may be laterally elongated, having these organs situated at their outer
VISION. . ExIX

extremities, as in the’ hammer-headed shark, Zygena malleus. They. may
be on elongated peduncles capable of retraction, as in some of the mud-
hunting gobies, Periophthalmus, Boleophthalmus, and their allies, which in
tropical countries pursue insects and other objects suitable for food over the
soft mud, into which they themselves even disappear when chased by birds
or other enemies. While we have instances on our own shores in the
blennies, which appear to observe objects as well with their heads out
of the water as when submerged in the sea, and they move their eyes
independently one of the other. In the sunfishes (Orthagoriscus) there exists
a circular palpebral fold provided with a sphincter, while some sharks have a
nictitating membrane. Among the flat-fishes (Pleuronectide) aré remarkable
modifications. In the very young as they emerge from the egg the fry
swims on edge similarly to other fishes, but after a longer or shorter period
the eyes are both found on the coloured side of the body. These two eyes,
even in the adult, can be moved independently of each other. That the
eyes in their earliest state are situated similarly to what obtains in the
remainder of the class of fishes is very interesting, as tending to show how
they have in course of time changed their position—a view still further
confirmed when we observe how it is not invariable for the two eyes to be on the
right and left side of all members.of the same species. (See vol. ii, page 1-4.)

Among the most perfectly constructed eyes in bony fishes the eyeball is
rarely quite spherical in shape, but presents the appearance of a flattened
bulb and a short axis. Among the semi-osseous forms, as the elasmo-
branchs, it is supported by, as well as moves upon, a cartilaginous peduncle
passing from the walls of the orbit.

The optic nerve may perforate the eyeball in its axis or obliquely to one
side ; for, should the eye be protrusible to ever so small an extent, it neces-
sarily follows that the optic nerve must either be situated in a position: where
protrusion of the eyeball would not stretch its delicate structure, or it must
be slightly bent or curved, in order to permit extension ; compressed as it
penetrates the sclerotic and choroid coats, subsequently it expands, ending
in the retina which lines about two-thirds of the inner chamber, leaving,
however, a margin, where its free borders meet, and through which paases a
fold of the choroid, sometimes having a dark pigmental layer. This portion

-of the choroid, termed the falciform process, pushes before it a fold of the
hyaloid membrane or tunic of the vitreous humour. The falciform process
generally extends to the capsule of the lens, to which it is firmly attached
by a substance termed campanula Halleri.

The outermost covering of the eye, or sclerotic capsule, is of varying
thickness, fibrous or bony in osseous, and cartilaginous in semi-osseous or
chondropterygian forms, as well as in sturgeons. Owing to the considerable
interspace existing between the sclerotic and choroid membranes, and which
XxX THE EYE.

is filled up with adipose or areolar tissue, the eye is, as already observed,
. rarely quite spherical. The sclerotic may even be bony in some well-ossified
forms of fishes, the bony portion usually consisting of two hollow half
spheres, having a hole posteriorly in the centre, for the entrance of the
vessels and nerves proceeding to the eye, while its anterior or outer emargi-
nation supports the cornea. In the swordfish Xiphias, and in the Dipnoid
Ceratodus, these two bony half spheres are confluent into one, having the
central foramen patent for the entrance of the vessels and nerves.

The cornea, which is as a rule nearly “flat, is a modified. portion of the
corium, in some forms of fishes, at least in their earliest stage, as the shanny
Blennius pholis, at 14 inches in length, the protrusion of the cornea equals
one-fifth of its diameter, and in a little rock goby (Gobius paganellus) at
0:9 inches in length, the convexity to the diameter is as one to four. The
choroid tunics are three—the outer, or membrana argentea, said to be
occasionally absent, and which is composed of acicular crystals, reflecting a
brilliant lustre, and often giving great brilliancy to the outer edge of the
iris; the middle tunic, or membrana vasculosa, and also termed Haller’s
membrane, is ramified with blood-vessels, while it supports the ciliary
nerve; the inner tunic, or membrana picta, also termed uvea, is made up of
hexagonal and usually dark-coloured pigment cells. The ciliary processes
are rarely developed, but the ciliary ligament is always present.

The iris is formed by a prolongation of the choroid membranes, having a
ciliary ligament at its base which overlies the convex border of the sclerotic.
It is a thin, contractile curtain,.situated behind the cornea, and suspended
in the aqueous humour. Its muscular structure is but feebly developed in
most fishes, consequently its capacity for dilating and contracting is not very
great. Its centre is perforated by the pupil for transmission of light to the
interior of the eye. This pupil is mostly large and circular, but in some forms
is vertically or horizontally elliptical, as in the majority of sharks, or it
may even be quadrangular, as in Galeus. Occasionally a veil or flap descends

.from the edge of the iris at the upper portion of the pupil, as may be seen
in some pleuronectoids as the turbot, the viper weever fish of our coast,
or the more tropical crocodile fish, Platycephalus, or in a few rays as
the Homelyn (vol. ii, page 324). All these forms live more or less in the
sand, or at the bottom of the sea, and to them a large amount of light is
evidently unsuited, consequently they are provided with an extensible and
retractile veil, which can regulate or entirely obstruct rays entering from
above. In the tropical Anableps the cornea, or window of the eye, is crossed,
by an opaque horizontal band, and the iris appears to possess two pupils, a
subject I shall again have to advert to. On dissection, however, it is found
that. in reality the pupil has a lateral flap of the iris on either side, which,
although they cross each other, are not conjoined.
VISION. . XXX1

The retina is the delicate nerve structure upon which the image of
external objects is received. Its posterior or external stratum consists of a
cellular base supporting on its external or concave surface a layer of nerve
cells, the filaments from which pierce the several superimposed granular
layers, the innermost of which consists, as stated by Owen, of interblended
twin-fusiform corpuscles . . . each of which is surrounded by a circle of
cylindricules. Over this latter the nerve fibres radiate without anastomosing,
and terminate in free ends at the base of the ciliary.zone. A well-defined
raised rim or bead runs along the anterior margin of the retina, and also
the edge of the falciform slit.

The aqueous humour in the anterior chamber is very small in amount,
owing to the constricted extent of the cavity occasioned by the projection
into it of the crystalline lens. But little fluid is necessary to float the free
border of the ‘iris, while, due to the watery localities fishes inhabit, no
refractive aid is required to be placed anterior to the lens in the globe of the
eye. The vitreous body which fills up the greater portion of the cavity of °
the ball of the eye is of firmer consistence than observed in other vertebrate
animals. :

The choroid gland is a vascular ganglion of a deep red colour, resembling
in form a bent magnet ; it is placed between the outer and middle coats of
the choroid, and close to the optic nerve where it pierces those structures.
It is composed:of parallel and closely placed arteries and veins, the supply
of arterial blood for which is received from the pseudobranchie, and it
consequently is wanting in osseous fishes in which pseudobranchiz are
absent, as sheat fish, carps, eels, &c. But in the chondropterygians and
ganoids there is no choroid, whereas pseudobranchiz are present. ,

The crystaline lens is nearly or quite spherical, very firm, having a dense
nucleus, and steadied in its position by the falciform process. It projects
into the anterior chamber of the eye which it almost fills, while it nearly
pressess against the flat cornea leaving but little room for any aqueous
humour. The refractive power of the lens is. maximized by its spherical
form, to compensate for the deviation from the spherical form of the eyeball
produced by the flattening of its front portion. The fibres of the lens con-
verge at its two opposite ends, each having marginal teeth like those seen in
a cog-wheel, and by which they interlock with one another. In the Anableps
previously referred to, a slight bulging or excrescence of the lens occurs
opposite to what appears like the lower pupil of the eye. Inhabiting as fish
do a watery medium, the need of a lachrymal gland is scarcely obvious ; stillan
instance of its existence in one of these creatures has been recorded. Situated
below the anterior corner of the eye is a foramen, through which is a
communication with the rudiments of one in the form of a blind sac placed
between the maxillary bone and the muscles of the check.
XXX ; THE EYE.

In most teleostean or bony fishes, and likewise in the sturgeon or
Acipenser, a fibrous ligament attaches the sclerotic to the walls of the orbit.
As a rule the external muscles of the eyeball are similar to what exist among
the higher vertebrates, consisting of four straight and two oblique pairs.

Fishes eyes present a great variety as well as extent of outer coverings,
some portions of which are transparent while others are opaque. Skin, in
accordance with where it is situated, may have different offices to fulfil, for
which purpose it may be necessary to be either opaque or transparent, thick
or of avery thin structure, and that which covers the eyes of fishes may be ina
single or double layer, either or both of which may be extensively modified.
The skinwhich covers the eye is commonly thin in substance and transparent in
character, being modified in order to suit altered conditions as it passes across
and covers the front of the ball of the eye, and its glass window known as
the cornea, through which all rays of light must necessarily pass to obtain
access through the pupil to the retina. This skin is essentially a continuation
of that which covers the contiguous parts-of the head being reflected from
off the walls of the orbit on to the front of the eye, where it is more or less
firmly adherent to the cornea. But as it is necessary for the ball of the eye
to be capable of being turned in various directions it is obvious that some
means must be found to prevent the skin arresting its movements, which it
would do were it to pass by the shortest cut from the bony orbital walls
to the front of the eye to be there adherent to its surface. This is provided
for by its being loose as it passes this gap on to the eye, and being so it does
not impede any movements of the globe. This loose or baggy portion which
surrounds the eye from the orbital edge to that of the transparent cornea is
the portion which after death appears white and opaque, for it is modified
skin that takes on this appearance, and often due to its being sodden. The
foregoing descriptions briefly refer to such forms as we commonly meet with,
and which possess but a single layer of skin across the front of the globe of
eye, but in this skin during ‘life no sufficient amount of colouring matter
exists to occasion opacity, neither are scales present.

In the next class of fishes to which I shall refer, there still exists but a
single layer of skin passing across the front of the globe of the eye, but
this is modified, as shown in the mackerel, Scomber seomber, wherein what
have been termed “adipose lids” are present on either side of the eye, and
covering a portion of its ball. If these adipose lids are examined itis found
that the one which covers the anterior portion of the eye is attached
inferiorly to or is a continuation of the skin on the front of the preorbital bone,
and is consequently situated. anterior to or oyerlapping the base of the
posterior lid, which is attached to the posterior edge of the preorbital. The
use of this will be readily understood, because in this manner any current
of water would pass backwards over a smooth surface, which would not be
.

VISION. XXX1ii

the case were the posterior lid overlapping the anterior one. These adipose
lids are formed by a single layer of skin having been continued from the
contiguous parts of the head, over the front of the eye, but bulging anteriorly
and posteriorly ; these bulging or. loose portions become a double fold,
. between the layers of which fat may be found. - Sars, who paid particular
attention to the character of these lids, as seen in the living fish, remarked
that in the earlier part of the year off N orway they are much more opaque
than they are later on, due to the fish in these earlier months being fatter,
and that it is not until after they have spawned that the fat becomes absorbed,
and as a consequence the lids are transparent.

There are also certain classes’ wherein a double layer of the dee may
partially or entirely cross the front surface of the eye, among which I propose
to allude to the well-known “ blind ” or “ bib,” Gadus luscus. In this fish,
belonging to the cod family, the orbital layer of skin may be popularly
described as splitting into two layers, the innermost passing on to the eye
and becoming attached to its front surface, as I have already described ; but,
due to the skin being in two layers, a sort of hollow bag is present, covering
the front of the eye, and this the fish appears to be able to distend under
certain conditions. One of these conditions is on its being drawn up
from great depths in the sea, at which time (due to the decreased pressure
of the water) its gases expand and this cavity becomes “ baloon-shaped,”
or, should fluid be inside it, like a “ bleb ” or blister.. The same
appearance now sets in as- described in the loose and baggy portion of
the single layer around the globe of the eye, with this addition, that in the
“bib” the entire structure of the bag in front of the eye becomes of an opaque
or white sodden character, and this may be seen either in the living fish
or after its death. The mangoe-fish and other Polynemi of the tropical
seas have a thick layer of transparent skin passing entirely across the
eye, while in the common mullet (Mugil) a vertical and elliptical opeing
is present.

Not only have we a transparent skin covering the eye as described,
but also we may have it only partially thus modified, or largely covered with
opaque substances. Thus in the snipe-fish, Centriscus, which has been
captured on the British coast, some minute scales are present on the outer
fourth of the skin covering the globe of the eye, except in its anterior portion ;
here they would mostly serve for protection from direct injuries. Some
forms have a species of almost fixed eyelid along the upper portion of the
eye, consisting of thickened and coloured skin, which may or may not be
furnished with rudimentary scales. This is commonly perceived in-such as
reside on or near the sand, and are mostly bottom-feeders, and is very
probably protective ; in these forms of fish the iris or pupil is sometimes
unlike the round or oval shape whicn is generally seen. As an example, the

¢
XXXIV THE EYE.

. weever or sting-fish, Trachinus, has this modification of the upper-eyelid,
and so also has the tropical crocodile-fish, Plutycephalus, in the last of which,
however, very rudimentary scales are also perceived, and the iris has two
tongue-like excrescences.

This opaque upper lid, evidently-used as a protection, is found in the, |
flat-fishes, Plewronectid, while another modification may likewise be present.
If the eye of a turbot, Rhombus maximus, is examined it. will be seen that
not only does thick opaque and coloured skin cover its upper and lateral
portions, but, being insufficient to protect the eye from the irritation of the
sand wherewith it covers itself, it is able to raise a thick lower eyelid, or else
to depress the transparent portion of the globe of the eye below this fold of
the skin. In the sun-fish, Orthagoriscus, as previously observed, we find a
circular palpebral fold, provided with a sphincter muscle.

Passing on to the rays and skates, which are sand- loving forms, we still
see immovable and opaque skin covering the upper portion of the eyeball ;
but, irrespective of this protective modification, there are other means which
can be used in order to prevent too much light obtaining entrance through
the pupil. This is effected by certain veils or processes, gf different forms,
which can be employed to cut off any excess of light. I have already
alluded to the teleostean crocodile-fish, Platyceyhalus, which lives in the
tropics, and resides at considerable depths, but often has to ascend to near
the surface in order to obtain its food. Here we find two processes of the
iris which can be employed as curtains—the upper and larger exists along
the upper margin of the pupil, and the smailer along the lower. So far as
I have observed, it is in these ground-feeders which occasionally ascend
towards the surface, from a dull into a bright light, that the upper veil or flap
of the iris is developed, while in some a lower veil may likewise co-exist. The
same modification is perceived in many of the Elasmobranchs; thus in the
homelyn-ray, Raia mactlata, we see on looking through the transparent
cornea that the pupil is not circular, but possesses a veil that has been aptly
compared to a vine-leaf (vol. ii, p. 334), provided with twelve digitations, that
can be let down and thus cut off some or all the rays of light. Muscular
fibres, which anastomose with each other, pass downwards along this flap,
and into each of the digitations which descend from it.

The lens itself may likewise be modified, as in the Anableps, the eye of
which is divided externally into two unequal portions by a sort of band of
opaque skin, which crosses its transparent cornea from one side to the other.
This fish, which usually swims with its head partially out of the water, thus
shows an anomaly that at first seems very puzzling, for why should it be
furnished with an opaque band precluding any rays of light entering the
orbit along a central horizontal line? On looking through the cornea it
appears as if this opaque band divided two pupils, preventing any rays
TASTE, . XXXV

passing into the space between which these two pupils are impervious, and
where they might stimulate the iris. But on removing the cornea it is seen
that, as already described, two lateral flaps of the iris appear like two small
tongues, which start one from. the anterior border of the circle of the pupil, *
and the other from its posterior border; the two approach each other and
touch or even overlap, and here the one lies over the other. These tongues
overlapping, it follows that the circular pupil is subdivided into two openings,
the upper of which is the larger. It is across where the-two tongues overlap
one another that the opaque band of skin crosses the cornea. The’ crystalline
lens is placed behind this singularly subdivided pupil, and is not perfectly
round, as seen in the lenses of most fishes, but a little convex projection
bulges out on its lower edge, which corresponds to the inferior orifice of the
pupil. It would seem as if this fish, possessing a sort of double eye, has to
keep a watch on the waters below through the lower pupil, and in the air
above through the upper; while the band of skin which crosses the eye
does so where the head of the fish is on a level with the upper edge of the
water.

Doubtless the foregoing account of fishes’ eyes might be largely
increased, and many more illustrations given did space permit, but the fore-
going are sufficient for the purpose of pointing out that the skin of fishes’
‘eyes may be used as a protection, when it is scaled, coloured, or even
transparent.

TASTE.

The sense of taste in fishes is generally considered to be but slightly
developed, a conclusion to a, great extent arrived at because most fish bolt
their food, and. but few have molar-formed teeth.capable of mastication. On
the other hand, the angler, line-fisherman, and pisciculturist perceive that
they will ravenously devour one kind of food, rejecting another, that they
have their likes and dislikes, which must have some connection sla the
density of the object or else with its taste.

The glosso-hyal bone does not as a rule support a tongue or organiza-
tion of soft parts specially devoted to the development of the special
sense of taste; as, when present, it is not infrequently found to be furnished
with teeth, and deficient of the muscles and soft part’ so conspicuous in the
tongues of the higher vertebrates. In the sturgeon, irrespective of papillae
for taste on the tongue, branches from the glosso-pharyngeal nerve have
been traced to the branchial arches and palate where possibly the sense
of taste resides. In carps on the roof of the palate is a thick, soft, vascular,
and highly sensitive mass, which becomes thinner anteriorly while it is

c*
XXXV1 OLFACTORY ORGANS.

supplied by branches from the glosso-pharyngeal nerves. Schulze (1862 and
1867) assigned to the cyathiform corpuscles of fishes, functions identical with
those of the gustatory bodies of the mammalian tongue. Jourdan (Comptes
Rendus, 1881, p. 748) confirmed the foregoing, and in gurnards found these
bodies upon the tongue, and suggested they might be present in the buccal
mucous membrane of most fishes. Also that among the nervous terminations,
described by M. Joubert as organs of touch, we must distinguish those
which possess cyathiform bodies*from those which are destitute of them, and
that these bodies are gustatory papille.

SMELL.

That fishes possess the sense of smell has long been known, and in olden
times anglers employed certain essential oils to add zest to their baits. Some
years since when at Roorkee, in Upper India, I was told of some fine barbels,
Mahaseer, attempts to tempt which with bait had proved ineffectual, when a
native suggested adding a little camphor, subsequent to which no difficulty
was experienced m obtaining a bite. A pike in clear water has been seen
to approach and then turu away from a stale gudgeon, and this may have
been due to smell.

Eyeless forms or those blind must depend on the sense of smell as well
as of that of touch. Some fish, due to accident, disease, hereditary malfor-
mation or want of development, are found totally devoid of vision, yet to
be in good condition and well-nourished, are daily taken by fishermen, and
the question forces itself on us how did they obtain food if belonging to forms
not furnished with barbels. Sir H. Davy considered it probable that trout
might lave similar relations to the. water it breathes that an animal with.
delicate nasal organs has to the air, and fancied, that there might be nerves
in the gills, which afforded it this sense of the qualities of the surrounding
fluid.

Fish are provided with organs of smell to enable them to receive impres-
sions from the surrounding medium, directing them to their food or warning
them against Impurities in the water. These organs are situated much as.
we perceive them in-the higher animals, but, exceping in Cyclostomata, with
this essential difference, that they do not communicate with the mouth, nor
are they related to the function of breathing, for were their delicate lining
membrane subject to incessant contact with currents of water, such would
doubtless have a deteriorating effect, owing to the density of the respired
element. The nostrils are essentially depressions or cavities, lined with a
large extent of a highly vascular pituitary membrane, packed into as small a
compass as possible, while we generally. perceive one or two external openings
situated on the anterior portion of the snout. The capsule which lines these
SMELL. . ‘ XXXVii

depressions is formed of a fibrous membrane, which in its turn lies upon a
cartilaginous or more frequently an osseous basis, termed the turbinal bones.

The appearance of these openings or nostrils in bony or teleostean fishes
is various. There are generally two apertures on the upper.surface, side, or
front edge of the snout leading to each olfactory sac, the one often tubular,
the other oval and patulous, while between theni a bridge of integument or
even a wide interspace exists, and attached to their edge is often a valve which
protects one or both of the orifices. The anterior nostril is most frequently
tubular and contractile, the posterior open, while internally the two com-
municate one with the other. In afew forms only one opening is present -
foreach sac. In some ‘eels and a few other bony fishes we-find a nasal orifice
"on thie inner side of the upper lip.

In the Plagiostomes the nasal depressions are very large, and a mem-
branous or cartilaginous opercle is present, by which they may be closed:
they open on the under surface of the face. The membrane lining them is
exceedingly vascular, and provided with. crypts which secrete mucus; the
membrane is sometimes’ folded, and on these folds are occasionally stellated
ridges, in order to increase the extent of the surface. As the nasal cartilages
have their proper muscles, it has been concluded “ that these fishes scent as
well as smell, 4.e. actively search for odoriferous impressions by rapidly
changing ‘the current of water through the olfactory sac”’ (Owen, i, p. 829).

In the Cyclostomata we find an unpaired or single nasal aperture, situated
on the upper surface of the head. In one species, ‘“ the Myxine,” a com-
munication with the palate exists in the form of a naso-palatine canal, which
opens backwards on the palate, where it is furnished with a valve; whereas
in the Petromyzon the nasal duct terminates in:a blind pouch, without per-
forating the palate. In Amphioxus the organ of smell is likewise single, in
the form of a simple depression, placed rather on the left side, and which
ends in a small, dilated, blind pouch, resting upon the central axis of the
’. nervous system,

For the supply of these organs we have the olfactory nerve, which arises
alone from the rudimentary hemisphere of the brain, and having dilated,
perforates the anterior portion of the skull, where it corresponds with the
cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone, and immediately divides and subdivides
upon the radiating laminze’ here covered with the pituitary nasal membrane.
A branch of the fifth pair or one for sensation likewise goes as an accessory
nerve to the organs of smell.

That odour may exist in water is evident, and I have been informed by
a gentleman who kept tame otters in India, that he has seen them hunt
along the bottom of a narrow and clear stream, following the trail of a fish
as unerringly as a hound works on land. Whether this odour is from the
fish itself or due to its excretions may be questioned.
XXXViil HEARING,

HEARING.

Hearing is developed in all-fishes (except perhaps in the Amphioxus),
and it is very remarkable how any diversity of opinion can exist as to their
possessing this sense. Mr. Bradley instances how at Rotterdam, seeing
some carps fed which were kept in a moat of considerable extent, and having
kept quiet some time in order to be convinced that the fish would not come
spontaneously, the owner called in the manner he usually did at feeding
time, when they immediately g gathered from all parts of the moat in such"
numbers that there was hardly room for them to lie by one another. The
same gentleman alludes to a pond full of tame pike at Sir J. Bowyer’s, near
Uxbridge, which could be called, together at pleasure. Lacépéde relates
how some fish, which had been kept in the basin of the Tuileries for
upwards of a ccntury, would come when they were called by their names ;
while in many parts of Germany, trout, carp, and ‘tench were summoned to
their food by the ringing of a bell. At many temples in India fishes are
called to receive food by means of ringing bells or by musical sounds.
Lieutenant Conolly remarks upon seeing numerous fishes coming to the
ghaut at Sidhnath to be fed when called. Carew, in Cornwall, is said to
have called his grey mullet together by making a noise like chopping with
a cleaver, and Sir Joseph Banks collected his fish by means of sounding a
-bell. Mr. Dunn remarks that he has known pilchards start out of the water
by tens of thousands on the Plymouth nine o’clock gun being fired, fully
thirty miles away.

Irrespective of the fact of hearing comes the inquiry, why, if fish cannot
hear, do they possess a complicated internal auditory apparatus? It is
generally asserted that in this class of animals there exists no vestige of an
external ear, but an auditory canal has been observed in some of the
Chondropterygians, as rays, opening on the surface of the head, near the
spiracle in dog-fishes, but in sharks it is generally covered by the skin.

The internal auditory apparatus of fishes are, as a rule, placed outside
the cavity which contains the brain, as seen in sharks, or more or less
within the cranial cavity, as in teleosteans. Its chief constituent parts
are the labyrinth, which is composed of three semi-circular canals and a
vestibule, which latter expands into one or more sacs, where the ear-bones
or otoliths are lodged. A tympanum and tympanic cavity are absent.

Many teleostean fishes possess fontanelles between the bones forming
the roof of the skull,‘and which, being closed by very thin bone or skin,
sounds from the surrounding water may be readily transmitted to the
contiguous internal ear. But the chicf mode in which hearing exists must
be due to the surface of- the fish being affected by vibrations of the water,
VOICE. XXXI1X

caused by sounds transmitted directly to the internal ear, or else by means
of the air-bladder acting as a sounding-board (see page xiii).

Prior to observing upon the air-bladder arises the question, whether fish
can or cannot communicate by means of sound one with another. Mr.
Symonds tells us how, introducing a brass minnow as a bait he killed a
large number of: perch in four days in a certain piece of water, but that
subsequently they entirely refused this bait, although, on the pond being
drained, thousands of these fish were found to be present. Also that he
has seen thé same result follow in another. piece of water, whereas in
neither could one in a hundred fish have been pricked by the hook.

VOICE. |

Voluntary and involuntary sounds, due to emotions, are emittdéd in
different manners by many fishes, and in some rare instances solely at.
certain seasons. Very dissimilar organs may originate somewhat similar
sounds, while sounds apparently identical may not always be expressive of
the same feeling. But as the human voice can be modified into tones of
command, love, terror, ‘&c., so in fishes one sound may denote fear, danger,
or anger, and perhaps even terms of conjugal endearment.

M. Dufossé conducted with great care experiments on. these subjects
upon some of the fishes of the Mediterranean, and reduced his results to a
system, in which the various sounds and modes of their production are
most elaborately classified. Thus some occur on their being removed from
hooks and thrown into a bucket ; these may be temporary and mostly
involuntary, and often. convulsive and unintentional: their production may
be due to unusual movements of the jaws, opercles, or other bony elements;
or else induced in, thick-lipped forms, as the tench and carp, when com-
pelled to suddenly open their mouths; the tench repeats the noise from its
lips so frequently that it has been compared to the-croaking of a frog.
"There are voluntary sounds as constant ones always produced by the
same organ which are evidently intentional, and can even serve to characterize
a species. Thus we find expressive sounds as of a’ harsh grating nature, as
stridulation caused by the friction of the dental organ, or of some bones as
the pharyngeals which guard the entrance into the gullet, or the densely
hard prominences of the jaws as observed in the sun-fish. Musical sounds
may be occasioned by the contraction of muscles which are contiguous to
the air-bladder, or are attached to the air-bladder ‘itself as in the “mailed
gurnard.” , ‘

Many fishes when captured emit sounds which appear to be due to terror,
as a scad or horse-mackerel (Carane hippos), a globe-fish (Tetrodon), and
others grunt like a pig. A Siluroid found in the Rio Parana, and called the
xl AIR-BLADDER.

Armado, is remarkable for a harsh grating noise which it emits when caught
by hook azid line: this can be distinctly heard while it is still beneath the
water. The cuckoo-gurnard (Tirigla pint) and the maigre (Sciceena aquila)
utter sounds, not only while being removed from the water, but the latter
likewise, when swimming in shoals, emits grunting or purring noises that
may be heard from a depth of 20 fathoms. The Corvina nigra, a fish in the
Tagus, emits sounds resembling the vibrations of a deep-toned bell, gong,
or pedal-pipe of an organ. Herrings (Clupea harengus), when the net has
been drawn over them, have been observed to do the same. The fresh-water
bullhead (Cottus gobio) emits similar sounds. At Madras I obtained several
live sheat-fishes, Macrones vittatus, locally termed “ fiddler fish,’ and on
touching one which was lying on some wet grass, it erected its armed spines,
emitting a sound resembling the buzzing of a bee, and apparently in anger
or fear. Canon Tristram when in Palestine obtained some amphibious siluroid
fish, Clarias macracanthus, which on being taken in the hand “squealed and
shrieked with a hissing sound like a cat at bay, and rapidly floundered
back to the streamlet, working their way rapidly among grass and over
gravel.”

AIR-BLADDER.

Prior to noticing the functions of respiration, some remarks will be
necessary on the air-bladders of fishes, also termed the swim-bladder, and the
air-sac or air-vessel (fig. 4, page xvili, vn, vn’). It is a single or variously
sub-divided sac, or it may be two sacs, partially or completely separated one
from the other. Situated above the centre of gravity,* it hes beneath the
vertebral column or backbone, from which it is more or less divided by the
kidneys, while inferiorly the peritoneum is between it and the intestines. As
this organ is entirely absent, or ceases to be developed in many fishes, and may
be present or wanting in species belonging to the same genus, it would appear
that it is not indispensable to the existence of these animals, its functions
being under certain conditions accessory or supplemental, to those of other
organs of the body ; while itis generally observed that the urinary bladder is
largest in those forms where the air-bladder is absent. In the embryo it
originates as a bud or offshoot from the upper portion of the alimentary
canal, or even from the stomach; this offshoot next elongates into a blind
tube, which enlarges at its terminal extremity into what will eventually form
the air-bladder. Consequently at some period of a fish’s existence there
must of necessity’ be a tube connecting the air-bladder (should one exist)

* Were the air-bladder, below the centre of gravity, or its contents evacuated into the abdominal

cavity, the fish (unless its fins were very greatly developed) would roll over on its back, as we see
occurs in Tetrodons and Diodons, when they inflate their esophageal sac.
RESPIRATORY, HYDROSTATIO,, AND ACOUSTIC USES OF. xli

with the alimentary canal, into which latter it opens usually on its superior
or dorsal, rarely on its lateral, but occasionally on its mferior or ventral wall.
The air-bladder is present in the sub-classes Drpnorps, all the members
of which are fresh-water ; also in the Ganorps, which are entirely or partially
fresh-water fishes. It is absent in the CHonpropreryau, except in a rudi-
mentary form, as a diverticulum opening on the dorsal wall of the pharynx,
and then only in some genera. While in the lowly developed Crciosromara
(Marsipobranchii) and the Leprocarpi: (Pharyngobranchti) it is entirely
wanting. : i
In the large sub-class Teleostet it is present in the Orders Acanthopteryqii,
Lophobranchii, and Plectognathi as a closed sac (Physoclisti), the majority of
these fishes are.marine. Whereas in the Phasostomi it generally exists as a
sac, having a connecting tube opening from it into the alimentary canal;
the largest proportion of which fishes live in fresh water. Asa general rule
the air-bladder‘exists more constantly in the fresh-water than in the marine
classes. s Q
Among thé Drevorns it is distinctly or indistinctly double, lung-like, and
communicating throughout life, by means of a duct and glottis, with the
cesophagus .or pharynx. It is thus in the Lepidosiren of the Brazils, in
South America; Protopterus of tropical Africa; and Ceratodus of Queens-
land, South Australia: All these fishes have been observed to ascend to
the surface of the water for the purposes of respiration, and take in atmos-
heric air direct; a mode of breathing, however, not confined solely to these
forms.*
The Acipenser or sturgeon is provided with an air-bladder, but not
similarly cellular to those already remarked upon; it does not appear’ to-be
employed in respiration, but its functions seem to be restricted to acting’ as
a float. The opening from the air-bladder into the alimentary canal is that
of a lower type, being on the dorsal surface, and it is not guarded by a glottis.
Thus among the Dipnoids the air-bladder has a lung-like function, opening
on the ventral wall of the pharynx, and protected by a glottis. But among
the Ganoids there is a divergence from the Dipnoid organization. Although
Amia has a respiratory air-sac, opening into the pharynx by a glottis, the
communicating orifice is on the upper or dorsal, and not on the lower or
ventral aspect, as occurring in the higher forms. Polypterus it is true opens
on the ventral wall, but in Acipenser the respiratory function has not been
developed, and the pneumatic opening is upon the dorsal wall of the
pharynx.
Air-bladders in fishes as might be expected in organs appearing in the
lowest class of vertebrates, are of diverse forms and sizes, as well‘as
differently protected. Existing in the abdominal cavity, as already described,

* See Day, Cotteswold NaturalistsField Club, vol. vi, pp. 229-242,
xii AIR-BLADDER.

they have usually two coats—an external, fibrous, tough, and glistening, and
an internal, vascular, and mucous one. Between these two coats is often
seen (especially in the Physoclisti) a red glandular body, most frequently in
its inferior region, and compared by some anatomists to the thymus. This
gland seems to have the character of a rete mirabile, consisting of a double
plexus of arteries and veins.

It has long been known that the gas contained in the air-bladder is
a mixture of oxygen, azote, and carbonic acid, in variable proportions,
in accordance with "species, and even with individuals. M. Morzav has
proved that among the fishes in which the air-bladder is closed (Physoclisti)
this organ always contains a greater part of the oxygen whenever the animal
is in a normal condition, that the oxygen disappears little by little if the
animal’cannot any longer derive it from its surroundings, and that finally
it perishes asphyxiated. .

The air-bladder, excluding those forms which respire air, is generally
found after’ death tightly distended with gas, and this consists chiefly
of nitrogen in the fresh-water forms, and oxygen in marine genera, this |
latter substance augmenting in sea fishes in accordance with the depth
at which the fish is capturéd. It has formed a subject of considerable
discussion as to how this gas is generated, but, as in those classes in which
the air-bladder is a closed sac (Physoelistt), it is as well seen as in others
possessing a pneumatic tube (Physostomi), one cannot resist believing that
the gas must be eliminated. from the blood-vessels lining the interior of the
organ. Probably the gland serves the special purpose of removing super-
fluous gas or any deleterious substance, while the pneumatic tube is, not
employed to admit the ingress of air, but acts as safety-valve when the organ
is too tightly distended.

The air-bladder is homologous with the lung in its position and function
in some of the higher orders ; and asa gradation can be traced, it becomes no
less clear that this homology (whatever its functions may be) exists throughout
every variety and condition of air-bladder in the piscine tribes. The arteries
which supply the air-bladder in teleosteans are offghoots direct from the
abdominal aorta, coeliac artery, or last branchial vein ; the blood is returned
to the portal, hepatic, or great cardiac vein. In the highest class of fishés
we find this organ differently supplied, as it is not only the homologue but
likewise the analogue of the lung, thus in Lepidosiren* venous blood is
distributed to the organ and arterial conveyed away, the two efferent veins
having coalesced, pierce the large post-caval, then pass forwards and through
the sinus and auricle, and thus discharge the blood into the ventricle.
Consequently we find that in this organ there are two distinct modes of

* Quexerr, who injected a small portion of the air-bladder of this fish, found the arrangement
of the vessels was precisely similar to that existing in the lungs of reptiles.
HYDROSTATIC AND ACOUSTIC USES OF.* xliii

sanguification, in the lower division artetial blood goes to it and venous is
returned from it; whereas .in the higher forms venous is carried to it,
oxygenated at it, and returned as arterial blood into the heart.

In teleostean fishes the air-bladder exists in the form of a closed
sac (Physoclisti), as in the spiny-rayed Acanthopterygians, the spineless
Anacanthini, the tufted-gilled Lophobranchit, and the hard-jawed Plectog-
nathi. While in the remaining orders a connecting duct remains
pervious, as in the Physostomi, excluding the family Scombresocidee.

The air-bladder, however, is not only absent in many families, but it
may be present or deficient among species of the same genus. One’ form of
British mackerel, Scomber colias, possesses this organ, while the S. scomber
has none. This is by no means peculiar to European genera.

Tn such forms as swim near the surface the air-bladder is generally of a
comparatively small size; while in those which live near the bottom, as the
flat fishes, Plewronectide, it is asa rule absent. In species possessing this .
organ, should it become ruptured from any cause, permitting the contained
gas to escape, the fish has bysome authors been observed to sink to the bottom,
and to be unable to re-ascend, a conclusion some experiments have failed
to establish. On the other hand.some forms which have been hooked or
netted at great depths and suddenly brought to the surface, without having
time to compress or partially empty their air-bladders, the contained ‘gas
being no longer weighted down by a mass of. superimposed water, expands
rapidly, causing the organ to burst, or else forcing the stomach and upper
portion of the alimentary canal into the fishes mouth.*

The chief use of this organ (excluding respiration and the production of
sound) in teleostean fishes are two—(1) A hydrostatic, or for flotation,
which serves by contracting or distending its capacity, to condense or
rarify the contained gases, giving it the mechanical function of enabling its
possessor to maintain a desired level in the water, and which is accompanied
“with the power of renewing, expelling, and compressing, or dilating its gaseous
contents, so that it can, rise or fall.as necessity occurs. (2) The second
use is acoustic, it being partially or entirely employed for hearing, by
means of various modes of connection with the internal ear, mostly by
tubular prolongations of the air-bladder, or a connecting chain of auditory
ossicles.

Among the Physoclisti, the majority of which are marine, we find the
air-bladder as a closed sac, having a single cavity, as observed in many of
the Percids, wherein its greatest length is in its longitudinal axis. In
some forms, as “ Holocentrum and Sargus ccecal processes of the air-bladder -
diverge to attach themselves to the membrane, closing the part of the

* « A fish may remain at the bottom of the water due to the very fact of the pressure of the
column of water on the air contained in the bladder.” —MULuER.
xliv g AIR-BLADDER

octocrane containing the sac of the great otolite’” (Owxn). It has likewise
been remarked that in the scad or horse-mackerel, Caranx truchurus, a
canal passes from the air-bladder to the bronchial cavity; permitting the
escape of air, although it does not serve to admit it.* Kyer + observed that
in several fishes provided with pectoral pores, the thymus gland is absent,
and the air-bladder communicates with the cesophagus by an open duct in
some Acanthopterygians, as Holocentrum, Priacanthus, Cesio, &c. The
air-bladder may have lateral attachments, as in Scicena, or blind appendages,
as in Polynemus. The interior of the air-bladder of Physoclisti, as the cod,
is lined with a thin membrane of silvery whiteness, composed of a series
of fibres, covered with a basement membrane, provided with scales of
epithelium ; beneath this is a layer of vessels, while inside is situated a
highly vascular body, receiving blood diréct from the aorta: capillaries
exist, and{here veins commence. In the perch the glandular body is not
in one compact mass, but scattered about its interior.{

If we examine the Physostomi, or those families in which a pervious
pneumatic duct exists throughout life, we find the majority of such are
fresh-water forms,§ situated between the Physoclisti on one hand and the
_Dipnoids and Ganoids on the other. This pneumatic tube possesses the
same coats as the air-bladder, is of various lengths, and is said to be
occasionally tortuous. As a rule it opens upon the dorsal surface of the
alimentary canal, but in some of the herring family directly into the
stomach. The glandular body observed upon as existing inside the air-
bladders of. the Physoclisti, is not so well developed, as a rule || in the
Physostomi. As this pneumatic tube has no miscular coat its diameter
can hardly vary, except when acted upon by other forces, it would therefore
be useless for inspiration.. If we examine a carp we find its air-bladder is
generally a simple sac, with a constriction between its anterior third and
posterior two-thirds, but not sufficient to close the communication. From
the posterior portion of the air-bladder{[ springs the pneumatic tube, as
already described; or else this organ may be in the form of two rounded
portions placed side by side beneath the bodies of some of the anterior
vertebrae, and not communicating with each other; but the two pneumatic

* A. Moruau, Compt. Rend., Ixxx, pp. 1247-1250.

+ Sitz. Ak. Wiss. Wien. 1864, xlix, May, pp. 455-459,

{ Quexerr, Trans. Microp. Soc., i, 1844, p. 100.

§ The majority of marine Physostomi are littoral, or surface swimmers, often weak forms,
which have to escape pursuit of enemies while rapidly rising to the surface.

|| In the eel there are two, placed one on each side of the duct communicating between its two
portions: the distribution of its vessels in the upper compartment of its air-bladder QueKurT
likened to the cellular lung of reptiles.

4 In carps the anterior portion of the air-bladder is very elastic, the posterior but slightly so.
MULLER observed that “in proportion as the fish rises in the water the anterior bladder, which is
the most, elastic, must considerably increase in volume, and thus keep the head of the animal up,
while the contrary must be the case when the fish descends.”.
ACCOUSTIC AND HYDROSTATIC USES OF. xlv

tubes coalesce previous to entering the dorsal wall of the alimentary canal.
Not only in the Oyprinidw but also in the Characinidw and Siluride a
chain of auditory ossicles connects the air- -bladder with the internal ear,
instead of a tube filled with gas, as remarked upon in the Physoclisti.
Three ossicles .on either side pass forwards along the under surface of the
_ body of the first vertebra, connecting the outer‘wall of the air-bladder with
" the atria of the vestibule. These ossicles were first pointed out by Wzzer;
and since his time it has been shown that they belong, like the capsules of
the special organs of sense, to the splanchnoskeleton.

In the same family, or that of carps, we.find a curious form of
loach, Botia, in the East Indies, that can scarcely be said to be
entirely a ground-feeder, but seems intermediate in habits between the true
carps and the grovelling loaches. It has the anterior portion of its air-
bladder, or what may be termed the acoustic part, more or less enclosed in
bone, this being formed from the parapophyses of some of the anterior
cervical vertebrae. All fish with the air-vessel enclosed in bone are bottom
feeders, and-very few are destitute of barbels. In the true ground-feeding
loaches, as the Nemachewlus and Oobitis, it almost appears as if the posterior
two-thirds of the air-bladder, or its hydrostatic portion, were deficient ; the
organ being in the form of two round lobes, placed side by side, below the
bodies of some of the anterior vertebra, where they are almost entirely
enclosed in bone. The pneumatic tube, however, is still found to exist. In
another exclusively ground-feeding form of carp, Homaloptera, in the East
Indies, and in which the lower surface of its body appears flat, and: its
general conformation refers to its habit of clinging close to stones at the
bottom of streams, we find the air-bladder entirely wanting.

Another fresh-water family of Physostomi, the Characinide, residents
of tr opical Africa and America, are exceedingly interesting, as regards how
this organ is modified in respect to hearing ; @ chain ‘of auditory ossicles
extending from it to the internal ear, as observed in the Cyprinide. While -
in Erythrinus we perceive a most interesting link between the Physostomous
Teleosteans on one hand and the air-breathing Ganoids on the other, for
in this genus, although the air-bladder is above the alimentary canal, the
pneumatic tube pierces the left side of the throat. The air-bladder is.
likewise sub-divided by fibrous partitions, but whether such ate exceedingly
vascular or not, whether this. organ is used for respiration or simply for
flotation, there does not appear at present to be evidence upon which to
decide.

The extensive fresh-water Physostomous family (which has likewise
some marine representatives) of Siluride, or sheat-fishes, is very abundant
in the tropics. Among them the air-bladder is remarkably modified, in the ,
majority of instances being apparently more useful for auditory that for
xlvi AIR-BLADDER.

hydrostatic functions, and as a general rule being smaller in fresh-water
than in marine species. The Stlwride of Asia live the life of ground-feeders,
and the power of employing their air-bladder as a float appears to be
subservient to that of hearing. In the marine forms it has thickened walls,
and the parapophyses of the first vertebre (ex. Arius subrostratus) form
expanded plates, to-the under surface of which this organ is attached. As
we go inland, especially towards the Himalayas, this organ becomes more ~
and more enveloped in bone until it is as we find it in the loaches, while,
like the Cyprinide, a chain of ossicles passes forwards to,the internal ear.
In the marine forms the broad plate on its upper surface and bony stays
to its partitions would appear to exist for the purpose of counteracting
superincumbent pressure ; while in the fresh-water forms this bony covering,
being greatly increased, would seem to be due to some fresh-water physical.
cause, not to a tropical climate, as 1 .have observed the same phenomena
is seen in European loaches. As all: are ground-feeders, one reason at
least must be to prevent undue pressure on that organ when at great
depths, and to preclude any abnormal interference with the function of
hearing.

Among the marine Physostomous forms all that have been examined,
I believe, and in which communications exist between the air-bladder and
internal ear, have such by means of coecal prolongations from the air-bladder,
and not by a chain of auditory ossicles, which appear to be absent in marine
fishes. This leads one to inquire whether there are any fresh-water fishes
that have this connection, as observed in sea forms. The perch has no
auditory ossicles, and I should think its origin may be given as marine;
and the same conclusion may be come to of the trout and anadromous
salmon.

In short, the air-bladder in fishes is the homologue of the lungs of the
superior vertebrate forms ; in some of the higher sub-classes it serves as a
lung, depurating the blood; but in the majority of true or teleostean fishes
it is employed for one or both of the following purposes : as a float, enabling
its possessor, by compressing or dilating it, to sink or rise to any desired
level in the water; or, secondly, that it assists hearing by communicating
with the internal ear: that in those forms ‘in which it has an auditory
function, we perceive two. very distinct modifications, for among marine
Physoclisti a prolongation of the air-bladder passes‘ forwards to the interior
of the skull, while in fresh-water Physostomi, although a similar connection
exists, it is by means of a chain of auditory ossicles ; while in such fishes
as live the life of ground-feeders a still further change may take place, in
the air-bladder itself being more or less completely surrounded by osseous

walls, formed by the growth of the parapophyses of some of the anterior
vertebrae.
RESPIRATION. xvii

RESPIRATION.

Respiration in fishes, excluding the.amphibious forms, is fundamentally
the same as in the higher vertebrates, the blood being decarbonized at the
gills, where any circulating carbon unites with the oxygen of the atmos-
‘pheric air (which is nominally contained in the water), and is thus excreted
as carbonic acid gas. Some foetal sharks and rays have deciduous gills,*
which are only present in the embryo (plate ‘elxv).

The first circumstance which attracts attention is that generally the wider
the gill-openings the sooner the fish expires after removal from its native
element as observed in the mackerel or herring. On the other hand, those
with narrow gill-openings frequently live some time after their removal
from the water as: in the common eel. For as the delicate fringes of the
gills become dry they adhere one to another, thus mechanically preventing
them from acting, and consequently the blood cannot be decarbonized.
Irrespective, however, of the foregoing cause a larger amount of oxygen is
necessary for respiration in some fishes (as herrings) in comparison with
their size than in others as the common carp, which has a much lower
vitality. Suffocation may also be produced, due to the gills being choked
with mud. Likewise consequent upon heat the air which should be in the
water may become diminished or driven out, and when this occurs the fishes,
to avoid suffocation, may be seen ascending to the surface to obtain that
which they have not a sufficiency of lower down.

For the purpose of breathing a fish takes or gulphs in water by its
mouth, which passes backwards to the gills, and is then discharged outwards
by the gill-openings, which are of varying size, while as to’numbers, there
may be one on either side of or behind the head as generally seen in’ bony
fishes, or a single opening below the throat as in the anguilliform
Symbranchus, or: several as in most of the Chondropterygii, and likewise in
the Cyclostomata.

Among the bony fishes the gills supported by bony gill-arches are placed
in a cavity behind and below the pharynx, while between these bony arches
are clefts or slits permitting water to pass from the pharynx to the gills,
subsequent to which it is discharged externally through the gill-openings.
The branchial or gill-arches (see page xvi) are five in number, but are
variously provided with gills on their outer surfaces, the majority having
four complete gills, but occasionally the fourth has merely a single or
uniserial gill, sometimes none at all, In our British frog-fish (vol. i,

* In young teleosteans, as the alevin stage of the trout, the gill-covers do not extend to over

the gills, which are consequently bathed, in the surrounding waters. Under certain conditions the
pectoral fin assists in the breathing process (see page xi).
xlvili RESPIRATION.

page 72) there are three gills, in the curious tropical Malthe belonging
to the same family the Pediculati, two and a half, while the eel-like
and amphibious Cuchia of Asia has merely one small gill belonging
to the second branchial arch. The pharyngeal or inner side of these
gill-arches may be simply covered with integument or possess projections
of varying forms which have been designated gill-rakers, and whose numbers
sometimes assist in ascertaining the distinction, between two nearly
allied species as in our two common shads (vol. ii, pp. 234, 236).
These gill-rakers may be very fine, long, placed close together, and per-
forming the function of a sieye by arresting the progress of anything but
water from the pharynx to the gills. Or they may be placed somewhat
wider asunder, be shorter in length, and then would be only efficacious in.
stoppmg large particles. In some forms they may be teeth-bearing
tubercles, or simply rough. Irrespective of this sieve-like apparatus pre-
venting foreign bodies passing from the pharynx through the clefts or
slits existing between the branchial or gill-arches to the gills, their inter-
branchial slits may be decreased in size, or even obliterated ; for in some
forms, as in Cottus, no opening or slit is to be found behind the fourth
branchial arch, and when this is the case merely a single or uniserial gill is
present on it.

The gills or branchiz of fishes may be destitute of support as among the.
Plagiostomata (vol. ii, page 287), or be supported by horny or cartilaginous
processes placed along the outer convex edge of the branchial or gill-
arches and fixed in the integment. Normally or in complete gills there are
two rows of these rods, one along either edge, whereas in the uniserial or
half-gills there only exists ‘one row. Although all gills are essentially the
same as to their formation, their appearance differs, thus among the Lopho-
branchiate forms (vol. u, page 256) each gill expands towards its free
extremity, whereas they generally become attenuated and compressed, while .
numerous varieties are observable.

The pseudobranchiz, or false gills, which often exist, are situated more
along the inner side of the gill-covers in teleosteans, or within the spiracles
in Chondropterygians, or concéaled under the integument so as to appear
like a glandalar body on the remains of an anterior gill which in the
embryonic life of the fish performed respiratory functions, but which in the
adult fish receives arterial blood.

Accessory respiratory organs exist in some fishes, especially tropical
forms, as in the climbing perch among the Labyrinthici, the walking fishes
among the Ophiocephalidz, and the scorpion-fish Saccubranchus and the
Clarias among siluroids or sheat-fishes. Joubert remarks that respiration
* may be carricd on in Callichthys by air passing through the intestines; in
Doras, Erythrinus, and Sardis gigas, the air-bladder performs this function.
TEMPERATURE. CIRCULATION. xlix

TEMPERATURE OF FISHES.

The temperature of the blood of fishes is much the same as that of the
fluid in which they reside, but in some forms wherein there is great muscular
activity, as in the tunhies, the vespiratory process is so. energetic that it
raises it to a much greater heat. Davy when making investigations upon
the heat of a tunny fish, Thyniius (vol. i, page’ 100) , observed that the
temperature would appear to be about 12 deg. above the medium in which -
they swim, and at least 9 deg. above that of the surface of the water. .

ORGANS OF CIRCULATION.

Fishes are provided with an arterial and venous circulation similar to what
obtains in the higher classes of vertebrates, and possess one for general
nutrition, one for respiration, and also a portal system. But of these only
the respiratory circulation “possesses any muscular contractile. system at its
commencement, while it corresponds to the right-or venous side of the
heart of birds and mammals. The heart, which is absent in the Amphioxus,
in other fishes is small compared with the size of their bodies and lodged.
in a cardiac chamber or pericardiac cavity which is closed in osseous fishes,
but communicates with the peritoneal cavity in the sturgeon and among the
plagiostomes, while in the myxine this cavity is simply a continuation of the
peritoneum. Although the heart is usually placed a short distance behind
.the lower jaw and between the branchial and abdominal cavities, variations in
its position are found to exist. In the true Apodes it is placed far back
and behind the scapular arch. It is mostly free in the cavity it occupies,
but sometimes, as in the sfurgeon or eel, it has ligamentous attach-
ments to the walls of the pericardium. Ié consists of an auriele or atrium,
having thin walls, and into which a large venous sinus empties itself, having
brought the blood from the veins of the body: a thick walled and
muscular ventricle, and an arterial ‘bulb. The venous sinus is situated out-
side the pericardiac cavity in teleosteans, but within it in plagiostomes.
The arterial bulb or enlargement at, the base of the arterial system in teleos-
teans, termed the bulbus arteriosus, is a pear-shaped dilatation of the artery,
elastic, but destitute of any contractility, while internally it may contain
many trabecule and irregular pouches but no valves, but has at its’ base one,
two, or three valves, or even four in the’sunfish. Among the Chondrop-
terygii this swelling differs in size, while internally its valvular system has
been found useful in classification. Externally this bulb is but little
developed among the Chimeras, is mostly conical among the sturgeons and

; d
l CIRCULATION. TEETH.

plagiostomes and a continuation of the ventricle having striated muscular
fibres, internally it possesses no valves at its base, but is lined by several
rows, while it regularly contracts, alternating with the contractions of the
ventricle. Internally it is provided with transverse rows of longitudinally:
shaped valves, varying in number with the forms to which they pertain:
among the Chondropterygii it has been termed conus arteriosus to dis-
tinguish it from what is seen in teleosteans and cyclostomes. From the
arterial .bulb, or rather a continuation of it, is the branchial artery, which
sends off branches from either side to the gills, where the blood having
been purified, is returned to the dorsal vessel or aorta which distributes it
throughout the body. It will be unnecessary in this place to remark any
further on the arterial, venous, or lymphatic systems in fishes.

If we except the aberrant form of Amphioxus, all fishes possess blood
corpuscles, varying considerably in size, being largest in the lepidosiren, of
tather less size im the plagiostomes, while among the bony fishes those of
the Salmonide appear to be of the greatest diameter, but are inferior
in size to those of the Chondropterygians. It contains red and colourless
globules, the former being as a rule elliptical, but are round in lampreys;
circular globules are-not unfrequently perceptible in the blood of fishes.

TEETH.

The teeth of fishes are more generally concerned in capturing than in
masticating their prey, and are varied in their form, sometimes differing with
the age or sex of the individual, and found in various situations inside the
mouth and contiguous parts, thereby furnishing an important aid in
classification, assisted likewise by their external characters. Some forms
are destitute of teeth, or possess them solely in the pharyngeal bones, but
from the lips to all the bones entering more or less into the composition of
the buccal cavity, there is a. tendency of the mucous membrane in almost
any of these parts to- develop teeth, especially among teleosteans. This
is also seen in some plagiostomes. Among osseous fishes teeth are
most commonly observed springing from or more or less attached to
bone. Teeth as a rule are simple, and may be isolated one from
another, as in the porbeagle shark (plate clvi), or they may be com-
pound and form a large plate with pavement-like subdivisions, as seen in
Myliobatis (plate clxxvi).- Among teleosteans they may appear as a bony ,
continuation of the jaws, as in Tetrodons (vol. ii, plate cxlvii). In some, as
carps, teeth are absent from the jaws, or they may be isolated, as in the
anterior portion of the jaws in the wolf. fish (plate lvin), or in a single row;
as in the blennies, a double row, as in the holibut (plate xciv), a treble row,
TEETH. INTESTINAL TRACT. : li

as in some of the Pagelli, in many rows, as in the eel (plate cxlii), or be ,
deciduous with age, as in the body of the vomer among the Salmonidw. Some
teeth have broad and rounded molariform crowns, as in Pagrus (plate xi), or
they may be laterally compressed, as in blennies, or of a lancet-shaped form,
as in Trichiurus; while their cutting edge may have one, two, or three cusps,
and be smooth or serrated. In some’ fish the teeth are like bristles or
setiform ; or arranged so close together as ‘to appear like pile upon velvet or
villiform; or mixed with rather larger ones, cardiform ; recurved, barbed
at their extremities; canine like; or compressed and cutting; of equal or
unequal sizes; and more than one form may be present in a single fish.
Some species have the teeth resting on a sort of basal joint or a hinge, which
enables them on pressure being made to be reclined towards the inside of
the mouth, but reverting to their original: direction upon the pressure being
removed. The principle is not identical in all these hinged teeth, thus m
the angler (plate xxix) and the hake (plate lxxxv) elasticity is present soleiy
in the substances constituting the hinge ; whereas in the pike (plate cxxvi)
this is not the case, but the bundles of fibres proceeding from the interior
of the dentine cap are elastic (C. Tomes). Fishes’ teeth are constantly
shed and generally as constantly renewed by a second appearing from
beneath or else to one side. This renewal of teeth is well seen in the
shark, wherein a row from behind constantly fills up the one which is in
use. :

The composition of the teeth shows many variations, but principally
consists of vaso dentine, which may be said to be dentinal tissue, into which
vascular medullary canals are. prolonged, sometimes externally covered by
dentine which is not vascular. ,

THE INTESTINAL TRACT.

The commencement of the intestinal canal or the mouth is the common
receptacle of water passing to the gills for respiration, and of food transmitted
to the stomach for nutrition, while, as might be anticipated, its capacity is
large and variously formed. But it is not my purpose to enter at present
on the several purposes for which the mouth is employed, or the means by
which these are effected, except to remark on the absence of the salivary
glands, which in some forms seem.to be represented by mucous follicles
that open into the mouth below the side of the tongue, much saliva doubtless
being unnecessary, owing to the moist condition of their food. Also that
among the carp-like fish the palate is very sensitive, exceedingly vascular,
while from numerous small’pores mucus of a solvent character exudes,
apparently to assist the digestion of food which the pharyngeal teeth
masticate. The gastric portion consists of an cesophagus and a stomach,

d *
li INTESTINAL TRACT.

between which a cardiac constriction is not so frequently observable as a
change in the structure of the lining mucous membrane. In some forms there
hardly exists any definite line of demarcation between the lower end of the
stomach and the commencement ‘of the small intestines, but in many a
constriction occurs in this situation, termed the pylorus, although it must
be observed that the orifices at the ends of the stomach are usually more or
less approximated, in order that the food may be retained as in a coecum.
Occasionally the stomach occurs not in the direct course of, but to one side as
it were, of the intestinal canal. A second constriction, marked internally by
a more or less well-defined internal valve, shows where the small intestines
terminate and the large ones begin.

Generally among teleosteans the various portions of the intestinal tract
are sufficiently distinct to be distinguished simply by an external mspection :
sometimes the differences between each part are so slight that the situation
where the ducts enter give the best clue to the various parts.

If the intestinal canal is slit up and its inner surface examined, the
commencement of the stomach is generally observed to be defined by
increased vascularity and a more delicate lining membrane than that existing
in, the cesophagus. Its upper or cardiac orifice is usually larger than its
lower or pyloric one, while the form of the entire organ is subject to
‘considerable modification, being usually found in one of the two following
divisions: the siphonal, which somewhat resembles a bent tube, as seen in
the lumpsucker, flounder, salmon, carp, sturgeon, and most of the plagios-
tomes; and the eccal, in which it ends in a blind sac, and the pyloric portion
is continued from its right side, as observed in the perch, gurnard, weevers,
John Dory,.whiting, &c. An intermediate or transitional form sometimes
exists, as in the sea scorpion or the turbot, irrespective of which certain
deviations occur which it is not my purpose to enlarge upon. The Indian
Sciena, erroneously termed “ whiting ” (Johnius), has the pyloric portion of
its stomach niuscular, but this augmented thickness of the muscular coats
may be best perceived in the mullets (Mugil), in which the cardiac portion is
continued downwards into a blind sac, while the pyloric portion is thickened
‘like the gizzard of a bird, appearing as a rounded or conical projection -
externally, and which when cut into is found to consist of thick muscular walls,
the small cavity remaining internally being lined with a thick and horny

‘epithelium. This gizzard-like stomach is evidently employed for grinding
up hard food, and it is curious to observe how, when some fresh-water forms
select hard substances for their diet, the coats of their stomachs may likewise
become thickened. Thus in the gillaroo trout we find the ascending or
pyloric portion of the stomach thickened. In the cyclostomes and
leptocardii the intestinal tract is straight, but in the lampreys longitudinal
folds are present in the oesophagus, and a single one along the intestinal tube.
STOMACH AND PYLORIG APPENDAGES. ‘ hii

Through the pyloric orifice, partially digested food reaches the com-
mencement of the small intestines, and as arule we observe that the distance
from the pylorus to the vent is shorter in fishes than in most of the higher
vertebrata. But of course the length of the intestinal tract differs in various

classes, while its lining membrane is by no means of the same description in:
all. In the salmon or herring we find the length of the intestines shorter
than that of the body, but in the former the intestinal lining membrane is
raised into transverse folds, thus increasing the extent of their secreting and
absorbing surface, which is also further augmented by the secretions of
numerous ccecal appendages.- In the herring, again, the ecocal appendages
are numerous. In other forms we find the intestines themselves convoluted,
thus increasing their length, and this is well seen among the carps. In the
shad Cuvier’ observed that valvulz conniventes existed. in the intestines,
while in the salmon the folds of the internal lining of the intestines increase
in size, decrease in number, and become less oblique as they approach the
rectum, or the commencement of the large intestine is marked by a large
circular valve, which is succeeded by several others which are completely or
incompletely transverse. This large intestine may be straight, as seen
in the sturgeon or chimera, &c., where the transverse folds may become
continuous, and there is formed an uninterrupted spiral valve, also present
in the sharks, the rays, and their allies, but which may be modified into.
transverse coils.

It is thus that in fishes économy of space is effected by an increase of the
secreting and absorbing surface of the vasculo-mucous membrane lining the
intestinal tract, whether such be merely raised into puckers, or these puckers
be continued into transverse folds, or even forming a circular uninterrupted
spiral valve or coil to the large intestine.

- An examination imto the ccecal appendages, also termed pyloric cceca,
and pyloric appendages—what forms possess and what are deficient in them
—under what circumstances they vary—and, lastly, what are their functions,
show them to be questions respecting which much still remains to be
ascertained. In different fishes they may be useful for different purposes—
either as an absorbing or secreting surface, or both. Thus as observed by
Krukenberg, in the perch they are lined by simply mucous glands, whereas in
the herring they represent the pancreas, and contain a “ tryptic”’ ferment. In
some species these appendages are a modified pancreas, in addition to the very
‘rudimentary form of this organ which has been detected as a minute glandular
body, terminating in a duct, which opens by from one to three or ifices into the
intestines, close to ‘the bile duct, but occasionally so closely attached to the
latter as to be easily overlooked. The latter is seen both in fishes which possess
pyloric appendages, as perch, cod, salmon, sturgeon; and in such as are
deficient. in them, as brama, gar-pike, and pike, while the sharks and rays are
liv INTESTINAL TRACT.

furnished with a reddish-yellow and lobulated gland, which is more similar
to what is perceived in the higher forms of vertebrate animals.

As to the common appearances of ccecal appendages,* if we commence
our investigations among the osseous fishes, we see in some one or more
small ducts, each ending externally in a blind extremity ; these .either
surround the commencement of the intestine just beyond the pyloric or
lower end of the stomach, or else spring frown one of the sides of the first
part of the small intestine, along which they may be continued for some
little distance. We find in a single fish from one to upwards of a hundred
of these ccecal appendages, each of which may open by a separate orifice
into the intestinal canal, or two or more conjoining form a common duct,.
and thus diminish the number of openings, while in the bogue-fish (Boups),
two ccecal appendages are seen at the termination of the intestinal tract. In
the sword-fish (Xiphias), all the various appendages conjoin with the common
tubes which empty their contents into the intestines. Passing from the
osseous upwards to the cartilaginous or semi-cartilaginous fishes of the
ganoid sub-class, we still find this gland present. Thus in the sturgeon
(Acipenser), a mass of areolar ‘tissue binds the various cceca together,
forming it into a parenchymatous conglomerate gland.

The general appearance of the ccecal appendages consists of ducts of
varying length and numbers, attached externally to the small intestines,
into which they empty themselves. If these cceca are opened, they are mostly
seen to possess a glandular lining membrane, where a glairy fluid is secreted,
similar in appearance to the secretion from the internal surface of the
intestinal canal. Chyme has likewise been said to have been found
inside them. It seems probable that in the interior of these tubes a
large amount of nutritive substances are present, for the tape-worms
(Bothriocephali) so common in some fishes, as the salmon, are almost
constantly found with their heads up these cceca, and from which they must
obtain their subsistence. For it is reasonable to suppose that in choosing
this locality they have been influenced by one of the following considera-
tions:—Absence from the main intestinal tract, which is constantly being
employed im conveying nutriment and excreta; or else in selecting some
situation where the nutriment is more abundant.

 

If we take a general survey of these two classes, we observe that ccecal
appendages are far more common among marine than fresh-water fishes ;

* It may be as well before proceeding further to explain my plan for examining these appendages,
for I employ, as a rule, one of the following processes. The easiest mode is to tie the esophagus
and inflate the intestines, appendages, and stomach by means of a blowpipe, tube, or quill, from
an opening made in the intestines, or to tie the intestines and inflate from the esophagus, while
the use of a solution of chromic acid hardens the preparation. Should the fish not be sufficiently
fresh for this purpose, it must be examined under water, when occasionally it can be injected with
spirit.
URINARY ORGANS. lv

also that in the highly-organized sharks and rays, instead of these appendages
we find a spiral valve existing in the intestines, as already described.

URINARY ORGANS.

The urinary organs are composed of the kidneys as a secreting or
excreting apparatus, the. ureters, the bladder, and the urethra, the two last
being absent in .some fishes. The kidneys, according to Vogt and some
others, appear to be composed of the Wolfian bodies, structures persistent
among fishes, but which are not permanent among other vertebrate animals,
whereas other authors deny this. -Whatever they may be considered, still
two kidneys, generally well-developed, are always present among’ fishes,
except, perhaps, in the amphioxus. These organs, as a rule, are distinctly
separated anteriorly one from the other, but sometimes more or less °
united posteriorly: they are placed close to the’ vertebral column, but
separated from the abdominal cavity and the intestines by the peritoneum.
‘To this rule there are exceptions, as among teleosteans, which possess an air-
bladder where it likewise is outside the peritoneum, and is often more or less
adherent to the under surface of the kidneys.

The size ag well as:the form of the kidneys is subject to great variation :
in some teleosteans they are compact and restricted to the forepart of the
abdominal cavity, but in others they extend far forward to the base of the
skull and posteriorly, as seen in the eel, &c., to between the muscles of the
caudal region, while their surface may be smooth or lobulated. - The ureters,

which receive the urine from the urinary tubes, are generally two in number,
rarely three, while as many as five from either kidney, each of which |
separately opens into the urinary bladder, have been found in sticklebacks.
“These ureters are usually placed along the inner edge of the kidneys, and
may be continued to their outlet, or they may unite in an urinary bladder
which opens behind thé vent by a short urethra sometimes confluent with,
sometimes distinct from (and is then behind) the genital opening, while
occasionally it is situated on a papilla. Among the Plagiostomes the ureters
are short, and each forms a dilatation which anastomosing with its fellow,
ends in a single urethra, and having received the vasa deferebtia in the
male opens into, the cloaca, behind the end of the rectum. Variations in the
positions of the various parts are seen among the Ganoids and Dipnoids.
Among the Cyclostomes, as the lampreys, the kidneys are in the form of an
elongated gland, with detached portions, the ureters coalescing prior -to
terminating in the urogenital papilla. In the hag a long duct extends
through the abdominal cavity, sending off short transverse branches, each
of which ends in a blind sac, where a ganglion that- secretes the. urine is
Ivi INTESTINAL TRACT.

placed. In the amphioxus the isolated bodies which are seen near the
abdominal pore have been considered as the kidneys.

LARGE ABDOMINAL GLANDS.

The liver generally occupies a large portion of the abdominal cavity,
being separated from the cardiac chamber by a species of membranous
diaphragm. It is most developed arnong the plagiostomes, and as a rule
contains a large amount of oil. Its form is subject to considerable variation,
but it is generally lobulated, the most simple being found in the amphioxus as
a diverticulum from the stomachic dilatation of the intestinal tract. As a
rule a gall-bladder exists, and although it is generally seen at its lower
surface, it may be lodged inside the liver near its centre, attached to the
right lobe, or even be.distinct from this organ, being merely connected to it
by the cystic duct. Bile is removed from the liver by one or more ducts,
which converge into and join the cystic duct, thus forming the ductus
choledochus or common duct of the liver and gall-bladder, which empties
itself into the intestinal, canal, posterior to the pyloric end of the stomach,
while-in the plagiostomes it opens in the duodenum.

A panereas, as already observed, is found in many teleosteans, in the
sturgeon, and among the plagiostomes.

The spleen, among fishes is found, except in the amphioxus, as a dull
reddish body of a -rounded form, usually placed near, the stomach or
commencement of the intestines. It is subject to considerable modifications.

BREEDING.

fishes are dicecious, and although hermaphrodites have been observed
in a few teleostean forms,* the sexes are as a rule normally present in
different individuals. Some are monogamous, as the snake-headed and
tropical Ophiocephalus, perhaps also our common pike, and many others.
The majority, however, are polygamous, or perhaps mixogamous, in which
latter the males and females congregate for breeding purposes, those of the
former sex being in excess, and several attending on one female, or even
changing about to another.

Among most of the cartilaginous fishes, Chondropterygii, of the order
Elasmobranchs, as sharks, rays, and skates, a congress takes place between
the two sexes, the arrangement of the sexual organs being somewhat similar
to what obtains among the higher vertebrates. - The male organs are mostly

* Hermaphrodites have been recorded among the following British fishes :—Perca fluviatilis,
Serranus cabrilla, Scomber scomber, Labrus miatus, Solea tulgaris, Gadus morhua, G. merlangus,
Lota vulgaris, Eeow lucius, Cyprinus carpio, Clupea harengus, Adipenser sturio.
BREEDING. lvii

compact, of a circumscribed form, and placed far forwards in the abdominal
cavity. The vasa deferentia communicate with the ureters and terminate
upon a cloacal generative organ, external to which on either side, and mostly
attached to the anal fins, are the claspers. The female organs are (as in the
male) situated far forwards, and remarkable by the modification of the two
oviducts, which are not merely distinct from one another, but also from the
.ureters, which latter terminate upon a prominent urethral clitoris between the
outlet of the oviducts. The ova are few, and the ovaries are comparatively
smaller than in osseous fishes. Different parts of the oviduct miay be
functionally modificd, being divided by a circular valve, which separates the
“upper or narrow portion where the gland is placed which secretes the egg
purse, while the lower or uterine part is where the embryos are formed
in the viviparous species. The ova are fertilized while still contained within
the oviduct, where the ova are delayed, and the young may be either
occluded in horny cases or even.produced alive. Among cartilaginous
fishes of the ganoid order oviducts are present with small ova.

During the breeding season certain additional developments may occur
in some teleostean or bony forms: glands, as in some carps, may appear on
the heads of fishes of either sex, while among the Salmonide a knob shows -
itself in the male sex on the extremity .of the lower jaw in the salmon
and some trout. Likewise in a carp, Rhodeus amarus, found on the continent
of Europe, a long oviferous tube appears during the nuptial season, but as
in the case of the knob on the jaw of the salmon is subsequently absorbed,
while as a rule the female fish is larger than the male.

Considerable differences in the form of the male generative organs are
observable among the bony fishes, but at the breeding season, all that are
not sterile have a great augmentation in size. This.organ, when arrived
at seasonable maturity, is commonly known as the “soft roe” or
“milt?? It is not, necessary for fishes to have attained adult size in
order to .be. capable of the reproductive process or the milt to be fully
developed, as this may be seen in the par or young of the salmon.
Without detailing the different forms in which these organs exist, it will
suffice to remark that when vasa deferentia are absent in the males, oviducts
are similarly wanting in the females, the parallelism between these organs
in the two sexes being, as-a rule, very close. When the testis is single so
is the ovary. But im some cases, as in the Salmonide, although vasa.
deferentia are present in the male there are no ducts in the female. In most
osseous fishes the ovaries form two elongated sacs, closed anteriorly, but
posteriorly continued into a short and wide oviduct, which terminates behind
the vent and mostly before the urethra, The inside of these sacs is more or
less lined with the stroma, or a peculiar tissue within which the ova are
developed. In those forms in which the ova are hatched before extrusion,
lviii BREEDING.

the stroma does not extend to the hind portion of these sacs, for this locality
serves as a sortof uterus, and is furnished with a large albuminous secretion,
while internal incubation is going on. The products of the reproductive
organs may be set free in the peritoneal cavity, finding their exit at the
abdominal pore or pores: or these products may be taken up by the open
mouths of the fallopian tubes, or distinct tubes conduct them all the way to
their outlet.

The various modifications of the generative organs in true fishes are a
simple testis or ovary, but no excretory duct; a partial oviduct united to the
ureter, but not continuous with the ovary; or a testis having a long and
complex duct distinct from the ureter. Among teleostean fishes breeding
occurs in one of the following ways :—1. The eggs are hatched within the
female organs, as seen in the oviparous blenny, Zoarces viviparus (vol. i,
p. 211). 2. As in the majority of these. fishes, the eggs having been
excluded, are subsequently fertilized by the male, the milt or spermatozoa of
the latter being brought into contact in the water with the ova or eggs of
the female, when this microscopic body (the spermatozoon) obtains access by
a minute orifice, termed the micropyle, into the interior of the ovum. In
short, during the breeding of osseous fishes the generative organs perform
the following functions :—“Semination,” “ovulation,” “ fecundation,” and
“ exclusion,” to which in 8ome forms is added that of ‘ foetation.”

Simple as this process would seem to be, there are many interesting
questions about it which are still unsolved and require attention. If all
fishes’ eggs were of one size, the micropyle and spermatozoids identical in
all forms, the specific gravity of all ova without variation, and all kinds of fish
propagated their species at the same period and took the same time in the
incubating process, we should soon arrive at a state of inextricable
confusion. There might be hybrids between salmon and minnows, perches
and bullheads, sticklebacks and carps: and were these hybrids to prove
fertile, in a comparatively very short space of time.all land-marks would be
obliterated ; families, genera, and species would be things of the past. And
if this did occur, the result could be readily foretold; now small forms obtain
sustenance in little as well as in large pieces of water ; but were these small
forms to merge into the larger, our brooks, our lesser streams and ponds
would no longer be stocked with fish; for the size of the stream and the
amount of the food would be insufficient to maintain them in health, even
were it sufficient to sustain life. And could we hope fora hardy race from
young raised under such conditions? Or even were our fishes entirely
restricted to our larger rivers, what would occur? Predaceous forms of
destroyers, perhaps man himself, would soon diminish, and possibly
annihilate ‘them. Irrespective of which, deterioration in the size of parent
fish may be equivalent to diminution in the size of the offspring, such being
MIGRATIONS AND SEASONS. lix

- one of Nature’s methods of preventing the extermination of the race. For
decreasing their size will cause them to be less sought after, and it will only
be when the larger fish are left for breeders. that larger offspring result. In
‘short, when man or other causes afford to fish sufficient protection, then
Nature assists in improving the race; when man or other destructive factors
greedily kill all they can, then the breed dwarfs, and so possibly prevents its
extermination.

To which ever division fish belong, they are generally perceived at the
commencement of their breeding season migrating to localities most suitable
for the reception of their eggs and the bringing forth of their young. The
majority of marine forms seek banks, or are found nearer in shore or in
shallower waters than such as they inhabit at other times. This arrival of
gregarious kinds of mature. fish occurs when they are ready for breeding,
while their eggs are deposited prior to their leaving, so whether they come
to perpetuate their race or seek food for preventing death in each individual
of the species, it eventuates that at these periods breeding usually occurs, as
may be Observed in the herring or in.the mackerel. Anadromous forms pass

-up rivers, sometimes for long distances, and then deposit their ova: among

the most widely distributed of such .is the shad, of which we possess two
species in the British Isles, both found in the Severn, but up which they
now rarely ascend in numbers to any considerable extent, due to weirs across
the.river, deficiency of water, or else its poisonous condition. The salmon ~
similarly ascends from the sea'to deposit its ova in rivers and streams, and
this instinct of migration or necessity for exchanging its locality-to a suitable

‘breeding spot may be more or less observed among a large number of

members of the family.

The season at which: breeding occurs varies with the family of fish and
the locality. This again is susceptible of further modification in accordance
with the temperature and perhaps composition of the water, the amount of
food.procurable, and many other local circumstances. Likewise there is some
condition in the fish itself respecting which we know but little, but which
plays its part. It is easy: to understand that during very cold winters
breeding is usually late, which may be partly occasioned by the ova taking
longer to hatch, as well as by the parent fish being later depositing its eggs.
The period at which the Salmonide in these isles breed may be roughly’
estimated (unless under exceptional circumstances) at from the commence-
ment of September until the middle of January or February. In 1866
some brook trout eggs were despatched from Hampshire and Buckingham-
shire to Tasmania, and the first young reared in the Antipodes formed their
redds in July, 1869, or during the coldest season of the year (see -vol. ii,
p- 60). But easy as this theory would be in order to explain the different

‘months fishes select for breeding purposes, there exist many exceptions
lx BREEDING.

which are still open to discussion. Some rivers are stated to have early and
others late breeds of salmon.

The same thing occurs‘in marine fishes; thus there is not a month that
herrings cannot be found breeding around the coasts of Great Britain and
Ireland. In the United States the Fishery Department has ascertained
that the codfish Gadus morhua breeds during nine months of the year,
namely, from September until May. :

Some fishes merely breed once a year, while others do so more frequently.
During the breeding-season a few forms, as the salmon and the shad in our
fresh waters, and the herrings of our seas, appear to decrease the amount
of food they consume or even entirely cease feeding; this may be necessary
in some grefvarious marine forms for the following reason: Unless they
congregate together at this period there would be great danger in the
deposited ‘ova not being fertilized by the milt, for we know that should such
not take place in a short time in fresh water they do not become vivified.
Should, therefore, fish in this c ndition have to be roving about in.search
of food there would be the possibility that large quantities of eggs would
be spoiled, while the forms which produce the greatest number of ova are
often those which live in large communities.

Whether breeding occasions any deleterious effects upon fish is capable
of more than one answer. Fresh-water forms that produce a moderate
number of eggs, or do so. gradually, or at more than one period in the year,

do not appear to be so much affected as those which deposit large numbers
of ova, and complete this process in a short space. Asa rule, the result of
breeding is that the parent fish goes out of condition, and continues so for
a longer or shorter period of time. Herrings, as soon as they are “spent,”
fall off in condition ; the salmon kelt becomes absolutely unwhalesome, or
else so lean and flabby as to be unsuitable for the table.

Fishes’ eggs are of various sizes, and this size-is not in relationship
to the magnitude of the species—thus a. codfish has much smaller
eggs than.a trout, and a common carp than a char. While some forms
deposit their ova in the sea, others do so in fresh-water, which may be
stagnant, semi-stagnant, or running. Some eggs are so lght that
under certain conditions they may float, as of the cod in the sea,
while those of the white-fish Coregonus are .semi-buoyant, and those
of the herring sink; those of the gar-fish and its allies are attached by
filaments or tendrils to foreign substances, while others are lkewise
adherent, due to’ a secreted mucus, as in the lump sucker (Liparis), which
deposits its ova on the inside of the valves of dead shells, as a butterfly does
on a leaf; while the fresh-water bitterling, Rhodews amarus, of Continental
Europe is furnished during the breeding season with a long oviferous tube.
enabling it to insert its eggs within the valves of the fresh-water mussel.
EGGS AND NESTS. lxi

Among the curious pipe-fishes the eggs are transferred from the female
to the male, and in most of the species the duty of hatching them devolves
on the latter sex, for which purpose they are deposited up to the period
of the evolution of the young in ovigerous sacs variously placed (vol. ii,
page 256). In the horse-fishes (Hippocampus) in pouches under the tail ;
in our ocean pipe-fishes (Nerophis) in rows along the breast and helly.
Whether this phenomenon of carrying about the eggs is to protect them
from danger or in order to change the water in which they are kept may be
questionable, but as these fishes have several times been hatched in aquaria,
it would seem to he for the. purpose of protection against foes. Similarly
we perceive silurcids, Ariine, of the Hastern and other seas in which
the males carry:about the ova in their mouths, either cohtinuously or
temporarily, and the young may be observed emer ging from the ovum while
it is still in the maw of the male fish. Teleosteans, which have no oviduct,
as the Salmonide, deposit their eggs detached one from ‘the other; but
such as possess oviducts often have them surrounded by a viscid secretion
formed from the lining membrane of the oviduct and agglutinating them
in lumps or cords.

The sticklebacks or pricklebacks of this country (vol. i, page 286),
whether marine or fresh-water species, form a nest for the reception of their
eggs, which has an entrance on one: side and an exit on the other, so that
either parent can readily pass through. When the eggs have been safely
deposited in the nest, and the necessary fertilization accomplished, the male
takes charge, driving his help-mate off to a safe distance in order to prevent
her making a meal of the ova. Mr, Warrington ascertained that in a few
‘days in the fresh-water species the nest was more and more opened by
the. male, evidently owing to the necessity for oxygenation, and he hovered
over it, causing a current of water to be propelled across its surface by
fanning it with his fins, and after about ten days the nest was destroyed
and minute fry appeared, over which the male kept guard. Some of our
marine wrasses of the genus Crenilabrus have been observed to construct
nests, in which occupation both sexes assist. The river bullhead, Cottus
gobio, forms a hole in the gravel at the bottom of a stream, and here it
keeps guard over its eggs as well as over the infant progeny. While in
tropical countries there exist many forms of nest-constructing fishes, and
the parents,. more especially the male, protect the young until old enough
to shift for themselves.

In investigating single families of fish, or genera, it is interesting to
see how even closely related forms differ in the places where they deposit
their ova, or the period when they breed. Among the herrings we find
that the common herring is breeding in some one or other spot around our
coast almost every month in the year; that it deposits from ten to thirty
lx BREEDING.

thousand eggs, which are agglutinated together in a miass, and subsiding
to the bottom, attach themselves to sea-weeds or other suitable substances ;
_ let this nidus for the eggs be trawled away or otherwise destroyed, and
the herrings may permanently, or at least for an indefinite number of years,
migrate to a more suitable spot. The sprat gives eggs of about 0:04 in.
in diameter, and these likewise sink to the bottom, but not in a mass or
covered with adhering substance, as in the herring. The shad of our
waters has ‘not yet had this question investigated, but in the United States
the Fish Commission find that in the species which is most prized there,
Clupea sapidissima, the eggs sink, but that they require to be kept in
constant motion. Those eggs which normally float are more susceptible to
atmospheric changes, and possibly this may occasion much loss. Thus in
one genus are forms in which the eggs are agglutinated intoa mass, sink,
and become attached to suitable fixed objects: in another they simply sink:
whereas ina third, although they sink, they require to be kept in constant
motion.

If we take another family for investigation, as that of the salmon, trout,
and their allies, we find interesting variations. The common smelt, Osmerus
eperlanus, covers stones, planks, and suitable objects with its adherent
ova, and which are placed near the level ‘of high water. These eggs
are furnished with fine filaments on their outer surface, which filaments
expand at their distal exfremities into the form of a sucker for attach-
ment. The grayling deposits its ova about April’ or May, or even
earlier, on the gravel at the bottom of a suitable stream; they are not
placed in a nest and appear to be very delicate; their size is rather less
than seen in the trout. But the salmon, trout, and char fan up the gravel,
thus forming a trough wherein the ova are deposited, and subsequently
the nest, redd or rid, is covered over with the gravel, and here the eggs are
left to come to maturity. In all these forms the eggs are heavier than the
water in which they are deposited, still they are treated either by being laid
on the bed of the stream or below the gravel, but the fish culturist has
ascertained that this placing them within a bed or nest is not essential to
their hatching.

Before passing on from the eggs and how deposited, I must draw atten-
tion to a rather curious phenomenon, but too often seén, and which in its
most fatal form is known as fish being é¢gg-bound—dying, in fact, unable
to void their ova, similarly to fowls unable to lay their eggs, or higher ver-
tebrates which cannot bring forth their young. Some fish, as the herrings,
which exude their ova in the open sea, can scarcely be subjected to any
extraneous force in order to assist this process, but that such does take
place in some fishes has been ascertained. The gold carp, Carassius
auratus, is one of these forms, and the male (or rather relays of them) have
NUMBER OF EGGS AND IF PROTECTION IS NECESSARY. Ixiii

been observed in an aquarium to roll the gravid female like a cask along
the bottom of the tank, and. to continue this operation without relaxation
for a day or two until the wearied female has extruded her ova. The
female river lamprey is said to be assisted by the male twisting himself
around her, and so expressing the ova and milt, the suctorial mouths of
both parents being at this time attached to -a stone or other suitable
stationary object. While it does not appear unlikely that the female salmon
or trout when forming the redd*or nest by lateral strokes of the side and
tail portion of the body is by such active exertion assisting in ridding
herself of her eggs. It has been asserted that among: these latter fish
when the eggs are ripe there is.no power to prevent their escape, but at
Howietoun it is found that if the parents are placed in a wooden tank, .
having smooth sides and .bottom, and through which a stream Hovis ovula-
tion’may be deferred days, and even weeks.

‘The number of eggs deposited by teleostean fish is, as already cammaaked)
exceedingly varied ; thus, a perch of 14 lb. contained 280,000 ova, one of
3 lb. 2 oz., 155,620; a ruff, of 42-02z., 205,000; an angler, of 1 lb. 18 0z.,
1,427,344; a mackerel, 18 ‘oz., 546,681; lump-sucker, 63 1b. weight,
207,700, at 9 lb. 8 oz., 155,000; cod, at 114-Ib., 1,800,000, but upwards of
3,000,000 have been taken from one; liaddock, 2} lb., 169,050, at 9 4% Ib.,
1,839,581; coal-fish, at 21 -lb., 8,260,000; pollack, 12 lb., 4,200,000;
hake, the roe of which weighed 154 oz., 1,500,000 ; ling, 20 lb., 19,985,400,
one of 100 Ib., 160,000,000; burbolt, 128,000 ; halibut, 3,500,000 ; turbot,
5 lb, 9 oz, 14,311,200; plaice, 4 Ib. 15 0z., 144,600; flounder, 244 oz.,
1,357,400, at 63 oz., 851,026, at 34 oz., 225,568, at 21 oz., 188,407; sole,
1 lb., 134,000; salmon, about 900 to every 1 lb. weight, but may exceed
this, one of 20 Ib. contained 27,850; trout, about 800 to every 1 lb. weight;
charr, 3 Ib., 1,230; pollan, 11%.0z., 6,156; smelt, 2 oz., 28,278, and in a
second the same size, 86,652; pike, 35 Ib., 43,000, 82 Ib., 595,200, 28 Ib.,
292,320, a second 700,000, 24 Ib., 224,640; carp, at 9 lb., 600,000,
164 lb., 2,059,750, 21} lb., 1,310,750; barbel, 7,000 to: 8,000 ova; roach,
28 On, 480; tench, 4 lb., 297,000; bream, 130,000; white bream, 108,000 ;
herring, 10,000 to 80,000; pilchard, 60,000; conger, 15; lb., 6,336,512 ;
the small numbers of the cartilaginous fishes have been already referred to.

One reason adduced for sea fishes not requiring protection at any period
of their lives is that they deposit so many eggs, and that these will suffice
to meet all and every device man may employ to eff-ct their capture. Here
the zoologist may well inquire whether breeding in fishes differs from what
obtains in the remainder of the animal kingdom, wherein the powers of
increase have been apportioned to the needs of the individual, for where
man has interfered, as in birds, ground game, seals, &¢., protection has had
to be afforded in order to prevent annihilation of the species. It would
lxiv BREEDING AND STERILITY.

seem that the various sizes, modes of deposit, and numbers of fish eggs, must’
be on some definite plan, not a chance medley, destitute of any order and
deficient of any scheme. We observe, as in many other forms of life, that
the more voracious class, as sharks and rays, have fewer young than the
herring and the mackerel, that fish which give the most eggs take the least
care of their offspring, and, until the contrary is proved, we are justified
in assuming that where the most numerous eggs or young are produced by
a species, there the greatest destruction occurs, and finally that fish have
only sufficient ova for the purpose of compensating for normal loss.*

But even when fishes’ eggs have been deposited in order that they
should hatch it does not. follow that it is only necessary to place them in a.
hatching box, and then turn salt-water over marine ones and fresh-water over
those of our streams and lakes. The precautions fo be taken by the fish culturist
I do not propose alluding to here, but certain physical phenomena are very
important.

Some fishes are sterile. from various causes. Thus the common eel, a
catadromous form, or one which breeds in the sea but passes its life in fresh-
waters, is believed only to deposit ova once during its lifetime,-and then
either dies or returns to the rivers, and is sterile for the remainder of its
life. It has been observed that among the Salmonide sterile forms are seen,
but which are believed to be only temporarily so, as for one or two seasons.

Fish may also be sterile consequent on disease. Thus I have seen ina
mackerel the oviduct occluded due to disease having set up inflammation,
and occlusion of the outlet of the -oviduct, and thus the preceding year’s
eggs have been retained and formed a large tumour.

Kegs themselves, of course, may fail-in hatching, due to sterility or
deficiency of fecundation, injurious surroundin gs, as by being carried hy floods
and currents into unsuitable places, or consequent upon the effects of disease,
while shocks given to them during incubation produce monstrosities and if
severe, death. While fishes’ egos are more or less circular or oval, and of *
varying colours, being-pea-green in some sheat-fishes or siluroids, and among
the Salmonide they may be coral-red, yellow, or pure white, the herrings
usually have a slight pink tinge; those of the sprat are colourless.

I have already remarked that fishes’ eggs:before they are fertilized have
a small orifice or micropyle into which the spermatazoon enters, but it is
evident in sea fishes that if the egg floats at the surface and the milt is
beneath, the chances of fertilization must be diminished, unless some means
are taken to obviate this. Also that there must exist some mechanical
reason why fish eggs float in some forms, and sink in others. Of course, the

* As a rule fish hatched from small ova are feebler than those from large ova, and Ryder
remarks ‘‘some species leave the egg with the throat perforated and other forms do not.’ The shad
cannot swallow at the time of hatching. |
EGGS. Ixv

principal cause which makes eggs subside to the bottom is that their specific
gravity is greater than that of the fluid in which they are floating, unless
due to some mechanical arrangement (as the presence of filaments) they
are attached to foreign substances, when they would sink or swim in accord-
ance with the condition of the body to which they were attached,.as the
_ eggs of the marine gar (Belone) ; or 4 fish (as a perch) may have its ova in a
band-like state, when it selects rushes, reeds, or grass growing in the water
or a piece of wood or other hard substance, against which it (the female)
presses itself until one end of the band’ has become.attached, then swim-
ming slowly away the eggs are voided. But sometimes eggs, as of the cod,
float in normally saline water, and questions have arisen as to the position of
the micropyle. Dr. Ransom in 1854.found that in the trout, salmon, and
grayling it corresponded to the centre of the germinal pole. Here the
formative yelk or germ collects, and having attached to it some oil drops,
always floats uppermost. In, the Spanish mackerel and some other American
forms a single large oil sphere keeps them buoyant, situated at a point
immediately opposite the germinal disk, which is constantly inverted or’
carried on the lower face of the vitellus, thus acting exactly the reverse to
what is observed among the Salmonidw. In the cod no oil drop exists, but
the egg is so light that it behaves like the foregoing. It is seen in the cod
fisheries that at the period of breeding the egg floats with the micropyle
directed downwards, and as a consequence the ‘milters are found to swim
lower than the spawners, the milt must consequently ascend.
‘Tt will mow be necessary to briefly observe upon the physical changes
which fishes’ eggs have to undergo prior to their being rendered in a suitable
condition to continue the species. If we examine under the microscope the
ova of an osseous fish, as a stickleback, as remarked upon by Dr. Ransom,
we may perceive around the eggs before they are deposited and holding the
mass together is a viscid layer or secretion from the oviduct of the female.
This secretion will for some time resist the imbibition of water in the unim-
pregnated ova, so that they have been observed to remain flaccid at least
two and a half hours after immersion. Subsequently. it seems to set round
the eggs, making them cohere firmly together. The egg itself may be said
externally to have a double cortical layer, the two being divided by an
interspace; the outer of these, which is rather thick, may be termed
‘the yelk sac, and is in immediate contact with the second internal or
vitelline membrane which surrounds the yelk ball within the yelk sac.
The outer membrane of the egg is distinguished in one spot by a number
of cup-shaped or mushroom-like processes, which cover about one-fourth
of its ‘surface and mark the germinal pole. In the centre of these small
elevations is the micropyle, consisting of a funnel-shaped pit directed
towards the centre of the egg, and continued inwards as a narrow tube with °
e
Ixvi 5 BREEDING.

the inner end opened. ‘This outer covering of the egg is a by the
imbibition of water from an easily torn membrane into a firm clastic one.
The yelk-ball, or that portion surrounded by the vitelline or inner membrane,
contains those essential portions of the egg which are subsequently directly
transformed into the germ, and into which the micropyle opens. Between
the two layers is a space, small in the unimpregnated egg prior to the imbi-_
bition of water, but which becomes filled, forming what has been termed the
breathing chamber, a space increased probably also in size by a contraction -
of the yelk. In the stickleback this absorption of water from the outside
commences near the micropyle, and gradually extends throughout the
chamber ; but in most osseous fishes, Ransom observes, water enters freely
through the yelk sac, and the breathing chamber may commence simul-
taneously at all parts of the surface. It is only during this period when
absorption is going on that fertilization can take place, and the sper-
matozoon obtain access by the micropyle to the germinal spot. When the
air-chamber has been filled with water the outer covering of the egg hardens
and become elastic; it is no longer soft and adhesive, and it “ frees ”’ itself
from what it is attached to.

In this place it is unnecessary to go further into the enibryology of
osseous fishes, neither will it be required to prove that the elements for
respiration must be received through the outer coat from the surrounding
water. Here, however, it becomes needful to point out that as oxygen
has to be imbibed through the outer covering of the egg’certain mechanical
influences may be at work to prevent this absorption, and so to decrease
or altogether cut off the necessary aération. In some fishes the breathing
chamber is very large, swelling the egg to as much as double its
original size, and it is evident that were these eggs fixed close together
prior to distension, one of two things must occur, either their due expan-
sion would be checked by one pressing against another, or some must
give way.

I have already mentioned the eggs of the common smelt which possess
filaments that adhere to contiguous objects: if these filaments are torn off
the egg dies. Should many be placed together prior to imbibition they give
the appearance under the microscope after the air chamber has become
filled that they are honeycombed, which is due to the number of facets the
eggs show owing to pressure one against another. Irrespective of injury
« from pressure, it is obvious that due aération of the yelk will be stopped,
and as a result death will most probably ensue.

Fish ova, as of the Salmonidce and of some other forms, have been trans-
ported long distances, as from Europe to the Australian Colonies, Canada,
and the United States. The first experiment of employing ice for the
purpose of conveying trout and salmon eggs through the tropics is recorded
CARRIAGE AND-VIVIFICATION OF EGGS. lxvii

in volume il (page 77). Davy ascertained many: years since that ova in moist
air retain vitality several days, and they may: safely be sent in damp moss.

‘In 1880 Max von dem Borne experimented on whether salmon eggs which
had been fertilized, by the dry process (or such as had not been brought in
contact with water) could be transmitted long distances without the addition
of any fluid.. This year 34,000 trout ova were despatched to New Zealand
in a modified refrigerating chamber. Moistened air passing in a current
through the chamber was kept down to a temperature never below 32 deg.
or above 34 deg. fahr. The eggs were arranged in trays lightly covered
with moss, and the dead ones were daily removed. Nearly the whole number
reached their destination in perfect safety.

It has been suggested that such fish ova as are deposited at the bottom
of ponds might be transported long distances with safety enclosed in mud,
a subject worthy of trial, but great care would have to be exercised as to

«the character of the water in which the experiment is tried. Fish which
deposit their.ova on bushes are placed in boxes thus lined, but with movable
sides, so that they with the bushes and adherent ova can be transported in ,
carrying boxes to the desired localities.

The milt of fish has been successfully employed some time after being
taken from the parent ; thus Sir J. Gibson-Maitland on November 25, 1879,
successfully fertilized some trout spawn with salmon milt obtained the night
before and corked up in a bottle. Likewise, as was long since pointed out by
Bloch, ova or milt may be used obtained from fish: which have been some
time dead. On November 29, 18838, .1000 eggs of the common brook trout
were thus treated at Howietoun with the milt of a par which had not been ,
dead many hours, but the result has been that there was insufficient vitality
in the milt to fructify 4 single egg. It has been remarked at Howietoun
that eggs from young mothers give a larger percentage of deaths than those
‘of older fish, this it appears probable affects the fertilizing property of
the milt. .

. The period which fish eggs take incubating is not only exceedingly varied
among those of ‘closely. allied species, but it is likewise affected by many
extraneous cause’. Those of sea fishes, as a rule, would appear to hatch
in ashorter period than those of fresh water ones. The eggs of the herring
normally incubate in about three or four weeks, but the escape of the young
can be considerably delayed by keeping the water very cold, while its
saltness or the reverse exercises no appreciable difference. In the Baltic the
German Fish Commissioners found that with the water at 53 degrees the
eggs hatched in a week, whereas with the temperature of the water at
38 degrees they took six weeks. In the eggs of the cod fish the American’
Fish Commissioners observed that hatching took place’ between the

- thirteenth and fiftieth days, according to the temperature of the water, while

e *

‘
Ixvill BREEDING.

Sars in Norway found some to. hatch on the eighteenth day. ‘The eggs of .
the haddock in the United States required an average of nine days, and the
shortest period observed was eight days, while those of the coal fish, Gadus
pollachins, hatch in four or five days in water of moderate temperature.

But if we can find such a difference in the cod family as to the time
required for incubation to be from four or five days to six weeks, still greater
variations are perceptible among those of the salmon family. At Howietoun
the eggs of the smelt, Osmerus eperlanus, kept in the trout hatching house,
took about forty-two days, but on the water being a little warmer they came
out -by the thirty-fourth day. In the same establishment, with the water
kept at about 44-1 degrees, the brook and other tout took from seventy-one
to seventy-two days; the American char, Salino fontinalis, seventy-three ;
and the salmon seventy-seven. But the foregoing are subject to wide
variations of time (by decreasing the temperature of the water), as of the
treut up to 114 days, and the hatching of the salmon has been delayed to
the 145th day, or even more, and acting upon this knowledge the eggs of
members of the Salmonidee have been transmitted in safety to the Antipodes.

Here I would draw attentiou to the various attempts which have been
made to-prove that salmon can breed in salt water, a proposition advanced
by some estuary and shore fishermen, apparently in order to show that, there
is no necessity to have any restrictive. legislation, on salmon fisheries, but
that everyone should be permitted to fish as he pleases, while the fish ought,
to continue their species in the sea and their young to ascend rivers to be cap-
tured—a view long since shown to be entirely erroneous, and which is referred

. to in vol. i (p. 68). In fact, with the exception of catadromus forms,
as the eel, we do not possess any fresh-water fishes that breed in salt water.

At the Fisheries Exhibition of 18838, the Commissioner from: Canada,
Mr. Wilmot, informed us that salmon can be detained in salt water. until
ready to be stripped of their ova and. milt, which can then be raised in fresh
water. But several experiments have all ended in one. result, the eggs
having died in salt water, as have also all the young ; consequently, if salmon
from any cause are prevented ascending rivers, and have to drop their eggs
in saline or brackish water, no young will be hatched, while eggs or young
placed in brackish or salt water will die.

I remarked in 1882 .that at Sir James Gibson-Maitland’s fish-ponds
at Howietoun, the Lochleven variety of treut produced eggs of different
sizes in accordance with the parents’ age. Thus fish hatched in 1876, or
six-year-olds, gave ova, thirty-two of which filled the length of a-glass grill,
whereas those females which had been hatched’ in 1875, or seven-year-olds,
furnished eggs twenty-seven or twenty-eight of which occupied the same
space. Not only does this occur in the Lochleven variety, but also in the
brook trout and the American char; and Dr: John Davy found among
EGGS OF ONE SPECIES VARY IN SIZE. lxix

those of-our common char which he examined a variation’ in diameter
from 0°16 to 0:20 of an inch. Even in the common stickleback Ransom has
observed that all the eggs of the same. batch have not exactly the same
dimensions when ripe, and still less have -those of different individual
parents. A similar variation in the size of. the eggs corresponding to that
of the parent has likewise been noted from trout at Otago.

The same phenomenon has been observed in the United States, where
the Fish Commissioner on the M’Cloud River in 1878 remarked that. the
parent salmon were unusually small, their average weight being under eight
pounds. This small size was stated.to be undoubtedly caused in whole or
in part by the fishing at the cannaries of the Sacramento, where the 8 in.
meshes of the innumerable drift nets stopped all the larger salmon, but let
all the small ones’ through. The eggs when taken proved to be at least a
third smaller than those of most previous years, and. the average number of
eggs to the fish was about 3,500, against 4,200 in the previous year. In
this instance the smaller salmon produced the smaller eggs, but whether
the decreased number was not due’ to the decreased size of the spawners
is not evident. Livingston Stone adduces another instance, asserting that
American trout or char living in spring water (which means deficient food)
develop smaller eggs than such as reside in brooks. Or poverty in food
has the same effect as younger and smaller fish in diminishing the size of
ova. This of itself would lead one to suspect that small eggs which may
be caused by deficient sustenance in the parent will not produce the largest
fry. This difference in the size of fish eggs, which among Salmonide
increase in bulk up to a certain age, must have very important bearings
upon their artificial breeding. For the size of the micropyle must be in a
certain ratio to the size of the eggs, consequently larger eggs of the same
species will admit larger spermatozoa than smaller ones. It has-been
maintained by some fish culturists that very great difficulties, sometimes
even amounting to impossibilities, occur in crossing trout with salmon, or
rather fecundating the eggs of trout with the milt of the salmon. As this
was not found difficult at Howietoun when the eggs were taken from. fish
that had been some years in the ponds, whose eggs were approaching in
size those of the salmon, it appears to-me that the difficulty is merely a
mechanical one, due to the size of.the micropyle.* This, I believe, is a cont-
plete solution of how to obtain crosses between the salmon and thé trout.

This brings us to the consideration of whether larger eggs, the produce
of older or better fed fishes, will eventuate in an augmented size of the
offspring, irrespective of the question of changing the locality they inhabit,
or increasing the space or amount of water they reside in, Two sets of

* Mr. Arthur tells us, that in 1880, one. trout at Otago yielded about thirty eggs double the size
of all the other ova she passed, and they hatched out just the same as the rest.
Ixx BREEDING.

Lochleven trout were stripped on the same day in November, 1882, the
parents of one being six-year-olds, and of the other seven-year-olds. The
eggs were similarly treated, hatched in the same room during January and
February, 1883, and turned into two ponds of similar size, each 100
feet long, and fed by the same stream. In the upper pond were the
progeny of the six-year-old ; in the lower, which received the stream after
passing through the upper pond, those from the seven-year-old. On
November 29, 1883, the fry in the upper appeared to average about
24 in. in length, and in the lower about 34 in., showing that the offspring
from: the older parents had developed the most satisfactory results. I
selected three of the finest fish from each pond; those from the upper
averaged a little over 3 in., while from the lower they were nearly 4 in.,
or at nine months of age those which were the progeny of seven-year-old
parents were nearly a quarter longer than those which were descended
from six-year-old parents. In March, 1884, I again visited these ponds,
and found the foregoing results were being still continued. The ponds
were subsequently cleaned out and restocked with young trout, the offspring
.of parents of the same age, and in August, 1884, there was no perceptible
difference in the size of those in the two ponds. If the eges of older fish
(up to a certain age) give larger and quicker growing” offspring than do
those from younger ones, it shows us that fisheries in which only small
parents are left as stock may not improbably suffer a deterioration in
the race, and this, irrespective of food, may be one cause of how fisheries
fall off.

Finally arises the consideration of what benefit to mankind in general
are investigations into the breeding of fishes? Here I shall merely enter
upon a few, some being now carried out successfully, some experimentally,
and, lastly, some theoretically suggested. In a state of nature salmon and
trout eggs are subject to destruction from many foes, and it has been
computed that although each female is provided with many hundreds of
ova, only about one in nineteen of such as are left in the natural redds
ever hatches, and only four or five of these out of 30,000 eggs arrive at
maturity and are fit for the table; whereas, taking Howietoun as an
instance, it is found that from 90 to 95 per cent. hatch in a well-constructed

_fish cultural establishment, while the loss among the fry is inconsiderable.
Irrespective of this the young can be turned into the rivers at times when
they would be more able to shift for themselves than if they resided there
from their earliest days. Without entering into the reasons, still it is
patent to the most casual observer that the interests of the upper riparian
proprietors of salmon rivers are not always in agreement with those of the
estuaries and lower waters. The former consider the fish are reared in
their territory, but that the produce is almost exclusively captured at or
SELECTION OF FORMS AND LAND-LOCKED SALMON. Ixxi

near the mouths of the rivers. The lower "proprietors in some places
believing that the upper proprietors are helpless do not always listen -to
their complaints in an amicable manner, considering themselves masters
of the, situation. But as a knowledge of fish culture extends it will be
found that, did they know it, exactly the reverse is the case. The upper
proprietors might obtain such splendid breeds’ of trout for their rivers
that they would not care to continue preserving the salmon. Or they
might introduce a land-locked salmen, or one which does not descend
to the sea but passes all its life in fresh. water. Or hybrids between
the salmon and trout might be sterile and not take on migratory
propensities.- , ,

I have shown how by selection of parents larger and more rapidly
growing trout can be raised, and these fish, provided they can obtain
sufficient food, attain to a size now but seldom seen, but when observed being
termed Salmo ferow. Thus eggs sent from small brook trout in Hampshire
and Buckinghamshire to New Zealand have developed into 20 Ib. and 30 lb.
fish. But to obtain these fine breeds great care must be taken in keeping

‘the parent fish in suitable ponds ; if breeders of different years can intermix
then the benefits of age may be lost. Thus it is the finest forms come from
seven or eight year old parents, as has been ascertained at Howietoun, where
the young the progeny of such are now being kept to be. breeders in their
turn, and it does not seem an unreasonable expectation to see in a few years
such a semi-domesticated breed as these islands have never witnessed, and
all this due to the enterprise of. a single energetic individual. .

Then there are the so-termed land-locked-salmon, which might prove
invaluable to’upper riparian proprietors, or those who possess large inland
lakes, containing sufficient food for their sustenance, or where descent to the
sea.is rendered impossible from any cause. In Maine, in the United States,
there is found a variety. of the salmon which has taken on a lake-life and is:
said never descends to the sea ; many of the eggs were sent over last year to
this country, and the young reared from them were exhibited in the Fisheries

- Exhibition. The Canadian Commissioner observed that in some of the rivers
of the. Dominion of Canada the same variety obtains. From Lake Wenern,
in Sweden, a few of these land-locked forms were received at the Fisheries
Exhibition, some of which weighed as much as 15 lb.

It has been asserted that no salmon in our country has ever developed’
ova without first descending to: the sea. Here, again, facts at Howietoun
entirely disprove this assertion. Some young salmon were hatched in March,
1881, and in December, 1888, while still in the ponds some females were
found with ova, and one on being removed in August, 1884, had numerous
large eggs. These, being bred from, may form the nucleus, after one or
two generations, of a land-locked race.
XXil BREEDING.

HYBRIDS.

"It has been conclusively shown that hybrids are found both among marine
and fresh-water fishes, whether raised artificially or existing in a wild
condition, as might be anticipated when we remember that the wilt of amale
might readily in water attain a proximity tothe egg of one of another species.
or genus. This has been more especially recorded among the’ carps
(vol. ii, page 157, &c.) and the Salmonide (vol. ii; page. 80, &c.) “In
1869,” says Livingston Stone, “ I crossed the yellow perch, Perea flavescens,
with the glass-eyed pike, Lucioperca, both percoids, using perch eggs and
perch-pike milt. The restilt was an embryo which continued to develop
till the seventl day, when the development suddenly stopped entirely,
although the embryo did not die. At this point-it resembled.the embryo of
the same age of the yellow perch proper.” Fraisse asserts that he has been
able to effect by artificial fecundation a hybrid offspring between the trout
and the burbolt. Leuchart remarks upon having reared hybrids, between the
female salmon and male trout, and from these he procured in due time milt and
ova which were fertile. Other observers again have asserted that fertile
hybrids are only of occasional occurrence, and that eggs produced from
them may be incapable of fertilization. The hybrids between. the salmon and
trout instituted at Howietoun in 1879, have, so far as has been examined,
given sterile offspring.

Some experiments were made by Sir James Gibson-Maitland, Bart., at
his fish-hatching establishment at Howietoun. On December 24, 1881,
20,000 eggs of the Lochleven trout were fertilized’ by salmon wilt and
hatched on’March 9, 1882. On March 13, 1884, there were 212 successfully
transferred to Craigend.. Among these. were six above 10 in. in length, but
some were as short as 23 in., showing the great range of variation as to size
which may be found in a single batch of young from the same parents and
kept under exactly similar conditions -of existence. Ohe examined in
August, 1884, was found to be a sterile female. :

On November 29, 1883, 4,500 eggs of the Lochleven variety of trout-(of
the season of 1875) were milted from a par of .the salmon raised at
Howietoun, and the mortality among the eggs was1in46. But although this
was so, the curious fact remains that the milt of the par in this instance was’
insufficient to impregnate the trout eggs,.so’as to produce young in a strong
and healthy condition, while weakly alevins either die or are next to useless
for stocking purposes. Although some thousands of the young emerged from.
the eggs, all were at once seen to be suffering from what has been‘termed
dropsy or blue swelling of the yelk sac, which proved fatal before long to the
majority, only about 100 remaining in August.
HYBRIDS. xxiii

On November 29, 1883, 3,695 eggs of the American char were milted
from a par. The following is the monthly record of the number of dead
eggs which were removed. In December 144, in January 1,527, and in
February 401, or.a total of 3,372 dead’ eggs. On March 12, 1884, 7 were
alive, but in an unsatisfactory condition. The amount of fertilization
received by American char eggs from young pars is evidently less than that
afforded to ova of the Lochleven trout, the relationship being perhaps more
distant between a char and a salmon than between a salmon and a trout.

On November 15, 1882, 2,000 ova from.a Lochleven trout were milted’
from an American char (Salmo fontinalis), and on November 29, 1883,
about 250 were living. On March 18, 1884, 211 were alive. When first
hatched these hybrids were much ‘malformed, monstrosities being numerous,
while blindness ‘in one or both eyes and bull-dog deformities of the snout

. were common. ‘Some sethi-albinos were nearly blind. In August, 1884, all
were doing well, and a male having been examined was found to be full
of milt.

This experiment was repeated on November 29, 1883, when 3,000 ova
were taken from a Lochleven trout and milted from an American char.
The deaths were in about the proportion of 1 in 17 eggs. The young
were looking healthy in August, 188-1.

On November 15, 1882, 8,000’ ova of an American char were fertilized ©
from a Lochleven trout, and on November 29, 1883, only 16 “were alive, .
and on March 12, 1884, 8. Their state was unsatisfactory, the ‘largest
‘being a little over two inches in length. In this experiment when first
hatched the young fry were greatly deformed; many had crooked spinés,
atrophy of the posterior portion of their bodies, with a general deficiency of
fins, especially of the caudal. In August, 1884, the last 7 were doing well.

November 15, 1882, about 9,000 eggs of an American char were milted
from a Scotch variety of char, and no monstrosities (as seen in the other
two crosses) resulted, and 91 lively young fry were present at Howietoun
on March 13, 1884, while in August, on one being’ examined, it was found
to be a.male nearly ready for breeding. On November 12, 1883, the
experiment was repeated, and the eggs hatched on: January 26, 1884.
On March 13, 1884, there were at least. 500'young alevins alive and doing
well. On.December 1, 1883, a third experiment was carried out. These
hatched February 22, 1884, and upwards of 100 young were present on
March 13, 1884.

Different species of Salmonide may be crossed, as the Lochleven trout
and char, or various forms of char, and the young would seem to be fertile.
If crosses between salmon and trouit are sterile, and no longer migratory in
their instincts, the question arises; will they be in season all the year round ?

_ Could the fish culturist raise a non-migratory. sterile form, what an addition.
Ixxiv BREEDING.—INSTINCTS AND EMOTIONS,

it would be to the lake fisheries, also to the upper waters of our rivers, with,
of course, the drawback that the numbers would have to be occasionally
replenished.

INSTINCTS AND EMOTIONS.*

The instincts of brutes have received more attention from biologists than
those of fishes. Some naturalists have asserted that the lives of the finny
tribes are destitute of the joys and gorrows generally appertaining to verte-
bradte animals, attributing to them an almost vegetative existence. But
fishermen are well aware that they are ag eager to escape from danger or
avoid capture as are the inhabitants of the earth or the frequenters of the
air, which compels us to question whether their lives aré as joyless as have
been represented, if anger or affection are really unknown passions to them.

Fishes have certain means of demonstrating their emotions, as they are
capable of erecting their dermal appendages, as scales or fin-rays, under the
influence of anger or terror, similarly as feathers or hairs are erected in birds
and mammals. But special expressions, as of joy, pain, astonishment, &e.,
we can hardly expect to find so well-marked in fishes as in some of the
higher grades of animals, in which the play of the features often affords an
insight into their internal emotions. Eyes without movable eyelids, cheeks
encased with bony plates or covered-with hard scales are scarcely suitable
for smiling, while external ears are wanting. Still we perceive among fishes
a distinct expression or change of colour, which is but slightly developed or
even absent in many of the higher vertebrates. When one sickens its
brilliant tints become less and less, or even entirely fade away, while the
same result may follow being: vanquished by a foe. But when in good
health and residing in- suitable localities, especially during the breeding
season, their colours become vivid, and even a temporary accession of anger
may cause’a similar result.

When investigating, if fish are or are not destitute of affections, it is
necessary to ascertain whether they show such to their companions or to
human beings, irrespective of what they may exhibit to their partners or
their offspring. ‘Mr. Arderon found that on separating two ruffs, Acerina
cernua, the one he kept pined away, declining food until its companion was
restored, when both became contented (vol. i, p. 12), and the same observer
gave an account (Phil. Trans. Royal Society, 172 7) of how he tamed a dace,
Leuciseus vulgaris, which would.lie close to the glass watching its master.
Marital affection I have alluded to when referring to the eames of fishes

(page Ixi).

* See “Instincts and Emotions in Fish,’ by F. Day, Linn. Soc. Journal, xv, p. 31.
AFFECTION AND ANGER. lxxy

Manifestations of anger have been well described in the accounts we
possess of the Fighting Fishes of Siam. After remarking on the cock-
fights of that country, Sir J. Browning’ adds that there is a little. bellicose
fish which attacks its fellows with- great ferocity, bristling its fins, and
exhibiting the most intense excitement. One of these, seeing its reflection
-in a glass, will violently advance head foremost against the shadow. Dr.
Cantor observed that’ when this fish, Macropodus pugnaz, is in a quiescent
state, with its fins at rest—the dull: colours present nothing remarkable.
But should two be brought within sight. of each other, the little creatures
become suddenly excited, the raised fins and the whole body shine with
metallic colours of dazzling beauty, while the projecting gill-membranes,
waving like a black frill round the throat, add something grotesque to the
general appearance. In this state it makes repeated darts at its antagonist,
but both when taken out of each. others’ sight instantly become quiet. Even
the little sticklebacks, Gasterosteus aculeatus, of our own.fresh waters show
great combative propensities (vol. i, p. 241), and after a fight between two
examples a strange alteration takes place almost immediately in the
defeated party ; his gallant bearing forsakes him; his gay colours fade away,,
he becomes again speckled and ugly, and hides his disgrace among his

peaceable companions, who occupy ‘together that part of the tub which °.

their tyrants have not taken possession of.’ He is, moreover, for some time
the constant object of his conqueror’s persecution. Here we perceive how
the disgrace of defeat affects the spirit of the vanquished, which, reacting
on ‘his health, causes his brilliant hues to fade away. The victor, on the
other hand, exulting in his victory, becomes more resplendent; he does not
forget his triumph, and considers it no disgrace to eae, it lord over..
his fallen foe.

Everyone who possesses an aquarium is aware how spiny-rayed fishes on:
being angry or frightened at once. elevate their fins. The globe-fish,
Tetrodon (vol. ii, page 271), are able to inflate their bodies when the spinate
dermal scutes become erected; also the file-fish, Balistes (vol. u, page
267), has been observed by Mr. Whitmee to. swim rapidly past its antago-
rfist and graze its side with its file-like lateral spines. In the Ohio a sheat
fish or siluroid is found in which its first dorsal ray is strong and bony,

‘and employed to kill others of a smaller size, for which purpose it swims
beneath the fish it intends to attack, then suddenly ‘rises and wounds it
repeatedly in the belly. I have personally observed an Indian siluroid,
Macrones vittatus, lying on the wet grass, which on being touched erected
its dorsal and pectoral spines, and-also emitted a sound resembling the
buzzing of a bee, which was evidently a sign of anger or terror. Couch
observed of our sticklebacks, Gasterosteus, that the bite of these little furies
is so severe that he had frequently known it, when inflicted on the tail, to
Ixxvi INSTINCTS AND. EMOTIONS.

produce mortification and death. These fish also use-their lateral spines
(ventral fins) with most fatal effect, and he had seen one during a battle
absolutely rip his antagonist quite open, so that it sank to the bottom
and died.

Certain fishes are endowed with specific modes of showing their being
affected with anger or terror, although these same means may also be,
employed for the purpose of obtaining food; among these is the electric
eel, Gymnotus electricans, of South America, which is furnished with
electric organs of such power as to be capable of causing death even to
large animals. Humbolt and others have recorded how the Indians, when
they desire to capture this fish, drive horses and mules into waters which
they inliabit, when, as soon as disturbed, these eels attack the intruders,
They. first glide under the horses’ bellies and: prostrate them by repeated
electric shocks, which by degrees diminish in intensity, for long rest and
nourishment are required to repair the galvanic force which they have
expended. It-has been held that the possession of this power affords them
means of protection against alligators, while it is certainly employed’
against other fish which it requires as food, but its onslaught on intruding
horses may be due to anger or terror. Even in British seas we find the
torpedo, or cramp ray (vol.-ii, page 830) endowed with this electric power.
The electric shock which it occasions is thus described by Kempfer. In
some cases the nerves are so affected that the person struck imagines all the
bones of his body, and particularly those of the limb that received the blow,
are driven out of joint. This is accompanied with a universal tremor,
a sickness at the stomach, a general convulsion, and a total suspension of
the mind. Quick-swimming fish have been’ found inside these torpedoes,

-and would appear to have been captured by means of electric shocks.
Whether we are to consider the attacks made by sword-fishes, Xiphiide
{see vol: 1, page 143), upon passing vessels are due to anger at being
disturbed, or under the impression that they are attacking their enemies,
the whales, is questionable ; but it isa well-ascertained fact that the planks
of numerous ships, especially in the Indian seas, have been pierced by the
strong rostral apparatus with which these fishes are provided either for
offence or defence.

Fear is frequently observable. ‘Thus some small forms were kept in an
aquarium along with an Antennarius, and were evidently in great dread. of
their carnivorous neighbour, whom they’ continually tormented. But when
attacking it they always took care to strike at its posterior part, although
this was protected by a sort of coral. .Many forms when hooked or netted
will empty their stomachs, either through fear or else to facilitate their escape,
by lightening their load. Along-the sides of the pools and some of the
rivers of India, gulls and terns may occasionally’ be seen congregating and
FEAR, NDETIAL SEASON, AND INHERITED INSTINCT. Ixxvit

beating the water with their wings, .so as to scare the fish, when — fall an
easy prey. Sars has observed how pollack succeed in alarming a school of
sand-eels, Ammodytes (vol. i, p. 329), and driving them towards the surface,
when they become a prey to gulls from above- and these fish from below.
Similarly, porpoises have been observed to swim round masses of gregarious *
fishes, and when they were alarmed, feasting on them with impunity: the
gar-fish, Belone, of the British seas (vol. ii, p. 146) may then be observed to
mount: to the surface and crowd on each other as they press forward. When
still more closely pursued, they spring out of the water to the height of
‘several feet, leaping over one another in sitigular confusion, and again sink
beneath. The flying: fish, Exocetis, similarly springs out of the water to
escape its rapacious pursuers (vol. li, p. 155.) Members of the herring
family, Clupeide, would seem to be those in which more predacious forms
appear to induce terror. Thus the gar-pike, in the eastern seas, may.
frequently be seen pursuing anchovies along the surface of the water:
‘ Every angler is aware of.the natural timidity of fishes, and keepers know
how easily poachers are able to deter salmon from ascending fish-passes.

During the nuptial season, teleostean fishes (page lvii) havé more
resplendent tints than at any other period of the year, and this may be
for the purpose of mutual. attraction, as seen in the salmon, stickleback,
&c. While in the United States a male of the John Darters; Hiheostoma
blennoides, kept in an aquarium, underwent, almost in an instant, an entire
cHange of pattern in the colours 6n its body, upon the introduction of a
female fish of the same species. Even after two weeks the novelty had not.
worn off, though its body-colours varied much from hour to hour, but’ had
‘not reverted to its original dress. . ;

Inherited instinct is a subject in fishes worth attention. Due to it the
young of many sorts return from the sea to the localities where they were
originally reared, and in their turn produce offspring inheriting the same
tendency. Similarly, we may perceive inherited fear; a young fish just
hatched will hide itself from the gaze of other animals.

Some fishes have the curious instinct of obtaining assistance from other
forms in their search after food or their migrations from place to place; this
latter being done in order to profit by the greater powers of locomotion in
their host, from whose body, however, they draw no sustenance, but are
commensals, merely partaking of such food as comes within their reach. :
Among these latter we have the sucking-fish, Hcheneis, as an occasional
wanderer to our shores (vol. i, p. 106). The Flerasfer'(vol. i, p. 328),
which is another rare visitant off our coast, is often known to seek its
fortune inside the sea-cucumber or Holothuria, upon which it may be said
to be a “free messmate.” Tt works its way into ‘its host tail foremost,
while many. of the young of our commoner forms seek refuge in Meduse
Ixxvill INSTINCTS AND EMOTIONS.

and similar forms (vol. tl, pp. "281, 285, 297), phenomena very commonly ,
obsérved in the Hastern seas. °

Without entering more fully into details, it seems possible to claim for
this’ class of animals the possession of attachments, whether as conjugal
feelings, paternal or maternal affections, or.even platonic friendships. ,

 

Satamon Pass, ;
CLASSIFICATION. Ixxix

CLASSIFICATION.

As to the system followed in this work I have simply accepted, so far as
I possibly could, that employed in the British Museum Catalogue, as
specimens are. arranged in the National Collection in accordance with it. At
the present time Ichthyologists may be considered as engaged in storing-up-
facts from which after a longer or shorter interval a general system will have |
to be evolved. Whether therefore one commences with the spiny-rayed
teleostean perches, or begins from the higher and more specialized groups
of sharks and their allies, seems to be a matter of trivial importance.

The following is the classification adopted :—

Order 1. Acanthopterygu, vol. i, p. 1.
» 2. Anacanthini, i, p: 271.
» 98. Physostomi, ii, p. 46.
» 4. Lophobranchii, ui, p. 256.
3D Plectognathi, ii, p. 267.
Order 1. Ganoidei, ii, p. 278.
Sub-class, T1—Cuonprorrenvan { oh Flaamnobronilat fp. OBE.

Stcb-class, 11]—Cyctostomara, ii, p- 395.
‘Sub-class, [V—Leprocarni, ii, p. 366.

Sub-class, [—Ts.Lnosrsr

Although it is easy to refer to Families as groups of Genera and the
latter as an assemblage of species, this merely brings us to the real question
at issue, which is,. what is a species? For determining this two lines of
_investigation may be followed: (1) the morphological.or that which relates to
structure and development, or wherein individuals agree one with another
but differ from other fishes ; and (2) the physiological or such as pertain to
function, as whether the forms under consideration are normally capable of
fertile union one with another (but not so with those of other groups), being all ’
descendants of a primitive race of ancestors. A variety is one which differs
in some characters from the type of the species, but between which a distinct
intermediate gradation has been observed. While a local race may be also a
variety but wherein no such connecting chain has yet been discovered. What
some consider a variety others would deem a local race or sub-species; thus
a permanence of variation has been held to. constitute a species, but its
instability a variety.

Irrespective of the foregoing there are other forms of variation ; ‘thus
larval fish as the Leptocephalus (vol. ii, page 239), or young of the conger
and some other fishes, may have their development arrested, in which
condition they may still liye for a longer or shorter period. Monstrosities are
generally the result of some abnormal condition of the embryo, sometimes
Ixxx CLASSIFICATION.

occasioned by.shocks or injuries when fission may ensue occasioning double-
headed monsters; or crossing two distinct species would seem to set up .
various abnormal ‘structural results. Analogous variation, or where an
animal varies towards some allied form, has not, I believe, been observed in
fish.. There is also atavism, or the reversion towards the original type.

Tn addition to zoological classification, fishes. are likewise divisible in -
accordance with their distribution and habits; thus some may be termed sea
or marine forms, while others are fresh-wuter residents. Also there are
species which observe no such undeviating peculiarities, as they are observed
to roam from one of these localities to the other, especially such as are
generally found in brackish. water.

‘Marine forms are likewise subdivided in accordance with the areas
they principally frequent; thus inhabitants of the open sea’are known as
pelagic: such as enter fresh waters for breeding purposes as anadromous :
while the along-shore forms which are. restricted within a tract up to 80 or
100 fathoms, rarely entering fresh waters or being found in mid-ocean, as
littoral.*

Fresh-water forms are those which pass their entire lives in fresh waters ;
while such as live in fresh: waters, but descend to the salt water to breed, are.
* termed catadromous,

If we now attempt further divisions, commencing with marine forms, a
difficulty meets us so soon as we try to classify the various sea-fishes into
residents of certain zones of depth, the’ majority changing their feeding-
ground at different periods of their existence. They may also be influenced
directly by heat and cold,-sunshine and darkness, storms and calms ; or
indirectly by how these influences affect the products on’which they feed.
Thus occasionally pelagic forms are observed in vast numbers at the surface,
wheré as a rule they are generally absent. The young also of many pelagic
forms pass their infantile life in the littoral zone, but when adult retire into
deeper waters. The Antennarius is found.in some portions of the globe,
living near the surface in its early age, revelling in the pleasures of light and
warmth ; but as time creeps on, some have been observed to sink to the
bottom; where they can indulge at their ease in asluggish existence, if it can
be a pleasure to them to live where seasons are absent, and day and night
unknown. The deep sea forms of animal life are observed to be anainly
composed of more or less modern shallow-water genera, and their allies, which
have extended their range into the deep sea zone.

In spite of the foregoing difficulties further subdivisions of fish have been
instituted, thus in marine forms we have such as inhabit regions through

* A. Agassiz considers the littoral zone as up to 100 or 150 fathoms, or an extension of the coast-
line to a depth at which the direct action of the sun’s rays is limited: that from it in a slope up to
450 or 500 fathoms is a continental zone where the diminution of temperature is rapid ; beyond this
is the abyssal, where there is a low temperature varying little from freezing- -point.
GEOLOGICAL APPEARANCE. . lxxxi

which light penetrates more or less as in the littoral zone, where sea-weeds,
corals and shells are found and which may be termed the fauna of light:
whereas beyond this zone a region of darkness obtains. Pelagic species are
normally observed to be more or less restricted to certain zones of depth or
hathymetrical regions and are known as surface, median or abyssal forms.
While fishes of the fresh-waters are found frequenting rivers or fleviatile
‘forms, or else passing their lives in lakes or ponds or lacustrine species :
such as reside in large pieces of water may likewise select the shores and
surface waters or the deeper portions of the lake. ”

GEOLOGICAL APPEARANCE.

Among the many interesting questions relating to fish, assuredly not the
least:so is when did they first appear in the waters of the globe which we
inhabit? And for an answer we have to ask the Geologists, who assert
that the lowest type of vertebrate life first occurred near the close of the
Silurian epochs at the base of the Ludlow rocks, where certain spines, jaws,
teeth and a cephalic buckler of probably a Pteraspis, as well as coprolite bodies
containing crinoids. and molluscs, have been obtained; but no other portions
of true piscine skeleton. In the “ Devonian” or “Old Red Sandstone,”
remains of fish in a more perfect state and in larger numbers are found, so
much so that this strata has been termed the “age of fish.” Some of the
Silurian:forms seem to have continued into the Devonian, and at this period
ganoids and sharks became predominant but no trace of segmentation of the
vertebra has been observed; ganoids and sharks are very abundant in the
Carboniferous and Permian rocks which show the end of the Palzozoic epoch.

Up to the Mesozoic epoch fishes possessing heterocercal tails (page ix)
weré the ordinary type, but now they commenced to diminish, and the
homocercal (page ix) form began to obtain predominance; in short, in the
earliest times the posterior termination of the vertebral column was very
similar to what we now find as an embryonic condition of teleosteans,
persistent formerly, transitory now. The fishes in the Lias besides developing
homocercal tails commence to show ossification and segmentation of the
vertebre, and Leptolepis a teleostean form, has been supposed to have
_ been discovered. Among the fishes of the Oolitic strata a further advance
towards the fauna of this period occurs, while rays become more numerous,
In the chalk or cretaceous era, although Chondropterygians are found, it-is the
Teleosteans or bony forms, as already observed, that obtain predominance,
and sa on through the Tertiary per riod to our times.

It has been pointed out that had such fish as Cyclostomata, or Lepto-
cardii existed in Silurian or Mesozoic epochs it would hardly be expected that

an
lxxxii ‘DIFFUSION OF FISHES.

they would have left any trace unless it were their horny teeth. Indeed
specimens of such teeth or those of molluscs or annelids have been discovered
in the Lower Silurian and Devonian strata. ,

Considerable difficulty has arisen as to whether the ancestral forms* of.
fish were: fresh-water or marine, and if the latter, whether they were first
littoral, subsequently pelagic, or originally pelagic. At the present time,
investigations tend to show that although marine species not infrequently’
enter, breed, and even take up their permanent abode in fresh waters, such
is not the case with strictly fresh-water forms, which do not voluntarily
enter the sea, or if there would succumb. ‘True, a flood from a river or
inundation along a coast may temporarily so alter the composition of the
sea-water that a fresh-water form may reside in it or travel by it for some
distance along a coast-line, but they die when the water becomes normally °
saline. ,

M. Agassiz, when giving some interesting observations on this question,
remarked that although at present it is not plain that fluviatile types on the
whole are superior to the marine ones, still among the higher forms of
Chondropterygii as in ganoids, the bony pike, Lepidosteus, of America, the
Polypterus of tropical Africa, the Lepidosiren or Protopterus of the west
coast of Africa, and the Ceratodus of Queensland, are restricted to fresh
waters. While even in groups considered to be marine the fresh-water forms
possess characters generally.denoting their superiority over their marine
representatives.

DIFFUSION OF FISHES.

Fishes may have been dispersed oyer the surface of the globe in several
ways, as marine ones through the ocean, and fresh-water species along rivers
and, watersheds, and ‘in exceptional instances along coasts. For similarly to
other forms of life they possess a natural tendency to increase as well as
disperse when not checked by: climatic or physical difficulties, or other
external causes. As assisting in this diffusion there are uncertain agencies
which can only act occasiqnally, but by means of which fresh-water forms
may be dispersed, such as floods carrying them from one watershed into
another, which although contiguous at their sources may lead in entirely
different directions. In some species it has been shown that if fecundated
eggs, as of trout, are kept moist and cold they can be conveyed in safety for
long distances (page lxvii), while salmonoid eggs removed from the maw of
a trout have been hatched. This renders it not improbable that should a

* In embryo-fish the developmental changes when correctly ascertained are a guide to the
classification of the species.
DISPERSION AND DISTRIBUTION. Ixxxiii

hawk or eagle have secured such a fish and carried it away to the mountains
in order to feed its young or consume it at its leisure, should the eggs fall
into water they might similarly hatch and the hreed spread. Geese and
ducks (or even flying insects, as some beetles) might likewise spread fishes
or convey the ova partially frozen attached to their bills or feet, while it has °
been suggested that they might likewise be conveyed among the wet feathers
of birds or the fur of otters.* Among such forms as the perch, wherein we
see stringy ova, such might be carried long distances attached to sticks or
grass or even to the feet of herons, grebes, &c. McCleay (Proc. Linn.
Soe. N. 8. W., iii, p. 15) notiges how a marine fish, Therapon unicolor, had
been found in a dam near Warialda, to which place the ova was supposed to
have been conveyed by birds: Davy also suggests that glaciers may have
assisted in the dissemination of ova. +

DISPERSION AND DISTRIBUTION ‘OF FISHES

That marine fishes may become temporary.‘or permanent occupants of
fresh waters and so change their condition of life has been observed by fish
culturists for centuries. Anadromous forms as the salmon ascend into fresh:
waters to breed, there its eggs are hatched and the young reside until suffi-
ciently mature to follow tlieir parents’ mode of life. Should the return of
marine species to’the sea be prevented, this is not necessarily fatal, for the ,
form may take on a fresh-water life. In the tropics it is common to find true
marine fishes in pieces of fresh water not far removed from tidal influence,
due to their having entered these places while-the monsoon rains were at their
height, the rivers and swamps full, when they had become carried, perhaps
by a high spring- -tide, over a bank, but as the waters feli they became
imprisoned in their new situation and unable to return to the sea. ‘Similarly
sea-fishes rove into our fresh waters after food, conclusively proving that such
change does not necessarily occasion their death, while here they may remain
and continue their race as observed in the’ northern portion of the Baltic
(i, page 54).

In India, marine fishes are frequently observed ascending rivers for
predaceous purposes as far as the tide extends or even further. Therapons
are not uncommon in the Hooghly near Calcutta, while I have taken a sea-
perch, the “cock-up,” Lates calearifer, as far inland as in the river at Pegu

* Pontoppidan (Natural History of Norway, ii, p. 139) remarked that at the top of Varne-set
and many other high plaees in Haranger, fish are taken in ponds which have no communication with
other ponds or rivers. He suggests whether they have been there since the flood; or if birds of
prey have carried the spawn or young fry up there.

{ Dr. Stolicazka found fishes living in Tibet in fresh’ water 16,000 feet above the level of the sea.

t*
lxxxiv DIFFUSION AND DISTRIBUTION.

in’ Burma, and a species of saw-fish, Pristis Perrotteti, upwards of four feet
long, in the Mahanuddi river in Orissa, in fresh water and at least forty
miles from the sea. M. de La Gironniére found a saw-fish inhabiting fresh
waters in the Laguna de Baij, Luzon, and which was identical with those. in
the Gulf of Manilla. Gill has observed upon a saw-fish and a shark being
taken in Lake Nicaragua. Advantage has been taken of the knowledge of how
marine forms will live in fresh water, and the Romans turned it toa practical
account by forming fresh-water vivaria wherein some marine fishes were
kept. Mr. Arnold has been similarly successful in Guernsey (vol. i, page 229),
and Colonel Meynell in Yorkshire (vol. ii, page 123).

The intolerance of fresh-water fishes to sea-water* is greater than of
marine ones to fresh. Such forms as perches or sticklebacks, whose ancestors
were probably marine, are more tolerant of saline water than the more strictly
fresh-water species as carps. This question, of course, is most important
as regards the dispersion of these forms, for should they. not be able to live
in anything but fresh water, for them to extend from one point to another
practically requires a land connection. Lubbock tells us that on sea-floods
occurring in the Norfolk Broads, the first fish to suffer are the tench, pike,
bream, and roach; perch bear a strong admixture, but catadromous eels are
unaffected. If, as is the case in Oceanic Islands, as the Andamans of the
Indian seas, we find fresh-water fishes similar to those on the mainland and
at Ceylon, it seems reasonable to suppose that although the two localities
may be hundreds of miles distant, a land connection must have existed
between them at some antecedent period of the world’s history. If volcanic
islands are searched true fresh-water fishes are absent, unless they have
obtained access by accident, or been placed there by man. | Respecting the
northern limits of fresh-water fishes it hasbeen ascertained that they are
absent from regions where ice is nearly or quite continuous.

- Abyssal forms (see page lxxxi) are found in the deep abysses of the ocean,
‘where there is an entire absence of light obtained from the surface, but
whether there are not present means for the production of luminosity I have
already touched upon (page xxv). Deep-sea fishes have either very large
eyes, similar to nocturnal land animals, or else they are quite blind, and as
regards these organs they show a considerable resemblance to what is
observed in such as inhabit waters in dark caverns. Recent investigations
would seem to show that from eighty or a hundred fathoms in depth up to
two hundred fathoms the size of this organ increases, in order to collect any
rays of light, but beyond this last depth both large and small eyes are found ;
the latter forms have also usually tentacles, for the purpose of feeling,

* As bearing on this point, marine Meduse are very intolerant of fresh water, but a fresh-water
form having been discovered, it was found to be even more intolerant of sea-water than the marine
ones are of fresh (Nature, June 24th, 1880).
ABYSSAL AND PELAGIC FORMS. Ixxxv

whereas at the most profound ‘depths both eyes and tactile organs are
absent. Deep-sea forms are either pale, colourless, or of a single tint;

and as already remarked (page xiv), the tissues which connect their
hard structures together ‘are weak; while such as are brought up from
great depths have their bodies expanded, and even burst, due to the
removal of the pressure of Supe meumaent water, as has heen observed

(page xhiii).

The temperature of the sea at 500 fathoms is as low as 40° F., even
under the equator in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans; below 2000 fathoms
it is not more than a few degrees above oe ae except in peculiar
instances of land-locked seas. Almost everywhere. at 500 fathoms, and
everywhere ab 1000, there is nearly an absence of currents, and move-
ments must be very slow and probably quite imperceptible to the resident
animals; as a consequence of this similar condition of life the deep-sea fauna
show no zones of distribution in depths below 500 fathoms.

M. Regnard has made experiments with water respecting the amount of
pressure a fish will sustain: one destitute of an air-bladder, or in which it:
had been evacuated, he found might be submitted to a pressure of 100
atmospheres, equivalent to a depth of 650 fathoms, without injurious effects ;
at 200 atmospheres it became torpid, but soon recovered on being removed;
at 3800 atmospheres, equivalent to about 2000 fathoms, it died. But among
other reasons for failure in this last experiment, the pressure was more
rapidly induced than would occur ‘in nature, were a fish to ‘change its
habitat.

Some abyssal forms are dwarfed, perhaps from cold or deficiency of food ;
others, perhaps due to absence of foes, are almost gigantic.

Many deep-sea forms have an enormous development of the mouth and
stomach, thus enabling them to swallow fishes even larger than themselves,
probably in order to retain a stock of food sufficient for some time, all being *
carnivorous, for at certain depths Pteropods dissolve, at greater distances the
Globegerina: are similarly lost, possibly the sea-water itself assisting, as
when alkaline it can absorb an additional amount of carbonate of lime.
Doubtless oxygen decreases with depth of water, but some is present even
in the deepest.

The number of animals in the.sea decrease as the depth increases, and i in
the deep abysses a varied repast sinks from the surface; while as no plants,
unless parasitic, are found; all food must descend from above, assisted by
shore debris and vegetable matter carried down by rivers and which reach
the sea-bed.

Pelagic fishes (see page _— are more numerous in tropical regions than
in our own, and not a few are cosmopolitan, while they often follow their
food into the littoral zone. Some are rapid swimmers and pursue their
lxxxvi GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

prey, while others, as the Antennarius, drift about on sticks or seaweed in
accordance with the action of winds and currents. Among them are some
which ascend to the surface during the night-time, and may be possessed of
luminous organs (page xxv), common to them, and likewise to some of the
deeper abyssal species.

Littoral forms (see page Ixxx), although constantly migrating within the
limits of their own zone, or even extending their range to within the localities
frequented by pelagic species, will often decline to pass deep-sea ravines to
dpposite banks, or cross over ledges of rock.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF BRITISH FORMS.

Among the nineteen genera of fresh-water fishes which inhabit the British
Isles, the following are, (I) common to the Palearctic and Nearctic regions :
1. Gasterosteus, 2. Perca, 3. Cottus, 4. Lota, 5. Salmo, 6. Thymallus,
7. Coregonus, 8. Hsow, 9. Leuciseus, 10. Abramis, 11. Sturio; (I) forms
restricted to the Palearctic region: 12. Aéerina, 13. Gobio, 14. Tinca,
15. Abramis, 16. Alburnus; (III) genera present in the Palearctic and
Oriental regions: 17. Cypririus, 18. Carassius, 19. Nemacheilus ; (IV) found
in the Palearctic, Oriental, and Aithiopian regions: 20, Barbus.

Among the foregoing, eleven, or more than half of the British fresh-water
genera of fishes, are common to both Arctic regions, while those numbered 1,
3,5, and 7 have marine representatives. Nos. 2 and 11 are frequently found
in salt water, the former being closely connected with the marine perches,
.and Lota, possibly the remnant of a glacial ocean, is closely related to marine
forms; but Leuciscus, Abramis, and Hsox are distinctly restricted to fresh
waters, yet are found in both regions, whereas the sea as at present existing
would form an insuperable barrier against their normal extension from one
point to the other. It has been advanced that all evidence points to a
continued mild climate in the Arctic regions through Cretaceous, Eocene,
and Miocene times, whereas had the North Atlantic between Europe and
North America been closed, although such might have raised the temperature
of these isles, it must have increased the cold in the Arctic regions by cutting
off the gulf stream. Appearances, as regards the distribution of mammals,
seem to point to there having been probably on more than one occasion, but
for brief periods during the tertiary period, a land connection between
N.W. Europe and N.E. America, and to this the distribution of the strictly
fresh-water genera of fish would seem to lend countenance.

Cyprinus and Carassius appear to have been forms introduced into our
isles, while the little loach Nemacheilus is found in a continuous chain of
many species throughout the Palaarctic and Oriental regions.
OF BRITISH FORMS. ; Ixxxvii

‘

We have now to consider whether fresh-water fishes i in their distribution
lend any countenance to the theory that Ireland was formerly ‘united to
continental Europe; also that a great portion, of Great: Britain became
submerged, but a re-elevation of land occurred ; ‘and finally that Ireland was
“separated fron Great Britain, and subsequently the Straits of Doyer opened.

Among the nineteen British genera thirteen are present in Ireland : Lota,
Barbus; and Alburnus, local in England and unknown in Scotland, are
absent from Ireland; so likewise are the local races of Thymallus, introduced
north of the Tweed during recent years, while the only recorded Acerina in
Scotland, is one specimen said to have beén.obtained off. Troup Head in Banff-
shire, possibly an error. Leaving our common bull-head, Cotti:s, as anabsentee
from Ireland, where, however, Yarrell believed it to be found: Wallace’s
conténtion that the distribution of the species of our Salmonide confirms
the view that the races of: fresh-water fish in Ireland differ from those in
Britain, is founded on two mistakes: first, he considers varieties as species;
secondly, even were they species, he mis-states where they are found. If,
however, we turn to the Lewciset, we do find the roach, L. rutilus, the chub,
- + DL. cephalus, and the dace, L. vulgaris, to be absent. from Ireland, and also
more or less from Scotland unless introduced. Fresh-water fishes, while they
‘do not refute the disseverance of Ireland from Great Britain previous to the
division of the latter from continental Europe, do not add any material
confirmation to the statement.

Respecting the geographical distribution* of our marine forms, I have
alluded to it when ‘describing the families and genera, and consequently
shall limit my remarks first as to whether similar species exist in distant
regions of the globe, and. secondly, how they disperse. M. Valenciennes,
in 1824 (“Mem. du Mus.,” xi, p. 265), ‘drew attention to the great
resemblance that existed between the fishes inhabiting the Mediterranean
and those of the seas of South Africa; while Dr. Keller has ascertained

* Errors in the geographical distribution of species are not infrequently due to insufficient care
having been exercised in testing the accuracy of statements as to from whence the specimen’ had
been obtained. An example of sucking-fish (Echeneis) was sent me in a bottle of spirits as having -
been trawled at the Nore in May, 1880, which was so far correct that it had been thus taken, bottle
and all. It is easy to perceive how accidents might occur trawling such examples as the one I now
record. Had ‘the bottle been broken and a sucking-fish found in a trawl at the mouth of the
Thames, it might have obtained access into a local collection, and when the species became
recognized it would most truly have béen asserted to have been captured at Southend. ‘Turton has
assured us tespesting the North American bony pike (Lepidosteus osseus), that “it is rarely found
‘on the Sussex. coast," ” probably because Berkenhout, in his “ Outlines of Natural History,” records
one two feet long.: also Stewart (“ Elements,” i, page 374) has remarked upon its occurrence in
the Frith of Forth. If these specimens were received they may have come from a wreck, or were
perhaps thrown overboard by a passenger or sailor, Even in 1880 the tropical Holacanthus tricolor
was erroneously asserted by Dr. Giinther to have been obtained at the Island of Lewes (vol. i, p. 41). «
Ixxxvili MIGRATIONS AND FOOD.

that eleven species of fishes from the Mediterranean have penetrated vid the
Suez Canal into the Red Sea, and twenty-five ‘have reached at least half-way
from the Bed Sea through the same canal.

The following species identical with British forms have been taken in the
seas of Australia, but not in the intermediate intertropical region :—Caranz’
trachurus, Zeus faber, Sciena aquila, Argentina sphyrena, Engraulis
encrasicholus (variety), Clupea sprattus, Conger vulgaris, Orthdgoriscus
‘mola, Galeus canis; Acanthias vulgaris (variety), Echinorhinus spinosus,
Ehina squatina.

It has been abundantly shown that fishes of colder climes do not unfre-
quently migrate towards warmer regions, but when doing so keep further
out from shore in deeper waters and colder, areas. Although it seems
diffidult to admit that fishes with a physoclistous form of air-bladder could
migrate in the cold water under the tropical sea, and thus, as it were,
reappear in the southern temperate ocean, still in nature we do see identical
forms in these two widely separated places. But in their younger stage
all fishes with .air-bladders must have the connecting tube with the
alimentary canal pervious, and it is not so difficult to consider that in some
it might abnormally remain patent through life, giving them the same facility
of evacuating it as seen in physostomous forms, while M. Regnard’s experi-
ments already alluded to (p. Ixxxv) show what a large amount of pressure
fishes will bear without fatal effect, while in nature they would gradually
_ accommodate themselves to such clianges.

MIGRATIONS AND FOOD.

Most fishes are subject to migrations, which are either seasonal, which is
consequent upon climatic changes, or for the purpose of .reaching a suitable
spot for the continuation of their race (page lix), or diurnal or nocturnal, to
obtain food for the nourishment, of each individual. This latter is mostly
dependent on temperature, certain conditions of the water, and the supply
of sustenance. An irregular appearance of migratory shoals of marine
forms, as the ‘mackerel, anchovy, herring, pilchard, or sprat, may be
consequent upon their pursuing some peculiarly abundant and desirable
food, or else be caused by their having been alarmed by some undesirable
enemy, for fear may cause shoals to vary their direction; while I have
observed that in the Indian seas, when from any reason the sardines have
remained away, voracious forms-which prey upon them were likewise
absent. .

Temperature evidently exercises a considerable influence, and Baird
FOOD. lxxxix

‘observes of the anadromous salmon, herring, and shad, of the United States,
of America, that their journeys are simply from the mouths of rivers
by the nearest deep gully or trough to the outer sea, and that the appear-
ance of the fish in the mouths of the rivers along the coast at successive
intervals from early spring in the south to near midsummer i in the north, is
mostly due to their taking up their line of march at successive epochs from
the open sea to the rivers they had left during a previous season, induced
by the stimulus of a definite temperature, which, of course, would be
successively obtained at later and later dates, as the distance north-
wards increased. .

Having ascertained what minute forms or descriptions of life are sought
out by migratory fish as food, it next becomes necessary to ascertain what it
is that governs or controls their migrations, as currents, soils, temperature,
atmospheric changes, or the existence of some still more minute food on
‘which they themselves subsist ; also what are their enemies or their friends,
and the conditions which favour the presence or absence of either class.
The surface of the ocean everywhere teems to a greater or less extent with
animal life, but this cannot subsist without a vegetable basis, both being
very susceptible to atmospheric vicissitudes.

When desirous of investigating what constitutes the food of fishes,* it
soon beeomes evident that the inquiry branches off in many directions as to
whether the fishes are marine or fresh-water, and what districts (page Ixxx)
they chiefly frequent: and as researches are extended, the nutriment
consumed by the young in their different stages until maturity is attained.
While the fish culturist+ and observer will have to find out and ascertain
what are the influences which assist in developing the food or act injuriously
upon its growth or distribution. Augmenting the numbers of fish in pieces
of water is often undesirable without having previously ascertained whether
a sufficient amount of food would be present for their wants.

Among fishes, although we have predaceous, herbivorous, and omnivorous
species, there are few which will not. prey upon any animal less powerful
than themselves, while marine forms are said to be able to withstand hunger
‘ longer than those of the fresh waters. The majority of forms feed during the
day-time, although some prefer the earlier morning or the evening hours ;
others again, as the Liparis, would seem to forage about at night-time. The
sucking-fish, Echeneis (page Ixxvii), uses its host as a means of conveyance
from place to place, so that it can change its locality: while the myxine
consumes its host; and the electric ray (lxxvi) takes its prey by means

* See “ Food of Fishes,” Fishery Conference Papers, F. Day, 1883.
{ See “ Fish Culture,” F. Day, 1883.
xc MIGRATION AND FOOD.

of shocks. Under the head of each species I have endeavoured fo give an
account of the food each is most partial to. While in captivity some fish eat .
what they reject or are unaccustomed to when in a state of nature :
some forms in aquaria will consume, if they can obtain’ it, more than is
wholesome for them.

If we look at,a newly-hatched fish we see a large sac or the yelke—or
‘umbilical-sic dependent from its throat, im it nourishment is contained on
which it has to subsist for a longer or shorter period, and when absorbed it
must seek food for itself, and this in the period when the fish culturist finds
it so difficult to procure suitable diet for his small charges.

Around our coasts are distributed various kinds of sea-weeds, thus
where the bottom is rocky we find brown alge (Fuct), and further out the
red form (Floridi). But, as already observed, with increasing depth
vegetation becomes less, or should sea-weeds drift to sea, they subside and
constitute soft black mud, wherein worms, molluscs, ‘crustaceans and other
marine animals bave their home and find: their subsistence, while they in
turn form food for fish. Professor Mobius-(Die Nahrung der Seetiere) at
90 to 95 fathoms in the Baltic, where the bottom consisted of plastic clay,
found very few worms: in the Mediterranean, south-east of Sicily, at
1700 fathoms, where the bottom consists of yellowish clay, the British
exploring expedition found no traces of animal life. But in the southern
parts ofthe North Sea, at 20 to 25 fathoms, and with a muddy bottom, such
is found to be alive with small crustaceans, worms, snails, molluscs,
and echinoderms, and as a result with fish which live there and prey
upon them. Irrespective of the foregoing vegetable substances, floating
sea alo, which form food to marine animals, and sometimes micro-
-scopic forms are so numerous as to render the surface almost turbid. .
Diatoms live in every sea, and are consumed by pelagic animals, as Salpe and
Pteropods. Likewise all rivers carry organic matter into the ocean, rendering
the bottom rich and a resort for the invertebrate animals, as well as the fish
which prey upon them; while currents which carry plants and small marine
creatures from place to place must likewise influence the migration of fishes.
In short, the temperature, saltness, purity of the water, currents and depth
of the sea must each and all exercise a great influence upon animal and
vegetable life, also the character of the neighbouring shore, as regards its
geological formation and whether fertile or barren, rocky or sandy, and the
amount of surface drainage which flows into it.

The food consumed by fresh-water forms has been more closely inves-
_tigated than among marine species, and it is only by knowledge of what
is required, combined with care and constant attention in carrying such out,
that private fish-pond culture can be made profitable. Leaving them
GROWTH ‘AND SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS. xcl

to nature and withdrawing gael is almost as ruinous as if arable lands
were to be left to be self-sown: while want of food may be occasioned
by too large a population of small and inferior sorts which starve the
remainder. ;

During cold months, also during fhe breeding” season, a cessation in
taking food may: occur in some forms (page lx), but during such periods as
they are on the feed they may obtain it from the bottom or soil’ over which
" the water flows or is placed, from mid-water as substances which are washed
down or'subside from the surface, &c., or from the surface itself as flies or
vegetable food.

Although the growth of fish is often irregular, as.a general rule they do
not alter their form to any very great extent from what they are when.
young to what obtains during mature life; still the comparative increase of

certain parts to that of the entire animal may not continue the same. -Thus,
the relative size of the.eye to that of the head decreases, the armature about
the head may diminish or disappear, the form of the snout as seen in saw-
fishes may change (plate lxix) as well as.the character of. the fins (page ix).
While’ in . some pelagic forms Hemimetamorphosts may occur, or very
considerable alterations in their growth and development which have not
infrequently occasioned misunderstanding as to the genus or’ even family
to which the young individual belongs. More complete metamorphosis is
observable in the lampern (vol. ii, p. 362), while the deciduous external
gills of foetal sharks, rays (plate clxv), and a few other fish, may almost be
deemed to belong to this group.
Secondary sexual characters likewise induce changes. Thus, although
the male salmon has a knob-like tubercle on the -lower jaw, the young has
“none, but is similar to the female (page |vii). The skin may change,
becoming more rough in one sex, and spines appear most developed during
-the breeding-season, as in the rays (vol. li, p. 329). The teeth likewise
may be different in adults of the two sexes. Other instances are alluded to
in the following pages.
The size of some fish may increase more rapidly under certain conditions
than it does in others; a few seem to bear confinement easily, and grow
large when well fed in an aquarium. In the Southport Aquarium turbot
réceived, 3 inches actuss in size, became in two years ‘10 Ib. each in weight,
and after two years. more they further augmented to 20 lb. Many forms
will live when in a contracted space of water without increasing in size.
While degeneration in size may be owing to local causes, as want of
sufficient nourishment, but be entirely distinct from degeneration in
’ structure or function. In short, growth may greatly depend on the food
which is obtainable, and which fish have usually to disperse and follow after,
\ ’

xcii MIGRATION AND FOOD.

in their turn becoming a prey to the larger species. As the eggs of
marine invertebrates are deposited at the same time as those of many fishes,
the fry of the latter find minute food (the young of. the former) ready for:
their wants, so fine, indeed, that they.are only obtained by straining the water
through gill-rakers.

 

EEL-TRAPS,
BRITISH FISHERIES. xciil

BRITISH FISHERIES..

Our fisheries afford employment to various manufacturers, traders,.
and. fishermén, but their immediate uses aré variously regarded by different
classes, the fishermen chiefly concerning themselves with what they can
obtain at the present time, regardless of future years’ supply. The public
mainly interest themselves in the cost of the article when brought to
market, while the Economist bases his conclusions respecting their value in
accordance with their reputed produce, or should the supply be unable to
meet the demand, he unhesitatingly advocates the use of more. destructive
agencies under the belief that the sea is inexhaustible, and augmented
captures are equivalent to increased productiveness ! But it may be asked,
is the sea, if the stock is not artificially replenished, inexhaustible ; is it a fact
that what man removes from the ocean is but an infinitesimal quantity to what
is consumed by birds and the numerous other enemies of the finny tribes ?

In order to ascertain if ‘fish are increasing in numbers, decreasing, or
whether the supply is stationary, investigations ought to be continuously,
systematically and impartially made into the size of those captured (omitting
-suchas pertain to migratory shoals), and if such is augmenting or lessening, also
is their condition better or worse than it was? Should investigations lead to
the belief that fisheries are being unduly depleted, it onght to be noted in
what families of fish this is occurring, as well as the reputed cause, while
in marine forms it is necessary to investigate whether the fishermen have to
go further out to’ sea to obtain their captures than was formerly the case,
if the killing power of the nets has been increased, and whether more men
are now required to obtain the same amount of fish than was the case a few
years previously. If we refer to former times, we find the inshore fisheries
were very productive, similar to those of _every other country sparsely
inhabited by man, but as years went on and the population augmented; an
increased supply of fish became a necessity. Man brought into use
more killing methods, and in every part of the globe this has been
followed by a diminished inshore supply. Almost..everywhere we hear
of the decline of our inshore fisheries, and the consequent imperative
increase in size of our trawlers, and, although the price of fish has largely:
advanced, they are compelled to go further out to sea to obtain
remunerative captures. It appears, unless we disbelieve the evidence from
most localities around our coast, that inshore fishing is becoming com-
paratively unremunerative, and many assert that this commenced at the
same period that trawling became more common, and the regulations for
sea-fisheries were abolished.
XCIV BRITISH FISHERIES.

For the purpose of arriving at conclusions respecting the condition of the
sea-fisheries, it would, be well to briefly consider of what do the more
important classes of fish used as food consist? It must be evident that what
would benefit sharks and dog-fishes might be inimical to herrings ; cod-fishes
might be deleteriously affected by what would be harmless to sprats and
mackerel: while our soles and flat-fishes might be entirely destroyed
without such doing any damage to the wrasses. Although it seems
improbable ‘that any species of sea-fish could be exterminated by man, it is
certainly a fact that he is able to annihilate a fishery or drive the fish
away from where he can capture them, which has the same effect on the
cost of the article.

Our markets are largely supplied with sea-fish from three principal classes:
(1) such as come in large assemblages or shoals, as the mackerel, herring,
pilchard, and. sprat, and which may be considered, as a rule, to be surface
swimmers; (2) mid-water and bottom-feeders in the littoral zone, as the
cod, haddock, and their allies, which are predaceous in their habits;
(3) ground-fish, as soles; turbot, and other flat-fishes. One of these classes
being in a satisfactory state does not necessarily prove that all the
others are. If the cod-fishes were exterminated, this would remove
one more of the enemies from the herrings, and might in fact be conducive
to their increase. ,

Herrings may be scared away from a district by several’ éauses,* and
have been known to absent themselves for years, perhaps the surface food
which they consume may have been deficient in quantity, or even absent; or
they may be driven further out to sea, and breed there, resulting in the young
taking on deep-sea proclivities, and probably forming a deep-sea race. . If
these shoals no longer frequent the shores, the amount of excrementitious
deposit which would fall from them would be lost to the invertebrate forms
which subsist in stich places. Irrespective of this, herrings off the east
coast of Scotland being now further out to sea than was the case a few
years since, larger boats have to be employed by fishermen, while there is
no harbour accommodation for them ; consequently storms are more fatal
than formerly. It is to be regretted that our Fishery Inspectors do
not yearly collect general fishery statistics for the United Kingdom ;
there are-no means of finding out whether coarser kinds are, or are ‘not,
taking the place of the better sorts in our markets ; soles may be as abundant
in regard to numbers in 1883 as in 1882, but it would be desirable to know
if their. size has augmented or diminished,

It has been said that doing away with fishery laws has been purposely
effected in order that sea-fisheries should be left to man, to work them

* Star-fishes have increased .enormously along the American shores, due to herrings and other
fishes, which feed on their spawn, having deserted the inshore ground. :
FISHERY LEGISLATION: xev

according to his individual caprice, untrammelled by any restrictive
enactments, as such only tend to upset the “balance of Nature.’’? While
protection, it is asserted, is only necessary. when the habits of any fish
compel it to live throughout the year in a confined area to which man has
access, or. to pass once or more in any year into some narrow space
commanded or capable of being commanded by man. But it seems to have
been ‘overlooked that ‘man, left to fish as he likes, when he likes and where
he likes, does not act impartially in fisheries. He does not destroy every
form indiscriminately, thus maintaining “a balance,” but merely such classes
as he desires for food. The mackerel and the herring are taken in millions,
but the shark, the dog-fish and the porpoise are practically left-unmolested,
and in this way any balance would not be “ maintained” but “upset.” The
haddock and cod are being destroyed to an enormous extent, and appear
as a consequence to be decreasing, both in size and quantity: this again
may tend to-deprive gregarious fishes of one of their natural enemies. The
mussels, crabs, and other invertebrates, which form the food of the inshore
fish, being unprotected, are diminishing around our coasts, and this due to
thé action of man, for when protection has been afforded, as off the coast of
Norfolk, a great increase almost immediately took place.

Our markets are supplied from two distinct economic divisions of fisheries ;
the first, such as crabs, lobsters, and eels, wherein a foreign supply keeps
the price down, and consequently the fishermen would have to preserve these
fisheries in a tolerably. fair condition, or else, with prices restricted to a
certain maximum amount, they would be unable to supply the markets.
The second class, ‘or mainly fresh fish, cannot as a rule be furnished from
abroad, consequently the price will rise or ‘fall with the supply. If the
supply is small the fisherman receives a commensurate augmentation in
money—he is no loser, it does not signify to him if the market has an
insufficient amount. Or if quantity is required, still that the better class of
fisheries are impoverished i is of as little concern—he can fill'up with inferior
sorts, such as'a few years since were rarely seen in our markets. The
importance of fresh-water fisheries is not solely in a ratio as regards the
amount of their productiveness, but also in accordance with the character of
the contiguous people, ‘as to whether they are fish-consumers or reject such
an article of diet: the sparseness or the reverse of the population, and
facilities for transport to distant places. Where no regulations exist for. the
protection of inland fisheries, and should other circumstances be equal, that
country or‘district which is most densely populated by man will be least so

by fish. Individuals would rather live by fishing than by agriculture, because
the trouble of capturing the finny tribes is less than that of tilling the soil.
It becomes simply a matter of catching food without a thought of future.
supply. As, however, ‘the human inhabitants augment, watery wastes
xevi ‘MODES OF FISHING.

(wherein fishes were previously protected by grass, reeds, or trees) become
drained and cultivated, and predaceous man increases his modes of
destruction. : :

Respecting our present fresh-water fisheries, that of the salmon is the most
valuable (vol. ii, page 70), but it almost seems as if our legislators are being
misled, and therefore ignore the axiom that the good of the fish and fisheries
should be of greater consideration than the interests of private individuals.
A free passage for the fish* to their breeding-grounds and an unpolluted
river are certainly necessities for an abundant supply, and although poaching
does injury, such is a mere fraction in the element of destruction compared
with the battle for life in the lower waters, which is a far more efficient
reason for the paucity of fish, whether such is owing to legalized fixed
engines, or an excess of netting in the lower reaches or along the tidal

shores.

MODES. OF FISHING.

Possibly the most primitive mode of tidal fishing was the construction of
pounds or enclosures into which fish entered with the flood, but were left
impounded at the ebb. Here they would be removed by hand, spears, or by
asmall net. In some places it may have been found necessary to erect a
rough wall across the outlet which would permit water to escape but detain
the large fish, or a trap might be inserted at this spot. Advancing still
further are wicker-work labyrinths, and next stake-nets, made on various
plans. In the late “‘ Great International Fisheries Exhibition,” these various
modes of fishing from India were shown in a consecutive series: ¢ dip-nets

‘were seen in frames, or used as purse or lave-nets, so that they can be
dragged or pushed up narrow pieces of water, or a row of fishermen can
~employ them along the coast. If these purse-nets are taken from their
frames, and have their free extremities weighted by sinkers, we obtain the
cast-net ; or connect several of these cast-nets together, when it is desired
to drag a piece of water with them, and we have a sort of ground-seine.
Then we have set-nets or trammels, seines employed in bays, and finally drift-
nets for outside fishing in order to capture surfacé forms. It is not my
purpose to follow out the various descriptions of nets, traps, and appliances
that have been used for the capture of fish, but merely to briefly allude to
the principal modes of fishing as now carried on in the British Isles for
commercial purposes, and they may be classed under nets, fixed engines,

and hooks-and-lines.
* The abolition of night netting in rivers, a longer weekly close time, and the prohibition of all

fishing within 150 yards of fish passes, would be highly desirable for the above object.
+ See “Catalogue of the Exhibits in the Indian Scction,” by Francis Day, page 6.
BEAM-TRAWL. xevil

The Beam-Trawl is in very considerable and still increasing use around
the British coasts for the purpose of obtaining ground-fish of prime
commercial importance, as turbot, soles, and brill, as well as for capturing
inferior sorts, as gurnards, haddock, whiting, plaice, skates,. and rays.
Sailing boats can be employed when a sufficiency of wind exists, for it is
necessary to go rather faster than the tide, but steam-trawlers have the
advantage of being independent of the necessity for wind in working their
vessels. The rapid advance in beam-trawling during the last fifty years
has been greatly assisted by the introduction of steam, ice, and railways,
thus not only enabling more of the finny trikes to be captured, but likewise

 

 

BEAM-TRAWLING.
XCVili MODES OF FISHING.

their being conveyed more rapidly to the shore, kept fresh for a long period,
as well as being readily distributed through a wide expanse of country.

We possess two classes of trawlers,* the beam-trawlers that fish the sea
either singly or more commonly in fleets (at -least for the last 25 or 30°
years); and the inshore-trawlers which are employed in bays and shallow
waters where they rarely work in companies.

The beam-trawlt is a purse-shaped net of a triangular shape, sometimes
as much as 100 feet long, along the upper edge of the mouth of which is
fastened a horizontal beam, from about 25 to 50 feet in length; this beam
is kept off the ground by means of two iron heads, so that merely the under
portion of the net and the ground rope touch the bottom of the sea when it
is being towed along by the trawler: it is usually employed over a muddy
or sandy bottom: but lately steam ones have used them over rough ground
along our south coast.

The under portion of the net which touches the ground is subject to
friction, and so much so, that various kinds of chafing-pieces have to be
added to prevent its giving way, while the amount of pressure inside the
net when being towed is so great as to cause a resistance sufficient to reduce
the speed of the trawlers from perhaps eight to one knot. The consequence
is that fish inside this bag-net become more or less bruised from violence.
We are told. by theorists that the trawl by pressure can do no injury to
young fish, but one would imagine that a net that requires a hide along
its under surface, and containing some ton or more of contents, must do
injury if scraped along over young and delicate flat-fishes as well as tear up
and destroy sea-weeds where the eggs of herrings and invertebrates are
deposited (page xcii).

Mr. Ansell asserts that when the “silver pits” in the North Sea were
first worked (1878-79), a trawler got a ton to a ton and a half of soles in one
night, of from £12 to £24 value. Now, although the wholesale price has
increased, the take has so diminished that trawlers have to seek fresh ground.
While Mr. Sim remarks that although in his opinion there are as many
soles caught now as fifty years since, they are about one-fiftieth part of their
weight. At Yarmouth beach you can see the men picking out small
immature fish—soles half as long asa finger, and turbot, so to speak, not
larger than a thumb-nail. It was no use throwing them overboard, because,’
after they once got into the net, they died.

Our inshore bays and banks at sea are the ‘chief nurseries of our flat-
fishes, and of many other forms which are taken by trawls ; in fact most, if not

* I omit otter-trawls as they are not largely used by the fishing trade: also the complaints
of line and drift fishermen that much damage is done to their industry by beam-trawlers.

‘{ The Scotch herring trawl is the English seine (see page c): the American trawl-is a long
line with baited hooks.
BEAM-TRAWL AND STOW-NET. xcix

all, forms of sea-fishes pass a portion of their infantine existence where the
waters are shallow. If the bays and tidal harbours of our south coast are
searched in May and June, millions of these small fry may be found. Mr.
Ansell considers that although by trawling much harm has been done by
destroying young fry, greater damage has been effected by the small
boats which trawl for shrimps in our bays and estuaries. The mesh of the
nets of these trawls is so fine that nothing escapes, and thousands of bushels
of fry are annually slaughtered by these craft.

If, as we are assured is the case, fish, as the sole, has not augmented in
‘price more than other articles of consumption since the abolition of fishery
regulations, surely market returns would form a good basis on which to
argue. Her Majesty’s Commissioners ‘gave us the daily cost at Manchester
of soles during ten years ending 1865, restricting their figures to the month
of January, and showing the retail cost per pound. I have similarly treated
figures from Birmingham, and find if these periods. are divided into five
years each, that prior to the abrogation of sea-fishery regulations soles
cost per lb. :

5 years ie 1860 lowest cost 3d, highest cost 8d, mean under 6d |b.
i » 1865 55 6d, 5 10d, 8d lb.

Subsequent to the abrogation of sea-fishery regulations soles per Ib.
at Birmingham cost :—

5 years ending 1878 lowest cost 33d, highest cost 184d, mean under 13d Ib.
45 » 1883 3 63d, 7 30d re 18d lb.

We are told that unless a close time for all fishes is imposed generally

no good will ensue. This is an erroneous statement: certain well-known

 

STOW-NET.
>

Cc MODES OF FISHING.

breeding banks or bays might be selected by local authorities and closed
during specified seasons from trawlers. Also it is very questionable if
trawling within the three-miles limit might not be prohibited with advantage.

The stow-net is employed in various places, as the mouth of the Thames,
and is useful in taking sprats and whitebait (see vol. ii, p. 232). Moored in
a suitable locality at the commencement of a tide, the shoals are carried in
by the current, but as the tide slackens the net is lifted.

The lave-net as used in the Severn and contiguous pieces of tidal water
is very destructive to salmon. A line of boats is anchored across a certain
spot, and a large lave-net resembling an enormous landing-net with a
triangular mouth and a long handle is let over the side of each boat with

“its entranice towards the incoming tide. The bag of the net is of sufficient
length to be brought under the boat and is loosely held in this position
by the fisherman on the up river-side. On a salmon striking this lave-net
in his course, the bag end is at once let go, and the laye-net side facing the
meoming tide is elevated, the gunnel of the boat acting as a rest for the
handle to be worked like a lever.

Seine or sean nets,* also known as “sweep- or draught-nets,” or in
Scotland as “circle-nets” or “trawls,” are of varying length and meshes,
but their essential use is to enclose a space by either their two ends being
dragged on shore, or brought close together if fishing at sea. These nets
are formed of two “wings” or “ sleeves,’ one on either side, while the
centre portion, known as the “ bunt” or bag, is much the deepest part, and
consequently forms a bag into which the fish are received. The upper edge
or back of the net is kept in a perpendicular position by cork floats, while
the foot rope is weighted with leads.

The ground seine,. “foot-seine,” or ‘scringe-net”’ is employed where
the sea-bottom is smooth, and an eligible place exists where it can be
dragged on shore. Generally similar to the common seine, it has a pole
fixed perpendicularly at the outer end of each wing, and to this a long drag-
rope is attached by a short bridle. One rope being left on the beach, the
net is taken in a boat and passed out round the space it is intended to
encircle, and the second drag-rope being landed, the net is evenly hauled on
shore by the fishermen.

Common seines or stop-seinés are such as are lifted at once with the
enclosed fishes into the boat, and should an inner or smaller boat not be
employed for the purpose of removing the enclosed fish, it is termed a tuck-
seine (vol. ii, page 227) ; while a modification of the seine is employed in the
United States, and has been so off Cornwall, in which the materials used are

* For modes of sea-fishing see “The Sea Fisherman,” by J. Wilcocks, and. “ Deep Sea
Fishing,” by FE. Holdsworth.
SEINE-NETS. ci

 

SEINE-NET -BEING LANDED ON SHORE.

light, and there are no leads along the foot-rope, but instead there is as an
addition a draw-rope or purse-string along the whole length of the bottom
of the seine, for closing the net below the fish, and, in place of: leads, the’
small iron blocks through which the rope is rove answer the purpose of sinkers.
When the seine surrounds the fish, the bottom rope is at once tightened, so
as to prevent the fish from escaping downwards, which gives the seine
the appearance of a purse. In Cornwall a centre weight is used to slip
along the draw-string, which quickly and effectually closes it.

Peter-nets have floats along the upper rope and weights along the foot-
line, one end is attached on shore, and the other anchored ont at sea ona
right line with the coast.

Drift-nets are mainly employed for the capture of gregarious fishes, or
such as swim in shoals, as the mackerel, herring, pilchard, and in some
places the sprat, while the Norwegians use them for taking cod. These
drift-nets are the only way in which some forms that are found far from
land can be netted. They may be likened to a wall of net suspended above
any depth of water in the ocean, and permitted to drift with the tide in any
direction, in the hope of meeting a shoal of fish. The size of the mesh must
be in accordance with that of the fish which it is desired to capture, for
the intention is to mesh the fish or permit them to push their heads and gill-
cli * MODES OF FISHING.

covers into the net, but being too small for the bedy to go through, while
the gill-covers prevent their withdrawing themselves. These nets are
generally set at night, and are asa rule more successful in dark weather.
Drift-nets usually have no sinkers, but-are worked on a single line, often
many hundred yards long, supported along their upper edge by corks or
floats, and sunk to the desired distance below the surface. A number
connected together are termed a train, drift, or fleet of nets;° the most
important are those used for the herring (see vol. ii, page 221).

 

 

SHOOTING A HERRING NET.

Moored nets are employed in sheltered places for the capture of herrings
(vol. ii, page 215), as along the coast of Devonshire and in some Scotch
lochs. One form is termed a “ bratt-net’’ and is used in the north for the
capture ef turbot, hake, skate, &e. ‘

The trammel is a set or fixed net which is said to derive its name from
the Latin “ tres. macule,” or the French “ trots mailles,” “three meshes,”
evidently thus named with reference to the three descriptions of meshes

Or

of which it is composed (vol i, page 25). It is shot with the tide generally
WEIRS AND FIXED ENGINES. ciil

of an evening, arid to prevent its captures being injured by crabs or other
vermin it should be examined every threo or four hours (vol. i, page 23).
Weirs* and fiaed engines were in 1861 declared by the Legislature to be
a public nuisance, and abolished by law in England and Wales; but so
many exemptions have been permitted, that it almost seéms as if they were
again being introduced along our sea-coasts, or rendered more destructive
by the shortening of weekly close times at the mouths of some of our larger

 

KETTLE-NET.

rivers. But few things do more injury to fisheries, as they destroy fishes
of all sizes, and in many places irrespective of their condition. If the
interests of the fisheries and fish, consumers alone were considered, not
only every fixed engine should be utterly done away with, leaving the
question of compensation to be settled by some competent court, but also
semi-fixed engines as lave-nets, and likewise the immoderate use of seines
should be jealously watched and regulated. Perhaps the most simple is
the kettle-net for mackerel, used along the south coast, or the stop-nets
and weirs of Swansea Bay; but they, and the various fixed engines
employed in fresh waters, are so numerous and so diversified that space
will not permit even their enumeration in this place.

* The old Saxon word “weir,” says Seebohm (“English Village Life”), meant anything used
for catching fish, whether fixed or movable. The word “ putcher” indicated a weir made of puts.
{ On the Thames the law enacted that no fish-weir was allowed to exist to the danger of the
+ broods of young swans, but it might be dismantled at the discretion of their guardians.
civ DISEASES AND CAUSES OF DESTRUCTION.

Line-fishing * in the sea, as employed for the capture of commercial
fish, may be divided into two kinds, hand-lining and long-lining, while
angling does not call for any remarks. It may be observed that fish are
very insensible to pain (vol. i, p. 5).

‘DISEASES AND CAUSES OF DESTRUCTION.

“The diseases and causes of the destruction of fish may be divided into
(1), those due to the condition of the water in which they reside; (2),
atmospheric disturbances and accidental causes; (8) diseases by which they
are affected, including those of the ova and of infancy; (4) misplaced energy
in fishermen and poachers ; (5), injuries occasioned by the lower animals.

1. Waters may be virulently and directly poisonous, at once affecting’
the life of the contained fish and even that of cattle or man; or else they
may be rendered mechanically unfit for fish to live in, as when the
presence of mud chokes their gills and prevents respiration. Or the water
may be indirectly affected owing to some deleterious agency having destroyed
the living food which was previously present, or occasioned disease in the
resident fish. When a river in India becomes unduly full of mud the crabs
retire to the banks, and even the eels leave the stream for the wet grass in
the vicinity. This attempt to. escape from water loaded with ingredients
inimical to life has likewise been observed’ among the invertebrate forms of
Europe, as was some years since pointed out by M. Gerardin, in France. A
series of experiments and investigations showed that colour, taste, odour, or
chemical composition cannot invariably be accepted as criteria of whether
water is wholesome or the reverse, but that such must be looked for in its
effect upon the animals and plants which reside in it. When fish died from
river pollution, it was observed that molluscs sometimes saved themselves
by hiding under leaves and waiting there until the danger had passed away ;
thus, in July, 1869, Limneea remained five days out of the water. :

Among plants one of the most delicate was found to be the watercress,
and it was remarked that when some deleterious substance from a starch
factory obtained access to the Croult above the cress-beds of Gonesse, all
these plants died within a few hours ; the pollution removed, the cress-beds
again flourished. Pond weeds and veronicas only live in water of good
quality; mints, rushes, and water-lilies, “accommodate themselves to
mediocre water; Carex is still less sensitive; and lastly, the most robust of
aquatic plants is a species of reed, the Arwndo phragmites, which resists the
most infected water. Among molluscs, the Physa fontinalis lives only in
very pure water, the Valvata piscinalis in that which is healthy, while others

* The reader is referred, for a full account of the various modes and manners, to the “ Sea
Fisherman,” by J. Wilcocks. ;
WATERS AND ATMOSPHERIC DISTURBANCES, ev

can reside in that which is of mediocre quality ; no mollusc will live in what
is thoroughly polluted. The phanerogamous plants thus sketch in distinct
traits, the characters of different streams; but infusoria and cryptogams, and
particularly alga, may also enable one to judge in the matter by the
modifications to which they are subject from alteration of the water. These
lower organisms survive after the disappearance of fish, of molluscs, and
of green herbs. As the alteration of the water progresses the river loses its
limpidity, it becomes opaline, and this gray colour resists filtration. The
surface is covered with froth, and the water deposits a dark, fetid slime,
whence bubbles of gas are liberated. Presently there appear sulphurets,
especially sulphuretted hydrogen, and the emanations of the river blacken
silver and cooking utensils that may be exposed to them. M. Gerardin
observed that when water contains the normal proportion of dissolved
oxygen it may support the life of fish and herbs. As the oxygen diminishes ~
the animals having active respiration disappear first, then those whose
respiration is lower. And he gives as an example the black leech, which
will exist in water wherein the shrimp at once-dies.

. Waters have been directly poisoned due to the refuse from a gas tank
. having obtained access to the. river ; by mine water, chloride of lime, caustic
potash, the refuse from manufactories, paper mills, bleaching grounds,
tanneries, or sewers; artificial root manure, sheep dipping; beer unfit for
consumption having been emptied into fish ponds; the overflow of peat
_ bogs, and other destructive agencies. The more rapid the current the more
quickly are.poisons entering the stream diluted, and the less chance of their
being immediately destructive to the fish. Fish themselves appear to dread
foul water, and some of our rivers which used to afford salmon, shad, &c., are
no longer frequented by them. The wash occasioned by steam launches in a
river may destroy or cast on the banks eggs or broods of young fish, as
may likewise a very high. tide. Water which is sufficiently pure for some
species, as members of the carp family and notably the gudgeon, to reside in,
may not be sufficiently so for those of the salmon family. Widespread
destruction is occasionally observed in the sea owing to some cause inimical
to the lives of fish, and this has been attributed to deleterious agencies from
the shore, poisons carried down by rivers, the eruption of. some noxious

volcanic gases from the sea-bottom or sulphuretted hydrogen generated from
animal or vegetable decomposition acting on the sulphates of soda and
magnesia contained in the sea-water.

2. Atmospheric disturbances and accidental causes may also be oe
tive: thus a frost or low temperature has been known to affect the sand
smelt, ballan wrasses, pilchards, conger, eels and other fishes; but it is
remarkable. how fish apparently frozen may occasionally be resuscitated.
Electric disturbances may. be a caiise of the déath of fishes. Thus during
cv DISEASES AND CAUSES OF DESTRUCTION. ~

1879 the occupants of a small fish-pond at Seck, in the Duchy of Nassau,
were destroyed by a flash of lightning. ‘he following morning the whole of
the fish were discovered dead on the surface, having all the appearance
of having been half-boiled, while they crumbled to pieces on being touched.
No injury could be seen, but the water in the pond was still muddy
and dull the morning after the storm. At 3 p.m. on July 7, 1865, a
flash of lightning, observed Mr. Lloyd, struck a house in Hamburg, and
about 200 feet away in a shady spot in the garden, and in the open
air, was a large fresh-water aquarium containing forty-three fish, consisting
of tench, carp, dace, roach, gold-fish, and eels, two species of loach, ete.
At the moment of the flash of lightning every one of these fish became
suspended perpendicularly downwards in the water, with their tails at the
surface, feebly and vainly trying to swim towards the bottom of the tank,
with all their fins strangely attenuated, as transparent as fine tissue-
paper, and densely covered on both sides with myriads of fine air-
bubbles; their heads and bodies were not so covered. In less than half-
an-hour forty-one were dead, strongly curved, almost in the form of
_semi-circles, and already fast decomposing ; but’ two gradually recovered by
being plaeed in running water.

Hail and thunderstorms united will sometimes depopulate rivers in
tropical countries (Dobrizhoffer). On July 3, 1866; several salmon in
Scotland were killed by lightning during the intensely hot weather that
prevailed. Gales, likewise, are occasionally destructive to fish. Thus, on
April 13, 1874, one at Scilly was so violent that large fish, as conger,
hake, ling, &c., were ‘tossed about in their watery homes, and at last flung
by hundreds on the rocks. Some had their scales knocked off, others their
heads stove in, while even those which live at the rocky bottoms fared no
better than their neighbours. It is well known that a high temperature
is injurious to fishes: thus about June 10, 1882, a great destruction of
trout occurred in Harry Loch, in Orkney. The weather reduced the water
in the Loch, and the trout gathered in great shoals around the burn-mouths,
where they were landed in hundred-weights by the neighbouring farwers,
who are mostly small proprietors. One fisherman-farmer landed. a thousand
trout in one haul; while on another occasion five cartloads were caught in a
‘single sweep. ,

Waterworks may suck in young fry by hundreds. The action of dynamite
is very destructive, and when blowing up the ruins of the Tay bridge, fish
as much as two miles away were destroyed: those killed sunk, those only
stunned mostly floated.

3. Diseases by which they are directly affected, feoludiug those in ite
ova state and infancy, as developmental or monstrosities, malformations or
consequent upon accidents. Space will not permit me to enter upon the
* DISEASES AND CAUSES OF DESTRUCTION. evil

many affections from which fishes . suffer, from the fungus of the young to
the numerous diseases of a contagious or non-contagious character.

There are certain animal parasites which affect fish, and which may be
briefly divided into such as are (a): internal or entozva,* and (b) external or
epizoa, irrespective of which are infusoria and parasitic fungi.

Entozoa are very common, and it has been computed that each. fish may
probably have, as an average, not less than four distinct species of guests
able to occupy its body. Tapeworms would seem to be very numerous,
but most of their entozoa appear to undergo transformation after changing
their abode, the final host being often a water-bird.

Epizoa are seen as small crustaceans, many having the mouth modified
‘into a suctorial tube or beak, within which are lancet-shaped mandibles
employed for piercing. Of these epizoa we have two large subdivisions :
first, such as are essentially surface forms, as fish lice, which can move from
place to place. by means of their hooked and prehensile antenna, or even leave
the fish and swim freely in the water; secondly, the more sedentary forms,
as Lernea, having their heads frequently embedded in the bodies of their
victims, and without powers of locomotion. Often the whole of their external
organs are rudimentary, and they may be found in fishes’ eyes, gills, mouth,
vent, nostrils, and fins.

Infusoria are everywhere, in fresh or saline water, and some forms are
endoparasitic in the alimentary canals of fishes, as well as other parts of
their bodies.

Parasitic fungi may also occur: thus one of a highly contagious character
has been of late years very destructive among fresh-water fishes. This
fungus, Saprolegnia ferax (see vol. ii, page 81), has probably been always
present, but requires a soil suitable for its germination .and.growth,, and
although some of the following may be the predisposing cause to the disease,
still it has been‘observed where none such could have existed. The fish,
particularly salmon, may be rendered susceptible from many causes, as
debility, and especially after injuries occasioning abrasions, as male kelts
after the breeding season, and also unspent kelts, but young fish may
‘likewise be affected. Frosts, droughts, and polluted waters favour its
development, and possibly were there fewer kelts preserved, and the waters
of our rivers purer, we should find less of this disease, especially where the
currents are rapid. Overfeeding appears to predispose to it in some pieces
of water. The use of rock-salt is believed to be the best mode of
treatment in our fish-ponds and aquaria, while migrating to the sea would
seem to arrest the fungus, although it is not certain that it will not reappear’
on the fishes’ return to the river.

* See Cobbold on the Entozoa: he most correctly observes that cooking fish infested with
worms destroys their vitality, while these forms are not capable of existing in the human body.
Cviil ARTIFICIAL CULTIVATION OF FISH.

4, The effects of misplaced energy in fishermen and poachers is a
subject too vast to do more than allude to in this place, but the especial
attention of legislators ought to be drawn to the fact that increased present
productiveness may be carried on at the expense of future years’ supply, and
multiplying modes of destruction does not invariably tend to the benefit of
the fisherman or of the consumer.

5. Injuries occasioned by the lower animals are numerous, and differ
somewhat in the adult stage from what they do among the ova and young.
Adult fish suffer greatly from porpoises and their allies, otters, birds and
various species of their own kind; whilst the ova and fry may be destroyed
by rats, birds (even robins), watersnakes, newts, frogs, leeches, and a variety -
of other agencies. .

ARTIFICIAL CULTIVATION OF FISH.

The cultivation of fish has for its chief object an increase in the number -
or size, and likewise an improvement in the breed of those in fresh waters,
or, even of the sea, not only by direct cultivation of the finny tribes, but also
of the food on which they subsist, and an eradication of what may be
detrimental to their prosperity. This would include whatever assists them
in their ascent or descent of rivers, when doing so to continue their
kind or maintain the life of each individual (see figure of fish-pass,
page Ixxviii), When inland fisheries are impoverished the aid of
legislation has generally to be invoked, in order to protect what is left,
permit nature to play her part in their recovery, and, if necessary, to have
desirable forms artificially propagated.

Our inland waters consist of such as streams or rivers, broads, canals,
lakes, and ponds: while some rivers are rapid and clear, others are sluggish
and more or less muddy. Different classes of fish inhabit these various
localities ; those most esteemed and generally looked upon as game-species
are the Salmonide, while the coarse fish consist of perch, pike, and members
of the carp family. As a general rule the first are found in running
water and lakes, whereas the latter prefer more sluggish streams, broads,
and ponds.

The artificial cultivation of salmon and trout has been found necessary
in these islands, for reasons already stated (page lxx), and a great gain
would have accrued were it not for the over-fishing which is now permitted ~
in the lower reaches of the rivers (page ciii). The ova of the Salmonida
can be obtained from fish captured in the waters they frequent, or their
redds in the rivers and streams may be ae or the parents may be
purposely kept in breeding-ponds.
ARTIFICIAL CULTIVATION OF FISH. cix

The mode of spawning or stripping fish, as salmon or trout, requires
practice, and the experienced fish-culturist will obtain a larger supply of..
eggs from a ripe fish than will an inexperienced or careless manipulator.
Having obtained what appears to bea fish in a suitable condition, gentle
pressure along the abdomen must be exercised, when ova from the female or
milt from the male should be forthcoming ; occasionally the former sex will
require a little cdaxing, as she will not always yield at the first attempt.
‘If the eggs are not quite ready the distended abdomen feels hard and
somewhat unyielding ; whereas in ripe fish it is soft, and the ova can be
felt moving under pressure of the hand. It may be necessary to detain
these fish in suitable Bpdoptacleg for a few days, either because the eggs or
milt are not quite ripe, or else - congeyuent upor only fishes of one sex
having been taken. "

The necessary apparatus for spawning fish consists of a shallow tin or
earthenware pan, for receiving the eggs and milt, and which is’ furnished
with a spout for the purpose of pouring them into the tin carrying-can, this _
latter having a perforated lid;.also a jug for clean water, and a dry cloth
is useful for assisting in fielding the fish. The fish is held with its body
somewhat sideways, and its tail directed downwards, while the pan to
receive the eggs is placed below its vent, when by means of simple pressure,
commencing from the ventral fins and passing downwards along the belly
towards the vent, the eggs or milt are extruded.

.There are two processes which may be adopted, the moist or water plan,
and the dry. In the first some water is first placed in the pan which
receives the eggs as pressed from the fish. In the dry process, on the
contrary, the eggs are directly received into a dry pan, over them the milt
is distributed, and the pan is gently agitated from side to side; after giving
the eggs and milt' time to mix, water is poured in to the depth of a few
inches, stirred with the hand, and allowed to stand until they have hardened
and freed (see page lxvi), a period of from one quarter to three quarters of
an hour, according to the temperature, taking longest in cold water. The
eggs must be properly cleansed by gently pouring clean water over them,
and when this is no longer discoloured, the eggs may be transferred from
the receiving to the carrying-can, which transference should not take place
too soon. Any milt left on the eggs will cause injury in the hatching
troughs, so should be thoroughly washed off. The most prolific milt seems
to be of medium consistence. The eggs are now removed to the incubation
house.* Irrespective of the foregoing, plans have been successfully adopted
in some fish establishments in the United States to permit breeding-fish to

* For directions as to hatching and rearing young fish, the carriage of eggs and young, and
the stocking of pieces of water, the reader is referred to the various existing works on fish-culture.
cx ARTIFICIAL CULTIVATION OF FISH.

ascend the stream which feeds the pond, but having wire trays so fitted
.that the eggs when deposited drop through into a receptacle for their
collection. Some observers, however, appear to-think that, due to the
rapidity of the current, the milt is often washed away before it has
performed its function, and consequently a number of ova escape
impregnation. Rough fish may likewise be artificially cultivated, as has
been remarked upon (page Ixvii).

In stocking pieces of water with eggs or young of Salmonide it would '
seem desirable that great attention should be paid to the age and condition
of the parent fish, as I have observed (page lxix). I assume that care will
be taken that the water is appropriate, for although new stock may tend to .
improve local breeds in suitable places, such will not be the case should the
food be insufficient or inappropriate. Perhaps the Lochleven race of trout
grows as fast as any other in these islands, especially when the eggs are
from seven or eight year old parents, while in the warmer south they increase
more rapidly in size than in the colder north.

The introduction of exotic forms of ‘fish into our fresh waters has been
advocated, a proceeding which, although it may be beneficial, on the other
hand may be the reverse. It should first be considered whether the stranger
subsists upon a vegetable or animal diet, and secondly whether sufficient
exists for his consumption where it is proposed to acclimatize him.
Anadromous forms may be beneficial, due to the small amount of food they
generally require when ascending the rivers to breed. Carnivorous forms
may be useful, in order to diminish too large a number of coarse fish in a
river, where they are in excess of its capabilities for supplying them with
sufficient nourishment; but when they have thinned down the primitive
stock they may continue to deplete the fishery to too eee an extent, and
be a nuisance in their turn.

It is not surprising that the cultivation of fish-ponds for coarse fish has
decreased or almost disappeared from this country, because increased
facilities of carriage of fish from the sea-coast has rendered their produce
of but little value; and as such has become less and less esteemed.the care
bestowed on ponds has been diminished until at last they may be said to
produce fish of an earthy or muddy quality. If left unattended to they
must deteriorate: they should not stand full more than two or three years
unless the proprietor revels in the contemplation of miserable half-starved
forms. The best treatment appears to be rotating crops of vegetables with
crops of fish, for which purpose at least three ponds are requisite, although
more are undoubtedly advantageous.

The aspect of the ponds, nature of the soil and character of the water
are all factors to be taken into account, hard clays and gravel being generally
unfavourable, and a marly soil mostly to be preferred. In constructing a
FISH-PONDS. , oxi

pond it should not be too deep, shallows being necessary for the fry which
rarely go into deep water, which being colder in the summer than the shallows
is less frequented by insects. Trees in their vicinity are detrimental because.
the leaves falling into the water occasion the formation of a black mud, and
the escape of fcetid gases, which in winter, especially when the water is
covered with ice, become very injurious to the fish, Rank vegetation along
the banks is often injurious, although: some weeds when present afford
shelter and assist in clearing the water. .
There should always be facilities for running a fish-pond dry, and the
‘same depth of water should be maintained throughout the year. The inflow
of water should never be direct from a brook but conducted from one side,
and the sluices should be strong enough to render overflow impossible, while
there should be a grating to keep out ‘strange fish. The centre of the pond
should be deeper than the rest, while near the outlet should be a spot still
deeper than any other part of the pond.

‘The number and sorts of fish suitable for stocking ponds depends on
many circumstances, especially as regards the food which is present, whether
the water comes from a stream or from springs, and many other conditions.
Boccius recommends the following as suitable for an acre of water : 200
brood carp, 20 brood tench, and 20 brood pike. North cautions the fish-
culturist against over-stocking and recommends that after the first year they
‘should be diminished because the food will decrease. When a pond is dried
the contained ‘fish should be examined as to whether they are in good or bad
condition, from which it must be judged whether the water has been
under- or over-stocked.

In 1754, Mr. Tull communicated a paper to the Royal Society respecting
how he had castrated certain carps; and asserting that ‘their flavour had
become much improved consequent upon the operation.

Salt-water vivaria have been tried with varying success, and one would
imagine that with care and attention they might be made suitable for the
reception of some marine forms as bass, mullet, &c., so that a constant supply
to the market would be available even at the periods when gales hinder the
sea-fisherman’s occupation. These vivaria may be placed on the coast and
either be entirely supplied with salt-water by means of tidal influence, or may
be lakes wherein the lower portion consists of salt or brackish water and the
upper of fresh, where it may be fed by a stream. The locality selected,
irrespective of all advantage of situation, should be where the necessary
food could be obtained at a cheap rate, whether such is the refuse of fish,
meat offal, shell-fish, or manufactured substances. Also, should the local
demand for fish be insufficient there ought to be the means of inexpensive
and easy carriage toa suitable market. Several such vivaria have been formed
at different places around these islands at various times; Parnell mentions
exii ARTIFICIAL HATCHING, OF MARINE FISHES.

one near Queensferry; Buckland one at Port ‘Logan in Wigtonshire,
&c. Mr. Bland of Derriquin Castle, Kenmare Bay, had in an inlet
of Sneem harbour, protected by reefs of rocks, a stroug barrier of stones
formed across the entrance but through which every tide flowed and
ebbed, but leaving a sufficiency of water within, Here mullet, whiting, sea
bream, soles and plaice succeeded best, haddock also did well, but gurnards
became pale in colour. Whiting became so tame as to feed out of the hand,
and all assembled at the feedihg-time on the appearance of the tray. While
marine fishes have been acclimatized to fresh water (page Ixxxiii, and vol. i,
page 229, and vol. ii, page 128).

| ARTIFICIAL HATCHING OF MARINE FISHES.

I have already remarked how depeopled fresh-water fisheries have
been: restocked by artificial means, and must now briefly record how in the
United States this procedure has also been turned to practical account with
salt-water fisheries. The Government Fishery Commissioners finding a
difficulty in regulating the modes of capture in the sea, but observing that
the fisheries were becoming impoverished from over-fishing, conceived the
idea of propagating marine forms, as they considered that it would be useless
to expect fishermen to stock public waters at their own expense, especially
as everyone would subsequently be at liberty to catch the fish. Acting
upon this principle the United States Fishery Department have wisely
investigated their seas, repopulating their waters where the necessity exists,
and thus counteracting the waste which is being occasioned wherever man
has liberty or licence to capture the finny tribes however he pleases,
irrespective of season and regardless of their condition. *
FISHES OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

 

Criass.—PISCES.

Vertebrate animals which, as a rule, are exclusively adapted for an aquatic
‘life, and have their extremities modified into fins. Respiring, almost invariably,
solely by means of gills:* possessing a heart with only two cavities, and being
cold-blooded. They are scaleless, partially, or wholly scaled, the scales being
sometimes in the form of osseous plates.

Sus-cLass .—TELEOSTEI.

Skeleton osseous. Brain distinct. Skull possessing cranial bones. Vertebree
completely separated, and the posterior extremity of the vertebral column
bony, or having bony plates. Branchis free, and the. water discharged through
a single aperture, protected by a bony gill-cover, or opercle: branchiostegal
rays present. A non-contractile bulbus arteriosus, having a pair of valves at
its commencement. Optic nerves decussating. Intestines without any spiral valve.

OrveR I.—ACANTHOPTERYGII.

A portion of the dorsal, anal, and ventral fins unarticulated, forming spines.+
Air-bladder, when present, completely closed, not possessing a pneumatic duct.

Geographical distribution.—T he spiny-rayed or Acanthopterygian order of fishes
appear to be most numerous in the ocean, preying upon their weaker neighbours.
Whereas, if we examine inland fresh waters, we observe the Malacopterygii as
the Salmonide and Cyprinide usurping their place; these latter having solely
articulated, but no spinous, rays.

First group—Perciformes.

Body elevated or oblong not elevated. No superbranchial organ. Spinous
dorsal fin well developed: anal similar to soft dorsal; ventrals thoracic, usually
1/4 or 1/5. Vent remote from caudal fin and posterior to the ventral.

Famity, I—~PERCID.

Percoidei, pt., Scicenoidet, pt., et Menides, pt., Cuv.; Percide, pt., Theraponide,
pt., Hemulonide, pt., Richardson; Percide, pt., et Pristipomatide, pt., Ginther ;
Ambassoidet, pt., Bleeker.

Branchiostegals from five to seven: pseudobranchie present. Form of body
generally oblong. ‘Muciferous system of head rudimentary or but slightly
developed. yes lateral. No superbranchial organ. Preopercle entire or
serrated: cheeks not cuirassed. Mouth in front of snout, having a lateral cleft,
occasionally on the lower side, moderately or rarely very protractile. Teeth
in the jaws villiform, with or without canines, present or absent on the

* Certain fishes, mostly residents within or near the tropics, asthe Labyrinthict and Ophiocepha-
lide, even when a bandage 1s fastened round their gill-covers, entirely precluding their
employment for respiratory purposes, are still able to live in water, provided they can obtain direct
access to atmospheric air. In the majority of fishes such a proceeding would be rapidly fatal,

+ There are some genera in which the fins can hardly be said to have any true spines, as among
the Trachinide, Aulostomatide, Ophiocephalide, §c. ‘
2 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

vomer and palatines. Anterior portion of the dorsal fin spinous: ventrals
thoracic 1/5 or sometimes 1/4. Scales ctenoid or cycloid. Lateral line when
prevent continuous (except in some species of Ambassis). Air-vessel usually
present and more or less simple. Pyloric appendages in varying numbers.

Genus I.—Perroa, Artedi.

Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchie present. Body oblong and somewhat
compressed. Preopercle serrated, with denticulations on tts lower limb directed
forwards. Opercle spinate. Teeth villiform in jaws, on vomer and palatine bones:
tongue smooth. Two dorsal fins separated at their bases, the first with 13 or 14
spines: the anal with 2 spines. Scales rather small, ctenoid, not extended on to
the upper surface of the head. Pyloric appendages few.

Cuvier selected the Perch as an appropriate type for the first Genus into
which he subdivided the Percoides.

Geographical distribution.—Fresh waters of both the Arctic regions, rarely
descending to salt water.

1. Perca flaviatilis, Plate I.

Nepxn, Aristotle, Hist. Anim. lib. vi, c. 14; Adlian, xiv. c. 23, 26.

Perca, Pliny, xxxii, c. 9,10; Ausonius, a.p. 400, v, 115; Jonston, De Pisce.
1649, lib. iii, tit. ili, c. i, p. 156, t. xxiv, f. 3. Une Perche de riviere, Belonius,
1553, p. 291. Perca major, Schonevelde, 1624, p.55; Artedi, Genera Piscium, 1738,
Gen. 39, Syn. 66, species, 74. Perca fluviatilis major, Aldrovandus, 1638, v, cap. 53,

. 622.

: Perca fluviatilis, Rondeletius, 1554, ii, pp. 196, 197; Salviani, 1554, f£. 2440,
226; Gesner, 1558, p. 698, f. 168), and Edit. 1598, fol. 168 and 172, c¢. fig;
Willughby, De Historia Piscium, 1686, iv, c. 14, p. 291, t. 8, 13. f. 1; Ray,
Synopsis Methodica Avium et Piscium, 1713, Pisc. p. 97, No. 23; Gronovius,
Zoophyl. 1763, p. 91, No. 30] and Mus. i, No. 36; Linneus, Syst. Nature, Hd.
12, 1766, p. 481; Rutty, Natural History of the County of Dublin, 1772, i, p. 368;
Pennant, British Zoology (Edition 1), 1776, iii, p. 254, pl. xlviii, (Edition 2),
1812, iii, p. 345, pl. lix; O. F. Miller, Zoologie Danicee Prodomus, 1776, p. 46;
Linneus, Systema Nature, Gmelin, 1788, p. 1306 ; Marsigli, iv, t. xxiii, f.1; Bloch,
Fische Deutschlands, 1782-84, t. lii; Bonnaterre, Encyclopedia Ichthyologia, 1788,
p. 126, pl. lui, f. 204; Lacépéde, Histoire des Poissons, 1798-1803, iv, p. 399;
Donovan, Natural History of British Fishes, 1802-8, iii, pl. lii; Shaw, General
Zoology, 1803, iv, p. 545, pl. lxxix; Turton, British Fauna, 1807, p. 100; Jurine,
Poissons du Lac Leman, 1825, p. 1; Cuvier and Valenciennes, Histoire Naturelle
des Poissons, 1828, ii, p. 20, t. i-viii; Flemming, History of British Animals,
1828, p. 213; Nilsson, Ichthyologia Scandinavice, 1832, p. 81; Bonaparte,
Icones, Fauna Italica, 1832-41, iii, p. 79, f.1; Fries och Ekstrom, Skandinaviens
Fiskar, 1836, pl. i; Jenyns, Manual of British Vertebrate Animals, 1835, p. 330;
Yarrell, British Fishes (Ed. 1), 1836, i, p. 1, c. fig. (Ed. 2), 1841, i, p. 1 (Ed. 3),
u, p. 112; Cuvier, Regne Animal, Poissons, pl. vi, f.1; Templeton, Magazine of
Natural History (Series 2), 1837, i, p. 409; Parnell, Fishes of the Frith of Forth,
1838, p. 8; Swainson, Natural History of Fish, 1839, ii, p. 198; Demidoff,
Voyage dans la Russie Méridionale, 1840-42, iii, p. 355; White, Catalogue of
British Fish, 1851, p. 9; Thompson, Natural History of Ireland, 1856, iv, p. 69;
Giinther, Catalogue of the Fishes in the British Museum, i, 1859, p. 58; Schlegel,
De Dieren van Nederland, 1862, p. 32, pl. 3, f.2; Blanchard, Les Poissons des
eaux douces de la France, 1866, p. 180, fig. 8; Collett, Norges Fiske, 1875, p. 15;
Steindachner, Ak. Wien, SB, Ixxviii, Abth. i, 1878, p. 399; Houghton, British
Fresh-water Fishes, 1879, p. 1, pl. i.

Perca vulgaris and P. helvetica, Gronovius, Catalogue of Fish by Gray, 1854,
pp. 118, 114.

Perea Italica, Cuv. and Val. ii, p. 45 (variety destitute of bands.)

Perch, Couch, History of the Fishes of the British Islands, 1862, i, p. 185, pl.

XXXIV.
FAMILY, I—PERCID A. 3

; Synonymy of American examples.*
Bodianus flavescens, Mitchill, Phil. Trans. New York, i, p. 421.
Perca flavescens, Cuv. Régne Anim.; Cuv. and Val. ii, p. 46; Agassiz, Lake
Superior, p. 291; Giinther, Catal. i, p. 59.
Perca granulata and P. serrato-granulata, Cuv. and Val. ii, pp. 47, 48, pl. ix.

a acuta and P. gracilis, Cuy. and Val. ii, pp. 49, 50; Giinther, Catal. i,
p. 60.

B. vii, D. 14-15 | ~273;, P. 14, V. 1/5, A. 325, C. 18, LiL 55-60, L. tr. 7-9/19;
Cose. Pyl. 3, Vert. 21/20-21.

Length of head 32 to 4, of caudal fin 52 to 64, height of body 32 to 4 in the
total length. Hye—diameter 44 to 5} in the length of the head, according to the
size of the specimen, 1 to 14 diameters from the end of the snout, and also apart.
Interorbital space slightly convex. The maxilla reaches to beneath the middle of
the eye. Opercle with a rather strong and flattened spine, the lower edge of
which, also of sub- and inter-opercles and shoulder bones very finely ‘serrated,
‘sometimes the serrations on the opercle are more or less blunted. A few
minute serrations sometimes present on the lower edge of preorbital. Preopercle
serrated along its posterior border, most strongly so at the angle, while several
denticulatious, pointing forward, exist along its lower edge. Teeth—villiform in
the jaws, on the vomer and palatine bones, but absent from the tongue. Fins—
dorsal spines rather strong, increasing in length to the third which slightly
exceeds half that of the head, they decrease in height from the fifth to the last:
second dorsal fin lower than the first. Pectoral two-fifths the length of the head,
but not so long as the ventral. Second anal spine slightly longer than the first and
rather above half the length of the rays. Caudal with rounded lobes. Scales—
ctenoid, 15 or 16 rows between the lateral-line and base of the ventral fin: 75
rows descend from the back to the lateral-line. Cecal appendages—three: they
are rather wide and of moderate extent. The length of the intestinal tract
equals that of the entire fish excluding the tail or caudal fin. <Air-bladder—
destitute of any bones connecting it with the internal ear: it is large, simple,
having thin walls, while its superior half is closely adherent to the under surface
of the ribs and bodies of the vertebree ; inferiorly it is covered by the peritoneum.
Colours—bright olive-green along the back becoming lighter beneath, where it is
often yellow or dark yellowish-white, occasionally tinged with pink. About 5
transverse black bands descend from the back down the sides, the first from just
in front of and below the two first dorsal spines: the second from the fourth to the
ninth: the third from the base of the last two and commencement of the soft
dorsal: the fourth below the middle of the soft dorsal: the fifth below its end,
while a sixth often exists at the base of the caudal fin. Sometimes these bands
arise from two roots, or are Y-shaped. First dorsal fin gray, with two black
spots, one anteriorly, the other over its last spines.

In the United States and Canada we find the Bodianus flavescens, Mitchill,
likewise termed Perca granulata and P. serrato-granulata, C. V.: also a variety
from Lake Ontario which is deficient in the spot on the dorsal fin, P. acuta,
Richardson: and an elongated form from Canada termed P. gracilis, C.V. These
fishes have been distinguished from P. fluviatilis for the following reasons :—
locality: also, exclusive of colour, due to the head being slightly longer, the
snout more pointed, the skull smoother, and the preopercular denticulations
finer: the formula also being D.13 | 3, A. 2. The P. serrato-granulata, O.V. is
said to be thicker, skull and opercle more striated, the latter being denticulated
along the lower border, while the number of denticulations along the lower edge of
the preopercle are more numerous and finer than in the European species, D.
14 | 33;, A. 72g: also the scales are somewhat smoother. P. granulata has the
vomerine teeth stronger than in the other forms, the denticulations on the
preopercle very fine especially along its lower edge: the surface of the parietal
covered with granulated and raised lines: opercle feebly striated and destitute of

* All the references to works treating on these fishes in foreign countries cannot be included,
due to the amount of space such would require. i
4 ACANTHOPTERYGIL.

denticulations. Professor L. Agassiz having most kindly supplied me with
examples from the Cambridge, Mass. Museum, from which, Professor Garman has
selected five of the form P. flavescens with very great discrimination; they
afford the following results, D. 13-14, | 73725, A. g27, L. 1. 55, 60, 65, 70; L. tr.
6-8/15-18. Length of the head 3} to 33, height of body varies from 3 to 4 in the
total excluding the caudal fin. The radiating striae on the summit of the head
are entirely absent in some but very distinct in others, and the same remark applies
to those on the opercle. In one the opercular spine is blunted, while the lower
edge of that bone is roughly crenulated: 1, 2, or 3, small spines are directed
backwards in three of these five examples; in the last this edge is quite smooth.
Along the lower limb of the preopercle are from 6 to 11 forwardly directed
denticulations. Thus the radiating striz on the head as well as the denticulations
are so subject to variety in the American forms that no specific value can be
attached to them. The height and strength of the dorsal spines and rays vary,
the weakest being the most elongated: while, as a rule, the more elongated the
form the more pointed is the snout. Colour again is evidently of no specific
value, two of these five examples have no transverse bands: two have 8 bands,
and one has 7, irrespective of which they are either wide or narrow, well defined,
or else between them are numerous spots or blotches. The spot on the dorsal fin
likewise varies, and may be entirely absent. The form of the snout is similar to
that of P. fluviatilis, or else more pointed. Holbrook long since pointed out that
P. gracilis was a variety of P. flavescens, while Steindachner in 1878 remarked
upon its specific identity with the European perch.

Varieties—As to form, Linneus refers to a distorted perch having a hunched
back, found at Fahlun, in Sweden, where it is termed ‘“Rudaborre :” Pennant
observes that similarly malformed ones existin Llyn Rhaithlyn, in Merionethshire.
Pennell has likewise recorded similar fish in Cheshire, and they have been taken
in other localities. As to colowr—Cuvier has described examples in which the
dark transverse bands were absent: some have been observed almost white: and
others of a slatey-gray having a silvery tint. These variations in colour are
perhaps due to the soil in which the waters exist where these fish were bred, but
may remain even if transported elsewhere. One example, 18 inches long, and
weighing 43 1b., was captured in 1866 near Great Yarmouth, in Ormesby Broad,
with the transverse bands scarcely distinguishable, and the succeeding year
one of 2 lb. weight in Virginia Water, which was quite destitute of any bands.—
(Zoologist). .

The name of this fish is of Greek origin, signifying “dark colour,” which
probably refers to its bands, while this nomenclature has been introduced with
but little change into almost every European country. It is the perca of the
Romans, the perch of the British Isles, perc, Welsh: the old Anglican, bears,
Dutch, baars, German, barsch, or the “banded fish,” bors or pertsh. La perche,
French. The word perch formerly was spelt pearch. This fish possesses certain
local or provincial names, as barse in Westmoreland, or if young hurling: base,
Cumberland: trasling, Cheshire; crutchet, Warwickshire. Likewise those of one
season are termed tranling, of two seasons egling, if of three stichling.

It has been very truly observed that in referring to the local names of plants
as given by old authors, one should not lose sight of the fact that strict exactitude
will not always be found, so it is also in fishes, for as in this day some persons
term all small fresh-water forms “minnows” or “gudgeons,” and all minute
marine ones “sprats ;” so our ancestors were not more particular than many
authors belonging to the present generation, and who are neither fishermen
nor naturalists. Thus the same name became applied to quite different species of
fish while the same fish might have twenty distinct designations. The Saxons
have represented one of their gods standing on the back of a perch with naked
feet, as an emblem of patience in adversity and constancy under trial.

Habits.—Perch as a rule are gregarious fresh-water forms, which inhabit
lakes, ponds, and rivers, more especially frequenting deep holes or where there is
a gentle current, preferring the sides to the more rapid parts of streams.
Occasionally they descend to salt water, and when found in such localities or
PERCIDA. 5

where it is brackish, their flavour for the table has been considered improved. In
Norfolk they have been observed to associate with one another according to size,
the larger ones keeping in select societies by themselves, and the smaller ones in
similar companies.* Sluggish during the cold months, they become more active
in spring, when they frequent the more rapid parts of rivers and the shallower
waters. Mr. Manley, in his work on fishing, observes that he has found January
and February the best months for perch fishing. In confinement they become
very bold, and are easily tamed. In one of the tanks at the Westminster Aquarium
they might be seen lying on the leaves of the larger water plants, which are two
or three feet below the surface. They are very tenacious of life if the weather is
not very hot or thundery, and may be conveyed alive to long distances after
removal from the water, especially if surrounded by wet moss. In some parts of
the Continent, as Germany, these fish are taken alive to market, when, if unsold,
they are returned to stock ponds to await another opportunity. They are
injuriously affected by thunder, and also by frosts.

The strong spines of their dorsal fins render large ones very formidable as food
for pike, still the young constitute a tempting bait. Anglers who employ them
as such usually first remove their back fin: while aquatic birds appear to relish
their flavour. When very hungry perch are said to make a meal of even the
spined-loach, Cobitis tenia, but usually avoid such as food. Lacépéde states that
they eat young water rats, and have been known to devour small snakes.

Means of capture——Being very fearless, the perch readily takes a bait,
and even a moderately skilful angler, using worms, coming across an
assemblage of small ones while feeding, is pretty sure of numerous captures,
as they gorge the hook. In some localities they are taken with night-lines,
spinning bait or even netted; while they have been known to take the fly.
Anglers now find that due to constant fishing, perch in some localities are more
wary than was formerly the case, and the use of fine tackle is necessary while
any tendency to quickness in striking is to be avoided.

Baits.—Worms, shrimps, small crustacea, the larve of insects and live-bait,
as young frogs, newts, and small fishes, whether gudgeon, roach, dace, chub, or
minnow: even an artificial fly has been found successful. Isaac Walton observes
“that should you rove for a perch with a minnow, then it is best to be alive, you
sticking your hook through his back fin: or a minnow with the hook in the upper
lip, and letting him swim up and down about mid-water, or a little lower, aud
you still keeping him to about that depth by a cork, which ought not to be a
very little one: and the like way you are to fish for the pike with a small frog,
your hook being fastened through the skin of his leg, towards the upper part
of it: and lastly I will give you this advice—that you give the perch time enough
when he bites, for there was scarce any angler that has given him too much.”
Jesse remarks that these fish may be attracted to a given locality by placing
a number of live minnows in a glass bottle, from which their exit is prevented by
a piece of perforated zinc. When the astonished perch are looking in vain at the
tempting strangers, another minnow used as a bait is at once seized. Most anglers
are aware that should you happen to hook one of these fish and it is not
taken, your chances of obtaining more bites from members of that community
become diminished: often they instantly cease from patronizing the bait, as if
the one which had escaped capture had informed its fellows. But frequently
instances bearing the other way have been recorded “in removing the hook from
the jaws of a fish, one eye was accidentally displaced and remained adhering to it.
Knowing the reparative capabilities of piscine organization, I returned the
maimed perch, which was too small for the basket, to the lake, and being
somewhat scant of minnows threw the line in again with the eye attached to it as a
bait, there being no other of any description on the hook. The float disappeared
almost instantly: and on landing the new comer, it turned out to be the fish I
had the moment before thrown in, and which had actually been caught with

his own eye.”’+
* Fisherman’s Magazine, i, p. 107.
+ Cholmondeley Pennell, Angler’s Naturalist, p. 51.
6 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Breeding.—In some ponds perch increase in numbers very rapidly: spawning
commences about the third year of the fish’s life, when they have attained about
6 inches in length. The breeding season is from March to the commencement
of May, occurring even earlier in shallow water, while itis frequently continued
until June. They have been known to breed in aquaria, and Bloch describes
how they deposited their ova in long strings, in a glass vessel in which they
were kept in his room. Near Paris the number of females to males has been
given as 5 to 1, but such has not been generally recorded elsewhere. Mr. Manley
however, in his “ Notes on Fishing,” states that 9 out of every 10 which an angler
takes are females: in fact the proportion between the two sexes appears to
vary in different localities. A fish of 1}1b. weight was found to contain 280,000
ova, but Lacépéde, on the authority of Picot, gives nearly 1,000,000, however the
size of the example is not stated. Buckland recorded 127,240 in one 2 1b. 11 oz.
in weight, and 155,620 in one 31b. 20z. The size of the parent is one factor to
be considered in computing the number of ova which seem to increase with the
age of the fish: the weight of the eggs has been known to equal one-fourth
of that of the entire fish. The eggs are about the size of poppy seeds, glued
together by mucus, into stringy bands or mesh-work, having much resemblance
to frog-spawn. The female selects a spot where rushes, reeds, or grass grow in
the water, or else seeks a piece of wood or some hard substance, against which she
rubs herself or presses, until one end of the glutinous band of ova has become
attached : then gently swimming away the eggs become voided. These ova being
readily observed are constantly being devoured by aquatic birds and other
enemies. In the Thames swans destroy fish spawn to a great extent.

Their growth is slow, attaining to 2} inches in length at the end of the first
year, and about 5 inches at 2 years of age: but the rapidity of their growth
frequently depends upon local circumstances, especially as regards the purity or
otherwise of the water, the abundance or the reverse of suitable food, and whether
the locality is overstocked or not so. An example is recorded in which a perch
having lived five years in an aquarium only attained 8 inches in length and
then spawned.

Hermaphrodite examples have been recorded by Yarrell.*

Diseases.—These fishes are occasionally subject to epidemics. Thus in 1867
a perch plague destroyed hundreds of thousands in the Lake of Geneva, caused
according to Dr. Forel and Dr. Du Plesis by the presence of certain minute fungi
in the blood. It has been stated in Yorkshire that “after a certain age they
become blind: a hard, thick, yellow fibre covers the whole surface of the eye, and
renders the sight totally obscured. When this is the case, the fish generally
are exceedingly black: and although from the more extreme toughness and
consistency of the membrane, it is evident that some have been much longer in
this state than others, yet there appears no difference either in their flavour or
condition.t Yarrell suggested that this opacity may be the effect of local inflam-
mation, produced by some of the numerous leech-like minute animals, which are
found to frequently occur in the aqueous humours of the eyes of fishes.

Uses.— The Laplanders, according to Linnzus, employed the skin of this fish as
a strong glue for the purpose of joining together the two pieces of different sorts of
wood of which their bows were made. These skins were first dried, then soaked
in a little cold water in order that the scales might be easily rubbed off: several
of these skins were then enclosed in a bladder or piece of birch bark so that they
might not become moist: they were then placed in a pot of water to boil, a stone
being placed over the vessel in order to keep in the heat. Small perch are
frequently employed as bait for pike and trout.

As food.—This fish, especially when from rivers, has been held in great esteem
from the time of the Romans to the present day : in Ausonius’s writings, when
recording delicacies for the table, he observes that the perch must not be omitted,
while among the fishes of the rivers, it is a worthy compeer to those of the sea,
and may even compete with the sea-mullet. Ray remarks that owing to its

* British Fishes (Hd. 1), 1845, i, p. 91.
+ Thomas Huxley, Fish of Maltham Water, Craven, Yorkshire.
PERCIDA. 7

excellent flavour it was termed Perdix aquarum. It has white flesh, which is
firm in texture, delicate of taste, and easy of digestion. “In Ireland,” says
Thompson, “it is in little esteem as food.” ‘The Dutch are said to be partial to
it when made into a dish termed “ water souchey.”

Those from various localities have had their praises recorded by different
authors: in England they are reputed to attain their largest size and highest
condition in Norfolk and Suffolk in the Yare and Waveney, where the water is
slightly brackish ; the improved flavour may be due to the presence of shrimps,
which ascend so high in the autumn months. On the Continent those of the
Moselle, the Danube, the Po, the Rhine, and the Swiss Lakes hold the highest
place. Their flavour is considered best when they are in roe.

Perch may be boiled or grilled with or without the removal of their scales,
while small ones are generally fried. On the Continent they are stewed in
vinegar, or fresh grape- or orange-juice, or some sour sauce. Another plan is to
spit them with their scales on, and baste with an acid juice while roasting ; and
Mr. Manley mentions that the best he has ever had served to him were skinned
and broiled very delicately in buttered paper.

Habitat—Generally throughout the fresh waters of Europe, also in the
Siberian territories of Asiatic Russia. While in the Western Hemisphere it is
found on the North American continent from the fresh waters which find their
way into Hudson’s Bay as far south as those which empty themselves into the
Gulf of Mexico. In Scandinavia it is present, according to Nilsson, as far as the
sixty-ninth parallel.

In Great Britain it is rare north of the Forth, unless it has been introduced
within the present century, now it is present in the Deveron, in Banffshire
(Edward), is common in the Forth and its tributaries, as well as in Scottish
waters to the south of this river. It does not appear to exist in the Orkneys and
Shetland Isles. It is almost universally distributed through England and Wales;
but Borlase, in 1758, stated it to be unknown in Cornwall, where, however, Couch
remarks that it has been introduced this century. It is absent from the Isle of
Wight: while in Wales it is said to be chiefly confined to stagnant waters.

In Ireland it is pretty general though not universal. I have personally
captured it near Longford, while the lakes of Mayo abound with it. Some
naturalists believe it to be an introduced species, but Thompson observes that he
is disposed to doubt this as it is so widely distributed. Kanahan, remarking upon
the fishes of the River Dodder (1852), observes that there is good proof that it
has existed there twenty years.

As to the size it attains, one of 3lb. weight is considered a prize by the
angler of the present day; Pennant mentions one of 9 lb. as having been captured
in the Serpentine in Hyde Park, which a well known Norfolk angler (Land and
Water, 1879) does not hesitate to express his disbelief in, observing that the
largest he had personally captured was 57 1b., though he missed landing one that
he estimated weighed half a pound more. Mr. G. Browne* records one from
Bradgate Park, Leicestershire, which was found in a decomposed state on a
night-line, it then weighed 5;1b., and in adddition to its putrid state, which
doubtless reduced its weight, there was a large piece bitten out of its shoulder,
most likely by eels: he concluded that when alive it would have been at least
61b. Montagu mentions one of 81b. from the Avon, in Wiltshire, captured on a
night-line baited with a roach: and Hawkins, in the “Complete Angler,” an
example twenty-nine inches in length. Hunt one of 61b. from the Birmingham
Canal: Donovan one of 5 1b. from the Bala Lake, while some of 41b. have been
taken from Richmond Park and elsewhere. They appear to attain to their finest
size in the largest pieces of water. The head, nearly 12 inches in length, of a
perch, was stated by Bloch anid. others to have been preserved in the church of
Luehlah, in Lapland, but which it has been surmised, with great probability,
originally belonged to an example of Sebastes Norwegicus, known as a “sea-

perch.”
* Angler’s Note Book, p. 29.
8 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus IT.— Lasrax, Cuvier.

Dicentrarchus, Gill: Roccus and Morone, Mitchell.

Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchia present. Body oblong or rather elongated.
Preopercle serrated: opercle spinate. Teeth villiform im both jaws, on the vomer,
palatine bones and the tongue. Two dorsal fins separated at their hases the first with
9 spines: the anal generally with 3 (occasionally with 1 or 2) spines. Scales ctenoid:
of a small or moderate size. Pyloric appendages few.

Geographical distribution—This marine and river genus of perches is found
on the shores of the Arctic regions extending in Europe to the Mediterranean
and Egypt: while it also exists along the coasts and rivers of North America.
Professor Peters has likewise described one species, Labraw Scheenleinii, from the
Celebes, proving that it may be present in the vicinity of the tropics.

The two European forms are distinguished by the teething on the vomer:
which in the Labraw lupus form a simple, almost crescentic, band: while the
spotted species, L. punctatus, has them in a triangular spot anteriorly, extending
backwards in a straight line like the shaft of an arrow.

Gill and others have subdivided this genus more especially in accordance with
the lingual dentition, the character of the serrations along the lower margin of
the preopercle and the spines on the opercle. The number of anal spines has been
observed to be inconstant.

1. Labrax lupus, Plate IT.

AaPpaé, Aristot. iv, c. 8, v, c. 9, 10.

Lupus, Plin. ix, cap. 17, 54, xxxii, cap. 2; Belonius, de Aquatilibus, 1553, i,
p. 113; Rondel. Pisc. Mar. ix, c. 7, p. 268, c. fig; Salv. Aqu. 1554, xxviii, p. 108,
f. 30; Gesner, iv, p. 506; Aldrov. Pisce. iv, cap. 2, p. 490, c. fig; Jonston, 1649,
lib. ii, cap. 2, p. 103, t. xxiii, f. 38; Willughby, iv, cap. 1, p. 271, t. R.1; Ray,
Pisce. p. 83 and 132; Rutty, N. H. Co. Dublin, i, p. 367. Perca, Artedi, Gen.
Pisce. No. 7, p. 41; Borlase, Natural History of Cornwall, 1755, p. 270, pl. xxvi, f.19;
Basse, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Hd. 1) iii, p. 257, pl. xlix (Ed. 2) iti, p. 348, pl. lx.

Perca labraz, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 482; Gronov. Zooph. No. 300, p. 91; Bloch
Schn. p. 84; Bonnaterre, Ency. p. 127; Donovan, Brit. Fish. ii, pl. xlii; Turton,
Brit. Fauna, p. 100; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 299 and Hist. Nat. ii, p. 406; Flemming,
Brit. An. p.213; Schagerstrém, R. Vet. Acad. Hand. 1829, St, i, p. 90, t. 8, £.5-7;
Nilss. Scand. p. 82; Johnston, Fishes of Berwickshire, Mag. Nat. History, 1833,
Vol. vi, p. 15; Martens, Reise nach Venedig, ii, p. 428; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 331;
Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 115.

Sciena labraxw and 8S. dtacantha, Bloch. wi, t. 301, 302; Shaw, Zool. iv,
pp. 534, 535.

Centropomus lupus, Lacépede, iv, p. 267.

Perca diacantha, Lacépede, iv, p. 418; Bl. Schn. p. 85.

Perca elongata and P. sinwosa, Geoff. Desc. Egypte, Poiss. pl. xix, f. 1 and
xx, f. 3.

Labrax lupus, Cuv. Regne Anim. pl. vii, f. 1; Cuv. and Val. ii, p. 56, pl. xi;
Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 6, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 8 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 118;
Bonaparte, Faun. Ital. p. 79, c. fig; Val. in Webb and Berthelot’s Ichthyologie
des Iles Canaries, 1836, p.5; Parnell, Fishes of the Frith of Forth, 1838, p. 170;
Guichenot, Poissons dans l’xploration Scientifique de l’Algeria, 1850, p. 31;
White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 10; Giinther, Catal. i, p. 64 (part) and Annals and
Magazine Nat. Hist. (3) 1863, xii, p. 175; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv,
p. 69; Steindachner, Ich. Spain and Port. Akad. Wien, 1867, p. 4; Collett,
Norges Fiske, p. 15.

Bass, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, i, p. 189, pl. x1.

B. vii, D. 8-9 | zy4y5, P.16, V.1/5, A. 534, C. 17, L. 1. 72, L. tr. 10/20,
Cove. pyl. 5, Vert. 12/13.

Length of head 33 to 4, of caudal fin 53, height of body 43 to 42 in the total
length. Hye—diameter 43 to 5 (or even proportionately larger in very small
PERCID Ai. 9

examples), in the length of the head, 11 to 11 diameters from the end of the snout,
and 14 apart. Posterior edge of the preopercle strongly serrated, the largest
tooth being at its rounded angle, and three more forwardly-directed along its
lower limb. Two opercular spines, the rest of the bones of the head unarmed.
Jaws of about the same length anteriorly: the maxilla reaches to beneath the first
third or middle of the orbit. Nostrils patent. Teeth—villiform in the jaws, the
outer row in the upper somewhat larger than the rest: in an almost crescentic
spot on the vomer, in a band on the palatines, and also at the base of the tongue.
Fims—occasionally the first spine in the anterior dorsal fin is absent, the first two
are short, the third 2/3 the length of the fourth, which is equal to the two
succeeding which are the highest, and slightly exceed the length of the rays of
the second dorsal. Third anal spine slightly longer than the second. Caudal
forked. Scales—ctenoid. Lateral-line—nearly straight, passing from the upper
edge of the opercle to the centre of the base of the caudal fin. Intestines—5 short
coscal appendages. Colowrs—gray on the back, becoming silvery on the sides and
beneath. A dark spot at the upper half or two-thirds of the opercle, darkest
posteriorly. Dorsal, anal, and caudal fins stained with gray externally: pectorals
and ventrals yellowish-white. The young have usually some fine dark spots
scattered over the body.

Names.—This fish, the Labraz or ‘‘sea wolf” of the Greeks, and the Lupus or
“wolf” of the Romans, probably received its names'due to its voracity and
likewise to its cunning when hunting in shoals.

It is the Anglo-Saxon bers, now commonly known as bass or basse, which in
old works may be spelt bace: sea-dace of Kent: white salmon of Herne Bay.
Draenog and gannog, Welsh. Gapemouth, Scotland. White-mullet and king of
the mullets, Belfast. Le bars, or loup, French. Zeekarpel, or Zee-bars, Dutch.

Habits.—A strong, active, and voracious fish, generally living in shoals; and
although essentially marine, occasionally ascending rivers above tidal influence.
They mostly arrive from the deep sea about May, returning there in October or
November, and are very rarely seen throughout the winter months. They
consume almost every form of animal substance, preferring such when living,
they prey principally on small fishes and crustacea, and have also been recorded
as eating sea-weeds. Couch states that they are very partial to Onisci, after which
they venture among rocks during tempests, when their prey become washed out
of their abodes: and it is during such stormy weather that they hunt along the
shore, even in shallow water, although at other times they take their station
under some sheltering rock, from which they dart out on passing prey. On
August 10th, 1878, Lord Ducie, when yachting off the south-west coast of
Ireland, observed that “the bass were hunting the sprats to the surface, the gulls
assisting. This went on all day along the strand up to the embouchure of the
Jung River.” Bass prefer the vicinity of wooden piers to those constructed of
stone, evidently due to the greater abundance of food at the former to what
obtains in the latter locality. In Portsmouth Harbour, observes Mr. Barron,
in its various branches, large ones are frequently obtained, while numbers of
the young frequent Haslar Lake, where they appeared to feed on the Actinie
which abound.

The Romans, aware of their habits, kept them in fresh-water aquaria, where
they are asserted to have bred: the same experiment has been tried by Mr. Arnold,
in Guernsey, with success, and their flavour was asserted by Dr. M‘Culloch to be
much improved by the change.

Means of captwre.—The trawl: by deep sea lines or hand lining, also with
small seine nets. In Belfast Bay they are said to be most frequently captured
along with salmon, sea-trout, and mullets. At Mevagissey, in Cornwall, Mr. Dunn
informed me that they found it impossible to net them unless the seines could be
dragged on to a sandy beach: this however cannot be accomplished, owing to the
nature of the ground, so they must be hauled into boats: stones are therefore
thrown into the water, or other means employed to frighten the encircled fish, so
that they do not take the opportunity to escape under the foot-rope. But bass
are not to be thus alarmed, and as soon as the foot-rope is raised, so surely do
10 ACANTHOPTERYGILI.

they swim away. These fish have even been credited with forming a depression
in the sand by the use of their tails where they esconce themselves while the net
passes over them. They take a bait freely at times, although occasionally nothing
will tempt them: while they are very dexterous in getting off fish-hooks, and
often manage to divide the lines. Anglers employ a long and strong rod, and,
with suitable lines, try their luck from pier heads and projecting rocks, while the
flood tide is much more likely to prove successful than the ebb: and the water
must not be so clear that the bottom is discernible. Gorlestone Pier and the
Britannia Pier at Yarmouth have been noted as suitable localities for angling for
these fishes.

Baits.—The lug-worm or trolling with a sand-eel: while an artificial india-
rubber bait has been found very killing. Also a soft crab, slip of a cuttle-fish or
slice from a mackerel’s tail. Neill found the fry of the sand-launce, and two
young father-lashers in the stomach of one, Thompson detected young whiting.

Breeding. Summer months, generally depositing their spawn near the mouths
of rivers. About the end of March a 12]1b. fish in the Belfast market contained
a vast mass of ova, smaller than the smallest clover seed (Thompson). Couch
considered July and August to be the most frequent months for breeding in
Cornwall, while on the Continent this fish has been said to deposit its ova twice in
the year. The young frequent harbours and the sandy mouths of large rivers,
but adults often lead a more solitary existence.

As food.—Its flesh is white and good for the table when the fish is from 12 to
18 inches in length. and quite fresh, but on being kept even to a second day it is
said to often become oily and have a strong taste. However it is largely disposed
of in Cheltenham as a second-rate fish, while it has usually been two days or more
from the sea. The Romans considered this as among their prime forms for the
table, holding those from the Tiber as superior to all others, while the small-sized
spotted ones were preferred: the very best being captured between the two
bridges of the city, a locality into which the main drains discharged their contents.
The Greeks likewise esteemed this fish as highly as did the Romans.

Habitat.—A native of temperate Europe, extending from Norway and the
British coasts to the Mediterranean : “it is very abundant,” observes Steindachner,
“along the north and west shores of the Iberian peninsula, especially where
rivers debouch into the sea, but is rare on the eastern side of Spain.”

In Britain it is most common in the summer months, along the southern
coast, while towards the north it decreases in numbers. In Scotland it is rare to
the north of the Frith of Forth: Edward records a single example found dead
in the River Deveron, in Banffshire, in 1839: while it has not been recorded from
the Orkneys and Shetland Isles.

In Ireland it was first noticed by Dr. Brown; it is well known but not
numerous along its southern shores, but decreases in numbers towards the north,
where it becomes rare: an example has been recorded from Portrush, in the
county of Antrim.

A 101b. fish is considered a fine example, but Pennant records one of 165 Ib.
ve has been netted close to Herne Bay Pier, and Yarrell alludes to one
fo) :
PERCID. 1

Genus IT].—Aczrrina, Cuvier.

Gymnocephalus, Bl. Schn.: Cernua, Flemming.

_ Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchic present. Opercle and preopercle spinate.
Distinct muciferous channels on the head. Teeth in jaws villiform : absent from the
palatine bones and tongue. A single dorsal fin with many spines (13 to 19): anal
with two. Scales ctenoid, and of moderate size, none on the head. Pyloric appen-
dages few. Air-bladder simple.

Geographical distribution —The fishes of this genus are found in the rivers of
the Palearctic region, extending from Siberia and Russia as far south as Northern
Italy. It has been remarked that their distribution is limited to rivers or waters
which have their outlet in the Arctic Ocean or into European seas, similarly to
the distribution of Perca fluviatilis. Irrespective of the Acerina cernua there are
two other Kuropean species, the long-snouted A. Schretzer, with distinctly
longitudinal bands, and a variety, A. rossica, in which these bands are indistinct
or even absent, this fish is found in rivers flowing to the Black Sea: also the
A. czekanowskii from the River Angera.

1. Acerina vulgaris, Plate III.

Cernua fluviatilis, Belon. Aqu. p. 291; Gesner, pp. 191, 192, 226;
Willughby, p. 334 t. X 14,£.2; Ray, p. 144. Perca flunatilis minor, Gesner,
pp. 29, 701, 825 £.160a and 161; Schonev. p. 56; Aldrov. v, c. 34; Jonston, De
Pise. lib. iii. t. 3, c. 2, t. xxviii; Ray, p. 144. Perca, Artedi, No. 8,
Spec. p. 80 and No. 4, Genera, p. 40; Klein, Hist. Pisce. No. 1, v, p. 40;
Duhamel, Péches iv, p. 39, t. viii, f. 1; Marsigli, iv, p. 67, t. xxiii, f.2. Ruffe,
Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Hd. 1) iii, p. 259, (Hd. 2) ui, p. 350.

Perca cernua, Linn. Sys. i, p. 487; Gronov. Zooph. p. 86, No. 288; Scheffer,
Pisce. Bavar. Ratis. Pentas; Bloch, t. lili, f.2; Gmel. Linn. p. 1320; Donovan,
Brit. Fish. ii, pl. xxxix; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 548, pl. 79; Turton, Brit. Fauna,
p. 100; Jenyns, Man. Brit. Zool. p. 334; Miller, Zool. Dan. Prod. p. 392;
Gronov. ed. Gray. p. 112.

Gymnocephalus cernua, Bl. Schn. p. 345; White, Catal. Brit. Fish, p. 12.

Perca acerina, Bonnaterre, Ency. Ich. p. 134, pl. liu, f. 205.

Holocentrus post, Lacép. iv, p. 357.

Cernua fluviatilis, Flemm. Brit. An. p. 212.

Acerina vulgaris, Cuv. and Val. iii, p. 4, pl. xli, vii, p. 448 ; Fries och Ekstrém,
Skand. Fish. p. 9, t.i, #2; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 18 . fig. (Ed. 2) i,
p. 17, (Ed. 3) ii, p. 122; Cuv. Rég. Anim. Ill. Poiss, pl. ix. f. 2.; Nordm. in
Demid. Voy. Russ. Mérid. ii, p. 368; Gunther Catal. i, p. 72; Houghton, Brit.
F. W. Fishes, p. 5, ¢. fig.

Acerina cernua, Giinther, Wiegm. Archiv. 1855, p. 199, pl. x, f. 1,2; Collett,
Norges Fiske, p. 16. AF ;

Ruff, Couch, Fishes of the British Isles, i, p. 193, pl. xli.

B. vii, D ~34,, P. 13-14, V. 1/5, A. 325, C. 18, L. 1. 40, L. t. 6/14. Coee. pyl.
3, Vert. 15/20-22.

Length of head 3% to 32, of caudal fin 5} to 64, height of body 3} to 32 in
the total length. Hye—diameter 33 to 4 in the length of the head, 1 to 1¢
diameters from the end of the snout, and } of a diameter apart. Body compressed,
a concavity on the dorsal profile above the eye and occiput causing the snout to
appear swollen. Upper jaw slightly the longer: the posterior extremity of the
maxilla reaches to beneath the front edge of the eye. Opercle with a well
12 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

developed spine: the posterior edge of the preopercle with 3 or 4 sharp teeth, the
lowest which is at the angle and turned downwards and forwards, occasionally the
superior ones are double: lower edge of opercle with two forwardly directed
spines. Lower edge of preorbital festooned. The openings of large pores,
situated in depressions, extend in 2 rows along either side of the head, the
superior being below the lower edge of the sub-orbital ring, and the inferior
passing along the lower jaw and round the opercular margin. Anterior nostril
the smaller and provided with a valve, the posterior oval and patent. Shoulder
scale and one at angle of pectoral fin spinate. Teeth—in numerous villiform
rows in jaws, none on vomer, palatines, or tongue. /ins—dorsal spines rather
strong, the third and fourth the highest and equalling the length of the head
behind the middle or even front edge of the eye, they decrease perceptibly in
length from the 7th or 8th, while the last is slightly higher than the preceding
one: rays lower than the spines. Pectoral as long as the head excluding the
snout. Ventral does not reach the anal. First anal spine equals half the length of
the head, and is usually slightly longer and stronger than the second, caudal
emarginate. Scales—ctenoid, none on the head or fins: about 15 rows between
the lateral-line and base of the ventral fin: 62 to 64 rows passing from the back
to the lateral-line. Tubes along the lateral-line double. Intestines with a fold:
its length from the pylorus to the vent equals that of the entire fish excluding the
caudal fin. Colowrs—grayish, or olive-brown, spotted with black or brown,
becoming lighter on the sides and almost white on the abdomen. Dorsal, caudal,
pectoral, and anal fins with spots which may coalesce on the pectoral fins so as to
form bands. Ventral, reddish-yellow.

Variettes.—Examples of a rather elongated form obtained from Russia exist in
the Leyden Museum.

Names.—Ruffe, ruff, or Jack-ruffe are terms probably derived from the rough-
ness of the edges of the scales: pope is said to be a term of contempt, a contemp-
tuous phrase still in use in Dorsetshire being “‘ what a pope of a thing.” A cruel
custom obtains near Windsor on the Thames, of pressing a cork tightly down
on to the spines of the dorsal fin, and subsequently the fish is returned to the
river. This is termed “plugging a pope,” the origin of which is unknown.
Tommy-bars is likewise a provincial term for this fish. Y garwberc, Welsh. Pos,
Dutch. La gremille commune, French.

Habits.—A gregarious fresh-water fish, living in large companies, and keeping
to the tolerably deep water, where it prefers cold and shady places to warm
situations: thriving best in ponds through which a stream flows, canals, and
sometimes selecting those portions that are rocky or strewed with stones and sand.
It is lively in its movements and feeds on food similar to that which has been
ascribed to the common perch. In confinement it becomes rapidly tame. Mr.
Arderon (Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. 1747) tells us how he kept two in an aquarium
where they became much attached to one another. He gave one away, when the
other became so miserable that it declined all food, and this continued for nearly
three weeks. Fearing his remaining fish might die, he sent for its former
companion, and on the two meeting they again became quite contented.

Means of capture.—Similar to such as are employed for the perch. They
are often taken by young anglers fishing for gudgeons and sticklebacks.

Baits—Identical with those used for the perch or gudgeons, especially a red
worm, while it is an equally fearless biter and a bottom feeder.

Breeding.—In the months of March or April its straw-coloured ova are
deposited among the roots and stems of flags and rushes at the sides of streams.
In the example figured, which weighed 42 oz. I found 205,000 well-developed
ova, while more were present in a less advanced stage.

Uses.— This fish is frequently employed as a bait when trolling for pike or
trout,

As food.—Its flesh is esteemed, especially during the spring and autumn, but
is scarcely equal to that of the perch.

Habitat.—Fresh waters of Siberia and Russia, while it is common in the
northern and central parts of Scandinavia, but rare in the southern districts. It
PERCID. 13

is found in Switzerland, Germany, France, and England, but said to be absent
from Spain, Portugal, Italy and Greece.

In the British Isles it is common in the Severn, Cam, Thames, and the rivers
and canals of the midland counties of England, especially where the bottom is of
fine sand or gravel. It is not found in Devonshire, Cornwall, or the Isle of
Wight. It is generally considered to be absent from Scotland, but Edward in
1877 observed “one is said to have been obtained off Troup Head, about forty-
two years ago.” It is absent from Ireland.

This fish was first noticed by Belonins who named and figured it: next
Dr. John Caius took it in the River Yare near Norwich and sent a drawing to
Gesner, termed Aspredo, ‘“‘ rough,” which was published.

It rarely exceeds 7 inches in length. I am indebted for the example figured,
natural size, to Professor Smidt of Archangel.
14 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus IV.—Ssrranvus, Owvter.

Epinephelus, sp. Bloch: Cephalopholis, sp. Bl. Schn.: Paraserranus and
Serranichthys, Bleeker : Labroperca, Mycteroperca, Bodianus, Enneacentrus, Petro-
metopon, Promicrops, Schistorus, and Menephorus, Gill: Prospinus, Poey: Priacan-
thichthys (young), Day: Paralabraw, Paranthias, and Itaiara, Vaillant and
Bocourt.

Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchic present. Hyes lateral, of moderate size.
Preopercle with tts vertical lamb more or less serrated, its horizontal one generally
entire: opercle with two or three flat spines. Teeth villiform in the jaws, vomer and
palate: canines usually present: tongue smooth. Dorsal fin single, having from 8 to
12 spines: anal with 3: caudal cut square or obliquely, emarginate or rounded.
Scales small, ctenoid or cycloid. Pylorie appendages many, in moderate numbers, or

Sew.

These fishes, as might be expected in a genus which is so widely distributed,
show many individual differences. The colour varies extensively and cannot even
be accepted as a trustworthy guide for dividing Serrani into groups. The form of
the preopercle is not invariably identical in every specimen of a species, or even
on the opposite sides of the head in the same fish: while a spine is occasionally
present at its angle in the immature, becoming more or less absorbed in the adult.
The sub- and inter-opercles may be serrated or smooth in the same species, as is
well exemplified in the Indian Serranus benack. The fins also alter with age,
owing to the spines not increasing in length so rapidly as the rays, consequently
they may be comparatively shorter in the adult than in the young. Even the soft
rays in the mature fish are of less proportionate height to the entire length of the
specimen than they are in the immature. The same thing occurs in respect to the
anal spines, the second being sometimes the longest in the immature, but shorter
than the third inthe mature: this appears usually due to the second spine
augmenting in thickness while the third is increasing in length. Occasionally
there is an excess of one spine and a deficiency of one soft ray in the dorsal fin,
the first of the latter having taken on a spinous character, a phase which is seen
more commonly in some of the Sparide. The number of the rows of scales is
very important among these fishes, as so ably pointed out by the late Dr. Bleeker,
who invariably counted the number of transverse rows going to the lateral-line
from above and below. Hybrids have been recorded.

Geographical distribution Seas of temperate and tropical regions, sometimes
ascending rivers for predaceous purposes. In the British Isles two species have
been recorded, one a resident, the other an occasional or accidental visitor.

1. Serranus cabrilla, Plate IV.

Xavn, Salviani.

Perca, Rondel. vi, c. 8, p. 182, c. fig.; Gesner, Ed. 1598, f. 16,¢. fig. Perea
marina, var. B. Brunnich ; Jonston, De Pisce. lib. i, t. ii, ¢. i, art. vill, p. 47, t. xiv,
f. 10,11, 12; Ray, p. 140.

Perca cdbrilla, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 488; Gmel. Linn. p. 1322; Jenyns, Man.
Brit. Vert. p. 352.

Holocentrus virescens, Bloch, t. cexxxiii ; Bl. Schn. p. 313; Lacép. iv, p. 357.

45 marinus, Lacép. iv, p. 376.
LIutjanus serranus, Lacép. iv, p. 205.
Serranus marinus, and flavus, Risso. Ich. Nice, pp. 291, 293.
»  cabrilla, Cuv. and Val. ii, p. 223, pl. xxix; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1)
i, p. 9, ¢. fig. (Hd. 2) i, p. 11 (Hid. 3), ii, p. 129; Swainson, Fishes ii, p. 201 ;
White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 11; Nordman, in Demid. Voy. Russ. Meérid. iii,
p: 367; Guichen. Expl. Sc. Alger. Poiss. p. 33, pl.1; Giinther, Catal. i, p. 106;
Steind. Ich. Spanien u. Port. 1867, p. 9.
Perca channus, Couch, Loud. Mag. Nat. Hist. v, p. 19, f. 6.
Serranus novemcinctus, Kner, Novara Fishes, p. 17, t. ii, f. 1.

Comber, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, i, p. 195, pl. xlii.
PERCIDA. 15

B. vii, D. 2, P. 15, V. 1/5, A. 73g, C. 15, L. 1. 80-90, L. tr. 9/25.

Length of head 3 to 3}, of caudal fin 6 to 7, height of body 33 in the total
length. Hye—diameter 44 in the length of the head, 14 diameters from the end
of the snout, and 1 diameter apart. Posterior border of the preopercle serrated,
most coarsely so at its rounded angle. Nostrils patent, the posterior the larger.
Lower jaw the longer: the posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to beneath
the hind edge of the eye. Teeth—of moderate size, the outer row enlarged:
villiform ones present on vomer and palatines. Fins—dorsal spines lower than
the rays, increasing in length to the fifth, which equals 24 in the height of the
body below it. Pectoral as long as the head excluding the snout. Caudal slightly
emarginate. Scales—ctenoid, 10 rows between the lateral-line and the commence-
ment of the soft dorsal fin. Colowrs—orange-yellow, lightest about the head, 4 or
5 stone-gray longitudinal narrow bands commence below the eye, two of which
become lost on the head; while three going backwards become of a gray-blue
colour, the middle one passing above the pectoral fin, reaches the middle of
the side of the base of the tail, to which the two others likewise extend.
Fins yellowish, the dorsal with numerous blue spots, which however become
smaller posteriorly, and have a narrow black edge: similar spots on the caudal
fin: while there are some larger but less distinct ones on the anal. Frequently
transverse bands descend from the back; these may be unnaturally dark, which
would give the appearance figured in Serranus novemcinctus, Kner. Some
confusion has occurred respecting this species, due to Linneeus having described
the Sebastes Norwegicus, under the head of this fish: while Bonnaterre, pl. 54,
f. 210, reproduced Pennant’s figure of the Bergylt as that of Perca marina,
p- 128, probably a slip of the pen, it being evidently intended for the succeeding
Perca Norvegica, the very reference to this figure under Perca marina being to
pl. 56 whereas it is on pl. 54.

Names and their origin.—It is sometimes termed “ The gaper,” because when
in its death agony it erects its fins and opens its mouth, and thus stiffens, as is
commonly seen in many of the spiny-rayed or acanthopterygian fishes. Bulls,
Mevagissey in Cornwall. Smooth serranus.

Habits.—Mr. Dunn observed in Cornwall that this fish is “plentiful in deep
rocky gullies, and the very rough ground off our coast. It is most common in
summer. Its food appears to be small fishes and crustaceous Ophiure (slender
snake star-fishes) and encrusting corallines (Lepralia).”

Means of capture-—Frequently taken in wicker crab-pots, which it probably
enters to eat the baits.

Breeding.—End of the summer or in the autumn months of August and
September.

Hermaphrodites.—Cavolini and Cuvier have, after repeated examinations,
described this fish as a true hermaphrodite, one portion of each lobe of roe being
stated to consist of true ova, the other part having all the appearance of perfect
milt, and both advancing simultaneously to maturity. Yarrell, however, having
obtained some roe, examined it in conjunction with Professor Owen, and they
observed nothing equivocal either in its structure or appearance.

Uses.— Albertus Magnus advises that its tongue and a small portion of its heart
should be removed and then infused in water, and assures us that the mixture will
cause a multitude of fishes to collect together. Likewise should you have a law
suit, it should be placed under your arm and the judge will become your friend.

As food.—Seldom even brought to market, but usually cut up into baits.
Still it'is good eating, and said to be delicate, but too small to be of much value.

Habitat.— From the south and south-west coasts of England, also of
France and Portugal and throughout to the Mediterranean. It has likewise been
taken at Madeira, Teneriffe, as far south as the Cape of Good Hope, and the
Island of St. Paul in the Southern Indian Ocean.

Although this fish is common at Plymouth, also at Mevagissey, in Cornwall,
and was first observed by Couch at the intermediate locality of Polperro, it
becomes rare at Penzance. Mr. Cornish observed in 1866, having obtained
a specimen there, that it was only the second he ever saw from Mount’s Bay
16 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

(Zoologist 1866, p. 348). It does not appear to extend to the Straits of Dover on
the east, nor so high as the Bristol Channel on the west. It has not been recorded
from Ireland.

It attains to at least a foot in length. The example figured, which is 10 inches
long, was obtained at Mevagissey by Mr. Dunn.

2. Serranus gigas, Plate V.

Perca gigas, Briinnich. Pisc. Mass. p. 65, No. 81; Gmel. Linn. p. 1315.

Holocentrus gigas, Bl. Schn. p. 322; Rafin. Indice, p. 17; De la Roche, Ann.
Mus. xiii, p. 318.

Holocentrus merou, Lacép. iv, p. 377; Risso. Ich. Nice, p. 289.

Serranus gigas, Cuv. and Val. ii, p. 270, pl. xxxiii; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Hd. 1)
i, p. 15,¢. fig. (Hd. 2) i, p. 14 (Ed. 3) ui, p. 182; Exp. Scient. Morée, Zool.
Geoff. St. Hilaire, &c. 1832, pl. xvi, f.1; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 383; Guichen.
Explor. Sc. Alger, 1850, Poiss. p. 35; White, Catal. of Brit. Fish. p. 11;
Giinther, Catal. i, p. 182; Steind. Ich. Span. & Port. 1867, p. 11, and SB. Ak.
Wien, lxxiv, p. 175.

Perca robusta, Couch, Mag. Nat. Hist. v, p. 21, f. 7.

Serranus marginatus, Lowe, Pro. Zool. Soc. 1833, p. 142.

Serranus fimbriatus, Lowe, Trans. Cambr. Phil. Soc. 1886, p. 195, pl. 1; Val.
in Webb and Berth. Ich. p. 8.

Serranus caninus, Wal. 1. e. p. 10.

Serranus cernioides, Brito Capello, Journ. d. sc. Math. &c. No. ii, p. 156 and
No. iii, p. 12, Est. iv, f. 1.

Dusky Perch, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles. i, p. 198, pl. xliii.

B. vi, D. ~24,, P. 16-17, V. 1/5, A. 48, C. 17, Cove. pyl. 12 (19 to 20 C. V.)
L. 1. 120-130.

Length of head 3} to 33, of caudal fin 64, height of body 33 to 4 in the total
length. Hye—diameter 6 to 7 in the length of the head, 1} to 1} diameter from
the end of the snout, and 1 to 1} apart. Lower jaw the longer. The maxilla
reaches to beneath the hind edge of the eye. Preopercle serrated, most coarsely
soatitsangle. Sub- and inter-opercles entire. Teeth—villiform in jaws, on vomer
and palatines. /'ins—dorsal spines of moderate strength increasing in length
to the third, which equals nearly 1/2 the length of the head. Soft portions
of dorsal and caudal rounded. Scales—ctenoid, about 12 rows between the base
of the first dorsal ray and the lateral-line. Colowrs—reddish-brown on the back
becoming lighter on the sides and beneath: two oblique lines on the gill-covers
passing backwards and downwards.

Modes of capture——Takes a bait: Couch’s example, which was 3 feet long and
weighed 19 1b., was thus obtained.

Breeding.—In warmer climates it deposits its ova in shallow water during the
months of April and May.

As food.—It is held in some estimation in the countries to which it resorts.

Habitat.—This fish, of which occasional wanderers have been captured along
the south coast of England, is found in the Mediterranean, also Madeira and as
far south as the Cape of Good Hope, as well as on the eastern shores of North
America, being plentiful and of large size at Rio de Janiero. Risso observes that
it only visits Nice during the summer and autumn.

In the British Isles its captures have been almost confined to the south coast.
It was first observed by Couch, one example having been taken at Polperro: two
are recorded by Cock from Falmouth, one of which was sent to the British
Museum: while Mr. R. Couch (Zool. 1846, p. 1401) remarked that the late
Mr. E. Chirgwin informed him that two specimens had been caught in Mount’s
Bay, and observes that one if not more have been obtained at Penzance.

This fish attains to a large size, as up to 3 feet in length, and 60 lb. in weight,
while a figure drawn natural size of the head of one captured at Penzance still
exists, it 18 16 inches long, which would make the example at least 52 inches in
its entire length. I have to thank Professor Peters, Director of the Zoological
Museum at Berlin, for the example which is figured.
PERCIDA. 17

Genus V.—Potyprion, Cuvier,

Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchic: present. Body oblong. Opercles denti-
culated, a serrated longitudinal ridge across the opercle, and others on the wpper
surface of the head and occiput. Teeth villiform in the jaws and on the vomer,
palatine bones and tongue. A single dorsal fin with 11 strong spines, anal with 3.
Scales ctenoid, small. Pyloric appendages nwmerous.

In appearance these fishes have a general resemblance to Serrant with the
head like a Scorpena.

Geographical distributton.—From the coasts of Norway to Britain, France and
the Mediterranean: also Madeira and the Cape of Good Hope, while a large dried
example was brought to Europe by the “ Novara” from the Island of St. Pau! in the
Southern Indian Ocean. Forster recorded it from Queen Charlotte’s Island, on
the western shores of North America; and a few years since Steindachner described
a new species, as Polyprion Knerit, from the island of Juan Fernandez, on the
western coast of South America.

1. Polyprion cernium, Plate VI.

Amphibrion Americanus, Bl. Schn. p. 205, and A. Australe, t. xlvii.

Epinephelus oxygenetios, Bl. Schn. p. 301.

Scorpena Massiliensis, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 184 (not Lacép.).

Holocentrus gulo, Risso, Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 367.

Scicena aquila, Rosenthal, Ich. Taf. xvi, f. 1.

Polyprion cernium, Val. Mém. du Mus. xi, p. 265, pl. xvii; Cuv. and Val. in,
p. 21, pl. xlii and viii, p. 475; Yarrell, Brit. Fish (Hd. 2) i, p. 19, ¢. fig. (Hd. 3)
ii, p. 124; Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 203; Cuv. Régne Anim. Il. Poiss. pl. ix, £1;
White, Catal. p. 12; Giinther, Catal. i, p. 169; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 16;
Kner, Voy. Novara Fische, p. 28; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1867, p. 15;
Sauvage, Arch. de Zool. 1879-80, p. 12.

Serranus Couchtii, Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Hd. 1) i, p. 12, ¢. fig; Jenyns, Man.
Brit. Vert. p. 334.

Perca scriba, Comide, Peces de Galicia, p. 57.

Stone-basse, Couch, Linn. Trans. xiv, p. 81, and Fish. Brit. Isles, i, p. 200,
pl. xliv.

B. vii, D. ~235, P. 16-17, V. 1/5, A. 385, C. 17, L. 1. ca. 120, Vert. 18/13,
Coec. pyl. numerous.

Length of head from 3 to 33, of caudal fin 7 to 83, height of body 3 to 3} in
the total length. Hye—comparatively much larger in the young than in the adult,
4 to 54 diameters in the length of the head, 1; to 14 diameters from the end of
the snout. The maxilla extends to beneath the middle or (in large examples)
hind edge of the orbit: lower jaw projecting beyond the upper. Nostrils patent,
placed close together. A rough bony ridge ending in a spine, crosses the opercle.
The posterior limb of the preopercle strongly serrated, with a cluster of several
strong and irregularly placed spines at its angle, and some denticulations along its
lower limb. Inter- and sub-opercles denticulated at their approximating angles,
Preorbital denticulated. Supraorbital margin roughened, a ridge passes to the
shoulder, while a short convex median one exists on the occiput. Teeth—villiform
on the jaws, tongue, vomer, and palatine bones. #ims—all the spines and fin rays
comparatively longer in the young than in the adult: dorsal spines strong,
increasing in length to the 5th, the next 3 bemg almost equally long, from
the 8th they decrease, but the 11th is slightly longer than the 10th: dorsal
rays half higher than the spines. Ventral spine roughened externally. Third
anal spine somewhat the longest, the two first rough anteriorly, while the rays are
half longer than the spines. Candal rounded. (ill-rakers—most developed in
the anterior branchial arch, the outer limb of which contains about twelve, the
longest nearly one diameter of the orbit in length. Scales—small, strongly
ctenoid, some are extended over a portion of the soft dorsal and anal fins, also on
18 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

the base of the caudal and between the rays. Ccecal appendages—in the example
figured they were numerous, three or more springing from one root and soon
dividing ; Valenciennes states that there are only two, one of which is very short
and the other very long, but I found upwards of seventy in the single example I
dissected. Colours—of a grayish-brown or stone colour, irregularly marbled or
with large light blotches, which become less visible in the adult. Fins dark,
almost black, while the caudal in the adult has a light outer edge.

Names anid their origin.—Schneider gave Americanus as the specific name of this
fish, which was described and figured from a drawing sent him by Dr. Latham,
who stated the native habitat was America. It is called in Devonshire, Wreck fish,
because it follows floating timbers. The term Stone-bass employed by Couch
was originally given by Sloane.to a Pagrus from Jamaica adverted to by Ray
(p. 152): Lowe states it to be called Jew-fish by the English in Madeira, where
the natives term it chernotte if small, cherne when large.

Habits. —This appears, as a rule, to be a fish living in deep waters, and Couch
observes that when a piece of timber covered with barnacles, Lepades, is brought
by the currents from the more southern regions which these fish inhabit,
considerable numbers of them sometimes accompany it. In the Mediterranean it
is found to be solitary, frequenting deep waters having a rocky bottom. Mr.
Holdsworth observed ‘‘ the crew of the ‘ Providence’ smack found a large log of
mahogany in Start Bay, covered with long barnacles and surrounded by a shoal
of these fish. They jigged (¢.e., caught with a pole having a barbed hook at the
end) 4 or 5.” Ships having foul bottoms in water where they abound and
covered with barnacles, are followed by shoals of these fishes when becalmed. It
feeds on molluscs and small fishes. Valenciennes found sardines in the stomach
of one he dissected.

Means of capture.—Couch says that when a mass of wreck floats in sight of a
ship in the northern part of the Atlantic, and the weather is favourable, a boat is
often despatched to obtain some of these fish, which is effected by piercing them
with a spear known as grayns. As many as 35 have been secured at one time by
a single boat on our own coast.

Breeding.—In the summer in the Mediterranean according to Risso.

Hermaphroditism.—Professor Rolleston showed meat Oxford an example which
had the roe white in its superior two-thirds, while in its lower third it was of a
brown colour and distinct from the upper. The appearance externally was such
as might be anticipated in a hermaphrodite, but the microscope failed to prove it
to be one.

Diseases.—Risso states that this fish is tormented with numerous filiform
parasites of a reddish colour, which inhabit its intestines, causing it to possess
an insatiable appetite.

As food.—Reputed to be excellent, the flesh being white, tender, and of a good
flavour.

Habitat.—From the seas of Norway to the British Isles, and the coasts of
France and Portugal to the Mediterranean, where it remains through the whole
year. Itis common at Madeira, extending to the Cape of Good Hope, and the
Island of St. Paul’s, in the Southern Indian Ocean. It has also been recorded by
Forster as Perca prognathus, locally termed patd-térd, from Queen Charlotte’s Isle
on the western shores of North America.

It was first obtained in British waters by Couch, who observes that on the south
and west coasts of England it is well known to the fishermen. It is occasionally
found in deep water off Cornwall: is not uncommon in the Bristol Channel (Baker
of Bridgewater) or on the Devonshire coast (Holdsworth). In the year 1845 it was
reported as common between the Scilly Isles and Land’s End. It has been taken
at Dingle Bay in Ireland where it was captured August 2nd, 1847, in a floating
meal-barrel (Moore).

This fish attains to over 6 feet in length. Mr. Cornish (Zool. p. 424) obtained
one at Penzance, August 24th, 1878 more than 20 inches long. The largest seen
by Conch weighed 20 lb. The specimen figured is 73} inches long, and I am
indebted for it to Professor Hubrecht of Leyden.
PERCID&. 19

Genus VI.— Dentex,* Cuvier.

Gymnocranius, pt. Klunzinger: Paradentex, pt. Blecker and Synagris (Klein)
Bleeker.

Branchiostegals siz or seven: pseudobranchice present. Body oblong, rather
elongated, and a little elevated. Eyes of mediwm or rather large size. Mouth
moderately protractile, its cleft more or less horizontal: jaws of about equal length.
Preopercle entire or feebly serrated : opercle without any or with a not very prominent
spine: the distance between the eye and the angle of the mouth considerable.
Generally strong canines, from 4 to 6 in number, in the front part of both jaws,
almost invariably in the upper: a conical outer lateral row in either jaw: vomer,
palatines, and tongue edentulous. One scaleless dorsal fin, having from 10 to 13
spines: anal with 3 and from nine to eleven rays: spines generally weak and more
or less receivable into a scaly groove: caudal forked. Scales ctenoid, of moderate
size: more than 3 rows between the eye and the angle of the preopercle: none on the
front of the snout, jaws, or preorbital. Air-bladder simple, not constricted but
notched posteriorly. Pyloric appendages few.

This genus has been divided into those with more than 3 rows of scales across
the preopercle Dentew, and such as only have 3 rows, Synagris. Even thus
restricted it has been further subdivided into Gymnocranius or Paradentex, being
those forms wherein the scales do not extend forwards on to the upper surface of
the ae so far as the eye, the upper jaw is more protractile and the canines are
weaker.

These fishes were included among the Sparoids by Cuvier, with which their
habits have perhaps more analogy than with the true sea Perches.

Geographical distribution.—Occasional wanderers have been taken on the south
coast. of England, while they are found through the Mediterranean, the Atlantic,
Indian and North Pacific Oceans, also the Red Sea. ,

1. Dentex vulgaris, Plate VII.

Dentex, Colum. viii, c. 16; Jonston, lib. i, t. iii, c. 1, art. vi, p. 69, t. xviii;
Gesner, 1598, f. 26, c. fig.; Willughby, lib. iv, c. xiii, p. 312, t V.3; Ray,
p. 182.

Synagrts, Belon. p. 181; Salv. p. 111; Rondel. v. c. 19, p. 150 c. fig.; Aldrov.
lib. iv, t. 166.

Cynedus, Gronov. Zooph. p. 60, No. 214.

Sparus Jonsont, Walb. Artedi, 1792, iv, p. 302.

Sparus dentex, Gmel. Linn. p. 1278; Bonnaterre, Ency. Ich. p. 102, pl. 1,
f. 190; Bloch, t. cclxviii; Shaw, Zool. iv, pt. 2, f. 408; Donovan, Brit. Fish. iv,
pl. xxiii; Lacép. iv, p. 121; Turton, p. 98; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 253; De la
Roche, Ann. Mus. xiii, p. 317; Duhamel, Péches, ii, c. 2, p. 251.

Oichla dentex, Bl. Schn. p. 337,

Sparus gibbosus, Rafin. Caratteri, 1810, p. 47, No. 126 (adult).

Sparus cetti, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 256.

Dentex cetti. Risso, Europ. Mérid. iii, p. 256.

» vulgaris, Cuy. and Val. vi, p. 220, pl. cliii; Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 212;
Jenyns, Man. p. 357; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Hd. 1) i, p. lll, ec. fig. (Hd. 2) i,
p. 127 (Hd. 3) ii, p. 153; Guichen. Explor. Algér. Poiss. p. 51; Val. in Webb
and Berthel. Iles Canar. Poiss. p. 86; Gimnther, Catal. i, p. 366; Steind. Ich.
Spanien u. Port. 1867, p. 22.

Dentex gibbiceps, Reuss, Isis, 1832, p. 626 (aduit).

Dentea Johnsoni, White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 19.

* Huro nigricans or the Black Bass from the Delaware river, America, has been extensively
introduced by the Marquis of Exeter into the waters of his estate at Stamford, where they may be
acclimatized and widely spread. About 965 appear to have been landed alive, and their average
weight is now (Oct. 1880) about half a pound each.—Land and Water, Oct. 16th, 1880.

2 &
20 ; ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Dentex, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, i, p. 208, pl. xlv.
B. vi, D, 3942 P. 15, V.1/5, A. 3, e. 17, L, 1, 60-65, L, tr. 8/17, Coee. pyl. 5,

12-11
Vert. 10/14.

Length of head 32 to 33, of caudal fin 5 to 54, height of body 3% to 33 in
the total length. Hye—comparatively much larger in the young than in the
adult, 44 to 54 diameters in the length of the head, 14 to 2} diameters from the
end of the snout, and 1 to 14 diameters apart. Jaws of about the same length
anteriorly, the maxilla reaches to beneath the front edge of the eye. Nostrils
patent, the posterior the larger. Preorbital large, its height in the young
equalling about 1 diameter of the orbit, but in the adult from 1] to even
2 diameters: it is about 1/4 longer than high. Bones of the head entire.
Teeth—A large curved canines in either jaw, the outer pairs much the strongest,
while there is an inner row of small teeth: laterally a row of pointed ones:
none on the tongue, vomer, or palatine bones. F'ns—spines of dorsal weak,
increasing in length to the 4th or 5th which equals half the length of the head
and rather exceeds that of the longest ray. Pectoral nearly as long as the head.
Third anal spine rather longer than the second. Caudal forked. Scales—finely
ctenoid, 8 rows between the eye and the angle of the preopercle, which likewise
has a few scales, irregularly placed, along its limb. Colowrs—it may be beautifully
varied, being silvery interchanged with light blue on the back and some blue
spots on the sides. On the front of the head wavy lines of gold, silver, and
purple: eyes blue with a golden iris. Dorsal fin bluish-yellow, pectoral and
caudal reddish. One form of colour, which may be due to age, is the existence of
a large yellow spot at the base of the opercle, and extending over the interopercle.
The variety, D. cetti, was examined by M. Laurillard at Nice, and he found the
spot well marked in the adult, but absent from the immature.

Names and their origin.—Cynodon or “ dogs’ teeth” refers to its large canines,
the term four-toothed gilt head has a similar origin.

Habits.—Exceedingly voracious and a rapid swimmer. During the winter it
retires to the deeper water, but about June seeks the shallower places, approaching
the mouths of rivers where it deposits its ova between the crevices of stones and
rocks.

Means of capture.— Large fisheries of the Dentex are carried on in the warmer
European climes.

As food.—Palatable and wholesome when fresh, while it salts well. It is
prepared by cutting in slices and packing in barrels with vinegar and spices:
thus treated it keeps for months.

Habitat—From the south coast of England to the Mediterranean and the
Canary Isles.

Edward has mentioned an example from Troup Head in Banffshire. The first
example obtamed in this country was received by Pennant from Billingsgate, it
had been captured at Hastings, April 9th, 1805, and weighed 16 1b. Mr. Cocks
recorded two more in Couch’s work, one of which was 32} inches in length, which
he purchased in the fish-market at Falmouth in November, 1846: the second was
obtained from the same place in August, 1851, and measured 56 inches.

This fish attains a large size. Duhamel observes that it may weigh 70 lb.
For the example figured, life-size, I am indebted to Professor Peters, Director of
the Berlin Zoological Musenm.
MULLIDA. 21

Famity II.—MULLIDA, Swainson.

Branchiostegals four: pseudobranchie present. Body rather elongated.
Profile of head more or less parabolic. Eyes lateral, and of moderate size.
Mouth rather small, having a lateral cleft. Two stiff barbels below the chin
belonging to the hyal apparatus. Teeth feeble and variously placed in the jaws
and mouth. Two dorsal fins, situated at some distance asunder: the anal
similar to the second dorsal: ventral with one spine and flve rays. Scales large,
feebly ctenoid, and rather deciduous. Air-bladder, when present, simple.
Pyloric appendages few or in moderate numbers.

Geographical distribution.—Seas of the temperate portions of Europe as well
as in most of those of the tropics: more numerous in the eastern than in the
western hemisphere. Many young and some adults of exotic species have been
captured in rivers.

Genus I.—Mou1i0s, Linneus.

Definition as given for the Family. Teeth in the lower but none in the wpper jaw :
present on the vomer and palatine bones.

Geographical distribution.—From Scandinavia through the seas and coasts of
temperate Europe, the Mediterranean, the Adriatic, and the Black Sea: also at
least as far south in the North Atlantic Ocean as Madeira and the Canary Isles.

Termed Triglé by the Greeks, from ancient times until the present, under the
supposition of their breeding three times yearly or else according to Athenzus
that they only breed three times throughout their entire existence, their internal
organs being subsequently destroyed by parasitic worms. It was dedicated by
the Greeks to the triple-eyed goddess Hécate or Diana. The designation by the
Romans is said to have been changed to Mullus, framed, it has been supposed,
on their colour, which resembled that of the sandals worn by the Alban kings, and
subsequently by the Roman consuls, and which were afterwards adopted by their
emperors under the designation of Mudleus.

In the time of the Caesars the Mullets seem almost to have divided with them
the allegiance of the Roman people, all of whom sought to obtain the fish for
their repasts as a luxury of no common order and the ruling fashion of the time.
When Rome could no longer supply them in sufficient quantity they were
imported from elsewhere, especially Corsica and Sicily. Salt water vivaria were
constructed at enormous expense wherein they were kept, but Columella observes
that scarcely one in several thousand survived the transfer, which mortality he
ascribed to their nobility spurning confinement. Kept in the salt water ponds
they were carefully tended and taught to know their owner and come to be fed
when their respective names were called out. Here care was taken that by
judicious feeding they did not become emaciated, but it was observed that they
never increased in size. Seneca states that when the time had arrived for
presenting them at their owners’ feast they were most valued if they expired in
the presence of the guests. Introduced in glass globes they were drowned in
piquant sauces or slowly boiled on the banqueting table before the company who
were thus able to view in comfort the varied and beautiful changing hues of the
expiring fish. Did it appear likely to burst during the process of cooking, skilful
cooks are said to have hindered this catastrophe by kissing the mullet’s mouth !

These fishes realized high prices in Rome, due to the estimation in which they
were held, or the notoriety gained by the purchaser who paid the most excessive
sum: while the larger they were the more they were valued as being obtained
with greater difficulty. It is said that about the time of Horace they had attained
to the maximum of their glory. Martial informs us that the price of a 44 Ib. fish
was ruinous: one of 61b. produced a sum equivalent to £48; and Asinius Celer,
an official who had attained consalar dignity, paid £64. 11s 8d for one still larger:
while even £240 was realized for an example of unusual size procured on the day
of a grand feast. A Roman is reputed to have disposed of a valuable slave in
order that with the proceeds he might for once indulge in eating a mullet: as
22 ACANTHOPTERYGILI.

Juvenal remarks, the fisherman could have been purchased for less than his fish.
But as time went on the abnormal value of the mullet declined, until in the fourth
century, Macrobius assures us that it was not excessive.

1. Mullus barbatus, Plate VIII, fig. 1.

Tpiykn Arist. ii, c. 17, iv, c. 11, v, ¢ 9, vi, ¢. 17, viii, ec. 2 and 138, ix, c. 2
and 37; Ailian, ii, c. 41; Athen. vii, pp. 324, 325.

Mullus, Ovid, v. 123; Pliny, ix, c. 17, 18, 51; Martial, x, ep. 30, 31, xi, ep.
50; Colum. viii, c. 17; Belon. 170. Triglia, Salv. fol. 235. Mullus minor,
Jonston, lib. i, t. iii, c. 1, art. 1, p. 61, t. xvii, f.5. Mullus Belonit, Willughby,
p. 285, t. 8.7, £2; Ray, p. 90. Mullus barbatus, Rondel. ix, c. 4, p. 290, ¢. fig. ;
Gesner, Aquat. p. 565. Mullus, Gronov. Zooph. p. 85, No. 286. Trigla, No. 1,
Artedi, Genera, p. 43, Synon. 71.

Surmullet, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Hd. 1) iii, p. 271 (Hd. 2) iii, p. 265.

Mullus barbatus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 495; Bonnaterre, Ich. p. 143, pl. lix,
f. 232; Bloch, t. 348, f. 2; Gmel. Linn. p. 1338; Bl. Schn. p. 79; Shaw, Zool.
iv, p. 611; Mart. Reise nach Venedig. ii, p. 426; Turton, p. 101; Cuv. and
Val. ili, p. 442, pl. lxx; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 32, c. fig. (Hd. 2) i,
p. 36 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 102; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 338; Swainson, Fishes ui, p. 234;
Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Club, 1838, i, p. 170; Nord. in Demid. Voy. Poiss.
p. 373; White, Catal. Brit. Fish, p. 14; Giinther, Catal. i, p. 401; Steindach.
Sitz. Ak. Wiss. Wien. 1867, lvi, p. 635 or Ich. Spanien u. Port. 1867, p. 33.

Red Mullet, Couch, Fishes Brit. Isles, i, p. 217, pl. xlvii.

Variety Mullus surmuletus, Plate VIII, fig. 2.

Mullus. Pliny, Hist. Mund. ix, c. 17; Belon. Aq. p.176. Mutlus major, Salv.
fol. 236; Aldrov. Pisce. p. 123; Jonston, De Pisce. lib. i, t. iti, c. 1, art. 1, p. 61,
t. xvii, f. 6; Willugh. p. 285, t. S. 7, f. 1; Ray, p. 91. Trigla, No. 2, Artedi
Genera 43, Syn. 72. Maudllus barbatus, Klein, Mss. 5, p. 22. Striped surmullet,
Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) iii, p. 274, pl. liii (Hd. 2) iii, p. 368, pl. lxiv.

Mullus surmuletus, Linn. Syst. i, p. 496; Bonnaterre, Ich. p. 144, pl. lix, f. 233;
Bloch, t. lvii; Shaw, Brit. Zool. iv, p. 618, pl. lxxxviii; Briinn. Pisc. Mass. p. 71;
Gmel. Linn. p. 1339; Lacép. iti, p. 394; Bl. Schn. p. 77; Donovan, Brit. Fish. i,
pl. xii; Martens, Reise nach Venedig. ii, p. 427; Turton, p. 102; Cuv. and Val.
li, p. 433; Cuv. Réegne Anim. Ill. Poissons, pl. xix, f.2; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes
(Ed. 1) i, p. 27, ¢. fig. (Hd. 2) i, p. 31 (Ed. 8) ii, p. 97; Flem. Brit. An. p. 216;
Jenyns, Manual Brit. Vert. p. 337; Guichen. Explor. Sc. Algér. Poiss. p. 38;
White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 14; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p.70; Ginther,
Catal. i, p. 401; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 17.

Mullus barbatus, De la Roche, An. Mus. xiii, p. 316; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 108.

Surmullet, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, i, p. 208, pl. xlvii.

91.31

B. iv, D. 7-8 | 3, P. 16-18, V. 1/5, A. 2, ©. 15, L. 1. 38-40, L. tr. 457? Cove.
pyl. 18-22, Vert. 10/14.

Length of head 4 to 43, height of body 33 to 44, length of caudal fin 43 to 5
in the total length. Hye—high up, 1} to 2 diameters from the end of the
snout, 1} diameters in the postorbital portion of the head, and 1 to 14 diameters
apart. Profile of forehead more or less steep, in some examples descending
almost vertically. Preorbital much higher than broad—sometimes nearly twice as
much. The posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to beneath the anterior
edge of the orbit: snout, preorbital and cheeks covered with open pores.
Barbels—well developed, and reaching to beneath the hind edge of the preopercle.
Teeth—in about 2 rather obtuse rows in the lower jaw, nonein the upper. Rounded
teeth on vomer and palatine bones. Tongue toothless. J*ns—spines of first
dorsal flattened and weak at their extremities, the first spine very short (apt to be
overlooked), the second, third and fourth of about the same length and equalling
2/3 the length of the head: subsequently the spines decrease in length. An
interspace of about four scales between the two dorsal fins. Second anal spine
much the longer. Intestines—the length of the intestinal tract from the pylorus
MULLIDA. 23

to the vent equals half that of the entire fish excluding the caudal fin. The
pyloric appendages consist of some short and other long ones. Scales—when at
Mevagissey, in August this year, Mr. Dunn procured for me some splendid
examples of this fish, and although the majority had 21 rows of scales between
the lateral-line and the back, others had 34. Lateral-line—the tubes are much
branched. Colowrs—these vary considerably : in the M. barbatus the fish being of
a plain red colour, whereas the M. surmuletus is more or less longitudinally striped,
which stripes may be sometimes concealed, while the rich satin-red colour becomes
most vivid after the removal of the scales.

Varieties.—Gronovius considered the Mullus barbatus as the male and
M. surmuletus as the female of a single species: but most subsequent authors
considered them as specifically distinct. During the last few years it has been
advanced that the two are varieties of one form. The distinctions given, and
which still pertain to some examples, are as follows :—

M. barbatus.—The profile of the snout almost vertical, more {so than in the
M. surmuletus. It is red without any longitudinal stripes, and Yarrell considered
the position of the fins differed a little, the first dorsal being said to be more in
advance of the pectoral fin and the ventral further behind than in the surmullet:
he gives one yellow band along the side below the lateral-line. This form is reputed
never to attain the size of the surmullet, and it has been conjectured that they
become more striped with age.

M. surmuletus——Has generally an oblique profile of the snout. It is of a pale
pink becoming yellowish on the sides and along the abdomen: while from three
to five bright yellow bands pass from the head along the sides, the two central
ones reaching the base of the caudal fin, one above, the other below the lateral-
line. First dorsal fin with two longitudinal dark bands, the upper being nearly
black and placed on a milk-white ground. Second dorsal with two or more
oblique dark bands, and occasionally the caudal fin is also obliquely banded.
The outer edges of the scales are often darker than their bases.

Professor Steindachner observes that he had examined not less than 75
examples and found so many variations in the form of their rostral profiles that
he felt compelled to consider the M. barbatus and M. surmuletus as the extreme
limits of variation of a single species.

Names.—The M. barbatus is known as the red surmullet, the plain red mullet,
or in Welsh Hyrddyn coch. The M. surmuletus is termed surmullet or striped red
mullet. De koning van de poon, Dutch. Rouget-barbet, French.

Habits.—These fishes along the southern coast are found in Cornwall at about
20 miles out to sea in March, and from 5 to 10 in May, when they come in with
the mackerel, and are said to be of a roving disposition, About the end of June
they arrive close in shore on sandy spots which are near to rocks, and as soon as
startled they dash in among them or under the sea weed. The best and finest
coloured ones are in the west portion of the channel dividing England from France.

But as might be anticipated, we find occasional visitors on our coasts when
least expected, thus on December 24th, 1878, Mr. Cornish obtained one 16 inches
long and in good condition at Penzance: and in June 1866 one was captured in a
drift net 15 leagues south-west of Scilly in about 60 fathoms water: and Couch
alludes to a trawl vessel of Plymouth which one winter took so many of these
fishes that they realized £20. As to the food they eat, opinions vary: the ancients
considered them very foul feeders, delighting mostly on corpses, the more putrid
they become the larger the assemblies of these fish: the ocean after a sea battle
was said to abound with them. It is more probably they devour small crustacea,
crabs, molluscs, &c. In an aquarium they eat pieces of mussel,

Means of capture.— Ground seines, trammels, trawls and mullet nets.
Dr. Bullmore observes that at Penzance, on their first appearance, they are mostly
captured in trawls, at the next spring-tides they become more abundant and are
taken in ground seines, sometimes as many as 50 or 60 ina night. At Mevagissey
the trammel is formed of three parts fastened by a common head-line and footline.
The meshes of the middle piece will only receive the head and shoulders of the
fish, while the outermost pieces will allow the entrance of the mullet’s body so
24, ACANTHOPTERYGII.

far as its middle. These are set in accordance with certain inshore marks known
to the fisherman. The foot rope must touch the bottom or the fish will pass
under it. The reason they are occasionally taken in drift nets is assamed to be
that when changing their locality they swim near the surface even if the water
is very deep. Occasionally they take a bait.

Immediately one is captured, or as soon as landed, the scales are stripped off
by the thumb nail, which occasions a contraction of the pigment cells, for were
this not done the brilliant red colour observed in the fishmongers’ shops would
be less apparent and the fish of less value for the table. Irrespective of this,
were the scales not so removed, and the fish to dry, as it would, while in transit
to the market, they (the scales) become very adherent, and are with some difficulty
removed without breaking the skin, which would occasion disfigurement. Those
caught in a trammel being less bruised than such as are taken in a trawl keep
longer and are more valued.

Breeding.—In Britain the striped surmullets, both male and female, are met
with spawning along the south coast from July to September. Mr. Dunn observes
that ‘they shed only a little at a time, continuing their spawning probably over
a month, and different from all other fish I know. They get very fat at this
time.” By October there are young, about 2 inches in length, and from one
eighth to one quarter of an ounce in weight.

As food.—This fish is held in high estimation throughout most of Continental
Europe as well as in this country. In France the plain red mullets of Provence
and Toulon are most valued, while in Britain the finest examples of Surmullets
are obtained from the English Channel. Its flesh is of good flavour, white, firm,
flaky, destitute of fat and easy of digestion. It attains its highest perfection
during the summer months, but is seen throughout the year in London
fishmongers’ shops. Its liver is usually deemed its most savoury morsel, to which
its head was formerly considered next in delicacy.

This fish when cooked is usually not opened, only its gills being removed, on
which account it is termed the “ woodcock of the sea,” it is closely wrapped up in a
sheet of buttered paper securely tied with packthread. It is then roasted ina
Dutch oven, or gently broiled over a clear fire, or baked for 20 or 25 minutes. For
sauce the liquor which exudes is added to melted butter, some essence of anchovy
and a little lemon juice. A glass of port-wine or claret may be used as an
addition. In Venice it is eaten soused: the fish is kept soaking some time ina
pickle of capsicum vinegar before being eaten.

Habitat.—From Scandinavia through the seas and coasts of temperate Europe.
While in the North Atlantic it extends as far south as Madeira and the Canary
Isles. It also abounds in the Mediterranean, Adriatic, and is found in the
Black Sea. The most abundant form in the Mediterranean appears to be the
M. barbatus, while the larger striped variety, M. surmuletus, is common in the
North Atlantic.

In England the surmullet is most numerous along the south and west coasts,
rapidly decreasing in numbers as we go northwards, still in some seasons they are
abundant off the county of Norfolk ; thus in 1831 during one week in May 10,000
were despatched from Yarmouth to London (Paget).

In Scotland Pennant stated he had heard of its capture but did not see the
fish: it has been recorded from the Moray Frith (Gordon), and both it and the
plain red mullet from Banffshire (Edward).

The plain red mullet has been taken .in Berwickshire (Johnson) and at
Falmouth (Cock). Mr. Dunn at Mevagissey tells me that he has never seen an
example during the many years he has been engaged on fish and fishing.

In Ireland the surmullet was included among the indigenous fish by Brown in
1774: it has also been taken in Ventry Harbour (Andrews); Dublin Bay
(Warren) ; Ballinskclligs Bay (Earl of Ducie).

The usual size of this fish is from 1 to 2 1b., and about 14 inches in length ;
but an example has been recorded from Penzance taken in a trammel in October,
1875, and which was 16$ inches long, and weighed 2 lb. 64 oz. (Cornish), while
Yarrell records one of 3 lb. 6 02. taken at Weymouth. At Mevagisscy it has
likewise been captured 17 inches in length.
SPARID A. 25

4

Famity, III—SPARIDZ, Cuvier.

Branchiostegals from five to seven: pseudobranchie well-developed. Body
oblong and compressed. Eyes of moderate size, lateral. Mouth in front of snout,
having a lateral cleft. Bones of the head with a rudimentary muciferous system.
No teeth on the palate (except in the Genus Pimelepterus): more or less broad
and cutting or conical teeth in front of the jaws, or a lateral series of molars, or
both conjoined. A single dorsal fin formed by a spinous and soft portion, their
bases being of nearly equal extent: anal with three spines: lower pectoral rays
branched in most of the genera: ventrals thoracic, with one spine and five rays.
Lateral-line continuous, not extending on to the caudal fin. Scales cycloid, or
feebly ctenoid.

Geographical distributionSeas of temperate and tropical regions. Some
enter fresh waters.

SYNOPSIS OF BRITISH GENERA.

First group—Cantharina.

Broad and cutting teeth in front of the jaws: no molars: palate edentulous.
Lower pectoral rays branched.
1. Cantharus. Cardiform teeth, with the outer row slightly compressed and

lanceolate. Cheeks scaly : vertical fins scaleless.
2. Box. A single row of notched and trenchant teeth in both jaws. Cheeks

scaly : vertical fins scaleless.

Second group—Pagrina.

Cutting teeth in front of the jaws; and molars along the sides.
3. Pagrus. Scales on cheeks. Canine teeth: two rows of molars in the

upper jaw. ;
4, Pagellus. Scales on cheeks. No canine teeth.

First group—Cantharina.

Broad and cutting teeth in front of the jaws: no molars: palate edentulous,
Lower pectoral rays branched.

Genus I.—Canruarus, Cuvier and Valenciennes.

Branchiostegals siz: pseudobranchice present. Vulliform or cardiform teeth in
the jaws, those forming the outer row being compressed and lanceolate. Cheeks
scaled. Dorsal fin with 10 or 11 spines, which can be received into a scaly sheath.
Scales of moderate size. Pyloric appendages few. Air-bladder divided posteriorly
into two horns.

Geographical distribution.—From Scandinavia and the British Isles, through
the Atlantic Ocean to the Cape of Good Hope and the Seychelles. Also extended
throughout the Mediterranean.
26 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

1. Cantharus lineatus, Plate IX.

Cantharus, Rondel. lib. v, c. iv, p. 120, c. fig.; Gesner, 1598, fol. 22, c. fig. ;
Aldrovand. 2, c. 20, p. 185; Jonston, lib. i, t. iti, c. 5, art. 11, p. 72, t. xix, f. 5;
Willugh. lib. iv, ¢. vill, p. 309, t. v.f.2; Ray, p. 1380; Rutty, Dublin, i, p. 368.
Bréme de Mer, Duhamel, pt. 2, sect. iv, pl. iv, f. 1..

Sparus cantharus, Gmel. Linn. p. 1274; Bl. Schn. p. 17; Duhamel, Péches, ii,
Sect. iv, pl. vii, f£. 1; Swainson, Fishes, i1, p. 223.

Sparus brama, Bloch, v, p. 77.

Sparus lineatus, Montagu, Mem. Wern. Soc. ii, 1815, p. 451, pl. xxiii.

Sparus vetula, Couch, Trans. Linn. Soc. 1822, xiv, p. 79.

Sparus sciandra, Rosenth. Ich. Taf. t. xiv, f. 1.

Pagrus lineatus, Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 211.

Cantharus vulgaris and brama, Cuv. and Val. vi, pp. 319, 328, pl. clx ; Guichen.
Explor. Sc. Alger. Poiss. p. 53, and Ex. Se. Morée, Zool. pl. xvii, f. 1, a. b.

Cantharus griseus, Cuv. and Val. vi, p. 333; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 358 ;
Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 114,c. fig. (Hd. 2) i, p. 180, (Hd. 3) u, p. 156;
Lowe, Trans. Zool. Soe. ii, p. 8.

Cantharus lineatus, Thompson, Ann. and Mag. (2), 1846, p.313, and Nat. Hist.
Ireland, iv, p. 91; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 16; Giinther, Cat. i, p. 414
Steind. Ich. Spanien u. Port. 1867, p. 47; Collett, Norges, Fiske, p. 17.

Old wife, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, i, p. 222, pl. xlix.

B. vi, D. 24, P.14, V.1/5, A.) C.17, L. 1 72, L. tr. 9/19, Coe. pyl. 4,
Vert. 10/14.

Length of head 43 to 44, of caudal fin 53 to 6, height of body 23 to
3 in the total length. Hye—3 to 33 or in some large examples even 4
diameters in the length of the head, 3/4 to 1 diameter from end of snout, and 1
apart. Body compressed. The posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to
beneath the front edge of the orbit. Posterior edge of preopercle finely roughened.
Opercular spine distinct. Lower edge of preorbital usually notched by the
maxilla, but sometimes entire. Teeth—cardiform in both jaws, with the outer
row somewhat the largest and slightly compressed ; none on the vomer, palatines,
nor on the tongue. ms—dorsal spines of moderate strength, increasing in length
to the fourth and fifth. Pectoral as long as or slightly longer than the head.
Anal spines shorter than the rays. Caudal forked. Scales—ctenoid, about 8 rows
below the eye over the cheek ; 16 rows between the lateral-line and base of ventral
fin. Cecal appendages—four, rather large. Air-bladder—ending posteriorly in two
horns, which are separated one from the other by the interhemal spines. Colours
—gray, becoming lighter and dashed with gold on the sides and beneath : forehead
and cheeks purplish. Below the lateral-line are 3 or 4 parallel, or sometimes
irregularly horizontal golden bands, along the body. Dorsal fin dark, with 2 or 3
nearly black bands composed of spots. Pectoral, caudal, and anal straw-coloured.
Caudal gray-edged, margined externally with white: some bands of spots along
the anal. Ventrals slate-colour along the centre, with light or even white edges.
The colours in these fish are liable to considerable variation.

Names.—Black sea-bream: old wife. Rutty observes that in the county of
Dublin it was ‘“‘vulgarly but improperly termed sea tench,’’ but it is questionable
whether he referred to this fish.

Habits.—Prefers rocky ground, feeding on the finer kinds of sea weeds. It is
found in bays and harbours, and frequently captured by anglers fishing from the
shore, rocks or piers. Cuv. and Val. observe that the remains of uct
were detected in it. It is most abundant about July and August, after whizh it
appears to retire to deeper water. Couch records an example captured as late in
the year as Christmas, after a cold season, and a second in February with the roe
well developed. In aquaria they are fond of shrimps.

How captured.—Generally in summer and autumn by baits, as lob worms or
pieces of mussel, or nets.
SPARID Ai. 27

As food.—lIts flesh is usually soft and little esteemed, but those taken in
August and September at Boulogne and Calais are said to have firmer flesh and a
moderately good taste.

Habitat.—Rare off the coasts of southern Norway, Ireland and Scotland, but
becoming more common along the west and south coast of England and in the
North Atlantic Ocean to Madeira and the Canary Islands: while it also abounds
throughout the Mediterranean.

This fish was first recorded in Britain by Colonel Montagu in 1815, as Sparus
lineatus, it is distributed along the entire south and up a portion of the west
coasts of England; rarely in companies, but usually more solitary in its habits.
In the Westminster Aquarium, however, I observe that they constantly swim
together in companies. In Banffshire “a few of them are generally procured
every autumn or about the beginning of winter” (Hdward).

Ireland.—May, 1846, the first example recorded of late years,was captured by
a hand-line baited with a lug-worm in Belfast Bay. Thompson says it had
D. 10/11, A. 1/11, and the upper caudal lobe the longer. Another was taken in
November at Kilmore, in the County of Wexford. While Rutty remarks
“found about the rocks of Bullock, Dunleary, and Killeny Bay.”

As to the size it attains, Couch mentions one of 16 inches in length: and
Yarrell one of 17 inches, while it has been taken up to 20 inches. Mr. Cornish
states that one 7} inches in length was taken at Penzance, May 24th, 1880, and
adds that he had not seen so small an example since May 26th, 1859.
28 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus II.—Box, Cuvier and Valenciennes.

Boops, Cuvier.

Branchiostegals six: pseudobranchie present. Body elongated and somewhat
rounded. A front row of wecisors, having notched margins, in either jaw: no molars.
Spines of dorsal fin (11 to 15) can be received into a scaly sheath. Scales of moderate
size, extended over the cheeks. Intestinal tract convoluted and rather long: pyloric
appendages few. Air-bladder divided posteriorly into two horns.

Geographical distribution.—From the southern coast of the British Isles south-
wards to Madeira and the Cape of Good Hope, also throughout the Mediterranean.
Found in the Caribbean Sea in the West Indies.

1. Box vulgaris, Plate X.

Boa, Plin. xxii, c. 11; Belon. de Aquat. p. 230. Boops, Rondel. v, c. 11, p. 136,
c. fig.; Gesner, p. 147; Aldrov. ii. c. 41, p. 231; Jonst. De Pise. lib. i, t. i, ¢. 1,
art. 23, p. 84, t. xx, f. 6; Willugh. p. 317, t.U.8. £1; Ray, p.135. Sparus, No. 6,
Artedi, Gen. p. 36.

Sparus loops, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 469; Gmel. Linn. p. 1274; Brinn. Pisc.
Mass. p. 44; Lacép. iv, pp. 97, 99; BL Schn. p. 273; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 242 ;
Martens, Reise nach Venedig, ii, p. 424.

Box vulgaris, Cuv. and Val. vi, p. 348, pl. clxi; Cuv. Reg. Anim. Ill. Poissons,
pl. xxxvi, f. 1; Guichenot, Explor. Sc. Alger. Poissons, p. 54; Yarrell, Zool. 1843,
p. 85, and Brit. Fishes, Second Supplement, 1860, p. 6, c. fig. and (Hd. 3) u,
p. 159; Giinther, Catal. i. p. 418; Steind. Ich. Spanien u. Port. 1867, p. 49.

Boops Canariensis, Val. in Webb and Berth. Hist. Nat. Iles Canar. Poiss. p. 36,

1.x, f. 1.
E Sparus boops, Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 223.

Boops boops, White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 20.

Bogue, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, i, p. 225, pl. 1.

B. vi, D. ¢345, P. 21, V. 1/5, A. 3%, C. 17, L. 1. 75, L. tr. 6/13, Coec. pyl. 6,
Vert. 10-11/13.

Length of head 42, of caudal fin 53, height of body 44 to 5 in the total
length. Hye—3 to 34 diameters in the length of the head, 2/3 to 1 diameter
from the end of the snout, and the same distance apart. Interorbital space
flattened and rather convex. The maxilla does not quite reach to below the front
edge of the eye in adults, but does in the young. Preorbital rather narrow,
and longer than deep. 'eeth—the anterior row in both jaws flattened and notched
at their cutting edge intoa trefoil shape: fine ones on the vomer, palatines, and on
the tongue. /'ins—dorsal spines weak. Pectoral as long as the head. Last
dorsal and anal ray thickened. Caudal deeply forked. Scales—cycloid, arranged
in regular lines on the body: 3 or 4 rows across the cheeks, also present on the
opercular pieces, but none along the preopercular limb. A few over the caudal fin.
Intestinal tract—the stomach is small, with thin and transparent walls: its
ascending portion is narrow at its commencement, but subsequently dilates into
double its original width. There are five coecal appendages at the pylorus, four
on the lower side of the duodenum, and one on its upper surface. The intestines
are much convoluted, while at the commencement of the rectum it suddenly
dilates and gives off a sort of little coecum, which has been likened to a true
ceecal appendage, subsequent to which the intestine again contracts. Colowrs—
yellowish-olive on the back, becoming silvery on the abdomen: three or four
golden lines pass along the sides below the lateral-line. A brown spot in the
axil of the pectoral fin.

Names.—Boga, French.
SPARIDA. 29

Habits.—It feeds on sea-weeds and occasionally devours small marine animals,
but appears to subsist chiefly on a vegetable diet.

Means of capture.—In Provence and Nice peculiar kinds of nets, termed
bughiera, are said to be employed for taking these fishes, while for good luck the
boats are adorned with silver figures of the bogue.

Breeding.—It is stated to spawn twice a year near the shore.

As *food.—It is good and digestible according to Rondel, but on the
Atlantic coast of Spain, Cornide described them as disagreeable in taste, and only
eaten by the poor: while on the coast of Provence it is especially esteemed when
full of spawn, according to Valenciennes.

Habitat—From the southern shores of the British isles as far south as
Madeira and the Canaries, while an example, said to have been obtained from
St. Vincent’s, in the West Indies, is in the British Museum. It is also common
throughout the Mediterranean.

The first example observed in this country was at Falmouth, in October, 1843,
when one was taken in a ground seine along with some mullets: several examples
have since been captured at the same place. June 26th, 1872, one was caught
near Plymouth; and March 15th, 1873, a specimen, 12 inches long, was obtained
in a herring-net at Helford Harbour.

It attains at least 16 inches in length, as seen in a specimen from Lisbon in
the British Museum. For the example figured, life-size, I am indebted to
Professor Peters, Director of the Zoological Museum at Berlin.*

 

* Mena vulgaris, Cuvier and Valenciennes.

Mendole, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, i, p. 206, pl. xlvi.

This fish may be an occasional wanderer into the British seas. I think,
however, that the single example recorded, which was not kept, must from the
description have been Box vulgaris, the only difference given, being that it was
said to have pointed teeth.
30 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Second group—Pagrina.
Cutting teeth in front of jaws: and molars along the sides.

Genus ITI.—Pagrus, Cuvier.

Chrysophrys, Cuvier: Argyrops and Chrysoblephus, Swainson: Sparus, Bleeker,
7

Branchiostegals six: pseudobranchie present. Jaws with an antertor row of
conical or compressed canines, and laterally two, three or even four rows of rounded
molars. A single dorsal fin with from 11 to 13,’sometimes elongated, spines, receivable
into a groove at their base: anal with three. Scales of moderate size, extending on
to the cheeks. Atr-bladder usually simple, but sometimes notched or with short
appendages. Pyloric appendages, when present, in small numbers.

The Genus Pagrus Cuvier is divided from Chrysophrys Cuvier, owing to the
first merely possessing 2 rows of rounded molars laterally, which in the last may
be augmented to 3 or even 4. But even in Pagrus vulgaris, a rudimentary internal
third row may be observed, and in species of Chrysophrys, a considerable latitude
in the mode of dentition is perceptible. Thus in Chrysophrys Cuwiert * Day, the
anterior teeth are conical, while the size of the molars is far less than seen in
typical species of Chrysophrys. I have for these and other reasons adopted
Steindachners views in considering the two as portions of the same genus.

Geographical distribution.—From the southern shores of the British Isles,
Atlantic and Indian Oceans: Mediterranean and Red Sea to Australia.

1. Pagrus vulgaris, Plate XI.

Taypoc, Aristot. viii, c. 13, 17.

Pagrus, Rondel. v. c. 15, p. 142; Artedi, Genera, p. 36. Orphus, Gesner, 1598,
f. 27, c. fig.; Jonston, lib. i, t. iti, c.i, art. v, p. 68, t. xvii, f.8. Sparus, No. 4,
Artedi, Genera, p. 36; Duhamel, iv, c. 2, p. 29.

Sparus pagrus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 460; Brinn. Pisc. Mass. p. 94; Shaw,
Zool. iv, p. 408; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 241; De la Roche, Ann. Mus. xiii, p. 317;
Martens, Reise nach Venedig. 11, p 425.

Sparus argenteus, Bl. Schn. p. 271.

Aurata orphus, Risso, Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 356.

Pagrus pagrus, Risso, Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 360.

Pagrus vulgaris, Cuv. and Val. vi, p. 142, pl. exlviii; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Hd. 1,
2 and 3 figure not description) ; Val. in Webb and Berthel. Hist. Nat. Isles Canar.
Poiss. p. 32; Guichen. Explr. Sc. Algér. Poiss. p. 49; Gtinther, Catal. i, p. 466;
Steindach. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1867, p. 53.

Pagrus orphus, Cuv. and Val. vi, p. 150, pl. cxlix; White, Catal. Brit. Fish.
p- 17; Val. in Webb and Berth. Hist. Nat. Isles Canar. Poiss. p. 32; Ginther,
Catal. i. p. 467; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Hd. 3) ii, p. 142, c. fig. and vignette of
teeth.

Couch’s sea-Bream, Couch, Zool. 1843, i, p. 81, c. fig. and Fish. Brit. Isles, i,
p. 231, pl. ln.

Pagellus Rondeletit, Couch, Zool. 1846, p. 1406; Yarrell’s, Brit. Fish. 2nd
Supp. p. 4.

B. vi, D. 43, P. 15, V. 1/5, A. 3, C. 17, L. 1. 53—58, L. tr. 7/17, Cove. pyl. 5.

Length of head 3¢ to 43, of caudal fin 43 to 5, height of body 23 to 34 in the
total length. Hye—diameter 3} to 4 in the length of the head, 1 to 2 diameters
from the end of the snout, and 2 apart. Interorbital space convex. Upper profile
from the dorsal fin to the eye parabolic, from thence it abruptly descends to the
mouth, which descent is usually most vertical in old examples. The maxilla

* Day, Fishes of India, i, p. 141, pl, xxxiy, f. 3.
SPARIDA. 31

reaches to bencath the middle of the eye: lower jaw slightly the longer. Pre-
opercle twice as high as broad. Preorbital large, being as high or higher than
broad, its depth exceeding the width of the eye. Teeth—an outer conical row in
the upper jaw, the 4 front rows of which are enlarged: while posteriorly in both
Jaws exist 2 or 3 rows of rounded molars. Two large canines anteriorly on either
side of the mandible. Jins—dorsal spines of moderate strength, increasing in
length to the third, from whence they equal the height of the rays and about
1/3 of that of the body. Pectoral pointed, rather longer than the head, and
reaching to above the anal spines. Ventral does not extend so far as the vent.
Second anal spine stronger, but not quite so long as the third. Candal forked.
Scales—extend forwards to above the eyes: 6 rows across the cheeks and 8 across
the opercles, those on the head being much smaller than those on the body.
Colours—the front and top of the head brownish-red: back and fins, except
the anal, as if formed by a mixture of lake and vermillion: occasionally the back
has broad reddish bands descending to the abdomen: anal pale yellow: sides pale
red: under surface dull white: iris yellow. The young are plain silvery, with
reddish bands. In some examples a blue band passes from one eye to the other,
but which is said to be absent in others. Rondel observed that during
winter it becomes of a bluish tint, which remark, however, still needs confir-
mation.

Varieties.—This fish has occasioned considerable trouble to Ichthyologists from
the time of Bloch until the present, as owing to errors of identification its
occurrence on our southern shores is every now and then being recorded. Bloch’s
figure of Sparus pagrus, with its black shoulder spot, is perhaps Pagellus centro-
dontus, as the illustration of its teeth does not coincide what exists in Pagrus, the
difference however between the head of Bloch’s fish and what obtains in Pagellus
centrodontus will be referred to at page 37. While the figure of Pagrus in
Aldrovandus also represents the Pagellus centrodontus.

Risso seems to have described this fish in his Sparus pagrus, but he considered
it to be identical with Bloch’s figure. Subsequently in his larger work he named
another fish Aurata orphus, retaining his Pagrus pagrus, identical as he still con-
sidered it, with Bloch’s species.

Valenciennes held that Bloch’s figure represented Pagellus centrodontus and
Risso’s description Pagrus vulgaris, but he considered that Aurata orphus Risso
with a blue interorbital band and a more abrupt profile of the snout was a distinct
species: which, however, Steindachner has, it appears to me, with much justice
dissented from.

Yarrell in his Fishes of the British Isles gave a figure of Pagrus vulgaris taken
from Cuvier and Valenciennes’ grand work: this he identified with the Braize or
Becker of the south coast of England, taking his description from a British example,
to this he added a vignette of the dentition as he found it, but the dentition and his
specimens which are still preserved in the national collection belong to Pagellus
erythrinus. Couch likewise terms the Braize or Becker, Pagrus vulgaris, and it is
more difficult to understand to what fish he refers (vol. i, p. 228, pl. li), the fin
rays are thus briefly described “ dorsal nine, anal three.” He states it to be
“common on the south and west of England, but it does not appear to be of
frequent occurrence in the north of England or Scotland. . . Its habits are
migratory, and its visits are confined to the summer and autumn, leaving us, on
the approach of colder weather, in the beginning of the winter. It is a solitary
fish.’ As Couch appears to have obtained only a single example of Pagrus, and
which he considered to be an unknown species, or Couch’s sea bream, we are
justified in believing that he made some error in his diagnosis of the species,
having in reality described a Pagellus as Pagrus vulgaris, and published a figure
of an unknown fish as a representation, so far as I have been able to ascertain.

Habits:x—Risso observes that it approaches the shore in summer. While
Valenciennes, who examined the intestines of one (P. orphus), remarks that the
stomach and abdominal cavity were filled with the remains of small shell fish
having horny opercles, consuming such as have a less hard shell than Turbo
or Trochus.
32 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Breeding.—Risso found that his Aurata orphus deposited its eggs on the
shingly shore in summer.

Habitat.—-From the Canary Islands in the north Atlantic as far as the British
coast, where a straggler has been obtained: through the Mediterranean, including
the Gulf of Genoa.

The single undoubted British example hitherto recorded was one weighing 6 lb.
20 inches in length, and captured by bait, November 8th, 1842, at a rocky ledge
termed the Edges, about two miles south of Polperro in Cornwall, and was at once
taken to Mr. Couch. Its form is of the variety orphus, but its colours were those
of the Pagrus vulgaris.

This species is said to attain to 11 lb. or more.

The figure is from Couch’s stuffed example: the teeth after Steindachner's
figure, l.c., and taken from another specimen, as Yarrell has figured this apparatus
from Couch’s specimen in which they are injured or worn from age.

2 Pagrus auratus, Plate XII.

Xpvoodpve, Arist. i, c. 5, ii, c. 17, iv, c. 10, v, c. 10, vi, ¢. 17, viii, c. 2, 13, 15,
19; Athen. vii, p. 328; Allian, xiii, c. 28, xvi, c. 12; Oppian, i. p. 7.

Aurata, Columella, viii, c. 16; Plin. ix, c. 16; Belon. pp. 192, 193; Rondel.
v,c. 2, p. 115, ¢. fig.; Salvian. fol. 1746, 175; Gesner, pp. 110, 128; Jonston,
De Pisce. lib. i, t. 8, c. i, art, 8, p. 70, t. xix, f.2; Willughby, p. 307, t. V, f. 5;
Ray, p. 131. Aurata vulgaris, Aldrov. ii, c. 15, p. 171. Sparus, No. 1, Artedi
Genera, 25, Syn. 63; Gronov. Mus. Ich. p. 38, No. 90; Duhamel, Péches, ii, Sect.
4, pl. xi, f.i. Mochar, Osbeck, Nov. Act. Nat. Cur. iv, p. 100. Lunulated gilt
head, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Hd. 1) iii, p. 240, not pl. xlii (Hd. 2) iii, p. 327, not
pl. xlvi.

Sparus aurata, Linn. Mus. Ad. Fr. 2, p. 62, and Syst. Nat. i, p. 467; Hasselquist,
Iter. Palest. p. 337; Briinn. Pisc. Mass. p. 36; Gmel. Linn. p. 1270;
Bloch, t. 266; Bl. Schn.p. 270; Lacépéde, iv, p. 57; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 234;
Martens, Reise nach Venedig. ii, p. 424; Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 211;
Johnston, Fish. Berwick. Mag. Nat. Hist. vi, 1833, p. 15; Jenyns, Man.
Brit. Vert. p. 353.

Sparus scriptus, Bl. Schn. p. 279.

Chrysophrys aurata, Cuv. and Val. vi, p. 85, pl. exlv; Guichen. Expl. Se.
Alger. Poiss. p. 48; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1), i, p. 97, c. fig. (Hd. 2), i,
p. 111, (Ed. 3), ii, p. 185; Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 221; White, Catal. Brit.
Fish. p. 17; Gunther, Catal. i, p. 484; Steind. Sitz. Ak. Wiss. Wien, 1867, lvi,
p. 658.

Chrysophrys crassirostris, Cuv. and Val. vi, p. 98, pl. cxlvi; Giinther, Catal. i,

. 484,
' The gilt head, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, i, p. 243, pl. lvii.

Pagrus auratus, Steind. Ich. Spanien u. Port. 1867, p. 56.

B. vi, D. 24, P. 16, V.1/5, A. 42rg, C. 17, L. 1. 75-86, L. tr. 8-9/19, Cove.
pyl. 3-4, Vert. 10/14.

Length of head 4 to 43, of caudal fin 5} to 5}, height of body 33 to 3} in
the total length. Hye—3; to 53 diameters in the length of the head, 1}
to 23 diameters from the end of the snout and also apart. Interorbital space
rather convex in adults. Preorbital 2/3 as high as long. The lower jaw
not quite so long anteriorly as the upper: the maxilla reaches to beneath
the front edge or even (in the young) the first third of the eye. Teeth—
an anterior row of about 6 conical teeth in either jaws: laterally rounded molars
increasing in size posteriorly and forming 2 rows in the lower and 3 in the upper
jaw, the posterior and internal ones of which are the largest, increasing in
size with age. None on the vomer, palatines, or tongue. Fins—dorsal spines of
moderate strength, the 3rd and 4th being somewhat the longest. Pectoral longer
than the head. The second and third anal spines of nearly the same length
and strength. Caudal forked. Scales—with slightly irregular edges and straight
parallel lines, 7 rows cross the cheek between the eye and the angle of the
SPARIDA. 33

preopercle. Intestines—in an example 53 inches long the distance from the pylorus
to the vent was 31 inches: there were only 3 ccecal appendages. Colowrs—silvery,
becoming lighter on the sides and almost white on the abdomen: traces of
longitudinal lines have been observed along the body and a dark spot at the
base of the pectoral fin. A crescentic golden band, the concavity of which
is directed backwards, passes between the eyes: top of the head iridescent green.
A dark spot at the upper end of the opercle.

Although Pennant has the lunulated gilt-head in his work, such is composed of
two species, the figure distinctly representing Pagellus centrodontus, whereas the
description is partially that of Pagrus auratus, which error has been repeated in
several more recent works. :

Names and their origin.—Gilt-head and gilt-poll from its predominant colours,
and lunulated gilt-head from the form of its interorbital golden band. It was
consecrated to Venus by the Romans under the name of Awrata sargon (Halliwell).
In Rome during the time of Belonius these fishes had different designations accord-
ing to their lengths; those a palm long were named sauguéne, if a cubit in length
daurades, while the intermediate sizes were termed méiane. Very large ones were
known as subredawrades. Thunor-bodu, Anglo-Saxon; Mr. Skeat considers the
term to apply to this fish, it means ‘“‘ thunder-boder,” or the precursor of thunder,
which would seem to be an example of folklore. Peneuryn or Eurben, Welsh.
La Daurade vulgaire, French.

Habits.—These fish appear to frequent the sea on bold and rocky coasts,
where they feed on crabs and shell fish, which their powerful molar teeth would be
well adapted to crush and grind up. Duhamel states that they stir up the sand
with their tails to obtain small shell-fish. They assemble in shoals at the mouths
of rivers, but are said to be very sensible to impressions of cold when they retire
to deeper waters: and Duhamel observed that fishes of this genus died in numbers
during the severe winter of 1766.

Means of captwre—Nets and lines. Off the coast of Languedoc, the hooks are
baited with pieces of mussel or other shell fish, as Venus decussata, or if these are
unobtainable with shrimps or pieces of tunny.

Breeding.—Said to spawn in summer.

As food.—Coarse, but much valued by the Romans, who kept them in
vivaria on an oyster diet, which improved their appearance and heightened their
flavour. In some places on the continent of Europe they are still esteemed,
although considered to be rather dry: those which have entered brackish waters
being preferred.

Habitat.—From the British coast as far south in the Atlantic as the Cape of
Good Hope (? variety P. globiceps C. and V.). Also through the Mediterranean to
the Adriatic. :

This fish is a wanderer to the British shores, and has been recorded from
Devonshire. Fleming had ‘seen it once caught in the estuary of the Tayin August,”
but perhaps owing to his considering Sparus awratus (Pennant and Donovan) to be
this species but which really is Pagellus centrodontus, he appears to have added to
his otherwise correct description, “a black spot at the origin of the lateral-line.”
Edward (Life, p. 419) records two from Banffshire, one brought on shore at
Portsoy in 1839: the other captured off Buckie in 1841. ,

That the gilt-head is very rare on our shores is evident. It was first
alluded to by Colonel Montagu, who in 1802 examined two examples from Torcross,
while another 15 inches long is mentioned by Yarrell as having been obtained in
the London fish-market, and one 8 inches long from the mouth of the Tweed.
July 28rd, 1846, Mr. Cocks purchased one in the Falmouth market, and a few
days subsequently a second. March Ist, 1870, Mr. Cornish (Zoologist, 1870,
p- 2108) recorded one 18} inches in length from Penzance, where it had been
taken in a grey mullet net, in shallow water off a sandy beach.

Trelaiut.—Considerable doubts exist respecting the visits of this fish to,

3
34 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

the Irish coast. Rutty (Nat. Hist. Dublin, i, 368) observes ‘“‘ Aurata Salviant.
The gilt-head or gilt-poll here called the Sea Bream, which is very frequent about
the rocks of Dunleary.” The fish here mentioned was probably a Pagellus.
Thompson (Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 91) considers that Templeton’s Sparus
auratus referred to (Ann. Nat. Hist. (2) i, p. 409) as “often taken during
the summer and autumnal months, principally when currents sweep along
the rocky shore,’ must be Pagellus centrodontus, doubting the existence of -
this fish in Ireland.

For the example figured (life-size) I am indebted to Professor Hubrecht of
Leyden. The fish grows in British waters to at least 18} inches in length, but
becomes larger in the Mediterranean.
SPARIDA. 35

Genus XI—Pacetius, Cuvier and Valenciennes.

Branchiostegals six: pseudobranchie present. Opercles unarmed. The teeth in
the anterior part of either jaw cardlike without canines, the outer series being some-
what enlarged ; posteriorly two or more rows of rounded molars in either jaw. The
spines of the dorsal fin (11 to 13) are receivable into a basal groove: three anal spines.
Scales of moderate size, some present on the checks. Atr-bladder simple. Pyloric
appendages few.

_ The molar teeth in the genus Pagellus are much smaller than what are seen
in those which belong to Pagrus, C. V., including Chrysophrys, C. V.

Geographical distribution. From the seas of Scandinavia, along the British
shores to the Canaries, the Cape of Good Hope, as well as the Atlantic coast of
Tropical America. Also throughout the Mediterranean and Black Sea.

These fishes are commonly known as sea-breams. One form termed silver eyes
is said to pursue small fishes in Cardigan Bay, and Mr. Dunn, of Mevagissey,
informs me that sea-breams frequently come in shoals at night-time to feed on the
pilchards entangled in the fishermen’s nets, and which they often rapidly clear:
this seems to be most common on moonlight nights, as at other times they are
ground feeders.

In Cornwall when two-thirds grown they are known as grobman, if younger
as chads. Mr. Dunn has observed at Mevagissey that ‘‘sea-breams” leave the
coast in November when they have no spawn, returning in April, whereas at
Land’s End they arrive in March: on their arrival they seem to have concluded
spawning. The chads appear the first week in July.

In considering the number of species recorded from the seas of Great Britain,
I observe that Yarrell (Ed. 3) mentions three, irrespective of his braize or
becker, which is in reality a Pagellus. Couch also has the becker, three Pagelli,
and one variety. The number of species from these shores which I have obtained
or examined and figured is five, one being that of a skin existing in the British
Museum from Parnell’s Frith of Forth collection as P. acarne, other examples
of which from Yarrell’s collection have also been seen.

Couch mentions a tale of the common sea-bream showing how superstitious
the fishermen of Cornwall were at the commencement of this century. An old
woman whose appearance and language were similar to what those of witches
were supposed to be, came to a seine boat and requested the gift of a few pilchards,
but received a curt refusal. With expressions of anger and wishes for their ill-
luck she left the beach. When the fishermen returned to their nets for the purpose
of obtaining the remainder of their capture they found only chads instead of
pilchards and likewise a drowned toad, the last being considered as unmistakably
a proof of the witch’s power, which was further shown by transforming their
pilchards into worthless chads. One of the fishermen took the toad to the
supposed witch’s house into which he flung it, uttering exclamations the reverse
of friendly to the agent of the evil one. The war with France was then going on,
and among the prisoners captured was this very fisherman who in attempting
to escape fell before the bullets of his guard, he being the only one who was

shot.
The following is a synopsis of the British sea-breams as at present

recognized :—

1. Pagellus centrodontus, D. 34, A. 3, L. 1.75. Length of head 32 to 4 in
the total. Normally 2 rows of rounded molars in both jaws or 3 in the upper.
Last 2 dorsal and anal rays not scaled. A black shoulder spot at commencement
of lateral-line. 7 rows of scales across the cheeks.

2. Pagellus bogaraveo, D. 3344, A. ay8rz, L. 1.71. Length of head 33 to 4
in the total. 2 or 3 rowsof rounded molars in upper, and 2 in lower jaw. Last
2 dorsal and anal rays not scaled. A dark axillary spot, 6 or 7 rows of scales
across the cheeks.

3. Pagellus Owenii, D. zg, A. vo) L. 1. 68-70. Length of head 3} to 33 in
the total. 3 or 4 rows of rounded molars in the upper, and 2 or 3 oo lower
36 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

jaw. Last two dorsal and anal rays united by being invested in a common scaly
sheath, 5 rows of scales across the Bice.

4. Pagellus acarne, D. 735, A. 3%, L. L. 70-72. Length of head 33 to 33 in
the total. Two rows of rounded molars in both jaws. Last 2 dorsal and anal rays
united by being invested in a common membrane. Five rows of scales across the
cheeks.

5. Pagellus erythrinus, D. 12, A. 325, L. 1. 56-60. Length of head 33 to 4 in
the total. Two rows of rounded molars in either jaw. Last 2 dorsal and anal
rays not scaled. Six rows of scales across the cheeks.

1. Pagellus centrodontus, Plate XIII.

Orphus, Rondel. v.c. 25, p. 157, ¢. fig; Aldrov. ii, c. 2, p. 158. Pagrus,
Aldvov. p. 151; Willughby, p. 312, t. V. i, f. 5. Lnmulated gilt-head, Pennant,
Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1), ii, p. 240, pl. xl, not descr. (Kd. 2), ui, p. 327, pl. xlvi, not
description.

Sperus orphas, Lacép. iv, p. 146.

Spurus pagrus, Bloch, t. eclxvii; Lacép, iii, p. 87; Bl. Schn. p. 271; Turton,
Brit. Fauna, p. 98.

Sparus aurata, Donovan, Brit. Fish. iv, pl. Ixxxix; Turton, L c. p. 97;
Duhamel, Péches, u1, Sect. 4, c. 2, p. 30 (not Lin.).

Sparus centrodontus, De la Roche, Ann. Mus. xiii, p. 345, pl. xxiii, f.2; Jenyns,
Manual, p. 356; Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Field Club, 1838, i, p. 171.

Spurus Massiliensis, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 247.

Anrata Massitiens's, Risso, Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 357.

Pagrus vulgaris, Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 211.

Pagellus controdoutus, Cav. and Val. vi, p. 180; Parnell, Fish. Frith of Forth,
p. 46, pl. xxvii; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Hd. 1), i, p. 107, c. fig. (Hid. 2) 1, p. 128
(Ed. 3), 11, p. 149: Val. in Webb and Berth. Hist. Nat. Tles. Canar. Poiss. p. 34,
pl. vii, fig. 3; Guichen. Explor. Se. Algér. Poiss. p.50; White, Catal. Brit. Fish.
p. 18; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 90; Schlegel, De Dieren v. Ned.
1862, p. 23, pl. ii, f. 4; Giinther, Cat. i, p. 476; Stemd. Ich. Spain and Port.
15u7, p. 61; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 18; McIntosh, Fish. St. Andrews,
p- 172.

Pagelins curtus, Couch, Zool. 1843, p. 393, c. fig. and short sea-bream, Fish.
Brit. Isles, i, p. 241, pl. lvi (deformed).

Common sea- one Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, i, p. 237, pl. lv.

B. vi, D. 24, P. 17, V. 1/5, A. x, C.19, L. 1. 75, L. tr. 7/16, Coee. pyl. 4, Vert.
10/14.

Length of head 3{ to 4, of caudal fin 5 to 51, height of body 3} to 32 in the
total length. Hye—3} to 31 diameters in the length of the head, 1 diameter from
the end of the snout, and also apart. Interorbital space flattened. Preorbital
wider anteriorly than it is posteriorly, its greatcst depth being scarcely equal to
half its length; it is unnotched over the posterior end of the maxilla. Opercle
about twiceas high as wide. Jaws of equal length in front; the maxilla reaches to
beneath the front edge or even anterior third of the eye. Posterior nostril the
largest an obliquely oval. Teeth—3 or 4 irregularly placed rows of rounded
teeth of different sizes laterally and posteriorly in either jaw, none on vomer,
palatine bones or tongue. J*is—dorsal spines rather strong, the 4th and 5th
the longest, from whence they decrease in length; rays shorter than the spines,
the last two somewhat thickened but not scaled, nor adherent together : Donovan
observes that in his example there were 13 spines and 11 soft rays in the dorsal
fin, the same number being shown by the artist. Pectoral as long as the head.
Ventral not extending so far as the vent. Third anal spine somewhat longer than
the second. Caudal deeply forked. Scales—tfinely ctenoid, 7 rows between the
eye and the angle of the preopercle. Colowrs—orange-scarlet becoming lighter
beneath. A large black spot on the shoulder intersected by the lateral-line, but

which is absont in the young: Couch believed that it docs not appear until ‘they
are twelve inonths old.

 
SPARIDA. 37

Varieties.—Couch on September 2nd, 1843, obtained ono of a shortened form,
13 inches long and 5} high, probably due to spinal disease with which these fish”
are not infrequently affected. Yarrell also figures an adult example in which the
premaxillary bones were absent. Although Sparus pagrus, Bloch, is probably
intended for this fish, the eye is too small and the preorbital too deep.

Names.—Common sea bream, sharp-toothed sea bream. Red gilt head: Chad
Gf young, Cornwall) : Boger (Cornw. half grown).

In Ireland Murranroe and Barwin (county of Antrim): Gunner ont he north-
west coast: carf, carp, and sea bream on the north-east: and Brazier on the
north. Brém y Mér, Welsh. De zee-brasem, Dutch. Le Rousseau, French.

Habits.—Prefers the vicinity of rocks and sea weeds, is very sensible to cold, con-
sequently in severe winters most of them retire to the deep sea beyond the reach of
fishermen, but return as the weather becomes warmer. Sometimes they congre-
gate in large numbers, frequently about the end of summer, when they have been
observed to rise to the surtace and may be mistaken for pilchards. Couch records
how on one occasion 20,000 and on another 60,000 were caught in a season at one
time. Those of various sizes appear to keep together. They feed upon small fish,
crustacea, and sea-weed. Mr. Dunn observes that in 1874 a vessel was wrecked
in Cornwall laden with wheat, the whole of which was lost in the sea. On fishing
soon after he found the stomachs of these fish full of wheat. They were plump
and in good condition.

Means of capture.—Frequently taken with the haddock in Ireland, the bait being
the lug-worm, shell-fish (mussels, &c.), and herring-fry, or a slice of mackerel.

Breeding.—Towards the end of the year or in the winter months, as in January
the young are about 1 inch in length, but they do not come towards land until
early in the summer, when, and also through autumn, they abound.

As food.—Not esteemed in England as they soon become stale and tainted: but
large numbers are disposed of throughout the midland counties: they salt badly.
Hardly esteemed in Belfast. Highly prized in the county of Down.

Yarrell suggested the following mode of cooking these fish. When thoroughly
cleaned they should be wiped dry, but none of the scales removed. Then broiled,
frequently turning, and if the skin cracks flouring them to keep the outer case
entire. On the table the skin and scales turn off without difficulty, and the
muscle beneath, saturated with its own juices, will be found of good flavour.

Habitat From the coasts of Scandinavia through the North Sea and North
Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean.

In Great Britain this fish has a range from one extremity to the other,
abounding especially along the southern and western coasts, but decreasing
in numbers as we go north. In the Frith of Forth, Parnell only recorded
(1838) two specimens, and Smith (Ann. Nat. Hist. 1852, ix, p. 154)
remarks on a single example considering it very uncommon. But McIntosh
observes that they are not rare in St. Andrew’s Bay, and Edward, that
numbers appear annually off the coast of Banffshire, more abundant in some
seasons than in others, while in the Moray Frith, Harris (Zool. ix, 1851) says
“ they are common and have vastly increased during the last 3 years ;” while in
1852 their numbers again augmented when, according to Gordon, they were
termed the siller-fish (ool. 1852, p. 8458). In the Orkneys one specimen was
obtained by Dr. Duguid in Scalpa near Kirkwall (Baikie, Zool. 1853, xi, p. 3952),

In Ireland, observes Thompson, they are common all round the coast.

The example figured was received from Mr. Dunn of Mevagissey, it is 15
inches in length. ‘They are taken up to 3 or 6 lb. weight.

2. Pagellus bogaraveo, Plate XIV.

Sparus bogaraveo, Brinn. Pisc. Mass. p. 49; Lacép. iv, pp. 111, 112; Risso,

Ich. Nice, p. 249.
a ice aqunniu Risso, Eur. Merid. p. 359 ; Duhamel, Péches, Sect. 4, pl. i, f. 1.

Pagellus bogaraveo, Cuv. and Val. vi, p. 196; Gunther, Catal. i, p. 480.
Spanish Bream, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, i, p. 235, pl. li.
38 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

B. vi, D. 42:38, P. 17, V. 1/5, A. -3yy, C. 17, L. 1. 71, L. tr. 7/15. Cove. pyl.
5, Vert. 22.

Length of head 33 to 4, of caudal fin 53, height of body 34 to 33 in the total
length. Hye—3 to 3; diameters in the length of the head, 2 of a diameter from
the end of the snout, and about 1 diameter apart, Preorbital much narrower
posteriorly than it is anteriorly, its greatest height being rather less than half its
length: it is without any notch. Snout obtuse. Posterior nostril oval and
placed obliquely. Jaws even in front: the maxilla extends posteriorly to beneath
the front fourth of the eye. Teeth—fine, the anterior ones m the outer row in
the upper jaw rather larger than the others: posteriorly 2 or 3 rows of rounded
molars in the upper and 2 in the lower jaw. F%ns—dorsal spines of moderate
strength, increasing in length to the 4th or 5th, then decreasing to the last: one
example had 13 spines and 11] rays. Pectoral reaches to opposite the first third of
the anal fin. Caudal forked. Scales—-6 or 7 rows between the eye and the angle of
the preopercle. Coecal appendages five. Colowrs—pinkish, with a dark base to the
pectoral fin, and a dark spot in the axilla. During life numerous small blue spots
are seen over the body, most distinct above and below the lateral-line along which
about 52 were present in the example which is figured.

Name.—Couch first employs the name Spanish bream in Mag. Nat. Hist. v,
1882, for Pagellus erythrinus, subsequently to this fish.

Habitat.—British coast to the Mediterranean. This species, Couch observes,
is the best known to Cornish fishermen of all the species of sea breams that wander
to our shores only on unusual occasions; and with them it bears the name of
Spanish bream, and only single examples are met with, which are usually caught
with a baited hook, in the summer and autumn.

The example figured I received from Mr. Dunn of Mevagissey, where it does
not appear to be rare.

Couch says this fish attains to scarcely more than two-thirds the size of the
P. centrodontus.

3. Pagellus Owenii, Plate XV.

? Red gilt-head, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Hd. 1) iti, p. 242, (Hd. 2) iii, p. 329.

Pagellus acarne, Parnell, Fish. Frith of Forth, p. 24, pl. xxvii, and Mem. Wern.
Society, vii, p. 204, pl. xxvii (not C.V.); Yarrell Brit. Fish. (Ed. 2) i, p. 122*
(Ed. 3) ii, p. 147; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 19.

Pagellus erythrinus, Yarrell (Ed. 1) i, p. 104, desc. and vignettes, exclude
figure: (Ed. 2) i, p. 120, (Hd. 3) ii, p. 144 (mot fig. or synon.)

Pagellus Owenw, Giinther, Catal. i, p. 478.

B. vi, D. 245, P. 17, V. 1/5, A. 3, C. 21, L. 1. 68-70, L. tr. 6/13.

Length of head 34 to 32, of caudal fin 6, height of body 34 in the total length.
Hye—diameter 45 in the length of the head, 12 diameters from the end of the
snout, and about the same apart. Interorbital space convex. The anterior
profile from the front edge of the dorsal fin to the snout forms a steep and almost
semi-circular curve. Preorbital high, its highest portion equalling the diameter
of the orbit, it is one-half longer than wide, being narrowest posteriorly, while its
lower edge is not notched. Opercle rather more than twice as high as wide.
Jaws of equal length in front: posteriorly the maxilla reaches nearly or quite to
beneath the front edge of the eye. Teeth—anteriorly villiform with the outer row
somewhat enlarged: the lateral rounded teeth are sometimes irregular, more
especially in the upper jaw, where there are posteriorly 3 or even 4 rows, and 2 or
3 in the mandibles. F'ims—dorsal spines of moderate strength increasing in
length to the fourth, the height of which is about 22 in the length of the head ;
they decrease from the 5th: raysof about equal height to that of the last spine, the
last two being invested together ina scaly sheath. Pectoral 2/3 as long as the head.
Ventral 3/4 as long as the pectoral. Anal with the third spine the longest, and
its last 2 rays similar to those of the soft dorsal. Caudal deeply forked. Scales
~—~5 rows between the eye and the angle of the preopercle. Colowrs—back carmine,
SPARIDA. 39

becoming of a rose-red on the sides and nearly silvery-white beneath. Tins rose-
colour, paler than the body. Parnell states it to have a dark violet spot at the
base of the upper part of the pectoral fin, which is not visible in his specimen from
which I took my figure. Yarrell observes that this mark is most conspicuous in
the larger and older specimens.

__Yarrell appears to have rather confused these species, doubtless from the
difficulty in those days of obtaining examples for comparison ; and though he
figures Pagellus erythrinus, from Cuv. and Val.’s work, his description of the species
was drawn up from British specimens subsequently received, and they pertained
to this form as seen in his vignette of the teething, where the molars in the upper
jaw are given in 3 regular rows, whereas when 3 rows exist in P. erythrinus they
are irregular; also the the last two dorsal and anal rays being enveloped in a
scaled covering certainly cannot refer to P. erythrinus. He subsequently figured
and again described this fish as P. acarne. Four of his specimens are in the
British Museum. Couch likewise give P. acarne, which, however, refers to
P. bogaraveo, and he does not describe the P. Owenti at all.

This appears to be the fish described by Pennant, who omits all allusion to it
possessing a black shoulder spot, as seen in Pagellus centrodontus, and expressly
notices the existence of a ferruginous spot at the base of the pectoral fin. He
also states that “‘ what is peculiar to his species is that the skin at the end of the
dorsal and anal fins is gathered up and hides the last rays,” which appearance
does not exist in P. centrodontus, with which Pennant’s fish has been classed, but
does in the rarer British forms of P. Owenit and P. acarne. Couch’s Spanish bream
would appear to be P. bogaraveo and not P. acarne, with which he has identified
it, if we are to judge by his figure of the length and size of the head and the form
of the preorbital bone.

In Cuv. and Val. a Pagellus breviceps, vi, p. 199, is briefly described from the
Mediterranean, with an obtuse snout and the profile of the back more rounded
than in the other forms: it may be this species.

Names.—Awxillary bream.

Habits.—This fish does not appear to have met with much attention, having
probably been mixed up with other better known forms of Pagellus: the only
examples I have seen have been those in the National Collection.

Parnell observes that his description is taken from a specimen captured in the
Frith of Forth in a salmon-net near Musselburgh in the early part of July. A
second example was taken a few days subsequently.

Habitat.—As far as has been recorded this species has merely been captured
off the British coast, in the Frith of Forth, Devonshire, and Cornwall. The
example figured was a stuffed specimen, 133 inches in length, from Dr. Parnell’s
collection. This fish attains at least 14 inches in length.

4, Pagellus acarne, Plate XVI.

Acarnane, Rondel. v, c. 20, p. 151, ¢. fig.; Duhamel, Péches, ii, Sect. iv, c. 2,
. 82.
° Sparus berda, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 252.

Pagrus acarne, Risso, Eur. Merid. iti, p. 361.

Pagellus acarne, Cuv. and Val. vi, p. 191; Cuv. Régne ‘Anim. Ill. Poiss. pl.
xxxv, f. i.; Guichen. Ex. Sc. Algér. Poiss. p. 51; Giinther, Catal. i, p. 480;
Steind. Ich. Spanien und Port. 1867, p. 60.

B. vi, D. +245, P. 17, V. 1/5, A. 4%, C. 17, L. 1. 70-72, L. tr. 5/18, Vert. 22.

Length of head 3} to 32, of caudal fin 52, height of body 32 in the total length.
Eye—4 diameters in the length of the head, 1} diameters from the end of the
snout and nearly 1 apart. Preorbital narrowest posteriorly, destitute of any notch,
while its greatest height equals 14 in its length. Opercle rather more than twice
as high as wide. Jaws of equal length anteriorly, the maxilla reaches posteriorly
to nearly beneath the front edge of the eye. Teeth anteriorly villiform, with tire
outer row somewhat enlarged, the lateral rounded teeth form two rows in either
40 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

jaw. Fins—dorsal spines rather strong, the third somewhat the longest: rays not
so high as the highest spines, the last two enveloped in a common scaled membrane.
Pectoral reaches to above the third anal spine. Third anal spine the longest: the
last two rays of the fin similar to those of the soft dorsal. Caudalforked. Scales
—5 rows between the eye and the angle of the preopercle. Colowrs—red with
golden reflections; a dark spot in the axilla.

Habits.—This is likewise one of the forms which visit Britain, of which but
ittle is known.

Habitat—Southern coasts of great Britain to the Canary Islands and also the
Mediterranean.

The British Museum possesses a small specimen in a good state of preservation,
from Leach’s Collection. It was obtained according to the label from Headslow,
Cornwall. The example figured is 133 inches in length and in the British Museum,
it was brought from Lanzarote by the Rev. R. T. Lowe.

5. Pagellus erythrinus, Plate XVII.

Brythrinus, Belon. p. 185; Rondel. v, c. 16, p. 144, ¢. fig; Salv. f. 239;
Aldrov. ii, c. 9, p. 154; Gesner, p. 365, and ed. 1598, f. 25, c. fig; Jonston, lib. 1,
t. iii, c. i, art. 4, p. 67, t. xviii, f.6; Willugh. c. 10, p. 311, t. V. £.6; Ray p. 132.
Sparus, No. 3, Artedi, Genera. 86 Syn. 59. Cyuwedus, Gronov. Zooph. p. 61,
No. 215.

Sparus erythrinus Linn. Syst.i, p. 469; Gmel. Linn. p. 1272; Bloch, pl.
eelxxiv; Bl. Schn. p. 275; Shaw, Nat. Misc. xx, pl. $34; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 240;
Martens, Reise nach Venedig. ii, p. 425; Duhamel, Péches, iv, c. 2. p. 29; Couch,
Mag. Nat. Hist. v. 1832, p. 17, f.3; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 355.

Sparus pagellus, Lacép. iii, p. 86.

Pagrus erythrinus, Risso, Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 361.

Pagellus erythrinus, Cuy. and Val. vi, p. 170, pl. cl; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Hd. 1)
i, p. 104, c. fig. exc. description and vignette of teeth, (Hd. 2) i, p. 120, (Hd. 3)
ii, p. 144; Nordm. in Demid. Voy. Russ. Mérid. p. 388; Guichen. Exp. sc. Algér.
Poissons, p.50; Parnell, Fish. Frith of Forth, p. 43, pl. xxvii; White, Catal. Brit.
Fish, p. 18; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 90; Giinther, Catal. i, p. 473;
Steind. Ich. Span. Port. 1867, p. 58.

Pagellus rostratus, Lowe, Trans. Zool. Soe. ii, p. 177.

Sparus pagrus, or Becker, Couch, Linn. Trans. xiv, p. 79.

Pagrus vulgaris, Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Hd. 1) i, p. 102 (excl. synon. and figure),
(Ed. 2) i, p. 116 (Hd. 3), ii, p. 188; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 354; White, Catal.
Brit. Fish, p. 17 (excl. synon.)

Sparus pagrus, Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 354 (part.)

Pagellus Canarensis, Val. in Webb and Berth. Hist. Nat. Iles Canar. Poiss.
p. 35, pl. x, f. 2.

Pagellus Guntheri, Capello, Journ. Math. Phys. Nat. Lisbon, iii, p. 253, pl. iv,
{. 3 (var. with 3 rows of molars in Cat. Fish. B. Mus. i, p. 474).

Lrythrinus, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles i, p. 233, pl. liii.

B. vi, D. 42, P. 15. V. 1/5. A. 385, C. 17. L. 1. 56-60, L. tr. &2, Coee. pylori 4,
Vert. 10/14.

Length of head 32 to 4, of caudal fin 48 to 5, height of body 3% to 34 in the
total length. Hye—32 to 44 diameters in the length of the head, from 14 to 2
diameters from the end of the snout, and the same apart. Interorbital space
convex. Profile from shoulder to snout oblique, and the head somewhat compressed.
Preorbital high, its height being 2/3 to 3/5 of itslength : its lower edge scarcely
emarginate. Jaws even in front: the maxilla reaches to almost beneath the front
edge of the orbit. Teeth—anteriorly cardiform, with two rows of molars posteriorly
in either jaw, but it is by no means rare to find 3 irregular rows of molars in the
upper jaw, especially in large examples, but no other discernible differences: none
on vomer, palatine bones or tongue. /ns—dorsal spines of moderate strength, the
third somewhat longest from whence they decrease: rays shortcr than the
SPARID. 41

spines, the last two not enlarged or scaled, but in some instances their bases approxi-
mate. Pectoral as long or even longer than the head, Ventral reaching the vent.
Second and third anal spines of about the same length and strength. Caudal
deeply forked. Scales—6 rows between the eye and the angle of the preopercle.
Ceecal appendages—four, of which one is much larger than the remaining three.
Colouwrs—of an orange-scarlet having purple and silvery reflections, becoming light
underneath : fins coloured as is the body: ventrals colourless, anal with a tinge of
grey. Ina large example, just captured, I observed blue spots over the body, like-
wise in some chads of this species, which abounded at Mevagissey when I was
there in August, 1880, the usual length of which were about 8 inches.

Varieties.—I conclude Couch’s Becker may be a deformed or mutilated
example of this fish.

Names.— Pandora, king of the breams. Le Pagel commun, French. :

Habits.—It is a migratory species, by no means uncommon, and most usually
found during the summer and autumn, leaving as the cold weather sets in. Its
habits secm to be somewhat solitary, and it is mostly taken at a depth of several
fathoms. Off Nice it appears to be found throughout the year.

Baits.—Mussels are the favourite bait, but small fishes, crustacean animals
and even sea vegetables are readily eaten.

As food.—Not esteemed in Britain.

Habitat.—This fish extends from the British shores to the Mediterranean
where it abounds, and is found even in the Black Sea. Also in the Atlantic Ocean
to the Canaries, while it has been reported from the Cape.

It is common in the British seas, on the south and west coasts of England, but
becomes more rare to the north and in Scotland The Spanish bream recorded
from Norfolk by Gurney as having been taken November 13th, 1846 (Zoologist,
p. 1555), would appear from the description to be this species.

In Ireland Andrews has recorded it from the 8.W. coast.

 

* HOLACANTAUS TRICOLOR, Bloch. At the Zoological Society, January 20th, 1880, Dr. Giinther
exhibited a drawing of this tropical fish, “ obtained on the coast of the Island of Lewes, and
communicated to him by the Reverend George Gordon, who examined the specimen whilst in a
fresh state. Dr. Gimther stated that this was the first instance of this fish having reached the
British coast.” (P. Z. 8. 1880, p. 23). This fish “was brought from Stornoway to Lossiemouth,
it had been carried to Stornoway by the master of a small ship that had come from Glasgow, and
the fish had wot been caught at Stornoway by a herring-net or otherwise.” (P. Z. 8. 1880, p. 356).
How it reached Lossiemouth in Morayshire in @ fresh state is not recorded.
42 ACANTHOPTERYGILI.

Famity IV,—SCORPANID&.

Sclerogenide, pt. Owen.

Branchiostegals five to seven: pseudobranchie present. Body oblong, com-
pressed, or subcylindrical. Eyes lateral. Cleft of mouth lateral. Some of the
bones of the head armed: suborbital ring articulated with the preopercle.
Teeth in villiform bands. A single dorsal fin in two distinct portions: the anal
usually similar to the soft dorsal: ventrals thoracic. Body scaled or scaleless.
-Air-bladder generally present. Pyloric appendages, when present, few or in
moderate numbers.

Geographical distribution,—Almost cosmopolitan,

Genus I.—Szpastes, Cuvier and Valenciennes.

Pseudosebastes, Sauvage.

Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchie present. Head and body somewhat com-
pressed. No groove on the occiput, but usually a few small spines: preopercle armed.
Villiform teeth on the jaws, vomer and mostly on the palatine bones. Fins not
elongated: a single dorsal having the spinous more or less separated from the soft by
a notch: spines 12 to 14: anal not elongated having 3 spines: no free rays to the
pectoral fin. Articulated fin-rays, excepting the lower ones of the pectoral, branched.
No pectoral appendages. Scales present and of moderate or small size, extending as
far forwards as the orbit or even beyond: no skinny appendages. Avr -bladder
generally present. Pyloric appendages few or in moderate numbers.

Geographical distribution.—Marine fishes, extending from the Arctic regions
throughout most seas, but rare or absent from the tropical portions of the Atlantic

Ocean.
Sebastes Norwegicus, Plate XVIII.

Perca marina, pt. Linn. Syst. i, p. 483; Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Hd. 1) ui, p. 258,
pl. xlviii, (Ed. 2) tii, p. 349, pl. lix.

Cyprinus pelagicus, Linn. Faun. Suec. p. 320.

Karfe, Olafsen, Island, i, p. 191, ii, p. 208, t. xxix.

Perca Norwegica, Ascan. Icon. ii, t. xvi; Mill. Zool. Dan. p. 46; Fabric. Faun.
Groenl. p. 167.

Holocentrus Norwegicus, Lacép. iv, p. 390.

Holocentrus sanguineus, Faber, Fische Islands, p. 126.

Serranus Norwegicus, Flem. Brit. An. p. 212; Johns. Fish. of Berwickshire,
Mag. Nat. Hist. 1833, vi, p. 15.

Sebastes Norwegicus, Cuv. and Val. iv, p. 327, pl. lxxxvii; Yarrell, Brit. Fish.
(Ed. 1) i, p. 73, ¢. fig., (Hd. 2) i, p. 87, (Ed. 3) ii, p. 72; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 347;
Richards. Faun. Bor. Amer. Fish. p. 52; Storer, Rep. Mass. p. 26; Dekay, New
York Fauna, p. 60, pl. iv, f. 2; Kroyer, Danm. Fish. Nat. Tids. 1844-45, i,
p. 270; Thompson, N. H. Ireland, iv, p. 82; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 95; Malm.
(Bfv. Sven. Vet.-Akad. Forh. 1865, p. 508; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 19; Liitken,
Vid. Medd. 1876. p. 358.

Sebastes marinus, White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 8.

Scorpena Norwegica, Richardson, Faun. Bor. Amer. p. 52; Jenyns, Brit. Vert.
p. 847; Johns. Berw. Nat. Club. 1838, i, p. 170.

? Sebastes wiviparus, Kroyer, Nat. Tyds. 1844-45, i, p. 275; Gaim. Voy. Scand.
Zool. Poiss. pl. vi; Ginther, Catal. ii, p. 96; Gray, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (4)
1868, i, p. 312.

Sebastes septentrionalis, Gaim. Voy. Isl. and Groenl. Poiss. pl. ix.

Bergylt, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, 11, p. 3, pl. lviii.

B. vii, D. 25, P. 20, V. 1/5, A. g2g, C. 13, L. 1. ca. 75, Cove. pyl. 9, Vert. 12/19.

15?
SCORPAINID Ai. 43

Length of head 3 to 33, of caudal fin 53, height of body 3} to 33 in the total
length. Hye—situated high up in the head, diameter 34 in the length of the
head, 1 diameter from the end of the snout, and 1 apart. Interorbital space flat.
A supraorbital spine. Five spines along the posterior and lower edges of the
preopercle: two well developed opercular spines, one also at its lower angle and one
at the shoulder. The maxilla reaches at least to beneath the middle of the eye.
Lower jaw very prominent. Teeth—villiform ones on jaws, vomer, palatine bones
but not on the tongue. Fins—dorsal spines strong and sharp, increasing in
length to the 4th or 5th, but they are not so high as the rays, which are branched.
Pectoral nearly as long as the head, its lower 10 or 11 rays simple and unbranched.
Second anal spine the strongest, but the 3rd a little the longest. Caudal slightly
emarginate. Scales—ctenoid and in irregular rows: there are about 15 between
the lateral-line and the base of the first dorsal soft ray over the commencement
of which fin some fine ones are continued. On the head they cover the cheeks
and even the jaws. <Avr-bladder—oval, simple, and destitute of any appendages,
occupying nearly the superior 2/3 of the abdominal cavity. Colours—vermilion.
or carmine-red, becoming lightest beneath: fins likewise red.

Collett, Jc. considers Sebastes viviparus, Kroyer, which has a large dark
opercular spot, and is spotted with or entirely brown, as identical with this species.
Lutken (Vid. Med. 1876, p. 358), after examining 20 of each variety, believes
them to be distinct, S. viviparus being more littoral and less arctic in its range
than S. Norwegicus. Gray, l.c. remarks on an example taken off Jutland.

I have already referred (p. 7) to this fish being the Perch, the head of which
used to be shown in a church in Lapland, and has been erroneously considered as
belonging to a gigantic Perca fluviatilis.

Names.—Norway haddock and Norwegian carp, which have reference to the
locality where it abounds: Bergylt.

Habits.—Active, voracious, and apparently of a pugnacious disposition, it is
said to feed on custacea and small flat fishes. As it is usually captured at
profound depths, it is believed to usually reside there, especially in rocky bays,
where the distance to the bottom is very great.

Means of capture—Long lines baited as for cod or ling.

Breeding.—The young are said to be first observed about June, and it has been
asserted that they come forth alive, and accompany their parent for a con-
siderable time.

Diseases.—Nilsson observes that not uncommonly large numbers are found
floating dying or dead on the sea, with their eyes protruding and their stomachs
thrust out from their mouths. This is ascribed to some sudden whirlpool or
other marine disturbance, having suddenly carried them into a higher stratum of
water, when due to the superincumbent weight being removed, their air-bladder
has expanded and occasioned the foregoing phenomena.

Uses.—In times, now probably gone by, the Greenlanders used the spines from
the fins of this fish as needles.

As food.— Pennant says it was held in some esteem at the table: and Fabricius
that, although lean, it is of an agreeable taste, and eaten either cooked fresh or
after having been dried.

Habitat.—This fish is an inhabitant of the Northern Ocean. In Greenland it
is stated not to be common (Saxby, Zool. 1871, p. 2553), occurring on the south-
west coast of Spitzbergen (Malmgren, Civ. Sven. Vet. Ak. Férh. 1865, p. 508),
while in the Faroe Islands it is said to be frequently captured by the cod-fishers,
and is termed kongafisshur, and red-perch, while it 1s not uncommon off Norway.
It is likewise found in Greenland, where Saxby (Zool. 1871, p. 2553) states it is

not common; it extends certainly as far south along the American coast as New
York.

Pennant first recorded this fish as British: Fleming, who had also observed

it in Zetland, remarked upon one seen by Dr. Skene on the coast of Aberdeenshire :
44 ACANTHOPTERYGIL.

Couch, on the authority of Mr. McGregor, alludes to one caught near Macduff
and another on the Morayshire coast: Gordon (Zool. p. 3458) speaks of an example
8 inches long from Lossiemouth in December, 1850, which was presented to the
Elgin Museum: Edward (Life, p. 427) of a specimen taken in Banffshire in 1859.
Dr. G. Johnson observed this fish near Berwick: and Mr. Tristram (Zool. 1867,
p. 638) alludes to one about 13 inches long taken on January 27th, 1867, near
Hartlepool, Durham, just after some severe weather. Yarrell records one 7 inches
in length captured in Swansea Bay, October 26th, 1851.

Ireland.—In March, 1843, one was taken on a long line set for ling off Wild-
bank, Dingle Bay, where several more have since been captured (Andrews), and
in 1850 two were secured on an 81-fathom line set for cod off Blasket Island, on
the coast of Kerry.

This fish attains to 4 feet in length.

For the example figured, and which is 13 inches in length, I am indebted to
Professor Hubrecht, of Leyden.
CcOTTID A. 45

Second Group—Cotto-Scombriformes.

Dorsal fins placed close together or continuous, having fewer spines than rays:
or the spinous portion may be modified into tentacles, detached spines, or a
suctorial disk: anal similar to the soft dorsal, sometimes both fins are posteriorly
modified into finlets: ventrals, when present, jugular or thoracic, never forming
a sucker. No prominent anal papilla.

Famiry, V—COTTID.

Branchiostegals from five to seven: pseudobranchie present. Body oblong or
subcylindrical. Eyes lateral or directed upwards. Cleft of mouth lateral, some-
times extending on to the sides of the snout. Some of the bones of the head
armed : suborbital ring articulated with the preopercle. Teeth in villiform bands.
One or two dorsal fins, the spinous portion of which is less developed than the
soft portion or than the anal: ventrals thoracic. Body scaled, scaleless, or with

a few plates. Air-bladder present or absent. Pyloric appendages, when present,
few or in moderate numbers.

Geographical distribution.—Cosmopolitan, and found in fresh or saline waters.

Genus I.—Corrvs.

Phobetor, Kroyer. Boreocottus, Porocottus and Ceratocottus, Gill. <Aspicottus,
Acanthocottus, Levocottus, Vranidea, Tauridea, Potamocottus and Triglopsis, Girard.
Ptyonotus, Giinther. Hlaphocottus, Sauvage.

Branchiostegals six: pseudobranchie present. Body subcylindrical anteriorly,
compressed posteriorly. Head broad, depressed and rounded in front. Angle af
preopercle with a single spine (having an antler-like process in some exotic species).
Villiform teeth in the jaws, usually (but not invariably) present on the vomer, absent
from the palatine bones. Two dorsal fins: pectorals rownded, some or all the rays
unbranched. Ventrals thoracic. Head and body covered with a soft skin. Lateral-
line present. Air-blaidder absent. Pyloric appendages in moderate numbers.

Habits.—These fishes, whether inhabiting the fresh or the salt waters, conceal
themselves under stones or among weeds. They are ground feeders, living on
small crustacea or any animal substance, including fish-eggs. Some of the marine
forms appear to keep close to the lowest ebb of the tide. When captured they
distend their heads, causing the spines with which they are armed to protrude.
They live some time atter their removal from the water. The largest variety
(C. Grenlandicus) is reputed to attain to 6 feet in length, pursues its prey with
rapidity, killing blennies, herrings, codfish, and even salmon. Dufosse, 1872,
p. 360, has mentioned the sounds emitted by C. scorpius and C. bubalis.

Means of capture.—They readily take a bait or are captured with small nets.
Marine forms are frequently taken in crab-pots. The Greenland variety is said
to be fished for in that country with long lines baited with a white bone, glass
bead, or a piece of red rag. Aristotle alludes to the occurrence of little fish in
certain rivers where they are found under stones, they are termed by some people
Cotti. Owing to their lying under stones persons catch them by striking these
stones with pieces of rock, when the fish, being stunned, fall out.

As food.—Those obtained in Great Britain are considered too small to be
worth cooking, but the larger forms are of economic value in Greenland, where we
are informed the bull-heads are used for making soup, but the more artistic cooks
of France reject them for this purpose.

Vurieties.—The number of fin rays, the proportion which are divided at their
46 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

extremities or not so, the length of the ventral fin, situation of the lateral-line
and position of the vent, appear to be subject to considerable variations in this
genus, even in the same locality, yet they have been accepted by some ichthyo-
logists as reasons for according specific rank, whereas others have only deemed
them to be varieties or sub-species. As in examples of this genus these variations
are not always permanent ones, I have considered them to be varieties, as only in
permanence of variation can species be admitted.

Geographical distribution.—Arctic regions of Europe, Asia and America, also
North Atlantic Oceans of both hemispheres descending into temperate zones:
found both in salt and fresh waters. One or two species have been recorded from
Japan.

Cottus gobio, Plate XIX, fig. 2.

Borroc, Arist. iv, c. 8.

Chabot, Belon. p. 213. Cottus, Rondel. ii, p. 202. Cottus fluviatilis, Gesner,
f.162a; Aldrov. v, c. 28, p. 613; Willughby, p. 137, t. H.3,f.3; Ray, p. 76.
Gobio capttato, Jonston, De Pisce. lib. iii, t. i, c. 10, Art. xi. Koppe, Gronov. Zooph.
No. 270; Cottus, sp. 1, Artedi, Gen. p. 48, spec. p. 82, synon. p. 76. Cottus levis;
Marsigli, Danub. iv, t. xxiv, f.2. Percis, sp. Klein, Mss. v, p. 43, No. 17. River
bullhead, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) iii, p. 216, pl. xxxix, (Hd. 2) iu, p. 291,
pl. xliii; Bowdich, Brit. F. W. Fish. No. 24.

Cottus gobio, Linn. Syst. i, p. 452; Fabr. Fauna Groenl. p. 159; Gmel. Linn.
p. 1211; Gronov. Mus. Ich. ii, p. 14; Bloch, t. xxxix, f. 1,2; Bl. Schn. p. 61;
Lacép. iii, p. 252; Donovan, Brit. Fish. iv, pl. lxxx; Turton, p. 94; Shaw,
Zool. iv, p. 254, pl. xxxv; Jurine, Poiss. Lac Leman, pl. ii; Cuv. and
Val. iv, p. 145; Fleming, Brit. An. p. 216; Ekstrom, Fiske Morkd, p. 167;
Fries och Ekstrom, p. 34, t. vii, f.2; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 56 c, fig.
(Ed. 2) i, p. 71, (Ed. 3) ii, p. 48; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 343; Swainson, Fishes,
ii, p. 271; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 80; Gtinther, Neckarfische, p. 17
and Catal. ii, p. 156; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 103; Nordm.in Demid. Voy. Russ.
Mérid. iii, p. 376; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 6; Schlegel, De Dieren van
Nederl. p. 46, pl. v,£.3; H. Malm, Weigm. Arch. 1864, p. 272; Blanchard,
Poiss. France, p. 161, c. fig.; Houghton, British F. W. Fish. p. 7, c. fig.

Cottus minutus and ventralis, Cuv. and Val. iv, pp. 152, 194.

»  tricuspis, Reinh. sen. Kgl. D. Vid. Selsk. Nat. Math. Afhand. B. 5,
p- lu, 1829-30.

Cottus peectlopus, Heckel, Ann. Wien. Mus. ii, 1839, t. viii, f. 1,2; Nordm. in
Demid. Voy. Russ. Mérid. iii, p. 377 ; Gunther, Catal. ii, p. 157.

Cottus affinis, Heckel, Ann. Wien. Mus. ii, p. 145, t. viii.

»  microstomus, Heckel, 1. c.; Nord. 1. c. iit, p. 3877; Heckel and Kner,
Susswasserf. p. 32.

Cottus ferrugineus, Heckel and Kner, I. ¢. p. 34.

Miller’s thumb, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 65 pl. lix.

Phobetor ventralis, Collet, Norges Fiske, p. 30.

B. vi, D. 6(-8) | 16-17 (18), P.14, V. 1/4, A. 12 (-14), C. 11. Cove. pyl. 4,
Vert. 10/23.

Length of head 4 to 44, of caudal fin 6}, height of body 52 in the total
length. Hyes—supero-lateral, placed just anterior to the middle of the length of
the head and 1 diameter apart. Head broad and depressed, while the gill-covers
are generally found distended, showing this still more clearly after death: behind
the head the body gradually decreases in size and becomes laterally compressed.
Cleft of mouth shallow, its gape wide: the posterior extremity of the maxilla
reaches to beneath the middle of the eye. Upper surface of the head covered
with a soft moveable skin, which has numerous minute elevations encircling the
opening of pores, the same being continued to over the first third of the body.
A rather strong, backwardly-directed spine exists at the angle of the preopercle
and occasionally another at its base: a strong forwardly-directed spine at the
anterior-inferior angle of the subopercle: no other spines on the head. Anterior
COTTIDA. 47

nostril tubular: the posterior patent: no barbels. Teeth—fine in the jaws and in
a horse-shoe shaped band on the vomer: none on the palatine bones or on the
tongue. Fins—first dorsal spines weak and about half as high as the rays of the
second dorsal: the two fins are usually slightly connected at their bases.
Ventral rays unbranched, the fin does not normally in British examples reach the
vent. Pectoral rays unbranched. Vent situated about midway between the
snout and the base of the caudal fin. Intestines—the length of the intestinal
tract almost equals that of the entire fish excluding the caudal fin. Four ccecal
appendages. Scales—absent: but in some examples the skin of the upper half of
the body studded with little rough points. Lateral-line—about the middle of the
depth of the body or slightly nearer the back: it consists of about 33 tubes.
Ovi-sac black. Colowrs--greenish-yellow, lightest beneath. Banded, striped, or
irregularly spotted with black: a light band, often of a V-shape across the
occiput. Fins orange: a dark band along the middle of the first dorsal fin: the
others with dark bands of spots.

Varieties —The different varieties generally admitted to belong to this species
are divisible into :—

A. Pectoral fin, with 7 or 8 branched rays. France.

B. Pectoral fin, without branched rays.

a, Ventral rays branched. Scandinavia.
b. Ventral rays simple. England, Germany, Austria.

Cottus pecilopus is stated to have D. 8-9 | 16-18, A. 13-14, the lateral-line
running above the middle of the height of the body and ceasing prior to reaching
the base of the caudal: ventral fin inserted midway between the snout and the
base of the caudal fin, while it reaches the vent. I have a beautiful example,
4% inches in length, sent me by Professor Giglioli of the Florence Museum; it has
D. 8/17, V. 1/4, all simple: 5 upper pectoral rays branched. A. 12. Vent midway
between the snout and the base of the caudal fin: lateral-line median and just
reaching the base of the caudal fin. Ventral fin nearly reaches the vent, at any
rate as closely as is seen in the examples of C. pecilopus in the British Museum.
In Cuv. and Val. it is stated that the French C. gobio has from 6 to 8 or even 9
dorsal spines; the second dorsal 17 to 18 rays; and the anal 13. Blanchard, 1. c.
says of the French form it sometimes has 7 or 8 dorsal spines, that the second
dorsal fin has usually 17 rays: that in some examples all the pectoral rays are
simple, in others the upper 7 or 8 are branched; while the anal has up to 13 or 14
rays. Unless my fish from the Florence Museum is considered a new species, it
must be admitted to be a link between C. pecilopus and C. gobio. Irrespective of
this, Girard in his elaborate monograph on the North American Cottoids, remarks
having seen ‘‘a mutilated specimen of an English miller’s-thumhb, with evidently
branched pectoral rays,” thus showing, not that two species exist in Britain, but
that whether the pectoral rays are branched or unbranched, may occur in fishes
from the same locality, and must be regarded as a variable and inconstant sign of
no specific value.

Respecting the situation of the vent, Richardson observed that in C. cognatus
“the anus situated precisely as in C. gobio, is rather nearer the snout than the
insertion of the caudal.” One author states the vent in C. gobio to be rather
nearer the snout than to the tip of the caudal. Examining eight Gloucestershire
examples from 2°50 to 2°90 inches in length, captured the same morning, I found
their average entire lengths were 2°69 inches: and the average distance from the
snout to the vent 1:19, while the average length of the caudal fin was 0-43. The
vent in some was equidistant between the snout and the base of the caudal fin:
in others, between the snout and the first fourth of the caudal fin. Much the
same proportions are likewise present in the British Museum examples, whether
British, Swedish, Austrian, or from Dalmatia. In the example of C. gracilis in
the National Collection, 2°30 inches in length, the vent is 1-10 inches from the
snout, being very little different from what is seen in some similarly-sized
Gloucestershire specimens of C. gobio.

As to the position of the lateral-line. In Leach’s example, 2-90 inches long,
from Devonshire, the distance from the vent to the lateral-line is 0°45 inches,
48 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

while from it to the back is 0°34 inches, showing that it is placed nearer to the
back than to the inferior surface of the body. In C. pecilopus, 3°80 inches
long, and in the British Museum, the distance from the lateral-line to the vent is
0°50 inches, while from the back it is 0°25 inches.

The species of fresh water Cottus appear to have been very unduly multiplied,
while if every variation is to be looked upon as the type of a distinct species,
many more will have to be admitted.

Names.—Miller’s-thumb, due to its fancied resemblance to that digit in a miller.
“The thumb,” says Yarrell, “by a peculiar movement spreads the sample over
the fingers, and employed with tact becomes the gauge of the value of the meal
produced. Hence the saying, ‘worth a miller’s thumb.’” By constant use the
miller’s thumb is reputed to acquire a form resembling the shape of this fish:
bull-knob or bull-jub, Derbyshire: cull, Gloucestershire and in some other
counties : cob, according to Florio (see Clupea harengus) : cod-pole, Buckingham-
shire and Berkshire: noggle-head, South Hampshire: horbeau, Kent, also tom-cull
and tommy-logge. Pentarw and bawd y melinydd, Welsh. Chabots and chabotsseauz,
French. De rivier-donderpad, Dutch.

Habits.—It usually lurks on the gravel at the bottom of clear streams or
under a stone. Here it feeds on insects and their larvie, worms, small crustacea
and fish eggs, or conceals itself if pursued by enemies. Although it can dart for a
short distance rapidly through the water, it has no power of maintaining
swimming for any long distance, and never suspends itself in mid-water. It isa
voracious feeder, delighting on fish eggs or the young fry. It is most tenacious
of life even after removal from the water. Although it inflicts wounds with its
spines, these do not occasion the poisonous symptoms occasioned by the marine
weever, Trachinus, and that the cause of this difference is that it is a fresh-water
species cannot be sustained, as the scorpion fish, Succobranchus fosstlis, of Asia, is
always an inhabitant of fresh water.

Newman* observed upon one which he kept, that it is curious to perceive how
readily the tints change, as may be seen in an aquarium, irrespective of changes
in accordance with the colour of the ground, the swallowing a worm, the effect
of a swimming adventure, and on one occasion the extrusion of ova. In short,
the fish could not have been recognized under its altered aspect.

Means of capture—Searching under stones in streams and capturing them by
small nets or by the hand; in the latter process they are found difficult to
grasp owing to the slippery character of their skins. They will take a small
hook baited with a red worm. In Switzerland children are said to spear these
fishes in the streams as they dart from one stone to another. Cuvier considered
this fish as a good bait for an eel.

Breeding.—It deposits its ova in March or April under stones or in a hole it
forms in the gravel, and from which it is difficult to drive it. Whether both
sexes protect the eggs, or if only one, which it is does so, has been subject to
discussion. Marsigli asserts that the female rests for the spacc of a month on
the eggs, which are comparatively large and of a pinkish colour, the whole
constituting a mass covering about 13 inches of ground, and invested by an
adherent mucus. Jonston and Willughby followed him, and stated that the
female collects the spawn into lumps on her breast, where it is covered with a
thick secretion, and here they remain until the young come forth. Fleming
affirms that it deposits its spawn in a hole in the gravel ; and Blumenbach that it
keeps watch over its nest. Newman tells us that one which he kept in an
aquarium deposited its ova on the night of Good Friday, that the mass was
nearly as large as a sparrow’s egg, closely adherent, and somewhat resembling
frog’s spawn.

As food.—It has been asserted that this fish is good eating, and is employed
for food in Italy. In some localities its flesh becomes pink when boiled, but not
so in others.

* Zovlogist, 1856, xiv., p. 5124.
COTTID A. 49

Owls have been observed to eat bull-heads and also to give them to their
young. In the Angler's Note Book (1880, p. 177) is an account of a dead
grebe which was found in the Isis having one of these fishes in its throat: it had
been swallowed head first, and its opercular spines had stopped its further
progress.

Pallas observes that in Russia this fish is employed as a charm against fevers.

Habitat.—¥resh waters generally, streams of Europe from Greenland and
Scandinavia to Italy, and perhaps Northern Asia. In Scandinavia it is reputed
to descend into the Baltic. It is said not to be found south of the Pyrenees nor
in Greece. In America it extends from near the Arctic circle as far as North
Carolina.

In Great Britain it is common in most of our clear brooks. Although Yarrell
observes that it is found in Belfast and Londonderry, Thompson considers he was
mistaken, and that it is entirely absent from Ireland. In Sampson’s Derry,
p- 337, he alludes to the existence of this fish, which is also in Brown’s list.

It grows to about 5 inches or more in length; but “in Siberia it sometimes
attains,” according to Donovan, “to the length of half a foot or even seven
inches.” The example figured was from the Churn at Colesbourne on the
Cotswold Hills.

1, Cottus scorpius, Plate XIX, fig. 1, and XX, fig. 1.

Cottus, sp. 3. Artedi, Gen. p. 49, sp. 86; Gronovius, Zooph. p. 78, no. 268.
Corystion, Klein, Mss. iv, p. 47, no. 11, t. xiii, f. 2, 3.

Cottus scorpius (pt.) Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 452; Bloch, t. xl; Gmel. Linz.
p. 1210; Lacép. iii, p. 286; Bl. Sch. p. 61; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 257, pl. 36;
Donovan, Brit. Fish. ii, pl. xxxv; Turton, p. 95; Cuv. and Val. iv, p. 160;
Flem. Brit. An. p. 216; Jenyns, Manual, p. 344; Thompson, P. Z. Soc. 1835,
p. 80, and Nat. His. Ireland, iv, p. 80; Ekstrém, p. 171; Fries och Ekstr. p. 23,
pl. v, f. 1,2; Hoge, Nat. Hist. Stockton, p. 26; Templeton, Mag. Nat. His. 1837,
(2) i, p.409; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Hd. 1) i, p. 60, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 75; Johnston,
Berwick. Nat. Hist. Club, 1838, i, p.170; Parnell, Fish. Frith of Forth, p. 23;
Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 271; White, Catal. p. 6; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 102;
Gunther, Catal. ii, p. 159; Malm, Cifv. Sven. Vet. Akad. Fork. 1865, p. 495;
Fabric. Faun. Groéenl. p. 156; Faber, Fisc. Isl. p. 120; Collett, Norges Fiske,
p. 24; McIntosh, Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 172; Liitken, Vidd. Medd. 1876, p. 370.

Oottus Greenlandicus, Cuv. and Val. iv, p. 185; Richards. Faun. Bor. Amer. iii,
pp. 46, 297, pl. 95,f. 2; Storer, Rep. Mass. p. 16; Dekay, N.Y. Fauna, Fish, p. 54,
pl. iv, £. 10; Thompson, N. H. Ireland, iv, p. 81; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 161; Gill,
Pro. Phil. Soc. 1872, p. 213.

Cottus porosus, Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 498; Richardson, Fau. Bor. Amer. Fish.

47.
i Cottus glacialts, Richardson, l. c.

Cottus variabilis, Ayres, Pro. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 1842, p. 68, and Boston
Journal, iv, 1843, p. 259.

Acanthocottus Labradoricus and A. variabilis, Girard, Boston, J. N. Hist. vi,
1850, p. 247, pl. vii, f. 3, and p. 248.

Acanthocottus ocellatus, Storer, Boston J. N. Hist. vi, p. 253.

Acanthocottus scorpius and Grenlandicus, Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 3) ii, pp.
54, 56, c. fig.

Father Lusher and Greenland Buli-head, Couch, Fishes Brit. Isles, ii, pp. 8, 12,
pl. Lx, Ixii.

B. vi, D. 9-10 | 13-14 (16-17), P. 16-17, V. 2, A. 9-13 (14), C. 11, Coec. pyl.
9-11, Vert. 12-13/22.

Length of head 23 to 34, of caudal fin 55 to 6, height of body 4¢ to 44, in
the total length. Hye—4 to 4¢ diameters in the length of the head, 1 diameter
from the end of the snout, and 2/3 of a diameter apart ; the orbits being 1/3 more
distant asunder opposite their hind margins than they are opposite the middle of
the eyes. Head wide and depressed, covered with a soft skin, which is aan
50 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

with minute elevations or fine open pores. Interorbital space concave. The
maxilla reaches to beneath the middle or last third of the orbit. A pair of small
turbinal spines, situated internally to the nostrils; an obtuse one at the posterior
superior angle of the orbit; supra-scapular with a larger and sharper spine and
another on the scapular. Preopercle with two spines on its posterior edge, the
upper of which is the longer: a small one directed forwards exists at its anterior-
inferior angle. Opercular spine well developed, also another at the angle of the
subopercle. ‘Interopercle with a small spine. eeth—small ones in the jaws, and
ona V-shaped patch on the vomer, none on the palatines or on the tongue.
Fins—spines of the first dorsal weak and flexible, the longest not quite twice the
length of the eye; rays of the second dorsal and of the anal undivided. Pectoral
reaches to above the vent. The ventral in the young reaches the vent but not so
far in adults. Caudal cut square with its eight middle rays divided at their
extremities. Scales—skin smooth, but in some individuals with several granu-
lated plates. Lateral-line—smooth. Intestines—vent much nearer the base of
the caudal fin in some examples, in others nearer to the snout, while all
intermediate gradations may be observed. Colowrs—grayish superiorly, mottled
and banded with black: lower surface of a dull white dashed with yellow. The
males with white spots on the abdomen, sometimes edged with red or yellow.
Fins yellow with oblique dark bands, bars and spots, which are often of a dull
red.

Varieties.—Form—the spines at the angle of the preopercle are occasionally
only 2 (instead of 3) in number, while they may differ on the two sides of the
head in the same example. Thompson obtained a female with 4 spines on one
preopercle, 3 on the other. In all my specimens from Southend the anal fin has
from 9 to ll rays. The number of dorsal spines may be as few as 8 (Cuv. & Val.),
but I have not found less than 9 in British examples; while the anal rays vary
from 9 to 13. That a decrease in the numbers occurs as the fish is further from
the north is very significant. Malmgren has pointed out that Scandinavian
examples have generally two more rays in the dorsal fin than those from the more
temperate west coasts of Europe. With a species however which shows so many
variations in the number of its fin rays, and with an evident tendency to
degenerate the further it is from the Arctic region, this cannot be a subject for
wonder, and as no other differences have been observed, we may fairly conclude
that the southern is merely a variety of the northern species. It has been
remarked that the inner portions of the pectoral and ventral fins are rough
in C. Grenlandicus, but not so in OC. scorpius: this however is an error, as they
are equally rough in large examples of C. scorpius. The number of ccecal
appendages varies between 9and 11. Colowr—Gill first drew attention to those
with white spots being males.

Names.—Sting-fish: Sea Scorpion: Short-spined Cottus. Gundie, Scotch.
Sutor, in Moray Frith (Gordon, Zool. p. 8458). A correspondent in the
Angler’s Note Book, p. 119, mentions that an old work in Cornwall alludes to the
porson-pate (poisson) which he thinks might be this fish (? Trachinus). Sarph
y mor, Welsh. Le Chaboisseau de mer commun, French.

Habits.—Residing along the coasts, keeping just within the influence of the
waves, or in pools left by a receding tide, concealing itself under stones or sea-
weed, from which it emerges when in pursuit of prey, or changing its locality.
It is not uncommon in bays where much fucus abound. It is very wary,
permitting the hand to approach to within a couple of inches before it quits
its post, but then darting away with great rapidity. McIntosh observes that it
lives on small sucking fishes (Liparis, &c.) shrimps, and Terebelle, while fragments
of green Alge occur in its stomach; in short it is very voracious, swallowing
any animal not too large. When captured it closes its gill-covers and distends its
head and branchiostegal membranes to much above their ordinary width, while at
this time according to Couch “‘ there may be felt such a trembling at the throat,
as might suggest the opinion that it proceeds from an effort to produce some sort
of sound that would be perceived in its natural element.” It lives some time after
removal from the water, especially if its skin is kept moist; but although fresh
COTTIDA. dl

water is said to be fatal to its existence, such cannot always be the case. Mr.
Gurgon states (Zool. 1844, p. 1216) that in the summer of 1843 he took several,
which are locally termed “rock dolphins,” with a hand-line from off the Brighton
chain-pier. One was kept half-an-hour out of water, and subsequently seven
hours in fresh water, it was then while apparently quite well transferred to sea
water and took no notice of the change. It died during the night. Adult forms
of C. Grenlandicus are found to be active and swift when pursuing their prey,
following them even to the surface, devouring blennies, herring, cod, and even
salmon, but it must be remarked that these fishes in the Arctic Ocean are said to
attam to six feet in length. Donovan observes that they will follow sharks and
other voracious fishes with the greatest temerity, lashing and wounding them with
their spines, and effectually driving them from those places where they are
accustomed to hunt themselves: to the blennies it is a desperate enemy.

Breeding.—In Greenland it has been observed to deposit its eggs on the sea-
weed in December and January. Its eggs are very small, and in this country
are extruded during the spring in the sand or pools in rocks. The male is said
to make a nest of sea-weeds and pebbles for the reception of the spawn, while
he is also believed to watch over as well as to protect the young when hatched.

Baits.—I found in the stomach of the one figured (natural size on plate xx)
a crab one inch across the carapace. It readily takes a bait: according to
Crantz, in Greenland it resorts to the deeper waters of the bays and is fished for
with long lines, the bait used being a white bone, glass bead, or piece of red
cloth: four hooks are used placed cross-wise. They are occasionally speared.

As food.—Not used in this country, but appears to be approved of in
Greenland. The males, however, are said in Skandinaviens Fiskar to be con-
sidered poisonous, while the females are eaten by the poor.

A fisherman, annoyed at finding oné of these fish among his shrimps, attempted
to bite off its head, when it struggled, escaped into his throat, became fixed in his
larynx and occasioned suffocation. (Angler’s Note Book, 1880, p. 177.)

Habitat.—From the Arctic Ocean and North Atlantic in both hemispheres,
the North Sea and the Baltic, round the British Isles. In Newfoundland 0.
Grenlandicus is abundant (Saxby, Zool. 1871, p. 2553). The British form must
be considered a degenerated variety of the Greenland bull-head.

Common round the British coast, and very numerous in the Orkneys and
Shetland Isles. The variety, C. Grenlandicus, was taken in 1858 in a salmon-net,
at Montrose (J. Richardson, Zoologist, 1860, p. 6993): while in 1880 large
numbers of the British variety were received at the Westminster Aquarium from
Brighton, and which had the brilliant Greenland livery.

Found in Ireland all around the coast throughout the year, especially in small
bays where much Fucus abounds. C. Grenlandicus has been taken on south-west
coast of Ireland in Dingle Harbour, in February, 1850.

In Greenland, as already observed, this fish is said to attain to 6 feet in length,
the largest recorded example in Great Britain being 15 inches.

2. Cottus bubalis, Plate XX, fig. 2.

Oottus, Artedi, Gen. p. 49, sp. p. 86; Gronovius, Zooph. no. 268; Sea Scorpion,
Edward, 284; Tonning in Trondhj, Selsk. Sky. ii, p. 345, t. xiii, xiv; The Father-
lasher, Low, Faun. Orcad. p. 206.

La scorpene, Belon. p. 242. Scorpius marinus, Schonevelde, Ich. p. 67,
t. vi; Jonston, De Pisc. t. xlvii, fig. 4. Scorpena Belonit similis, Wil. Ich. p.
138, +. H. 4,f.3; Ray, Pisc. p. 145.

Cottus scorpius, pt. Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 452, and Fauna Suec. No. 323;
Pennant, British Zool. (Hd. 1), iii, p. 218, pl. xl (Hd. 2), iii, p. 294, pl. xliv;
Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 102.

Cottus bubalis, Euphrasen, N. Schwed. Abhandl. vii, 1786, p. 64, t. iii, f. 2, 3;
Bloch, Schn. p. 62; Cuv. and Val. iv, p. 165, pl. Ixxviii; Yarrell, Zool. Journ. iv,
pp. 470, 508, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1), i, p. 63, ¢. fig. (Hd. 2), i, p. 78 (Hd. 3), ii, p. 58 ;
Jenyns, B. Vert. p. 345; Ekstrom, Fische Moérké, p. 182; Fries och Ekstr. p. 27,
t. vi, £. 1, 2; Thompson, Pro. Z. S. 1835, p. 80; Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 81;

4, *
52 | ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Johnston, Berwick. N. F. Club, 1838, i, p. 170; Parnell, Fish. Frith of Forth,

p. 25; White, Catal. p. 7; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 164; Steind. Meeresfische Span.

und Port. p. 92; Collett, Norges Fish. p. 29; McIntosh, Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 172.
Aspicottus bubalis and bison, Girard, Pro. Acad. Nat. Sc. Phil. 1854, p. 130.
Bubalis, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 11, pl. Lxi.

B. vi, D. 8 | 11—12, P. 16, V. 1/3, A. 9, C. 10, Cave. pyl. 7-8, Vert. 12/17.

Length of head 33, of caudal fin 5 to 53, height of body 33 to 42 in the
total length. Hyes—diameter about 1/4 of the length of the head, being
superiorly merely separated by a narrow and furrowed interspace. Head wide
and depressed, covered with a soft skin, opening on which are many small
mucous pores. The maxilla reaches to beneath the middle or last third of the
orbit. Turbinal spines well developed. Preopercle with four spines, the superior
being the longest and exceeding the length of the diameter of the eye, the inferior
one pointing downwards and forwards: a ridge from the orbit ends in a spine at
the occiput, another at the supra-scapular and scapular. Opercle with a spine,
the base of which is granulated: two subopercular spines, the lowest pointing
downwards and forwards. A few small tentacles about the head and above the
eyes, and usually one at the end of the maxilla. Teeth—moderately sized
villiform ones in the jaws and on the vomer, none on the palatines or on the
tongue. Fins—the first dorsal not so high as the second, its spines rather weak :
all the rays of the second dorsal simple. Pectoral reaches the origin of the anal,
its rays undivided. Ventral not extending to the vent. Anal rays simple.
Caudal cut square, its eight central rays divided at their extremities. Skin—
smooth. Lateral-line—with some bony plates, most distinct in its anterior portion.
Vent rather nearer the base of the caudal fin than the snout. Colowrs—on March
8th, 1880, I received a beautiful male specimen, 6 inches in length, from Mr. Dunn
of Mevagissey. All the dark markings were of a brilliant carmine, while it had
some large and irregularly shaped white spots along the sides and white vermi-
culations on the under side of the head. Asa rule the fish is of a light brown,
with darker and irregular blotches and bands: likewise oblique dark bands on
the dorsal and anal fins, and vertical ones on the pectorals and caudal.

Varieties.—Form.—The American species has been stated to have the ridges
on the head tubercular and not covered by skin, but I find this also in some
British examples. The variety of Cottus scorpius mentioned by Couch as having
“‘a row of tendrils, hanging from the skin above the eyes,” seems to agree with
this species. In colour we likewise find variations. A beautiful example 4
inches in length was captured at Southend early in April, 1879. The under
surface was brilliantly yellow, and on it were some large white marks; while the
under surface of the pectoral fin was spotted with pure white and brown (P. 15).
Another 7 inches long was without these white spots, but it and the last-mentioned
had well developed filaments at the end of the upper maxilla.

Names.—Father-lasher : Long-spined cottus. Lucky proach, Scotch.

Habits —Lurks under stones, pieces of rocks, or in similar situations, watching
for small fish and crustacea: and Couch considered that it preferred deeper water
to that selected by C. scorpius. Mr. Gurney placed one which was 24 inches in
length in a vessel of sea water, which contained some sand launces that were
about 3 inches long. It was observed to seize one and swallow it head first,
deglutition lasting 14 hours (Zool. p. 2954.) Low observes, “I once saw a trial of
skill between a large one of this kind and acormorant. The latter got the head and
part of the body of the fish swallowed, but being wounded by the spines, I suppose,
attempted to bring it up again: however, this was not practicable, for these being
placed the contrary way, hindered its return, and acted the same part as the barb
of a hook, in fixing it firmer in the throat of the cormorant, which, after many
attempts and much struggling, was killed by it.” The fish was 122 inches long,
its spines were fastened in the bird’s throat.

Mr. Dunn, writing of the carmine coloured example of this fish which he sent
me, observes: “it was brought to me about 9 a.m. alive in a bucket of water:
then being removed from the water it was put on a table and left there seven
COTTIDA. 53

Salads subsequently it was found alive and well, recovering on being placed
in water.

Means of capture.—Frequently taken in crab pots, which have been set where
sand and low rocks are intermingled.

; Breeding.—In December and January, the ova being large and of an orange
colour.
_ As food.—It is common in the seas of Newfoundland, where, says Pennant,
it is called scolping ; it is also frequent in deep waters along the coasts of
Greenland and is the principal food of the natives, and soup made of it is declared
to be both wholesome and agreeable. Low observes that “it is reckoned delicate
eating, and those who can put up with its horrid appearance, prefer it to others,
which are more beautiful to the eye.”

Habitat.—From the Arctic regions in both hemispheres, the Baltic, North Sea,
British Isles, and coasts of France and Spain.

In the Orkneys it is found in every pool into which the sea flows regularly
(Low). According to Baikie it is not so common in the Orkneys and Zetland as
C. scorpius. It is found all round the British coasts. Edward observes that in
Banffshire it is abundant in pools left by the tide or beneath stones at low
water.

Treland, C. bubalis is more common, according to Thompson, than C. scorpius ;
it has been reported from Antrim, Down, Kerry, etc.

It attains to 12 or 13 inches in length.

3. Cottus quadricornis, Plate XXI.

oe Sp. 2, Artedi, Genera, p. 48 and spec. p. 84; Gronov. Zoophyl. p. 79,
No. 272.

Cottus quadricornis, Linn. Syst.i, p. 451; Pallas, Spic. Zool. viii, p. 25 ; Bloch,
t. cviii; Gmel. Linn. p. 1208; Bl. Schn. p. 62; Bonaterre, Ency. p. 67, pl.
xxxvil, f. 146; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 259, pl. 36; Lacép. ili, p. 241; Cuv. and Val.
iv, p. 168; Ekstrém, Fische Morké, p. 178; Fries och Ekstr. p. 30, t. vii, f.1;
Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1), i, p. 68, c. fig. (Hd. 2), i, p. 83 (Hd. 3), ii, p. 64;
Jenyns, p. 345; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 7; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 102;
Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 166 and Proc. Zool. Soc. 1877, p. 293; Malm. Wieg. Arch.
1864, p. 275; Liitken, Vidd. Medd. 1876, p. 375.

Cottus hexacornis, Richards. Franklin Journal, p. 726, and Faun. Bor. Amer.
Fishes, p. 44; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 166.

Four-horned cottus, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 15, pl. Lxiii.

B. vi, D. 9/14, P. 17, V. 1/3, A. 18-15, C. 18, Coec. pyl. 6 or 7. Vert. 40.

Length of head 33, of caudal fin 62, height of body 42 in the total length.
Eye—42. diameters in the length of the head, 14 diameter from the end of the
snout and also apart. Two pairs of large and rough tubercles on the upper surface
of the head, one over the posterior superior angle of each orbit, the other on the
nape, the space enclosed by these four pomts being longer than wide. Three or
four preopercular spines, the superior being the longest and equalling the
diameter of the orbit. A pair of turbinal spines. The maxilla extends
posteriorly to beneath the middle of the orbit. Teeth—villiform in the jaws and
vomer. Fins—first dorsal low, the third or fourth spines being the longest and
less than half the height of the body below them, and only two-thirds the height of
the second dorsal. Pectoral reaches to above the vent. Ventral reaches scarcely
half-way to the anal. Caudal rounded. All the rays, except the central ones of
the caudal fin, unbranched. Scales—absent, a row of rather large granular
tubercles between the lateral-line and the back, and sometimes a second of smaller
ones: below the lateral line one or two similar rows, while occassionally others
are scattered over the sides. Colowrs—grayish-brown, tinged with red over the
gill-covers and becoming yellow on the sides and dull white beneath. Fins
gray, obliquely banded with darker. ents

Variettes—Liitken confirms Peters’ determination that examples from the
east coast of Greenland are identical with those from the Baltic. Sir John
54 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Richardson in the third edition of Yarrell, considered his C. hewacornis a variety
of this species. Malmgren has observed that certain marine fishes as Cottus
quadricornts, Liparis barbatus and a variety of the common herring, are found in
the northern portion of the Baltic where that sea is least saline, whereas they
appear to be entirely absent from its southern extremity where their presence
might be anticipated had they obtained access from the North Sea. They are
leaner and smaller in the Baltic than in the Arctic Ocean, and it is supposed that
they are the remnants of the fauna of the Glacial Ocean. During the later
portion of the glacial period most of Finland and the middle of Sweden were
submerged, and the Baltic a gulf of the Glacial Ocean, being then closed in at
the south. As the Scandinavian continent has become elevated, the Baltic has
been cut off by land from the Arctic Ocean, whereas to the south it has obtained
access into the North Sea, leaving it containing representatives of the former
marine glacial fauna, not the products of immigration through the Sound.
Thus inherited instinct induces these fish to seek a passage in the north, while,
due to the alteration in the physical condition of the water in the Baltic, they are
becoming a smaller and more miserable race than their relatives now living in the
Arctic Ocean.

Habits —Said to be active, a rapid swimmer, and eager after prey, to obtain
which it conceals itself among stones or under sea-weed, from whence it darts on
its victims. Lacépéde states that it enters rivers.

Edward observes that he “‘never found this species but in the stomachs of
fish ; which led him to the conclusion that they generally inhabit deep water, or
at least that they do not come so near the surface as the preceding species,” Cottus
bubalis.

Means of capture—Yarrell observes that it is taken on the north-east coast by
fishermen in winter when working nets with small meshes for sprats.

Breeding.—In winter. The ova are white.

Habitat.—This fish has been captured in latitude 82° 30'north or within the
limits of the Arctic Ocean, it is found in the Northern Ocean as far as Greenland,
the west coast of Norway (absent, however, according to Collett), also in the
northern portion of the Baltic and in the North Sea, as far south as the British
Isles. Sir John Richardson found it very abundant at the month of the
Coppermine River in British North America. In Britain it is said to be
occasionally taken on the north-east coast. W. Thompson, February 7th, 1834,
obtained one alive at Weymouth, which he transmitted to the Zoological
Gardens. In Scotland, Edward observes its occurrence in Banffshire, but
only from the stomachs of other fishes.

Jt has not been recorded from Ireland.

The example figured is from one in the British Museum, probably the same
that has previously been employed by Yarrell and Conch. This fish attains to
12 or 13 inches in length.
COTTID A. 55

Genus II.—Trigua, Artedi.
Hoplonotus, Guichenot.

Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchie present. Head parallelopiped : with its
superior and lateral surfaces bony. Villiform teeth in both jaws and usually on the
vomer, but none on the palatines. Two dorsal fins, the first being of less extent than
the second ; three free filaments at the base of the pectoral fin. Aur-bladder well
developed, usually provided with lateral muscles, and sometimes partially divided
internally by partitions. Pyloric appendages few or in moderate numbers.

Trigla was the Greek term for the Mullets, Mullide; Artedi united the two
genera, and when they were again separated this name was appropriated to the
gurnards.

These fishes are commonly known as gurnards or gurnets derived from an
ancient British word signifying a firm or rugged structure, and as such applicable to
their heads. Cnddan, cnodan, or crudan, Gaelic, McAlpine. In France they have
the epithet Les Milans de mer. Many species are able to produce sounds when
beneath the water, from which has originated their Italian name organo, and
their French designation grondin. The Romans termed them lyres, either due
to their emitting sounds or else because their shapes bore a resemblance to the
ancient “lyre.”

The air-bladder in the British forms are exceedingly useful as a means of
diagnosing species, as they vary exceedingly. Their structure is interesting, as
they possess strong lateral muscles for the purpose of compression, thus
diminishing their size, and assisting the fish to sink when desired. The
thickness of the walls in some species, it has been suggested, may be for the
purpose of resisting pressure when suddenly rising to the surface from great
depths. M. Dufossé considers this organ as a generator of sound completely
independent of the other organisms in the fish. If a gurnard is placed on its
back and a long incision made in the abdominal walls and any viscera which
obstruct view are drawn to one side, it is directed that the tip of the finger
should be placed in contact with the air bladder and vibrations synchronous with
and having the same intensity as the sound produced by the fish will be felt.
Having isolated the organ as much as possible by delicate and rapid manipulation
from the rest of the body, with the exception of the vessels and nerves with
which it is supplied, a stethoscope provided at its mouth with a diaphragm of
gold-beater’s skin should be applied to its anterior part; then the nerves are to
be severed first on one side then on the other, when the sounds will be found to
decrease in intensity and finally entirely cease. He concluded that the intrinsic
muscles by their vibration aided and intensified by the rest of the organs are
the agents of the sounds produced; while other muscles can by their contraction
alter the shape of the organ and thus modify the quality of the sounds emitted.

The rough granulations along the front edge of the first two dorsal spines
are liable to vary in examples of the same species, in some being present and
well developed, whereas in others they may be entirely wanting.

Habits—Gurnards are rather voracious, mostly swimming near the bottom
of the sea where they feed on crustacea or other small prey.

Their free pectoral filaments, which have a certain similarity to elongated
fingers, are employed as feelers, used as a means of progression, or even for the
purpose of drawing prey towards their mouth. : Their large pectoral fins,
although employed when balancing themselves in mid-water, are insufficient for
the purpose of sustaining them in the air. They live for some time after their
removal from the sea, and on being touched erect their dorsal spines, and at the
same time emit certain sounds from which many local names have had their origin.
These fishes, more especially T. obscura, have been reputed to emit ight from the
head, occasioning, according to Lacépéde, their passage through the air to
resemble the course of a shooting star. Couch observes that Risso believed this
56 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

faculty to be inherent in all the species of the Genus: Cuvier however denied
that this power was possessed by all, and it has been surmised that such may be
due to their conveying after them certain invertebrata that have luminous
properties, and which occasion what the fishermen term “‘briming.” They are
said by some observers to swim in large companies, and when pursued by an
enemy to spring out of the water.

Means of capture—Gurnards, generally swimming near the bottom, are
commonly taken by deep sea trawlers, but some species are likewise easily
captured by hand-lines: a silvery slice from a sand launce, Aimmodytes, forming
an attractive bait. Long lines termed “‘ bulters” with baited hooks are used for
gurnard fishing.

Breeding.—They spawn about May or June, and Professor Sars has found
their ova floating on the sea, rendering it almost certain that they may be included
among those forms which do not deposit such on the ground.

As food—Gurnards have always been held in fair estimation, but from the
firmness of their flesh they are not so digestible as many other fishes as easily
procurable: some forms, however, owing to their small size are deemed almost unfit
for the table, while others are so inferior as to be considered worthless in certain
districts. They are generally stuffed with forcemeat and subsequently baked: or
their flesh is raised from the bones and dressed in fillets. They may likewise be
gently boiled in salted water for half-an-hour, and then served up with a rich
gravy or anchovy sauce, or with parsley and butter acidulated with Chili vinegar,
Jemon juice or caper pickle. A very ancient mode and still occasionally followed,
is after having fried, to souce them in a sour sauce. However, in some places
“‘souced gurnet” is employed as a term of contempt, as when Shakespere in King
Henry IV, Activ, Scene 2, makes Falstaff say, “If I be not ashamed of my
soldiers, I am asoused gurnet.”

Geographical distribution.—Coasts of Europe, being especially abundant in the
Mediterranean. One species extending across the North Atlantic is found on the
western shores of North America. To the south it passes round the west coast of
Africa, and from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean, apparently avoiding the east
coast of Africa, the shores of India, and the contiguous islands.

Lepidotriyla, Giinther, has been separated solely on account of the size of its
scales* which are larger—a subdivision which is only partially approved of.

In Ireland the gray gurnard, T. gurnardus, is most numerous: next the
sapphirine 7. hirundo: then the red T. cuculus: 4th the streaked T. lineata:
5th the Piper T. lyra (Thompson).

1. Trigla lineata, Plate XXII.

AMullus imberbis, Rondel. x, c. 5, p. 295, c. fig.; Gesner, iv, p. 567; Aldrov. ii,
e. 2, p. 131. Milvus, Jonston, De Pisce. lib. i, t. ii, c. 1. art. ti, p. 65, t. xvii,
f. 12, &e. Mullus imberbis, 1. ¢.p. 61, t. xviii, f. 4; Willughby, p. 278, 4.8. i, f.1;
Ray, Syn. p. 87. Cuculus lineatus, Ray, Syn. p.165,f.11; Brinn. Pisc. Mass.
p.99. Streaked gurnard, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Hd. 1) iii, p. 281, pl. lvii, (Hd. 2)
iii, p. 377, pl. Ixvi.

Trigla lineala, Gmel. Linn. p. 1845; Bloch, t. cecliv; Bl. Schn. p. 13;
Donovan, Brit. Fish. i, pl. iv; Turton, Brit. Faun. p. 102; Cuv. and Val. iv,
p. 34; Bonap. Ital. Pesci. iii, p. 58, c. fig; Scouler, Mag. Nat. Hist. vi, 1838,
p. 6380; Thompson, Pro. Zool. Soc. 1835, p. 79, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 72;
Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Hd. 1) i, p. 46, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 45, (Ed. 3) uy, p. 19;
Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 339; Parnell, Fish. Frith of Forth, p. 15, t. xix; Swainson,
Fish. ii, p. 262; Guichen. Explor. Alger. Poiss. p. 38; Flem. Brit. An. p. 215;
Lowe, Pro. Zool. Soe. 1839, p. 77; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 200; Steind. Ich. Span.
u. Port. 1867, p. 78; Cornish, Zool. 1878, p. 428.

Trigla lastoviza, Briin. Pisc. Mass. p. 99; Lacép. Poiss. iti, p. 349, 351.

Trigla Adriatica, Gmel. Linn. p. 1846; Bl. Schn. p. 15; Risso, Ich. Nice,
p- 204, and Hist. Nat. iii, p. 394; Martens, Reise nach Venedig. ui, p. 430, t. xi;
Flem. Brit. An. p. 215.

* Gill, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Phil. 1864, p. 166.
COTTID AL. 57

Trigla peciloptera, Thompson, P. Z. 8. 1837, p. 61 (not Cuv. and Val.)
Streaked gurnard, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 25, pl. lxvil.

B. vii, D. 9-11 | 16-17, P. 10-11 + iii, V. 1/5, A. 16, C. 12, L. 1. 66, Cose. pyl. 10,
Vert. 15/20.

Length of head 4} to 48, of caudal fin 5 to 6, height of body 5 to 5} in the
total length. Hye—high up, almost touching dorsal profile, 11 to 12 diameters in
the postorbital portion of the head, 2 diameters from the end of the snout, and
3/4 to 1 diameter apart. Interorbital space deeply concave: upper profile from
eye to snout descends abruptly, in the adult almost vertically. Bones of the
head with stellated ridges. ‘Two or three distinct spines at the anterior-superior
angle of the orbit, being the termination of ridges. Preorbital obtuse anteriorly,
and granulated, most coarsely so in adults, when it may even be denticulated.
Angle of preopercle usually with blunt, but sometimes with, sharp projections :
supra-scapular roughened along its upper edge and terminating posteriorly in a
sharp spine: scapular strongly ridged, likewise terminating in a strong spine.
The posterior extremity of the maxilla does not extend to beneath the anterior
edge of the eye. Yeeth—tine in jaws, present or absent on vomer: palatines and
tongue edentulous. Jins—second dorsal spine the longest, being equal to the
distance between the hind edge of the eye and the end of the snout, its first and
sometimes also its second (or even third) spine roughened anteriorly: rays of
second dorsal divided at their outer extremities. Pectoral longer than the head,
and reaching to above the 3rd to the 7th ray of the anal fin. Anal rays undivided.
Ventral reaches the vent. Caudal emarginate. Scales—small. Lateral-line—
with about 66 denticulated and serrated spines, equal to half the number of
rows of scales above the lateral-line: the keeled row along the bases of the dorsal
fins well developed, and consisting of about 25 scales. Running from the
back down the sides are numerous raised lines or ridges which give it its
characteristic appearance. Cecal appendages—ten, those nearest the pylorus long
and nearly twice the length of the outermost. Air-bladder—oval, rounded at both
extremities with a large muscle, composed of transverse fibres going along its
lateral borders. Colouwrs—of a lake superiorly and on the sides, becoming white
underneath. Narrow red vertical bands pass from the back down the sides.
Dorsal and caudal fins reddish-brown, edged externally with red, and covered with
numerous irregular spots and blotches. Pectoral of similar but darker colours,
the spots almost forming transverse bands. Ventrals reddish-brown internally,
with lighter red edges. Anal grayish-yellow, with a pink outer margin which
has a dark base.

Names.—Streaked gurnard: lineated gurnard: French gurnard: rock gurnard:
rabbit fish. Penhaiarn rhestrog, Welsh. Le Rouget Camard, French.

Habits.—Although this fish usually keeps near the bottom, it is sometimes
captured in nets which do not descend nearly so low, while it has been occasionally
observed springing out of the sea. It appears to restrict itself to certain localities
probably due to the food which may be present. Its migrations are effected,
according to Couch, at higher elevations than among the other forms of the genus:
he obtained one from a net that floated over 30 fathoms. Once at Polperro, not
its usual resort, a fish was observed springing out of the water in an unusual
manner, and on being captured proved to be a streaked gurnard. It eats
crustacea and small fish, while pebbles and vegetable substances have been found
in its stomach. Thompson detected in one what had “the appearance of
vegetable food and a young sole about 3 inches in length, crab-like crustacea,
15 full-grown specimens of shrimp-like crustacea and 3 small brachyurous
crustacea” as well as other crabs.

Means of capture.—Is generally taken in trammels set for surmullets, or with
the trawl, and but rarely (Mr. Cornish, 1. c. says never) by means of baits. In
the aquarium it takes pieces of mussel or shrimps, as well as any other of the
genus, and becomes equally tame, therefore one would imagine that it must
sometimes be caught by baits.

Breeding.—Eggs small and numerous.
58 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

As food.—It is said to equal Trigla pint.

Habitat.—From the British coast to the Canary Islands, also through the
Mediterranean and Adriatic.

In Britain it appears to have been first observed by Mr. Jago in Cornwall, and
is most numerous along the south coast, becoming rarer towards the north,
only stragglers having been observed in Scotland, one having been procured
near Ayr, and a second in October, 1844, at Glasgow: while on the west coast of
England it is said to be locally rare. Mr. Cornish remarked in May, 1866, that
he had taken two examples at Penzance, being 29 since 1858 (Zoologist, 1866,

. 311).
In ‘ireland, Thompson remarks that a few are taken every year in the county
of Down, chiefly at Killough, and one by Ball at Youghal: the most usual time
being the last six and first three months in the year.

It attains to at least 14 inches in length.

2. Trigla cuculus, Plate XXTIT.

Lyra, Jonston, De Pisce. lib. i, tit. ii, c. 1, art. 3, pp. 66, t. xxiv, f. 4. Trigla,
Artedi, Gen. 45, syn. 74. Cuculus Aldrovandus, Ray, p. 89; Rutty, N. H. Co.
Dublin, 1772, p. 367. Red gurnard, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776) iu, p. 278,
pl. 57, (Ed. 1812) iii, p. 373, pl. 66.

Trigla cuculus, Linn. Syst. Nat. p. 497 and Mus. Ad. Fried. u, p. 93; Shaw,
Zool. iv, p. 620, pl. 90; Cuv. and Val. iv, p. 26; Dekay, N. Y. Fauna, p. 43, pl. lxx,
f. 225; Bonap. Icones Ital. Pesci, iii, p. 58, c. fig; Fleming, p.215; Yarrell, Brit.
Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 34, ¢. fig, (Hd. 2) i, p. 38, (Md. 3) ii, p. 10; Parnell, Fishes
Frith of Forth, p. 14, t. xviii; Swainson, Fishes, u, p. 262; White, Cat. Brit.
Fish. p. 2; Steind. Ich. Span. a. Port. 1867, p. 78; Malm, Gfv. Sv. Akad. 1870,
p. 825; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 37.

Trigla pint, Bloch, t. ceclv; Bl. Schn. p. 14; Lacép. iii, p. 356; Risso, Ich.
Nice, p. 206; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 338; Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Club, 1838, i,
p. 170; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 71; Swainson, ii, p. 262; Giinther,
Catal. ii, p. 199; McIntosh, Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 172.

Trigla lineata, Montague, Wern. Mem. ii, p. 460 (not Gmel. Linn.); Flem.
Brit. An. 215.

Polynemus tridigitatus, Mitchell, Trans. Lit. and Phil. Soc. New York, i,

. 449.
: Pine-leaved gurnard, Shaw, Nat. Misc. xxii, pl. 954.

Ellleck, Couch, Fishes Brit. Isles, ii, p. 19, pl. Lxiv.

B. vii, D. 8-9/18, P. 10+iii, V. 1/5, A. 16-17, C. 13, L. 1. 73-76, Coec. pyl. 8,
Vert. 15/21-22.

Length of head 4 to 43, of caudal fin 51, height of body 6in the total length.
Eye—1? diameters in the postorbital portion of the head, 1} diameters from end of
snout, and 4 a diameter apart. Interorbital space concave. Upper profile from
eye to snout descends rather abruptly and is shghtly concave. The form of the
snout appears to be liable to vary, in one male example it is broader and more
strongly armed than in any other of my specimens. Bones of the head with
stellated ridges. Two or three small spines at the anterior-superior angle of the
orbit. Preorbital with short denticulations anteriorly. Opercle with a well-
developed spine. Angle of preopercle with a spinate termination below which are
two smaller ones. Supra-scapular roughened along its upper edge and
ending in a short but sharp spine: coracoid likewise ending in a spine. The
posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to beneath the front of the eye.
Teeth—fine ones present in jaws, and on the vomer, none on the palatine
bones or tongue. Funs—second dorsal spine the highest, being more than
2/3 the length of the head, the first spine is tuberculated anteriorly. Pectoral
about as long as the head and reaching to above the third or fourth anal ray-
Caudal emarginate. Scales—small, those on the lateral-line unarmed, but forming
lineated plates, very much deeper than wide, occasioning the lateral-line to appear
as if crossed by about 72 vertical folds of skin. Ridge along the base of the
dorsal fin having about 27 spines. Air-bladder—with two short and rounded
COTTIDA, 59

prolongations anteriorly and a muscle along either side. Colowrs—rosy. Irides
golden orange.

Varieties. —Thompson refers to having obtained one in March, 1838, “ D. 8/18,
A. 16. The hinder half of this specimen was grayish, like T. harundo (of which
a small one was taken with it), the anterior half, including the head, a mixture of
gray and scarlet. It was a female, the ova half the size of small clover seed.”
Couch records a variety of unusual size, having the back, head, and sides covered
thickly with golden spots about the size of a large pea.

Names.—The specific term given to this species by Bloch was Pini, as he
considered the short straight lines crossing the lateral-line bore somewhat of a
resemblance to the acicular leaves of the pine. Red or Cuckoo gurnard: elleck :
soldier: pine-leaved gurnard. Penhaiarn coch, Welsh. Le Grondin rouge, and
Rouget commun, French.

Habits.—Keeps near the bottom in moderately deep water. Feeds on small
fishes, molluscs and crustacea. In Belfast it is said to be most abundant early in
the spring and late in the autumn.

Mode of captwre—A voracious species that takes a bait freely, but is mostly
captured in the trawl.

Breeding.—Couch observes that he found them with well-developed ova both
in January and also in April and June. Young about 1} inches in length have
been taken in August.

As food.—Large quantities are consumed in England, but in Scotland it does
not appear to be held in any estimation. In France it is taken in quantities for
the last four months of the year, and is much esteemed because of its firm flesh
and good taste; it is even preserved in olive-oil.

Habitat.—Scandinavia and down the west coast of Europe to the Mediter-
ranean, and is also recorded from New York and the American shores of the
North Atlantic Ocean.

Common along the English coast, especially on the south and west, at all
seasons, and is likewise taken in Scotland: is pretty common in Banffshire
(Edward) and occasionally observed in St. Andrew’s Bay (McIntosh): two were
taken in the Orkneys in the winter of 1850-51 (W. Baikie). It has been recorded
from Wick, the Moray Frith, and occasionally at Lossiemouth.

In Ireland it is common from Waterford on the south up the east coast to
Londonderry.

It attains to at least 18 inches in length.

3. Trigla hirundo, Plate XXIV.

Corax, Rondel. x, c. 7, p. 396, c. fig.; Gesner, Aquat. iv, p. 299; Aldrov. Pisc.
ii, c. 57; Willughby, Ich. iv, p. 280, t. P. 4. Corvus, Salv. Hist. Aquat. p. 194,
£. 71. Hirundo, Aldrov. Pisce. ii, c. iii, p. 183; Jonston, lib. i, t. ii, c. 1, art. 2,
p. 64, t. xvii, f. 8,9; Ray, p. 88; Willugh. p. 280; Ray, p. 88. Lucerna Vene-
torum, Willugh. iv, p. 281; Ray, p. 88; Gronov. Zooph. p. 84, No. 284. Sapphi-
rine gurnard, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Hd. 1), iii. p. 280, pl. lvi (Hd. 2), iii, p. 376,

1. Ixviii.

: Trigla cuculus, Brinn. Pisc. Mass. p. 77; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 105.

Trigla hirundo, Linn. Syst. i, p. 497; Bloch, Ich. p. 518, t. lx; Bonat. Ich.
p- 146, pl. Ix, f. 238; Gmel. Linn. p. 1844; Bl. Schn. p. 15; Donovan, Brit.
Fish. i, pl.i; Lacép. iii, p. 353; Shaw, Zool. iv, pt. 2, p. 621; Turton, p. 102;
Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 205; Cuv. and Val. iv, p. 40; Flem. Brit. An. p. 214;
Thompson, Pro. Zool. Soc. 1835, p. 79, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 73;
Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) 1837, i, p. 409; Parnell, Fishes Frith of Forth,
p. 16, pl. xx; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 1), i, p. 41, ¢. fig. (Hd. 2) i, p. 47,
(Ed. 3) ii, p. 21; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 340; Swainson, ii, p. 262; Guichen.
Explor. Alger. Poissons, p. 39; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 3; Giinther, Catal. ii,
p. 202; Schlegel, De Dieren van Nederland, p. 43, pl. iv, f. 2; Moreau, Compt.
Rend. 1864, ii, p. 436; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1867, p. 81; Collett, Norges
Fiske, p. 37; McIntosh, Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 172.
60 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Trigla levis, Montagu, Mem. Wern. Soe. ii, pt. 2, p. 455; Flem. Brit. Anim.
p. 214, sp. 148; Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 420; Embleton, Berwick. Nat. Field
Club, 1831, p. 22.

Trigla corvus, Risso, Hist. Nat. iii, p, 398.

Trigla coraz, Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesci, t. f. 1.

Trigla poeciloptera (Young), Cuv. and Val. iv, p. 47; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes
(Hd. 2) i, p. 49, c. fig. (lid. 3) ii, p. 24; Swainson, ii, p. 262; Thompson,
Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 61, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 79; Demid. Voy.
Russ. Mérid. iii, p. 375; Guichen. Explor. Alger. Poiss. p. 39; White, Catal. Brit.
Fish. p. 38; Walker, Zool. 1859, p. 6540; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 203; Couch, Brit.
Fish. 1, p. 36, pl. lex, f. 2.

Tubfish, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 21, pl. lxv.

B. vii, D. 9/16-17.. P. 10 + iii, V. 1/5. A. 15-16, C. 12. Ceee. pyl. 10, Vert.
14-15/19.

Length of head 32 to 4, of caudal fin 42 to 51, height of body 6 to 63 in the
total length. Hye—l} to 1} diameters in the postorbital portion of the head,
2 diameters from the end of the snout, and 1 diameter apart. Interorbital space
deeply concave. Upper profile from eyes to snout, with a slight descent. Bones
of the head with stellated ridges, which are least developed between the eyes.
Several spinate denticulations at the anterior-superior angle of the orbit. Pre-
orbital granulated anteriorly, even serrated in some examples and in the young:
angle of preopercle acute, and in the young there are two sharp spines.
Supra-scapular roughened, ending posteriorly in a short and sharp spine. Coracoid
with a roughened ridge passing across it and ending ina spine: all these spines
are more developed in the young than in the adult, and they differ in their
extent in adult examples. In the young a strong ridge ending in a spine passes
across the opercle: while the occiput has two spines posteriorly. The posterior
extremity of the maxilla almost reaches to beneath the front edge of the eye.
Teeth—fine ones in the jaws and on the vomer: none on the palatines or tongue.
Fins—first dorsal spines almost or quite smooth anteriorly, the second the longest
and equal to the length of the snout: rays of the second dorsal scarcely more
than half as high as the first dorsal, and some are divided at their extremities.
Pectoral longer than the head (this is subject to variation) and reaching to above
the seventh anal ray. Caudal emarginate. Scales—small, nearly 200 irregular
rows descend towards the lateral-line, the scales of which are unarmed. From 25
to 27 spinate plates along the base of the dorsal fins. Air-bladder—large, trilobed
all of equal length in the adult, anteriorly they communicate freely with one
another. Anteriorly the air-vessel is produced into two short horns: the outer
wall is very muscular. In the young, the lateral lobes are very short but they
gradually increase in length with the age of the fish. According to M. Moreau
(Comptes Rendus, 1864, t. lix, p. 4386), the air-bladder is furnished with thick and
strong muscles of the striped or voluntary kind. Two large nerves pass to
it from the upper part of the spinal cord close to the first pair of dorsal nerves
and below the pneumogastric. The mucous membrane which lines the internal
surface of the air-bladder forms a fold or diaphragm which subdivides this cavity
into two secondary chambers, communicating by an aperture in this partition,
which has some function analagous to ,that of the pupil of the eye: as under
the microscope it is seen to be provided with sphincter-like muscular fibres
disposed concentrically to the opening, while others radially arranged pass ata
tangent from them. Both sets of muscular fibres are smooth and presumably of
the involuntary variety. In August, 1863, a section of the spinal cord above the
dorsal region was made in one of these fish while still living, the abdomen
was opened and a feeble galvanic current passed to the nerves proceeding to
the air-bladder. Sounds similar to those emitted during life were immediately
produced audible to persons standing at some distance. A current was next
applied to the muscle of the air-bladder but without any result. Next a window
was cut in the lower portion of the air-bladder so as to expose the diaphragm, and
galvanism being applied, it was seen to be thrown into a state of vibration but no
COTTIDA. 61

sounds were produced, due perhaps to an escape of gas from the chamber. Cacal
appendages—ten, or eight according to Cuvier and Valenciennes, so they may
vary, they are rather long. Colowrs—brownish-red. Pectoral fin reddish externally
with bluish margins, blue internally with numerous blackish blotches, taking the
form of transverse bands. In the young the back is reddish-brown, abdomen
silvery, the sides being glossed with golden. Dorsal fins reddish, the first being
black-tipped, and the second violet witha dark basal band, and also dark along its
upper half. Caudal purplish. Pectoral violet externally, having irregular narrow
and dark transverse bands: on the posterior half or two-thirds of its inner side
exists a large oval black or very dark-blue blotch, on which are scattered small
milk-white or light-blue spots, this mark generally disappears in the adult, but
traces are frequently perceptible.

Names.—Aldrovandus adopted the term hirundo for this fish, perhaps he
traced a resemblance between the spots on its pectoral fins to the white spots
on each of the tail feathers of the common swallow. It is known as
the Sapphirine gurnard, tub-jish, or tubbot: sea crow: red tubs: smooth sides.
Yfgyfarnog y mor, Welsh. In Belfast it is commonly called the gray gurnard, and
there the T. gurnardus is called knoud. IL’ Hirondelle de mer, Le Perlon, and Rouget
grondin, French. De groote Poon, Dutch.

By a slip of the pen Linneus described Trigla hirundo as having “linea
laterali aculeata,” which caused Pennant, Fleming, and others to describe “‘ the
side-line as rough,” and doubtless also misled Montague into the belief that
his fish without a rough lateral-line was a new species, so he named it 7. levis.

Thompson’s example of “the little gurnard” from Youghal, in Ireland, with
D. 10/15 and “lateral-line spinous,” cannot have been 7. peeciloptera, but perhaps
the young of J. lineata. Steindachner, in 1867, observed that T. pectloptera, C. V.,
is identical with TJ. coraz, Bonap. and YZ. capensis, C. V., and the young of
T. hirundo, which was confirmed by Professor Liitken in 1876.

Habits.—This species usually remains near the bottom in rather deep water,
put occasionally rises to the surface. It lives on crustacea, molluscs, and such
small fish as it can catch. The young generally lie at the bottom in shallow
water, with their pectoral fins widely expanded, the blue colours of which, and
the dark blotch covered with white spots, give them the appearance of gorgeous
butterflies, as of course the inner or coloured side becomes that portion which
is most exposed to view. It seems to be very fond of shrimps, and Lloyd
remarks that when in an aquarium any have fallen to the bottom, and got under
the sand, it has been observed to use the free rays of its pectoral fins to
disturb them by feeling, hooking, and poking above them (Hardw. Science Gossip,
1865, p. 236). Thompson found a sordid dragonet inside one; and Couch
observed a pecten as large as half a crown; and small solens or razor-shells
have been obtained from their stomachs.

Means of capture.—Usually by the trawl along with flat fish, but they also
take a bait and are occasionally captured in salmon nets in the autumn.

Breeding.— This fish appears to breed during the first six months of the year.
Couch found them with mature ova in December and February. Risso observed
that they deposited eggs in the spring, and Couch found the roe enlarged both at
Christmas and also in May and July. Walker, when trawling in the Dee for
shrimps in March, 1859, frequently took the young (Zoologist, p. 6540).

As food.—This species is nearly equal to the best sorts of gurnards, and is often
preferred in consequence of attaining to a large size; its flesh, however, is rather
dry, and requires sauce. It is salted in the north of Europe, and thus used in
Denmark for ships’ provisions.

Habitat—Norway, the western coast of Europe, round Great Britain and
Treland, and through the Mediterranean and Adriatic.

Is common round the British coast, but scarcely so abundant as T. cuculus.
Yarrell says it is the most abundant, while it decreases in number towards the
north. Jt has been recorded at Lossiemouth in January, 1841,and October, 1845,
by Gordon (Zoologist, p. 3458), while Edward remarks that it is pretty common
62 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

in Banffshire, where the largest are obtained towards the end of autumn. In the
spring of 1840 one of the young was taken from the stomach of a great northern
diver. Thompson likewise remarks that he has seen this species in autumn
captured in salmon nets at Ballantrae, in Ayrshire, and on different parts of the
coast in the country.

In Ireland, Thompson observes that this fish is found round the coast; and at
Youghal it is termed tubs. Moore mentions it in Kerry. It is brought to the
Belfast market chiefly during the spring and autumn, but said to be in the best
condition in May.

It attains, according to Thompson, to at least 14.]b. weight, and 2 feet or more
in length.

4, Trigla gurnardus, Plate XXV.

Coccyx alter, Belon. i, p. 207; Jonston, De Pisce. lib. i, t. iii, c. 1, art. 2, p. 65,
t. xvii, f. 11. Cornatus s. gurnardus griseus, Willughby, iv, c. 7, p. 279, t. 8. 2, £.1;
Ray, p. 88. Trigla, sp.8; Artedi, Genera, p. 46; Gronov. Mus. Ich. p. 44, and
Zooph. p. 84, no. 283. Milwus, Rondel. x, c. 8, p. 297, c. fig; Aldrov. ii, c. 58,
p. 279.  Corystion, Klein, Mss. iv, pl. xiv, f£.2. Gurnardus griseus seu Ouculus
griseus, Rutty, N. Hist. Co. Dublin, 1772, i, p. 367. Gray gurnard, Pennant,
(Ed. 1) iii, p. 276, pl. liv, (Hd. 2) iii, 371, pl. lev; Low, Faun. Orcad. p. 229.

Trigla gurnardus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 497; Bonaterre, Ency. Ich. p. 148,
pl. lx, f. 286; Gmel. Linn. i, p. 1842; Bloch, t. lviii; Bl. Schn. p. 14; Donovan,
ii, pl. xxx; Lacép. Poiss. iii, p. 358; Shaw, Zool. iv, pt. 2, p. 619, pl. xe; Turton,
p. 102; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 207; Faber, Fische Islands, p. 124; Cuv. and Val. iv,
p. 62; Bonap. Fauna Ital. Pesci, iii, p. 102, c. fig.; Flem. Brit. An. p. 215;
Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Hd. 1) i, p. 48, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 53, (Ed. 3) ii, p. 28;
Templeton, Mag. N. Hist. (2) i, 1837, p. 409; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 342;
Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 262; Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Field Club, 1838,
i, p.170; Parnell, Fishes Frith of Forth, p. 18, pl. xxii; White, Catal. p. 4;
Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland. iv, p. 74; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 205; Schlegel,
De Dieren van Ned. p. 45, pl. iv, f. 1; Malm, Gifv. Sv. Akad. 1870, p. 829;
Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 37; McIntosh, Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 172.

Trigta cuculus, Bloch, Ich. p. 516, t.lix; Gmel. Linn. p. 1843; Bl. Schn. p. 14;
Bonaterre, Ency. p. 146, pl. Ix, f. 237; Turton, p. 102; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 208;
Mont. Wern. Mem. ii, p. 457; Flem. Brit. An. p. 215; Cuv. and Val. iv, p. 67;
Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 343; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 207; Thomp. Pro. Zoo. Soc.
1837, p. 57 and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 74.

Trigla milvus, Lacép. Poiss. iii, p. 340, 362; Risso, Hist. Nat. iti, p. 395; Cuv.
and Val. iv, p. 67; Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesce. iii, p. 52, c. fig.

Trigla Bloch, Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Hd. 1) i, p. 50, ¢. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 56,
(Hid. 3) ii, p.32; Parnell, Fish. Frith of Forth, p. 21, t. xxiii; White, Catal. p. 4;
Swainson, ii, p. 262.

Trigla gurnardt, var. Parn. Wern. Mem. vii, p. 182.

Trigla aspera, Gronov. ed. Gray. p. 105.

Gurnard, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 27, pl. Lxviii.

Bloch’s gurnard, Couch, 1. c. ii, p. 29, pl. lxix.

B. vii, D. 8-9/19, P. 10, V. 1/5, A. 18-19, C.15, L. 1. 73-76, Cove. pyl. 7-9,
Vert. 14/24.

Length of head 33 to 32, of caudal fin 6 to 63, height of body 6 in the total
length. Hyes—high up, situated nearer to the posterior than to the anterior end
of the head, in adults being about 13 diameter from the posterior end of the
head and two from the end of the snout. Interorbital space slightly concave and
a little less in extent than the diameter of the eye. Snout elongated, with its
upper profile nearly straight, being most obtuse in the young. Head with
stellated ridges the lines forming which are mostly tubercular and not very
prominent: upper surface of head tuberculated. The anterior extremity of the
preorbital denticulated, spinate in the young: two or three small supraorbital
COTTIDA. 63

spines: angle of the preopercle with two or three denticulations: opercular spine
strong, and larger than that at the shoulder, while the opercle above the spine is
deeply emarginated so as to cause it to have a pointed prominence: coracoid with
a very strong spine. Two spines at occiput in the young. Teeth—villiform ones
on the jaws and vomer, none on the palatines or tongue. F%ns—dorsal spines of
moderate strength, the second being rather the longest, equalling the distance
between the anterior end of the snout and the posterior margin of the eye,
they are roughened on their anterior edge. Pectoral does not quite reach the
commencement of the anal and is rather shorter than the ventral. Caudal
emarginate. Scales—small. Lateral-line—armed with about 74 spinous points
which are most distinctin the immature. Stomach and ccecal appendages similar
to T. hirundo. Atr-bladder—notched at its anterior extremity and ending in two
obtuse rounded points. Colowrs—these vary widely, in some there are no white
spots, the upper half of the body being of a slaty-gray, conjoined with which a
black blotch usually exists on the first dorsal fin (T. Blochii): this dorsal blotch
is, as a rule, present in all specimens, although in some it is faint or merges into,
the colour of the remainder of the fin, while it usually becomes lost in examples
kept long in spirit: occasionally the dorsal blotch instead of being round is
semicircular. The white spots on the sides may run into narrow and sinuous lines ;
or else there may be a dark net-work surrounding light spaces. The dorsal blotch
is sometimes encircled by a light ring.

Varieties.—Trigla Blochti having a black spot on the first dorsal fin and no
white spots on the body, has been considered a distinct species. Parnell showed
it to be a variety, and Thompson records instances of both it and T. gurnardus,
likewise of the intermediate forms, observing that without having traced the
changes from youth upwards, one could hardly believe in the modifications which
really take place. As this fish increases in size the granulations extend over the rays
of the first dorsal fin and are not confined to the three or four anterior ones only.

Couch believed that he had twice obtained Trigla Blochit or else a species
nearly allied to it, and of which he gives a figure, plate lxix. Like T. gurnardus
it is said to have the lateral-line rough, the roughness formed of small obtuse

oints.
Yarrell seems never to have obtained Bloch’s gurnard but named it from
Bloch’s apparently erroneous figure ; his illustration shows the first spine of the
dorsal fin the highest, but in his second edition it is reduced to lower than the
second spine and it is similarly represented in the third edition. I have received
from Professor Giglioli of the Florence Museum an Italian example of this fish
which does not differ from the British variety.

Names.—Gray gurnard: hardhead. In Scotland, crooner or croonach (perhaps
from croon “to croak”): gowdie, girnat and croonyal, in Moray Frith
according to Gordon (Zoologist, p. 3458). Knoud or nowd, Ireland. Penhaiam
Uwyd and penhaiernyn, Welsh. Le grondin or grondin, French. De klein poon
and knoshaen, Dutch.

Dr. Johnston observes that crooner may have reference either to the hard and
and somewhat peculiarly shaped head of the fish, from croon the top of the head ;
or it may be derived from the verb croon—viz., to hum an air in an unmusical
tone, because of the peculiar noise which the fish sometimes utters on being taken
from the water. Thompson describes the sounds emitted by this fish as a kind
of snoring noise.

Habits—Gregarious, and said to be the least sensible to variations of
temperature of the whole of the genus. At the Westminster Aquarium they are
found to be the most difficult to keep alive; perhaps they are unable to bear
confinement. Pennant, Couch, and others, remark upon their being fond of
sporting near the surface to which they mount with the apparent object of
enjoyment, as when there they move along at a slow space, rising and sinking in
the water for a short distance and uttering short grunts as if of satisfaction. At
other times they appear asleep, showing no signs of animation until an attempt is
made to take hold of them.
64 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Means of capture.--They readily take a bait and are generally secured in deep
water. Pennant observes that they will bite at a piece of red rag. Thompson,
that they are mostly captured in Ireland during the summer and autumn; the
baits employed usually being “sand eels,” young herrings, fat of meat, or a slice
of one of their own kind. Low observes that they are taken by sailors as they
approach the Orkneys by hanging over the stern of their vessel during a brisk
breeze a hook and baited line, which this fish, being a quick swimmer, takes.
When they are hauled on board they make a sort of croaking plaintive noise
something like an angry person growling to himself, and this lasts for some time.

Breeding.—Probably twice a year, in January and December, also in June und
July. The roe is deposited at some distance from the shore, and Sars has
observed that the eggs float.*

As food.—Said to be good, and with firm flesh but very inferior to the red
gurnard, partly from their lesser size: off Banffshire, Edward observes, they are
not much esteemed. Thompson likewise remarks that in Ireland they are not in
much favour for the table with those who can afford a choice, consequently they
form a cheap food for the poor.

Habitat.—Baltic and west coast of Europe from Norway southwards,
also the Mediterranean and Adriatic.

It is an abundant British species extending northwards to the Orkneys
and Shetland Isles. It is very common on the west coast of Scotland and
frequently taken in the Moray Frith.

It is numerous all round Ireland, and Thompson observes that along the
northern coast they are frequently seen in vast shoals on the surface during the
summer season and are captured in great numbers. Wherever the red gurnard is
found, there the gray form is also common. In the month of June it is said to
appear in Donegal Bay in enormous shoals when it is eagerly sought for, some
eaten fresh, the remainder salted and laid up in store.

It attains to 22 feet in length according to Pennant.

5. Trigla lyra, Plate XXVI.

Lyra, Rondel. x, c. 9, p. 298, c. fig.; Gesner, iv, p. 516; Aldrov. ii, ¢. 7, p.
146; Willughby, iv, pp. 282, 283, t. 8. 1, f. 4, and 8. 2, f. 2; Ray, p. 89; Duham.
Péches, sect. v, t. viii, f. 1; Salv. p. 190, f. 70; Jonston, De Pisce. lib. i, t. iii, ¢. 1,
art. 2, p. 65, t. xvii, f. 10. Trigla, Artedi, sp. 9, Genera, p. 46, syn. 74. Piper,
Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) iii, p. 279, pl. lv (Hd. 2) iii, p. 374, pl. lxvii.

Trigla lyra, Linn. Sys. i, p. 496; Gmel. Linn. p. 1342; Lacép. iii, p. 345;
Bonn. Ency. Ich. p. 145, pl. Ix, f. 235; Bloch, t. cccl; Bl Schn. p. 14;
Turton, Brit. Faun. p. 102; Donovan, Brit. Fish. v, pl. exviii; Shaw, Zool. iv, p.
620; Risso, Ich. Nice. p. 203, and Hist. Nat. iii, p. 393; Cuv. and Val. iv, p. 55;
Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 215; Bonap. Fauna Ital. Pesci, iii, p. 82, c. fig.; Scouler,
Mag. Nat. Hist. vi, 1833, p. 529; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes, (Hd. 1) i, p. 44, ¢. fig.
(Ed. 2) i, p. 51, (Hd. 3) 1, p. 26; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 341; Swainson,
ii, p. 262; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 74; Guichen. Explor. Algér.
Poiss. p. 39; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 4; Gunther, Catal. ii, p. 208; Steind.
Ich. Span. u. Port. 1867, p. 85.

Piper, Couch, Fishes Brit. Isles, ii, p. 23, pl. Ixvi.

B. vii, D. 9-10/16-17, P. 10+ iti, V. 1/5, A. 16, C. 12. Coec. pyl. 6, Vert.
13/20.

Length of head 3}.to 32, of caudal fin 5 to 6, height of body 4} to 53 in the
total length. Hye—1l to 13 diameters in the postorbital portion of the head, 2
diameters from the end of the snout in adults, } to 1 diameter apart. Anterior
portion of the body very much broader than the posterior. Interorbital space
slightly concave. Upper profile, from eye to snout abrupt and concave. Bones
of the head with rough stellated ridges. A spine at the anterior-superior angle
of the orbit. A roughened ridge crosses the preopercle and ends at its angle

* Ann. and May, Nat, Hist. 1868 (4), i, p. 390.
COTTIDA. 65

in a short spine. Preorbital elongated anteriorly and ending in a broad
triangular plate, armed in front with several denticulations. Opercle with a
strong spine. A serrated ridge passes from the eye to the supra-scapular, which
ends in a large and sharp spine. The coracoid also terminates in a very long
spine equal to almost half the length of the head. The posterior extremity of the
maxilla does not reach to beneath the front edge of the eye. eeth—fine ones in
the jaws and vomer, none on the palatines or tongue. £%ins—dorsal spines strong,
the third the longest and equalling half the length of the head: the first spine
roughened anteriorly. Pectoral reaching to above the seventh or eighth anal
ray. Caudal emarginate. Scales—much more distinct in large examples than
in some other species of the genus. Lateral-line—unarmed. 25 to 27 strong,
spinate elevations along the base of the dorsal fin. Cccal appendages—six.
Air-bladder—oval, smallest and pointed anteriorly, enlarged posteriorly but
without any divisions. Colowr—of a bright red, becoming lighter on the sides
and white beneath. Fins red.

Names.—The piper: in Scotland according to Sibbald, crowner and sea-hen.
Pibydd, Welsh. La Lyre, French.

Habits A wandering fish which Couch observed is sometimes common and at
others somewhat rare. When captured it emits a hissing sound by expelling air
through its gills. The stomach of one opened was full of Ophiuroidea.

Means of capture.—Usually taken with the trawl.

As food.—Is considered in some places as excellent for the table, even the
epicure Quin bearing testimony to its merits.

Habitat.—From the British Isles and west coast of Europe through the Medi-
terranean.

Common on the south-west and western coasts of Great Britain, unless during
the winter months, but being a great wanderer it is often rare at one season,
numerous in another. It is little known to the north of England and not recorded
from the north of Scotland, although Scouler observes that it is not rare in
Glasgow, where examples sometimes weigh 7 Ib.

In Ireland it is found on the south and south-west coasts according to Thomp-
son who considered Templeton’s fish from the north of Ireland to be 7. cuculus.
Moore has reported it from Kerry. The Earl of Ducie in Ballinskellig Bay,
obtained in 1876 four, in 1877 one, and in 1879 nine.

Pennant observes that it grows to 2 feet in length, and Jenyns that it attains
a weight of nearly 7 lb.

6. Trigla obscura, Plate XXVILI..

Cuculus, Rondel. Pisce. Mar. lib. x, c. 2, p. 287, c. fig.; Gesner, Aquat. iv,
p. 805 and 1598, f. 17, c. fig.; Aldrov. ii, c. 4, p. 138.

Trigla obscura, Linn. Mus. Ad. Frid. ii, p. 94; Bl. Schn. p. 16; Bonap. Faun.
Ital. Pesci, iii, p. 102, c. fig.; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1867, p. 87; Giinther,
Catal. ii, p. 210.

Trigla lucerna, Brin. Pisc. Mass. p. 76; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 209; Cuv. and
Val. iv, p. 72, pl. lxxii; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Hd. 2) i, p. 63, ¢. fig. (Hd. 3) ii, p.
39; Parnell, Mag. Zool. and Bot. i, p. 526 and Fishes Firth of Forth, p. 23, pl.
xxiv; Guichen. Exp. Algér. Poiss. p. 40; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 5 (not
Trigla lucerna Linn.).

Trigla cuculus, Risso, Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 394.

Trigla filarts, Otto, Conspect. pp. 7 and 8.

Lanthorn gurnard, Couch, Fish. British Isles, ii, p. 33, pl. Ixx.

B. vii, D. 10 | 17—18, P. 10+ iii, V. 1/5, A.17, C. 12, L. 1. 70, Cesc. pyl. 8,
Vert. 12/23.

Length of head 44, of caudal fin 53, height of body 7 in the total length.
Eye—diameter 14 in the postorbital portion of the head, 2/3 of a diameter apart.
Interorbital space slightly concave. Upper profile, from eye to snout, descends
abruptly, and is slightly convex. Bones of the head with roughened stellated
ridges. Several small spines at the anterior-superior angle of the orbit. Preor-

5
66 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

bital with a strong spine anteriorly, and sometimes followed by a few smaller ones.
Opercular spine not well developed. Angle of preopercle with two small spines.
Supra-scapular and coracoid both ending in small spines. Teeth—fine ones in jaws
and vomer, none on the palatines. F%nms—second dorsal spine very elongated,
equalling about 1/3 of the entire length of the fish. Pectoral about as long as the
head and reaching to above the third anal ray. Caudal forked in its last third.
Scales—small. Lateral-line—consisting of unarmed but lineated plates, about
one-third as wideas high. About 28 spinate plates along the base of the dorsal fins.
Intestines—in the example figured, which is 6 inches in length, the extent of the
intestinal tract is 8 inches from the pylorus to the vent. Air bladder simple.
Colowrs—superiorly of a vermilion tint, with a broad and shining silvery lateral
band along the whole length of the body, below which it becomes of a dull white.
Pectoral fins deep blue: the other fins of a rosy hue.

Names.—Lucerna due to the brilliant silvery band along its side: lanthorn- or
shining-gurnard : long-finned captain. Le Milan, French.

Habits—Gregarious and when pursued springing out of the water in their
efforts to escape. Pliny in old times and later both Lacépéde and Risso believed
that it possesses the power of displaying a conspicuous light by night, the latter
author considering this faculty inherent in all examples of the genus. Cuvier
observed that it arrives off the coast of Provence in the month of March.

Means of capture.—By the trawl, is said not to take a bait.

Breeding.—Supposed to be about Midsummer.

As food.—lIts flesh is said to be firm, similar to that of the red gurnard,
Trigla cuculus.

Habitat.—Well known throughout the Mediterranean and Adriatic, also
occasionally found along the south coast of England. It was first brought to notice
as British by Parnell, who obtained several from the Brixham trawlers by whom
it was known as the long-finned captain. In 1849, August 9th, Mr. Cocks found
one in trawl refuse, while another was procured from a fish-stall at Helford.
Couch obtained it from Plymouth, where he observed it does not appear to be
caught in any abundance. It has also been recorded from Bridgewater in
Somersetshire.

It is said to scarcely reach to a foot in length.
CATAPHRACTI. 67

Famity, VI-CATAPHRACTI, Muller.

Body elongated, subcylindrical, or angular. Preopercle having an osseous
articulation with the infraorbital ring of bones. Ventral fins thoracic. Body
covered with bony plates or scales.

Geographical distribution.—This family has representatives in most seas: the
species are generally of a small size, some forms being pelagic while others are
more strictly littoral.

Only two Genera have been recorded from the British Isles, these being
examples of a common Agonus or armed bull-head: the representative of the
second being the rarely observed Peristethus or mailed-gurnard.

Genus I—Aconus, Bloch, Schneider.

Aspidophorus, Lacépéde: Phalangistes, Pallas: Cataphractus, Fleming:
Agonomalus and Paragonus, Guichenot.

Branchiostegals siz: pseudobranchie well developed. Head and body angular
and covered with bony plates. Teeth in the jaws, present or absent on the vomer, none
on the palatines. Two dorsal fins, fin-rays unbranched: no free pectoral rays.
Lateral-line present. Pyloric appendages few. Air-bladder absent.

Liitken remarks upon the numerous attempts which have been made to
subdivide this Genus. Agonopsis he considers may be retained because it
possesses palatine and vomerine teeth, the former having been overlooked by
Kroyer. He likewise observes upon the way in which species have been unduly
multiplied, Agonus Chiloensis, Jenyns and Gunther, being the same as A. niger,
Kroyer and Giinther. Also Agonus melarmoides, Deslongch, being identified with
A. decagonus, Bl. Schneider, and also with A. spinosissimus, Kréyer and Giinther.
While Agonus cataphractus, Fabricius, is A. decagonus, it being an error to
suppose that Agonus cataphractus is found in Greenland.

Geographical distribution.—Greenland, Iceland, and as far south as the coasts
of Britain, also Kamtschatka, the Kurile Islands, and A. sturioides, Guichenot, from
China. In the South Pacific a species has likewise been taken off the coast of
Chili.

1. Agonus cataphractus, Plate XXVIII, fig 1.

Cataphractus, Schonevelde, Ich. p. 30, pl. ii; Jonston, Hist. Pisce. lib. ii, . ii,
c. ix, p. 114, t. xlvi, f. 6; Willughby, p. 211, t. N.6,f.2,3; Ray, p. 77. Cottus,
Artedi, Gen. p. 49, Spec. p. 87; Gronov. Zooph. p. 79, No. 271; Klein, MSS. iv,
p. 42; Pallas, Spic. vii, p. 30. Armed bull-head, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Hd. 1)
lil, p. 217, pl. xxxix (Hd. 2), iii, p. 293, pl. xlin.

Cottus cataphractus, Linn. Syst. i, p. 451; Gmel. Linn. p. 1207; Bloch, t. xxxix,
f. 83,4; Donovan, Brit. Fish. i, pl. xvi; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 263, pl. xxxv; Turton,
Brit. Fauna, p. 95; Faber, Faun. Groenl. p. 155 and Fische Isl. p. 117; Gronov.
ed. Gray, p. 103; Schlegel, De Dieren van Nederland, p. 50, pl. v, f. 4.

Agonus cataphractus, Bl, Schn. p. 104; Nilss. Syn. p. 95; White, Catal. Brit.
Fish. p. 7; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 211; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 38; Liitken,
Vidd. Medd. 1876, p. 384; McIntosh, Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 172.

Cataphractus Schoneveldii, Flem. Brit. An. p. 216.

5 *
68 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Aspidophorus armatus, Lacép. Poiss. iii, p. 222.

Aspidophorus Huropeus, Cuv. and Val. iv, p. 201; Thompson, Pro. Zool. Soc.
1835, p. 80; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 70, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 85 (Hd. 3)
ii, p. 69; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) 1837, i, p. 409; Parnell, Fish. Firth of
Forth, p. 28; Richardson, Faun. Bor. Amer. iii, p. 48.

Aspidophorus cataphractus, Jenyns, Man. p. 346; Fries och Ekstr. p. 167, t. x];
Johnston, Berwick. N. F. Club. 1838, i, p. 170; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland,
iv, p. 82.

’ Pogge, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 41, pl. Ixxii.

B. vi, D. 5/5-6, P. 16, V. 1/2, A. 6, C. 12, L. 1. 32, Cove. pyl. 5-6, Vert. 11/25.

Length of head 41 to 42, of caudal fin 63 to 7, height of body 53 to 63 in the
total length. Hye—2 to 3 diameters in the length of the postorbital portion
of the head, 1 to 1} diameters apart, and nearer the snout than the posterior end of
the gill covers. Head wide and depressed, the body being octagonal in shape
becoming more angular and of less size posteriorly. Head covered by skin,
numerous small barbels at the angle of the mouth, on the chin and over the
branchiostegous rays. Interorbital space nearly flat. The maxilla reaches to
beneath the front edge of the eye. Nostrils tubular, the anterior being most
developed, while they are placed at some distance asunder. Two pairs of turbinal
spines elevated on an osseous base on the snout, and beneath each of which are a
pair of simple barbels. The posterior bone of the infraorbital ring is articulated
with the preopercle, and armed with a spine at its angle: while another strong
spine exists at the angle of the preopercle. Ridges on the head end in a blunt
occipital and likewise suprascapular spine. There are the orifices of about ten
large pores between the two preopercular spines along the inferior surface of the
head, behind the lower jaws. Teeth—villiform in jaws, none on the vomer,
palatines, or tongue. %ns—spines of the first dorsal rather weak and not higher
than the rays of the second dorsal, which latter are unbranched. Pectoral large,
and reaching to beneath the middle of the first dorsal, its rays are simple, as are
also those of the anal and caudal, the last fin being nearly wedge-shaped. Scales—
in the form of scutes covered by bony plates: two spined ridges commence one at
either side of the occiput and coalesce behind the second dorsal fin, forming a
single one which passes to the upper surface of the base of the caudal fin: a second
commences from above the pectoral fin, and is continued to the middle of the side
of the base of the caudal fin: while on the lower surface of the body a blunt ridge
commences from below the base of either pectoral fin, coalescing just posterior to
the end of the base of the anal, and being continued as a single ridge to the lower
surface of the base of the caudal fin. Lateral-line—not spined, and situated
between the two median ridges on the side of the body. Cecal appendages—
5 or 6 short ones. Colowrs—of a light gray tinged with yellow: 4 or 5 wide, and
nearly black, bands pass from the back down the sides, one also goes over the
head: numerous small and dark spots. Fins yellow with dark bands or marks.
Pectoral yellow with numerous dark spots and two black bands. These colours
become duller in adults.

Varieties.—The variations of colour in this species are considerable, and Ltitken
1. c. gives a table of those observed in Iceland, Denmark and Faroé.

Names.— Pogge, armed bull-head, lyrie, sea poacher: shell-backed bull-head, a
io name. Pluck, noble, Scot. Penbwl, Welsh. De Geharnaste Donderpad,

utch.

Habtts.— Usually frequents shores, appearing to prefer the mouths of rivers
and harbours, but has been recorded as captured some distance out at sea. In
rough localities it keeps near the bottom, but does not usually frequent rocks.
Its food consists of aquatic insects, worms, and small crustacea.

Means of captuwre——Olten taken by shrimpers, especially in sandy bays: also
by the dredge, trawl, and ground seine. It has been recorded from the stomach
i: a haddock captured five miles from land. Its mouth is too small to admit a

ait.

Breeding —¥arrell says it spawns in May. In a female example 5 inches long
CATAPHRACTI. 69

from Southend, captured in February, the eggs, which are comparatively large,
were nearly ready for extrusion, Its ova are deposited among stones.

As food.—lIt is too insignificant to be of any value, but its flesh is said to be
firm and good.

Habitat—From the coasts of Iceland and Norway, the Baltic, the German
Ocean, and around the British shores.

In Britain it is not uncommon along the south coast, but becomes compara-
tively rare in Devonshire and Cornwall, being more common on the eastern than
on the western shores of the kingdom, and very numerous at the mouth of the
Thames. In Scotland it has been recorded along the east coast at St. Andrew’s,
while it is said to be common on the west sands after storms. Gordon observes
that in the Moray Firth in January, 1849, ten examples from 2 to 5 inches long
were found in a cod-fish (Zoologist, p. 3458). In Banffshire, Edward remarks
this is another stomach species,* though he also took them but sparingly among
the rocks at low water. In the Orkneys and Zetland it is not common according
to Baikie.

In Ireland it is said to be common around the coast: Templeton recorded an
example from Carnolloc Bay, the only one he had known caught off the Irish
shores.

It attains to at least 61 inches in length, an example of this size from
Brighton, having been given me by Mr. J. Carrington, F.1.s.

* A term applied to such as he has obtained from the stomachs of larger species of fish.
70 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus I]—Prnistetuvus, Kaup.

Peristedion, Lacépéde.

Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchic present. Head parallelopiped in shape,
the sides and upper surface cuirassed with bone : the preorbital prolonged anteriorly into
a flat, projecting process. One or more barbels on the lower jaw. Teeth absent. One
or two dorsal fins, the posterior of which is the most developed. Two free pectoral
appendages. Body covered with bony, scale-like plates. Pyloric appendages few or
in moderate numbers. Air-bladder present.

Geographical distribution—From the south coast of Britain, through the
Mediterranean, also from the Atlantic and Indian Oceans to China. A species
has likewise been taken at the Sandwich Isles in the North Pacific Ocean.

These angular, and otherwise remarkably shaped, fishes appear to be pelagic
forms which but rarely approach the shores, unless under abnormal conditions,
as after storms. They perhaps live at considerable depths.

Peristethus cataphractum, Plate XXVIII, Fig. 2.

Lyra altera, Rondel. x, c. 9, p. 299, c. fig.; Aldrov. ii, c.7, p. 147; Gesner,
p. 517, bis; Jonston, De Pise. lib. ii, t. 1, ¢. 9, p. 114, t. xxiii, f. 2; Willughby,
p. 283, 8.3; Ray, p. 89. Lyra, Salv. f.192. Coccyx, Belon. p. 209. rigla,
sp. 10, Artedi, Genera, p. 46; Gronov. Zooph. p. 84, No. 282. Cataphractus, sp.
Klein, MSS. iv, p. 48, No. 4. Duhamel, Péches, Sec. v, p. 118, pt. ix, f. 2.
Trigla Hispanorum chabrontera, Osbeck, Nov. Act. Nat. Cur. iv, p. 201.

Trigla cataphracta, Linn. Syst. i, p. 490; Gmel. Linn. p. 1341; Briinn. Pisc.
Mass. p. 72; Bloch, t. ccexlix: Bl. Schn. p. 16; Bonaterre, p. 145, pl. lix, f. 234;
Gronov. ed. Gray, p 104; Martens, Reise nach Venedig. ii, p. 431.

Trigla hamata, Bl. Schn. p. 16.

Peristedion malarmat, Lacép. ili, p. 369; Moore, Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) i. 1887.

.17, ¢. fig.
: Poristedion cataphractum, Cuv. and Val. iv, p. 101, pl. lxxv; Yarrell, Brit.
Fish. (Ed. 2) i, p. 67, ¢. fig. (Ed. 3) ii, p. 43; Risso, Eur. Meér. iii, p. 402; Cuv.
Régne Anim. Ill. Poiss. pl. xx, f. 3; Guichen. Explor. Alger. Poiss. p. 40; White,
Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 5.

Peristedion chabrontera, Lacép. iii, p. 373; Risso, 1. c.

Peristethus cataphractum, Kaup, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1859, p. 105, pl. vin, f. 1;
Ginther, Catal. ii, p. 217.

Armed yurnard, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, 11, p. 38, pl. lxxi.

B. vii, D. 7/gghyy, P. 12 + TI, V. 1/5, A. 18—21, C. 11. L. 1, 29-30, L. tr. 3/8,
Ceee. pyl. ix-x, Vert. 10/23.

Length of head 2%, of caudal fin 8, height of body 7 in the total length.
Eyes—the diameter equal to the postorbital length of the head, and they are
rather more than 1 diameter apart. Body of an octagonal shape, decreasing in
size posteriorly, while its large head has its preorbitals produced anteriorly
into two flattened and rather diverging processes, the distance between the
extremities of which is equal to 2} or 3 times in the extreme length of the
snout. Two or three small spines on the upper surface of the snout. A sharp
ridge passes from the preorbital to the angle of the preopercle, where it ends
in a spine. Opercle with a ridge across its centre likewise terminating in a
spine. Supraorbital margin serrated: interorbital space concave. A raised and
spinate ridge passes from the eye to the occiput, and is continued along the
base of the dorsal fin to the upper ede of the tail. Mouth inferior, not extending
to beneath the eyes. A row of filiform barbels along the lower edge of the
mandibles, and another beneath the chin. Teeth—absent. ins—spines of first
dosal fin are elongated far beyond the interspinous membrane. Rays of
second dorsal and anal unbranched. Pectoral with two well-developed free
rays at its base. Ventral does not reach the vent. Caudal slightly emarginate.
Scales—large and osseous, forming four raised and spinate ridges along either

 
CATAPHRACTI. 71

side of the body, they consist of a superior one which passes close along the base
of the dorsal fins to the upper edge of the tail: a similar ventral ridge along the
base of the anal fin, and two intermediate parallel ridges. Three short angular
scales on the base of the caudal fin. On the under surface, between the throat
and the commencement of the anal fin, are three bony plates; the anterior is
2} times longer than wide: the middle one twice as long as wide: and the
posterior one as long as wide. Intestines—stomach small, coecal appendages in the
form of nine or ten short processes surrounding the commencement of the small
intestines. Azr-bladder—simple. Colours—an uniform scarlet, becoming of a flesh
or golden shade towards theabdomen. Anal and dorsal fins crimson : the remainder
pale and grayish.

Names.—Armed or mailed-gurnard, in allusion to its cuirassed body and
gurnard as relating to the fishes to which it appears to be most closely allied.

Habits.—Risso says it is present in the Mediterranean at all seasons in rocky
localities, its haunts are chiefly in deep water, while it approaches shallow places
in the spring. It is very active and restless: while its snout is frequently found
to be damaged, probably from its driving against rocks or stones.

Habitat—This fish does not appear to be rare in the Mediterranean, and
wanderers are occasionally taken on the south coast of Britain off Cornwall.

Dr. Moore recorded the first British example in the autumn of 1836 taken in
a trawl between Plymouth and the Eddystone, it was 11 inches in length. In
February, 1849, a second example, 112 inches in length, was secured in Mount’s
Bay. Two were captured by a boat off Gorran, as mentioned by Couch, who
received from Penzance the specimen he has figured.

For the example figured, [ am indebted to Dr. Hubrecht, of Leyden. The
fish is said to attain to 2 feet in length in the Mediterranean.
72 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Famtty, VII—PEDICULATI, Cuvier.

Branchiostegals five or six: pseudobranchie usually absent. Skeleton fibro-
osseous. Head and anterior portion of the body large, the former depressed or
compressed. Preorbital not articulated with the suborbital ring of bones. Gills
23, 3, or 33: gill-opening reduced to a small foramen situated in or near the
axilla. Eyes superior or lateral. Teeth minute, villiform, or cardiform. The
spinous dorsal fin when present is situated well forward, and mostly composed
of a few isolated spines or tentacles: the carpal bones are prolonged into a kind
of arm, ending at the base of the pectoral fin: ventrals when present, jugular,
with four or five soft rays. Skin smooth, or with small spines, or tubercles. Air-
bladder present or absent. Pyloric appendages few or absent.

Bleeker, Gill, and some others divide the Pedculatt into three families,
Lophoidet, Chironectoidet, and Maltheoidet.

Geographical distribution.—Inhabitants of all seas. These fishes, due to their
mode of progression, have a wide geographical range. Generally inactive, their
peculiar pectoral fins enable them to walk or progress over moist ground or slimy
rocks in quest of their prey, and even clasp pieces of wood or sea-weed, attached
to which some are frequently carried away by currents, and have been observed
far out at sea. Although bad swimmers, Dussumier remarks that Antennari
inflate themselves and float on the surface of the water. Some conceal themselves
in the sand or mud, merely displaying their erectile first dorsal spine, which,
situated on the head, is provided with an excrescence at its extremity, resembling
@ worm or piece of meat. By agitating this, smaller fishes are attracted and fall
a prey to the artful angler. “The modified dermoneurals, forming the cephalic
tentacles of Lophius and Antennarius, are as frequently reproduced as they are
injured, to meet the peculiar use which these angling fishes make of them: they
may be observed in every stage of growth” (Owen, Comp. Anat. i, p. 567).

. Genus I—Loruivs, Artedi.

Lophiopsis, Guich.

Branchiostegals siv: pseudobranchice present. Head very large, broad and
depressed : many spines on tts surface. Cardiform teeth in the jaws and palatincs,
usually on the vomer, but none on the tongue. ills three. The three anterior spines
of the first dorsal fin modified into tentacles, the succeeding ones attached together by

an interspinous membrane: second dorsal and anal fins short. <Atr-bladder absent.
Pylorie appendages two.

Geographical distribution.—The fishes of this genus are littoral forms dis-
tributed throughout the seas of Europe and the coasts of North America,
extending to the Cape of Good Hope, China, and Japan. The European Lophius
piscatorius has 28-31 vertebrae and the humeral spine as a rule 3 points: DL. bude-
gassa of the Mediterranean has 27 to 30 vertebrae, and its humeral spine is long
and simple: while the Japanese L. setiyerus has merely 19 vertebree.

These fishes have excited wonder in the minds of naturalists and others
from the earliest ages. Aristotle observes there is a species of frog which is
termed the fisher, deriving its name from the wonderful industry it displays in
procuring food. In front of its eyes it has certain appendages resembling hairs,
dilated at their extremity, forming baits. After having stirred up the mud or
sand it conceals itself and elevates these appendages: the small fishes coming to
seize them are drawn into its mouth. Plutarch likewise remarks that the Lophius
fishes with a line, for it throws out from its neck a filament which it extends to
a distance in the manner of a line, letting it out and drawing it back at pleasure ;
this being done when it perceives any little fishes about it, it allows them to bite
PEDICULATI. 03

the extremity of this filament, being itself concealed beneath the sand or in the

mud, when it gradually retracts the member until the fish is near enough to be
swallowed by a quick motion.

Lophius piscatorius, Plate XXIX.

Adtdc Bdrov, Aristot. Hist. Anim. ix, c. 27, ii, c. 18, v,c.5and 14. Bédrpayoe
Adtac, Aristot. ix, c. 37; Alllian, vii, p. 286; Oppian, ii, p. 33.

Rana, Ovid, v, p. 126; Plin. ix, c. 24, xxv,c. 10. Rana marina, Belon. p
85; Jonst. Pisc. 1, lib. 1, tit. 1, c. 3, Art. 3, Punct. 9, p. 36, t ii, f. 8. Rana
piscatriz, Rondel. i, lib. 12, c. 20, p. 363; Salv. His. Aq. p. 129, £. 47; Gesner,
Aquat. iv, p. 813; Schonev. p. 59; Aldrov. iii, c. 64, p. 466; Willughby, p. 85,
t. H1; Ray, Synop. p. 29; Rutty, Nat. Hist. Co. Dublin, p. 349; Leight, Nat.
Hist. Lancashire, p. 186, pl. vi, f. 5; Borlase, Cornwall, p. 265, pl. xxvii, f. 3.
Lophius, Artedi, Genera, p. 62, sp. 1, Synon. p. 87; Gronov. Mus. i, p. 57 and
Zooph. p. 58. Batrachus, Klein, MSS. iii; p. 15, sp. 1, 2; Pontoppidan, Nat.
Hist. Norway, ii, p. 244; Duhamel, Péches, ii, sect. ix, p. 94, pl. xviii; Ascan.
Icon. t. xxxv, xxxvi; Strém, Sond. i, p. 271. Common angler, Pennant, Brit.
Zool. (Ed. 1) iii, p. 120, pl. xviii (Hd. 2) iii, p. 159, pl. xxi, also the Long Angler
(Ed. 1) iii, p. 128 (Hd. 2) iii, p. 162. The fishing-frog, Low, Fauna Orcad. p. 183.

Lophius piscatorius, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 402, and Faun. Suec. p. 108; Mill.
Prod. Zool. Dan. p. 38; Retz. Faun. p. 308; Briinn. Pisc. Mass. p. 7; Bon.
Ency. Ich. p. 14, pl. viii, £. 26; Lacép. i, p. 304, pl. xiii, f. 1; Bloch, iii, p. 82, t.
Ixxxvii; Bl. Schn. p. 139; Donovan, Brit. Fish. v, pl. ci; Turton, Brit. Faun.
p. 115; Mitch. Lit. and Phil. Trans. N. York. i, p. 465; Cav. Rég. Anim. Ill.
Poiss. pl. lxxxiv; Flem. Brit. An. p. 214; Richard. Faun. Bor. Amer. Fishes,
p. 103; Storer, Mass. Rep. pp. 71, 404; Mohr. Isl. Nat. p. 61; Faber, Fisc. Isl.
p. 55; Shaw, Nat. Mise. xi, pl. 422; Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesc. iii, p. 61, ¢. fig. ;
Cuv. and Val. xii, p. 344, pl. ecclxii; Nilss. Skand. Fis. Faun. p. 245; Jenyns,
Brit. Vert. p. 389; Risso, Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 170; Parn. Wern. Mem. vii, p. 253 ;
Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 330; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Hd. 1) i, p. 269, c. fig. (Hd. 2) i,
p. 305 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 388; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) 1837, i, p. 410;
Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Club, 1838, i, p. 172; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 47 ; Thomps.
Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 119; Nord. in Demid. Voy. Russ. Merid. iii, p. 444;
Gaimard, Voy. Isl., &c., Poiss. pl. xix; Guichen. Explor. Algér. Poiss. p. 80;
White, Catal. Fish. p. 56; Giinther, Catal. iii, p. 179; Schlegel, De Diereti van
Nederland, p. 56, pl. iv, f. 6; Baird, American Nat. 1871, v, p. 785; McIntosh,
Fish. N. Uist, Pro. Roy. Soc. Edin. v, 1862-66, p. 614, and Fish. St. Andrew’s,
p. 175; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 68.

Batrachus piscatorius, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 47.

Lophius Americanus, Cuv. and Val. xii, p. 380; De Kay, New York Fauna,
Fishes, p. 162, pl. xxviii, f. 87 ; Giinther, Catal. iii, p. 181. ia

Lophius vomerinus, Cuv. and Val. xii, p. 381; Giinther, Catal. iil, p. 181.

Lophius upsicephalus, Smith, Illus. Zool. S. Africa, Pisces, pl. ix; Giinther,
Catal. ii, p. 181. -

Angler, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ui, p. 204, pl. ex.

Young.

Lophius eurypterus Dib. en kor. kgl. Vet. Akad. Hand]. Stock. 1844, p. 63,
t. iii, £1, 2; Nilss. Skand. Faun. iv, p. 251.

Lophius piscatorius, Giinther, Ann. and Mag. March, 1861, p. 190, pl. x, f. ¢. e.

Monstrosities.

Lophius digitatus Ferguson, Phil. Trans. liti, p. 88, pl. Xiil. ; ;

Lophius barbatus, Montinus, Act. Holm. iii, 1779, t. iv; Gmel. Linn. i, p. 1480.

Lophius Fergusonis, Lacép. i, pp- 303, 330; Walb. Artedi, ii, p. 496.

Fishing frog of Mount’s Bay, or Long Angler, Borlase, Nat. Hist. Cornwall,
p. 266, t. xxvii, and Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. lit, p. 170.

Lophius Cornubicus, Shaw, Zool. v. p. 381; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 390.

B. vi, D. 3/3/11-12, P. 13, V. 1/5, A. 9-11, C. 8, Coe. pyl. 2, Vert. 30 (29-31).
Head large in comparison to that of the entire fish; it is depressed, broader
74 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

than long, being orbicular anteriorly, while the body is tapering and compressed
posteriorly. The height of the head is less than that of the body, and its length
is from 2+ to 22 or even 3 in that of the entire fish, being comparatively somewhat
longer in the half-grown than it is in the adult. Hye—rather small, the width
of the concave interorbital space equalling the distance of the eyes from the end
of the snout: supraorbital ridge spined. Mouth very wide, the extent of the gape
being equal to about three quarters of the greatest width of the head. Lower
jaw prominent. Numerous spines over the head, and three, rarely two, on the
humerus. Gill opening small and situated in the axil of the pectoral fin, where
a large pouch is formed. Teeth—two rows of sharp cardiform ones directed
backwards and curved slightly inwards, exist in both jaws, the inner row being
the larger: they are more movable in the young than in the adult, giving the
appearance as if hinged, and only capable of yielding inwards so as to permit
entrance into but prevent exit from the mouth. Two or three teeth at either side
of the head of the vomer and ina single row along the palatines: none on the
tongue. Fins—the first dorsal fin consists of six spines, the three anterior of
which are detached, filamentous, and of varying lengths ; the first, inserted just
posterior to the upper lip, is provided at its extremity with a rigid fleshy and
glistening termination: both it, the second, and the third have also some short
lateral skinny flaps. The base of the first spine is in the form of a ring which
plays inside another ring, as shown in plate xxix: M. Bailly enumerates 22
muscles as attached to this spine. The succeeding three spines are connected
together by a deeply cleft interspinous membrane. The second dorsal is
enveloped, especially at its base, by a thick skin, which is continued from the
base of the last ray to the upper caudal ray. Pectorals large and pediculated,
the rays thick and unbranched. Ventral short. Anal commences rather
posterior to the origin of the second dorsal. Caudal cut almost square. The skin
is loose and somewhat thin, continued over the bases of the fins : numerous filaments
having fringed edges are placed at short distances asunder round the lateral
margin of the body in the adult, while there is one close to the base of the
premaxillary, and several over the caudal portion of the body. Colowrs—
generally brown, reticulated with dark lines: the outer ends of the lower surface
of the pectoral and ventral fins black. Occasionally there exists a light central
patch down the back, which includes some of the first rays of the dorsal fin, while
some white may also exist on the pectoral and caudal fins, the latter having a
vertical black band.

In the young—(see fig. 2) the head is broader than long, but less depressed
than in the adult. The depression increases with age, while the spines of the
first dorsal fin have lateral soft branched enlargements along their anterior and
posterior edges. These immature forms, however, appear to be very rarely
captured.

Varieties—Ferguson’s Angler and Borlase’s Long-Angler appear to be
monstrosities, 7.e., deformed or mutilated examples of this fish. L. vomerinus,
the Cape of Good Hope, has no teeth on the vomer in the single example known.

Names.—Angler, a term applied to this fish by Pennant owing to its habits :
fishing-frog, frog-fish, its hideous aspect having been considered to give it some
distant resemblance to frogs in their tadpole condition : sea-devil, monk-fish, toad-
fish, nass-fish. In Scotland, wide-gab: kethrie, Moray Firth. Morlyffant, Welsh.
In Iveland, friar, molly-gowan and briarbot: at Strangford Lough termed
kilmaddy. Le Baudroye commune, French. De zee-duivel, Dutch. Whether this
fish was ever the type of the ridiculous images of demons and goblins in times
gone by, as suggested by Lacépéde, is probably open to discussion. Its ventral
with five digits, its pectoral with hinged arm-like bases might, he believes, have
been looked upon as arms and legs; and its enormous head as an exaggeration
of that of man. It received the name of diable-de-mer, while its skin prepared
so as to be transparent, and made luminous by a light placed in its interior,
has frequently served to make people of not over strong intellects believe that
they have seen apparitions.

Habits.—Inactive, but with an insatiable appetite, which its slow progression
PEDICULATI. 7

compels it to gratify by stratagem. During the summer and autumn it resides
near the shore, where by means of its pectoral fins, it forms for itself a cavity
in the sand, or should the ground be rough, it lies as if dead, where its floating
filaments, kept in motion by the tide, decoy other fish, and the angler’s tendril is
no sooner touched than the game is caught. They swallow shell fish, and in fact
almost any substance not too large. At times, however, even these stratagems fail
in obtaining for them sufficient nourishment, and then they have been known to
leave the bottom seeking for food at a higher elevation. Couch mentions how a
fisherman had hooked a cod-fish, and while drawing it up he felt a heavier
weight attach itself to his line, which proved to be an angler of large size, and
only relaxed its hold on receiving a heavy blow on the head. On another
occasion one seized a hooked conger eel, Conger vulgaris, the latter struggled
until it obtained an exit through the gill opening of the angler, and both
were thus drawn up together. They will even come to the surface* and
gorge anything they imagine may be useful as food. Mr. Blake-Knox recorded
how one of these fishes was brought to him with a cormorant, Phalacrocorax
carbo, in its throat, which had been swallowed as far as its shoulders: the bird
struggled, and both were seen on the surface of the water and captured. In
another instance the same exhibition was witnessed, the bird being a gull, Larus
argentatus, that measured nearly 44 feet from tip to tip of its wings, but as the
angler’s capacity was limited, it being only 3 feet long, the bird’s feet, tail, and
ends of its wings projected from the fish’s mouth, causing the latter to be choked.
An angler has been seen to seize a northern diver, Colymbus gracialis, and the two
were secured by a fisherman while they were struggling for mastery. An entire
and perfectly fresh widgeon, Anas penelope, has been taken from inside one at
Belfast, while a similar occurrence has been recorded from Youghal, with this
difference, that the bird was said to be alive. They have also been known to
devour guillemots, Uria trotle, and razor-bills, Alea torda, and would doubtless
swallow any bird they could capture. They are not always discriminating as to
the substances which they engulf, one has been known to swallow a large block
of granite, used as an anchor-stone for fishing, it was however covered with blood,
slime, and fish-scales (Zoologist, 1865, p. 9470). A few years since one gorged
the white-washed cork buoy of a crab-pot, and from its being unable to sink
again with it, became strangled and was so caught.t Skates, gurnards, and
various fishes have been taken from their stomachs. Pennant among these
included the dog-fishes, and for this reason he remarks that in his time the
fishermen near Scarborough returned those captured to the sea. Parnell says
that some fishermen at Queensferry, seeing the water much discoloured at a
particular spot near the shore, poked the bottom with a long-handled mop: an
angler seized it, and before it could disengage its teeth, was hauled into the boat.
It measured 4 feet 9 inches in length. Mr. Todhunter observed an angler
in shallow water near the shore at Youghal, and presented the butt end of his
whip to it, this it seized and held on to so firmly that it was actually dragged on
shore. Johnston relates how one of these fishes, having been left on the beach
by a receding tide, a fox came along searching for provender ; chancing to thrust
his nose inside the jaws of the angler, they closed, and thus reynard was held
until observed by passers by. Thompson tells us that these fishes are frequently
killed at Keem in Achil by the receding waves carrying back quantities of sand,
which getting into their mouths, disables them, and being thus seen from the
shore, they are, in their extremity, approached and despatched with pitchforks.
Their muscular pectoral fins enable them to creep along the ground,
consequently they are able to move about without agitating the water, as they
would have to do were it necessary to use their tails for progression. Rondelet
asserted that they live for a long time after their removal from the water: Cuvier
considered the contrary to be the case, while Couch observed that when the skin

* Mr. R. Couch states that the Lophius “frequently rises to the surface of the water in the
summer and autumn, and lies basking in the sun.”
t R. Couch, Zoologist, 1847, p. 1609.
76 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

has been kept moist the fish has been known to live out of its proper element for
several days. Some authors have supposed that the young of these fishes when
alarmed seek for shelter in the branchial pouch in the axilla of the pectoral fin.
Thompson alludes to an instance mentioned in a Dublin newspaper, wherein a
man bathing at Kingstown was seized by the leg by a Lophius, and considerably
injured : the fish was said to have been captured, so there was no doubt as to the
species. Montague has remarked that even when captured its rapacious appetite
is not destroyed, as it generally devours some of its fellow prisoners, which,
especially flounders, have been occasionally taken from its stomach alive.

These fishes have also been watched when in confinement, thus Mr. Saville
Kent (Field, Nov. 14th, 1874) tells us that at the Brighton Aquarium the angler
gave the appearance of a mass of rugged rock, the lower jaw being like a ledge
from which are dependant small fleshy tentacles, a line of which are continued
backwards along the sides to the tail. These resemble small, flat, calcareous
sponges, Grantia compressa, Ascidians, Zoophytes, and other low organisms, which
are found on the lower margin of every rocky ledge. On its head are two large
tendrils employed for alluring prey, the foremost of which, by its digitated
membrane is the facsimile of a young frond of oar-weed, Laminaria digitata, both
in shape and colour: and in the tendril behind it we have a repetition of the
same, with the blade of the frond, as it were, worn away by the current of the
ocean. The large and prominent eye has the aspect of a hollow, truncated cone,
and with its longitudinal stripes, resembles the shell of an acorn barnacle with an
amount of exactness which is patent to the most ordinary observer. Lying prone
at the bottom of the ocean, among rocks and débris, it might well pass muster as
an inanimate object, which other fish could approach with impunity, and not
discover their error until too late to escape from its merciless jaws. When it
first discovers its prey, it becomes excited, and works its worm-like filament,
which is furnished with a glittering piece of skin at the top, which acts as a lure
to the small fish. This curious appendage is used just as if the creature was
going to throw a fly to tempt the fish. In the crevice of some marine cliff it has
merely to remain quiet, allowing its tendrils to sway about, moved by the
current, as are the surrounding weeds, and his diet, foraging about for their food,
become a prey for his larder.

To demonstrate their slowness of digestion, Couch remarks that “ on one occasion
there were nearly three-quarters of a hundred herrings found in the stomach of
an angler, and so little change had they suffered, that they were sold by the
fishermen in the market without any suspicion in the buyer of the manner in
which they had been obtained.” In another instance, twenty-one flounders and
a dory were similarly found and disposed of. Fishermen often open these fishes
to obtain the contents of their stomach.

Means of capture.—Sometimes trawled, also taken by nets and baits. Pennant’s
remark that the fishermen about Scarborough return them to the sea because
they devour dog-fishes, is repeated in the Zoologist (p. 3333) as also applicable
to the Bristol Channel. There is no doubt they are very destructive to
other fishes, while considering the wonderful number of eggs they deposit, but
the comparatively few young that are seen, they must be subject to some
wholesale destruction as fry, or else when in the ova state. ;

Breeding.—In December, 1841, Thompson examined an example 4 feet in length:
it was a female with the ova, well-developed, computed to number 1,427,344,
each ovum was 1/32 part of an inch in diameter, and the total when weighed
were found to be 1 lb. 13 oz. avoirdupois. Baird 1. c. has recorded the spawn
of this fish resembling a floating sheet of mucus from sixty to one hundred feet
square. Valenciennes says of an example only two inches in length, that the pectoral
and ventral fins are very long, while the spine has more numerous and much
longer tentacles than the adult: and that some of the pectoral rays extend a good
distance beyond the membrane. Diiben obtained the young in Norway, but which
appeared to differ so from Valenciennes’ account that he considered it new,
terming it LD. eurypterus, the first dorsal spine terminating in a transverse
cylindrical knob, provided with cilia, and being scarcely above half the length of
PEDICULATI. v7

ae os spine. Risso states that the female attains to a larger size than does
e male.

Diseases——MclIntosh, 1. c. Fishes of St. Andrew’s, observes that this fish is
“common off the West Sands and frequently captured in the salmon nets. One
of the specimens had acute pericarditis.”

As food.—Usually rejected in Great. Britain, but said by Willughby and
Donovan to have very delicate flesh, resembling that of a frog, and to be eaten
in some countries ; and Couch, that a private individual reports our angler to be
a delicious fish. Johnston says it was produced at a feast given to a king of
Thrace; and Parnell observes that “the flesh is considered good, particularly that
near the tail.”

Habitat—tThis species is said to be seldom captured north of 60° north
latitude, and though rare on the coasts of Denmark and in the Baltic, it extends
southwards in the Atlantic as far as the Cape of Good Hope, and also throughout
the Mediterranean. It is frequent in Newfoundland,* and along the eastern
shores of North America to as far south as Cape Hatteras in North Carolina.

Although Low in his account of the Orkneys did not consider it to be common,
Baikie reported it as tolerably frequent both there and in the Shetland Isles.
It is taken all round the British coast, but largest in numbers towards the south,
and is numerous in Cornwall throughout the year, but most frequently observed
during fine weather in summer or autumn, at which time it approaches the shore.
It is common in the North Sea, and frequently met with off Banffshire (Edward),
in the Moray Firth (Harris), and the Firth of Forth (Parnell). Dr. Lowe
observes that it is not uncommon in Norfolk estuary, where it sometimes attains
a large size: but one taken in the Humber in May, 1845 (Zoologist, p. 1035),
was considered, owing to its supposed rarity, to be worth recording.

In Ireland itis common round the coast, but is said to seldom exceed four feet
in length. On the north-east coast the fishermen open them to ascertain the
contents of their stomachs, after which they are, thrown overboard and become
washed ashore; they reject them as food. On the south-west coast of Cork they
are detested, and as soon as taken the fishermen strike their heels into the
posterior part of the fishes’ skulls, and then throw them overboard: not only do
they reject them as food but they rarely if ever open them.

This fish, although generally measuring up to 23 or 3 feet in length, may attain
to 6 or 7 feet. The example figured is about 11 inches long and from the south

coast.

Saxby, Zoologist, 1871, p. 2553.
78 ACANTHOPTERYGILI.

Famity, VIII—TRACHINIDA, Risso.

Branchiostegals from five to seven: pseudobranchie@ present. Body more or
less elongated, posteriorly compressed. Eyes more or less lateral. Cleft of
mouth almost horizontal, lateral, or even nearly vertical. Some of the bones of
the head are usually armed : the suborbital ring of bones does not articulate with
the preopercle. Teeth in the jaws small and pointed, present or absent on the
vomer and palatines. One or two dorsal fins, the rays being generally con-
siderably more in number than the spines: anal similar to soft dorsal: no finlets.
Ventrals thoracic with one spine and five rays. Pectorals with or without
appendages. Body scaled or scaleless. Air-bladder present or absent. Pyloric
appendages few.

Geographical distribution.—Cosmopolitan, rarely of large size. The majority
‘are littoral forms, some entering freshwaters or rivers, while a few are present
among coral reefs. Although in some Genera, as Stllago, these fishes are rather
rapid in their movements, the majority included in this family are the reverse,
some being very inactive.

Genus I—Tracuinus, Cuvier.

Branchiostegals six: pseudobranchie present. Body elongated and cylindrical,
with the cleft of the mouth very oblique. Eyes lateral, directed somewhat upwards
and outwards. Preorbital and preopercle serrated: opercle with a strong spine.
Villiform teeth in the jaws, on the vomer and palatine bones, none on the tongue.
Two dorsal fins, the first with five to seven spines: second dorsal and anal many rayed.
Ventrals jugular. The lower pectoral rays unbranched. Scales cycloil and very
small, Air-bladder absent. Pyloric appendages few.

The term Trachinus has been referred to several Greek derivations, but the
most simple is that it is a latinized corruption of dracena (spdrava) which is still
its Greek name, as well as signifying a dragon or serpent; while its likewise
being called araneus, or a “spider” by the Latins also had reference to the
poisonous character of the wounds it inflicts. Two species frequent the British
coasts, the larger Trachinus draco, the smaller Trachinus vipera, the latter being
the more venomous. Ancients asserted that so dreaded were they even by their
finny neighbours that all gave place to the weever. Opinions have been much
divided respecting the seat of the virus or poison; some, as Rutty, asserting that
such resided in “the fin near the neck which has five prickles which are the seat
of what is called its venom.” Others have limited the poisoned wounds to such
as are inflicted by the opercular spines. But it has been shown* that both the
double grooved opercular spines and also those of the first dorsal fin are poison
organs, the latter of which besides being grooved, contains a cavity within the
substance of the spine where the poison would seem to be deposited prior to its
use, while means by which such could be ejected have not yet been discovered.
No specific poison-gland has been found, but it has been surmised that the virus
is a secretion or excretion from the mucous surface of the loose skin which covers
the spines, or its pulpy sheath, this substance would collect in the grooves, and
when penetrating a foreign body sufficiently deep would naturally be introduced
into the inflicted wound. Even the death of the fish does not appear to at once
arrest its virulence, as pricks from the spines of dead weevers have been observed
to occasion symptoms of poisoning.t

* Byerly, Proc. Liverpool Lit. and Phil. Soc. i, p. 156.

a t ue the poisonous nature of wounds caused by these fishes, see Schmidt, Nord, Med. Ark. vi,
0. 2, 1875.
TRACHINIDA. 79

When sea bathing, the possibility of receiving wounds from these fishes may
not unfrequently be a subject for bathers to dread, especially should the coast be
a sandy or gravelly one, such being the favourite localities for the weever to
reside in, and where it buries itself, leaving merely its head uncovered. Woe to
the unprotected foot that incautiously treads on one of these fishes, as when alarmed
they at once strike any foreign body with the spine with which their gill-cover is
armed, directing their blows, as Pennant observes, with as much judgment as
fighting cocks. A few months since, remarks R. Couch (Zoologist, 1846, p. 1402),
T saw a Trachinus draco which had just been caught, and as it lay at the bottom of
the boat I frequently threw some sea-water over it to keep it living, and then
irritated it with a stick. But whichever part of the body I touched it unerringly
struck it with its spines, by bending the body and throwing its head back with a
rapid jerk.

In Banffshire* a man was wounded taking a large weever off a hook, and in
less than half-an-hour the whole of his hand was considerably swollen: the
swelling went on extending to the wrist, and the two middle fingers being more in
the line of the wound, were more swollen than the others. In about an hour the
hand had increased to twice its natural size. It was scarified by a surgeon, and
other means used, which arrested the progress of the attack; the hand healed up
perfectly within a reasonable time. As a rule, the pain appears to subside in
about twelve hours, or as some fisherman imagine, the effects of the poison will
last until the tide returns to the same height as it stood when the injury was
inflicted. But a sailor, having been wounded by what was supposed to be a
weever, his leg became painful and in the course of a few hours was much
swollen and inflamed, while many weeks elapsed before he was able to resume his
usual occupation.t

Wherever shrimps abound weever fishes are said to be present, and shrimpers
in dark nights have been known to be afraid of picking their captures out of their
nets fearing lest one of these fishes might be among them.

It is safest for bathers in localities where these fishes are found to take the
precaution of wearing bathing-slippers, because should they incautiously put a
foot upon a weever it may wound with the spines of the first dorsal fin, which it
can erect or depress at pleasure, or strike violently with its armed head. Great
pain is immediately experienced, and which rapidly spreads. Pliny and
Dioscorides advised that the body of the fish should be cut open and applied to
the wound, a process to which two objections may be fairly raised: first, the
necessity of capturing the fish, and secondly the improbability of any alleviation
following the employment of such a remedy. Paul of Aigina’s receipt would
hardly have much effect, it being to make the patient drink a light tisane
thickened by the brains of the culprit fish. Avicenna suggested a poultice of
leeks ; Rondelet, leaves of the lentiscus bruised ; while various animal and vegetable
substances soaked in vinegar or made into salves have been proposed. Cuvier
suggested as the most simple and surest cure to enlarge the wound caused by the
spine of one of these fishes. Fishermen occasionally recommend friction of the
part with sand, but surgeons have found that olive oil, to which opium has been
added, is most efficacious. At the mouth of the Tyne, where these fish are
numerous, Mr. Green observes (Science Gossip, 1873, p. 283) that shrimpers.
generally carry a small bottle of sweet oil to apply in case they are stung.

Geographical distribution.—From the coast of Scandinavia, through those of
Western Europe, the British Isles, and the Mediterranean ; also Madeira, and
along the western coast of Africa as far south as the Cape of Good Hope; while
Kner recorded T. draco from Iquique in Peru.

1. Trachinus draco, Plate XXX.

Apékwy, Arist. viii, c.13; Ailian, ii, c. 50. ; ;
Araneus, Pliny, ix, c. 48. Draco marinus, Pliny, ix, c. 27; Salv. f. 71.
Draco, Rondel. x, c. 10, p. 300, c. fig.; Aldrov. ii, c. 50. Draco marinus major,

* Harris, Zoologist, 1854, p. 4260. + Briggs, Zoologist, 1854, July.
80 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Jonston, tit. ili, c. 3, punct. 2, p. 91, t. xxi, f. 2; Willughby, p. 288, t- 8.10, f. 1;
Ray, p. 91; Rutty, Co. Dublin, i, p. 358. Trachinus, No. 1, Artedi, Gen. p. 42;
Gronov. Zooph. p. 80, no. 274; Duhamel, Péches, ii, p. 235. Greater weever,
Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Hd. 1) iii, p. 171, pl. xxix (Hd. 2) in, p. 229, pl. xxxiii.

Trachinus draco, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 485; Brinn. Pisc. Mass. p. 19, no. 30;
Gmel. Linn. p. 1157; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 108, and Europ. Mérid. iti, p. 260; De
la Roche, Ann. Mus. xiii, p. 331; Martens, Reise nach Venedig, ii, p. 429; Cuv-
and Val. iii, p. 238; Johnston, Fish. Berwickshire, Mag. Nat. Hist. vi, 1833,
p. 15; Jenyns, Man. Brit. Vert. p. 335; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Hid. 1) i, p. 20, ec. fig
(Ed. 2) i, p. 24 (Ed. 3) ii, p.1; Fries och Hkstr. Skand. Fisk. p. 18, t. iti, f. 1;
Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 270; Nord. in Demid. Voy. Russ. Mérid. Poiss. p. 370;
White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 18; Gron. ed. Gray, p. 46; Giinther, Catal. ii, p.
233 ; Schlegel, De Dieren Neder. p. 37, pl. v, f.5; Kner, Sitz. Ak. Wiss Wien,
1867, lvi, p. 717; Steindachner, Ich. Span. u. Port. 1867, p. 95; Collett, Norges
Fiske, p. 42; McIntosh, Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 173.

Trachinus lineatus, Bl. Schn. p. 55, t. x; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 109, and Eur.
Mérid. iii, p. 260.

Trachinus major, Donovan, Brit. Fish. v. pl. evii; Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 214.

Trachinus armatus (Schlegel), Bleeker, Poissons de la céte de Guinée, p. 94.

Greater weever, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 43, pl. Ixxiii.

B. vi, D. 5-6/29-31, P. 16, V. 1/5, A. 31, C. 12, L. 1. 78, Coe. pyl. 6. Vert.
11/31.

Length of head 44, of caudal fin 8, height of body 53 to 63 in the total length.
Fye—5 to 54 diameters in the length of the head, 3/4 of diameter from the end
of the snout, and 3/4 to one diameter apart, the upper portion of the globe of
the eye having an opaque eyelid continued on to it. Dorsal profile nearly
horizontal, that of the abdomen more convex; body compressed. Cleft of mouth
very oblique, reaching to slightly behind the posterior edge of the orbit ; lower jaw
somewhat the longer. Two small spines at the anterior superior angle of the
orbit; interorbital space rather concave. Four flat and badly marked spines on
the preopercle and which are sometimes absent, two being on the lower limb, the
anterior of which points forwards. Opercular spine long, strong, and enveloped
in loose skin nearly to its end. Suprascapular a short flat plate (rough along its
edges) while the scapular is rather larger, but of a similar character. Teeth—
villiform in jaws, vomer, palatines and pterygoid bones; none on the tongue.
Fins—second and third spines of the first dorsal the longest, the membrane from
the last spine is continued almost to the base of the first ray of the second dorsal.
Lower six pectoral rays unbranched, or with the divisions very indistinct.
Caudal slightly emarginate, almost square. Scales—cycloid and in oblique lines
passing down the body, some also on the sides of the head. Lateral-line—passing
along the upper fourth of the body. Vent beneath the vertical from the last
dorsal spine. Colowrs—generally gray or yellow, being darkest along the back:
brown or bright yellow lines pass down the body in the direction of the rows of
scales, decreasing in vividness as they descend; while the upper surface and sides
of the head are reticulated or spotted with brown or gray, and occasionally with
blue lines; some yellow stripes along the gill covers. First dorsal fin black in its
upper three-fourths, sometimes nearly entirely so. The other fins yellowish, their
outer edges stained darkest, while the posterior margin of the caudal is nearly
olack and some dark reticulations exist on the fin. Old examples are Jess
vividly marked than the smaller ones, while the colours rapidly fade after death.

Names.— The term weever is stated to be a corruption of the French La vive
which this fish was named, due to its existing a long time after removal from the
water, but Yarrell referred it to the Anglo-Saxon wivere “a serpent,” the wivern
being the heraldic dragon. In fact Rondelet considered it to be the veritable draco
of the ancient naturalists. Locally known in Sussex as sea-cat : also as cat-fish and
sting-bull. The Sand-eel-bill of Ayrshire, so much dreaded by the fisherman there,
is probably this fish. Mor wiber fawr, Welsh. De Pieterman, Dutch.

Habits —It swims near the ground, burrowing in the sand, as already de-
TRACHINIDA. 81

scribed, and though it may be left uncovered by an ebbing tide, it is highly
retentive of life. It lives on the fry of other fishes or small animals, and remains
on our coasts throughout the year. Couch states that he has known the greater
weever taken in a net floating over 35 fathoms of water, and when several have
been thus caught, it has always been of an early morning east of the nets, as if
they thus mounted aloft only in the darkness of the night. From ‘the inside of
one example, two gobies and a sand launce were taken, from another a squid, Loligo
media, 5 inches in length. In the Westminster Aquarium these fishes do not
show any propensity to conceal themselves under the sand, a proceeding said
to be more in vogue with Trachinus vipera.

Means of capture-—Sometimes taken by the trawl, in sprat or shrimp nets,
or else by a baited hook attached to a deep sea line. It is most commonly
captured during summer and autumn.

Breeding—On the continent of Europe these fish approach the shore in
large numbers in the month of June for the purpose of depositing their ova.
They doubtless choose the same time in this country, and Couch mentions an
example 3/4 of an inch long having been captured in August by a drift net.

As food.—This form, not T. vipera, are sold in Whitechapel as food, and are
said to be known as Spitalfield weavers - they are esteemed in France not only
because they can be conveyed long distances alive, but likewise owing to the
considerable time they remain fresh after death. A police regulation existed at
Boulogne that they might not be disposed of until their back fin had been
removed, in order to prevent persons being injured by it.

Habitat.—From Scandinavia and Western Europe through the Mediterranean,
and it has been recorded from Madeira, New Guinea, and on the Western
coast of Africa as far as the Cape of Good Hope, also from Peru.

In Britain it is by no means uncommon along the coasts, especially on the
west, decreasing in numbers towards the north. At St. Andrew’s it is frequent
on the west sands after storms (McAndrew): it is occasionally found in
Banffshire according to Edward, however in the Zoologist for 1857, p. 5834,
one is recorded as captured there the first week in October, and the writer states
that the last taken previously was in 1810.

In Ireland Andrews records it from Ventry Bay, but it has not been found
in the north, in fact Thompson did not believe in its occurrence there.

The example figured is 12 inches long, and was sent alive from Brighton to
the Westminster Aquarium. It attains to at least 17 inches in length.

2. Trachinus vipera, Plate XXXI.

Otterpike, Willughby, i, p. 289. <Araneus minor, Ray, p. 92; Duhamel,
Péches, ii, p. 135, pl. 1. fig. 2. Trachinus, var. Gronov. Mus. Ich. i, p. 42. Draco
minor, Jonston, Pisce. t. iii, c. 8, punct. 2, p. 92, t. xxi, f. 3. Draco marinus,
Borlase, Nat. Hist. Cornwall, p. 270, pl. xxvi,f. 3. Common weever, Pennant,
Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) iii, p. 169, pl. xxviii (Ed. 2) ili, p. 226, pl. xxxii.

Trachinus draco, Bloch, t. lxi; Bonaterre, Ency. Ich. p. 45, pl. xxviii, f. 98;
Bl. Schn. p. 55; Donovan, Brit. Fish. i, pl. xxiii; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 89;
Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 108, and Eur. Mérid. iti, p. 260; Flem. Brit. An. p. 213.

Trachinus vidus, Lacép. Hist. Nat. Poiss. ii, p. 354.

Trachinus vipera, Cuy. and Val. ili, p. 254; Parnell, Fish. Firth of Forth, p.
12; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 25, c. fig. (Hd. 2) i, p. 29 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 7;
Jenyns, Manual Brit. Vert. p. 336 ; Johnston, Berwick, Nat. Club, 1838. 1, p.
170; White, Catal. Brit. Fish, p. 13; Cuv. Régne Anim. Ill. Poiss. pl. xv;
Guichen. Explor. Sc. Algér. Poiss. p. 36; Schlegel, De Dieren Neder. p. 40, pl.
vy, £. 6; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 70; Giinther, Catal ii, p. 236;
Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1867, p. 95; McIntosh, Fish. St. Andrews, p. 173.

Trachinus horridus, Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 46.

Viper weever, Couch, Fishes of Brit. Isles, ii, p. 48, pl. lxxiv.

B. vi, D. 6/21-24, P. 14, V. 1/5, A. 25-26, C. 12, L. 1. 65, Cee. pyl. 6, Vert.
10/25.
6
82 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Length of head, 33 to 32, of caudal fin 63 to 63, height of body 44 to 5 in
the total length. Hye—diameter 42 in the length of the head, 1/2 to 2/3 of a
diameter from the end of the snout, and 1/2 a diameter apart. Very similar to
T. draco, but has no spines above the orbit. Interorbital space concave. Two
sharp and forwardly directed spines below the angle of the preopercle. Oper-
cular spine rather long, strong, and straight. The maxilla reaches to beyond the
vertical from the hind edge of the orbit. A row of small papille along the upper
edge of the lower lip. Yecth—villiform in jaws, vomer, palatines, and pterygoid
bones, none on the tongue. Jins—second and third spines of the first dorsal fin
the longest. Lower five or six pectoral rays unbranched, or with the divisions
very indistinct. Caudal very slightly emarginate. Scales—scarcely any on the
head. Colowrs—back gray, becoming paler towards the abdomen, where it is
tinged with yellow. Several narrow longitudinal irregular gray lines pass along
the back, and are continued on to the head, which may also be spotted with
black. First dorsal fin black, with some narrow white lines posteriorly. Fins
yellowish. Caudal yellow, with a dark base, and a wide black band along its
posterior margin.

Names.—Little- or lesser-weever: sting-fish. Locally termed adder-pike:
black-fin: otter-pike. Mor wiber, Welsh. Stangster or Stang, Celtic, Moray Firth
(Gordon). Bishoped or stung by a bishop, one of these fish, Cornwall. Stony-
cobbler, Youghal (Ball) (see powson pate, p. 50, ante). De Kleine Peterman, Dutch.

Habits—This species is rather more active and much more venomous than
T. draco.* Dr. Lowe, in his Fauna of Norfolk, while quoting Sir J. Browne’s list,
and his assertion that “it has a short, small prickly fin along the back which
often venomously pricketh the hands of fishermen,” combats the idea, contending
that although he has watched them carefully he could only observe that they
made sudden bounds with their fins extended, as do many other species.

Means of capture.—Sometimes taken in sprat nets, or by baits when small
hooks are used. Ogilby observes that it is said to take a fly when towed after a
boat.

Breeding.—In spring.

As food.—It is stated to be exceedingly good meat (Pennant), and they are
taken in great numbers in Holland.

Habitat—From the North Sea and British coasts along those of France and
Spain to the Mediterranean ; while two bad specimens of fish from the Seychelles
existed in the British Museum which the curator has referred to this species.

Common on the English coast, in some places being more abundant than the
T. draco: they do not appear to be quite so frequent in Scotland. Edward found
them the most numerous of the two in Banffshire, and Baikie (Zool. 1853)
records a couple from the Orkneys and one from Kirkwall Bay. In Ireland they
are most common along the eastern and southern shores, but are present from
the north to the south, Ball states them to be very abundant at Youghal.

Ogilby records as a very unusual sized example, one 61 inches in length,
taken at Portrush, in the country of Antrim, where they are not uncommon
(Zoologist, 1876, p. 4753).

The example, figured life size, was taken at Weston-super-mare in a shrimp
net.

* See a paper on the stinging properties of this fish, Allman, Ann. Nat. Iist., Nov. 1840.
SCOMBRIDA. 83

Famity, IX—SCOMBRIDAH, Cuvier.

_ Branchiostegals seven or eight: pseudobranchiw present. Body oblong or
slightly elongated and rather compressed. Gill-openings wide: eyes lateral.
The infraorbital bones do not articulate with the preopercle. Teeth present in
the jaws, but may be absent from the palate. Two dorsal fins, the first being
distinct from the soft, which has more rays than the first has spines: finlets
present or absent: ventrals thoracic. Sides of the tail sometimes keeled. Scales,
when present, small. Air-bladder present or absent. Pyloric appendages
numerous, in moderate numbers, or dendritical.

Fishes of the Mackerel family are pelagic forms, readily distinguishable by
their elegant shapes and brilliant colours, while they are mostly highly prized for
the table. Carnivorous and exceedingly active, their shapes are well adapted to
enable them to glide rapidly through the water: while to obviate the Icast
impediment, we even find in some depressions for the reception of the pectoral
fins.

Genus I.—Scomser, Artedi.

Cordylus, Gray.

Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchie present. Body rather elongated and
compressed. Hyes with adipose lids. Cleft of mouth deep. Small and deciduous
teeth in the jaws : similar ones present or absent on the vomer and palatine bones.
Two dorsal fins, the first spinous and separated by an interspace from the second,
behind which latter and also posterior to the anal fin are five or sia finlets: fewer
spines in the first dorsal fin than there are rays in the second dorsal or in the anal:
ventrals thoracic. A slight keel along either side of the root of each lobe of the
caudal fin. Scales small. Air-bladder, when present, simple. Pyloric appendages
numerous.

Geographical distribution.—These fishes have a very extensive range, being
found in most temperate and tropical seas of both Hemispheres, but do not
appear to have been received from the American shores of the South Atlantic
Ocean. Only two distinct species have as yet been recorded from the British

Isles.
1. Scomber scomber, Plate XXXII and XXXII.

Sxopfpoc, Arist. vi, c. 17, viii, c. 12 and 13, ix, c. 2; Aflian, xiv, c.1; Athen.
ii, 112, vii, 321; Oppian, Halieut. i, fol. 108, 109. :

Scomber, Ovid, Halieut. v, 94; Pliny, ix, c. 15, xxxi, e. 8, xxxii, ec. 11;
Martial, iii, Ep. 2, iv, Ep. 86, xiii, Ep. 1; Rondel. viii, c. 7, p. 234, c. fig.; Salvian.
p- 241, f. 239 b. 241, 242; Gesner, fol. 57; Schonev. p. 66; Aldrov. ii, c. 53, p.
270; Jonston, De Pisc. lib. i, tit. iii, c. 3, punct. 6, p. 95, 6. xxi, fig. 10;
Willughby, p. 181, t. M. 3; Ray, p. 58; Rutty, p. 356; Strdm, Sond, ii, p. 295.
Scomber, No. 1, Artedi, Genera, p. 30, Synon. 48, Species, p. 68. Scomber, sp.
Gronov. Zooph. p. 93, No. 304. Pelamys, sp. Klein, MSS, v, p. 12, No. v, t. iv,
f.1; Duhamel, Péches, sect. vii, pl. 1, f.1; Cetti, Hist. Nat. Sard. iui, p. 190.
Mackrel, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) iii, p. 264, pl. li (Hd. 2) iii, p. 357, pl. Lxii.
The mackerel, Low, Fauna Orcad. p. 218. : ’

Scomber scomber (or scombrus) Linn. Sys. i, p. 492; Brinn. p. 68; Bloch, t.
liv; Gmel. Linn. p. 1828: Bl. Schn. p. 24; Lacép. ii, p. 24; Shaw, Zool. iv, p.
577, pl. Ixxxiv; Donovan, Brit. Fish. v, pl. cxx ; Turton, p. 100; Pallas, Zoogr.
Russ. Asiat. iii, p. 215; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 170 and Europ. Mérid. iii, p. 412;

Martens, Reise nach Venedig. ii, p. 432; Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 6; a och Ekst.
84 ACANTHOPTERYGITI.

Skand. Fisk. p. 128, t. xxix; Jenyns, Man. p. 360; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1)
i, p. 121, c. fie. (Ed. 2) i, p. 187 (Hd. 3) ii, p. 193; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist.
(2) 1837, i, p. 409; Parnell, Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 50; Johnston, Berwick.
Nat. Club. 1838, i, p. 171; Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 238; Cuvier, Régne Anim.
Ill. Poiss. p. 29; Nordm. in Demid. Voy. Russ. Mérid. iii, p. 391; White, Catal.
Brit. Fish. p. 29; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 92; Giinther, Catal. ii, p.
357; Schlegel, De Dieren Nederland, p. 5, pl. v, f. 1; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port.
1868, p. 1; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 43; A. Malm, Gifvy. Ak. Férh. 1876, pl. v;
McIntosh, Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 173; Winther, Prod. Ich. Dan. 1879, p. 12.

Scomber vulgaris, Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 217.

Seomber vernalis, Mitchell, Trans. Lit. and Phil. Soc. New York, i, p. 423;
Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 48; Storer, Fish. Mass. p, 41; De Kay, New York Fauna,
Fish, p, 101, pl. xii, f. 34; Richards., Faun. Bor. Amer. Fish. p. 80.

Cordylus scombrus, Gronoy. ed. Gray, p. 163.

Makarel and Dotted Mukarel, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, pp. 67, 81, pl. lxxix
and Ixxxi, fig. 1. |

Scomber punctatus, Couch, Zoologist, 1849, p. xxix, append. c. fig. and Pen-
zance, Nat. Hist. Soc. 1848, pl. iii, £1; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 30; Yarrell,
Brit. Fishes (Ed. 3) ii, p. 207, c. fig. (variety).

Scribbled mackarel, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 84, pl. Ixxxi, fig. 2 and ?
pl. lxxx, fig. 2 (variety).

B. vii, D. 11-14/7545; + V, P. 17, V. 1/5, A. 1/254, C. 19, Vert. 14/17.

Length of head 42 to 43, of caudal fin 64, of pectoral fin 91, height of body
51 to 61, in the total length. Mye—with broad adipose lids, the posterior
extending to over the hind third of the pupil and inferiorly being covered by the
anterior which does not reach to the iris, and is attached by its lower edge to the
sub-orbitals: diameter of eye 1/5 to 1/6 of the length of the head: 13 diameters
apart: the length of the snout being equal to about one-third of that of the
entire head. Jaws of almost the same length anteriorly: the maxilla, which is
covered by the suborbital, reaches to beneath the middle of the orbit. Posterior
limb of preopercle very oblique, causing the angle to appear somewhat produced.
Teeth—in a single row of rather sharp ones in the jaws, in a deciduous patch on
either side of the vomer, and in a single or double row on the palatines: a central
row of teeth at the base of the tongue. F'ins—dorsal commences at the
beginning of the second third of the length of the body : spines weak, the second
and third the longest, from thence they decrease to the last. Second dorsal low,
and similar to the anal. Pectoral not quite half as long as the head: ventral one-
fourth shorter than the pectoral. A single, short, pre-anal spine between the
vent and the commencement of the anal fin. Caudal deeply forked. Scales
—minute, about twenty-one rows between the lateral-line and base of the
first dorsal fin: along the sides and lower surface of the abdomen, they become
nearly indistinguishable. Several rows below the eyes passing across the cheek.
Lateral-line—nearly straight. A keel along either side of the root of each lobe of
the caudal fin. Atr-bladder—absent. Cacal appendages—numerous. Colowrs—the
upper third of the body is of a beautiful green shot with blue, while the sides
and abdomen are radiant with gold, purple, and silvery shades. About thirty-five
V-shaped bands pass downwards from the back and terminate just below or on
the lateral-line: a dark stripe, sometimes interrupted, goes from the base of the
pectoral fin along the side a little distance below the lateral-line. A light yellow
colour behind the eye. Fins dark, and generally with a black white-edged outer
line. Or the body to just below the lateral-line, may be covered with small
black spots or scribbled markings.

Donovan asserted that the males have straight transverse stripes, and the
females undulated ones, the correctness of which I have been unable to verify.
It has likewise been observed that the male has a more slender form and an
elongated gill-cover.

Var/eties—The European forms of Scomber have been divided into (1) those
Possessing an air-bladde:, and (2) such as are deficient in this organ. Scomber
SCOMBRID 4. 85

preumatophorus and §. colias, which may be varieties of a single species, are both
provided with an air-bladder: whereas those which are without it have been
described as Scomber scomber, Linn. S. punctatus and 8. scriptus, Couch. On
April 21st, 1880, I received from Mr. Dunn of Mevagissey, an example (figured
plate xxxiti) of S. punctatus, a female 14 inches in length, with the ova not quite
mature. D. 13/7;-+v, P. 21, V. 1/5, A. 1/4+v, ©. 17. Its proportions are
as in 8. scomber and it has no air-bladder, in fact it is a variety in colour of the
common species. I have not obtained S. scriptus, but it appears to be another
variation in markings of the common mackerel, like which it is destitute of an
air-bladder, Couch, plate Ixxx, below the Spanish mackerel, 8. colias, has
figured what appears to be another variation in colour, and in which the eye
was similar in size to S. scomber, while it also had no air-bladder. Mr. Dunn
has drawn attention to the spotted and scribbled varieties being seldom if ever
seen in the winter or spring. ‘They come with the summer shoals.

_Mr. Cornish observed that on May 14th, 1874, he came in the steamer from
Scilly, bringing mackerel over for the London market, they were washed on
board and “ the result of my inspection is a strong opinion, that so far as outward
ditferences are concerned, the distinction between the common mackerel, Scomber
scomber, the dotted mackerel, 8S. punctatus, Couch, and the scribbled mackerel,
S. scriptus, cannot be maintained, and I should include the Spanish mackerel,
S. colias, in the list but for its size. In the lot which I watched, from 12,000 to
15,000 fish, there were fish of every grade of marking, and a large percentage
having the sharp pointed head attributed by Couch to the Spanish mackerel.
I have no doubt that I could have picked out four fish, each of which should
answer precisely to the description of one of the four fish mentioned above, and
differing each largely from the other three: but I could have supplied the gaps
between them with variety after variety, until no one should be able to say where
one species began and the other ended.”* Mr. Dunn mentions some red-finned
varieties which the Mevagissey fishermen carefully look for, as when they appear
quantities of fish are usually off the coast.

Names.—Mackerel, formerly spelt macquerelle. Rionnach, pronounced ronach,
Celtic, in Moray Firth (Gordon), shiners, young off North Coast. Le Maquereau
commun, French. Makreel, Dutch. The term mackerel has rather improbably
been supposed to have been derived from macularius or spotted.

Habits.—Mackerel are a gregarious wandering form of pelagic fishes whick
remain off our coasts throughout the year, and at certain seasons approach the
shores in countless multitudes, either prior to, during, or after breeding: or else for
predaceous purposes. Occasionally they forsake their usual haunts, thus from
May to July they were formerly abundant at Yarmouth and Lowestoft, whereas
now numbers come in with the herrings, having deferred their advent to a later
period in the season; or they may even antedate their usual appearance, as will
be remarked upon. Formerly, they were supposed to undertake long migrations
annually from the north towards the south at one season and subsequently the
reverse. lLacépéde, on the authority of Admiral Pleville-Lepley, actually asserted
that in some small and almost land-locked bays off Greenland, where the water is
always clear and the bottom consists of soft mud, myriads of mackerel might be
seen at the beginning of spring, with their heads inserted several inches into the
mud, and their tails vertically elevated. He continued that in this manner and
in a state of torpor they passed the winter, while during the first fifteen or twenty
days after their reappearance they were affected by a sort of blindness and could
be easily netted, but that subsequently they had to be captured by means of
hooks and baits !

It is during the winter months or in the early period of the year, as January
or February, that these fish usually commence to move from the deeper portions
of the Atlantic towards the British coast, and in May or June large shoals of
spawning fish appear to the south west of the Scilly Isles, some portion passing
towards the Bristol or St. George’s Channels, or Ireland in a north or north-

* Zoologist, 1874, p. £037.
86 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

easterly direction, while the largest proportion go up the English Channel along
the south coast of Britain. Mr. Dunn observes that they are seldom seen further
up the English Channel than the Lizard off the British coast and Brittany off the
French shores. The shoals which pass up the St. George’s Channel rarely
extending beyond Cork. Couch stated that in the early movement the sexes are
often much divided, the males usually preceding the females in their migrations.
But besides these large assemblages of breeding fishes there are shoals of mostly
smaller ones which appear off the south coast according to the character of the
season, increasing or lessening their distance from the shore as the temperature
falls or rises. In mild seasons they are mostly caught first at Portsmouth, as in
January or February, but Plymouth on an average is considered the earliest place
to which they resort, and where they are taken from ten to thirty miles from land.
On the Hampshire and Sussex coasts they are first taken in March, or sometimes
even in February, while off Norfolk the greatest fisheries are in May and June.
They also arrive in the Isle of Man in June. In the Moray Firth they appear
in immense shoals about August (Gordon) and in the Orkneys during the last
week in July (Low.) On January 28th, 1880, they appeared off Penzance,
whereas the end of February is usually the time at which they may be expected :
they extend their stay into June. The same phenomenon occurred further to
the north, thus at Christiania some very fine ones were taken in April, although
their usnal time of arrival off the northern coast of Norway is not before the
advent of warmer weather.

As already remarked, they may arrive long prior to their usual period, thus
Couch observes that in 1818, 15,000 were taken at Mevagissey between
February Ist and 12th: in 1842, two boats brought 18,000 into Plymouth, while in
1843, in the first week in February, from 20,000 to 30,000 were captured each
night.

eTThe period at which the arrival of these fish may be expected at any particular
locality may be somewhat accurately computed, by ascertaining at what time they
normally appear off certain points, and how long an interval generally occurs
between their arrival at one place and their subsequent appearance at a more
distant locality. The number of days they take in migrating from place to place
is generally the same in different years.

The character of the season or the weather does not appear to be the only
agent by which these fishes early migrations are ruled. But it has been
remarked that a particular temperature or direction of wind has some connection
with their swimming nearer to the surface or deeper in the water. Mr. Cornish
(Zoologist, 1876, p. 4767) has remarked that about once in every eight or ten
years they swarm into Mount’s Bay: thus in August and September, 1875, at
high water, they could be bailed out in buckets at the pier head.

In the spring the average size captured is smaller than it becomes during the
autumnal and winter months, owing to some of the shoals being partly or entirely
composed of young fish. Their course seems to be very erratic, rising to the
surface and approaching the shore, or remaining at the bottom in deep water.
But as the summer advances and their food enters sandy bays, then these fish
follow and appear to have become exceedingly active. By the end of September
or October, having spawned, the old ones retire to the Atlantic, in which
migration they appear to be often accompanied by those which were hatched
early in the season. Sometimes the half-grown fish retiring into deep water at
the end of the year seem to be interrupted in their course, which causes them
to remain off the coast during the winter months.

Their food is still a subject in which much remains to be investigated.
Doubtless they prey upon members of the herring family and the fry of such
forms as come in their way. Thus when the mackerel midge, which is the
young of the Rockling, Motella, becomes abundant about the middle of May,
these fishes congregate to feed upon them. At Mevagissey, Mr. Dunn has
remarked that some small jelly-fishes (Meduse ?) about the size of a split pea,
and of a dark green colour, appear after heavy rains, at night they are luminous.
Mackerel prey upon them. Occasionally quantities of young of the dwarf
SCOMBRIDA. 87

swimming crabs, Portunus pusillus, are taken among these fish, and upon which
they are believed to have been feeding. They also feed upon minute creatures
said to resemble sand-hoppers, which abound about February. In May, 1880,
I opened a number of these fishes, from the south coast, and all had their
stomachs full of ova on which they had evidently gorged themselves.

Mr. Smith* observes upon having kept some of these pelagic fish from June
or July in the previous year in an aquarium, the size of which was eight feet by
six, and in August two were yet alive. Still they are difficult to retain in
confinement owing to their impatience of restriction and they injure themselves
by dashing about, besides being very susceptible to atmospheric vicissitudes.
Those captured earlier in the season in drift nets are not the best for this
purpose, because coming from deeper water they are liable to injury while being
meshed in the nets, or subsequently when being conveyed ashore: whereas
later on they migrate into shallower places where seines are employed. The
presence of fellow-captives of the same species which have been some time in
confinement in the aquarium is found to exercise a great controlling power on
the new comers, which for some time should be kept in the dark.

Pontoppidan relates how a Norwegian sailor was destroyed by a shoal of
mackerel who surrounded him while bathing, carried him out to sea, and
managed, while pushing him along, to so bite and nibble at their victim that his
friends, with all their exertions, were scarcely able to get him alive into their boat,
where he soon expired from exhaustion and loss of blood.

Aflian records how fishermen trained mackerel to act the character of
decoys to shoals of their fellows whom they inveigled into their owners’ nets: not
content with this, he informs his readers that this faculty was continued to the
descendant of their decoy fish for several generations.

Modes of capture.—As the January fish obtain a very high price, the fishermen
seek the shoals in the earliest time of the year.t In the spring the Cornish
boats proceed eastward for mackerel fishing but they net towards the west, thus
meeting the shoals. The distance the boats proceed up the English Channel
varies in different seasons, while the earliest fish may be expected furthest out to
sea. The quantities captured are liable to great variations in different years,
several good harvests may follow one after another, or the reverse may occur ;
likewise one set of boats may be making large catches while neighbouring ones
are scarcely securing a fish. I have already alluded to there being two classes of
mackerel: viz., the enormous May and June shoals that come for spawning and
consist of large fish: and the more erratic or in-shore ones that do not appear to
keep so well to stated times: the modes of capture of these two classes varies.
The nets employed in the English Channel are for the in-shore or smaller forms,
the mesh of which before being tanned averages from 27 to 28 half meshes to a
yard: but those employed at the entrance of the channel for the spawning shoals
average untanned from 21 to 22 half meshes to a yard.

Early in the spring numerous fishing boats, manned with from five to eight
men each, assemble in Plymouth preparatory to the mackerel season, and for
the purpose of trying their fortune in the English Channel with drift nets,
which are shot of an evening and usually lifted after two or three hours, but shot
again in the very early morning, the best time for carrying on this occupation
having been found to be when daylight passes into darkness, or the night into
the morning. The fishermen believe that at the commencement of the season
the vision of these fishes is not so good as it becomes later on, when, however,
it may be materially assisted by lighter days and moonlight nights. It has
been remarked that drift nets are less productive during bright moonlight than
when the nights are darker, as the fish are believed to perceive and avoid the
net suspended for their capture. In darker weather, however, the mackerel force

* Zoologist, 1867, p. 917.

+t On April 24th, 1880, a somewhat curious festival was celebrated on the Brighton beach
The fishing fleet being about to start in search of mackerel, the annual custom of holding what is
termed a ‘‘ bending in” was observed, the chief feature being to keep open house around the boats
where bread and cheese is gratuitously given to everyone who asks for it.—Anglers’ Note-book, p. 129
88 ACANTHOPTERYGIL.

their heads through the meshes beyond their gill openings which precludes their
being again retracted. The modes of capture must vary with local circumstances
but generally during the spring and autumn drift* nets only are employed,
whereas in the summer, as towards the end of May in Cornwall, these fishes come
nearer inland and seines are likewise used. The two may be also in operation at the
same time, thus in the first week of July, 1880, both drift and seine fishermen
were making large captures otf the Cornish coast. At this period a man termed a
huer is appointed to keep a look out for the appearance of the shoals of these
fishes: on perceiving which, he signals to the fishermen who at once depart in the
direction of the anticipated captures. Mr. R. Couch remarked in the Zoologist
that some of the fishermen believe “that if from any cause the eastward migrations
pass up mid-channel, the spring fish first appear on the eastern fishing grounds
about Brighton, and spawn before they get so far west as the Cornish or Devonshire
coasts: hence the eastern fishery is profitable while the western is a failure. If,
on the contrary, they pass up at short distances from the shore, the eastern
fishery is a failure and their boats come westwards to take the fish.” (p. 1410.)
The failure of the fishery, therefore, frequently depends upon the fishermen
looking for the fish in a wrong direction, and thus they pass unnoticed. They do
not rise to the surface during spring and autumn as they do in summer, so their
presence has to be detected by nets and fishing, sometimes there are few near
shore while they are abundant in the deep water. In September and October
mackerel mostly retire to deeper waters, or separate into small shoals, rendering
this mode of fishing useless. This, however, is very liable to vary, thus during
the last week in November, 1880, drift nets were still being employed at Penzance
and took large, fat, and well-flavoured mackerel by thousands a night, although
usually catches of this sort do not occur after the beginning of June or before the
end of February. Small mackerel are often captured until Christmas (Cornish).

At Rye there is a large mackerel fishery, where fixed nets termed “kettle
nets”’ are employed, each of which is a little over half-a-mile in length: the
poles to which they are attached being twelve feet high, while each contains three
chambers or bights. They commence being used on April 14th, and are con-
tinued until the end of November.

Droves of sea birds flying above and every now and then swooping down upon
the fish, often give a good indication of where they are: the circling, screaming
birds acting as detectives.

When mackerel are in small and divided companies, netting could not be
remunerative, but hand-lining might be, and it has been observed that more
proportionate success generally attends the employment of several lines used
together, while several hooks are best on one line. Those captured by hooks and
lines generally command a better price in the market than such as have been
netted. Although these fish may be taken from a boat at anchor, the favourite
time for fishing for mackerel with a bait is when there is a little ripple on the
sea, and a light gale is blowing, termed a ‘‘ mackerel breeze” by fishermen, which
lakes the boat along at a fair speed under sail, while should the sky be gloomy,
so much the better. The plan adopted is termed whifing, railing, trailing, or
plummeting. Hand-lining may be carried on at any time during the day, as they
appear to feed at all hours, but best in the morning and evening. The line is
short but heavily weighted to a cone-shaped leaden plummet: a small line, termed
the snood or snoozing, is attached to near the end of the leaded line on one side
and terminates in the hook at the other: the bait or lask is wedge-shaped, the
thick end being on the hook, while it should take on an undulating motion to
resemble a fish.

Laits— When whifing or hand-lining for these fishes, natural baits may be
employed, as a slip from the side of another mackerel’s tail termed a lask, a
cuttle fish, a thin vind of pork, or mud-worms. But besides the foregoing, any

* For a description of the various kinds of nets and how employed, see Introduction.

+ The pilchard season of 1879 ran into January, 1880: while the mackerel season of 1880
commenced in the latter part uf January, 1880 (‘. Cornish).
SCOMBRIDA. 89

glistening substance will attract them, as a pearl button, or Hearder’s silver spinner
which is an imitation fish fastened on to a silvered plate of copper, and mounted
so as to spin freely on a piece of wire. A slip of white kid or a piece of red
cloth have likewise been used with good effect ; or stranger still, Ball found about
two inches of the stem of a tobacco pipe, put on the line down to the hook, a
novel and most successful bait. Fishermen also believe they can entice mackerel
from the bottom by various eatable substances used when the boat is at anchor,
as salted pilchards which, having become rancid, are beaten to a pulp and hung
over the side of the boat in a basket from which little bits drop.

French mackerel vessels are of a larger capacity than those employed by
British fishermen, carry a greater number of hands, and are frequently aided
by steam power. The French seek the large shoals of spawning fish, and it is
said not to be uncommon for one vessel to obtain upwards of £1000 worth of fish
in a single season (while but few English boats are upwards of 40 tons burden,
and Mr. Dunn estimates that £250 would be a very good return for the best of
them). ‘They takefish for salting, and consequently do not require to repair
so rapidly to port. The captures are preserved on board and packed in the
hold, and when the latter is full they return to France.*

Having now described the modes employed for capturing these fish, a few
details are desirable to show their value when brought to market. Yarrell
furnishes some interesting figures respecting what obtained during the first
quarter of the present century. In May, 1807, the first Brighton boat-load sold
at Billingsgate at forty guineas a hundred, or seven shillings each, computing six
score to a hundred: this was the highest price ever reached in that market.
The next boat-load produced but thirteen guineas a hundred. In 1808 mackerel
became so plentiful in Dover that they were disposed of at sixty for a shilling:
while in June the same year at Brighton, a net was so completely filled by them,
that it was impossible to drag it ashore: the fish and net in the end sank together.
In 1821, the value of the catches of sixteen Lowestoft boats on the 30th of June,
amounted to £5252. In 1823, 1,420,000 of these fishes were taken at Yarmouth.
In 1844, during October, the Mount’s Bay fishermen took 1,400,000, which
sold for about £4000. In May, 1868, 300,000 were netted one morning near the
Scilly Isles. June, 1869, 10,000 a fortnight were secured at Weymouth, an event
which had not occurred for thirty years. Couch gives the average price of
mackerel for seven years as from £6 to £9 per thousand: and the numbers
taken in a boat of rather less than the average size with drift nets, from 15,000
to 24,000. But it sometimes occurs that more than these may be taken in a
single night; in fact, at Penzance drift nets have frequently brought 100 tons in
a single night in May.

Breeding.—In the spring of the year the roe of the mackerel may be observed
to be growing very fast, and in the south coast of Britain it seems to be shed
about May or June. Sars remarks that it is deposited at some leagues from the
shore and at the very surface of the waves, where a great quantity of these fishes
may often be met with, engaged in spawning. The ova of these fishes shed in
the Brighton Aquarium, has likewise been observed to float. A low temperature
exercises great influence in postponing breeding, and fish in roe are occasionally
seen even in winter. Harmer found 546,681 ova in a female 18 oz. weight,
430,800 in a second of 20 oz. weight, and 454,961 in a third of similar size, all
having been captured in the month of June: while Bloch counted 540,000 in one
he examined. Mackerel quickly recover from the effects of spawning.

Although this fish is generally a very rapid grower, such must greatly depend
on whether suitable food abounds, or the reverse. At Mevagissey, where spawning
occurs in May or June, young about three inches long, are plentiful in the bays
about August and September, leaving for the deep sea in November, when they
are from 6 to 7 inches in length, and reappearing the following June about 8 or 9

* Large quantities of mackerel are now imported in ice from Norway, commencing in the
spring and continuing until the end of July.
90 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

inches long (Dunn). In fact, the young at the commencement of winter are
small, and their growth is slow up to the following spring.

Hermaphrodites—Couch observed upon having noticed these in the form of a
lobe of roe lying between the usual pair of lobes of milt: while A. Malm like-
wise describes and figures such.

Diseases.—The nipper crab, Polybius Henslowii, which swims near the surface,
has been known to kill mackerel. The Myxine, a form of sea lamprey, likewise
bores into its flesh. Mr. Dunn was good enough to send me an example of a
fish louse, Rocinela dannoniensis, which he took off a mackerel at Mevagissey, in
September, 1879. He observed that some hundreds have been observed on these
fish, and all he noticed or heard of were found clinging near the pectoral fin,
except one which was imbedded near the vent. When half a mackerel is used
as a bait, the lice will sometimes in a few minutes scoop out all the fish, leaving
nothing but the skeleton and the skin.

As food.—Mackerel are much esteemed, the moderately sized more than the
very large ones, but they taint very rapidly, as well as lose flavour when kept.
Some prefer those captured during the autumn and winter months, while others
like such as are in roe taken in May and June or even July. Those marked with
a dark interrupted line along the side are said to be of inferior quality. Owing
to the rapidity with which these fish decompose in hot weather, and the
consequent deleterious results to consumers, vendors were permitted as early as
1698 to cry them through the streets of London on Sundays, an enactment
which does not seem to have ever been repealed. The employment of steam
carriers in the place of sailing vessels, and which take the captures from the
various boats and convey them rapidly to market, has proved a great gain to all
parties, and a boon to the general public. They are usually packed in boxes
containing about fifty each for sending to market, ice being added. This fish
was much relished by the Romans, because its internals furnished the precious
garum, a sort of pickle which gave a high relish to their sauces, besides being
medicinally employed, and was said at one time to sell for a sum which would be
equivalent to £48 of our present money for two gallons of it.

Modes of cooking—They may be boiled, and fennel or gooseberry sauce as
well as melted butter is sent to table with them: they may be stuffed with force-
meat and baked: or split open, the backbone removed, and the fish fried in lard:
they are likewise very good broiled whole or stewed with claret. Fillets of
mackerel may be fried, broiled, boiled, or stewed in wine.

Habitat.— Extensively distributed in the northern and temperate seas of both
hemispheres, and as far south as the Canary Isles. In the Mediterranean the
fishery commences at the same time as in the north of Europe, or in the English
Channel, or even earlier. They are taken in the Gulf of Lyons from April until
August, and in Provence even in May, continuing sometimes until October. At
Nice they are said to abound during the spring, and at Genoa are known as April
fish. They extend their range into the Black Sea, and during the summer
numbers are present, while those of various sizes appear all to breed: they are
said not to be found in the Sea of Azof. These fish differ in size and taste not only
with the seasons, but also the localities they inhabit: we find that they are finest
in the English Channel. They are always few in the Baltic, although they
occasionally occur off the coast of Sweden, as in 1851, but they were small, it
taking about three to average one pound weight. Neither do they seem to be
always esteemed, at least, in Amsterdam: and in the Mediterranean, as a rule,
they are dry and inferior in flavour. In the Western Hemisphere they extend
from Greenland to as far south as Cape Cod in Massachusets.

In the British Isles they are most abundant along the south coast, up the
eastern shores to Norfolk and Suffolk, and also along the western counties.
They appear off the Scottish coast late in the summer, as has been already alluded
to under the head of habits. Their presence is often detected by large flocks of
sea birds, which are swooping down and feeding on the fishes below them, and
show the fishermen where they may be found,
SCOMBRID.&. 91

In Ireland they are common round the coast, from Donegal and Antrim, down
the east and along the south to Kerry, but are not so abundant along the west
as along the east side of the island. Thompson observed in 1836 that in
Newcastle, county Down, they were ouly taken at the latter end of August,
while ten miles to the south they had appeared a month previously, this difference
-being of annual occurrence. The best fishing on the north-east coast commences
about July. Rutty remarked that these fish arrive off Dublin in May, and
continue for three months.

The ordinary size of mackerel for the table is from 14 to 16 inches in length.
Buckland remarked that in the spring of 1879 he received one 18 inches long,
and which weighed 2 lb. 11 0z. Mr. Cornish recorded one from Penzance 183
inches long, and 2 lb. 8 oz. in weight (Zoologist, 1876, p. 4931). Yarrell mentions
one of 23 Ib. taken at Poulton, in November, 1849, and an example 2 oz. more
caught off Hastings in 1856.

2. Scomber colias, Plate XXXIV.

Kodtac, Arist. Hist. Anim. v, 9, viii, 18, ix, 2; Athen. iii, 118, 120, vii, 321.

? Colias, Pliny, xxxii, c. 11; Belon. p. 202; Rondel. viii, c. 8, p. 235, c. fig. ;
Salv. f. 242; Gesner, Aquat. p. 256; Aldrov. Pisc. p. 274; Jonston, lib. i, tit. iii,
c. 3, punct. 6, p. 97.t. xxi, f. 11; Willugh. Ich. p. 182. Colias Rondeletii, Ray,
p. 59.

Scomber colias, Gmel. Linn. p. 13829; Bl. Schn. p. 22; Lacép. iii, pp. 39, 40;
Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 580; Turton, p. 100; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 171, and Europ.
Mérid. iii, p. 413; Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 39, pl. ccix; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1)
i, p. 181, c. fig. (Hd. 2) i, p. 148 (Hd. 3) ii, p. 204; Storer, Fish. Mass. p. 45;
De Kay, New York Fauna, Fish. p. 104, pl. xi, f. 33; Lowe, Pro. Zool. Soc. 1850,
p. 248; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 30; Gimther, Catal. ii, p. 361; Steind. S. B.
Ak. Wien. lxxii, 1876, p. 81, and Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 2.

Scomber maculatus, Couch, Mag. Nat. Hist. v, p. 22, f. 8 (not Forster MSS.) ;
Jenyns, Manual, p. 361; White, Catal. p. 830; Thompson, Ann. Nat. Hist. vii, p.
479, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 93.

Scomber diego, Ayres, Proc. Calif. Acad. Nat. Sc. i, 1857, p. 92.

Spanish mackarel, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 78, pl. lxxx.

B. vii, D 7/7,+V-VI, P. 21, V. 1/5, A. 34V-VI, C. 21.

Length of head 4 to 44, of caudal fin 6 to 63, height of body 43 to 51 in
the total length. The thickness of the body equals about 2/3 of its height.
Eye—diameter 3} in the length of the head, 1 diameter from the end of the
snout, and 1 apart. The posterior adipose eyelid passes over the hind quarter
of the pupil, and crossing the lower edge of the anterior lid is inserted into
the suborbital ring of bones: the anterior lid does not reach so far as the pupil.
Teeth—in the jaws in a single row: fine ones on the vomer and palatines, but
none on the tongue. Fins—first dorsal rather high, its longest spine equalling
the length of the interspace between the two dorsal fins. Pectoral about half as
long as the head. Scales—those in the pectoral region are larger than the others
on the body, where although they form a species of corselet, it is not so distinct
as in some of the tunnies. Air-bladder—present. Cvlowrs—somewhat similar to
what are observed in the common mackerel, more especially in its spotted variety,
except that the lines which cross its back are usually less numerous. The dark
colour of the back is continued below the lateral-line, so as to include almost the
entire upper half of the body, while the abdomen has numerous large round or
vertical blotches irregularly dispersed over it. A black shoulder spot extends
to the base of the pectoral fin.

Varieties—Scomber pneumatophorus, De la Roche, Ann. Mus. 1809, t. xiii, p. 334,
Mém. p. 48; Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 36; Guichen. Explor. Alger. p. 56; Giinther,
Catal. ii, p. 359, is considered by Steindachner, and other excellent observers, to
be a variety of this fish, which, if so, would possess from 7 to 10 dorsal spines
and 11 or 12 dorsal rays. Personally I have not sufficient materials to examine
92 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

this question, but the example of each variety in my collection have the numbers
recorded, otherwise the proportions of the two are very similar.

Names.—-Coly mackerel and Spanish mackerel, the first taken from its Latin
name, whereas the second is objectionable, this designation having been used
for another species. Ray remarks, “The tunny-fish or Spanish mackrell. Hunc
in Mari Cornubiam alluente captum Pensantie vidimus.”

Habits —Couch states that this species is not so active as the common mackerel,
but is said to be equally voracious asa feeder. It comes irregularly off our coasts,
but at Marseilles it appears at spring time, and at Nice in numbers during May and
November.

As food—Mr. Dunn observes that its flesh is softer and it decomposes
more quickly than the common mackerel. It is found in Hurope to be very
inferior to the Scomber scomber, from which it may at once be known by its much
larger eye: in fact, in the Mediterranean they are usually salted before being
eaten. In Spain salted colias is said to obtain a good market, but in no other
European country have they any considerable sale. On the other hand, De Kay
asserts that at New York ‘they are excellent eating.” Therefore, like the Scomber
scomber, their taste may depend on locality.

Habitat.—In Europe they are found in the Mediterranean, wanderers straggling
to the south coast of Great Britain. Lowe, l.c., recorded that in April, 1844, the
market at Funchal, in Madeira, was plentifully supplied with these fishes for two
or three successive days. They were said to have been brought from Porto Santo.
In the Western Hemisphere they are found from Nova Scotia to Cape Hatteras.

This fish in certain seasons does not appear to be infrequent in Cornwall:
according to Couch, three or four hundred are occasionally seen at a time. A
number were recorded in 1850 off Brighton (Hussey, Zoologist, 1850, p. 2929).
Edward thinks he recognized one example in Banffshire. Turton observes that
they are found frequently in the weirs about Swansea but do not come in shoals.

In Ireland they have been recorded on hearsay by Thompson as occurring on the
Connemara coast; it is said on the authority of Mr. McCalla that two species of
mackerel are found there, and the second is supposed to be S. colias, while it is also
termed Spanish mackerel: Mr. Nimmo subsequently stated to Mr. Thompson that
the Spanish mackerel of Roundstone is the Belone vulgaris.

Valenciennes records them of 4 1b. weight and 16 inches in length. while
De Kay observes that at New York, during August and September, he has seen
examples of this fish nearly 2 feet long. Iam indebted for the specimen figured
to Professor Vinceguerra, of Genoa.
SCOMBRIDA. 93

Genus II.—Orcrnus (Cuvier), Liithen.

Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchie present. Body oblong and somewhat
compressed. Cleft of mouth deep. Small teeth on the jaws, vomer and palatine
bones, none on the tongue. Two dorsal fins, the spines of the first weak : finlets
posterior to the second dorsal and anal fins : no free spine before the anal fin. Scales
small, covering the body, those on the anterior portion of the body forming a species
of corselet. Lateral-line unarmed, a longitudinal keel along either side of the free
portion of the tail. Air-bladder, when present, simple. Pyloric appendages numerous.

Geographical distribution.—Found in most tropical and temperate seas.

Fishes of this genus differ from the true mackerel, Scomber, in having a
longitudinal keel along either side of the free portion of the tail, and the two
dorsal fins being placed close together: while the corselet, which is commencing
to be seen in Scomber colias, becomes now more developed in adults, and the
pectoral fins are likewise elongated in examples which have attained to their full
growth.

They are very voracious, and may be seen in shoals pursuing other fish on
which they prey.

As food, they frequently occasion indigestion and diarrhoea when eaten fresh,
but are more digestible when salted or otherwise prepared.

Davy in his “‘ Physiological Researches,” observes that he found the heat of
the body of a tunny considerably higher than that of the surrounding water,
caused by the quantity of red particles in its blood.

1. Orcynus thynnus, Plate XXXV.

Obvvoc, Aristot. ii, c. 13, iv, c. 10, v, c. 9-11, vi, c. 17, viii, c. 2, 12, 13, 15, 19,
30, ix, c. 2; Aflian, ix, c. 42, xiii, c. 138, 16, 27, xv. c. 3, 5,6; Athen. vii, pp. 122,
301, 316, 319; Oppian, Hal. ii, p. 48, iii, 620. Opxbvoc, Ailian, i, c. 40; Oppian,
i,e. 8, ii, p. 59; Athen. vii, pp. 301, 315. Medavépuc, Athen. vii, p. 315. Thunnus,
Ovid, Hal. v, p. 98. Thynnus, Pliny, ix, c. 15; Strabo, Geogr. iii, p. 145, v, p.
223, and vii, p. 320 A. xii, p. 845 D. xvii, p. 834. Orcynus, Pliny, xxxii, c. 11;
Gesner, p. 962, and Ed. 1598, f. 59, c. fig.; Aldrov. iii, c. 18, p. 314; Jonston,
lib. i, t. 1, c. 2, Art. J, t. iii, f. 4; Rondel. viii, c. 13, p. 249, c. fig. Melandrys,
Pliny, ix,c.15. Thunnus sive Thynnus, Belon. p. 108; Rondel. p. 241. Tonno,
Salv. p. 123. Thynnus, Gesner, pp. 957, 967, 1148. Tunny fish, Willughby, p.
176, pl. M. 1, £.3; Ray, p. 58. Thunnus, Schoney. p. 75. Scomber, Briinn. Pisc.
Mass. p. 70, n. 86. Z'unny, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Hd. 1) iii, p. 266, pl. Iii, (Ed. 2)
iii, p. 360, pl. lxiii. Scomber, No. 2, Artedi, Genera, p. 31; Duhamel, ii, Sect. 7,
c. 2; Cetti, Stor. Nat. di Sard. iti, p. 138; Laquat, Voy. p. 23.

Scomber thynnus, Linn. Syst. i, p. 493; Gronov. Zooph. No. 305; Bloch, t. lv;
Gmel. Linn. p. 1330; Lacép. ii, p. 605; Bl. Schn. p. 21; Bonaterre, Ency. Ich.
p. 139, pl. Iviii, f. 228; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 581; Donovan, Brit. Fish. i, pl. v;
Turton, p.101; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 163; Scouler, Mag. Nat. Hist. 1833, vi, p. 529;
Fleming, p. 218; Jenyns, p. 862; Martens, Reise nach Venedig. ii, p. 432.

Thynnus mediterraneus, Risso, Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 414; Collett, Norges Fiske,

44.
e Thynnus vulgaris, Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 58, pl. ccx; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1)
i, p. 188, ¢. fig. (Hd. 2) i, p. 150 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 209; Cuvier, Regne Anim. II]. Poiss,
pl. xlv, f. 2; Storer, Fish. Mass. p. 47; Swainson, Fishes, ii. p. 238; Thompson,
Ann. Nat. Hist. v, p. 9, and Nat, Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 94; De Kay, New York
Fauna, Fishes, p. 105, pl. x, f. 28; Guichen. Explor. Sc. Algér. Poiss. p. 57;
Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 7.

Thynnus Orientalis, Tem. and Schleg. Fauna Japon. p. 94.

Oreynus secundi-dorsalis (Storer) Gill. Amer. Fish. Report, 1873, p. 802.

Thynnus thynnus, White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 30; Ginther, Catal. ii, p. 362,
and Fische Godefroy Mus. Heft. v. December, 1876, p. 150.
94 ACANTHOPTERYGIL.

Tunny, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 86, pl. lxxxii.
Orcynus thynnus, Liitken, Spolia Atlantica, 1880, p. 460.
Of moderate age.
Thynnus coretta, Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 102; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 363.
Young.

Ancicoti (? Alicortt), Duhamel, Péches, Sect. vii, p. 205, pl. vii, f. 5.

Thynnus brachypterus, Cuy. and Val. viii, p. 98, pl. cexi; Cuvier, Régne
Anim, Ill. Poiss. pl. xlvi, f. 2; Giinther, Catal. ui, p. 363.

Short-finned Tunny, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iv, p. 425, pl. lxxxii*; Dunn,
Journ. Roy. Inst. Corn. xxii.

B. vii, D. 13-14/524 VIII-IX, P. 31, V. 1/5, A. +VII-VIII, C. 32-35, Vert.
16/23.

Length of head from 3} to 4, of caudal fin 55 to 6, height of body 4 to 44 in
the total length. Hye—with an adipose lid having a circular opening, in adults the
diameter is about 1/7 of the length of the head, while the distance from the
eye to the end of the snout equals 1/3 of the length of the head. Lower jaw
slightly the longer: the maxilla reaches to beneath the front edge of the eye.
Teeth—a single row of small ones in either jaw, a few on the vomer and ina
band on the palatines: none on the tongue. Fims—the pectoral scimitar-shaped,
and varying in size with age. In the adult it is about 53 times in the total length
of the fish: when a little younger, O. coretta, it is about 53 in the total length of
the fish: whereas in the young, 0. brachypterus, it is not more than 1/7 to 1/8.
The first dorsal fin reaches about to the origin of the second, while the anal
commences under the first free dorsal ray. Scales—cover the entire body, in the
adult forming a very distinct corselet which sends backwards three pro-
longations. The superior passes along the base of the first dorsal fin: the central
one is continued along the middle of the side, and in a groove in it rests the upper
edge of the pectoral fin: while the inferior passes along the lower margin of the
abdomen to a little beyond the termination of the ventral fin. In young examples
the corselet is not so well developed, neither are the posterior prolongations so
marked. Avr-biadder—present.f = Colours—back dark blue, almost black in
adults, but having some stripes in the young: gray along the sides and white
beneath. The sides are reticulated with fine gray lines, enclosing oval or round
spaces. The corselet is rather lighter than the contiguous parts. Jaws dashed
with pink. First dorsal fin dusky: the second and the anal pinkish, shaded with
gray. Pectoral and ventral dusky, the first with a white posterior edge. Caudal
dusky. The younger fish are the lightest coloured.

Varieties.—The tunny has had many names conferred upon it, due to the
considerable modifications which it undergoes during its transformation from
extreme youth to old age.

Names.—Pennant observed that on the coast of Scotland they were termed
Mackrelstwre, derived from the generic name of “ mackerel,” and the Norwegian
word sterie or great. Tunny has been considered a derivation respecting its
rapidity of movements, or else that the term is of Hebrew or Phoenician origin,
in allusion to its great size. Thon in olden times signifying any large inhabitant
of the sea, or even the crocodile of the rivers. Aristotle recorded tunnies up to
1200 pounds weight, and Belonius states that in 1665 an example was taken off the
Spanish coast measuring 32 feet in length and 16 in girth.

These fishes have been known in various places by different names, in accord-
ance with their size, thus along the shores of the Black Sea the very young have
obtained the designation of auvwid, which signifies such from the time of extrusion
from the egg until their first leavig the Euxine. The semi-adults are termed
pelamis, which covers the time until their return the succeeding spring. The very
large ones go by the name of orcynus. But as the same term is differently employed
in different localities, an enumeration of names becomes of but little practical
use. Le Thon commun, French.

f See a detailed description by H. Malm in his “Fauna of Bohusliu,” and for the anatomy
of the fish see Cuv. and Val. viii, pp. 63-69,
SCOMBRID A. 95

Habits. —They are generally considered as very timorous and easily frightened :
for example, it is recorded that due to the earthquake which overthrew Lisbon
in 1755, some alteration was occasioned in the character or conformation of the
coast which has caused these fishes ever since to prefer the African shore. In
Cornwall they mostly arrive in August, with the pilchards, or even earlier as
July, and continue until the end of October or even into November. They
pursue smaller fishes with great rapidity, and seem especially pleased when
among pilchards, Clupea pilchardus, the skipper, Hsow saurus, or the herring,
Clupea harengus, and have even been observed to spring after the skipper as
it jumps out of the sea to try and avoid its foe. But as the winter sets in, they
appear to become inactive, reviving again the succeeding spring. It has been
surmised that the large and solitary tunnies, which are occasionally found off our
coast, are such as for some cause have parted company from others of their kind.
It may be that having outlived the influence of sex, they have wearied of the
further society of their fellows: or else that, like the rogue elephants, they have
been expelled. Smaller tunnies are observed in limited companies off our coasts,
being occasionally seen in Cornwall, and have been captured in herring nets at
Yarmouth.*

That tunnies, similarly to their relations the common mackerel, undertake
periodical migrations has been abundantly proved, but that all do so or that their
extent is as great as was formerly supposed is open to question. They were
believed to congregate in the Atlantic, and passing the Spanish coast to enter
the Mediterranean in immense shoals, continuing their course on to the Black
Sea in order to deposit their spawn there, while in this migration they rarely
passed far from the coast. Diminished in numbers, they enter the Bosphorus,
where, Pliny observed, that apparently alarmed at the presence of a white rock,
they then cross to the opposite side termed the ‘Golden Horn,” reputed to
have received its name from the wealth which these fishes bring. When
the time arrives for their leaving the Black Sea, they await a north wind and
pass out at the opposite side to the one on which they entered. These interesting
accounts of how the Bosphorus is passed are now stated to be fictitious. Off
Spain these fishes arrive in three distinct batches, the first being composed
of large individuals weighing four to five hundredweight, the second of
such as are from two to three hundredweight, and the third smaller. As
was remarked above as occurring in the common mackerel, those of different
ages are apt to keep in companies. At Cadiz they are captured going towards
the Mediterranean, but not on their return, whereas at Gibraltar and Tarifa
they are fished for both coming and returning, the fishes at the first period
being the largest and the best. While at Ceuta, on the opposite coast, they
are rare, being taken on arrival but not while returning from the Mediter-
ranean. Duhamel observes that they arrive in May and stay until the end of
June in Corsica, Sardinia, Catalonia, and Sicily, but he likewise remarks that
they fish for them in Catalonia until October, the late catches perhaps being
returning fish. At Agde in the Gulf of Lyons, they are taken from April until
September, and in Provence from June until September: while in the inter-
mediate locality of Ciotat at the mouth of the Rhone, the first fishery is from
their arrival in March until July 15th, after which date until October, the
returning fishes are said to be taken in large numbers. In the not far distant
locality of Cassis, they capture these fishes in November until the end of
December, showing that some at least most probably remain in the Mediterranean,
to the depths of which sea many must retire during the winter months.

Modes of capture.—Off the Cornish coast the tunny is mostly taken in
mackerel or pilchard drift nets, or accidentally when fishing for herring or other
species of fish. Its presence being more or less accidental and its value in-
considerable, it can only be said to be accidentally captured.

But in some parts of the Mediterranean, more especially at either extremity
of that sea, tunny fisheries have been carried on from almost immemorial ages.

* Some authorities have looked upon the small tunnies taken off Yarmouth as bonitos.
96 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Some authors have referred their commencement prior to the historic flood :
others have credited Tubal Cain with having first employed boats and manu-
factured hooks for this purpose. The Phcenicians are said to have established
tunny fisheries in Spain. Herodotus, 3.c. 550, alludes to nets employed for taking
this fish, and Aulian, how a watch tower was erected in an elevated situation to
enable a watchman or huer to keep a look out for the advent of the tunnies.
When perceived, he warned the fishermen, and likewise gave notice as to the way
the shoal was heading. Much the same procedure continues to the present time,
and on the watchman giving the alarm, numerous boats at once proceed to sea,
the fishermen being under the orders of a chief, who directs them how to
surround the fishes with a long net constructed of several pieces, which are
severally joined together. As they draw in closer, more nets are added and the
affrighted fish driven to where their destruction becomes easy. These may be
stationary nets, having a cone-shaped tunnel to receive them, or large enclosures
constructed of nets (see Introduction). In the Black Sea the greatest captures
are made as the tunnies pass the Bosphorus.

Batts.— Although some authors assert that these fish do not take a bait, this
cannot be invariably the case. Peunant observed that they did in his time: and
in localities where they are numerous, an imitation fish proves a good lure.

Breeding.—Off Sicily, according to the Duke d’Ossada, these fish arrive in
April or early in May with the ova undeveloped, but they rapidly grow and are
deposited after the middle of June. In July the young are said to weigh 1} oz.:
in August, 4 0z.: in October, 30 oz.

As food.—When quite fresh, if not above about 30 1b. in weight, the flesh is
tolerable. its colour before being cooked somewhat resembles beef, but it becomes
paler when boiled. Some consider its flavour between that of the salmon and
the mackerel, but inferior to both. Others have compared the firmness of its flesh
to that of the sturgeon, but considered its flavour to be superior. They may be
used for soup, as ragouts, or plain fried or boiled. In France pies are made
of tunny which are celebrated all over that country. Thon mariné is this fish
preserved in oil with salt, and which is eaten cold like pickled salmon. The
eggs also are prepared with salt.

In Pliny’s time tunnies were cut into pieces, the shoulder, neck, and abdomen
being most esteemed when eaten quite fresh, but even then they occasionally gave
rise to much flatulence. The remainder of the fish was preserved in salt. The
portions, which somewhat resembled black oaken boards, were termed melandrya.
The tail part was that least esteemed. Younger ones were cut into cubical pieces
and termed cybiwm, or small cubes. The shoulders formed the elidiwm: the
auchenia was from the nape of the neck: while the horeum or wreum was believed
to be the tail part, but these terms appear to have been differently used in distant
localities. The tunnies of Spain and Sardinia were considered by the Romans as
more tender and better tasted than those from Constantinople, this was attributed
to the food being superior, and the further they travelled from these countries
towards the column of Hercules the poorer they were said to become.

Habitat—From the North Atlantic, extending into the Mediterranean and the
Black Sea, along the British coasts and have been captured off Sweden, while the
British Museum has received an example from Tasmania, in the South Pacific,
rendering it probable that their range is more extensive than is at present known.
In the Western Hemisphere they are occasionally seen in Newfoundland,
and sometimes specimens of large size are washed up dead, especially after severe
gales (Saxby, Zoologist, 1871, p. 2553). They extend down North America to so
far south as Florida and even into the Carribean Sea, and Poey enumerates the
various stages as distinct species all belonging to the Cuban Fauna.

In Britain they have been taken in the vicinity of the islands on the north
and west coast of Scotland, while off Banffshire several have been captured from
time to time, and avery large one ina salmon net at Portsey. This last measured 9
feet in length and 6 in girth (Edward). They have been recorded off the
Norfolk coast where a large one came ashore (Gatcombe, Zool. 1877, p. 27). In
the Norwich Museum is one 42 inches in Icneth, believed to have been
SCOMBRID. 97

secured off the Suffolk coast, near Southwold. A large one likewise came ashore
off the Kent coast in 1880, while these fish are said by Mr. R. Couch to be
common a few miles from shore around the Scilly Isles, Cape Cornwall, Lands End,
Tol-pedw-penwith, to the Lizard; less so eastwards, but still occasionally found on
the Devonshire coast, until about August, when they leave in a south-westerly
direction.

In Ireland, Dr. Jacob obtained one 8 feet 3 inches long, off Dublin Bay, in
the autumn of 1841, and which weighed fully 300 Ib.

_ Occasional notices of the capture of large examples of this fish occur in natural
history works. Pennant records a specimen weighing 460 lb. taken at Inverary
in 1769. In 1801, three were taken off Margate, being said to be the first record
of tunnies so far north on the English coast. In July, 1831, an example 9 feet
long was taken at Gairloch, nearly opposite Greenock, it was in pursuit of herrings.
1840 they were abundant off Cornwall, and some weighed 80 Ib. : 1850, they were
common in the Moray Firth, one captured was 9 feet long, while another killed
near Inverness was 5 feet (Gordon, Zool. 1852, p. 8459). In March, 1851, one
weighing 316 lb. was taken off Dartmouth. In September, 1853, one said to be
about 60 stone or 480 lb. weight was stranded in Tees Bay (Hogg, An. Nat.
Hist. 2, 1855, xvi, p 213). In September, 1868, an example, measuring 8 feet
9 inches, was taken at Dawlish, in Devonshire, it weighed between 3 and 4
cwt.: in November, the same year, one weighing 5 cwt. was secured in
the Firth of Forth. On October 6th, 1870, one 6 feet 9 inches long was taken at
Yarmouth. July 22nd, 1873, one 9 feet long near Plymouth: November, 1876,
one 9 feet 4 inches at Bacton. In May, 1880, the cranium of one, 10 inches across,
was found off Margate: it must have belonged to a fish fully 7 feet long, and
which probably weighed about 500 Ib.

But the foregoing are by no means the largest recorded. Storer mentions one
taken near Cape Ann, in America, weighing 1000 lb. While in Sardinia
tunnies under 100 lb. weight are termed scampirro: from 1 to 300 Ib. mezzo-
tonno, “half-tunny.” They frequently attain 1000 lb., and Cetti asserts that
they run to 1800 lb.

The figure is from an example in the National collection.

2. Orcynus germo, Plate XXXVI.

? Albacore, Sloane, Voy. Jamaica, 1707, i, p. 28, pl. i, f. 1.

Alilonghi, Duhamel, Péches, ii, Sect. vii, pp. 203, 207; Cetti, Nat. Hist. Sard. .
ili, p. 191.

seagate alatunga, Gmel. Linn. p. 1330; Walb. Artedi, iii, p. 222; Lacép. iti,
p. 21; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 590.

Scomber germo, Lacép. i, p. 598 and iti, p.1; Bennett, Whaling Voyage, ii,

. 278.
U Orcynus alalonga, Risso, Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 419: Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 238;
Couch, Zoologist, 1846, p. 1413, c. fig.; Scott, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (3) 1865,
xvi, p. 268.

Tons alalonga, Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 120, pl. cexv; Cuv. Régne Anim. II.
Poiss. pl. xlvii, f. 1; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 31; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. Second
Supp. p. 14, c. fig. (Ed. 3) ii, p. 220, c. fig.; Lowe, Trans. Zool. Soc. ii, p. 4,
and Pro. Zool. Soc. 1839, p. 78; Giinther,, Catal. ii, p. 366; Thompson, Ann.
and Mag. Nat. Hist. (3) 1861, p. 340. -

Thynnus Pacificus and argenti-vittatus, Cuv. and Val. vili, pp. 133, 134;
Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 366. oe

Thynnus balteatus, Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 136.

? Auawis Sloanit, Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 148.

Thynnus albacora, Lowe, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1839, p. 77, and Trans. Zool. Soc.
iii, p. 4; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 3665. :

Thynnus macropterus and sibi, Temm. and Schleg. Fauna Japon. Poiss,
pp. 97, 98, pl. land li; Bleeker, Verh. Bat. Gen. xxiv, Makr. p. 87.

Long-finned twiny, R. Q. Couch, Zoologist, p. 1413, ¢. fig.

aI
98 ACANTHOPTERYGIL.

Germon, J. Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 100, pl. Ixxxiv.

Thynnus germo, Steind. 8. B. Ak. Wien. 1876, p. 151, pl. xevi; Giinther, Fish.
Gode. Mus. Heft. xi, Dec. 1876, p. 151, t. xevi (scaling incorrect).

Oreynus germo, Liitken, Spolia Atlant. p. 187, t. iii, fig. 1, 2.

B. vii, D. 14/2, + VIL-VIIL, P. 37, V. 1/5, A. 34; -+ VIII-IX, C. 35, Vert. 40.

Length of head 33 to 4, of caudal fin 5, height of body 43 in the total Jength.
Fye-—diameter 43 to 5 in the length of the head, 14 to 2 diameters from the end
of the snout. Lower jaw the longer: the maxilla reaches posteriorly to
beneath the front edge or first third of the eye. Teeth—a row in the jaws,
also present on the vomer, the palatines, and on the tongue. 'ims—this species
is distinguished by the great length of its sickle-shaped pectoral fin which is
situated in the middle of the depth of the body: in the adult it equals about one-
third of the total length of the fish, but as im the common tunny so in the germon
it has been ascertained that the comparative length of this fin increases with the
age of the fish. Dr. Littken has figured in Spolia Atlantica, t. iii, f. 2 (see plate
xxxvi), at thrice its natural size, one which measured 4/10 of an inch in length,
and in which the pectoral fin was only one-eighth of the total length. The
ventrals are placed close together, separated by a fine scale, which gives the appear-
ance of an additional ray. Dr. Scott states that the Exe example had 8 finlets
above and 7 below. Cvecal apyendages—numerous. Scales—somewhat similar to
what exist in O. ihynnus: the groove for the reception of the pectoral fin is well
marked, but the corselet is much more obscure. Colours—very dark blue along
the back, becoming silvery on the sides and beneath. Occasionally dark parallel
longitudinal lines pass along the sides of the body. Fins dark.

In the young there are strovg spines ab the angle of the preopercle, the
posterior edge of which is also serrated.

The various stages of this fishes growth have been named much as follows.
Aduit, with pectoral fins reaching to beyond the termination of the second dorsal,
Orcynus alatunga and O. alalonga. The body one-fourth higher than in adults,
O. pacificus. Pectorals slightly shorter, being 33 in the total length, O. argenti-
vittatus: a little shorter still, or 4 in the total length, O. balteatus and
O. macropterus.

Names.— Germon or long-finned tunny : the first is said to be a corruption of
War-man in use at the Ile d’Yeu, when the English were masters of Guienne and
Poictou, and referring most probably to its habits of warfare among other fishes:
Albacore. Hegalalonchia is its Basque name, and signifies ‘ long-winged,” while
the usual term among French sailors of longue-oreille or “ long-eared,” also refers
to the extent of its pectoral fins.

Habits—These fishes appear to have much the same habits as the common
tunny, and are equally voracious. They arrive in the Bay of Biscay sometimes
as early as May, but more commonly in June, and remain until October, and
are usually about two months later than the O. thymus. The germon preys upon
mullets, pilchards, mackerel, and other fish of grecarious habits, and M. d’Orbigny
has found flying-fishes in their stomachs.

Bennett observes that ships when cruising slowly in the Pacific Ocean are
usually attended by myriads of these fish for many successive months, but a few
days rapid sailing is suflicient to get rid of them; they only take a bait while the
vessel is moving. They follow the shark in shoals, and annoy it in the same
manner as smaller birds do those of a larger and predacious kind, as the hawk or
owl. He considered they came to the ship for protection against their chief
enemy the sword-fish. ‘‘They are very voracious and miscellaneous feeders.
Flying-fish, calmars, and small shoal fish are their more natural food: though
they do not refuse the animal offal from a ship. Among the other food contained
in their maw, wc have found small ostracions, file-tish, sucking-fish, janthina
shells, and pelagic crabs. In one instance a small bonito, and in a second a
dolphin eight inches long, and a paper nautilus shell containing its sepia tenant.
It was often amusing to watch an albacore pursuing a flying-fish, and to mark
the precision with which it swam beneath the feeble aeronaut, keeping him
SCOMBRIDAL. 99

steadily in view, and preparing to seize him at the moment of his descent. But
this the flying-fish would often elude by instantaneously renewing its leap, and
not unfrequently escaped by extreme agility.”

The example described by Dr. Scott was taken three miles up the Exe, where
it had got entangled among some palings, which had been driven into the river
about a foot from the edge, where a kind of quay had been made, and which
formed a cul-de-sac. Into this the fish got: and'so violent were its struggles to
get out, that it drew the attention of some workmen who were at a little distance,
when one of them got his gun and shot it. The efforts to free itself by shaking
the palings were described as like the strength of two men.

Means of captwre——They are said to take baits only when at great depths, and
to refuse them if at or near the surface: a cloudy sky and a mackerel breeze are
opportune for this fishing, while the fishery is during July and August. Cuvier
observes that when once a shoal of these fishes has been discovered, the fishermen
follow them through the entire season.

Baits.—Will take any artificial substance resembling a fish trailing through
the water, but when hooked are very strong. M.de la Moriniere says that the
fishermen of Ile d’Yeu commence in the south of the Bay of Biscay, opposite
St. Sebastian, and follow the fish as they migrate towards the north of Belleisle.
capturing from 13,000 to 14,000 ofa season. Their lines are 80 fathoms in length
and salted-eel is considered the best bait, but a scrap of white or blue cloth or a
piece of earthenware or tin cut into the form of a pilchard is often sufficiently
attractive.

As food.—It is found in the Bay of Biscay, and during the best season or in
July and August, its flesh is whiter and more delicate than that of the tunny,
whereas both anterior to this time and subsequently it is inferior.

Habitat.—Mediterranean, and extending in the Atlantic to Madeira and the
Cape of Good Hope. Is common along the south coasts of Europe, and only a few
stragglers have been recorded in Devonshire and Cornwall. Van Bemmelen,
however, includes this species among his list of those found in Holland. It has
been taken twice in Mount’s Bay, in Cornwall, in mackerel seines, the last of these
two in 1846. In March, 1861, an example 33 inches long was captured at
Portland and sent to the British Museum (W. Thompson): in 1865, on August
26th, one 24 inches long to the base of the caudal fin, and 12 lbs. weight, was
killed on the Devonshire coast, a little way up the River Exe, about three miles
from its mouth, and at about half-tide (Scott 1. c.).

The example figured is one in the national collection and was brought from
the Cape of Good Hope. The figure of the young is an outline of that by
Professor Liitken 1. c. given three times the natural size.

Sy
100 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus III.—Turwxvs (Cuvier), Lnithen.

Thynnichthys, Giglioli.

Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchic present. Body oblong and somewhat
compressed. Cleft of mouth deep. Small teeth on the jaws and palatine bones, but
none on the vomer. Two dorsal fins with a very short space between them, the
spines of the first weak: finlets behind the second dorsal and anal. Scales small,
forming a corselet in the anterior portion of the body, but scaleless posteriorly.
Lateral line unarmed: a longitudinal keel along either side of the free portion of the
tail. Air-bladder, when present, simple. Pyloric appendages numerous.

This genus is composed of the smaller tunnies, which differ from the larger
forms, Oreynus, in the vomer being toothless, and their having no scales outside
the corseiet: while irrespective of this, they possess a special development in the
form of a net, or trellis, of a portion of the abdominal part of the vertebral
column, between the vertebra properly so-called, and the hamapophyses, as has
been described by Cuvier.

Although only one species of this genus, viz., Thynnus pelamys, has been
recorded from the British seas, it is by no means improbable that others, as
T. thunnina, may likewise be occasional visitors, for it has been captured more
than once off Denmark, which locality it could scarcely have reached without
passing our shores.

Geographical distribution —F rom the seas of Northern Europe throughout those
of temperate and tropical regions.

Thynnus pelamys, Plate XX XVII.

Renard, i, 20, 113; Osbeck, Reise, p. 87; Leguat, Voy. p. 21, ¢. fig.; Funnel,
Voy. Dampier, p. 158, f. 32; Dutertre, Hist. Antilles, i, p. 214, p. 295, ¢. fig.
Varilettu, Humbolt, Obs. Zool. ii, p. 190. TLhunnus, Jonston, De Pisce. lib. i, tit. i,
c. 2, Art. p. 12, t. in, f. 2.

Scomber pelamis, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 492; BI. Schn. p. 23; Bonnaterre,
Enc. Ich. p. 189; Gmel. Linn. p. 1830; Bennett, Whaling Voyage, ii, p. 281;
De la Roche, Ann. Mus. xiii, p. 315; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 588; Scouler, Mag. Nat.
Hist. vi, 1833, p. 529; ? Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 167; Thompson, Proc. Zool. Soc.
1835, p. 80; Jenyns, Manual Brit. Vert. p. 863.

Scomber pelunides, Lacép. iii, p. 14, ii, pl. xx, f. 2.

Thynnus pelamys, Cuv.and Val. vii, p. 113, pl. cexiv; Temm. and Schleg.
Fauna Japon. Poiss. p. 96, pl. xlix; Rich. Ich. China, p. 267; Cuv. Rtgne Anim.
Til. Poiss. pl. xlvi, f. 2; Bleeker, Amboina, pl. 41; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Hd. 2)
i, p. 157, ¢. fig. (Ed. 3) ii, p. 215; Parnell, Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 53; White,
Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 31; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 94; Giinther, Catal.
li, p. 864; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 7; A. Malm, Cifv. Ak. Fork. 1875,
No. 7; Poey, Ann. Soc. Esp. 1875, iv, p. 145; Day, Fishes of India, pt. ii, 1875,
p. 252; McIntosh, Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 173; Winther, Prod. Ich. Dan. Mar.
1879, p. 14; Moreau, Hist. Nat. Poissons de la France, 1881, ii, p. 419.

Thynnus vagans, Lesson, Voy. Coq. Zool ii, p. 162, pl. xxxii.

Bonito, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 97, pl. lxxxiii.

B. vii, D. 18-15/zg4y5 + VII, P. 27, V. 1/5, A. 2+ VII, C. 35.

Length of head 33 to 4, of pectoral fin 6 to 8, height of body 31 to 4 in the
total length. Hye—diameter 5 to 6 in the length of the head, 13 diameters from
the end of the snout, and also apart. The posterior margin of the preopercle is
3/5 the length of its lower limb. Snout pointed: the lower jaw the longer: the
posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to beneath the middle of the eye.
Teeth—in a single row in the jaws, present on the palatines but absent from
the vomer. Fis—-dorsal spines of moderate strength, the first being strong,
two-thirds the heizht of the body, and nearly twice as high as the rays of the
SCOMBRID A. 101

second dorsal. The pectoral in adults extends to beneath the tenth dorsal spine.
Anal similar to the second dorsal, and commences on a vertical line behind its last
ray. Caudal with pointed lobes. Scales—anteriorly form a corselet, which
reaches from the base of the pectoral fin along the whole length of that of the
first dorsal: behind this corselet the body is destitute of scales. Air-bladder—
stated to have been absent in Couch’s example. Colowrs—back bluish, becoming
silvery on the sides and beneath. Four, five, or even six concave, longitudinal,
dark, bluish bands pass along the side of the body and abdomen, ending
posteriorly on the lateral-line or close to the finlets.

Although Risso describes this fish pretty accurately as to colour and the number
of spines and rays, it is questionable whether some error has not occurred, as he
stated it to be common at Nice, whereas it is very rare in the Mediterranean.
He observes that the body “is covered with small pentagonal scales,” a definition
applicable to Pelamys sarda (see page 102), with which he appears to have
confused it.

Names.—Bontto. Striped-bellied-tunny.

Habits.— Although mostly observed in the open seas, they appear to be some-
what of surface swimmers, while they are generally seen in shoals of from twenty
to thirty. They may be witnessed in the tropics pursuing the flying-fish, and
resemble the tunnies in their propensity for consuming other forms. Lesson
found a Scombresoxz in the stomach of one, and Commerson discovered small shells.

Breeding. —Couch remarks upon having procured a female full of roe in the
month of July.

Diseases.—It is tormented, as are also other tunnies, by several species of
intestinal worms.

As food.-—lts properties appear to vary: Osbeck thought it dry, as did also
Dussumier: but Commerson appears to have approved of it. Personally, I have
eaten this fish when rounding the Cape of Good Hope and found it a little dry.
Occasionally it causes colic and diarrhoea.

Habitat.—This fish is chiefly a resident of the open seas, more especially the
tropical and warmer portions of the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans. In
Europe it has been obtained off Scandinavia and Denmark, also along the British
coasts, the Canaries, and beyond. Although Dussumier brought examples from
India I failed to obtain them there, but Thynnus thunnina was at certain seasons
locally common.

Stewart (Elements Nat. Hist. i, p. 363) remarks that the ‘“‘ bonito ” “has been
taken though rarely in the Firth of Forth.” In July, 1832, one was captured in
the Firth of Clyde (Scouler, Mag. Nat. Hist. vi, 1833, p. 529) and purchased for
the Andersonian Institute of Glasgow. But Jenyns observes that it is doubtful
if this species be intended or the Pelamys sarda. In July, 1873, an example,
3 feet long, was procured by Dr. Moir, of St. Andrew’s, from a salmon net, at the
mouth of the Kenley Burn (Walker, Scot. Nat. January, 1874). Couch alludes
to an example secured at Whitehaven in Cumberland. In September, 1876, one,
20% inches long, was recorded as having been taken in a trammel net at
Catwater, Plymouth, while a few larger ones are said also to have been captured
there (Gatcombe, Zool. 1877, p. 27). In August, 1880, one, 2 feet long, which:
weighed 63 lb., was secured at Hawgill, Solway Forth.

Ireland.—One was taken near Wexford, 29 inches long, and sent to the Royal
Dublin Society. Dr. Harvey also records one from Kinsale: in. 1849, another
was taken at Bennett’s Court, South of Ireland, and sent to Yarrell.

The example figured is stuffed, and from the Cape seas. Yarrell’s largest
specimen appears to have been 33 inches in length, and was perhaps from Cork.
102 ACANTHOPTERYGIL.

Genus IV.—Petamys, Cuvier and Valenciennes.

Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchice present. Body oblong, and rather
elongated. Cleft of mouth deep. Rather strong teeth in the jaws, teeth also
on the nalatines but none on the vomer. Two dorsal fins, the first, which consists of
rather weak spines, continued almost to the base of the second: sia to nine finlets
behind the second dorsal and anal fins. Scales small, forming a corselet am the
anterior region of the body, whirh is also finely scaled postervorly. Lateral-line
unarmed: a longitwlinal keel along either side of the free portion of the tail.
alir-bladder absent. Pyloric appendages dentritical.

Geographical. distrihution—From the seas of Northern Europe throughout
those of temperate and tropical regions.

Pelamys sarda, Plate XX XVIII.

Amia, Rondel. vili, c. 9, p. 238, c. fig; Gesner, 1598, f. 60, c. fig. Sarda,
Rondel. viii, c. 12, p. 248, c. fig. Gesner, 1598, £. 59, c. fig. (Yuung). Pelamys,
Salviani, f. 123, ec. fig.: Belon. p. 179, e. fig. Thynnus, Aldrov, iii, c. 18, p. 313,
ce. fig, Pelamys Belonti, Willugh. p. 180. Pelamys sarda, Ray, p. 58. Scomber,
No. 2, Var. Artedi, Synom, p. 50. Scomber pelumys, Brinn. Ich. Massil. p. 69.

Scumber sarda, Bloch, t. ceexxxiv; Bl. Schn. p. 22; Mitch. Trans. Lit. and
Phil. Soc. New York, i, p. 428; Lactp. iv, pp. 699-700 ; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 168.

Scomber mediterraneus, Bl. Schn. p. 23; De la Roche, Ann. Mus. xiii, p. 330.

Neouber ponticus, Pall. Zoogr. Rosso-Asiat. p. 17.

Thynuus palanitus, Rafin. Caratt. 44.

Thynnus peluinis and surda, Risso, Bur. Mérid iii, pp. 415, 417.

Pelamys sarda, Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 149, pl.cexvii; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Hd. 3)
li, p. 22a, c. fig.; Storer, Fish. Mass. p.4: De Kay, New York Fauna, Fish.
p. 106, pl. ix, f. 27; Cuv. Reene Anim. Hl. Poiss. pl. xlviii, f. 2; Swainson,
Fishes, 1i, p. 288; Guichen. Explor. Algér. Poiss. p. 58; Nord. in Demid. Voy.
Russ. Mévid. iii, p. 392; Lowe, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850, p. 248; Val. in. Webb and
Berth. Iles Canar. Poiss. p. 50; Gray, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (8) 1859, iv,
p. 399; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 31; Giiather, Catal. ii, p. 367; Steind. Ich.
Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 8; Malm. Cifv. Akad. 1870, p. 837; Moreau, ii, p. 430.

The plain bonito, Yarrell, Brit. Fishes, (Ed. 2) p. 224 (figure not description).

Pelanid, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, 11, p. 102, pl. lxxxv.

Short finned tunny, Couch, lL. ec. p. 425, pl. Ixxxi*.

B. vii, D. 22 | 3254+ VIIL-IX, P. 25, V.1/5. A. 24VII, C. 26, Vert. 50.

1o-1l4

Length of head 44 to 44, of lobes of caudal fin 6, height of body 5 in the total
length. Hye—with a narrow adipose lid on either side, diamcter 6 in the length
of the head, 2 diameters from the end of the snout and also apart. Snout
compressed and conical: jaws of equal length in front: the maxilla reaches
posteriorly to beneath the bind edge of the orbit. Tceth—in a single row in the
jaws, of moderate strength anteriorly, increasing in size posteriorly: a pair of
canines in the lower jaw above the symphysis and posterior to the outer row: a row
on the palatines, none on the vomer. ’ins—dorsal spines of moderate strength,
increasing in height to the second and third, from thence they gradually decrease in
length, the posterior eight or nine being very short, the last being close to the com-
mencement of the second dorsal: the latter fin is highest in front, where however its
height is less than the length of its base. Pectoral short in the example described
(which is 18 inches long), being 1/10 of the total length and less than half the length
of the head. Ventrals shorter than the pectorals. Anal commences on a vertical
line beneath the middle of the second dorsal fin to which it 1s similar. Caudal
with pointed lobes. Svale;—anteriorly form a corsclet on the body, which has a
central prolongation beneath the pectoral fin, an inferior prolongation at the
ventral fin, and a superior one which passes along the base of the first dorsal.
The remainder of the body is likewise covered with fine scales. <Adtr-bladder—
absent. Culowrs—back of a bluish colour shot with purple, and traversed by
narrow oblique bands which pass backwards and upwards to it from the abdomen :

 
SCOMBRIDA. 103

a series of broad bars descend down the upper half of the sides of the fish, which
are most distinct in the young and frequently lost with age. The first dorsal fin
nearly black, in large examples the posterior spines are white: second dorsal
yellowish, with a dark upper half and white summit: caudal and pectoral black :
lower fins yellow with dark markings.

Names.—Pelamid and belted bonito.

Habits.—Said to be very wary, and arrives off the coasts of Sicily in great
abundance during the spring, and likewise in the autumn, when many are
captured. This fish is a rapid swimmer, and has been seen springing into the air
after its prey. In September, 1836, in very fine weather, with the sea smooth,
a large number of fishes, which Couch considered to be of this species, were
perceived in pursuit of sauries, and the same has happened on other occasions.

ifeans of capture—In Sicily, according to Rafinesque, they are frequently
taken in the spring by the tunny fishers. Off the British coasts they are
occasionally secured along with the mackerel and their allies.

As food.—In Sicily, Rafinesque stated, they were held in even more estimation
than the tunnies; while they are salted and prepared in a similar manner to the
latter, and are of considerable mercantile importance.

Habitat.—This fish is abundantly spread throughout the Mediterranean to the
Black Sea, and also through the Atlantic Ocean, extending along the shores of
North America from Cape Cod to Florida, and in the Eastern Hemisphere from
Scandinavia (Malm), Holland (Hubrecht), and the British coasts so far as the
Cape of Good Hope.

In June, 1859, an example 222 inches in length, and 4 lb. 602. in weight, was
captured at North Esk in a salmon bag-net, and is now in the Montrose Museum
(Gray, Ann. and Mag. (3) iv, p. 399): in 1860,0n December 4th, one, 14 inches
long, was secured at Swanage in Dorsetshire, and is figured in Couch; in August,
1877, one, 17 inches long, and weighing 2 lb. was taken in a ground seine at
Mevagissey (Gatcombe, Zool. p. 452).

It is evident that many more examples of this fish have been captured but
recorded under a wrong name. Couch in his appendix, under the designation of
short-finned-tunny, figures this species from an example taken in a drift net on
August 18th, 1865, by Mr. Dunn, of Mevagissey, and states that within a week
another example was secured in the same manner by a fisherman at Polperro, and
in the first week in September three more. The first was only 6 inches from the
snout to the fork of the tail, and the three last only reached to the length of 8
inches. This leads to the conclusion that the fishes placed by Mr. Dunn under
the name of short finned tunnies were really pelamids, he having been led into
this error by Mr. Couch who fortunately figured one of Mr. Dunn’s examples.
He observes that in the year 1865 young specimens were plentiful, several were
caught at Mevagissey, Polperro, Gorran, and Portloe.

Dunn observes of the pelamid, that ‘it is rarenow. Ineversaw but two; their
casts are in the South Kensington Museum. They probably might have been
more plentiful in the past. Some of our old men speak of catching mackerel of
7 lb. weight on plummet lines; no doubt they were pelamids. Nearly all the
fishermen who saw my specimens called them mackerel.’ The casts, which I have
examined, are those of Pelamys sarda.

It is remarkable how this fish has become mistaken for the “short finned
tunny,” even so early in the history of Ichthyology as seen in Willughby, 1686,
p. 180, who was followed by various authors.

Mr. Cornish is unable at this distance of time to give further information as to
whether the following fishes were “short finned tunnies” or “pelamids;” he
observed, however, in 1868 that the dorsal fin rays did not agree with Couch’s
description and figure, but did not note the points of difference. He recorded
(Zoologist, 1868, p. 1263) one captured at Penzance, August 20th, 8, inches in
length: in 1877 (1. c. p. 452), another 194 inches long, and in August, 1880, a
third, 23 inches in length and weighing 6 lb. (1. c. p. 366). This last was so like
a mackerel that a casual observer might well have taken it for a giant mackerel.
It never reaches the size attained by the larger tunnies, 3 feet in length being
the maximum recorded size.
104 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus V.—Auvxis, Cuv. and Val.

Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchice present. Body oblong and somewhat
elongated. Cleft of mouth deep. Small teeth in the jaws, but vomer and palatine
bones toothless. Two dorsal fins with a long space between them, the spines of
the first weak. Seven to nine finlets behind the second dorsal and anal. Scales forming
a corselet in the anterior portion of the body. Lateral-line unarmed : a longitudinal
keel along the free portion of the tail. Air-bladder absent. Pyloric appendages
dendritical.

Geographical distribution—From the German and Atlantic to the Indian
Ocean ; likewise in the Mediterranean.

Auxis rochei, Plate XX XIX, fig. 1.

Scomber tazo (Commers.), Lacépéde, iti, p. 9.

Scomber rochet, Risso, Ich. Nice, 1810, p. 165.

Sconber bisus, Rafin. 1810, p. 45, t. ii, f. L.

Thynnus rocheanus, Risso, Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 417.

Auvis vnlgaris, Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 139, pl. cexvi; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes,
(Ed. 2), i, p. 160, c. fig. (Ed. 3), ii, p. 224 (mot figure); Cuv. Régne Anim. Ilus.
Poiss. pl. xlviii, f. 1; Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 238; Lowe, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850,
p. 248.

Ausis taso, Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 146.

Phynnus brachypterus, Yarrell (Ed. 3) ii, p. 219 (figure, not description).

Auvxis bisus, C. Bonap. Catal. No. 679; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 32;
Moreau, ii, p. 415.

Aucis thynnoules, Bleeker, Ternate, v, p. 801.

Auris rochet, Gimther, Catal. ii, p. 369; Canestr. Fauna Ital. p. 103; Nilss.
(fv. Sven. Vet. Akad. Foérh. 1864, p. 500, t.vi; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868,
p. 10; Winther, Prod. Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 14.

Plain bonito, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 105, pl. Ixxxvi.

B. vii, D. 10-11/11-12+VIII-IX, P. 21-22, V. 1/5, A. 11-124-VII, C. 24,
Vert. 39.

Length of head 42 to 41, of lobe of caudal fin 9, height of body 44 (to 6 in
the young) in the total length between the end of the snout and the centre of the
base of the caudal fin. LHye—with narrow adipose lids, the anterior of which
overlaps the posterior one inferiorly : diameter of eye 1/4 to 2/9 of the length of
the head, 3/4 to 1 diameter from the end of the snout, and the same distance
apart. Jaws of about the same leneth anteriorly, or the lower slightly the longer :
the posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to beneath the middle of the eye.
Teeth—vather small in the jaws, absent from the tongue and palatine bones.
Frins—first dorsal of a triangular form, it commences above the origin of the
pectoral, the highest ray equalling the leneth of the latter fin: a considerable
interspace exists between the two fins: second dorsal low, finlets small. Ventrals
situated beneath the base of the pectoral. Anal commences on a vertical line
beneath the first dorsal finlet. Caudal deeply lobed.  Air-bladder—absent.
Stomach elongated into a long and pointed ececal portion, as shown in the figure
(plate xxxix). Scales—form a corselet over the chest, and prolonged posteriorly
in the vicinity of the dorsal, pectoral, and ventral fins, this is not distinct in the
very young. Median and lateral keels near the base of the caudal fin well
developed. Colowrs—bluish superiorly, becoming silvery white on the sides and
beneath, in some examples the back being indistinctly marbled: the corselet is
shghtly darker than the body posterior to it. Fins gray, the anal having a
yellowish tinge.
SCOMBRIDA. 105

Varieties—in colour have been recorded. The back may have dark spots with
light edges.

Names.—Plain bonito was so named by Yarrell in contradistinction to the
ies ha which are belted or banded. L’Auaide commune and Bownitou,

rench.

Means of capture.—In the Mediterranean a regular fishery exists for them
from May until September: they are also captured along with the tunnies.

Breeding.—Appears to deposit its spawn about August: the ova are white
and invested with a reddish, albuminous covering. The females are said to be
larger than the males.

As food.—When fresh its flesh is but little esteemed, being red and hard like a
coarse mackerel, consequently it is usually salted or pickled. This process,
however, must be soon effected because decomposition is very rapid, and should
the fish be kept three or four days it becomes of a blackish colour.

Habitat.—Scandinavian seas, the Atlantic Ocean, extending to Jamaica: also
the Indian Ocean. In the Mediterranean it is rather rare, but is taken along with
the tunny. Risso remarks-that it appears off Nice in the spring, summer, and
autumn. In some localities in Sicily it is frequently observed.

Lowe observed a single example at Madeira February 3rd, 1845, and remarked
that it was not quite unknown to the fishermen, but its occurrence was said to bea
mere chance. June, 1839, two examples were captured at Yarmouth, and came into
Mr. Yarrell’s possession. 1843, one was taken at Looe, in Cornwall, and two were
captured in Mount’s Bay, one taken in 1844 being the example figured by Couch:
it was preserved in the Museum of the Natural History Society at Penzance.
September, 1847, another was captured off Yarmouth, and was secured for the
Cambridge Philosophical Society. Mr. Gordon reported to Mr. Couch the
occurrence of this fish in the Moray Firth. Mr. Dunn observes in his remarks on
Cornish Fishes “‘ one of these was landed here last week.”’ Edward records several
from Banffshire, and remarks respecting one that a “very peculiar feature
connected with it was, that if stroked down when wet it gave the hand all the
appearance of having come across a piece of metal newly black-leaded.”’

Yarrell’s example measured 18 inches in length. Risso observes that the
weight does not exceed 6 Ib.
106 ACANTHOPTERYGILI.

Genus VI.—Ecnentts, Artedi.

Remoropsis, Rhonbochirus, Remilegia, Leptecheneis, Phtheirichthys, Gill.

Branchiostegals seven or eight: pseudobranchice well developed. Rody elongated
and fusiform. head depressed and superiorly provided with an adhesive organ.
Eyes lateral, and directed obliquely downwards and outwards. Cleft of mouth deep.
Villiform teeth, occasionally with larger ones interiuived, on the jaws, vomer, palatine
bones, and generally on the tongue. The first dorsal fin modified on the sumuwt of
the head and occiput into an adhesive dish: second dorsal and anal with many or a
moderate number of rays: no finlets: ventrals thoracic. Scales minute. No keel
on the sides of the tail. <Air-bladder absent. Pyloric appendages in moderate
nunbers.

The fishes of this genus at one time were considered malacopterygians, as no
spinous dorsal fin was observable: they now form the group Heheneide of Miller,
the sub-family Hchenetdina of Cantor, and the family Heheneotdei, Bleeker. Guill
has divided them into two groups composed of six genera. Liitken likewise
sub-divides them into two sub-genera. They are subject to great alterations with
age, in some the central rays in the caudal fin of the young form a long and
filiform prolongation, which disappears with adolescence, the tail often becoming
lunated. The number of lamine in the sucker is variable, as are also the fin rays
and the roughness or the reverse of the tongue. They are inhabitants of nearly
all the temperate and tropical seas, and are most usually captured adhering to
sharks. Van Benedcn has pointed out that, as they do not prey upon the fishes
to which they are indebted for house room and the means of locomotion from
one place to another, they cannot be termed “parasites ;” so he named them
“‘commensals” or ‘‘messmates,”’ which may be either adherent to other animals or
else free swimmers. An example of a true parasitic fish exists in our seas in the
‘‘myxine” or “hag,” which burrows into and feeds upon the flesh of other
fishes. But the sucker of the Bcheneis, by which it maintains its hold, is placed
on the upper surface of the head, and is evidently a modified first dorsal fin, as
was first observed by Voigt. It is flat, of an oval shape, and composed of
transverse lamine directed backwards and having a tooth-like posterior margin
to each, supported by these are a modified dorsal spine which having divided
into two vertical halves becomes bent outwards to the right and left side, and
forms a support to the lamine; while along its central line a smooth but
narrow elevation extends, so that a vacuum may when desirable be restricted to
one-half of the disk. The most anterior of these transverse lamin are directed
slightly forwards, and the posterior slightly backwards. External to this disk,
and encircling its whole margin, is a wide fleshy membrane. This apparatus acts
as a sucker similarly to the leather plaything employed when moist by schoolboys
for the purpose of being attached to a stone or other flat substance. As the
anatomical characters of this disk have been fully explained by several authors,
further remarks upon it appear to be unnecessary.

When the accounts of the wonderful power of this sucking fish were first
credited it is impossible to say, but they certainly are found in Ovid and Pliny.
The names Mchenets and Remora have been given this fish in consequence of its
possessing a sucker, and the uses to which it has been supposed to be put—the
first, by the Greeks, being a word composed of two others, signifying a fish which
retards or arrests the progress of a ship. The Latin term similarly implies delay,
and, though doubtless it was given for the identical reason for which the Greeks
employcd their designation, it seems to have likewise had another meaning.
Meeting one of these fish while bathing during the progress of a love or law suit,
or any business that required despatch, was considered a bad omen. Buckland
observed that this fish figures as a symbol of prudence in an Oxford chapel
window. “Prudence” carrying “upon her right arm an arrow joined with a
remora, a fish that fixes itself to the bottom of ships and retards their progress.”
SCOMBRID Zi. 107

The arrow represents quickness, the remora slowness, while prudence is supposed
to be the medium or unknown quantity. Pliny, whose imagination was very
vivid, has left some curious records of what the sucking fish was believed to
accomplish in his days. The version is that of one of our old translators,
Philemon Holland. “One little fish, not above half a foot long, is able to arrest
and stay per force, yea, and hold as prisoners, our goodly tall and proud ships,
so well armed in the beake-head with yron pikes and brasen tines; so offensive
and dangerous to bouge and pierce any enemie ship which they do encountre.
Certes, reported it is, that in the naval battaile before Actium, wherein Antonius
and Cleopatra the queene were defeited by Augustus, one of these fishes staied
the admirall ship wherein M. Antonius was, at what time as he made all the hast
and meanes he could devise with help of ores to encourage his people from ship to
ship, and could not prevaile, untill he was forced to abandon the said admirall
and go into another galley. . . . Of late daies also, and within our remembrance,
the like happened to the roiall ship of the emperor Caius Caligula, at what time
as he rowed back and maide saile from Astura to Antium, when and where this
little fish detained his ship, and (as it fell out afterwards) presaged an unfortunate
event thereby. . . . And yetit was not long ere the cause of this wonderful
staie of his ship was knowne: for as soon as ever the vessel (and a galliace it
was, furnished with five bankes of ores to a side) was perceived alone in the
fleete to stand still, presentlie a number of tall fellows leapt out of their ships
into the sea to search what the reason might be that it stirred not; and
found one of these fishes sticking fast to the very helm.” He tells us how Caius
Caligula fumed, and was unable to comprehend how a little sucking-fish could
withstand the power of four hundred oars. Recent authors, who attach but
small credit to the accuracy of such traditions, have attributed the procrastination
of Mark Antony to the loadstone of Cleopatra’s eyes, which perhaps, more than
the sucking-fish, occasioned delay ; while they have also asserted that inebriation in
Caligula’s rowers sufficiently accounts for his fuming, and explains why the
vessel was unable to make way.

Not only were these ancient authors adepts at marvellous descriptions respect-
ing the attributes of these fishes, but even Commerson, and some later writers
have drawn largely upon the credulity of their readers, asserting that along the
coasts of Mosambique they are employed for the purpose of capturing turtle.
A ring is stated to be fixed round the fish’s tail, and to this a cord is made fast ;
thus ready for use, the Hcheneis is placed in a vessel of sea-water, which having
been embarked in a boat, the rowers proceed on a turtle hunt. As soon as one is
seen sleeping on the ocean, they row gently towards it; when sufficiently near,
they cast the sucking-fish into the sea, which was said to attach itself to the object
of their search and with such tenacity that both can be drawn into the boat!
Commerson likewise asserted that the sucker of one of these fishes being applied
to his thumb, it became perfectly numbed, and continued thus for some con-
siderable time.

The sucking-fish, although capable of spasmodic active exertions, appears to
generally lead an inactive life, trusting to its host to convey it to the localities
suitable for obtaining food. It does not seem to find the vicinity of the shore or
the presence of brackish waters agreeable, preferring the open seas, although not
infrequently observed in harbours. Some hundreds sometimes affix themselves
to one vessel, and when the washings of the cook’s coppers are thrown overboard,
they shoot off in a body to pick up the particles of grease which discolour the
water. They also consume less savoury matters that drop from a ship, and may
be caught with a very small hook buried in a pellet of fat. (Richardson, Ich.
China and Japan, p. 204.) Wan Beneden has observed that they eat small fish,
while they themselves occasionally form food for sailors, who are not always
particular as to the quality of the articles upon which they make a repast.
Liitken (Vidd. Medd. 1877, p. 242) has observed that Hcheneis lineata attaches
itself especially to Sphyrana barracuda as EH. remora does to Carcharias lamia.
108 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Echeneis remora, Plate XXXIX, fig 2.

Exevnic, Plutarch, Sympos. lib. ii; Oppian, Halieut. i, p. 9. ep, Aristot.
Hist.

Echeneis, Ovid, Hal. v, 99; Pliny, xxii, c. 1, ix, c. 25; Alian,i, c. 36, iii, c. 17;
Wotton, De Differ. p. 149. Remora, Rondel. xv, c. 18, p. 436; Petiver, Gazophyl.
t. xliv, f. 12; Jonston, de Pisc. lib.i, tit. 1, ¢. 11, art. iv, p. 16, t. iv, f.3; Ray,
p. 71. Zuiger, Nieuhotf, Brass. Zee-en Lant-Reize, 1, p. 274, f. 67. Remora
amperati, Willughby, Appendix, p. 5, t. ix, f. 2. Suching-fish, Edward’s
Gleanings, No. 210. Mediterranean Remora, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Hd. 1812) iii,
p. 524. Heheneis, sp. Klein, MSS. iv, p. 51, No. 1; Gronov. Zooph. p. 75, No.
256, and Mus. Ich. i, No. 33; Duhamel, Péches, ii, Sect. 4, p. 56, pl. iv, f. 5.

Echeneis remora, Linn. Syst. i, p. 446, and Ameen. Acad. i, p. 320, and Mus. Reg.
Ad. Frid. i, p. 75; Osbeck, Voy. China, p. 94; Schoepff, Schrift. Gesel. Nat.
Freunde Berlin, viii, 8, p. 145; Bloch, t. clxxii; Gmel. Linn. p. 1187; Lacép. ti,
pp. 146, 147, t. ix, f. 1; Bl. Schn. p. 240; Blumenb. Abbild, t. Ixxviii; Bonna-
terre, p. 57, pl. xxxlii, f. 123; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 201, pl. xxxi; Risso, Ich.
Nice, p. 177, and Eur. Mérid. ii, p. 269; Mill. Prod. Faun. Dan. No. 361;
Mitch. Trans. Lit. and Phil. Soc. New York,i, p.378; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 94;
Richards. Faun. Bor. Amer. p. 265; Faber, Fische Islands, p. 115; Temm. and
Schlegel, Fauna Japon. Poiss. p. 271; De Kay, New York Fauna, Fishes, p. 309;
Bonap. Pese. Eur. p. 66; Lowe, Trans. Zool. Soc. iii, p. 16; Bennett, Whaling
Voyage, p. 271; Jenyns, Voy. Beagle, Fish. p. 142, and Man. Vert. p. 473;
Thompson, Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) 1846, p. 314, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 222
Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 2) ii, p. 877, ¢. fig. (Hd. 3) i, p. 671; White, Catal.
Brit. Fishes, p. 56; Giinther, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1860, p. 390, Catal. ii,
p. 378, and Fische Gode. Mus. Heft. v, p. 156; Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Se. Phil.
1864, p. 60; Couch, Journ. Roy. Soc. Corn. 1867, p. 361; Kner, Novara Fische,
p-. 146; Bleeker, Madagascar, p. 99; Day, Fishes of India, p. 258; Moreau, Poiss.
France, ii, p. 535, ¢. fig.

Echeneis squalipeta, Dald. Nat. Selskab. ii, p. 157; Bl. Schn. p. 240; Ginther,
Catal. ii, p. 377 (young).

Ficheneis naucrates, Risso, Kur. Mérid. iii, p. 270.

Echenetis jacobea and pallida, Lowe, Pro. Zoo. Soc. 1839, p, 89, and Trans.
Zool. Soe. i, pp. 16, 17.

Echeneis remoroides, Bleeker, Batoe, ii, p. 70.

Lcheneis parva, Gronov. ed Gray, p. 92.

? Echeneis borboniensis, Guich. in Maillard Reunion, Appen. p. 19.

Remora, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 113, pl. lxxxviil.

Remora tropica, Murray, Edinb. New. Phil. Journ. 1856, iv. p. 287.

B. vii, D. 17-18/22-24. P. 20-24. V.1/5. A. 22-25. ©.19. Coe. pyl. 6-8,
Vert. 12/15.

Length of head 44 to 43, including disk 3, of disk alone 31, of caudal fin 6,
height of body 7 to 9, of ventrals 74 to 81, breadth between pectoral fins 6 to 62
in the total length. Hye—placed in the middle of the length of the head, 31 to
31 diameters from the end of the snout, and 5 apart. Its direction is downwards,
having its upper edge most projecting. Mouth rounded; lower jaw the longer;
the posterior extremity of the maxilla does not quite reach to beneath the front
edge of theeye. Teeth—present in a band in either jaw, that on the lower being
the wider; also present on the vomer, palatine bones, and tongue. Fins—the disk
or modified first dorsal fin is placed on the upper surface of the head and occiput,
is nearly half as wide as long, containing from 17 to 18 transverse lamine, each
of which has a rough tooth-like posterior edge, while along its centre runs a
narrow smooth elevation enabling the vacuum to be confined to one-half of the
disk. The most anterior lamine are directed slightly forward, the posterior more
backward, while the intervening ones have an intermediate direction. External to
this disk is a wide fleshy membrane which reaches posteriorly to beyond the
SCOMBRID Ai. 109

occiput, while anteriorly it just extends to the upper jaw. Second dorsal opposite
and similar to the anal. Pectoral broad, its upper rays the longer. Caudal
emarginate. Colours—grayish brown, sometimes becoming lighter on the sides
and beneath.

Varieties—Lowe’s Echeneis jacobea, includes such forms as possess a truncated.
caudal fin, and H. pallida those in which the tongue is rough, a somewhat
uncommon modification but having no specific value any more than has the form
of the tail fin. Giinther (Zool. Record, 1864, p. 155) suggests that H. remeligo,
A. Dumeril, is probably an example of this species. Colowr—Commerson observed
that when many of these fishes are seen attached to one object it is not uncommon
to see one or two which differ from the rest in being of a whitish colour.

Names.—Aristotle’s name for this fish signifies “‘a louse,” and which he
observed was found on the dolphin. Withal, 1608, terms this fish suckstone,
a designation more appropriate to the “lamprey,” which was perhaps intended,
as the Hcheneis has very rarely been captured in Britain.

Habits.—Commerson asserted that it swims with its back downwards, but Sir
J. Richardson remarked that its motions are wriggling like those of an eel,
swimming with considerable velocity, and able to overtake with ease a vessel
going before a brisk gale. Bennett says it merely swims round the body it
attends, and only fixes on it occasionally and for a very short time. Cornish
observes that it injures the skin of the shark to which it is attached (Zoologist,
1880, p. 2225); Schoopf accounting for its presence in various parts of the
world, mentions having seen it taken from several vessels recently arrived at
New York. De Kay alludes to an example captured a considerable distance
up the Hudson River, while Catesby remarks upon observing sucking-fishes
disengaged and swimming very deliberately near a shark’s mouth without its
attempting to swallow them, the reason for which he felt himself unable to give.

Means of capture.—Sailors are said to sometimes take these fish by means
of a bait of fat enclosing a small hook. .

Uses.—The Malays consider this fish powerful manure for fruit trees.

Habitat—Both sides of the Atlantic, the Mediterranean where it is rare,
the Pacitic Ocean, East and West Indies. In Europe it has been captured so far
north as Iceland (Olafsen) and Denmark, but is rare in British waters, which
is somewhat remarkable as the blue shark to which it elsewhere attaches
itself is not uncommon along our shores. Perhaps the temperature of the
water is too low for itsrequirements. In the British seas it is evidently a mere
wanderer, which has been brought attached to a whale, large fish, or some
floating object which afford him house room and water carriage to climes
scarcely best adapted to his requirements, but from whence a return conveyance
may be difficult to obtain.

The number of instances in which captures of this fish have been recorded
from the seas of Great Britain and Ireland are but few.* Turton, in his
“British Fauna,” observes; ‘‘taken by the author in Swansea from the back
of a cod-fish in the summer of 1806.” Mr. Dillwyn, in his ‘“ Fauna of Swansea,”
entertained doubts respecting the accuracy of Turton’s assertion, having “strong
grounds for believing that there was some mistake about it.” In July, 1848,
one was captured at Clontarf, Dublin Bay, adhering to the gills of a blue
shark, Carcharias glaucus, ten feet long, which had been observed in shallow
water and driven ashore the previous night. A second remora was attached to’
the gills on the opposite side, but when disturbed it disappeared inwards by
the bronchial orifices, and was not seenagain. Mr. Dunn obtained a specimen
(which he gave Mr. Couch) in 1867 from a blue shark taken eighteen [miles off
Deadman’s, near Mevagissey. In the British Museum Catalogue one is thus
alluded to: “ Half-grown. Guernsey. Presented by Mrs. Mauger.” Likewise
two others, also half-grown, from an unknown locality, received from the same
donor. Without further information, Couch’s incredulity as to the first having
come from Guernsey may be a not unmerited criticism.

* For an instance of taking one of these fishes in a bottle at the Nore, see Introduction.
110 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Famizry, X—STROMATEIDZE, Srcazson.

Branchiostegals from five to seven: pseudobranchie present. Body oblong
or slightly elongated and compressed. Gill-openings wide. Eyes lateral. No
osseous articulation between the infraorbital bones and the preopercle. Small
teeth in the jaws, palate edentulous: barbed teeth extend into the esophagus.
A single elongated dorsal fin without any distinct spinous division in the adult:
ventrals, when present, thoracic. No prominent papilla near the vent. Air-
bladder small when present. Pyloric appendages few, in moderate numbers, or
many. Vertebre exceed 10/14.

Geographical distribution.—Pelagic and littoral forms, which are found in most
of the tropical and temperate seas.

Genus I.—Crnrrotoruts, Lacépéede.

Pompilus, Lowe.

Branchtostegals seven: pseucdobranchia present. Cleft of mouth of moderate
depth or rather small. A band of small teeth in the jaws, absent from voier,
palatines, and tongue. A single elongated dorsal fin, without any distinct spinous
division: tt and the anal have a scaly base. Air-bladder small. Pyloric appendages
nine or ten.

Geographical distribution.—Mediterranean, coasts of the British Isles and
France to Madeira; also found in Peru, as C. Peruanus, Steind., in the South
Pacific Ocean.

1. Centrolophus Britanicus, Plate XL, fig 1.

Centrolophus britanicus, Giinther, Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1860, July,
p. 46, and Catal. Fish. Brit. Mus. 11, p. 402

Cornish centrolophus, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 127, plate xci.

B. vii, D. 46, P. ?, V. 1/5, A. 30, C. 17. ;

Length of head about 6, of caudal fin 6}, height of body 3 in the total length.
Hye—4 diameters in the length of the head, 1 diameter from the end of the
snout,.and 2 apart. Judging from the unique example, which is a badly stuffed
specimen, the profile from the dorsal fin to the snout is only shghtly more convex
than that of the inferior surface of the head. The posterior extremity of the
maxilla reaches to beneath the anterior margin of the eye. Jins—dorsal
commences on a vertical line above the base of the pectoral and reaches to about
the distance of half the length of the head from the base of the caudal, the
length of its base being equal to about 6/11 of the entire length of the fish:
anal commences below the middle of the dorsal fin and extends to the same
distance from the tail, the extent of its base equalling 2/7 of the entire length
of the fish. Pectoral and ventrals very short, having been “much mutilated
from injury when cast on shore.” Caudal forked. Scales—small; they form a
sheath to the basal two-thirds of the dorsal and anal fins. Lateral-line—at first
forms rather a considerable curve. Cvlowrs—of an uniform brownish-pink ;
lighter on the lower surface ; the fins, especially the caudal, being of a still
deeper tinge than the back.

The history of this supposed unique example of Centrolophus is remarkable,
for the proportions have been entirely altered by the person who mounted the
specimen, and Couch’s illustration and the description in the British Museum
Catalogue have followed the stuffed fish. Couch fortunately measured it prior
to sending it to be stuffed, and recorded that its length was “one foot seven
STROMATEIDA. 111

inches,” . . . “the vent at about the middle of the body.” This measurement, as
will be seen by his figure, does not include the caudal fin, while at the vent it was
‘five inches in depth.” He mentions having made a drawing of the fish before
it was preserved, which probably had solcly allusion to its colours, as the figure
in the “ Fishes of the British Isles ” is evidently taken from the stuffed one. If
reference is made to the specimen in its present state at the British Museum
its length will be found to have increased from 19 inches, as it was when
captured, to 22 inches as it is now when mounted, or 3 inches too long, which
length can only have been obtained at the expense of its height. Above the
vent at the centre of its length, instead of its height being 5/19 of the total,
it is about 5/22, and this disproportion is still further augmented in Couch’s
figure where it is about 5/26. If, as stated in the British Museum Catalogue, the
height of the body is 5 in the total (when according to Couch the body was
5 inches high), the length of the entire fish should have been 25 inches,
whereas it was merely 19.

Habitat.—This unique example was thrown on the shore not far from Looe,
in Cornwall, in the middle of February, 1853, when it came into Mr. Couch’s
possession, and was presented by him to the British Museum where I drew
my figure from the specimen—giving the length of the head and fin rays as
existing, but reducing the stretched skin to what obtained when recently
captured. The mouth seems a little distorted, and the fin. rays in many
instances are broken. The specimen, in short, has been injured by its captor,
broken by its preserver, and is somewhat deteriorated by age.

2. Centrolophus pompilus, Plate XL, fig 2.

Pompilus, Rondel. viii, c, 14, p. 250, ¢. fig.; Gesner, Aquat. iv, p, 753; Aldr.
ili, c. 19, p. 825; Jonston, De Pisce. lib. i, tit. i,c. 2, art. ii, p. 14, t. iii, f. 5;
Ray, p. 101. Pompilus rondeletii, Will. p. 215, t.O. 1, £.6. The black fish, Jago
in Borlase, Cornwall, p. 271, t. xxvi, f. 8. Black ruffe, Pennant, Brit. Zool.
(kid. 1) iii, p. 260 (Hid. 2) iii, p. 228. Merle, Duhamel, Péches, ii, Sect. iv, p. 37,

Leva, £. 2) '
Coryphana pompilus, Artedi, Gen. 16, syn. 29; Gmel. Linn. p. 1193;
Bonnaterre, p. 60, pl. xxxiv, f. 130; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 180.

Perca nigra, Gmel. Linn. p. 1321.

Holocentrus niger, Lacép. iv, pp. 330, 357; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 558.

Centrolophus niger, Lacép. iv, pp. 441, 442, pl. x, f. 2.

Centrolophus pompilus, Cuv. and Val. ix, p. 334, pl. eclxix ; Yarrcll, Brit. Fish.
(Ed. 1) i, p. 158, c. fig. (Hd. 2) i, p. 247 (Hd. 3) ii, p. 247; Cuv. Régne Anim. IIL.
Poiss. pl. xv; Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesce. c. fig.; Guichen. Explor. Algér. Poiss,
p. 63; White, Catal. Brit. Fish, p. 39; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 403; Canestr. Fauna
Ital. p. 105; Andrews, Proc. R. Dub. Soc. vi, p. 68; Giglioli, Cat. Pesce. Ital.
p.26; Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 492, c. fig.

Acentrolophus maculosus, Nardo, Prod. Ich. Adr. sp. 62.

Centrolophus liparis, Risso, Hur. Mérid. iii, p. 336; Cuv. and Val. ix, p. 345.

Centrolophus morio, Cuv. and Val. iv, p. 342.

Coryphena morio, Jenyus, Man. Brit. Vert. p. 370.

Pompilus rondeletit, Lowe, Pro. Zool. Soc. 1839, p. 81.

Black fish, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 123, pl. xe.

B. vi. D. 38-41, P. 21, V.1/5, A. 23-25, C.17. Cove. pyl. 6-9, Vert. 11/14.

Length of head 5, of caudal fin 5 to 5}, height of body 4 to 5 in the total
length. Hye—which has a sort of skinny lid, is rather high up, diameter 34 to 4
in the length of the head, and 3/4 to 1 diameter apart. Snout rather obtuse
and slightly projecting over the upper jaw. Jaws of nearly equal length
anteriorly, and reaching posteriorly to beneath the first third of the orbit.
The profile from the dorsal fin to the snout is slightly concave over the occiput.
Teeth—minute ones in the jaws. F%ns—the dorsal commences on a vertical line
above the first third of the pectoral fin, the length of its base equalling from
112 ACANTHOPTERYGILI.

22 to 3 in that of the entire length of the fish, the first few rays are unbranched
and weak, the highest portion of the fin is in its first third. Pectoral two-thirds
as long as the head: ventral slightly shorter. Anal commences beneath the
middle, and the length of its base is about equal in extent to half that of the
dorsal fin. Caudal deeply forked. Scales—small, they form a sheath to the
basal half or third of the vertical fins. Lateral-line—forms a gradual curve to
opposite the end of the pectoral fin, when it proceeds direct to the base of the
caudal. The length of the caudal peduncle equals about two-thirds of that of
the head, while the height of its base is from 12 to 2 in that of its length.
Colouwrs—these vary, generally being of an uniform brown, lightest beneath:
some irregular cloudy longitudinal and sinuous markings on the body, and some
oblong light spots along the sides, and dark ones on the fins: these markings in
some are yellow, while others have none. Risso says that the young (which are
taken during the spring) have dark transverse bands.

The history of this marine species is interesting, as showing how known forms
have become overlooked and new names substituted for old ones. No reasonable
doubt can exist against its being the Pompilus of the Mediterranean, described by
Rondelet, who in 1554 published a recognizable figure. It was subsequently
adverted to by Gesner 1558, Aldrovandus 1638, Jonston 1649, Willughby 1686,
Ray 1713, and others: several of these authors likewise giving representations.
The first British examples recorded are by Borlase, in his “Natural History of
Cornwall,” in which (copying from the MSS. of the deceased Mr. Jago) he
observes, ‘‘ two were taken at Loo, May 26th, 1721, in the Sean, near the shore
on sandy ground, with small ore-weed in the pot.” The examples reached
16 inches in length, and Borlase by an error gives its width at ‘3/4 of an inch,”
instead of from ‘‘ 3—4 inches,” whether the mistake was his or the printers is not
very material as the figure is distiuctly that of the Pompilus, and the proportions
good. Pennant, in 1776, not recognizing Jago’s description and figure, introduced
the species into his ‘“‘ British Zoology ” under the name of the “ Black Ruffe ”
or “ Black-fish of Mr. Jago,” subsequently in his second edition, published in
1812, he termed it the ‘‘ Black Perch,” evidently in deference to Shaw, who in his
turn had followed Lacépéde. This last author in his ‘‘ Histoire naturelle des
Poissons’ (1798-1803) had identified the “ Black-fish,” written ‘“ Blanfish,” in
the British Zoology, with Perca nigra of Linneeus, as had been previously pointed
out by Gmelin in his edition of that author, dated 1788 (although he added
his doubt whether it were not a variety of the fresh-water Ruffe). Risso in
1810 describes it in his “Ichthyology of Nice :” while Fleming in his “ History
of British Animals,” published in 1828, and, following Gmelin’s doubts, places
Jago’s sea-fish as an appendix to the fresh-water Ruffe, Perea cerned, designating
the representation given by Borlase as a ‘‘ manufactur ed figure.” In 1830 and
1831 Couch re-discovered the species on the Cornish coast. In 1833 Cuvier and
Valenciennes, in their magnificent work on fish, describe the ‘“ Black-fish” in
detail, adding an excellent figure, as well as criticising the synonymy ; since that
time but little further information has been acquired respecting the species.

Habits. —Obscure, but it is said to attend vessels like the ‘‘ Pilot fish,” hence
Rondelet named it after the term employed by the ancients, Pompilus, a fish
held sacred on account of its friendship to man. Mr. Dunn, of Mevagissey,
observed respecting an example captured in 1872 that it was the fourth of its
kind known to have been taken at that place, and all in mackerel nets. In each
instance they seemed to be acting the part of “ pilot fishes” to some varieties of
shark which had been entangled in the nets close by.

Buaits.--But little is known respecting their food, the first two specimens
taken in Cornwall were captured in pots baited with ore-weed, but they will eat
flesh, as Couch remarks upon one being taken with a slice of mackerel used for a
bait, while in its stomach were found ‘“‘a mussel without a shell and a piece of
flesh of a sea-bream, both these substances probably having been snatched from
the hooks of fishermen.

Breeding.—Risso says that the eggs are deposited inthe autumn: and the
young (which have dark transverse bands) are captured in the spring.
STROMATEID A. 113

As food.—This fish does not appear to be held in any estimation in the
Mediterranean, but those which have been eaten along the British coasts have
been reported as of excellent flavour, their flesh being white, soft, and flaky.

Habitat.—The Mediterranean, where, although common off Nice, it is
generally rare: occasional wanderers appear off the British Isles, and in the
Atlantic as far south as Madeira. It occurs along the coasts of France, the south
coast of England, and one straggler was taken off Northumberland, another off
Yorkshire. An example has likewise been recorded off the south coast of Ireland.

As previously observed, the two first taken in these isles were captured at Looe,
May 26th, 1721. Since that time Couch mentions one which was taken in
November, 1830, in a floating net set for salmon, and such was the force exerted
by this fish that it carried the net before it over the head rope, when it fell into
the folds and became entangled. A second is referred to by the same author as
caught near Polperro in 1831, on a handline baited with a slice of mackerel.
Another came with a ship into the harbour of St. Ives, and while there suffered
itself to be caught with a gaff from a boat alongside. In 1841, one 14 inches
in length was taken at Lossiemouth. August 27, 1850, one was taken at Falmouth
in a drift net, in which it was entangled by the teeth. Mr. Alder, in his address to
the ‘‘ Tyneside Naturalists’ Field Club,” 1850, records one captured at Cullercoats
in Northumberland, and which was placed in the museum. Rudd (Zoologist,
1852, p. 3504) observes that one was taken at Redcar, in Yorkshire. In February,
1857, one was obtained near Penzance, while R. Couch records another, 9 inches
long, which came into his possession in the autumn of the same year. June 11th,
1870, two were captured in a trammel or fiue-net set in Mount’s Bay. In
1871, Mr. Andrews mentions one taken off the Irish coast. In July, 1872,
Mr. Gatcome remarks (Zoologist, 1872, p. 3236) one 12} inches long and 33 deep,
was taken in a mackerel net off Deadman, it appeared to have followed
a large Porbeagle shark, which was captured in the same net at a few feet distance.
June 1ith, 1877, one was taken in a seine off Babbicombe, near Torquay (Gosse,
Zool.). In August, 1878, one 22 inches long and 4 lb. weight, was taken in a
trammel off Helford. Doubtless many other examples which have not been
recorded have been captured along the south coast. Mr. Dunn observes that he has
known about a dozen taken at Mevagissey, and every one could be traced to be
following or near a large fish, generally a shark. Not long sincea shark entered the
harbour and when leaving it passed some smal] boats moored near the pier head.
When the tide ebbed the boats grounded in a pool, and close by the keel of one
a black-fish was taken. It was supposed that it had mistaken the boat for its
companion.

The specimen, figured life size, is in the British Museum collection. This
fish attains to at least 3 feet in length. Professor Cigholi was good enough
to send me an example, 30 inches long, from the coast of Italy.
114 ACANTHOPTERYGI.

Famity, XI—CORYPHAENIDZG (part), Swarnson.

Branchiostegals from five to seven: pseudobranchie present or absent. Body
oblong, or elevated and compressed. Gill-openings wide. Eyes lateral. No
osseous articulation between the infraorbital bones and the preopercle. Teeth
in the jaws small, present or absent on the palate, none in the esophagus.
Asingle elongated dorsal fin without any distinct spinous division in the adult:
ventrals thoracic (jugular in Pteraclis). No prominent papilla near the vent.
Air-bladder present or absent. Pyloric appendages few or many. Vertebre
exceed 10/14.

Geographical distribution—Cosmopolitan and pelagic, and though chiefly
confined to tropical and temperate seas, some are found in high northern latitudes,

Genus I.—Brama (Schneider) Risso.

Tarazes, Lowe (Young). Pterycombus, Fries (Young).

Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchiw well developed. Body elevated and
compressed. Cleft of mouth oblique: lower jaw the longer. Opercles entire.
Teeth in the jaws, the outer row being much the strongest: deciduous ones on the
vomer and palatines. Dorsal fin many rayed, the first three or four being spines:
anal with two spines and similar to dorsal. Ventrals small and thoracic. Caudal
deeply forked. Neules extended on to the head and vertical fins. Air-bladder absent.
Pyloric appendages few.

Tarazes, Lowe, was considered by Poey (An. Soc. Esp. v. p. 148) to be probably
the young of this species. Liitken (Spelia Atlantica) has observed that smooth
or spinate scales in these fishes may be symptomatic of age, not of distinct species,
much less of genera.

Geographical distribution.--These pelagic forms are found from the Farée Isles
in the north, where they are represented by Brama Rayti, which extends south-
wards, being common in parts of the Mediterranean and found in the Atlantic as
far south as the Cape of Good Hope. B. longipinnis, Lowe, which may be
B. Raschti, Esmark, seems (if a distinct species) to extend from the Baltic to
Madeira. The nearly allied B. Japonica, Hilgendorf, has been taken at Chili,
New Zealand, and also in the more northern Japan. Whether B. Dussumieri, c. v,
and B. Orcint, c. v, are not the young of this last specics appears very questionable.
This genus extends throughout most of the temperate and tropical seas of
Western Europe and Africa: also the Pacific Ocean, but does not appear to have
been recorded from the eastern coast of America, although the nearly allied
form of Pteraclis has been obtained off Carolina.

1. Brama Raii, Plate XLI.

Brama marina, Willughby, App. p. 17, t. V. 12; Ray, Syn. Pisce. p. 115;
Flem. Brit. An. p. 210. Castagnole, Duhamel, Péches, iii, p. 26, pl. v, f. 1.
Toothed gilt head, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776) iii, p. 243, pl. xliii (Hd. 2, 1812)
iii, p. 331, pl. liv; Montagu, Trans. Linn. Soc. vii, p. 292.

Sparus rait, Bloch, t. cclxxiii; Donovan, Brit. Fish. ii, pl. xxxvii; Shaw, Zool.
iv, p. 404.
CORY PH ANID. 115

Sparus brama, Bon, Enc. Ich. p. 104, pl. 1. f. 192.

_, Brama raii, Bl. Schn. p. 99; Risso, Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 433; Cuv. and Val.
vu, p. 281, pl. cxc; Hoge, Mag. Nat. Hist. i, 1829, p. 277, and Nat. Hist. Stock.
on Tees, p. 26; Scouler, M. N. Hist, vi, 1833, p. 529; Jenyns, Manual, p. 359;
Yarrell, Brit. Fish (Ed. 1) i, p. 117, c. fig. (Hd. 2) i, p. 133 (Hd. 3) ii, p. 165;
Johnston, Berwickshire N. H. Field Club, 1833, i, p- 171; Parnell, Fish. Firth
of Forth, p. 49, and Mem. Wern. Soc. vii, p- 209; Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 214; Lowe,
Trans. Zool. Soe. iii, p. 8; Guichen. Explor. Algér. Poiss. p. 56; White, Catal.
Brit. Fish. p. 28; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 92; Gunther, Catal. ii,
p. 408; Schlegel, De Dieren Ned. p. 16, pl. i, f. 6; Couch, Zoologist, 1849,
Append. Pp: Xxvili, c. fig.; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 25; Collett, Norges
Fiske, p. 46: McIntosh, Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 173; Winther, Ich. Dan. 1879,
p. 14; Liitken, Spol. Atlan. 1880, p. 190, pl. iv, fig. 1, 2; Moreau, Poiss. France,
1i, p. 487, c. fig.

Lepodus saragus, Rafin. Caratteri dial. Nuov. Gen. p. 53, No. 144.

a castaneola, Lacep. iv, p. 110; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 424; Risso, Ich. Nice,
p. ;

Sparus niger, Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 98.

Cheetodon umbratus, Cabrera, Machado’s Catal. Pece de Cadix, p. 23.

? Cheetodon, sp. Couch, Trans. Linn. Soc. xiv, p. 78.

ays bream, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 12.), pl. xcii.

B. vii, D. 3-4/29-34, P. 19-23, V.1/5, A. g72z5, C. 19, L. 1. 80-95, L. tr. 14/23.
Cosc. pyl. 5, Vert. 16/26.

Length of head 43 to 5, of caudal fin 44 to 43, height of body 3 in the total
length. Hye—situated in nearly the middle of the height of the head: diameter
33 to 4 in the length of the head, 3/4 to 1 diameter from the end of the snout, the
interorbital space forming a high crest. Body high and very compressed, with a
strongly curved anterior profile: its greatest height being below the origin of the
dorsal fin. Cleft of mouth oblique, the posterior extremity of the maxilla
reaching to beneath the middle of the orbit: lower jaw rather prominent.
Posterior nostril resembles a slit just in front of the middle of the orbit:
anterior one round and patent. Teeth —an outer curved row of pointed and
rather distant ones in the upper jaw, much larger than those of the inner series ;
in the lower jaw one or two rows of conical, pointed, andl rather curved ones, of
which two or three somewhat resemble canines: in a fine row on the palatine
bones and vomer, but which, being deciduous, are often absent: none on the
tongue. F%ns—dorsal spines lower than the anterior rays, which are the highest
in the anterior portion of the fin: the anal commences on a vertical line beneath
the fourth or fifth dorsal ray, and is otherwise similar to that fin. Pectoral
reaches to at least half the length of the base of the anal. Ventral short, with
a large basal scale. Caudal deeply forked. Scales—cover body and head
(excluding the vertical limb of the preopercle, supraorbital space, and
snout) also the rays of the vertical fins. The length of the intestinal tract
equals about half the distance from the snout to the base of the caudal fin.
its rectal portion large and with thickened walls. Cecal appendages—five.
Colours—appear subject to considerable variation. The upper portion of the
head and body is mostly of a dark blue, having a tinge of bronze on the
snout; while the sides of the body are bluish, shot with purple, and becoming
almost white beneath. Dorsal and anal fins of a light colour, having a narrow
black edge: outer margin of caudal fin dark.

The young of this species as observed by Liitken, 1. c. when only half
grown, have the scales furnished with a spine on the anterior portion of the
uncovered part of each, and which does not disappear until the fish approaches
its adult development. Also in the very young, as about 6/10 of an inch long,
the tail fin is only moderately forked and the dorsal fin commences nearer
the head than in the adult, while both it and the anal are comparatively
much higher, being equal in their highest portion to two-thirds or half the
height of the body of the fish. But as the examples grow larger the caudal fin

8 *
116 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

becomes more forked and the dorsal and anal by degrees take on the adult
characters.

Varieties—Couch supposed that one of his examples might be a new species
or differing from the ordinary form.

Names.—Thompsin observes that this fish was called hen-fish in Ireland,
a term applied to such as are of somewhat rare occurrence. La castagnole,
French.

Habits—Gregarious in small companies, and probably lives in deep waters
in cold climes, and may be in that which is shallower where the air is not so cold.
Johnston says, “I have seen two specimens only, cast on shore after a storm,
and the Reverend Mr. Baird has seen another which had suffered a similar
wreck on the shore below Cocksburnpath.”

Means of capture.—The rule appears to have obtained that a large proportion
of these fishes taken in this country have been met with dead after storms or
in a dying state, as if they had become subject to some extraneous influence
when wandering beyond their legitimate home. Couch, however, obtained one
that was taken by a bait: while in the Mediterranean, according to Risso, this
mode of capture is employed in May, June, and December.

Breeding.—Risso says it spawns in summer.

As food—Valued tor this purpose in the Mediterranean, its flesh being
considered wholesome, especially during the winter months.

Habitat.—This fish has been obtained in the Farées, and does not appear
to be very rare on the south and west of Sweden, but seems always to have
been obtained during or after stormy weather. In five instances, from 1825
to 1850, all were captured between November Ist and December 15th, but
such dates certainly do not apply to recorded British examples. It is more
common on the French coast and in the Mediterranean, where it appears to be
locally abundant, as at Genoa, while one specimen in the British Museum came
from the Cape of Good Hope.

Ray gave the first account of this fish, having obtained a description and
figure of one left dead on the tide receding in Middlesburgh Marsh at the mouth
ot the Tees in Yorkshire, September 18th, 1681: the example came into the
possession of Dr. Johnson. The largest number of British examples have been
taken on the north of England, Scotland, and Ireland.

In 1792, one taken at St. Andrew’s was sent to the Edinburgh Museum
and subsequently came into Donovan's possession. Montagu recorded it from
Devonshire: Turton remarks on one taken at Swansea, November 12th, 1806.
In 1521, Hogg mentioned one found at Stockton-upon-Tees. ‘Miss Gurney in
her Diary (Trans. Norwich Nat. Hist. Soc. ii, p. 19) says that one of these fish
was found after a storm on Cromer beach in October, 1821. She made an
accurate coloured sketch of this fish, which was full sized” (J. Southwell, MSS.).
In 1544, Rudd (Zool. iii, p. 853) observed upon three from Redear, all found on
the beach during the antumn, and on December 2nd, 1850, two more were cast
ashore at the same plece (Zool. 1851, p. 8010). Mr. Dowell saw one in Norwich,
January 25th, 1847, which was taken at Yadmo.” In 1550 one was similarly
thrown up at Norwich (Gurney, Zool. 1851, p. 3058). and during the same winter
several were found in the Firth of Forth (Logan, Zool. p. 8058). October 24th,
1851, one taken in Gamrie harbour contained Jurge ova, it was pushing its way
inwards against a receding tide (G. Harris, Zool. p. 5301). R. Couch (Zool. 1846,
p. 1406) says, “two specimens have been taken at Polperro, and the late Mr.
Chirgwin informed me that one had been taken near the Runnel stone.”
July 4th, 1466, Mr. Clegg (Zool. p. 340) recorded one washed ashore at Liskeard.
Buckland mentioned an example of 43 lb. weight which he received from
Northumberland in 1868. July 10th, 1874, Mr. Cornish remarked (Zool. p. 4266)
that one was found nearly dead on the beach near Penzance, and he subsequently
recorded that on June 12th, 1575, as a heavy gale was abating, one was captured
in an exhausted state floundering about in the same locality, while in its stomach
was a cuttle fish about 4 inches long (col. 1875, p. 4542). Edward states it
to be rare in Banffshire: while Scouler considered it to be not uncommon on the
CORYPH ANID Ai. 117

west coast of Scotland: and Parnell remarked that it has occurred frequently in
the Firth of Forth, two or three specimens from thence being in the College
Museum at Edinburgh.

In Treland doubts have been cast upon the authenticity of McSkimmim’s
Carrickfergus specimen: Dr. Burkitt, of Waterford, gave an example taken at
Tranmore, in October, 1843, to the Museum at Trinity College, Dublin.

For the example figured, 1/8 of the natural size, I am indebted to Dr.
Hubrechi, of Leyden. It is said to attain to 23 feet in length. Yarrell
mentions that one of those cast ashore at Redcar, in 1851, was 223 inches
long.

 

ScHEDOPHILUS MEDUSOPHAGUS.
118 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus II.—Lampris, Retzius.

Chrysostosus, Lacépéde.

Branchiustegals seven. Body oval, elevated, and compressel. Mouth terminal,
protractile, and with a shallow cleft. Opercular pieces entire. Teeth absent from
the mouth. A single, muny-rayed, dorsal jin destitute of spines: anal with less rays
than the dorsal and also spineless. Ventrals elongated and many rayed. Scales small
and very deciduous. Air-bludder large and bifurcated posteriorly.  Pyloric
appendages numerous.

Geographical distribution.—This beautifully tinted pelagic form is found in
the seas of Norway and extending in the Atlantic certainly so far as Madeira:
occasional examples are also captured in the Mediterranean.

1. Lampris luna, Plate XLII.

Sibbald, Scotia Illus. pl. vi, f. 3; Wallace, Orkneys, p. 37; Mortimer, Phil.
Trans. xlvi, p. 518, t.iv. Zeus cuuda bifurca, Stroem, Scendmer, i, p. 323, t 1,
£. 20; Mull. Prod. Zool. Dan. p. 44, No. 370. Opah, Penn. Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) iii,
p. 223, pl. xhi (Ed. 2), ii, p. 299, pl. xlvi. Zeus Streiit, Walb. Artedi, iti,
p. 395. Paxson lane, Duhamel, Péches, ili, p. 74, t. xvil. Zeus regius, Bon.
Ency. Méthod. p. 72, f. clv. The Opah, Low, Fauna Orcad. p. 2U8.

Ncomber pelagicus, Gunner, in Dronth. Selsk. Skr. iv, p. 80, t. xu, f. 1.

Zeus luna, Gmel. Linn. p. 1225; Bl Schn. p. 96; Donovan, Brit. Fish. v,
pl. 97; Sowerby, Brit. Misc. pl. xxii; Turton, p. 95.

Zeus guttatus, Brinn. Nya. Saml. Danske Vid. Selsk. Skr. 1788, iii, p. 398,
t. A; Holten, Nat. Selsk. Skr. v, p. 120; Faber, Fische Islands, p. 132; Richard-
son, Fauna Bor. Amer. Fishes, p. 83.

Zeus opah, Pennant, Arct. Zool. Suppl. p. 419; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 287,

1. xiii.

e Lampris quitatus, Retzius, Nov. Mém. Acad. sc. Suede, 1799, t. xx, pt. 3, p. 91;
Holten, Zool. Dan. iv, t. 144; Cuv. and Val. x, p. 39, pl. cclxxxti (Young) ; Cuv.
Regne Anim. Ml. Poissons, pl. lxi; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Hd. 1) i, p. 173, ¢. fig.
(id. 2) 1, p. 194 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 268; Parnell, Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 63, pl. 27, and
Wern. Mem. vil. p. 225, t. xxvii; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 8%; Swainson, ii,
p. 251; Gaim. Voy. Grotnl. Zool. Poissons, pl. x; Schlegel, De Dieren v. Neder.
p. 12, pl.i, f. 5; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 48; Winther, lch. Dan. 1879, p. 15.

Scomber guineri, Bl. Schn, p. 38.

Chrysotosus luna, Lacép. iv, p. 586, pl. ix, f. 3.

Zeus imper/alis, Shaw, Nat. Mise. iv, pl. cxl and Zool. iv, p. 289, pl. xhi.

Lampris luna, Risso, Eur. Mérid. ii, p. 341; Flem. Brit. An. p. 219;
Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) 1837, i, p. 409; Jenyns, Manual, p. 369;
Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 06; Giinther, Catal. 1, p. 416; Steind. Ich.
Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 31; McIntosh, Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 174; Giglioli, Catal.
Pesce. Hal. p. 27; Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 484.

Lanipris luvta, Lowe, Trans. Zool. Soc. ii, p. 183, iti, p. 6, and Proc. Zool. Soe.
1839, p. 80, and Fish. Madcira, p. 27, t. v; Gray, Ann. and Mag. (3) 1861, p. 192;
Lowe, Fauna of Norfolk, p. 11.

Opah, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, u, p. 153, pl. xciii.

B. vi-vii, D. 53-55, P. 24, V. 14-16, A. 38-41, C. 22, Vert. 20-24/21-29,

Length of head 3; to 4, of cundal fin 43 to 5, height of body 2+ to 22 in the
total length. Jye—placed shghtly above the middle of the height of the head,
diameter 4 to 63 in the length of the head, 1} diameters from the end of the
snout. Head a little higher than long, with the profile over the eye slivhtly
concave. Jaws nearly equal anteriorly: the posterior extremity of the maxilla
does not extend so far as to beneath the eve. Teefh—Jaws and palate toothless.
Him: —the dorsal commences over or slightly behind the base of the pectoral: in
CORYPH ANID Ai. 119

the adult the anterior fourth is elevated, whereas the rays in the remainder of the
fin are short, except the last few, which are slightly longer, and when laid flat
extend to the base of the caudal fin. Pectoral falciform, inserted about the
centre of the height of the body, and reaching to beyond the middle of the
base of the dorsal fin. Ventrai situated rather posterior to the base of the
pectoral but similar to it in shape and length. Anal low, commencing on a
vertical line below the middle of the dorsal fin. Caudal forked. Lateral-line
—with a strong curve, becoming straight about midway between the eye and
the base of the caudal fin: it is formed of short single unbranched tubes. Free
portion of the tail as high as long. Air-bladder—very large, rounded in front
and ending posteriorly in two short horns. Colowrs—this fish is an exception to
the general rule that those which inhabit the tropical seas are most resplendent
in colours, as none can surpass the Opah: as a French naturalist observed,
it resembles a noble of Neptune’s court attired in his gala apparel. Back
bluish-green, sides violet and becoming red beneath: a number of oval silvery
Spots scattered over the whole of the body and upper surface of the head: fins
and tail bright red. The general colours, however, vary from silvery-green to
bright golden with azure reflections.

In Cuy. and Val. 1. c. reference is made to a young example of this fish
captured in the Gulf of Gascogne in 1810. The forms of the body, the various
proportions, the curvature of the lateral line and the spots were the same as in
adults. But the ventral fins equalled more than half the length of the body,
their extremities reaching to the middle of the caudal: while the anterior portion
of the dorsal fin was equally long. The pectorals likewise were proportionately
larger than seen in large specimens. This fish is figured in ©. V. 1. c.

Names.—OUpah, King-fish, sea-pert, carf, Jerusalem haddock, sun-fish.  Bren-
hinbyog, Welsh. Koningsvisch, Dutch. Chrysotose, French.

Habits.—This fish is a resident of deep waters, but rarely coming to the
shallows in the British seas: it has been recorded as captured in February, March,
the early summer, June, July, August, November, and December, while in the
majority of cases the month has not been mentioned. It may be taken, in short,
at any time throughout the year. In the stomachs of such as have been examined,
cuttle-fishes, other cephalopods, and Acalephe have been obtained.

Means of capture.—Low observes that it is very rare in the Orkneys, never
caught with a hook, and seldom thrown on shore. Mr. Dunn observed his
example floating on its side close in shore: it obtained an entrance into a sort of
open drain into which the tide flowed. He seized it by the tail but was unable to
lift it: another fisherman also tried to raise it at the same time, seizing it by the
gills. The fish at once broke loose, inundating them by its splashings. Finally
it was quietly dragged by its tail up the drain when it dashed against the iron
shutter which closed the drain exit, and so became stunned. It weighed
3/4 of a cwt.

As food-—Wallace observes that the flesh of the anterior half was like beef
and the other half like salmon. The one washed ashore in 1835, at Queensferry,
was eaten, its flesh was red and said to resemble and to be as good as salmon.
Moreau likewise remarks of an example at Boulogne, in July, 1878, that its flesh
was served at many tables and found to be excellent.

Habitat.—It seems to prefer the deeper waters of the North Sea, and merely
ranges throughout a limited space, while it has not been recorded off Greenland
or eust of North Cape. The largest number taken have been in the north. It has
been captured, according to Nilsson, on the coast of Norway from immemorial ages,
and was described by Peder Claussen in 1632 as Lawetoy, or “large salmon.”
His example weighed 140 1b. In Scandinavia it is known as Glans-fisk. Very
rare in the Mediterranean, it is, however, sometimes captured there. Professor
Giglioli mentions two taken in Italy.

Among those captured in British waters, we find many recorded. Sibbald
obtained one from the Firth of Forth in 1664: Wallace from Sunda in the
Orkneys in 1682, when he observes upon several which had been previously got
there. Upwards of a dozen specimens, observes Baikie (Zool. 1853), have been
120 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

procured at different times in the Orkneys and Zetland, and one nearly 6 feet in
length was captured in Sanday. Mortimer, in 1750, exhibited at the Royal Society
one taken at Leith. It is scarcely necessary to enumerate all the various captures,
a long list of which may be seen in the Thirty-ninth Annual Report of the
Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Seciety for 1869, p. 76. Pennant records two from
Scotland, and in 176), one 3 fect 6 inches long, and weigbing 70 or 80 Ib., was
taken in Northumberland, and described by Harrison in the British Zoology.
One in Filey Bay, Yorkshire, 3 feet 5 inches long, and in 1772 one, 4 feet 5 inches
long and weighing 110 tb., at Brixham. Paget recorded one in December, 1823,
and another in November, 1528, captured at Yarmouth: and Ncouler one from
the Clyde in 1833. In 1835, during the early part of the summer, one was taken
in the west of Cornwall, and in August the same year another near Conway
(Couch): and in July, 1839, one at Hunstanton, on the east coast of Norfolk,
which was placed in the Wisbeach Museum. March 3rd, 1859, one was taken at
Port Gordon, near Elgin, 3 feet 10 inches long, weighing 112 lb. (Gordon, Zool.
1852, p. 3459), and several years subscquently another from near Nairn. In
1844, on July 4th, Mr. Gurney (Zool. p. 679) recorded one at Norwich which had
been left by the tide on the beach at Eccles, it was a male weighing 4 or 5 stone.
Norman mentions one taken in February, 1849, at Flamborough Head : and in
1850, another weighing 72 Ib. at Redcar (Rudd, Zool. ix, 1851, p. 3010). Several
others have been recorded from Scotland and the west of England, and Edward
states it to have been taken in Banflshire on several occasions. A local example
isin the St. Andrew’s Museum (McIntosh). In June, 1565, a large specimen
was taken in St. Austell’s Bay, Cornwall.

In Iteland we find one recorded in Sampson’s Derry (p. 337), which was sent
to the Dublin Society: in 1835 one was taken in June in the Foyle (Ordnance
Survey). In October, 1842, one was sent from Tramore to the Dublin University
Museum: and in June, 1549, one weighing 55 Ib. was taken in Derry (Derry
Standard): in August the same year, another at Wexford, weighing 59 1b. In
July, 1850, one from Belfast Bay, and in 1801, one from Skerries, now in the
University Museum.

The figure is taken from the stuffed example in the British Museum.

The size to which it attains is questionable, but it has been recorded up to
6 feet in length.

 

Luvarus IMPERIALIS (young).
CORYPHAINIDA. 121

Genus 3.—Luvarus, Rafinesque.

Ausonia, Risso. Proctostegus, Nardo. Diana, Risso (young). <Astrodermus,
Cuv. and Val. (young).

Branchiostegals five: pseudobranchie present. Body oblong, anteriorly enlarged,
but compressed and much decreased in size in its posterior two-thirds. Mouth small
and terminal. Teeth in a fine row in the jaws : also on palatines and tongue in the
young. A single rayed dorsal fin situated in the last half of the length of the back in
adults, but about one-third longer in the young. Ventrals thoracic, which in the
young may possess an entire or serrated spine. Anal fin nearly similar to dorsal.
Caudal forked. A longitudinal heel along either side of the root of the tail in adults.
Opening of vent below vrigin of pectoral fin. Scales rudimentary. Air-bladder large.
Cecal appendages few.

The dorsal fin is very curious, as the remains of a part of the anterior
portion which exists in the young is sometimes perceptible in the adult. The
bones of this fish are of a very soft consistence.

Professor Giglioli has shown most conclusively that Diana semilunata, Risso,
is the immature of this fish, Such a modification is exceedingly remarkable
(see figure, p. 120).

Geographical distribution.—Pelagic fishes found in the Mediterranean, and
occasional wanderers extend their range to the southern shores of the British
Isles, and even to Madeira.

1. Luvarus imperialis, Plate XLIII.

Luvarus imperialis, Rafin. Carat. Gen. 22, Spe. 53, Ind. Itt. Sicil. p. 39,
No. 290, pl. i, f. 1; C. Bonap. Catal. No. 700; Cuv. and Val. ix, p. 412; Giglioli,
Catal. Faun. Ital. p. 26; Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 511.

Ausonia Cuviert, Risso, Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 342, f. xxviii; Lowe, Proc. Zool.
Soc. 1843, p. 84; C. Bonap. Catal. No. 699; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 414, and Proc.
Zool. Soc. 1866, p. 336, c, bad fig. of skeleton; Canestr. Fauna Ital. p. 108;
Couch, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1866, p. 332, c. fig.; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868,

31,
- Proctostegus prototypus, Nardo, Mem. “ De Proctostego” Patavii, 1827, c. fig.

Ausonia Cocksii, Couch, Ann, and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1866, xviii, p. 424, and
Cornish Zool. 1866, p. 500; W. Bullmore, Journ. Royal Inst. Cornwall, 1866,
No. vi, p. 61, ¢. fig.

(Young.)

Corypheena elegans, Risso, Mém. prés. 1’Inst. 1814.

Diana semilunata, Risso, Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 267, t. vii, f. 14; Giinther, Catal.
ii, p. 413; Steind. lc. p. 30.

Astrodermus coryphenoides, Cuy. and Val. ix, p. 353, pl. cclxx; Swainson, ii,
p. 255; Lowe, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1840, p. 37, and Trans. Zool. Soe. iii, p. 7.

Astrodermus Valenciennesst, Cocco, Giorn. Sc. Lett. Art. Sic. f. 153, c. fig,

Astroderma plumbewm, Lowe, Pro. Zool. Soc. 1843, p. 83.

Astrodermus elegans, Bonap. Faun. ital. Pesci. No. 701, c. fig.; Canest. Faun.
Ital. p. 108; Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 514.

B. v, D. 1/11-13 (22-23 in the young), P. 14-18, V. 1/4, A. 1/14 (18 in young),
C. 16, Coee. pyl. 5, Vert. 20 (Nardo), 11/11 (Giinther).

Length of head 43 to 5, of caudal fin 54, height of body 4 to 43 in the total
length. Hye--small, situated nearly in the middle of the height of the head,
6 to 7 diameters in the length of the head, 2 diameters from the end of the
snout. Mouth not protractile, terminal, with the lower jaw prominent, the
extent of the gape scarcely exceeding that of the diameter of the eye, while the
122 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

cleft hardly extends one-third of the distance to beneath the orbit. A high
interparietal crest; also a hard ridge, giving the appearance as if a furrow
extended from the forehead to the base of the pectoral fin. ‘T'eeth—a fine row in
the jaws in adults: also in the young some deciduous ones on the palatines and
on the tongue. F’tns—in the adult the dorsal fin is low and situated in the last
half of the back not extending to the caudal fin, the rays are mostly simple and
low, sometimes a short spine has been observed before this fin (in the young the
dorsal fin commences much further forwards, and the rays, 22 to 23, are higher).
Pectoral falciform. Ventral in adults may be absent, according to Nardo, or
consist of from one spine and four branched rays to simply two rays: it is situated
under the base of the pectoral fin: in the young the spine may be serrated on
both edges or entire, while one of the rays is very elongated (see figure, page 12().
Anal reaching to as tar as the dorsal, and shorter, but otherwise similar to it in
both adults and young. Caudal forked. A well-marked longitudinal keel along
either side of the root of the tail, and two transverse crests as in tunnies. Scales—
Lowe, 1. c. observes that in his adult example, 35 inches long, the whole body was
smooth and scaleless: with the exception of irregular patches here and there, most
plentiful on the head and back, of a skinny, crape-like coat or covering
of minute, rough, branny scales, like a crust of half-congealed snow, and easily
rubbed off. Where this was absent he considered such to have been the result of
natural wear or injury. A valve exists at the vent. Colomrs—-those of Mr. Cornish’s
adult example were as follows. Back, steel-gray, having a broad scarlet band along
the side, and below this a silvery abdomen. ‘The sides appeared as if sprinkled
with gold dust. Fins bright crimson. In Mediterranean examples the back has been
observed to be golden, the sides white tinged with blue, and the under surface
white. Fins mostly red: caudal golden at its base, becoming silvery at its
extremity. Ventrals brownish. The young are silvery, with blackish spots:
the dorsal and anal fins dark, whereas the others are yellow stained with red.

The male fish is said to have the anterior dorsal rays prolonged.

Habits.—These are scarcely known: the young have been captured near
the surface at sea. Its intestines would seem to point to its being a
vegetable feeder, which probably does not live at any great depths in the ocean.

Breeding.—Risso observes on having found a female Diana semilunuta, full
of eggs in the summer.

As food.—Nardo observed that it resembled beef, and its flavour was
excellent.

Habitat.—This fish is found, though rarely, in the Mediterranean, and has
been occasionally obtained on the Italian and Sicilian coasts, a large female
example having been captured at Venice in 1839: it has been also mentioned
from other localities, as from Malta, Nice, and Cetti, in which last place one
was taken August 3rd, 1875.

The first recorded British example was thrown on shore at Deadman, on
the south coast of Cornwall, on April 30th, 1866, and was secured by Mr.
Dunn, who dispatched it to Couch. At the time of its capture a strong breeze
was blowing, and the waves were rough. This specimen is now in the British
Museum, and is the one from which I figured plate xlii. It measured 3 feet
9 inches from the snout to the fork of the tail. The second example was taken
at Falmouth, September 30th, 1866, while floundering in a pool left by a
receding tide. A fisherman seized it by the tail, and was towed about by the fish
until it was tired. It measured 4 feet in length and weighed 120 Ib.

Rafinesque’s example captured June, 1808, in Sicily, was 5 feet long.
CARANGID A. 123

Fairy, XII—CARANGIDZL, Giinther.

Scomberoidet pt. et Squamipinnes, pt. Cuvier: Scombrioide, pt. Richardson.

_ Branchiostegals seven, occasionally less: pseudobranchie present (absent
in Lichia and Trachynotus). Body oblong, elevated, or sub-cylindrical and
compressed, Gill-openings wide. Eyes lateral. No bony articulation between
preopercle and infraorbitals. Dentition varied: teeth, when present, conical.
Base of spinous dorsal of less extent than the rayed portion, and occasionally
formed of isolated spines: sometimes detached finlets at the end of dorsal and
anal fins. Anal spines, when present, may or may not be continuous with
the fin. Ventrals, when present, thoracic, sometimes rudimentary. Scales
usually small or absent. Lateral-line may be partially or entirely armed
with shield-like plates. Air-bladder present. Pyloric appendages usually
numerous. Vertebre 10/14 (Naucrates 10/16).

The young of many genera of fishes of this family have the head variously
armed, but such armature is absorbed before they reach the adult age.

Geographical distribution—From as far riorth as Denmark and Sweden,
through most of the temperate and tropical seas of both hemispheres.

Genus I.—Caranx, Lacépede.

Trachurus, Olistus, Blepharis, Gallichthys, Scyris, and Hynnis, Cuv. and Val. ;
Trachinus, Swainson; Megalaspis, Decapterus, Selar, Carangichthys, Carangotdes,
Leioglossus, Uraspts, Selaroides, Gnathanodon, and Hemicaranz, Bleeker ; Carangus,
Girard ; Trachurops, Carangops, and Paratractus, Gill.

Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchie present. Body oblong, sub-cylindrical,
and more or less compressed. Cleft of mouth of moderate depth. Eyes lateral,
with or without adipose lids. Teeth generally weak. Two dorsal fins: the first
continuous, having about eight weak spines, which are sometimes rudimentary, at
its base anteriorly is a recumbent, forwardly-directed spine: the second dorsal of
greater extent than the first and similar to the anal: sometimes the last rays of
both these fins are semi or wholly detached: two pre-anal spines which occasionally
are rudimentary, they are separated by an interspace from the anal fin. Scales
minute. Lateral-line with an anterior curved portion, while the posterior is straight
and covered with large plate-like scales which are usually keeled and sometimes spinate,
these may be continued on to the anterior curved portion of the lateral-line
(Trachurus). Air-bladder bifurcated posteriorly. Pyloric appendages in large
numbers.

Considering the numerous species and varieties of form which are found in
the genus it is not surprising that many sub-divisions of it have been
proposed. The characters employed for this purpose have been the dentition,
the form of the fins, the serrations or the reverse of the preopercle, and the
armature of the scales on the lateral-line, the scales on the body, and the
adipose eyelids. But the single British species is well characterized by its
entire lateral-line being armed with large keeled plates.

Geographical distribution —The fishes composing the genus Carana, or “ Horse-
mackerels,” are spread from Norway and Sweden throughout most of the
temperate and tropical seas, more especially abounding in the latter, where they
attain to a large size, and are not considered unsuitable for the table: though
some have been reported as poisonous at certain times in particular localities
in the tropics, probably due to the food on which they have been living.
124 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Caranx trachurus, Plate XLIV.

Tpaxodpoc. Athen. vii, p. 326; Oppian, Halieut. 1, p. 5.

Saurus, Salv. fol. 79, pl. xv. Lacertus seu Trachurus, Belon. p. 183. Lacertus
Belonti, Gesner, pp. 467, 552.  Trachwrus, Rondel. viii, c. 6, p. 288, c. fig.
Museken, Schon. p. 75; Aldrov. ii, c. 52, p. 268; Jonston, De Pisce. lib. 4, tit. 1u,
c. 3, Art. 1. p. 94, tab. xxi, £8; Ray, p. 92. Scad, Willughby, p. 290, t. 8. 22;
Pennant, Brit. Zool. (id. 1) iii, p. 269, pl. li (Ed. 1812), ui, p. 363, pl. ba.
Scomber, No. 3, Artedi, Gen. p. 31. Scomber, Sp. Gronoy. Zouph. p. 94, No. 308,
and Mus. Ich. i, p. 34, No. 80; Duhamel, Péches, ii, Sect. 7, p. 188, pl. i, f. 2.

Scumber trachurus, Linn. Syst. i, p. 494; Bloch, t lvi; Gmel. Linn. p. 1335;
Bonnat. p. 140, pl. viii, f. 230: BL Schn. p. 27; Pallas, Zoogr. Ross. iii, p. 208;
Donovan, Brit. Fishes, i, pl. ui; Turton, p. 101.

Caranex trachirus, Lacép. iti, p. 60; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 173, and Hur. Mérid.
iii, p. 421; Cuv. and Val. ix, p. 11, pl 246; Jenyns’ Manual, p. 366; Yarrell,
Brit. Fish. (Hd. 1) i, p. 154, ¢. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 175 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 236; Bonap. Pesce. Eur,
p. 75; Gay, Hist. Chile, Zool. ii, p. 283; Cuv. Regne Anim. Ill. Poiss. pl. Ivii,
£1; Richards. Ich. China, p. 273, and Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1843, xi. p. 25;
Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. 1837 (2), i, p. 409; Parnell, Fish. Firth of Forth,
p- 57, and Wern. Mem. vii, p. 217; Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Club, 1838, 1, p. 171
Nordm. in Demid. Voy. Russ. Mérid. iii, p. 393; Guichen. Explor. Algér. Poiss.
p. 61; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 37; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 90 ;
Schlegel, De Dieren Nederland, p. 8, pl. i, f. 2; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 50;
Winther, Ich. Dan. 1879, p. 15.

Caranz onorus, Lacép. ii, pl. xi, f. 1.

Carane amia, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 174.

Trachinus spinulosus, Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 249.

Seriola picturata, Bowd. Exc. p. 128, f. xxvii.

Trachurus vulgaris, Flem. Brit. An. p. 218; Johnston, Fish. Berwick. Mag.
Nat. Hist. vi, 1833, p. 15.

Trachurus Europeus, Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 125.

Carane trachurus, var. Japonicus, Temm. and Schleg. Fauna Japon. Poiss.
p. 109, pl. lax, f. 1.

Selar Japonicus, Bleeker, Japan. pl. viii, f. 1.

Caranxz symmetricus, Ayres, Proc. Cal. Acad. Nat. Sc. i, 1855, p. 62.

Trachurus symmetricus, Girard, U. St. Pacif. R. R. Exped. Fish. p. 107.

Caranz Cuviert, Lowe, Trans. Zool. Soe. ii, p. 183.

Carane declivis, Jenyns, Zool. Beagle, Fishes, p. 68, pl. xiv.

Trachurus trachurus, Casteln. Anim. Nouv. ou rares Poiss. p. 23; Giinther,
Catal. ii, p.419; Kner and Steind. Sitz. Ak. Wiss. Wien, liv, p. 364; Kner,
Novara Fische, p. 150; McIntosh, Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 174; Giglioli, Pesci
Ital. p. 27; Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 437.

Scad, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 186, pl. xciv.

B. vii, D. 8/sy23q, P. 19-21, V. 1/5, A. 2/ggteg, O. 17, L. 1. 73, Coec. py]. 12.
Vert. 10/14.

Length of head 4 to 4, of caudal fin 5 to 5}, height of body 5 to 5f in the
total Jength. Hye-—situated above the middle of the height of the head, it has
a wide posterior adipose lid extending nearly or quite to the edge of the pupil,
and also a much narrower anterior adipose lid. Diameter of eye from 31 to
32 in the length of the head, from 1 in the young to 1% diameters in the
adult from the end of the snout, and nearly 1 diameter apart. Interorbital space
flattened, with a rather sharp ridge running down its centre. The lower jaw
the longer: the maxilla reaches to beneath the first third of the eye. Preorbital
much narrower posteriorly than it is anteriorly. Free portion of tail wider than
deep. Teeth—minute in the jaws, also on the vomer, palatines, and in a band
along the middle of the tongue. #ins—dorsal spies weak, increasing in length
to the 4th and 5th, subsequent to which they decrease, a short interspace between
the two fins, the second being much lower than the first and similar to the
CARANGIDA. 125

anal. Pectoral sickle-shapcd, nearly or quite as long as the head. Ventral not
extending to the vent. Second pre-anal spine the strongest. Caudal rather
deeply forked. Scales—very small, present on cheeks, opercles, summit of the
head, and over the body. Lateral-line—makes a curve to beneath the first third
of the second dorsal fin, in the curved portion of its course it is crossed by
large scale-like plates, deeper than wide, which become more indistinct in the
adult: in its straight portion these plates, 84 to 40, are keeled, becoming most
strongly so posteriorly. The number of these plates is subject to great variation,
thus in Cuv. and Val. it is observed that such varied from 70 to 99, in examples
examined in Paris. Atr-bladder—M. Moreau (Compt. Rend. lxxx) observes that an
opening exists permitting the escape of gas from this organ into the bronchial
cavity, but does not admit atmospheric air. Cacal appendages—elongated, and
about twelve in number. Colours—of a dark bluish along the back and so low as
the lateral-line, beneath which it becomes silvery, glossed with purple and gold.
A diffused black spot on the opercle.

Varieties—Edward remarks that he once found a rather strange variety of
this species in Banffshire. It was about the usual size, but of a most beautiful
golden colour, finely striped and variegated with numerous lines of the brightest
blue, except the fins, which were of the finest carmine.

Names.—Scad, horse-mackerel, which term is said to denote the inferior
quality of its flesh: buck-mackerel (Bantl). Macrell y Metrch, Welsh. Le saurel,
French. Hors, Dutch.

Hubits—Adults are more solitary in their habits than are the young,
and they swim low in the water: in the colder months they retire to the
deeper water, re-appearing on our coasts about April, when they become one of
our commonest fish. They are, however, very uncertain in their migrations,
perhaps from a great sensibility to cold and vicissitudes of temperature. Thus
Parnell observes that in 1833 and 1834 scarcely an example was observed in the
Firth of Forth, while they were in prodigious numbers on the English and Welsh
coasts. Of Glamorganshire on the evening of July 24th, 1834, the whole sea
as far as could be seen, appeared to be in a fermentation from their numbers.
hese immense shoals continued passing up channel for a week. Devoured
themselves in large numbers by sea birds, they are great enemies to pilchards, the
herring-fry, and the sand-launce, &c. Thompson found young Clupeide in one
he opened in August. Ball states that he has seen the “‘scad”’ run up on shore
in considerable numbers, but whether in pursuit of young sprats termed
scad-bait or to avoid porpoises, Delphinus phocceena, which were conspicuous in
their rear, he was unable to say. In Norfolk, Mr. Upcher observed that he had
frequently seen large numbers of the scad in chase of small fry along the coast
at Sherringham, and so intent in the pursuit as to be easily taken with a landing
net. The beach was quite covered with small fish which were stranded on the
shingle after leaping from the water to escape their pursuers. R. Couch has
observed that the “ mackerel” and “scad” do not intermingle much except near
the ‘scilly Isles, where they are frequently caught together in large quantities.
North of this the mackerel predominate, to the south the scad, and it is surmised
that in the winter months the shoals of scad are to the south of those of the
mackerel, the borders of the two intermingling. They pass up the channel
during the spring in the deep water, feeding at the bottom, but as summer advances
they approach the shore, swimming high, and these are frequently taken by
mackerel-nets as well as by hooks and lines. Sir T. Browne remarks that in
Norfolk “ before the herrings there commonly cometh a fish about a foot long, by
fishermen called a horse, resembling in all pots the Trachurus of Rondeletius.”

Means of capture—As many as 20,000 have been taken off Cornwall in a
net at one time. In September and October they are captured in numbers in
tle Cornish pilchard nets: some are taken in the salmon nets in the Firth of Forth.

Baits——Large ones readily take a bait.

Breeding.—June, July, and August (but in the Mediterranean during the
spring, according to Risso). In September the bays in Cornwall swarm with the
young of about 1 inch in length, by October numbers scarcely exceeding 2 inches
126 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

in length are captured, while others are 7 or 8 inches. Scad about 1 inch
long are commonly taken from the stomachs of large fish from the end of
December to the middle of February. Couch, from these facts, suggested
whether they do not breed twice a year; or perhaps all do not breed at the same
time. He also observed that the young have sometimes an unfortunate fate:
coming to the surface to obtain heat, they are huddled together, when guillemots
dive down to beneath them and gulls dart down from above.

Uses —In West Cornwall and the Scilly Isles they are split and dry salted:
also in the north of Ireland, where they are known as crake-herrings.

As food.—Pennant says the one 16 inches long which he had, taken in October,
was firm and well-tasted, having the flavour of mackerel. It is in best season
when it first comes off the coast in April. Generally it is but little esteemed,
and is held in no higher estimation in Ireland, according to Thompson, but Ball
states that on the south coast it is much valued by the poor.

Habitat.—This fish has been taken off Denmark and the west coast of
Norway, but is not common in the Baltic: as we pass further south their
numbers increase, while they are very common in the Mediterranean. Found at
Madeira, they range to the Cape of Good Hope, and have been brought from the
Chinese and Australian seas: also from Western America, Steindachner having
received them from Valparaiso, while others have been obtained on the same coast.

Very common on all parts of the Cornish seas, disappearing in October, but
numbers of the young are taken until spring. It is found all round the coasts
of Great Britain: frequent off Lowestoft, rare off Yarmouth, while it has been
recorded from Berwickshire. In Scotland, Gordon (Zool. 1852, p. 3459) remarks
on it having been taken in the Moray Firth; a few every year at Lossiemouth,
while it has been met with at Nairn. Parnell observes that in the Firth of
Forth seldom more than 1 or 13 dozens are taken during the year. Edward says
that in Banffshire it is not very numerous, and is seldom eaten: McIntosh, that
it is not uncommon at St. Andrew’s; and Baikie that it is tolerably common
in the Orkneys and Zetland.

In Ireland it is taken around the coast, but in larger numbers on the southern
and western shores than on the northern or north-eastern. Moore records it from
Kerry.

The example figured, life size, was from the south coast: it attains to about
20 inches in length. Dr. Lowe mentions one he saw taken in the Norfolk estuary,
which weighed 2 lb.
CARANGIDA. 127

Genus 2.—Navcrares, Cuvier.
Nauclerus, Cuvier (young). Xystophorus, Richardson (young).

Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchie present. Body oblong, sub-cylindrical.
Cleft of mouth of moderate extent. A spine at the angle of the preopercle in the
young, which becomes absorbed as age increases. Villiform teeth in the jaws, vomer,
and palatine bones. The first dorsal fin, which is continuous in the young, becomes
reduced to a few free spines in the adult: the second dorsal and anal many rayed:
no spurious fins or finlets: inthe young two pre-anal spines remote from the anal
fin but whach becomes absorbed with age. Scales small: lateral line unarmed. A
keel on either side of the free portion of the tail. Adr-bladder present. Pylorie
appendages in moderate numbers.

4Blian tells us that these fishes were supposed to be kindly disposed towards
sailors, and therefore liked to approach ships, which they continued with until
they approached the land. They were deemed sacred to Neptune, the god of the
ocean, who protected them from designed injury, consequently a man who had
ventured to eat one soon afterwards lost his son by drowning. That these fishes
will accompany vessels long voyages has been frequently observed, thus two came
from the Mediterranean to Falmouth (see Linn. Trans. Vol. XIV). They do not
appear to like the cold water of the English Channel. Edward has recorded the
capture of one as far north as Banffshire, and Dr Harvey its occurrence off
the county of Cork.

Geographical distribution.—This pelagic fish is extensively spread: through
most temperate and tropical seas.

1. Naucrates ductor, Plate XLV.

Udpumdoc, Ailian, ii, c. 15, xv, c. 23; Athen. vii, p. 282; Oppian, i, p. 188.
Pomptlus, Ovid, Hal. v, 101; Pliny, ix, c. 15, xxxii, c. 11; Gesner, p. 881;
Aldrov. iii, c. 19, p. 325; Willugh. p. 215, Append. pl. viii, f.2. Pilote, Dutertre,
Hist. Antilles, ii, p. 223; Ray, p. 156. Scomber, sp. Gronov. Zooph. No. 309;
Koelreuter, Nov. Com. Pentrop. ix, p. 464, t. x, f. 4, 5; Duhamel, Péches, ui,
Sect. 4, pl. iv, f. 4, plix, f. 3. Coryphena, No. 3, Artedi, Genera, p. 16.

Gasterosteus ductor, Linn. Syst. i, p. 489; Briinn. Pisc. Mass. p. 67, Bennett,
Whaling Voyage, ii, p. 274.

Gasterosteus antecessor, Dald. Skrivt. Nat. Selsk. Kjob. 11, p. 166.

Scomber ductor, Bloch, t, 338; Hasselq. Iter, p. 336; Gmel. Linn. p. 1824;
Bl. Schn. p. 32; Mitchell, Trans. Lit. and Phil. Soc. New York, i, p. 424,

Scomber koelreutert, BJ. Schn. p. 570.

Centronotus conductor, Lacép. ili, p. 311; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 193, and Europ.
Mérid. iii, p. 428.

Naucrates fanfarus, Rafin. Car. p. 44.

Naucrates ductor, Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 312, pl. cexxxii; Yarrell, Brit. Fish.
(Ed. 1) i, p. 149, ¢. fig. (Hd. 2) i, p. 170 (Hd. 3) ii, p. 227; Swainson, Fishes, ii,
p. 245; Guichen. Exp. Se. Algér. Poiss. p. 60; Cocks, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.
(2) 1856, xviii, p. 496; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 95; Gunther, Catal.
ii, p. 374, and Fische Sudsee, Heft, v, Dec. 1876, p. 137; Klunz. Verh. z. b. Ges.
Wien, 1871, p. 445; Day, Fishes of India, p. 229, pl. lia, fig. 2; Giglioli, Catal.
Pesce. Ital. p. 25; Liitken, Spolia Atlantica, p. 600, pl. iti, f. 14, 15; Moreau,
Poiss. France, ii, p. 449.

Naucrates novemboracensis, Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 325.

Naucrates indicus, Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 826; Cuv. Régne Anim. IIl. Poiss,
pl. liv. f. 1; Less. Voy. Coq. Zool. Poiss. p.157, pl. xiv; Richardson, Ich. China,
p. 269; Kner, Novara Fische, p. 145.

Nawerates koelreuteri, Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 327.

Nauclerus compressus, Cuv. and Val. ix, p. 249, pl. cclxiii; Giinther, Catal. ii,
p- 469 (? young).

Centronotus ductor, Couch, Trans. Linn. Soc. xiv, p. 82; Jenyns, Man. p. 365 ;
White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 34.

Thynnus pompilus, Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 123.

Pilot-fish, Couch, Fish. Brit, Isles, ii, p. 197, pl. Ixxxvii.
128 ACANTHOPTERYGII

B. vii, D. 3-6 | gagg. P. 19-21, V. 1/5, A. 0-2 | 16-17, C. 17, Coee. pyl. 12-16,
Vert. 10/16.

Length of head 44 to 44, of pectoril fin 8, of caudal fin 5}, height of body
4 to 44 in the total length. Hye—diameter 5 in the length of the head,
13 diameters from the end of the snout, and 2 apart. The greatest width of
the head equals 3/5 of its length, its height equals its length behind its
posterior nostril. Jaws nearly equal in front or the lower slightly ‘projecting, the
maxilla reaches to beneath the front edge of the eye. Teeth—villiform in the
jaws, in a pyriform band on the vomer, and ina long patch upon the palatines:
tongue rough. J'ins—free spines, composing first dorsal fin, all short: second
dorsal fin highest anteriorly: anal commences below the 10th or 12th dorsal ray,
it has generally two free spines anterior to it. Caudal forked. Pectoral as long
as the ventral, which reaches two-fifths of the distance to the base of the anal.
Scales—small and cycloid. Lateral-line—makes a gradual curve to above the
first third of the anal when it is continued direct to the middle of the base of the
caudal fin, forming a raised keel in the last portion. Colours—hbluish, with five
or six dark (in the live fish purplish-green) vertical bands, narrower than the
ground colour. Fins gray, with three of the body bands continued on to the
dorsal, which has also a white upper tip: and two bands on to the anal, which
is similarly white tipped. The ends of each caudal lobe white with a dark base.
Pectoral with a light outer edge.

Young, Plate XLV, fig. 2 (3/1), after Liitken.

These differ considerably from the adult, and have been placed in distinct
genera. In Cuv. and Val. they form the genus Nwuclerus, represented as having
a continuous first dorsal fin and a spine at the anele ‘of the preopercle. Sir
J. Richardson in the Voyage of the Erebus and Terror, plate xxx, fig. 22,
represents the very young under the name of Xystophorus (as pointed ont by
Liitken). Ithas spines on the supraorbital edge, at the angle and lower margin
of the preopercle, and likewise along the lower edge of the interopercle. In an
example I have from the Andamans, 9/10 of an inch in length, there is a strong
spine at the angle of the preopercle and two along its lower edge: the others
are almost lost.

Varieties —A black form, Scomber wiyer, Bloch, t. eeexxxvii, has been observed.

Names.—Pilot-fish, a name which it has received from the propensities
attributed to it by some authors, denied by others. Le P/lote, French.

Habits—This fish has long been celebrated as the companion and the guide of
sharks, as it was formerly said to be of whales, and also the friend, or at least
close attendant, on ships while sailing over the ocean. Although some consider
the pilot-fish to be the friend of the shark, others have thought such open to
suspicion, while Cuvier has even sugested downright enmity or rather treachery
in its actions. M. Geoffrey tells how two of these fishes were observed to lead
a shark up toa baited hook which by their importunities they induced him to
gorge. Or as Cuvicr pithily puts it, that this tale if true should occasion them to be
termed “ deceivers”’ rather than “ pilots.’’ Captain Richards once observed upon a
blue shark attended by four pilot-fishes following his vessel in the Mediterranean ;
a bait was displayed, but the little pilot-fishes pertinaciously came to the front and
with their snouts thrust the baited hook away. All at last swam away together,
but suddenly the shark changed its mind, turned and rushed forwards with all
speed at the bait, leaving his faithful attendants far behind, and which only
arrived asthe body of their companion was being hauled up on board, to which
one is said to have clung until it was half above watcr, when it fell off leaving it
doubtful if it was not a sucking-fish (see p. 1U8 ante). Why the shark does not
prey on its companions is a my ‘stery. Lacépéde thought their agility saved them,
and that their flesh is not worth the eating.

In the Naturalists’ Note-hook (1869, p. 255), a writer (J. D.S. W.) mentions
“we frequently threw pieces of flesh into the water to them. The pilot-fish first
came up and smelt the meat, and then went away and led the shark to it, who
always swallowed the whole and left none for his little companions. On a duk
night you can sce the entire shape of the shark in the water below, shining: all
CARANGIDA. 129

over with phosphorus. Now this phosphorus is considered by most naturalists
to be animalcules, and if so, it may reasonably be presumed that the pilot-fishes
live on them, for they are frequently seen clinging to the sides of the shark.”
Dr. Meyer considers it probable that the pilot-fish feeds on the shark’s excrements,
for which purpose it keeps it company, and is solely acted upon by selfish views.
Couch tells us that in the solitary instance in which he had learnt that the
pilot-fish had been found when alone at a considerable distance from any floating
substance or harbour it seemed to be bewitched, dashed about close to the shore,
and allowed itself to be captured by the hand. The probabilities are thit the
example was ill. They have not been observed accompanying sharks off the
British coast.

Means of capture-—One has been taken with a hook and line. On vessels
arriving at their port these fish have been secured with but little difficulty.
Some of those obtained off the British coasts have been captured in mackerel nets.

Baits.—The stomach has been found full of small fish, and one example has
been recorded which was taken on a baited hook.

Breeding.—As numerous fry are captured in the open sea it does not seem
improbable that the spawn floats and is hatched there. 1 have an example of the
young from the Andaman Islands taken close in shore.

As food.—Mr. Cornish states that he found one he ate to resemble a dry
mackerel, a comparison which accords with my experience in the Hast.

Habitat. —Extending from the British Isles through the Atlantic to temperate
and tropical seas. Rare in the British Channel, it is found throughout the
Mediterranean: at Messina many are capture! during the autumn, and although
said to be rare at Marseilles, it is plentiful at Nice, especially about September.
It is occasionally taken off the coast of America.

In 1818, one was taken in Dartmouth Harbour: in 1831, the “ Peru” put into
Plymouth from Alexandria, having been out eighty-two days, during the last
eighty of which she had been accompanied by two of these fishes, which in
Catwater, where the vessel anchored, became so tame as to be easily
captured, when they were eaten and declared to be excellent. In October,
1833, nearly one hundred came with a vessel from Sicily into Catwater, but
all escaped capture. In 1844, Dr. Shorter recorded one from Hastings, and
Yarrell obtained another, but where it was taken is not mentioned. One was
captured off the Isle of Wight in 1853, and on January 13th, 1855, a boy
took three at Falmouth. <A shoal made its appewrance, observes Mr. Cocks, at
the Customs’ House Pier at Falmouth, October 31st, 1856, and more than three
dozens were caught in nets, baskets, &c., by people on the beach. He observed
that he had preserved specimens of this fish every year of his residence in the
neighbourhood. Mr. Cornish (Zool. p. 9145) recorded an example taken at
Penzance in June 8th, and another on the 14th October, 1868: Buckland
received one taken off Folkestone in a mackerel net. June 27th, 1873, two were
taken in mackerel nets about fifteen miles south-west of Penzance, consequently
in the deep sea, and were supposed to have followed some vessel (Cornish, Zoou.
p. 3653). June, 1874, Mr. Cornish (Zool. p. 4080) recorded one from Penzance,
and on November 9th, two were taken at Plymouth by a sailor in the Great
Western Docks (Gatcombe, Zool. p. 4266): and one (Zool. p. 184),
February 14th, 1877, in a herring net off Plymouth. Mr. Lee obtained one in
December at Margate, a sailor seeing it basking hit it with a boat’s stretcher, and
brought it ashore. R. Couch says they are occasionally taken in Mount’s Bay,
but their presence can always be traced to the arrival of some foreign vessel.
“Many years since [ saw a specimen freshly caught on the Sutfolk coast,
and sent for preservation to the late Mr. J. Tims, of Norwich, in whose house
it was unfortunately destroyed by a fire ou the premises.” (Gurney, in Lowes
Catal. of the Fishes of Norfolk.) Edward records a fine example in Banffshie,
taken in the bay. In Ireland one was obtained in 1841 from Cookhaven, in tus
County-of Cork (Dr. Harvey).
120 ACANTHOPTERYGIL

Genus ITI.—Pammenas, Giinther.
Palinurus, De Kay: Palinurichthys, Gill.

Branchiostegals seven. Body oblong and rather compressed. Snout obtuse and
swollen. Gape of mouth of moderate width: pre- inter- and sub-opercles serrated.
Teeth in jaws ma single row: none on the palate or tongue. Two dorsal fins,
the first consisting of six or seven free spines: anal with three spines, the first
two being concealed by being nearly imbedded in the flesh. No finlets. Scales small,

ctenotl, and extended over the bases of the vertical fins. <Atr-lbiadder divided by a
constriction into two parts.

Geographical distributton.—Western coast of North America. A straggler
has been taken off Cornwall, but in a manner which raises a question whether
it ought or ought not to be included amongst the British fishes.

1. Pammelas perciformis, Plate XLVI.

Rudder-fish or Perch coryphene, Mitchill, Lit. and Phil. Soc. New York, i,
pl. xvi, f. 7 (no description).

Corypheena perciformis, Mitchill, Amer. Monthly Mag. ii, p. 244.

Trachinotus argenteus, Storer, Mass. Report, p. 55 (not Cuv.)

Palinurus perciformis, De Kay, New York Fauna, Fishes, p. 118, pl. xxiv, f. 25.

Pammelas pereiformis, Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 485.

Palinurichthys perciformis, Gill, Report Amer. Fisheries, 1873, p. 804.

Pimelepterus Cornubiensis, T. Cornish, Zoologist (2), ix, 1874, p. 4255.

B. vii, D. 6-7/5, P. 23, V 1/5, A. 2/a7tg5, C. 21, L. 1. 78, L. tr. 12/30.

Length of head 4, of caudal fin 6, height of body 3 to 3} in the total length.
ALye—diameter 4; in the length of the head, 13 from the end of the snout, and
14 apart. Body elliptical and compressed. Preopercle finely serrated along the
lower portion of its vertical limb, angle, and inferior limb: also on sub- and
inter-opercles. Lower jaw slightly the longer: the maxilla reaches posteriorly
to beneath the middle of the eye. The greatest depth of the body is below
the commencement of the second dorsal fin. Teeth—in either jaw in a single
row of equally sized ones placed a short distance asunder: none on the vomer,
palatines, or tongue. Jins—the first dorsal, consisting of free spines, commences
above the opcrcle: the length of the base of the second dorsal equals about one-
third of that of the total length of the fish, it is low, the height of its rays scarcely
exceeding one-fifth of the height of the body, and all of nearly equal length. Anal
commences under the first third of the second dorsal, and is similar to it. Pectoral
short, equalling the length of the head excluding the snout: ventral slightly
shorter: caudal emarginate, or slightly lobed. Scales—small, ctenoid, covering
the bases of the vertical fins: some also present on the cheeks and opercles.
Lateral-line—makes a gradual curve in its anterior two-fifths, becoming straight
from above the commencement of the anal fin. Colowrs—leaden, shot with
purple over the back, occasionally becoming lighter on the abdomen. Head
mottled with dark bluish spots, a row of them in the Cornish example being
disposed round the upper and hinder part of the eye.

Names.—De Kay observes that it was termed Trachinotus Cumberlandt by
Cozzens in a paper read before the Lyceum. De Kay calls it the black pilot,
while the fishermen’s name is Sxip-nosed-mallet.

Habits—De Kay observes that this fish is an occasional visitor to the shores
of New York, where in 1815 several dozens followed a ship into the harbour, and
one was captured by a hook at the wharves in the month of August. It is said
to be exceedingly active, while numerous shrimps were present in the stomach of
one which was opened. In the British example barnacles were found in its
stomach.

Habitat.—Is found on the east coast of America from Maine to-Cape Hatteras.
CARANGIDAI. 131

Off New York De Kay considered it to be common, while Storer noticed it on the
coast of Massachussets.

The single British example was captured off Penzance, about six miles from
shore, on October 9th, 1874, by the crew of a trawler. Jt was found alive in a
wooden case, of which the bottom and sides were perfect but one board out of the
three which had originally formed its top was absent. Although the fish was
said to have been found in a good state of health, its proportions would seem to
indicate its being thin, and perhaps somewhat starved. The specimen fortunately
came into the possession of Mr. Cornish, of Penzance, who at once recognized
it as being new fo the British Fauna. It has been stuffed, and is now
in the collection of Sir John St. Aubyn. When captured it was 14¢ inches in
length.

The example figured is in the British Museum, and came from America.
132 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus IV.—Licuta, Cuvier.

Porthmeus, Cuv. and Val. (young).

Branchiostegals eight: pseudobranchie absent. Body oblong and compressed.
Cleft of mouth of moderate extent. Small teeth im the jaws, on the vomer,
palatine bones, and tongue. Two dorsal fins, the first consisting of free spines,
with an anterior one directed forwards: second dorsal low, with no finlets. Anal
somewhat sinilar to second dorsal, and with two pre-anal spines. Scales small.
Pylorie appendages in moderate or large numbers. Air-bladder present, bifurcated
posterturly.

Liitken, Spolia Atlantica, p. 600, observes that Porthmeus argenteus is the
young of Lichia amia nut of a Chorinemus; he considers L. amia as the type
of a genus distinct from Lichia, terming it Porthmeus amia. He likewise
observes on L. calcar, Bl., being the young of a Chorinenus.

Geographical distribution.—From the British Isles to Madeira and the Cape
de Verd Islands, to the South Atlantic Ocean, from the coast of Africa to
Brazil. A species has been recorded from the coast of Chili in the South
Pacific. There are two species which have been found in the Mediterranean
and Atlantic, besides L. glauca.

L. amia, D. 7/35, A. 2/3;. The upper maxilla reaches to at least as far
as to below the hind edge of the eye: lateral-line with a semi-circular curve
above the pectoral fin. Mediterranean and Atlantic Ocean in the Eastern
Hemisphere.

L. vadigo, D. @/gylyq, A. 2/egtzx. The upper maxilla reaches to below
the hind edge of the eye: lateral-line slightly bent above the pectoral fin.
Mediterranean and also Madeira.

1. Lichia glauca, Plate XLVII, fig. 1.

Prima glauci species, Rondel. vii, ec. 16, p. 262, ¢. fig.; Willughby, p. 297.
Glaucus, Gesner, 1598, f. 61, ¢. fig. Lampuge, Belon. p. 155. Scomber, No. 5,
Artedi, Genera, p. 52.

Scomber glaucus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 494; Gmel. Linn. p. 1332; Bl. Schn.
p. 83; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 593.

rasterosteus yluucus (Forst.), Bl. Schn. p. 5389; Forst. Descrip. Anim. Cur.
Lichtenst. p. 5.

Caran glaucus, Lacép. it, pp. 58, 66.

Scomber ascensiunts, Shaw, Gen. Zool. iv, p. 593.

Centronotus glaucos, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 194.

Centronotus binotatus, Rafin. Caratt. p. 43, t. viii, f. 2.

Lichiu gluucus (or glauca), Risso, Kur. Mérid. iii, p. 429; Cuv. and Val. viii,
, p. 358, pl. cexxxiv; Val. in Webb. and Berth. Iles Canar. p. 56, pl. xiii, f. 1;
Jenyns, Manual, p. 366; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (lid. 3) ti, p. 232, c. fig.; Guichen.
Explor. Algér. p. 61; White, Catal. p. 34; Gimther, Catal. ii, p. 477; Canestr.
Faun. Ital. p. 110; J. Couch, Zool. 1859, xvii, p. 6353; Steind. Ich. Span. u.
Port. 1868, p. 41; Giglioli, Catal. Pesc. Ital. 1880, p. 24; Morean, Poiss. France,
i, p. 454, ¢. fig.

Albicore, Couch, Trans. Linn. Soe. xiv, p. 82.

Derbio, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 139, pl. xev.

B. viii, D. 5-6 | ggty7, P. 17%, V. 1/5, A. 2/eghs, C. 17, Cove. pyl. 13-16.
Vert. 10/14.

Length of head 42 to 5, of caudal fin 4 to 44, height of body 3% to 4 in the
total length. Hye— diameter 32 to 4 in the length of the head, 1 diameter from
the end of the snout, and 11 apart. Lower jaw slightly the longer: the maxilla
CARANGIDA, 133

reaches posteriorly to beneath the front edge of the eye. Teeth—in the jaws,
vomer, palatine bones, and onthe tongue. Fins—spines of first dorsal fin of about
equal length: anterior portion of second dorsal somewhat elevated: while the
anal is slightly shorter than but otherwise similar to the second dorsal. Pectoral
as long as the head behind the middle of the orbit: ventral shorter: free anal
spines rather strong. Caudal fin deeply forked. Free portion of the tail about
as high anteriorly as it is long. Scales—small: cycloid. Lateral-line—makes a
very slight curve to above the commencement of the anal fin, when it proceeds
direct to the centre of the base of the caudal fin. Colowrs—very bright, superiorly
gray or greenish, becoming lighter or yellow on the sides and beneath. Three
or four gray blotches, sometimes absent, across the anterior portion of the lateral-
line. Fins yellowish, the anterior rays of the second dorsal and anal, also the
ends of the caudal lobes, stained with black.

Names.— Glaucus from its light sea-green colour. This fish has also erroneously
been termed albacore by Couch, that being the designation of a tunny (see p. 98).
According to Rondeletius, Derbio is a local term employed at Montpellier.

Breeding.—Risso observes that in the Mediterranean it breeds during the
summer.

As food—Was esteemed in Greece and Rome.

Habitat.—Common throughout the Mediterranean and in the Atlantic from
the southern shores of Great Britain southwards along the west coast of Africa to
the Cape of Good Hope, as well as across the South Atlantic Ocean to the coast
of Brazil.

In October, 1857, Couch obtained an example, 13} inches in length, from a
drift net, which had been employed in the autumn mackerel fishery, in deep water
off the Runnel Stone, Mount’s Bay, Cornwall. On August 28th, 1878, a second
example was captured near Penzance (Cornish, Zool. 1878, p. 423).

This fish appears to attain to at least 15 inches in length.
134 ACANTHOPTERYGILI.

Genus V.—Capros, Lacépéde.

Branchiostegals five: pseudobranchie well developed. Body elevated and
compressed. Mouth very protractile. Small teeth in the jaws and vomer, but absent
from the palatine bones and tongue. Two dorsal fins placed close together, the first,
with wine strong spines: the second many rayed (23-25): anal with three spines,
and the rays similar to those of the second dorsal. Ventral with one spine and
five rays. Scales small and very rough: a scaly, but no bony, ridge along the
bases of the soft dorsal and anal fins. Atr-bladder large. Pyloric appendages few.

Lowe instituted in 1843 Family Caproipz for the reception of this genus, and
the allied one of <Antigonia, Lowe, which latter is identical with Caprophonus,
Miller and Troschel, and has been obtained from Madeira as well as Barbadoes.
Hypsinotus rubescens, Tem, and Schlegel, Fauna Japonica, plate xlii, f. 2,
appears very similar to, if not identical with, Capros, but having a smaller eye
than the European species; should this be the case, it is another instance of fishes
extending from European into Japanese waters. The Capros is not very distantly
allied to the Dorees, Zeus.

Geographical distribution.—From the shores of the British Isles to Madeira,
also through the Mediterranean.

1. Capros aper, Plate XLVII, fig. 2.

Aper, Rondel. v, c. 27, p. 161, c. fig.; Aldrov. iii, c. 12, p. 297; Jonston, i,
tit. i, c. 1, Art. 4, t.i, f£. 8; Willughby, p. 296, t.14, fig. 4; Ray, p.99; Artedi,
Genera, p. 50; Gesner, 1598, f. 30, c. fig.

Zeus aper, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 455; Gmel. Linn. p. 1225; BI. Schn. p. 96;
Bonnaterre, Ency. Ich. p. 73; Jenyns, Manual, p. 368.

Perca pusilla, Brinn. Ich. Mass. p 62; Gmel. Linn. p. 1311; BI. Schn. p. 88;
Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 550.

Perea brunnich, Lacép. ix, p. 412.

Capros aper, Lacép. iv, p. 591; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 805, Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 380;
Boase, Pro. Zool. Soc. 1833, p. 114; Harvey, P. Z. S. 1836, p. 64; Yarrell, Brit.
Fishes (Hd. 1) i, p. 169, ¢. fig. (Ed. 2), i, p. 190 (Ed. 3), ii, p. 258; Swainson,
Fishes, 1i, p. 252; Kidd, Zoologist, 1848, p. 91, ec. fig.; Cuv. and Val. x. p. 30,
pl. cclxxxi; Guichen. Explor. Algér. Sc. Poiss. p. 65; Cuv. Régne Anim. IIL.
Poiss. pl. lx, f. 2; Lowe, Trans. Zool. Soc. ii, p. 183; Andrews, Nat. Hist. Rev.
1858, p. 188; Gray, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (3), 1866, xvii, p. 237; White,
Catal. Bnit. Fish, p. 41; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 495; Canest. Faun. Ital. p-1l1;
Giglioli, Catal. Pesc. Ital. p. 28; Steindachner, Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 45;
Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 475, c. fig.

Zeus Childrenti, Bowd. Excur. Madeira, p. 124.

Boar-sish, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 142, pl. xevi.

B. v, D. 9/23-25, P. 13, V. 1/5, A. 3/23-24, Coec. py]. 2-3. Vert. 10/12-13.

Length of head 3} to 3}, of caudal fin 4% to 5, height of body 2! to 23 in the
total length. Hye—In the upper half of the depth of the head, diameter 23 to 23
in the length of the head, 4/5 to 1 diameter from the end of the snout, and 2/3
to 3/4 of a diameter apart. Body strongly compressed, both the upper and lower
protiles of the snout concave. The bones of the head roughened, the posterior
limb of the premaxillaries extends backwards to opposite the middle of the eyes.
Jaws equal in length anteriorly, the posterior extremity of the maxilla does not
extend so far as to beneath the front edge of the eye. Preopercle serrated in
it» whole extent, likewise, but not so coarsely, the suborbital ring. Posterior
nostril oval and much larger than the anterior, which is nearly circular. ceth—
minute in the jaws and on the vomer, none on the palatines or on the tongue.
Fins—spines of first dorsal strong, the third and fourth the longest, twice as high
is the longest rays, and equalling about half the height of the body below
CARANGIDA. 135

them ; rays of the second dorsal low, those in the last portion of the fin
highest. Ventral spine strong, its outer edge and also those of the rays being
exceedingly rough, the fin is inserted beneath the base of the pectoral, which
latter is about half the length of the head. Anal spines weak. Caudal rounded.
Scales—small, very rough, having small spinate points directed posteriorly, those
on the head with less distinct spinate elevations: this makes the body feel quite
rough when the hand is passed from behind forwards, which sensation is not
experienced when stroking the fish from the head towards the tail. A roughened
ridge along the bases of the second dorsal and anal fins. Lateral-line—ascending
from opposite the eye to nearly the base of the first dorsal fin, when it bends
downwards, forming a semi-circle, being lost below the base of the second dorsal.
Cecal appendages—three rather large ones in all I have examined. Colowrs—
of an orange-red, with a rather darker band over the base of the tail, while the
outer edge of the ventral is darker than the remainder of the fin. In one
example the body had numerous narrow white vertical bands: in another, a row
of small black spots along the base of the dorsal fin. Some which were placed
in a darkish tank in an Aquarium, June 18th, 1880, became as follows on
July 12th :—They all seemed in good health, were lively, but strangely altered in
colour. They may be described as of a straw colour, with broad dark vertical
bands of a deep brown hue. The first passed over the head: the second from
the first dorsal fin down to the outer third of the ventral: the third from the
second dorsal curved downwards and rather backwards to the anal fin: while the
fourth band was over the free portion of the tail, the outer edge of which fin was
white. Looking from above down upon these fish the bands were seen to meet on
the back, while after death they almost entirely disappeared. On August 13th,
two still survived, but the water was rather clearer, while the weather had been
brighter, and the intensity of the dark bands had decreased, while the red was
a little more apparent. Mr. Dunn tells me that after spawning he observed the
bands decrease in intensity. Yarrell mentions an example with seven transverse
orange coloured bands; he also refers to a specimen belonging to Mr. Thompson,
which had a bright silvery patch with a scarlet border in the middle of its
side,

Names.—From the shape of its snout, which is capable of being greatly
protruded, it has obtained the designation of boar-fish, it is also said to grunt, but
this appears doubtful, however, it has been stated to emit an odour the reverse
of agreeable, but which I could not discover, At Plymouth it is sometimes
known as cuckoo-fish and cook-wrasse. At Lossiemouth it has been termed
sun-fish. Le capros sanglier, French.

Habits.—These are but little known, but it appears to prefer moderately deep
water in the vicinity of rocks. Along sandy coasts they are frequently cast up
dying or dead, especially after strong gales of wind, or else left on the shore as
the tide recedes, and have sometimes been found entangled in seaweed. In an
aquarium they do not try to conceal themselves, and Mr. Dunn found that they
readily consumed pieces of pilchards. Small crustaceans, also molluscs, have
been found in their stomachs. Wounds from their spines are somewhat dreaded
by fishermen as being rather poisonous or perhaps very irritant.

Breeding.—July 20th, 1880, Mr. Dunn observed that many of these fish had
spawned in his tank; the spawn all floated in the water just below the surface, and
seemed to be of the same specific gravity as the sea water. The tank being
beneath the surface it all floated away. Some taken in March, 1879, off Dorset-
shire, were found to contain spawn. Mr. Baker took one full of spawn in
the Bristol Channel, in May, 1850. Risso observed that in the Mediterranean
it deposited its spawn in April.

As food.—They cannot be of any importance, having so little to eat upon
them, but Mr. Penney, who had some fried, reported them as delicious, their
flesh possessing a creamy whiteness and a delicate flavour (Land and Water,
April 5th, 1879). Mr. Couch, who tasted some, did not recommend them, neither
did Risso.

Habitat—Mediterranean during the spring and autumn, but are not
136 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

abundant: they seem to be more common in the Gulf of Lyons. Locally
abundant off the south coast of Britain, they extend to Madeira, from whence
Lowe sent specimens to Yarrell.

The first capture recorded in the British Isles was in Mount’s Bay, October,
1825: then solitary examples at Bridgewater in 1833: in 1836 one was
taken on the south coast of Devonshire, and one at Teignmouth about the same
time: at Lossiemouth in 1859, when the specimen, 7 inches long, was sent to the
Elgin Museum. On March 6th, 1542, another was found alive on the beach at
Brighton, and considered such a rare acquisition that it was sent for Her Majesty’s
acecptance, when H.R.H. the Prince Consort was the first who recognized and
correctly identified the fish as the Capros aper.

One was taken at Falmouth in 1841, while on August 12th, 1843, the shore on
the western side of Plymouth was strewn with numbers captured by trawlers,
who threw them overboard when turning out their nets. A strong easterly
wind is said to have been blowing, and which was surmised to have driven
them inshore. Mr. Gatcombe, in the Zoologist, p. 429, observed :—‘I should
say there were more than a thousand of them, and almost all of the most
beautiful colours, some quite crimson, others more scarlet or pink, but all more
or less beautifully banded or striped. I found, however, that these bands soon
faded or disappeared altogether on being exposed to the light and air.” The
fishermen stated that within a few years these fish have swarmed to such an
extent as to have become a perfect pest, and that in many instances the trawlers
have actually been obliged to change their fishing ground in order to be out
of their way. Such immense numbers often got into the trawl that holes had
to be cut in the net to allow the fish to escape, as it was found almost
impossible to lift such a great bulk on board without carrying away their gear.

In July, 1844, about two hundred were taken in a trawl (the first that had
been tried) off the Runnel Stone, and others continued to be captured for three
months in the neighbourhood and along the coast near Land’s End, a tract
not much visited by the Mount’s Bay fishing boats (Holme, Zool. p. 769). In
1845 more were taken in the same locality: one at Falmouth in June, 1846:
another at Bridgewater in May, 1850, which proved to be full of spawn, and
in 1852 one in the Moray Firth (Gordon, Zool. p. 3459), and many other
solitary instances were subsequently recorded. 1866 one from Devonshire. In
March, 1868, an immature example was washed ashore in White Sands Bay,
Land’s End, having a well-defined black spot at the upper part of the base of
the caudal fin, and another was captured the same month (Cornish, Zool. p. 1222).

Since then I find the following instances recorded in the Zoologist. One
from the Scilly Isles in 1870, where the fishermen declared they had not
previously seen it: in June, 1873, one was taken at Hastings, 5 inches long:
one from Torcross in 1875, and another in September from Poole: a shoal of
fifteen taken on the south-west coast of Cornwall, and exhibited in the Crystal
Palace Aquarium. July 4th, 1877, one in the Isle of Wight. During May,
1879, numbers were cast ashore in a sickly state at Bournemouth. others
were taken at Rye and Hastings, while four were washed ashore on the
Dorsetshire coast on the sand banks at Poole during the night of March 30th,
some of them contained spawn. April the same year two were recorded from
Exmouth: two from Torquay in February: in May one was picked up on the
beach at Eastbourne ; and another brought alive into Grimsby from the mouth
of the Humber.

Mr. Dunn, of Mevagissey, in his very interesting remarks upon the fishes
of that locality, written in October, 1878, observed :—“ Common here from the
Start to the Lizard: these past five years they seem to be on the increase,
thousands are yearly caught by Plymouth trawlers off Deadman Headland, and
thousands more are brought to land by our drift fishermen. In June and
July last year I had over 150 alive in my tanks at one time.”

In 1879 Mr. Gunn recorded one picked up alive, May 16th, near Eastbourne,
and Mr. Carrington reported the capture of other examples from various parts of
the sonth and south-east coast of England during the month of June. The localities
CARANGIDA. 137

given are Weymouth, Bournemouth, Sheerness, Harwich, and Southend-on-Sea.
June 18th, 1880, about sixteen were brought alive to the Westminster Aquarium.
I first saw them being transferred to a tank of still water. The most lively used
their fins like other fishes, but as they got worse the dorsal commenced working
at a great rate, though not so rapidly as in Zeus faber. They sank down and
died, the head being kept highest, but some turned over on to their backs.
This fish has also been captured in Scotland, as already observed. Edward
also informs us of another example having been taken near Covie, in Banffshire,
in August, 1862; while in Ireland Andrews obtained it in a trawl in 1867, off
Ventry Harbour.

This fish, the appearance of which in Britain was first noticed in 1825, is
now in abundance in limited tracts, and taken from March until October.
It is remarkable, in that it may be banded or plain, the bands, it having been
suggested, being due to the example having been in a dark locality.

Attains to 7 inches in length.
138 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Famity, XIJI—CYTTIDA, Karp.

Branchiostegals seven or eight: pseudobranchie present. Body elevated and
compressed, Gill-openings wide: eyes lateral. The infraorbital bones do not
articulate with the preopercle. Minute teeth in the jaws and vomer, present
or absent from the palatine bones. Two dorsal fins placed close together, the
first spinous: ventrals thoracic. Scales, when present, small: or osseous
bucklers may exist. No anal papilla. Air-bladder present (in Zeus). Pyloric
appendages numerous. Vertebre exceed 10 abdominal and 14 caudal.

Geographical distribution.—These fishes are found in the temperate and
semi-tropical seas of both hemispheres.

Genus I.—Zrus, Cuvier.

Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchiie present. Body elevated and strongly
compressed. Mouth very protractile, its cleft deep. Occipital crest high. Small
teeth on the jaws and vomer, but absent from the palatine bones. L'wo dorsal
jins placed close together, the first with nine to ten spines, and the length of tts
base about equal to that of the second dorsal. A row of bony plates, often armed
with spines, along the sides of the bases of the dorsal and anal fins: also a row
of bony plates, usually armed with spines, on the ventral surface from the throat
to the ventral fin. Scales, when present, small. <Atr-bladder large. LFyloric
appendages numerous. ,

These fishes have been considered by some Ichthyologists as constituting a
distinct Family—Zeripz. Gill has separated from Zeus those forms which more
exclusively inhabit deep water, constituting them into a genus termed Zynopsis.

As already observed, many fishes undergo remarkable modifications during
their gradual change from youth to age, and Agassiz (Am. Sc. Nat. 1865, iu,
p. 56) considered Argyropelecus hemigymnus, Cocco, to be the young of Zeus
faber. This Kner (Verh. z. b. Ges. Wien, 1865, p. 288) showed to be incorrect,
as the gill-rakers of the last are long, but very short in Zeus, whether old or
young.

Geographical distribution.—From Scandinavia to the British Isles and through
the Mediterranean: also along the eastern portion of the Atlantic Ocean to the
Cape of Good Hope: as well as Japanese and Australian seas.

1. Zeus faber, Plate XLVIII.

Zeus s. Faber, Pliny, ix, c. 18, xxxii,c.11. Faber, Ovid, Hal. v, 110; Colum.
viii, c. 16; Wotton, vini, c. 181, fol. 160; Salv. p. 208; Aldrov. i, c. 25, p. 112;
Jonston, lib. i, tit. 2, ¢. 1, Art. 18, t. xviii, f.1, 2; Ray, p. 99. Faber sive gallus
marinus, Rondel. xi, c. 19, p. 828; Rutty, i. p. 366; Gesner, pp. 369, 439;
Willughby, p. 294, t. 8.16; Artedi, Gen. p. 50; Gronov. Zooph. p. 96, No. 311
and Mus. Ich. i, p. 47. Poule de mer, Duhamel, Péches, ii, Sect. v, p. 86. Doree,
Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) iii, p. 221, pl. xli (Ed. 2), iii, p. 296, pl. xlv; Brunn.
Pisc. Massil. p. 33.

Zeus spinosus, Linn. Mus. Ad. Fr. 1754, p. 67, t. 3], f. 2.

Zeus faber, Linn. Syst. i, p. 454; Bloch, Fisch. Deutsch. iti, p. 24, t.xli; Gmel.
Linn. p. 1223; Lacép. iv, p. 577; Bl. Sch. p. 94; Donovan, i, pl. viii; Shaw,
Zool. iv, p. 285, pl. 41 ; Turton, p. 95; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 303, and Eur. Mérid.
ii, p. 379; Fleming, Brit. An. p. 218; Martens, Reise Nach Venedig, ii, p. 435 ;
Cuv. and Val. x, p.6; Cuv. Régne Anim. Ill. Poiss. pl. Ix, f.1; Yarrell, Brit.
Fishes (Ed. 1), i, p. 162, c. fig. (Ed. 2), i, p. 183 (Ed. 3), ii, p. 251; Templeton,
CYTTIDA. 139

Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) 1837, i, p. 409; Johnston, Berwick. N. H. F. Club, 1838, i,
p- 171; Parnell, Fishes Firth of Forth, p. 60, and Wern. Mem. vii, p. 220; Jenyns,
p: 867; Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 252; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 128; Thompson,
N. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 96; Lowe, Trans. Zool. Soc. ii, p. 183; Val. in Webb
and Berth. Tles Canar. Poiss. p. 59; Guichen. Explor. Sc. Algér. Poiss. p. 64;
White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 88; Giinther, Catal. ii, p- 893; Schlegel, De Dieren
Neder. p. 15, pl. ii, f.1; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 44; McIntosh, Fish. St. Andrew’s,
p- 173; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 14; Giglioli, Catal. Pesc. Ital.
p- 26; Liitken, Spol. Atlan. p. 198; Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 467.

Zeus pungio, Cuv. and Val. x, p. 25, pl. eclxxx; Guichen. ].c. p. 64; Giinther,
Catal. ii, p. 894; Steind.1.c. p. 16, t. vi; Moreau, lc. p. 427, ¢. fig. (species
with long supra-scapula spine.

Doree, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 118, pl. xxxix.

B. vii, D. 10/22-28, P. 13, V. 1/6, A. gzzq, C. 13, Vert. 14/18.

Length of head 23 to 3, of caudal fin 44, height of body 2} in the total
length. The greatest thickness of the body equals 1/5 of its height. Hye—high
up, one diameter in the postorbital length of the head. Head as high as long.
Mouth very protractile, its cleft oblique, the maxilla being nearly perpendicular
when it is closed, and not reaching backwards to beneath the eye: lower jaw the
longer and terminating posteriorly in two spines. Opercles spineless. Scapular
region ridged in the adult, and having some spines in the young: some also at
occiput. Yeeth—finely cardiform, present on the jaws and vomer, but not on
the tongue or palatine bones. Gill-rakers few, short, and -finely spinate, Fins—
first dorsal almost continuous with the soft portion, its spines rather strong,
gradually increasing in length to the fourth, the interspinous membrane is
externally prolonged into filaments of varying lengths: while at the base of each
spine is an outwardly projecting spinous process. Second dorsal increasing in length
to its third quarter, and armed along its base with from seven to ten spines situated
on a bony plate, each of which consists of two portions: the largest, curved and
broad, is directed somewhat backwards, while the shorter portion is produced
outwards and a little forwards: its rays unbranched (in Z. Australis, Richardson,
“the last rays of the dorsal and anal are divided to their base”). Pectoral short.
Ventral as long as the head, and having (in the young) a spinate base: a double
ridge extends from this fin to the vent, armed with eight lateral spines on either
side. The anal spines and rays are similarly armed to those of the dorsal fin.
Second anal spine the longest and somewhat the strongest. Caudal rounded.
Scales—not imbricate, a few along the cheeks. Lateral-line—descends in a gentle
curve from opposite the upper edge of the eye to above the middle of the anal
fin, from whence it proceeds direct to the centre of the base of the tail. Viscera
—stomach rather large, the narrow pyloric portion encircled by numerous ccecal
appendages, which in some cases are branched. Air. bladder—elongated, with the
appearance of a slight constriction in its posterior fourth, while a rounded
muscular body exists in its anterior fourth, from which passes a tendon. On
opening the air-bladder, its lining membrane is found to cease at the commence.
ment of the last fourth of the organ, and here it forms a very low valve. In the
interior of the upper half of the air-bladder is a narrow, vermiform, red gland,
of a semi-circular form. Colours—olive gray, with a yellowish tinge, and usually
yellow wavy horizontal bands. In the middle of either side, just posterior to the
pectoral fin, a circular or oval black spot surrounded by a narrow yellow ring.
Fins gray, in some examples the ventrals are nearly black: in others, two rather
dark horizontal bands pass along both the dorsal and anal fins.

Varieties.—Zeus pungio, C. V. has a shoulder spine as long or longer than the
diameter of the eye, while in Z. faber it is hardly visible in adults, and
certainly these differences cannot be referred to the age or the sex of the fish.
Occasionally the lateral blotch is absent. This form appears confined to the
Mediterranean.

Zeus Japonicus, Cuv.and Val. x, p. 24; Bleeker, Verh. Bat. Gen. xxvi, Japan,
p. 105; Giinther, Catal. ii, p. 894, and Z. faber Japonieus, Schlegel, Fauna Japon.
140 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

p- 128, pl. 66a, appear to differ from Zeus Australis, Richardson, Voyage Erebus
and Terror, pp. 36, 138, pl. xxv, fig. 1 (and which Dr. Giinther has united with
Zeus faber), in that Z. Japonicus has only six or seven bony plates along the bases
of the soft dorsal and anal fins, while Z. Cayensis has eleven in the same situation.

A stuffed specimen of Zeus Capensis, Cuv. and Val., or the Cape species
of this genus, about 24 inches in length, exists in the British Museum, the
length of the head of which is 1/3 of that of the total. If identical with
Zeus faber, the double row of lateral spinous plates along the base of the
second dorsal have lost one process: the abdominal spines have likewise become
plates.

: Names.—The Greek name Zeus appertained also to Jupiter: while the latin
term Faber was given it due to the fancied resemblance many of its bones had
to tools used by mechanics. The common term, dory or doree or John dory, is
probably merely a corruption of Jaune dorée, or ‘“ golden-yellow,” which has
reference to its colour. Superstition, regardless of its absence from the Lake of
Gennesaret, has attributed the marks upon its sides to the effects of St. Peter’s
finger and thumb when he captured a fish in order to obtain the tribute money.
This fish was formerly suspended in churches and the legend of the mark duly
detailed and implicitly believed. Some even averred that the spots were elegant
representations of the coin which was found. Others, however, thought that as
this fish does not exist in the waters where this miracle was performed it is
unlikely that to it belongs the honour attributed. Another derivation for
“John doree” is the name janittore, by which it is known in Venice: a name
likewise applied to St. Peter, the keeper of the keys; in short, the doorkeeper
of a better world. Again, the haddock has been pointed out as possessing two
black spots of a similar character, irrespective of which, as in the East, numerous
fresh water and a few marine species are thus marked, it seems a rather bold
assumption to advocate that this form must be a descendant of the identical
species referred to. St. Christopher is also credited with having captured this
fish, and left a record on its sides, as shown by the marks on the dory. Sir T.
Browne, in his list of Norfolk Fishes, 1662, observed “the Fuber maaximus
sometimes found very large . . . we often meet with in these seas, some-
times called a peter-fish.” Merrett, in his Pinaw Rerum Naturalum Britannicarum,
published in“ 1666, speaks of this fish as Dorée. Another, but more far-fetched,
derivation of the origin of the term “ John Dory” has been advanced, and is that
it is a corruption of the Gascon term Jan, or a “cock,” and that consequently
it means “ gilt cock,” and as a further evidence, the circumstance that this fish
in southern Europe is termed gallo, or ‘‘ cock,” from the crest on its nape. Alston
(Zool. 1866, p. 435) observed that in Arran one was called golden haddock.
Sion dort, Welsh. De zonnevisch, Dutch. Le zée, French.

Habits—This fish is somewhat sluggish, and said to be frequently carried
along by currents, while in swimming it is usually seen somewhat on one side,
which enables it to rest against a rock as well as to see both above and below it.
Although its movements are generally slow they become accelerated when it
desires food, which it pursues by a sort of succession of jerks. Couch suggested
that the filamentous prolongations from its fins are used as decoys, and that it
buries itself or hes on the sand, where it waves them as the Lophius does its
tentacles. It is a great wanderer, and in the winter many appear to retire to
deep‘water, returning in the spring in excellent condition. It seems to prefer
during the warm months rough ground to deep water, as well as sandy bays
where weeds and small fishes abound. It has been said to grunt or groan when
being removed from the water. A member of the present Fishery Department
informed me that he distinctly heard some just captured emit a squeaking sound.
It has a very voracious appetite. At the Westminster Aquarium this fish will
eat “sand smelts,” and has been known when hungry to swallow a young
“bass.” One which weighed 1 Ib. 1 oz. was found to contain eighteen sprats, two
sand smelts, and one cuttle fish, besides a number of small fish in a decomposed
state. From another, 12! inches in length, Couch took twenty-five ‘' flounders,”
some of which were 2} inches in length. three half-grown “ father lashers” and
CYTTIDA. 141

five stones from the beach. It, however, was so gorged that it permitted itself to
be taken by the hand.

Mr. Savile Kent has drawn particular attention to the manner in which this
fish uses its fins, the movements of which he, with great justice, likens to that of
the dorsal fin in the pipe-fish, This rapid motion affects the soft rays and
inter-radial membrane of the dorsal, anal, and pectoral fins: all, or merely some
of which, may be in motion at the same time. ‘This may be perceived both when
they are ascending in the water, descending, or even when reclining over on
one side: but they are likewise able to move their fins more slowly as generally
seen in fishes.

Many cases of whitlow, involving the loss of joints of fingers, are occasioned
from injuries inflicted by the spines placed at the bases of the dorsal and anal
fins in these fishes.

Means of capture and baits.—It is obtained most abundantly during summer
and autumn, but some are captured throughout the year. It will take a spinning
bait: a baby-spinner tagged with a small strip of prepared rays skin and a
rod with fine tackle has been recorded as killing. The best bait is a small fish,
especially a young sea-bream, Pagellus, hooked by the tailor back. This is
swallowed head first, by which means the spines of the bream are said to act
like a hook. It will also take pieces of mackerel, pilchard, or cuttle.

Breeding.—Very prolific, and minute young ones are common. Mr. Dunn
thinks it spawns in winter: the young are 2 or 3 inches in length in August,

In the middle of last century a sudden advance in the price of these fish
took place. Couch quotes a MSS. note as follows :—‘ Dorys yt used to be
sold for three to four pence a piece are now two shillings or half-a-crown a
good one.” ‘The same author remarks on upwards of sixty one autumn being
hauled on shore in one ground seine, the entire lot of which realized nine
shillings.

As food.—It is considered by some to be in the best condition for the table
during the last four months of the year, but others recommend it as being
of superior excellence from January to March: while fishmongers prefer them
from the Devonshire coast. It was much prized by the Romans, who deemed
it to be sacred to Neptune. John Quin, the actor, who died at Bath in 1766,
when 73 years of age, is commonly reported to have added this delicacy
to our tables, and some have even asserted that so pleased was he
with it that it was commonly known as John’s dory. Prior to his time
prejudice has been said to have banished it from the repasts of the rich,
owing to its hideous aspect. Rutty (1772) observed, respecting the County of
Dublin, that “it is frequent and excellent food, preferred by some to the
turbot, though scarce known here before the year 1729.” Borlase, in Cornwall,
1755, remarked, ‘‘ this fish is of firm substance aud much coveted, but rather
dry in comparison of the sole and turbot.” Sir J. Banks placed it among
“the most valuable of fishes, as it required no sauce.” Some good judges of
eating rank it next after the turbot.

Mode of cooking —They are somewhat improved by not being cooked for two
or three days after their capture: large ones should have their fins cut off, and look
best if the head is removed. After having been well cleaned they are boiled
very slowly, and Quin recommended that this should be done in sea-water:
they may be served with lobster or shrimp sauce, or without any. Or the
fish may be prepared similarly to turbot, or stewed. In Italy, equal parts of
wine and water are employed when cooking these fish: while they are mostly
eaten cold with a sauce of oil and lemon juice, and a sprinkling of salt and
pepper (Badham). Small ones are best baked, having a few bits of butter
on them to prevent their drying up when in the oven: they take about a
quarter of an hour.

Habitat—Has been taken as far north as Norway: seems to be absent
from the Baltic, but extending southwards towards the British shores, where
it increases in numbers: it is also found along the Atlantic coasts of Europe,
142 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

as well as throughout the Mediterranean. If the Z. Capensis, &., are merely
varieties, it extends to the Cape, also to the seas of Japan and South Australia.

In Great Britain it is common along the south and west coasts, becoming
rarer proceeding towards the north. At Hartlepool Hogg recorded its
occurrence in February, 1860, observing that it had not been taken there
previously. Paget mentions its capture at Yarmouth, and Johnston off
Berwickshire.

Parnell informs us that in the Firth of Forth seldom more than one or
two are captured during the course of a year: it is rather rare at St. Andrew’s
(McIntosh), but not uncommon as a summer visitor in Banffshire, where it
is mostly taken in the salmon nets (Edward): while two were obtained off
Elginshire (Gordon, Zoologist, 1852, p. 3459). It does not appear to be included
among the fishes of the Orkneys.

In Ireland it is found all round the coast, but sparingly in some localities.
Thompson says that their numbers increase northwards, and he was credibly
informed that about twenty are taken in the vicinity of Portrush for one in
Belfast Bay.

In August, 1879, one at Norwich, which weighed 14 lb., was recorded in
“Land and Water.” Couch mentions another, 224 inches in length, which
scaled 18 lb.
XIPHITD Ai. 143

Third group—Xiphiiformes.
The snout and upper jaw is produced into a long sword-shaped weapon.

Famity, XIV—XIPHIIDA, Agassiz.
The sword-fishes.

Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchia present. Eyes lateral. Body com-
pressed, the upper jaw (comprising ethmoid, vomer, and pre-maxillaries)
produced into a long sword-shap3d process: cleft of mouth deep. Teeth, when
present, rudimentary. Scales absent or in the form of rudimentary dermal
productions. Air-bladder present. Pyloric appendages numerous, when present.

These fishes are divisible into two distinct genera, Xiphias, destitute of ventral
fins and having a somewhat flattened snout: and the more tropical Histiophorus,
which possesses ventral fins, while its snout is more or less of a triangular shape.

The fry of these fishes are likewise capable of being discriminated. ‘lhe
young in Xiphias has its jaws elongated, the two being of nearly equal length:
also the supraorbital region as well as the angle of the preopercle spinate,
while the forehead has not the abrupt depression that exists in Histiophorus. This
latter has large spines at the occiput and angle of the preopercle. Davy observes
that the specific gravity of the blood of the sword-fish he found to be 1:051
taken from a large one caught in the Bosphorous during the month of
December.

In the European seas and extending into those of the tropics there exist the
sword-fishes (X1psip#), which are well known to attack whales, and occasionally
vessels, which they would appear to mistake for their gigantic opponents, and
some authors have even believed that they will vent their spleen upon rocks,
perhaps mistaking such for the sides of their hereditary antagonists. These fishes
attain to a very large size, as 15 feet or (some assert) 20 feet or more in length.
There may be two ways in which the foundering of a ship is occasioned when
pierced by these creatures—either a leak may be at once set up, or else the
perforating snout may act as a plug, not permitting leakage until decomposition
has set in or the salt water has softened the bones.

In 1874 the “ Cashmere,” a new steamer, of about 1400 tons burden, was nearly
lost, owing to an injury inflicted by a sword-fish. The vessel was on her course from
Bombay to Calcutta, when, without any apparent cause, she began to make water,
while all attempts to discover the cause of the leak were futile, until, after the
removal of a large part of the cargo, the lightened ship rose in the water, and a
piece of the snout of a sword-fish was observed. This had pierced the copper and
timber of the ship and penetrated some 9 or 10 inches beyond, breaking off close
to the copper, probably from the impossibility of withdrawing it. The sword
had not merely pierced the ship, but split the plank for a considerable distance
on each side of the point of contact. In this instance there could have been no
doubt that a leak had occurred, while an examination of the ship demonstrated
that it had been entirely due to the injury inflicted by one of these fishes.

The ship “ Royal George,” of about 500 tons burden, experienced a dreadful
hurricane in the Bay of Bengal. So furious was the tempest, that, in addition
to the loss of the main and mizen masts, the bowsprit was found broken off close
to the hull of the vessel. Its diameter was 23 inches, and, on examining its base,
the snout of a sword-fish was found projecting about 6 inches beyond the
surface. A similar occurrence took place in 1833, and the perforated planks,
with the imbedded sword, were presented to the Asiatic Society of Bengal, and
are now in the Calcutta Museum.

The British Museum possesses a specimen of planks from a ship’s side, in
which may be scen the sword of one of these fishes; which has penetrated
22 inches into the timber. In the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons is the
144 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

section of the bow of a South Sea whaler, which has been penetrated through
13} inches of solid timber by the snout of a swordfish, which latter is 12 inches long
and Sinches in circumference. When H.M.S. “ Lecpard” was repaired in 1725,
after her return from the coast of Guinea, it was found that a swordfish had
pierced her outer sheathing, 1 inch in thickness, next a 3-inch plank, and
finally 42 inches further into a solid beam.

The foregoing facts seem to be sufficient to demonstrate that in numerous
instances swordfishes have attacked vessels and occasioned leaks. The reason
why they should act thus leads us to inquire what can be the common use
of such a weapon to a fish which merely possesses small teeth in its jaws?
The ancients asserted that it transfixes fish with its snout for the purpose of
obtaining food—a process which has been compared by one writer to skewering
larks—but without being able to obtain its prey. We have likewise been
informed that the proper use of this sword-like projection is to turn up the
sand, &c., to hunt for minute sea creatures on which it lives. If this long
process is intended simply for digging up sand, it seems curious why it should
have been so rigid, for a softer, wider, and more tactile organ, such as exists
in the snout of the sturgeon, would be better suited for such a purpose. I
would suggest—first, that the rostrum is not intended for turning up the sand:
secondly, that it is intended entirely for offensive purposes, or to obtain food:
and lastly, that these fish do not solely live upon “minute sea creatures,”
although, doubtless, they occasionally devour cuttles, sepia, &c.

Cuvier informs us that the European form (Xiphias) which he examined
contained the remains of fish. I was on the Madras beach on the evening of
February 15th, 1867, when I saw a swordfish, [Histiophorus gladius, 9 feet in
length, being carried by two fishermen towards their huts; for, although this
fish is unmarketable, their families consume it. Its long back fin was of a
bright Prussian blue, covered with large dark spots; hence its native name
Myl-meen, or “ peacock-fish.” I purchased the example, and found inside it a
full-sized Indian mackerel (Sceomber microlepidotus), two large half-beaks
(Hemirampht), and numerous small fish. Still, eating merely small forms would
scarcely seem to account for the necessity of its being provided with an elongated,
sword-like snout, which, added to the great rapidity of its movements, would
render it a truly formidable opponent. Belonius tells us that shoals of tunnies
(Oreynus thynnus), in the Mediterranean, are as much alarmed at the presence
of a swordfish as a flock of sheep are at the sight of a wolf. It pursues them
with great pertinacity, and transfixes them with its snout: but recent authors
have not remarked on its doing such to obtain food. Jn Daniel’s “ Rural Sports”
we read that ‘‘in the Severn, near Worcester, a man bathing was struck, and
absolutely received his death wound from a swordtish. The fish was caught
immediately afterwards, so that the fact was ascertained beyond a doubt.”

It was thus evident that the swordfish eats other fish; that it can kill them
by transfixion: and it has been known to vent its strength upon a human being.
A step further takes us to the fact that it will attack even whales, and, as it eats
flesh, we may perhaps conclude that hunger induces them to do so for the
purpose of obtaining food. Capt. Crow, on a voyage to Memel, tells us that one
morning during a calm, when near the Hebrides, all hands were called up at
3am. to witness a battle between several of the fish termed thrashers or fox
sharks (Alopecias vulpes) and some swordfish, on the one side, and an enormous
whale on the other. As soon as the whale’s back appeared above the water the
thrashers, springing several yards into the air, descended with great violence
upon the object of their rancour, and inflicted upon him the most severe blows
with their long tails, the sounds of which resembled the reports of muskets
fired at a distance. The swordfish in turn attacked the distressed whale, stabbing
from below; and, thus beset on all sides and wounded, the water around him
was dyed with blood. Couch was of opinion that as the swordfish has no teeth
to tear the flesh, and he supposed it could only swallow its food whole, it must
have been gratifying its appetite with blood. At a meeting of the Linnean
Society in 1881, Mr. Howard Saunders obserye:l that he had personally
XIPHID A. 145

witnessed a fight between a whale and a fish, which was stated to be a thrasher
shark* assisted by a swordfish. He distinctly saw its elongated sword-like
snout glancing in the light after it had made a plunge at the whale and missed
its mark.

Dr. Jerome Smith, in his History of the Fishes of Massachusetts, states
that on a calm sunny day during the previous summer (1832), as a pilot was
leisurely rowing his little skiff, he was suddenly roused from his seat by the
plunge of a swordfish, thrusting its long spear, more than 3 feet through
the bottom of his slender bark; but the pilot broke it off with the butt of his
oar before the submarine assassin had time to withdraw it. Irrespective of
using this organ to obtain food, it is evidently occasionally employed when
fighting with its enemies.

Lastly, I may advert to the case of the ship “ Dreadnought,” which in 1868,
while on her voyage from Ceylon to London, suddenly sprung a leak, and, on
an examination being made, a round hole, about 1 inch in diameter, was found in
the copper sheathing of the vessel. Those who had insured the ship claimed
£3000 on the ground that the injury had been inflicted by one of these fish,
while the insurance company contended that some other cause had been at work.
After a protracted trial the jury returned as a verdict that the damage had been
caused “by contact with some substance other than water, and that probably it
was caused by a swordfish.” In the Field for May 14th, 1881, it is recorded
that the Liverpool barque “ Junak” had been injured by one of these fishes, and
that a distinct shock was believed to have been felt at the time of the blow.

Although the Histiophorus is taken off the Madras coast in large seine
nets, such a mode is not found successful in the Mediterranean, where the Xiphias
has a more cutting edge to its sword, while the method of capture appears to
have remained unchanged for centuries. A man ascends one of the cliffs which
overhang the sea, and as soon as he spies the fish, gives notice, either by his
voice or by signs as to the course it has taken. Another individual in a boat
climbs the mast, and on seeing the fish directs the rowers to it. As soon as he
considers that they have got within reach, he descends, and taking in his hand
a harpoon to which a cord is attached, strikes it into the fish, sometimes from a
considerable distance. After struggling for some time the exhausted animal is
dragged into the boat, the whole process somewhat resembling a whale fishery on
a miniature scale.

Genus I.—Xipatias, Artedt.

Machera, Cuvier.

Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchie well developed. Body elongated and
somewhat compressed. The upper jaw flattened, sword shaped and (except in the
very young) much produced beyond the lower jaw. No teeth in the jaws, vomer, or
palatine bones. Gll-openings wide. Two dorsal fins in adults (one in the young).
No finlets. Ventrals absent. Two anal fins in adults (one in the young). Caudal
forked. Scales rudimentary: a ratsed keel along the middle of the side of the tad.
Air-bladder present. Pyloric appendages many.

In the young, as when 190 millim. long, the two jaws, observes Liitken, are well
armed with comparatively strong teeth. All the body, including the head and
the rostrum, is clothed with non-imbricated scales, which are keeled and ciliated
—that is to say, furnished with spines or teeth upon the keel. T'wo rows of these
scales, which strike one by their size, extend along the back on each side of the
dorsal fin, and two others along the belly on each side of the anal fin. These
scales are present in the youngest Xiphias, whereas they are absent from
Histiophorus. Young examples of Xiphias have transverse bands of colour.

* See Alopecias vulpes for further remarks on this question.

10
146 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

1. Xiplias gladius, Plate XLIX, fig. 1 and 2.

Engiac, Arist. ti, c. 18, 15, vili,c. 19; Athen. vii, p. 314; Aflian, ix, c. 40,
xiv, c. 23; Oppian, i, 8, ii, 48.

Xiphias, Ovid. Hal. vy, 67; Pliny, lib. xxxii, c. 2; Rondel. viii, c. 15, p. 251,
c. fig.; Gesner, p. 1049 and 1598, f. 20, ¢. fig.; Artedi, Syn. p. 30. L’Heron
de mer, Bellon. Niphia sen gladio, Jonston, De Pisce. lib. i, tit. 1, c.1, Art. 3,
t.iv, £2. Siordfish, Willuchby, Ich. p. 161, t.1, 27, f.2; Ray, p. 52; Pennant,
Brit. Zool. (Hd. 1) iti, p. 160, pl. xxvi (Ed. 2), iii, p. 216, pl. xxx. Spada, Cetti,
Hist. Sard. iii, pp. 93, 94, 145. Poisson a Hpée, Duhamel, ix, p. 334.

Xiphias gladins, Linn. Syst. i, p. 482; Bloch, t. lxxvi; Gmel. Linn. p. 1149;
Bonnaterre, Ency. Ich. p. 42, pl. xxvi, p. 92; Lacép. ii, p. 290, pl. ix, f.1; Bl. Schn.
p. 93; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 99, pl. xiv; Flem. Brewster’s Journal, ii, p. 187, and
Brit. An. p. 220; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 88; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 99 and Hur.
Ménid. i, p. 208; Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 255, pl. cexxv, cexxvi; Storer, Report,
p. 51; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 148, c. fig. (Hd. 2), i, p. 164 (Kd. 3), ii,

. 240; Jenyn’s Manual, p. 364; Parnell, Fishes Firth of Forth, p. 55, and
Vern. Mem. vii, p. 215; Cuv. Reene Anim. Illus. Poiss. pl. 1, f. 1, and
pl. li, £. 2, and pl. lit, f. 2; Demid. Voy. Russ. Mérid. iii, p. 393; Swainson,
Fishes, ii, p. 239; Thompson, An. and Mag. (2), 1846, p. 314, and Nat. Hist.
Ireland, iv, p. 95; Guichen. Expl. Sc. Algér. Poiss. p. 60; White, Catal. Brit.
Fish. p. 83; De Kay, New York Fauna, p. 111; Lowe, Trans. Zool. Soe. iii, p. 5;
Nilss. Skan. Fauna, p. 147; Gitmther, Catal. ii, p. 511; Steind. Sitz. Ak. Wiss.
Wien, lvii, p. 396, or Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 46; Schlegel, Dieren Neder. p. 10,
pl. i, f. 3, 4; Hector, Trans. New Zealand Inst. vii, p. 246; Collett, Norges Fiske,
p- 51; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. 1879, p. 16; Giglioli, Catal. Pesc. Ital. 1880,
p. 28; Liitken, Spol. Atlan. p. 592; Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 526.

Niphias Ivondeletii, Leach, Wern. Mem. i, p. 58, pl. ii, f. 1, and Zool. Misc.
1, p. 62, pl. xxvii.

Swordfish, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 145, pl. xevii.

B. vii, D. 5/43, P. 15, A. 17, C. 21.

In the example figured, which is 30 inches long, the extreme length of the
head equals the distance between the head and base of the candal fin. Bye—
3; diameters in the postorbital portion of the head. Interorbital space nearly
flat. Angle of preopercle crenulated. Snout depressed and flattened: the cleft
of the mouth reaching to nearly 1/2 a diameter posterior to the orbit. The
different proportions vary with avc, and in the very young there are some
denticulations above the orbit,and two short spines at the angle of the preopercle.
Teeth—true ones absent.  /'’vs—vary exccedingly with age: in the very young
(see page 148) the dorsal fin commences on the occiput and is continued until
near the tail, but it is slightly elevated anteriorly ; in the rest of its course it is
several times higher than the body. As the fish increases in age, as about
2% or 3 feet in length (plate xlix), the middle portion of the dorsal fin commences
to decrease in height, showing the anterior rays much elevated and also the last
few. The middle portion becomes more and more absorbed, until in the adult
there are two distinct dorsal fins. The anal undergoes a transformation similar
to the dorsal. Pectoral placed very low down and falciform. Scales—rudimentary,
geen in the very young in the form of two rows along the side of the dorsal
fin, and also along the abdominal edge.  sitr-blutder—large, and with thin
walls. (olours—back and upper half of the body of a dull blue or brownish
blue, becoming white on the sides and beneath. The young have transverse
bands.

Varictiecs.—It is possible that the following are merely varieties of this species,
but sufficient materials hardly exist in museums at present to decide the question.
Xiphias nigricans, Lacépede, and Histiophorus gractlirostris, Cuv.: also Xiphias
velifer, Cuvier. The lateral keel on the side of the tail may be double, and the
dorsal fin lower or higher than the trunk.
XIPHIIDZ. 147

Names.—Swordyish, so named from its elongated snout, also rasour (Halliwell).
Zwaardvisch, Dutch. L’ Hspadon, French.

Habits.—This fish is very swift in its movements, wary and vigilant against
surprises, and but seldom seen alone, generally going in pairs. It frequently
migrates along with the tunnies, which some believe it does for company, others
in order to attack them. It is occasionally taken in brackish or even fresh water,
especially the Severn. As already observed (page 144) due to some cause these
fishes attack whales and objects often larger than themselves, and the question
forces itself upon our consideration if this is done from the desire to obtain
food or whether the animal is possessed of such a morose disposition that it is in a
constant state of warfare. In the Weston-super-Mare Museum is the cast of one
of these fishes, 9 feet long, captured in 1873 near the town. On its left side,
opposite the hind edge of its first anal fin, existed a large cicatrix, evidently due
to a wound consequent on an injury which had nearly transfixed it, there being
a spot on the opposite side showing to where the injury had extended. The
appearances seemed to show that it had been inflicted by another of the same
family, perhaps during the breeding season. Such may, however, be simply an
instance of matrimonial infelicity, for Lacépéde considered that in spite of some
of its actions its habits are gentle and its affections lively. In short, he remarked
that if the shark were compared to a tiger, the swordfish might be classed
with the lion.

According to Couch, in August, 1861, near Westra, a Herring-hog (a species
of small whale) was attacked by a swordfish, and when thus compelled to
leap out of the water, which it did to the height of 6 feet, it was observed
that the sword had been thrust into the whale’s body behind the pectoral fins.
Its leaps continued, and then it was perceived that a thrasher was assailing it
on the sides.

Bloch states that this fish sometimes feeds upon vegetable substances. Fleming
found the remains of Loligo sagittata in the stomach of one he examined.
Leach discovered some small fish inside a large one. Pilchards have been observed
in them, while they have been taken on a baited hook.

Means of capture.—As their sharp, depressed, and laterally cutting snouts are
destructive to nets, the harpoon is preferred as an implement for taking them
in seas where they abound. Brydone has given an account of harpooning
these fishes in Sicily. A scout, perched on the mast of a vessel, notifies to
his comrades when he perceives a “spada”: then they all commence a chaunt
which is believed to be indispensable to success, and alluring the fish to his
destruction. The harpooner throws his implement at his victim, which he rarely
misses. Should, however, a single word of Italian be uttered the spell from
the chaunt is broken, and the fish plunges down into the vasty deep, from
which it will not again be charmed. In the Mediterranean a regular fishery
exists for their capture. Oppian describes the mode pursued as follows.
A bait was fastened by means of a sliding noose to the line at some distance
above the hook, and it was so contrived that when the fish seized the bait it
glided along until the hook stopped its progress when the fishermen knew by
the jerk that it was time to haul tight the slip knot.

Mr. North, in a 6-oared galley, captured one October 20th, 1848, 10 feet long,
off Deal, ‘‘a little way to the south of the outer beacon leading to Sandwich
Haven. He saw the fish in about 4 feet of water, rowed towards it, and observed
that it appeared far exhausted in strength: he then ventured to put a small rope
with a running noose over its tail, and after playing with it some time succeeded
in putting other ropes round the fish, and got it on board” (Zoologist, 1843,

. 85).
y ae mentions one taken in drift nets in October, 1861, near Land’s End :
and in June, 1879, one 11 feet long, became entangled in mackerel nets off
Hddystone lighthouse, and after two hours’ exertion, was hauled on board, It
is known to cause great injury to nets, and even to escape by cutting its way
out by means of its sword-shaped snout.

As food.—Its flesh has been reported as excellent. Mr. Gurney (Zool.

lu *
148 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

1861, p. 7819) states respecting one captured in Norfolk, that its flesh when
dressed was white, palatable, and not unlike that of the sturgeon. Linnens
compared it to salmon. It is dressed in Italy in a manner similar to that
employed for the tunny, than which it obtains a higher price.

Diseases.—It is occasionally perceived springing out of the water, attributed
by some to exuberance of joy, by others to the irritation of parasitic worms.
Philichthys aiphie, Steenst. (see An. and Mag. 1868 (4), i, p. 303), is a parasite
found in this fish. Couch gives an instance on the authority of a sailor, in
which one of these fishes, 8 or 9 feet long, was seen closely pursued by a
blue-shark, and was twice observed to leap out of the water to escape its pursuer.
The result of the chase was not ascertained.

Habitat.—In Europe it extends from Scandinavia, the Baltic, North Sea,
and Atlantic through the Mediterranean. Also in the Atlantic down the
western shores of Africa to near the tropics. In the western hemisphere it is
occasionally taken in Newfoundland, and is distributed from Nova Scotia to the
West Indies. It has also been recorded from the southern hemisphere (Hector,
Trans. New Zealand Inst. vii, p. 246, likewise Cheeseman, |. c. viii, p. 219, and
Hutton, l.c. p. 211).

During the summer and autumn, mostly from July and until even as late
as November, it is not uncommon around the coasts of Great Britain, more
especially on the south and south-west, while it is not unfrequently taken in
the Bristol Channel and Estuary of the Severn. In October, 1862, one, 9 feet
1 inch long, was taken in Essex, it had driven its sword into the mud and was
captured alive, when it was found that due to an old standing injury the end
of its snout was wanting. In October, the previous year, one, 9 feet 5 inches
long, was found partially stranded off the Norfolk coast, and drawn ashore by
a noose being placed over its tail (T. Gurney, Zool. p. 7819). In September,
1863, one, 7 feet 7 inches long and weighing 1471lb., was entangled in a
pilchard drift net off Plymouth: in its stomach were found pilchards and
cuttle fishes (J. Reading, Zool. p. 8932). In Angust, 1878, one, 8 feet
7 inches long and weighing 1381b., was taken by means of a hook and line
at Mount’s Bay, Cornwall (Cornish, Zool. p. 351): in July, the same year, a
female, 94 feet long and weighing 33 cwt., was taken in a drift net off
Devonshire (Gatcombe, Zool. p. 351). July 14th, 1879, one, 93 feet long,
was taken off the Norfolk coast in a mackerel net (Gurney, Zool. p. 342).
Numerous others are recorded. In Banffshire Edward mentions a small example
captured by a shrimper.

The remains of a portion of one taken in a net on the Wexford coast in 1786,
were sent to the Dublin University Museum.

The example (No. 1) figured, is 30 inches long, for which I am indebted
to Dr. Hubrecht, of Leyden: the smaller one, figured half natural size, is in
the Leyden Museum: it is said to attain to 15 feet in length.

 

YOUNG OF NXIPHIAS.
SCLAINID A. 149

Fourth group—Acanthopterygii Scieniformes.

Muciferous system on the head well developed. The soft dorsal usually much
more developed than the spinous, or than the anal. No pectoral filaments.

Famity, XV—SCIANIDA, Cuvier.

Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchie sometimes concealed or even absent.
Body somewhat compressed and rather elongate. Eyes lateral, of moderate or
small size. Mouth in front of or below the snout. Cheeks unarmed: preopercle
without any osseous articulation with the suborbital ring of bones; opercles some-
times with weak spines. Barbels preseat in a few genera. Muciferous system on
the head well developed. Teeth in villiform bands, the outer or the inner row of
which are often enlarged: canines present in some genera, but neither cutting
nor molar-form ones in the jaws: palate edentulous. Two dorsal fins, the spines
(8-12) of the first usually feeble, the second much more developed (22-43 rays)
than the first: anal with one or two spines and much fewer (5-16) rays than the
second dorsal: pectoral rays branched and without free filaments: ventral
thoracic with one spine and five rays. Scales ctenoid or cycloid, covering the
head and snout, placed in oblique and often sinuous rows on the body. Lateral-
line complete, often continued on to the caudal fin. Stomach cecal. Air-bladder,
when present, as a rule with branching or elongated appendages. Pyloric
appendages usually few.

In tropical countries, where these fishes are extensively distributed, the rays
pertaining to the second dorsal fin are found to be liable to great variation in
number, while the caudal becomes more obtuse as the adult stage is arrived at.
The scales are placed in oblique rows, and the number along the lateral-line rarely
corresponds with what exists in the row above or that below fit. The eye,
likewise, is comparatively much smaller in adults than in the young.

Uses.—The air-bladders of many of these fishes are extensively collected along
the coasts of India as they afford a rough isinglass which meets with a ready sale
in China. As food their flesh has always appeared to me as tasteless when young,
coarse when old.

As regards classification Bleeker (Mém. sur les Sciénoides, 1874) has
questioned the utility of separating the genus Sci#na from the genus Umbrina
merely because the latter possesses a short central barbel beneath the symphysis
of the lower jaw. Ina few Asiatic forms a rudimentary barbel is found in some
examples of Sciwna, while the dentition forms a truer guide than the size and
length of the second anal spine. The two accepted British genera are Scicna,
without a barbel under the chin, and Umbrina, with a barbel at that place, but
believing the latter genus has been recorded due to an error, I have omitted it.

Geographical distribution.—The fishes of this family, some of which attain to
a large size, are extensively distributed in the tropical and contiguous portions of
the Atlantic, Indian, and North Pacific Oceans, extending into the sub-tropical
parts. They are also found in the Mediterranean, and wanderers are sometimes
taken on the south coast of Great Britain, or even further north. Some are
spread through the fresh waters of the United States. They are almost absent
from the Pacific Ocean: none have been recorded from Polynesia, and merely
two or three from Australia. In the ciear waters of the Red Sea they are
unknown, but abound along the coasts of India, especially wherever there are
estuaries or the openings of rivers. They pass up tidal waters even to far above
where they have ceased to be brackish, and this they do in order to prey on their
weaker neighbours. They prefer muddy bottoms to clear water, and where
marine siluroids abound in the tropics Scisnoids are rarely far off.
150 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus I.—Scrmna (Artedi), Cuvier.

Johnius, Bloch: Corvina and Stellifer, Cuvier: Bola, sp. Ham. Buch. :
Letustomus, Cuv. and Val.: Coracinas, Pallas: Homoprion, Holb.: Amblyodon,
Raf.: Cheilotrema, v. Tsch.: Genyonemus, Plagioscion, Sciwnops, Bairdrella,
Haploinodotus, Ithinoscion and Ophioseion, Gill: Diplolepis, Steind.: Pseudoscicna,
Bleeker.

Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchiw present. Body oblong, rather elongated
and compressed. Hyes of moderate size. Interorbital space broad, convex. Snout
rounded, sometimes overhanging the upper jaw, which last is longer than the lower,
or both are of about equal length. Clift of mouth nearly or quite horizontal. No
central barbel beneath the symphysis of the lower jaw. Teeth villiform, with an outer
enlarged row in the premucilluries, and sometimes the inner row in the mandibles
is enlarged. No distinet canines. Two dorsal fins, the first with 9-10 spines and
connected at its base to the second which ts of moderate length (23-382 rays). Anal
with one or two spines. NSciles ctenotd or cycloid, ewtending over the head and snout,
and generally more or less present over the bases of the vertical fins and on the tail.
Air-bladder present (except im some American species). Pylorie appendages in
moderate numbers or few.

Bleeker divided this genus into Pseudoscieena having the inner row of teeth
in the lower jaw distinctly the larger, and Johnius without any such enlarged row.

Salvianus considered the term Scirena derived from oxida, a shade or shadow,
denoting the rapidity of its movements as it flits through the water: Rondelet,
however, considered the shadows or bands related to the markings on the sides of
the fish. M. Dufossé states that the sounds emitted by these fishes have a mean of
twenty-five seconds, and also various notes, usually degenerating into a humming
sound, either from an excess or want of intensity. He suggests that the song of
the fabled Sirens had its origin in the utterances of shoals of maigres, and tells
us also, on what he believed to be reliable testimony, that a sea captain going
up the Gironde when he first heard the maigres song, was thrown into great

alarm, supposing that his vessel had sprung a leak and water was flowing into
his hold.

Geographical distribution.—From Scandinavia to the British shores and
Mediterranean, through the Atlantic, Indian, and North Pacific Oceans, being
most abundant in their tropical portions. Also the fresh waters of the United
States.

Some ascend fresh water rivers, as the 8. cotter, H. B., in India: while others
as 8. Richardsout', C. V. reside entirely in Lake Huron.

1. Sciena aquila, Plate L.

Sciva, Aristot. Hist. Anim. vili, c. 19.

Latus, Rondel. v, c. 10, p. 185, c. fig.; Gesner, ed. 1598, f. 29, ¢. fig. Umbra,
Salvian. fol. 105a; Belon. pp. 117, 119. Scrceena sive Umbra, Jonston, De Pise.
lib. i, t. ii, e. 1, art. 13, p. 51, t. xv, f.9. Umbra Rondeletic, Will. p. 299, t. S 19.
Margrv, Duhamel, Péches, ui, sect. vi, yy. 137, pl. i, f. 3.

Labrus holulepidotus, Lacép. iii, p. 517, pl. xxi, f. 2.

Selena wnbru, Lacép. iv, p. 314; Cuv. Mém. Mus. i, p. 1 and Régne Anim.

Chetludipterus aquila, Lacep. v, p. O85.

Perea cuutoo, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 208, t. ix, £. 30.

Neiwna aquila, Risso, Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 411; Cuv. and Val. v, p. 28, pl. c;
Neill, Edin. New. Phil. Journ., April, 1826, p. 1385; Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 213;
Parnell, Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 40, and Wern. Mem. vii, p. 200; Yarrell, Brit.
Fish. (Ed. 1), i, p. 90, ¢. fig. (id. 2), i, p. 104 (Ed. 3), ii, p. 104; Nilss. Skan.
Fauna, p. 756; Cuv. Regne Anim. II. Poissons; Jenyns, Man. Brit. Vert. p. 352 ;
Thompson, N. H. Ireland, iv, p. 90; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 16; Gtnther,
Catal. 11, p. 291, and Mus. Godef. ix, p. 105; Schlegel, De Dieren Neder. p. 21,
plu, £3; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1867, p. 38; Winther, Prod. Ich. Dan.
Mar. p. 12; Giglioli, Cut. Pese. Ital. 1880, p.24; Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 398.
SCLANIDA. 151

Sctena hololepidota, Cuy. and Val. v, p. 538; Quoy and Gaim. Voy. Astrol.
Poiss. p. 697, pl. xii, f. 1.

Scicena Capensis, Smith, Ill. 8. African Fishes, pl. xv.

Scicena Antarctica, Castelnau, Pro. Zoo. Soc. Vic. 1872, p. 100.

Scicena, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 54, pl. Ixxvi.

B. vii, D. 9-10/ss4z5, P. 17, V. 1/5, A 4, C. 15, L. 1. 52-55, L. tr. 8-9/17-19,
Vert. 11-18, Coec. pyl. 12.

Length of head 4, of caudal fin 61, height of body 42 to 5 in the total length.
Eye—Diameter, 5} to 6 in the length of the head, 13 diameter from the end of the
snout, and 2/3 to 1 diameter apart. Snout rather pointed; the maxilla reaches
posteriorly to beneath the last third of the eye. Preopercle serrated along its
posterior edge and with denticulations at the angle, these become obsolete with
age. Two flattened opercular spines. Teeth—A row of somewhat distantly
placed, slightly curved, and pointed ones in the jaws, strongest in the upper ;
there are also some finer teeth. None on the vomer, palatine bones, or tongue.
Jims—spines of the first dorsal weak, the third and fourth the longest, and equal
to about half of the height of the body below them; this fin is united at its base
with the second dorsal, which is of less height than the first, and continued
nearly to the root of the tail. Anal commences below the fifth or sixth ray of
the second dorsal, its first spine short, the second longer but scarcely above half
the height of the first ray. Pectoral nearly two-thirds as long as the head.
Ventral of about the same length. Caudal truncated or rounded. Scales—
ctenoid, and in oblique rows. Lateral-line—with a very gentle curve from its origin
to above the anal fin, where it becomes straight and is continued along the caudal
fin to its extremity: the tubes are branched posteriorly. Air-bladder—large, and
possessing many lateral branching processes. Colowrs—grayish, darkest along
the back, the occiput being of a greenish tinge, with purple and golden reflections,
and a gray blotch on the opercle: the back with a coppery tinge becoming silvery
white along the sides and beneath. The colours are subject to considerable varia-
tions, due to seasons as well as to the character of the water they inhabit. The
fins, excluding the caudal, are usually of a red colour, having the outer edge of
the second dorsal, pectoral, anal, and caudal gray.

Names.—Rondelet considered Coracinus to be a small, and Latus a large example
of this fish among the Roman fishmongers. The Peis Ret, or Royal fish, of
Languedoc Lacépéde believed identical with Latus. Shade-fish. Maigre, French,
not signifying thin, but derived from the whiteness and bloodless appearance of
the flesh, the orthography meagre being therefore erroneous. The Dutch are
said to perceive an image or representation of the Virgin on each scale. Omber-
visch, and Onzelieve vronwvisch, Dutch.

Habits—Bold and fearless, of great strength, gregarious, and fond of
changing its locality. Uttering sounds below the water which have been com-
pared to bellowing, buzzing, purring, and whistling—this, some fishermen have
imagined, is only effected by the males during the breeding season. It has been
recorded that listening to this sound, shoals or troops of them have been successfully
netted. It has also been stated that they can be heard when at twenty fathoms
depth. Couch says that for a few years in succession, from 1849, they attended
on the boats which were engaged on the pilchard fishery on the south coast of
Cornwall; and although they never attempted to take fishes from the floating nets,
the eager Sciena would dart greedily after any that fell out of them, or were
thrown to it, and in doing so its appetite could scarcely be satisfied. Attempts to
catch them were unsuccessful, as they snapped the best lines. Mr. D’Urban found
in the stomach of one, on October 3, 1872, six monk-fish, each about 1 foot long ;
six small pilchards, and a small sole.

Means of capture.—Netting and trammels.

Breeding.—In the Mediterranean the largest numbers of young of this fish are
found on the southern side, where they generally swim in small shoals.

As food.—Formerly much prized in Rome, and even now it is esteemed on
some parts of the continent, where the head and shoulders are deemed the most
tempting portions. In the Hast I have tried fishes of this genus frequently, but
152 ACANTHOPTERGYIL.

always found them insipid and anything but firm. Yarrell remarks that stewing
is better for this fish than boiling, as they are rather dry and tasteless. :

Diseases. —Mr. D’Urban found adhering to the scales of one several specimens
of the Holibut leech, Hutobdella hippoglossi.

Uses.—The “ otoliths,” or ear stones, are comparatively large in Scienoids, and
were formerly deemed very efficacious against colic, provided they had been
received as gifts, as purchased ones were believed to lose their virtue. They were
mounted in gold and worn suspended round the neck. The Roman fishermen
were accustomed to present the head, as a species of tribute to the three
magistrates of Rome who acted as conservators of the city.

Habitat.--Nilsson has recorded its occurrence on the coast of Sweden, in
December, 1852, from there it extends to the British Isles, becoming somewhat rare
in the Bay of Biscay, but found through the Mediterranean, being common in the
Gulf of Gascogne from July until September, but much less frequent towards
Italy. It is also present in the Atlantic, round the Cape of Good Hope, and
south coast of Australia; these Antartic examples have been named Sciwna
antarctiva by Castelnau.

One was captured in Zetland, in November, 1819, endeavouring to
escape from a seal (Neill), and a second in the Orkneys by Dr. Duguid
in 1852 (W. Baikie). It is often taken along the coasts of Cornwall and
Devonshire, mostly during the summer and autumn, and sometimes in
considerable numbers. Mr. Holdsworth obtained a fish which he considered
this species taken by a seine, at Start Bay, on the south coast of Devonshire
in August, 1825 (Pro. Zool. Soc. 1831, p. 112); it is probable that the fish
weighing 100 lb., taken in the Exe, was also this species (Linn. Trans. xvi, p. 751,
Nov. 20th. 1827) and not Umbrina cirrhosa which the Exe example has been
supposed to represent in the British Fauna. The chief difficulty is that in the
minute book of the Linnean Society it is stated that Mr. Cresswell’s fish from the
Exe proved to be identical with Ne‘ena cirrhosa of Linneus. But as this form
only attais 30 or 40 lb. weight in the Mediterranean, and no other instance
besides this single 100 Ib. fish has been recorded, the drawing to which the
name was given was probably untrustworthy. Parnell (1838) mentions one
34 feet long from the Firth of Forth. In 1841 one was captured at Sherringham,
and is now in the Norwich Museum; anotherin the antumn of 1843, was taken
off Mevagissey, it was 6 feet long and of about 400 lb. weight (R. Couch) ; and in
October in the same year one off Margate (Zool., p. 85). In the winter of 1844,
another off Fowey. In 1547 a fine one off Craster (Proc. Berwick. Nat. Club, 1867,
p. 343): December 24, 1849, one 5 feet long, from between Redcar and the Tees’
mouth (Zool. viii., 1850): and another in August from Dartmouth. At the end of
October, 1850, one upwards of 100 lb. was taken off Brixham (Times, Nov. 4th,
1850): in 1863 one over 5 feet long by trawlers, in Carmarthen Bay, it weighed
641b., D. 8/28, A. 8 (Williams, Zool., p. 8771) ; the same year Cornish recorded
another from Penzance. July 21st, 1866, Buckland mentions the head of one sent
him by Mr. Charles, and he recorded five others that year; in 1867, one 3 feet
long was taken at Hastings: in 1868, on November 22nd, after a rough night, one
was driven ashore opposite the Marine Parade at Brighton, it weighed about
70 lb. (Brighton Herald, Nov. 28th): while on August 30th of the same year,
another, rather over 5 feet long, and weighing 84 lb., came ashore at Thorpe near
Aldborough (Lowe, Fauna of Norfolk). October 8rd, 1872, one was taken at
Teignmouth in a pilchard seine, it was 5 feet long, and weighed 74J]b. (W.
D'Urban) ; and in August 30th, 1880, the same author recorded another captured
at Beer, off the Devonshire coast (Zool. 1880, p. 449).

In Ireland, according toDr. Harvey (Cork Fauna), one 6 feet 4 inches in length
was captured August Ist, 1840, while basking on the surface of the water opposite
the passage into the harbour of Cork.

The specimen figured is about 211 inches in length, it was captured June
20th, 1881, in a trammel at Mevagissey and kindly sent me by Mr. Dunn. It
attains to at least 6 feet.
‘ TRICHIURIDA. 153

Fifth group—Acanthopterygii Trichiuriformes.

Body elongated, band-like, and strongly compressed. Cleft of mouth deep.
Several strong and conical teeth in the jaws or palate. Dorsal and anal fins
many rayed, sometimes ending in finlets. Caudal fin, when present, forked.

Although the flattened snake-like fishes are mostly found residing at great
depths, this is not invariably the case: thus, in tropical climates, the Trichiurus
usually frequents the littoral regions at very inconsiderable depths, although it
may also be seen as a surface fish some distance from land. It is so also in China,
“off the Regent’s-sword, or Lian-tie-Shan promontory, great numbers of strange-
looking crafts in the form of rude rafts, put boldly to sea, long black nets coiled
up snugly in the middle, four men working at huge sculls, and the others smoking
and chatting. The net is paid out ina circle, and when the end is come to, the
net is turned back and hauled in, securing frequently large numbers of the silvery
hair-tail.”—(A. Adams, Zool. 1861, p. 7517.)

Famity, XVI—TRICHIURIDZ, (Swainson) Giinther.

Lepidopodine, Gill.

Branchiostegals seven or eight: pseudobranchie present. Body elongated and
strongly compressed. Gill-openings wide, Eyes lateral. Cleft of mouth deep. Teeth
in jaws or palate, several being strong and conical. Dorsal and anal fins many
rayed, sometimes ending in finlets: ventrals, when present, thoracic, sometimes
rudimentary : caudal present or absent. Scales, when present, rudimentary. No
prominent papilla behind the vent. Air-bladder present. Pyloric appendages
few or many.

Genus I.—Tricuivrus, Linneus.

Enchelyopus, Klein; Lepturus (Artedi), Gill; and Hupleurogrammus, Gill.

Branchiostegals seven: pseulobranchie present. Body very elongated, strongly
compressed, ribbon-shaped, tapering to a finless point at the tail. Cleft of mouth
deep. Teeth in jaws and palatines, those in the premazillaries being arched and very
strong, while the lateral ones are lancet-shaped ; none on the vomer. A single long
dorsal fin, eatending the entire length of the back: ventrals, when present, in the form
of a pair of scales or spines : anal spines minute, sometimes concealed beneath the skin.
Scales absent. Air-bladder present. Pylorie appendages numerous.

Although ventral fins merely exist in one or more of these species in the form
of spines or scales, it is suggested by Liitken as not improbable that they are
always present in the very young. This is a littoral genus which is sometimes
taken out at sea. Cantor observed that Trichiurus hawmela and T. savala give at
certain seasons, like other fishes, a vivid phosphorescent light.

As food these fishes are held in various estimation at different places.
Thus along the coast of Beloochistan, where salt is cheap, no one will touch
them; along the coast of India, where the onerous salt tax has ruined the fish-
curers’ trade, they are more valued, becanse their bodies being attenuated they
can be dried in the sun. Europeans have spoken well of them as articles of diet.

Geographical distribution.—Tropical seas extending into those of temperate
regions. Stragglers occur along the British coasts.
154 ACANTHOPTERGYIL.

1. Trichiurus lepturus, Plate LI., Fig. 1.

Seba 33, 1: Lepturus, Artedi, Spec. p. 111; Linn. Mus. Ad. Fried. i, p. 76,
pl. xxvi, f. 2. Gymnogaster, Linn. Syst. Nat. p. 53; Gronov., Mus. Ich., i,
p. 17; Brown, Jamaica, p. 444, t. xlv, f.4. Hnchelyopus, Klein, MSS. iv, p. 52,
pl. xii, f. 7.

Trichiwrus lepturus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 429; Hoy, Trans. Linn. Soc. xi, p.
210 (? synon.); Bloch, t. 158; Gmel. Linn. p. 1141; Bl. Schn., p. 517; Flem.
Brit. An., p. 204; Cuv. and Val. viii, p. 237; Jenyns, Man. p. 372; Yarrell, Brit.
Fish (Ed. 1) i, p. 182, c. fig. (Hd. 2) i, p. 204 (Ed. 3) u, p. 275; Swainson, Fishes
ii, p. 254; Storer, Boston Journ. iv, p.181; Castelnau, Anim. Amér. Sud., p. 24;
De Kay, New York Fauna, Fishes, p. 109, pl. xii, f. 35; Guichen. in Ramon de
la Sagra, Hist. Cuba, p. 105; White, Catal. Brit. Fish, p. 33; Gunther, Catal. 11,
p. 846, Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Phil. 1864, p. 205 : Andrews, Proc. Roy. Dublin
Soe. vi, p. 35; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port., 1867, p. 102; Moreau, Poiss. France,
ji, p. 547.

ee argenteus, Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 90, pl. xii; Mitchell, Trans. Lit. and
Phil. Soc. New York, i, p. 364.

Hair-tail, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 61, pl. Ixxviii.

Lepturus argenteus, Gill, l.c. 1863, p. 226.

B. vii, D. 135-136, P. 11, Coec. pyl. 24, Vert. 39/120.

Length of head 9 to 10, height of body 16 to 17 in the total length. Hye—
diameter 6 in the length of the head, and situated in its anterior half, 2 diameters
from the end of the snout and 1 diameter apart: interorbital space nearly flat.
Lower jaw the longer, the posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to beneath
the middle of the eye. The height of the body commences to diminish at about
the centre of its total length, ending in a slender tail. Teeth—abont 15 in a
single row in either jaw, and two pairs of strong canines with barbed extremities
in the premaxillaries: no teeth on the vomer or tongue, but fine ones on the
palatines. Fins—the dorsal commences above the anterior border of the opercle,
and is continued, but in greatly-decreasing height, to within a moderate distance
of the caudal extremity. Pectoral short. Ventrals, anal, and candal absent.
Lateral-line—descends behind the pectoral fin until it reaches the lower third of
the height of the body. Anus situated at about 1/3 the length of the fish, behind
it spiny points commence. Colowrs—of a beautiful silvery, which exists in a
fine and deciduous membrane, that is easily rubbed off.

It is remarkable that the first reputed record of this fish off the British coast
came from Mr. Hoy, who described two fishes under this name in the “ Tran-
sactions of the Linnean Society.” One appears to have been Regalecus Banksit,
while it is doubtful to what genus the other, taken in 1810, is to be referred unless
to Lepidopus, as a caudal fin is alluded to; also it was nearly 4 feet in length.
As Fleming, Yarrell, Jenyns, and White admitted this species solely owing to
Hoy’s description, it seems possible that up to the time that Couch first described
a British example of Trichiurus leptwrus the species had not been recorded as
captured in British waters.

Names.—The hair-tail or silvery hair-tail, blade fish, all of which designations
refer to its external shape or colour.

Habits —Although generally a shore fish, it is frequently found far out to sea,
as already mentioned. The young in the tropics are also sometimes captured at
the mouths of rivers. One upwards of 2 feet long was taken in 1876 in St.
Germain’s river in Cornwall. The most frequent time of the year the hair-tail
shows itself is during the winter months. They are said occasionally to leap out
of the water into boats.

As food.—Russell, in his Fishes of Vizagapatam, observes that in his time the
European soldiers on the Coromandel coast esteemed these fishes; and Jerdon
remarks that they afford very delicate eating when fresh, though never brought
to the table of Europeans at Madras.
TRICHIURIDA. 155

Habitat—The Atlantic Ocean, being found on the east coast of North America
from Cape Cod to Florida, and the West Indies. Wanderers have been taken off
the British and Irish, and more rarely off the French coasts.

_ Couch figures the first authentic British specimen of this fish; it was 2 feet
3 inches long, and was thrown on shore off Whitesands Bay, near Land’s End, in
Cornwall, in April, 1853. Mr. Dunn observes that they were common in the
winter months from 1865 to 1875, but scarce both before and since that period.
Mr. Couch before his death had many specimens. In April, 1867, one 2 ‘feet
9 inches long was taken in a mackerel-boat in Mount’s Bay (Zool. 1867, p. 793).
December 3rd, 1870, Mr. Cornish recorded one 2 feet 5 inches long taken in
Mount’s Bay, and alludes to another captured a fortnight previously (Zool. 1871,
p. 2444), also on December 6th one 22 feet long, another subsequently, and one in
January, 1871 (l.c., p. 2549). On November 29th a specimen was taken in a
herring-net four miles from Looe, and Mr. Laughran obtained three more from
the same place and one from Plymouth, all captured within a few days of each
other (S. Clogg, Zool. p. 2445). In February, 1871, a “hair-tail” was taken in
Devonshire and another in Cornwall (T. Gatcombe, Zool. p. 2529). November,
1871, one 24 feet long was found dead in Mount’s Bay (Cornish, Zool. 1872, p.
2908) and on December 10th another, almost as long, at Swanage, in Dorsetshire
(Colson, Hardw. Sc. Gossip, 1872, p. 17). In the same publication an example is
recorded as taken on January 4th, 1872, at Helford Harbour, on the 8.W. coast.
On February 1st Mr. Cornish states one was taken in Whitesands Bay, near Land’s
End (Zool. 1872, p. 3127). Mr. Gatcombe in 1876 recorded one taken January
28th 2 feet 5 inches long from the St. Germain’s River, Cornwall, and another
2 feet 8 inches long on January 29 from Homoaze, near Plymouth (Zool. 1876,
pp. 4806, 4887).

Andrews records this fish from the Irish coast, while two were captured there
in February, 1871, and during the earlier months of 1872 five specimens were
taken in Dingle and Tralee Bays, Kerry, S.W. of Ireland (Hardw. Sc. Goss.
p. 118).

 

HEAD OF UMBRINA CIRRHOSA,
156 ACANTHOPTERYGILI.

Genus II.—Lepipopus, Gouan.
Vandellius, Shaw. Scurctna, Rafinesque. Zipotheca, Montagu.

Branchiostegals seven or eight: pseudobranchie present. Body elongated and
strongly compressed. Cleft of mouth deep. Eyes lateral and rather large. Teeth im
the jaws and palatine bones, some in the premaaillaries and mandibles being enlarged
and barbed. A single long dorsal fin extending from the occiput along almost the
entire length of the back. Caudal distinct and forked. Ventrals in the form of a
pair of scales. Pectoral with the lower rays the longest. Anal spines numerous, and
concealed beneath the shin, the last few enlarged, connected by a membrane, and
forming a fin which is continued to opposite the end of the dorsal. Scales absent.
Lateral-line median. Air-bladder present. Pylorie appenlagvs many.

The genus obtained the designation of Lepidopus, or ‘ scaly-foot,” owing to the
ventral fins being replaced by a pair of scales.

Geographical distribution.—This abyssal form exists in the Mediterranean, also
in the Atlantic from the British shores as far as the Cape of Good Hope, as well
as along the coasts of New Zealand and Tasmania. A species, L. tenuis, from
Japan has likewise been described.

1. Lepidopus caudatus, Plate LI, fig. 2.

Lepidopus, Gouan, Hist. Poiss. p. 185, pl. 1, f.4; Bowdich, Exe. p. 10, f. 1:
Four-toothed Scabbard-Fish, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Hd. 2, 1812), iu, p. 210.

Lepidopus argenteus, Bonn. Ency. Ich. 1788, p. 58, pl. lxxxvii, fig. 364 (not
Linn.). Nardo, J. Phys. Pay. vii, p. 227; Moreau, Poiss. France. ii, p. 544, ¢. fig.

Trichiurus caudatus, Buphr. Stockh. K. Vet. Acad. Nya. Handl. 1788, ix. p. 48,
t. ix, f£. 2; Walb. Artedi, in, p. 607.

Lepidopus Gowant, Bl. Schn. p. 239, t. lin, £. 2.

Lepidopus Gowanianus, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 151, and Eur. Mérid. ill, p. 290.

Trichiurus gladius, Holten, Kjébenh. Skr. Af. Nat. Selsk. 1802, v. p. 28, t. ui, f. 1.

Vandellius Lusitanicus, Shaw, Gen. Zool. 1808, iv. p 199.

Lepidopus Lusitanicus, Leach, Zool. Mise. ii, p. 7, pl. Lxii.

Ziphotheca tetradens, Montagu, Wern. Mem. i, pp 82,623, t. ii and iti, and ii, p. 432.

? Trichiwrus lepturus, Hoy, Journal Linn. Soc. xi, p. 210.

Scarcina argyrea, Rafin. Caratt, p. 20, t. vii, f. 1.

Lepidopus Peronti, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 148, t. v, f. 18, and Eur. Mérid. iii,

. 291.
E Lepidopus argyreus, Cuy. Régne Anim. pl. Isvii; Cuv.and Val. viii, p. 223,
pl. cexxiii; Jenyns, Manual, p, 371; Yarrell, Brit. Fish (Hd. 1) i, p. 176, c. fig.
(Ed. 2) i, p. 198, (Ed. 3) ii, p. 269; Lowe, Trans. Zool. Soc. ii, p. 181; Guichen.
Explor. Algér. Poiss. p.59; Cocks, Roy. Cornw. Pol. Soc. 1869, p. 68; Ball, Dublin,
N. H. Rey. 1, p. 45.

Lepidopus ensiformis, Bonap. Catal. No. 710; Swainson, Fish. ii, p. 254.

Lepidopus tetradens, Flem. Brit. An. p. 205.

Lepidopus caudatus, White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p, 32; Gtinther, Catal. ii, p.
345; Gill, Pro. Acad. Nat. Se. Phil. 1863, p. 227; Robson, Tr. N. Z. Inst. viii, p.
218; Allport, Pr. Roy. Soc. Tasm. 1875, p. 86; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port.
1867, p. 101; Giglioh, Cat. Pesci Ital. p. 24.

Scabbard fish, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 59, pl. lxxvii.

B. viii, D, 100-105, A. 18-25, C. 16-18, Cac. pyl. 23, Vert. 41/71.

Length of head 7, of caudal fin 21 to 24, height of body 153 to 18 in the total
length. Hye—circular, diameter 5 to 54 in the length of the head, 2} diameters
from the end of the snout. Lower jaw prominent, the maxilla reaches to beneath
the front edge of the eye. Some smooth ridges exist along the upper surface of
the head. Yeet—jaws furnished with a single row of about 20 to 22 small and
compressed teeth, internal to which there are anteriorly in the upper jaw, 2 or 3
large, with as a rule, barbed fangs, and another in the lower jaw; a few fine ones
on the palatines; tongue smooth. Fins—the dorsal commences over the posterior
half of the opercle, and is continued along the back almost as far as the base of the
TRICHIURID. 157

caudal fin, it is of much the same height throughout, being nowhere more than 1/8
of that of the body, its rays are simple, unarticulated, and but little flexible. Pec-
toral situated in the lower third of the depth of the body, its lower rays the longest,
and equal to half the length of the head. Ventral in the form of a pair of scales
situated below the middle of the pectoral. Anal fin in the form of minute spines
more or less visible, and which become distinct rays in the last portion of its.
extent, but do not extend so far as the base of the caudal fin, the latter being
deeply forked. Only the rays of the pectoral and caudal fin are branched.
Lateral-line—at first forms a slight arch reaching the middle of the body just
beyond the middle of the pectoral fin and is so continued to the centre of the base
of the caudal. Anus situated at about the centre of the length of the body and
having a small movable scale a little distance behind it. Colowrs—sides and
abdomen like burnished silver ; fins of a light gray dashed with yellow.

Varieties—Risso considered that a second form existed with a larger head, 42
rays in the anal fin and a black spot at the anterior portion of the dorsal which
had 100 rays, the adults do not exceed 15 inches in length; that it approaches
the shore in January and March, while its flesh is soft and but little esteemed.
Rafinesque also remarks on a smaller species as existing in Sicily, and which he
terms Scarcina punctata.

Bonnaterre while figuring Lepidopus argenteus, Linn., refers in the text to
Lepturus argenteus, Linn, Mus. Ad. Frid. 1754, p. 76, pl. xxvi, fig. 2, which is a
Trichiwrus.

Names.—Scabbard fish; scale-foot. Jarretiére, French.

Habits.—Montagu’s first specimen was said to have been seen swimming with
great velocity, its head being above the surface of the water; it was killed by a
blow from an oar. Other observers have confirmed the statement as to its rapidity
of movement. Valenciennes remarked that in April and May it approaches the
shores, but that it generally lives at great depths and is not gregarious, probably
only leaving its usual habitat under some exceptional circumstance. It appears to
be very voracious, and Dr. Moreau took six fishes from the stomach of one of small
size, and it could contain no more, the last one being still at the commencement of
the cesophagus.

It is termed Hiku or “ Frost-fish” in New Zealand, where Mr. Robson states
that it comes on shore deliberately, and not in pursuit of prey or to rid itself of a
parasite.

Breeding.—In the spring in the Mediterranean.

Diseases.—It appears to be much tormented by internal parasites.

Habitat.—This fish appears to have been first described by Professor Gouan,
of Montpellier, in 1770. It is found through the seas of Central and Eastern
Europe, not being uncommon in certain parts of the Mediterranean, as Nice, and
along the east coast of Sicily, from Messina to the Gulf of Catania, where it
is taken from May until September. Wanderers also have occurred along the
south coast of Great Britain, while it becomes more frequent through the warmer
portions of the Atlantic, and though in diminished numbers, is found so far as the
Cape of Good Hope. It has been recorded from New Zealand and Tasmania.

The first British specimen was captured in the summer of 1787 at Dawlish,
and notes and drawings of it were taken by Mr. T. Wallcott. The next
was 54 feet long, obtained June 4th, 1808, in Salcombe Harbour, Devonshire.
Another at Shapton Bay in February, 1810, and is still in the British
Museum, being only 10 inches in length, it gave rise to the supposi-
tion that it had been bred not far off. Two were taken in Mount’s Bay,
one of which was sent to the Linnean Society, the other to the Penzance
Natural History Society. Mr. Lukis informed Yarrell of one taken in Guernsey
early in 1818. Cocks, l. c., remarks upon a specimen 535 inches long taken at
Gwyllyn Vase, being in the possession of Dr. Bullmore in 1869. Couch stated
that he possessed records of four taken in Cornwall, one of which he figured ;
it was 64 inches long, and was captured twenty miles from land.

One recorded from Ireland (Louch) may refer to a specimen of Trichiurus (see
p. 155). Ball recorded one from Dublin Bay. It attains to 6 feet in length. The
one figured is from a specimen in the British Museum.
158 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Sixth Group—Acanthopterygii Gobiiformes.

No osseous articulation between the suborbital ring of bones and the angle
of the preopercle. A ‘single rayed dorsal fin sometimes divided into two parts,
the anterior portion of which is composed of spines, which are fewer in number
than the rays: soft dorsal and anal generally of equal extent. Ventrals, when
present, thoracic or jugular and composed of one spine, and four or five rays. A
prominent anal papilla.

Famity, X VII—GOBIIDA, Cuvier.

Pseudobranchie present, but sometimes rudimentary. Gill openings varying
from extremely narrow to wide, the gill-membranes attached to the isthmus: four
gills. Body generally elongated. Eyes lateral, occasionally prominent, and mostly
without free orbital margins, the skin being continued directly over their surface,
No osseous articulation between the suborbital ring of bones and the angle of the
preopercle. Teeth of varying characters, mostly small: canines present or absent.
A single rayed dorsal fin sometimes divided into two portions, the spines flexible
and less in number than the rays: anal similar to the soft dorsal. Ventrals some-
times united so as to form a disc, or else they arise close together. Scales and
lateral line present or absent. Air-bladder mostly absent.* Pyloric appendages,
when present, few.

This family has been much subdivided by different authors, owing to the great
variations observable among the species composing it. An account, however, of
these appears hardly necessary in a work relating solely to the British forms.
The majority are littoral fishes, the species composing which often appear to have
an extensive range.

The number of British genera which compose the family may be restricted to
three.

1. Gobius. Two dorsal fins: teeth in the upper jaw in several rows of pointed

-ones: body scaled.

2. Aphia. Two dorsal fins: teeth in the upper jaw in a single series of long
ones: posterior to which are two groups of canines: body scaled.

3. Crystallogobius. Two dorsal fins: teeth conical and fixed: body scaleless.

Genus I—Gostus,+ Artedd.

Cryptocentrus, Ehr.: Awaous, Val.: Cheturichthys, Rich.: Cephalogobius,
Platygobius, Brachygobius, Hypogymnogobius, Callogobius, Stenogobius, Actino-
gobius, Hemigobius, Ctenogobius, Centrogobius, Acentrogobius, Porogobius, Ambly-
gobius, Odontogobius, Pargobius, Zonogobius, Stigmatogobius, Oxyurichthys, Ambly-
cheturichthys, Paracheturichthys, Bleeker: Gallichthys, Cope: Glossogobius,
Pomatoschistus, Acanthogobius, Hucyclogobius, Lepidogobius, Rhinogobius, Synecho-
gobius, Gobionellus, Gill: Gallia, Giinther: Gobiopsis, Cyclogobius, Oplopomus,
Steind.: Chonephorus, Samaragdus, Poey: Gobtichthys, Klunz.

* Urinary bladder generally large.
{ For the definitions of each of the varions named subdivisions of the genus Gobius see my
Fishes of India, p. 282.
GOBIIDA. 159

Branchiostegals five :* pseudobranchie present. Gill-openings of moderate width.
Body low and elongated. Opercles unarmed. Simple teeth in one or more rows in
the upper, and two or more in the lower jaw: canines sometimes present. Anterior
portion of the dorsal fin with fron five to siz flewible spines, the soft portion of the fin
being more developed than the spinous, and of the same character as the anal:
ventrals united, forming a disc attached only by its base, each fin consisting of one
spine and three or four rays. Caudal rounded or wedge-shaped. Scales present, and
evther cycloid or ctenoid. Lateral-line absent. Adr-bladder, f present, mostly small.
Pyloric appendages as a rule absent.

Naturalists have described gobies as being very tenacious of life, a conclusion
not in accordance with my experience. H. J. S. observes of some kept in an
aquarium, that after he had had them some little time they began to breed, and
attached their eggs to the side of the glass, in the same kind of way in which
a caterpillar affixes its eggs to a leaf. These the male goby at once set to guard,
and it was very amusing to watch how fiercely he would attack any creature
coming near, puffing his cheeks out ina curious manner. He constantly attached
himself by his ventral fins close to the eggs or kept swimming near them.
Unfortunately none were hatched (Hardwicke, Science Gossip, 1865, p. 42). Mr.
A. Walker, of Chester, has kindly sent me the following interesting information.
“There is one species (? G. Ruthensparri) that is common in the shallow gutters
of the Dee, whose habits are worth noting. It lays its eggs in the inside of an
empty valve of Mya arenaria, one end of which it then contrives to bury in the
sand, leaving the other end (in which the eggs are laid) sticking up. The goby
then places herself inside, with her head looking out, and thus keeps guard over her
eggs and protects them from the crustacea, such as shrimps and Hurydice pulchra
(a small but voracious Isopod, extremely common in the Dee). If the shell is
turned over and the fish driven away, these crustacea attack the ova at once, but
as soon as the parent is permitted, she returns, drives them away, and by burrow-
ing with her head under one end of the shell, soon gets it into its place again”
(MSS. March 2nd, 1881). It has been frequently asserted that gobies construct
nests wherein to deposit their eggs, and some of these statements have arisen after
seeing how the stickleback behaves: Dr. Ninni (Alti Soc. Pad. i, 1872, pp. 92-96),
gives a list of twelve species of fishes which breed in the Lagunes of Venice, and
observes: that four species of gobies and the stickleback build nests.

The fishes comprising this genus have the form of the body variously modified,
some being much deeper than others. Occasionally the head is scaleless and the
body even partially so. Barbels or warts on the head, or an occipital crest may
be present or absent. The dentition is subject to considerable modifications,
canine teeth being present or absent, and when present being most commonly in
the form of a recurved one on the outer side of the enlarged lateral row in the
lower jaw: but variations may occur in specimens belonging to the same species.
In some the two dorsals are almost united at their bases, in others there exists an
interspace between them, but the form of the fins, the character of the spines,
the number of rays and the colours are subject to considerable variation. As
these fishes decompose rather readily, care has to be taken that the spirit in
which they are preserved is of sufficient strength.

It must be observed that a very great latitude exists both in the colours and
modes of marking of the European gobies which has given rise to some confusion
in the literature of the various species. Likewise, should they “die hard,” their
gill-covers and head become distended, in which position they stiffen as has been
remarked upon under the head of the Serrant, p. 15.

Among the British Gobies are some doubtful species, and I must here point
out that although in the Catalogue of the British Museum, Volume i, page iv
of the preface, it is observed that “the collection contains many typical specimens,
as there has been embodied with it, besides other minor collections, * * *
The collection of the fishes of the Firth of Forth and Scottish rivers by Dr.
Parnell.” This statement might occasion the belief that the entire collection of

* Dr. Moreau observes that Gobius quadrimaculatus has only four.
160 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

that Ichthyologist had been obtained by the National Museum. At Edinburgh,
however, 1 was informed this was an error, and Dr. Traquair, F.R.s., showed
me some of Parnell’s types. In the Wernerian Memoirs, Vol. vii, 1838, p. 498, is
the following resolution: “ That the honorary premium of ten sovereigns or a
piece of plate of that value, should be awarded to Dr. Richard Parnell, upon a
selection from the dried specimens submitted to the Society on 30th April last,
and containing such species as are mentioned by the author as new to the
district, or which may be considered in any way doubtful, being presented to the
Museum of the Society.”

In the proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh i, 1844-1850, p. 164, a
list of seventy-eight species received from Dr. Parnell is enumerated, among these
were the following gobies in spirit. Gobiws niger, Yarrell: G. minutus, Yarrell :
G. unipunctatus, Parnell: @. bipunctatus, Yarrell and G. albus, Parnell. Con-
sequently all Parnell’s types were not in the collection obtained for London.

Synopsis of British Species of Gobius.*

A. First dorsal fin with seven spines.

1. Gobius Ruthensparri, D. 7/5, A. rola, L. 1. 35-40,¢ L. tr. 11. Dorsal
fins rather wide asunder. One black spot in the pectoral region, a second at
the base of the tail fin.

B. First dorsal fin with six spines.

2. Gobius paganellus, D. 6/rp3z5, A. retr, L. 1. 56-58, L. tr. 15-16. Dorsal
fins close together, the first being rather low. Nearly black, fins mostly with
light edges.

3. Gobius niger, D. 6 | rexg) A. zor, L. 1. 39-41, L. tr. 12-13. Dorsal fins
close together. Light brown, variously marked with darker.

4, Gobius minutus, D. 6 | pot A. rete, L. 1. 60-70, L. tr. 12-14. Dorsal fins
rather wide asunder. Sandy coloured, with darker markings and spots.

5. Gobius Parnelli, D. 6 | gig, A. gp L. tr. 40, L. tr. 11. Dorsal fins close
together. Slate coloured, with dark vertical bands: fins black, with white
horizontal lines. A black spot at end of first dorsal, another at base of caudal fin.

6. Gobius pictus, D. 6/10, A. 9, L. 1. 35-40, L. tr. 10-11. Dorsal fins close
together. Light, with darker irregular bands: dorsal fins with three or more rows
of large round spots.

7. Gobius quadrimaculatus, D. 6/53.5, A. g3q, L. 1. 37-40, L. tr. 7-8. Dorsal
fins close together: second spine of first dorsal frequently elongated.

A. First dorsal fin with seven. spines.

1. Gobius Ruthensparri, Plate LI, fig. 1.

Gobius ruthensparri, Euphr. Nya Handl. Stockh. 1786, p. 64, t. iii, f. 1; Retz.
Faun. Suec. p. 326; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 115; Fries, Wiegm.
Arch. 1840, p. 237; Cuv. and Val. xii, p.48; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 2) 1,
p. 285 (Kd. 3) u, p. 322; Kroyer, Dan. Fis. 1, p. 399, ¢. fig.; Nilss. Skand. Faun.
iv, p. 226; White, Catal. Brit. Fish, p. 52; Gunther, Catal. iii, p. 76; McIntosh,
Fish, St. Andrews, p. 174; Collett, Norges Fis. p. 58; Heinke, Arch. Nat. 1880,
p. 3810; Moreau, Poissons France, ii, p. 232; Giglioli, Pesci Italiani, p. 29.

Gobius flavescens, Fabr. Reise n. Norw. p. 322.

Gobius nvinutus, Nilss. Prod. p. 94.

* Dr. Giinther, Intr. Study of Fish, p. 486, includes Gobius owratus among the British
forms. In the Catal. Fish. Brit. Mus, iii, p. 11, he gives as the habitat of this fish, “coast of
Nice.” A variety of G. niger he observes is “perhaps identical with G. awratus, Risso.” Couch’s
fish I believe to be one of our common species. Thus unable to ascertain why @. auratus, unless
as a variety of G. niger, has been considered British, I have omitted it.

+ By Lateral-liue is meant the number of rows of scales between the head and the base of the
caudal fin,
GOBIID. 161

Gobius niger, Donov. Brit. Fish. pl. civ.; Fleming, Brit. Vert. p. 206.

Gobius bipunctatus, Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 1) i, p. 255; Jenyns, Manual,
p- 386; Parnell, Fishes Firth of Forth, p. 86, pl. xxix, and Wern. Mem. vii,
P- 246, pl. xxix; Johnston, Berwick. Field Club, 1838, i, p. 172; McIntosh,
Fish. North Uist. P. R. 8. Edin. v, 1862-66, p. 614; Collett, Norges Fis. p. 58;
Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. 1879, p. 17.

Two-spotted goby, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 162, pl. ¢, fig. 3.

Gobius biocellatus, or broad-finned goby, Couch, 1. c. p. 165, pl. ci, f. 1 (not
Cuyv. and Val.).

Gobius pusillus, Lowe, Fauna of Norfolk, Fishes p. 12 (not Canestrini).

B. v, D. 7/ap%xas P. 19, V- 1/5, A xgdsq, CO. 15, Is. 1. 84-40, I. tr. 11.

Length of head 4¢, of caudal fin 5 to 5}, height of body 6 in the total length.
Eyes—high up, separated by a very narrow interorbital space, diameter 3} in
the length of the head, 3/4 of a diameter from the end of the snout and also
apart. Head as high as wide: snout obtuse. Cleft of mouth oblique, commencing
opposite the upper third of the orbit, lower jaw prominent: the maxilla reaches
posteriorly to beneath the first third or middle of the orbit, no perceptible rows
of warts on the head, Teeth—several rows of pointed ones in both jaws, the
outer row in the fore portion of the mandibles being considerably the largest and
slightly curved. #%ns—the dorsals placed rather far asunder, the extent of the
interspace being equal to nearly half the length of the base of the first dorsal,
the longest spinés of which latter fin are nearly equal to the height of the body
below it, and also to the rays of the second dorsal: the length of the caudal
pedicle equals that of the head so far as the hind edge of the preopercle. Pectoral,
without any of its upper rays being silk-like, reaches as far as to above the end
of the ventrals, which latter do not extend to so far as the anus. Caudal cut
almost square. Scales—angular in their exposed portion and strongly ctenoid :
11 rows between the origins of the second dorsal and anal fins: anterior to the
first dorsal fin they are absent, while there are none on the cheeks or gill covers.
Colowrs—body of a cinnamon colour, becoming light beneath: the darker tinge
of the back descending in a wavy or irregular manner on the sides. A black spot
on the side opposite the outer half of the pectoral fin, and a second at the base
of the caudal. Fins pale, with two rows of light coloured spots along either
dorsal, wavy vertical bands on the caudal, and a light edge having a darker Lase
along the anal. A dark band from the eye to the corner of the mouth.

The dark spot behind or above the middle of the pectoral fin is sometimes
absent, while it seems to be frequently lost in specimens which have been kept
long in spirit. Yarrell’s variety of G. unipunctatus, with seven dorsal spines
(Ed. 3, page 239), was probably G. Ruthensparri.

Mr. A. Roberts, curator of the Scarborough Museum, observed that the
female is fully one-third longer than the male, and has only one spot at the base
of the caudal fin, whereas the male has two. For several years he bred these fishes
in confinement, and thus possessed opportunities for watching them.

Couch considered his G. biocellatus to differ from G. Ruthensparri, more
especially in the greater elevation of the second dorsal fin. Dr. Lowe, 1. c.
described his G. pusillus, which he has since ascertained has six or seven spines
in the first dorsal fin, and of which he has been so good as to send me a figure.

Name.—Double-spotted goby, due to its colours.

Habits——Prefers rocky situations, and does not appear to frequent sandy
localities. According to Parnell, it keeps but a short distance from below the
surface of the water, apparently in & motionless position, assuming in this respect
much the habits of the stickleback: wheu approached, it gradually lowers itself
into the deep and soon disappears, by making short though rapid darts among
the fuci, which it delights to frequent. Dr. Lowe observes of (@. pusillus, that
“when transferred to an aquarium, from the pool in which they were discovered,
they lived for a long time in quite fresh water if gradually accustomed to it,
but when suddenly placed in cold fresh water they were apparently asphyxiated,
all the fins becoming rigidly expanded. They took food readily from the hand,

11
162 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

and would attach themselves to the sides of the glass in any position by means of
the ventral fins.

Breeding —Mr. Roberts, observed that when the female had deposited
her eggs in the shell of a barnacle, the male took possession of the deposit, and
was continually working his fing in and out of the shell and drove other fish
away. On the sixteenth day the young fish were hatched, but were destroyed
by the other fish in the vivarium.

Uses.—Due to their small size, more as the food for other fishes or birds than
man. They are frequently taken from the stomach of the cod and haddock, and
Yarrell records one from the inside of a tern.

Habitat.—Seas of Northern Europe excluding the Baltic, and not recorded
along the Mediterranean coast of France. Although it has been said by Nardo to
exist in the Adriatic, Canestrini and others have not obtained it there. It is
found off Norway and Denmark: is not infrequent in the Orkneys and Shetland
Isles, and extends round the coast of Great Britain, being very common in
suitable places: in Cornwall it is said to be rather rare, but becomes numerous
off the Channel Islands, and west coast of France.

In Ireland it is common on the north-east coast, especially along the shores of
Down, and is also abundant on the western coast, certainly as far as the Island
of Arran.

It attains to at least 24 inches in length. The example figured, and for which I
am indebted to Mr. J. Carrington, r.t.s., was obtained in Guernsey with several
others.

B. First dorsal fin with six spines.
2. Gobius paganellus, Plate LII, fig. 2.

Paganellus Venetorum, Willugh. p. 207; Ray, p. 75. Gobius, sp. 2, Artedi,
Genera, p. 29; Hasselq. Reise nach Paleest. p. 373.

? Gobius melanio, Pallas, Zoo. ili, p. 157; Rathke, Faun. der Krym, p. 327;
Nord. Demid. Voy. Russ. Mérid. iii, p. 412, Poiss. pl. xi, fig. 1; Kessler, Bull.
Soc. Nat. Mose. 1859, 11, p. 250.

Gobius bicolor, Brunn. Pisc. Mass. p. 30, no. 41; Gmel. Linn. p. 1197; Cuv.
and Val. xii, p. 19; Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 228.

Gobius paganellus, Gmel. Linn. p. 1198; Cuv. and Val. xii, p. 20; Giinther,
Catal. iii, p. 52; Andrews, Journ. Roy. Dublin Soc. v, 1866-70, p. 381; Steind.
Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 63.

Gobius niger, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 158 and Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 280; Yarrell,
Brit. Fishes, (Ed. 2) i, p. 281 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 318 (in part); Thompson, Nat. Hist.
Ireland, iv, p. 111; Canestr. Arch. Zool. i, p. 135, t. vii, f. 2.

Gobius punctipinmis, Canestrini, 1. c. p. 131, t. x, f. 1.

Gobius maderensis, Cuv. and Val. xii, p. 55 (var.); Giinther, Catal. ili, p. 57.

Gobius niger, var. Lowe, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1839, p. 84 and Trans. iii, p. 10.

Paganellus, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 157, pl. xeviii.

B. v, D. 6/qytzq, P. 20, V. 1/5, A. ohg, C. 18, L. 1. 54-58, L. tr. 15-17.

Length of head 4 to 42, of caudal fin 53 to 6, height of body 5} to 6 in the
total length. Hye—rather prominent, diameter 1/4 of the length of the head,
about 1 diameter from the end of the snout, and 1/3 to 1/2 a diameter apart. Head
depressed, broader that high: cheek swollen and during life no deep groove
extending from the base of the first dorsal fin to the occiput: cleft of mouth
oblique commencing opposite the upper third of the eye. Mouth rounded, jaws
of about the same length antcriorly, or the lower slightly the longer. The maxilla
reaches to beneath the first quarter of the eye: lips thick and with a fringed row
of barbel-like papillae. Several rows of warts descending from the eye to the cheeks,
and more especially towards the angle of the mouth. Teeth—pointed, no canines,
the outer row in either jaw considerably enlarged and somewhat curved,
especially in the upper jaw. Jins—the dorsal fins placed close together, the
spines of the first weak, and from half to two-thirds the height of the body
beneath, but not so hizh as the rays of the second dorsal. The distance between
GOBIIDA. 163

the eye and the first dorsal fin is equal to that between the end of the snout and
the angle of the preopercle. Pectoral as long as the head excluding the snout:
its upper 6 or 7 rays silk-like. Ventrals short, extending 2/3 of the distance to the
vent. Caudal rounded. An anal papilla present. Scales—except in the anterior
portion of the body, ctenoid, 15 to 17 rows between the origin of the second dorsal
and anal fins. Some scales on the upper portion of the opercle, the remainder of
the head scaleless, while superiorly some extend as far forward as the eyes: about
35 rows anterior to the base of the dorsal fin. Colowrs—the body is nearly
black, becoming lighter on the sides and beneath. The first dorsal fin is dark
with a light or orange outer edge, the lower two-thirds is mostly horizontally
banded, the lowest band terminating in a black spot behind the last spine. Second
dorsal and anal nearly black, with spots or blotches and a light or orange outer
edge. The other fins dark.

In one male example among several from Weymouth, collected by the late
Professor Rolleston, F.r.s., the colours are much lighter than described above
being more similar to what obtains in G. niger and agreeing with G. paganellus
C. V. The specimen is of a light brown or gray irregularly marked with darker,
and somewhat band-shaped descending bars on the posterior portion of the body.
Upper border of the first dorsal fin with an orange band, the rest of the fin
with irregular brownish horizontal bands: second dorsal spotted with brown or
light marks: pectoral with three or four band-like rows of spots: it, the caudal
and anal darkest externally. Ventral gray or gray with a light outer edge. A
small dark spot at the upper part of the base of the caudal fin: and a light spot
with a dark brown edge at the upper portion of the base of the pectoral fin.
This can scarcely be Moreau’s fish, with D. 6/555, A. zg!az, L. J. 44-48, L. tr. 15.

This species is of a much stouter shape than G. niger

Habits.—Does not appear to be so restricted to rocky localities as G. niger, but
its habits have still to be investigated. It is found under rocks at low tides in
Mounts Bay, Cornwall.

Breeding.—In May or June.

Habitat.—This species having been so mixed up with G. niger, it is difficult to
give an opinion respecting which the various authors allude to. It has been recorded
from Tory Island off Donegal and Galway (Thompson), also from Kenmare Bay
(Andrews, Journ. Roy. Dub. Soc. v, 1866-70, p. 381), Cork (Thompson), and
Clonakilty (Leach) in Ireland. Firth of Forth in Scotland, and especially along
the south coast of England to Mounts Bay, and St. Ives: the English Channel,
Bay of Biscay, and as far south as Madeira, also the Mediterranean.

The example figured, life size, is a male taken on the coast of Sussex; the
ventral fins are rather short in comparison with some other examples. The fish

attains to at least 4 inches in length.
3. Gobius niger, Plate LII, fig. 3.

Gobio niger, Rondel. 17, c. 17, p. 200; Gesner, p. 385; P Schonov. p. 36;
Willughby, p. 206, t. N 12, f. 1; Ray, p. 76. Gobius, No. 1, Artedi, Genera,
. 28. Black Goby, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Hd. 1) ii, p. 208, pl. xxxviii (Hd. 2)
iii, p. 288, pl. xlii; Low, Fauna Orcadensis, p. 205.
Gobius niger, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 449; Retz. Faun. Suec. p. 326; Bloch,
t. xxxviii, f. 2, 3, 4,5; Shaw, Brit. Zool. iv, p. 232, pl. xxxiv, f. 2; Mull. Prod.
Zool. Dan. p. 44; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 94; Nilss. Prod. Zool. Suec. p. 93, and
Skand. Fauna, iv, p. 219; Jenyns, Manual, p. 385; Thompson, Proc. Zool. Soc.
1835, p. 80, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 111; Hkstr. Fische Mérké, p. 255;
Fries och Ekstrém, Skand. Fisk. p. 157, t. xxxvi; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 1)
i, p. 251, ¢. fig. (Hd. 2) i, p. 281 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 318; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist.
(2) 1887, i, p. 410; Kroyer, Dan. Fiske, i, p. 382, c. fig.; Cuv. and Val. xii, p. 9;
Parnell, Fishes Firth of Forth, p. 81, pl. xxix, and Wern. Mem. vii, p. 240,
pl. xxix, f. 1; Fries, Wiegm. Arch. 1840, p. 237; Ginther, Catal. iii, p. 11;
McIntosh, Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 174; Collett, Norges Fis. p. 52; F. Heincke,
Arch. Nat. 1880, p. 306; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. 1879, p. 16; Moreau, Poiss.

France, ii, p. 230 CL. tr. 15-16).
ll *
164 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Gobius jozo, Bloch, t. evn, f. 3.

Gobius fuliginosus, McCoy, Ann. and Mage. Nat. Hist. 1841, vi, p. 403.

Gobius Britannicus, Thompson, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 61, and Nat. Hist.
Ireland, iv, p. 111.

? Gobius paganellus, Morean, 1. ¢. ii, p. 225.

Rock Goby, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, 1, p. 153, pl. xeviii.

Biv, D, 6 | eeg Po 18, ¥- 15, A. eos, C. 18, Ts b 894i, Da te 1208,

Length of head 43 to 43, of caudal fin 54 to 53, height of body 6 to 64 in the
total length. Hye—prominent during life, diameter 33 to 4 in the length of the
head, 3/4 to 1 diameter from the end of the snout, and separated by a very narrow
interspace. Head rather broader than high, snout obtuse. Cleft of mouth
moderately oblique, the jaws anteriorly being of nearly equal length, the maxilla
reaching to beneath the anterior edge of the orbit, a deep sulcus goes from the
base of the first dorsal fin to the occiput. Several short rows of warts descend
from the orbit over the opercles, there are likewise occasionally some similar but
horizontal rows, the most visible of which commences at the angle of the mouth.
Teeth—several rows of pointed ones in either jaw, the outer of which are larger
and more curved than the remainder. Fins—dorsal fins placed close together,
but their bases do not quite join, the spies of the first dorsal weak, elongated,
and as high as or higher than the body: second dorsal about as high as the
body, with its last ray divided to its base. Pectoral, usually a few of its upper
rays silk-like, it reaches to above or even behind the anal papilla. The ventrals
as a rule extend to the anus. Caudal wedge-shaped, its central rays being the
longest. Scales—angular in their exposed portion and ctenoid: 12 or 13 rows
between the origins of the second dorsal and anal fins, anterior to the first
dorsal fin they are very small and rounded, but continued as far forward as
opposite the hind margin of the orbit. None on the cheeks or gill-covers.
Colours—subject to considerable variation, bemg- more or less of a dull
brown, having a wide but badly marked lateral band, and various blotches or
marblings. The fins in the young are light, covered with black spots, except
the ventrals which are unspotted’ whereas in adults the spots become more
expanded, and light sinuous lines are frequently seen on the dorsals, while a
black spot usually exists between the two first dorsal spines. In adults the
ventrals may be either light coloured or dark with a light outer edge. A black
spot is frequently present at the upper portion of the base of the pectoral fin :
candal barred in spots.

Varieties—Nilsson states that the pectoral and ventral fins are shorter in the
female than in the male, and the two dorsal fins somewhat farther asunder.
There is a British example in the National Museum having the outer row of
teeth in the upper jaw slightly enlarged, and which it has been suggested may
be identical with Gobius auratus, Risso. Moreau, gives the number of lateral
transverse rows of scales at 15 to 16.

Names.—Sea-gudgeon and rock-fish, due to their living in rocky localities or
attaching themselves to rocks by means of their ventral fins, a faculty denied to
them by Fleming. Growling, Cornish observes that in Cornwall it is some-
times termed Miller’s thumb (see pp. 46, 48, ante). Cabot, French.

Habits.—Resides in the neighbourhood of rocks, and Couch has observed that
having carricd off its prey in its mouth, as does the shanny, it subsequently
struggles with it. This goby is occasionally found in rock pools situated above
the reach of any but very high tides. When detected, it darts away from its
place of concealment to some more secure retreat, while its colour aids in
preventing its being seen. Its food appears to be small fishes, crustaceans and
other animal substances, but ore-weed has also been taken from its stomach.
Couch mentions having taken a shanny 2 inches long from the inside of a
rock-goby which but little exceeded 6 inches in length. He likewise remarks that
this fish is equally capable of living in fresh or salt water, even if changed
suddenly from one to the other.

Lireeding.—About June.
GOBIIDA. 165

_ As food.—Said to be good by those who have tried it, but its size renders it of
little use for this purpose except for large fish and aquatic birds.

Habitat—From the Baltic (where it is of small size) and coasts of Scandinavia
to the Orkneys, Great Britain and Ireland, also the British Channel, as well as
the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts of Europe.

In the Orkneys it is pretty frequent according to some observers, but W. Baikio
says it is rare; while at Weymouth and along the south and south-west coasts
of England it is abundant in tidal pools. In short, as observed by Jenyns,
it is found on many parts of the coast, but not in any abundance.

It attains to at least 93 inches in length, and is the largest of the British
species of this genus. The example figured was from Weymouth.

4, Gobius minutus, Plate LII, fig. 4.

Aphya, Rondel. vii, c. 3, p. 210. Aphya cobitis, Willughby, p. 207, pl. xii, f. 5.
Marsio, Ray, p.76. Gobius, sp. Artedi, Genera, p. 29, and sp. 4 Synon. p. 47. Gobius,
No. 276, Gronov. Zooph. i, p.81. Spotted Goby, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) iii, p.215,
pl. xxxvii. (Ed. 2) iii, p. 187, t. xli. Duhamel, Péches, pt. ii, sec. 6, pl. 3, f. 3.

Gobius aphya, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 450 (pt.); Artedi, ed. Walb. iii, p. 192;
Bl. Schn. p. 70; Risso, Eur. Mérid, iii, p. 281.

Gobius minutus, Gmel- Linn. p. 1199; Lacépade, ii, p. 571; Donovan, Brit.
Fish. ii, pl. xxxviii; Turton, p. 94; Fleming, Brit. An. p. 206; Yarrell, Brit.
Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 258, ec. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 288 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 325; Jenyns, Manual,
p. 886; Parnell, Fishes Firth of Forth, p. 82, pl. xxix and Wern. Mem. vii, p.
242, pl. xxix (female); Cuv. and Val. xii, p. 29; Nilsson, Skan. Faun. iv, p. 222;
Ekst. Fische Morké, p. 260; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) 1837, i, p. 410;
Fries, Wiegm. Arch. 1840, p. 237; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 53; Thompson,
N. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 116; Kroyer, Dan. Fish. i, p. 407, c. fig: Guichen. Explor.
Algér. Poiss. p. 78; Giinther, Catal. iii, p. 58; McIntosh, Fish. N. Uist. Pro. R.
Soc. Edin. v, 1862-66, p. 614; Collett, Norges Fis. p. 53; Winther, Ich. Dan.
Mar. 1879, p. 17; Giglioli, Pesc. Ital. 1880, p. 29; Canestrini, Arch. Zool. 1861,
p- 148, t. ix: Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 212.

EH leotris minuta, Bl. Schn. p. 66.

Gobius gracilis, Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 387 (male); Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 2)
i, p. 290, c. fig. (Ed. 3) ii, p. 331; Thompson, Pro. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 57 and
lc. p. 116; White, Catal. p. 53.

Gobius unipunctatus, Parnell, Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 83, pl. xxix (male) and
Wern. Mem. vii, p. 243, pl. xxix; Thompson, l. c. p. 117.

Gobius reticulatus, McCoy, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. vi, p. 403.

Gobius rhodopterus and Hekstromit, Giinther, Catal. iii, pp. 17, 57.

Yellow goby and one-spotted goby, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, pp. 159, 167, pl. ce.
fig. land pl. ci, fig. 3.

Gobius atienwatus, or tatl-spotted goby (young), Couch, 1. c. p. 166, pl. ci, fig. 2.

B. vy, Dk Ghgters Ps 21, Vo A salrgs ©. 11, Ls Eb 60-70, Ly te 19-14

Length of head 4 to 44, of caudal fin 6} to 62, height of body 6} in female to 8,
in the total length. Hye—diameter 4 to 43 in the length of the head, 3/4 to 1
diameter from the end of the snout and superiorly placed close together. The
eye in the female in some examples is a little nearer the end of the snout than is
that of the male. The greatest width of the head equals (or exceeds in large
specimens) its length behind the middle of the eyes, and is about equal to its
greatest height in smaller examples. Lower jaw slightly the longer. Cleft of
the mouth oblique, the upper jaw reaching to below the first third on even centre of
the orbit. Cheeks swollen. No warts on the head except in large examples, when
a horizontal row exists across the cheeks, from which several shorter ones
descend. Barbels absent. Teeth—in several rows in both jaws, the front and an
outer series in the mandible being slightly larger than the remainder, none on the
palate nor on the tongue. F'ins—spines of first dorsal flexible but not prolonged,
they are lower than the height of the body : there is some considerable interspace,
166 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

about equal to two-thirds the length of the base of the first dorsal fin, between
the two dorsal fins. Second dorsal as high as the body in the male, but lower in
the female. None of the pectoral rays silk-like. The ventral extends to the vent.
Caudal somewhat rounded at its extremity. Female—in some examples the head
is shorter and more square than in the male. Scales—ctenoid, extending anteriorly
to above the posterior extremity of the preopercle. Those on the last portion of
the body a little larger than those anteriorly and more angular in their exposed
part. Colowrs—in the male of a gingery-brown, with spots and even vertical
bands along the side of the body, and usually a dark mark at the base of the caudal
fin. Dorsal gray with three or four irregularly longitudinal bands of spots, and a
black spot edged with white between the fifth and sixth spines, also a black edging
to the membrane going from the sixth spine to the back. Second dorsal with
several rows of spots and dark outer edge: pectoral and ventral light coloured.
Anal stained externally with black. Caudal with a dark extremity, and five or six
irregularly vertical bands of spots. Female—lighter than the male: fins light
coloured, the first dorsal with two or three horizontal bands and sometimes with
a small spot between the fifth and sixth spines. Second dorsal with yellow spots :
caudal fin banded with rusty spots. In some examples there are several vertical
narrow and usually dark bands on the body.

Varieties—Parnell considered those examples which possessed a black spot
between the fifth and sixth spines of the first dorsal fin, the second dorsal with
eleven rays and the tail fin even at its extremity belonged to his G. unipunctatus,
whereas they would seem to be the typical G. minutus. He found this form
equally common with what he considered the true G. minutus, but which perhaps
is G. microps of Malm, specimens of which I received from Professor Liitken of
Copenhagen; they are differentiated by having no scales on the throat where
G. minutus is densely covered by them. This well marked form does not appear
to attain the size of G. minutus, while its markings differ, consisting of a more or less
distinct rows of black blotches along the middle of the side and numerous dark
sinuous lines along the rows of scales in the upper half of the body. Respecting
G. reticulatus (ce. v.) McCoy, Thompson observes that he has seen G. minutus
display the rosy tint in the first dorsal fin mentioned by McCoy, and other
characters so closely agreeing with the specimen he described that he could not
consider them different species.

Names.—Frechled or spotted goby. Polewig or pollybait, Thames local name.
One-spotied goby. Craigbysg brych, Welsh. Donlie at Aberdeen. Bourguette or
Bowhotte, French.

Habits.—Delights in shallow and sandy bays, and often taken in shrimping
nets. It is very active and may be seen darting about in all directions. Templeton
observed that it lodges under large shells when the tide is out. As however it
is frequently found in the stomach of cod and other fish captured at considerable
depths, it would appear that it extends its range into deep water. Its food consists
of small crustacea.

Lreeding.—In June.

Uses.— Larger ones are sometimes employed as baits.

Means of capture.—These little fishes are commonly taken in small nets by
shrimpers, in sandy bays around the coast, and also by dredging, extending as they
frequently do to some fathoms depth off the coast. They are numerous at the
mouth of the Thames, and commonly found among the whitebait brought to the
London market.

Habitat.—From the Scandinavian peninsula to the Orkneys and Shetlands,
and along the shores of Great Britain and Ireland in appropriate localities: like-
wise in the English Channel and the Atlantic and Mediterranean shores of Europe.

Ireland, common in sandy bays from north to south, and Thompson took large
ones while dredging in water several fathoms deep, which is not uncommon else-
where during the summer months.

This fish attains to at least 33 inches in length, at which size I obtained it
at Aberdeen. The example figured is one I took at Weston-super-Mare.
GOBIIDA. 167

5. Gobius Parnelli, Plate LII, fig. 5.

? Gobius gracilis, Parnell, Fishes Firth of Forth, p. 85, pl. xxix, and Wern.
Mem. vii, p. 245, pl. xxix (not Jenyns nor Fries, &c.).

i Gobius unipunctatus, Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 3) ii, p. 327.

Gobius auratus, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 159, pl. c.f. i (not Risso) female.

Gobius minutus, Couch, 1. ¢. ii, p. 161, pl. c. f. 2 (not Gmel. Linn.).

Intile and speckled goby, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, pp. 161, 170, pl. c. fig. 2
and cii, f. 1.

B. v, D. 6 | gp, P. 19, V. 1/5, A. gq, C. 13, L. 1.40, L. tr, 11.

Length of head 43 to 43, of caudal fin 53 to 6, height of body 6 to 7 in the
total length. Hye—diameter 3} to 4 in the length of the head, 3/4 to 1 diameter
from the end of the snout, and nearly 1/4 of a diameter apart. Interorbital
space scaleless, and slightly concave from side to side. Snout somewhat obtuse.
Cleft of mouth commencing opposite the upper edge of the eye. Lower jaw the
longer, the posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to beneath the front third
of the eye. Head rather broader than high. Cheeks swollen: neither warts
nor barbels on the head. Teeth—those in the outer row in the lower jaw much
larger than the rest: none on vomer, palatines, or tongue. F'%ins—spines of
first dorsal flexible and but little prolonged beyond the membrane, the two dorsals
of about equal height, and in the male equalling that of the body, but less in the
female, the interspace between the two fins is equal to two-thirds of the length
of the base of the first dorsal. Ventral fin reaches to the vent, while the pectoral
is somewhat shorter, and none of its upper rays are silk-like. Anal commences
beneath the second or third dorsal ray, and terminates opposite the end of that
fin. Caudal somewhat square. Scales—ctenoid, commencing anteriorly just
behind the occiput: beneath the middle of the second dorsal their size almost
suddenly augments, and are thus continued to the end of the body in the last 15
rows. Colours—of a leaden gray, with several vertical black bands on the body :
fins black, the dorsals with narrow white horizontal bands: caudal with dark
vertical bands.

Whether this is Parnell’s fish may be questioned, his type at Edinburgh
having been mislaid. That this fish is not G. minutus is very evident, as the
scales widely differ in number as well as in character.

Habitat.—The coasts of Great Britain.

Parnell observes G. gracilis is occasionally found in the Firth of Forth, the
Solway Firth, and in much greater plenty on the south coast of England. Lowe
observed G. rhodopterus, Giinther, on the Norfolk estuary, July, 1868, but which
may be this species.

It attains to at least 2+ inches in length. The example, figured life-size, is
from Weston-super-Mare.

6. Gobius pictus, Plate LIII, fig. 1.

Gobius pictus, Malm, Forh. (Skand. Nat. 1863, p. 410; Collett, Norges Fiske,
p. 56; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 17.

Gobius minutus, (part) Ginther, Catal. iii, p. 58.

Gobius laticeps, Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 215, c. fig.

B. v, D. 6/10, P. 20, V. 1/5, A. 9, G. 13, L. 1. 35-40, L. tr. 10-11.

Length of head 32 to 43, of caudal fin 43 to 43, height of body 5} to 52 in
the total length. Hye—diameter 32 to 4 in the length of the head, 3/4 of a
diameter from the end of the snout and nearly close together superiorly. Greatest
width of the head slightly less than its height, it may appear much more if the
fish dies in a spasm (CG. laticeps) ; posteriorly the body becomes much compressed.
Lower jaw slightly the longer, the posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches
to beneath the front edge of the orbit. Teeth—fine, the outer row in either jaw
being enlarged. Fins—The interspace between the two dorsals slight, the length
of the longest spines in the first dorsal nearly equal to the longest rays in the
168 ACANTHOPTERYGIL.

second. Pectoral large, and reaching to above the vent, none of its upper rays
silk-like. Ventral reaches the vent, its basal membrane well developed. Caudal
somewhat rounded. Scales—somewhat angular in form and ctenoid, none in
front of dorsal fins. Colowrs—body light brown, with irregular bands, and two
dark marks radiating from the lower edge of the eye. Fins light coloured, the
dorsals with three or more rows of spots, anda dark outer edge. Pectoral and
anal light coloured, the latter with a dark outer edge. Caudal with a dark
lower margin.

The example figured ‘* when alive, was remarkable for the brilliant colours on
both dorsal fins, they are thus described in my diary, brilliant blue and green
reflections (in the form of spots) on both dorsal fins (as bright as the elytra of
the diamond beetle under a low power) when the sunlight falls upon them.”
(A. Walker, Esq., MSS.)

Habitat—From the shores of Scandinavia and Denmark to Great Britain,
while it has likewise been captured in the Channel off the coast of France.

It appears to be a small species, the example figured life-size, having been
captured in Colwyn Bay, off the Welsh coast, by A. Walker, Esq. of Chester, who
was good enough to send it to me. Professor Litken has likewise sent me a
similar example from Copenhagen.

7. Gobius quadrimaculatus, Plate LIII, fig. 2.

Gobius quadrimaculatus, Cuv. and Val. xii, p. 44; Guichen. Explor. Sc. Algér.
p. 78; Canestr. Arch. Zool. t. i, p. 189, pl. vii, f. 1; Steind. Ich. Span. u, Port.
1868, p. 53; Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 210; Giglioli, Pesc. Ital. p. 29.

Gobius Jeffreysti, Ginmther, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist, (3) xx, 1867, p. 290,
pl. v, fig. C. and (4) xiii, 1874, p. 139; Collett, Norges Fis. p. 54 (with elongated
dorsal spine).

B. iv-v, D. 6 | ¢4y, P.17, V. 1/5, A. g4,, C. 18, L. 1. 37-40, L. tr. 7-8.

Length of head 4} to 43, of caudal fin 63 to 6%, height of body 63 to 7 in
the total length. Hye—diameter 33 in the length of the head, ] diameter from
the end of the snout and close together. Head slightly higher than wide, snout
somewhat pointed and slightly depressed: lower jaw a little the longer: the
posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to beneath the middle of the eye.
Fins—the interspace between the two dorsal fins slight: the height of the first
dorsal may equal or even exceed that of the body, while in some individuals the
second spine is prolonged, extending when laid flat even to the end of the base
of the second dorsal: second dorsal as high as the body. Pectoral large, and
without any silk-like rays. Ventrals do not quite reach the vent. Anal with a
base of less extent than that of the second dorsal. Caudal rounded. Scales—
ctenoid: none anterior to the dorsal fins. Colowrs—yellowish gray, becoming
light beneath, and a dark mark descending from the eye: four or five dark spots
along the middle of the body in adults. Dorsal fins with three rows of spots.
Caudal and anal with dark edges.

Habitat—Deep sea off the Shetland Isles, but not recorded elsewhere from
the Atlantic: found off the Mediterranean shores of Europe. It is common at
Nice, and along the Italian coasts.

The example figured, life size, is one from the Shetland Isles, and in the
National collection.
GOBIID A. 169

Genus II.—Aruta, Risso.

Brachyochirus, Nardo; Latrunculus, Giiuther (preoccupied among Mollusks) ;
Boreogobius, Gill.

Branchiostegals five: pseudobranchic present. Body elongated and compressed,
gill openings wide. Cleft of mouth deep. Teeth in jaws, those in the immature and
Jemales minute, in the male long and pointed, with strong and curved canines in each
jaw. Two dorsal fins, the first having five spines: ventrals united to form a disc
and not attached to the abdomen. Body transparent, covered with large and thin
deciduous scales. Air-bladder present.

Great difficulties have occurred in the discrimination of the genus, thus when
Dr. Giinther (Catal. iii, p. 80) instituted that of Latrunculus for the female and
young, he placed the male in Genus Gobiosoma, and likewise, though doubtfally,
Atherina minuta, Risso, as the immature of Atherina hepsetus. To Professor Collett
is due the credit of having found the spawning places of this fish in 1875, and
elucidated its true characters (Pro. Zool. Soc. 1878, p. 319).*

This fish has been considered by Professor Collett as an example of an
annual vertebrate, but the fact must not be lost sight of that some fishes are
believed to die after breeding, as the common stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus,
whereas if it does not breed, it certainly will live several years in an aquarium.
It would be interesting to experimentalize with Aphia pellucida in an aquarium
and ascertain if the same rule appertains to it.

1. Aphia pellucida, Plate LIII, fig. 3, (size =

? Aphya cobitis, Rondel. p. 210.

Gobius pellucidus, Nardo, Giorn. Fis. Pavia, obser. &c. iii, 1824, p. 7; Kessl.
Bull. Soc. Nat. Mosc. 1859, t. xxxii, No. 2, p. 260; Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii,
p. 171, pl. cii, f. 2.

Atherina minuta, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 340; Cuv. and Val. x, p. 437.

Aphia méridionalis, Risso, Enr. Mérid. iii, p. 287.

Gobius albus, Parnell, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. xiv, 1837, p. 137; Yarrell, Supp.
Hist. Brit. Fishes, p. 27, and Brit. Fishes (Hd. 2) i, p. 295 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 338;
Canestr. Arch. Zool. i, p. 152, t. viii, f. 3.

Atherina hepsetus, Giinther, Catal. iii, p. 893 (? young).

Atherina Stuwitzit, Dub. and Kor. Kgl. Vet. Akad, Férhandl. 1844, p. 51,
t. ii, f. 4; Nilss. Skand. Faun. p. 229, Forh. Skand. Nat. July, 1863.

Latrunculus albus, Giinther, Catal. iii, pp. 80, 556.

Latrunculus pellucidus, Giinther, Catal. 1i1, p. 556; Collett, Pro. Zoo. Soc. 1878,
p. 319; Giglioli, Pes. Ital. 1880, p. 30.

Gobiosoma stuvitzit, Gimther, Catal. ii, p. 86.

Boreogobius stuvitzii, Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Phil. 1863, p. 269 (no
description).

Latrunculus stuvitzit, Collett, Forh. Vid. Selsk. Christ. 1872, p. 9, and Proc.
Zool. Soc. 1878, p. 319.

Gobius gracilis or slender goby, Couch, 1. c. p. 172, pl. cii, fig. 3 (young), also
Transparent goby, G. pellucidus, 1. e. p. 171, pl. cii, fig. 2.

Aphya pellucida, Moreau, Poiss. France, 1, p. 288.

B. v, D. 5/agixp P. 16, V- 1/5, A. zgtzz, ©. 17, L. 1. 26, L. tr. 5, Vert. 27.

* Professor Collett remarks, p. 322, a3 one reason for doubting what species Aphia, Risso
applies to, that “the number of the rays in the first dorsal fin is also omitted, which is a point of
great importance.” But in Ich. Nice, p. 341, it is observed by Risso, “ la premiére nageoire dorsale
contient cing rayons.’ This was the nonnat, doubtless the form here referred to.
170 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Length of head 43 to 43, of caudal fin 6 to 61, height of body 63 to 72
in the total length. Hye—diameter 1/4 of the length of the head, 1 diameter
from the end of the snout: the interorbital space is about 1/2 a diameter of
the eye in width except in the breeding males when it is twice that width.
The body, except during the breeding season when the male becomes more
plump (see Breeding, below), is elongated and compressed, with the vent about
midway between the hind edge of the eye and end of the caudal fin. Mouth
oblique, the posterior extremity of the maxilla reaching to beneath the middle of
the eye. Numerous rows of glands pass over the cheeks. The jaws of the male
augment in size and become more oblique during the breeding season. Teeth—
similar in both sexes prior to the breeding season in a single row of 20 to 25
minute ones placed close together: in the males they are replaced at this period
by a row of long pointed and rather widely separated ones, both sets may be
visible a short time in the same example; in the mandible there are three or four on
each side, while below and inside the last of these teeth there is a recurved
canine : in the upper jaw there are about five of these long teeth on each side, and
inside the row on each side a recurved canine. /ins—First dorsal highest in
males, in which it is rather above two-thirds the height of the body below it: an
interspace exists between the two dorsal fins: the second dorsal fin is rather
higher than the body in adults, while the last rays decrease considerably in height.
Anal similar to second dorsal. Caudal in females or young slightly emarginate, in
males square with the corners occasionally rounded or the middle rays may
be even produced. Ventrals in adults extend almost or quite as far backwards as
the pectorals. Scales—cycloid, large, thin and deciduous, they are inserted into
oblique muscular impressions on the body. Colowrs—transparent or pale yellow
with a single row of yellowish-red points along the bases of the dorsal and anal
fins which are straw coloured.

Varieties.—Parnell’s descriptions apply to males taken during the breeding
season, although he possessed both sexes, as Dr. Giinther supplied three of them
to Professor Collett, one of which was a typical female, L. stuvitzit.

Name.—Nonnat, French.

Habits.—They are free swimmers, going with moderate rapidity, not residing
at the bottom. They live in large shoals and are taken in fine-meshed nets
set in from one to fifteen fathoms. In the Adriatic they are in immense numbers
and sold as food. They are frequently perceived coming to the surface but cannot
regain the depths, being fatigued and unable to exercise sufficient compression
upon their distended air-bladders. Collett says that the food in those he examined
from Christiania Fjords, in both summer and winter, consisted chiefly of micro-
scopic Copepods and other small pelagic animals. The Copepods, Dias longiremis,
Liljeb, Temora velox, Baird, together with the larvee of decapods (Hippolyte and
Palcemon) and Mollusks in their swimming stage, Cardium.

Breeding.—Collett considers it probable that no specimen lives more than
one year, and the breeding season completed, dies without going through a second
spawning, consequently they are really annual vertebrates. In Christiania Fjord
they breed in the summer months, normally between the end of June and com-
mencement of August. Spawning over all disappear. Most of the young attain
their full size in December or January, no trace of adults is perceptible, and all
go through the following changes. Here I propose adverting to the different
appearances of this fish, as discriminated by Professor Collett, whether in the
breeding season or otherwise. Out of the breeding season, there is but little
difference in the appearance of the sexes, the teeth being small, of uniform size
and ina single row. The males if nearly mature have longer jaws, and more
thickened heads than the females, while external to the row of teeth described
is an outer series of rather larger conical ones: the anterior rays of the second
dorsal and anal are higher than the posterior ones: while the caudal is square
or slightly emarginate. Mature males have a plump body and broad interorbital
space, with a thickened head, and a single row of long pointed teeth: while the
second dorsal and anal fins have the anterior and posterior rays of about the
same height: caudal truncated or rounded. The females, if nearly mature, differ
GOBITD Ai. 171

from the immature fish in the belly being more swollen. Mature females do
not have the head thickened, while it is somewhat more pointed than in the
male: the cleft of the mouth is of less depth: the teeth unchanged, while the
second dorsal and anal taper posteriorly as in the immature.

Uses.—Food. for every larger fish in the vicinity, and for crustacea as well
as for sea birds, but on the borders of the Mediterranean they are largely used
for human beings. Along the Maritime Alps, they are the object of a distinct
nee especially during the month of March, being considered a very recherché

ish.

Habitat—In innumerable numbers in the Christiania Fjord, and from the
western shores of Norway along the western shores of Europe, through the
Mediterranean and Adriatic, also up the Black Sea.

I have obtained them at Aberdeen : they have been recorded from the Solway
Firth and Firth of Forth: also from the Bristol Channel and Weymouth and
the south coast.

The example figured, 23 times magnified, is a male from Aberdeen. This
fish does not appear to much exceed 12 inches in length.
172 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus 3.—CRYSTALLOGOBIUS, Gull.

Gobiosoma (part) Giinther: Latrunculodes, Collett.

Branchtostegals seven: pseudobranchice present. Body elongated and compressed.
Teeth only distinctly present in the males and in a single row, with two strong
canines in the lower jaw. Guill openings wide. Two separate dorsal fins, the first
composed of two spines, the second with a moderate number of rays (19-20) - anal
almost similar to the second dorsal. Ventrals united forming a disc. Scales absent.
Air-bladder present.

Geographical distribution —Coasts of Norway and Sweden, also the west coast
of Scotland off Banffshire, so probably exists in intermediate localities, but has
escaped detection due to its small size and being mistaken for Aphia pellucida.
Most that is known of this fish is due to the labours of Professor Collett, from
whom the greater portion of the following remarks are taken.

Crystallogobius Nilssonii, Plate LIII, Fig. 4 (2 male).

Gobius Nilssoni’, Dib. and Kor. Vet. Akad. Handl. Stockh. 1844, p. 53, t. ii,
£.3; Nilss. Skand. Faun. iv, p. 227; Life of Edward pp. 375, 427.

Gobius linearis, Dib. and Kor. Ofver. Vet. Akad. Hand]. 1845, i, p. 111.

Gobiosoma Nilssoni, Giinther, Catal. iii, 1861, p. 86.

Crystallogobius Nilssonii, Gill, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Phil. 1863, p.269; Collett,
Pro. Zool. Soc. 1878, p. 331.

Latrunculus Nilssonti, Collett, Forh. Vid. Selsk. Christ. 1872, p. 10.

Latrunculodes Nilssonii, Collett, 1. c. 1874, p. 151.

B. vii, D. 2/19-20, P. 30-31, V. 1/5, A. 21, C. 14-15, Vert. 29.

Length of head 42 to 53, of caudal fin 71, height of body 7 to 83 in the total
length. Hye—lateral, diameter 1/4 of the length of the head, 1 diameter
apart in the females, a little more in the males, and 1 diameter from the end of
the snout. The heads in adult males are thickened and the snout short: the cleft
of the mouth deep, while the end of the mandibles are bent upwards and received
into an emargination in the upper jaw. Inthe young males the head is more
pointed, almost as in the females, in which the jaws are short, straight, and
toothless. In adult males the maxilla extends backwards to beneath the hind
edge of the eye. Teeth—These are not changed during the breeding season as
observed in Aphia. The males at this period have 13 to 14 closely placed, small,
acute, and pointed teeth in a single row in the premaxillaries, while on the projecting
square extremity of the mandibles there is externally a canine at each angle and a
single row of eight fine-pointed teeth extending between the canines. Fins—The
first dorsal fin in the male commences over the base of the pectoral fin, and
consists of two rays which come to a fine termination, but are not continued
beyond the membrane, which extends as far as the base of the second dorsal fin.
The anal is similar to the second dorsal, both consisting of short and undivided
rays, except the last which is sometimes divided. Pectoral, with a broad base,
and well developed, its central 12 or 14 rays are branched. Caudal square or
slightly emarginate, with 9 or 10 short rays on either side of its base. Ventral
reaches half way to the vent, its inner rays shorter than its outer ones. The vent
is situated midway between the end of the snout and the root of the caudal fin.
The angular insertions of the muscles along the side of the body are well marked,
being about 27 in number. Colowrs—Almost transparent, with a light bluish
tinge: a dark spot at the end of the lower jaw. A small black spot at the root
of each dorsal and anal ray, those along the dorsal being sometimes wanting in
the female.

Habits.—It would seem to inhabit somewhat deep water, and probably rests at
GOBIID. 173

the bottom, most examples having been dredged at about 30 fathoms depth.
Brought to the surface, their air-bladders become distended, as observed in Aphia
(p. 170). Professor Collett found the stomachs of some captured in June filled
with the digested remains of Entomostraca.

Breeding.—During the summer months, perhaps commencing as early as
March or April. During this season the body does not increase in width as
observed occurs in Aphia. Collett suggests that after the conclusion of the
spawning the specimens no doubt perish, their life having then lasted only one
year.

Infe history—The young males, as already observed, have the head somewhat
pointed as in the females; the teeth in the jaws are visible, and all the fins
normally developed. As maturity is reached the head thickens, the snout
becomes short, the extremity of the mandibles are curved upwards and received
into an emargination in the upper jaw, while a canine is perceptible at each angle
of this prominence of the lower jaw. The young females have the body slender
and pointed, jaws toothless, and the first dorsal and ventral fins appear to be
wanting. The mature female is much more slender than the adult male, Prof.
Collett finding that it required two of the former to balance in weight one of the
latter. The head is pointed, the jaws straight and almost or entirely destitute of
teeth ; the first dorsal and ventral fins are rudimentary ; the pectorals short, while
the rays of the second dorsal and anal are shorter than in the males.

Habitat.—It has been recorded from the coasts of Norway and Sweden, the
most northern point being Christiansund. It is evidently much rarer than Aphia,
and partial to more northern localities.

In May, 1868, Mr. Edward obtained a male from a rock pool at Banff, which

he most obligingly placed at my service, and from which my figure was taken ; it
is magnified to twice the natural size.
174 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Famity, XVIII—CALLIONY MID, Richardson:

Branchiostegals five to six: pseudobranchie present. Gill-openings of
moderate width, or very narrow. Body mostly elongated. No osseous articula-
tion between the preopercle and infraorbital ring of bones. Teeth in the jaws,
none on the palate. Two dorsal fins, the anterior with from four to seven
flexible spines; second dorsal and anal similar; ventrals wide asunder. Scales
and lateral-line present or absent. Air-bladder absent.

Genus I.—Cattionrmus,* Linneus.

Synchiropus and Diplogrammus, Gill.

Branchiostegals five or six: pseudobranchie present. Ctill-openings very narrow,
in some merely a small circular orifice at the upper edge of the opercle. Head and
anterior portion of the body depressed. Eyes of moderate size, usually directed somewhat
upwards. Mouth narrow, upper jaw protractile. A strong, variously-armed spine
at the angle of the preopercle. Teeth in the jaws minute; palate edentulous. Two
dorsal fins, the anterior consisting of three or four flexible spines; ventrals widely
separated, each possessing five rays. Lateral-line single or double. Air-bladder
absent.

These littoral fishes, commonly known as “dragonets,’’ appear to live
mostly at the sea bottom. They are extensively distributed, being found in the
temperate seas of the Old World, India, the Malay Archipelago, and even
beyond. In many instances they exhibit sexual distinctions either in the length
of their fins, in their colours, or in both. They have been sub-divided in
accordance with the size and position of the gill-openings, and whether the lateral
line is single or double, as follows: (1) Gill-openings small, superior : lateral-line
single. (2) Gill-openings small, superior: lateral-line double. (3) Gill-openings
lateral and more extensive: lateral-line single. (4) Gill-openings lateral and
more extensive: lateral-line double.

1. Callionymus lyra, Plate LIV, Fig. 1, male; Fig. 2, female.

Eaocetus, sp. Bel. p. 218. Dracunculus, Rondel. p. 304 ; Gesner, Pisc. p. 80;
Aldrov. 1. 2, c. 52; Willughby, p. 136, t. H 6, f. 3; Ray, p. 79; Borlase,
Cornwall, p. 270, t. 26, f. 10; Seba, lii, t. 30, f. 7. Uranoscopus sp. Gronov. Zooph.
No. 204, 205, 206 and Mus. Ich. i, p. 21, No. 63; Artedi, syn. 77. Corystton, sp.
Klein, Pisce. MSS. iv, p. 47, No. 10. Lyra Harvicensis, Petiver, Gazophyl. t. xxii,
f.2. Dragon fish, Martens, Spitzberg. p. 123. Floy fische, Pontop. Norway, ii,
ili; Strém, Soéndm. i, p. 278. Duhamel, Péches, ii, sect. 5, p. 116, pl. x. The
Gemmous dragonet, Low, Faun. Orcad. p. 229; Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776)
iii, p. 164, pl. xxvii, (Ed. 1812) iii, p. 221, pl. xxxi; also Sordid dragonet, l.c.
p. 224, pl. xxxil.

Callionymus lyra, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 433, and Faun. Suec. p. 110; Bonn.
Atl. Ich. p. 43, pl. xxviii, £. 93; Bloch, ui, p. 71, f. clxi; Lacép. ii, p. 329, pl. x,
f. 1; Bl. Schn. p. 39; Gmel. Linn. p. 1151; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 103 and Eur.
Mérid. iti, p. 262; Donovan, Brit. Fish. i, pl. ix; Turton, p. 88; Retz. Faun.
p. 813; Mull. Zool. Dan, p. 2], pl. xxviii; Flem. Brit. An. p. 208; Couch, Trans.
Linn. Soe. xiv, p. 71, and Fish. Brit. Isles ii, p. 178, pl. ciii; Jenyns, Man. p. 388 ;
Fries, Vet. Acad. Handl. 1837, p. 39; Fries och Ekstr. Skand. Fisk. p. 95, 6. xxii
and xxii; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 261, c. fig. (Hd. 2) i, p. 297 (Hd. 3) ii,
p. 310; Parnell, Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 88; Cuv. and. Val. xii, p. 266; Neill,

* Dr. Giinther An. and Mag. Nat. Hist (4) 1874, xiii, p. 139, has recorded the tropical species
of Callionymus sagitta as dredged off the Shetland Isles.
CALLIONYMIDA. 175

Wern. Mem.i, p. 529; Krdyer, Dan. Fiske i, p. 422: Cuv. Régne Anim. III.
Poiss. t. Ixxxii, f. i; Nilss. Skand. Fauna Fisk. p. 212; Swainson, Fishes ui,
p. 280; Guichen. Explor. Sc. Algér. Poiss. p. 78; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 55 ;
Thompson, N. H. Ireland, iv, p. 117: Schlegel, Dieren Neder. 70, pl. vi, £. 6, 7;
Giinther, Catal. iii, p. 139; McIntosh, Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 174; Steind. Ich.
Span, u. Port. 1868, p. 66 ; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 62 ; Winther, Prod. Ich. Dan.
Mar. 1879, p. 19; Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 164.

Callionymus dracunculus (female) Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 433; Bonnaterre, 1. c.
p. 43, pl. xxvii, f. 94; Strdm, Norske Selsk. Nye Handl. i, p. 149; Bloch, ii,
p. 84, t. clxii, f 2; Lacép. ii, p. 335; Bl. Schn. p. 40; Gmel. Linn. p. 1152;
Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 1042; Retz. Fauna, p. 313; Mull. Zool. Dan. i, p. 434;
Donovan, Brit. Fish. iv, t. Ixxxiv; Turt. Brit. Fauna, p. 89; Johnston, Zool.
Journ. ili, p. 336, and Berwick. Nat. Club, 1838, i, p. 172; Thompson, Pro. Zool.
Soc. 1835, p. 81, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 118: Cuv. and Val. xii, p. 274;
Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 266, c. Fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 302 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 315;
Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) 1837, i, p. 410; Parnell, Fishes Firth of Forth,
p. 90, and Wern. Mem. vii, p. 250: Guichen. Explor. Sc. Algér. Poissons, p. 79
(not C. dracunculus Risso, Bonaparte, Canestrini, or Moreau).

Callionymus elegans, Lesueur, Bull. Sc. Soc. Phil. de Paris 1814, p. 6, pl. i,
£.17 (? young).

Uranoscopus lyra (male), U. dracunculus (female) and U. micropterygius,
(immature male) Gronov. ed Gray. pp. 42, 43.

Dusky skulpin, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 178. pl. civ.

B. vi, D, 4/9, P. 20, V. 1/5, A. 9, C. 9, Vert. 8/13.

Length of head 4 in the male, 5 in the female, of caudal fin 5, height of body
7 in the total length. Hye—directed upwards and slightly outwards: lids with
free edges only along the lower margin of the eyes, the skin of the head being
continued over their upper portion. Interorbital space very narrow. Head broad
and compressed. Snout much more elongated and pointed in the adult than in
the immature males or in the females. Upper jaw protractile. A strong spine,
at the angle of the preopercle, which is shorter than the eye: it is compressed and
terminates in three triangular processes, two of which are directed upwards, one
backwards, while a fourth at its base is pointed forwards. Teeth—in jaws small,
absent from vomer or palatines. Fims—in the male the first dorsal ray is much
elongated, reaching beyond the base of the caudal fin, while the remainder of the
rays are longer than in the female. In the female (and immature males) the first
dorsal spine is very slightly prolonged ; the last ray of the second dorsal divided
to its base and also elongated. The ventral rays and the seven central ones of the
caudal fin are sub-divided at their extremities; the remainder are undivided.
In the young males the head is broader than in the females. Lateral-
line—single; but the two are connected together by one or two prolonga-
tions over the free edge of the tail. Anal papilla—prominent in adult males,
slightly so in the immature, and hidden in the female. Colowrs—in the male:
cheeks and lower half of the head orange with rounded spots and markings of
ultramarine blue, some of which extend on to the upper surface of the head.
The upper surface of the body yellow tinged with red, having light blue or lilac-
coloured spots and markings. An ultramarine blue band passes from the upper
part of the base of the pectoral fin to the base of the caudal: immediately below
this is an orange stripe, and next a second blue one. First dorsal fin of a duil
Jemon colour, with a longitudinal reddish or lilac basal band, and vertical ones in
its superior two-thirds. Second dorsal with four pale blue bands. Caudal lemon
coloured and blue in about equal parts. Ventral dark bluish purple with a few
lighter spots at its base. Pectoral having its upper half reddish brown, with
indistinct bands. Anal with a dark outer edge. Female of a dull brown,
becoming light on the sides and white beneath: on it are irregularly-placed
darker spots and blotches, with numerous light or brown spots along the body
above the lateral-line, immediately below which is an irregular row of about eight
dark marks, while the lower surface is white; there are three dark bands, more
176 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

or less distinct, across the back. First dorsal bluish-black, in its posterior two-
thirds ; second dorsal bluish with a central yellowish band. Upper pectoral rays
with some yellowish bands; ventral dusky; caudal with three vertical bands.
The colours of these fish are so beautiful and fade so rapidly after death that they
require being seen when alive to be appreciated. The immature males have the
spots along the upper surface of the body blue.

Varieties—Immature males coloured like females, but possessing milt or
soft roe, having been captured, it was surmised that the two were sexes of one
species and not identical with the gemmous dragonet: an error perpetuated by
several authors. Pennant in his edition of 1812 asserted the differences were
merely sexual. Neill, p. 529 (Mem. Wern. Soc.), likewise pointed out the sexes,
and observed they were often taken in the Firth of Forth in from 12 to 20
fathoms water on haddock lines baited with mussels.

Names.—Gemmnous dragonet, or the male seems to have been so termed from
the brilliancy of its gem-like colours. The appellation “dragonet” was
substituted by Pennant for “yellow gurnard,’ a name it was previously known
by. It is likewise locally known as the bridegroom (Banffshire). Balle-eries,
“Leries” is a “messenger” (Aberdeen). The female and young males are
termed fox (mouth of Thames) ; skulpin or yellow skulpin (male). Chanticleer,
gowdie, Scot. (male) gowd or gold denoting its yellow colour. Sordid dragonet,
dusky skulpin (female). Chiquer (male) and Doucet (female) at Dieppe; Savary,
at Caen; Lavandiere, at Féecamp; Cornard, at Brest (male). Fasing, Norway.
Pitvisch, Holland.

Lacépede, enraptured at its scientific and beautiful name, wrote: “‘ What
pleasing images, what touching recollections does its not recall? Celestial beauty
charming our eyes—enchanting music touching our hearts: these two names
happily associated restore through memory your sweet but irresistible power.”
Pontoppidan called it a “flying fish,” as it was supposed to use its pectoral fins in
order to raise itself out of the water.

Habits—Does not appear to congregate in shoals, while the adult male is
believed to prefer deeper water, as from 20 to 60 fathoms, than does the
female or the young—these latter being more frequently observed closer inshore
near to the edge of the tide, especially in sandy bays or at the mouths of large
rivers. This fish generally remains near the bottom among stones or sand, and
possesses very acute vision ; it darts away immediately on being alarmed, while,
according to Dr. Ball, it is able to bury itself. In an aquarium it remains quite
still at the bottom of the tank, and even covers itself with sand except merely the
top of the head as far as the gill-openings. Now and then it will dart along for a
short distance, and then settle down again often at the very spot from where it
set out. It feeds on testaceous animals which it swallows entire, also on worms
and molluscs. It lives some time after removal from the water. Mr. Dunn on
May 24th, 1881, obtained at Mevagissey a yellow sculpin caught in a mackerel net
at the surface of the sea 14 miles from land and in 40 fathoms water.

Means of captwre.— Usually by trawls and nets; while small ones are taken in
sandy bays by shrimpers. Pennant observes that in his time it was often secured
by the hook in 30 or 40 fathoms water off Scarborough. It is frequently found
in the stomach of the cod. A fisherman informed Thompson that he occasionally
took this fish on long lines set on muddy but never on sandy bottoms. Off some
localities on the south-west coast its preopercular spine is believed to occasion a
poisonous wound.

Baits.— Although it occasionally takes a bait, the size of its mouth precludes
large hooks being employed for this purpose.

Breeding.— Dr. G. Johnston (Zool. Journal, iii, p. 336) recorded having found
a sordid dragonet containing milt or soft roe, it being a young male. The Rev.
G. Harris (Zool. p. 2999 and 3118) mentions having discovered hard roe in
a gemmous dragonet, which, provided the observation were correct, is interesting
as seeming to show that the female might assume the colours of the male and
still not be sterile. The observation does not seem to have been confirmed by any
other naturalist.
CALLIONYMIDA. 177

As food.—Its flesh is white and firm.

Habitat—The coasts of Norway, Denmark, and the German Ocean, but
reputed not to extend to the Baltic: found round the British Isles: itis not rare
off the French coast, but exceedingly uncommon in the Mediterranean.*

Couch has with justice observed that ‘‘ the habits of naturalists rather than of the
fish have caused it to be regarded as rare” around the British Isles. In the
Orkneys Lowe obtained a single male example about 6 inches in length entangled
among the sea-ware ; while Baikie remarked upon its being rare in the Orkneys
and Zetland. It is occasionally found off Banffshire (Edward). It has likewise
been recorded from the Moray Firth, and Lossiemouth: at St. Andrews it is
common in deep water, and in the stomach of the cod (McIntosh). In the Firth
of Forth it is common, and after storms from the east has been captured as far
inland as Alloa and Kincardine (Neill). It has been recorded from Cumberland
and along the east coast, but stated by Lowe to be very rare off Yarmouth. Along
the south coast it is by no means uncommon, and extends up the Bristol Channel.

In Ireland it is occasionally found all round the island. Templeton in 1821
recorded a fine specimen taken in Carrickfergus Bay, while a female was also
found inside a cod fish. At Belfast it is not uncommon, and one 8 inches in
length was secured at Donaghadee.

It attains to at least 12 inches in length. The examples figured, life size, were
from Southend at the mouth of the Thames.

2. Callionymus maculatus, Plate LIII, fig. 5 (male).

Dracunculus, Rondel. x, c. 12, p. 304; Aldrov. ii, c. 51, p. 262; Willughby,
p. 136, t. H 6,£.3; Ray, p. 79. Cottus, sp. 5, Artedi, Genera, p. 49, and sp. 4,
Synon. p. 77. ,

Callionymus maculatus (Rafin.) Bonap. Fauna Ital. Pesci, fig. 2, male, fig. 3,
female; Schagerstr. Vet. Akad. Handl. 1833, p. 133; Fries, <bid. 1837, p. 48;
Fries och Ekstr. Skand. Fisk. p. 102, pl. xxiv; Kréyer, Dan. Fiske, i, p. 442;
Nilss. Skand. Fauna, Fisk. p. 216, Giinther, Catal. iii, p. 144, and Ann. and Mag.
Nat. Hist. (3) 1867, xx, p. 290; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 66; Winther,
Prod. Ich. Dan. Mar. 1879, p. 19; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 62; Giglioli, Pesc.
Ital. p. 30; Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 169.

Callionymus lyra, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 118, and Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 262.

Calltonymus dracunculus, Briinn. Pisc. Mass. p. 17; Nardo, Prod. Adr. Ich.
sp. 46.

Callionymus cithara, Cuv. Régne Anim; Cuv. and Val. xii, p. 280.

Callionymus reticulatus, Cuv. and Val. xii, p. 284.

B. vi, D. 4/9-10, P. 16, V. 1/5, A. 8-9, C. 9-10.

Length of head 4 to 42, of caudal fin 6, height of body 9 to 138 in the
total length. Hye—directed upwards and outwards, 1/3 to 1/4 of the length
of the head, and 1} diameters from the end of the snout; interorbital space
narrow. Head broad and depressed, its width being 1} to 12 in its length.
Snout rounded. Upper jaw protractile; the posterior extremity of the maxilla
reaches to beneath the front edge of the eye. A strong spine, much shorter than
the eye, exists at the angle of the preopercle, it is compressed and armed with three
or four pointed processes, much less developed than in C. lyra: two are directed
upwards, while the lower spine has a process pointing anteriorly at its base, but
which is occasionally absent. Teeth—in jaws small; absent trom vomer and
palatines. JFins—in the male both the dorsal fins are much elevated, the first
spine of the anterior fin equalling from 1/8 to 2/5 of the total length, and much
higher than the succeeding ones; second dorsal three times as high as the body
below it. In the female the first dorsal fin is triangular, much lower than in the

* In the British Museum Catalogue examples stated to have come from the Adriatic and the
Mauritius are considered by Dr. Gunther to pertain to this species,
12
178 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

male, as its height merely equals that of the body. Colowrs—gray, becoming
light beneath ; several oval, pearl coloured spots, some of which on the side of the
body, are surrounded by a dark ring. Fins light coloured, the dorsal with three
or four rows of round black spots encircled by a pearly ocellus. Three or four
vertical bands cross the pectoral fin: ventral dark in its outer half. Anal edged
with deop gray. Caudal dark in its posterior half.

Habits —Probably much the same as those of the last species, but little is
known of them.

Habitat.—Scandinavia and the coast of Denmark, while an example has been
dredged off the Shetland Isles, and placed in the British Museum. It does not
appear to have been recorded on the Atlantic coast of France, but becomes more
common in the Mediterranean extending to the Adriatic.

The example figured is the British specimen alluded to.
DISCOBOLI. 179

Famity, XIX—DISCOBOLI (parr), Cuvéer.

Body rounded, transversely expanded or oblong. Teeth minute. Gill-openings
harrow. Gill-membranes attached to the isthmus. Gills, three and a half.
One or two dorsal fins, the anal being similar to the second dorsal. Ventrals
each with one spine and five rudimentary rays, which form the centre or
framework of a round suctorial disc, which has a skinny outer margin. Air-
bladder absent. Pyloric appendages numerous, or in moderate numbers.

Cuvier’s Discoboli included the Gobiesocide in addition to the fishes as here
restricted, which having their ventral fins forming a suctorial disc allies them to
the gobies. They have been divided as follows :—

A. Two separate dorsal fins—Cyclopterina.

B. One dorsal fin: the infraorbital ring of bones not articulating with the
preopercle—Liparidina.

Geographical distribution.—Mostly littoral and carnivorous fishes, some of
which are of a small size, while all can attach themselves to rocks or other
desirable objects by means of their suctorial discs. They are found from the
Arctic Ocean to the more temperate regions of Europe and America.

Genus I.—Cyctoprerus, Linneus.
Lumpus, Cuvier.

Branchiostegals siz: pseudobranchie present. Body short, thickened, and more
or less elevated. Villiform teeth in the jaws, none on the palate or tongue. Gill-
openings narrow, the gill-membrane being attached to the isthmus: gills three and
a half. Two dorsal fins, the anterior, which may become more or less atrophied in
the adult, is formed of flenible spines. Ventral consisting of one spine and five rays,
the two united so as to form a somewhat circular disc. Second dorsal opposite and
nearly similar to the anal. Skin loose, viscous, having tubercles in rows as well as
scattered. Skeleton but slightly osseous.

Gill has instituted genus Hwmicrotremus for the reception of Cyclopterus
spinosus of Fabricius.

Geographical distribution.—As observed for the Family.

The modification of the ventral fins into a suctorial disc enables these fishes
to inhabit regions which would otherwise be fatal to their existence, as during
storms should they not be firmly attached to some unyielding substance, their
unwieldly bodies would soon be beaten to death by the waves or dashed on to the
shore. Mr. A. Wilson (Nature, June 26th, 1879) suggests whether this sucker
may not have been developed by natural selection as an useful adjunct to the
breathing movements of the fish, as when fixed it appeared to be perfectly at
its ease, and to breathe more fully and strongly than when swimming about.

1. Cyclopterus lumpus, Plate LY.

Cyclopterus gibbosus, Willughby, p. 209, t. N 10, f. 2. Lwmpus Anglorwm,
Aldrov. ili, c. 68, p. 479; Jonston, i, tit. 1, c. 3. art. 3, punct. 12, p. 42, t. xiii,
f. 1; Willughby, p. 208, t N11; Ray, Syn. p. 77. Lepus marinus, Schoney.
p. 41. Cyclopterus, sp. Artedi, Gen. p. 62; Gronov. Mus. Ich. i, p. a : Gouan,

#
180 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Hist. Pisce. p. 223. The LInmp-sucker, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776) iii, p. 133,
pl. xxi (Ed. 1812) iii, p. 176, pl. xxiv. Oncotion, No. 1, 2, 3, Klein, MSS. Pisce.
iv, p. 49, t. xiv, £5; Ascan. Icon. t.xxxiv. The Lump-fish, Low, Nat. Hist. of
Orkneys, p. 177.

Cyclopterus lwmpus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 414 and Faun. Suec. p. 320; Bonn.
Atl. Ich. p. 26, pl. xx. f. 63; Fabr. Faun. Gronl. p. 131; Mohr. Isl. Nat. p. 61;
Bloch, Fis. Deut. ii, p. 103, pl. xe; Bl. Schn. p. 197; Lacép. u, p. 52, pl. i, f.1;
Gmel. Linn. p. 1473; Mill. Prod. Zool. Dan. p. 39; Donovan, Brit. Fish. i, pl. x;
Turton, Brit. Fauna, p.115; Cuv. Reg. Anim. ; Faber, Fis. Isl. p. 49; Retz. Faun.

. 327; Rich. Faun. Bor. Amer. Fishes, p. 260; Ekstr. Fisk. Moérké, ‘p. 108;
Kits. Prod. p. 61 and Skand. Faun. Fisk. p. 232; Fries, Vet. Akad. Hand. 1838,
t. iv, f.1; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) 1837, i, p. 412; Johnston, Berwick.
Nat. Club. 1838, i, p. 174; Diiben and Koren, Vet. Akad. Handl. 1844, p. 116,
t. iii, f. 8; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) ii, p. 270, c. fig. (Ed. 2) ii, p. 365 (Ed. 3)
i, p. 343; Flem. Brit. An. p. 190; Kroyer, Dan. Fis. ii, p. 489; Parnell, Wern.
Mem. vii, p. 380 and Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 220; Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 339;
Jenyns, Man. p. 471; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 39; Gaim. Voy. Isl. &c. pl. viii;
Thompson, N. Hist. Ireland, iv. p. 215; Ginther, Catal. viii, p. 155; White, Catal.
Fish. p. 109; Gill, Pro. Ac. N. Sc. Phil. 1864, p. 190; Schlegel, Dieren Ned.
p- 58, t. vi, f.1; McIntosh, Fish. N. Uist, P. R. Soc. Ed. V. 1862-66, p. 614
(young) and Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 174; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 63; Winther,
Prod. Ich. Dan. Mar. 1879, p. 19; Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 349.

Cyclopterus pavoninus, Shaw, Nat. Misc. ix, p. 310 (young male).

Cyclopterus ceruleus, Mitchell, Trans. Lit. and Phil. Sc. New York, i, p. 480,

1. ii, f. 7.

: Lumpus Anglorum, De Kay, New York Faun. Fishes, p. 305, pl. liv, f. 175.

Cyclopterus coronatus, Couch, Corn. Fauna, p. 47, Ann. Nat. Hist. ii, p. 382;
Thompson, An. and Mag. Nat. Hist. v, p. 9, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 216.

Gobius minutus, Mall. Zool. Dan. p. 38, t. cliv, B. f. 1-3 (young).

Cyclopterus minutus, Pall. Spic. Zool. vii, p. 12, t. iii, £. 7-9; Rich. 1. c. p. 262;
Kroyer, l.c. u, p. 491; Cuv. Reg. Anim.

Lepadogaster minutus, BL Schn. p. 3.

Lump-fish, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 183, pl. ev.

B. vi, D. 4-6/10-11, P. 20-21, V. 1/5, A. 9-10, C. 10-11.

Length of head 4 to 45, of caudal fin 54 to 6, height of body 2} to 3 in the
total length. Hye—high up and in the anterior half of the head, about 2
diameters in the very young, more in the adult, from the end of the snout, and
2 or 3 diameters apart. Interorbital space nearly flat. The maxilla reaches
to beneath the middle of the eye. Gill-opening in the form of an oblique cleft,
above the anterior half of the pectoral fin and ceasing opposite the centre of
the base of that fin. Teeth—a band in either jaw of fine pointed ones: none on
the vomer or palatine bones, nor on the tongue. Finms—first dorsal only seen in
the young, becoming enveloped in thick skin as age advances: fin rays simply
divided near their outer extremities (see Life History, p. 182). Ventral fins
united so as to form a sucker, its rays undivided, the base of each expanded.
Body covered with tubercles, among which may be distinguished four enlarged
rows, one along the back, the second from above the eye to the upper half of
the caudal fin, the third from the angle of the mouth continued above the
pectoral fin to the lower half of the caudal: while the fourth passes from below
the pectoral fin to the base of the anal. Numerous small tubercles exist over the
head and body. Stomach—horse-shoe shaped and with about 50 ccecal
appendages more or less coalescing one with the other. Colowrs—these differ
according to sex, speaking generally, the male, especially on its sides and beneath,
is red, and the female blue or even nearly black, but during the breeding season
the tints become much brighter and more varied. There are dark or even black
spots irregularly scattered over the body. The young are usually green,
occasionally yellow, or both colours conjoined.

Varicties —The young are sometimes yellow, but more usually of a brilliant
DISCOBOLI. 181

emerald green, this last colour being sometimes continued in the adult, the sides
being tinged with crimson. Shaw (Nat. Misc. ix, p. 310) considered such to be
a different species (C. pavoninus) : while those possessing a prominent pyramidal
elevation on the back (due it has been surmised to bad stuffing) have been termed
C. pyramidatus (Shaw).

Names.—Lump-sucker, due to its lumpy form and possessing a suctorial disc.
P addle-cock, Scotland, owing to its dorsal ridge enveloped in tubercular skin,
resembling the comb of a domestic cock: also cock- and hen-paidle or red- and
blue-paidle, according to sex. Locally known as sea-owl and hush-bagaty.
Jar-for, Welsh. : Snotdolf, Dutch. Lompe, grosmollet, and lievre de mer, French.

Habits.—It is very tenacious of life, but inactive adhering firmly to rocks,
and rarely moving except when in pursuit of food, or during migrations: it has,
however, been said to progress with greater velocity than its appearance would
credit it with. Coming in-shore about March it usually retires to deeper
waters after August, or else conceals itself during winter under rocks, to
which it frequently attaches itself. Its food consists of marine worms and small
fish : while crustaceous animals, as Onisci, have been found in its stomach.

In its way it is sometimes a “ commensal,” as is the Echeneis, only it adheres
to floating objects, usually inanimate, for the purpose of being transported
from one locality to another. Couch alludes to an example found adhering to
the skin of a mackerel that had become entangled in a drift net over a con-
siderable depth of water. “Asa proof of its tenacity, we have known that on
plunging a fish of this species, just caught, into a pail of water, it fixes itself so
firmly to the bottom, that on taking it by the tail, the whole pail by that means
was lifted, though it held some gallons, and that without removing the fish from
its hold” (Pennant).

Means of capture-—The trawl, the trammel, or other nets; while Mr. Cornish
(Zool. p. 3532) records a male full of milt, and nearly as large as a full grown
female, taken on March 28th, 1873, at Penzance, in about 30 fathoms of
water, by means of a surface mackerel net. This specimen instead of being red
“was of the usual dull leaden blue of the female over the back, inclining to the
usual dirty white on the belly.” In the Zoologist for 1876 (p. 4961) the same
observer records two females of this species captured in mackerel drift nets at
Penzance fishing at the surface of deep water. Couch likewise remarks upon
their occasionally being taken in this way.

Baits.—Rarely takes a bait although it has been known to do so.

Breeding.—Adults come in-shore for this purpose from March until May.
Bloch counted 207,700 eggs in a fish 63 Ib. in weight: in April, 1836, one which
was 15 inches in length contained a vast quantity of rose-coloured ova, weighing
25 oz. and having 101,935 ova (Thompson). In February, 1880, one of 11 Ib.
weight had about 194,112 eggs (Buckland). “Fabricius related that the Lump-
sucker in April or May, enters the rocky bays of the Greenland coast for the
purpose of spawning: that the female, preceding the male, deposited the roe
among the large Alge in the fissures of the rocks: that, followed by the male
shortly afterwards, she finally left him fructifymg the eges and adhering to the
masses of roe till the eggs were hatched, and that he fought other fishes while
watching and guarding the important deposit. Johnston observes (Berwick.
N. H. F. Club, 1838, i, p. 174) “The paidle spawns towards the end of March
and in April. At that season the hen approaches the shore and deposits her
spawn among the rocks and sea-weed within low water-mark, and immediately
afterwards returns to deeper water. The male then covers the spawn with his
sperm, and, according to the testimony of our fishermen, remains covering it, or
near it, until the ova are hatched. The young soon after birth fix themselves
to the sides and on the back of their male parent, who sails, thus loaded, to
deeper and more safe retreats. He is only one half the size of the hen, and at
the breeding season his belly becomes of a reddish colour. The spawn of a
single female will fill a large basin, and is of a beautiful pink colour : the eggs
globular and about the size of swan shot.” At Gamrie, im Banffshire, Mr. G.
Harris, Zoologist, 1851, ix, p. 3157, observes—“ Upon this coast their nesis are
182 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

almost invariably to be met with in rocky places, a little beyond low water-mark-
There is also this peculiarity, that the sites of these are usually cavities, from
8 to 10 inches in diameter, opening horizontally into the water. Mr. West, of
Pennan, informs me that in one case he came upon a hen seated on her nest, just,
he supposed, as she had completed the process of spawning. She adhered very
tenaciously, manifesting at the same time considerable intrepidity, which seemed
to be shared by her companion, the cock, who, during the struggle kept close by,
flitting through and through the water in a state of violent agitation.” Fabricius
even affirms that should the Anarrhichas, or wolf-fish, approach the nest of this
fish he hazards his life, for although the teeth of the lump-sucker are small, it is
able to attach itself to its adversary’s neck and inflict a wound which will be
mortal. Sharks and rays will devour the lump-fish.

Life history —The changes undergone by this fish, both as to the form of its
body, its fins, the character of its skin, and its colours, are very remarkable.
Iam indebted to Mr. Jackson, of the Southport Aquarium, for some of the fry
from one to three days old, hatched in that institution, and to Mr. Carrington, of
the Westminster Aquarium, for a fine series, but of a larger size. On first
emerging from the egg, and for the first few days, or even weeks, of its life, its
appearance when looked at from above is much that of a young tadpole, the body
forming an oval anteriorly, flattened from above, while the posterior half or
rather more of the fish is narrow and strongly compressed: no tubercles are
present on any part of the body. Ata little over 1} inches, the first dorsal fin is
distinct, with about six rays, but its base is rather fleshy, and on its anterior edge
are two spinate tubercles, the lower being the larger. A row of spinate tubercles
runs along the back: a second from above the eye to the centre of base of the
caudal fin: while a third similar row is well developed along either side of the
abdominal edge, ceasing at the vent. Between these tubercles the skin is entirely
smooth. At 2 inches the first dorsal fin is more enveloped in rough skin, and the
skin between the rows of tubercles has commenced to be covered with small but
rough tuberosities. At 2 inches the dorsal ridge and the rough skin enveloping
the first dorsal fin have become more developed, while at 6 inches, as shown in the
figure, merely the ends of some of the rays of the first dorsal fin are perceptible,
the back at this situation forming a large and almost pyramidal elevation.
The skin between the rows of spinate tubercles is also densely studded with
small elevations.

As food.—The quality of its flesh is said to be affected by the season, it
becoming worthless after spawning, but due to the odour it exhales it is
generally rejected: it is said to dissolve in the mouth like mucilage or oil.
Pennant remarks that in his time it was sometimes eaten in England, being
stewed like a carp, but he considered it to be both flabby and insipid. Donovan
likewise asserted that skinned and stewed by some its flesh was thought to be
not indifferent. Sir T. Brown, in 1662, recorded it as “esteemed by some as
a festival fish, though it affords but a glutinous jelly, and the skin is beset with
stony knobs after no certain order.’ Pennant observed that the seals prey on
them, leaving the skins, numbers of which thus emptied float ashore during spring
on the coast of Sutherland. Johnston, writing from Berwickshire, remarked that
although not in use as food, the cock especially, is reported to be excellent when
fried or baked. Buckland records that the males are the best as food, their flesh
is soft, rich, and oily, and some inhabitants of Edinburgh deem it second only to
turbot if fried or baked: while Sir Walter Scott, in the Antiquary, makes
Mr. Oldbuck offer the same price for a cock-paidle as he does for a bannock-
fluke or turbot. On the west coast of Scotland,’ remarks Parnell, ‘* sometimes
as many as two dozens are taken in the salmon nets at almost every tide,
principally in the month of June, when they seek the sandy ground to deposit
their spawn. The fishermen boil them down with vegetables for their pigs and
consider them to be fattening food.” The roe is boiled toa pulp and eaten by
the Greenlanders,

Habitat— Most abundant in cold latitudes, it extends from the seas of Northern
urope, being found off Iceland, along the coasts of Scandinavia, Denmark, and
DISCOBOLI. 183

North Germany, to Great Britain and Ireland, also the Channel Isles and Atlantic
coasts of France, having been recorded from Boulogne, Havre, and Roscoff, but
becoming rare in the Gulf of Gascogne. In the New World it extends from
Greenland and the Polar regions to New York and Cape Hatteras.

Very frequent, as noticed by Low, in the Orkneys and Shetlands (Baikie),
especially on the sand banks, where half a dozen are drawn ashore at once but
never of any great bulk. Also along the Scottish coasts: Thompson mentions its -
existence in Ayrshire: Edward at Banff: Sim at Aberdeen: it is found at
Montrose and St. Andrew’s, at which latter place McIntosh observes that it is
common on the west sands after storms and occasionally in the stomach of the
cod, while the young abound in rock pools in autumn. It has likewise been
recorded at various places around the English and Welsh coasts, as Berwickshire,
also Yarmouth by Paget in 1819, one from which same locality, taken in January,
1848, and weighing 13} Ib., is now in the Norwich Museum; while at Lynn a fine
male example was captured March 30th, 1853, perhaps carried up the river by a
flowing tide. It had probably entered the bay after small herrings and smelts,
which were being captured by the fishermen. It has frequently been taken and
it is not rare along the south coast, but becomes less numerous in Cornwall, where,
however, it is common in particular localities: Mr. Cornish (Zool. 1874, p. 4037)
finds the female is not uncommon at Penzance, but the male to be rare.

In Ireland it is captured around the coast, but Templeton observes that it is
not very common, and Thompson subsequently that on the north-east they are
taken, seldom more than one or two at a time, during the breeding season, in nets
set for various fishes, as it generally enters arms of the sea in spring to deposit
its ova.

This fish attains to a considerable size, the female being usually larger than the
male: one of the former was captured in Jersey in 1879 which weighed 153 lb.
Storer mentions an American example which weighed 17 1b. Thompson records
an Irish specimen which measured 233 inches in length, and it is rare for the
lump-sucker to exceed 2 feet. The example, figured life size, was obtained off
the coast of Sussex.
184 ACANTHOPTERYGIL

Genus 2.—Liparis, Artedi.

Cyclogaster, Gronov.

Branchiostegals five or siv: pseudobranchie, tf present, rudimentary. Body
anteriorly subcylindrical, posteriorly compressed, the whole being enveloped in a
loose, movable skin. A bony process proceeds from the infraorbital ring of bones
and passes backwards to the edge of the preopercle. Cleft of mouth almost horizontal.
A wide, rasp-like, band of teeth in both jaws, none on the palate nor on the
tongue. Gill-openings narrow, the gill membranes united and attached to the
asthmus. A single dorsal fin, the anterior rays of which, though not articulated,
are flexible: ventrals united, and forming a more or less circular adhesive disc.
Cacal appendages in moderate numbers or numerous.

Gill remarks (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Phil. 1864, p. 190) that among the species
forming this genus considerable variation exists, especially in the relations of
the dorsal and anal fins to the caudal, these fins being, in some species, completely
isolated, while in others they are coalescent, and united in an almost angnuilliform
posterior fin. In the latter, the nostrils also appear to be simple, while in the former
the posterior ones are tubular. These differences appear still further to be
coincident with a disparity in the number of caudal vertebre, and of the rays of
the vertical fins.

Geographical distribution—These small littoral species occasionally ascend
into fresh waters, and extend from the Arctic Ocean southwards into temperate
regions: one species being found even within the tropics. Two British species
are admitted, but it seems possible that the one known as Inparis Montagui is the
commonest, and not L. vulgaris, unless in the more northern latitudes. Neither is
L. Montagut, although termed the diminutive sucker, so much less in size than the
“unctuous sucker.”” Unless in colour, the differences between the two are but
slight.

1. Liparis vulgaris, Plate LVI, fg. 1.

Sea snail, Willughby, Ich. Append. p.17; Low, Nat. Hist. Orkneys, p. 178;
Petiver, Gazoph. t. i, £5. Liparis nadie Will. ee p. 17, t. H 6,f.1;
Ray, p. 74. Gobio, sp. Kélr. Nov. Comm. Petroph. ix, p. 439, t. ix, f. 5, é.
Cyclogaster, sp. Gronov. Zooph. No. 198, Act. Helv. iv, p. Dos, No. 165, t. xi.
Liwuris, sp. Bl. Schn. p. 569. Uncetuous sucker, Penn. Brit. Zool. (Hd. 1776) i iii,
p. 135, pl. xxi (Ed. 1812) iu, p. 179, pl. xxiv.

Cyclopterus liparis, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 414; Bonn. Atl. Ich. p. 27, pl. xx.
f. 67; Bl. t. 123, £.3, 4; Gmel. Linn. p. 1477, Lacép. ii, p. 69; Donovan, Brit.
Fish. 11, pl. xlvu; Turton, p- 115; Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Club. 1838, i, p. 174;
Schleg. Dieren Neder. p. 60, pl. vi, f. 2.

LInparis vulgaris, Flem. Brit. An. p . 190; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) ii, p. 274,
e. fig. (Ed. 2) 1i, p. 371 (Hd. 38) ii, p-349 ; ‘Nilss. Skan. Faun. p. 237; Flem. Brit.
An. p. 190; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. Mire; Kroyer, Dan. Fiske, 11, p. 534; Parnell,
Wern. Mem. vii, p. 353, and Fishes Firth of Forth, p. 223; Thompson, Nat. Hist.
Treland, iv, p. 221; White, Catal. Fish. p. 109 ; Giinther, Catal. iii, p. 159 and
‘Ann. and Map: Nat. Hist. (4) 1874, xiii, p.139; McIntosh, Fish. N. Uist. P.R. 8.
of Edin. V. 1862-66, p. 614, and Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 175; H. Malmeren, Spets.
Fisk Fauna, p. 510; Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 853; Winther, Prod. Ich. Dan.
Mar. 1879, p. 20.

Tiparis communis, Sabine, Appen. Parry’s first Voy. p. 212.

Liparis barbatus, Ekst. Vet. Ak. Hand. 1832 ,p- 168, t. v, and Fisk. Scheer.
Mork, p. 112, t. v; Nilss. Skan. Fann. Fisk. p. "O37 ; Kroyer, ui, p. 534,

Liparis ophidoides s, Swainson, Fishes, u1, p. 339.

Cyelogaster liparis, Gronoy. ed. Gray, p. 40.

Liparis Uincatus, Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 65.
“DISCOBOLI. 185

Sea snail, Couch, Fishes of the British Isles, ii, p- 190, pl. evi.
(Varieties.)
Liparis musculus, Lacép. iv, p. 683.
Liparis lineatus, Kroyer, Nat. Tids. ii, 1847, p. 284; Gaim. Voy. Scand. Poiss.
pl. xin, £ 2.
B. v-vi, D. 34-36, P. 28, V. 1/5, A. 27-28, C. 12-14, Vert. 12/30. °

Length of head 4, of caudal fin 73, height of body 4 in the total length.
Eye—small, rather in front of the middle of the length of the head, the length
of the snout equalling the width of the interorbital space, and equal to from 2 to 23
diameters of the orbit. Head broad, its greatest width equalling three-fourths
of its length: body much compressed posteriorly, commencing opposite the
origin of the anal fin. Snout broad. Mouth anterior, wide, the maxilla reaching
posteriorly to beneath the front edge of the eye: the upper jaw slightly the
longer. Nostrils small, patent: the posterior one nearer the eye than to the
upper lip. No barbels. Teeth—small, disposed in both jaws in oblique rows,
most numerous in the upper jaw: none on vomer, palatines, or tongue, which
last organ is very thick. Jins—the dorsal commences over the middle of the
pectoral, being lowest anteriorly, while it scarcely joins the base of the caudal.
Pectorals reach to above the base of the anal, they are broad, extending downwards,
and forwards under the throat, the lower six rays being rather elongated, causing
the fin to appear notched. Ventrals each with six rays surrounding the disc,
which is rather longer than broad, and equal in diameter to about half the length
of the head. Anal commences below the sixth or seventh dorsal ray, is rather
higher than the dorsal, while its last ray is connected to the base of the caudal,
which latter is nearly square at its extremity. Vent about midway between the
hind edge of the disc and the commencement of the anal fin. Skin very loose,
extending over the fins. Colowrs—of a pale gray or brown, having irregularly
distributed narrow and horizontal darker bands, sometimes of a purplish colour,
and most distinct on the anterior portion of the body: outer half of dorsal and
anal fins brown, due to dark narrow lines. Pectoral and caudal yellowish with
rows of dark spots. But, as Donovan observes, its colours differ considerably at
different seasons as well as at stages of its growth. Young examples have been
seen with the under surface white, pale yellow, or even rosy, while the sides of
the head are of the same colour asthe body. Yarrell states that many examples
are without streaks or lines, the edges of the dorsal and anal fins only being
edged with a darker colour.

Variettes.—Donovan mentions an example in which the body was chestnut
colour, strongly marked with longitudinal streaks and lines of white edged
with blue: Mr. Holdsworth, according to Couch, met with one which was
blotched all over with white on a very dark ground, not unlike some individuals
of Cottus bubalis. Collett gives a detailed account of the local forms (1) L. assimilis
(2) stellatus or Liparis stellatus, Malm. (3) subfuscus, (4) scorpioides (5) mixtus,
(6), decorus, (7) scriptus, (8) lineatus or Liparis lineatus, Kroyer, (9) arcticus,
(10) fuses. .

Names.—Sea snatl, due to the soft character of its body : unctuous sucker, from
its feel and adhesive apparatus.

Habits.—It appears to generally remain in localities not far removed from low
water mark, and is occasionally found in estuaries aud some little distance up the
mouths of muddy rivers, but rarely out of tidal influence. It appears to feed on
small crustacea and other minute animal substances.

Means of capture.—Trawling and dredging, or taken under rocks on the tide
receding.

Breeding —Pennant found it full of spawn in January. Other observers have
believed it to breed about February, and McCulloch says that it may ascend
rivers from the sea to deposit its spawn, which is more usually found near the
river’s mouth. The eggs are small and numerous: if anything, of less size than
in L. Montagu.

As food.—Not eaten except in Greenland.
186 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Habitat.—In America it has been captured from the Polar regions to Cape
Cod: and in Europe it extends from the same high latitudes to Scandinavia,
Denmark, Holland, the coasts of Great Britain, and to the Channel and the
shores of France (Moreau). Koelreuter recorded it from Smyrna in the
Mediterranean, which more recent naturalists consider must have been due to
some error.

In the Orkneys it is found under the stones round the sbores of many places
(Low), Orkney and Zetland common (W. Baikie), and at the point of Ness,
at Stromness, they may be fished up by dozens: it has been dredged by
Gwyn Jefferies in the deep sea between the Shetlands and Farée. Of partial
occurrence off Banff (Edward), at Aberdeen (Sim), also at St. Andrew’s
(McIntosh), and occasionally in the Firth of Forth, even above Alloa (Parnell).
In Berwickshire it is not uncommon (Johnston), and although asserted to be
common in Yorkshire (Clark), perhaps the next species is included. It is
said not to be common in Norfolk. Couch records it off the mouth of the Thames,
while along the south coast it has been taken at Exmouth, Weymouth, and
off Falmouth: said to be common at Plymouth (Reading), also found in Corn-
wall where, however, it is rare. At Weston-super-Mare, in Somersetshire, I
found it to be common.

Ireland —In the Ordnance Survey Memoir (p. 14, Notices) said to be taken
at Lough Foyle and Larne: Thompson, however, who examined their eight
specimens, considered them to be L. Montaguz: he observes the same of
McCalla’s Roundstone specimen, and doubts if this species exists among any of
the genus which had been recorded as Irish.

It attains to at least 6 inches in length.

2. Liparis Montagui, Plate LVI, fig. 2.

Gobius, Zool. Dan. iv, p. 16, t. cxxxiv.

Cyclopterus Montagui, Donovan, Brit. Fish. iii, pl. lxviti; Mont. Wern. Mem.
i, p. 91, pL v,f.1; (C. Montacuti) Turton, Brit. Faun. p. 115; Pennant, Brit.
Zool. (Ed. 1812) iii, p. 183; Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Club, 1838, i, p. 175.

Liparis Montagui, Cuv. Reg. Anim.; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) ii, p. 277,
c. fig. (Ed. 2) ii, p. 374 (Hd. 3) ii, p. 352; Gaim. Voy. Skand. Poiss. pl. xii.
f. 1; Nilss. Skand. Faun. Fisk. p. 239; Flem. Brit. An. p. 190; Jenyns, Brit.
Vert. p.473; Templeton, Mage. N. Hist. 1837 (2), i, p. 412; White, Catal. Fish.
p. 110; Kroyer, Dan. Fis. ii, p. 519; Malm. p. 461, t. vii, f. 1; W. Thompson,
Mag. N. Hist. 1839 (2) iii, p. 586, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 221; Giinther,
Catal. iii, p. 161; Putman, P. Am. Ass. 1874, p. 335; McIntosh, Fish. St.
Andrew’s, p. 175; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 63; Winther, Ich. Prod. Dan.
1879, p. 20.

Liparis gobius, Schager. Vet. Akad. Handl. 1838, p. 248.

Cyclopterus liparoides, Nilss. Prod. Ich. Scand. p. 62.

? Lepidogaster Cornuliensis, Thomp. Proc. Zool. Soc. 1835, p. 81.

Montaqw’s sucker, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 193, pl. evil, fig. 1 and 2.

‘

Network sucker, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 195, pl. evi, fig. 3
B. v-vi, D. 26-30, P. 30, V. 6, A. 24, C. 14, Coec. pyl. 16, Vert. 10/25.

Length of head 33 to 43, of caudal fin 6 to 7, height of body 3% to 3} in
the total length. Hye—small, lateral, rather in front of the middle of the
length of the head, and 23 diameters apart. Head large, superiorly somewhat
depressed, its greatest width equalling its length: body anteriorly thick,
posteriorly much compressed. Snout broad: mouth anterior and wide, the
maxilla reaching posteriorly nearly to or quite beneath the front edge of the
eye: the upper jaw slightly the longer. Gill-opening, a rather short vertical
slit, extending to the upper part of the base of the pectoral fin. Nostrils patent,
the posterior nearer the eye than to the upper lip. Teeth—very small,
disposed in both jaws in transversely oblique rows: none on vomer, palatine
bones, nor on the tongue, which last organ is very thick. Fins—the dorsal
commences wbove the middle of the pectoral, at first low, it incrcases in height
DISCOBOLI. 187

posteriorly, where it scarcely joins the base of the caudal. Pectorals reach the
base of the anal fin in some but not in all examples, they are very broad,
extending downwards and forwards under the throat, the lower five rays rather
elongated, occasioning the fin to appear notched. Ventrals, each has six rays
surrounding the disc, which has 13 soft and flat papille, while it is as broad as
long, equalling nearly half the length of the head. Anal commences beneath
the sixth or seventh dorsal ray, it is scarcely so high as the dorsal, while its
last ray is connected with the base of the caudal fin: the latter is cut square.
Vent midway between the posterior extremity of the disc and the commence-
ment of the anal fin. Skin very loose even on the fins. Cccal appendages
rather long, 16 in number. Oolours—purplish or yellowish brown with
numerous small dark spots. Dorsal and anal fins yellow, dotted with black:
pectoral yellow, its upper portion also black dotted. Caudal with three or
more vertical bands of black spots, the one nearest the base of the tail being
usually the widest.

Varieties.—Collett, Christ. Vid. Selsk. Forh. 1879, No. 1, p. 37, gives a
very full account of the local varieties in this species. (1) Principalis
being L Montagui, Malm. (2) maculatus or L. maculatus, Malm. (3) annulatus,
(4) striatus, L. lineatus and ID. vulgaris, Malm. (5) pictus, (6) obscurus,
(7) liparoides or Cyclopterus liparoides, Nilss. (8) Bkstromi or L. Ekstromi, Malm.

Names.—Diminutive lump-sucker.

Habits—A comparatively active fish, and rarely uses its sucker unless in a
stream or when it appears likely to be pushed aside, while it is not often captured
at a depth exceeding four or five fathoms, and during the spring and summer may
be found under stones exposed by a receding tide. McIntosh, of St. Andrew’s,
says it is abundant in rock pools in the Laminarian region, and in deeper water, as
in the stomach of the cod and haddock. IL. Lester (Zool. 1855) observes on one
he took in Dorsetshire that it attached itself both to the wood of a pail, and to
the sides of a glass bottle. I found in one, two whole and portions of three other
shrimps. They are not unfrequently taken adhering to sea-weed, Fuci, and sand-
hoppers have been found in their stomachs. Placed in a globe of sea-water they
at once attach themselves to it.

Breeding.—I received three fine examples and a small one from Brighton
at the commencement of March, 1880, the largest was 5 inches in length, all
were females with the ova fully developed: I have likewise observed them full
of ova in April: large eggs and small ones are present at the same time.
Couch and others have stated that the females are larger than the males:
while Putman remarks that in American examples the latter have the first
six dorsal rays prolonged and fleshy (Pro. Am. Ass. 1874, p. 335). Couch
observes that in examples, he considered the male, he had found the dorsal fin
expanded at its termination, but in the females wider at the middle and narrow
behind.

Habitat.—This species has been recorded from Spitzbergen and the White
Sea, as far north as 70° N. lat. It, however, appears to be more numerous
as we proceed to temperate climates than is the Liparis vulgaris. In America
it extends from the Polar regions to Cape Cod. 5

Discovered by Colonel Montagu at Milton, on the south coast of Devonshire,
it unfortunately in this country has generally been considered a diminutive
form, whereas it attains a size almost equalling that of the sea-snail. In the
Orkneys and Shetland Isles an example upwards of 38 inches in length
was taken by Mr. Syme in the winter of 1850-51 (W. Baikie): Edward has met
with it at Banff, Sim at Aberdeen, Peach at Wick. Johnston observes it
has been found at Berwickshire, where he considered it rare: Lowe states
it to be common in the estuaries of Norfolk, and to have been several times
taken in the river opposite Lynn in fresh waters at low tides. It is common
off the mouth of the Thames, also along the south coast as far as Devonshire
and Cornwall, in which last county, however, it is not abundant. It is also found
in the Channel Islands.

In Ireland, according to Thompson, it is taken all round the coast.
188 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Seventh Group—Acanthopterygii Gobiesociformes,

A single spineless dorsal fin consisting of few or a moderate number of
rays: it and the anal are situated in the caudal portion of the body. Ventrals
subjugular, with an adhesive apparatus between them. Body scaleless.

Famity, XX—GOBIESOCID, Blecher.

Branchiostegals five or six: pseudobranchie rudimentary. Gills three and
a half. Body elongated, anteriorly depressed. yes lateral. Teeth conical or
compressed. A single spineless dorsal fin, consisting of a few or a moderate
number of rays, both it and the short anal are situated in the caudal portion
of the body. Ventrals subjugular, placed wide. asunder, consisting of one spine
and four or five rays separated by an adhesive disc. Scales absent. Air-
bladder absent. No pyloric appendages.

These small littoral forms are distributed from the shores of Northern
Europe, through the temperate regions of both hemispheres, while some are
present within the tropics. They are mostly found between high and low water
mark, where they firmly attach themselves to rocks, stones or stationary objects.
The adhesive disc is not similar to the same organ in Cyclopterus and Inparis,
as instead of the ventral fins forming its groundwork they are placed wide
asunder, the disc being between them, and only the under surface of some of
their rays constituting a small portion of the entire circumference of the organ.

Genus J.—LEPApoGaster, Gowan.

Mirbelia, Canestrini. Gobiesox, Lacép.

Branchiostegals five or sia: pseudobranchie rudimentary. Anterior portion of
the body and snout broad and depressed. Gill openings of moderate width: the
gill membranes attached to the isthmus. Teeth puinted. Ventrals, dorsal and
anal fins as defined in the Family, the two last may be either confluent with or
distinct from the caudal fin. Seales absent. Arr-bladder and pyloric appendages
absent.

The genus Mirbelia was instituted for the reception of forms in which the
vertical fins were not continuous.

Geographical distributton.—From the shores of Scandinavia to the British
Isles and Madeira, also along the coast of France to the Mediterranean.

Remarking upon the habits of one species, Mr. Gosse (Tenby, p. 181) observes
that ‘It is the habit of this tiny fish to lay its eggs in the interior of old shells
of bivalves that lie on the bottom: and it would appear that it is one of those
species which exercise a parental care over their offspring, watching the eggs
until the young are hatched. We can scarcely call it incubation: but the little
animal coils itself up among its spawn, adhering by the sucking disc of its
belly to the interior of the shell, and continuing there with remarkable
pertinacity. J have kept my specimen now for seven days, during the whole of
which time I do not believe it has left the old cockle shell even for a minute .
the embryos continue to be matured from day to day.”

There can be no doubt but that the species included in this genus have been
GOBIESOCID A. 189

rather mixed up one with another by the various British authors. There appear
to be only three specific forms, and these are subject to almost endless modifications
as to colour. They may be recognized as follows :

A. Dorsal fin continuous with the caudal.
a. Dorsal fin with more than ten rays, L. Gouanii.

B. Dorsal fin not continued on to the caudal.
a. Dorsal fin with more than ten rays (14-16), L. Decandolii.
6. Dorsal fin with less than eight rays (5-7), L. bimaculatus.

A. Dorsal and anal fins continuous with the caudal.
1. Lepadogaster Gouanii, Plate LVII, fig. 1.

Small suck-fish, Borlase, Cornwall, p. 269, pl. xxv, f. 28,29. Le Barbier ow
Porte-Hcuelle, Gouan, Hist. Pisc. t. i, f. 6,7. Jura sucker, Pennant, Brit. Zool.
(Hid. 1812) iii, p. 137, pl. xxii (Ed. 1812) iti, p. 181, pl. xxv; Couch, Trans. Linn.
Soc. xiv, p. 87.

Lepadogaster rostratus, Bl. Schn. p. 1; White, Catal. Fish. p. 108.

Lepadogaster Gouanti, Lacép. i, pl. xxiii, f. 3, 4 and ii, p. 73; Risso, Ich.
Nice, p. 72 and Hur. Mérid. iii, p. 271; Costa, Fauna Napol. Pesc. p. 2,
t. xxiii, f. 1-3; Cuy. Rég. Anim. Illus. Poiss. pl. cviii, f. 2; Kroyer, Dan.
Fisk. ii, p. 538; Giimther, Catal. iii, p. 510; Canestr. Arch. Zool. Anat. Maggio,
1864, iii, p. 183; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 20; Giglioli, Pesc. Ital. p. 33 ;
Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 356.

Cyclopterus spatula, Lacép. ii, p. 68.

Cyclopterus ocellatus, Donovan, Brit. Fish. iv, pl. lzxvi; Turton, Brit. Fauna,

. 116.
: Cyclopterus lepadogaster, Webb, Artedi, vii, p. 490 ; Bonnaterre, Ene. Ich. p. 29,
pl. lxxxvi, f. 356.

Cyclopterus Cornubicus, Shaw, Zool. v, p. 897; Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 338.

Lepadogaster ciliatus, Risso, Journ. Phy. xci, p. 248.

Lepadogaster balbis, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 73, pl. iv, f. 9 and Eur. Mérid. iii,
p. 274; Cuv. Régne Anim. ; Costa, 1. c. t. xxi.

Lepadogaster biciliatus, Risso, Eur. Mérid. ili, p. 272; Nord. in Demid. Voy.
Russ. Mérid. iii, p. 537, pl. xv, f. 4-6.

Lepadogaster Cornubiensis, Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 189; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes
(Ed. 1) ii, p. 264, c. fig. (Hd. 2) ii, p. 359 (Hd. 3) un, p. 385; Jenyns, Brit. Vert.
p. 469; Thompson, Proc. Z. Soc. 1835, p. 81 and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 212.

Lepadogaster zebrinus, Lowe, Proc. Zool. Soc. vii, 1839, p. 88.

Lepadogaster Webbianus, Val. in Webb and Berthel. Iles Canar. Poiss. p. 85.

Cornish sucker, Couch, Brit. Fishes, ii, p. 196, pl. cviu, f. 2.

B. v-vi, D. 16-20, P. 20-25, V. 1/4, A. 9-11, C. 19.

Length of head 24 to 2%, of caudal fin 6, height of body 5 to 6 in the: total
length. Hye—7 to 8 diameters in the length of the head, 1} to 2 diameters
from the end of the snout, and 1} apart. Body anteriorly broad and depressed,
but compressed posterior to the termination of the disc. The width of the head
at the occiput equals twice its height: lower surface flat. Snout spatulate, and
has been aptly likened to the bill of a duck: upper jaw slightly the longer: the
maxilla reaches to beneath the middle of the orbit. Nostrils close together, ,
the posterior tubular, the anterior with a well-developed tentacle equalling
about one diameter of the orbit in length. Teeth—in a patch of villiform ones
at the anterior portion of either jaw, while laterally they form a single row of
larger ones, which are conical and somewhat curved backwards. Fins—the
dorsal commences about midway between the front edge of the eye and the
posterior extremity of the caudal fin, on to which latter both it and the anal
are continued. Caudal wedge shaped or rounded. Pectoral with a broad
base and having a membraneous connection with the inner ray of the ventral.
190 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Ventral consists of one badly developed spine imbedded in the skin, and four
rays, the inner of which is connected with the lowest of the pectoral. Between
the ventral fins and extending posteriorly to the middle of the length of the
fish exists a large suctorial disc which is composed of two portions separated
one from the other by a deep groove. The entire organ can be employed as one
sucker, the skin covering the outer but inferior margin of which, is modified
into irregularly shaped flattened points, extending on to the under surface of
the three outer ventral rays, which thus constitute a portion of the disc. As
already observed, the large dise is subdivided into two, the anterior being
connected with the base of the ventral fins but separated by a deep transverse
groove from the posterior portion of the disc. The ventral portion extends
anteriorly towards the throat, where it is formed by two layers of skin passing
from the base of one ventral fin to the other, the inner or lower layer having
a thickened pavement-like appearance as already described, and which is con-
tinued on to the three outer ventral rays; the centre of this portion is a
smooth pad. The posterior portion of the disc has for its groundwork cartilaginous
expansions from the radius (Owen or coracoid, Parker), its centre is a soft
smooth pad similar to that observed in the anterior portion, while the whole
of its circumference, is formed of two layers of skin forming a free edge:
the lower layer being thickened and modified into flattened nodules as already
described, and just at its posterior margin fine ray-like prolongations of the
cartilage are visible. Skin slightly loose but tough. Oolowrs—usually carmine
or purplish red, becoming lighter on the under surface. In some, however, the
ground colour is brown or green. Two or three yellow dark-edged interorbital
bands are usually present: and two large oval, sometimes pyriform, black
ocelli on the occiput surrounded by two lighter rings. Some have oblique blue
stripes on the body. Risso observes that no external differences are perceptible
between the males and the females.

Varieties—The colours widely differ, occasioning some authors to constitute
several different species. ZL. Gouanti, Risso, is greenish with dark spots,
but no blue markings. LD. balbis, Risso, has two dark red spots on the
side of the neck. OL. biciliatus, Risso, is green with blue or brown spots
and marks. lL. zebrinus, Lowe, is blackish brown, the sides being posteriorly
marked with oblique blue stripes: the neck having divergent cross streaks and
a pair of pear-shaped blotches. In the Ordnance Survey of the county of
Londonderry, two examples of a rich blue colour are alluded to, with deeper
tinted postocular spots.

Names.—Jura sucker by Pennant, due to his having first obtained it at Jura
in the Hebrides: Cornish sucker, owing to its being common in Cornwall.

Habits——Resides under stones in pools between the tide marks, where it
can firmly attach itself to stationary or suitable objects. It is inactive, its
movements being a species of wriggle. Montagu remarked that although it is
sluggish it seems to wander, sometimes being abundant, at other times rare.
It is tenacious of life. Couch observes that its food is the smaller crustaceous
and marine insects which it swallows whole.

Breeding.—About March or April, when it deposits its ova inside the dead
shells of oysters, scollops, or other bivalves. Couch says the grains of ova are
of considerable size in proportion to the bulk of the fish.

Habitat.—Extends from Denmark along the coasts of Great Britain,
Ireland and France where it is common in some localities, to Spain, Portugal,
Teneriffe, and Italy, where, however, it is not common. In fact it may be said to
be rare in the Mediterranean. Orkney and Zetland, one example obtained in
Scalpa Flow, in the winter of 1850, by Mr. J. Syme (W. Baikie), Jura in
the Hebrides (Pennant). Aberdeen, where one local example is in the possession
of Mr. Sim. Montagu considered it to be common at Milton, in Devonshire:
Borlase obtained it in Cornwall, and Mr. Cornish observes that in Cornwall
it is common under stones and im small pools by the sea shore. I have received
it from Mr. Dunn of Mevagissey, and many examples from Mr. Carrington, F.L.$.,
which he collected in Guernsey.
GOBIESOCID A. 191

In Ireland it has been recorded by Thompson from the north-east and
west coasts. Coast of Clare (D. 20, A. 11, V. 4, P. 19, C. 14, B. vi) two filaments
before each eye and a third fleshy appendage placed nearer to the eye and
unconnected with the others. Several examples from Portrush, Oct. 1837,
colour of a rich blue, the spots between the eyes of a deeper tint: Lahinch,
county Clare two examples, July, 1840, between tide marks. August, 1845,
several full-grown examples under stones between tide marks, at Tory Island,
off Donegal.

The example figured life size was one of those received from Guernsey. This
fish attains to at least 4 inches in length.

B. Dorsal fin not continued on to the caudal.
2. Lepadogaster Decandolii, Plate LVII, fig. 2.

Lepadogaster olivaceus, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 75 and Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 274.

Lepadogaster Decandolit, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 76 and Hur. Mérid. iii, p. 275;
Cuv. Rég. Anim. ; Bris. de Barnev. Rev. Zool. 1846, p. 281; Steind. Ich. Span. u.
Port. 1868, p. 20. .

Lepadogaster Jussieui, Risso, Hurop. Mérid. iii, p. 273.

Lepadogaster cephalus, Thompson, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. iii, p. 34 and Nat.
Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 214; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 3) ii, p. 341.

Lepadogaster Rafinesqui, Costa, Faun. Nap. t. xxiv, f. 1-3.

Lepadogaster adherens, Bonap. Catal. 65.

Connemara sucker, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 201, pl. cix.

Lepadogaster condollit, Giiuther, Catal. iii. p. 513; Moreau, Poiss. France, iii.
p. 360.

Mirbelia Decandoili, Canest. Arch. Zool. Anat. Maggio, iti, p. 189; Giglioli,
Pesc. Ital. p. 33.

B. vi, D. 14-16, P. 25, V. 1/4, A. 8-11, C. 18.

Length of head 23 to 3, of caudal fin 53, height of body 6 in the total length.
Eye—diameter about 6 in the length of the head, 1 to 11 diameters from the end
of the snout, and slightly more apart. Body broad and compressed anteriorly, but
compressed in its last half. The width of the head at the occiput equals twice
its height. Snout somewhat spatulate, the upper jaw the longer. The maxilla
reaches to beneath the first third of the orbit. Nostrils near together, both
slightly tubular, the anterior most so. Teeth—in a patch of villiform ones at
the anterior portion of each jaw, while laterally they are in a single row of
larger and more separated conical ones. F%ns—the dorsal commences about
midway between the front edge of the eye and the hind extremity of the
caudal fin: its posterior rays are higher than its anterior ones, while a membrane
passes from its last ray nearly to the base of the caudal fin: the anal which
commences beneath the commencement of the second third of the dorsal has a
similar membrane from its last ray to nearly the base of the caudal: the latter
fin is rounded at its extremity. Pectoral with a broad base, it and the ventral
similar to what has been described under L. Gowanti. Skin rather looser than in
L. Gouantwt. Colour—red with carmine fins: body with numerous oval and
rather large light spots, some round ones on the fins. Some examples have a dark
ocellus on the side of the head behind the eye.

Varieties.—This species, which is said to be sometimes nearly red, is apparently
subject to considerable variation in colour.

Name.—Connemara sucker, owing to its having been first recorded as British
from that portion of Ireland. ©

Habits.—Resembling those of the other species of the Genus.

Means of capture.—Under stones situated between high and low water mark.

Habitat.—Coasts of Ireland, Cornwall, the Channel Islands, and France to the
Mediterranean, where it iscommon. Couch observed that only a few examples
192 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

had fallen into his hands, rendering it likely that the species is limited to
particular districts. I have received several from Mr. Carrington, F.L.s., taken at
Guernsey : one of which is figured life-size.

In Ireland one example 23 inches long has been captured at Connemara on
the west coast.

3. Lepadogaster bimaculatus, Plate LVII, fig. 3 (2).

Bimaculated sucker, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776) p. 397, pl. xxii (Hd. 1812)
p. 182, pl. xxv: Montagu, Trans. Linn. Soc. vii, p. 293 and Wern. Mem. p. 92.

Cyclopterus bimaculatus, Donov. Brit. Fish. iv, pl. lxxviii; Walb. Artedi, iii,
p- 490; Bonn. Ency. Ich. p. 29, pl. lxxxvi, {. 355; Bl. Schn. p. 199; Lacép. ii,
p. 67; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 115.

Gobieson bimaculatus, Cuv. Regne Anim.; Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 339; White,
Catal. Fish. p. 108.

Lepadogaster bimaculatus, Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 190; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes
(Ed. 1) ii, p. 268, ¢. fig. (Ed. 2) ii, p. 363 (Hd. 3) ii, p. 339; Nilss. Skan. Faun.
p. 241; Diben en Koren, Vet. Akad. Handl. 1844, p. 109, t. iii, f. 7; Flem. Brit.
An. p. 190; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 470; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. 1837 (2) i,
p. 412; Barnev. Rev. Zool. 1846, p. 282; Nilss. Skand. Faun. Fisk. p. 241;
Thompson, Pro. Zool. Soc. 1835, p. 82 and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p.212; Giinther,
Catal. iui, p. 514; McIntosh, Fish. N. Uist, P. Roy. Soc. Edin. V. 1862-66, p. 614
and Fish. St. Andrews, p. 177; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 20; Collett,
Norges Fiske, p. 90 ; Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 361.

Lepadogaster ocellatus, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 74.

Lepadogaster reticulatus, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 77 and Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 277.

Lepadogaster mirbelia, Risso, Journ. Phy. xci, p. 249 and Eur. Mérid. ui,
p. 277.

Lepadogaster Desfontanii, Risso, Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 275, f. 39; Nardo, An.
Ven. 79.

Lepadogaster lineatus, maculatus, and punctatus, Guichen. Explor. Sc. Algér.
Poiss. p. 110, pl. vi, f. 3.

Mirbelia Desfontanii, Canest. Arch. Zool. Anal. Maggio, 1864, iii, p. 192.

Mirbelia bimaculata, Giglioli, Pese. Ital. p. 33.

Doubly spotted sucker, Couch, Fishes of the British Isles, ii, p. 198, pl. cviii,
£.1.

B. vi, D. 5-7, P. 17, V.5, A. 4-6, C. 12.

Length of head 23 to 33, of caudal fin 63, height of body 6 to 8 in the total
length. Hyes—-53 diameters in the length of the head, 1} to 1} diameters from the
end of the snout, and 1} apart. The posterior nostril close to the eye and patent,
the anterior more tubular. Greatest width of the head 2/3 its length. Body
widest anteriorly, flattened below, snout depressed, spatulate. Upper jaw the
longer, the posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to beneath the middle of
the orbit. Zeeth—a single row along the lateral ramus of either jaw, those in the
lower being rather widely separated: a patch of villiform teeth anteriorly. Fins
—the dorsal commences about midway between the posterior extremity of the
head and the end of the caudal fin, posteriorly it is not continued nearly to the
caudal. The lower rays of the pectoral are not conjoined to those of the ventral.
Anal commences ona line somewhat posterior to the origin of the dorsal, and
does not reach nearly so far posteriorly as to the base of the caudal, which is
rounded or wedge-shaped. The suctorial disc is very similar to that already
described under L. Gouanti. Colowrs—reddish, tinged with orange, some reddish
bands on the head in a V-shape pointing backwards. <A black, or dark purple,
light-edged ocellus just behind the end of the pectoral fin. Body somewhat
banded, as is also the caudal fin.

Varieties.—The black ocellus on the side of the body has been observed to be
sometimes absent, especially in the young. Its colours are subject to great
GOBIESOCIID 4s. 193

differences. L. lineatus, Quichenot, being green with a pearly white band from the
eye to the tail, from which five cross bars pass towards the back. L. maculatus
is brown with three large red spots on the back. ZL. punctatus is green, with
three longitudinal brown stripes on the snout, and reddish dots on the body.

_ Names.—Bimaculated and doubly-spotted sucker, due to the black ocellus on
either side, situated near the posterior end of the pectoral fin.

Habits.—Adults live in deeper water than the LZ. Gouanii: smaller ones are
mostly found nearer low water-mark at spring tides than at any other spot. On
ae removed from the water they immediately attach themselves to the captor’s

and.

Means of capture—Dredging, found under stones, or, according to Couch,
drawn up in crab-pots, the larger individuals keeping in deep water: he records
how one was rejected from the mouth of a fish which was being hooked at
a depth of thirty-eight fathoms. Mr. Hughes, Zool. 1864, p. 9131, gives an
account of this fish in an aquarium, it is of roving habits but soon accommodates
itself to its new home. Its colours change, dependent perhaps upon the emotions
of the fish, from yellowish white to a rich carnation hue. Its eyes are its especial
beauty, resembling living opals set in burnished gold. It is able to attach
itself firmly to stones, old shells, or other substances. It speedily fixes
itself to some untenanted bivalve shells, sometimes remaining for days with-
out moving, except that it would frequently turn round in the shell with a
smooth gliding motion, especially when anyone went near the aquarium. It is
most restless during the night, but its locomotive powers appear to consist in
shifting from one stationary position to another ; it therefore appears to be deficient
in the power of pursuing prey, but while at anchor it maintains a constant and
regular fanning with its silvery pectoral fins. Possessing no air-bladder it swims
with difficulty by means of its fing and tail; and drops, when so desirous, to the
bottom by means of its specific gravity as soon as these cease motion. It eats
bits of mussel, oyster, or small fish.

Breeding.—Mr. Hyndman dredging, June 20th, 1844, off St. John’s Point,
co. Down, brought up from fifteen fathoms an adult, and a perfect Venus virginea,
in which was one of these fish with its ova and young, some only of which had
made their appearance. At the end of August, in Belfast Bay, he dredged a
single full-grown valve of Pectunculus pilosus, the hollow of which was closely
studded over for the space of a square inch with the ova of this fish, each of
which is globular and about 1/16 of an inch in diameter. Thompson continues
that he has frequently seen this species dredged in old single valves. of bivalve
shells, but before Mr. Hyndman’s discovery he was not aware of why they were
partial to them.

Habitat.—From Scandinavia to the British Isles, the shores of France to those
of the Iberian peninsula, becoming rare in the Mediterranean, but extending to
Algeria and Italy. In the Orkneys and Zetland it is not rare (W. Baikie). In
Scotland one dredged in Loch Ryan was brought to Belfast market. Edward in
Banffshire once took a fish he thinks may be this species. At Lossiemouth, Moray
Firth, an example 1} inches long (Weir, 1852) attached to a shell was drawn up by
a fisherman’s line. An example was taken at Blakeney, in Norfolk, in July, 1846
(Lowe, Fauna, p.15), Donovan obtained it in Kent. At Weymouth it was first
recorded by the Duchess of Portland: Gosse states that during the summer it is
frequently dredged there: and Montagu observed that it was not very uncommon
in Devonshire; while although found in Cornwall it does not appear to be so
common as L. Gouanit. Mr. Carrington, F.1.s., obtained it for me from Guernsey.

Treland.—Has been taken on the north-east, east, and west of the island.
One dredged off Bangor, county Down, September 3rd, 1834, in 5 or 6 fathoms
(no spots, P. 18), 1 inch 10 lines long. One, Strangford Lough, October, 1834,
in 5 or 6 fathoms, 1 inch 5 lines long: colours reddish orange, with round spots
and irregular white markings. One had large blotches of pale vermillion along its
back. ‘Templeton dredged two examples, August, 1811. Not uncommon in
Belfast Bay and Strangford Lough. Also taken at Larne.

The example figured was sent to me by Mr. Dunn from Mevagissey. It is
drawn twice the natural size. This form attains to at least 2 inches in length.
194 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Eighth Group—Acanthopterygii Blenniformes.

Body elongated, sub-cylindrical or compressed. Dorsal fin many rayed,
occasionally composed entirely of spines, or the articulated part may be nearly
or quite as long as, or even longer than, the spinous portion. Ventrals, if
present, thoracic or jugular. Anal of varying length. Caudal present or
absent.

This division comprises two families of which genera have been obtained in
Great Britain. (1) Blenntidee having a rather elongated body: and ventrals when
present jugular. (2) Cepolide, body very elongated: ventrals thoracic.

Famiry, XXI—BLENNIIDA, Swainson.

Pseudobranchie# mostly present. Body elongated, more or less cylindrical.
Teeth may be fixed in the jaws or merely implanted in the gums: a posterior
canine may be present: while some genera have molars. One, two, or three
dorsal fins, nearly occupying the entire length of the back. Ventrals, when
present, sometimes rudimentary, usually jugular. Anal with a moderate or
large number of articulated rays. Caudal, when present, may he confluent
with, or distinct from, the vertical fins. Scales, when present, usually small.
Air-bladder and pyloric appendages generally absent.

The fishes which constitute this family are mostly littoral forms distributed
throughout the greater portion of the temperate and tropical regions, some
extending their range into brackish or even, it is said, into fresh waters.

The British forms belonging to this family appertain to the following
genera :—

1. Anarrhichas. Strong conical teeth in the front of the jaws: two rows of
large molars on the palate. No ventral fins. Scales rudimentary.

2. Blennius. A single row of teeth in the jaws, in some likewise a curved
posterior canine. Ventral fins present. Scales absent.

3. Carelophus. Small teeth in jaws. Dorsal fin consisting only of spines.
Ventrals jugular. Scales present.

4. Centronotus. Minute teeth in jaws. Dorsal fin consisting only of spines.
Ventrals rudimentary if present. Scales absent.

5. Zoarces. Conical teeth in jaws. A depressed portion of the dorsal fin
composed of spines. Ventrals rudimentary. Caudal fin absent. No scales.

Genus J.—ANarRHIcHas, Artedi.

Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchie present. Body elongated: head large:
snout obtuse: cleft of mouth deep. Giill-openings wide. Teeth conical anteriorly
wrth pointed tubercles laterally, and in two rows of molarform ones on the palate.
A single long dorsal fin, consisting of flewible spines, and not continued on to the
caudal. Ventrals absent. Caudal distinct from the dorsal and anal fins. Scales
on body rudimentary. Atr-bladder and pyloric appendages absent.

Gesner originally designated this fish Anarrhichas, derived from the Greek
term signifying “to climb,” as the people on the shores of the Baltic believed
that it climbed on to the rocks. It was placed by Cuvier among the Blennies,
being a gigantic form of the family: Gill, however, considers it the type
BLENNIID 2. 195

of a distinct family. Its powerful jaws and teeth were remarked on by
Hunter, who observed that the mouth of the wolf-fish is almost paved with teeth,
by means of which it can break shells to pieces, and fit them for the cesophagus of
the fish, and so effectually disengage the food from them, that though it lives on
such hard food, the stomach does not differ from that of other fish.

This genus is well represented in the northern seas of both hemispheres,
extending in Europe southwards to the British coast, while it has a somewhat
similar extension in the American seas.

1, Anarrhichas lupus, Plate LVIIL.

Anarrhichas, Gesner, Nomen. Aq. Anim. p. 116 and Paralip. p. 4; Artedi,
Gen. p. 23; Olear. Gott. Kuns. t. xxvii, f. 2. Zee-Wolf, Gronov. Zooph. No. 400
and Mus. Ich. No. 44. Lupus marinus, Schonev. p. 45, t. v; Jonston, t. xlvii, f. 2;
Will. p. 130, t. H 3, £1; Ray, p. 40. Latargus, Klein, Pisc. Miss. iv, p. 16.
Anarrhichas non maculatus, Olats. Reise, § 683a. Anarrhichas minor, Olafs. Isl.
Reise, § 6830, t. xlii; Mill. Prod. Dan. p. 40; Fabr. Faun. Grénl. p. 139, No. 975;
Mohr. Isl. Nat. Hist. p. 64, No. 115; Gmel. Linn. i, p. 1143; BL Schn. p. 496;
Ascan. Icon. t. xxv. Steen-bider, Pontopp. Norg. Nat. Hist. ii, p. 243; Strdm.
Séndm. i, p. 310. Ravenous wolf-fish, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776) iii, p. 151,
pl. xxiv (Ed. 1812) iii, p. 201, pl. xxvii. Cat-fish, Sibbald, Scot. Illus. iii, p. 25,
t. xvi.

Anarrhichas lupus, Linn, Syst. i, p. 430; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 93, pl. xiii; Olavii,
Reise, i, p. 80; Retz. Faun. Suec. p. 315; Fabr. Faun. Gronl. p. 138, No. 97;
Mohr. Isl. Nat. Hist. p. 63, No. 114; André, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 1784, p. 274,
t. xi; Brouss. Mém. Acad. Sc. 1785, p. 161, pl. iti; Mill. Prod. Zool. Dan. p. 40 ;
Bonnaterre, Atl. Ich. p. 38, pl. xxvi, f. 87; Gmel. Linn. i, p. 1142; BL. iii, p. 25,
t. lxxiv; Bl. Schn. p. 495; Lacép. ii, pp. 299, 300, pl.ix, f. 2; Low, Faun. Orcad.
p. 187; Cuv. Rég. Anim. IIl. Poiss. pl. Ixxix, f. 2; Faber, Fische Isl. p. 70;
Donovy. Brit. Fish. i, pl. xxiv; Turton, Brit. Faun. p. 87; Fleming, Brit. Anim.
p. 208; Fries och Hkstr. Skand. Fisk. p. 23, t. viii, f£.2; Richards. Faun. Bor.
Amer. p. 95; Jenyns, Man. p. 384; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Hd. 1) i, p. 247, c. fig.
(Kd. 2) i, p. 277 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 384; Parnell, Wern. Mem. vii, p. 339; Cuv. and
‘Val. xi, p. 473, pl. cecxli; Gaim. Voy. Isl. and Grénl. &c. pl. iv; Thompson,
Proc. Zool. Soc. 1835, p. 80; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) 1837, i, p. 409;
Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Club. 1838, i, p. 172; Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 283;
Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 188; Gaim. Voy. Scand. &e. pl. xii, f.2; De Kay, New York
Fauna, Fishes, p. 158, pl. xvi, f. 43; Nilss. Skand. Faun. iv, p. 208; Thompson,
N. H. Ireland, iv, p. 111; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 50; Ginther, Catal. iti,
p- 208; Schlegel, Dieren Neder. p. 67, pl. vi, f.5; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 70;
Steenstrup, Vid. Medd. 1876, p. 159, pl. iii; McIntosh, Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 175;
Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 22; Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 159.

Anarrhichas strigosus, Gmel. Linn. i, p. 1144.

Anarrhichas pantherinus, Zouiew, N. Act. Petroph. 178], p. 271, t.b; Gmel.
Linn. i, p. 1144; Bl. Scbn. p. 495, t. xcii; Lacép. ii, pp. 299, 309, 310.

Anarrhichas maculatus. Bl. Schn. p. 496.

Anarrhichas karrak, Lacép. ii, pp. 299, 307.

Wolf-fish, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 242, pl. cxvii.

B. vii, D. 72-74, P. 19, A. 45-46, C. 15-18, Vert. 26/50.

Length of head 43 to 5, of caudal fin 103, height of body 4} to 5 in the total
length. Hye—near the upper edge of the head, 1 to 14 diameters from the end
of the snout, and from 1/2 to lapart. Body elongated and compressed. Cheeks
swollen. Anterior profile of the head very steep: snout short: cleft of mouth
oblique, the posterior extremity of the maxilla reaching to beyond the hind edge
of the eye. The masseter muscles very powerful. Teeth—differ considerably
from those of any other British fish: in the upper jaw there are anteriorly four
large canines in the pre-maxillaries, and six or eight smaller but conical
ones. In the lower jaw two or three large, diverging, curved and conical
canines, and behind them two smaller ones: laterally are two rows of molars

13*
196 ACANTHOPTERYGIL.

which posteriorly merge into one. Vomer with a double row of large molars.
On the palatines are also two rows, the outer from four to six, being
conical: and the inner, from two to four in number, being tuberculated
at their summits. Fins—the dorsal commences at the nape and is con-
tinued almost as far as to the base of the caudal fin, its anterior
rays are rather short, gradually increasing in length to opposite the com-
mencement of the anal, the last ten or twelve rays gradually decrease in
height. Pectoral with a broad base, it scarcely extends so far as to above the
vent. Anal commences below about the thirtieth dorsal ray, and is continued
almost to the root of the caudal fin. Caudal rounded posteriorly. Skin—
having rudimentary and not imbricated scales, which are concealed to a great
extent by the large amount of mucus that covers the body. Numerous open
pores on the head disposed in rows. Colowrs—grayish brown, darkest along the
back: a series of darker vertical bands, nearly as wide as the ground colour,
pass down the sides to a little beneath the lateral-line. Numerous small black
points exist over the body. Dorsal and anal fins yellowish, with narrow and
oblique brown bands passing backwards. Pectoral and caudal gray.

Varieties.—A. strigosus was a term instituted by Gmelin for the banded
examples, but it is probable that when fresh they are always banded, although
Pennant remarks that in different fish these stripes have different appearances.
Miiller mentions a variety as “ Anarrhichas lupus non maculatus.”

Names.— Wolf-fish or sea-wolf, owing to its ravenous propensities. In Orkney
it is termed swine-jish, due to a sort of muscular motion of its nostrils, which the
fishermen say resembles that in the nose of a swine (Lowe). Wauffs or wuffs,
Yorkshire. Sea-cat or Cat-fish (Moray Firth) and Aberdeen (see Zoarces
viviparus). L’ Anarrhique loup, French. Zee-wolf, Dutch.

Habits.—It approaches the coast about May, and is a ravenous, fierce, and
strong fish, which swims rapidly with a lateral undulating motion: when taken
it fastens on anything within reach. Its jaws are so powerful that the Danes and
Germans, under the idea that it can crush stones with its teeth, call it Steenbider
and Steinbeisser. Its usual food is crustaceous animals and shell fish, including
among the latter, mussels, scollops, large whelks, &c.; these it crushes and breaks
to pieces with its teeth, and swallows the mass, the remains of the broken shells
passing down the intestinal tract.

From the stomachs of these fish McIntosh has obtained at St. Andrew’s,
fragments of Hehinus esculentus, Buccinum undatum, Trocht, Nassa incrassata,
Natica, Mya, Star-fishes, Stenorhynchus rostratus, and Galathea.

Bowerbank found in the stomach of one, 3 feet 1 inch long, abundant remains
of shells of a species of Pecten (Zool. p. 4886). Edward remarked that at Banff
this fish was frequently found dead cast on shore after a storm, “ which would
seem to indicate that their habit is not always im deep water.”

“One snapped a large stick with the greatest ease,”” An. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (2)
1853, xi, p. 465. A pair were taken, of different sizes, in a trawl, in the North Sea,
about halfway between Grimsby and Norway. One of them bit at a mop handle,
which was held out to it, so savagely that it was swung overboard without letting
go its hold. When it was shaken off, one of its teeth was left behind it fastened
in the wood. The fishermen in the Moray Firth say that it is more plentiful in
March than at any other season, and that some of them are as big as any cod,
and are good for eating (Gordon, Zool. 1852, p. 3460). It lives some time after
removal from the water. It seems to prefer rocky coasts, keeping at the sea
bottom.

Means of capture.—Baits or spearing, for which purpose the Norwegians were
said to employ a trident. Parnell observed that it is common in all the rocky
parts of the Firth of Forth, and often found on the haddock lines, and occasionally
in the salmon nets above Queensferry. It also is sometimes taken in large deep
sea nets, into which it has entered for the purpose of feeding upon the entangled
fishes. Owing to its fierceness when captured the fishermen usually first beat out
its front teeth and then knock it on the head.

Lreeding.—According to Pennant it spawns in May and June, when it deposits
BLENNIIDA. 197

its ova upon the leaves of marine plants. The fry are of a greenish
colour resembling the sea-wrack, among which they reside for some time after
their birth. About June the young are said by Parnell to be 2 feet in length
in the Firth of Forth.

Uses.—The Greenlanders were said to eat its flesh raw or salted, and make
bags and other articles with its skin. But its hideous appearance and the sickly
odour of its flesh renders it repulsive to the inhabitants of these islands, although
fishermen occasionally eat it, having first cut off its head and then gkinned it.

As food.—Lowe says “it is excellent eating ; however, none are very fond of it,
and generally reject it.” At St. Andrew’s a fisherman assured me that it was
excellent eating. “It has so disagreeable and horrid an appearance that nobody
at Scarborough,” says Pennant, “except the fishermen will eat it, and they prefer
it to holibut. They always before dressing take off the head and skin.” Clarke
(Fauna of Yorkshire) says the fishermen describe it as the best fish that
swims, and Buckland found it on trial to be very good, and compared it
to a nice veal chop. Donovan states that cooking having eradicated its
unpleasant odour, he found its flavour was like, but superior to, that of the
mackerel, and he deemed it delicious. De Kay says its flesh when smoked has
somewhat the flavour of salmon.

Habitat.—Most abundant in the cold regions of the north, common in the
German Ocean, becoming very rare off the French coast. On the eastern shores
of America it is taken from Greenland to Cape Hatteras.

In Orkneys also Zetland (W. Baikie) “this very dreadful and ugly fish is
often caught in our seas, and sometimes thrown ashore in storms. None of our
fishermen love it, either hating the colour or the great teeth of which it can. make
good use, even when out of its own element” (Lowe). At Banff, frequent
(Edward), also at Aberdeen (Sim): St. Andrew’s, in deep water (McIntosh),
Firth of Forth. In Yorkshire it is said to be common along the coast.: Yarmouth
(Paget), and East Norfolk coast (Gurney). Plymouth Sound but rare (Parfitt),
it has been taken at Fowey and Looe in Cornwall (Couch).

Treland.—Belfast, one example, April, 1807: one off Dublin Bay, January,
1839 (Jacob): two from Dingle (Ball) : while some fish termed Cat-ling captured
far out at sea off the Galway coast are supposed to be this species. Templeton
remarked that it does not seem to be common on the coast but is sometimes met
with in the Belfast market, most probably caught by the Carrickfergus fishermen
in the bay. Thompson observes that it is occasionally taken on the east coast of
Ireland.

It attains to 6 feet or even more in length..
198 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus IJ.—Buewnivs, Artedt.

Icthyocorts, Bonap.; Pholis, Fleming ; Adonis, Gray.

Branchiostegals sive: pseudobranchie present. Body somewhat elongated and
compressed: snout short. Cleft of mouth narrow. A tentacle often present above
the orbit or on the nape. Teeth in a single row, fied in the jaws: a posterior,
curved tooth usually present in one or both jaws. Dorsal fin single, the spinous
portion being less, or equally developed with the soft rays. Ventrals jugular,
consisting of one spine and two rays. Oaudal distinct. Scales absent. <Aitr-bladder
and pyloric appendages absent.

The generic name Blennius is derived from PAevva, “ mucus,” which designates
their slimy nature. All the articulated fin rays are unbranched, except those in
the caudal, which are simply divided at their extremities. In some forms an
occipital or infraorbital crest is a distinctive mark of the male sex.

Geographical distribution.—Blennies are found in the coasts of Europe, the
tropical Atlantic, the Red Sea to Sind, rare in the Indian Ocean but present in
Ceylon. Also in the North Pacific near the Sandwich Isles, and Van Dieman’s
Land in the South Pacific Ocean.

These fishes attach themselves to objects in the water: thus Sir Walter
Elliot possessed a specimen pumped up on board the “‘Samarang,” in the Bay of
Bengal, April 6th, 1850, which must have attached itself to the vessel before
leaving harbour, or been sucked up on some piece of floating substance on which
it had drifted out to sea. Some species have been observed to attach themselves
to floating sea-weed, which they make their temporary home. Among the
rocks they appear to employ their pectoral and ventral fins for the purpose
of crawling and moving about. Blennius vulgaris has been acclimatized
in inland lakes of fresh water. Blennius wnicornis, Castlenau (Proc. Linn. Soc.
New 8S. Wales, 1879, iii, p. 384), is found to feed on oysters, while the common
shanny will eat small mussels and other shells, the remains of which pass along
the intestinal tract. Blennies possess very powerful jaws and are able to hold
on by their teeth with great tenacity, as everyone practically acquainted with
them well knows: and it is by means of such powerful organs that they can
remove limpets and mussels from the rock when they require them for food.

These fishes can see with great distinctness either when the head is out of
the water or else submerged: watching everything with vigilance and immediately
retreating into crevices of the rocks or under sea-weed when the hand or any
foreign object approaches them.

The British forms are four in number, and thus subdivided :—

A. Orbital tentacle present.

a. First dorsal fin not elevated.

1. Blennius gattorugine, D. 13/19-20, A. 21-22.
2. Llennius galerita, D. 12/17, A. 18.

b. First dorsal fin elevated.
3. Blennius ocellaris, D. 11/15, A. 18.

B. Orbital tentacle absent.
4. Blennius pholis, D. 12/19, A. 19.

1. Blennius gattorugine, Plate LIX, fig. 1.

_Gattorugine, Willughby, p. 132, c. xx, t. H 2, fig. 2; Ray, p. 72; Pennant,
Brit. Zool. (Hd. 1) iii, p. 207, pl. xxxv (Hd. 2) iii, p. 278, pl. xxxix. Blennius,
sp. 2. Artedi, Genera, p. 26; Klein, Pisc. Miss. v, p. 32, 6. vil, f. 1.
BLENNIID 2. 199

Blennius gattorugine, Bloch, t. elxvii, fig. 2; Bl. Schn. p. 168; Briinn. Pisc.
Mass. p. 27; Shaw, Brit. Zool. iv, p. 168; Bonn. Atl. Ich. p. 54, t. xxxi, f. 114;
Donovan, Brit. Fish. iv, pl. Ixxxvi; Turton, p. 92; Lacép. ii, p. 468; Martens,
Reise nach Venedig. ii, p. 418; Risso, Ich. Nice, p: 127 and Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 230 ;
Cuv. and Val. xi, p. 200; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 226, c. fig. (Hd. 2) i,
p- 256 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 362; Fleming, Brit. An. p. 206; Jenyns, Man. p. 379;
Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. 1837 (2) i, p. 409; Guichen. Explor. Algér. Poiss.
p- 69; Lowe, Trans. Zool. Soe. iii, p. 9; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p- 108 ;
White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 47; Giinther, Catal. iti, p. 212; Canestrini, Arch.
Zool. 1862, ii, p. 90, t. ii, £. 1; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p.1; Vinciguerra,
Blenn. Genova, Annal. Mus. Civ. Genova, xv, 1880, p. 433; Giglioli, Pesce.
Ital. p. 30; Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 121.

Blennius varus, Pall. Zoogr. Russ. iii, p. 170; Nord. in Demid. Voy. Russ.
Mérid. iii, p. 402 (not Risso).

Gattorugine, Couch, Fish. Brit, Isles, ii, p. 219, pl. exi.

B. vi, D, 42:34, P. 14, V. 1/2-3, A. 21-22, C. 12-13, Vert. 12/27.

Length of head 43 to 43, of caudal fin 6 to 63, height of body 4} to 5in the
total length. Hye—situated high up, either in or rather before, or a little behind,
the middle of the length of the head; from 1} to 1} diameters from the end of the
snout, and 1/2 to 3/4 of a diameter apart. Interorbital space concave. Snout
obtuse, with a very steep profile. Head compressed, a little longer than high. A
well-developed fringed tentacle above the orbit, sometimes equalling in length the
diameter of the eye, or even more:* valve at anterior nostril likewise fringed.
The maxilla reaches to beneath the front edge of the eye: lips rather thick.
Teeth—34 to 44 in the upper jaw, and a few less in the lower; the last on either
side of the mandible curved backwards and inwards, but not enlarged. Fins—the
dorsal commences above the base of the opercle, a slight notch exists between
its spinous and soft portions, while posteriorly the last ray of the fin has a
membraneous continuation to the base of the caudal: none of its rays are divided.
Ventral short, its rays undivided. Anal with undivided rays, and not united with
the caudal, the latter fin being nearly square at its extremity: its nine central
rays divided. Lateral-line—curves to above the commencement of the anal fin.
Colowrs—olive-gray or brown with blotches and wide vertical bands: a black spot
beneath the eye; lower margins of the caudal and anal fins edged with white, and
lower rays of pectoral and ventral stained with orange. A black spot frequently
exists between the third and fourth dorsal spines.

Varieties—In colours are very common, and in accordance with the locality
which it resides in.

Names.—Tompot Cornwall, said to be probably derived from its being
frequently taken in crab-pots. Gattorugine has been asserted by some to be a
derivation from gatto rusalo its common name at Venice, alluding to the
thickness of its throat, which frequently abbreviated to gatto, signifying “a cat,”
has given rise to the idea that the whole term might mean, rusty or red cat.
Le perce-pierre, French. : :

Habits.—Inhabits deep water, and prefers rocky ground. It is very voracious,
principally feeding on small crustaceans, bivalves, corallines: while even brown
sea-weed has been found in its stomach. This species is rarely left on rocks by a
receding tide, its residence being in the deeper water; but Couch remarks upon
having procured two examples (plate cxiii, fig. 1), both of reddish colour, left by
an ebbing tide, and concealed under a stone. :

Means of captwre.—Usually in a crab-pot, which has had some fine net placed
along its floor: these fish which enter from the top or sides in order to eat the
bait, appear always to leave by descending through the bottom. In Ireland it is
said to be taken in lobster traps laid in 12 to 14 fathoms of water.

Bait.—In some localities it appears to be used as a bait for lobster and crab-

* Blennius ruber, Cuv. and Val. xi, p. 211, is said to differ from this species, in that its
supraorbital tentacle is shorter, and its colour of a bright red. The same variation in colour has

been observed in Cornwall.
200 ACANTHOPTERYGIL

pots; while, owing to the small size of its mouth and the localities it frequents,
it is not often taken by line fishing.

Breeding.—End of May full of roe, which is of a mulberry or lead colour.

As food.—Lacépéde asserts that they are good eating.

Habitat.—Atlantic coasts of Europe to the Canary Isles, extending through
the Mediterranean and Adriatic, and also reported from the Black Sea.

In Banffshire it has been taken twice (Edward) : five stuffed examples in the
British Museum are said to have come from the Firth of Forth. Along the south
coast it has been reported from Poole Harbour, Dorsetshire (Yarrell) ; also from
Weymouth (Gosse), Devonshire (Montague), while it is common along the coast
of Cornwall. It is found in Somersetsbire, a local example existing in the
Weston-super-Mare Museum ; while it was first obtained off Anglesea by Pennant.

In Treland it is taken on the north-east coast. Templeton (Mag. Nat. Hist.
1837 (2) i, p. 409) observed that on June 22nd, 1811, he received this little fish
from Mr. McSkimmin, who informed him that he had procured it from the
lobster traps of the Carrickfergus fishermen. Portrush, co. Antrim, not rare,
here specimens were obtained up to 7 inches in length by J. Ogilby, in crab-pots
laid on a rocky bottom, in 10 to 12 fathoms of water (Zool. 1876, p. 4753).
Londonderry (Ordnance Survey).

The example figured is 8 inches in length, and came from Mevagissey, in
Cornwall. It attains to at least 9 inches in length, and is the largest of the true
British Blennies.

2. Blennius galerita, Plate LX, fig. 1.

Blennius, No. 4, Artedi, Genera, p. 27 (not synon.); Alauda cristata sive
Galerita, Willugh. Hist. Pisce. p. 134; Ray, p. 73; Klein, Pisc. Miss. v, p. 32.
Diminutive Blenny, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1812) iii, p. 277.

Blennius galerita, Linn. Syst. i, p. 441; Bloch, Schn. p. 169; Montagu, Wern.
Mem. i, p. 98, pl. v, f. 2; Turton, p. 92; Jenyns, Man. p. 381; Giinther, Catal.
iti, p. 222; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 6; Cornish, Zoologist, 1878,
p. 424; Giglioli, Pesc. Ital. p. 31; Vinciguerra, Blen. Genova, An. Mus. Civ.
Genova, xv, 1880, p. 440, c. fig.

Blennius Montagui, Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 206; Cuv. and Val. xi, p. 234,
pl. ecexxii; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 1) i, p. 219, c. fig. (Hid. 2) i, p. 249 (Ed. 3)
ui, p. 8355; Guichen. Expl. Algér. Poiss. p. 72; White, Catal. p. 46; Canestrini,
Arch. Zool. ii, p. 99, t. iti, f. 4; Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 138.

Blennius Artedii, Cuv. and Val. xi, p. 231; Guichen. 1. c. p. 72; Lowe, Trans.
Zool. Soe. iii, p. 9.

Blennius ineequalis, Lowe, Trans. Zool. Soc. ii, p. 185.

Ichthyocoris Montagut, Bonap. Pesc. Kur. 67, No. 623.

Adonis galertta, Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 95.

Montaque’s blenny, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 231, pl. exiii, f. 3.

B. vi, D. 32723, P. 12, V. 2, A. 17-18, C. 11.

Length of head 43 to 51, of caudal fin 63, height of body 5 to 51 in the
total length. Hye—high up, diameter 3} to 4 in the length of the head, 1 to 14
diameters from the end of the snout, and 2/3 of a diameter apart. Interorbital
space nearly flat, snout short, and the anterior profile very abrupt. Passing
from the summit of the edge of one orbit to the other is a fleshy, erectile,
transverse fold of skin, sometimes 1/2 as long as the head, which is fringed
with fine tentacles: while in a row along the nape running from it towards the
dorsal fin is another row of fine tentacles. Anterior nostril with a short fringed
tentacle. Teeth—a single row of very fine ones in either jaw, from 55 to 65 in
the upper and 35 to 45 in the lower. Posteriorly in the lower jaw is a curved
canine, whereas none exists in the upper. Fins—the dorsal commences on a
vertical Jine behind the hind edge of the opercle, its spines are flexible and
about 2/3 as high as the body, while it is deeply notched between its spinous
and rayed portions, which latter is the higher, and posteriorly it is not continuous
with the caudal, which is almost square at its extremity. Pectoral reaching
BLENNIIDA. 201

to above the commencement of the anal, its 6th to 8th rays the longest. Anal
is not continuous with the caudal. Colowrs—of a light brownish or yellowish
gray, with six to nine vertical bands, not so wide as the ground colour, descending
from the back two-thirds down the body: the whole of the body and the head
are studded with bluish-white spots, and a line of large milk-white blotches
runs from opposite the lower edge of the pectoral to the lower third of the
caudal fin. Pectoral with a black band at its base, some dark spots and two
rows of white blotches. Fins yellowish: dorsal with irregular and oblique rows
of black spots: anal, and sometimes the soft dorsal, with a black outer edge;
caudal with three to five dark vertical bands, and two light blotches near its base.
Tentacle on head red or orange.

Varieties.—Shows great variation in colour, being very much darker in some
localities than it is in others.

Names.—There can be but little doubt that this is the species alluded to by
Artedi as Blennius crista capitis transversa, cutacea, but he erroneously refers to
Rondelet whose blenny termed galerita, or “crested lark,” was the B. pavo of
Risso. This fish is evidently the species alluded to by Solander, which he
observed near Plymouth and thus recorded: “ Blennius comatus, crista capitis
interoculari, lanceolata, ciliata,” &c.

Habits—It prefers small rock pools in which sea-weed exist, or crevices,
or under ledges of stone where it can retire into: here it remains sometimes
dry for several hours during the day, crawling about, or if frightened jumping.
It is very active, and may be seen peeping out of its crevices, but is rather
solitary or seen only in pairs. I obtained many live ones from the rock pools
at Penzance (August, 1881), and particularly noticed whether the crest on the
head was erectile or not so. Out of the first ten, eight died with it erected, in
the other two it was laid flat: I then took one without injury by means of a
hand-net and transferred it to a vase of sea-water. At first its crest was
flat, but after three or four hours it was constantly erect. Two shannies and
one Montagu blenny were placed in a larger aquarium with a whistler (Motella) ;
they at once flew at it, seized it by the throat, and killed it. It is difficult
to retain in water, requiring a net cover, but I could not perceive that its activity
was greatest in accordance with the tides (see page 204).

Means of capture.—These little creatures are captured in rock pools in a similar
way to the shanny, and they are about equally active and able to secrete them-
selves.

Breeding.—August, on the under surface of a stone beneath which it shelters
itself.

As food.—It is too insignificant to be of any use except to birds and larger
fish.

Habitat.—In the Atlantic from the British Isles to the Canaries, also locally
distributed throughout the Mediterranean and Adriatic to the Black Sea.

Banffshire (?) it has been recorded as having been obtained from the stomach
of a haddock (Edward). At Weymouth an example was dredged in 1854
(P. Gosse, Zoologist) ; Devonshire (Montagu), near Plymouth (Solander), while
it is very numerous at Penzance, in Cornwall. Mr. Cornish observes (Cornish
Fauna, p. 40), that it is not uncommon in Mount’s Bay.

It does not appear to often exceed 2 or 3 inches in length in the British
Isles, but attains to rather a larger size in the Mediterranean.

8. Blennius ocellaris, Plate LIX, fig. 2.

Scorpioides, Rondel. vi, c. 20, p. 204; Gesner, p. 847; Aldrov. p. 116. Blennius,
Salv. Aq. p. 217; Belon. p. 221; Gesner, p. 130; Aldrov. p. 203; Jonston, i,
tit. 3, c. 1, Art. 15, t. xix, £.5; Willugh. p. 13], t.H3,f.2; Ray, p. 72. Blennius, .
No. 1, Artedi, Gen. p. 26; Klein, Pisc. Miss. v, p. 31, No. 1.

Blennius ocellaris, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 442; Briinn. Pisc. Mass. p. 25; BI.
t. clxvii, f. 1; Bl. Schn. p. 168; Shaw, Brit. Zool. iv, p. 165, pl. xxiv; Bonn. Atl.
202 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Ich. p. 53, t. xxxi, f. 118; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 125, and Eur. Mérid. iii. p. 229;
Montagu, Wern. Mem. ii, p. 443, pl. xxii, fig. 2; Martens, Reise nach Venedig,
li, p. 418; Cuv. and Val. xi, p. 220; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 228, c. fig.
(Ed. 2), i, p. 253 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 8359; Forbes, Mag. Nat. Hist. 1836, ix, p. 203;
Flem. Brit. An. p. 206; Jenyns, Man. p. 378; Cuv. Rég. Anim. Illus. Poiss.
pl. Ixxvii, f. 1; Gtinther, Catal. ii, p. 222; Canestrini, Arch. Zool. Anat. Genova,
1862, ii, p. 87, t. ii, £. 2; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 7; Vinciguerra,
Blenn. Genova, Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova, xv, 1880, p. 439; Giglioli, Pesce. Ital.
p. 31; Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 128.

Blennius papilio (Gmel. Linn.) Guichen. Explor. Algér. Poiss. p. 70.

Blennius lepus, Lacép. ii, p. 461.

Blennius ocellatus, Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 273.

Adonis pavoninus, Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 93.

Butterfly blenny, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 224, pl. exii.

B. vi, D. 22:22, P. 12, V. 2, A. 16-18, C. 11, Vert. 11/21-22.

Length of head 4 to 44, of caudal fin 6, height of body 43 to 42 in the
total length. Hye-—near dorsal profile, diameter 4 to 44 in the length of the
head, 1 to 14 diameters from the end of the snout, and 3/4 of a diameter
apart. Interorbital space rather concave from side to side, snout short with
the anterior profile very abrupt. A fleshy tentacle, sometimes as long as the
eye, and which is fringed along its posterior surface, is situated on the
anterior portion of the superciliary ridge: also a short fringed tentacle at the
anterior nostril. Teeth—a single row in either jaw, consisting of about 36
to 40 in the upper, and 34 or 36 in the lower. Posteriorly a strong curved
canine in either jaw. Jins—the dorsal commences on the nape, the first spine
is high in adults, usually equalling or exceeding that of the body below it, from
whence it decreases to the last, which equals about 2 diameters of the orbit in
height: in adults the termination of the spine projects some distance beyond the
interspinous membrane: rayed portion of the dorsal as high as the body below
it, but not equalling that of the spinous part of the fin, it is not continuous
with the caudal, which latter is rounded, square, or even slightly emarginate in
the young. Seventh to ninth pectoral rays the longest. Anal similar to the
second dorsal. Colowrs—gray, with six or seven vertical bands on the body,
narrower than the ground colour, and which become lighter in the adult. Many
irregular reticulations of gray lines over the lower half of the head and the
body, on which latter are many dark spots. Dorsal fins of a light gray, with some
darker reticulations: a large round black ocellus surrounded by a narrow white
ring exists on the first dorsal fin, between the fifth and ninth dorsal spines:
soft dorsal with some narrow irregularly oblique dark bands. Pectoral with fine
black dots on the upper rays, the lower ones being black externally with a
narrow white edging. Anal dark in its outer half. Caudal gray, with some rows
of black spots.

Varietves—The black mark on the first dorsal fin appears to be occasionally
absent.

Names.—Butierfly-blenny, from its appearance. La blennie paptllon, French.

Habits—In the Mediterranean Risso observed that it lived among Algm,
feeding upon minute crustaceans, molluscs, and even small fish and sea-weed. It
appears to be sometimes taken at considerable depths.

Breeding. —In the spring in the Mediterranean (Risso).

As food.—Its flesh is soft, glutinous, and of little taste.

Habitat.— Occasionally taken along the south-west coast of England, but
has been recorded as having been dredged up on a scollop bank in twenty
fathoms of water, off Ballough, in the Isle of Man, in June, 1834 (Forbes, Mag.
Nat. Hist. 1836, ix, p. 203).

“This pretty fish was formerly, and until the severe winter some three or four
years since, tolerably plentiful in this bay: since then it has totally disappeared.
I have the last week, however, obtained two specimens” (W. Thompson, Weymouth,
Feb. 22nd, 1857, Zool. p. 5608). Portland (Yarrell). It was first obtained at
BLENNIID A. 203

Torcross, in Devonshire, by Montagu, who dredged three examples. It is not
uncommon at Falmouth (Cocks): it has been captured at Dawlish (D’Urban).
In Dorsetshire it has been found to be frequent in the autumn.

A single specimen taken by a trawl in 1845, Mount’s Bay, ‘‘ but the spot on
the first dorsal fin was so obscure as scarcely to be noticed” (R. Couch). It
is not rare in the Channel Islands and extends through the Mediterranean. I
have to thank Mr. Carrington, r.u.s., for two examples from Guernsey, captured |
in 1880, the largest being 4} inches in length.

This fish attains to at least 7 inches in length.

4, Blennius pholis, Plate LX, fig. 2.

Pholis, Aldrovandus, i, c. 25, p. 116; Gesner, p. 714; Jonston, i, tit. 2, cap. 2,
Art. 1, t. xvii, £. 4; Willughby, p. 135, t. H 6, f.4; Ray, pp. 73 and 74; Artedi,
Synon. p. 116.  Blennius, sp. Gronov. Zooph. No. 259 and Mus. Ichth. ii, p. 22,
No. 175. Cataphractus levis, Jago in Ray’s Pisc. p. 164, £.10. Simooth blenny,
Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) iii, p. 208, pl. xxxvi (Ed. 2) iii, p. 280, pl. xl.

Blennius pholis, Linn. Syst. i, p. 443; Bloch, Fis. Deut. ii, p. 184, ¢. Ixxi,
f.2; Bl. Schn. p. 170; Shaw, Brit. Zool. iv, p. 177, pl. xxiv; Bonn. Atl. Ich.
p- 54, t. xxxii, f. 118; Lacép. ii, p. 489; Donovan, Brit. Fish. iv, pl. lxxix;
Turton, p. 93; Jenyns, Man. p. 382; Parnell, Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 73, and
Wern. Mem. vii, p. 2383; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 280, c. fig. (Hd. 2) i,
p. 260 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 366; Couch, Trans. Linn. Soc. xiv, pp. 74, 75; Martens,
Reise nach Venedig, ii, p. 419; Thompson, Pro. Zool. Soc. 1835, p. 80, and Nat.
Hist. Ireland, iv, p.110; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) 1837, i, p. 409; Johnston,
Berwick. Nat. Hist. Club, 1838, i, p. 171; Giinther, Catal. iii, p. 226; McIntosh,
Fish. N. Uist, Pro. Roy. Soc. Edin. v, 1862-1866, p. 614, and Fish. St. Andrew’s,
p. 175, pl. vi, £.4; Stemd. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 8; Collett, Norges Fiske,
p. 72; Giglioli, Pesc. Ital. p. 31; Vinciguerra, Itto. Col. Mus. Civ. Genova, p. 451,
c. fig.; Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 143.

Pholis levis, Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 207; Cuv. and Val. xi, p. 269; Cuv. Réegne
Anim. Illus. Poiss. pl. xxvii, f. 2; Nilss. Skan. Faun. Fiske, p. 182. ;

Adonis pholis, Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 96.

Shanny, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, 11, p. 226, pl. exiii, f. 2.

B. vi, D. 23238, P. 18, V. 2, A. 18-20, C. 13.

Length of head 43 to 42, of caudal fin 6 to 7, height of body 44 to 5 in the
total length. Hye—diameter 45; to 5 in the length of the head, 14 diameters
from the end of the snout. Interorbital space nearly flat. No orbital tentacle.
Anterior nostril with a short tentacle divided at its extremity into four or five
filaments. Teeth—a curved tooth exists at the angle of moderate size in both
jaws, that in the mandible being a little the largest, the number of teeth slightly
vary with age, thus in examples under 3 inches I found 14 in the upper and
12 in the lower jaw, at 3} inches from 16 to 18 in the upper and 13 to 14 in
the lower jaw: from 4 to 44 inches, 19 to 20 in the upper and 16 in the
lower jaw. Fins—the dorsal commences slightly before the vertical from the
hind edge of the opercle: its spines are flexible: it is notched between its two
portions, while posteriorly it is not continuous with the caudal. Scales—absent.
Colowrs—greenish-olive or yellowish: banded, blotched, or spotted with black.
Fins yellowish, also black spotted, while the anal has a black, white-margined,
outer edge. Their colours are very various and while in the water are least
marked. In most examples from the coasts of Cornwall and Devonshire I
observed during life a large blue spot on the cheek, behind and below the eye,
and a light band along the lower part of the side, much as seen in B. galerita.

Varieties. —Mr. Dunn has obtained two scarlet examplesfrom crab-pots. Mr.
Greatwood (Zool. p. 2029) observed respecting the changes of colour in this fish,
that it is of a pale yellowish-brown while in water, but after inhaling atmospheric
air freely for some time, its hue changes to a deeper brown, and a series of white
spots on the lateral line become conspicuous.

Names.—Shanny or shan: said to have been formerly known in Cornwall as
204, ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Mullgrannoe and Bulcard, now as Bully or Bully cod, Cornish. Stone-fish, Parnell.
Shaw and parrot-fish, Ireland. Le Pholis, French.

Habits.—This fish is found in rock pools accessible at low water, and does not
appear to frequent deeper Jocalities. It frequents most of our rocky coasts
and is exceedingly active, creeping with great facility up and between stones
and crevices in rocks, where it may be frequently seen looking out but immediately
withdraws its head should it fancy itself perceived. It appears to voluntarily
spend a considerable portion of its time out of the water, remaining on rocks or
within crevices where by aid of its pectoral and ventral fins, aided by its tail,
it can creep either forwards or backwards and spring actively about. If
frightened it will readily conceal itself under stones or among sea-weed, and
should it be captured it will seize the captor’s finger, to which it will hold on
with considerable tenacity.

One was captured at Topsham, in Devonshire, in June, 1847, and having been
placed in a salt water aquarium was quiet for some hours, but subsequently tried
continuously to jump out. Having placed an Actinia in the glass the blenny
immediately leaped on to it completely out of the water, it was then low tide.
The tide flowed till ten o’clock, and exactly at that time it plunged again into its
natural element, and during five months Mr. Ross asserted that it proved a regular
and correct tide indicator. It had the power of altering its position with great
facility by means of its pectoral and ventral fins. At times it reclined on its side:
or it remained quite erect resting on its pectorals, rotating its head.

It is tenacious of life, living for some time after its removal from its native
element. Donovan having remarked on its having continued alive for thirty
hours under such circumstances, and Montagu that if kept in damp situations
it may live days, Couch observed that it soon expires if placed in fresh water.
Lacépéde records how one of these fishes was found enclosed within the two
valves of an oyster shell, where it is supposed it had entered in order to feed
on the oyster. After it had been dredged and carried to a considerable distance,
the fish was found alive in its prison. At Looe, in Cornwall, Mr. Clogg obtained
a mussel which had closed its two valves on a shanny, opposite the middle of its
pectoral fin. It had been taken by a fisherman in search of ‘bait: the fish when
first brought into the boat was alive, with its head firmly fixed by the mussel in
its deadly grasp.

It eats insects, shells, small crustacea, and sea-weed. McIntosh, at St. Andrew’s,
observed that it feeds on Balant, small littoral shells, and sessile-eyed crustaceans.

In one I examined at Penzance I found among other things several shells of
the common mussel, three of which had passed the pylorus.

An example was retained in confinement more than half a year at Ventnor,
kept in a tumbler of sea water of about three quarters of an inch in depth.
Anything that moved it ate: if an insect was placed outside the tumbler it made
vigorous struggles to penetrate the glass to get at it. Mr. Guyon (Zool. p. 3514)
observes this fish devoured spiders, scolopendree, caterpillars, and mulluscs, every
movable creature being acceptable to it, nor did it disdain a bit of roast beef,
mutton, fowl, or chop. One kept by Couch for upwards of six months in
confinement did not increase in size. In warm weather it mounted on to a stone
in the tank, where it basked for hours at a time, so that in summer full half of
its time was spent out of the water: but when the air grew colder it remained
under water. In no case did its actions corréspond with the ebb and flow of the
tide as described above.

Breeding.—It deposits its ova on the upper surface of small caverns in the
rocks (R. Couch, Zool. 1846, p. 1419), about June, according to Parnell, while
Mr. Dunn considers some at least spawn in spring. Itook minute ones at Penzance
in August.

Uses.—May be employed as a bait for crab and lobster-pots.

As food.—Too small to be of any consequence.

Habitat.—From Scandinavia and the Atlantic coasts of Europe, but it does
not appear to extend far, if at all, into the Mediterranean, where Blennius Caneve,
Vinciguerra (Ann. Mus. Civ. xv, 1880, p. 448), would seem to represent it. This
BLENNIIDA. 205

latter form has the tentacle at its anterior nostril simply bifld at its extremity :
about 30 teeth in the upper and 26 to 28 in the lower jaw. Its fin rays are
D. 13/15, A. 2/15-16.

The shanny appears to be distributed almost everywhere in pools between tide
marks around the British coast, and has been recorded from Banffshire (Edward) :
Aberdeen (Sim), here I procured an example, and several likewise from St.
Andrew’s: Moray Firth: common in the Firth of Forth (Parnell) : Berwickshire
(Johnston): Yorkshire, resident and common in rock pools from Redcar to
Flamborough (Fauna of Yorkshire, p. 113): Norfolk, among stones at low
tide (Gurney), abundant at Weymouth (Gosse), and very common all along
the south coast, especially in Devonshire and Cornwall. Pennant found it to be
common in Anglesea, but Donovan observed that in the thirty years which had
elapsed since Pennant’s remarks were published he found it had disappeared
(except in one spot), and this he attributed to the tang having been almost
eradicated for the use of glass-makers, &c.: also Pembrokeshire.

In Ireland it is common around the coast (Thompson).

It attains to at least 6 inches in length.
206 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus IIJ.—Caretornus, Kriiyer.

Gunnellus, Cuv. and Val.; Chirolophis, Swainson ; Blenniops, Nilsson.

Branchiostegals stv: pseudobranchie present. Body elongated and compressed.
Gull openings of moderate width, and the membranes of the two sides connected with
each other. Small teeth in the jaws, none on the palate. Dorsal fin long and
entirely formed of spines: ventrals present and jugular: caudal distinct. Scales
small, covering the body. Lateral-line not developed. Atr-bladder and pyloric
appendages absent.

Swainson (1839) considered the fish which forms the sole example of this
genus to be a sub-generic type, representing the Gunnell Blennies, but stated
that its precise situation required much investigation.

Geographical distributton.—From the coasts of Scandinavia to those of the
British Isles.

1. Carelophus Ascanii, Plate LX, fig. 3.

Blennius towpée, Ascan. Ic. t. xix. Crested Blenny, Pennant, Brit. Zool.
(Ed. 1) iii, p. 206, pl. xxxv (Ed. 2) iti p. 276, pl. xxxix.

Blennius galerita, Linn. Syst. Nat. p. 44] (in part) ; Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 207;
Bonn. Atl. Ich. p. 52, pl. xxxii, f. 116; Nilss. Prod. Ich. Scand. p. 102; Turton,
Brit. Fauna, p. 92.

Blennius Ascanit, Walbaum, Art. Renov. iii, p. 173; Rein. Maanedsk, f. Liter.
1833, p. 259; Kroyer, Nat. Tids. i, 1837, p. 372; Ginther, Catal. iii, p. 284, and
Ann. and Mag. 1874 (4), p. 189; McIntosh, Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 175; Ogilby,
Zoologist, 1876, p. 4753.

Centronotus Brosme, Bl. Schn. p. 167.

Blennius coquillad, Lacép. iii, p. 477.

Blennius Pennantti, Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 24; White, Catal. Brit. Fish.

. 47.
‘i Blennius palmicornis, Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1), p. 233, c. fig. ; Jenyns, Manual,
p- 380 (not Cuv.).

Blennius Yarrellii, Cuv. and Val. xi, p. 218; Yarrell, 1. c. (Ed. 2) i, p. 263
(Ed. 3) ii, p. 371; Bonap. Pesc. Eur. 67; Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Club, 1838, i,
p- 171; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 109.

Gunnellus Stroemii, Cuv. and Val. xi, p. 444.

Ohirolophis Yarrellit, Swainson, Fishes, i. p. 275.

Blenniops galerita, Nilss. Skan. Faun. Fisk. p. 185.

Carelophus Strémit, Kroyer, Dan. Fis. 1, p. 602.

Carelophus Ascanit, Collett, Norges Fiske, 1875, p. 76.

Yarrell’s blenny, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 233, pl. exiv.

B. vi, D. 50-52, P. 14, V. 1/8, A. 36-40, 0.17.

Length of head 53 to 6, of caudal fin 8} to 93, height of body 6 to 73 in the
total length. Hye—diameter 4 to 43 in the length of the head, 1 to 1} diameters
from the end of the snout, and 1 apart. A well-developed, erectile, supraorbital
tentacle, which posteriorly and superiorly is edged with fine filaments. In front
of this are two smaller ones at the nostrils, said occasionally to be absent ; while
behind these are several simple filaments. Snout short. Cleft of mouth rather
oblique, the hind edge of the maxilla reaching to beneath the front edge of the
eye. Teeth—a single row of closely-set small ones. ins—dorsal consisting of
spines, about half the height of the body, extends from above the hind end of the
head as far as the base of the caudal fin: the first three having some filaments at
their extremities which are much longer in some examples than they are in others.
Pectoral with its rays branched, it reaches to above the commencement of the
BLENNIIDA. 207

anal. Ventrals short. Caudal distinct. Scales—small, present over the body.
Colowrs—reddish brown, becoming lighter beneath: a series of about eleven bands
of slightly darker hue, but narrower than the ground colour, descend from the
back to the abdominal surface. Dorsal and anal fins light coloured with a central
darker band along their entire extent. In some the fish is entirely of a simple
reddish brown, mottled all over.

Habits.—Appears along the south-west coast to frequent deep water at rarely less
than from five to eight fathoms, but in the north is recorded as having been found
within tide marks. Mr. Peach observed of an example which he kept alive in an
aquarium, that it generally rested with its tail turned towards its head, the
posterior portion of the anal fin being laid flat outside, or almost at right angles
to the body, as if to support the curved part of the tail. Besides possessing
the power to turn the tail to either side, it appeared also to be able to elevate or
depress it. A young one, now in the British Museum collection, was taken in the
voyage of the “ Porcupine” in the sea at 180 fathoms’ depth between Shetland
and Faro.

Means of capture——Has not been recorded to have taken a bait: but is
occasionally found in crab-pots.

Habitat.—From the coasts of Scandinavia and Denmark to around the British
Isles. Orkneys and Shetland Isles, being frequent at times especially in Kirkwall
Bay (W. Baikie). It has been recorded from Wick, in Scotland (Peach) ; Loch
Broom, Ross-shire (Fleming); one from the Moray Firth in 1839; another in
1853 also at Peterhead (Harris); Banff, but rarely met with (Hdward) ;
Aberdeen (Sim) ; Berwick (Johnston) ; Redcar, Sept. 1835 (Teale) in Yorkshire,
where, though resident it is extremely rare (Fauna of Yorkshire, p. 113); one
in July, 1854, at Weymouth (T. Gosse); also Thompson records one taken at
Portland, Feb. 27th, 1850, and one in Chesil Bay on April 7th the same year.
Although not uncommon in Cornwall, it is rare in west Cornwall, an example
captured at Penzance in 1878 being the first recorded (Cornish). A single example
has been taken at Land’s End, “but it has been so frequent in other parts of
south Cornwall, that its rarity has arisen from the limited search I have been able
to make for it’’ (R. Couch).

, Ireland.—T wo examples captured at Carrickfergus in May, 1839; in 1868 one
at Dingle Harbour, Kerry; also seen on the coast and island of Connemara (More,
Zool. 1878, p. 297) ; and two in crab-pots at Portrush, co. Antrim, 1875 (Ogilby,
Zool. p. 4753). Yarrell alludes to it in the counties of Wicklow and Down, and
Thompson to its presence in Dalkey Sound.

The example figured is 7 inches in length, and in the national collection.
This fish attains to at least 7 inches in length.
208 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus IV.—Centronotus, Bloch, Schneider.

Gunnellus, Fleming ; Ophisomus, Swainson.

Branchiostegals five : pseudobranchie present. Body elongated and compressed.
Gill-openings of moderate width, and the membranes of the two sides connected with
each other. A row of small, conical teeth in the jaws, and occasionally on the palate.
Dorsal fin long and entirely formed of spines. Ventrals, if present, irregular and
rudimentary : caudal distinct. Scales very small, covering the body. Lateral-line
not developed. Air-bladder and pyloric appendages absent.

Fleming united Centronotus and Zoarces with the genus Gunnellus.

Hughes, Zool. 1874, p. 3896, observes of Centronotus gunnellus, that although
allied to the blennies, it has none of the tameness and familiarity which characterizes
the latter genus, neither is it so fond of raising itself ona rock above water mark as
they are. He also thought that it might be nocturnal in its habits, for during
the day it remains partially coiled up round a weed or stone, but in the evening
glides about with a graceful snake-like motion taking its food, which it strikes at
as @ viper wounds its enemy.

Geographical distributton.— From the northern seas to the coasts of Great Britain
and France in Europe; in America extending at least as far south as New York.
It has also been found in Decastris Bay and the mouth of the Amoor in the North
Pacific to Japan and California.

1. Centronotus gunnellus, Plate LXI, fig. 1.

Gunnellus cornubiensts, or Butter-fish, Willugh. p. 115,c. 9, t. G 8, fig. 3; Ray,
p. 144; Petiver, Gazoph. t. li, f. 4; Seba, iii, p. 91, t. xxx, f. 6. Blennius, sp.
Artedi, Genera, p. 27, No. 5. Yang-Brosme, 3, Strém. i, p. 315 and Norsk. Vid.
Selsk. Skr. Nya Saml. i, p. 148. Pholis, sp. Gronov. Zooph. No. 267, and Mus.
Ich. i, No. 77, p. 33. Spotted blenny, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) iii, p. 210,
pl. xxxv (Ed. 2) iii, p. 282, pl. xxxix; Low, Nat. Hist. Orkney, p. 202. Purple
blenny, Lowe, 1. c. p. 203; Parn. Wern. Mem. vii, p. 235 (variety ?).

Blennius gunnellus, Linn. Faun. Suec. p. 114, No. 318, and Syst. Nat.
p. 1181; Bonn. Ency. Ich. p. 55, pl. xxxii, f. 119; Bl. Fische Deut. 1i, p. 186,
t. Ixxi, f. 1; Lacép. 11, p. 503; Donovan, Brit. Fishes, ii, p. 27; Shaw, Brit. Zool.
v, p- 179, pl. xxiv; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 93; Jenyns, Manual, p. 383; Mill.
Prod. Zool. Dan. p. 43; Faber, Fische Isl. p. 76; Pall. Zoogr. iii, p. 173;
Richards. Faun. Bor.-Amer. Fishes, p. 91; Retz. Faun. Suec. p. 324 (not Fabr.) ;
Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Club, 1888, i, p. 171.

Gunnellus Europeus, Olafs, Reise, i, p. 81, and Beskr. over Skagen, p. 165,
t. iti, f. 1.

Blennius maculis X, Olafs, Reise, § 680, t. x, f. 12, 13.

Blennius murcenoides, Sujef, Act. Petrop. 1779, ii, p. 195, t. vi, f. 1; Gmel.
Linn. p. 1184 (young).

Centronotus gunnellus, Bl. Schn. p. 167; Fries och Ekstr. Skand. Fisk. p. 105,
t. xxv. f. 1; White, Catal. p. 48; Giinther, Catal. iii, p. 285; Gill, Proc. Ac. Nat.
Sc. Phil. 1864, p. 200; McIntosh, Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 176; Winther, Ich. Dan.
Mar. 1879, p. 28.

Gunnellus vulgaris, Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 207; Cuv. and Val. xi, p. 419 ; Bonap.
Pesc. Eur. 69; Nilss. Skand. Fauna, Fisk. p. 200; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. (2)
1837, i, p. 409; Schlegel, Dieren Neder. p. 6; Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 153.

Murenoides guttata, Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Hd. 1) i, p. 239, c. fig. (Hd. 2) i,
p. 269 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 876; Parnell, Fishes Firth of Forth, p. 75 and Wern. Mem.
vii, p. 235; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 110.
BLENNIIDA. 209

Ophisomus gunnellus, Swains. Fish. ii, p. 277.

Pholis gunnellus, Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 99.

Gunnellus ingens, Storer, Boston Journ. Nat. Hist. 1850, vi, p. 261, pl. viii, f. 1.
Butter-fish, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p, 236, pl. oxy.

B. vi, D. 75-82, P. 11-12, V. 1/1-2, A. s52x5, ©. 15, Vert. 84-86.

Length of head 73 to 8%, of caudal fin 131, height of body 74 to 91 in the
total length. Hye—near the upper profile, diameter 5 in the length of the head,
1 diameter from the end of the snout, and 3 /4 of a diameter apart. Snout short.
Cleft of mouth oblique, commencing superiorly opposite to the upper edge of the
eye: the posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to beneath the front edge
of the orbit. Nostrils simple. eeth—in the jaws in a single row of conical ones
placed a slight distance apart. None on the palate or tongue. Jins—the dorsal,
which is low, consists of moderately strong spines with an interspinous membrane,
it commences above the hind edge of the opercle, and is continued to the base of
the caudal where it is connected to the latter fn by alow membrane. Pectoral
inserted a little behind the head and in the lower half of the depth of the body.
Ventral situated beneath the base of the pectoral: its spine rather strong. Anal
low, it commence sbeneath the middle of the dorsal, and consists of two short spines
and the rest branched rays. It is connected with the caudal similarly to the
dorsal: caudal rounded. Scales—minute, covering the body, but none on the
head. Skin very slimy, due to the large amount of mucous which is secreted.
Colours—when first captured yellow, becoming gray shortly after death. A
single row of from nine to thirteen round black ocelli, encircled with a white ring,
are present on the upper surface of the back, extending on to the base of the dorsal
fin, or they may be restricted to either of those situations. A dark brown band
descends from the eye to behind the angle of the mouth. The body is irregularly
banded, the bands descending from the back to the abdomen. As age advances
they become more broken up and appear as reticulations. These bands are
continued upwards on to the dorsal fin and descend on to the anal. The caudal
yellow, with or without two vertical bands.

Varieties.—Those of colour are not uncommon, but the black spots are usually
as numerous in the young as they are in the adults. Lowe mentions one which
only had one spot at the beginning of the back fin, but not otherwise differing
from the normal form.

Gill, in the Proceedings of the Acad. Nat. Se. Phil. 1864, p. 200, has, in an
exhaustive paper, given reasons for considering Ophidium imberbe, Linn. Montagu,
Wern. Mem. i, p. 95, pl. iv, f. 2; Turton, p. 88; Fleming, p. 201; Jenyns,
p. 481 ; Yarrell (Hd. 1) ii, p. 314 (Hd. 2) ii, p.412. Cepolophis Montagui, Kaup,
Wieg. Arch. 1856, p. 97. Gymmnelis wmberbis, Kaup, Apod. p. 156; Yarrell
(Ed. 3) i, p. 79; Giimther, Catal. iv, p. 825; and Ophidium eel, Couch, iv, p. 333,
to be the young of this species. The number of rays in the two are similar, &e.
Whereas Pennant’s Beardless ophidiwm seems to be very closely allied to, if not
similar with, the common eel.

Names.—Owing to its body being compressed, it is termed the Swordick or
Sword-fish in Orkney. Stane-checker, Scotland. Butter-fish, from its soft and
unctuous feel; and Nine-eyes, Cornwall, from its markings. Traditionally said
to have derived its designation gunnel, owing to Ray’s having shown one to a
fisherman, and inquiring its name was answered that “it looked very much like a
gunnel ”—meaning the gunwale of a small boat; he however supposing this to
be the local term, recorded it. Gonnelle vulgaire, or locally at Poitou Papillon de
mer, French. :

Habits —This marine fish is found chiefly between tide marks, especially in
oozy ground, sheltering either singly or in larger numbers under sea-weed (uct)
hanging over rocks, and especially if the ground be gravelly or shingly; it
may also be taken under stones left dry by a receding tide. It wriggles rapidly
away, while, due to its slimy nature, it is difficult to hold, and in the
water swims with considerable speed. It lives some time (even two or
three days) after removal from the sea, being very tenacious of life. At
St. Andrew’s, McIntosh found that its food “includes Hippolyte, sessile-eyed

14
210 ACANTHOPTERYGIL.

crustacea, annelids, star-fishes, and small mollusca (Rissoa, Skenea, &e.).” It con-
sumes marine insects, and is said to be very destructive to the fry and eggs of other
fishes. Mr. Dunn observes MSS.: “I have a butter-fish, Couch, caught near the
surface of the sea in a pilchard net, three miles from land, in 35 fathoms of
water” (Dec. 28th, 1880).

Means of capture—Generally by dredges, or hunting among the localities it
frequents when the tide is out.

Breeding.—Nilsson states its spawn to be deposited in November. Mr. Peach,
however, in June believed he discovered the spawn of this fish at Fowey, in
Cornwall.

Uses.—It forms a good bait for pollock, cod, mackerel, gurnards, &c., in some
places being used alive for this purpose, in others split up, the skin and vertebral
column being removed.

As food.—Its flesh is said to be hard and indifferent. But the Greenlanders
have been reputed to dry and salt them for their winter provisions.

Habitat.—Coasts of Iceland, Greenland, Norway, and Finland, to the British
Isles and France. In the Orkneys it is frequently found under stones at low
water-mark, or above it among the sea-ware (Lowe); also in Zetland (Baikie).
In the Moray Firth it is very common in pools below high water-mark (Gordon,
Zool. 1852, p. 8460); at Banff among low lying rocks (Hdward); Aberdeen
(Sim); very common also in the Firth of Forth (Parnell); Berwickshire
(Johnston). In Norfolk, it has been mentioned as existing at Yarmouth
(Paget) and Cromer (Gurney), and not uncommon in Yorkshire (Fauna of
Yorkshire). Plentiful in the Lincolnshire flats (Yarrell), also in the Norfolk
estuary (Lowe). Along the south coast, being very numerous off Dorsetshire,
Devonshire, and Cornwall. It has likewise been reported from Anglesea
(Pennant). In Ireland very common around the coast at all seasons (Thompson).

The one figured, life size, J captured from under a stone at Dawlish, in Devon-
shire. It attains to at least 11 inches in length.
BLENNIID. 211

Genus V.—Zoarces, Cuvier.

Mustela, Artedi (preoccupied among quadrupeds). Zoarchus, Swainson.

_Branchiostegals six: pseudobranchice present. Body elongated and compressed.
Gill-openings wide. Several rows of conical teeth in front of the jaws, a single row
laterally, none on the palate. Dorsal fin long and formed of rays, except in a short,
depressed and spinous portion near the end of the tail, these being the sole spines
which ewist. No fin extending rownd the end of the tail: ventrals jugular, formed
of three or fowr rays. Scales rudimentary. Air-bladder absent : pyloric appendages,
af present, rudimentary.

Swainson constituted this genus and Anarrhichas into family Zoarchide.

Geographical distribution.—From the northern seas to Scandinavia, Great
Britain and France. The Atlantic coasts of North America; also Decastris’ Bay,
Kamschatka.

2. Zoarces viviparus, Plate LXI, fig. 2.

Mustela vivipara et marina, Schonev. pp. 49, 50, t. iv, £. 2; Jonston, t. xlvi,
f.8; Willughby, p. 122, +t. H 3, f. 5; Ray, p. 69. Lwmpen, Willugh. p. 120,
t.H,1. Guffer Halpout, Sibbald, Scot. Illus. iii, p. 25, pl. xix, f. 38. Blennius,
sp. 7, Artedi, Synom. p. 45. Enchelyopus, sp. Klein, Miss. iv, p. 57, No. 12,
t. xv, f. 1; Gronov. Zooph. no. 265, and Mus. Ich. i, p. 65. Viviparous Blenny,
Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) iii, p. 211, pl. xxxvii (Ed. 2) iii, p. 283, pl. xli; Lowe,
Fauna Orcadensis, p. 204. :

Blennius viviparus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 448, and Mus. Ad. Fried. p. 69,
pl. xxxii, Kon. Veten. Ak. Handl. 1748, p. 37, t. ii, and Faun. Suec. p. 113;
Bonn. Atl. Ich. p. 55, pl. xxxii, f. 120; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 180, pl. xxiv; BI. iu,
2, p. 262, t. xxii; Bl. Schn. p. 170; Mill. Zool. Dan, ii, p. 23, pl. Ixvii; Walb.
Artedi, Ren. iii, p. 185; Retz, Faun. Suec. p. 325; Siemsen, Fisch. Mecklenb.
p. 26; Donov. Brit. Fish. ii, pl. xxxiv; Turton, Brit. Faun. p. 93.

Blennius viviparus, Lacép. ui, p. 496.

Gunnellus viviparus, Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 207.

Zoarces viviparus, Cuv. Régne Anim.; Jenyns, Manual, p. 384; Yarrell, Brit.
Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 248, c. fig. (Hd. 2) i, p. 273; Nilss. Prod. p. 105; Cuy. and
Val. xi, p. 454; Parnell, Fishes Firth of Forth, p. 73, and Wern. Mem. vii,
p. 287; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) 1837, i, p. 409; Johnston, Berwick. Nat.
Hist. Club, 1838, i, p. 171'; Kroyer, Dan. Fis. i, p. 355, c. fig.; Thompson, N. H.
Treland, iv, p. 111; White, Catal. p. 49; Giimther, Catal. iii, p. 295; Kner, Denks.
Ak. Wiss. Wien, xxiv, 1865; McIntosh, Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 176; Schlegel,
Dieren Neder. p. 65, pl. vi, f. 4; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 10; Collett,
Norges Fiske, p. 78; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. 1879, p. 23.

Zoarceus viviparus, Hkstr. Fis. Morké, ed. Creplin, p. 241; Fries och Ekstr.
Skand. Fisk. p. 36, t. viii, f. 1; Nilss. Skand. Faun. Fisk, p. 203; Yarrell, Brit.
Fishes (Ed. 3) ii, p. 380, c. fig.

Zoarchus viviparus, Swainson, Fishes, i, p. 283.

Enchelyopus viviparus, Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 100.

Viviparous Blenny, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, i, p. 239, p. 116.

B. vi, 76-80/10/20-25, P. 19, V. 3, A. 84-89, Coee. pyl. 2, Vert. 25/85.

Length of head 5} to 6, height of body 7 to 9 in the total length. Hye—
5 to 54 diameters in the length of the head: 1 to 14 from the end of the snout,
and about 1 apart. Lips thick, the posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to
beneath the middle of the eye. A row of large glandular orifices along the
lower edge of the preopercle. Teefh—in several rows of conical ones in both
jaws, becoming a single row laterally: none on palate or tongue. Fins—dorsal
low, it commences just behind the occiput, is continued along the eee near
212 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

its extremity suddenly becomes lower where there are ten spines, it is then
completed by rays. The tail may be said to be destitute of a fin, those of the
dorsal and anal conjoining. In young examples, as up to 3 or 4 inches in length,
there are 13 or 14 distinct caudal rays, which atrophy withage. Anal commences
at the third-fifth of the total’ length. Pectoral nearly as long as the head.
Ventrals small. Intestines—the commencement of the small intestines has almost
the same calibre as the stomach and two short appendages.* Scales—rudimentary,
none on the head. Colowrs—olive, with irregular spots and bands on the head
and body. In some the darker markings are arched in shape and continued on
to the dorsal fin. Two or three arched bands exist on the pectoral.

Names.—Hel-pout was employed by Sibbald as referring to this fish in
Scotland, and Paget states it also employed for it at Yarmouth (see Lota
vulgaris). Gauffer-eel: Gujfer and Green-bone, Scotland. Bards (Edinburgh).
Murena eels, Berwick. JSurbot-eel, Yorkshire (Clarke). Puwit-aal, Holland.
Zoarces vivipare, or locally at Abbeville, Loquette, French.

Habits—Of these but little is known: it frequents sea-weed and conceals
itself under stones similarly to other Blennoid forms. ‘‘ Adult specimens are
found near the beach at Lowestoft, and in the later summer months young
ones, about an inch in length, are abundant in the upper part of the inner harbour
of Lowestoft, where they frequent the mud banks and I think burrow into them”
(Gurney in Norfolk Faun. p. 14).

Means of capture —Found under stones, tang, &c., at low water-mark. In the
Firth of Forth Parnell observes they are taken with lines during the winter months.

Breeding.—This fish is viviparous, bringing forth numerous young at a
time, according to Willughby, in the depth of winter, or, as stated by Nilsson,
throughout the year. Before midsummer it quits the bays and shores, retiring
to the déep water. In February, 1807, Dr. Neill saw a female, 15 inches long,
from which several dozens of young escaped alive. Parnell had an example,
6 inches long, sent him from which he removed fifty-six young all alive, although
the parent fish had been dead for nearly two days. Hach was an inch and a
quarter in length, and on being put into a glass of fresh water they at first
appeared remarkably active, but in less than half-an-hour afterwards they all
expired. Inside the ovisac the young fish are separated by a thick and tenacious
fluid, which has become absorbed by the time they are ready for extrusion.
Willughby and others have estimated the number of young produced at one time
from 200 to 300. Nilsson in a fish, 12 inches in length, found 195, and in another
an inch longer, 262. As soon as they are born, when they would appear to be
often 11 inches in length, and are able to provide for their own subsistence.

As food. —Generally held to be coarse and only eaten by the poor, but Lowe
says it tastes much better and fatter than other Blennies. Neill states it is
often brought to the Edinburgh market. At St. Andrew’s a most intelligent
mechanic informed me that no better fish could be obtained. As observed by
Parnell, some consider its flesh as very fine and wholesome, while others consider
it dry and disagreeable. When boiled the backbone becomes of a greenish colour.

Habitat.—From the seas of northern Europe, Scandinavia, the Baltic, German
Ocean, and round the British shores to France, Portugal, and Spain. It has
likewise been recorded by Kner from the coast of Decastris Bay.

Orkneys and Zetland, very common (W. Baikie) : Moray Firth, Banff (Edward) :
Aberdeen (Sim): St. Andrew’s (McIntosh) : Firth of Forth (Parnell): Berwick
(Johnston). Northumberland (Thompson), the whole of the Yorkshire coast:
Greenwich (Yarrell). Along the south coast it is common in Hampshire
(Barron), but becomes very rare to the westward, only one example having been
recorded from Devonshire. Ireland, in county Down one example has been
captured (Templeton).

The example figured natural size was from the coast of Sussex. It attains to
at least two feet in length.

* Although pyloric appendages have been universally considered absent in this species, I have
found them in the various Briush examples which I have exumined. They are short but wide, and
may be detected by inflating the intestines by means of a blow-pipe.
CEPOLIDA. 218

Famity, XXII—CEPOLIDA, Bleeker.

Branchiostegals six: pseudobranchi# present. Body elongated, low, and
compressed. Kyes large and lateral. No bony articulation between the infra-
orbital bones and the angle of the preopercle. Gill-openings wide, the membranes
being scarcely united under the throat. Teeth in the jaws of medium size and
pointed. A long spineless dorsal and anal fin, more or less continuous with the

caudal. Ventral thoracic, with one spine and five rays. Scales cycloid, small.
Pyloric appendages few.

Genus I.—Ceprota, Linneus.
Acanthocepola, Bleeker.

Head obtuse. Cleft of mouth oblique, its gape wide. Preopercle more or less
armed. Palate edentulous. Air-bladder large.

Bleeker instituted Genus Acanthocepola for those forms which have scales on
the head, the preopercle denticulated or spinate, and the body covered with
imbricate scales.

Marine forms, which on the British coast vary in their rarity, mostly scarce
but in some years pretty numerous.

Geographical distribution.— From the seas of temperate Europe through those
of India to China and Japan.

1. Cepola rubescens, Plate LXII.

Serpens rubescens, Rondel. xiv, c. 8, p. 410; Gesner, p. 863; Willughby, p. 118,
c.13. Myrus alter, Aldrov. iii, c. 28, p. 367; Jonst. t. v, f. 5. Taenia rubra,
Will. p. 117; Ray, Syn. p. 71. Tenia, no. 3, Artedi, Synon. p. 115. Red band-
fish, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Hd. 1812) iii, p. 285.

Cepola rubescens, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 445; Bl. Schn. p. 241; Gmel. Linn.
p. 1187; Montagu, Trans. Linn. Soc. vu, p. 291, pl. xvii; Bonn. Ene. Ich. p. 57,
pl. xxxiii, fig. 122; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 190; Walb. Artedi, iii, p. 117; Brinn. Ich.
Mass. p. 28; Donovan, Brit. Fish. v, pl. cv; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 94; Risso,
Ich. Nice, p. 154, and Europ. Mérid. iii, p. 294; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i,
p. 195, ¢. fig. (Hd. 2) i, p. 224 (Hd. 3) ii, p. 305; Flem. Brit. An. p. 204;
Thompson, M. N. H. (2) 1838, ii, p. 214, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 97; Couch,
Trans. Linn. Soc. xiv, p. 76; Cuv. and Val. x, p. 388, pl. ccc; Harvey, P. Z. S.
1838, p. 45; Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 259; Jenyns, Man. p. 374; Guichen. Expl.
Algér. Poiss. p. 65; White, Catal. p. 54; Giinther, Catal. iii, p. 486; Steind. Ich.
Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 19; Canestr. Faun. Ital. p. 192; Giglioli, Pesc. Ital. p. 83;
Moreau, Poiss. France, ii, p. 552, c. fig.

Cepola tenia, Linn, Syst. Nat. i, p. 445; BL v, p. 103, pl. clxx; Bl. Schn,
p- 241; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 187, pl. xxvi; Lacép. il, p. 526; Walb. Artedi, iii,
p. 117; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 153.

Cepola serpentiformis, Lacép. ii, p. 529.

Cepola longicauda, Swain. Fishes, ii, p. 399.

Red snake-fish, Couch, Trans. Linn. Soe. xiv, p. 76.

Red band-fish, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 262, pl. exx.
214 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

B. vi, D. 67-74, P. 12-15, V. 1/5, A. 60-70, C. 12, Coee. pyl. 8, Vert. 15/54.

Length of head 103 to 15: of caudal fin 101, height of body 15 to 19 in the
total length. Hye—large, diameter 1/3 of the length of the head, 1/2 a diameter
from the end of the snout, and 2/3 of a diameter apart. Snout short: cleft of
mouth very oblique: lower jaw the longer: the maxilla reaches to beneath the
middle of the eye. No spines on the preopercle. Teeth—in jaws largest
anteriorly, they are pointed and curved inwards at their outer extremities,
the number and even position of the teeth in the jaws varies in different
specimens, from 24 to 41 having been recorded as existing in the upper, and
from 16 to 25 in the lower jaw, behind which row are generally two more teeth:
none on the vomer, palatine bones, or tongue. /ins—dorsal spineless, it
commences above the last third of the opercle, it and the anal confluent with
caudal, which latter is somewhat pointed. The anal commences beneath the
tenth or eleventh dorsal ray. All the rays of the vertical fins articulated and
branched. Scales—minute, thin, oval, but increasing in size towards the
tail. Vent beneath a vertical line from about the ninth or tenth dorsal ray.
Air-bladder—large, pointed in front, rounded behind. Colowrs—reddish, or
even carmine, dashed with yellow, more especially on the fins. A black
spot between the maxilla and premaxillary bones. Dorsal of a yellowish tinge
edged with rose-colour. Pectorals deep rose colour, ventrals white.

Varieties—C. rubescens is said to possess one, C. tenia two rows of teeth
in the lower jaw. Couch alludes to a small example being almost round,
but such is not their normal form, being comparatively as compressed as
adults.

Names.—Red band-fish or red snake-fish, owing to its colour, appearance, and
movements. Le serpent de mer, French.

Habits.— Appears to prefer rocky situations at a moderate depth, and to be
most frequently observed off the British coasts after gales in or between the
months of November and March. Dr. Farran observing that this fish is of
frequent occurrence on the Waterford coast, remarks that it lives lying in the
forests of sea-weeds which grow about the coast. It probably lives in deep water
on rocky ground. Risso observes that it feeds on crustacea and zoophytes.
It moves in a serpentine manner and with considerable activity.

Means of capture—Seldom taken in nets as it is believed to swim too low,
but is often washed ashore after a storm. In a few instances it has been secured
on a hook.

Breeding.—At the end of spring according to Risso.

As food.—Not held in any estimation except by fish. It has been several
times found inside cod and hake.

Diseases—From the example figured I sent some intestinal parasitic worms
to Dr. Spencer Cobbold, r.x.s., who kindly determined them as follows : immature
examples of Nematoidewm Cepole rubescentis, “six different internal parasites
have been described from this fish. Those you send are probably the most
common.”

Habitat.—From the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland to the Mediterranean,
where it is common.

On March, 1837, one, 153 inches long, was taken on a whiting line baited
with mussel, seven miles south of Ayr (T. Harvey), and on November 29th,
1837, an example, 19} inches long, was, after a storm, found on the beach at
Ballantrae, Ayrshire (Thompson) : Berwick (Johnston). Mr. Cordeaux observes
that it has been thrown ashore in Yorkshire after storms, but the most numerous
examples have been secured along the south coast. The first two British
specimens were obtained by Colonel Montagu at Salcombe Bay, in Devonshire,
February and March, 1803: one, 22 inches long, was likewise captured on
March 6th, 1838, in the Exe, and many (at least thirty) were washed on shore
on the south coast of Devonshire during November the same year (Harvey),
and more again in February, 1830, it became abundant at Brixham (Holdsworth),
but has not been so common since. It has been taken a few times at Teignmouth
CEPOLIDA. 215

and Kingsbridge. On February 22nd, 1879, one, 192 inches long, was captured
at Exmouth when pursuing sprats (D’Urban, Zool. p. 183), and on
November 16th, 1875, another was taken at Plymouth (Gatcombe, Zool. 1875,
p. 4767). Mr. Dunn has recorded it from “Mevagissey, and though Couch
alludes to having obtained some examples he does not say they were from
Cornwall. Mr. Cornish (Cornish Fauna, p. 39) observes on having heard of
its capture, but never saw a Cornish example. ai

Ireland on the south and west coasts frequently taken on the latter (Andrew’s).
After a heavy gale in December, 1848, one was thrown ashore at Stradbury,
in Queen’s County (Farran): several specimens in the Dublin University
Museum have been received from the west coast captured by Professor Melville. |

For the example figured I am indebted to the late Frank Buckland, Esq. : it
was captured at Exmouth in March, 1879. The longest recorded British
example was 22 inches.
216 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Ninth group—Acanthopterygii teniiformes.

Body riband-shaped. Dorsal fin extending the entire length of the back:
anal absent: caudal, when present, rudimentary, or not in the longitudinal axis
of the body.

Famity, XXIII—TRACHYPTERIDA (part), Swainson.

Tenioidei, pt. Cuvier. Gymnetride, Gray.

Branchiostegals six: pseudobranchiw present. Body elongated and strongly
compressed. Gill-openings wide: gills four. Eyes lateral. Cleft of mouth
slight. Dentition feeble. A single dorsal fin occupying the whole length of the
back, and which may have a detached anterior portion, the whole composed
of rays which are neither articulated nor branched. Anal absent. Caudal
not in the longitudinal axis of the fish or else rudimentary: ventrals, when
present, thoracic. Scales absent. Pyloric appendages numerous. Vertebra
many. Bones soft.

Among the fishes occasionally taken off the British coasts, there are” few
pelagic or abyssal forms that have given rise to so many theories and conjectures
as the “riband fishes.” While their life history, and even their very external
appearance are not thoroughly elucidated. Generally of a brilliant silvery lustre
they have been mixed up with the similarly coloured Trichiuride, of which we
possess species of two genera, Lepidopus and Trichiurus, already described (pp. 153,
156). Some have been credited with being the veritable sea serpent (see Fegalecus,
page 223) both while in the ocean and also when observed in a pool on shore.
One form at least (see Trachypterus, page 219) is a slow swimmer and lies at the
bottom of the sea reclining on one side as occurs in the flat fishes (Pleuronectide).
None have been recorded as captured by the deep sea dredge, but their remains
are by nomeans rare. The difficulty of obtaining unmutilated specimens is very
great, due to the brittleness of their bodies, the fragility of their rays, and the
soft character of their thin and porous bones. While their soft flesh rapidly
decomposes after death. Many young ones are said to have been taken near
the surface.

The British genera as at present known are restricted tol, Trachypterus, caudal
fin present: 2, Regalecus, caudal fin absent.

Professor Gill likewise suggested that a Cuban fish belonging to a recently
recognized genus, Huoxymetopon, might be identical with an example captured in
Scotland in 1812, and Dr. Gunther, in his Introduction to the Study of Fishes, 1880,
observes at page 435 respecting the genus Huowymetopon that “a specimen has
been known since the year 1812: it was found on the coast of Scotland and
described as Trichiwrus lepturus.” At page 221 I have given my opinion that the
fish alluded to is a Regalecus, and cannot be identical with the new West Indian

form.

Geographical distribution.—Ahbyssal forms found to very high latitudes and
most numerous in the Atlantic, Mediterranean and North Pacific Ocean. While
a solitary example has been taken on the coast of India: also at the Mauritius
and Eastern Pacific, as well as off New Zealand and the west coast of South
America,
TRACHYPTERIDA. 217

Genus I.—Tracuyrrerus, Gouan.

Bogmarus, Bl. Schn. Gymmnogaster, Briinnich.

Definition as in the family, with each ventral well developed if present, but
sometimes absent. Caudal fin present, and placed mostly above the longitudinal amis
of the body. Noair-bladder. Pyloric appendages nwmerous.

The ventral fins, as originally remarked, appear to be absent in some specimens,
and the genus Glymnogaster was instituted for the reception of such forms. That
this fin is mostly present seems to have been proved, but not so among such
examples as have been taken along the coasts of Great Britain. Still it is an
open question whether its absence may not be the result of age, a mark of sex,
or due to some other cause, under which circumstances I have deemed it best to
leave names as they are* and await future specimens being obtained for examina-
tion. In the very young of the known forms the first few dorsal rays are very
prolonged, often considerably longer than the body, while along their edges at
irregular distances are short projections on either side: the ventrals likewise
are very elongate, and the caudal rays much longer than in adults.

It is stated by Olafsen that in Iceland these fishes are considered venomons, as
ravens do not touch them, but as Mr. Reid observed the lesser black backed gull
will eat them at Orkney, this statement appears to be doubtful, more especially as
Duguid on the authority of Mr. Strang says, that they are occasionally used as
food by the natives of Orkney. Panceri (Rend. Acc. Napol. 1871, April)
remarks that the fat of Trachypterus iris is phosphorescent.

Geographical distribution—North Atlantic Ocean, especially off the coast of
the Orkneys, and the North Sea coast of Scotland to Yorkshire, and the Atlantic
coasts of Kurope and the Mediterranean. It has also been taken at Valparaiso
and the Mauritius.

1. Trachypterus Arcticus, Plate LXIII.

Vogmeri or Vaagméar, Olafs. Island Reise. § 684, t. xliii.

Gymnogaster arcticus, Briinn. Nye Saml. Dansk. Vid. Selsk. Skr. iii, p. 408,
t. B, f. 1-3; Faber, Fische Isl. p. 66; Nilss. Prod. p. 107; Walb. Artedi, iii,
pl. iii; Fleming, Mag. Nat. Hist. iv, 1831, p. 215, c. fig.; Swainson, Fishes, ii,

. 258.

y Bogmarus islandicus, Bl. Schn. p. 518, t. ci. .

Gymnetrus arcticus, Cuv. Régne Anim. ; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 372.

Trachypterus bogmarus, Cuy. and Val. x, p. 346; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 1)
i, p. 191, c. fig. (Hd. 2) i, p. 210 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 282 ; Duguid, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1851,
p. 116; Gaimard, Voy. Isl. et Gronl. Zool. Poiss. pl. xii; Collett, Norges Fiske,
p. 78; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 24. . =

Trachypterus vogmarus, Reinh. Vid. Selsk. Skr. vii, D. p. 65, ¢. fig.; Lilljeborg,
Ofvers. af. Vet.-Akad. Forh. 1849, p. 33; Kroyer, Dan. Fiske, i, p. 292; Report
Montrose Soc. 1878, p. 4, with a photograph. ; i

Vogmarus islandicus, Reid, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) iii, 1849, p. 456,

1. xvi.

e Trachypterus arcticus, Nilss. Skand. Fauna Fisk. p. 162; Duguid, Prog. Zool.
Soc. 1851, p. 116; Giinther, Catal. iii, p. 305; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 78, and
Christ. Vid. Selsk. Fordh. 1879, No. 1, p. 59. i

Deal-fish, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 246, pl. cxviil.

B. vi, D. 158-165 (172), P. 5 (10-11), V. 0 (6). C. 7-8.

* While investigating this question I have been to the Newcastle and Montrose Museums, and

also to Norwich, where I examined the example captured there in 1879. 4
+ I must draw particular attention to no ventral fins having been present in the three British
examples which I have seen, namely, at Montrose, Newcastle, and Norwich, and from which my

figure was made and my description’ taken.
218 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Length of head 93, of caudal fin 93, height of body 6 in the total length.
Hye—lateral, diameter 3 in the length of the head, 1 diameter from the end of the
snout, and 1/2 a diameter apart. (In an example captured at the Orkneys in 1817
the height of the body was 6{ in the entire length.) Body very strongly
compressed : its height continuing much the same to within the last fourth of the
length of the body, when it suddenly decreases and becomes very low at the
caudal peduncle. Teeth—small Gn the maxilla nearly recumbent, thin and
pointed, with the apices pointing towards the pharynx: two on either side of the
upper jaw: three or four on each side of the lower: one or two teeth on the
vomer, but none on the palatines in T. arcticus). Fins—the dorsal commences
above the posterior end of the opercle, its rays are simple and not articulated :
its first few are low (no anterior elongated portion as described in T. arcticus
exists). The fin gradually becomes higher, attaining its greatest elevation in the
posterior fourth of the length of the back, but gradually diminishes in height as
it approaches the caudal fin, on to which it is not continued. Pectorals very short,
situated low down and close to the head, and with five rays (10-11 in 7. arcticus),
No ventrals (said to exist in J. arcticus and to consist of six rays, Dr. Duguid
also observed minute ones in some Orkney examples). Caudal with seven minute
rays at Montrose, eight in that at Norwich, it is situated slightly above the
longitudinal axis of the body: close to its base and on the inferior edge of the
caudal peduncle exists a short spine pointing forwards, and three or four smaller
ones behind it (some have supposed this to be a rudimentary anal fin). Vent
situated midway between the hind edge of the eye and the base of the candal
fin. Lateral-line—almost straight, and slightly nearer to the abdominal than it is
to the dorsal profile: it consists of a row of oval bony plates having a central
spinate prolongation to each, and which increase in size towards the tail. Some
hard warts exist along the edge of the abdomen. Colours—silvery, with
indications of light longitudinal lines, but no black spots (as stated to exist in
T. arcticus). Fins red, the caudal tinged with darker.

The foregoing descriptions are taken from the three specimens I have personally
seen at Norwich, Newcastle, and Montrose. Whether the first of these had or had
not a ventral fin appears doubtful. Mr. Southwell observes that “Mr. Rump,
who first saw it, says it had two singularly rounded fins at the V.” (ventral) ; but
when he examined it “ the ventral fins mentioned by Mr. Rump had disappeared.”
Reinhardt found them in both examples of 7’. arcticus from Iceland which he
examined. Icould not see any indications of them. There was no anterior dorsal
fin consisting of elongated rays, while ‘Mr. Cole tells me that it was a male”
(Southwell). These British forms would appear to be identical with Professor
Lilljeborg’s specimens sent from Tromso to Nilsson who considered it might be
distinct from T. arcticus; but Dr. Duguid, :having observed minute ventrals
in some Orkney examples, renders it possible that all may belong to one species.

Ina paper upon the different species of this genus, and especially on the
metamorphoses of 7. tenta, C. Emery* comes to the conclusion that 7. filicauda,
Costa; 7’. spinole, Cuv. and Val.; 7’. tenia, Bloch; and 7’. iris, Walb., are names
given to the successive stages of one and the same species, viz., T. tenia. He
gives particulars of twenty-three specimens which he had examined.

Professor Gill, with great probability, suggests that Hoy’s fish, found Nov.
2nd, 1810, and described as Trichiurus lepturus (Trans. Linn. Soe. xi, p. 210) was
apparently a Trachypterus, the height of the body equalling about six in the total
length; its greatest thickness being only one inch, &e.

Names.—Deal-fish, due to its thin form. Vaagmaer, from its Icclandic name.

Habits.—Olafsen says (Voy. Iceland, p. 592) that it is rare even in Iceland:
it seems to approach the shore at the flood tide in places where the bottom is
sandy and the shore not steep, and here it remains until left dry. Nilsson remarks
that it is termed Sélv quette or “ Silver holibut,” its name signifying its colour,

* Atti Acc. Rom, (3) Mem. Sci. Fis. iii, pp. 390-395, fig. 1-6, and Mt. z, Stat. Neap. 1879, i,
p. 58).
TRACHYPTERIDA. 219

and that its habits resemble those of flat-fishes. Some are thrown ashore after
storms, a few are taken during the autumn in the herring nets; but at other
seasons they are believed to frequent deeper waters. They have been seen at the
bottom in two or three fathoms of water where the fishermen hook them up with
the implement employed to raise dead seals. They move something like a flat-
fish, with one side turned obliquely upwards, the other (the left) being towards
the ground. The Finland fishermen say that when alive itis very fat and its
sides round; but the fat is so liquid and oily that it runs from the body as soon
as the fish dies. The Russians at Archangel are said to purchase them for the fat
they contain.

As food.—Observed by Mr. Strang to be eaten in the Orkneys.

Habitat.—From Iceland to the Orkneys and shores of the British Isles.

Fleming describing one from the island of Sanday in the Orkneys, taken in
1829, quotes a letter from Dr. Duguid, who observes: “ Mr. Strang tells me that
two or three specimens have been found on the shores of the island this winter, as
well as on former occasions, and in 1851 that he had obtained seven or eight since
1829: on the whole, however, they are of rare occurrence.” December 2nd, 1817,
one 43 feet long was found on the beach at Sanday by Mr. Lindsay: 1847, one
3 feet long at Burghhead, Moray Firth (Martin), where Dr. Gordon, Zool.
p. 3460, alludes to the capture of two. April, 1872, one 5 feet 10$ inches long
was captured in the stake nets at Montrose, and is now in the Museum: Mr. Reid,
of Wick, mentions having obtained three specimens (Buckland) ; also in 1849, one
in the Firth of Forth. In January 18th, 1844, one 3 feet 5 inches long was
obtained on the coast of Northumberland and placed in the Newcastle Museum.
April 7th, 1848, one was found dead at Elie, but quite fresh (D. 176). On
October 8th, 1879, one 53 inches in length was taken by a fisherman in a draught
net in Holkham Bay, on the Norfolk coast (Southwell), it is now in the Norwich
Museum.

In Ireland.—One 7 feet 9 inches long: tail only 5 inches: greatest depth
151 inches; greatest thickness 23 inches, was washed ashore at Bundoran on the
southern shore of Donegal Bay in 1875 (Zool. Feb. p. 4343).

The figure on plate xiii is taken from the specimen in the Montrose Museum,
which is 5 feet 101 inches in length. The longest British example recorded is
72 feet long, but the fish is said to attain to several feet more.
220 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus II.—Recarecus, Ascanius.
Gymmetrus, Bl. Schneider.

Definition as in the family, with each ventral in the form of a single long
filament, which may possess a dilated extremity. Caudal fin, if present, rudimentary
(eacept in the Asiatic species). No air-bladder. Pylorie appendages numerous.

Geographical distribution.—The Regalecus or “king of the herrings” has been
captured in the seas of Northern Europe, extending to the coasts of the British
Isles ; in the Mediterranean ; the South Atlantic ; a single example off the coast
of Vizagapatam in the Hast Indies; New Zealand and New South Wales.

It may be questioned if the species of this genus have not been unduly
multiplied, and whether the difference in the height of the body as compared
with its length may not be due to the influence of locality, of age, or of sex.
Simply regarding variations in the number of the rays of the dorsal fin as
indicating distinct species is rather a hazardous proceeding in a genus such as
Regalecus, wherein the dorsal rays being numerous, a very great latitude in the
number must be anticipated, even among varieties of the same species.

1. Regalecus Banksii, Plate LXIV.

? Gymnetrus Hawkenit, Bl. xii, p. 88, t. 425; Lacép. iii, p. 380; (Gymnetrus
Hawhinsii,) Bl. Schn. p. 481; Cuv. and Val. xii, p. 372; Jenyns, Brit. Vert.
p. 873. Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 197; Couch, Trans. Lin. Soc. xiv, p. 77; Yarrell,
Brit. Fish. (Hd. 2) i, p. 221, c. fig. (Hd. 3) u, p. 302.

Gymnetrus Banksit, Cuv. and Val. x, p. 365; Hancock, Trans. Tyneside Field
Club, i, 1849, p. 228, ¢. fig, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1849, iv, p. 1, pl. i and ii;
Tristram, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1866, p. 147, and Ann. and Mag. xvii, p. 312 and
p. 390; Hogg, lL ¢. xviii, p. 136.

Gymnetrus —?, Martens, in Jacob’s Account of Rare Fishes, 1849, p. 10.

Regalecus Banksii, Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 3) ii, p. 293; Walker, Ann. and
Mag. (3) 1862, x, p. 13; Giinther, Catal. iii, p. 8309; McIntosh, Fish. St. Andrew’s,
p. 176; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 87.

Trichiurus lepturus (part) Hoy, Trans. Linn. Soc. xi, p. 210.

Regalecus glesne, Bonn. Ency. Ich. p. 40, p. Ixxxvi, fig. 358; White, Catal.
Fish. p. 40; Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1849, p. 78, and 1850, p. 52.

Banks’ oar-fish, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 251, pl. exix.

Ribbon-fish, T. Wright, Nat. Hist. Trans. North. and Durham, 1877, v, pt. iti,
p. 340.

B. vi, D. 9322285, P. 11, V. 1.

Length of head 12 to 16, height of body 13 in the total length. Hye—
5 diameters in the length of the head, and nearly 2 diameters from the end of
the snout. Body much compressed, its greatest thickness being nearer to the
ventral than to the dorsal profile. The height of the body is less opposite and
just behind the gill openings than it is further back, but the rise is very gradual,
while it gradually diminishes again in the last half of its extent. Forehead very
steep: snout truncated . the cleft of the mouth almost vertical, but when closed
the posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to beneath the front edge of the
eye. The greatest height of the head equals its length excluding the snout.
The caudal termination is more difficult to make out in such examples as I have
seen—all but the Newcastle one being stuffed. When first examined “the
edge of the back behind the termination of the dorsal fin sloped rapidly
downwards to within an inch of the line of the belly, and then formed a rounded
point, which is the distal extremity of the fish. Both the upper and under edges
of this extremity were very thin, and the fishermen insisted that when they took

 
TRACHYPTERID i. 221

the fish this part was entire, and that there was no tail fin whatever. The edges
could be pressed together, and seemed to fit” (Hancock). Teeth—absent. Fins—
the dorsal commences on the forehead above the middle of the eyes: its first ten
or twelve rays are produced even in females, exceeding the greatest height of the
fish in length, the anterior ones being higher than the posterior ones; they are
connected by a membrane which is continued along the entire extent of their
posterior surface, and end superiorly in a cutaneous lobe. The remainder of the
rays of the dorsal fin are of an almost uniform height at first, but decrease
considerably in the last portion of the fin. Pectoral situated rather nearer the
ventral surface of the body than to the lateral-line, its rays simple and short.
Ventral consists of one long spine, equalling about one-third of the entire length
of the fish, along the inner margin of which the membrane is continued,
and ends posteriorly in a cutaneous lobe.* Caudal absent. Skin covered with
a silvery deciduous pigment, which under the microscope appears like the scales
on the wing of a moth. The skin is studded with numerous bony tubercles,
irregularly arranged, replaced near the head by depressed indurations. Four
indurated ridges pass along the body above the lateral-line. Along the lower
edge of the body are numerous rough tubercles. Lateral-line—descends gradually
from above the eye to the middle of the body, and is continued to its caudal
extremity. Stomach—elongated and dividing posteriorly is continued back-
wards between the muscles to within a short distance of the caudal end of
the fish. Colours+“uniform silver-gray all over, resembling bright tin-foil or
white Dutch metal, except a few irregular dark spots and streaks towards the
anterior part of the body. On closer inspection the remains ofa bright iridescence
were seen about the pectoral fins and head, the blue tint predominating” (Han. &.).
Round the posterior margin of the preopercle a broadish dusky mark on the skin,
and near the top of the head above the eye a crescentic mark of a dark iridescent
blue colour; besides those on the side of the body there were several narrow,
dusky black, slightly waved lines considerably apart from each other, and obliquely
inclined from before backward, eight being above the lateral-line, but more
numerous below it, also some spots.

The Amble specimen, according to Mr. Wright, was 13 feet 4 inches long. Its
height at the gills was about 103, and in its deepest part near the middle of the
fish 11 in the total length. Its greatest thickness one-third of its height.
Dorsal rays 236, connected by a thin and delicate membrane. The first ten rays
were much longer than the rest, and formed quite a crest: the first was 24 inches
long, the others were broken. Pectoral 11 rays, and each ventral a very long and
spine-like ray 4 feet long, with a small oval, leaf-like expansion at its end. Vent
nearly 6 feet from the end of the snout. Hye 13 inches in diameter. Mouth
very protrusible. No teeth observed in the jaws.

November 12th, 1812, a fish was found on the beach on the shores of the
Moray Firth, which Hoy considered to be Trichtwrus lepturus, and described as
follows. Its head had been broken off and was quite gone: a small bit of the
gills only remained about the upper part of the throat, from whence to the
extremity of the tail its length was 12 feet 9 inches: its breadth (height),
414 inches, was nearly equal for the first 6 feet in length from the gills,
diminishing gradually from thence to the tail, which ended in a blunt point,
without any of those bristles which projected from the tail of the one found
formerly : its greatest thickness was 23 inches: the distance from the gills to the
anus 46 inches. The dorsal fin extended from the head to the tail, but was
much torn and broken: the bones and muscles to which the pectoral fins had
been attached were perceivable very near the gills. There were no ventral nor
anal fins, but the thin edge of the belly was closely muricated with small hard
points, which, though scarcely visible through the skin, were very plainly felt all
along it. Both sides of the fish were white, with four longitudinal bars of a
darker colour: the one immediately below the dorsal fin was about 2 inches

* Professor Collett observes (MSS.) that his impression is that in the example he examined,

a cutaneous membrane extended along the entire inner side of the ventral spine, ending in three
lobes, cach distinct and pointed.
222 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

broad, each of the other three about three-fourths of an inch. The side (lateral)
line straight along the middle.” Gill (Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Phil. 1863, p. 228, and
1864, p. 205) observes “it is true that Hoy denies ventral and anal fins, but it
must be remembered that he was not a scientific ichthyologist ; the ventral scales,
as well as the anal fin, had also perhaps been lost, or preoccupied with the idea
that his fish was the Leptwrus (Trichiurus) Hoy did not carefully look for them.
But whether this hypothesis is right or wrong, it is evident that Hoy had neither
a Lepturus (Trichiurus) nor Lepidopus before bim.” Even admitting Hoy’s
account to be less accurate than could be desired, we must observe as follows :—
the head having “ been broken off and quite gone’’ the ventrals may have shared
the same fate, more especially as of the pectoral fins only ‘‘the bones and muscles
to which they had been attached were perceivable.”’ There was no anal fin,
and the tail ‘“‘ended in a blunt point,” while “the thin edge of the belly was
closely muricated with small hard points.” All the foregoing are identical
with what exists in Regalecus. On the other hand, in Huoxymetopon an anal
fin is present; the tail ends in a well-developed forked fin, and the edge of the
belly is smooth. The colours in the two forms seem to be much the same.

Gymnetrus Hawkenit, Bloch, appears to be this fish, which was taken at
Newlyn close to Penzance, and incorrectly delineated. Mr. T. Cornish, of
Penzance, observes that on the walls of a cottage in the neighbourhood has been
discovered the drawing of one of these fish, having the following inscription—
“ Hawkins gymnetrus,” the Cetl conin, or “king of the herrings. This very
remarkable fish came on shore (alive) at Newlyn, on Saturday, Feb. 23rd, 1788.
Its length without the tail (which it wanted) was 83 feet. Its breadth 10}
inches: thickness 2? inches: and weight 40 1b.” (Cornish Telegraph, 1870).
Mr. Cornish also observes that there is a trace but not a record of its occurrence,
once subsequently at Marazion in Mount’s Bay.

Varieties.—It is open to question whether more than one form of Regalecus
has not been obtained on our shores; or if the differences which have been
remarked upon may not be due to age or accident. Professor Collett (Norges
Fiske) has expressed a doubt on this subject, believing that the three forms
R. glesne, Banksit, and grill are hardly identical. The following are the
differences given, which possibly may not be specific but merely within the limits
of variation :—

1. Regalecus glesne or Ophidium glesne, Ascan. Rt. remipes, Briin. D. 8/126-160,
P. 14, A. 1.

2. Regalecus grilli, or Gymnetrus grillii, Lindr. D. 406, P.12,V.1. Height
of the body 15, length of the head 18 in the total length.

To this latter species Dr. Giinther thinks Hancock’s specimen taken in 1845
may be referred. An example taken near Whitby in Yorkshire, the last week
in January, 1880, was 16 feet long, the length of the head 19, and the height of
the body from 19 to 24 in that of the total length. The number of rays was not
given. It was left among the rocks by a retiring tide, and in its struggles to
escape it broke itself into three parts (C. Elhott, in the Field). This from the
proportions would seem to agree with the variety R. grillit. Dr. Gray observed
(1849) “I believe there is only a single species yet found in the North Sea.”

Names.—Banks’ oar-fish, after Sir J. Banks and its oar-like appearance.

Habits—The haunts of this fish are little known, but those which have been
secured are supposed to have left their usual deep sea home due to disease or
injury, or may be for depositing their ova; while being so fragile they must
habitually reside where storms are unknown. Their movements are undulating
and rapid, consequently when they appear occasionally at the surface leaving a
lengthened wave behind, an exaggerated idea of their length is given, thus -
rendering it possible they may have been one of the supposed forms attributed
to the “sea serpent.”

Respecting the example secured at Amble, opposite Coquet Island, March
3rd, 1876, Mr. Wright observes that when it got into shallow water it turned to
make out to sea again, but a man who saw it ran inio the water and scized it by
the gills, and with some extra help it was drazecd on shore. It was staled to
TRACHYPTERIDA. 223

have lived two hours after being landed. Its tail was damaged by lashing against
the rocks when the fish was captured.

One was observed off Northumberland, March 26th, 1849, about 6 miles from
shore in 20 or 30 fathoms of water, but lying on its side at the surface. ‘The fish
as they approached righted itself, and came with a gentle, lateral, undulating
motion towards them, showing its crest and a small portion of the head occasionally
above water ; when it came alongside, one of them struck it with his picket—a
hook attached to the end of a small stick, and used in landing their fish; on this
it made off with a vigorous and vertical undulating motion, and disappeared as,
quick as lightning under the surface. Ina short time it reappeared at a small
distance, and pulling up to it they found it again lying on its side; they plied the
picket a second time and struck it a little behind the head; the picket again tore
through the tender flesh by a violent effort of the fish, which escaped once more,
but with diminished vigour; on the boat coming a third time alongside, the two
young men putting their arms round the fish lifted it into the boat. Signs of
life remained for some time after the fish was captured, but no doubt it was in a
dying or very sickly state when first discovered” (H. Hancock and D. Embleton,
Ann. Nat. Hist. (2) 1849, iv, p.1). From an examination of the contents of the
stomach they were led to conclude that its habitual food had been confined to the
spawn of other fish, and the soft, small, defenceless inhabitants of the deep.

Breeding.—The example taken in April, 1866, was found by Mr. Martin
Simpson to be a female near to spawning time.

The following are most of the specimens which have been recorded as
British, others have been mentioned, but the authority in some at least appears
questionable.

March, 1844, an example 12 feet long was secured at Crovie, near Macduff
(Marten): Couch alludes to one 154 feet long, which Mr. Peach informed him
had been captured at Kiess, a few miles from Wick: in July, 1877, one 123 feet
long at Dunnet Bay, Caithness, where it came ashore alive during calm weather
(Buckland): September 17th, 1851, one 11 feet 10 inches long in the Bay of
Cromarty (G. Gordon, Zool. 1851, p. 3660): August 21st, 1880, one 12 feet 9
inches long was found dead, but quite fresh and uninjured, at the mouth of the
Eden, on the sands at St. Andrew’s: it has been stuffed and restored and is now
in the Museum. March 27th, 1794, one 10 feet 1 inch long was shown at
Newcastle: March 8th, 1876, one 13} inches long was taken at Amble, opposite
Coquet Island (T. Wright): in 1800 two were captured at the outer Fern Islands,
14 and 18 feet respectively in length: March 18th, 1796, one 13 feet long was
taken by four women at Filey (Banks): in 1845 one 16 feet long was found alive
in a pool near Alnmouth by one of the Preventive Service Men. On his approach
it bent its body into a circle, and he, ignorantly thinking that it was going to spring
upon him, attacked it with his cutlass and cut off its head (Hancock): March
Qnd 1866, one 14 feet long, and not quite dead, was thrown ashore at West
Hartlepool after a storm (Tristram): March 26th, 1849, one 12% feet long
at Cullercoats, and is now in the Newcastle Museum (Hancock): in 1850,
January 3rd, one 10 feet 11 inches long was taken alive at Redcar (Zoolo-
gist): April 23rd, 1866, one 10 feet long was taken in Yorkshire, and
is now in the Whitby Museum (Stephenson in the Fauna of Yorkshire) :
October 2nd, 1870, one 11 feet long, also from Yorkshire, is now-in the
Whitby Museum (1. c.): January, 1880, one 16 feet long at Staithes, York-
shire (C. Elliot, Field, February 7th, 1880). January 22nd, 1759, one 11} feet
in length was taken off Whitby (Annual Register): February 23rd, 1788, one 81
feet long was taken at ebb tide on the sands at Newlyn, Mount’s Bay, Cornwall,
and of which several copies appear to have been made, but with varying dates
attached.

The figure on plate lxiv is from the Newcastle specimens, and with assistance
received from Mr. Wright, the curator of the Museum.
224 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Tenth group.—Acanthopterygii mugiliformes.

Two separate dorsal fins, the anterior short, or else composed of weak spines.
Ventrals abdominal, with one spine and five rays.

Pallas, Cuvier, and others have pointed out the close relationship which exists
between the Atherines and the Mullets.

Famity, XXIV—ATHERINIDA, Giinther.

Branchiostegals five or six: pseudobranchie present. Four gills: gill-opening
wide. Body more or less elongated and somewhat subcylindrical. Eyes lateral.
Gape of mouth of moderate width: cleft not very deep. Teeth minute. Two
separate dorsal fins, the first with feeble spines, and less in number than the rays
of the second, which is similar to the anal: ventral abdominal, with one spine
and five rays. Scales cycloid and of medium size. Lateral-line indistinct,
Pyloric appendages, when present, few. Air-bladder present.

Geographical distribution.—These pretty little fishes, furnished with a burnished
silvery lateral band, are distributed throughout nearly all the seas of temperate
and tropical regions. They are not only taken in the littoral region, but even in
estuaries and tidal rivers when not far removed from the sea, while some have
been acclimatized in fresh waters.

Genus J.—Aruenrina, Artedi.
Pseudomugil, Kner.

Branchiostegals five or siw: pseudobranchice present. Body somewhat subcylin-
drical, with slightly compressed sides. Snout more or less obtuse: cleft of mouth
oblique, extending to as far as below the front edge of the eye. Teeth very minute,
but usually present on jaws, palate, and tongue. Ventrals at some distance behind
the pectorals. Scales of moderate size. Arr-bladder present. Pyloric appendages,
when present, few. Ova comparatively very large. A silvery lateral band.

These are gregarious fishes mostly residing in the littoral regions, but whether
more than one species exists on our shores is doubtful. Dr. Giinther in his
Catalogue (iii, p. 395) observes of Atherina Boyert ‘according to Couch, occa-
sionally on the coast of Cornwall,’ and in his Introduction to the Study of
Fishes, he states, “ A. presbyter and A. Boyeri occur on the British coast.” * But
no British example appears to exist in the national collection.

Atherina presbyter was reported by Meynell, in 1844, as taken in Bridlington
Bay, Yorkshire. Montagu and Yarrell considered it absent from the east coast of
England, where its place is filled by the true smelt, Osmerus eperlanus, which in
its turn is asserted to be absent from the south coast. The foregoing, it would
appear, cannot be accepted as literally correct if Gurney, who has reported it from
Lowestoft, and Lowe from the Norfolk estuary, have not likewise been in error.
It is evidently rare on the east coast, which may be due to the nature of the
ground, or absence of appropriate food. In the Field, May 21st, 1881, it is
observed ‘‘Sand smelts run larger in Cornish deep water harbours than further
east as a rule.”

* Dr. Giinther (Intr. Study of Fish. p. 500) observes of the Atherines, that ‘the young, for
some time after they are hatched, cling together in dense masses, and in numbers almost incredible.
The inhabitants of the Mediterranean coast of France call these newly hatched Atherines ‘Nonnat’
(unborn)”—(perhaps an observation from Cuvier and Val. x, p. 417.) But as such a phenomenon
has not been observed on our shores, J may mention that the nonnats are a form of Goby, Aphia
pellucida, see p. 169, ante.
ATHERINIDA. 225

1. Atherina presbyter, Plate LXV, fig. 1.

Duhamel, Peches, ii, sect. 6, pl. iv, f. 1-4, 7. Osbeck, Nov. Act. Nat. Cur. iv,
p- 103, No. 22. Atherine, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Hd. 1) iii, p. 328, pl. Ixv. (Ed. 2)
ui, p. 434, pl. Ixxvi; Gronov. Zooph. No. 399, and Mus. Ich. p. 23, no. 66.
Atherina hepsetus, Donov. Brit. Fish. iv, pl. Ixxxvii; Turton, Brit. Fauna,
p- 105; Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 217; Yarrell, Zool. Journal, iv, p. 471 (not Linn.).
Atherina presbyter, Jenyns, Manual, p. 377; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 1), i,
p. 214, ¢. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 229 (Ed. 8) ii, p. 170; Parnell, Wern. Mem. vii,
p. 230, and Fishes Firth of Forth, p. 70; Cuv. and Val. x, p. 439, pl. ecev;
Thompson, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1835, p. 80, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 106;
Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) 1837, i, p. 409; Lowe, Trans. Zoo. Soc.
ii, p. 184; Guichen. Explor. Algér. Poissons, p. 66; Cuv. Régne Anim. Ill. Poiss.
pl. lxxvi, £3; White, Catal. p. 26; Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 243; Giinther, Catal.
ii, p. 392; Schlegel, Dieren Neder. p. 28, pl. i, f.5; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port.
1868, p. 11; Ogilby, Zoologist, 1876, p. 4754; McIntosh, Fish. St. Andrew’s,
p. 176; Giglioli, Catal. Pesc. Italiani, p. 32; Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 207.
Atherine, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 1, pl. cxxi, f. 2.

B. vi, D. 7-9/a7475, P. 13-15, V. 1/5, A. ap-Feccm, C. 17, L. 1. 57-62, L. tr.
10-11, Vert. 51.

Length of head 5} to 6, of caudal fin 58 to 6}, height of body 5% to 62 in the
total length. Hye—diameter 2? to 3 in the length of the head, 3/4 tu 1 diameter
from the end of the snout, and 1 diameter apart. Abdominal profile more convex
than the dorsal. Cleft of the mouth oblique, the posterior extremity of the
maxilla reaches to beneath the first third of the orbit: the lower jaw somewhat
projects in front of the upper. Teeth—present in the jaws, vomer, palatines, and
in a medium patch along the tongue. ins—the first dorsal commences over the
middle of the ventral fins, its second and third spines longest, equalling the highest
rays of the second dorsal, and 2/3 of the height of the body below it. The
second dorsal commences above the sixth anal ray. Caudal forked. Scales—on
the opercles and cheeks. Coscal appendages absent. Colowrs—semi-diaphanous, of
an olive-brown along the back, becoming silvery tinted with purple, on the sides
and beneath. Numerous fine black dots along the edges of the scales in the upper
half of the body. A burnished silvery band, darkest superiorly, extends from the
eye to the centre of the base of the caudal fin, it occupies the lower half of the
fourth, the whole of the fifth and the upper half of the sixth row of scales in the
anterior region of the body. Those in the north of Ireland are of a darker ground
colour than those in England, and the spots above the lateral-line more numerous.

Jenyns observes in his description of some examples from the Sussex coast that
they had fifty-one vertebra, and the same number have been present in such as I
have examined : the first twenty-five being abdominal and the remainder candal.
The lower apophyses of the anterior caudal vertebre are curved so as to form a
wide canal for the posterior process of the air-bladder; while the second to the
seventh of them have also broad expansions protecting the canal. Taking thirty-
one specimens from the south coast, I found the formula of the fin rays as follows:
first dorsal seven spines in three, eight spines in twenty-four, and nine spines in
four; the posterior one being delicate, is liable to be injured or overlooked. The
second dorsal had one spine in all, and eleven rays in four, twelve rays in nine,
and thirteen rays in eighteen. The anal had one spine in all, fourteen rays in five,
fifteen rays in thirteen, sixteen rays in twelve, and eighteen rays in one.

Thompson found much the same number in the nine Irish examples which he
described D. 7-8/a¢ie A. zeltr 5 :

Varieties.—In form: Jenyns found the eye in some examples having fifty-one
vertebre, 24 diameters in. the length of the head. .As to colour.—Thompson
observes that the atherine of the north of Ireland differs from the English
specimens in being of a darker, and consequently a less sandy colour.

Names.—Smelt or sand smelt, where the true Osmerus eperlanus is unknown.
A local name is stlver-sides, from its colour. In Cornwall it was formerly termed
Quid, a word signifying “white.” Pincher at Portrush (Ogilby). nen

3
226 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

chicken, north of Ireland (Thompson). L’Athérine prétre, “ pretre,” as the silvery
lateral band is considered to resemble a priest’s stole ; or abusseau or rosére on the
Atlantic shores of France. De Koornar-visch, Holland.

Habits—This appears to be rather a local species generally living in small
communities along the shores, or in harbours or bays where the ground is rough
and sandy, and the water smooth, retiring in winter to deeper water. Couch
remarks that he had been informed of instances in the shallow waters of a harbour
where numbers which had been surprised by a sudden frost had been left dead on
the shore. It eats small crustacea and vegetable matter.

Means of capture —Nets of about 30 yards long and 18 feet deep, made of fine
twine and having a small mesh. One end is held by a person on shore, while
another in a boat has the other end. The net is thus dragged at the surface of
the water parallel with the shore, or encircling a portion of a bay or of the shore.
At Portsmouth Yarrell describes another mode of capture. A concave circular net
is suspended from an iron ring of four feet in diameter, kept horizontal by a three-
slip bridle. The net is lowered steadily in eight feet of water, among the timber
floating on the side of the harbour nearest the dockyard. Pounded crabs sprinkled
over the net is the attraction ; and the net is occasionally raised to the surface. A
nearly similar plan is employed, according to Buckland, at Lymington in
Hampshire, where a man dips a circular net suspended from a pole into the water ;
he then baits it, and finally raises it by using the side of the boat as the lever for
the pole. They readily take a bait when assembled at the end of piers. i

Batt.—Ogilby states that at Portrush it is only caught by fishing with a small
hook, baited with a piece of the flesh of the Galeus canis, that of every other
dog-fish being refused (Zool. 1876, p. 4754). In Cornwall it is found to take a bait
readily : in fact along the south coast they are taken by anglers from projecting
points in several localities, and observed by Yarrell to be so even when they are
heaviest with roe.

Breeding—July. “June, July, and early in August” (R. Couch). In spring
they approach the shore at Dingle Harbour, to spawn (Andrew’s).

Uses.—Said to be a good bait, especially for haddocks.

As food.—Some have deemed it a well-flavoured fish, but rather dry and
inferior to the true smelt, and best when in full roe. Others consider them
worthless as food and full of bones.

For cooking.—They should not be disembowelled, as the liver and roe improve
their taste.

Habitat.—This species extends from the north-east coast of Scotland; very
sparingly along the east shores of Great Britain, but abundant on the south. It
is also found on the Atlantic coasts of France and the Iberian peninsula, and has
been reported from the Mediterranean.

This fish has been recorded at Aberdeen (Sim); St. Andrew’s, where it is rare,
but one local specimen exists in the museum (McIntosh) ; in the Firth of Forth it
is sometimes washed ashore after easterly winds (Neill), but is usually rare
(Parnell). It is recorded from Bridlington Bay, Yorkshire, where it is not
uncommon (Hardw. Sc. Gossip, p. 254): this remark of Meynell appears to be
doubted in the Fauna of Yorkshire, p.113. In the Norfolk estuary it is said to be
frequent during the summer months (Lowe), and found at Lowestoft (J. Gurney).
Montagu observes that the atherine is as plentiful on some parts of the southern
coast of England as the smelt is on the eastern coast, and each seems to have its
limits. In Kent the atherine appears to be unknown, but is extremely plentiful
in Hampshire, especially about Southampton. On the south coast of Devonshire
it is caught in great abundance in the creeks and estuaries, but never in rivers
above the flow of the tide. It appears to continue near the shore through the
months from antumn to spring. It is found off Dungeness in Kent (Yarrell),
along the coast of Sussex (Jenyns); throughout the year, except during
frosts, at Southampton (Pennant); at Weymouth it is common in the harbour
(P. Gosse) ; also along the Devonshire coast (Donovan) ; Exmouth (Ross); and
a frequent visitor during autumn to Cornwall, where it arrives in large shoals
and is considered to be excellent eating.
ATHERINID A. 227

Ireland.—Found in certain localities from the coast of Down, where it is
plentiful, southwards to that of Cork, being not uncommon at Wexford (Walker),
and Youghal (Ball) ; and the smelt alluded to by Rutty as existing in the county
of Dublin, and Smith in the county of Cork, are suggested by Thompson to be
this species. It is mostly brought to market at Belfast from December to April,
both months inclusive, but has been observed as early as September. In autumn
it is very common in the harbour at Portrush, county of Antrim (Ogilby, Zool.
1876, p. 4754). Dingle Harbour abundant (Andrews). In Belfast Bay one was
taken in January, 1851, from the stomach of a red-breasted merganser, Mergus
serrator, shot there (Walker). Said to attain a larger size in Ireland than in
England. In Strangford Lough its average length is recorded at 6}, a few 7,
and one 7? inches long.

2. Atherina Boyeri, Plate LXV, fig, 2.

Hepsetus, Rondel. i, lib. vii, c. 10, p. 215; Gesner, Aquat. iv, p.71. Lavaronus,
Gesner, l. c. p. 73; Aldrov. ii, c. 37, p. 218; Jonst. Pisc. i, art. 19, p. 52.

Anguela, Willugh. iv, c. 2, p. 209; Ray, Syn. p. 79.

Atherina hepsetus, var. 3, De la Roche, An. Mus. xiii, p. 357.

Atherina Boyert, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 333, pl. x, f. 38, and Eur. Mérid. iti,
p. 470; Cuv. and Val. x, p. 432, pl. ccciii (semi-adult); Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesce. ;
Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 243; Guichen. Explor. Algér. Poiss. p. 66; Giinther,
Catal. iti, p. 395; Canestr. Fauna Ital. p. 116; Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 205.

Boiers atherine, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 4, pl. exxi, f. 1.

B. vi, D. 7-8/ry2rq) P. 14-15, V. 1/5, A. ppg C. 17, L. 1. 50-57, L. tr. 4/6.
Vert. 44-46,

Length of head 43 to 53, of candal fin 55 to 65, height of body 5% to 6 in the
total length. Hye—24 diameters in the length of the head, 2/3 of a diameter from
the end of the snout, and 1 diameter apart. Cleft of mouth very oblique; the
posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to beneath the front edge of the eye.
Teeth—present in jaws, vomer, palatine bones, and on the tongue. Fins—the
first dorsal fin commences above the middle of the ventral. Colowrs—similar to
the last species, the lateral band occupies the lower half of the fourth row of
scales, all the fifth, and the upper half of the sixth row.

The foregoing brief descriptions are from the specimens in the British Museum,
which appear to differ from A. presbyter in the size of the eye and number of
vertebre, provided such characters are constant. But Jenyns found the eye in
A. presbyter as large as any yet observed in A. Boyeri. The difference in a few
fin rays more or less can hardly be a criterion as to species in individuals of this
genus, wherein such great variations are shown as I have observed in the British
form (page 225). Professor Steindachner (Sitz. Ak. Wiss. Wien, 1868, lvii, pp.
676-680) considers A. Boyert to be the young of A. presbyter.

Habits—Couch observes that in October, 1846, in the midst of turbulent
weather, there was discovered in the harbour of Polperro, Cornwall, a large
number of small fishes, which only remained a week, and when present mani-
fested actions unlike those of known species. They swam near the surface, not
more than three or four, within a foot or two of each other, but the whole scat-
tered loosely over the water to the number of several thousands. They were so
vigilant that it became scarcely possible to approach them, as at the sight of a
moving object they were, in an instant, off in another direction.

Habitat.—According to Couch and Giinther from the south coast of Great
Britain, to and in the North Atlantic as far as Madeira. Also the shores of the
Mediterranean, having been first described by Risso in his Ichthyology of Nice.

Couch’s examples did not exceed 8 inches in length, and were considered by
himself and Yarrell to belong to this species; but the specimens appear to have
been lost, and it is doubtful if A. presbyter was not the form alluded to.

The examples figured, rather more than life size, is one of Lowe’s specimens
from Madeira.

15*
228 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Famity, XXV—MUGILIDE, Cuvier.

Branchiostegals from five to six: pseudobranchie present. Gill-cpenings wide:
gills four. Form of body oblong, compressed, while the head and anterior portion
may be depressed. Hyes lateral, with or without adipose lids. Mouth narrow,
or of moderate width. Opercles usually unarmed. Teeth very fine, sometimes
absent. Two dorsal fins, separated by some interspace from each other, the first
consisting of four stiff spines; anal slightly longer than the second dorsal;
ventral abdominal, and suspended from an elongated shoulder bone, it consists
of one spine and five rays. Scales cycloid, rarely ctenoid, extending on to the
head. Lateral-line absent. Pyloric appendages generally few. Air-bladder
large. Vertebra 24 to 26.

In India and Burma I have observed that in such forms as Mugil corsula,
M. cascasia, and M. Hamilionwi, which mostly or entirely reside in fresh water,
the scales are strongly ctenoid, while the two last have merely two pyloric
appendages.

Geographical distribution.—These cosmopolitan fishes are found in most tem-
perate and tropical seas, where they frequent the shores, and ascend the larger
rivers even into fresh water. Some forms appear to be entirely restricted to
fresh water.

Genus I—Muctt, Artedz.

Branchiostegals from four to siz: pseudobranchie present. Hyes with or without
adipose lids. Mouth more or less transverse, having a shallow cleft, and the
anterior edge of the mandible sharp. Teeth, when present, minute. Pyloric appen-
dages generally few (2-10). Upper portion of the stomach very muscular : intestinal
tract long.

Fishes of this genus may be divided for convenience into (1) such as possess
or (2) are deficient in adipose eye-lids. The second dorsal fin may commence
opposite, anterior, or posterior to the origin of the anal; while an elongated
axillary scale may be present or absent, and the soft dorsal and anal fins may
be scaled or scaleless. The lips may be thin or thickened, and provided with
papille, which would seem to be more prominent at some seasons than they are
at others. Usually these fishes have eight or nine branched rays to the anal fin,
the last, which is divided to its base, being considered as one. But in some
species, as the Indian M. parsia, or the British Mf. capito, either number may
be found.

Respecting the mullets which live in the British seas, some differences of opinion
exist. Irrespective of M. curtus, Yarrell: Thompson and Couch merely recog-
nized two, Augil capito, a ‘thin-lipped” species, and M. chelo, a “ thick-lipped.”
Dr. Ginther has widely diverged from the opinions of his predecessors, and
states that the following all belong to the British Fauna, Mugil octo-radiatus,
Giinther; M. capito, Cuvier; J/. auratus, Risso; M. septentrionalis, Ginther,
while he discards M. chelo altogether. Couch observed that he was only
acquainted with two, to which he restricted his history and description ; so merely
copied M. auratus and M. octo-radiatus from the “ catalogue of fishes,” and entirely
omitted M. septentrionalis. As far as my experience goes, it agrees with Yarrell,
Thompson, Couch, Steindachner, Moreau, and others; M. octo-radiatus, Gunther,
being simply a synonym for M. capito whenever the anal fin has eight instead of
nine sc{t rays: and M. septentrional’s, Giinther, being identical with M. chelo;
MUGILID A. 229

while the existence of M. auratus in the British seas, as asserted by Dr. Ginther,
may be due to some error, for Dr. Moreau, in his interesting work on the Fishes
of France, remarks, “il a confondu cette espéce avec un autre, ainsi que le prouve
Ja figure jointe au texte. M. Giinther donne l’esquisse d’une téte, qui assurément
na jamais appartenu 4 un Muge doré.” (Vol. iii, p. 186.)

As regards the breeding of the British forms it has been observed by Mr.
Dunn, that off Cornwall, mullets spawn twice a year, in May and in November,
but it does not seem improbable that the two species, M. capito and M. chelo, do so
at different seasons, the latter appearing to deposit its ova in May and June,
as the young which I obtained in August are all of the thick lipped-form:
whereas M. capito appears in shoals off Cornwall during the latter end of the
year, and perhaps breeds in November.

Mullets have frequently been kept in large salt and even fresh water aquaria.
In 1831, Mr. Arnold of Guernsey communicated to the Zoological Society of
London some experiments which he had personally carried out.on this subject, in
a five-acre lake of varying depths, having a muddy, gravelly or rocky bottom,
and which was principally filled with fresh water. Here for nine months in the
year cattle came to drink, but in summer the water was too salt, due to a supply
from the sea being received through a tunnel. Among the introduced fish were
mullets, which it was remarked bred as freely as if they remained in the sea.
M. Leon Vidal, in Bull. Soc. Zool. d’Acclimat. 1867, p. 190-200, observes upon
how mullets may be semi-domesticated, and brought to a marketable size. In
August, 1881, being at Devonport, I was shown a most beantiful piece of water,
on the three sides of which trees came down to its edge; a small stream flowed
in from the high lands above, while at its lower end a tunnel communicated with
the backwater, and through which saline water obtained an entrance. A long
weir prevented entrance of fish into, or exit from, this really beautiful lake.
Here were many mullets which the owner had netted and introduced during the
last few years, and they are, I am informed, of the thick-lipped species, M. chelo.
On the other hand, Mr. W. Lloyd having received at Hamburgh a mullet (J.
capito ?) from the Bay of Kiel in the Baltic, where the water contained only
twelve per mil. of saline matter, transferred it to North Sea water, in which the
salts were from thirty-six to thirty-eight per mil. The fish could not but float, it
made ineffectual efforts to descend under and keep below the surface, and died
in about three hours.

They are found to be hardy and long-lived in an aquarium, which has been
attributed to their passing most of their time near the top of the tank, where the
water is most aérated, while their vivacity likewise keeps it in motion.

These fish are very active, and as soon as a shoal is enclosed by a net they
at first lose all order, but this soon becomes re-established, and a leader seeks for
a hole or way beneath the obstruction, or failing this they essay to spring over.
At Mevagissey a shoal entered the harbour, and having been perceived, the
entrance was at once barred by nets. The fish first tried to jump over, but a
net was raised so as to bar that route. The water was very clear, and the fish
were seen to swim round and round, to try to find an exit. Next they attempted
to get under the foot rope: at last one made a push, but became meshed. When
this was done, another came and laid beside it, and nothing could drive it away.
In short, all escaped but these two. Carew had a pond of salt water in Cornwall,
in which mullets were kept, and having been accustomed to feed them at a certain
place every evening, they became so tame that a knocking like that of chopping
caused them to assemble.

There are two points of great interest in the internal anatomy of these fishes,
which must not be passed over in silence: the first being how they feed, and the
second the conformation of their stomachs. In an aquarium it is most interesting
to observe them suck in the sand, the coarser portion of which they almost
immediately afterwards expel from their mouths. A sifting or filtering apparatus
exists in the pharynx, which precludes large and hard substances from passing
into the stomach, or sand from obtaining access to the gills.

In these fishes the ssophagus passes into the cardiac portion of the stomach,
230 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

which forms a blind sac; while the pyloric portion is conical externally, somewhat
resembling a bird’s gizzard, but which, when cut into, is found to consist of thick
muscular walls formed of circular fibres, leaving a small cavity internally, lined
with a thick and horny epithelium. The pyloric opening is protected by a valve,
and here are seen the orifices of the ccecal appendages which usually encircle the
commencement of the small intestines.

Mullets are much esteemed as food, but perhaps more so on the Continent
than they are in Great Britain, while such as have been taken in clear streams
are much better flavoured than those captured in the ocean; any that have been
resident in stagnant pools where reeds abound, or where the bottom is foul and
oozy, are generally to be avoided. They ought to be cooked the same day they
are captured. Large numbers are exported to France from Great Britain.

Before cooking they must first be very carefully eviscerated and cleansed, as
they are not always very particular as to the food they swallow. In this country
they are commonly boiled, and melted butter with anchovy or caper sauce may
be sent to table with them.

In Italy the hard roe of mullets is converted into cakes termed botarge and
botargo, which are prepared by washing, sprinkling with salt, and pressing
between two boards. This may be smoke or sun dried, and is considered a good
appetizer to promote thirst. But in Ceylon and on the Malabar coast of India
the same article is somewhat similarly treated, and considered excellent for
curries.

The modes of capture adopted for taking mullets around these islands, will
be found detailed under the respective species (pp. 231, 234). Abroad further
devices are employed. Thus at Naples, when these fishes are surrounded by a
net, the fishermen first set to work to terrify them, which is accomplished by
making a great disturbance on the surface of the water: or else they place a raft
composed of reeds round the outside of the nets, so that the mullets which spring
over are captured by persons stationed there for that purpose. In a nearly
similar manner some of the fishermen on our own coast scatter straw on the water
on the inner side of the net: on to this the fish throw themselves, but only to
fall into the inclosure again, while it is believed that having once failed they
give up further efforts at escape. Pliny observes mullets are stupid, asserting,
probably erroneously, that one of their traits is to thrust their heads into the
sand, in order to cscape observation: and Badham suggests that in Shakespeare’s
day there was probably an adage “Dull as a mullet,” the latter word having

come down to us as a “ mallet” (Henry 1V, part 2), which is probably an incorrect
reading.

1. Mugil capito, Plate XLVI.

Mugil, Artedi, Genera, p. 32 and Species, p. 71; Gronov. Zooph. no. 397.
Mewille blanc, Duhamel, Péches, ii, sect. 6, p. 147, pl. xi, t. 3. Mullet, Pennant,
Brit. Zool. (Hd. 1) i, p. 329, pl. Ixvi (Ed. 2) iii, p. 436, pl. xxvii.

Mugil capito, Cuv. Reg. Anim.; Bonap. Fauna Ital. Pesce. p. 3], +t. f 1; Cav.
and Val. xi, p. 36, pl. cceviii; Jenyns’ Manual, p. 375; Parnell, Wern. Mem. vii,
p. 225, t. xxvu, and Fishes Firth of Forth, p. 65; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 1) i,
p. 200, c. fig. (Hd. 2) i, p. 234 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 175; Nilss. Skand. Fauna, iv, p. 176;
Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 106; Guichen. Explor. Algér. Poiss. p. 67;
White, Catal. p. 27; Giinther, Catal. iii, p. 439; Blanchard, Poiss. eaux Douces
France, 1866, p. 248; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 14; McIntosh, Fish.
St. Andrew’s, p. 176; Collett, Christ. Vid. Selsk. Férh. 1879, p. 60; Giglioli, Pesce.
Ital. p. 833; Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 188.

Mugil cephalus, var. A. Risso, Ich. Niee. p. 344.

Mugil ramada, Risso, Kur. Mérid. iii, p. 390.

Mugil Britannicus, Hancock, London Quart. Journ. Sc. 18380, p. 129.

Mugil oclo-radiatus, Ginther, Catal. ini, p. 457.

Gray mullet, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iu, p. 6, pl.cxxii.

B. vi, D. 4/<45, P. 17, V. 1/5, A. g2g) C. 17, L. 1, 42-46, L. tr. 14, Coe, pyl. 6-8.
MUGILID A. 231

Length of head 5 to 53, of caudal fin 5} to 51, height of body 44 to 5} in the
total length. Hye—without adipose lids, the diameter of each 4} to 43 in the
length of the head, 1 to 14 diameters from the end of the snout, and 2 to 22
apart. Interorbital space nearly flat: snout broad and depressed: upper lip not
thickened. Angles made by the anterior edges of the mandibles a little obtuse:
width of the gape of the mouth nearly equal to three times the extent of the
cleft: mandibles broad: the end of the maxilla visible behind and below the
angle of the mouth. Preorbital very finely serrated at its external edge. Nostrils
nearer the eye than the end of the snout. The free space on the chin is narrow,
and reaches to nearly opposite the hind edge of the preopercle. Teeth—fine labial
ones In upper jaw. #'ins—first dorsal commences either nearer to the snout or
midway between it and the base of the caudal fin; its spines are of moderate
strength, the two first being of about equal heigth, and not quite equalling half
the length of the head, the interspace between the two fins being equal to 13 or
twice the length of the base of the first dorsal: second dorsal anteriorly slightly
higher than the first. Pectoral inserted some little distance above the centre of
the depth of the body, and its length equalling that of the head, excluding the
snout. Anal commences somewhat in advance of the second dorsal. Ventral
inserted midway between the base of the pectoral and that of the first dorsal.
Caudal deeply forked, its lobes nearly equalling the length of the head. Scales—
24 or 25 between the snout and the spinous dorsal: about 6 in the interspace
between the dorsal fins. No large pointed axillary scale: the pectoral fin reaches
to about the 11th or 12th scale of the lateral-line: the first dorsal commences
above the 13th or 14th scale of the lateral-line: and the second above the 26th.
No scales on the second dorsal or anal fins: a long angular one at the base of the
ventral. Colowrs—silvery becoming lighter below: six to eight dark blueish
bands along the rows of scales of the back and sides: head shot with golden: fins
grayish.

In 1861 Mugil octo-radiatus, Giinther, was separated from M. capito, principally
dne to its possessing only eight instead of nine soft rays in the anal fin; a very
common variation, not only among the British but also continental specimens.
October 20th, 1880, a number arrived from Brixham, out of them I selected nine,
and found one had D. 4/8, A. 3/9, another, D. 4/8, A. 3/8, while not the slightest
external difference could otherwise be detected between the two. February 2nd,
1881,a number came from St. Ives, where shoals had been netted the previous
day, the longest were 13 inches. The rays agreed with M. capito, the snout
with octo-radiatus. 4
i N ee mullet, thin-lipped mullet. Mowel (Halliwell). Le muge capiton,

rench.

Habits——Couch observed that it never goes far from land, but delights in
shallow water during the warm weather, snatching at any oily substance that
may chance to be floating about. It ventures some distance up rivers, returning
with the tide, and frequently enters by the flood-gates into a salt water mill-pool
at Looe, which contains about twenty acres. It selects soft and fat food, or such
as has commenced to decompose.

In autumn and winter these fish are very plentiful and gregarious. They are
more active than Mugil chelo, and when enclosed in a seine they jump much
higher. During October and November, 1880, I examined many obtained from
Brixham and the coasts of Cornwall, and all belonged to Mf. capito as described.

Means of capture.—Netting, and rarely by hooks, but it is as active at escape
as the M. chelo. It sucks at its food, and will occasionally take a rag-worm or
artificial fly. In the Stour it is observed that slimy stuff, which after a drought
rises most freely from the bed of the river, will stick to the hook, and no other bait
equals it. Couch says that it is most readily taken with bait formed of the fat
entrails of a fish, or cabbage boiled in broth. It is angled for as the tide is coming
in, for on the ebb it returns to salt water.

Breeding.—As before observed (p. 229), I suppose this is the form which has
been observed to breed off Cornwall in the winter months.

As food.—They are moderately esteemed in this country.
232 ACANTHOPTERYGILI.

Habitat—This species would seem to be very rare on the coast of Norway,
but was possibly the form captured off Denmark in the Cattegat, October 8th,
1852. Occasionally taken on the shores of the German Ocean, becomes more
numerous along the south and south-west coasts of Great Britain, and the Cape of
Good Hope. It extends through the Mediterranean to the fresh water lakes of
Tunis, and in the Nile certainly so far as Cairo.

In the British Isles some confusion respecting its distribution exists. Many of
the recorded Scotch examples may belong to M. chelo, but the British Museum
has received specimens from the Firth of Forth. It would seem to be occasionally
taken off the Yorkshire coast (Meynell, 1844), and is said to be resident and local,
but its distribution requires investigation (Yorkshire Fauna, 1881). I have
obtained many examples, but all from the south and south-west coast, captured
between the months of September and March inclusive. It is said to occur
constantly on the Kentish and Essex shores (Yarrell).

In Ireland this species was not found by Thompson, who however only had
the opportunity of examining mullets from the east coast. In the Cork Fauna
(1845), Dr. Harvey gives M. capito as certainly present, and M. chelo with doubt.

The example figured is 7} inches in length, and came from Brixham. This
fish exceeds 3 feet in length.

2. Mugil chelo, Plate LXVII.

Chelon, Rondel. Pisc. i, lib. ix, c. 5, p. 266; Gesner, Aquat. iv, p. 552;
Willughby, iv, c.4; Ray, Syn. p. 84. Mulet chaluc, Duham. Péches, iii, sect.
vi, c. 2, p. 147.

Mugil cephalus, Donovan, Brit. Fish. i, pl. xv; Turton, Brit. Faun. p. 106;
Fleming, Brit. An. p. 217; Neill, Wern. Mem. i, p. 544; Templeton, Mag. Nat.
Hist. (2) 1837, i, p. 409.

Mugil chelo, Cuv. Régne Anim.; Bonap. Faun, Ital. Pesce. vi, H; Cuv. and
Val. xi, p. 50, pl. xxxix; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 1), i, p. 207, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i,
p. 241 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 182; Jenyns, Man. p. 375; Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Field
Club, 1838, i, p. 171; Thompson, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 57, and Nat. Hist.
Ireland, iv, p. 100; Parnell, Wern. Mem. vii, p. 228, t. xxviii, and Fishes Firth
of Forth, p. 68, pl. xxviii; Guichen. Explor. Algér. Poissons, p. 67; Nordm. in
Démid. Voy. Russ. Mérid. p. 395; White, Catal. p. 27; Giinther, Catal. iii, p.
454; Schlegel, Dieren Neder. p. 26, t. v, f. 1; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p.
17; Nilss. Skand. Faun. iv, p. 177; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 88, and Christ. Vid.
Selsk. Forh. 1879, p. 60; Giglioli, Pesc. Ital. p. 33; Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p.
195; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 24.

Mugil provensalis, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 346.

Mugil labrosus, Risso, Kur. Mérid. iii, p. 389.

Mugil cephalus, var. B., De la Roche, Ann. Mus. xiii, p. 3858, t. xxi, f. 7;
Schagerstr. Vet. Akad. Handl. 1829, p. 90, t. iii, f. 1.

Mugil capito, Nilss. Prod. p. 69.

Mugil septentrionalis, Giinther, Catal. iti, p. 455.

Lesser grey mullet, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 15, pl. exxili.

(Varieties.)
Mugil curtus, Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 1), i, p. 210, e. fig. (Hd. 2) i, p. 245

(Kd, 3), ii, p. 186; Cuv. and Val. xi, p. 70, pl. cccxi; Jenyns, p. 376; White,
Catal, p. 28; Giinther, Catal, iti, p. 489,

B. vi, D. 4/§, P. 17, V. 1/5, A. 335, C. 15, L. 1. 48-45, L. tr. 15-16, Coec. pyl.
5-7, Vert. 11/18.

Length of head 4; to 5, of caudal fin 53, height of body 44 to 5 times in the
total length.* LHyes—without adipose lids, the diameter of each 44 in the length

* But this last proportion, as remarked by Thompson, is liable to great fluctuations ; taking five
examples which were all equally firm and solid, and each of the same length—two feet—he found
they weighed 53, 6, 63, 7, and 8 Ib, respectively.
MUGILIDA. 233

of the head, from 1 to 14 diameters from the end of the snout, and 23
apart. Interorbital space slightly convex. Snout obtuse: upper lip rather thick,
with two or three rows of papilla on its lowest portion, the size of which much
decreases in many examples after they have been some time in spirit; while in
others there are several but much smaller rows perhaps due to season. Angles made
by the anterior edges of mandibles obtuse, the extent of the gape of the mouth
being about three times as wide as the depth of its cleft : mandibles very broad:
the end of the maxilla visible behind and below the angle of the mouth. Pre-
orbital obtusely truncated, posteriorly coming to a point: its lower edge, which is
somewhat rounded, being finely serrated. Nostrils nearly close together, and
somewhat nearer to the orbit than to the end of the snout. A narrow strip of
the chin is uncovered. eeth—fine labial ones in the upper lip. Fins—the dorsal
commences somewhat nearer the caudal fin, or midway between it and the end of
the snout: spines stout, the two first of the same height, and equalling that of
the postorbital length of the head. The interspace between the two dorsal fins
equal to or slightly exceeding that of the base of the first dorsal. Second dorsal
anteriorly slightly higher than the first. Pectoral inserted somewhat above the
centre of the depth of the body, and its length equalling that of the head excluding
the snout. Ventral inserted midway between the origins of the pectoral and first
dorsal fin. Anal below the second dorsal and rather higher than it. Caudal forked,
the length of each lobe being about equal, or rather less than that of the head.
Scales—about 26 between the snout and the base of the first dorsal fin. The
second dorsal commences above the twenty-ninth scale of the lateral-line: the
pectoral reaches the tenth or twelfth, and has no elongated angular scale at its
angle; while such is present at the base of the ventral and first dorsal. A few
scales on upper part of the preorbital and the anterior edge and base of soft dorsal
and anal fins. Jntestines—five rather short ceecal appendages. Colowrs—Gray
shot with bronze about the head, cheeks golden, sides silvery dashed with gold; a
dark line along each row of scales along the back and sides.

In 1861 Mugil septentrionalis, Ginther, was separated from M. chelo, for which
subdivision the following reasons were principally adduced. In M. septen-
trionalis, pyloric coeca five instead of seven (as in M. chelo). Upper lip with two
rows of papille instead of three; preorbital with its anterior angle obtuse and its
posterior pointed, instead of its posterior extremity being rounded, its anterior
angle not much wider than its posterior, and possessing a longitudinal ridge;
twenty-six scales between the snout and base of first dorsal fin, instead of twenty-
eight; ten rows to the end of the pectoral instead of thirteen; origin of spinous
dorsal midway between end of snout and base of caudal fin, instead of being
nearer the caudal than to the snout. Professor Collett, 1. c., and Steindachner
(Sitz. Ak. Wiss. Wien. 1868, lvii, pl. 680-685), have been unable to appreciate
the difference between the two forms, while Dr. Moreau has remarked that this
so-called new species is precisely the form which is figured in Bonaparte’s Fauna
Italica as Mugil chelo.

Donovan’s M. cephalus would seem from the length of the interspace between
its two dorsal fins, and the position of its anal as regards the second dorsal, to
belong to this species. It appears to me that Neill and Templeton have so
regarded it, which accounts for the former finding it occasionally in the
Moray Firth, where Parnell remarked that it was a singular fact that not a single
specimen had fallen under his notice. While this species is the common Irish
one, and was most probably the form which Templeton alluded to.

Varieties —Mugil curtus, Yarrell, would seem to be a young example of this
species, in which the body was somewhat unnaturally shortened. Mullets are not
unfrequently deformed. Professor Gigloli last year obtained in Italy “a large
M. cephalus nearly as broad as long.”

Names.—Lesser gray mullet, thick-lipped mullet. Le muge a grosses lévres,
French. De harder, Dutch.

Habits.—Very gregarious, frequenting harbours, mouths of rivers so far as the
tide extends, inlets of the sea, and but rarely enters deep waters. It seems to
delight in the most oozy parts of bays, and where the grass-wrack, Zostera marina,
234 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

is abundant ; and while searching for food it makes excavations, known to fishermen
as mullet heles. Along the south coast in June, July, and August, it goes into
harbours for food, and during these mouths in 1880 among those I saw all were
of the thick-lipped species, Mugil chelo, of which I obtained examples at Penzance,
Plymouth, and Dawlish, but did not see a single one of the thin-lipped M. capito.
Thompson observes that in Ireland it is sought for from the middle of March
until the beginning of October. During the fine weather of summer, and especially
at high water, it frequently ascends to the surface, either tor sport or searching for
floating food; while at night time its activity often increases, and numbers of
them leaping about will make the water seem quite alive. In a very hot season,
Yarrell observes, mullets in the Avon were observed to ascend to nearly twenty
miles, and far beyond the flow of even spring tides.

At Belfast, notwithstanding the great increase of shipping of late years, it is
as plentiful in the bay as it ever was known to be by the few persons engaged in
its capture (Thompson, 1838).

During the first two weeks in April, 1847, a large shoal of mullet appeared at
Coldingham, near Berwick, a fish very rare in that locality. Having been seen
daily going with the tide, a net was placed across the entrance to the harbour which
was crowded with them. Numbers were taken, the rest at once went away. A
somewhat similar occurrence was said to have occurred ten years previously a
little further to the west. Mullet sometimes live some hours after removal from
the water. It is very destructive to molluscs and minute crustacea; it also eats
larvee and ova. It lives on soft food and is rarely captured except by means of
drag nets or seines. Thompson observed, respecting the contents of the stomachs
of some of these fish examined at various seasons, that from the minute size of the
contained objects it occasions many hundredfold greater destruction of animal
life than he had ever witnessed on asimilar inspection of the food of any bird or fish.
He obtained from them examples of Mytilus edulis, Modiola papuana, Kellia rubra,
Skenea depressa, Littorina retusa, Rissoa labiosa, and Iv. parva, Serpule, and Miliole.
There were also minute crustacea, and fragments of Zostera marina and Conferve.
Dr. Drummond found Alge in the stomachs of some, as Lnteromorpha conupressa.
A correspondent of Thompson’s informed him that about the middle of July, 1848,
he saw about forty mullets enjoying themselves by drinking in from a stream of
fresh water as it joined the sea-water of Belfast Bay. They sometimes are
observed to frequent localities where drains open, evidently for the purpose of
feeding. In an aquarium they will feed on large lob-worms or chopped up
mussels.

Means of capture-—Trammel or set nets, but at low water the draft net is used,
while at Belfast cow-dung is spread on the water as an attraction, and which
they greedily devour. Sometimes in small streams, as near Southampton, shoals
ascend and may be hooked with an artificial fy. In the Field for July, 188], it is
observed that Mr. H. R. White has not omitted taking gray mullet for some years
past with the soft inner portion of the stump of boiled cabbage, which, when he
sees these fish priming on the surface of the water, he contrives, with the aid of
his boat, to trail through the school, allowing the bait not to sink more than two
feet. Fine and strong tackle is necessary, with plenty of running line—as some
of their dashes are of so impetuous a character that the tackle would go upon any
determined attempt to restrain them. Others who have tried it have not been
equally successful. The milt of a salt herring has also been recommended as a bait.
They are a very sporting fish, and fight hard when hooked, making repeated leaps
out of the water to release themselves.

In Ireland, 'Thompson observed that these fishes are guided by the weather,
which must be moderate, they being taken at night in the largest numbers, when
they cannot so well avoid the fatal net. In clear moonlight and by day fish of every
size often clear the net sometimes springing five and six feet over it, and when one
has set the example nearly all are sure to follow. He observed that an acquaintance
out eel-spearing once struck and secured with his spear a mullet of 5 lb. weight
as it was swimming on the surface. Dr. Ball likewise remarked that at Kingstown
a dexterous individual kills many with a light spear. A correspondent of Land
MUGILIDA. 235

and Water (Sept. 25th, 1880), writing from Margate, stated: There is an Italian
gentleman here who fishes for gray mullet and bass every day under the jetty with
a harpoon, something like an eel spear attached to a line. The fish come to
devour the mussels on the piles of the jetty, and he is very dexterous in spearing
them. Risso remarked on these fishes being attracted by a light and then speared.

Breeding.— Young mullets are first seen off Mevagissey late in July and
generally near the surface. In August this year (1881), when at that town,
Mr. Dunn pointed me out a school of young mullets (each of which measured
about three-quarters of an inch in length) present in the harbour, upwards of a
dozen of which were secured by means of a hand net. While swimming they
appeared to have a white spot on the back, which disappeared on their being
removed from the water. These belonged to the thick-lipped species.

Thompson, in Ireland, did not obtain any in spawn from March until
September.

As food.—Hsteemed for the table. The county of Sussex is celebrated in a
gastronomical point of view for six things—a Chichester lobster, a Selsey cockle,
an Arundel mullet, a Pulborough eel, an Amberley trout, and a Rye herring;
the mullet referred to being this species according to Yarrell.

Habitat.—Coasts of Scandinavia, the German Ocean and Atlantic coast of
Europe to Madeira, and also the Mediterranean.

In the Orkneys and Zetland the thick-lipped gray mullet is tolerably frequent
from June to September (W. Baikie), and is the common species on the eastern
shores of Scotland, where we believe M. capito is not known at all, or is at least
far from common (Mag. Zool. and Bot. i, p. 390); it is common on the west
coast of Scotland, and in some seasons numbers are taken off Dunbar (Parnell).
It is found at Aberdeen (Sim), and has been noticed off Berwick (Johnston).
Occasionally taken on the Yorkshire coast (Meynell, 1844) ; Mr. Barron found it
to be the most plentiful of the two species at Portsmouth. I found it common
during the end of July and August, 1881, at Dawlish in Devonshire, Plymouth
and Penzance being the only species I could detect along the coast. Parnell also
observed it to be excessively common on the Devonshire coast in September
and October.

In Ireland it frequents the east coast from north to south, but whether or not
it is the mullet found around this island I have not had the means of judging
(Thompson) ; it also. frequents the south coast of Ireland.

The example figured is 12 inches in length, but it attains to upwards of 3 feet,
and one is recorded from Ireland weighing 14¢ lb.
236 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Eleventh group—Acanthopterygii gasterostei formes.

Mouth small: anterior. Spinous dorsal fin, when present, composed of
isolated spines. Pubic bone attached to the humeral arch, and the ventral fins,
if present, abdominal.

Famity, XX VI—GASTEROSTEIDZ.

Branchiostegals three: pseudobranchie present. Body elongated and com-
pressed. Eyes lateral. Cleft of mouth oblique. Villiform teeth in the jaws.
Opercular bones unarmed. The first dorsal fin composed of isolated spines.
Ventral fins, when present, abdominal and articulated with the pubic bone,
each consists of one spine and one soft ray. Scales absent, but sides of the
body more or less cuirassed with bony scutes. Air-bladder present.

Genus I.—Gasrerostevs, Artedi.

Centriscus, Klein; Spinachia, Fleming ; Leiurus and Polyacanthus, Swainson ;
Apelies and Pygosteus, Brevoort; Gasterostea and Glastrea, Sauvage.

Definition as given to the Family.

Fleming made Gasterosteus spinachia the type of his genus Spinachia, Swainson
of Polyacanthus, and Sauvage of Gastrea; while G. pungitius forms the type of
genus Leturus, Swainson, Pygosteus, Brevoort, and Glasterostea, Sauvage.

Its name is derived from the words yaoryjp, “the belly,” and doréa, “a
bone,”’ which has reference to the expansion of the pubic bone on the lower
surface and to which the ventral fins are attached.

Geographical distribution.—Arctic and temperate regions of both hemispheres.

Sticklebacks are among the smallest forms of our fresh water fishes: and
Buckland tells a tale of how one was served out with the afternoon milk at the
door of a house in London. The only excuse the vendor had, was to beg pardon
for not having strained the water. These fish abound in some of our reservoirs.
The construction of nests for the reception of their ova appears to be a generic
feature among them, pertaining equally to the marine and fresh water forms.

These fishes are subject not only to great variations in colour but likewise in
structure, either of the plates on the sides or the spines of the fins, and these
variations are more frequent in some localities than they are in others. If we
investigate the number of species residing in these islands we find them variously
stated by the different British ichthyological authors. Some can only perceive
three species, two of which are fresh water forms, and these they believe to be
subject to many variations in structure. Others would limit nature to one model,
and all which fail to exactly agree with what they consider to be the type are by
them referred to another species. While a third class of naturalists have gone
still further and what are believed varieties by some, or distinct species by others,
they would erect into types of genera or sub-genera. It will not, therefore, be a
GASTEROSTEIDA. 237

waste of space to follow out the views of the various British and of some French
ichthyologists respecting the fresh water forms of Gasterosteus, as the marine
G. spinachia, looked on as a distinct genus by some, is not subject to the variations
perceived in such sticklebacks as reside entirely or mostly in brackish or inland
waters. Pennant, 1776, Shaw, 1803, Turton, 1807, Donovan, 1808, and Fleming
in 1828, merely recognized two fresh water species, the three-spined and the
ten-spined. In 1829 the fourth volume of Cuv. and Val. Histoire Naturelle des
Poissons, was published, in this many forms heretofore looked upon as varieties were
considered to be species. Yarrell’s British Fishes, published in 1836, contains :—
1. G. trachurus, Cuv. and Val. 2. G. semiarmatus, Cuv. and Val. 3. G. lecurus,
Cuv.and Val. 4. G. brachycentrus, Cuv. and Val.; and 5. G. spinulosus, Jenyns
and Yarrell; also 6. G. pungitius, Linneus. Jenyns, 1835, restricted these forms
to three:—l. G. aculeatus, including trachurus, semiarmatus, leiurus, and brachy-
centrus. 2. G. spinulosus, and 3. G. pungitius. Parnell, 1838, gave 1. G. leiurus,
2. G. semiarmatus, 3. G. trachurus, 4. G. spinulosus, and 5. G. pungitius. Thompson
in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 1841, and Natural History of
Treland, 1856, restricts these numbers to 1. G. aculeatus, and 2. G. pungitius.
White, 1851, again simply enumerated 1. G. aculeatus, 2. G. spinulosus, and
3. G. pungitius. Giinther, 1859, recognized 1. G. aculeatus, 2. G. brachycentrus,
3. G. spinulosus, 4. G. pungitius, while the latter author* in 1880 again reduced
his British forms by omitting number 2. Canestrini (An. Soc. Nat. Mod. ii, 1867,
p. 9) disputed the accuracy of the varieties of G. acwleatus, as found in Italy,
being considered as species.

M. Blanchard in his elegant work on the Fishes of the Fresh Waters of France,
1866, describes eight sticklebacks irrespective of G. pungitiws and allied forms,
which latter he divides into five species... Dr. Sauvage, 1874, recognizes three or
four more out of a recorded total of forty-five: while Dr. Ginther subsequently
remarks in 1880 that “ about ten species are satisfactorily known,” and Dr. Moreau
in 1881 reverts to the original two forms as existing in the fresh waters of France,
placing the others as varieties. .

It appears remarkable how many species have been named of sticklebacks,
outnumbering even those of the Salmonide of the fresh waters, and it becomes
a first consideration whether any general principles are perceptible in the
distribution of these species or varieties. Itis in the ocean more than in fresh
waters that we must seek the spiny-rayed fishes: and similarly it is on the
sea-boards or skirts of the ocean that we must look for sticklebacks in which the
armature of the side is most developed (as in the variety trachurus), while such as
have the free portion of the tail unarmed are furthest inland or on elevated
plateaus : while in the centre of Ireland I have captured examples of G. pungitius
in which the armature had so decreased that the ventral spine was entirely absent.
It has been pointed out (Phil. Mag. 1834, v, p. 299) that the variety on the
continent with the shortest spine or the most defenceless form, comes from
Tuscany, and is peculiar to still waters, where it would have the fewest enemies,
and here it attains to a great size. Taking large numbers of Irish specimens I
found considerable differences in the length of the ventral spines and pubic plates,
conclusively showing that such characters afford no reliable data.

Heckel and Kner, in their account of the Fishes of Austria; did not admit
the foregoing to be more than varieties differentiated by the development of the
lateral scutes or plates, which they found varied in number between three and
twenty-eight. a p .

It’ appears to me that our British Gasterostei consist of merely three species,
which are subject to an almost endless variation in colour and form. They may
be divided as follows:

1. Gasterosteus aculeatus, D. 3-4/10-12. Sides of the body with or destitute
of vertical flat plates. :

2. Gasterosteus pungitius, D. 8-10/9-10. Sides of the body smooth.

3. Gasterosteus spinachia, D. 15/6-7. Snout produced: body very elongate.

* Introduction to the Study of Fishes, p. 505, : ; .
} Linn, Soc. Journal, Zoology, vol. xiii, ‘ On some Irish Gasterostei,”’ by Francis Day.
238 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

1. Gasterosteus aculeatus, Plate LXVIII, fig. 1, 2, 3.

Pungitius piscis, Albert. Mag. Aldroy. v, cap. 36. Pungitius Albertt, Jonston,
ili, cap. 3. Pisciculus aculeatus, Rondel. ii, p. 206; Gesner, fol. 100a; Willughby,
p. 341, t. x, f 1; Ray, p. 145 ; Rutty, co. Dublin, i, p. 368. Gasterosteus, no. 1,
Artedi, Species, p. 96; Gronov. Zooph. no. 405. The three-spined stickleback,
Lowe, Fauna Orcad. p. 216; Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776) iii, p- 261, pl. 1,
and (Hd. 1812) iii, p. 383, pl. lxi.

Gasterosteus aculeatus, Linn. Syst. Nat. p. 489; Bloch, t. liii, f. 3; Bl. Schn.
p. 122; Bonnat. Atl. Ich. p. 136, pl. lvii, £222; Donovan, Brit. Fish. i, pl. xi;
Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 604, pl. Ixxxvii; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 101; Flem. Brit. An.
p. 219; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 192, and Hur. Mérid. iii, p. 427; Fries och Ekstr.
p. 17, t. iv, f 1; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) 1837, i, p. 409; Johnston,
Berwick. Nat. Club, 1838, i, p. 170; Kroyer, Dan. Fiske, i, p. 169, c. fig. ;
Thompson, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1841, vii, p. 95, and Nat. Hist. Ireland,
iv, p. 82; Nilss. Skan. Fauna, Fiske, p. 103; Jenyns, Man. p. 348; White, Catal.
Fish. p. 35; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 167; Giinther, Catal. Brit. Mus. i, p. 2;
Schlegel, Dieren Neder. p. 52, pl. iv, f. 4; H. Malmgren, Wieg. Arch. 1864,
p- 282; Steind. Sitz. Ak. Wiss. Wien, 1865, Nov. 3; Blanchard, Poiss. France,
p- 214, c. fig.; Canestrini, An. Soc. Nat. Mod. ii, 1867, p. 9; Bonizzi, Arch. per
la Zool. 1869, p. 156, tav. iii; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 11; Sauvage, Revis.
Epinoches, Nou. Arch. Mus. d’Hist. Nat. 1874, p.9; Day, Journal Linn. Soc.
Zool. 1876, p. 110 ; McIntosh, Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 171; Houghton, Brit. F. W.
Fish. p. 11, c¢. fig.; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 11; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 4;
Giglioli, Pesce. Ital. p. 18; Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 163.

Leiurus aculeatus, Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 242.

Three-spined stickleback, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, i, p. 167, pl. xxxvii, fig. 1.

Variety 1.* Gasterosteus trachurus, Plate LX VIII, fig. 1.

Gasterosteus trachurus, Cuv. and Val. iv, p. 481, pl. xeviii, f. 1; Yarrell, Ann.
and Mag. iii, p. 522, f. 127a, and Brit. Fishes (Ed. 1) i, p. 76, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i,
p. 90 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 75; Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 242; Nilss. Skan. Fauna, Fiske,
p- 103; Parnell, Fishes Firth of Forth, p. 33, pl. xxv, and Wern. Mem. vii,
p. 193, 1. xxv; McIntosh, Fish. North Uist, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin. v, 1862-66,
p. 614.

Gasterosteus aculeatus, Ekstrém, Fische Moérké, p. 153.

Gasterosteus aculeatus, var. pontica, Nord. in Demid. Voy. Russ. Mérid, iii,

. 857,
Rough-tacled stickleback.

In this variety the vertical scaly plates, from thirty to forty in number, extend
along each side, from the head to the base of the caudal fin, becoming keeled
in the last part of their course. The example figured life size I captured in a
tidal pool at St. Andrew’s.

Variety 2. Gasterosteus semiloricatus.
Cuv. and Val. iv, p. 494; Thompson, An. and Mag. 1841, vii, p. 95; Blanchard,
Poiss. Eaux Douces, France, p. 222, c. fig.; Sauvage, Epinoches, p. 15.

The bony plates along the side are said to be from 22 to 23, instead of 25 or
26, in number, anterior to the origin of the caudal keel (such as shown in my
figure of the last variety), and also that the shoulder plate is larger than in
gymnurus.

Variety 3. Gasterosteus semiarmatus, Plate LXVIII, fig. 2.
Cuv. and Val. iv, p. 493; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 80, c. fig. (Ed. 2) i,

* There are several species described by continental authors which I consider merely varieties
of G. aculeatus and G. pungitius, but which I have not deemed it necessary to enumerate im this
place.
GASTEROSTEID Ai. 239

p. 94 (Hd. 8) ii, p. 82; Parnell, Fishes Firth of Forth, p. 30, pl. xxv, and Wern.
Mem. vii, p. 192, pl. xxv; Blanchard, Poiss. Haux Douces, France, p. 224, c. fig. ;
Sauvage, Epin. p. 15.

The half-armed stickleback.

In this variety the vertical scaly plates from ten to fifteen in number extend
from the head along the side half way to the base of the caudal fin; the
lateral-line may have a slightly raised keel near the tail. The example figured

life size I captured, assisted by Mr. Lonie, in a rock pool at St. Andrew’s, along
with the first variety.

Variety 4. Gasterosteus gymnurus, Plate LXVIII, fig. 3.

Cuv. Régne Anim. Gasterosteus leturus, Cuy. and Val. iv, p. 481, pl. xeviii,
f.4; Yarrell, Ann. and Mag. N. H. iii, p. 522, and British Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 81,
c. fig.; (Ed. 2) i, p. 95 (Ed. 8) ii, p. 83; Parnell, Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 30,
pl. xxv and Wern. Mem. vii, p. 190, pl. xxv; Nilss. Skan. Fauna, Fiske,
p. 105; Coste, Mém. Sci. Sav. Htrang. x, 1848; Giinther, Neckarfische, p. 29;
Warrington An. and Mag. N. H. (2) 1855, xvi, p. 330; Blanchard, Poiss. France,
p. 225, c. fig.; Steind. Sitz. Ak. Wiss. Wien, 1865, Nov. 8rd; Sauvage, Hpin.
p- 16.

Gasterosteus dinidiatus, Reinb. Kgl. D. Vid. Selsk. Nat. Mat. Afh. B. 7, p. 104,
og. 193.

”" The quarter-armed or smooth-tailed stickleback.

In this variety the vertical scaly plates, from four to six in number, extend
from the head as far as the end of the pectoral fin, and this is the most common
inland form in Great Britain and Ireland. The example figured life size I took
at Edgeworthstown along with examples of varieties brachycentrus and spinulosus.

Variety 5. Gasterosteus brachycenttus.

Cuv. and Val. iv, p. 499, pl. xeviii, f.2; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv,
pp- 82, 85, 88; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 1), i, p. 82, c. fig. (Hd. 2) i, p. 96 (Ed.
3) ii. p. 88; Nilss. Skan. Fauna, Fiske, p. 106; Heckel and Kner, Siissw. f. 17;
Ginther, Catal. i, p. 5; Steind. Catal. Pré. Poiss. Port. Suite, p. 1; Sauv. Epin.
p. 23; Houghton, British Fresh-water Fishes, p. 14, c. fig.

Leiurus brachycentrus, Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 242.

The short-spined stickleback.

In this variety the dorsal] and ventral spines are very short, and the vertical
scaly plates, from four to six in number, extend along the side from the head to
the end of the pectoral fin.

I took two examples at Edgeworthstown among a number of the varieties G.
gymnurus and spinulosus.

Variety 6. Gasterosteus spinulosus.

Jenyns, Manual, p. 350; Stark, Jamieson’s Edin. Journ. 1830, p. 327; Yarrell,
Brit. Fishes (Ed. 1) i, p. 83, c. fig. (Hd. 2) i, p. 97 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 89; Thompson,
Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 88; Parnell, Fishes Firth of Forth, p. 36, t. xxv, and
Wern. Mem. vii, p. 196, t. xxv; Nilss. Skan. Fauna, Fiske, p. 106; White, Catal.
p. 36; Giinther, Catal. i, p.5; Sauvage, Epin. p. 25.

Leiurus spinulosus, Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 242.

Four-spined stickleback.

The extra spine is very short and situated between the normal last but one,
and last: none of the spines serrated: the pubic plate long and narrower than in
G. aculeatus of a similar size. None of Jenyns’s examples exceeded 1} inches in
length, and, as he observes, “‘ possibly a mere variety of the last species, which
is said to have been numerous in the same pond.” Thompson (Nat. Hist. Ireland,
iv, p. 88) observes upon possessing from near Portarlington, Queen’s County, a
240 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

four-spined stickleback, which he would not but look on otherwise than merely
an accidental variety of G. aculeatus, Linn. It was among a parcel consisting of
G. gymnurus, G. branchycentrus, and G. pungitius, taken in a pond and in some
neighbouring drains. The ascending plate from the base of the ventrals he
found to be subject to variety in form like other parts. While that the fish
under consideration was G. spinulosus he did not think admitted of a doubt.
Allman records the same (N. H. Ireland, iv, p. 89). Johnston (Berwick. Nat.
Club, 1838, p. 171) likewise considered this form a mere variety. At Edge-
worthstown I obtained this fish under the identical conditions as Thompson, and
came to the same conclusions. It appeared as if a dorsal ray had taken ona
spinous character, each having D. 3/75, whereas the common type had D. 2/7.

B. iii, D. 2-3(4)z5txs, P. 10 (-12), V. 1/1, A. 35, C. 12, Coecal pyl. 1 (2),
Vert. 15/16.

Length of head 34 to 44, of caudal fin 7} to 8, height of body 33 to 4 in the
total length. Hye—diameter 33 to 3$ in the length of the head, 1 to 12 diameters
from the end of the snout, and 3/4 to l apart. Sides of the body compressed.
Snout of moderate extent: the cleft of the mouth oblique, the lower jaw slightly
in advance of the upper, the posterior extremity of the maxilla reaching to
beneath the posterior nostril. Nostrils midway between the eye and the end of
the snout. Opercles smooth: interorbitals wide. Teeth—fine, those in the upper
jaw anteriorly in three rows, decreasing to one posteriorly: in the mandibles in
four irregular rows anteriorly, decreasing in size posteriorly where they become a
single row. None on the palate or tongue. 'ins—the first dorsal consists of
free spines from two to four in number, the first commences above the base of
the pectoral fin, while their height is subject to considerable variations. These
spines may be serrated or even denticulated on their outer edges, and each
articulates at its base with an osseous plate, while posteriorly they are connected
to the back by a short membrane. Pectoral attached to a broad, flat scapular
plate of varying size. Ventral consisting of one spine of inconstant length, and
either serrated or smooth, it is attached to the pubic plate, a bony, arrow-headed
expansion of the humeral arch which is subject to variation in its width and
length. A bony plate ascends from the pubic plate to the lateral scutes. Anal
situated beneath the last half of the dorsal: caudal with its posterior extremity
square, or rather emarginated. The bony plates along the sides vary considerably
in extent, some occupying almost the entire depth of the side, others much less:
their numbers likewise vary, as already pointed ont, under the head of varieties;
they commence behind the occiput and may only be from two (or even none,
according to Canestrini) in number, up to thirty-five or even forty. Above
these plates are others passing upwards to the back. The situation of the lateral-
line likewise varies, being nearer the dorsal profile in some varieties than it is in
others. Ceecal appendages—a rudimentary one in Gloucestershire examples.
Colours—in the marine variety the back is of a steel gray, having greenish
reflections, becoming golden on the sides and silvery beneath, the fins yellow
with fine black dots. In the fresh waters the back is more of a brown gray with
golden reflections, and a series of bright spots or vertical bands along the
body. During the breeding season the lower part of the head and chest and
under surface of the body becomes of a bright pink or red. The females are not
so bright coloured as the males. Thompson remarked that full grown fishes, in
which the most intense shade of red prevailed, never appear to be with spawn,
very few in that state being so much as faintly tinged with it.

Varieties.—In structure these consist in (1) variations in the number of spines
forming the first dorsal fin; and (2) variations in the number of bony plates
with which the sides are armed. In April or May, 1864, a five-spined stickleback
was captured in a stream near Warrington (J. Pears, Zool. p. 9145). Whether,
suggests Thompson, a change of habitation, as from fresh water to the sea, would
cause the smoothsided at any age to put on the lateral armour, may remain a
question. In colowr—Thompson observes of the varieties brachycentrus and
gymnurus, that of many of the larger individuals captured in Ireland during the
GASTEROSTEIDA. 241

month of September half were red on the under parts; while full-grown fishes,
in which the most intense shade of this colour prevailed, never appeared to be
in spawn, very few in that state being so much as faintly tinged with it.

Names.—The term stickleback appears to be a corruption of the older and far
preferable designation of prickleback, which well denotes the character of this
fish. It is known as spricklebag in the north of Ireland, another corruption of
the same derivation. The local names are numerous. In the Orkneys,
brandstickle: Moray Firth, banstickle and bandie: also sharplin in Scotland. In
Northumberland hurry-bannings : pricky at Northallerton, Yorkshire (Clarke) :
Barce, Yorkshire: Jack-sharp, Bury, also stand, taris or tanticle in Suffolk:
stanstickle and stutilebuck in some of the eastern counties: stickling and Jack-
bannell,* Oxfordshire (Beesley) : the male as firey-loch, and the female as enemy-
chit, im south Hampshire: hackle, Devonshire: bannis and banticle, Wilts: pow,
Somersetshire. Halliwell adds the following local names but omits the localities,
Jack-sharpling, Jack-sharpnatls, and tittlebat. It is Thornback in the Shannon, and
pinkeen in the south of Ireland. Couch gives minnis as a local name, while
others have observed that it is occasionally termed minnow, probably due to
incompetent observers having mistaken it for the little Leuciscus phowinus.
L’épinoche, French. De stekalbaars, Dutch.

Habits—Small but voracious, active, and very pugnacious, occasionally
descending in large shoals to the estuaries or even the sea. It thrives in a fresh
water aquarium but does not appear to live so long in saline water. It has been
termed the Ephemera of fishes, and Donovan states it rarely lives beyond the third
year. “Yarrell says the stickleback lives only about two years: one of mine has
been in the aquarium, I think, nearly double that time, and continues an
exceedingly tame and amusing pet” (Zool. 1861, p. 7400). Its favourite haunts
seem to be small streams, canals, ditches, and ponds, as well as pools along the
sea coast which are liable to be covered at high tides. In Yorkshire it is found
in Malham Tarn, at a height of 1250 feet above the sea level (Yorkshire Vertebrata).
Nilsson observes that it is captured in great numbers in the Baltic in November,
and. used for obtaining oil from. Donovan remarks upon having known it taken
at a great distance out at sea in the sprat and herring fisheries. It feeds on
worms, larve, small crustacea, fresh water shrimps, in fact almost anything, even
the eggs of its own kind, and, as remarked by Rutty, it destroys the spawn of all
sorts of fish, and all the young fry that come in its way. Thompson observed
of the varieties G. letwrus and G. brachycentrus, that contrary to what might have
been expected the largest were invariably found where the temperature was lowest.
He likewise noted that it and the trout do not seem to co-exist in some of the
smaller rivers, or do so very partially. In the stream whence the largest of these
was taken, trout a dozen years ago were very common, and the stickleback unknown,
and it is only since the almost total disappearance of the trout that this fish has _
been established in its waters. In a similar stream, issuing from the same
mountain range at about a mile distant, the trout yet maintains its place, and in
the part of the river frequented by it I have in vain looked for the stickleback.
Baker (Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.) reports that on the 4th of May one devoured in
five hours seventy-four young dace, which were a quarter of an inch long and of
the thickness of horsehair. Two days afterwards it swallowed sixty-two, and
would probably have eaten as many every day could they have been procured for it.

The males appear to be always ready for a fight, but before commencing they
swim round each other evidently seeking an unguarded place in their opponent,
which found, the attacking party dashes in with great rapidity and uses its
spines with great effect, even absolutely ripping his opponent open. A writer
in the Magazine of Natural History (iii, p. 330) observes that when a few
are first turned into a tub of water they swim about in a shoal, apparently
exploring their new habitation. Suddenly one will take possession of a particular
corner of the tub, or, as will sometimes happen, of the bottom, and will instantly
commence an attack upon his companions, and if anyone ventures to oppose his

* In Warwickshire a closely pronounced name is given to the minnow, Leuciscus phowinus.
16
242 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

sway, a regular and most furious battle ensues, sometimes lasting several minutes
before either will give way : and when one does submit, imagination can hardly
conceive the vindictive fury of the conqueror, who, in the most persevering and
unrelenting way, chases his rival from one part of the tub to another, until fairly
exhausted with fatigue.

Mr. Mable at the Weston-super-Mare Museum had some three-spined stickle-
backs in an aquarium and some roach, Leuciscus rutilus, were added. With this
invasion the prior inhabitants were dissatisfied but not frightened, as they forth-
with attacked the new comers, biting at them anywhere until they became
thoroughly cowed. These little tyrants were observed to place themselves in
front of the roach, steady themselves by their tails, and then suddenly dart
straight at the lips of their intended prey, from which they bit pieces out. These
attacks were continued until all the roach had been killed, when they were eaten by
their conquerors (Day, P. Z. 8. 1879, p. 753). Mr. Odelly (Hard. Sc. Gossip,
1868, p. 215) mentions placing some carp and tench in a tank containing stickle-
backs. Almost immediately these little furies attacked the carp and gave them
no rest until they died, which occurred in three or four days, not one of them
having more than a vestige of fin and tail left. The tench were left alone.

It has been observed that during the autumn months many adult fish may be
found dead, which has been attributed to the love of fighting so very conspicuous
in this irritable little race of fishes.

Means of capture—Young anglers with a stick and short piece of thread on to
which is tied a worm by its middle, are very successful in taking many of these
fishes in the summer months, as they hold on with great pertinacity to any object
which they have once seized. They may also be taken by small meshed nets.
Pennant (1776) observed that once in seven or eight years amazing shoals appear
in the Welland and come up the river in the form of a vast column. They are
supposed to be the multitudes which hare been washed out of the fens by the
floods of several years, and collected in some deep hole, till overcharged with
numbers they are periodically obliged to attempt a change of place. The quantity
is so great that they are used to manure the land, and trials have been made to
get oil from them. A notion may be had of this vast shoal, by saying that a
man employed by the farmer to take them, has got for a considerable time four
shillings a day by selling them at a halfpenny a bushel.

Breeding.*—Although they usually commence doing so in April or May,
Thompson remarks having seen one large with spawn in Ireland as late as
September: and Wakefield (Zool. 1853, xi, p. 3760) that he has known their
eggs hatched in March and April.

Mr. Smee observed of the nest of this species as found in the river in his
garden, that it was merely a thin covering of fibres arranged over a hole placed
ina hollow. The Curator of the Norwich Museum observed (1857) of some in
an aquarium, that the male having selected a spot in the centre of the trough, here
he made a collectign of delicate fibrous material resting on the ground and matted
into an irregularly circular mass, somewhat depressed and upwards of an inch in
diameter,} the top being covered with similar materials and having in the centre
a rather large hole. He kept constant watch over the nest, every now and then
shaking up the materials and dragging out the eggs, which were the size of poppy
seeds, and then pushing them into their receptacle again and tucking them up
with his snout, arranging the whole to his mind, and again and again adjusting it
until he was satisfied: after which he hung or hovered over the surface of the
nest, his head close to the orifice, fanning it with his pectoral fing aided by a
slight motion of the tail. Mr. Kinahan (Zool. p. 3526) says the male selects a
suitable spot where the water, not too deep, runs with a current over a gravelly
bottom. The foundation is usually laid of straws, having their ends carefully
tucked into the gravel: other straws are laid across and similarly secured by the

* The first British naturalist who wrote about the nests of sticklebacks was Richard Bradley,
F.R.8., in 1721, in his Philosophical Account of the works of Nature, p. 61, London, 4to.

t In the Youth’s Instructor for 1834, the size of these nests as found in the London Docks was
given as “ somewhat larger than a shilling.”
GASTEROSTEID A. 243

fish placing his snout on the end of each straw, and then raising his body vertically
to press it down. Conferve and such like are then woven into a mass above,
through which the water can have free passage. In the centre of this, a dome-
like hollow is preserved, and on the top a small round hole whose edges are
strengthened with particular care, and rounded off by tucking in the loose fibres.

From this time as described by Mr. Warrington (Ann. Nat. Hist. (2) xvi, 1855,
p. 350) the nest was opened more and more to the action of the water while the
male hovered over it, causing a current of water to be propelled across the surface
of the ova, this action being almost constantly repeated. After about ten days
the nest was destroyed and minute fry appeared and were guarded by the male.
(Other observers have found the eggs to take three weeks or nearly a month
before they were hatched.) Also if the young fish strayed above a certain distance
from the nest they were brought back by puffing at them by the male. As soon
ee at yelk bag became absorbed and they could swim he graduaily relaxed his
efforts.

‘They have also been observed to select, as suitable places for constructing
their nests, rock pools which are only reached by the spring tides. Here the
temperature of the water is considerably increased by the heat of the sun, and the
young are hatched and reared in comparative security. .

Diseases—Mr. Wolley (Zool. 1847, p. 1649) mentions a disease among the
sticklebacks in a pond near Liverpool: it appears as large globular excrescences
each the size of a peppercorn, but taken together equalling the size of the body of
the fish. The fish are small and ill-conditioned. Tait (Journ. Anat. and Phys.
v, 1869, p. 12) has described how these fishes are affected by tumours, which are
soft and sensitive, impeding the movements of the fish.

Thompson (Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 87) observed that the largest examples
of the variety G. brachycentrus, invariably found where the temperature was
lowest, were perfectly free from the pearl-like tumours which adhere to the body
and infest those inhabiting the comparatively warm waters of the lower grounds.

It has been observed that wounds received from one another in conflicts at
first become white, then increase in extent until the whole fish is covered with a
furry-looking fungus (Wakefield, Zool. 1853, xi, p. 3760).

Mr. Poole (Nature, Sept. 1881, p. 485) remarks having found these fish in a
pond at Godalming infested by numbers of Infusoria, evidently parasitic, upon
them. The parasite being apparently Trichodina pediculus which previously had
only been known to be parasitic on fresh water Polypes, as the Hydra, but which
it now seems also employs the stickleback as its host.

Uses.—In Eastern Russia, also in the Baltic, numbers are collected during
November, when they assemble on the coast in shoals prior to seeking their
winter quarters. They are boiled down, a bushel, it is reported, giving about _two
gallons of oil, and the refuse fish is employed as manure. Near Dantzic they are
likewise said to be used for feeding ducks and fattening pigs. In Kamtschatka
and in Rupert’s Land they are stored up for the winter food of dogs.

As food.—A nourishing soup it has been observed may be made from stickle-
backs.

Habitat.— Greenland, Northern Europe, and North America. In the Orkneys
found in even the smallest brook, lock, or puddle that hasa running communication
with any other piece of water (Low). It is common not only inland but all
round the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland.

The marine, semi-marine, and estuary varieties have been specially recorded
from the following localities. Variety trachurus around the coast in salt or
brackish waters: common in the Orkneys and Zetland: Banff (Edward) :
Aberdeen (Sim) St. Andrew’s: Aberlady, but not common in the Firth of Forth,
frequent at Berwick-on-Tweed (Parnell): also found in Ayrshire (Thompson) :
abundant in Yorkshire (Clarke): swarms in Lincolnshire and common in
Norfolk: mouth of the Thames: Isle of Wight (More): Weymouth (Gosse) :
Devonshire, Cornwall, and Somersetshire. In Ireland this form and also the
variety semiloricatus are found as marine or estuary residents in the island of
Rathlin. The typical trachurus has been taken in Larne Lough: eer Bay

6 *
244, ACANTHOPTERYGII.

and the harbour of Donaghadee in Ireland (Thompson). The variety semiarmatus
has been recorded from Aberdeen (Sim): St. Andrew’s: is rather rare on the
coasts of Scotland, but has been found in the marshes below Kincardine.
Somersetshire (Baker): Weymouth (Gosse). In Ireland it is also considered
among the rarest of the marine or semi-marine forms, but has been taken at the
Island of Rathlin and at Wolfhill near Belfast (Thompson).

The inland or smooth-tailed varieties are also found in the vicinity of the sea,
and some have been said to have been taken in brackish and saline waters.
Variety gymnurus is certainly most widely distributed throughout Great Britain
and Ireland. It is found in the Orkneys (Baikie): Banff (Edward): Aberdeen
(Sim): common in the Firth district (Parnell): Berwick-on-Tweed: Isle of
Arran: Portpatrick (Thompson): Isle of Wight (More, Zool. 1861, p. 7303) :
Weymouth (Gosse), several places round Exeter and Topsham Marshes (Parfitt),
Devonshire: Somersetshire (Baker): Bristol (Couch): Mr. Witts obtained a
number for me from Slaughter on the Cotteswolds, it is also found round
Cheltenham : while out of a hundred and forty sticklebacks taken from a trout
stream at Warrington, in Lancashire, about half were this form the others being
G. pungitius (J. Peers, Zool. 1864, p. 9145). In Ireland this is the commonest
form throughout the country, and Thompson records it from the island of
Rathlin, Belfast, the river Bann at Toome: from county Down and Fermanagh :
Dublin: county Wicklow: Queen’s county: and Cork. I found them also very
abundant at Longford. Thompson has also taken them from drains, which are
occasionally replenished by the tide. The variety brachycentrus has been captured
at Stowpool, near Lichfield (Thompson). I took some at Edgeworthstown,
county of Longford: while Thompson records it from Lough Neagh, Belfast,
Dublin, Youghal, Portarlington. The variety spinulosus has been recorded from
the Firth of Forth, South Queensferry, Guillon Links, Dudlington Loch, and
Berwick-on-Tweed (Parnell) : in some numbers from near Edinburgh (Stack) :
Norwich (Dunn): Teignmouth (Walcott): common in Cornwall, ascending the
river in May (Cornish Fauna). In Ireland I have taken it at Edgeworthstown:
at Portarlington, in Queen’s county, and Belfast (Thompson).

This species in the British Isles does not appear to have been recorded over
33 inches in length.

2. Gasterosteus pungitius, Plate LXVITI, fig. 4.

Pisciculi aculeate alterwm genus, Rondel. ii, p. 206. Pisciculus pungituris,
Gesner, fol. 160a. Pzscrculus aculeatus minor, Willughby, p. 342; Ray, p. 145.
Pungitti alterwm genus, Aldrov. v, c. 36; Jonston, t. xxviii, f. a.

Gasterostens, no, 2, Artedi, Spec. p. 97; Gronov. Zooph. no. 406. Ten-spined
stickleback, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776) iii, p. 262, pl. 1 and (Ed. 1812) iii,
p. 355, pl. 1x1.

Gasterosteus pungitius, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 491; BI. ii, p. 108, t. lit, f. 4;
BL. Schn. p. 123; Bonnaterre, Enc. Ich. p. 137, pl. Ivii, f. 225; Lacép. iii, p. 297 ;
Donovan, Brit. Fish. ii, pl. xxxii; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 606, pl. Ixxxvii; Pallas,
Zoogr. ii, p. 228; Turton, Brit. Faun. p. 101; Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 219; Cuv.
and Val. iv, p. 506; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. 1837 (2) i, p. 409; Thompson,
An. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1841, vii, p. 103, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 89;
Ekstr. Fische Mérké, p. 159; Fries och Ekstr. p. 20, pl. iv, £. 2; Kréyer, Dan.
Fiske, i, p. 188, c. fig.; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 1) i, p. 85, c. fig. (Hd. 2) i,
p. 99 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 91; Storer, Fish. of Mass. p. 32; Jenyns, Man. p. 350; Parnell,
Fishes Firth of Forth, p. 37, pl. xxvi, and Wern. Mem. vii, p. 197, pl. xxvi;
White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 36; Gronov. ed Gray, p. 167; Nilss. Skan. Fauna,
Fiske, p. 110; Blanchard, Poiss. France, p. 238, ¢. fig.; Gimther, Catal. i, p. 6;
Schlegel, Dicren Neder. p. 54, pl. iv, £5; H. Malmgrem, Wiegm. Arch. 1864,
p. 282; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 18; Day, Jour. Linn. Soc. 1876, p. 110;
Houghton, British Fresh-water Fishes, p. 18, c. fig.; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar.
p. 4.
GASTEROSTEIDA. 245

Leiwrus pungitius, Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 242.
in. er Aa pungitia, Sauvage, Revis. Hpin. 1874, p. 29 ; Moreau, Poiss. France,
lii, p. 169.
Tinker, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, i, p. 176, pl. xxxvii, fig. 2.
American variety.

Gasterosteus occidentalis, Cuy. and Val. iv, p. 509; De Kay, New York Fauna,
p. 68, pl. xlii, f. 135.

Gasterosteus pungitius, Storer, Rep. Mass. p. 32.

Gasterosteus nebulosus, Agassiz, Lake Superior, p. 310, pl. iv, f. 2.

Pygosteus occidentalis, Brevoort, Amer. Fish. Report, 1873, p. 794.

Abnormal varieties.

Gasterosteus pungitius, Day, Jour. Lin. Soc. 1876, Zool. p. 110 (Destitute of
ventral fins).

B. iii, D. 7-10/545, P. 10, V. 0-1, A. 34, C. 12. .

Length of head 3% to 42, of caudal fin 52 to 73, height of body 52 to 6} in the
total length. Hye—diameter 3} to 4 in the length of the head : 1} to 2 diameters
from the end of the snout, and 3/4 of a diameter apart. This species is more
elongated than G. aculeatus. The maxilla extends posteriorly to beneath the
front edge of the eye. Teeth—villiform in the jaws, more numerous anteriorly
than they are laterally, none on palate or tongue. Fins—the spines of the first
dorsal of varying length, but low, being about equal to half the height of the rays
of the soft dorsal, the last of which are the longest. It has been stated that these
spines are not in a straight line one behind the other, but that alternate ones are
more to the right or left; this I have not been able to confirm in all the examples
which I have examined: their edges are smooth. Caudal square or slightly
emarginate at its posterior extremity. Ventrals consisting each of one spine and
one ray when present, and which articulate with the pubic plate: an arrow-
headed expansion of the humeral arch, which is subject to great variation both as
to its width and length, and may even be entirely absent. The sides, as a rule,
are entirely smooth, but in some few instances an indistinct caudal keel has been
observed. Colowrs—vary considerably, usually of a dark olive-green or brown
along the back, becoming lighter on the sides and beneath, with numerous black
spots and dots irregularly distributed : fins diaphanous. In the breeding season,
those which I have seen become much darker, the under surface of the head and
chest turning to a cobalt blue. They are said to assume their nuptial livery
about March : Nilsson observes that in Scandinavia they become red at this period.

Varieties.—In form.—Allman obtained in Tipperary several specimens of a
stickleback, apparently referrible to G. pungitius, but without any trace of ventral
spines (Thompson) : subsequently I captured thirteen examples of this species at
Edgeworthstown, all having a badly marked keel on the side of the tail; eleven ,
of these were destitute of ventral fins. When the spine existed, as a rule it was
not half the length of the pubic plate: in one example the spine on one side of
the body was one-third shorter than its fellow on the opposite side. In those
wherein no ventral spine existed the pubic plate was also absent. The Swedish
variety, though generally possessing 9 dorsal spines, has been observed to have
them from 8 to 10. Jenyns considered that in the British Isles there are two
varieties, the first with the ‘sides of the tail keeled; each keel being furnished
with several slender scales, which themselves appear scaled under the microscope :
secondly G. levis, Cuv. and Val. having the sides of the tail quite smooth.”

Donovan observed that we have in some 10 dorsal spines, others with 9,
while one specimen had only 8. Shaw also remarks that sometimes, though but
rarely, the spines amount to 11. Parnell took two at Prestonpans, one having 9,
the other 11 dorsal spines. Among those I personally obtained at Edgeworths-
town, and which varied from 1:4 inches to 2°1 inches in length, one had 2 dorsal
spines, only the seventh and ninth being visible: one had 4 spines, and eleven
had 8 to 9 spines. Thus we have local instances wherein the dorsal spines
numbered 2, 4, 8, 9, 10 and 11.
246 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Names.—Ten-spined stickleback, thus termed due to the usual number of spines
in the dorsal fin. Tinker. L’épinochetie, French.

Habits—This form is smaller and not so generally distributed as the three-
spined species, but appears to be equally irritable. Couch asserts that it will not
exist when confined in salt water, however diluted such may be.

Means of capture.—Similar to those employed for the three-spined stickleback,

Breeding.*—D’Orbigny considered that this species of stickleback invariably
constructed its nest upon aquatic plants or among their roots, likening that of
G. aculeatus to a molehill, and of G. pungitius to a muff, or as observed by
Yarrell, to the nest of a wren or a long-tailed tit. On May 1st, 1864, a male of
this species was placed by Mr. Ransom (Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1865, xvi,
p. 449) in a well-established aquarium of moderate size, and in which, after three
days, two ripe females were added. He soon began to build a nest of bits of
dirt, dead fibre and growing confervoid filaments, upon a jutting point of rock,
among some interlacing branches of Myriophyllum spicatwm, all the time, however,
frequently interrupting his labours to pay his addresses to the females. This was
done in most vigorous fashion, he swimming by a series of little jerks near and
about the female, even pushing against her with open mouth, but usually not
biting. After a little coquetting, she responds and follows him, swimming just
above him as he leads the way to the nest. When there the male commences to
flirt, which he after a time terminates by pushing his head well into the entrance
of the nest, while the female closely follows him, placing herself above him
and apparently much excited. As he withdraws she passes into the nest, and
after a very brief delay pushes quite through it, during which she deposits her
ova. The male now fertilizes the eggs, and drives the female away to a safe
distance: then, after patting down the nest, he, being polygamous, proceeds in
search of another wife. The nest is built and the ova deposited in about twenty-
four hours. The male continues to watch ib day and night, and during the light
hours he also continually adds to the nest.

Uses.—Similar to those of the three-spined species.

Habitat.—Newfoundland common (Saxby, Zool. 1871, p. 2533), throughout
Europe, also found in the northern parts of America from Newfoundland to Cape
Hatteras.

In Great Britain and Ireland, this species, although widely distributed and
often locally abundant, is not so general as the varieties of G. aculeatus. It is
said to have been obtained in Zetland (W. Baikie): Portpatrick (Thompson).
Has been found near Leeds, Doncaster, Ulleskelfe, Thirsk, Slingsby, Redcar, and
Urome (Yorkshire Vertebrates): in ditches in Norfolk near Lynn, but not very
common (Lowe): at Warrington in Lancashire (J. Peers): Leam near Leamington
(Thompson) : Preston Weald-moors, in Shropshire (Houghton): Battersea fields
and Cobham, in Surrey (White): estuaries of the Thames (Thompson): Isle of

« Wight (More): occasional in Devonshire (Parfitt).

In Ireland it is rare as compared with the three-spined form (Thompson). It
has ‘been recorded from Portaferry, county Down: Blackstaff river, near Belfast:
La Bergerie, Queen’s County: Youghal and Dublin.

The example, figured life size, is one of the Irish variety, wherein ventral
the spines and pubic plate are absent. It was obtained at Edgeworthstown,
county of Longford. This species is said to rarely exceed 2 or 23 inches in
length.

3. Gasterosteus spinachia, Plate LXVIII, fig. 5.

Aculeatus vel Pungitius marinus longus, Schonev. p. 10, t. iv, f£.3; Will. p. 340;
Ray, p. 145. Gasterostens, no. 8, Artedi, Genera, p. 52; Gronov. Zooph. no. 407.
Centriscus, sp. Klein, Pisc. Miss. iv, p. 48, no. 1, t. iv, £5. The fifteen-spined
stickleback, Low, Fauna Orcad. p. 217; Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Hd. 1776) iui, p. 263,
pl.land (Ed. 1812) iii, p. 356, pl. Ixi.

* On its nidification see Landois, Zool. Gart. 1870, p. 1-10.
GASTEROSTEID A. 247

Gasterosteus spinachia, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 492; Bloch, t. li, f 1; BL
Schn. p. 123, t. xxxiii, £2; Bonnaterre, Atl. Ich. p. 137, pl. lvii, f. 226; Lacép.
il, p. 801; Donovan, Brit. Fish. ii, pl. xlv; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 607, pl. lxxxvii;
Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 101; Cuv. and Val. iv, p. 509; Ekstr. Fische Mérké,
p. 163; Kroéyer, Dan. Fiske, i, p. 198, c. fig.; Fries och Ekstr. p. 21, t. iv, f. 3;
Jenyns, Manual, p. 351; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 87, ¢. fig. (Hd. 2) i,
p. 101 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 93; Thompson, An. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1841, vii, p. 104,
Natural Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 89; Parnell, Wern. Mem. vii, p. 38, pl. xxvi, and
Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 198; Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Club, 1838; i, p- 171; Nilss.
Skan. Fauna, Fiske, p. 112; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 86; Ginther, Catal. i,
p. 7; Schlegel, Dieren Neder. p. 54, pl. iv, £.3; McIntosh, Fish. N. Uist, Pro.
Roy. Soc. Edin. v, 1862-66, p. 614, and Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 171. ;

Spinachia vulgaris, Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 219; Johnston, Fish. Berwick. Mag.
Nat. Hist. 1833, vi, p. 15; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. 1837 (2) i, p. 409;
Malmgren, Wieg. Arch. 1864, p. 282; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 14; Winther,
Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 5; Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 171, ¢. fig.

Polyacanthus spinachia, Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 242.

Gasterosteus marinus, Gronoy. ed. Gray, p. 168.

Gastreea spinachia, Sauvage, Revis. Epin. An. Mus. 1874, p. 36.

Fifteen-spined stickleback, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, i, p. 180, pl. xxxviii.

B. ini, D. 15(-17)/6-7, P. 9-10, V. 1/1, A. 6-7, C. 12-14, Vert. 18/23.

Length of head 4 to 43, of caudal fin 8, height of body 83 to 9 in the total
length. Hye—situated very slightly behind the middle of the length of the head,
2 to 23 diameters from the end of the snout, and 1 apart. Body elongated and
posteriorly depressed. Smnout elongated. Mouth short: the posterior extremity
of the upper jaw does not extend half way to beneath the front edge of the eye.
Teeth—present in both jaws, of a moderate size, compressed and having the
summits notched, some anteriorly being tricuspidate: none on the vomer, palatines,
or tongue. J%ins—the first dorsal is formed of free spines of about equal height,
each situated on an osseous plate, a row of which extends from the occiput to the
base of the caudal fin: second dorsal and anal short and somewhat similar to one
another : caudal square or rounded at its extremity. Ventral with one spine and
a single ray. The soft rays of the dorsal, anal, and caudal fins are simply divided
at their extremities, those of the pectoral being undivided. Scales or armature—
along the side of the body exists a raised ridge, consisting of about 40 wide plates,
having a central elevation and slightly roughened keel. A second but smaller
ridge also goes from the posterior edge of the dorsal fin to the middle of the upper
edge of the caudal: a third ridge, similar to that of the dorsal, passes from the anal
to the lower edge of the caudal fin. Respecting the existence of two cecal
appendages, as observed by Valenciennes and others, they were absent in the
British specimens which I have examined. Air-bladder—simple, rather wide
posteriorly and narrow anteriorly, having a very silvery appearance. Colours—
olive, becoming silvery beneath : a brilliant silvery stripe passes from the snout
to beneath the eye, bounded above by a dark line which is continued posteriorly
some distance along the side: this brilliant white band is often broken up into
irregularly oval spots continued to above the commencement of the anal fin.
Under surface of chest and as far as the anal fin yellow. Irregular dark bands
sometimes cross the body, and are generally most distinct in the caudal portion :
second dorsal and anal brown in their outer two-thirds, or with a short band.
Caudal dark, with a light upper edge. This fish, says Dr. Ball, possesses the
chameleon-like quality of changing colour when excited.

Varieties—Edward records having seen examples at Banff possessing sixteen
and seventeen dorsal spines.

Names.—lIts local name bismore, in the Orkneys is derived from a kind of
balance used there and which has this designation (Low). Willie-wan-beard,
Banff (Edward), or Robbie wamberg, Banff (Yarrell). Bottle-nose, St. Andrew’s :
Duckins, Berwick: Great sea-adder, west country and Cornwall. L’cpinoche de
mer, French. De zee stekelbaars, Dutch.
248 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Habits —This is a marine species, the limit of whose existence has been
erroneously fixed at one year (Lloyd). Occasionally it strays into brackish waters,
and has been said to have ascended a short distance up rivers, but this is denied
by most authors. But its most common residence appears to be along the bases of
sea-weed covered rocks, or among the stems of fuci at the sea bottom, although
it is sometimes found in rock pools and under stones between tide marks. It
feeds on worms, small crustacea, the eggs and fry of other fish, and animal
substances. Yarrell found in them numerous examples of the opossum shrimp,
Mysis. At the Westminster Aquarium (Dec. 1879) some might occasionally be
seen floating along in a perpendicular manner, the head being uppermost: or else
quite still on some marine plant, retaining the same position, or the head might be
occasionally downwards. They do not move their fin rays in the rapid manner
of the Hippocampus. Couch observed one under the influence of terror change
from a dark olive with golden sides to a pale hue, and so remain for eighteen hours,

Means of capture—Dredging, trawling, shrimp nets, and found under stones
and among sea-weed at low water.

Breeding.—In spring in some quiet spot as a harbour or place where the water
is pure but the locality sheltered from the violence of the waves, or even between
tidemarks where the nest may be left uncovered for two or three hours at a time.
The form of the whole structure is pear-shaped and about the size of a man’s fist.
Admiral Milne, in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, writing on fishes’
nests evidently refers to that of the fifteen-spined stickleback. Dr. Swainson
considered them to have been constructed by gobies, but Mr. Maclaren had
assured him that he had watched the stickleback in the act of making them.
In an aquarium this fish commences constructing its nest in the spring, but
it is never completed. The fifteen-spined stickleback usually chooses as a
foundation for its nest the over-hanging branch of a sea-weed, and one was
observed to have selected the loose end of a rope, from which the separated strands
hung at about a yard below the surface over a depth of four or five fathoms.
Either the materials at hand are employed or the fish collects some of the softer
sea-weeds which it joins together with so much of the coralline tufts, Janie, as
will be sufficient to afford the required firmness. Itstitches the materials together
with a thread, the material employed being very elastic and which has been
hkened in appearance to silk. This nest is watched over by the parent fish,
supposed to be the male, which does not leave its station but continues guard for
three or four weeks until the young are able to shift for themselves.

As food.—It is worthless, while its sides are too well protected even for bait.
It is used as manure and for obtaining oil from.

Habitat.—From the coasts of northern Europe, especially the North Sea.and
Baltic: in vast numbers off Holland: along the coasts of France: it is found
round the British Isles, also off the English Channel to the Bay of Biscay.

In the Orkneys and Zetland it is very frequent. It breeds at Wick (Peach) :
common among the pools at Banff (Edward) : at Peterhead (Yarrell) : Aberdeen
(Sim). Only two instances have been recorded from the Moray Firth (Gordon,
Zool, 1852, p. 8458): abundant in rock pools at St. Andrew’s (McIntosh):
Firth of Forth (Neill). By no means uncommon on the coast of Berwickshire
(Johnston) : similarly numerous along that of Yorkshire (Yorkshire Vertebrata) :
at Yarmouth it has been said to be rare (Paget) : it is uncommon along the Sussex
coast: at Weymouth it is abundant around the quays (P. Gosse) : Plymouth and
south coast (Parfitt): Dawlish: and common in Cornwall (Cornish Fauna): a
local example exists in the Weston-super-Mare Museum: and the fry have been
observed on the coast of Anglesea (Donovan).

In Tveland it is found all round the island, most being taken on the south coast
where sprat fishing is most practised. Thompson had examples from Rathlin in
the north: Down and Antrim: Bundoran on the west and Youghal on the south.

The example figured, life size, was from Shoreham. It attains to at least 7
inches in length.
CENTRISCIDA. 249

Twelth group—Acanthopterygii centrisciformes.

Snout tubular: mouth small. Two dorsal fins, the anterior spinous and short:
the soft dorsal and the anal each with a moderate number of rays. Ventral fins
abdominal, and imperfectly developed.

Famity, XX VII—CENTRISCID &, pt. Bleeker.

Fistularia, pt. Miller ; Amphisiloidet, pt. Bleeker.

Branchiostegals three or four: pseudobranchia present. Gills four. Form of
body oblong or elevated and compressed. The anterior bones of the skull forming
an elongated tube, having a small terminal mouth. Teeth absent. Two dorsal
fins, the first short with one of its spines strong: soft dorsal and anal of
moderate extent: ventral abdominal, spineless and rudimentary. Scales, when
present, small: the body often covered with a cuirass or ossifications that are
not confluent with one another. Air-bladder large. Pyloric appendages absent
Vertebre few.

This family has been divided into two genera. (1) Centriscus, in which the
body is scaled or covered with prickles. (2) Amphisile, without scales but
invested with a bony cuirass.

Geographical distribution.—South coast of Great Britain to the Mediterranean,
coasts of Africa, Indian Ocean, North and South Pacific.

Genus I—Centriscus, Linneus.

Branchiostegals four: pseudobranchie present. Body oblong or elevated and
strongly compressed. Teeth absent. Two dorsal fins, one of the spines of the first
being strong and elongated: ventral with five rays, small and abdominal. Some
small rough scales on the body, and narrow bony prolongations on the sides or dorsal
aspect, while others pass upwards to the back: also a carinated keel along the lower
edge of the chest and abdomen. Lateral-line absent. Air-bladder large. Pyloric
appendages absent.

Geographical distributton.—This genus extends from the southern shores of
Britain to the Mediterranean, the Japanese waters and Tasmania.

1. Centriscus scolopax, Plate LXIX.

Scolopaw, Rondel. De Pisce. xv, c. 5, p. 422; Aldrov. iii, c. 13, p. 298; Jonston,
i, tit. 1, cap. 1, art. 4, t. i, f. ix. Trumpet-fish, Willughby, p. 160, t. i 25, f.2;
Ray, p. 50; Couch, Linn. Trans. xiv, p. 89, Brit. Fish. iii, p. 21, pl. exxiv.
Solenostomus, no. 1, Klein, Miss. Pisc. iv, p. 24. Smnipe-nosed trumpet-fish, Penn.
Brit. Zool. (Hd. 1812) iii, p. 190. Silurus cornwtus, Forsk. p. 66. Centriscus, sp.
Gronov. Zooph. no. 395.

Centriscus scolopaw, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 415; Briinn. Pisc. Mass. p. 8; Bloch,
i, p. 55, t. cxxili, f. 1; Bl. Schn. p. 112; Bonn. Atl. Ich. p. 30, pl. xxi, f. 69;
Lacép. ii, pp. 86, 95, i, pl. xix, f. 3; Donovan, Brit. Fish. iii, pl. lxiii; Turton,
Brit. Fauna, p. 117; Shaw, Nat. Misc. xiv, pl. 584, and Zool. v, p. 459, pl. clxxxi;
Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 220; Cuv. Régne Anim.; Jenyns, Manual, p. 400; Yarrell,
Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 302, c. fig. (Hd. 2) i, p. 346 (Ed. 3) ii, p. 190; Risso,
Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 476; Guérin, Icon. Poiss. pl. xlv, f.2; Martens, Reise nach
Venedig, ii, p. 436; White, Catal. p. 45; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 188; Giinther,
250 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Catal. iii, p. 518, and Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (4) xvii, p. 395; Canest. Faun.
Ital. p. 137; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 21; Gill, Amer. Fish. Report,
1873, p. 793; Giglioli, Pese. Ital. p. 33; Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 175.

Aucrorhamphosus cornutus, Lacép. v, pp. 136, 187.

Solenostomus scolopaz, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 80.

Trumpet-jish, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 21, pl. exxiv.

B. iv, D. 5-7/11-12, P. 16, V. 5, A. 19-20, C. 649-46, Vert. 8/16.

The length of the head equals or rather exceeds its distance from the base of
the caudal fin: of the caudal fin 34 to 4 in the length of the head: height of body
equal to about 1/2 the length of the head. Hye—diameter equal to the
postorbital length of the head, 3/4 to 1 diameter apart. Body compressed: snout
likewise compressed and elongated into a tube, terminating anteriorly in a small
mouth, with an oblique cleft and the lower jaw somewhat anterior. Preopercle
oblique and finely serrated. Serrations likewise present along the anterior half
of the lower margin of the orbit. Teeth—absent. Fins—first dorsal commences
midway in the distance between the end of the opercle and base of the caudal
fin, its first spine short: its second long and compressed, equalling in length
rather above 1/2 the length of the body excluding the head and caudal fin:
striated laterally, serrated posteriorly, its last three spines very short: the first
two rays of the second dorsal are shorter than the next three, the remainder
decrease in length to the last, all undivided. Pectoral twice as long as the eye,
its rays unbranched. Ventral small, with five rays, and receivable into a groove.
Caudal emarginate. Scales—small, ridged, and each ridge having a spinate
termination: they are present over the body, head, and base of the snout, while
some minute ones are found along the outer third of the eye, except in its anterior
fourth. Abdominal edge sharp, cutting, compressed, and with a few spines along
its lower margin. Colowrs—rosy dashed with golden, darkest along the back
where it is sometimes of an olive tint: sides and lower surface silvery.

Names.—The trumpet, bellows-fish, woodcock or snipe-fish. Bécasse, French.

Habits.—Resides at a moderate depth preferring a muddy bottom. Itis a
slow swimmer, while due to the size of its mouth it must live on minute substances.

Breeding.—In the Mcditerranean during the spring (Risso): the young being
seen near shore in the autumn, when they are of a bright silvery colour.

As food.—Donovan observes the flesh is very palatable and wholesome,
according to the accounts of those who have visited the south of Europe, and
eaten them, but being small they are esteemed of little value.

Halbitat.—A stray wanderer to the south coast of Britain, and is found in the
Mediterranean, where, however, it does not appear to be numerous. An example
has likewise been taken at Massachusetts: and a specimen has been received at
the British Museum from Tasmania.

Respecting the number of British specimens it does not seem impossible that
they may have been unduly multiplied, and the similarly coloured boar-fish,
Capros aper, which was first recognized in Cornwall in 1825, has been recorded
as a Centriscus; for instance, the fragment found in Mount’s Bay in 1853,
which was too imperfect for preservation. Sir T. Brown observes upon one
having been given him by a seamen of these seas, which may have been from
Norfolk, but proof of this appears to be wanting. An undoubted British
example, 5 inches in length, was thrown on shore at Menabilly, near Fowey in
St. Austell’s Bay, Cornwall, in 1804, and which was recorded in Pennant’s second
edition, 1812 : it is not improbable that this may be one of those referred to by
Donovan, who in 1804 observed, ‘We are acquainted with one or two, if not
more, well authenticated instances of its having been observed on the western
coast of England, about Devonshire and Cornwall,” but he does not seem to have
personally examined the fish. Mr. R. Couch is alluded to by Yarrell as an
authority for two more Cornish examples, but his statement is as follows:
“Mr. Chergwin told me that he had seen a specimen taken in Mount’s Bay, and
a fisherman tells me he has taken another off Cape Cornwall” (Zoologist, 1847,
p. 1612). Thus the evidence of Mr. R, Couch is merely given at second hand.
LABRIDA. 251

Thirteenth group—Acanthopterygii pharyngognathi.

The two inferior pharyngeal bones are generally anchylosed into one with
or without a median longitudinal suture. Air-bladder destitute of a pervious
pneumatic duct.

Miller separated from the remainder of the hard-rayed or Acanthoptery-
gian fishes, under the designation of Pharyngognatht, such families as he observed
had the inferior pharyngeal bones coalesced into one, as in Pomacentride, Labride,
and Chromides. Buta more extended investigation has since shown that this
division is inadmissible. Thus in genus Gerres, wherein the inferior pharyngeal
bones were found to be usually as defined in the Pharyngognathi, Kner pointed
out that Gerres macrosoma is an exception, and Professor Peters has recorded the
same fact of G. plumiert. Ifsuch a character is unreliable within the limits of
a single genus, it can scarcely be accepted as a ground upon which to institute
a sub-order of fishes.

Famity, XX VIII—LABRIDZ, Cuvier.

Labroidei cycloidet, Miller; Scaroidei, Cantor; Cyclolabride, Owen.

Branchiostegals five or six: pseudobranchie present. Gulls three and a half.
Body oblong or elongated. Teeth in the jaws: palate edentulous: lower pharyngeal
bones anchylosed along the median line into one, without any median suture. A
single dorsal fin, with usually as many or more spines than rays: the anal rays
generally similar to those of the dorsal: ventral thoracic with one spine and five
rays. Scales cycloid. Lateral-line complete or interrupted. Air-bladder present,
without pneumatic duct. No cecal sac to the stomach. Pyloric appendages absent.

Geographical distribution.—These littoral fishes, known as wrasses or rock-fish,
appear to be exclusively marine and confined to the seas of tropical and temperate
regions, being nearly absent from those of colder climes. Around the British Isles
they are generally found in the vicinity of rocks, and appear partial to such
as are covered by sea-weeds.

Many of the wrasses, termed Labride due to size of their lips, are adorned
with gorgeous tints, the intensity of which is greatly augmented during the
nuptial period, usually about May. They are also subject to great individual
variations in the mode in which they are coloured, while in some the livery of
the two sexes is very dissimilar. Variations in form are not unusual among
these fishes; thus the head in certain species is comparatively longer in the
young than in the adult. Some of the soft rays may be transformed into spines,
ay I have already observed occurs among the Serrant and Sparide (p. 14): the
height of the spines as compared to the rays is greater in the young than in
adults. The preopercle may be serrated in the young, but smooth in the adult,
They are provided with exceedingly strong teeth to enable them to crush the
shells of marine molluscs and crustacea, while some feed on corals, others on
zoophytes or even sea-weeds. A few are provided with a pointed tooth directed
forward, and placed at the angle of the mouth, which is supposed to be employed
for pressing shells against the lateral and crushing teeth.

As food they cannot be recommended for their superior flavour, while their
flesh is soft, somewhat sweet, and rapidly decomposes. Mr. Birchell (Zool. 1876,
p. 5160), however, observes that speaking from experience he can say that they
are excellent eating, and at the present day are largely consumed and much
252 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

esteemed in southern Europe, where they form the chief ornament of the fish-
markets: Corts julis is known at Naples as Cazzillo di re. The Greeks asserted
that it is not easy to do justice to its flesh, to sufficiently praise its trail is
impossible, and to throw away even its excrement a sin.

Aristotle observed that like quadrupeds the wrasses ruminated during the day
and slept at night time. In some genera if one were hooked its friends bit
through the fisher’s line, and were it enclosed in a net they introduced their tails
in order to assist escape. The male was supposed to keep watch over several
females whom he only left to their own devices for a few hours every evening
when he went to search for food for himself. The term wrass, by which these
fishes are generally known in Great Britain, is pronounced wrath or rath by the
fishermen of the west of England. Near the Lizard, Mr. Johns observes they
are termed raagh, which, as Couch remarks, may be an ancient British word,
approaching to the Welsh gwrach, signifying an ‘“‘ old woman.”

The British genera of this family may be recognized as follows :—

Dorsal spines 13 or more.

1. Teeth in a single row: imbricate scales on cheeks and opercles. Anal
spines 3. Lateral-line exceeding 40—Labrus.

2. Similar to Labrus, but the scales along the lateral-line are less than 40—
Crenilabrus.

3. Teeth in the jaws in a band: imbricate scales on cheeks and opercles.
Anal spines 3—Ctenolabrus.

4, Teeth in the jaws in a band. imbricate scales on cheeks and opercles.
Anal spines more than 3—Acantholabrus.

5. Teeth in the jaws in a single row: imbricate scales on cheeks and opercles.
Anal spines more than 3—Centrolabrus.

B. Dorsal spines 9.
6. Scales small: none on the head—Coris.

Genus 1.—Lasrus, Artedi.

Branchiostegals five or six: pseudobranchie present. Body oblong, compressed.
Snout more or less pointed. Preopercle entire in adults, serrated in the young.
Teeth in a single row of conical ones in the jaws, without any posterior canine. A
single dorsal fin consisting of many rays, of which 13 to 21 at least are spinous and
none are elongated. Anal with three spines and an equal number or less soft rays
than in the dorsal. Scales of moderate size, more thun forty rows, those on the
cheeks and opercles being imbricate : bases of vertical fins scaled: no enlarged row
at the base of the caudal fin. Lateral-line continuous.

Geographical distribution— Along the shores of Europe, least in numbers to
the north. Found at Madeira and adjacent coast of Africa, but most numerous
in the Mediterranean.

1. Labrus maculatus, Plate LXX and LXXI.

Labrus bergylta, Ascan. Ic. t. i; Bonn. Atl. Ich. p. 115; Shaw, Zool. iv,
p. 521; Lacép. iii, pp. 444, 518; Cuv. and Val. xiii, p. 20; Yarrell, Brit.
Fish. (Hd. 1) 1, p. 275, c. fig. (Hd. 2) i, p. 311 (Ed. 3)i, p. 482; Nilss.
Skan. Fauna, iv, p. 261; Kroyer, Dan Fiske, i, p. 476, c. fig.; White
Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 20; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 91, and Christ. Vid.
Selsk. Forh. 1879, p. 61; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 25; Moreau, Pois.
France, iii, p. 81.

Ballan wrasse, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776) iii, p. 246, pl. xliv (Hd. 1812)
iii, p. 334, pl. lv. The Wrasse, Low, Faun. Orcad. p. 215.

Labrus maculatus, Bl. vi, p. 17, t. eexciv; Bl. Schn. p. 250; Fries och Ekstr.
Skand. Fisk. p. 43, t. ii; Jenyns, Manual, p. 391; Parnell, Wern. Mem. vii,
p- 256, and Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 96; Nilsson, Prod. p. 74; Carlisle, Pro. Zool.
LABRIDA. 253

Soc. 1830, p. 17; Dillwyn, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1831, p. 35; Thompson, Proc. Zool.
Soc. 1835, p. 81; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. 1837 (2) i, p. 410; Giinther, Catal.
iv, p. 70; Schlegel, Dieren Neder. p. 18, pl. ii, f. 2; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port.
1868, p. 27; McIntosh, Fish of N. Uist, Proc. R. Soc. Ed. v, 1862-66, p. 614, and
Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 177; Day, Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool. xv, p. 312; Giglioli,
Pese. Ital. p. 34.

Labrus aper, Retz. Faun. Suec. p. 335.

Labrus ballan, Art. Walb. iii, p. 259; Bl. Schn. p. 252; Lacép. iii, pp. 444, 513.

‘ ee Orkney Islands, p. 43. Vieille, Duhamel, Péches, i, sect.iv, p. 34,

pl. vi, f. 1.

Labrus berg-galt, Mill. Zool. Dan. Prod. p. 46.

Labrus tancoides and neustrie, Lacép. ili, pp. 439, 451, 501, 522.

Labrus tinca, Shaw, Nat. Misc. xi, pl. 426, and Gen. Zool. iv, p. 499, pl. Ixxii;
Donovan, Brit. Fish. iv, pl. lxxxiii; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p- 98; Templeton, Mag.
Nat. Hist. 1837 (2) i, p. 410.

Labrus ballanus, Bonn. Atl. Ich. p. 115, pl. xeviii, f. 400; Shaw, Zool. iv,
p. 498, pl. lxxi; Fleming, Brit. An. p. 209 (in part) ; Templeton, 1. c. p. 410.

Labrus lineatus, Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 99; Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 209;
Jenyns, Manual, p. 392; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Hd. 1) i. p. 279, c. fig.

Labrus psittacus, Risso, Eur. Merid. iii, p. 304.

-Labrus cornubiensts, Couch, Trans. Linn. Soc. xiv, p. 80.

Labrus variabilis, Thompson, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 58, and Mag. Nat. Hist.
(2) 1839, iti, p. 586, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 120.

Ballan wrass, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 24, pl. exxy.

Young (having a serrated preopercle).

Labrus pusillus, Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 392; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 2) i,
p- 330, c. fig. (Hd. 3) i, p. 506; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 1380; White,
Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 24; McIntosh, Fish. N. Uist, Pro. Roy. Soc. Ed. v, 1862-66,
. 614,
Crenilabrus multidentatus, Thompson, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 56, and Mag.
Zool. Bot. ii, p. 449, pl. xiii, and Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1839, ii, p. 418.
Corkting.

Variety 1.—Labrus Donovani,* Plate LXXI, fig. 1.

? Comber, Jago in Rays, Syn. Pisce. p. 163, f. 5.

Comber, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Hd. 1, 1776) iii, p. 252, pl. xlvii, fig. 122 (Ed. 2)
iii, p. 342, pl. lviii.

Labrus comber, Gmel. Linn. p. 1297; Bonn. Atl. Ich. p. 115, pl. xcix, f. 405;
Lacép. iii, pp. 453, 523; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 503; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 99;
Flem. Brit. An. p. 209; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 393; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes,
(Ed. 1) i, p. 289, e. fig. (Ed: 2) 1, p. 323 (Ed. 3) i, p. 489; White, Catal. p. 22.

Labrus Donovani (pt.) Cuv. and Val. xiii, p. 39; Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 71;
Steind Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 25, t. iv, f. 2.

Comber wrass, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, 111, p. 32, pl. exxvi, f. 2.

In my figure the young is delineated showing the spines and rays of nearly
the same height. In Steindachner’s beautiful figure of this variety, a little
over 93 inches in length, the adult stage is being approached, the spines being
lower than the rays.

Variety 2.—Labrus lineatus, Plate LXXT, fig. 2 (4).

Labrus lineatus, Donovan, Brit. Fishes, iv, pl. lzxiv; Lacép. i, p. 510;
Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 99; Flem. Brit. An. p. 209; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 392 ;
Nilss. Prod. p. 74. :

* Correctly speaking, this variety should perhaps be Labrus comber, of Pennant: still, as it is
doubtful whether it is Ray’s comber, { have adnered to the usually received name.
254 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Labrus Donovant (part) Cuv. and Val. 1. c.; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i,
p. 279, c. fig. (Hid. 2) i, p. 315 (Hd. 3) i, p. 487.

Green wrass or green-streaked wrass, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 30,
pl. exxvi, f. 1.

Colours green, becoming yellow along the abdomen, and yellow streaks along
the rows of scales.

Yarrell in his first edition observes that this fish is the young of the Ballan
wrasse.

B. v. D. 29724, P. 14-15, V. 1/5, A. g45, C. 14, L. 1. 41-47, L. tr. -82%,, Vert.
19/19.

Length of head 32 to 4, of caudal fin 61 to 7, height of body 31 to 32 in the
totallength. Hye—diameter in the adult 5} to 6, but as large as 43 in the young,
in the length of the head, 2 diameters from the end of the snout, and 1} to 12
diameters (1 in the young) apart. The posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches
to beneath the front nostril. Lips very thick. The posterior edge of the
preopercle smooth in adults, serrated in the young. Teeth—in a single row of 7
to 9 in each side of the upper, and 8 to 10 in the lower jaw: palate and tongue
smooth. F'ins—the dorsal commences on a vertical line slightly posterior to the
base of the pectoral, its spines are stout and in this as well as in some other
species of wrasse, their height in the young nearly or quite equals that of the rays,
but in adults the soft portion is considerably higher than the spinous. Pectoral
about as long as the head behind the angle of the mouth. Ventral inserted
beneath the first third of the pectoral and reaching in the adult rather above half
way to the commencement of the anal. Anal commences beneath the last few
dorsal spines, its third spine in the adult considerably longer than the second—
but in the young only slightly so. Caudal rounded in the young, square or even
emarginate in adults. Scales—from about nine to eleven rows of small ones
across the cheeks: considerably larger on the opercles, while a row extends along
each caudal ray. Free portion of the tail at its commencement a little higher
than long. Colowrs—these vary exceedingly. Back and sides brownish, blue or
green, becoming lighter on the sides and beneath: each scale on the body
and head with a blue or nearly white centre: cheeks reticulated with red or
orange lines, some of which may be continued on to the chest. Vertical
fins yellowish, covered with orange or yellow rings: pectoral yellow, with
a light band having a dark base; outer half of fin darker than the
remainder. The next most common form of colour that I have seen has been
green with narrow longitudinal bands of yellow (L. lineatus): this may be
without spots, with a dark mark behind the hase of the soft dorsal fin, or it may
have numerous red spots on the body and fins. A not uncommon colour is pale
yellow, and one 12 inches long had three rows of small blue spots along the
spinous dorsal fin, and five along the soft portion, the anal being similarly
marked. In others a white band may pass from the snout through the eye to the
tail as in the comber; while its remaining colours may be exceedingly various.
In fact, there are few combinations of colours that this fish cannot take, and
which induced Thompson to suggest that Labrus variabilis would be its most
appropriate name.

Varieties.—In form.—These are mostly due to differences in the number and
comparative height of the spines and rays of the fins, which have been already
referred to: serrations along the posterior border of the preopercle are generally
diagnostic signs of the immaturity of the specimen; while the head is com-
paratively longer in the immature than in the adult. In colowr.—L. lineatus was
first mentioned by Pennant, who observed on having seen one taken at the Giants’
Causeway, in Ireland, of a vivid green spotted with scarlet (Perroquet de mer,
French), and at Sligo one of a pale green (Vievlle vert, French). Donovan next
figured it, the body being green with numerous yellowish longitudinal lines
(Vieille jaune, French) ; while on July 29th, 1881, I obtained one at Penzance of
a general bright emerald green covered with white spots, the head and fins as in
LABRID&. 255

the normal form but the vertical fins haying blue spots. The comber has a white
lateral band along the body from the eye to the base of the caudal fin.

_ Names.—Bergle, Orkneys: Ballan-wrasse, sea-swine, Moray Firth, owing to
its making a squeaking noise like a pig. John-rda, Cornwall (Cornish): Old or
ancient wife, old ewe, servellan wrasse, and sweet lips (Yorkshire Vertebrata) :
or rath raagh, Cornwall: Gwrach, “old woman,” Welsh.

_ In Ireland, bavin on the north-east coast: morrian and murranroe near the
oo Causeway: gregagh in the north. La vieille commune, French. De lipvisch,

atch.

_ Habits.—It resides in moderately deep water on a rocky shore, and prefers the
vicinity of sea-weed into which it retreats on being alarmed. At Lossiemouth,
Moray Firth, it is found most frequently during the summer months in company
with the Saithes, Gadus virens. But it has been observed that these wrasses
when of certain sizes, and, therefore, it may be presumed ages, associate together,
the largest forms not permitting the smaller ones to intrude. It eats shrimp-like
crustacea, worms, and even limpets. Thompson remarks that near Holywood,
during an easterly gale in February, 1838, numbers, perhaps five hundred, and no
other fish, were thrown up dead on the shore.

Means of capture.—Will take a bait very readily, which it gorges. Buckland
observed that during the month of September it gives excellent sport as follows:
Take a long piece of string, unravel about a couple of yards of the end, so that there
isa single strand only. To this tie a common beach pebble, attach the hooks to the
string, so that when in the water they shall stand at right angles to it. Coil up
the string neatly on to the rock; swing the stone round three or four times, let
it go suddenly, and it will carry the string, hooks, and all well in among the rocks
and weed. When you have a bite, strike smartly. As you are fishing among
rocks, the probability is that the stone will get jammed; pull smartly, and break
the single strand, leaving the stone in the sea.

In Galway, Mr. McCalla says, this fish is a favourite food, and fished for as
follows :—A spot is selected near a sunken rock, sometimes as much as twelve
miles out at sea, where there is a foul bottom and often thirty fathoms of water:
here a stone is used as an anchor and a pebble to sink the line with, and which
is only loosely attached in order that it may drop off should it stick in the fissure
of arock. For this occupation the day time is invariably chosen and fine weather.
According to Couch, Cornish fishermen remark that when they first fish a place,
they take but few, and those of large size: but on trying the same spot a few
days subsequently, they catch a greater number, and those smaller; from which
circumstance they conclude that the large fish assume the dominion of a district
and keep the smaller ones at a distance.

Baits.—Worms or a soft crab being one which has lately left his shell, or
shell-fish, or even sea-weed.

Breeding.—In Galway about June, along the south coast from May until
July. Parnell found one taken at Hopetown in August full of spawn ready for
depositing : while along Cornwall Couch found it to breed in April. M. Moreau
(iii, p. 102) observes that this species, and likewise the L. miatus, form nests for
the reception of their eggs (as described at page 257).

Diseases.— R. Couch saw one taken, which weighed 4¢]Ib. and was blind in
both eyes from, he thought, cataract: he also observed that old ones are very
liable to loose their sight due to opacity of the cornea. They are much infested
with Lernea. :

As food.—Generally not much esteemed, but according to Low is much prized
in the Orkneys, although it is sometimes coarse and thick-skinned: it is roasted
fresh, and seldom or never salted. We are told that it forms a favourite dish in
Galway, but is little prized in Belfast. Parnell observes that it is occasionally
brought to the Edinburgh market for sale, but is not sought after ag its flesh is
white, soft, and very insipid.

Uses.—Bait for crab or lobster pots.

Habitat.—From the coasts of Scandinavia, Denmark, and the European shores
256 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

of the North Atlantic to the Mediterranean, where it decreases in numbers as we
proceed towards the east.

In the Orkneys found close in shore where the cliffs are high and the water
deep (Low), but it is not common in Orkneys and Zetland (W. Baikie): pretty
frequent during summer off Banffshire (Edward): St. Andrew’s (McIntosh) :

- Firth of Forth rare (Parnell), but occasional in North Berwick. Thompson
recorded this species from Ayrshire and Wigton, and McIntosh from North Uist,
while he likewise observes that it is occasionally brought from deep waters at
St. Andrew’s, while many young are seen during autumn in the rock pools.

In Yorkshire resident and abundant (Yorkshire Vertebrata): sometimes
appearing during the summer in great shoals off Filey Bridge (Pennant): a few
taken at Flamborough in October (J. Cordeaux, Zool. 1868, p. 1027): a green
variety in the Wisbeach Museum was taken in the Norfolk estuary, and another
by Mr. Cresswell off Hunstanton. These wrasses have also been recorded from
Lynn Roads, November 14th, 1869 (E. King), Yarmouth, April 15th, 1868
(Gunn), and likewise some young about 8 inches in length captured by a hook
and line in the outer harbour of Lowestoft, in August, 1852. Margate, in
February, 1870 (H. Lee). The example recorded by Lester (Zool. 1855, xiii,
p. 4913), dredged in Swanage Bay, was evidently a small comber.

In Weymouth abundant, brilliant specimens and some of large size occur
frequently in various parts of the bay (P. Gosse): examples from Plymouth have
been received at the British Museum, while it is very common along the Cornish
coast. Skerry Isles, north of Anglesea (Donovan) : Swansea Bay (L. Dillwyn).

In Ireland the most common form and found all round the coast where it is of
a rocky character: numerous in Down and Antrim : at Donaghadee it is abundant
attaining to as much as 8 lb. in weight, but it is little prized as food.

The example from which plate Ixx was figured is 15} inches long and came
from Brixham: No. 1 on plate lxxi was brought from Guernsey by Mr. Carrington
and given to me, it is figured life size: while No. 2 is from an example 163 inches
long, taken at Grimsby in May, 1881. I have not obtained larger specimens.

2. Labrus mixtus, Plate LXXII, fig. 1 male, fig. 2 female.

Labrus mixtus, Fries och Ekstrom, Skand. Fisk. p. 160, pl. xxxvii and xxxviii
(Labrus dispar); Nilss. Skand. Faun. iv, pp. 265, 278; White Catal. Brit. Fishes,
p- 21; Gimnther, Catal. iv, p. 74; Roper, An. and Mag. N. Hist. (4), 1869, iv,
p. 294; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 23; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 91, and
Christ, Vid. Selsk. Forh. 1879, p. 61; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. 1879, p. 26;
Giglioli, Pesce. Ital. p. 34.

Synonymy of Males.

Turdus perbelle pictus and Turdus major varius, Willughby, p. 322, +. X3.
Labrus, no. 3 and no, 4 Artedi, Genera, p. 34. Blastaal, Strom. Séndm. i, p. 269.
Striped wrasse, Pennant’s Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1) iii, p. 249, pl. xlv, and (Ed. 1812)
iii, p. 337, pl. lvii. Cook, Penn. 1. c. (Ed. 1766) iii, p. 258, and (Ed. 1812) iu,
p. 340. Coquus, Ray, Syn. Pisce. p. 163, f. 4.

Labrus mixtus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 479; Lacép. iii, p. 486; Artedi, Gen.
p. 34, Syn. 57; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 507; Gmel. Linn. p. 1297; Risso, Ich. Nice,
p. 222, and Hur. Mérid. iii, p. 308: Cuv. and Val. xiii, p.48; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes
(Ed. 2) i, p. 317, ¢. fig. (Ed.3)i, p. 491; Morean, Poiss. France, ili, p. 96."

a ore osstphagus, Linn, Syst. Nat. i, p. 478; Bl. Schn. p. 268; Lacép. iii,
Pp. 5;

Labrus coeruleus, Ascan. Ic. pl. xii.

Labrus variegatus, Gmel. Linn. i, p. 1294; Lacép. iii, pp. 442, 508; Donovan,
Brit. Fish. i, pl. xxi; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 501, pl. xxi; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 99;
Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 229; Jenyns, Manual, p. 394; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 1)i,
p. 281, c. fig.; Thompson, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1835, p. 81, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv,
p. 124; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. (2) 1837, i, p. 410.
LABRIDZ. 257

Labrus coquus (cook), Gmel. Linn. p. 1297; Art. Walb. iii, p. 260; Shaw,
Zool. iv, p. 5U3; Lacép. iii, p. 443; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 99; Flem. Brit.
Anim. p. 209; Jenyns, Man. p. 396.

Labrus vittatus, Art. Walb. iii, p. 256.

Labrus vetula, Bl. t. cexciii; Bl. Schn. p. 250; Lacép. iii, p. 447; Swainson,
Hiab il, p. 228; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 1) i, p. 284, c. fig.; Jenyns, Man.
p. 395.

Grammistes variegatus, Bl. Schn. p. 190.

Sparus formosus, Shaw, Nat. Misc. i, pl. xxxi.

Labrus formosus, Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 512.

Labrus pavo, Risso, Hur. Mérid. iti, p. 299 (not Ich. Nice).

ree lineatus, Bonn. Atl. Ich. p. 113, pl. xeviii, f. 402; Risso, Ich. Nice,
p. ;

Labrus larvatus, Rafin. Caratt..38, sp. 101; Lowe, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1850,
p. 249,

Striped wrasse, cook or cuckoo wrass, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iti, p. 34,
pl. exxvii.

Synonymy af females.

Labrus carneus, Ascan. Ic. t. xiii; Bloch, t. cclxxxix; Bl. Schn. p. 249; Yarrell,
Brit. Fishes (Ed. 1) i, p. 286, ¢. fig; Nilss. Prod. p. 75; Parnell, Wern. Mem.
vii, p. 258, and Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 98.

Trimaculated wrasse, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776) ili, p. 248 (Ed. 1812)
iii, p. 336.

Labrus trimaculatus, Gmel. Linn. i, p. 1294; Bonn. Atl. Ich. p. 113, pl. xeviii,
£. 401; Lacép. iii, pp. 4385, 488; Shaw, Nat. Misc. xix, pl. 786, and Zool. iv,
p. 502; Donovan, Brit. Fish. ii, pl. xlix; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 99; Risso, Ich.
Nice, p. 219; Cuv. and Val. xiii, p. 58; Jenyns, Manual, p. 396; Thompson, Nat.
Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 126; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Hd. 2) i, p. 320 (Hd. 3) i, p. 495;
Guichen, Explor. Alger. Poiss. p. 83.

Labrus exoletus, Retz. Faun. Suec. p. 335.

Labrus mixtus, Kréyer, Dan. Fiske, i, p. 496, c. fig.

Three-spotted wrass, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iti, p. 36, pl. exxvii.

Yarrell in his third edition of British Fishes observes that this is the female
of LZ. mixtus.

Varieties of female.

Labrus bimaculatus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 477; Gmel. Linn. p. 1289; Bonn.
Atl. Ich. p. 112; Lacép. ii, p. 439; Bl. Schn. p. 261; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 502;
Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 227; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 99; Jenyns, Manual, p. 396.

Bimaculated wrasse, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Hd. 1776) iii, p. 247 (Hd. 1812) iii,
p. 355.

Labrus quadrimaculatus, Risso, Hur. Mérid. iii, p. 302.

(Monstrosity.)

Labrus vetula, Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Hd. 1) i, p. 284, ¢. fig.; Jenyns, Manual,
p- 895 (not Bloch).

Acantholabrus Yarrellii, Cuv. and Val. xiii, p. 259; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 2)
i, p. 839 (Ed. 3) i, p. 516; White, Catal. p. 25.

Sea-wife, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 37.

Nilsson (iv, p. 273) first suggested that this fish was a monstrosity of DL. mixtus
in which three of the soft rays had become transformed into spines. The type
appears to have been lost.

B. v, D. qpase P. 17, V. 1S, A. xefre, O. 18-18, L. 1. 50-60, L, te.
§-7/17-21, Vert. 18/21.

Length of head 3} to 33, of caudal fin 7} to 8, height of body 44 to 42 in the
total length. Hyc—diameter 53 in the length of the head, 2 to 2} diameters
from the end of the snout, and 1{ apart. Body rather compressed, snout
258 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

elongated: lips very thick. Bones of the head unarmed. The posterior extremity
of the maxilla does not reach so far as to beneath the front edge of the eye.
Posterior edge of preopercle smooth or even crenulated, very distinctly so in a
female example 11 inches in length, and serrated in its lower half in a male
71 inches long. Teeth—conical, in a single row, 7 to 13 in either side of the
upper and 9 to 21 in the lower jaw, the largest being anteriorly. Fins—dorsal
commences above the base of the pectoral, its spines gradually increase in length
to the last which equals the height of the soft rays. Pectoral half as long as the
head. Ventral commencing beneath the middle of the pectoral reaches more
than half way to the anal. Caudal rounded. Scales—about 7 rows across the
cheeks: present also on opercles, and a row along each caudal ray. Lateral-line
—curves gradually to beneath the posterior end of the soft dorsal, where
it becomes straight. ‘The tubes simple. Colowrs—these differ widely in the
sexes, and are also subject to great variations. Male—general colour of the
body yellow or orange tinged with red, becoming lightest beneath: five or six
bands of blue radiate backwards from the eye, one being generally continued
along the body below the lateral-line to the caudal fin, while a similar, but less
marked, blue band exists above the lateral-line. Fins yellow or orange, a large
blue blotch occupies most of the interspinous membrane existing between the first
twelve dorsal spines and is sometimes continued backwards in the form of spots
as far as the first ray. A narrow blue band with an outer white edging passes
along the dorsal and anal fins: while the outer half or two-thirds of the caudal
is likewise blue. Occasionally the blue edging to the anal is very wide. Female
—yellow or orange-red along the back becoming lighter on the sides and beneath.
Fins yellow or orange, a purplish or bluish blotch occupies most of the inter-
spinous membrane existing between the first three or four dorsal spines: two
black blotches, surrounded by a light margin, are present on the back beneath
the soft dorsal fin on to which they are usually extended, a third similar one is
present over the free portion of the tail. The fins, except the caudal, frequently
edged as described for the male. The light margin surrounding the black
blotches are sometimes expanded into distinct light round or oval marks. The
young males are similarly coloured to the females.

Varieties.—Labrus vetula, Yarrell (not Bloch), has, as already observed, been
pointed out by Nilsson to be an abnormal example.

Fries and Ekstrém first discriminated that the blue-striped wrasse is the male
and the three-spotted wrasse the female of one species.

Fleming placed L. bimaculatus and trimaciulatus as varieties of L. maculatis,
while he admitted L. coguus as a distinct species. Couch remarks of the female
that he has seen it with from three to five black spots on the back and dorsal
fin. I obtained one with only a single black blotch on the dorsal fin. Some
fishermen consider that a predominance of ycllow denotes that the example has
been residing in deep waters.

Names.—Cook wrasse, blue-striped wrasse, cook-conner. Cuckoo-fish, Cornwall.
Livery-servant and livery-fisk in the north of Ireland. Semale—red wrasse, flesh-
coloured wrasse, two- or three-spotted wrasse. Le labre mélé ou varie, French.

Habits—It inhabits rocky shores but does not appear to like sandy bays.
It feeds on mollusca and crustacea, coming nearer in shore during the summer
months. It is especially partial to the spider crab, and is frequently taken in
crab-pots.

Means of capture—Takes a bait freely, especially those being employed
whiffing for pollack.

Baits—Lob-worms.

Brecding.—Deposits its spawn in April or May, and R. Couch found examples
with ova in July and August, but he thought the same fish does not breed twice
in one season, since the April and August breeders are rarely found in the same
locality. Risso on the contrary considered that it bred at two separate seasons.
Thompson observes that its ova are extremely minute.

Hermaphrodites—-Couch remarked upon having obtained one of this species
in the month of May.
LABRIDA. 259

As food.—Couch asserts that in Cornwall it is rarely used for this purpose.

Habitat.—From the coasts of Scandinavia, Denmark, and the European shores

of the German Ocean and North Atlantic, throughout the Mediterranean, where
it is common.
_ At Kirkwall in the Orkneys once (Iverach) : five males were taken at Wick
in Caithness in June, 1870, in one day on haddock lines: the fishermen
asserted they were entirely new to them (Reed). Banffshire rare; avery pretty
specimen was taken off Macduff (Edward); October 26th, 1853, two examples
were captured in the Moray Firth on a small haddock line set in 14 to 18 fathoms
water, on very rough ground; one was 10 the other 11 inches in length (G.
Gordon, Zool. p. 4171). Firth of Forth, according to Neill, but Parnell never
saw it there. At North Uist itis found in shoals at the margins of the rocks, or
lurking under sea-weeds in rock pools (McIntosh). In Yorkshire Mr. Cordeaux
remembers seeing an example some years ago on the coast, he thinks, at Flam-
borough (Yorkshire Vertebrata) ; in 1869 its capture was recorded from Eastbourne |
(Roper, Ann. and Mag. (4) iv, p. 294); September 27th, 1858, an example of
LD. carneus, Bloch, was taken at Weymouth with shrimps for a bait, and one in
October, 1853 (Gosse). Specimens have been received at the British Museum from
Plymouth. Common along the coasts of Devonshire and Cornwall, while at the
Land’s End it abounds, but keeps to deeper water than L. maculatus, preferring
rough and rocky ground. Leach obtamed it from Swansea, Pennant from
Anglesea,

Lreland.—It is occasionally but rarely taken round the island. Coasts of
Antrim and Down; Dublin; Ardmore in county of Waterford; Youghal in Cork
and Kilkee (Ball) ; Galway (M’Calla).

The largest example I have obtained along the south coast, where it is
plentiful, is 13 inches in length.

17 *
260 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus II.—Creninasrus, Cwier.

Coricus, Cuvier; Cynedus, sp. Swainson.

Branchiostegals five or sia: pseudobranchie present. Body oblong and compressed.
-Preopercle serrated. Teeth in the jaws conical and in a single row without any
postertor canine: palate edentulous. A single dorsal fin consisting of wpwards of
20 rays, of which from 13 to 18 at least are spinous, and none are elongated:
anal with three spines. Scales of moderate size but not so many as forty rows:
those on the cheeks and opercles being imbricate. Lateral-line continuous.

A rather weighty objection exists to this genus, in that many of the young
of genus Labrus have the preopercle serrated, while in some of Crenilabri the
preopercle loses its serrature, so that they are similar to Labrus. Bleeker,
however, pointed out that no examples of this genus have so many as 40 rows
of scales along the lateral-line, whereas all of Labrus have more that 40. Until
the intermediate forms are recognized perhaps the validity of the genus may be
admitted. Bleeker restricted Coricus to some species, in which the snout is
produced.

Geographical distributton.—Similar to that observed in the genus Labrus.

M. Gerbe (Rev. et Mag. Zool. xvi, pp. 255, 273, 337) has recorded how
species of this genus, C. massa and C. melops, form nests of sea-weed, shells, and
other substances in which the ova are deposited: both sexes engage in their
construction. (C. pavo acts similarly (Moreau, 1. c.), as do also species of the
genus Labrus (see page 255).

1. Crenilabrus melops, Plate LX XIII.

Bergylte, Strém. Séndm, p. 266, No. 1, 2.

Labrus melops, Linn. Mus. Ad. Frid. ii, p. 78, and Syst. Nat. i, p. 477; Bonn.
Atl. Ich. p. 112; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 505; Bl. Schn. p. 261; Lacép. iii, p. 435 ;
Fries och Ekstr. Skand. Fisk. p. 182, pl. xliv.

Labrus turdus, Mill. Prod. no. 383.

Lutjanus melops, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 265.

Crenilabrus melops, Cuv. Reg. Anim.; Risso, Europ. Mérid. iui, p. 318; Cuv.
and Val. xiii, p. 167; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Hd. 2) 1, p. 325, ¢. fig. (Hd. 38) i,
p. 498; Guichen. Expl. Algér. Poiss. p. 85; Kréyer, Dan. Fiske, i, p. 521, c. fig. ;
Nilss. Sk. Faun. iv, p. 270; White, Catal. p. 23; Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 80; Steind.
Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 30; Collett, Norges Fisk. p. 92; McIntosh, Fish. St.
Andrew’s, p. 177; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 26; Giglioli, Pesce. Ital. p. 34;
Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 111.

Labrus tinca, Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 98; Jenyns, Manual, p. 397.

Crenilabrus tinca, Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Hd. 1) i, p. 293; Thompson, Mag.
Zool. Bot. ii, p. 442, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 59, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv,
p- 126; Parnell, Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 99, and Wern. Mem. vii, p. 259.

Cyncedus tinca, Swainson, Fishes, 11, p. 229.

Baillon’s wrass, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 45, pl. exxxii (not Cuv. and
Val.).

Variety I. Crenilabrus rone.

Labrus rone, Ascan. Ic. t. xiv; Bonn. Atl. Ich. p. 111; Lacép. iti, p. 437;
Nilss. Prod. p. 77.
LABRIDAL. 261

Crenilabrus rone, Cuv. and Val. xiii, p. 172.
’ This variety has no black spot behind the eye. Back reddish with green
spots ; abdomen silvery with red spots. Three red bands along the soft and two
along the spinous dorsal fin: anal similar to soft dorsal.

Variety 2. Crenilabrus Pennantii.

Goldsinny, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776) iii, p. 251, pl. xlvii (Ed. 1812) iii,
p. 339, pl. lviii.

Labrus goldfinny, Bonn. Atl. Ich. p. 112, pl. xcix, f. 404.

Crenilabrus Pennantii, Cuv. and Val. xiii, p. 178.

Black spot at base of tail small: one at vent, another behind the eye. Well-
marked bands of colour across cheek and snout.

Variety 3. Crenilabrus Norwegicus.

Lutjanus Norwegicus, Bloch, t. celvi; Lacép. iv, pp. 190, 232, 234.

Perca maculosa, Retz. Faun. Suec. p. 337.

Labrus Norwegicus, Bl. Schn. p. 254; Nilss. Prod. p. 26.

Crenilabrus Norwegicus, Cuv. and Val. xiii, p. 176; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 2)
i, p. 328, c. fig.

A well marked black spot at the base of the caudal fin, none behind the eye.
Body, dorsal and caudal fins marbled with brown: some bands from eye to upper
lip and angle of the mouth.

Variety 4 Crenilabrus Cornubicus.

Labrus Cornubicus, Gmel. Linn. i, p. 1297; Lacép. iii, p. 436 (sc. Cornubsus) ;

Donov. Brit. Fish. iii, pl. Ixxii; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 99; Jenyns, Manual,
. 398,

Crentlabrus Cornubicus, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 267, and Eur. Mérid. iti, p. 325;
Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 296, c. fig. (Ed. 3) i, p. 504; Parnell, Fish. Firth
of Forth, p. 102, and Wern. Mem. vii, p. 262; Thompson, P. Z. 8. 1835, p. 81.

Labrus Donovani, Cuv. and Val. xi, p. 180; Guichen. 1. ¢. p. 86.

Cynedus Cornubicus, Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 229.

Goldsinny. Body greenish brown, becoming yellow below. About six vertical
bands on the body, some of which extend on to the fins: a large dark spot at the
base of the caudal fin.

Variety 5. Crenilabrus Couchii.

Corkwing, Couch, Mag. Nat. Hist. v, p. 17, f. 4, and Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 438,
pl. cxxxi.
Cremilabrus Couchiz, Cuv. and Val. xiii, p. 178.

A deep black spot at the base of the tail; a lighter one behind the eye.
Numerous stripes of red or green on the head and also on the vertical fins.

Monstrosities.

Gibbous wrasse, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776) iti, p. 250, pl. xlvi (Ed. 1812)

ili, p. 338, pl. lvi.
Labrus gibbus, Gmel. Linn. i, p. 1295; Bonn. Atl. Ich. p. 112, pl. xcix, f. 403;

Bl. Schn. p. 261; Lacép. iv, p. 219; Turton, p. 98; Jenyns, p. 399.
262 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Crenilabrus gibbus, Fleming, p. 209; Cuv. and Val. xiii, p. 175; Yarrell, Brit.
Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p. 298, c. fig.
Cynedus gibbus, Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 229.

Pennant’s example, eight inches long, came from Anglesea.

B. v, D. 14:27, P. 14, V. 1/5, A. 3g, CO. 14, L. 1 32-35, L. tr. 4/12, Vert.
15/18.

Length of head 4 to 44, of caudal fin 53 to 63, height of body 3} to 33 in the
total length. Hye—diameter 43 in the length of the head, 14 diameters from
the end of the snout, and 1 to 1} apart. Hind edge of preopercle evenly serrated.
The posterior extremity of the maxilla does not reach to beneath the orbit.
Teeth—conical, and in a single row in either jaw. Fins—dorsal spines of moderate
strength, gradually increasing in height to the last; soft portion of the fin a little
higher than the last spine and rounded. Third anal spine the longest. Caudal
rounded, or nearly square. Scales—5 to 6 rows on the cheeks below the eyes:
opercles scaled. Lateral-line—curves downwards beneath the last few dorsal rays.
Colowrs—these vary exceedingly, being reddish or purplish-brown along the back,
greenish-yellow on the sides, and light beneath. In well-marked examples about
eight vertical dark brown bands descend from the back, the posterior eight of
which are continued to the abdomen, and close to the base of the caudal fin on or
below the lateral-line, is a dark spot. Usually these bands on the body are broken
up and appear as irregular blotches. A dark band surrounds the hps, and one
portion is continued backwards to the centre of the front of the eye, while another
passes along the under edge of the eye to its posterior margin, where it forms
a dark spot. Three or four yellow, red, or green bands cross the cheeks and
opercles. The markings on the vertical fins are very various, three or four of
the body bands may be continued on to the dorsal fin, and two or three on to
the anal, where they join, forming arches. Or two dark bands may pass along
the spinous dorsal, and rings of red or yellow with dark centres may be present
on the soft portion: the caudal being similarly coloured. The anal may be
marked as the soft dorsal, or have two or three rows of dark round spots.
Pectoral with a dark band at its base, and two or three light ones across it.

Varieties —The height of the body in this species, as compared with its length,
is subject to very great differences. The colours, as already observed, differ very
widely, and any of those adverted to, may be variously disposed in different
individuals. The spot at the base of the caudal fin, also that behind the eye, may
be entirely absent.

Couch introduces Baillon’s wrass, C. Baillonti, ¢. v, into his History of British
Fishes, on the strength of an example 7} inches in length. He observed that he
did so “ with some degree of hesitation ; but a drawing of one which came a few
years since into my possession” came so near to a description of Baillon’s wrass
that he inserted it. J received from Mr. Carrington, F.u.s.,in 1879, a beautiful
example of C. melops, which, having been kept some time in spirit, lost nearly
all its markings, und became similar to Couch’s figure, pl. cxxxii. But it has five
rows of scales across the cheeks below the eye, not three as found in C. Baillonii.

Names.—Sea-purtridge, Moray Firth; the conner, gilt-head, or golden-maid.
Le Crénilabre mélope, French.

Aalits—Gregarious, and is usually found in shallower water than most of
the other forms of wrasses. It has been taken in rock pools, but Parnell observed
in the Firth of Forth that it often frequented deep and rocky recesses in
preference to more open and sandy situations. It feeds on crustacea and animal
substances, on small shells, and even vegetable matter.

Means of capture.—Takes a bait readily, especially a bit of mussel ; but Parnell
observed that in the Firth of Forth it 1s hardly ever secured by a hook, but
mostly found in crab cages and lobster pots.

Preeding—* April and May, and in June, July, and August; the young, of a
bright green colour, may be taken in pools with a shrimp net” (R. Couch).

Uses.—As bait for crabs and lobsters.
LABRIDA. 263

As food.—Is not eaten. Parnell found that the flesh when boiled had a bluish-
white appearance, and a very disagreeable tarry flavour.

Habitat. —It has been observed in Norway to the 62° of N. latitude; it extends
along the coast of Denmark and the German Ocean, also the European shores
of the Atlantic to the Mediterranean, becoming rarer towards the east. Orkneys
and Zetland rare (W. Baikie); Banff rare (Edward) ; St. Andrew’s not common
(McIntosh) ; Moray Firth often met with (Martin) ; Firth of Forth occasional,
while on the rocky coasts of Preston-pans, North Berwick, Largo, and Burntisland
it is not infrequently taken (Parnell). Mr. Cordeaux considers he has seen it
at Flamborough, though unsuccessful in his attempts to capture it (Yorkshire
Vertebrata). Weymouth abundant around the quays in summer and autumn
(P. Gosse) ; Devonshire (Montagu) : very common in Cornwall, frequenting rocks
close in shore among the sea-weeds; and the most abundant form on the west
coast (Couch). Donovan obtained it from off the Lizard. It has likewise been
captured off Somersetshire.

In Ireland it is found round the coast, and next in frequency among the
Labride to the Ballan, Labrus maculatus.

It seldom exceeds nine inches in length. The example figured (natural size)
was obtained at Brighton, it had the vertical bands on the body much more
distinctly marked than is usually the case, while the colours on the fins were
very vivid.
264 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus II]. —Crenotazrus, Cuvier and Valenciennes.

Branchiostegals five: pseudobranchie present. Body oblong and compressed.
Teeth in the jaws in a band of conical ones, the outer row being the larger: no
posterior canine. <A single dorsal fin consisting of wwards of 20 rays, 16 to 18
at least of which are spinous, and none are elongated : anal spines three. Scales of
moderate size, those on the cheeks and opercles being imbricate.  Laterul-line
continuous.

This genus has been subdivided into two subgenera as follows:

J. Interoperculum scaled. European. Ctenolabrus.
3. Interoperculum scaleless. American. Tuutugolabrus.

Geographical distribution—The temperate portions of the North Atlantic
Ocean, both in Europe and America; likewise found in the North Sea and
Mediterranean.

1. Ctenolabrus rupestris, Plate LXXIV.

Goldsinny, Ray, Syn. Pisc. p. 163, t. i, £. 3; Karudsee, Sondm. i, p. 291;
Bergnultra, Linn. West. Resa, p. 179. ? Antient wrasse, Pennant, Brit. Zool.
(Ed. 1) ui, p. 244, pl. xlvii, fig. 115, and (Ed. 2) iii, p. 332, pl. Ivin.

Scicena rupestris, Linn. Mus. Ad. Frid. p. 65, t. xxi, £. 7.

Labrus swillus, Linn. Faun. Suec. p. 117, and Syst. Nat. i, p. 476.

Labrus rupestris, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 478; Walb. Artedi, iii, p. 252; Bonn.
Atl. Ich. p. 112; Mull. Prod. Zool. Dan. p. 45; Bl. Schn. p. 248; Nilss. Prod.
p. 76; Fries and Ekst. Skand. Fish. p. 45, t. ix, f.1; Risso, Eur. Mérid. iii,
p. 507; Johnston, Fish. Berwickshire N. F. Club, 1838, i, p. 172.

Perca rupestris, Miller, Zool. Dan. iti, p. 44, t. evii; Retz. Faun. Suec. p. 337.

Lutjanus rupestris, Bloch, t. ecl, f. 1.

Sparus carudse, Lacép. iv, p. 148.

Crentlabrus rupestris, Selby, Mag. Zool. Bot. i, p. 167; Thompson, 1. ¢. ii, p.
445, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 57, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 120; Parnell,
Wern. Mem. vii, p. 264, and Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 104; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes
(Hd. 2) i, p. 338, ¢. fig.; Kroyer, Dan. Fiske, i, p. 541, ¢. fig.; Blake-Knox, Zool.
Dec. 1866, p. 506; White, Catal. p. 24.

Ctenolabrus rupestris, Cuv. and Val. xiii, p. 223; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Hd. 3)
i, p. 609; Nilss. Skan. Faun. Fisk. p. 274; Guichen. Explor. Algér. Poiss. p. 88 ;
Gunther, Catal. iv, p. 89; McIntosh, Fish. N. Uist. Pro. Roy. Soc. Edin. v,
1862-66, p. 614; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 32; Collett, Norges Fisk.
p. 92; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 26; Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 134, ¢. fig. ;
Gighoh, Pesce. Ital. p. 35.

Ctenolabrus marginatus, Cuv. and Val. xiii, p. 282; Ginther, Catal. iv, p. 89.

Cynedus rupestris, Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 229.

Jago’s goldsinny, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 47, pl. exxxiii.

B. v, D. 14:18, P. 14, V 1/5, A. 2, ©. 15, L. 1. 38-40, L. tr. -3:4,, Vert. 15/18.

Length of head 4 to 4%, of caudal fin 74, height of body 33 to 3{ in the total
length. Hye—diameter 3} to 4 in the length of the head, 1 to 1} diameters from
the end of the snout, and lapart. Snout rather pointed. Mouth rather small:
jaws even anteriorly: the posterior extremity of the maxilla scarcely reaches
to beneath the front edge of the eye. Posterior border of preopercle evenly
serrated. Teeth—a band of conical ones in the jaws, the outer row being the
larger. Fins—the dorsal commences slightly posterior to the origin of the
pectoral ; its spines increase in height to the last, which, however, is lower than
the rays: soft portion of the fin rounded and similar to the anal. Pectoral
LABRID&. 265

inserted below the middle of the height of the body, and more than half as long
as the head. Third anal spine the longest. Caudal square or slightly rounded at
its extremity. Scales—six rows across the cheeks, some very minute ones on the
vertical fins, and a row between each caudalray. Colowrs—variable, usually of a
pinkish or golden hue, darkest along the back. Fins reddish, the dorsal with a black
blotch on its commencement, extending from the first to the sixth spines ; while
there is another at the upper part of the base of the caudal fin. In some there
are several broad, dark vertical bands on the body; in others a light band runs
half way along the side as shown in the figure on plate Ixxiv. While there may
be a dark spot with a reddish tinge in the axilla of the pectoral fin.

Pennant’s Antient wrasse is said to have D. 19/9, A. 3/9, and the teeth in two
rows. Parnell and some others referred it to Orentlabrus melops.

Varieties—For examples having narrow black edges to the vertical fins, the
term (. maryinatus has been given,

Naires.— Pink brame, two-spot brame, and poisoned brame, Dublin. Le
Cténolabre des roches, French.

Habits——Does not frequent tidal harbours, but appears to keep to deep water.
This is one of the forms which has been observed to sleep at night time (Mobius,
Zool. Gart. 1867, p. 148, and Hughes, Zool. 1874, p. 3895).

Means of capture-—By line-fishing, it is taken most readily on bright and
calm days. It approaches slowly and chews at the bait (erroneously believed to
be sucking, Blake-Knox) and is not unfrequently captured in crab-pots, or even
in the trawl.

Baits.—Crab, lug worms, sea-mud, centipedes, and shell-fish. Is a very
slow taking fish, and is seldom hooked until the more ravenous kinds have ceased
to bite. It nibbles but does not gorge the bait (Blake-Knox).

Breeding.—June full of ova (Dublin), April or May along the south coast of
Great Britain.

As food.—Flesh bad, soft, insipid, foul smelling, of a greenish colour, and
cursed by the fishermen, who in Dublin Bay say,‘‘when you catch a poison
brame, up lines and go home.”

Habitat.—Shores of Norway, Sweden, and along those of the North Sea and
Atlantic coasts of Europe to the Mediterranean, where it becomes rare towards
its eastern extremity. One example came ashore on a winter’s day in Banffshire
(Edward) ; in the Firth of Forth they are occasionally cast ashore after easterly
gales (Parnell); in February, 1836, Johnston obtained three examples, two
picked up in Berwick Bay, and a third from near Bamborough, where it had been
thrown on the beach after a storm: Parnell records several from Northumberland
and Berwickshire; four examples were obtained from Redcar in Yorkshire
(Meynell, 1844) ; not rare along the south coast of England, having been observed
at Brighton (J. Children); Mevagissey (Dunn) ; not uncommon in various parts
of Mount’s Bay (R. Couch), while examples from Lyme Regis and Plymouth are
in the national collection. It has also been recorded from North Wales (T.
Eyton).

ip land it is found on the N. E. and W. coasts, attaining to at least 6 inches:
in length (Thompson). Two were observed in September, 1835, at Bangor,
county Down, using a species of nereis as a bait ; in February, 1836, one was cast
ashore at Barncleugh; in June, 1838, Dr. Drummond, took one while dredging
about the entrance to Belfast Bay ; and Mr. McCalla obtained it at Roundstone.

Tam indebted to Mr. Dunn of Mevagissey for the example figured, which was
captured in September, 1881, and is shown life size.
266 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Genus IV.—Acanruotasrus, Cuvier and Valenciennes.

Branchiostegals five: pseudobranchice present. Body oblong and moderately
compressed. Teeth in the jaws in a band of conical ones, those in the outer row being
the strongest : no postertor canine. A single dorsal fin consisting of more than
25 rays, of which at least 20 to 21 are spinous, none are elongated: anal with more
than three spines. Scales of moderate size, those on the cheeks and opercles being
imbricate. Lateral-line continwus.

Geographical distribution.—South coast of Great Britain, to Madeira ; likewise
the Mediterranean.

1. Acantholabrus Palloni, Plate LXXV.

Lutjanus Palloni, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 263.

Orenilabrus exoletus, Risso, Hur. Mérid. iti, p. 329.

Acantholabrus Palloni, Cuv. and Val. xi, p. 243, pl. ccclxxv; Ginther, Catal.
iv, p. 91; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1869, p. 33; Giglioli, Pesc. Ital. p. 35;
Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 139, c. fig.

Orenilabrus luscus, Lowe, Trans. Zool. Soc. ii, p. 187 (not Linn.).

Acantholabrus imbricatus, Lowe, Proc. Zool. Soc. ii, 1839, p. 86, 1843, p. 87,
and Trans. Zool. Soe. iii, p. 10.

Labrus luscus, Couch, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. v, pp. 18, 742, fig. 121;
Jenyns, Manual, p. 400; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Hd. 1) i, p. 300, c. fig.

Acantholabrus Couchii, Cuv. and Val. xiii, p. 248; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Hd. 2)
i, p. 837, c. fig. (Hd. 3) i, p. 514; White, Catal. p. 25; Gunther, Catal. iv, p. 92;
Collett, Norges Fisk. p. 93.

Scale-rayed wrass, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 38, pl. cxxix.

B. v, D. 29724, P. 14-15, V. 1/5, A. 478, C. 14-15, L. 1. 40-45, L. tr. 84.

Length of head 32 to 44, of caudal fin 7}, height of body 4} to 44 in the total
length. Hye—diameter 3} to 4 in the length of the head, 1} diameters from the
end of the snout, and 1 apart. Mouth rather large, the lower jaw the longer:
the posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to beneath the front edge of the
eye. Posterior border and angle of the preopercle rather strongly serrated.
Teeth—a band of conical ones in the jaws, the outer row being the larger. Fins
—the dorsal commences above the origin of the pectoral, its spines increase in
height to the last, which however is lower than the rays. Pectoral inserted
below the middle of the height of the body. Anal spines increasing in length to
the last. Caudal rounded posteriorly. Scales—five or six rows across the cheeks
and seven across the opercles. A row along each dorsal spine and ray, also over
the base of the caudal and anal fins. Colours— Deep orange, brown, violet, or blue
along the back, becoming rosy on the sides and nearly white beneath. Fins orange
or tinged with pink, a large oval black blotch extends along the middle of the
interspinous membrane between the last three or four dorsal spines and is
continued on to the first few rays: a second is likewise usually present superiorly
at the base of the caudal fin. Each of the scales on the cheeks, along the
shoulder and lower half of the body, may have a blue spot in its centre.

Varieties.—The number of anal spines may be reduced to four, or augmented to
six, this last form having received the name of Acantholabrus Couchit.

Names.—Scale-rayed wrass, due to the existence of scales on the vertical fins.
L’ Acantholabre Pallont, French.

Habits. —Of these but little is known, but it appears to frequent deep waters.

Means of capture.— Hooks and baits.

Habitat.—An example 22 inches in length was taken in February, 1830, by a
fisherman at Deadman’s Point, off the south coast of Cornwall, in upwards of 50
fathoms of water: a second 10 inches long was subsequently obtained by Mr.
Couch, and is now in the British Museum. It is found in the Mediterranean
where it is rare, and has been obtained at Madeira.

The figure is taken froma specimen in the national collection which is 10
inches in length. This species attains to more than double that size.
LABRID A. 267

Genus V.—Centronasnus, Giinther.
Centrolabrus, part, Cuvier and Valenciennes.

Branchiostegals five: pseudobranchie present. Body oblong and compressed.
Teeth in the jaws ina single row of conical ones: no posterior canine. A single
dorsal fin consisting of more than 20 rays, of which at least 16 to 20 are spinous,
none are elongated: anal with more than three spines. Scales of moderate size:
those on the cheeks and opercles being imbricate. Lateral-line continuous.

This genus was separated from Ctenolabrus, due to the teeth being in a single
row instead of in a band.

Geographical distribution.—Northern Europe and Greenland, to Madeira and
the Canary Isles.

1. Centrolabrus exoletus, Plate LXXVI.

Strém, Séndm. i, p. 267, No. 3.

Labrus evoletus, Linn. Syst. i, p. 479, and Faun. Suec. p. 117; Shaw, Zool. iv,
p. 518; Mill. Pro. Zool. Dan. p. 46; Bonn. Atl. Ich. p. 115; Fabr. Fauna Gronl.
p. 166; Retz. Fauna Suec. p. 335; Bloch Schn. p. 260; Nilss. Prod. p. 77; Fries
and Ekstr. Skand. Fisk. p. 48, t. ix, f. 2.

Labrus pentacanthus, Lacép. iii, p. 508.

Crenilabrus microstoma (Couch) Thompson, P. Z. Soc. 1887, p. 55, Mag. Z.
* B. ii, p. 446, pl. xiv, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 132.

Crenilabrus exoletus, Kroyer, Dan. Fiske, i, p. 556, c. fig.

Acantholabrus exoletus, Cuv. and Val. xiii, p. 247; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 2)
i, p. 341 (Ed. 3) i, p.518; Nilss. Skan. Faun. Fisk. p. 277; White, Catal. p. 25;
Collett, Norges Fisk. p. 94, and Christ. Vid. Selsk. Forh. 1879, p. 61.

Acantholabrus microstoma, Cuv. and Val. xiii, p. 250.

Centrolabrus exoletus, Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 92.

Rock cook, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 41, pl. xxx.

B. v, D. “3 Pp. 14, V. 1/5, A. q2g, ©. 15, L. 1. 32-35, L. tr. 7804).

Length of head 43, of caudal fin 53, height of body 53 in the total length.
Fye—diameter 1/3 of the length of the head, nearly 1 diameter from the end of
the snout, and 1 apart. Body compressed. Gape of mouth small, and cleft
shallow: jaws of equal length in front, while the maxilla reaches posteriorly
nearly halfway to the front edge of the orbit: lips fleshy. Both the vertical and
half the horizontal limb of the preopercle strongly serrated. Teeth—in a single
row of conical, somewhat curved and pointed ones in each jaw: no posterior
canine. 'ins—the dorsal commences over the base of the pectoral, its spines are
of moderate strength and sub-equal in height, the posterior ones being nearly as
long as the soft rays. Pectoral as long as the head excluding the snout. Anal
commencing on a vertical line beneath the twelfth or thirteenth dorsal spine,
has its last four spines somewhat exceeding the length of those in the dorsal fin,
and almost equalling those of the soft rays. Caudal square, having the angles
rounded. Seales—three rows across the cheeks: some on the subopercle.
Lateral-line—descends forming a curve beneath the soft portion of the dorsal
fin. Colours—of a rich brown along the back, becoming shaded with yellow
on the sides, and sometimes silvery on the chest; while some narrow yellow
lines run along the rows of scales. A dark spot on the upper portion of
the eye. Two blue bands pass from the eye to the angle of the mouth, and two
more along the preopercle. A dull bluish mark upon the opercle. Fins silvery
stained with yellow, the dorsal and anal lightest externally: a single line of
dark marks along the spinous dorsal, becoming two posteriorly, and on the soft
portion: anal similarly coloured. Caudal with a white outer margin, having a
black base which is extended over the middle portion of the fin being darkest
posteriorly.
268 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

Varieties—Couch’s figure gives seventeen spines to the dorsal fin, and a broad
dark band or blotch over the anterior half of the free portion of the tail.

Names.—Rock cook, small-mouthed wrass.

Habits —Frequents rough stony gound and deep waters, feeding on minute
crustacea and dead animal substances, consequently mostly seen while crab-pots
are in use, or during the summer months, when the young likewise frequent rock

ools.
e Means of capture.—Mostly in crab-pots, going in after the baits, which it tears
little bits off and sucks them in; while, owing to its small mouth, it is rarely
captured by line fishermen.

Habitat.—Coasts of Greenland, Norway and Sweden, to those of the British
Isles. Two smal] examples were caught in Kirkwall Bay in December, 1850
(W. Baikie, Zool. 1853, xi, p. 4019); it has been observed at Banff (Edward) ;
and along the south coast of our western counties. Lieutenant Spence sent a
specimen from Cawsand to the British Museum. I have taken several at
Dawlish. Couch did not consider it rare in Cornwall.

In TIreland—it has been taken on the N. E. and W. coasts (Thompson); at
Carnlough in Antrim in June, 1836, by Dr. Drummond, and a second by the
Ordnance Survey, which latter party likewise obtained it at Lough Foyle, county
Londonderry ; and Mr. M’Calla recognized it at Roundstone.

The example figured was captured by myself in a rock pool near Dawlish in
August, 1881.

It is said not to exceed four or five inches in length.
LABRID A. 269

Genus VI.—Conts, Lacépéde.

Hologymnosus, sp. Lacép ; Halicheres, sp. Riipp.; Pseudocoris, Hemicoris, and
Ophihaimolepts, Blocker, » sp. Riipp ;

Branchiostegals siv: pseudobranchie present. Body oblong and compressed’
Teeth im the jaws, the anterior ones being conical and free, while laterally the
outer row is composed of larger teeth than the inner: a posterior canine pointing
jorwards, often exists at the angle of the mouth. A single dorsal fin with eight or
nine spines: anal with three. Scales small, 50 or more rows: none on the head
(except in OC. lineolata). Lateral-line continuous.

Geographical distribution—From the south coast of Great Britain extending
to the Atlantic and the tropical portion of both hemispheres, as well as the
adjacent regions.

1. Coris julis, Plate LXXVII, fig. 1 male, fig. 2 female.
Synonymy of males.

Julis, Rondel. vi, cap. 7, p. 180; Salviani, p. 219; Gesner, Aquat. iv, p. 464;
Aldrov. i, ¢. 7, p. 39; Jonston, i, tit. 2, c. 1, art. 5, t. xiv, f. 3; Willugh. p. 324,
pl. x, f. 1; Ray, Syn. p. 188. Labrus, no. 7, Artedi, Gen. p. 34, no. 1, Synon.
p. 58. Menas, Klein, Miss. Pisce. v, p. 45, no. 4, t. vii, f. 8. Labrus, sp. Gronov.
Mus. Ich. ii, sp. 184 and Zooph. no. 241. Sparus niloticus, Hasselq. Iter Pales.
p. 887. Rainbow wrasse, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Hd. 1812) iii, p. 343.

Labrus julis, Linn. Syst. i, p. 476; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 525; Bloch, t. cclxxxvii,
f.1; Bonn. Atl. Ich. p. 108, pl. in, f. 199; Lacép. iii, p. 493; Bl. Schn. p. 247;
Donovan, Brit. Fish. iv, pl. xevi; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 99; Risso, Ich. Nice,
p. 227; Jenyns, Manual, p.397; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 79.

Julis Mediterranea, Risso, Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 309; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 1)
i, p. 291, ¢. fig. (Ed. 2) i, p. 344 (Ed. 3) i, p. 521.

Julis speciosa, Risso, 1. ¢. iti, p. 311; Cuv. and Val. xiii, p. 375.

Julis vulgaris, Fleming, Brit. Anim. p. 210; Cuv.and Val. xiii, p. 361, pl.
ecclxxxiv; Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesce. ec. fig.; Kréyer, Dan. Fiske, i, p. 561, c. fig. ;
Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 141.

Julis festiva, Cuv. and Val. xiii, p. 374.

Julis melanura, Lowe, Trans. Zool. Soe. iii, p. 12.

Julis julis, White, Catal. p. 26.

Coris julis, Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 195; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 35 ;
Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 27; Giglioli, Pesce. Ital. p. 35.

Rainbow wrasse, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 49, pl. exxxiv.

Synonymy of females and young.

Labrus Giofredi, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 228, pl. ix, f. 23.

Julis Giofredi, Risso, Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 310; Cuv. and Val. xiii, p. 371, pl.
ecelxxxv; Bonap. Faun. Ital. Pesce. pl. fig. 2; Moreau, Poiss France, iii, p. 145,
e. fig.

Corts giofredt, Ginther, Catal. iv, p. 197; Giglioli, Pesce. Ital. p. 35.

B. vi, D. a3°r5, P. 12-13, V. 1/5, A. ay2aq, C. 18-14, L. 1. 75-78 (80), L. tr.
3/24, Vert. 9-10/15-16.

Length of head 4} to 43, of caudal fin 7 to 74, height of body 44 to 5 in the
total length. Hye—diameter 5 to 6 in the length of the head, 14 to 2 diameters
from the end of the snout, and 1 to 14 apart. Jaws of the same length anteriorly,
the snout more elongated in adult males than in females and young, partly due
to the comparatively smaller eye: the maxilla extends posteriorly to below the
270 ACANTHOPTERYGII.

hind nostril. Opercular bones entire. Teeth—the four anterior ones in either jaw
elongated: there are about nine in the outer row along either ramus of the
upper jaw, and ten in the lower: a posterior canine at the angle of the mouth.
Fins—the dorsal commences above the hind edge of the bony opercle, the three
first spines in the male being as a rule somewhat elevated and nearly equalling
half the height of the body below; the soft rays are simply divided at their outer
end and somewhat longer than the spines of the fin. Pectoral as long as the
head excluding the snout. Ventral a little shorter than the pectoral. Third
anal spine the longest: soft portion similar to rayed part of the dorsal: caudal
rounded. Scales—M. Moreau thought the number of scales were more numerous
in the female than in the male, but I do not find this to be the case in
a large series of specimens. Lateral-line—curves downwards opposite the
ninth or tenth dorsal ray. Colours—these are very various: those of the male
being purplish or bluish-brown along the upper half of the body, and silvery-
white below; along this upper half runs a broad yellowish-white, and generally
indented line which commences behind the eye and is continued to the base of the
caudal fin. A small round black spot on the end of the opercle. Dorsal fin
yellowish with a purple or orange outer edge, while a purplish or greenish-yellow
spot with a curved upper edge is present between each ray. A black spot in the
axil of the pectoral fin. A large oval black or bluish spot exists on the anterior
portion of the dorsal fin, between the first and fourth spines: the anal is similar
to the soft dorsal but lighter. Female—upper third of the body purplish, with a
light yellow band passing from the eye to the base of the caudal fin: lower two-
thirds of the body silvery with one or more yellow longitudinal bands. A dark
spot in the axil of the pectoral fin, and another behind the opercle as in the male.
Fins reddish.

Varieties—Those of colour are exceedingly numerous: in some the indented
light lateral band is wanting, bemg broken up by numerous vertical blotches;
while the dorsal fin is of a light colour, Coris speciosa: or the dorsal fin may be
nearly black C. melanura. Pennant most correctly observed that this fish is
remarkable for the elegant distribution of its colours, green, yellow, and purple,
which are changeable in various directions of light.

Names, origin of.—Rainbow wrasse, due to its various tints, and indented
striped wrasse (male), owing to the character of the light lateral band. Le girelle,
French.

Habits—Of these but little appears to have been recorded. Its food
appears to be small crustacea, molluscs, and similar articles which it searches for
among coral rocks.

In an aquarium “their usual habit is to hide in a bed of shingle—preferring
such to sand—from which they can only be dislodged by violence. When one of
them is disturbed, it darts out of its stony bed, and vanishes like a flash of
lightning ” (H. Birchell, Zool. 1876, p. 5159). It ‘is greedy for small crustacea.
I have seen it chase a Cook’s wrasse, Labrus miatus, ten times its own size, which
was swimming about with a crab in its mouth, round and round a long tank,
tearing off the legs of the unfortunate crab as it dangled from the mouth of its
captor” (1. ¢.). Its bite in olden times was considered poisonous by the
fishermen in the Mediterranean, but Rondelet tells us how several attacked him
while Lathing near Antipolis, biting his legs and his heels, but which was not
followed by any poisonous results.

As food.—It does not appear to be held in any estimation, but Galen and
Bloch stated it to be wholesome, while Aélian says its flesh is poisonous.

Habitat.—From the south coast of England to the Azores and Canary
Islands: lkewise extending through the Mediterranean, where it is very common.

A male, a little over 7 inches in length, was taken in Mount’s Bay in 1802,
and came into the possession of Donovan: Leach obtained examples of the
young and half-grown from Plymouth Sound and South Devonshire, which are
still in the British Museum.

The largest recorded British specimen was 7 inches in length.
GADID A. 271

Orper IT—ANACANTHINI.

All the fin rays articulated, the ventral fins, when present, being jugular or
thoracic. Air-bladder, if existing, not having a pervious pneumatic duct.

_ The order of spineless fishes, or Anacanthini, has been divided into two groups,
in one both sides of the head are symmetrical, in the other not. ,

First Group—Anacanthini gadoidei.
Both sides of the head symmetrical.

Famity I—GADIDA, Cuvier.

Pseudobranchie, when present, glandular and rudimentary. Body more or
less elongated. Gill-openings wide: gill-membranes, as a rule, not being attached
to the isthmus. From one to three dorsal fins, occupying nearly the entire length
of the back, the rays of the last fin being well developed: one or two anal fins:
caudal usually free, but sometimes united to the dorsal and anal. Ventrals
jugular, consisting of several rays, or should they be reduced to a filament the
dorsal fin is divided into two. Scales cycloid, and of moderate or small size.
Air-bladder and pyloric appendages usually present.

Some of the genera, of which representatives have been recognized in this
country, have three dorsal and two anal fins, as Gadus: or two dorsals and a
single anal, as Merluccius, Phycis, Molva, Lota, and Motella: while in Brosmius
there is only one dorsal and one anal fin.

Geographical distribution.—The cod family is composed of surface and littoral
forms, those living off our coasts having been found at a depth rarely exceeding
a hundred and twenty or hundred and fifty fathoms. These fishes are extended
through the Arctic and temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, becoming
almost unknown in the tropics, and very rare to the south of the line.
Although as a rule it is composed of marine genera, still fresh-water repre-
sentatives are not unknown, as the burbot, Lota vulgaris, which would seem to be
descended from a marine ancestry, for like its ocean relatives its air-bladder is
destitute of ossicles connecting it with the internal ear (see Introduction).*
Reliable evidence confirmatory or the reverse of this view, or whether marine
residents among the Gadidw may be detected living in fresh waters, thus becomes
desirable. For should a migration from the sea to fresh waters be undertaken
without occasioning deleterious results, it would tend towards confirming the
possibility of the correctness of the foregoing deduction. I will now quote (with
permission) from a communication which I received from Lord Ducie in
September, 1881, directly bearing on this question :—

“T have just returned after having spent two months in the Norwegian Fjords,
in my steam yacht. In Midgulen Lake, 61° 43’ N. Lat. and 5°. 53' E. Long. from
Greenwich, I found pollack living in the fresh water. This lake is about five
hundred yards from the sea, with which it is connected bya river averaging about

* Burbot and Air-bladders of Fishes, F. Day, Proceedings Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field
Club, 1879-80, vii, pp. 221-242.
272 ANACANTHINI.

twenty yards in width by three feet in depth. There are no falls, but three or
four rapids, which at high water are (as regards those nearest the sea) submerged,
the upper ones being but slightly affected. A small boat could perhaps row
from the sea into the lake under favourable circumstances: while the strength
of the current could not prevent a fish of the weakest sort from entering the
lake: at the same time no sea-water can get in—the more so that the head of the
Fjord itself is fresh on the surface. This lake is about one and a-half miles
in length, its depth unknown, it is fed by the snow melting on the hills far and
near, while its water is perfectly and entirely fresh. Trolling with a phantom
minnow resulted in the capture of fourteen sea-trout, but the sport was
frequently interrupted by attacks from pollack. We were compelled to catch
twelve or fourteen (all about 2 lb. weight) as they would not leave us alone.
A flock of sea-gulls on the lake behaved as they did on the Fjord outside, looking
as if they were trying to strike herring on the surface. On returning to the
yacht we were informed by a native that many species of sea-fish entered the
lake, and among them herring. On the south side of the Sogne Fjord, about
thirty or forty miles from the sea, is a Fjord called Fuglescet, a small branch of
which is the Sérejde Fjord. The chart showed a lake close to the sea and therefore
easily accessible in a boat. Here we found a small river, about one hundred yards
long, flowed from the lake to the sea, which, though rapid at low water, was
nearly checked at high water. Still the fresh water always pushed out. This
lake was two miles long and fed by two snow streams. Using the artificial
minnow, for the first half-hour there was no ‘run,’ then a cod of 11b. was taken,
next a coal-fish of 2lb., then a pollack of 31b., and all these at the inland
extremity of the lake, the pollack being actually in the snow-water stream. There
was no sign whatever of a fresh-water fish. Nota trout rose along the woody
banks where trout would be sure to be were they there. In short, the sea-fish
had complete possession of this Jake, which, as in the other instance, was entirely
fresh. These were not lagoons but rocky mountain (glacier) basins, with rapid
streams entering and issuing.”

I have already alluded (p. 54) to marine fishes in the Baltic having become
acclimatized to a residence, where the character of the water has gradually
changed from saline to fresh, so that the herring and some other sea forms
unable to obtain access to the Arctic Ocean deposit their eggs in potable water,
and the Coltus quadricornis even migrates to the rivers.* But the foregoing
instances show how marine Gadide may voluntarily enter and reside in fresh
waters, while we have no reason to suppose that were their return to the sca
cut off they could not live and continue their species in this new locality.

These fish, especially the cod, occasionally shift their ground, some cause,
probably absence or presence of some peculiar food, inducing them to leave
localities they had previously frequented: thus the London market used to be
supplied from the Orkneys and the Dogger Bank, but during the present century
these fish have extended their range to off Lincolnshire and Norfolk in sufficient
numbers to render their capture remunerative.

Fisheries for cod have existed in the north many centuries, as we know that
one in the German Ocean was recognized before a.p. 1368, because in that year
the city of Amsterdam obtained permission from the King of Sweden to form
an establishment in the Island of Schonen for the purpose of carrying it on.
But prior to John Cabot’s re-discovery of Newfoundland in a.p. 1496 the
fisheries of the greatest importance in Europe were off our western isles and
the coast of Iceland. English fishermen must have resorted to these latter
localities prior to a.p. 1415, because we read that Henry V was disposed at
this period to accord satisfaction to the King of Denmark for certain irregularities
committed in those seas by his subjects. But since the commencement of the
sixteenth century the Newfoundland fisheries have become the most important

* For other instances of fishes of marine gencra living in fresh waters as gobies, blennies,
herrings, &c., see Introduction,
GADIDA. 273

in the northern hemisphere. Cod fisheries, frequented by British fishermen,
exist to a greater or less extent from Iceland to the south coast of England, and
as far west as Newfoundland. They are largely carried on in these islands,
especially to the north and west of Scotland, and likewise off the maritime
counties of Ireland. But a detailed account of these fisheries, their rise and
their present condition, would require more space than the limits of the present
work would permit.

Means of captwre.—The cod, or white fishery, in which is here included the
common cod, haddock, whiting, bib, pollack, coal-fish, ling, hake, torsk, and
their family allies, is one of great national importance in several ways, more
especially as the means of obtaining a large amount of good and wholesome
food, as well as giving employment to fishermen and many traders. The
members of the cod family are generally gregarious, and collect in large shoals
at particular spots, and although in the following observations the common cod
will be more especially mentioned, their fisheries are representative ones of what
is likewise being carried on to secure other members of the family. The
three forms which are perhaps the most valuable in an economic point of
view are the common cod, Gadus morhua, haddock, G. ceglefinus, and whiting,
G. merlangus. The common cod as a rule is in the best condition from the end
of October to the beginning of February, the cold season being that in which
members of this family attain the greatest perfection for the table, although
some are employed for this purpose throughout the year. Living as the cod
does, in water of from 25 to 150 fathoms, it is found feeding mostly near the
ground on submerged banks, where it can obtain appropriate food. Being a
voracious feeder the experienced fisherman takes advantage of its appetite, and
with long- or hand-lines, as well as nets, seeks his game in suitable localities.
Long-lines or bulters (see Introduction) are employed up to at least seven miles
in length, while the Norwegians also use trawl-lines and even nets. The baits
used for the lines are various. Small fish, as lamperns, Petromyzon fluviatilis,
sand launce, Ammodytes, herrings, Clupea harengus, pilchards, C. pilchardus,
sprats, C. sprattus, whelks or buckies as they are termed in Scotland where
they are much approved of, due both to their toughness and attractiveness to
the cod and ling: limpets, mussels, various crustacea, and testacea, as well as
lug-worms, and even the roe of the cod itself. These lines if slightly raised off
the ground by floats, or buoyed at both ends, so that merely the middle portion
rests on the ground, cause the bait to be less hidden by weeds, are better seen by
the fish, and less consumed by crabs and star-fishes. The long-lines off our
coasts are shot about slack water and heaved up in about six hours, when the
tide has nearly finished. Sharks, dog-fishes, and porpoises are great enemies
to this occupation, carrying away the hooked fish. Hand-lining (see Introduction)
is used very similarly to long-lining, only employed by men fishing from boats,
while it is most efficacious when cod are not at the bottom but rising more
towards the surface, as when in pursuit of the herring, or other fishes.
Whiffing, or surface line-fishing, and beam-trawling, are likewise employed for
taking some members of the cod family.

The fish having been captured, the question for the fishermen is, if they shall
be killed at once and prepared in a suitable manner by means of ice or salt for
a near or distant market; or whether they shall be retained alive by being kept
in appropriate places. Smacks with wells in them were first used in England at
Hawick, about A.D. 1712, said to have been copied from some Dutch fishing boats.
This well, as now made, is not simply a tank fitted into the smack, but a
constituent portion of the vessel itself. Two strong and water-tight bulkheads
are constructed across the width of the smack, enclosing a large portion of the
centre of the vessel, while they reach in height from the deck to the keelson.
Twarge holes are bored through the sides of the smack below the water-line,
permitting a constant stream being kept up. Here cod captured at a moderate
depth will live for a considerable time, but should they or ling have been hooked
at a great depth they will not usually thrive. Rough weather is very detrimental
to fishes in welled smacks, occasioning many deaths. A plan is likewise adopted

18
274 ANACANTHINTI.

for keeping cod alive after arriving in port, by transferring them to cod-chests,*
which are kept floating in docks, or other suitable places. Those at Grimsby and
Harwich are about seven feet long and two deep, the bottom and sides being
made of stout battens placed a short distance asunder in order to admit a constant
penetration of water from outside. The top is planked, but possesses an oblong
opening and movable cover for introducing or removing the fish. To the ends of
each cod-chest ropes or chains are attached in order to easily move it about.
About forty good sized cod will live about a fortnight in one of these chests, and
about four hundred are constantly in use at Grimsby. For sending to market
the cod are removed, killed by blows on the head with a mallet or short club, and
then sent to London, where they are known as “live cod,” and attain the highest
price. Owing to the method employed in killing them they can be crimped some
hours subsequently.

Diseases.—The members of the cod family appear to be very susceptible to
disease, especially of the vertebral column, which may become shortened, and has
been compared by Dr. Dyce toa form of rickets, occasioning angular or lateral
curvature. This may cause a diminution in the extent of surface covered by the
dorsal or anal fins, which from this, or other causes, vary greatly in the number
of their rays. Sometimes it gives the fish a hunch-backed appearance, or the
proportionate length of the head to that of the body becomes far greater
than is normally the case. Blindness is not rare among these fishes, especially
when in confinement. In the thirteenth volume of the New Sporting Review may
be found a most interesting account of a visit to Colonel McDowell’s vivarium
for codfishin the Mull of Galloway. An excavation was formed in the rock about
fifty feet in diameter, and at low tide about eight feet of water remained in this
basin, and six feet more at high tide. It was observed as a curious fact that fish
when they have remained long in this pond always became blind; this was
supposed to be due to there not being sufficient shelter for them from the heat
and glare of the sun owing to the shallowness of the water as compared with the
depths of their usual haunts. During the past year when visiting an aquarium
in the north, supplied with pure sea-water, I observed several of these fishes blind
with one or both eyes: the eyeball in those which were not totally deprived of vision
moved on the blind, similarly to that on the sound side. In some examples of the
common cod the pupil instead of being circular was transversely oval, or even
pear-shaped, probably due to an adhesion of the posterior surface of the iris to the
lens or its covering. The pupil was either dull or greenish, while in some a film
appeared to cover the eye externally. Without the opportunity of examining
these eyes it would be difficult to determine the exact lesion, but I am disposed to
think that the theory advanced at Colonel McDowell’s was the correct one.t I
was lately observing a fine school of bibs which had been upwards of eighteen
months in the Westminster Aquarium, where the water had not invariably been
particularly clear, nor had all of it come direct from the sea. Among these
numerous cases of blindness were not apparent. Before, however, attributing this
immunity entirely to the character of the light we have to consider the relative
susceptibility of such in the common cod to what obtains in the bib. The cod,
although hardly a deep-sea fish, resides in localities at 25 to 100 or more fathoms,
while the bib, although it lives in deep waters during the winter, approaches the
shore in spring and summer, and consequently does not so invariably remain in dark
or semi-dark places as does the cod. The presence of parasites may not only alter
the colours of the fish as shown by its bemg of an unnaturally light tint, but
also by the infected spots turning black as seen in the speckled cod (p. 225).

Genus, I—Ganpus, Cuvier.

Merlangus, Cuvier: Morhua, Risso: Pollachius, Nilsson: Melanogrammus and
Brachygradus, Gill: Boreogadus, Giinther: Afglefinus and Gadulus, Malm.

* These bave been described by many recent authors, as Buckland, Holdsworth, &c.
+ Mr. Dunn observes that injuries caused by hoohs or blows on the snout may occasion
blinducss in these fishes.
GADIDA. 275

Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchie, if present, rudimentary. Teeth in a
band in the jaws, present on vomer, none on the palatines or tongue. A barbel present
or absent below the chin. Three dorsal and two anal fins: ventral with sie or more
rays: caudal distinct. Air-bladder present. Ocecal appendages numerous.

The reason why these fishes were termed Asinus by the ancients has by some
been considered to have reference to their colour: while others believe it to be
due to their having been carried to market on the backs of asses. Yarrell,
however, advanced another suggestion that the term was originally intended
for the haddock, in which (he says) the shoulder blotch frequently extends over
the back uniting with that on the opposite side, and thus reminding the observer
of the dark stripe over the withers of an ass. A slight objection might be
raised as to how the Greeks and Latins conferred this term on a species which
ety not exist in their seas. The name has also been supposed to refer to the

ake.

This genus was subdivided by Cuvier into (1) those in which three dorsal
fins and a submandibular barbel were present, Gadus: and (2) those in which the
barbel was absent, Merlangus.

A. Upper jaw the longer, its outer row of teeth enlarged (Gadus).
a. Barbel present.

1. Gadus morhua, D. 13-15/16-19/17-21, A. 17-19/16-18. Greenish or olive:
lateral-line white.

2. Gadus ceglefinus, D. 14-16/20-24/19-21, A. 24-25/20-22. A black shoulder
blotch and black lateral-line.

3. Gadus luscus, D. 12/20-23/19-20, A. 27-32/17-20. Copper-coloured, with
broad vertical bands.

4. Gadus minutus, D. 12-15/19-25/17-22, A. 25-29/17-22. Silvery.

b. No barbel below chin.

5. Gadus merlangus, D. 13-16/18-23/19-21, A. 30-35/20-24. Silvery, with a
dark axillary spot.
B. Lower jaw the longer : tts outer row of teeth enlarged (Boreogadus).
6. Gadus poutassou, D. 12-13/12-14/22-24, A. 34-38/20-25. Silvery.

C. Lower jaw the longer : teeth in upper jaw of equal size (Pollachius).
a. Barbel present.
7. Gadus virens, D. 12-14/20-22/20-22, A. 24-27/20-23. Gray along the back,
. silvery sides.
b. No barbel below chin.

8. Gadus pollachius, D. 11-13/16-20/15-19, A. 24-31/16-21. Dull greenish
along the back.

A. Upper jaw the longer: its outer row of teeth enlarged (Gadus).
a. Barbel present.
1. Gadus morhua, Plate LXXVIII.

Morhua vulgaris, Bellon. de Aquat. p. 128. Molva, Rondel. ix, c. 14, p. 280;
Gesner, pp. 88, 102. Morhua s. molva, Aldrov. iii, c. 6, p. 289; Jonston, i, tit. 1,
c. 1, Art. 2, tii, f 1. Asellus major, Schonev. p. 18; Willugh. p. 165, t. L. M. i,
£.4; Ray, Syn. p.53; Rutty, i, p. 353. Gadus, sp. Artedi, Syn. p. 35, no. 6,
Callarias, Klein, Pisc. Miss. v, p. 6, no. 4, t i, £1; Ascan. Icon. t. iv and xxvii.

18 *
276 ANACANTHINI.

Common cod-fish, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776) iii, p. 172 (Ed. 1812) iii,

p. 231; Low, Faun. Orcad. p. 190. Moruwe, Duhamel, Péches, ii, Sec. i. p. 37,

1. xi, f. 1.

: Gadus morhua, Linn. Syst. i, p. 436; Bl. Fische Deuts. ii, p. 145, t. lxiv;
Gmel. Linn. p. 1162; Bonnat. Atl. Ich. p. 47, pl. xxviii, f. 101; Shaw, Zool. iv,
p- 131, pl. xxii; Lacép. ii, p. 369; Bl. Schn. p. 7; Donovan, Brit. Fish. v, pl. cvi;
Turton, p. 89; Mitchell, Lit. and Phil. Trans. New York, i, p. 367; Faber, Fische
Isl. p. 104; Richards. Faun. Bor.-Amer. Fish. p. 242; Jenyns, p. 440; Nilss.
Skand. Faun. iv, p. 537; Brandt and Ratzeb. i, p. 46, t. ix, f.3; Kréyer, Dan.
Fiske, ii, p. 1, ¢. fig.; Cuv. Rég. Anim. I]. Poiss. pl. evi, f.1; Malmgren, Spets.
Fiskfauna, p. 528 and Wiegm. Arch. 1864, p. 297; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist.
1837 (2) 1, p. 411; Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Field Club, 1838, p. 173 ; Swainson,
Fishes, ii, p. 299; McIntosh, Fish. N. Uist. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin. v, 1862-66,
p- 614 and Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 177; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 178;
Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 328; Gill, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Phil. 1863, p. 234; Schlegel,
Dieren Neder. p. 77, pl. vii, f.1; Malm, p. 480; Gilpin, Proc. and Trans. Nov.
Scot. Inst. Nat. Sc. ii, pt. 1, p. 101; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 27; Collett,
Norges Fiske, p. 103; Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 235.

Gadus callarias, Fries and Ekstr. Skand. Fish. p. 101, t. xlvii; Ekstrom,
Mérké, p. 230; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 131.

Morhua vulgaris, Fleming, p. 191; Yarrell, Brit. Fish (Ed. 1) ii, p. 143, e. fig.
(Ed. 2) ii, p. 221 (Ed. 3) i, p. 524; Parn. Wern. Mem. vii, p. 333 and Fish. Firth
of Forth, p. 173.

Morhua callarias, Cuv. Régne Anim. ; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 87.

Cod, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 53, pl. cxxxv.

Synonymy of immature.

Asellus varius vel striatus, Schonev. p. 19; Jonston, t. xlvi, f. 4; Willughby,
p. 172, t. L. M.i,f.1; Ray, Syn. p. 54. Gadus, sp. Artedi, Syn. p. 35, no. 4,
Spec. p. 63, no. 4, Genera, p. 24, no. 4; Gronov. Zooph. no. 319; Gadus callarias
var. a. Fabr. Fauna Groenl. p. 144. Variable cod-fish, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Hd.
1812) iii, p. 289. Callarias, sp. Klein, Pisc. Miss. v, p. 5, no. 1, 5, t. i, f. 2, no. 6,
7, t. ti, f. 1, 2.

Gadus callarias, Linn. Syst. i, p. 486; Bl. Fische Deuts. ii, p. 109, t. lxiii;
Gmel. Linn. p. 1166; Bonn. Atl. Ich. p. 46, pl. xxviii, f. 100; Shaw, Zool. iv,
p. 1388 ; Lacép. ii, p. 409; Bl. Schn. p. 6; Pall. Zoogr. iii, p. 182; Turton, p. 89;
Jenyns, p. 441; Faber, Fische Isl. p. 109; Ekstr. Fische Morko, p. 280 and Vet.
Akad. Handl. 1834, p. 38; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 181; Brandt and Ratzeb.i, p. 49,
t. ix, f.2; Thompson, P. Z. 8. 1837, p. 57.

Gadus barbatus, pt. Linn. Syst. i, p. 437.

Morhua callarias, Cuv. Régne Anim.; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 1) ii, p. 151,
ce. fig. (Hd. 2) ui, p. 281.

Dorse, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 66, pl. exxxvii.

Synonymy of Greenland variety.

Gadus barbatus, Fabr. Faun. Greenl. p. 146; Mohr, Isl. Nat. p. 68; Ascan.
Icon. t. v.

Gadus ruber, Lacép. v, p. 673; Holbéll, Goth. Nya Handl. iv, p. 3], ¢. fig.

Gadus ogak, Richards. Faun. Bor.-Amer. Fish. p. 246; Gaim. Voy. Scand.
Atl. Poiss. pl. xix.

Synonymy of diseased forms.

Gadus macrocephalus, Tiles, Mém. Acad. Sc. St. Petersh. 1810, ii, p. 350,
t. xvi; Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 3830; Kner and Steind. 8. B. Ak. Wien, 1870, Ixi,
p. 440.

Cephus macrocephalus, Swainson, Fishes, it, p. 300.

Gadus punctatus, Turton, p. 90; A. Smith, Proc. Roy. Phy. Soc. Edin. 1864-65,
ili, p. 302; Dyce, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1860, v, p. 366.

Morhua punctata, Flem. p. 192; Jenyns, p. 442.
GADIDA. 277

Lord-fish, Yarrell, Brit. Fish (Ed. 1) i, p. 164, ¢. figure; Cobbold, Proc. Roy.
Phy. Soc. Edin. 1854-1858, i, p. 51.

Morrhua macrocephala, Day, Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool. xiv, p. 689, pl. xiv.

B. vii, D. 18-15/16-19/17-19(21), P. 16-19, V. 6, A. 17-19/16-18, C. 28,
Vert. 19/32.

_ Length of head 32 to 43, of caudal fin 63, height of body 4 to 5, or even more
in the young, in the total length. Hye—diameter 41 in the young to 7 in the
adult in the length of the head: 14 diameters in the young to 2 in the adult
from the end of the snout, and 1} in the young to 2 in the adult apart. Body
much thickest anteriorly. Nostrils nearer the eye than to the end of the snout.
Snout conical. Mouth wide, with a deep cleft. Upper jaw the longer: the
posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to beneath the first third or middle of
the eye. A barbel generally as long as the eye, but sometimes shorter, is situated
below the chin. Yeeth—cardiform with an outer and much enlarged row in the
upper jaw, in a V-shaped patch on the vomer, absent from the palatines and
tongue. Fins—the first dorsal somewhat triangular, it commences over or slightly
posterior to the base of the pectoral, its fourth ray being the longest and about
equal to the extent of the base of the fin, from it they diminish in height to
the last, which is very short. There exists a very short interspace between the
bases of the two first dorsal fins, the fourth ray being somewhat the longest but
not quite equal to half the length of the base of the fin. They decrease in height
to the three last which are short. A very short interspace exists between the
second and third dorsal fins, and a longer or shorter interspace occurs between its
termination and the base of the outermost caudal rays. The anterior anal fin
commences on a vertical line below the fourth or fifth ray of the second dorsal,
and a short interspace exists between it and the origin of the second anal, which
is similar to the third dorsal. Caudal slightly emarginate or square at its
extremity. Ventrals small, inserted rather before the base of the pectorals, which
are as long as the postorbital portion of the head. Vent situated on a vertical
line beneath the first rays of the second dorsal fin. Scales—small and cycloid.
Lateral-line—passes backwards from opposite the upper edge of the orbit, attaining
below the centre of the second dorsal fin nearly the middle of the depth of the
body, from whence it is continued straight to the centre of the base of the caudal.
Cecal appendages—numerous and short. Colowrs—greenish or grayish, or olive,
and occasionally covered with yellow or brown spots along the back and upper
two-thirds of the body, its lower portion pure white. Lateral-line white, especially
in its lower half. Fins gray, becoming darkest towards their outer edges.

Considerable discussions have arisen respecting what is Gadus callarias, Linn.,
or the dorse. The Linnean Society of London possess among Linneus’s collection
of fish an example of Gadus morhua, labelled G. callarias, and also Sma Torsk. It
has D. 14/18/20, A. 19/19, while the length of the head is 3 in that of the body.
Nilsson observes that in G. morhua, the length of the lower jaw is half that of the
head, or the distance from the snout to the posterior edge of the eye: whereas, in
G. callarias it is less than half the length of the head, and equals the distance
from the snout to the middle of the eye. Thompson considered that he obtained
two examples of this fish at Youghal in the autumn of 1834, and that Mr. Marshall
took another, 8 inches long, in the county of Antrim. Mr. Cornish considers the
dorse by no means uncommon in Cornwall, its back being of a rich brown colour
(Zool. 1874, p. 4080). All the eatable cod fish I saw along the south coast were
G. morhua, the fishermen in some localities insisting that this local form differed
from the common cod, whereas others believed it to be the same. Respecting
Gadus punctatus, Turton, that author evidently gave a wrong description of his
fish, for he defines it as having ‘“‘upper-jaw longer” and says it differs from
G. morhua “in the lower jaw being considerably longer,”

Varieties of form.—Fishermen distinguish two races—(1) the Southern or
Dogger-bank-cod, having a pointed and somewhat elongated snout, the body being
of a dark colour; and (2) the North or Scotch-cod, having a blunter snout, and
being of a light ash-gray. The two forms are said to mix off Northumberland.
278 ANACANTHINI.

Yarrell having observed a “ Lord-fish,” G. macrocephalus, Tiles, at the mouth of
the Thames considered the appearance due to disease. Gurney (Zool. May 16th,
1851) remarks upon having seen one of these fish caught at Lowestoft, and called
by the local fishermen ‘“‘a lord,”* resembling Yarrell’s figure. Thompson also
obtained two at Belfast and considered them deformities. Cobbold found this
shortening of the body, which occasions the comparatively large head, to be due
to the coalescence of a great number of the vertebree immediately succeeding the
bones of the head. My example I find, on dissection, likewise suffered from
coalescence of several vertebre, but all in the caudal region. Gill alludes to a
Labrador specimen which possessed two barbels below the chin placed one
behind the other. Of colour—Turton’s “speckled cod” may have been so
coloured due to disease—as the presence of parasites. Mr. Sim in November,
1881, obtained two examples at Aberdeen which he kindly forwarded to me.
They were of a light colour, but speckled, especially over the upper half of the
body and fins with small black dots, which under a magnifying glass were seen
to be round elevations, some of which had small orifices in their centres. The
fins were edged with black. Thompson likewise obtained speckled examples in
Treland, agreeing with Turton’s fish, but which he considered as varieties of the
common cod. Codlings are frequently yellow* or even of a red colour, while
living among rocks they do not assume their adult livery until they change their
residence. Hdward at Banff alludes to occasionally meeting with red codlings,
which most frequently had yellow fins, none exceeded the size of the common
haddock. Thompson saw one in Ireland of a pale lilac-gray colour, closely
studded over with large reddish-gray spots, which were as close together as
in any species of trout. Parnell found the red cod the firmest for eating, and
remarked that they resided in very deep water feeding almost entirely on young
lobsters and starfish.

Names.—Poullach, Moray Firth, or if half grown, duncan (Gordon) ; kleg
and keeling, a large kind of cod; also chelynge (Halliwell). Dole-fish is that
form in which the fishermen of the North Sea had their pay or “dole.” Blens,
while the young are generally known as codlings. In the Channel those the size
of a whiting are termed codlings and skinners: when larger, tumbling or tamlin-
cod (Yarrell). Haberdine or salted cod,in Westmorland. Le gade morue, French.
De Kabeljaaww, Dutch.

Habits—A_ voracious fish which as a rule feeds near the ground. It is
indiscriminate in its choice, consuming whatever inhabitants of the deep it is
able to master. The most elaborate investigations into the life history of this
fish have been made by Sars off the coast of Norway, and from whose reports in
the fishery department much of the following is derived, for its habits in any
part of Europe are nearly identical with those in our seas. Large cod fisheries
begin along the N.W. coast of Norway, generally in the winter; consequently the
fish would seem to commence arriving all about the same time, and though each
school does not follow the identical course of the one preceding it, they may be
imagined as coming in numerous parallel lines, and in a north-easterly direction
from the great deep towards the shore. The chief fisheries are in the middle of
the winter or first four months of the year, and about the same time as the great
spring herring-fisheries. It was observed that near Christmas unusual numbers
of small fishes appear on the banks off the N.W. of Norway, and before long the
cod-fish make their appearance; soon the other and smaller forms decrease in
number, until at last it appears as if only cod were present. The first comers
(species doubtful) are termed the “ announcing fish” by the fishermen, as they
are the advanced guard of the large army which begins to appear about the
middle of January, and continues arriving in schools consisting of milters and
spawners until the middle of March—in other years they may even commence
arriving as late as March, the period varying with the weather, as they come in
earlier when it is mild with a south-westerly wind, than when it is cold with

* At Lowestoft a hump-backed person is frequently termed “ a Jord,” according to Mr. Gurney.
t kuwaid (Zool. 1882, p. 23) mentions one from Banffshire that he considered a dorse, Gadus
callarias, und 1 which there were D. 19/20/21, A. 21/20.
GADIDA. 279

north-easterly gales. During a good season they are described as forming
mountains of fish,” but frequently none can be captured at this period, either with
seines or lines: the fishermen say they keep quiet until a new school arrives and
drives them forward, their quiescence being probably due to the coldness of the
water as compared with that at the depths from which they have left. They are
found to keep nearest the bottom in coldest weather, while the fishermen, at least
in certain localities where the current is not too strong, use floats to keep their
nets or lines some distance from the ground; consequently such lines as are
suspended at both ends only have the central portion reaching the bottom, while
the remainder gradually approaches the surface, and thus cod are taken at often
twenty or thirty fathoms from the ground. On leaving the coast of Norway they
seem either to go direct out to sea or along the western shores, their course
appearing to depend considerably upon the temperature of the water. They
consume small fish, as the young of their own kind or any they can obtain, but
are especially partial to sand-eels, herrings, sprats, and the spawn of herrings ;
also crustaceous and testaceous animals, and, as is well known to fishermen,
evidently preferring one sort of animal food to another, being very partial to
crabs and whelks, while their digestion is so powerful that the greater portion of
the shells they swallow are dissolved. They often disgorge their food when
hooked, and being drawn on board. In the North Sea they frequently feed at
night time on the herrings meshed in the drift-nets, doing much damage to the
light cotton nets. While off Devonshire and Cornwall they feast extensively upon
pilchards during the autumnal migration. The contents of their stomachs are almost
infinite : from one captured in Lynn Deeps on Midsummer-eve, 1626, and brought
to the Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge, was taken a book in three treatises; from
another, Captain Hill recovered his keys several days after he had dropped them
overboard from a North Sea trawler very many miles distant from where they
had been lost. An entire partridge was taken from the stomach of one. Johnston
observed that a fisherman caught a cod having a hare in its stomach; while
another had a white turnip. Mr. Reid, of Wick, saw a black guillemot in perfect
feather removed from the stomach of one of these fishes in March, 1879; while
Mr. Grove took a piece of tallow candle seven inches long from the inside of a
cod. Stones and similar indigestible substances are frequently found in their
digestive cavities, and which have probably been swallowed in order to obtain the
corallines which were attached to them: it subsequently rejects the stones, &c.
Couch observed six picked dog-fishes, each nine inches long, removed from inside
another: while he records the following crustacea taken from examples captured
in the west portion of the British Channel: Crabs—Stenorynchus phalagiwm,
Acheus Cranchir, Inachus Dorsetensis, I. dorynchus, I. leptochirus, Hyas coarctatus,
Hurynome aspera, Xantho tuberculata, Cancer pagurus, Portunus corrugatus, P.
arcuatus, P. marmoreus, P. pusillus, P. longiceps, Gonoplax angulatus, Atelecyclus
heterodon, Corystes cassivelaunus, Pagurus Bernhardus. Long-tailed crustaceans
of the lobster kind—Galathea squamifera, G. strigosa, G. dispersa, G. Andrewsii,
Munida Rondeletit, Gebia stellata, G. deltwra, Nika edulis, N. Couchii, Squilla
Desmarestti, Alpheus ruber, Scyllarus arctus. A Norway lobster, Nephrops
Norwegicus, has been found in one from the Scotch coast. Hxamining a consider-
able number of stomachs removed from cod-fishes taken on the east coast of
England during the winter of 1880-81, whelks and crabs, especially Hyas coare-
tatus, appeared to have formed their principal food. Sharks, dog-fishes, seals, &c.,
are found preying on them, and sea-birds and larger fishes on their young.
Thompson (Depths of the Sea) observes upon having dredged over the Faroe
Bank at a depth of from 200 to 50 fathoms; the bottom gravel and nullipore, and
the temperature from 8 deg. to 10 deg.C. The banks swarmed with the commoa
brittle star (Opliathatz fragilis), with the Norway lobster (Nephrops Norwegicus),
large spider-crabs, several species of Galathea and many of the genus Crangon.
So ample a supply of their favourite food readily accounted for the abundance and.
excellence of the cod and ling on these banks.
They may be kept in salt water-vivaria as I have already alluded to
(p. 274 ante). Near North Queensferry a number of fish are kept in a salt-
280 ANACANTHINLI

water pond about 200 feet long and 5 fathoms deep, in which the tide ebbs
and flows twice a day. All the fish appear to thrive well, especially the cod,
which are found to be firmer in the flesh and thicker across the shoulders than
those obtained from the Firth of Forth (Parnell). Yarrell likewise alludes to
similarly formed vivaria as existent in the Orkneys and in Fife.

Means of capture.*—Along our coasts most of the fishing for cod is carried on
by means of long- or hand-lines, although a few of the fishes may occasionally be
netted, as is extensively done off Norway. The principal English fishery is off
the Dogger Bank, between England and Denmark, and on Cromer Knoll on the
Norfolk coast, where long-lining is engaged in throughout the winter until about
April in the former locality and February in the latter. Many vessels early in
the year proceed to Newfoundland, where the season extends from February until
April. Off Wick, this fishing, which is largely carried on during February, is
considered to terminate upon March 15th. It would fill up too much space to
follow out our cod-fisheries here, but it may be remarked that some are taken
throughout the year around our coasts, and during the summer it is not unusual
for wanderers to come close in shore, and be captured in the bag nets set
for salmon.

Bait.—It is very voracious, devouring everything eatable. Mussel are most
used in Moray Firth, or the Limpet (Patedlu), also ‘“‘ Badgers,” a common shell-
fish, Lutraria vulguris, and the “spout-fish,” Solen siligua, are very killing, but
more especially the “ sand launce ” and “ herring.”

The “cod murderer” in use at Peterhead consists of a long piece of lead,
either round or flat, with snoods passed through holes at intervals, bearing a
hook at either end without bait. The cod strikes against the lead, and one or
other of the hooks generally secures it (Angler’s Note-book, p. 48).

Breeding.—The cod arrives from the deep sea, and commences spawning in
our seas, usnally in January, and continues this operation until April. In the
Firth of Forth, however, Parnell observed that they begin to deposit their spawn
in the months of May or June, and it must be remarked that they are much later
in cold and boisterous seasons than in calm and mild ones. They are very
prolific: Leuwenbeck counted 9,384,000 eggs in one of medium size: Harmer,
3,686,760 in one taken at the end of December: Buckland, 1,800,000 in an
113 1b. fish in March, while he found in 731b. of cod roe, 6,867,000, and such a
quantity sometimes exists, that from fish of 21 1b. weight, 12 lb. of roe have been
removed. Otf Norway, Sars observed that at the spawning period the cod
became restless, the males and females swimming about very rapidly, while
spawning was continued some months, during which period the fish get out of
condition. The females as a rule were nearer to the surface than the males, as
proved by netting, for the drag nets almost exclusively took males, whereas the
floating nets secured females. The ova was found to float on the sea, unless the
specific gravity of the latter was altered by the admixture of rain or river
water, as well as on the death of the embryo, when they sank. The egg floats,
due to containing a fine globule of oil, while its heaviest part is where the
micropyle exists, and which is consequently turned downwards or towards the
ascending milt. Hatching occurred on the 18th day, while in America it was
found to take place between the 13th and 50th days, according to the heat of the

* As showing the productiveness of these fisheries, those of Norway closed in May, 1881. The
total yield of this season’s fishery has been estimated as amounting to twenty-five millions and
three quarters of cod-fish (of which number twenty-one and a half millions have been salted),
48,000 tons or barrels of liver, 2500 barrels medicinal train oil, and 31,000 barrels of roe. Outside
the island stations the fishing yielded five millions of cod-fish (600,000 of which have been salted),
11,700 barrels of liver, seventy tons of medicinal train oil, and six thousand tons of roe. Of the
smaller fisheries, which have also closed, the two principal fishing stations have produced : the one
near Sondmore 160,000 vog (18 kilogrammeés each) of codfish, 5000 tons of roe, 2200 barrels of
medicinal and 1800 tons of other kinds of train oil; the other station newr Romsdal, 600,000
cod-fish, 450 barrels of medicinal and 200 tons of common train oil, and 600 tons of roe. In Juve
it was observed that the Arctic cod-fishing this year has proved a failure. Five of the fishing
vessels from North Faroe have returned to Shetland with takes ranging from only 2000 to 4000

cod. One vessel, the Walrus, is reported to have 7000, the highest take of the fleet; a second trip
will probably be made later in the scason.
GADID A. 281

water. The floating eggs and fry are liable to be blown in shore, or destroyed by
the action of wind and waves.

Infe history —The young fish, according to Sars’s investigations, at first or
before the umbilical bax has become absorbed, are most helpless beings, floating
on the surface and tossed about by winds and waves. As soon as this sac},is.
absorbed they seek deeper water, where the sea is more quiescent, feeding upon
small transparent crustaceans, as “herring food,’ Calamus finmarchicus and
Temora lonyicornis. By the end of the summer, and when about an inch in
length, they go more inshore, first seeking shelter each under a medusa, Cyanea
capilata, where they appear to feed upon the minute animals which constitute the
food of this Discophora, and which are stupified by its numerous poisonous
threads stretching out in all directions. As a return the young cod-fish consumes
asmal]l parasitic crustacean, Hyperia, which clings to the medusa by aid of its
sharp claws, and even eats deeply into its jelly-like body. These young fish have
also been observed floating about beneath the harmless disk-shaped Medusa
aurita, or secreting themselves beneath sea-weeds or other floating substances.
Having left the meduse, they roam about for some time near the coast, but
being pursued by sea-birds and other fishes, they seek a more stationary mode of life
near the coast, where, however, young pollack have generally previously established
themselves. As they grow in size they migrate into deeper water, and at the
age of one year they are known as Alge fish by the fishermen, because they resort
to sandy localities among the algee near the outer coast, at a depth of twenty or
thirty fathoms. These very young are of all different shades of colour, from
bright red or yellow, if residing among the Laminaria, to a bright green or gray
if in more open or sandy places. The very young cod-fish are genuine ground
feeders. Respecting the rapidity with which these fish increase in size opinions
are divided, but at the Southport Aquarium, some of 3/4 of a lb. in weight,
increased in about sixteen months to 6 or 7 lb. each (Jackson).

Hermaphrodites—have been recorded by Yarrell (Proc. Zcol. Soc. 1845, p. 91)
and Dr. J. Smith (Proc. Roy. Phy. Soc. Edin. 1864-65, p. 300 and vol. iv, 1870,

. 256).
Deovases—1 have already alluded to affections of the spinal column, blindness
and parasites in the cod (page 274 ante). When out of season they are
tormented with sea-lice, while the Lernea branchialis is often found attached to the
gills. When hooked, the borer or myxine, having obtained entrance through its
mouth or gill openings, will almost devour its interior, leaving little but the skin
remaining. Otf the Shetland sand-banks a sessile-eyed crustacean, locally termed
“bees,” Alga tridens, has been observed to behave in the same manner among
fish hooked on the long-lines, so that when the fish is hauled up it looks as plump
and round as a live fish, only when opened it is found to be full of “ bees,” and
nothing else (J. Anderson). I may here mention as one of the causes of
destruction of these fishes, that large quantities of the roe is collected and sold,
being employed in France and Northern Spain as bait for the sardine fisheries.
Uses.—From the air-bladder or sounds isinglass may be manufactured. The
tongue whether fresh or salted is a great delicacy, while from its liver is prepared
an oil, first employed as medicine in this country by Dr. Pércival in 1782.
Irrespective of the foregoing, we are told that the Norwegians give the head
along with marine plants to their cows, for the purpose of increasing the yield
of milk.* Icelanders feed their cattle with its bones, as the inhabitants of
Kamtchatka do their dogs, while after being well dried they are employed as fuel
along the shores of the Arctic Ocean. :

As foud.—The cod of our seas is in the best season from October to the
beginning of February (according to Parnell in the Firth of Forth till the end
of April), and in its greatest perfection about Christmas, while those of a medium
size are most preferred for the table. It has been observed that such as possess
the deepest groove along the back of the head, the largest belly, roundest form
especially near the tail and sides, and appearing as if they were ribbed, are the
best for the table. In Cornwall, those ont of season, and recognizable by their

* Of the western coast of India shark’s flesh is supposed to possess this property.
282 ANACANTHINI.

lanky form, are sure to be wooly and watery, and are locally known as “ Church-
yard cod” and may be seen exposed for sale as early as the month of March.
In Norfolk it was formerly considered that the finest supplied to the market
were those sent from Sherringham, which were usually found to have been
feeding on crabs (Gurney).

Modes of cooking.—Rutty observed that in his time (1772) the Fitzgallian
fishermen made a broth at sea from the cod and haddock, which they thickened
with the liver of the cod bruised to a paste, and incorporated with the broth.
When fresh the head and shoulders are boiled and served with oyster sauce and
melted butter: or the body may be similarly treated, or it may be stewed.
Slices of the fish may be fried, and are improved by some curried gravy being
added. Salt fish may likewise be boiled, also salted cod’s sound, while the last
are sometimes fried in butter.

Cod can be preserved in salt, and remain good for eating a much longer period
than any other form of the family. For curing, as observed by Bertram, the
fish should be used as soon as possible after capture: they are split along their
entire length, and well washed until all the blood is removed. A part of the
backbone having been cut away, they are drained and then laid in long vats,
covered with salt, and weighted down in order to keep them well under the pickle.
After a time they are removed, drained, washed, and brushed to prevent the
collection of impurities. Then they are bleached by being individually spread
out in the open air. This accomplished, they are collected into heaps termed
steeples. When the bloom or whitish appearance shows itself, the process is
complete and they are ready for the market. In the trade the salted cod-fish
brought from Norway and elsewhere are roughly divided into flat or klip, and
rund or stock-fish: the first form being salted and subsequently dried, and the
second simply dried without the use of salt.

Habitat.—In the northern seas of Europe and America from about the 67° to
the 50° of latitudes, for such as are found north or south of these limits are either
few in quantity or inferior in quality; except perhaps along the N.W. coast of
Norway, where, due to the presence of a warm gulf stream, it may be taken a
little further to the north : while those present in Greenland are small, emaciated,
and voracious. It extends principally from the south and west coasts of Iceland
and the shores of the Scandinavian Peninsula, through the North Sea and
coasts of the British Isles to those of France. While it is most abundant off
Newfoundland, where a mud bank more than 100 leagues long and 60 broad
exists buried in the ocean at from 60 to 100 feet or more below the surface.

In the Orkneys it is said to swarm around the coast, but Low remarked that
in his time the fishery had become abandoned, and they were little sought after:
they are likewise very abundant in Zetland (W. Baikie), and are taken all round
our coasts; but in decreasing numbers as we proceed southwards. It is abundant
in the sea around the islands to the north and west of Scotland ; has been locally
remarked upon as present at Wick (Reid): along the coast of Banff (Edward) :
Aberdeen (Sim). In the Moray Firth in all seasons, but most plentiful in
March. St. Andrew’s common (McIntosh). Firth of Forth all the year round
(Parnell). Yorkshire abundant; codlings are taken plentifully inshore, and
ascend the estuary of the Humber as far as Goole (Yorkshire Vertebrata). From
Lincolnshire and Norfolk to the mouth of the Thames (Yarrell) : Devonshire
coast not so common or good as those from the N. or N.E. coast (Parfitt). In
Cornwall common all round on sandy banks and rough ground in sheltered bays
(R. Couch), but rarely in good condition for the table. In Ireland common
around the coast.

The example figured was from the mouth of the Thames, and 103 inches in
length. The largest Pennant heard of from our coasts weighed 78 |b., it was
5 feet 8 inches long, and captured at Scarborough in 1755, and sold for one
shilling: their usual weight in Yorkshire he gave at from 14 to40 1b. Thompson
records two taken on the same day in Belfast Bay which weighed 56 and 60 lb.
respectively. Yarrell, one of 60 lb. taken in the Bristol Channel, and produced
five shillings.
GADIDA. 283

2. Gadus eglefinus, Plate LXXIX.

Aiglefinus, tertia asellorwm species, Bel. pp. 126, 127. Tertia asellorum species,
Rondel. ix, c. 11, p. 277; Gesner, pp. 26, 100; Aldrov. iii, c. 1, p. 282. Onos,
Willughby, p. 170, t. L. M. i, no. 2; Ray, p. 55. -Asellus minor, Schonev. p. 18.
Gadus, sp. p. 64, Synon. p. 36, no. 7, Genera, p. 20, no. 5; Gronov. Zooph. no.
320, and Mus. i, no. 59. Anos sive asinus antiquorum, Rutty, Dublin, ii, p. 354.
L’anon, Duhamel, Péches, ii, Sec. 1, c. 4, p. 183, pl. xxiii, f.1. Callarias, sp.
Klein, Pisce. Miss. v, p. 6, no. 2. Isa, Olafs, Isl. Reise § 528, t.xxvi. Haddock,
Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776) iii, p. 179 (Hd. 1812) iii, p. 241. The Haddock,
Low, Fann. Orcad. p. 192.

Gadus ceglefinus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 435; Bl. Fische Deuts. ii, p. 188,
t. lxii; Gmel. Linn. p. 1159; Bonnaterre, Atl. Ich. p. 46, pl. xxviii, f. 99; Shaw,
Zool. iv, p. 186; Lacép. ii, p. 397; Bl. Schn. p.6; Donovan, Brit. Fish. iii, pl.
lix; Mitchell, Lit. and Phil. Trans. New York, i, p. 370; Turton, Brit. Fauna,
p. 89; Jenyns, Manual, p. 441; Fries and Ekstr. Skand. Fisk. p. 86, t. xix;
Faber, Fische Isl. p. 100; Nilss. Skand. Fauna, iv, p. 550; Kroyer, Dan. Fiske, i,
p- 42, c. fig.; Malmg. Spets. Fisk. Fauna, p. 529, and Wiegm. Arch. 1864, p. 297 ;
Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. 1837 (2) i, p. 411; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland,
iv, p. 179; Johnston, Berwick. Nat. F. Club, 1838, i, p. 173; McIntosh, Fish. N.
Uist. Pro. R. Soc. Edin. v, 1862-66, p. 614, and Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 178;
Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 131; Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 332; Schlegel, Dieren Neder.
p. 80, pl. vii, f. 2; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 108; Gilpin, Proc. and Trans. Nov.
Scot. Inst. N. Hist. ii, pt.i, p. 100; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 28; Moreau,
Poiss. France, iii, p. 237.

Morhua eeglefinus, Flem. Brit. An. p. 191; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) ii,
p. 153, ¢. fig. (Hid. 2) ii, p. 233 (Hd. 3) i, p. 536; Parnell, Wern. Mem. vii,
p. 337, and Fish. Firth of Forth, p.177; Storer, Fish. Mass. p. 124; DeKay,
New York Fauna, Fish. p. 279, pl. xliii, £. 1838; White, Catal. Fish. p. 88.

Melanogrammus ceglefinus, Gill, Proc. Ac. Nat. Se. Phil. 1862, p. 280.

Aiglefinus Linnei, Malm, p. 481.

Haddock, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 62, pl. exxxvi.

B. vii, D. 14-16/20-24/19-21, P. 19-20, V.6, A. 24-25/20-22, C. 25, Vert. 23/31.

Length of head 4; to 43, of caudal fin 5, height of body 4% to even 6 in the total
length. Hye—diameters 3% to 4 in the length of the head, 14 diameters from the
end of the snout, and 2/3 of a diameter apart. Interorbital space flat: snout
rounded and somewhat projecting over the mouth: the upper jaw rather longer
than the lower: the posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to nearly or
quite beneath the anterior edge of the eye. A short barbel situated beneath the
chin. Teeth—cardiform in the jaws, the outer row in the upper jaw somewhat
enlarged. Fins—the first dorsal, somewhat triangular in shape, commences over
the base of the pectoral, its second or third ray the longest and slightly exceeding
the extent of the base of the fin, its posterior rays very short: a short but distinct
interspace between the first and second dorsal fins, the third or fourth ray of
which last about equals half the length of its base, its last rays minute: the third
dorsal fin is not continuous at its base with the second, it is similar to the second
anal and not connected with the caudal. The first anal fin commences below or
slightly behind the origin of the second dorsal, and is similar to it. Caudal
emarginate. Ventral pointed and inserted on a line anterior to the base of the
pectoral, which latter fin is pointed and as long as the head excluding the snout.
Scales—fine but distinct over the body. Lateral-line—follows the curve of the
back from the upper edge of the opercle, curving gradually downwards below the
second dorsal fin, and is continued to the middle of the base of the caudal. Vent
situated beneath the origin of the second dorsal fin, or in some few instances a
little in advance of this spot. Ccecal appendages not so numerous as in the
common cod. Colowrs—grayish in the upper half of the body, light on the sides
and white beneath. A large oval black blotch exists on the side between the
middle or posterior half of the pectoral fin and the lateral-line, being sometimes
284, ANACANTHINI.

continued above it. Lateral-line of a deep black. Fins bluish-black, being
darkest externally.

Superstition has handed down the tradition that the black blotch on either
shoulder of this fish is due to the action of St. Peter’s finger and thumb when
he drew out one of the haddock’s ancestors from the Lake of Genneserat to obtain
the piece of tribute-money. Unfortunately, neither this fish nor the John Doree,
which has been equally honoured (see p. 140), are to be found in the waters where
the miracle was reported to have occurred.

Varieties in form.—Shortened forms occasionally exist among haddocks as
remarked upon respecting the common cod, and due to the same cause or disease
of the vertebral column. In colour several variaties have been recorded.
Thompson saw one about eighteen inches long from Belfast market of a beautiful
rich salmon-colour in its upper half, becoming lighter on the sides and abdomen :
this tint was also observable on all the fins with the exception of the extremity
of the caudal, which was dusky. The finger-spot was faint. Another example,
captured off the entrance to Strangford Lough, was of a pale golden yellow
superiorly, and white below the lateral-line, which instead of being black was
white: no finger-spot was visible. Dr. Ball obtained a large canary-coloured
example in Dublin, and another small specimen of a light rose-red. In the month
of February, at Belfast, Thompson’s attention was called to a large haddock in fine
condition which was clouded over the sides with an extremely pale stone-colour,
apparently as if the skin had been taken off; but this was the natural colour as
all the scales were on. Couch would class all these Irish specimens as Dorse.

Names.— Haddock, formerly spelt hadock, which in Scotland is pronounced
hathock or haddie, and which after spawning are termed gamrels or camrels: when
about five inches long, nockies (Sim, Aberdeen). This fish has likewise other
local names as buckthorn, which is mostly applied to dried haddock; mop, and
whiting-mop, also mulvel (Halliwell). In the Moray Firth it is termed adag or
attae (Gordon): in the Firth of Forth they are finnan haddocks, when smoked in
a peculiar manner: if simply dried speldrings, and are eaten raw (Parnell).
Belonius states that Egrefin or Hagle-jin was formerly its English name. De
Schelvisch, Dutch. Le gade égrefin, French.

Habit.— Haddocks congregate in enormous numbers, feed near the ground
and for their size are as voracious as the cod, but the two forms do not seem to
be usually found together. They are abundant off our shores, especially those of
the eastern counties, the finest and greatest numbers being taken during the
winter months, for after spawning the largest retire, leaving the smaller ones
behind. Pennant observed that off Yorkshire large schools usually arrive near
the shores in December, and instances the coincidence that in 1766 and 1777 they
came both years on the 10th, the shoals being nearly three miles in breadth, while
they extended in length from Flamborough to Tinmouth Castle, and perhaps
much further to the north. They will frequent some rocky ground for many
seasons, and from some cause suddenly leave it for a new situation, perhaps due to
exhaustion of the food.* ‘ Fishermen assert that in rough weather haddocks sink
down into the sand and ooze at the bottom of the sea, and shelter themselves
there till the storm.is over; because in stormy weather they take none, and
those that are taken immediately after a storm are covered with mud on their
backs” (Pen.). Their food varies with locality. Thompson in Belfast found
they mostly contained the remains of Ophiure, especially the spines of O. rosula,
the presence of which is considered by Dr. Drummond as one reason why these
fishes are found so free from intestinal worms. During summer they live on
young herrings and other small fish: in the winter on the stone-coated worms
(Serpula) which fishermen call haddock-meat. They consume great quantities of
herring ova and fry, while the sprat is likewise favourite food.

In the Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. 1792, pp. 367-373, is an account of a remark-
able failure of these fishes in Northumberland.

* Mr. Dunn observes that off Mevagissey large ones, up to 12 lb. weight, were plentiful about
fifteen years ago in about 30 fathoms of water, but in 1870 entirely left the coast, where they are

alinust a rare fish,
GADIDA. 285

Means of captwre.—Line or beam-trawl fishing as it generally feeds near the
ground. Off Norfolk long lines for haddock fishing, the length of each of which
is about 370 fathoms, are locally termed schulls. In the Moray Firth it is
taken throughout the year, except during the six or eight weeks of the
herring fishery; but in stormy weather it refuses all baits. Pennant (1776)
observed that three fishermen within one mile of Scarborough harbour frequently
loaded their coble or boat with them twice a day, taking each time about a
ton of fish: when they shot their lines upwards of three miles from the shore
they took nothing but dog-fishes, which showed the limits to which they
resorted for feeding. The best sold at 1s to 1s 6d the score, and the smaller ones at
a penny and sometimes a halfpenny a score. When the surface of the sea in the
Arctic regions is covered with ice these fishes congregate in the crevices which
separate the ice. The inhabitants take advantage of this, and by constantly
breaking the ice produce crevices which answer their purpose, and here they
draw out the haddocks with their hands. Seals likewise use these crevices for
fishing from; Arctic foxes are said to also join in their destruction.

Baiis.—Cuttle, mussels of both the horse-and edible-species, sprats, and cod bait.

Breeding.—In America a haddock of 22 lb. gave 169,050 eggs, the number
increasing in quantity until from one 95%; lb. 1,839,581 were taken : the shortest time
required for hatching was eight and the average nine days. Pennant observes
that they spawn in January. Some are certainly in full roe during February and
March, during which latter month R. Couch observed that they spawned in
Cornwall; and Parnell that they did so in the Firth of Forth. Sars remarked
that the spawning process of this fish is very similar to that of the cod, and in the
Loffoden Islands it takes place about the same time. Off Cape Ann in America
the number of males were observed to be more abundant than the females, but
the latter averaged a larger size. ,

Life history—Sars observed the young in the sea off Loffoden Islands
concealing themselves under meduse similarly to the cod (see page 281).

Uses.—Haddocks taken by line are far superior, their flesh being much firmer
than those captured by the beam trawl, in which they are bruised and generally
have their scales rubbed off. But the trawl-haddocks are by no means wasted as
food, the head being cut off and with the intestines used formanure. They are then
split and smoked, and sold assmoked haddocks. Haddocks will not take salt so
well as cod. In the neighbourhood of Walworth and Kennington there are
several curing-houses. The fish are bought by the costermongers in Billingsgate
market in the morning, pickled, skewered, hung up in the smoke of sawdust
by the evening, and when sufficiently tinged a yellow colour they are fit for sale.
A skilled curer can clean, salt, and smoke a load of haddock in from six to eight
hours. Those from Finnan, near Aberdeen, have obtained a great reputation. All
at first were smoked over a peat-reek, but the demand becoming very great they
were cured in special buildings erected’ for the purpose and smoked in large
numbers over burning fir branches or burning sawdust.

As food.—The small ones, not sufficiently old to breed, are extremely good
from May until February, and some few even so late as April; but the flesh of
the larger ones is often dry and hard, still up to two or three pounds in weight it
is a good table fish for midwinter. Itisin the best season from November until
February, while in the Irish markets the larger the haddock the more it is
generally prized. The quality of its flesh differs in accordance with the waters
it inhabits. ‘“ Among the Hast Friezelanders, where the sea is very muddy and
shallow, it is thought to be so unwholesome as to excite fever: but with us it is
very good food and may vie with the cod,” the best being taken off the Irish coast.

‘Diseases.—In the record into the state of the salmon fisheries in 1825, it
appears from the Parliamentary report that about thirty years previously so
great was the havoc among these fish that ships had sailed through man
leagues of the North Sea where the surface was covered with dead haddocks, and
for several subsequent years it was a rare fish in those localities. Mr. Hood
(Land and Water, March 22nd, 1869) observes having some years previously paid
a visit to Dagenham Reach in Essex, and having noticed not very far from where
286 ANACANTHINI.

he was standing some rooks that appeared to be feeding at the edge of the water.
On reaching the spot he saw a large haddock of about four pounds weight nearly
dead, without eyes, which the rooks had pecked out. Further on were other
haddocks without their eyes, some were quite dead and others nearly so. On
making inquiries of the keeper, he stated that those haddocks came out of the
Thames into that brackish water to spawn at that time of the year, and that after
they had spawned they were so weak and feeble that they lay on the surface, and
the wind gradually wafted them to the shore. The rooks took advantage of this,
and attacked them.

Habitat——From the Arctic portion of Europe, having a range very similar to
the cod. In February and March it appears to be most abundant off the shores
of Northern Europe, while in the autumn it is usually plentiful off Holland,
East Friezeland and Heligoland. It is found in varying numbers round the
British Isles, and along the Atlantic shores of France. In the western hemis-
phere it extends from Newfoundland to Cape Hatteras. Although the haddock
is common in Orkney and Zetland (W. Baikie) it is not so numerous'as the cod,
nor are they caught in any quantities (Low); their visit would seem to be short.
Wick (Reid): Banffshire extensively taken and largely cured (Edward): Aber-
deen (Sim), and more numerous along the eastern coasts of Scotland and England
(especially from the Tyne to Yarmouth) than along their western: in Yorkshire
resident and very abundant (Yorkshire Vertebrata): common in the Norfolk
estuary (Lowe) : also along the south coast of England.

In Ireland itis generally common around the coast, but varies in different
localities. Dublin Bay is famous for its haddock, while those of Belfast are
highly esteemed. At Portrush, Co. Antrim, Ogilby (Zool. 1876, p. 4904) observes
that on Nov. 7th a haddock was captured, a great prize, as none had been
obtained for the last ten years, the fish having quite deserted the ground where
they were formerly very numerous. However, on opening it it was found to be
diseased and black inside.

The example figured is 10 inches in length. Respecting the size to which
this fish attains, one weighing 10% Ib. was landed in February, 1878, at Wick:
another was taken in Dublin Bay which weighed 24¢ lb. and was 37 inches in
length. The largest haddock mentioned by Yarrell was 161b., from Dublin Bay ;
by Couch 25 1b., and Thompson one of the same size from Groomsport.

3. Gadus luscus, Plate LX XX.

Asellus luscus, Willughby, p. 169. Asellus mollis latus, Willugh. Append.
p. 22, t. L. M.i, no. 4; Rutty, Dublin, i, p. 355. Asellus luscus and A. mollis
latus, Ray, p. 55. Gadus, sp. Artedi, Spec. no. 6, p. 65, Synon. p. 37, no. 12, and
p. 35, no. 5, Genera, p. 21, no. 6; Gronov. Zooph. no. 320. Callarias, Klein,
Pisce. Miss. v, p. 6, no. 3. Pout and Bib, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Hd. 1776) iii, pp. 183,
184, pl. xxx (Ed. 1812) iii, pp. 246, 247, pl. xxxiv. Tacawd, Duhamel, Péches, ii,
p. 136, pl. xxiii, f. 2.

Gadus luscus, Linn. Mus. Ad. Frid. ii, p. 60, and Syst. Nat. i, p. 4387; Gmel.
Linn. p. 1163; Bonn. Atl. Ich. p. 47, pl. xxix, f. 102; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 140;
Donovan, Brit. Fish. i, pl. xix; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 90; Jenyns, Manual,
p. 442; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. 1837 (2) i, p. 411; Johnston, Berwick. Nat.
Club, 1838, i, p. 173; Nilss. Skand. Fauna, iv, p. 545; Kroyer, Dan. Fiske, ii,
p. 77, ¢.fig.; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 181; H. Blake-Knox, Zool.
1866, p. 507; Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 385; Schlegel, Dieren Neder. p. 81, pl. viii,
f. 1; Giglicli, Pesc. Ital. p. 36; Moreau, Poiss. France, ili, p. 233.

Gadus barbatus, pt. Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 437; Bloch, t, clxvi; BI. Schn. p.7;
Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 139; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 90; Cuv. Régne Anim.; Malm,
Gotheb. Hand. 1851, p. 107, c. fig.

Gadus tacaud and bibus, Lacép. ii, pp. 365, 366, 403, 410.

Morhua lusca, Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 191; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) ii,
p. 157, ec. fig. (Hd. 2) ii, p. 237 (Ed. 3) 1, p. 540; Parnell, Wern. Mem. vii, p. 340,
and Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 180; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 181;
White, Catal. Fish. p. 88.
GADIDA. 287

Morhua barbata, Fleming, Brit. Anim. p. 191.
Gadus colias, Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 131.

Gadulus luscus, Malm, p. 482.

Bib, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 70, pl. cxxxviii.

B. vii, 12/20-23/19-20, P.17, V. 6, A. 27-32/17-20, O. 25, Vert. 48.

Length of head 44 to 42, of caudal fin 63, height of body 3} to 4 in the total
length. Hye—diameters 3 to 34 in the length of the head, 1 diameter from the
end of the snout, and 1 to 1} diameters apart. Snout obtuse, scarcely overhanging
the jaws, the upper of which is slightly the longer. The posterior extremity of the
maxilla reaches to beneath the middle of the eye. A barbel as long as the eye is
present below the chin. Teeth—cardiform in the jaws with an outer enlarged
row in the upper. Fins—first dorsal fin elevated, it arises over the base of the
pectoral, its second or third rays longest, and equalling two-thirds the height of
the body beneath it, its last rays short: and no interspace between it and the
second dorsal fin, the second and third rays of which exceed in height twice the
length of the base of the fin which is connected at its base with the third dorsal,
which does not extend to the base of the caudal fin. The first anal fin com-
mences beneath the middle or posterior third of the first dorsal, and terminates
opposite the end of the second dorsal: the second anal fin similar to the third
dorsal. The ventral is inserted on the throat some little distance anterior to the
base of the pectoral, which latter fin is as long as the head excluding the snout.
Caudal square at its extremity or slightly emarginate. Vent situated beneath
the anterior portion of the first dorsal fin. Cccal appendages numerous. Scales
—small. Lateral-line—curves very gently to below the last half of the second
dorsal, from whence it proceeds straight to the centre of the base of the caudal
fin. Colowrs—of a beautiful bronze during life, with five or six broad vertical
bands of rather darker colour descending from the back to the lower surface,
meeting those from the opposite side. A black spot atthe base of the pectoral fin.
Fins bluish-black, darkest at their outer edges.

It has been observed respecting the ribs of this fish that they are well
developed and firmly attached to the parapophyses of the vertebra, while from
the sixteenth of the latter they commence to join the ribs from the other side,
thus enclosing the posterior portion of the abdominal cavity with a series of
complete rings.

Varieties.—The origin of Gadus luscus and G. barbatus rests, as pointed out by
Jenyns, on an error of Ray, who was Willughby’s editor. The latter author
described the bib or blinds of Cornwall as Asellus luscus. After the body of the
work had been printed, Martin Lister sent to Ray a whiting powt from the London
market. Not suspecting the two fish belonged to one species he inserted the
latter in the appendix, and also gave the two as distinct in his Synopsis Piscium
—errors perpetuated by subsequent authors.

Names.—Bib, pout, whiting-pout, blens or blinds in Cornwall, these last names
are doubtless due to a sort of loose bag capable of inflation existing in front of
the eye, and formed by an outer layer passing from the cheeks over the eye, and
a second layer over the eye-ball, thus forming a sac-like cavity, well designated
by the local words bleb or blain, terms for a bubble in the water, or a blister.
After death this loose membrane, which fishermen assert it can blow up at pleasure,
may become opaque. For the same cause it is perhaps termed lug, or ‘a leaf,” at
Penzance and St. Ives; bothock, or “large eyes.” Said to be known at Scar-
borough by fishdealers as “John Doree” (see page 140); at Whitby as “old
wife” (see page 255) (Yorkshire Vertebrata) : also kleg at Scarborough: s¢ller-
fish and Jackie-downies, Moray Firth: smeliie, Zetland; also brassve, in Scotland.
It is likewise said to be ‘‘ Miller’s thumb ” (see Oottus gobio, p. 48) or detllion at
Carnarvon (Fleming). Also bragay and stink-alive (Buckland). De steenbolk,
Dutch. De gade tacaud, French.

Habits—It adheres pertinaciously to one spot, according to Mr. Dunn, who
observes that it is largest and in the best condition when residing among rocks
upon precipitous coasts as Cornwall. Here it seeks a secluded crevice or gully
where it conceals itself during the day time, sometimes thousands sceking the
288 ANACANTHINI.

same spot. At twilight it sallies out, as it usually feeds only at night time,
extending its excursions over the high grounds and on to the low rocks and sands
beyond, but not going very far. Assemblages of these fish are known as “chains
of bibs,” two or more of which may be found so close together as to be merely
divided by a ledge of rock of a few feet in width; one chain of bibs may be
light coloured and the contiguous one banded with dark. In mild winters it
remains in these haunts, but if cold and stormy it retires to the deep sea,
returning again in spring. It also appears partial to living inside wrecked
vessels. It prefers rough ground or shelving rocks arising from a sandy soil.
The lengwled ge of the exact localities where these fish reside has been kept in
some fishermen’s families for generations. It thrives pretty well in an aquarium,
but after a time becomes of a lighter colour. Thompson mentions finding small
crabs (Brachyurt) and a Trochus tumidus in the stomach of one which he opened ;
while another contained fish remains, it also eats worms.

Means of capture.—Line fishing, they are very voracious, and the exact spot
they reside in has to be chosen and the line must be near the bottom, while on
it 3 or 4 hooks may be used.

Baits—In Dublin Bay it takes best on a sunny afternoon at low water, when
other fish refuse to bite, and refuses no bait (Blake-Knox).

Breeding.—Spawns towards the end of the winter in Cornwall.

As food.—Good eating when two pounds in weight or upwards, but its
numerous bones deteriorate from its use. It rapidly decomposes after death,
which likewise detracts from its value.

Habitat From Scandinavia along the Atlantic coasts of Great Britain and
Europe, but is only a wanderer into the Mediterranean ; but stragglers have been
taken as far as Italy. Occurs in Zetland (W. Baikie) : Banffshire common, but
is mostly used for bait (Hdward): Aberdeen (Sim): not uncommon at St.
Andrew’s (McIntosh), and found in Berwickshire (Johnston) : also reported as
not uncommon in Yorkshire (Yorkshire Vertebrata) : occurs off Norfolk (Yarrell),
the Sussex coast, and becomes very common along the Devonshire coast (Parfitt),
and numerous in Cornwall, especially duting the autumn and winter. Yarrell
alludes to its presence in Carnarvonshire as well as in Loch Foyle.

In Ireland, according to Thompson, of occasional occurrence, but on all
quarters of the coast: and examples occur at all seasons of the year in the Belfast
market, where he observes the females are termed hen-fishand crow-fish in Galway
Bay. Knox-Blake observes of the Dublin coast that it is one of the commonest
fish: in Kingstown Harbour the fry are often caught on a hook and line in scores,
up to 4 lb. weight.

The example figured is 9 inches long, and from the coast of Sussex: it seldom
exceeds a foot in length, but Yarrell mentions having seen one 16 inches.

4, Gadus minutus, Plate LXXXT.

Anthice secunda species, Rondel. vi, c. 12, p. 191, c. fig.; Gesner, pp. 56, 64.
Asellus mollis minor, Will. p. 171; Ray, p. 56.  Asellus mollis minimus, Ray,
p. 163, £.6. Gadus, sp. Artedi, Synon. p. 36, no. 8, Genera, p. 21, no. 7. Poor or
Power cod-fish, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Kd. 1776) iii, p. 185, pl. xxx (Ed. 1812) iii,
p. 249, pl. xxxiv.

Gadus minutus, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 488; Gmel. Linn. p. 1164; Bonn. Atl.
Ich. p. 47, pl. xxix, f. 104; Shaw, Zool.iv, p. 141 (P Bloch, Fische Deuts. ii,
p. 167, t xvii, f.1; Bl. Schn. p. 7); Turton, p. 90; Jenyns, p. 444; Fries och
Ekstr. Skand. Fisk. p. 78, t. xvii; Retz. Fauna Suec. p. 819; Nilss. Skand. Faun.
iv, p. 547; Thompson, P. Z. 8. 1837, p. 57, and Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 181;
Ginther, Catal. iv, p. 3385; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 38; McIntosh,
Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 178; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 109; Winther, Ich. Dan.
Mar. p. 29; Giglioli, Pesc. Ital. p. 36; Moreau, Poisson France, iii, p. 281.

Gadus luscus, Bl. Schn. p. 8, tab. ii.

Gadus capelanus, Lacép. ii, p. 411; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 111.

Morua capelanus, Risso, Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 226.

Morhua minuta, Flem. p. 191; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Hd. 1) ii, p. 161, c. fig.
(Ed. 2) ii, p. 241 (Ed. 3) i, p. 544; White, Catal. p. 89.
GADIDA. 289

? Morhua minuta, Storer, Fish. Mass. p- 127; De Kay, New York Fauna, Fish.
p. 277, pl. xliv, £. 141.

Brachygradus minutus, Gill, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Phil. 1862, p. 280.

Gadulus minutus, Malm, p. 484.

Power, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 72, pl. cxxxix.

B. vii, D. 12-15/19-25/17-22, P. 13-16, V. 6, A. 25-29/17-24, C. 26.

Length of head 4t to 42, of caudal fin 63, height of body 4} to 4$ in the total
length. Hye—diameters 3 to 34 in the length of the head, 3/4 of a diameter from
the end of the snout, and 1 to 14 apart. Snout obtuse. Jaws of about the same
length anteriorly, the maxilla reaches posteriorly to beneath the middle of the
eye: the snout rather overhangs the upper jaw. Barbel on the chin, but scarcely
so long as the orbit. Teeth—cardiform, with an enlarged outer row in the upper
Jaw. Fins—the first dorsal commences above the root of the pectoral, its height
equals two-thirds of that of the body, the last ray short and connected with the
base of the second dorsal, the second and third rays of which equal two-fifths of
the length of the base of the fin, it is connected at its base with the third dorsal,
which does not extend on to the caudal. Anal commences below the last rays of
the first dorsal and is continued to opposite the end of the second dorsal. Second
anal similar to the third dorsal. Caudal slightly forked or emarginate. Ventral
inserted some little distance before the base of the pectoral, its two outer rays
elongated. Pectoral rather above half the length of the head. Scales—small,
about ninety rows. Lateral-line—very slightly bent, becoming straight beneath
the second third of the second dorsal fin. Vent situated below the last rays of
the first dorsal fin. Ovlowrs—greenish or gray along the back, becoming lighter
on the sides and beneath, in some large examples there exists a trace of gray at
the base of the pectoral fin.

Winther places G. luscus as a variety of this fish, but G. minutus is not nearly
so deep in the body, while its vent is placed below the last rays of the first dorsal
fin, and the free portion of its tail is more extended. I have not had the oppor-
tunity of investigating both sexes of these two species of fish.

Names.—Power or poor-cod. Shelchie or skelach, Aberdeen (Sim). Ribben-pout,
Cornwall. Le gade capelan, French.

Habits.—If the bib and the power inhabit the same ledge of rock, they are
said not to mingle, while the latter species keeps to the lower level in smaller
schools, are not so constant to one locality but are mostly found on a hard bottom.
Thompson observes that most of his Irish examples have been captured on a soft
oozy bottom, and some in the middle and deepest part of Belfast Bay. They live
on small crustaceous animals. In the Baltic they are said to be the forerunner of
the haddock and larger species of the cod family. Thompson has chiefly found
crustacea in their stomachs: in one was a full grown Pagurus bernhardus, and
fragments of marine plants have also occurred.

Means of capture.—Line-fishing. They frequently obtain access into crab-
pots: also trawling near rocky ground which they frequent.

Batts.—The same as for the bib.

Uses.—As bait. Of no value as food.

Habitat.—From Scandinavia along the Atlantic and North Sea coasts of Great
Britain and Europe, very common in the Mediterranean: said by Pennant to be
sometimes a nuisance at Marseilles as on its arrival other fishes disappear. Orkne
and Zetland, two specimens obtained in Kirkwall in August, 1851 (W. Baikie) :
Banffshire small and scarce (Edward): Moray Firth abundant (G. Harris, Zool.
1854, p. 4261): Aberdeen (Sim); St, Andrew’s common (McIntosh), but not
mentioned by Parnell from the Firth of Forth : on the Devonshire coast frequently
taken with the hook and in crab-pots (Montagu). Coast of Sussex along the
southern shores to Cornwall, where it is common.

In Ireland it has been obtained on the N.E., the S. and the W. coasts.
Thompson received three captured in Sept. 1835, in Belfast Bay, all being less
than four inches in length. He obtained another in Belfast market in Feb. 1836,
and in fact, as he observes, ‘‘ The species is permanently resident on the shores

19
290 ANACANTHINI.

of Ireland, evinced by my obtaining them at all seasons of the year. On the
coasts of Down and Antrim they are chiefly taken in our sheltered bays, where I
have no doubt they breed.” :

For the one figured, life size, I am indebted to C. Jackson, Esq., Honorary
Director of the Southport Aquarium. The largest I have obtained, 8} inches
in length, came from the coast of Sussex.

b. No barbel below chin.
5. Gadus merlangus, Plate LXXXII.

Secunda asellorwm species, Rondel. ix, c. 10, p. 276; Gesner, pp. 85, 99.
Asellus candidus primus, Schonev. p. 17. Asellus minor alter, Aldrov. iti, c. 3,
p. 287. Asellus mollis major, Willughby, p. 170, t. L. M. i, no. 5; Rutty, Dublin,
1, p. 855; Ray, Syn. p.55. Gadus, p. Artedi, Syn. sp. 34, no. 1, Spec. p. 62, no. 1,
Genera, p. 19, no. 1; Gronov. Zooph. no. 316. Blege, Strém, Sondm. i, p. 270.
Callarias, Klein, Pisc. Miss. v, p. 8, no. 3, t. i, f. 2. Whiting, Pennant, Brit.
Zool. (Ed. 1776) ii, p. 190 (Ed. 1812) iti, p. 255; Low, Fauna Orcad. p. 197;
Merlan, Duhamel, Péches, ii, Sect. i, p. 128, pl. xxu, f. 1.

Gadus merlangus, Linn. Syst. Nat.i, p. 4388; Bloch, Fische Dents. ii, p. 161,
t.lxv; Bonn. Atl. Ich. p. 48, pl. xxix, f. 105; Gmel. Linn. p. 1167; Shaw, Zool.
iv, p. 144; Lacép. ii, -p. 424; Bl. Schn. p.9; Donovan, Brit. Fishes, ii, p. 36;
Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 91; Faber, Fische Isl. p. 93; Fries and Eks. Skand.
Fische, p. 81, t. xviii; Cuy. Regne Anim. Ill. Poiss. pl. evi, f. 2; Nilsson, Skand.
Fauna, iv, p. 553; Kroyer, Dan. Fiske, 11, p. 83, c. fig.; Gronov. ed. Gray,
p. 182; Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 384; Schlegel, Dieren Neder. p. 75, pl. viii, f. 2;
Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port, 1868, p. 37; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 108; McIntosh,
Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 178; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 29; Moreau, Poiss.
France, iii, p. 239.

Merlangus vulgaris, Fleming, Brit. Anim. p. 195; Jenyns, Manual, p. 445;
Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 1) ii, p. 166, c. fig. (Md. 2) ii, p. 244 (Hd. 3) i, p. 548;
Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. 1837 (2) i, p. 411; Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 300;
Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Club, 1838, i, p. 173; Parnell, Wern. Mem. vii, p. 342,
and Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 182; Thompson, Natural Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 182;
White, Catal. p. 90.

Merlangus linne’, Malm, p. 485.

Whiting, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iti, p. 74, pl. exh.

B. vii, D. 13-16/18-23/19-21, P. 19, V. 6, A. 30-35/20-24, C. 28, Vert. 23/31.

Length of head 4 to 44, of caudal fin 63, height of body 5} to 6 in the total
length. Hye—diameters 4 to 43 in the length of the head, 1}.diameters from the
end of the snout, and 3/4 to 1 diameter apart. Interorbital space nearly Hat.
Snout conical, slightly projecting over the upper jaw, which latter is a little
longer anteriorly than the mandible: the maxilla reaches posteriorly to beneath
the middle of the eye. A row of from six to eight pores is present along the
lower surface of the mandible. No barbel beneath the chin. Teeth—cardiform,
with some larger ones intermixed in the lower jaw, the outer row enlarged in the
upper jaw, in a semilunar patch upon the vomer, none on the palatines or tongue.
Fins—first dorsal somewhat triangular, it commences opposite the first third of
the pectoral, its second and third rays the longest, equalling the length of the
base of the fin, the last ray very short. A short interspace between the bases
of the first and second dorsal fins, the third ray the longest, and equal to about
half the length of the base of the fin. A short interspace between the second and
third dorsal fins, which latter does not quite reach the base of the caudal. First
anal fin commences beneath the middle of the first dorsal fin and terminates
beneath the end of the second dorsal: the second anal and third dorsal fins
similar. Caudal with a square or slightly emarginate extremity. Ventrals
inserted on the throat some little distance before the base of the pectoral, which
laticr rather exceeds half the length of the head. Scules—small and cycloid.
GADIDA. 291

Lateral-line—commences opposite the upper edge of the opercle, and curves
gently downwards, from opposite the anterior half of the second dorsal it goes
direct to the centre of the base of the caudal. The vent is situated beneath the
middle of the first dorsal fin. Colowrs—back greenish gray or yellowish, becoming
silvery on the sides and beneath ; in the fresh state several yellow lines pass along
the sides. A bluish-black blotch exists in the axil of the pectoral fin. Vertical
fins dark in their outer two-thirds.

Varieties—in colour.—The axillary spot is occasionally little marked or even
entirely absent.

Names.— Whiting pronounced fittin in Scotland. Cuideag pronounced:
cuitschach in the Moray Firth (Gordon). Whiting-mop, ‘a young whiting ”
(Halliwell). At Aberdeen those found in June and July are termed dargs (Sim).
De Wijting, Dutch. Le merlan commun, French.

Habits.—It appears in the spring in large shoals, and though delighting in
sandy bays where young fish abound, it seems to be shy, and mostly keeps from
half a mile to three miles from the shore, in spring time hanging about the
more distant rocks: even during the warm summer months it often keeps two or
three miles from the coast. In Cornwall it swarms into the bays in autumn to
feed on yonng pilchards which are from 3 to 4 inches long. It appears to be very
susceptible to the influence of cold, thus Couch gives an instance how numbers
were off the Cornish coast during the month of February, the largest being full of
roe, when the wind changed to the north, and the thermometer fell from 47° to
44°, and notwithstanding the weather continued moderate, all the adult fish at
once retired to deeper water. In the Moray Firth it is said to be most abundant
in May and June, but in the best condition during November and December
(Gordon). It is a voracious feeder, subsisting on small fish, crustacea, and any
animal substances it can obtain. Yarrell took several sprats from inside one,
and Couch some pilchards. Mr. Gosden found in one a female broad-tailed
lobster, Scylwrus arctus.

Means of capture—Whiffing when it gives good sport, especially during
rough weather: it is likewise taken by the trawl. It bites best early in the
morning or in the evening. It will rise by moonlight into midwater after its

rey.
2 Pike Caen taussels, a slice of the herring or cuttle, but it generally
prefers living prey.

Breeding.—It spawns in March not far from the shore.

Hermaphrodites have been recorded by Yarrell (Pro. Zool. Soc. 1845, p. 91).

As food.—It is much esteemed, more so perhaps than any other species of
the genus, being very easy of digestion. It is in the best condition from
November, not being so deleteriously affected cy breeding as the other gadoids,
therefore eaten throughvut the year, but being somewhat out of condition during
April, May and June, invalids should avoid them, as they ave apt to occasion
nausea and even vomiting. It has to be disembowelled prior to being
transmitted to inland markets or it rapidly decomposes, and is best when
eaten immediately after being captured. Whiting may be fried, filletted, boiled
or baked. A considerable portion of these fish are salted or dried when the takes
are in excess of the demand. Small ones salted and dried are termed buckorn
from Dartmouth to Cornwall.

Habitat.—Off Scandinavia and in the northern seas, the German Ocean, and
along the Atlantic coasts of Europe to the Mediterranean, where it is likewise
widely distributed, if Gadus euwinus is the same species as suggested by
Steindachner (Sitz. Ab. Wiss. Wien. 1868, lvii, p. 703).

Tt is distributed around the British shores, but the largest quantities are
obtained off the south coast, especially in the vicinity of Plymouth, while very
fine ones from 2]b. to 31b. each are gotfrom Dartmouth. In the Orkneys Low
observed upon having seen this species caught once or twice, but he concluded
that it could scarcely bear the rough gusts of the winter seas, being a delicate fish.
When haddock are caught in any quantities, whiting are taken in numbers.
Orkney and Zetland not common (Baikie): at Banff often captured, re not so

y3
292 ANACANTHINI.

good as the haddock (Edward): Aberdeen (Sim): frequent at St. Andrew’s
(McIntosh): Firth of Forth plentiful (Parnell): resident and very abundant off
Yorkshire (Yorkshire vertebrata) : plentiful in the Norfolk estuary, especially in
the autumn, but those on the Norfolk coast only attain to about two-thirds the
size of those off Devonshire : common along the south coast of England, and very
abundant off Devonshire and Cornwall, especially in the latter county, from
September until March, the largest and best coming from Polperro (Cornish).

In Ireland it is common around the coast, but not held in much estimation in
the north. It is considered in its finest season in the spring.

This fish has been recorded off the British coasts up to 16 inches in length and
from 3 to 41b. in weight, but Couch remarks on having heard of one weighing

7 lb., while Pennant records fish from 4b. to 8lb. weight, taken from the edge of
the Dogger Bank.

B.—Lower jaw the longer: its outer row of teeth enlarged (Boreogadus).

6. Gadus poutassou, Plate LX XXIII, fig. 1.

Gadus merlangus, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 115 (not Bloch).

Merlangus poutassou, Risso, Eur. Merid. iii, p. 227.

Merlangus albus, Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Hd. 2) ii, p. 247, c. fig. (Ed. 3) i, p. 551;
Couch, Zool. 1847, p. 1824; White, Catal. p. 90; Van Beneden, Bull. Acad. Se.
Belg. 1865, xx, p. 52; Andrews, Proc. Nat. Hist. Dublin, 1865, iv, p. 9; Steind.
Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 39.

Gadus potassoa, Diiben. Vet. Akad. Hand]. 1844, p. 88.

Pollachius poutassou, Bonap. Pesce. Eur. 45.

Gadus melanostomus, Nilss. Skand. Faun. iv, p. 556.

Kulmund, Esmark, Naturg. Mote i Christ. 1844, p. 230.

Merlangus communis, Costa, Faun. Napol.: Canestr. Fauna Ital. p. 154.

Merlangus vernalis, Canestr. Arch. Zool. 1863, t. ii, p. 352.

Gadus poutassou, Ginther, Catal. iv, p. 338; McAndrew, Fish. N. Uist, Pro.
Nat. Hist. Soc. Dublin, 1864, p. 9; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 110; Winther, Ich.
Dan. Mar. p. 30; Giglioli, Pesc. Ital. p. 36.

Merlangus poutassou, Moreau, Pois. France, ii, p. 255, c. fig.

Poutassou, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 77, pl. exli.

Boreogadus poutassow, Malm, p. 486.

B. vii, D. 12-13/12-14/22-24, P. 20, V. 6, A. 34-38/20-25, CO. 25-29, Vert. 53
(Couch).

Length of head 43 to 42, of caudal fin 6, height of body 6 to 7 in the total
length. Hye—diameters 3} in the length of the head, 1; diameters from the end
of the snout, and 2/3 of a diameter apart. Lower jaw slightly the longer: the
maxilla reaches posteriorly to beneath the middle of the eye: the snout does
not overhang the upper jaw. Barbel on chin absent. Teeth—an outer row of
distantly placed enlarged ones in the jaws, and one or two rather large ones
present in the vomer on either side. F%ns—the first dorsal commences above
the middle of the pectoral, anteriorly it is one-fourth higher than its base is
long. The interspace between the first and second dorsal fins equals half the
length of the base of the latter. The second dorsal fin is not quite so high
as the first, but higher than the third. The interspace between the second
and third dorsal fins equals nearly twice the length of the base of the second
dorsal. Anal commences below the origin of the first dorsal: the second anal
is below and similar to the third dorsal. Caudal deeply emarginate. Pectoral
as long as the head behind the middle of the eye. Ventral very short, scarcely
exceeding the diameter of the eye. Scales—very small. Lateral-line—nearly
straight, situated parallel with the back in the upper fourth of the height of the
body. Vent situated a little before the commencement of the anal fin, and
therefore anterior to a vertical line descending from the insertion of the first dorsal
fin. Colours—brownish along the back, divided by a yellow band from the
GADIDA. 293

lateral-line, one or more yellow longitudinal bands parallel with and below the
lateral-line. A small black spot in the axil of the pectoral fin, which is sometimes
absent, especially in the young. Dorsal and caudal fins gray becoming nearly
black externally: anal fins light, the base may even be white with the outer edge
gray. Pectoral brown.

Names.—Couch’s whiting.

Habits.—Risso observes it is taken at all seasons off Nice, and that it
frequents deep water.

Baits.—Similar to those for whiting.

Breeding.—It is said to spawn in spring off Nice. Couch observed in July,
1861, a number of the young of about five inches in length; they continued
about three weeks, and between the 21st and 23rd of July suddenly disappeared.

As food.—Its flesh is of a good taste but soft, and rapidly decomposes.

Habitat—From Scandinavia to the coasts of Belgium and Great Britain: also

the Mediterranean, where it is common, and is taken at Nice throughout the
year, but becomes rare in the Italian seas.
_ thas been taken off North Uist in the Hebrides, and is occasionally found
mm Ireland (McAndrew): in May, 1840, Mr. Couch obtained an example of it at
Polperro, 15 inches in length: another was subsequently taken by a fisherman in
the same place (R. Couch).

“In June, 1861, our bays were full of the young of this species. In 1871, if
possible, they were in greater quantities, some shoals covering acres of sea-water,
these leaping over each other in hungry haste to devour the young herrings
which were plentiful in the sea” (Dunn). The same observer wrote to me from
Mevagissey on May 8th, 1881, that the poutassous had come. “Some fishermen
report them crowding around their boats in the offing, as they did in 1871,” but
unfortunately none were captured, being too small to be taken in the nets which
were being employed.

For the use of the example figured, life size, I have to thank Professor Peters,
Director of the Zoological Museum in Berlin. He obtained it upwards of twenty
years since in the fish-market at Christiansund.

C.—Lower jaw the longer: teeth in wpper jaw of equal size. Pollachius.
b. No barbel below chin.
7, Gadus virens, Plate LXXXIV.

Piscis colfish Anglorum, Belon. De Aquat. p. 183; Gesner, p. 89. Asellus
niger carbonarius, Schoney. p. 19; Aldrov. ili, c. 7, p. 289; Willughby, p. 168,
t. L. M.1, no. 3; Ray, p. 54. Gadus, sp. Artedi, Synon. p. 34, no. 2, Genera,
p. 20, no. 2; Gronov. Zooph. no. 317, 318. Callarias imberbis, no. 2, Klein, Pisce.
Miss. v, p. 8. Coal-fish, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776) iii, p. 186, pl. xxxi
(Ed. 1812) iii, p. 250, pl. xxxv; Low, Fauna Orcad. p. 193. Greenland cod,
Pennant, 1. c. (Hd. 1812) iti, p. 258. Colin, Duhamel, Poiss. ii, p. 125, t. xxi, f.1;
Ascan. Icon. iii, t. xxiii. Asellus niger, Rutty, Dublin, 1772, i, p. 354. Green
cod, Pennant, 1. c. (Ed. 1812) iti, p. 253.

Gadus virens, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 438, Fauna Suec. p. 112; Bl. Schn. p. 6;
Bonnat. Atl. Ich. p. 48; Gmel. Linn. p. 1166; Shaw, iv, p. 149; Nilss. Skand.
Fauna, Fisk. iv, p. 559; Giinther, Catal. iu, p. 339; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port.
1868, p. 41; McIntosh, Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 178; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 111;
Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 31.

Gadus carbonarius, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 438; BI. Fische Deuts. ii, p. 164;
Bl. Schn. p. 9; Bonnat. Atl. Ich. p. 48, pl. xxix, f. 106; Gmel. Linn. p. 1168;
Donovan, Brit. Fish. i, pl. xiii; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 145; Turton, Brit. Fauna,

. 91; Richards. Faun. Bor.-Amer. Fish. p. 247 ; Faber, Fische Isl. p. 96; Brandt
and Ratzeb. i, p. 51, t. ix, f. 1; Fries and Hkstr. Skand. Fisk. p. 195, t. xlviii;
Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 132; Giglioli, Pesc. Ital. p. 36.

Gadus colinus (adult), and sey (young), Lacép. ii, pp. 416, 417.
294 ANACANTHINI.

Merlangus virens, Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 195; Jenyns, Man. p. 447; Yarrell,
Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) 1, p. 175, c. fig. (Hd. 2) ii, p. 256 (Ed. 3) i, p. 557; Parnell,
Wern. Mem. vii, p. 349, Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 189; Thompson, Nat. Hist.
Treland, iv, p. 184; Reinh. in Dansk. Vid. Selsk. Afhandl. vii, p. 128.

Merlangus carbonarius, Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 195; Jenyns, Man. p. 446;
Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) ii, p. 169, c. fig. (Ed. 2) ii, p. 250 (Ed. 8) i, p. 554;
Parnell, Wern. Mem. vii, p. 345, and Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 185; Storer, Fish.
Massach. p. 129; De Kay, New York Fauna, Fish. p. 287, pl. xlv,f£. 144; Johnston,
Berwick. Nat. Hist. Club, 1838, i, p. 173; Kroyer, Dan. Fiske, it, p. 102, ¢. fig. ;
Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 183; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 132 ; White, Catal.
p. 90; McIntosh, Fish. N. Uist, Pro. Roy. Soc. Edin. vy, 1862-66, p. 614; Schlegel,
Dieren Neder. p. 72, vii, f. 3; Moreau, Poiss. France, ili, p. 243.

Gadus pollachius, Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 133.

Pollachius carbonarius (Bonap.) Gill, Fish. N. E. Coast America, 1860, p. 48.

Pollachius virens, Malm, p. 488.

Coalfish and green pollack, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, pp. 84, 87, pl. cxliui,
exliv.

B. vii, D. 12-14/19-22/20-22, P. 19, V. 6, A. 24-27/20-23, C. 36, Vert. 34.

Length of head 4} to 42, of caudal fin 6, height of body 4} to 4 in the
total length. Hye—diameters 33 in the length of the head, 1 diameter from
the end of the snout, and 2/3 to 1 diameter apart. Lower jaw prominent.
The maxilla reaches to below the first third of the eye. A rudimentary barbel
beneath the chin. Yeeth—cardiform in the jaws, present on the vomer, absent
from the palatines and tongue. Jms—the first dorsal triangular, its third ray
the longest and equals the extent of its base: a distinct interspace between the
first and second dorsal fins, the highest ray of which last equals half the length
of its base: an interspace between the second and third dorsal fins, the latter
not extending on to the caudal. Anal commences below the last rays of the
first dorsal and terminates below the end of the second dorsal: second anal
similar to the second dorsal. Ventral on the throat inserted anterior to the
base of the pectoral, which rather exceeds half the length of the head. Candal
slightly forked or truncated. Vent situated on a vertical line beneath the last
rays of the first dorsal fin. Colowrs—superiorly gray, becoming silvery on the
sides and beneath. Fins gray, the dorsal and caudal dark-edged. Usually a
black spot at the axil of the pectoral fins by which it is mostly concealed. As
they get older the dark colour deepens. Lateral-line white, which at once
distinguishes it from the haddock where it is black.

Varieties—Thompson mentions receiving a specimen 7 inches long, in May,
1836, at Ballywalter, which seemed intermediate between the (. pollachius and
G. virens, both of which he obtained at the same time and place. The lateral-
line was parallel to the dorsal profile: jaws equal, but snout slightly projecting :
caudal fin more forked than in G. pollachius. D. 15/20/21, A. 25/20, P. 20,
V. 6, C. 36. Colour much the same as in G. virens: Jateral-line whitish.
Couch remarks on one which had the upper jaw shortened, and the body
depressed out of the regular straight shape. The first dorsal fin was more
narrow, lofty, and sharper than normal, having its origin nearer to the head:
an interspace existed between it and the second dorsal, and a still more extensive
interspace between the second and the third. Three anal fins: the first an
irregular triangle, the second very narrow, and a considerable curved interspace
between it and the third. The vent was much behind its usual position. The
fish was thin and ill-fed. Pennant refers to examples from the German Ocean
none of which exceeded 7 inches in length, which were said to have possessed no
barbel, and the two jaws were of equal extent anteriorly.

Names.—Coal-fish, so termed from its occasional black colour, it being called
cole-sish by Ray, col signifying charcoal, not due to its producing isinglass or
ichthyocolla, as believed by Belonius, from its English name of colfisch. Another
derivation of the term cole-fish has been found in the corruption of the French
nae “colin.” S/lucks, Scotland, and bluec-bueks, Yorkshire: rauning (ravenous)
GADIDA. 295

pollack, Cornwall: also locally as baddock, bil, billet, billard, black pollich, black-
jack, bleck, coalsay, coalsey, coal-whiting, colemie, colmey, cooth, cudden, cuddy,
dargie, gilpin, glassock, glashan, glossan, glossin, green-cod, green-pollack, gray-lord,
gull-fish, harbine, kuth, lob, lob-keeling, moulrush, piltock, podlie, podling, prinkle,
rock-salmon, saithe, sethe, sey-pollack, sillock, skrae-fish, stenloch, tibrie. ‘The fry
are called parrs at Scarborough as well as in Northumberland, and soil, poodler,
billets or billiards up to one year of age: cuddies, saithes, coalman, also saidheun,
or suyeen (Moray Firth): and gerrocks at Banff: herring-hake at Aberdeen.

In Ireland its names are legion. In county Down it possesses four: the fry
are gilpins, next size blockan, then graylord, while the adults are termed glashan.
The young in some localities are also called cudden or pickey. In some parts of
the south and west these fish are termed black-pollack or glassin. At Roundstone
the young are called glossan and moulroush, while adults are termed coalfish: at
Portrush the fry are about early in the spring, and by the time they are from
four to seven inches in length they are known as cadan (pronounced cudden) :
next spring they are called ceithnach (pronounced catenach), perhaps an expansion
of the last name, since the termination ach signifies “like.” In the following
autumn, when weighing about 2lb., they are known as glasan (pronounced
glashin) in allusion to their green colour, and a year later two-year-old glasan.
Subsequently they are entitled to the full term gray-lord, as when they are from
8lb. to 25 lb. weight.’

De koolvisch, Dutch. Le merlan noir ou colin, French.

Habits.—Generally gregarious, especially when pursuing herring to which
form of food they appear very partial. In the Orkneys the fry are first seen in
May, when they are taken in large numbers by angling; but it is in the winter,
when the sea begins to get stormy, that the large shoals appear. At this period
they are from six to ten inches in length, and much esteemed as sillucks, about
March they retire to the deep and grow rapidly, so that by May they are
15 inches long and termed kuths, which are tolerable for eating either fresh or
roasted with the liver, or even dry. A few are taken in the second year, when
they are called two-year-old kuths or harbines, and-are now very coarse and not
sought after. Subsequently they attain to a vast bulk, and are then termed seths,
but are rare (Low). Dr. Drummond gives an account of once finding his boat in
the midst of a shoal of these fishes when at play. The whole sea was alive, while
they were disporting themselves in all attitudes. They were regardless of the
boat, and so intent on their gambols that numbers were captured with an
instrument like a boat hook. Mr. Dunn has remarked the same phenomena, but
he ascertained that it was due to their chasing small fishes. During the smooth
season of the year the coal fish approaches the shore and moves quietly about, but
when it descries any prey it pounces on its victim with great violence. Thompson
mentions finding principally small crustaceans as Idotea, &c. in the stomachs of
these fish: Dr. Drummond usually observed that they were gorged with Onisci,
and very fond of Entumostraca. Mr. Ffennell saw twenty-six salmon fry taken
from the stomach of one of these fishes.

Means of capture.—Angling, which is often done from shore, and line-fishing,
the lug-worm being found a good bait. They are very voracious and have great
strength. In Belfast Bay a few large examples are occasionally taken in the
mullet nets during the spriug of the year.

Breeding—In America, where they appear to commence spawning off Cape
Ann about the end of November, it was found that a coal-fish 39} inches long
had 4,029,200 eggs, and one seven inches shorter 2,569,753, and that they seem
to spawn while swimming about, when their eggs being buoyant are found on the
surface. They would appear to hatch in four or five days in water of moderate
temperature. In Cornwall they spawn in the spring: in the Orkneys small fry are
seen in June (and in July off Yorkshire) in vast shoals, wherein each fish is about
12 inches in length: by August they have attained to from 3 to 5 inches, when
they are angled for. ;

Uses.—Low remarked “as things are at present with us, this species is the
treasure of the Orkneys: while these are to be found, none else are regarded,”
296 ANACANTHINI.

but he suggests they encourage laziness, as the fishermen when they are present
do not trouble themselves to seek anything better. In Land and Water, a
correspondent observed that an oil is prepared from their livers, but towards
winter in the Shetlands they are swept ashore in enormous quantities, and are
often purchased for manure. They now fall off very much in condition, and are
bought in order to obtain oil, which is used for lamps. In June or July those
9 or 10 inches long are in the perfection for eating, if cooked within an hour or
so of being caught; they are cooked without disembowelling, and after being
rolled in salt and flour are done on the gridiron. The oil is in good demand by
tanners.

As food.—Unless when small it is little esteemed when fresh, but salts well :
its flesh is coarser than that of the pollack. Fishermen in Cornwall salt it for
home consumption.

Habitat—This hardy species was the only fish captured by Lord Mulgrave on
the coast of Spitzbergen, while the fry 4 or 5 inches long were caught with the
trawl net on the west coast of Davis’ Straits during Sir HE. Parry’s first voyage.
It is taken off the coasts of Scandinavia, and abounds in the North Sea and
northern coasts of Europe and extends around Great Britain to the shores of
France, and into the Mediterranean. Gill considers Gadus purpureus, Mitchell,
and MMerlangus leptocephalus, De Kay, as identical, or probably so with this, as
the American fauna only includes one species of Pollachius, which extends from
Greenland to Cape Hatteras. This fish has also been reported as existing in
Nova Scotia (Gilpin, Proc. and Trans. Nov. Scot. Ins. Nat. Sc. ii, pt. 1, 1867).

It is common off most of our deep and rocky coasts, especially in the north:
and in the Orkneys and Zetland is extremely abundant (W. Baikie) : Banffshire
where it is numerous, more especially the young, termed gerrocks (Edward) :
Aberdeen (Sim): abundant at St. Andrew’s (McIntosh): also in the Moray
Firth during the time the herrings are present. A few are taken near Newcastle-
on-Tyne, but it is not much sought after, being held in little esteem (G. Rowell) ;
in Yorkshire it is resident and very abundant (Yorkshire Vertebrata). In
Norfolk estuary a large one was captured in 1845, and is now in the Wisbeach
Museum : it is frequently taken in Blakeney Harbour. In Devonshire abundant
in the bays and sometimes in the harbours (Parfitt). In Cornwall it is common
during the winter and spring, when it appears to be gregarious and resides in
strong currents, from which it shelters itself by keeping behind large rocks, from
whence it darts out on its prey.

In Ireland it is one of the commonest fish around the coast, although rare in
Dublin Bay (McCoy). Buckland records one 43 inches long and 25 lb. captured

in December, 1866, and Thompson an example of 32 1b. weight which was taken
in Belfast Bay.

8. Gadus pollachius, Plate LXXXIII, fig. 2.

Asellus hwitingo-pollachius, Willughby, p. 167; Asellus virescens, Ray, Syn.
p. 53; Rutty, Nat. Hist. Co. Dublin, 1772, i, p. 354.

Gadus, sp. Artedi, Synon. p. 35, no. 3, Genera, p. 20, no. 3. Pollack, Pennant,
Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776) ui, p. 188 (Hd. 1812) iii, p. 254; Low, Fauna Orcadensis,
p. 126. Leu, Duhamel, ii, sect. i, cap. 2, p. 121, pl. xx, f. 1. Callarias imberbis,
no. 1, Klein, Pisce. Miss. v, p. 8.

Gadus pollachius, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 439; Bl. Fische Deuts. ii, p. 171,
t. Ixviii; Bonnaterre, Atl. Ich. p. 48, pl. xxx, f. 107; Gmel. Linn. p. 1169; Shaw,
Zool. iv, p. 147; Lacép. ii, p. 417; Bl. Schn. p. 10; Walb. Artedi, iii, p. 127;
Donovan, Brit. Fishes, i, pl. vii; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 91; Risso, Ich. Nice,
p. 113; Fries. and Ekstr. Skand. Fisk. p. 89, t. xx; Nilss. Skand. Fauna, iv,
p. 562; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 133; Schlegel, Dieren Neder. p. 74, pl. vii, f.45
Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 338; Ogilby, Zoologist, 1876, p. 4755; Steind. Ich. Span.
u. Port. 1868, p. 40; McIntosh, Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 178; Collett, Norges Fiske,
p. 111; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 80; Giglioli, Pesc. Ital. p. 36.

Moerlungus pollachius, Yarvell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) ii, p. 172, ¢. fig. (Ed. 2) 11,
GADID Ai. 297

p- 253 (Ed. 3) i, p. 559; Kroyer, Dan. Fiske, ii, p. 123, c. fig.; Parnell, Wern.
Mem. viii, p. 347, and Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 187; Jenyns, Manual, p. 446;
Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. 1887 (2) i, p. 411; Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Club,
1838, i, p. 173; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 183; White, Catal. p. 91;
Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 241.

Gadus viridis, Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 133.

Pollachius linnei, Malm, p. 487.

Pollack, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 80, pl. exlii.

B. vii, D. 11-13/16-20/15-19, P. 19, V. 6, A. 24-31/16-21, C. 81.

Length of head 3? to 43, of caudal fin 64, height of body 44 to 5 in the total
length. Hye—diameters 4 to 5 in the length of the head, 14 diameters from the
end of the snout, and 1} apart. Interorbital space flat: snout conical. Lower
jaw prominent, the maxilla extending posteriorly to beneath the anterior edge of
the orbit. Barbel absent. Teeth—villiform and of equal size in the jaws: in two
small patches on the vomer, none on the palatines. Fins—the first dorsal
commences over the middle of the pectoral, its third ray equalling the length
of the base of the fin: a short interspace between it and the base of the second
dorsal, and a similar interspace present between the bases of the second and third
dorsal fins. The first anal fin commences under the posterior rays of the first
dorsal and terminates beneath the end of the second dorsal: second anal similar to
the third dorsal. Ventral inserted on the throata short distance before the pectoral,
which last rather exceeds half the length of the head. Caudal square or slightly
emarginate at its extremity. Scales—distinct over head and body. Lateral-line—
curves to beneath the commencement of the second dorsal fin from whence it
proceeds straight to the centre of the base of the caudal fin. Went beneath the
anterior half of the first dorsal. Air-bladder—narrow, largest anteriorly, from its
front two prolongations proceed forward, one on either side. The organ is continued
through the entire length of the abdominal cavity. On its front wall, in its
anterior part, are two elevated and almond-shaped muscular prominences: if the
air-bladder is opened, a large dark-coloured glandular body is seen on its anterior
wall in its forepart: some large vessels penetrate to it. Colowrs—the back of the
fish when captured is of a dark rifle green superiorly, becoming lighter on the
sides, where it usually has some golden stripes or spots, and nearly white beneath.
Fins dark green, the first dorsal with three oblique bronze-coloured bands, and
two longitudinal ones on the second and third, all the fins edged with dark colours,
sometimes even black.

Varieties.—Ball observed an example taken in the spring of 1838, in which the
rays of the first dorsal fin had grown to more than three times their normal
length. Couch remarks on the young occasionally having its sides and abdomen
yellow or bright orange, due, it is believed, to their residing in the shelter of rocks
which are covered with ore-weed.

Names.—Pollack : whiting-pollack: leets (Scarborough) : laits (Whitby): and
in Scotland and some parts of the north of England lythe, perhaps signifying its
pliancy and rapidity of movement, laithe, leeat, leet, skeet. Sometimes termed
greenling or green-fish. Also termed lythe at Portrush, county of Antrim (Ogilby).
The Job alluded to in the Statute of Herrings (31 Ed. III, a.p. 1537) as lob, ling,
and cod evidently meant this fish, not the Gadus virens as suggested by Couch.
The term is from the Danish word lubbe, which signifies the pollack. De pollak,
Dutch. Le merlan jaune ou lieu, French.

Habits —This species is common on many of our rocky coasts all round the
country, and usually prefers being not far from land, waiting to dash upon any
unwary prey that comes within reach, the largest ones being generally taken in
the autumn. Low observed that in the Orkneys it is frequently close in shore
among the sea-ware and in deep holes among the rocks. Mr. Dunn has remarked
that off Cornwall it frequently sticks to one spot, from which it extends its range,
but is not so sure of returning as is the bib, being a strong fish of a more roving
disposition. Mr. Peach observed a small whiting which had taken refuge within
the hollow of a medusa, Cyanea aurita, but was seen by a young pollack about
208 ANACANTHINI.

five inches in length, which at once gave chase. The whiting dodged round its
friendly medusa, but a second pollack joined the pursuit. An unlucky movement
drove the pursued one from its shelter, and an exciting chase immediately
commenced. Some more pollacks joined in and like a pack of hounds ran their
victim down, which they killed for sport as they did not attempt to feed upon
it. So eager were the pursuers that when stones were thrown at them they
showed no alarm although at other times a single stone would instil terror. Mr.
Dunn has observed them springing out of the water after air bubbles made by a
boat passing quickly through the sea.

Sars observed off the coast of Norway that the pollack systematically chased
the young codfish. Schools of the former appeared to surround the little
codfishes on all side, making the circle narrower and narrower, till all the codfish
were gathered into one lump, which they then by a quick movement chased up to
the surface of the water. They were now attacked on two sides, below by the
pollack, above by the sea-gulls. The pollack were also observed to treat sand-eels
in the same manner, surrounding a school of them, and forcing them towards the
surface of the water where gulls assisted in their destruction. This fish is
likewise partial to herrings.

Means of capture.—It sometimes bites keenly, gorging the bait at once, and
also takes a fy, but this sport is best tried from sunset for about two hours,
especially if a fresh breeze is blowing, and then it rises freely at a gaudy artificial
fly, roughly made of red and white feathers, but is more choice in its selection
of food than is the coal-fish, The boat should be rowed along very gently
at about four or five hundred yards from the shore, or in a suitable locality,
and the fly be allowed to float from twenty to thirty yards from the stern of
the boat. Although the young flood or slack water is generally best for this
fishing in some places, the best sport is to be had at high water. Oi Plymouth
it has been observed that as a rule falling water gives the best sport in the open
sea, but at the points of bays special configurations of the shore and outlying
rocks may alter this general rule. Pollack of small or moderate size will also
come close in shore where ridges of rock jut out under a few fathoms of water.
A little rain is often conducive to the success of this fishing. At different places
and likewise different fishermen will praise various sorts of bait for whiffing, but
live sand-eels would appear to be as good as any when procurable. A fisherman
in the Field observes that failing these he finds as the two best baits a peculiar
red india-rubber eel on one line, and on the other a spinner with the back of the
hook dressed with prepared fish skin and a piece of the same skin on the point
of the hook, for which is substituted when procurable a slice from the tail of a
longnose or mackerel. But it is not always easy to tempt a pollack with bait
while pilchards are about.

Baits.—Sand-eels, Ammodytes, are their favourite bait, or an imitation insect
known as ‘the Belgian grub,” which is modelled in plaster on to the shank of a
hook and painted red and white: it is fitted with gut and a swivel. The end
grub should be larger than the rest, with a piece of red india-rubber, resembling
a brown elastic band, attached to the hook, and which when drawn through the
water represents a wriggling sand-eel. Higher up, on two yards of salmon-gut,
two or three smaller grubs may be placed without the eel and attached like
bob-flies on a casting-line. At the head of the gut should be a small swivel, then
four or five yards of snooding attached to a coarser hand-line, which is wound round
the usual square frame asa reel. At the end of the hand-line, or at its junction
with the snooding, is strung a small leaden weight of 2 or 3 oz. so that while
being dragged through the water the lead may be near but not on the bottom,
while the snooding and gut cast with the bait, being lighter, follow at a few feet
distance above the rocks and weeds where the pollack like to frequent. The
large summer pollack often refuse the ‘Belgian grub” and have to be tempted
by live sand-eels or artificial white-flies. Cockles have been praised as a bait

* Mr. Dunn informs me that a diamond was said to have been found inside a pollack at
Falmouth.
GADID A. 299

for ground fishing. On the Galway coast small fresh-water eels are said to be
ingeniously fastened on to the hooks and used as a bait for the pollack.

Breeding.—it spawns about the end or early part of the year, and the young
are first seen at Mevagissey in April about 1 inch long (Dunn). On May 28th,
1881, I received from Mr. Dunn some specimens captured at the surface of the
sea, they were from 7/10 to Linch in length. Over the head and back, as seen
under a microscope, were numerous small angular black spots, and elsewhere
some star-shaped ones. No scales nor even ventral fins were visible until the fish
had attained 4/5 of an inch in length.

As food.—In the highest perfection in the autumn, especially those from about
the end of Cornwall or off the Scilly Isles: it is superior to the coal-fish.
Mr. Cornish observes that it is an excellent fish all the year round, but best in
winter. A fry of little pollack, about 6 inches long, will beat a similar dish of
Cornish trout at any time.

It is not seen much in the London market, but appears to be eaten on the
coast where taken: now and then afew are exposed for sale in the Cheltenham
fish shops.

Mr. Dunn observes that porpoises will pursue both the young and full-grown
pollack, and not long since the crew of a Mevagissey fishing-boat saw a school of
the former attack one of the latter. After a short time full thirty large pollack
were left for dead floating on the sea: they tacked their boat and picked up many
of them.

Uses.—Oil is obtained from the liver off Scandinavia, where the “sey” or
young pollack gives about 264 gallons each 200 fish. Fishermen in Cornwall
frequently salt and dry this fish for home consumption.

Habitat.—From the northern seas extending along the coasts of Norway to
the German Ocean and European shores of the Atlantic, becoming rare in the
Mediterranean. This species does not appear to have been obtained in America,
where our coal-fish, Gadus virens, is termed the pollack.

Although frequently met with in the Orkneys and Zetland, it is not so
common as most of the cod family. At Banff frequent (Hdward): Aberdeen
(Sim): St. Andrew’s, occasionally from the deep water (McIntosh): Firth of
Forth rare (Parnell). In Yorkshire it is resident and common (Yorkshire
Vertebrata). At Lossiemouth examples are often taken during the summer and
autumn months, especially among the coal-fish and in rocky localities. In fact it
is found on most of our rocky coasts, but most abundant along the south or
§.W. shores and bays, being numerous off Devonshire and Cornwall.

In Ireland it is common around the coast.

The example figured, which is 18 inches long, was from Plymouth. :

It is generally seen up to 6 or 7lb. weight: one has been recorded by
Thompson of 12 1b. from Belfast, while Couch asserts that his specimen weighed
24 Ib.
300 ANACANTHINI.

Genus IT.—Mercuccivs, Cuvier.

Epicopus, Gunther.

Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchie absent. Body elongated. No barbel at
the chin. Two or more rows of strong teeth in the jaws and on the vomer. Two
dorsal fins and one anal: ventral with seven rays: caudal distinct. Scales rather
small.

Dr. Giinther (Catal. ii, p. 248) removed the Chilian Merlus Gayt, Guichenot,
from the Gadide to the Acanthopterygian Trachinide, but subsequently (vol. iv,
p. 346) restored it to its original family, considering that the specimen in the
British Museum on which his conclusions were based, was most probably the
young of the common hake.

Geographical distribution—Northern hemispheres on both sides of the
Atlantic; also on the southern portion of the west coast of South America to
New Zealand.

Merluccius vulgaris, Plate LXXXYV, fig. 1.

Ovoc, Aristot. vill, c. 15, ix, ec. 39; Athen. vii, p. 315; Aflian, ix, c. 38;
Oppian, Hal.i, p. 5, and ii, p.59. Ovoe Oaddrrvoe, Aélian, v,c. 20. Marlutius,
Belon. De Aquat. p. 122; Gesner, pp. 84, 97.  Asellus, Ovid.v, p. 131; Plin. ix,
c. 16,17; Rondel. ix, c. 9, p. 272; Salv. p. 73, ¢. fig. Asellus alter, Aldrov. iii,
c. 2, p. 286. Asellus primus, Willugh. p. 174, t. L.M. 2, no. 1; Ray, p. 56;
Rutty, Nat. Hist. co. Dublin, i, p. 355. Gadus, sp. Artedi, Syn. p. 36, no. 10,
Genera, p. 22, no. 8; Gronoy. Zooph. no. 815, Lysing, Strém, Séndm. i, p. 295.
Hake, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776) iii, p. 191 (Ed. 1812) in, p. 257. Grand
merlus, Duhamel, Péches, ii, sec. i, c. 7, p. 141, t. xxiv. Kummel, Holb. Gotheb.
nya Handl. v, p. 38, c. fig.; Schager. Phys. Sallsk. Tids. 1838, p. 302.

Gadus merluccins, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 439; Gmel. Linn. p. 1169; Bonn. Atl.
Tch. p. 49; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 149; Fabr. Faun. Greenl. p. 148; Bl. Ausl. Fische,
ii, p. 94, t. exliv; Lacép. ii, p. 446; Bl. Schn. p. 10; Brinn. Pisc. Mass. p. 20;
Donovan, Brit. Fish. ii, pl. xxviii; Turton, Brit. Faun. p. 91; Risso, Ich. Nice,
p. 122; Mitchell, Trans. Lit. and Phil. Soc. New York, i, p. 371; Schlegel,
Dieren Neder. p. 76.

Gadus merlus, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 122.

Merluccius vulgaris, Cuv. Regne Anim.; Flem. Brit. An. p. 195; Jenyns, Man.
p. 447; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Ed. 1) ii, p. 177, ¢. fig. (Ed. 2) ii, p. 258 (Ed. 3) i,
p. 562; Kroyer, Dan. Fiske, ii, p. 140, c. fig.; Parnell, Wern. Mem. vii, p. 350,
and Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 190; Storer, Fishes Mass. p. 1382; Nilss. Skan.
Fauna, iv, p. 570; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. 1837 (2) i, p. 411; Lowe, Trans.
Zool. Soc. ii, p. 189, and Pro. Zool. Soc. 1843, p. 90; Johnston, Berwick. Nat.
Field Club, 1838, p. 173; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 184; White,
Catal. p. 92; Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 844; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 42;
Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 114; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 31; Moreau, Poiss.
France, ili, p. 251; Giglioli, Pesc. Ital. p. 36.

Stomodon bilinearis, Mitch. Rep. Fish. New York, p. 7.

Merluccius esculentus, Risso, Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 220; Canestr. Fauna Italica,

. 156.
E Merluccius argentatus, Faber, Fische Isl. p. 90; Fries and Ekstr. Skand. Fisk.
p. 145, t. xxxiii; Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 346.

Merluccius sinuatus, Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 390, f. 73; Lowe, P. Z. 8. 1840,
p- 38, and Trans. Z. 8. iti, p. 13.

Merluccius lanatus, Gronov. ed Gray, p. 130.

Epicopus Gayi, Ginther, Catal. ii, p. 248 (not Merlus Gayi, Guichenot).

Merluccius albidus (Mitchell) De Kay, Fauna of New York Fishes, p. 280,
pl. xlvi, f. 148.

Hake, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 90, pl. exlvii.
GADIDAN. 301

B. vii, D. 10/36-40, P. 14, V. 7, A. 36-38, C. 22, Coac. pyl. 1, Vert. 25/26.

Length of head 3 to 43, of caudal fin 6; to 63, height of body 63 to 8 in the
total length. Hye—diameter 54 to 7 in the length of the head, 2 to 2} diameters
from the end of the snout, and 14 to 2 apart. Head flattened above. Mouth
deeply cleft: the lower jaw slightly the longer: the posterior extremity of the
maxilla reaches to beneath the middle or hind edge of the orbit. No barbel
below the chin. Teeth—large, acicular, in two rows, the inner of which is the
larger, while the anterior ones are more movable than the posterior ones. In a
V-shaped band on the vomer, none on the palatines or tongue. Fins—the first
dorsal triangular, commencing above the base of the pectoral, its third ray
the longest and equalling two-thirds the height of the body below it: a slight
interspace between it and the base of the second dorsal, which anteriorly is less
than the height of the first dorsal, while it reaches almost to the base of the
caudal: its first 20 to 24 rays are of about equal height, then they increase
for four or five rays and subsequently rapidly decrease, so as to occasion the last
portion of the fin to form a rounded elevation. Pectoral as long as the head
excluding the snout. Ventral inserted on the throat a short distance in front of
the pectoral: its second ray exceeding half the length of the head. Anal com-
mences on a vertical line beneath the third or fourth ray of the second dorsal
and terminates below the end of the base of that fin. Caudal square at its
extremity. A single short ccecal appendage. The vent is situated on a vertical
line beneath the anterior rays of the second dorsal fin. Scales—rather small :
some on the gill covers and upper surface of the head. Lateral-line—nearly
straight. Colours—grayish along the back, becoming lighter on the sides and
beneath: a purplish tint over the head and along the back. Fins dusky: base
of pectoral, inner ventral rays, and anal straw-coloured. A small black spot
often present at the upper part of the base of the pectoral. Inner surface of
mouth and gill cavities black.

Varieties.—Merluccius argentatus, from Iceland, is said to have the inside of
its mouth white instead of black, and the second dorsal and anal fins notched
about their centres.

Names.—The hake, said to be sold in London as Cornish salmon. Cegddu,
Welsh. It has also been termed herring-hake; merluce, or sea-luce, or sea-pike.
De stokvisch, Dutch. Le merlus ordinaire, French.

This fish is one that has been employed in heraldry and figures in the
armorial bearings of several families.

Hakes-teeth have been recorded as present in various soundings in charts of
the sea; they consist mostly of a species of Dentaliwm, a shell having the
popular name of “ dog’s teeth,” and do not pertain to any fish.

Habits——The hake is a night feeder, keeping quiet at the sea bottom at day-
time. It isa bold and ravenous fish, a great wanderer, and rather uncertain in
its movements, which seem to be sometimes due to its being chased by sharks,
porpoises, and other voracious inhabitants of the deep. It is very fearless
and will take fish out of the nets which appear alight with phosphorus, and are
often entangled by their teeth in the nets. Seasons, and the presence or absence
of food likewise affect the localities wherein it lives: thus during the summer
it is often taken in bays, but in the winter more commonly in deep waters. It
accompanies shoals of mackerel, herrings, pilchards, sprats, and anchovies, on
which it feeds, and Couch alludes to seventeen of the latter having been taken
from the stomach of one of these fishes. When food is scarce it will eat the
sea-lice. Although present all the year round, it isin the autumn and winter
months that the largest takes are made. In October during the present year
(1881) the fisheries in Cornwall took more than in the preceding months, and
the numbers augmented to the end of the year, besides becoming pretty plentiful
off Devonshire, where during the commencement of January they occasionally
are a glut in the market, but at the end of that month or in February begin
to go off their feed due to spawning. In Donegal Bay hake-fishing com-
mences in the month of September. In Devonshire and along the S.W. coast
302 ANACANTHINI.

this fish takes the place of the cod of the more northern counties. Bellamy,
writing in 1839, observes that they were more abundant formerly, so that it
would appear that it is gradually decreasing in numbers from some reason
unknown.

Means of captwre——Line-fishing by night-time in midwater, or beam-trawling
during the day at the bottom, by which latter method some are also captured
throughout the year. So common are they in certain seasons that Couch mentions
4000 having been landed in one day in Mount’s Bay; and on another occasion
1100 were taken by one boat in two nights.

Baits——In some localities a slice from one of its own kind is found to be a
good bait, but such as are suitable for the cod may be employed.

Breeding.—In the spring months, but may be delayed in cold seasons: thus
Couch remarks that in 1837 spawning in Cornwall was not accomplished until
August. In the report of the sea fisheries of England and Wales for 1879, it is
observed that at Mevagissey these fish have been falling off in numbers for the
last fifteen years, due it was surmised to Plymouth trawlers catching hundreds of
thousands of baby hakes a foot or so long.

Uses.—Formerly it used to be salted in large quantities and exported,
especially to Bilboa in Spain. In this country salted hake used to be known as
“Poor John.” Even now it is extensively salted by fishermen, especially for
their own consumption. It is more appreciated at present than formerly, as
due to the great price of fish it is being forced into the market. Cornish
observed in 1878 that twenty years since a burn, or “burden for one person ” of
twenty-one fish, obtained 3s 6d, a high wholesale price in West Cornwall. Now
the price is 15s to 20s a burn, and the retail 1s to 1s 6d each fish.

As food.—It is coarse, but at Plymouth all these slimy fishes, according to
Yarrell, have the mucus first removed with hot water and a little alkali, otherwise
they are spoiled. It may be cut into steaks and fried, or cooked in pies.

Habitat—From the northern seas along the coast of Scandinavia, the German
Ocean and European shores of the Atlantic to Madeira, while it is also distributed
through the Mediterranean, especially along its northern shores, and into the
Adriatic. It is common in Greenland, but whether it is the same species which
extends to Cape Hatteras appears doubtful, as in the American Fishery reports
it is recorded as M. bilinearis, Gill.

It is found around the British coasts, beimg much more numerous in some
localities than in others. It is generally rare round Scotland (Fleming) but
recorded as present in the Orkneys and at Zetland (W. Baikie) : Banff (Edward):
Aberdeen (Sim): in the Moray Firth during July and August, when it is found
following the herrings (Gordon) : at Musselburgh one was taken in 1836 and
sent to the Edinburgh market, where it appeared to be unknown (Parnell). In
Yorkshire it is resident but seldom caught: it is occasionally seen on the Dogger
Bank, but becomes more plentiful towards the coast of Holland (Yorkshire
Vertebrata): in February, 1847, one about 30 inches long was caught off
Sherringham (Lowe, Fauna of Norfolk). It is however along the 8. and S.W.
coasts of England that this fish most abounds, becoming numerous in Devonshire
and common in Cornwall, especially during the autumn and winter months.

In Ireland it is found all round the coast, but most common on the south. Off
the coast of Waterford on the Nymph Bank there was formerly a large fishery for
hake, which arrived in shoals twice yearly: in June, or the mackerel season and
September, or the commencement of the herring season. In 1746, Smith, who
wrote the history of the county of Waterford, complained that the fishery was
declining. Thompson observed that he had been informed by Mr. Nimmo that
upon the Galway coast, commonly in November, four or five men in one boat will
take with hand-lines from 600 to 700: sometimes, but very rarely, 1000 are
captured, but only when herrings are in the Bay. The Bay of Galway in old
maps is termed the Bay of Hakes.

The example figured was from Plymouth, and is 14 inches in length. The
fish frequently attains to 4 feet. Mr. Dunn observes that the largest he has seen
was 24 lb. weight.
GADIDA. 303

Genus II].—Parcis, Bloch, Schneider.

Enchelyopus, Bl. Schneider. Hypsiptera, Giinther.

Branchiostegals seven : pseudobranchie absent. Body oblong or moderately
elongated. A barbel on the chin. Small teeth on the jaws and vomer, none on the
palatine bones or tongue. Two dorsal fins and a single anal: caudal distinct :
ventral in the form of a single long and divided ray. Scales small. Cocal
appendages in moderate numbers.

Genus Hypsiptera, Giinther (Catal. ii, p. 386) was first described “as a most
interesting addition” to the Scombroids: subsequently (Catal. iv, p. 362) as an
immature Gadoid: while Liitken observes that it is the young of a Phycis.

Geographical distribution.—Atlantic Ocean in the northern hemispheres of
Europe and America, also German Ocean and extending into the Mediterranean.

1. Phycis blennoides, Plate LXXXV, fig. 2.

Phycis, Rondel. vi, c. 10, p. 106; Gesner, pp. 718, 845; Aldrov. i, c. 8, p. 43;
Jonston, i, tit. 2, c. i, art. 6, t. xiv, no. 4 (not Salv.). Forked hake, Pennant, Brit.
Zool. (Ed. 1776) iii, p. 193, pl. xxx, f. 82 (Ed. 1812) iii, p. 259, pl. xxxv. Greater
forked beard, Couch, Linn. Trans. xi, p. 75, and Fish. Brit. Isles.

Barbus major Cornubiensis, Jago in Ray, Syn. p. 163, f. 7.

Gadus blennotdes, Briin. Ich. Mass. p. 24.

Merlu barbu, Duhamel, Péches, ii, p. 147, pl. xxv, f. 4.

Gadus bifurcus, Walb. Art. iii, p. 137.

Gadus albidus, Gmel. Linn. p. 1171.

Phycis tinea, Bl. Schn. p. 56, t. xi.

Phycis blennoides, Bi. Schn. p. 56; Gmel. Linn. p. 1165; Bonnat. Atl. Ich.
p. 48, pl. lxxxvii, f. 363; Risso, Hur. Mérid. iii, p. 222; Cuv. Régne Anim. ;
Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 851; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 42; Canest.
Faun. Ital. p. 156; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 114, and Christ. Vid. Sels. Forh.
1879, i, p. 67; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 82; Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 264;
Giglioli, Pesce. Ital. p. 36.

Blennius gadoides, Lactp. ii, pp. 458, 484; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 136.

Blennius phycts, Turton, Brit. Faun. p. 93; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 172. _

Phycis furcatus, Flem. Brit. An. p.193 ; Kroyer, Dan. Fiske. ii, p. 214, ¢. fig. ;
Jenyns, Man. p. 452; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) ui, p. 201, c. fig. (Ed. 2) ii, p. 289
(Ed. 3) i, p. 595; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. 1837 (2) i, p. 411; Swainson,
Fishes, ii, p. 301, c. fig.; J. Blake-Knox, Zool. Dec. 1866, p. 508; Thompson,
Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 187.

Phycis bifurcus, White, Catal. p. 96.

Greater fork-beard and Blennoid fork-beard, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, pp.
125-128, pl. cliii, cliv.

B. vii, D. 9-10/54-62, P. 15, V. 1, A. 54-58, C. 22, L.1. 112, Cose. pyl. 26.

Length of head 4 to 43, of caudal fin 8 to 93, height of body 4 to 54 in the
total length. Hye—diameters 3} to 4 in the length of the head, 1} to 2 diameters
from the end of the snout, and one apart. Interorbital space nearly flat. Snout
obtusely rounded: mouth nearly horizontal: upper jaw overlapping the lower:
the maxilla reaches to beneath the middle or even hind edge of the eye. A barbel
as long as the eye below the symphysis of the mandible. Nostrils patent. Gill-
rakers short, about 8 in number along the outer branch of the upper lamina.
Teeth—villiform in the jaws and in an angular band on the vomer: none on the
palatines or tongue. in—the first dorsal commences above the first third of
the pectoral, its third or fourth rays elongated: the second dorsal not confluent
with the caudal, its rays simply branched. Pectoral somewhat pointed, and as
long as the head behind the middle of the orbit. Caudal rounded or square at
its posterior extremity. Ventral consisting of a single ray which branches into
304 ANACANTHINI.

two: Dr. Moreau observes that it has three, two being concealed in the skin.
Ccecal appendages long, about 26 in number. Atr-bladder—with thick walls it
forms a simple sac rather constricted anteriorly, where it ends in two horn-like
processes. Along either side of the organ are a row of numerous hollow lateral
appendages, that communicate with the interior of the air-bladder by transverse
oval orifices. There is a slight constriction, visible internally, about the middle
of the length of the air-bladder. A large gland exists in its anterior half on the
inner side of its anterior wall. In the posterior half of the air-bladder is a species
of diaphragm formed of its lining membrane. Vent situated on a vertical line
beneath the commencement of the second dorsal fin. A few fine scales over the
bases of the vertical fins. Colowrs—brownish-gray, becoming paler on the sides
and beneath: dorsal, pectoral, caudal and anal fins yellow edged with black, the
latter having a narrow white outer edge: ventrals light gray, white externally.

The P. Mediterranea, Laroche, is very similar, but possesses a rounded first
dorsal fin which is not elevated: and the ventral is nearly the same length as the
head. Cuvier considered this last to be Blennius phycts, Linneus, and not the
form figured by Pennant.

Varietves—Cornish considers Couch’s “ Blennoid fork-beard ’’ as one of these
fish out of condition.

Names.—Common fork-beard or forked hake. Hakes-dame, Cornwall. Le phyeis
blennoide, French. :

Habits——Mostly seen off our coasts during the winter, and but little is known
respecting its habits : it appears to prefer a sandy and muddy bottom. Thompson’s
first example was taken “ February 24th, 1836 (a calm day), with a gaff or hook
as it lay floundering on the surface of the water: was very violent when brought
on board, and before dying had struggled so hard as to divest itself of nearly all
its scales.” It was 25 inches long. The stomach of one contained two small
whitings and several crustaceans.

Means of captwre.—Usually with a hook and line.

As food.—Mr. Cornish observes that its flesh is extremely delicate and much
superior to the whiting.

Habitat.—Along the coast of Scandinavia, the German Ocean, and the
Atlantic coasts of Europe extending into the Mediterranean, where it is common.

It has been recorded as rare in Banff (Edward): St. Andrew’s (Wern. Mem.
vi, p. 569) : several on the coasts of the Solway Firth, and one in December,
1833, at Bowness (Yarrell): Mr. Jackson obtained one, 21 inches long, March 1st,
1880, from off Southport: it is rare in Devonshire, but, according to Couch,
common in Cornwall during the autumn and winter months, but rare in the
opinion of Mr. Cornish, who obtained one at Penzance in 1864, and another at
Land’s End April 8th, 1870: on December 8th, 1873, one was taken in a herring
net at Looe (Clogg), and on August 13th, 1866, an example, 19 inches long, was
captured off the north-east of Guernsey. Pennant has recorded it from Flintshire :
and on January 24th, 1812, Templeton took one, 20 inches in length, from among
some haddock.

In Ireland it has been taken on the north-east coast in a very few instances
(Thompson). Two from Carrickfergus, March, 1839, 15 inches long: December,
1840, one 26 inches. January 28th, 1849, a male 22 inches, Portaferry, county
Down. In the winter of 1865, two examples were obtained by J. Blake-Knox,
one a foot long from the stomach of a conger, one trawled, 1 foot 5 inches long
(Zool. 1866, p. 508).

The example is figured life size. The species has not been recorded above
2 feet long from the British Isles.
GADID Ai. - 305

Genus 1V—Mo va, Nilsson.
Lota, sp. Cuvier.

Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchie absent. Body elongate and nearly
cylindrical. A barbel below the chin. A band of cardiform teeth in the jaws and
on the vomer, among which are some large ones in the lower jaw and on the vomer :
none on the palatines or tongue. Two dorsal fins and one anal: caudal distinct.
Ventral with six rays. Minute scales over the body.

Geographical distribution.—Marine fishes inhabiting the temperate waters of
the northern hemisphere.

1, Molva vulgaris, Plate LXXXVI.

Clarias marina, Belon. De Aquat. p. 181. Asellus longus, Schonev. p. 18;
Willugh. p. 175, t. L 2, no. 2; Ray, p. 56; Rutty, Dublin, i, p. 356. Gadus,
sp. Artedi, Synon. p. 36, no. 9, Genera, p. 24, no. 9. Lange, Strém, Séndm. i,
p- 292. Ling, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776) iii, p. 197 (Hd. 1812) iii, p. 262 ;
Low, Fauna Orcad. p. 198. Lingue, Duhamel, Péches, ii, sect. 1, cap. 8, p. 145,
pl. xxv, f. 1.

Gadus molva, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 439; Gmel. Linn. p. 1170; Shaw, Zool. iv,
p- 151, pl. xxiii; Bonn. Atl. Ich. p. 49, pl. xxx, f. 108; Fabr. Faun. Greenland,
p. 148; Bloch, Fische Deuts. ii, p. 174, t. Ixix; Lacép. ii, p. 432; Donovan,
Brit. Fish. iv, pl. cii; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 91; Nilss. Prod. p. 45; ? Faber,
Fische Isl. p. 86.

Enchelyopus molva, Bl. Schn. p. 51.

Gadus raptor, Nilss. Prod. p. 46.

Lota molva, Jenyns, Man. p. 448; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. i) ii, p. 180, c. fig.
(Ed. 2) ii, p. 264 (Hd. 3) i, p. 569; Parnell, Wern. Mem. vii, p. 352, and Fish.
Firth of Forth, p. 192; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. 1837 (2) i, p. 411; Swainson,
Fishes, ii, p. 800; Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Hist. Club, 1838, p. 173; White,
Catal. p. 92; Schlegel, Dieren Neder. p. 84; McIntosh, Fish. N. Uist, P. BR. Soc.
Edin. v, 1862-66, p. 614; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 185; Moreau,
Poiss. France, iii, p. 258.

Molva vulgaris, Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 192; Nilss. Skand. Fauna, iv, p. 573;
Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 361; Malm, Wiegm. Arch. 1864, p. 297; McIntosh, Fish.
St. Andrew’s, p. 178; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 115; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar.

. 82.
e Ling, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 89, pl. exlv.

B. vii, D. 13-16/63-70, P. 19, V. 6, A. 57-66, C. 35-38, Coec. pyl. 32, Vert.
27/37.

Length of head 5, of caudal fin about 11, height of body 7 to 8 in the total
length. Hyes—diameter 5 to 7 times in the length of the head, 1} to 2
diameters from the end of the snout, and 1 to 1g apart. The width of the
head equals 2/5 of its length. The maxilla reaches to beneath the middle of
the eye: upper jaw the longer. The mandibular barbel extends to beneath
the centre of the orbit. Anterior nasal valve prolonged into a short barbel.
Teeth—cardiform in the jaws, with an inner row of rather widely separated and
larger ones in the mandibles: in a semicircular band on the vomer, among
which a few larger ones are interspersed; none on the palatines or tongue.
Fins—the first dorsal commences above the last half of the pectoral, its highest
-rays equalling about 2/5 of the depth of the body below it, while scarcely any
interspace exists between its base and that of the second dorsal, which terminates
close to the root of the caudal fin. Pectoral about half as long as the head.
Ventral jugular. Anal commences bencath the seventh or eighth ray of the
second dorsal and ends close to the base of the caudal fin, which last is
rounded and distinct. Scales—very small, covering the head, body, and fins.
Lateral-line—at first slightly descends, becoming straight beneath the commence-

20
306 ANACANTHINI.

ment of the second dorsal. Colowrs—Back gray, becoming lighter on the sides
and beneath: dorsal, anal, and caudal fins edged with white: a darkish blotch at
the posterior end of the first dorsal fin and a more distinct one on the end of the
second dorsal. In the young the back and sides are yellowish-olive, broken up
and divided into patterns by pale lilac lines.

Varieties.—Ogilby (Zool. 1876, p. 4904) observes that a variety is common .
at Portrush, co. Antrim, “it is of a pale violet colour, irregularly mottled with
dark purple, almost black spots, and grows to the same size as the usual kind:
it is caught only on a particular part of the bank, and is called by the fishermen
‘spotted ling.’” Similarly spotted ones are taken off Mevagissey and termed ship-
wrights, having a resemblance to the spilt pitch on the clothes of these mechanics.

Names.—Ling is stated by most authors to be a corruption from “ long,”
because this fish is similar in appearance to the cod but more elongated! Kellin,
Aberdeen: lahan, Moray Firth: dr/zcle if small: it has also been known, according
to T. Satchell, as ling-drizzle, ulic, spottedl-ling, white-ling, and stake. De leny,
Dutch. La lingue, French.

Habits.—A ground fish, preferring deep water and rocky places and caverns.
It is very tenacious of life and survives severe injuries. Mr. Reed took a salmon
27 inches long out of a ling 6 feet in length, captured off Wick. Couch found
skulpins, Callionymus lyra, and even a “rough-hound ”’ of considerable size inside a
ling. Like the pike of our fresh waters, this fish has the credit which it apparently
well deserves of greedily bolting any sort of foreign substance it comes across.
One was captured some years since off Brandon Head, county Kerry, inside
which was a pewter flask containing two glasses of ardent spirit. Another was
taken November 17th, 1881, which weighed 25lb.; in the stomach of this fish
Mr. Boal, of Consett, found a three-gill bottle, some herrings, and a codling.
There were also several pieces of parchment and bits of sealing-wax, which induce
the supposition that the fish had swallowed one of those mournful messages of
shipwreck which have recently been so numerous.

Means of captwre.— Hand-lines, also long-lines. The ling fishermen in Galway
generally remain out a week, but every night seek shelter in a harbour in Boffin
Island. In the north of Ireland ling and conger are generally fished for at the
same time. In the Orkneys the long lines contain several hundred hooks placed
at a certain distance apart, baited at night, examined and rebaited the next
morning: it is by no means uncommon to find that dog-fish and sharks have
cleared the lines prior to the fishermen’s visit.

Baits.—A slice of plaice, flounder, herring, conger or cuttle. Usually it refuscs
bait unless living or very fresh: while it does not appear to be partial to
crustacea.

Breeding —Spawns in spring up to June, Penndnt observing that thoy
“deposit their eggs in the soft oozy ground at the mouth of the Tees: and at
that time the males separate from the females, and resort to some rocky ground
near Flamborough Head, where the fishermen take great numbers without ever
fmding any of the females or roed fish among them.” After spawning they
remain out of condition till about August.

Uscs.—When salted, ling is a considerable article of commerce, especially
with Spain and Italy. When in season the liver is of a white colour, and affords
a large amount of oil, which is used for lamps, medicinal or other purposes.
Their roe is consumed as food or preserved in brine, and is often employed
for attracting other marine fishes to localities where their capture would be
facilitated. From the sounds or air-bladders of this fish a considerable amount
of coarse isinglass is manufactured, similar to that obtained from the cod. Ling
split for curing should not be less than 26 inches from the shoulder to the tail:
smaller ones being termed drizzles.

As food.—Is mostly preferred salted, and the periods for its capture are in
Zetland from May 20th to August 12th (Edmonston) : Yorkshire from February
to May, or even to the end of that month: January and February in the south-
west of England: and March until May in the north of Ireland (Brabazon).
Scilly has long been celebrated for its dry ling, and it may perhaps derive its
GADIDA. 307

namo from zilli, being the Cornish term for this fish, though it is sometimes
made to include the cod also (R. Couch). Rowell observes that when boiled it
is much like cod, but firmer and whiter, and has a finer flavour, but to make a
dinner of it, it should be baked, well seasoned with nutmeg, salt and pepper, and
a lump of the liver cooked with it. When thus prepared it makes a dinner one
can eat with great relish, and feel very satisfied after it.

Whether this fish is as common on our shores as it was formerly may be
questioned. In L’Estrange’s Houschold Book, a.p. 1519, exists the following
entry. “Item.—Pd. for half a hundred lynge, xd. Item.—For carrying of ye
same lynge fr. ye Bulle to ye comon Stath, iiijd.”

Habitat.—This species has been recorded from Spitzbergen to the extreme
western portion of the Mediterranean, but is most abundant along the coasts of
northern Europe to Iceland, more especially in the German Ocean and off Norway.
To the north of Iceland it becomes rare, neither is it abundant off Greenland and
= Faroe Islands, while it is absent from the Baltic. It is found off Newfound-
and.

This species of the Gadide, next to the cod and coal-fish, is the most common
fish of the Orkneys (Low). Large quantities are likewise taken off the western
isles. It has been mentioned as being present at Wick (Reed): Banff (Edward) :
Aberdeen (Sim) : common at St. Andrew's (McIntosh): in the Firth of Forth
it is taken with lines principally about the Isle of May, where it is found more
plentiful than further up the estuary: occasionally small ones are met with
near Inchkeith, but scarcely ever above Queensferry (Parnell). Off Yorkshire
it is resident and abundant (Yorkshire Vertebrata): common in the Norfolk
estuary but not of large size (Lowe): while along the south coast it is much
more common in Cornwall than off Devon (Parfitt), becoming abundant off Scilly.
It is found nearly all round the Irish coast.

The example figured is 17 inches long, from Devonshire. Thompson records
one of 59 1b. weight from Ireland: Reed of an example 6 ft. long and weighing
about 60 1b., taken at Wick in March, 1872 : Parnell heard of one which measured
7 ft. in length, and Couch also was told of a Scilly example of 124 1b. weight.

2y #
308 ANACANTHINI.

Genus V—Lota, Cwvier.

Branchiostegals seven or eight: pseudobranchice absent. Body elongated. A
barbel below the chin. Cardiforin teeth on jaws and vomer, none on the palatines or
tongue. Two dorsal fins and a single anal: caudal distinct: ventral with sim or
seven rays. Small scales over the body.

Geographical distribution.—Fresh-water fishes inhabiting the temperate por-
tions of northern Europe and America.

1. Lota vulgaris, Plate LXXXVII.

Mustela, Pliny, Hist. Nat. ix, c. 16. Strinsias s. Botarissas, Belonius, De.
Aquat. p. 302, ete. and Clarias fluviatilis, l.c. p. 304. Lota, Rondeletius, u1,
p- 164, and Barbota, p. 165. Botlatriw, triseus, Salviani, p. 213. Mustela
fluviatilis, Gesner, p. 599, and ed. 1598, fol. 172), c. fig. CQuappen, Schonevelde,
p. 49. Lota Gallorum, Aldrovandus, v. c. 46, p. 648; Jonston, iii, tit. 3, c. 11,
p. 168, t. xxix, f.10. Mustela fluviatilis, Willughby, p. 125, t. H 3, f.4; Ray,
Syn. Pisce. pp. 67, 68. Gadus barbatus, Miller, Prod. Zool. Dan. p. 41; Koel-
reuter, Nov. Com. Petroph. 19, p. 424. Gadus, sp. Artedi, Synon. p. 38, no. 13,
and Genera, p. 22, no. 10, and Silurus cirro in mento unico, Species, p. 107.
Ttutten, Marsigli, Danub. iv, p. 71, t. xxiv. Burbot, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (ed.
1776) iii, p. 199 (ed. 1812) ili, p. 265. Barbolt, Bowdich, British Fresh-water
Fishes, 1828, no. xxx.

Gadus lota, Linn. Faun. Suec. 315 and Syst. Nat. p. 440; Bonn. Atl. Ich.
p. 49, pl. xxx, f. 110; Bloch, p. 177, t. Ixx; Gmel. Linn. p. 1172; Lacépéde, ii,
p. 435; Donovan, British Fishes, iv, pl. xcii; Shaw, Gen. Zool. iv, p. 154, pl.
xxi, f 2; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 91; Pallas, Zoogr. i, p. 201; Hartmann,
Helvet. Ich. p. 50; Ekstrém, Vet. Akad. Handl. p. 43, and Fische Morks, p. 285;
Brandt and Rat. i, p. 52, t. vii, f. 2.

Lnchelyopus lota, Bloch, Schn. p. 52; Gronov. ed. Gray, 1854, p. 101.

Lota vulgaris, Cuv. Réene Anim.; Jurine, Poiss.. Lac. Leman, 1825, pl. u;
Nilsson, Skand. Fauna, iv, p. 580; Jenyns, Manual Brit. Vert. p. 448; Yarrell,
Brit. Fishes (Hd. 1) 1836, ii, p. 183, ¢. fig. (Ed. 2) ii, p. 267 (Ed. 3) i, p. 572;
Fries och Ekstiém, Skand. Fisk. p. 170, t. xli; Nordm. in Demid. Voy. Russ.
Mérid. iii, p. 350; Kroyer, Dan. Fiske, ii, p. 169, c. fig.; White, Catal. p. 93;
Giinther, Fische Neckar, p. 124, and Catal. iv, p. 359; Heckel and Kner, Suss. w.
fis. ost. Mon. p. 313; Blanchard, Poiss. Eau. dou. France, p. 272, c. fig.; Schlegel,
Dieren Neder. p. 82, pl. viii, f.1; Malm, Wiegm. Arch. 1864, p. 297; Steindachner,
Verh. z. b. Ges. Wien. 1866, p. 387; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 115, and Christ.
Vid. Sels. Forh. 1879, i, p. 67; Houghton, British Fresh-water Fishes, p. 165,
c. fig.; Day, Cotteswold Nat. Field Club, 1880, p. 221, c. fig.; Moreau, Poiss.
France, iil, p. 256; Giglioli, Pesce. Ital. p. 37.

Molva lota, Fleming, Brit. Anim. p. 192.

Lota communis, Rapp, Fische Bodensees, p. 36.

Burbolt, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 93, pl. exlvi.

Synonymy of American examples.

Gadus lota, Schépf, Schrift. Gesell. Nat. Freund. Berlin, viii, p. 141; Pennant,
Arctic Zool. Introd. p. exci.

Gadus lacustris, Mitchell, Amer. Month. Mag. ii, p. 244.

Lota maculosa, Lescur, Journ. Acad. Nat. Se. i, p. 83; Richardson, Fanna
Bor.-Amer. Fish, p. 248; Kirtland, Boston, Journ. Nat. Hist. 1842, iv, p. 24,
pl. ii, f. 1; De Kay, New York Fauna, Fish, p. 284, pl. lii, f. 168; Agassiz, Lake
Superior, p. 325.

Molva maculosa, and ML. hentia, Leseur, Mém. Mus. y. 1819, pp. 151, 161,
pl. xvi.

Lota compressa, Leseur, Journ. Ac. Nat. Se. i, p. 84; Storer, Fish. Mass.
p. 134; De Kay, 1. c. p. 285, pl Ixxvin, f. 244, 245.
GADIDA. 309

Lota inornatu, De Kay, 1. c. p. 283, pl. xlv, £. 145.
Lota brosmiane, Storer, Boston Journal, iv, pl. v, t. 1.

B. vii-viii, D. 12-14/67-76, P. 19-21, V.7, A. 65-71, C. 30, Coe. pyl. 25-30,
Vert. 21/38.

Length of head 5} to 53, of caudal fin 123, height of body 5} to 73 in the
total length. Hye—diameters 8 to 9 in the length of the head, 24 diameters
from the end of the snout, and 23 apart. Body subcylindrical anteriorly,
becoming compressed in its posterior half. Head broad, its greatest width
equalling its length excluding the snout. Gape of mouth wide: jaws of equal
length anteriorly : the posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches to beneath the
middle of the eyes. Asingle barbel beneath the symphysis of the lower jaw.
Teeth—carditorm, and of equal size in the jaws and on the vomer, none on the
tongue. Fins—first dorsal somewhat lower than the second: caudal rather
wedge-shaped, its lower portion commencing somewhat anterior to its upper:
second ventral ray the longest in the fin. Air-bladder—destitute of a pervious
pneumatic duct, equalling one-third of the entire length of the fish, narrow, and
terminating anteriorly in two rounded, horn-like processes: superiorly it is
closely attached to the vertebral column in its entire length. Cacal appendages—
from 25 to 30, and of moderate length. Scales—small, mostly concealed in a
thick mucus which covers the body. Lateral-line—at first slightly descends, and
then continues direct to the centre of the base of the caudal ‘fin. Colowrs—body
of a dull yellow or brown, variegated or banded with darker bands or blotches,
sometimes studded with pale or else black spots: fins marked similarly to the
body. Iris golden, pupils bluish. The colours vary with the waters these fish
inhabit: a white variety has been recorded by Baldner.

Names.—Pliny alludes to the Mustela, or ‘‘ Weasel Fish,” of Lake Constance,
which he considered as food rivalled marine forms. In England its local names
are various: Burbot, or Burbotte, which has been considered to be a corruption of
its French designation Barbolte, ‘a bearded fish,” but it is likewise termed bird-
bolt, which, according to Nares, designates a thick arrow having a broad flat
head, employed to kill birds without piercing the skin. Also blob-kite (Buckland).
Hel-pout, according to Gesner, is derived from its Dutch name ael-putt, or putael,
a compound word, signifying ael, ‘‘an eel,” and purt or pud, “a frog,”* but
Schlegel observes that the name he alludes to belongs to Zoarces viviparus.
Coney-fish appears to be derived from its habit of lurking in holes of river
banks, as a concy or “rabbit” does on land. Its Anglo-Saxon name was Aelepiita.
Kwabaal, Dutch. Le lote commune ou barbotte, French.

Habits—The Burbot prefers clear and still rivers and lakes, at the bottom or
sides of which it lurks in holes or crevices among the stones, or even skulks in
rat-holes and cavities under banks. One was kept alive some months last year in
one of the tanks in the Royal Westminster Aquarium ; it selected the darkest
corners, and appeared very unwilling to be seen; when compelled to change its
situation, it did so with great deliberation, and never hurried itself. While
moving, its ventral fins appeared to be used to a considerable extent as feelers;
in fact outwardly it much resembled some American fresh-water Siluroids, which
had previously resided in the same tank. This fish lives for a considerable period
after its removal from the water, and, being very tenacious of life, can be kept
alive for some time in cold and damp situations by feeding it on small fishes and
pieces of raw meat. In some places it is kept im stews, where it fattens well and
will eat almost any animal substance. It is reputed to grow rapidly when well
fed, is very voracious, feeding at night, when it consumes a great quantity of
small fish, worms, and aquatie insects. Although it has been stated to agitate
its barbel in order to decoy little fish to its vicinity, this would appear to be
improbable, as that appendage is situated beneath its chin. In suitable localities
the burbot is said to attain to a good oldage. Its greatest enemy is perhaps the
perch, which seems invariably to attack it: the pike likewise esteems it as food.

* Mr. Houghton would derive the tern Hel-pout from the fact of the fish resembling an cel,
but being more full-bellicd or pouting.
310 ANACANTHINI.

Means of capture.—It is taken by nets, baited hooks, trimmers, or night lines,
while owing to its destructive habits it is not protected during the breeding
season at Neuchatel.

Buits.—A gudgeon or red worm.

Breeding —The example figured was a female, captured in March, 1879, in the
River Thet, in Norfolk; its ova at that period were not fully matured, but it
must be remembered that the season was unusually cold. Some authors observe
that it deposits its ova in December and January; Yarrell states February
or March: while it may breed rather later in England than on the Continent.
Leon Baltner found 128,000 eggs in one example. At spawning time it leaves
the deeper waters, and seeks smooth localities in streams, where it deposits
its eggs.

Uses.—In the Oder these fishes were formerly much sought after, the fattest
of those not disposed of being cut into slips, dried, and employed as candles.
Oil from their livers was likewise used as an external remedy for swellings ;
while the gall, in common with that of some other fishes, was recommended for
its supposed efficacy in affections of the eyes. Glue (isinglass) was manufactured
from its air-bladder. It is stated in the Encyclopedia Londinensis that “in
Siberia and many parts of Russia, especially among the country people, they employ
the skin of this fish instead of glass, and it is as clear as oiled paper: the Ostides
and Tschulymch Tartars use the skins for their summer dress, and make bags of
it to preserve their pelfry.” This may be erroneous, and the fish alluded to be
eels, or perhaps both, for Mr. Eden* observes ‘“‘some members of this race (the
Ostiaks) use fish-skin clothing in place of furs, the eels, which abound throughout
the country, furnishing the material. These skins are very strong, and quite
air-tight, excluding an immense deal of cold when well rubbed with fat. They
are also used as windows to their yurts.”’

As food.—The burbot has long been esteemed as a great luxury, but more so
on the Continent than in this country; its flesh is white and delicate, while its
liver is its most delicious morsel. Aldrovandus has recorded how a German
Countess carried her epicurism so far as to expend the greatest portion of her
Income in the purchase of this dish. Its eggs, however, are unwholesome, and
occasionally even poisonous. But De Kay says it is a poor article of food, even
the dogs in the Arctic regions refusing to touch it.

Habitat.—This fish, although distributed throughout northern and central
Europe, also Canada and the adjacent portions of the United States, is still rather
local in its habits. Prior to the time when the geographical distribution of
animals began to be attended to, it was asserted that the Burbot was found
in India, a locality which was very properly discarded until the error was
reintroduced by Lacépéde at the end of the last century, and which has been
copied by Donovan, Yarrell,and Couch. No fresh-water specics of the cod family,
Gadidw, exist in India, while in the sea or backwaters is only the single and
aberrant genus of Bregmaceros.

In Continental Europe the burbot is found throughout most of its northern,
central, and eastcru portions: in Norway, Sweden, and rivers flowing mto the
Baltic and Black seas; in Siberia, through central Europe from Hungary to
Switzerland, Germany, and as far south as France. An interesting fable exists
respceting the introduction of this fish into the Lake of Geneva. Jurine asserted
that, according to popular tradition, the burbot was brought there from Neuchatel,
while Blanchat, in bis Natural History of the cnvirons of this latter place,
attributes its introduction to the monks of St. Prex, in the fourteenth century.
In support of this opinion, Lunel, author of the Fishes of Lake Leman or Geneva,
refers to a map of the Lake engraved at Geneva, in 1588, by Jean du Villard, who
has given in the margin figures of tle fish, with their local names. All are
recognizable, but the burbot and ccl are not represented, and due to the
impassable barricr of the Perte du Rhone, at Bellegurde, migrations of the latter
to or from the sea are impossible. This absence of the burbot was held to
coincide with the local tradition, but, as observed by Professor Forel at the

* Eden, Frozen Asin, 1579, p. 142.

 
GADIDZ. 311

Vaudois Naturil History Society, the following facts refute such a belief.
Rondelet, in 1555, published at Lyons descriptions of the Fresh-water Fishes of
Europe, and observed of the burbot, “the fish which the Lyonese call the Lotte,
is named by the Genevese Motelle or Mustele.” Motaile is still the popular name
of this fish, and, having even then a local name, it must have been well known.
Rondelet’s work was published thirty-three years prior to Du Villard’s map, and
he gives a figure by which this fish can be recognized. Irrespective of this, the
monks of St. Prex in the fourteenth century had neither a convent nor were
any of their order attached to the Chapter at Lusanne.

In Scotland the burbot is generally considered absent. Myr. Sim, who has
given an interesting account of the fishes of Aberdeen, included it as among the
local Fauna, on the authority of a statement by the late Dr. Dyce. This last
gentleman made the following note at the end of the article on the burbot in
Yarrell’s British Fishes: “June, 1861, two specimens found in market to-day,
never met with the fish before. One 13} the other 124 inches long. Upper jaw
the longest, teeth very sharp, black line all round tail.” Where the fish came
from, if ascertained, was not recorded. In the Catalogue of the Fishes in the
British Museum we find seven skins of Lota vulgaris thus recorded—‘“ adult:
skins, Firth of Forth. From Dr. Parnell’s collection.” Were this unimpeachable
it would conclusively prove its existence north of the Border; but even at first
sight it would seem strange that this fresh-water fish should be captured in the
locality referred to, more especially as Dr. Parnell himself does not allude to its
existence there in his prize essay on the Fishes of the Firth of Forth. T find in
the British Museum Registry that when Dr. Parnell’s collection of 1636 specimens
of fish obtained from all parts of the world, was recorded, no locality was given as
to from whence these seven skins came. I conclude they were obtained trom
elsewhere, and are certainly unreliable as Scotch examples. Here, however, I
would remark that the burbot is placed among the Siluride by Artedi, showing how
minute or concealed the scaling is to have been overlooked by such an excellent
ichthyologist. This would lead us to consider whether others may not have been
equally mistaken when examining specimens, supposing such to be scaleless
Siluroids. Fleming found at the end of Sibbald’s list* of Scottish Fishes Siluris
sive glanis, and on this authority introduced the Siluris glanis of Continental
Europe into his catalogue of British animals, although Willughby, who mentions
Siluris glants, does not refer to Great Britain as one of the localities which it
inhabits. It may be that the burbot was alluded to by Sibbald, or it may be that
his authority was no better than the one I have alluded to respecting Parnell’s
examples. ;

In England it is found in the rivers and some of the lakes in the county of
Durham : also in sluggish Yorkshire rivers where, however, it is not numerous.
It is reported as comparatively common in the River Holl, the Lower Derwent,
the Wiske, the Foss, the Ouse below Naburn, and in dykes about Selby: and as
scarce in the Seven, Pickering-beck, and other tributaries of the Upper Derwent,
the Codbeck, the Nidd, and the Wharf (Yorkshire Vertebrata). In Norfolk it is
taken in small numbers in the Yare, the Bare and the Waveney, penetrating up
to their sources: is not common in the district of the broads but is more
abundant in the Thet (Lubbock). Also in the Trent and its affluents in
Nottinghamshire and Staffordshire,t where the largest examples have also been
obtained: in the great east fen in Lincolnshire, although it is not generally
distributed over that county; it is also found in Cambridgeshire. The belief,
however, is prevalent that the species is decreasing in numbers, and perbaps
doomed to extinction. Asa proof of this it may be mentioned that in September,
1879, when clearing out a small stream, an affluent of the Tame which joins the
Trent, one of these fish was captured, but was only recognized by a single individual
who remarked that thirty years since he had seen examples. Mr. Frauk Buckland

* Sibbald gives in his Scot. Illus. Ealpout as one of the fishes of that country, but he employs
the name for the viviparous Blenny, see pl. xix, fig. 3.

{ Plot in his Natural History of Staffordshire, 1686, alluded to its existence, but even then it
was rare. Mr. Heath observes that it is still found in the River Penk in that county.
312 ANACANTHINI.

states that S. Gurney, Esq., u.p., turned some of these fishes into the Wandle, near
Carshalton.

As regards Ireland, an unique example of a fish which some have considered
may be the Silurws glanis is stated to have been captured about 1827 or 1828
from a tributary of the Shannon, near its source, about three miles above Lough
Allen. A fisherman asserted that a fish at least 22 feet long, and 8 lb. or 9 1b.
weight, was seen struggling ina pool in the river as a flood subsided; that it had
worm-like feelers to its mouth, while its appearance was so hideous that those
who first saw it were afraid of touching it. The mouth in the figure of Silurus
qlanis in Yarrell’s British Fishes was not considered large enough for that of the
Irish specimen, but it must be observed that inquiries were only instituted in
1840. The captured fish was not eaten, but adorned a bush for two or three years,
until the skeleton fell to pieces, and with it all evidence to connect Silurus glanis
with Ireland.* Some have surmised that the fish may have been a burbot, but
it is manifestly impossible to identify any species by the evidence adduced.

The burbot usually attains to about 2 or 3 lb. weight in this country, but
Pennant records an example of 8 1b. captured in the Trent by Sir Jervase Clifton.
On the Continent they are taken up to 10 or 12 Ib.

The example figured was over llinches in length, and was procured from the
Thet for me by the Rev. W. Symonds, of Pendock, who subsequently kindly
sent me a black spotted male. Inside the stomach of the figured fish was an
almost entire loach, Nemacheilus barbatulus, 21 inches in length.

* One or more, fortunately wnsuccessful, attempts have been made during the last few years to
introduce this hideous monster into British rivers. Silwrus glanis has a voracious appetite, is a
foul feeder, inferior as food, and almost rank when of a large size, its presence would be of
exceedingly questionable advantage.
GADIDA. 312

Genus VI—More ta, Cuvier.

Onos, Risso: Mustelus, Stark: Gadus, Fleming. Ciliata (young) Couch:
Cuuchia (young) Thompson. Movella, Kaup. Hypsiptera, sp. Giinther.

Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchie absent. Body elongated, rounded in
front, compressed behind, upper surface of head flattened. Three or more barbels on
the snout, lips, and below the mandibular symphysis. Teeth present in a band on the
jaws and vomer. Two dorsal fins, the first consisting (excepting the first ray) of very
slender rays lodged in a depression, the second fin elongated and continued almost to
the base of the caudal jin. A single anal. Ventral having from three to eight
rays. Caudal distinet from dorsal and anal. Scales minute. Cacal appendages
few or in moderate numbers.

The adult fishes of this genus are commonly known as roch-lings, from which
the young have been separated as mackerel-midges, and termed Ciliata by Couch,
and subsequently Couchia by Thompson. Likewise Dr. Giimther has referred
some of his types of Hypsiptera Giinther (see page 303) to Couchia argentata,
which is the young of Motella tricirrata. When Couch first proposed this new
genus of Ciliata at the Linnean Society, “they hesitated to publish it, believing
that the fish was a young condition of some other known species’? (Couch). The
young are uncertain in their appearance, for in some seasons only a few can be
detected ; while in others they are seen in countless multitudes. During March,
April, and even as late as June, they are found near the surface of the sea in
scattered communities, from one to twenty miles from land, and frequently several
schools join together. In stormy weather they are thrown on board vessels with
the spray, or drawn into fishing boats with the nets: they seek shelter during
heavy seas under the protection of any floating object, and-are frequently seen
among the sea-weed, or under the protection of a medusa. These little fishes are
so sought after for food by predaceous forms as mackerel and bass, that they have
been termed “ mackerel-midges,” and when they grow larger assuming the Motella
or “rock-ling” size, they are likewise much relished, especially by conger-eels.
In an aquarium these fishes keep the first dorsal fin in almost continuous motion,
similar to the fin movements in pipe-fishes, Syngnathus. The young, or mackerel-
midges, die almost immediately on being removed from the sea.

Mr. Sim has recorded having captured on July 15th, 1868, at Aberdeen,
a small mackerel-midge which possessed seven barbels: it was transmitted to
Mr. Couch, but appears to have been lost ; consequently it remains doubtful whether
it was a distinct species or variety of a known form; the additional barbels appear
from the drawing to have had their origin at the posterior nostrils. Some authors
have believed that the number of barbels are insufficient characters on which to
found species, and that the five- and the three-bearded rock-lings are identical.
Along the S.W. coast I have obtained three species of Motella, and also three
species of mackerel-midges which I believe to be their young stages. The young
M. mustela is brown with blue eyes: the two others are silvery white but darkest
along the back : the one I believe to be M. tricirrata has also a black axillary spot,
and a black mark on the ventral fin: the upper surface of its head flat: the young
M. cimbria is of a similar colour without the spots, its interorbital space convex,
aud its head short. Dr. Giinther has separated from M. tricirrata some British
specimens which he believes appertain to M. maculata, Risso, giving as a reason
the character of their teeth, those in the upper jaw in the former being in a band,
whereas in the latter there exists an outer enlarged row, and this last species is said
to possess one less abdominal vertebra. These two very similar forms inhabit the
same localities, and the question naturally arises, can they be varieties of one
species or sexual variations? All I have taken furnished with an enlarged outer
row of teeth in the upper jaw, or M. maculata in the British Museum Catalogue,
are males. But although the number examined is insufficient on which to base
314 ANACANTHINI.

absolute conclusions, it seems very possible that M. tricirrata is the male of
IML, maculata (part) Gtintber, and further evidence ig desirable before admitting
the latter to rank as a specivs.

Geographical distribution.—Seas of northern and temperate Europe, also
Greenland, extending along the Atlantic to Madeira and the Cape of Good Hope.
It has also been obtained from New Zealand, Japan, and likewise from the Island
of St. Paul.

There would appear to be four species of Motella found along the British
coasts: 1. Moteila mustela, with five barbels, D. 47-55, A. 40-46. 2. Motella
cimbria, with four barbels, D. 50, A. 44. 3. Mofella tricirrutu, with three
barbels, D. 55-57, A. 48-50. 4, Moutella macrophthalma, with three barbels,
D. 55, A. 55.

1. Motella mustela, Plate LX XXVIII, fig. 2.

Mustela vulgaris, Willughby, p. 121; Ray, p. 67. Gadus, sp. Artedi, Synon.
p- 37, no. 11, Genera, p. 22, no. 2; Gronov. Zooph. no. 314. Five-bearded cod,
Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776) iii, p. 202, pl. xxxiii (Ed. 1812) iii, p. 2U8, pl. xxxvi.
The whistle-fish, Low, Fauna Orcad. p. 199.

Gadus mustela, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 440; Gmel. Linn. p. 1173; Donovan,
Brit. Fish. i, pl. xiv; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 156; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 92; Flem.
Brit. Anim. p. 193; Holb. Bohusl. Fisk. ii, p. 52, ¢. fig.; Faber, Fische Isl. p. 81;
Schlegel, Dieren Neder. p. 85, pl. viii, f. 5.

Gadus fuscus, Bonn. Atl. Ich. p. 50.

Enchelyopus mustela, Bl. Schn. p. 52; Gronov. ed. Gray, p. 101.

Motella quinque-cirrata, Cuv. Régne Avim.; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Md. 1) ii,
p. 190, c. fig. (Hd. 2) i, p. 278 (Hd. 3) i, p. 583; Parnell, Wern. Mem. vii, p. 355,
and Fish Firth of Forth, p. 195; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. 1837 (2) i, p. 411;
McIntosh, Fish. N. Uist, Pro. Roy. Soc. Edin. v. 1862-66, p. 614.

Motella mustela, Nilss. Prod. p. 49, and Skand. Fauna, iv, p. 589; Jenyns,
Manual, p. 450; Johnston, Berwick. Nat. Club, 1838, i, p. 173; White, Catal.
p. 94; Kréyer, Dan. Fiske, ii, p. 185, ec. fig.; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv,
p. 186; Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 364; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 33; Steind.
Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p.44; Collett, Norges Fiske, p.117; Moreau, Poiss.
France, iii, p. 273.

Molwella borealis, Kaup. Wiegm. Arch. 1858, p. 90.

Ive-bearded rock-liny, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ui, p. 108, pl. el, f. 1.

( Young.)

Ciliata glauca, Couch, Mag. Nat. Hist. v, pp. 15, 741, f. 2, and Zool. Journ. i,
p. 132; Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 192.

Motclla glauca, Jeonyns, Man. p. 451; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) ii, p. 195
(lid. 2) ii, p. 281 (Hid. 3) i, p. 586; Thompson, An. Nat. Hist. 1846, xviii, p. 315;
Collett, lc. p. 121.

Motella urgentcola, Diiben, Vet. Akad. Handl. 1844, pp. 92,97; Nilss. Skan.
Faun. Fisk. p. 590.

(huchi« minor, Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 188.

Couchia glauca, Thompson, |. ¢. p. 102; Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 363; McIntosh,
Fish. N. Uist, Pro. R. 5. Mdin. v, 1862-66, p. 614.

Muckerel-nidge, Couch, |. c. iii, p. 113, pl. cli, fig. 1, 2.

B. vii, D. 47-55, P. 15, V. 7-8, A. 40-46, C. 20-21, Cose. pyl. vili-ix.

Length of head 51 to 64, of caudal fin 8, height of bedy 6 to 7 in the total
length. Lye—about 1/6 of the length of the head and situated in its anterior
2/5, 1} diameters from the end of the snout, and 2 apart. The erentest width of
the head cyuals its length excluding the suout: upper surface nearly flat. The
GADIDA. 315

maxilla extends posteriorly to below the middle or hind edge of the eye, and is
rather longer than the mandible. Barbels—one about as long as the eye at cach
anterior nostril: a short pair on the anterior edge of the snout near the median
line: a single one, the longest of the five, beneath the symphysis of the lower jaw.
Teeth—villiform in the jaws, a few widely separated rather enlarged and conical
ones in the inncr row on the mandible, and in a band on the vomer: none on the
palatine bones or on the tongue. In the young the outer row in the upper and the
inner row in the lower jaw are sharper and longer than in adults. Fins—the
anterior dorsal commences on a line above the posterior extremity of the opercle,
while the length of its base slightly exceeds that of the postorbital portion of the
head ; it ends above the posterior extremity of the pectoral fin. Cacal appendages
——nine in the example figured, eight in another from Penzance. Cvlowrs—otf a
stone, or olive, or chestnut colour, becoming lighter on the cheeks, lower surface
of the head and abdomen as far as the commencement of the anal fin. Fins
dark brown: pectorals and ventrals with some orange on their basal halves,
the anal with a light outer edge. Outer ventral rays nearly white.

An example 1} inches in length was brown covered with numerous fine black
spots: its eyes being bright blue: length of the head 1/5 of that of the total.

Varieties—The barbels in this species would seem not to be invariably
identical; in examining two examples, one nearly 2 (1°9) inches long the other a
little more (2°2 inches), the colours were as in the adult, so were the two anterior
nasal, the two rostral, and the mandibular barbels. But variations occurred in other
specimens, due to the following cause. Along the edge of the snout, in an example
3 inches long, existed a row of somewhat tubular pores, the two centre of which were
short barbels, in another nearly 4 inches long (3°8 inches) a similar appearance
existed: but in a specimen a little over 5 (52) inches long the pair of rostral
barbels were absent, only a line of 8 pores existed. This appears to resemble Motella
fusca (Risso), Moreau, who obtained both forms in the same locality. Couch
mentions that in some examples which he received from the north of Somerset-
shire, a low membrane connected each pair of the upper barbels together. In
one instance, the barbs of one side were united into one, while on the other side
they remained separate.

Names.—Brown whistler in west of Cornwall. Pettifogger and baud are said
to have been two local names in Cornwall for some species of Motella. Pennant
observes that Cornish fishermen whistled and made use of the words bod, bod,
veau, when trying to capture this fish. De mewn, Dutch.

Habits.—This species inhabits hard sandy coasts as well as rocky localities,
but does not appear to live in such deep waters as M. tricirrata. It feeds upon
small shells and crustacea.

Means of captwre.—Mr. Cornish (Zool. 1879, p. 476) records one which was
taken on a small hook fishing from off the rocks, but the common mode of
obtaining them is from under stones as the tide ebbs.

Baits—These are rarely used as the mouth of this fish is small.

Breeding.—Cornish obtained, August 20th, 1879, at Penzance a female full of
roe partially matured. “The nest wherein the spawn is deposited is invariably
formed of the common coralline, Corallina officinalis, thrust into some cavity
or crevice of a rock close to low water-mark” (Zool. 1879, p. 476), the eggs are
not contained in a chamber but scattered through the mass.

Thompson obtained young in June, from Lahinch, less than 2 inches in length.

Diseases.—McIntosh (Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 140) figures a crustacean parasite
from the young of this fish (Motella glauca) from Lochmaddy.

As food.—It is said to be fair eating.

Habitat.—From Iceland and the northern seas through the German Ocean
and Atlantic borders of Europe, and common along the coasts of France and the
Iberian peninsula. :

It is found off most parts of the British coasts, and has been referred to as
common in the Orkneys (Low) and also in Zetland (W. Baikie): Moray Firth
(Harris): Banff, frequent among pools left by a receding tile (Hdward) :
Aberdeen (Sim): St. Andrew’s (McIntosh): Firth of Forth (Parnell): and not
316 ANACANTHINI.

uucommon in Berwickshire (Johnston): also at Glasgow (Yarrell). It is resident
and common off rocky shores from Redear to Flamborough (Yorkshire Vertebrata) :
tuken in the Norfolk estuary in August, 1870, and September, 1871 (Plowright),
Yarmouth (Paget), also abundant at Cromer among stones at Jow water (Gurney):
Lincolushire flat, plentiful (Yarrell) : mouth of the Thames: and very co:nmon off
the Kentish coast, especially during autumn (Yarrell) : Sussex, and generally along
the south coast, examples from Plymouth and Cornwall being in the National
collection : itis occasionally captured at the mouth of the lixe (Parfitt): Weymouth
(Gosse): Brixham (Parnell), common along Cornwall and occasionally found
in Mount’s Bay about low water-mark (Cornish). I have personally taken it
from rock pools at Penzance. bristol Channel (Couch), and an example has been
captured in South Wales.

In Ireland it is distributed round the coast, and is said by Thompson to be more
common than M. tricirrata : he obtained examples from rock pools in numerous
localities.

The example figured, life size, is a male from Brighton. The species has been
recorded up to 18 inches in length by Fleming.

2. Motella cimbria, Plate LAXXIX, fig. 1.

Gadus cimbrius, Linn. Syst. Nat. i, p. 440; Bonn. Atl. Ich. p. 50; Gmel.
Linn. p. 1174; Lacép. ii, p. 442; Straussenfelt, Vet. Akad. Handl. 1773, p. 22,
t.11; Goode and Bean, P. U. 8. Nat. Mus. i, p. 362.

Enchelyopus cinbricus, Bl. Schn. p. 50, t. 1x.

Motella cinbria, Nilss. Prod. p. +3, and Skand. Faun. iv, p. 587; Yarrell,
Brit. Fish. (Hd. 2) ii, p. 274, ¢. fig. (Md. 3) 3, p. 579; Parn. Wern. Mem. vii,
p. 449, pl. xliv, and Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 280, pl xlvii; White, Catal. p. 94;
Kroyer, Dan. Fiske, ii, p. 19%, c. fig.; Giinther, Catal.iv, p. 367; McIntosh, Fish.
Sv. Andrew’s, p. 178; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 116; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar.
Motella caudata, Stover, Proc. Boston Am. Ac. 1848, p. 5.

Rhinonemus cawlacuta, Gill, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Phil. 1862, p. 241.

Four-bearded rockling, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ni, p. 111, pl. el, f. 2.

B. vii, D. /50, P. 15, V. 6, A. 44, C. 31.

Length of head 5; to 6, of caudal fin 7, height of body 8 in the total length.
Hye-——diameters 47 to 53 in the length vf the head, 1 to 1} diameters from the end
of the snout, and l apart. The greatest height of the head rather exceeds one-
half of its length. Snout broad und obtuse, projecting over the upper jaw, which
last overhangs the lower jaw: posteriorly the maxilla extends to beneath the
hind edge of the orbit. Burbels—four, one slightly anterior to each front nostril ;
one on or close to the upper lip: and the fourth beneath the symphysis of the
lower jaw. Yeeth—cardiform in the jaws, and in a patch upon the vomer: none
upon the palatines or tongue. ’'ns—the first dorsal commences above the middle
of the opercle and extends to above the middle of the pectoral fin, the length of
its base equals half that of the head: the rays of the posterior portion of the
dorsal fin, except the last few, are higher than those in the remainder of its
extent: the rays in the posterior portion of the anal similarly elongated. Pectoral
rounded and as long as the postorbital portion of the head. Colowrs—of a
chestnut brown along the back, becoming lighter on the sides and beneath.
Dorsal fin gray edged with white and having a dark oval blotch posteriorly on
its elevated portion. Anal with a dark mark in its posterior portion similar to
that on the dorsal fin.

Habits.—Are probably the same as those of the other species of the genus.
Parnell found the stomach of his specimen, which measured fourteen inches in
length, filed with shrimps and small craks.

Brecding.—Parnell’s example, captured in June, had the ova almost ready to
be deposited.

 
GADID Ai. 317

Habitat—Coasts of Northern Europe, becoming local and somewhat rare
oo Great Britain, where it was first discovered by Parnell in the Firth of
Forth.

It has been recorded as rare in Banff (Edward): Aberdeen (Sim): in a rock
pool at the west bay of St. Andrew's (McIntosh): Firth of Forth (Parnell) :
Falmouth (Cocks) : Cornwall small and rare (Cornish).

The example figured is 11 inches in length, and in the National collection. The
longest recorded British specimen measured 14 inches.

8. Motella tricirrata, Plate LXX XVIII, fig. 1.

Mustela vulgaris, Rondel. ix, c. 15, p. 281; Gesner, p. 89; Aldrov. iii, c. 8,
p. 290; Jonston, i, tit. 1, c. 1, art. 2, t.i, f.4; Willughby, p.121, t. H 4, f. 4.
Galea venetorum, Belon. De Aquat. p. 130; Gesner, p. 90. Mustela marina, Ray
Syn. p. 164, f.9; Rutty, co. Dublin, i, p. 352. Sorghe, Willughby, t. H 2, f. 1.
Three-bearded cod, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Ed. 1776) iii, p. 201, pl. xxxiii (Ed. 1812)
iu, p. 267, pl. xxxvi.

Gadus mustela, Bonn. Atl. Ich. p. 50, pl. xxxi, f. 111 (not Risso).

Gadus trictrratus, Bl. t. clxv; Gmel. Linn. p. 1174; Donovan, Brit. Fish. i,
pl.u; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 92; Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 193.

Enchelyopus Mediterraneus, Bl. Schn. p. 52.

Gadus jubatus, Pall. Zoogr, ili, p. 202; Rathke, Faun. d. Krym, p. 383.

Motella vulgaris, Cuv. Regne Anim.; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Hd. 1) ii, p. 186,
e. fig. (Hd. 2) ii, p. 270 (Ed. 3) i, p. 575; Templeton, Mag. Nat. Hist. 1837 (2) i,
p- 411; H. Blake-Knox, Zoologist, 1866, p. 507; Parnell, Fish. Firth of Forth,
p. 194, and Wern. Mem. vii, p. 354; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 44.

Gadus mustella, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 120.

Onos mustella, Risso, Eur. Mérid. iii, p. 215.

Motella tricirrata, Nilss. Prod. p. 48, and Skand. Faun. iv, p. 586; Jenyns,
Manual, p. 449; Nordm. in Demid. Voy. Russ. Mérid. iii, p. 531, Poiss. pl. xxvi,
f.1; White, Catal. p. 93; Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 301; Thompson, Nat. Hist.
Ireland, iv, p. 186; McCoy, Ann. Nat. Hist. vi, p. 404; Giinther, Catal. iv,
p. 365; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 121; Giglioli, Pesc. Ital. p. 37; Moreau, Poiss.
France, iii, p. 268.

Motella maculata, part, Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 366.

Lhree-bearded rockling, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, 13, p. 105, pl. exlix.

(Young.) Plate LXXXIX, fig. 3.

Gadus argenteolus, Mont. in Wern. Mem. i, p. 449; Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 193;
Jenyns, Man. p. 451.

Motella argenteola, Yarrell, Brit. Fishes (Md. 1) ii, p. 195, ¢. fig. (Ed. 2) ii,
p. 281 (Hd. 3) i, p. 589; White, Catal. p. 95.

Hypsiptera argentea (pt.) Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 386.

Couchia argentata, Ginther, Catal. iv, p. 363.

Thompson's midge, Couch, l.c. iii, p. 118, pl. cli, f. 3, 4.

Silvery gade, Couch, Le. iv, p. 427, c. fig.

B. vii, D. /55-57, P. 16-18, V. 6-7, A. 48-50, C. 21, Cove. pyl. xii to xx, Vert.
15-16/33.

Length of head 43 to 5, of caudal fin 9, height of body 7 in the total length.
Eye—diameters 7 in the length of the head, 2 diameters from the end of the snout,
and 1} to 14 apart. Head wider than high. Snout obtuse, broad, and rather
depressed. Upper jaw the longer: the posterior extremity of the maxilla
reaches to beneath or rather behind the hind edge of the eye. Barbels—three,
one on either side of the snout anterior to the nostrils, and a third at the
symphysis of the lower jaw. Tecth—cardiform in both jaws, with the inner row
largest in the lower, and the outer in the upper: in a patch upon the vomer:
318 ANACANTHINT.

none on the palatines or tongue. Fins—the first dorsal commences above the
posterior end of the opercle, extending to above the last third of the pectoral :
the length of its base equals half that of the head. Although the usual number
of coecal appendages was twelve, I have found them increased up to 20. Colours
—of a light chestnut or reddish-chestnut, becoming lightcr or even white beneath.
A number of black spots or blotches on the upper surface of the head, cheeks,
back, and sides of the body, and usually also present on the dorsal and pectoral
fins. Montagn observes that these black spots do not appear until the fish
attains to 6 or 7 inches in length, up to which time they may be Mus/ela alia, Ray.
But Thompson obtained from Strangford Lough a spotted example, 3; inches
long, only those under 3 inches being unspotted.

All my examples have proved to be males: so were Thompson’s. Dr. Giinther
considers some skins from our coasts, which agree with mine, as pertaining to
AM. maculata, they differ from the other British examples in possessing an outer
row of stronger teeth in the upper jaw, but are otherwise similar. Such as have
no outer enlarged row of teeth in the upper jaw, he considers Jf. tricirrata. At
the end of May, 1881, I received from Mr. Dunn some beautiful examples of the
young of this fish captured at Mevagissey, they were up to 1} inches in length.
Length of head 1/4 of the total: upper surface of the head flat: eyes 1 diameter
apart. The end of the ventral fin deep black, and also a black axillary spot.

Vurleties.—Mr. Dunn observes that the most beautiful variety off Mevagissey
is captured in thirty or forty fathoms of water. Itis of a general cream colour,
with the spots of an intense black.

Names.—Termed whistler or whistle-fish (? weasel-fish, Yarrell) in the west of
Cornwall. Also locally called sea-loach, three-bearded cod, and three-bearded gade :
gossat, Folkestone: St. Mary's trout, Penrhyn. Ronst dwrone, Irish: slippery-
Jemmy, Dalkey, Dublin Bay. La Motelle a trois barbillons, French.

Hubits.—Ground feeder. It frequents rocky shores and shallow water, but
one was taken in August, 1867, off Folkestone in 30 fathoms of water, and it has
been found in stomachs of fish taken at 40 fathoms. Obtained where sea-weeds
cover oozy ground, retiring under a stone. It feeds principally on crustaceous
animals and small fish, while it is particularly partial to the cuttle.

Means of capture.—Often taken with a bait, as it is very voracious. It makes
a rush at its food and twists itself round it.

Breeding.—Thompson found the milt highly developed in two male examples he
received from Donaghadee in October. Parnell observes that it sheds its spawn
in January and February. At the end of winter Couch has known it large with
spawn, also in April.

ls food.—Said to be good and formerly much esteemed in Cornwall at genteel
tables, but now it is not much employed except by the poor, as a few hours after
death its odour is anything but pleasant.

Habitat.—West coast of Norway, shores of the North Sea, Europcan coasts of
the Atlantic, and throughout the Mediterrancan.

Of this fish a single example has been taken at Stromness (W. Baikie): it is
gencrally rare on the cast coast of Scotland but has been recorded from the Moray
Wirth (Harris, Zool. ix, 1851): the young from Banff (Edward): Aberdeen (Sim):
Firth of Forth rare, much more so than the five-bearded form (Parnell) : near
Carlisle (Yarrell) : resident and common off Yorkshire (Yorkshire Vcrtebrata) :
Norfolk estuary (Plowright), and one example at Sherringham (Gurney) :
Folkestone (Buckland): not rare at Weymouth (P. Gosse): Exmouth and
Devonshire and Cornish coasts (Montagu) : very common in the latter county in
rock poolg (Cornish). I have frequently obtained it from Brixham and near
Penzance. Bangor (Buckland): from near Chester (Willughby).

In Ireland it is taken sparingly round the coast (Thompson) : abundant in
Dublin Bay where it is chiefly caught on conver lincs taking a herring bait. At
Belfast rare (Templeton) : recorded from Down, Antrim, and Donaghadee, and is
said to be very common in Roundstone Bay, Connemara (McCoy).

The example figured is a male, 13 inches long, from Penzance. Fleming has
recorded specimens up to 18 inches in length, Pennant to 19, and Thompson to 20.
GADIDA. 319

4, Motella macrophthalma, Plate LX XXIX, f. 2.

Motella macrophthalma, Giinther, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1867 (3) xx,
p. 290, pl. v, f. B and 1. c. 1874 (4) xiii, p. 139.

B. vii, D. /55, P. 15, V. 6, A. 55, C. 32.

Length of head 43, of caudal fin 7, height of body 71 in the total length.
Jiye—diameters 4 to 44 in the length of the head, 1 diameter from the end of the
snout, and 1 apart. The greatest height of the head rather exceeds one half of
its length. Burbels—three, two on the snout and one beneath the symphysis of
the lower jaw. TYecth—cardiform in the jaws with an outer enlarged row of
widely separated ones in the lower jaw, and in a patch on the vomer: none upon
palatines or tongue. Fins—the first dorsal commences above the middle of the
opercle and extends to above the last third of the pectoral fin, the length of its
base equals 2/3 of that of the head. Vent situated at 1/3 of the distance between
the front edge of the eye and the posterior extremity of the caudal tin. Colowrs—
brownish becoming lighter on the sides and beneath: the smaller example shows
traces of what may have been cross-bands.

This species, instituted from young examples, is very similar to M. cimbria, but
deficient in one of the barbels as well as possessing an excess of about 5 dorsal and
11 anal rays.

Habitat.—One example is 3 inches in length taken at eighty fathoms depth,
the other nearly 43 inches long, and figured life size, captured at a similar depth
between Shetland and Faroe.
320 ANACANTHINI.

Genus VII—Raniceps, Cuter.

Batrachoides, Lacép.

Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchie absent. Head large and depressed, body
of moderate length, compressed, and somewhat tapering posteriorly. Cardiform teeth
in the jaws mized with some larger ones, also cardiform ones on the vomer, but none
on the palatines. Two dorsal fins, the first of which is rudimentary: anal sinvilar to
second dorsal: caudal dishinet. Ventral with six rays. Minute scales on the body.
Air-bladder present. Pyloric appendages rudimentary.

Geographical distribution.—Coasts of northern Europe, extending to the south
of Great Britain and Atlantic shores of France.

1. Raniceps raninus, Plate XC, fig. 1.

Barbus minor, Ray, p. 164, £. 8; Couch, Tinn. Trans. xiv, p. 75. Least hake,
Pennant, Brit. Zool. (1776) ii, p. 195 (Ed. 1812) iti, p. 261, and Trifurcated hake,
(1776) iii, p. 196, pl. xxxu, Prifarcated tadpole fish (Wid. 1812) ii, p. 272, pl. xxxvili.
Le trident, Bonn. Atl. Ich. p. 51, pl. ixxxvi, f. 461.

Blennins raninus, Linn. Syst. Nat. (Ed. 10) p. 258; Gmel. Linn. p. 1183.

Blennius raninus et fuscus, Miller, Prod. p. 48.

Blenntus trifurcaius, Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 174; Turton, p. 93.

Gadus raninus, Mill. Zool. Dan. t. xlv; Briinn. Dansk. Vid. Sclsk. Skr. xii,
p. 241.

, (radus fuliginosus, Walb. in Schrift. Ges. Nat. Freund. Berl. v, 1784, p. 107.

Gadus trifurcus and minimus, Walb. Art. 11, pp. 139, 143.

Phyeis fusca and ranina, Bl. Schn. p. 57.

Blennius Rad, Bl. Schn. p. 171.

Batrachoides viewniotdes, Lactp. ii, pp. 451, 456.

Blennius triductylus, Lacép. ii, p. 484.

Raniceps trifurcutus, Flem. p. 194; Jenyns, p.453; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1)
ii, p. 204, ¢. fig. (id. 2) 11, p. 202 (Ed. 3) i, p. 598; Parnell. Wern. Mem. vii, p. 389,
t.xxxvi, and Vishes Firth of Forth, p. 199, pl. xxxvi; Thompson, Nat. Hist.
Treland, iv, p. 188; Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 367; McIntosh, Fish. St. Andrew’s,
p. 179; Moreau, Poiss. France, iti, p. 275.

Runtceps jago, Fleming, p. 194.

Raniceps niyer, Nilgs. Prod. p. 50, and Skand. Fauna Fisk. p. 694; Fries and
Ekstr. Skand, Fisk. p. 92, pl. xx1.

Batrachocephalus bleunioides, Holb. Goth. Vet. Scellsk. N. Handl. iii, p. 39,
ce. fig.

Raniceps fuscus, Kroyer, Dan. Fiske, ii, p. 231, ¢. fig.: White, Catal. Brit.
Fish. p. 96.

Raniceps raninus, Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 125; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar.

. 34.
: Lesser fork-Leard, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iti, p. 122, pl. elii.

B. vii, D. 3/65-67, P. 20-23, V. 6, A. 57-60, C. 35.

Length of head 4, of caudal fin 8, height of body 44 in the total length. Hye
—diameters 5} inthe length of the head, 1 diameter from the end of the snout,
and 1? apart. The general appearance of the fish is well conveyed by its trivial
name of “tadpole fish,” its body anteriorly being broad and depressed, while
posteriorly it is strongly compressed. Upper surface of the head slightly convex
or almost flat: cheeks inflated: snout somewhat overlapping the upper jaw, which
is slightly longer than the lower: the posterior extremity of the maxilla reaches
to about 1/2 a diameter of the eye posterior to the orbit. Teeth—cardiform in
both jaws, those forming the outer row being enlarged and plaved some distance
asunder: in a transverse patch on the vomcr: none on the palatines or tongue.
GADIDA, 321

Fins—the first dorsal, which is situated over the base of the pectoral, is small and
low: just behind it commences the second dorsal, which is highest in its second
third and not joined posteriorly to the caudal. Ventral inserted on the throat
some distance anterior to the base of the pectoral. Anal commences beneath the
ninth or tenth dorsal ray. Caudal rounded. Scales—minute. Lateral-line—
most distinct in the anterior portion of the body, where in some examples a row
of light coloured tubercles exist, or else between the lateral-line and the pectoral
fin. The stomach has much the shape figured as pertaining to Gadus virens, plate
lxxxiv, with two very short coscal appendages as seen in the figure of Pluronectes
limanda. Air-bladder—large, transversely constricted slightly behind the middle
and dividing anteriorly into two horn-like prolongations. Colour-—brown tinged
with lilac, becoming of a dirty white beneath, where it is also very faintly coloured
with lilac: lips white: fins nearly black, the outer edge of the dorsal anal and
upper third of the caudal white. Ventrals paler than the other fins.

Varieties.—Johnston observed that its body when only recently dead was
everywhere smooth, after laying three days on a plate it became shrivelled, and
an obscure row of tubercles were seen, passing backwards from the pectoral fins,
and these form the only good distinction between R. trifurcatus and R. jago of
Fleming, in the first the lateral-line being said to be tuberculated, but in the
latter smooth.

Names.—Tommy noddy, Cornwall. Paddock, Scotch.

Habits—Apparently solitary, and probably a wanderer. Couch remarked
that he had known it taken in August, early in September, in January, and in
April. Mr. Waud took it in Essex in May, and one at Kirkwall in June.

Ogilby observes (Zool. 1876, p. 4903) that “the curious fact of this fish
being generally washed ashore dead, would scem to prove that it lives at the
bottom in very deep water where neither nets nor lines can be used, and where
it is perhaps not so rare as is supposed.” Remains of echini have been found
in their stomachs: as have likewise small insects and soft marine animals, also
fish scales believed to have belonged to a sprat.

Means of capture.—In Dublin Bay is generally taken on spitted lines set near
the rocks for cod and whiting: in Cornwall mostly in crab-pots.

Baits—Thompson’s fish was taken on the wreck of a ship by a whiting-line,
the hook baited with a lug worm, Arenicola piscatorum, for whiting-pout.

Breeding.—April (Parnell), July (R. Couch). In Mr. Thompson’s fish taken
October 8th, the ‘‘ova were contained in two small lobes, each about an inch
in length.’ Mr. Gatty obtained a young example from Great Yarmouth, and
Newman several of a small size from among some sprats. Mr. Dunn has taken
very small ones from the stomachs of other fishes.

As food.—Its extremely unpleasant smell when fresh prevents its being used
for this purpose.

Habitat—Coasts of northern Europe, extending to the south coast of the
British Isles. Is very rarely taken on the Atlantic shores of France.

June 24th, 1876, one, 8 inches long, was found at Kirkwall, Orkneys, in a
dying condition off the pier head (J. Bruce, Zool. p. 5049). Several known to
have been found off Banffshire (Edward): Aberdeen (Sim): Firth of Forth
(W. Thompson): St. Andrew’s (McIntosh) : Berwickshire and Northumberland
and west of Scotland (Johnston). It has been taken twice at Redcar (Yorkshire
Vertebrata) : Mr. Plowright records it from the Norfolk estuary, a few off Cromer
(Gurney), and Sherringham, January 29th, 1846 (Rev. S. Dowell): an example
was taken in Norfolk in February, 1843 (Gurney, Zool. 1844, p. 5382): one at
Sherringham on rock-cod lines in 1846 (H. Frere, Zool. p. 1264): another
41. inches long in the river Crouch in Essex, in May, 1858 (S. W. Wand):
Newman in the Zoologist, in 1855, stated that he had observed among the sprats
brought to Billingsgate market an occasional specimen of this fish. On October 8th,
1853, one 93 inches in length was taken at Weymouth (W. Thompson). I saw
a local example in Mr. Rowe’s collection at Plymouth, and on September 8rd,
1881, Mr. Dunn sent me one from Mevagissey. April 17th, 1863, Mr. Cornish
reported in the Zoologist (p. 8642) one from Mount’s Bay, in 1864 three more

2l
322 ANACANTHINI.

from the same locality, and in 1866 two more. The same authority remarked in
1872 (Zool. p. 2947) on having obtained one from Penzance, the first he had seen
for years, another in 1876 (Zool. p. 5128), taken about a mile from shore ona
rocky bottom: and a small one in 1878, which was observed splashing about in a
hole, a stem of sea-weed was thrust in, this the fish laid hold of and was dragged
out by it (Zool. p. 109). They are occasionally taken by trawlers in Mount’s
Bay. Somersetshire (Baker). It was first described from an example taken at
Beaumaris, in Wales, by Mr. Davies.

In Ireland Thompson recorded an example, 10} inches long, picked up on
September 21st, 1837, as it lay floating off Donaghadee Harbour, county Down:
Dingle Bay, county of Kerry (W. Andrews): Dalkey Sound (Sir J. Corrigan).
Blake-Knox (Zool. 1866, p. 508) observing upon the fishes of Dublin Bay, says,
occurs sparingly here in autumn and winter and is not nearly so rare as Phycis
blennotdes: on March 15th, 1876, one 83 inches long was picked up dead at
Portrush (Ogilby, Zool. p. 4753).

The example, figured life size, came from Sussex, and I am indebted for it to
Mr. Carrington, F.u.s., of the Royal Westminster Aquarium. Pennant records one
from Beaumaris, which measured 12 inches in length.
GADIDA. 323

Genus VIII—Brosmivs, Cuvier.

Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchie absent. Body moderately elongated, and
posteriorly compressed. A barbel below the chin. Teeth cardiform, present in the
Jaws, vomer, and on the palatine bones. A single long dorsal and a single anal fin,
which are distinct from the caudal. Ventral with fiwe rays. Scales small.

Geographical distributton.—In Europe from the polar region as far south in
the North Sea as off Yorkshire: while in the western hemisphere it extends as
low as to Cape Cod.

Brosmius brosme, Plate XC, fig. 2.

Brosme, Strém. Séndm. i, p. 272, t. i, f. 19; Pontopp. Norg. Nat. Hist. ii,
p. 207. Torsk, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Hd. 1776) iii, p. 203, pl. lxxxix (Ed. 1812)
i, p. 269, pl. Ixxxvii; Ascan. Icon. ii, p. 7, t. xvii. The Torsk-fish, Low, Fauna
Orcad. p. 200.

Gadus brosme, Miill. Prod. Zool. Dan. p. 41; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 161; Fabr.
Faun. Groenl. p. 149; Gmel. Linn. i, p. 1175; Lacép. ii, p. 450; Bl. Schn. p. 9;
ee Brit. Fish. iii, pl. lxx; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 92; Faber, Fische Isl.
p. 84.

Gadus torsk, Bonn. Atl. Ich. p. 51, pl. Ixxxvii, f. 362.

Gadus lubb, Buphras. Vet. Akad. Handl. 1794, p. 228, t. viii.

Blennius torsk, Lacép. ii, p. 508.

Enchelyopus lub and brosme, Bl. Sch. p. 51.

Brosmius vulgaris, Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 194; Jenyns, Manual, p. 452; Yarrell,
Brit. Fish. (Hd. 1) ii, p. 197, ¢. fig. (Hd. 2) ii, p. 285 (Ed. 3) i, p. 591; Nilss.
Skan. Fauna, iv, p. 597; Kroyer, Dan. Fiske, ii, p. 215, c. fig.; Parnell, Wern.
Mem. vii, p. 357, and Fish. Firth of Forth, p. 197; Malgren, Wiegm. Arch. 1864,
p. 297; Storer, Fish. Mass. p. 186; De Kay, New York Fauna, Fish. p. 289,
pl. xliv, f. 143; Thompson, Natural History of Ireland, iv, p. 186; Goode and
Bean, P. U. S. Nat. Mus. i, p. 362.

Brosmius Scotica, Swainson, Fishes, ii, p. 301.

Brosmius brosme, White, Catal. p. 95; Gill, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sc. Phil. 1863,
p- 242; Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 369; McIntosh, Fish. St. Andrew’s, p. 179; Collett,
Norges Fiske, p. 125; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 35.

Brosmius Americanus, Gill, 1. c. p. 242.

Torsk, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, ii, p. 96, pl. cxlvii.

B. vii, D. (85)90-100,* P. 21-23, V. 5, A. (62)71-76, C. 35.

Length of head 5, of caudal fin 9 to 93, height of body 8 in the total length.
Hye—diameters 43 in the length of the head, 1} diameters from the end of the
snout, and ] apart. Interorbital space nearly flat. The snout somewhat projects
beyond the upper jaw which last is slightly longer than the mandibles. The
maxilla reaches posteriorly to beneath the middle of the eye. Rather a deep
furrow extends from the occiput to the base of the dorsal fin. A short barbel
beneath the chin. Teeth—cardiform, with an inner row in the lower jaw the
largest: while there exist some still larger ones mixed with cardiform ones on
the vomer and palatines: tongue toothless. J%ins—the fins-rays in the fresh
examples are very difficult to count, owing to their being covered by skin; the
dorsal commences above the middle of the pectoral and is continued at nearly the
same height almost to the base of the caudal fin. The anal commences on a
line beneath about the thirty-fifth dorsal ray. Ventrals broad, thick; ending in

* Donovan shows only forty-five rays in the dorsal fin, and thirty-seven in the anal, and gives
the same numbers in his text. In this he appears to have been copied by Fleming and Jenyns,
while the error has been continued through the three editions of Yarrell’s British Fishes.

21*
324 ANACANTHINI.

points. Scales—minute. Colowrs—upper portion of the head and body grayish,
tinged with bronze or yellow, and becoming hghter on the sides and beneath. Outer
edge of dorsal, anal, pectoral, and caudal having light outer margins with a
dark base.

Names.—The Torsk is likwise termed Tusk and Brismak in the Shetlands,
also the cat-fish. Bloch observed that the “‘ torsk”’ of the Baltic is Gadus callarias
or the young of the codfish (see page 277), the term torsk in Scandinavia being
applied to several species of codfishes. This fish is known in Massachusetts,
America, as cush.

Habits—Off northern Europe Faber observed that it approached the land in
schools early in the year, retiring to the deep late in the summer. It resides at
great depths, preferring a rocky bottom. From the middle to the end of April,
1881, large shoals of these fishes were found following in the track of the herrings,
during the spring herring-fishery off Sweden (Land and Water, May 7th). The
food of this fish is much the same as that of the cod and ling, while in those
brought up from considerable depths the same phenomencn of an empty stomach
or these organs protruding out of the mouth may be perceived. Among several
examined, in the stomach of one was found a good sized haddock, two small
flounders, a buckie (with a hermit crab inside it) and some corallines: while in
some of the others were crustaceans and small fish. Mr. Brotherston (Land and
Water, March 5th, 1881) alludes to the contents of the stomach in one sent to
him for preservation on February 19th. The fish was 3 ft. in length, and weighed
20 Ib. (the largest of three captured at the same time was 3ft. 4in. in length).
In Yarrell’s British Fishes it is said, on the authority of Faber, that “ nothing
is ever found in the stomach; and this has probably given rise to the saying
that it lives on the juice of sea-weeds. The contents of this one’s stomach—
part of which I send for your inspection—is therefore interesting. It appears to
me to be roc. The ‘roe’ was mixed with a dirty bluish thick liquid. A large
fishhook, 3} in. in length, was also found in it.”

Means of captwre—Similar to such as are employed for cod and ling, by
means of long- and hand-lines, but with rather smaller hooks. In January,
1880, the Torsk fishery was late for the season off Denmark, but large
quantities of fish came close to the coast and were readily netted. This fishery
in Norway was undertaken due to Sars’ discoveries, and enormous masses of
these fish were discovered in the fiords surrounding the island of Spitzbergen,
on the western shores of which upon some banks, eight to ten fathoms in
depth, they were so plentiful that they could easily be drawn on board with
hand nets.

Breeding.—In northern seas it is observed to breed in April and May among
the fuci.

Diseases.—Is liable to be affected by parasitic worms which form a nidus
in its skin producing rounded swellings. It is frequently thrown up dead in
large numbers after storms on the coast of the Faroé Islands, and off the south
coast of Iceland.

As food.—According to Low it is one of the best of cured fish, swells much in
boiling, and parts into very thick flakes: eaten fresh it is very firm, and rather
tough, which induces most people to prefer it salted. Pontoppidan observes that
the hard roe 1s well flavoured.

Habitat—-lis roriiul range in Europe is from Spitzhergen to about the
60° N. lat. Abundant uff Spitzbergen, Finmark, Norway, and among the
Faroés, as well as on the west and south (rarely on the north and east) coasts
of Iceland. Jt is found likewise on the northern point of Denmark and extends,
but in greatly diminished numbers, southwards in the North Sea as far as
Yorkshire. In the western hemisphere it is present from the Polar regions to
Cape Cod.

In the seas about Shetland it swarms along with the ling, and either
barrelled or dried forms a considerablo article of commerce, but it becomes
more scarce about the Orkucys (Low): it has Leen recorded from Wick, off
which coast it is frequenily captured some fifty miles to the north-east in
GADID. : 325

about fifty fathoms of water, at a locality termed Skate Hole, due to the
abundance of these fish. Donovan also mentions it off Caithness: Banff
common (Hdward): Aberdeen (Sim): at St. Andrew’s not common (McIntosh) :
said to be occasionally taken in the Firth of Forth and brought to the
Edinburgh market, where the young of the ling is frequently mistaken for it
(Parnell). It has been captured at Whitby (Ferguson, 1860) also it has been
recorded more than once from Yorkshire during the season of 1880-81, while
Mr. Mudd, of Great Grimsby, informs us that it is frequently taken near the
coast (Yorkshire Vertebrata).

Respecting its occurrence in Ireland, Thompson observes that it is said
by M’Skimmin in his History of Carrickfergus to have been taken on the coast.

The specimen figured is 17 inches in length and in the British Museum. The
average length of the torsk is said to be about 18 inches: Low, however,
mentions one 42 inches long. An example was captured at Faaboorg on the
south coast of the island of Iiihnen, in 1880, which weighed 42 lb., the roe alone
weighing 7 lb.
326 ANACANTHINI.

Famity, II—OPHIDUDA, Miiller.

Pseudobranchix present or absent. Body elongated. Gill-openings wide, and
the membranes not attached to the isthmus. Eyes of moderate size, rudimentary
or absent. Barbels present or absent. Vertical fins usually confluent, without
any anterior dorsal or anal. The dorsal occupies the greater portion of the
length of the back. Ventrals, when present, rudimentary and jugular. Scales
and air-bladder present or absent. The vent may be at the throat. Pyloric
appendages, if present, in small numbers.

Geographical distribution.—Mostly deep sea and cosmopolitan forms, but some
are littoral, and one at least has been found in the waters of the subterranean caves
in Cuba.

First Group.—Ophidiide.

Ventral fins in the form of a pair of bifid filaments inserted below the
throat.

Genus I—Opuiprum (Artedi), Cuvier.

Branchtostegals seven: pseudobranchice present. Body elongated and compressed.
Villiform or cardiform teeth in the jaws, vomer, and palatine bones. Gill-openings
wide: gills four. Dorsal, caudal, and anal fins low and continuous: ventral in
the form of a patr of bifid filaments inserted below the throat. Vent situated
considerably posterior to the insertion of the pectoral fin. Scales small, covering the
body. Air-bladder present. Pyloric appendages absent.

Geographical distribution.—Littoral species, distributed through the Atlantic
and Pacific Oceans, also the Mediterranean.

1. Ophidium barbatum, Plate XCI, fig. 1.

Ophidium, Plin. iii, cap. 9,11; Rondel. xiv, ec. 2, p.397; Gesner, pp. 91, 104;
Aldrov. iii, c. 26, p. 353. Grillus, Belon. De Aquat. pp. 132, 1383. Ophidion,
no. 1, Artedi, Synon. p. 42. Enchelyopus, no. 4, Klein, Pisc. Miss. iv, p. 52.

Ophidium barbatum, Linn. Syst. Nat. 1, p. 431; Brouss. Phil. Trans. 1781,
p. 436, t, xxiii; Bonnat. Atl. Ich. p. 40, pl. xxvi, f. 89; Shaw, Zool. iv, p. 68,
pl. vii; Brinn. Ich. Mass. p. 15; Bloch, t. clix, f.1; Lacép. ii, p. 279; Bl. Schn.
p. 484; De la Roche, Ann. Mus. xiv, p. 275; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 88; Cuv.
Régne Anim.; Flem. Brit. Anim. p. 201; Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 96 and Hist. Nat.
Eur. Mérid. ii, p. 211; Miller, Abdh. Berl. Acad. 1843, p. 151, pl. iv, £1 (air-
bladder) ; Jenyns, Manual, p. 481; Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) i, p, 316, c. fig.
(Ed. 2) ii, p. 415 (Ed. 3) i, p. 76; Swainson, Fish. ii, p. 260; Costa, Fauna Nap.
var. b, pl. xx; White, Catal. p. 50; Kaup, Apodal Fish. p. 155; Steind. Ich.
Span. u. Port. 1868, p. 46; Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 877; Giglioli, Pesce, Ital. p. 37;
Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 223, ¢, fig.

Enchelyopus barbatus, Klein, MSS, Pisce. iv, p. 52.

Ophidium vassali, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 97; pl. v, f. 12, and Hist. Nat. iu, p. 212;
Cuvier, Regne Anim. JIl.; Guichenot, Expl. Alger. p. 115; Miiller, lc. p. 150,
t. iv, f. 5 (air-bladder) ; Kaup, Apodal Fish. p. 115; Giinther, l.c. p.378; Canestr.
Fauna Ital. p. 190; Steind. le, ; Giglioli, lc. p, 87 ; Morean, le. p. 224,
OPHIDIID A. 327

Ophidium broussonetii and rochii, Mill. l.c. t. iv, f. 2 and 3 (air-bladder) ;
Giinther, l.c. p. 377; Giglioli, Le. p. 37.
Bearded ophidium, Couch, Fishes of Brit. Isles, iii, p. 131, pl. clv.

B. vii, D. 180-140, P. 20-23, V. 1, A. 100-120.

Length of head 53 to 6, height of body 73 to 9 in the total length. Hye—
diameters 4 to 5 in the length of the head, 1} diameters from the end of the snout,
and 12 apart. The snout rather overhangs the mouth: the maxilla reaches
posteriorly to beneath the hind edge of the eye: the upper jaw is slightly longer than
the lower. The greatest width of the head scarcely equals half its length: while
its height equals the length of its postorbital portion. The outer ventral filament
the longer. Teeth—villiform, and of about equal size in the jaws, vomer, and
palatine bones. Fins—The dorsal commences above the last third of the pectoral
fin; and the anal below about the fifteenth dorsal ray: they are both low and
conjoined posteriorly to the caudal. Scales—small and cycloid, in the example
figured none exist upon the head. Liateral-line—nearer the dorsal than the
abdominal profile. The vent is situated just before the commencement of the
anal fin. Colowrs—brownish or gray, sometimes tinged with yellow, vertical fins
with or without a black edge.

Varieties.—This species has been divided into several, but we are still in want
of evidence whether such are not merely varieties. That the black edge to the
vertical fins is no criterion may be seen in the British Museum example of
O. broussoneti, having such. O. barbatum is said to possess two bones, directed
downwards, superiorly attached to the first vertebra, and inferiorly to a large
crescentic bone, fitting into the front end of the air-bladder, and placed between a
pair of thick processes of the fourth vertebra. The lower branch of the outer
branchial arch with five or six gill-rakers, and a curved, hook-like process on the
end of the ethmoid. O. broussonetit with no separate bone fitting into the front
end of the air-bladder. The lower branch of the outer branchial arch with four
gill-rakers. O. rochii, a cuneiform bone at the anterior extremity of the air-bladder,
which is contracted anteriorly, and posteriorly having a round foramen merely
closed behind by the mucous membrane. 0. vassali, air-bladder globular, without
any bone anteriorly, but possessing the round posterior foramen. The lower branch
of the outer branchial arch with four gill-rakers.

Habits—Unknown. It feeds on small fishes and crustaceans.

Breeding.—In the Mediterranean about the end of the spring.

As food.—It is inferior and coarse.

Habitat—Along the northern coasts of France, common throughout the
Mediterranean and Adriatic. This fish was first included in the list of British
forms by Berkenhout, next hy Dr. Broussonet in 1781: a single example from
our shores appears to exist.

The example figured is from a specimen in the British Museum. It came
from Padstow, on the north coast of Cornwall, and is Dr. Giinther’s type of
O. broussonett. It is said to attain to at least 10 inches in length.
328 ANACANTHINI.

Second Group—Fierasferina.
Ventrals absent: vent near the throat.

Genus JI—Fierasrer, Cuvier.

Echiodon, Thompson. Diaphasia, Lowe. Osybeles, Richardson. Porobronchus,
Kaup (young).

Branchiostegals seven: pseudobranchice absent. Body ending in a long and
tapering tail. Guill-openings wide, the membranes united beneath the throat but not
attached to the isthmus. Gills four. The upper jaw overlapping the lower. No
barbels. Cardiform teeth on the jaws, vomer, and palatine bones, while canines may
likewise be present. Vertical fins continuous; ventrals absent. Vent placed under
the throat. Scales, if present, minute. Air-bladder present. Pyloric appendages
absent.

Kaup described (Ann. Mag. 1860, vi, p. 272, pl. iii, f. D.) the young of Mierasfer
acus as the type of a new genus, Porobronchus, destitute of pectoral fins.

Some of these fishes seem to be endowed with peculiar habits or those of
a “free messmate”’ seeking its fortune inside the trepang, Holothuria, within its
digestive canal, or its arborescent respiratory processes which open at the posterior
extremity of the body. Dr. Greef, at Madeira, found one residing within a trepang :
while Quoy and Gaimard also observed a species inside Stichopus tuberculosus.
Professor Emery, of Naples, has also remarked upon how this fish, when in the
tanks in the Aquarium, works itself into a Holothuria, going in tail foremost as if
to be able to readily emerge when appropriate food were present near the outlet.

Geographical distribution.—Cosmopolitan in temperate and tropical seas,

1. Fierasfer dentatus, Plate XCI, fig. 2.

Fierasfer dentatus, Cuv. Réegne Anim.; Kaup, Apodal Fish, p. 158; Yarrell,
Brit. Fish. (Hd, 3) i, p. 82, c. fig.; Giinther, Catal. iv, p, 383; Hmery, Faun. Nap.
. 3.
Q Echiodon Drummondii, Thompson, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1837, p. 55, Trans. Zool.
Soe. ii, p. 207, pl. xxxviii, and Nat. Hist, Ireland, iv, p, 231; Yarrell, Brit. Fishes
(Ed. 2) ii, p. 417; Bonap. Pisce, Eur. p. 41; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p.51; Giglioli,
Pesce. Ital. p. 37.
Drummond’s echiodon, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 188, pl. elvi,

B. vii, D. 180, P. 16, A. 180, C. 12, Vert. 98,

Length of head 91, height of body 14 in the total. Hye—diameters 44 in the
length of the head, 1 diameter from the end of the snout, and 1 apart. Width of
the head equal to 2/7 of its length: several rows of open pores on its surface.
Nostrils large, situated just in front of the centre of the eye, Mouth obliquely
cleft. Teeth—cardiform, in the upper jaw anteriorly two (or rarely one) pairs of
canines: in the lower jaw one or sometimes two pairs, the differences in numbers
being frequently due to one or more teeth having been broken off. Fins—the
dorsal commences slightly in advance of the base of the pectoral fin, its rays
highest posteriorly. Central caudal rays the longest. Fin rays articulated, but
none branched. Vent below the base of the pectoral fin. Scales—apparently
absent. Lateral-line—consisting of a depression extending along the whole length
of the side, anteriorly above, and posteriorly in the middle of its depth. Colours
—reddish, with the sides dotted, and the outer edges of the fins blackish.

IHabits.—Of these but little are known.

TTabitat.—South coast of Ireland, Mediterranean tothe Italian shores.

Thompson, in June, 1836, obtained one 11 inches long, which was found dead
on the beach at Carnlough, near Glenarm, in the county of Antrim, after a strong
easterly wind. A second example, 8 inches in length, was found on the shore of
the harbour of Valencia, county of Kerry, about February, 1852.

The figure is from Thompson’s original Ulustration.
OPHIDIIDA. 329

Third Group.—Ammodytina.
Ventral fins absent. Vent placed far from the head.

Genus I1J—Ammoprris,* Ariedi.
Hyperoplus and Bleekerta, Giinther.

Branchiostegals seven or eight: pseudobranchic in the form of lamella. Body
low, elongated and compressed. Gill-openings very wide, the gill membranes not
being united. Gills four. Eyes of moderate size. Barbels absent. Lower jaw
usually prominent. Teeth, when present, minute. A single long dorsal fin composed
of articulated rays. Scales, if present, small: when absent, the skin of the abdomen
may be vertically folded. Lateral-line present. Atr-bladder absent. Vent remote
from the head.

_ Geographical distribution.—Littoral and gregarious forms mostly of a small
size, which frequent the sandy shores of Europe and North America as far south
as Cape Hatteras; while the late Dr. Jerdon discovered a species off Madras.

Of the three British species, only a solitary example of A. siculus is said to
have been dredged off the Shetland Isles, and is now in the British Museum:
whereas A. lanceolatus and A. tobianus are common in suitable localities, but
being very similar in appearance it often becomes difficult to decide to which
of the two forms some authors are alluding. I therefore propose bringing
together in this place published accounts of the habits of the sand-eel or sand-
launce generally. In May, 1870, Sars, when investigating the cod-fisheries off the
coast of Norway, had his attention directed to the large number of schools of
sand-eels which during the winter months appear to reside in deep waters, as
throughout those months they are occasionally taken from the stomachs of deep-sea
fishes. As summer sets in they arrive in dense schools in the sandy bays and
sounds, the places they frequent having been known from time immemorial, and
being often very limited in extent. Hxceedingly voracious, they devour any
fish or other animal which they are able to overcome, persistently pursuing
the schools of sprats, while they likewise bury themselves in the sand, provided
the weather is not too bright and sunny, consequently when the tide is out
they may be dug up at even some considerable distance from the receding sea,
although within the limits of tide-marks. Mr. Lloyd mentions that two kept in
an aquarium at Hamburg always buried themselves in the sand at a particular
spot, and on being stirred up they swam about with an uneasy and rapid
wriggling motion for a few moments, generally with their heads towards the
light, and then dashed down into the sand into which they disappeared, prior to
the subsidence of the little cloud of sand which they raised in the act of vanishing.

They appear to live in large schools which have been observed to rise to the
surface simultaneously, or when driven there by predacious fishes. Thus Sars records
seeing a flock of sea-gulls sitting listlessly on the edge of a rock overhanging the
sea: suddenly, and as if with one impulse, all rose at the same moment and
screaming in concert, winged their way to a distant point where the sea looked
like a miniature whirlpool. This was occasioned by the pollack, Gadus pollachius,
which had surrounded a school of sand-eels, and forced them towards the surface,
when they became an easy prey, not only to these fish but to the gulls which
swooped down from above. Porpoises have been recorded to act much in the
same way, swimming round the schools and devouring immense numbers. Their
appearance when thus rising has often been mistaken for schools of mackerel.

A. Vomer armed anteriorly with a pair of tooth-like projections.
1. Ammodytes lanceolatus, Plate XCII, fig. 1.

Ammodytes, Jago, Ray, Syn. p. 165, t, ii, f.12. Enchelyopus, Klein, Pisce.
Miss. iv, p. 56, no. 7, t. xii, f. 10. .

* The term Ammodytes refers to its powers of digging in the sand.
330 ANACANTHINI.

Ammodytes tobianus, pt. Bl. t. lxxv, f. 2; Turton, Brit. Fauna, p. 87; Bonnat.
Atl. Ich. p. 39, pl. xxvi, f. 88; Cuv. Régne Anim.: Jenyns, Manual, p. 482;
Yarrell, Brit. Fish. (id. 1) ii, p. 317, c. fig. (Hd. 2) ii, p. 424 (Hd. 3) i, p. 89; Faber,
Fische Isl. p. 68; Parnell, Wern. Mem. vii, p. 390, and Fish. Firth of Forth,
-p. 230; P Nilss. Skan. Fauna, iv, p. 653; Kroyer, Dan. Fisk. iii, p. 574, ¢. fig. ;
Thompson, Nat. Hist. Ireland, iv, p. 235; White, Catal. p. 114.

Ammodytes lanceolatus, Lesauvage, Bull. Sc. Nat. 1825, iv, p. 262; Giinther,
Catal. iv, p. 384; Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 126; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 35;
Moreau, Poiss. France, iii, p. 217.

Larger launee, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 140, pl. elvii, f. 2.

B. vii, D. 53-58(61), P. 12-18, A. 28-31(83), C. 15, L. 1. 190-208, Coec. pyl. 1,
Vert. 67.

Length of head 43 to 5}, of caudal fin 10} to 12, height of body 10 to 12 in
the total length. Hye—situated a little before the middle of the entire length
of the head, 2 to 2¢ diameters from the end of the snout, and 1 to 2 apart.
Upper surface of the head nearly flat: lower jaw the longer, and having a soft
prolongation in front: premaxillaries not protrusible. Nostrils nearer eyes than
end of snout: the posterior extremity of the upper jaw does not reach to beneath
the eye. Teeth—absent from the jaws, tongue, and palate: the head of the vomer
bifurcates into two tooth-like processes which project downwards and slightly
outwards. F%ns—dorsal low, and with an even upper edge: it commences on a
line a little posterior to the hind edge of the pectoral fin, which latter is short,
being only equal to about 33 or 4 times in the length of the head. Caudal forked.
Scales—small, present over the body. Lateral-line—commences a little behind
the head, is continued a short distance below, but parallel with, the dorsal
profile, and from it 190 to 203 folds of skin pass obliquely downwards. A
second lateral-line runs from the lower part of the base of the pectoral fin
along the body to a short distance above the base of the anal fin. A straight
line, due to muscular insertions, passes from the head to the centre of the base of
the caudal fin. Colowrs—olive green, divided a little above the middle of the
depth of the body, by a broad bright band, from a silvery abdomen. Dorsal
and anal fins colourless: caudal with a dark base, and the central rays nearly
white. A black blotch on the side of the upper jaw extending on to the cheek.

M. Lesauvage, of Caen, was the first who distinctly pointed out the distinction
between the greater and lesser sand-eel.

Names.—Coast of Down, in Ireland, termed Snedden. Horners, or horn-eels,
Edinburgh: greater sand-eel, Yorkshire: great lant, Cornwall. At St. Ives the
fishermen term the adult snake-Lait, and the young naked-bait : used to be termed
smoulds in Norfolk (Browne). Yarrell suggested that the larger sand-eel only
should he termed sand-eel and the lesser one sand-luunce. Le lancon, French.

Habits——These are similar to what have been observed under the head of the
genus (page 32), but asa rule this form keeps in deeper water than A. tobianus,
while it is much more voracious; from the stomach of the one figured, which was
12 inches in length, I took seven sprats from 1 to 2¢ inches long, and a lesser
sand-eel 3 inches long. This fish does not object to devour its own kind.
Mr. Dunn sent me one, 5 inches long, taken from the stomach of one a little
longer. It appears to have derived its name ‘‘ horn-eel”’ from the sort of horny
tip at the end of its lower jaw, which assists it when diving down into the sand,
where it conceals itself duriny the ebb of the tide. Thompson remarks how he
observed a number of pigs at Newcastle, county of Down, daily frequenting the
sand at the extreme edge of the retiring waves, and ascertaincd that they were in
search of these fishes. It has, however, been recorded as captured at the entrance
of the British Channel, thirty miles from land and in forty-five fathoms of water.
Frequently taken from the stomachs of larger fish.

Mode of capture-—The fishery at St. Ives, in Cornwall, commences in May and
lasts until September. Thompson remarked as follows: at Dundrum, on the
coast of Down, from the loose sand covered with water, to about the depth of
9 inches, the persons engaged in this occupation with great dexterity drew these
OPHIDIID.&. 331

fishes from their hiding-places, using for this purpose old reaping-hooks. These
are run through the sand with the right hand drawn towards the left, by which
the fish is seized and transferred to a basket, strapped round the waist and
carried in front. It is in shape like the angler’s, but much larger and open at the
top. Fishing here is daily carried on throughout the year except in winter, when
being full of spawn they are rejected as food. In some places they are sought for
by moonlight, and it has been said that their silvery brilliancy is more striking by
night than by day. A rake is used in some parts, or a strong piece of iron wire
bent into a sickle shape.

A writer (Old Log) in the Field (June 18th, 1881) mentions that “when
going fast through the water to get over some very unpromising ground, and our
baits were nearly at the top of the water, I felt a very light bite, and, drawing in
my line, found that I had got hold of a large sand-eel, whose mouth was little
bigger than the baited hook. Now, according to all ordinary rules, the sand-eel
should have been in or about the sand at the bottom, and yet he was foraging at
the surface, and took a Belgian grub (see Pollack, p. 254) which must have been
a novelty to him.” :

Baits.—It appears to like live bait best, and objects to any if in the least
tainted.

Breeding.—This may vary in accordance with the seasons in different localities,
but I am not disposed to accept some of the statements recorded on this head.
In August at St. Ives I found the roe similarly advanced to what I observed in
A. tobianus, and conclude they both spawn in the autumn and winter months.

As food.—A very delicate dish, especially when in roe, but not good during
the winter months, when it is thin and out of condition. It is very good fried
with bread crumbs, or even simply boiled.

Uses.—As bait, for which its silvery appearance well adapts it.

Habitat.—From the Atlantic shores of northern Europe and coasts of the
German Ocean, and very rarely found in the Mediterranean.

This form, although extended round the British Isles, is not so common as the
smaller sand-eel, and seems to prefer deeper water. It is rare in the Orkneys
and Zetland (W. Baikie): common off Banff (Edward): Aberdeen (Sim): one
example is recorded from the Moray Firth taken from the stomach of a cod: at
St. Andrew’s it is frequent in the débris of storms on the sands, as well as in the
latter near low water-mark: bands of young occur in the tidal pools in May
(McIntosh): not unfrequent in the Firth of Forth, Berwickshire, and in many
situations along the east and west coasts of Scotland (Parnell). In Yorkshire,
common, but somewhat local (Yorkshire Vertebrata): common in the Norfolk
estuary (Lowe): Suffolk: also along the south coast, as Sussex, Hampshire,
Dorsetshire (Yarrell), becoming rarer off south Devonshire and more or less
common along Cornwall. Abundant in Guernsey. Somersetshire (Baker).

In Ireland it has been recorded from the north-east and west coasts, also
probably in the south, but is rarer than the smaller species, A. tobianus.

The example figured is a female, 12 inches long, which I obtained at St. Ives
in August, 1881, the ova being nearly mature. Thompson took one in Ireland
11 inches in length: another 13 inches long has been recorded, while Ray’s
example was 154 inches.

B. Vomer unarmed.

2. Ammodytes tobianus, Plate XCH, fig. 2.

Sandilz, Salv. fol. 70; Aldrov. ii, ¢. 49, pp. 252, 254; Jonston, i, tit. 3, ¢. 3,
art. 1, t. xxi, f.1. Tobianus, Schonev. p. 76. Amimoceetus s. Ammodytes, Gesner,
p. 39; Willu. p. 113; Ray, p. 38. Ammodytes, Artedi, Synon. p. 29, and Genera,
p- 16, Spec. p. 55; Gronov. Zooph. p. 133, no, 404; Schlegel, Dieren Neder. p. 91,
pl. ix, f. 4. Hnchelyopus, Klein, Pisce. Miss. iv, p. 55, no. 6, t. xii, f.8, 9. Sand-
lawnce, Pennant, Brit. Zool. (Hd. 1) iui, p. 156, pl. xxv, no. 66 (Hd. 2) iii, p. 206,
pl. xxviii. The launce, Low, Fauna Orcad. p. 188.
332 ANACANTHINI.

Ammodytes tobianus, Linn. Sys. i, p. 430; BI. t. Ixxv, f. 2; Shaw, Zool. iv,
p. 81, pl. ix; Bl. Schn. p. 493; Gmel. Linn. p. 1144; Donov. Brit. Fish. ii,
pl. xxxiii; Lesauvage, Bull. Sc. Nat. 1825, iv, p. 262; Ekstrém, Fische Mérké,
p. 263; Swainson, Zool. Illus. (series 2) i, pl. Ixiii; Fleming, p. 201; Gronov.
ed. Gray, p. 159; White, Catal. Brit. Fish. p. 114; Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 385;
Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 126; Winther, Ich. Dan. Mar. p. 35; Moreau, Poiss.
France, iii, p. 218, ¢. fig. :
Ammodytes allictens, Lacép. ii, p. 274, pl. viii, f.1; White, Catal. Brit. Fish.
. 115.
: Ammodytes lancea, Cuv. Régne Anim.; Jenyns, Brit. Vert. p. 483; Yarrell,
Brit. Fish. (Ed. 1) ii, p. 322, ¢. fig. (Ed. 2) ii, p. 489 (Ed. 3) i, p. 94; Nilss. Skand.
Fauna, iv, p. 656; Kvoyer, Dan. Fiske, ili, p. 593, ¢. fig.; Thompson, Nat. Hist.
Ireland, iv, p. 287; Parnell, Wern. Mem. vi, p. 391, and Fish. Firth of Forth,
. 94.
a Lesser launce, Couch, Fish. Brit. Isles, iii, p. 137, pl. clvii, f. 1.

B. vii, D. 53-59, P.12, A. 26-30, C. 15, L. L. 125-145, Vert. 62-63, Coe. pyl. 1.

Length of head 5¢ to 53, of caudal fin 93 to 11}, height of body 72 to 94 in
the total length. Hye—diameters 6 to 7 in the length of the head, 14 to 23
diameters from the end of the snout, and 1to 1} apart. Lower jaw projecting
some distance beyond the upper, but not so much as in A. lanceolatus. The
maxilla reaches posteriorly to beneath the hind nostril: the length of the
mandible equals 1/3 of that of the head: premaxillaries protractile. Nostrils
patent, rather nearer the orbit than to the end of the snout. Teeth—none in the
jaws: head of vomer forming a somewhat elevated transverse prominence, having
a few deciduous teeth posteriorly, also a single similar row along the body of that
bone: none on the palatines: a median row along the base of the tongue. Tins
—dorsal commences above the origin of the last third of the pectoral: the latter
fin 2/5 as long as the head. Stomach as in A. lanceolatus. Scales—small, from 125
to 145 transverse and oblique folds of skin. Lateral-line—the superior along the
side of the back, the inferior along the side of the lower edge of the abdomen.
Colours—upper-third of the body olive green, a silvery band, which widens and
becomes more distinct posteriorly, passes along the side of the body, one half
below, the other half above the median line: below this band the abdomen is
white. Fins unstained, except the base of the caudal which is brownish. This
fish is more silvery than the last species, and not so dark along the back, its
colours having been well likened to those of the atherine, or sand-smelt, with
its broad silvery lateral band.

Names.—Lesser sand-eel, Yorkshire: lizard-batt, by the fishermen at St. Ives.
Ornals, at Aberdcen (Sim): the wriggle, Sussex: lant, Cornwall. Saneels, Moray
Firth. D’ammodyte équille, French. De Smelten, Dutch.

Habits.—This species appears to congregate in greater assemblages than the
large sand-eel, and likewise to be seen more commonly nearer in shore, but it is
not rare to find the two forms together.

Its head being small and muzzle sharp, it easily pierces the sand: while the
body is square and slender, and so causes no obstruction to its progress: but due to
its many enemies it always appears to be desirous of retreating rapidly into the
sand. Porpoises, codfish, mackerel, &c., are constantly on the look out for it when
the tide is high: and sea-birds when the tide is low.

“The fishers say the sand-ecls change their ground, so as to be hardly ever
two days at the same place” (Thompson, co. Down) : and this form takes to softer
ground than the larger species. At the ebb of the tide it buries itself about
a foot deep in the sand, remaining concealed there until the succeeding tide;
occasionally at low water its snout may be perceived above the sand, or its hiding-
place discovered by a little bubbling. Lightning is said to have a great effect in
causing it to bury itself.

Mcans of capture—Most sought for during spring tides (except in the winter).
“They are obtainable in sufficient quantities for bait all along the south coast
as far ag tlie Scilly Isles, by those who have used the seines made for their
OPHIDIID A: 333

capture, especially those of the Channel Island pattern, which have calico bunts
or bags, by which the launce is kept swimming until they are dipped up and
placed in the floating cases provided for keeping them alive” (W. Wilcocks).

““T was surprised to see the Ammodytes shovelled out from shelly and gravelly
sand, to a depth of 2 feet, on the surface of which my weight hardly left a foot-
mark” (Thompson). They are most readily captured during frosts. Sir T.
Brown (1662) observed that smoulds were taken out of the sea-sands with forks
and rakes, about Blakeney and Burnham: a small, round, slender fish about 3 or
4 inches long, as big as a small tobacco pipe: a very dainty dish.

Breeding.— Various accounts have been given at what period of the year this
takes place, I have personally found at St. Ives examples of the small sand-eel
with milt and roe very forward in the months of August and September.
Thompson found some ready to deposit their spawn in Ireland at the end of July,
but he remarks that in places they do so during the winter. Couch considered
the end of December the most common period : so probably they continue spawning
through the last few months of the year, dependant on the temperature, becoming
very poor in winter after breeding. Their eggs are deposited in the loose sand.

Diseases, ¥c.—In July, 1881, the sea-shore between Burntisland and the Kast
Neuk of Fife on the Fife side was. literally strewn with dead sand-eels for several
days. The cause was attributed to chemical agencies that flow directly into the
Forth from the works along its margin.

Uses.—A capital bait, and much prized by sea-fowls. Couch remarks that
he had been informed that if mackerel are found to be after this species of launce
a more successful fishing is anticipated than if they are pursuing the larger sand-
eels. It is said by Lloyd to be most difficult to keep alive in an aquarium.
One summer at Hamburg he received twenty brought alive during a ten hours’
voyage in a 10 gallon vessel of water. The creatures took an impetuous rush and
a wriggle through the tank and turned up dead, some almost instantly and some
a little later, with the exception of one which lived thirty-six hours. Subsequently
he saw two living examples in a tank about 4 feet long and 18 inches deep,
containing about 4 inches of sand at the bottom, but no other occupants, and the
whole kept in a cellar.

As food—Excellent eating, especially while in roe, but in winter after
spawning it becomes thin.

Habitat.—Northern shores of Europe and occasionally a few may stray into
the Mediterranean.

Orkneys in vast quantities (Low), and common in Zetland (W. Baikie): Edward
recorded taking his first six examples from four to five inches in length at Banff
in March 1863; since then he has captured several, but always during the winter
months, save one in the summer (Zool. p. 8495): Aberdeen (Sim): abundant,
and used as bait in the Moray Firth: St. Andrew’s occasional (McIntosh): Firth
of Forth plentiful during the summer months, especially on the sands above
Queensferry, where the large sand-eel is never found. At Musselburgh and
Portobello the two species inhabit the same locality (Parnell). Yorkshire
resident and abundant (Yorkshire Vertebrata): Norfolk Estuary CLowe), in
short, very common along the shores of Scotland and the E., W., and 8. coasts of
England. On the 8. coast of Devon it is common and used as food from May
until October (Parfitt) : abundant off some sandy bays in Cornwall, especially
St. Ives: Guernsey. I have taken it at Weston-super-Mare in Somersetshire.

In Ireland common round the coast.

The example figured lite size was a male. The largest I have taken has been
7 inches in length.

3. Ammodytes cicerellus, Plate XCII, fig. 3.

Cicerellus messaniensis, P. Boccone, Research. et obs. Nat. 1674, p. 294, c. fig.
237.
y Ammodytes ciccrellus, Rafin. Caratt. p. 21, sp. 52, pl. ix, f.4; Kréyer, Dan.
Fiske, iii, p. 589; Moreau, Poiss. France, ini, p. 219.
334 ANACANTHINI.

Ammodytes tobianus, Risso, Ich. Nice, p. 95; Costa, Fauna Nap. pl. li; Canestr.
Fauna Ital. p. 191.

Ammodytes argenteus, Risso, Hist. Nat. Eur. iii, p. 209.

Ammodytes siculus, Swainson, Zool. Illus. 2nd series, i, pl. xiii, £1, and Fish.
ii, p. 254; Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 386, and Ann. and Mag. Nat. History, 1867 (5)
xx, p. 290; Steind. Ich. Span. u. Port. 1869, p. 46, pl. ii, £. 3; Giglioli, Pesc. Ital.
p. 37.

B. vii, D. 538-59, P. 14, A. 28-30, C. 19.

Length of head 42 to 5%, of caudal fin 11 to 11}, height of body 11} to 15 in
the total length. Hye—diameters 53 to 63 in the length of the head, 14 diameters
from the end of the snout, and 1 apart. Lower jaw projecting a little distance
beyond the upper: premaxillaries protractile : the posterior extremity of the upper
jaw reaches to almost or quite beneath the front edge of the orbit. Teeth—absent
and vomer unarmed. J'ins—the dorsal commences a short distance behind the end
of the pectoral fin, its upper border is not straight, the first few rays being more
elevated than the succeeding ones, while another elevation occurs at the middle
of the fin, and a third near its extremity: the anal is similarly elevated near its
termination: caudal forked. Scales—the body is smooth, but a few deciduous
scales are usually found on its posterior part. Colowrs—back olive, with a
brilliant silvery band passing along the side from the head to the base of the
caudal fin; often a blue spot on the top of the head, which is tinged with bronze
and gold.

Names.—Smooth sand-launce.

As food.—Said to be very delicate eating.

Habiis——Arrives off Nice in May and June, and is most common during the
spring-time, while in Italy it is most in season from February until April.

Habitat.—Dr. Gimther observes that the example in the British Museum,
6 inches in length, was dredged at sea off Shetland in 80 or 90 fathoms; if such
is the case, this species must be admitted to our fauna. Normally it appears
to be a resident in the Mediterranean, especially in its eastern portion, and
off Sicily and Naples.

The example is figured life size.
MACRURID A. 335

Famity, III—MACRURID&, Richardson.

Branchiostegals six or seven: pseudobranchie absent. Body somewhat
enlarged anteriorly, and continued into a long, compressed, and tapering tail.
Two dorsal fins, the first composed of a few rays, the anterior of which may be
Spinate: the second consisting of weak rays, being long, low, and continued
to the end of the tail: anal similar in extent to the second dorsal : caudal absent.
Ventral jugular or thoracic. Pectoral present. Scales ridged, keeled or spined.
Pyloric appendages numerous.

Cosmopolitan deep sea forms, which have been most frequently captured at
depths varying from 120 to upwards of 2500 fathoms.

Genus I—Correnanorpgs, Giinner.

Branchiostegals six or seven: pseudobranchie absent. Body elongated, tapering
From behind the head into a compressed and fine tail. No prominent ridges on the
head: snout obtuse and obliquely truncated: no bony articulation between the angle
of the preopercle and the suborbital ring of bones: an indistinct ridge on the angle
of the preopercle. Teeth in jaws villiform, an enlarged outer row in the upper jaw:
none on the vomer or palatines. A barbel present. A single short anterior dorsal
jin, armed with a serrated spine: second dorsal low and long extending to the caudal
and composed of weak rays: anal of somewhat similar extent. Ventral below or in
front of the insertion of the pectoral. Scales of moderate size or small, and either
smooth or spiny. Air-bladder present. Pyloric appendages numerous.

1, Coryphenoides rupestris, Plate XCIII.

Berg-lax, Strém, Sond. i, p. 267.

Coryphenoides rupestris, Ginner, Trondhj. Selsk. Skrift. iii, p. 50, t. iii, £ 1.

Lepidoleprus norvegicus, Nilss. Prod. p. 51.

Macrourus stroemii, Remh. Dansk. Vid. Selsk. Afhand. vii, p. 129; Sundev.
Vet. Akad. Handl. 1840, p. 1; Gaimard, Voy. Scand. Poiss. pl. xi.

Macrourus norvegicus, Nilss. Skand. Faun. Fisk. p. 600.

Corypheenoides norvegicus, Giinther, Catal. iv, p. 396, Annals and Mag. (4) 1874,
xii, p. 139.

Vompehcnettes rupestris, Collett, Norges Fiske, p. 131; Winther, Ich. Dan.
Mar. p. 36.

B. vii, D. 3/190, P. 18-19, V. 8, A. 190.

Length of head 4% to 44, height of body 531in the total length. Hye—diameter
1/4 of the length of the head, 1; diameters from the end of the snout, and 1}
apart. Interorbital space concave. The height of the head equals its length
excluding the snout: while the width of the head equals its postorbital length.
Snout obtuse and obliquely truncated. Cleft of mouth lateral, the posterior
extremity of the maxilla reaching to nearly or quite beneath the front edge of the
orbit. A very short barbel beneath the chin. Posterior edge of preopercle
crenulated: no bony connection between it and the suborbital ring of bones.
Teeth—in the jaws small, with the outer row very slightly the larger: none on
the palate. Jins—the first dorsal commences over the middle of the opercle, its
first ray strong, compressed, spinate, and having its anterior edge furnished with
serrations directed upwards. ‘The second dorsal commences a short distance
posterior to the first dorsal, is very low at first, but gradually increases a little in
336 ANACANTHINI.

height and is continued to the end of the tail. Pectoral as long as the head
excluding the snout. Ventral situated on the throat anterior to the insertion of
the pectoral. Anal commences beneath the first third of the pectoral, its rays
are longest anteriorly, considerably exceeding those of the second dorsal, and are
continued to the end of the tail. No caudal fin. Scales—eight or nine rows
between the lateral-line and the base of the first dorsal fin. The scales are armed
with several horizontal and parallel raised lines, ending in spines at the posterior
edge of the scale, while in the anterior half of the body they have hairy-like
projections. There are 60 longitudinal rows along the upper edge, and 65
along the lower edge of the lateral-line. Vent situated on a vertical line below
the last ray of the first dorsal fin. Colowr—silvery apparently without any
markings.

Habits.—Of these almost nothing is known, the species residing at considerable
depths in the ocean.

Habitat—¥From the coasts of northern and western Norway and Denmark to
the Faroés and Shetland Isles. The example figured life size, and which is nearly
6 inches in length, was dredged by the ‘‘ Porcupine” at 500 fathoms depth. A
smaller one was taken at 200 fathoms, they came from off the Shetland and
Faroés. It attains to at least 10 inches in length.

END OF VOLUME 1.

 

LONDON: G. NORMAN AND SON, PRINLERS, HARE STREET, COVENL GARDEN,
Plate I

s Barr &Ir PISHES.

Dav.

 

Mintern Bros imp -

F Day del C Achilles Iith.

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Day's Burr & In Fisurs,

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Plate LXVI.

Day's Brir. & Ir. Fisues.

 

Mmtern Bros imp.

 

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Plate LXXIL.

Dav’s Brit. & Ir FIsHes.

 

les

EDay del C Acm

LABRUS MIXTUS. (1.MALE. 2. FEMALE.)
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S.

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Plate LXXX.

Brrr. & In. Fisues.

Days

    

  

 
       

  

        

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lles Jith.

1

Davy del. C. Ach:

F

BUSCcUS.

a.Stomach and pyloric appendages.

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Mintern Bros umn.

F. Day del. G. Achilles lith.

LOTA VULGARIS.

a Stomach and pyloric appendages.
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So
5a

 

‘SHHSIPT UT WY MUG S.AM(T
Plate XCI

Days Brit &IrFisues.

 

Hanhart imp

F.Day del AHammond hth

I.OPHIDIUM BARBATUM 2 FIERASFER DENTATUS.
‘SNTTAUAOINO VC SANVIGOL V2
“FOVANGddvY OIMOTAd CNV HOVWOLS al UAWOA JO ANF el SALVIODONVT SALACONNY I

doze qreyereyy “Ee puomurey yp Mea

  
       

  

Lb.

  

S SEAS x ~S
MARANA SRA SASS

 

“TOX STeld “SUSI H] y tINg Sav
‘STaLSaddnd SadlONWHdIAYOO

‘durr qaetpu eH “YA puounsepry ep Acq. g

 

TNOX 99°FTd . ‘SSHSI] Yl LING SAV
DE gd URI Maal
eae et ripe
PT

Lah i oe
ee eR NS ed
: Es if

th

 

ny ay fs

tee
t

  
   

pip Paani aie aR
HN AML aE
G 2 lee

    
  

 

   

   

i Sir
aaa itt
Seer

ic
ATER
Ct tires
aS

       

 

 

 

 

OE it
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ee ms
ae
leaden iM ‘ <
eucieeeenet rt tat eee ie ain '
Cy ane ROR a et As e
st aoe Te heya a
uae Pel EAL ; APs Tidaca alt
. fbisel py

 

My
ie Abe

  

mah