aa eietreren pacers rears eae rraespeta estas seen See pea ~ Sere eee reer ererereene Speen Se Soar = pi erties New York State College of Agriculture At Gornell University Sthaca, N. Y. Library Date Due Library Bureau Cat. No. 1137 CYCLOPEDIA OF FARM CROPS THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORE - BOSTON + CHICAGO - DALLAS ATLANTA + SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Liuitep LONDON +» BOMBAY - CALCUITA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Lrp. TORONTO a seaeegee The flint type, much grown in the northeastern country. Maize. Plate I. CYCLOPEDIA OF FarmM CROPS A popular survey of: crops and crop-making methods in the United States and Canada EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY Pew Pork THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1922 All rights reserved @ _ 2B 185 2's Coryricut, 1907 By THE MACMILLAN COMFANY Set up and electrotyped. Published September, 190% @. we ee PREFACE Within the area of North America north of Mexico, the range of agricultural cropping comprises one hundred to two hundred kinds of plants, not counting the many horticultural and very special things grown for ornament and personal satisfaction. An account of these plants, together with the methods of growing them, is contained in this Cyclopedia, to which more than one hundred experts have contributed. It is not sufficient, in these days, merely to know the kinds of plants and how to grow them. The reader should have a background of other plant knowledge, as a part of his agricultural education. This Cyclopedia aims to provide this introduction and preparation in such articles as those relating to the struc- ture and physiology of plants and to their response to artificial stimulus, and in those touching the modifica- tion of plants under the hands of the plant-breeder. The diseases of plants and the insects that attack them come also within the range of this knowledge of preparation; and the kind of efforts now undertaken to enrich our agriculture and horticulture by the introduction of promising plants from other parts of the world should also be understood. These all contribute to the education of the mental attitude. The reader having come intellectually prepared to the subject of crop-growing, he will want to know the principles underlying cropping and rotation systems, the management of weeds, the growing of plants under covers of various kinds, and the accumulated experience of seeding, planting, and transplanting. To this part of the subject are added tables and lists of yields and legal weights in the United States and Canada. The foregoing subjects comprise about one-fourth the text of the volume, covered in Part I with seven chapters. Part II covers the manufacture of crop products in the way of canning, preserving, evaporating and pickling, and the making of juices. The larger commercial operations in these fields are, of course, not described, for they belong in industrial manufacture rather than in agriculture. These general subjects having been dismissed, the reader comes to the alphabetic list of crops. For the most part, the horticultural crops and plants are omitted as they are very numerous, and they are specially discussed in the Editor’s Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. To add them would increase the size and expense of this work beyond all bounds, for the subject requires, even for brief treatment, six large volumes in the other Cyclopedia. However, fruit-growing and truck-growing are treated, as these run to large- acreage operations and partake of the nature of general agriculture. Particular attention is given to the farm forest subject. Although it is sometimes said that forestry begins where farming ends, the two are only complements one of the other, comprising different ways of cropping the land. To grow a woodlot is only one form of agriculture, and it is a form that must greatly increase in importance as we enter the domain ° of public economy that demands the best utilization of neglected lands. It isa sharp reflection on our State policies that so many of these lands in natural forest regions still remain repulsive and waste. As an educated point of view is essential to the joyful approach to the subject of cropping, so is a similar mental preparation useful in the discussion of the particular crop. Therefore, something of the nativity, naming, distribution and other factors introduces the crops, in a form as condensed as is consistent with accurate statement. A closer study of the plants themselves is essential to a masterful hold on the cropping subjects. The trained observation is directly useful, also, in the understanding of the diseases and insects that follow the crops of man as they also follow the crops of nature. The reader may find in this volume much information on crops that are scarcely agricultural in a large sense and which are not included in the Cyclopedia of Horticulture. Thus the article on Medicinal Plants provides a ready cyclopedic reference in an interesting field, as also those on Fiber Plants, Incidental Forage- like Plants, Oil-bearing Plants, Paper-making Plants, Dyes and Dyeing. It is often difficult to find such information in available form. The book is not unrelated to the home, as the article on the Home Gardens testifies, as well as that on Ornamental Plants. It is the aim of educators to converge all the agricultural riches into the betterment of rural homes. This much the Editor has felt impelled to say as a reason for the re-publication of this volume. The Cyclopedia of American Agriculture is for the present out of print, as such. The great expense of book manufacturing at present precludes the immediate reprinting of it as a whole, and the demand has disposed of all the stock of former printings. The volumes on Crops and Animals are separately called for to such an extent that they are republished, however, to continue as much as possible of the old work, each as a Cyclopedia in itself. The work of the many persons who wrote the articles is timely and useful and deserves perpetuation. . L. H. BAILEY. November 14, 1921. CONTENTS PART I—THE PLANT AND ITS RELATIONS CHAPTER I STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE PLANT. 2... 1. ee ee ee ee te ee ee 5-35 The Plant: Its Structure, Life-Processes and Environment. W.J.V.Osterhout. ...... 11 Response of Plants to Artificial Lights. G.E. Stone . 2... 1 ee ee ee 22 The Stimulation of Plant Growth by Means of Weak Poisons. Howard S.Reed ....... 28 Effect of Electricity on Plants. G.E.Stone. 2... ee et ee et es 30 CHAPTER II INSECTS (AND DISHASES 2. :g056 Seo eceie a ei ee dl et ee ae A a ae a Sw 35-53 Means of Controlling Insects. M.V.Slingerland . . 2... 1 1. eee ee ee 40 Means of Controlling Plant Diseases. Henry L. Bolley ........ 2. ee ee wees 46 CHAPTER III THE BREEDING OF PLANTS .. 1... 1. ee ee ee tt ee et ee es 58-69 Some of the Principles of Plant-Breeding. Herbert J. Webber . . 2... 1. ee wees 57 CHAPTER IV PLANT INTRODUCTION. David Fairchild . 2... 2... 1. ee te ee ee 70-80 CHAPTER V CROP MANAGEMENT 3-406 an Go hia, Sao Pde Bee eS ae oe ew Sw 81-118 Farm Management. A.M.TenEyck . 2... 1... wee eet et ee ee ee 90 The Triennial Crop Rotation System. Hugh N. Starnes . . 2... 2... ee ee we ee 98 Examples of Crop Rotation Systems in Canada, United States, and Elsewhere. S. Fraser . . . 99 WEEDS, AND THE MANAGEMENT OF THEM. . .. . 1 1c ee et ee ee ee et te et 110 Chemical Weed-Killers, or Herbicides. L.R. Jones. . . 2... 0 ee eee ee ee 115 CHAPTER VI GROWING PLANTS UNDER COVER. . 2. 6 eee ee ee ee ee 119-130 The Shading of Plants. B.M.Duggar .. 2... 1 1. ee ee ee ee et ee 119 Glasshouses for Vegetable Crops. L.R.Taft .. 2... 1. ee ee ee ee ts 123 Plants in Residence Windows. Charles E. Hunn... ..... 2... 2.42 eee eee 128 CHAPTER VII SEEDING, PLANTING AND YIELDS . . . 1 1. ee ee eee ee th et ew he ee 181-155 Practical Advice on Seed-Testing. E. Brown and F.H. Hillman. ............-. 141 Growing Seed Crops. W.W. Tracy. . 2. 1. 2 ee ee eee ee ee ee 144 The Growing and Transplanting of Field-Crop Plants. L.C. Corbett ........... 147 Legal Weights of Agricultural Products .. 2... 1... ee ee ee te ee 142 Yields of Farm Crops 4. g 4 gh eB PRS BES eR RR RON SS Sw ee eS 152 vi CONTENTS PART II—THE MANUFACTURE OF CROP PRODUCTS CHAPTER VIII PAGE PRESERVED: PRODUCTS Gs jos eae Se ee ee wa ee RO ww we 157-177 Canning Industry in California, C.H. Bentley... 2... 2. eee ee et 158 Home Preserving and Canning. Anna Barrows. ........- eee eee tee 161 The Commercial Canning Industry. Samuel C. Prescott. . 2... 1 ee ee ee 168 Home-made Pickles and Ketchup. Anna Barrows. .... 2... ee ee eee ene 173 Evaporating as a Home Industry in Eastern United States. G.F. Warren. ....... 174 CHAPTER IX JUICES; AND LIQUORS 20.3: a2 aie. ee ay BOS ES a es So aa a See eG a ee 177-190 Grape and Other Fruit Juices. A.M. Loomis. ..... 2... 2 2 ee ee ee ee 178 Wine, Cider and Vinegar. Samuel C. Prescott . . 2... 1... eee ee ee ee ee 181 Industrial Aleohol—Denatured Alcohol. H.W. Wiley... . 2... ee eee ee eee 186 Brewing. Samuel C. Prescott. 2. 2s se ee a ee a 188 PART III—NORTH AMERICAN FIELD CROPS Alfalfa or Lucern. J. M. Westgate. ...... Be See Oe ah Ss WR wh Se oe na es a oh 194 Alfalfa in the Central West. F.D. Coburn . 2... . 1... ee ee ee ee ee 195 Alfalfa inthe Bast, Wi Bs Dawley... 9 6x a soe 43 Goa RS eA a we we ee we 197 AlfilariansJs J: Thornber 0s sas) eo ea a ee SR i See ea a 197 Arrow-Foote) Ss Mo Tracy io eccde ce: ss0 58 i eae ge ae DS Lee es ek ices 199 Banana-Growing in American Tropics. G.N.Collins. 2... 1. 2 eee ee ee 199 Barley: Re As Moone ge ea Ng Se Se ee eo BP) SR eS SS es a ee ae ee oe 202 Bean, Field. J. laStone «2 4% 4 & Hew aR ER HR Se ew Re we a 206 Bean, Broad: John: Wixter cay ae g oS, a ee ae ae SR Se ee a 212 Beggarweed. H. Harold Hume. ...... 2... 1. fe ee 214 Berseem.- VicWe Clarke a) 49.5 Sts eo Sea! as (Barked BG) PE Gea lars bar aes 215 Broom-corn. C.W. Warburton. 2... 2. ee 216 Buckwheat: J; Li Stone: . 4 ead we a RR a ee a ae BO OR ea a 217 Cabbage for Stock-Feeding. 8S. Fraser. . 2... 2. 1 ee ee ke ee 221 Cacao. G.N. Collins. 2... 2 eee ee et ee Se. eilsan ou 1a tesa See og) Sh 224 Cacty Gs WOrare: 29 a Ke alin Gea) ee a ene wow ee aoe Are ee ee ee ee a 226 Cassava. S.M. Tracy’: «cea a 2 ww Hw we a MR eae eR Te Rw ew eR 227 Castor-bean. E. Mead Wilcox . 2. 1. 1 we ee 229 Chicory Root. T. Lyttleton Lyon. 2. 2. 1... ee 231 Cloverce sig a ee ee ete el oe GY a a fg) LA RR oo eae a eS 232 Red Clover Seed-Growing. ©. B. Smith... 2... ee ee ee 235 Clover: Its Culture and Uses. Joseph E. Wing . .. 2... 1... 1. eee eee ee 237 Coffee and Coffee-Growing. J.W. VanLeenhoff. . 2... 1... ee ee ee ee 239 Cotton. Herbert J. Webber and E.B. Boykin. . 2... 2... ee ee 247 Practical Suggestions on Cotton-Growing. W.B. Mercier. ............2... 257 CoverCrops: =, that it is the union of Bs co << causes the offspring to angles, forming strengthen- partake of the char- acters of both. It has ing tissue. This kind of tis- sue is known as collenchyma (page 8). been demonstrated that if the offspring receives protoplasm from both parents but chromatin from only one, it shows the characters of only that one. The division of the cell is accompanied by a division of the nucleus, which may be either direct (amitosis) or indirect (mitosis). In direct division the nucleus constricts in the middle and the two halves simply pull apart. In indirect division the chromatin breaks up into a number of bodies (chromosomes), whose number is constant in each species. They arrange themselves on a spindle- shaped body, known as the mitotic spindle, and each chromosome breaks into two, the halves going to opposite ends of the spindle and there forming daughter-nuclei. A cell-wall is formed midway between these, dividing the cell into two (Fig. 25). Plant organs: structure and function. The plant body is divided into root, stem and leaf. The structure of each of these organs is adapted to the work it performs. Structure and function will here be considered together. The root.—The principal work of the root is to explore the soil for moisture. It is unerringly guided downward by gravity, which acts as a stimulus, causing the upper side of the root to grow faster than the lower side, hence forcing the 12 THE PLANT: ITS STRUCTURE, LIFE-PROCESSES AND ENVIRONMENT tip downward, no matter how it be placed. Mois- ture attracts the root very strongly; roots have been found in cisterns as much as 200 to 300 feet from a tree. There are two principal kinds of roots, one of Fig. 25. Four steps in process of cell-division. Mother-cell at left, far advanced in divison; daughter-cell at right. which, the tap-root (Fig. 26), goes deep into the soil, growing straight down and sending out lateral roots at intervals. The other spreads out near the surface of the soil (Fig. 27) and consists of a mass of fine rootlets. It has the advantage of estab- lishing itself quickly and absorbing moisture vigor- ously from the start, thus inducing a rapid growth of the plant. But it cannot utilize the deeper soil food nor withstand drought. On the other hand, tap-roots many endure long periods of drought: the long-rooted Peruvian cotton is said to survive a rainless period of six years. A well-developed root system forms. a mass of finely interlacing filaments that thoroughly ex- plore the soil. The total length of these has been estimated at a quarter of a mile for a vigorous corn plant, while measurements on a squash vine proved the root_to be over fifteen miles in length, Fig. 26. Tap-root. Dandelion. the greater part of this being produced at the rate of a thousand feet per day. Because of need of air, most roots are unable to thrive in wet soil, and their best work is done in soil in which the water is held in a thin film around the soil-particles. Each particle constitutes a minute water reservoir. To reach and tap these reservoirs is the work of the root-hairs, which ap- pear just back of the root-tip as outgrowths from the surface cells of the root (Figs. 28 and 29). They force themselves energetically between the soil-particles and attach themselves so closely that they often break off rather than loosen their hold when the root is pulled up. Thus they come into contact with the water-films that surround the particles, and by means of water -attracting sub- stances within the root-hair they pull the water away from the particles. As each tiny reservoir is emptied of its supply, water flows in from surrounding ones and these also yield up their stores. The water passes from the root-hair through the soft outer tissue (cortex) to the wood-cells, in which it passes directly to the leaves. These thick-walled wood- cells form groups that al- ternate with groups of thin- walled tissue or bast which conveys proteids and other , food from the leaves to the root and to other parts of the plant. The wood and bast are surrounded by a row of small cells (endoder- mis), whose closely joined walls prevent the entrance of air, which would im- pede the progress of water in the wood-cells. The absorptive surface of the root may be in- creased from seven to seventy-five times by the root- hairs. The fine roots, on which the root-hairs are principally produced, are known as “feeding roots,” and all tillage should be practiced with special reference to them. Tillage aids the work of the root by increasing the air and water-supply, and by loosening the soil. Roots will penetrate hard soil, or even hard substances like sealing-wax, but they grow very slowly under such conditions. They may develop a pressure of 50 to 100 pounds per square inch. The root-cap protects the delicate tip as it is forced into the soil. The water absorbed by the root contains mineral substances. If the plant is burned, these will remain in the form of ashes. By growing plants in distilled water, to which has been added chemi- cally pure salts in various combinations, it has been found that certain substances are indis- pensable to the plant while others are not. The indispensable substances comprise four bases and four acids. The bases are potash, lime, magnesium and iron; the acids are nitric, phosphoric, sul- furic and carbonic—the carbonic acid absorbed from the air bythe leaf, If all these substances, with the Fig. 27. Fibrous roots. Maize. Aérial or brace roots are shown at 0 o. THE PLANT: ITS STRUCTURE, LIFE-PROCESSES AND ENVIRONMENT 13 exception of carbonic acid, be dissolved in distilled water, plants can be grown in the solution and will produce mature seed; but if any of the sub- stances be lacking in the solution, except carbonic acid, growth will soon cease. All these substances are present in the soil, together with others of little or no value, as alumina, silica and others, but in order that the plant may absorb them they must be dissolved in the soil-water. Most of them exist in the soil in compounds that are but little soluble in water. The soil-water contains carbonic acid, derived principally from decaying organic matter, which has a decidedly solvent action. In addition, the root constantly excretes carbonic acid, which dissolves the plant-food within its reach. By the excretion of acid, roots may etch polished marble surfaces; and they impart to distilled water an acid reaction. Roots of many members of the pea family supply themselves with nitrogen from the air by means of the bacteria which inhabit tubercles on their roots. Roots of forest trees frequently make use of decaying matter by means of fungi, which grow in close contact with them. The leaf.—The seed-leaves are commonly gorged with food, con- sisting of proteids (nitrogenous substances, like white of egg), fats, oils, sugar and starch. This food is mostly manufactured in * the foliage leaves. When starch is heated it sepa- rates into water and carbon di- oxid (CO,). Evidently it may be formed by causing these two substances to unite. This is just what the foliage leaf brings about. It is supplied with water by the activity of root and stem, and it absorbs carbon dioxid from the air. By utilizing the energy of the sunlight the leaf is able to break the bond of union between the carbon and the oxygen of the carbon dioxid, thus leaving the carbon free to combine with water and so to pro- duce starch, and the oxygen free to escape into the air. The energy used in this process is set free again if the starch be burned, either by ordinary combustion or by the slower combustion that takes place in plant or animal cells. All elaborated foods, such as proteids, fats, oils and sugars, yield up their stored energy in the same way. In order to make as much starch as possible, the leaf must expose the greatest possible surface to the sunlight and air, but in so doing it runs the risk of losing too much water by evaporation. To meet this difficulty, it has devices that enable it to increase or diminish evaporation (transpiration) according to its needs. Its surface is made water- proof by waxes, varnishes and resins, so that water can escape only at the pores or stomata that are thickly scattered (Fig. 30) over one or both of its surfaces,—as many as 3,500 per square inch in some instances. Asection through a stomate is shown in Fig. 28. Parts of a young plant. rf, root- hairs; h, hypo- cotyle, between the seed-leaves and the root; ¢, seed-leaves or eotyledons; 1, true leaves. Fig. 31, and a diagram of a stomate in Fig. 32. In the guard-cells, which surround the stomata, the plant possesses automatic devices of wonderful efficiency for regulating transpiration. When the = wp a rh op Fig. 29. Cross-section of a root, as it grows in the soil, show- ing the relations of the root-hairs (rh) to the soil particles (sp) and the air spaces (a); this soil is represented as con- taining the maximum amount of water compatible with good plant-growth, water-supply is abundant, especially in the presence of sunlight, the guard-cells absorb water and ex- pand. The pressure causes the walls that bound the pore or stomate to curve away from each other, thus causing the stomate to open. This is due to the fact that these inner walls are thicker than the outer walls. The effect is the same as would be produced on arubber tube by thickening one side by cement- ing an extra strip of rubber on it. If such a tube be closed at one end while air or water is pumped in at the other, it will bend so that the thickened side becomes concave. The absorption of the water by the guard-cells is aided in sunlight by the action of the chloro- phyll grains which they contain; these produce sugar, which aids the cell in taking up water from the other cells of the epidermis that have no chloro- phyll grains. When, therefore, the water-supply is sufficient, and especially when sunlight, temperature and Stomate of ivy, showing compound guard-cells. Fig. 30. Stomates of geranium leaf. other conditions are favorable for leaf activity, the stomata open and permit the leaf to absorb carbon dioxid. On the other hand, lack of water and unfavorable conditions cause them to close. 14 THE PLANT: ITS STRUCTURE, LIFE-PROCESSES AND ENVIRONMENT The stomata are usually closed at night; hence it is then possible to fumigate plants with poisonous gases that would kill them if applied through the day. Closing at night prevents the stomata clog- Fig. 32. Diagram of a stoma or stomate (of Iris) in section, show- ing guard-cells and neighboring cells of epidermis. ging with dew. Water-proof materials, as well as hairy coverings of the leaf, protect the stomata from dew and rain. Leaves so protected appear silvery under water and do not become wet for a long time. If such protection is found on the lower side only; the stomata will be found on that side only. House plants should have the leaves washed occasionally to prevent the clogging of the stomata with dust. The devices by which desert plants check evaporation will be discussed later. The carbon dioxid, passing through the stomata, comes directly into contact with the leaf-cells, which are sufficiently separated from each other to allow it to pass freely between them (Figs. 33, 34). The great absorptive surface which they expose is kept continually moist and is thus able to absorb with great rapidity, much as the moist lung sur- faces absorb oxygen. The absorbed carbon dioxid passes into the cells and comes into contact with the green chlorophyll grains. The chlorophyll (leaf- green) in these bodies is divided into very minute drops (Fig. 35), thus giving it an enormous ab- sorptive surface. At the same time that it takes up carbon dioxid it absorbs sunlight, and with the energy thus received decomposes the carbon dioxid he) Ve x Fig. 33. Cross-section of ivy leaf, which grew in shade, and has only one layer of palisade-cells. u, upper epidermis; p, palisade cells; c, a erystal; sp, spongy parenchyma; i, intercellular space; 1, lower epidermis. The plant here intended is the true or English ivy, Hedera helix. and causes the carbon to unite with the water, thus forming sugar. This may be illustrated by the equation : 6CO,. + 6H,0 = Carbon dioxid Water C6H1206 Grape sugar + 602 Oxygen This equation, however, states merely the begin- ning and end of what is probably a long and com- plicated process. Oxygen is given off and may be seen arising in bubbles from water plants. Air that has been “‘vitiated” by animals may have its oxygen restored by green plants in sunlight. Aquaria are often maintained for long periods when a proper balance is struck between plant and animal life. The process just described (photosynthe- sis) furnishes not only all the food, but prac- tically all the fuel in the world. The leaf utilizes, that is, stores up, only about one- half of one per cent of the energy it re- ceives in the form of sunshine. It makes use of the red and orange rays almost exclu- sively, and forms little or no starch in blue light. The rays that affect the photographic plate, therefore, have little part in photo- synthesis, while the red and orange rays, so important in this connection, are the ones that also produce the greatest effect on the eye. A square meter of sunflower leaves is estimated to produce about 25 grams of starch in the 15 hours of sunlight of a summer day. This would use up the carbon dioxid contained in 50 cubic meters of air (a meter is nearly 40 inches); or, in other words, should the leaves take all their a te =f EN “ha O\ » PO EN BREESE TN Fig. 34. Leaf of common wild yellow mustard; e, epidermis; Pp, palisade cells; sp, spongy parenchyma; col, collecting cells; conv, conveying cells; sh, conducting sheath of vein; w, woody tissue of vein; b, bast of vein; s, stoma; a, air- space; chl. gr., chlorophyll granules. carbon from the air directly above them, they would in a day consume all of it to a vertical height of about 165 feet. The sugar formed in the chlorophyll grains is transformed, in great part at least, into starch, which makes its appearance in the form of glis- tening white bodies embedded within the substance of the grain. This starch mostly disappears during the night, being changed back into sugar, and conducted away into the stem and thence to the roots, flowers or other parts. Leaving the palisade cells of the leaf (Fig. 34 p.), it passes through the collecting cells (col.) into conveying cells (conv.), and on to the conducting sheath (sh.) of one of the veins, by which it passes through the leaf-stalk into the stem. The evaporation of water is of great advantage - to the plant, for it concentrates in the leaf the salts THE PLANT: ITS STRUCTURE, LIFE-PROCESSES AND ENVIRONMENT 15 contained in the water. The leaf thus becomes the meeting place of air food and soil food. These two sorts of crude food combine to form elaborated food. The first step is probably the formation of sugar, which then, by combining with nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus and other elements, forms pro- teids. These move from place to place, principally in the bast, and so reach the regions where they are needed. The energy needed to elaborate food comes from the sunlight. The leaves have various devices to absorb all the sunlight possible. Some “follow the sun” all day. long, thus facing eastward in the morning and westward at evening. At mid-day they are horizontal, except when the sunlight is exces- sive, in which case they assume the “ profile posi- tion” with the edges pointing upward, thus avoid- ing injury due to too strong light. Many such leaves assume a “sleep position” at night by fold- ing; they diminish thereby the loss of heat and avoid the precipitation of dew on the protected surfaces. Most leaves have the power of turning toward the light, and so move out of the shadow of other leaves. Thus arise the beautiful “leaf-mosaics,” e. g., of English ivy or of maple, in which no leaf unduly shades another. The usual arrangement of leaves on the stem is in regular vertical rows. The arrangement is known as phyllotaxy. The stem.—The stem bears the leaves and fur- nishes them with a constant supply of water, which it conveys from the root. On placing a plant with its roots in diluted red ink or other colored solution, we can trace the colored solution up through the wood-cells in the root (Fig. 29), through the stem (Fig. 36), into the finest veins of the leaf. It is easily seen that the colored solution travels only in the wood-cells and not in the other cells of the stem. We usually find the wood-cells associated with bast-cells, forming together the fibro-vascular bun- dles (Figs. 21, 37). In dicotyledonous plants (e. g., squash, sunflower) these bundles form a circle near the outside of the stem ; while in monocotyledonous plants (e. g., corn, lilies) they are scattered through the stem. [See page 9.] The largest passages in the wood are called ducts, and in them the water travels faster tl.n Fig. 35. A _ chlorophyll grain containing young starch grains. The dotted shading is to in- dicate the chlorophyll drops. Fig. 36. Diagram of cross-section of squash stem. str, strengthening fibers. in the other cells. They are formed by the breaking down of partitions, thus converting a long row of cells into a single continuous passage that may be as much as forty feet in length. In the tracheids—long, narrow, tapering cells—' the water travels more slowly than in the ducts, being hindered by the frequent end walls. The markings seen on the walls of the wood-cells are pits or thin places in the walls, by means of which water passes more readily from one cell to another. The passage of air is prevented by a delicate mem- brane stretched across the pit. The question may be asked, What causes the sap to rise? Various explanations have been Fig. 37.. Fibro-vascular bundle (cross-section) of Indian corn, much magnified. a, annular vessel; a’, annular or spiral vessel; ¢’, thick-walled vessels; w, tracheids or woody tissue; f, sheath of fibrous tissue surrounding the bundle; ft, fundamental tissue or pith; s, sieve tissue; p, sieve plate; c, companion cell; 7, intercellular space, formed by tearing down of adjacent cells; w’, wood parenchyma. advanced and proved unsatisfactory, such as capil- larity, barometric pressure, action of air-bubbles and root-pressure (the action of the root in forcing water upward, as seen in the bleeding stumps of the grape-vine). The one at present most in favor is that the sap is drawn up by water-attracting substances in the leaves, just as the water is pulled away from the soil-particles by the root- hairs. This process is known as osmosis. Sugar is a sub- stance that acts in this way. For example, the conversion of the stored starch of the maple into sugar, in the spring, causes a rapid rush of sap into the stem, even though no leaves are present. This theory is not .satisfactory in all respects, especially when applied to the rise of sap in very tall trees. ; Among the wood-cells are found short cells, wood-parenchyma, that remain alive long after the other cells are dead. One of their chief functions is to store starch and other foods that are conveyed to them by the medullary rays or silver grain. These consist of elongated cells that run at right angles to the course of the wood-cells ; they serve to convey gases as well as food. Much elaborated food, espe- cially proteids, is conveyed by the bast. Most pro- teids are unable to pass through cell-walls and so are able to move only in the large cells, or sieve- tubes of the bast, whose end walls or sieve plates are pierced with holes. The bast contains smaller cells known as companion cells and bast parenchyma bole 16 THE PLANT: ITS STRUCTURE, LIFE-PROCESSES AND ENVIRONMENT which remain alive after the sieve cells are apparently dead; their function is not clearly understood. In dicotyledonous plants, between the wood and the bast is found the cambium, an embryonic tissue that forms new cells whose growth causes the stem to thicken year by year. The inner part of this growth becomes wood, which adds an “annual ring.” These rings are clearly marked, because the wood formed in the fall is denser and has smaller cells than that formed in the spring. The outer part of the new growth becomes bast, which wears away on the outside almost as fast as it forms within, and, in consequence, does not thicken much from year to year. Monocotyledonous stems have no cambium and do not grow thicker from year to year. The cambium causes the cion to unite to the stock; it heals wounds, such as are made by pruning, by forming a tissue called callus. This sometimes produces new buds, whose growth com- pensates for the part cut away. At the tip of the stem the cambium does not form a complete ring but is confined to the fibro-vascular bundles. In trees and shrubs it gradually extends itself from one bundle to another, thus forming a complete ring. As soon as this is accomplished, it begins to form a complete ring of wood within and of bast without. In herbs no such complete ring is formed. Outside the bast is found the rind or cortex, which is usually green, and, in consequence, manu- factures starch. It also serves to convey starch. This is easily seen when it is cut away all around the tree, in the process of “ringing,” whereupon the tissues below lose their starch. If the bast be cut through also, the supply of proteids is cut off and death soon ensues. As the stem grows older, layers of cork are formed in the rind. These cut off the tis- sues lying outside them, which soon die and so form bark. The very first layers of cork are formed on the extreme outside of the stem, and are interrupted at frequent intervals by breathing pores or lenti- cels. At the very tip of the stem is found embryonic tissue which continually forms new cells; this is called the growing point. Just back of this, new leaves arise as protuber- ances (Fig. 88). These rapidly grow larger and fold over in such a way as to protect the growing point from mechanical in- juries as well as from dry- ing. The various waxes, resins and furry coverings of buds are not for protection against cold, as popu- larly supposed, but for protection against drying. The crowding of the young leaves at the grow- ing point, forces them to take on a regular ar- rangement which largely determines the arrange- ment of the branches, since these arise from the Bud of brussels sprouts cut lengthwise. f, fibrous bundles; bl, the crumpled leaf- blade. Fig. 38. point (axil) where the leaf is joined to the stem. Not all branches develop. Many that start cannot get sufficient light and soon die. This is known as “self-pruning,” and is seen especially in forest trees, which produce lumber free from knots. Many buds do not even start to de- velop but remain dormant, often for many years, growing just enough to keep pace with the annual thickening of the tree. They may be traced back to the center of the tree, sometimes several feet long, but no thicker than a lead-pencil. New or adven- titious buds may be formed; such buds, becoming crowded and distorting the grain of the wood, cause the appearance familiar in bird’s-eye maple. The stem requires strengthening tissue in order to sustain the weight of its branches and the force of the wind. In the tree the accumulated wood serves every purpose, but in the herbaceous stem special strengthening tissue is formed, quite dis- tinct from the wood. In parts of the stem that are lengthening, this tissue consists of collenchyma cells, whose walls, thickened at the corners only, have thin places by means of which food and water may be absorbed (Fig. 24). Their growth keeps pace with that of the stem, otherwise they would soon break and become useless. In older parts of the stem that have ceased lengthening, the mechanical cells, sclerenchyma, have walls equally thickened all around, except at the pits; when the thickening reaches a certain point the cells die, but their use- fulness is not impaired thereby. The distribution of mechanical tissue in the stem presents a wonderful example of useful arrange- ment to secure the highest degree of strength with the least expenditure of material. The prin- ciple of the girder and of the hollow cylinder is everywhere employed (Fig. 39) in leaf and stem. It results that a wheat stalk is a model of light- ness and strength, and at the same time it is elas- tic enough to bend sufficiently in the wind. In the root (Fig. 29) the strengthening tissue forms strands in the center, known as cable construction, that enable it to resist pulling strains. Some stems economize material by climbing on walls, trees, or other supports. Some weave themselves in and out of the branches of other plants (black- berry), others form tendrils by modifying a branch (squash, grape), or a leaf (pea), or a leaf-stalk (clematis). The coiling of the tendril is due to a stimulus such that the contact side grows less rapidly than the opposite side. The tendril, and the tip of the stem as well, usually has a sweeping circular movement that assists in finding a sup- port. The tendrils of the Boston ivy fasten them- selves to walls; the roots of the English ivy answer the same purpose. Plants which twine do so apparently under the influence of gravity, which causes one side to grow Fig. 39. 7 Diagram showing the gir- der-like arrangement of strengthening tissues (str) in a: bulrush. Scirpus. THE PLANT: ITS STRUCTURE, LIFE-PROCESSES AND ENVIRONMENT 17 faster than another, so that the tip circles in the same direction as the hands of a watch, to the right, or with the sun (as in the hop), or in the opposite direction (as in the morning- glory). Such plants unwind and reverse their direction if placed upside down, and they will not twine on a horizontal or nearly horizontal support. The flower.—When the work of root, stem and leaf has stored a sufficient surplus of food, the plant proceeds to flower. The century plant spends many years in this process; trees usually take four or five years or more; biennials, as the beet and turnip, require two, while annuals complete their preparation in a few days or weeks. The food is stored in roots, tubers, root- stocks, stems, or in modified leaves such as we find in bulbs. In the latter case, the fully formed minia- ture flowers can often be seen on cutting open the bulb. The flower is usu- ally spoken of as a modified branch. In their early stages, flower-buds are so much like leaf-buds that they cannot be told apart. But the growing leaf-bud pro- duces leaves that soon become separated by the elongation of the stem, while in the flower-bud they remain crowded to- gether, and become modified into dissimilar struc- tures. : The outermost set of these structures, the calyx (Fig. 14), consists of green, leaf-like sepals whose function is to protect the internal parts, much as the outer leaves of a bud protect the innermost. Next comes the corolla, consisting of petals, which are leaf-like except in color. Instead of chloro- phyll they possess a number of pigments that are either held in solution in the cell sap or appear in solid form. These, by their combination, produce an endless variety of coloration. The appearance of white petals is due (like that of snow) to the presence of air. The next set of organs, the stamens, often have a leaf-like basal part, while the upper part pro- duces an anther, i. e., a structure consisting usually of four cavities filled with pollen-grains or micro- spores. At maturity these cavities open and dis- charge their pollen in the form of yellow dust. The innermost set of organs, known as the carpels, are often leaf-like, as, for example, in the pea-pod, whose texture, color and veining are essentially those of a leaf. It corresponds to a leaf folded lengthwise on the midrib, so as to bring the edges together. Along the united edges are borne the seeds. Such a carpel is called a simple pistil or ovary; when several are united, as usually is the B2 Flower of fuchsia in Fig. 40. longitudional section. The ovary is at a. case, the resulting structure is called a compound pistil or ovary. The term ovary is applied to the part that contains the seeds or ovules, while the term pistil includes also the style and stigma. The stigma is borne on the summit of the ovary, often on a stalk called the style, and consists of a sticky or hairy surface designed to catch and retain the pollen. Inside the ovary are found the rudi- mentary seeds, or ovules (Fig. 40). An ovule usually has two coats, inside of which is a mass of tissue called the nucellus, containing a cavity called the embryo-sac, or macrospore. Inside of this are found one or more eggs. In order that the egg may develop, branch of pollen must be brought to the stigma oat, showing and there germinate (Fig. 41), sending @pajen-erain out along germ tube that makes its a long tube (pollen-tube), way down the style to the embryo-sac. A nucleus (Fig. 42, pn) makes its way from the pollen-tube through an open- ing that is formed at its end, and en- ters the embryo-sac, where it unites with the nucleus of the egg (e). This constitutes the act of fertilization, and the characters of both parents are thereby united in the nucleus so formed. This nucleus is called the fertilized egg. Since each of the fusing nuclei has the same number of chromo- somes, the fertilized egg has twice as many, and this double number is found in all the cells of the plant that develop from the fertilized egg, until, in the mother-cells, that give rise to the pollen-grains and embryo-sac, the number is weel\ suddenly reduced to one-half. The fertilized egg soon be- gins to develop and eventu- ally forms a tiny plant with rudimentary root, stem and leaf, as we find it in the seed. 7 The coats of the seed develop , from those of the ovule; some- times the ovary wall or a part of it remains permanently at- tached to the seed. The endo- sperm of the seed comes from two endosperm nuclei (Fig. 42, end), which fuse with a nuc- leus from the pollen-tube (s pn). The endosperm may thus show the characters of both parents. In corn, in which the endosperm deter- mines the color of the grain, an ear of yellow corn that re- ceives pollen partly from yel- low and partly from blue corn may show, on the same ear, both blue and yellow grains side by side. Since pollen is easily in- jured by rain or dew, various devices exist for keeping it dry. The closing or drooping which grows down toward the ovary (seed-case). Fig. 42. Embryo-sac of alily. Showing the union of the nucleus from the _ pollen- tube (pn), with the egg (a: the second ollen-tube nucleus spn), unites with two endosperm pro- nuclei (end), which multiply and form the endosperm: antipodal cells (ant), nurse nuclei which help nourish the egg, ete., (nr), pollen-tube (p). 18 THE PLANT: ITS STRUCTURE, LIFE- PROCESSES AND ENVIRONMENT of flowers in rainy weather and at night, and numerous contrivances for shedding water, all serve to keep the pollen dry. In a series of classical experiments, Darwin showed that self-pollination, or the placing of the pollen on the stigma of the plant that produced it, does not give as vigorous offspring as cross-polli- nation, or the transfer of pollen from another indi- vidual. In plants we find numerous devices to pro- mote cross-pollination and to prevent self-polli- nation. It is common to find the stamens and pistils in separate flowers on the same plant (moneecious plants, as squash and corn), or produced on separate plants (diccious plants, as the hop). When the organs are not thus separated they may mature at different times, or otherwise promote cross-pollination. Pollen is carried from one flower to another through the agency of wind (as in corn), or water (as in many aquatics), or by insects. Whether the insects are attracted by the color or by the odor of flowers is to some extent still an open question. The fruit—tThe fruit is the ripe or ripening ovary, with its contents and any surrounding parts that remain attached to it. The first work of the fruit is to convey nourishment to the young seeds and protect them during their development. The great importance of the food supply is evident from the fierce struggle that takes place, not only between flowers and fruits on the same plant but between the developing seeds in the same fruit. Usually many fruits fall because of lack of nourish- ment, and this is aided by the grower, who thins the fruit to secure a few large ones rather than many small fruits. In a number of fruits many seeds in the ovary fail to develop from lack’ of sufficient food. In the majority of cases the plant gives its whole store of food to the fruit and then dies. The stalks of grain, for example, are almost completely emptied of nutriment during the ripening period, leaving the stalks dry and taste- less. This occurs even if the grain be cut before the seed is fully ripe. On reaching the seed the food is often transformed, as from starch to oil. During the ripening process many changes in the food substances occur, as when the acrid taste in apples gradually gives place to sweetness and agreeable flavor; and at the same time various gelatinous substances aré produced that render the ripe fruit suitable for jelly-making. Such changes take place after the fruit is removed from the tree, as is illustrated by the familiar practice of allowing pears to ripen in drawers. In order to insure abundant fruit, there must be vigorous and healthy development of foliage early in the season, followed later by a decrease in water supply and increase of light and heat. The tendency to produce wood instead of fruit is checked by decreasing the water supply, as evi- denced in the practice of pruning or laying bare the roots, and breaking or notching the branches to increase productiveness. An important function of the fruit is to scatter. the seeds so that the plant may be reproduced in abundance. Some fruits float long distances on water, as the coconut; others, as the dandelion, develop wings, or parachutes, so that they may be carried far by the wind. Some stick to the rough coats of animals; others, by their pleasant taste and bright color, attract birds, which scatter the seeds. Some seeds can germinate as soon as ripe, while others require long periods of rest before they germinate. A sufficient supply of water, warmth and air are necessary for germination. If these are not furnished the seed remains dormant, often retaining its vitality for many years. General properties of plants. Nutrition and respiration. —The formation of elaborated food has already been described. Such food is disposed of in three ways: (1) It is oxidized or burned just as in the animal body, producing heat, chemical energy, and so on. In this process, called respiration, carbon dioxid is pro- duced and given off to the air, to be again decom- posed and built up into food. This food is burned in turn, forming more carbon dioxid; and so the process goes on in a never-ending cycle. It is evi- dent that the chief object of producing food is to have energy stored in convenient form, so that it can be utilized whenever needed. The constructive work of the plant separates carbon from oxygen, which is given off into the air, and stores energy ; the destructive work of the plant unites (burns) carbon with oxygen and sets energy free. The amount of energy set free may be estimated from the amount of carbon dioxid given off. When an organism has produced its own weight of carbon dioxid, it has set free sufficient energy to raise itself about 600 miles. Some bacteria give off twice their weight of carbon dioxid in 24 hours, while a man in the same time exhales about 1.2 per cent of his weight. Green plants consume much more carbon dioxid than they produce. The consumption of carbon dioxid stops at night, while its production goes steadily on. The amount pro- duced is small, and a hundred plants in a room at night would not “vitiate” the air so much as a single candle. When the supply of oxygen gives out, carbon dioxid continues to be produced for a time, at the expense of oxygen, which is in loose combination with the tissues. This is accompanied by the for- mation of alcohol. This process is known as intra- molecular respiration. Respiration takes place in every living cell, since every such cell has need of energy to perform its work. In plants, each cell absorbs its oxygen for the most part from the air that enters the stomata, lenticels and cracks in the bark, and penetrates everywhere into the spaces between the cells. _ (2) The food is. used to build tissues, cell-walls and other parts. : (8) It is stored in various special storage or- gans, principally as starch, fats, oils and proteids. In the germination of seeds we can see very clearly that the stored food, before it can be used, must be digested just as in the animal body. Starch is changed to sugar and proteids are converted into THE PLANT: ITS STRUCTURE, LIFE- PROCESSES AND ENVIRONMENT 19 soluble form. This is accomplished by chemical substances called ferments, the presence of small quantities of which makes possible a large amount of chemical action. They are of the greatest im- portance in both constructive and destructive processes. Plants without chlorophyll (saprophytes, living in decaying matter, and parasites, deriving nour- ishment from living organisms) are unable to make elaborated food. Some parasites that have chlo- rophyll, as mistletoe, have this power. Insectivo- rous plants secure an extra supply of nitrogenous food from the capture of insects. Plants of the pea family secure nitrogen from the air by means of bacteria living in their roots; this relation between two plants is known as symbiosis. Growth.—Growth may be best illustrated by con- sidering the growing tip of a stem. Here we may distinguish three stages : (1) The formative region, where cells are con- stantly dividing and new organs are being formed. (2) The elongating region, where the cells expand by absorbing large quantities of water. This comes next to the formative region. (8) The maturing region, where the cells no longer expand but assume their characteristic form and markings. In the first of these stages the cell is filled with protoplasm. As the absorption of water continues, drops are formed in the protoplasm ; these coalesce to form a single large drop (vacuole) that occupies almost the entire cell. This condition persists in the later stages. Growth depends very much on temperature, increasing rapidly up to about 30° C.; above this it diminishes. It depends, also, on an adequate supply of water, food and air. Light, especially the blue rays, generally checks the growth. Movement.— Movement in plants may be pro- duced by the contraction, or other movement, of the protoplasm, as in animals. It is usually due, however, to unequal growth of opposite sides of an organ (e. g., the opening and closing of flowers). The movements of the leaves of the sensitive plant and of clover are due to changes in the turgidity of cells. Irritability — Irritability is’ the power of re- sponding to stimuli. When a leaf folds up at a touch, we say that the touch acts as a stimulus. The amount of energy needed to execute the move- ment is much greater than was imparted to the leaf by the act of touching it. The stimulus sets free stored energy, just as a touch on an electric button may explode a powder magazine. Among the stimuli to which plants respond may be mentioned light, gravity, heat, chemical substances, electric- ity, strains and contact. In general, the plant responds by bending toward or away from the source of stimulus or by changing the rate of growth. . Reproduction.— The process of fertilization in higher plants has already been described. This is called sexual reproduction, because it results from the union of two nuclei, a male and a female. In addition, we find asexual reproduction, in which no such fusion takes place. The propaga- tion of plants by cuttings, leaves, tubers, roots and bulbs furnishes familiar illustrations of this. Simple division, as in bacteria, or budding, as in yeast, are also methods of asexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction by means of specially modi- fied single cells, called spores, is found in ferns, mosses, molds, bacteria and other plants. In all plants, down to and including the mosses and liverworts, there is a regular alternation of sexual and asexual generations. A sexual genera- tion (prothallium) arises from the asexual spore (e. g., of a fern) and bears sexual organs. After fertilization, the egg produces a plant that is called the asexual generation, because it produces no sexual organs, but only asexual spores, which, in turn, give rise to the sexual generation. In the fern, the sexual generation is of microscopic size, while the asexual (spore-bearing) generation is the familiar fern plant. The environment of the plant. The needs of the plant are like those of the ani- mal, namely, water, food, light, air and warmth. The plant resorts to endless contrivances to secure a sufficiency of these, as well as to protect itself against an excess of any of them. It constantly adjusts itself to external conditions in order to make the most of its circumstances. Were it not able to do so it would soon perish. We may briefly consider the chief factors of the environment. Water.—Nothing affects the plant more than the water-supply. The effect of dry conditions is best seen on desert plants, which show the following modifications: (1) Reduced surface secured by partial or total suppression of leaves, as in cacti. The discarding of leaves in winter is an adapta- tion to the dry conditions then obtaining. Even when there is water in the ground the roots can- not absorb it, because of the low temperature ; (2) reduced evaporation secured by thicker epidermis, coverings of wax and of varnish; (8) reduced evaporation secured by rolling the leaf, as in grasses, or placing it in a permanently vertical position, as in iris; (4) storage of water in the thickened stem or leaf; (5) reduction in the num- ber of stomata and sinking them in depressions ; (6) hairy coverings of the leaves; (7) increased woody fiber; (8) smaller air-spaces; (9) longer palisade cells of the leaf. Aquatic plants show the opposite characteristics, having large surfaces, thin epidermis, no waxes, resins or hairs, very little woody fiber, very large air-spaces, and poorly developed palisade cells in the leaf. Stomata occur only on the surfaces exposed to air, but are there numerous. The size of every part of the plant is increased by an abundance of water. The large-celled spring wood is an illustration of this. The small-celled fall wood is formed under much drier conditions. Growing plants in a saturated atmosphere pro- duce curious modifications ; a cactus may thus be made to produce leaf-like organs, and gorse pro- duces leaves instead of thorns. On the other hand, a potato grown with a minimum amount of water, 20 exposed to light, assumes a cactus-like habit, with no leaves and with very short internodes and thick- ened stems. The water-supply directly influences the produc- tion of flowers and fruit. Aquatic plants cannot as a rule produce flowers under water. Land plants with abundant water-supply run to stem and leaf, and produce little fruit. Cutting off the water sup- ply at the proper time greatly increases the pro- duction of fruit, and also makes it sweeter and of higher flavor. By irrigating properly, we may con- Sad a ee. BF . rm : yee See SI, ON ev 2 »» j i ed Megs eas a as, > ~ aa aie, SW ae 7 Jy Mt pA N a 1, — Fl s Fig. 43. The reach for light of a tree on the edge of a wood. trol both the quantity and quality of the crop. An excess of water soon kills the plant by suffocating the roots. Light.—The effect of light on the plant is very similar to that of dryness, and in the case of desert plants the strong light increases the effects due to lack of water. Plants that prefer the sun are known as sun-plants (grasses), while those that can grow only in shade are known as shade-plants (ferns). The latter have longer, thinner leaves, usually of paler color. A similar difference may often be observed between exposed and shaded leaves on the same individual plant. The exposed leaves have thicker epidermis, longer palisade cells, smaller air-spaces and fewer stomata. Both leaves and branches arrange themselves with reference to the direction of the light, and the same is true to a large extent of flowers. This is well illustrated by plants that grow near houses so that they are shaded on one side. A further illustration is the different arrangement of leaves on upright and on horizontal branches of the same plant. Excessive light produces “sunscald” and other bad effects. Some leaves avoid this danger by assuming a vertical position. On the other hand, absence of light produces marked effects. Chief of these is the pale color (etiolation) which is so noticeable in celery that has been blanched by being covered from the light, or in potatoes 3 oe 3 < NW Sa THE PLANT: ITS STRUCTURE, LIFE-PROCESSES AND ENVIRONMENT that have sprouted in darkness. The stem is usually weak and spindling, while the leaves, in dicotyledons at least, remain small ; hairs and even prickles tend to disappear in darkness. With weak light the colors of flowers are much less brilliant, and the production of both flowers and fruit is seriously checked, even when there is sufficient food present for their formation. The reach for light is well marked wherever plants are crowded. About the edge of a forest, the trees branch on the outward side (Fig. 43). In the midst of the forest they shoot straight up. In the open field they branch on all sides and remain low. When two or three trees grow close together, they branch mostly in opposite directions These — adaptations are equally marked in bushes and herbs. Food.—The food requirements of plants are very different ; some grow best on poor soils, others on rich soils. In general, starving a plant causes it to flower and fruit more quickly but to produce a less abundant crop. Over-feeding creates a tendency to produce stem and leaf at the expense of fruit. It also greatly increases the tendency to produce monstrosities. Both these effects are especially produced by an over-supply of nitrogen. Abundance of water acts in much the same way as abundance of food. Over-supply of nitrogen may be corrected, to a certain extent, by the application of potassium, which tends to check the over- production of vegetative parts-and bring about the development of fruit. Some ex- periments seem to indicate that phosphorus also directly favors fruit formation. Lime is valuable not only as a food, but it helps to make other mineral food available. It hastens the decomposition of humus, sweetens sour soil and improves the texture of clay soils by its floccu- lating action. It also acts as an antidote to the poisonous action of magnesium, when the latter is present in large quantities.. Some plants are found only where lime abounds, while others cannot toler- ate it except in small amounts. If any nutritive substance in the soil be reduced to a minimum, the effect on the plant is much the same as if all the nutritive substances were like- wise reduced; this is known as the “law of the minimum.” Consequently, the application of fer- tilizer containing an element deficient in the soil, may give results out of all proportion to its cost. It is possible in water cultures to determine very closely the effect of excluding various neces- sary elements. For example, it is thus found that when iron is lacking, practically no chlorophyll is formed. The facts so gained have not as yet been applied to the soil to any great extent. The root has a “selective action” in that it takes up from the soil certain elements, to the partial or total exclusion of others. Thus, from a solution of sodium nitrate, it takes nitric acid, leaving the sodium. A cereal crop takes from the soil only one-fourth as much potash and only half as much nitrogen as root crops. This is one reason Hears, [a = THE PLANT: ITS STRUCTURE, LIFE-PROCESSES AND ENVIRONMENT 21 why a suitable rotation of crops is necessary to preserve the productiveness of the soil. The physical condition of the soil is just as im- portant as the chemical. It is almost useless to apply fertilizers to poorly tilled land. The food supply of the soil can be unlocked and made avail- ' able to the plant only by judicious tillage. Heat.—As previously stated, the most favorable temperature for the growth of plants is about 30° Centigrade (86° Fahr.). If the temperature rises much above this point, growth stops, and if the rise continues, death ensues. On the other hand, if the temperature is lowered, growth ceases before the freezing point is reached. Some plants may be frozen with impunity provided they are allowed to thaw out slowly. Others are invariably killed by freezing. ~ Too great cold and too great heat have much the same effect on the plant as lack of water. The former prevents absorption by the roots; the latter causes water to evaporate from the leaves ‘faster than it can be supplied. The habit of. drop- ping their leaves on the approach of cold weather, which deciduous trees have, is therefore compara- ble to the action of desert plants in reducing their leaf surface. In general, the plant that contains least water is most resistant to heat and cold. Dry seeds have been kept for a long time at the temperature of '* liquid hydrogen (— 238° C., or —396° F.) ; when thawed they grew normally. Bacteria are much more quickly killed by moist than by dry heat. Frost does not injure buds in winter when they are comparatively dry ; but in spring, when they are full of sap, it. quickly kills them. The injurious action of frost is supposed to be largely due to the extraction of water from the cells by the forma- tion of ice in the intercellular spaces. The air that normally occupies these spaces is thereby driven out, so that a frozen leaf, on thawing, resembles one in which the air of the intercellular spaces has been driven out by boiling. It is supposed that when the leaf is thawed slowly enough, the water is taken up again by the cells; but when it is thawed quickly, the water escapes by evaporation before it can be reabsorbed. The action of frost may result in long splits in the trunks of trees, or in the killing of the ends of the branches, which soon blacken in conse- quence. The injured parts should be removed by pruning. Air.—Every living cell must have a constant supply of oxygen in order to exist. The stem some- times suffers by applications of tar which shuts out air. The roots commonly suffer and often are killed by being deprived of air. This happens when the soil is too wet or when a hard crust is allowed to form on the surface. For the same reason, paving sidewalks or covering the roots deeply with- soil may be injurious. When the surface of the soil is loose and sufficiently dry, a circulation of air is kept up within the soil by constant changes in barometric pressure. When this is prevented the soil becomes sour and unfit for plants, and the chemical processes that make food available to the plant are checked. Roots may grow in running water, which constantly renews the supply of dis- solved air. Some roots can live in mud, but they are supplied with air by way of the leaves and large air-passages in the stem; they are specially adapted to such environment. It is therefore of the utmost importance to maintain a loose, open tex- ture of the soil by proper tillage, to ensure the health and vigor of most agricultural plants. Wind.—The curiously gnarled and bent appear- ance of trees that are daily exposed to strong winds is familiar to all. In many cases all the branches on the windward side are killed. This is due to the drying effect of the wind, which may increase evaporation as much as twenty-fold. The mere mechanical effect of strong prevailing winds is often very marked. It is common to see trees with the tips of the branches permanently turned leeward, or with the heavy growth all on one side. Trees on mountain tops and near sea-coasts are often weirdly picturesque, from wind action. The effect of wind in drying fruit blossoms is well known, as well as the mechanical damage to branches laden with ice and snow. For this reason the planting of windbreaks is often indispensable. Environment and inheritance.—The facts just mentioned show how readily the plant responds to the influence of environment by altering its struc- ture or functions. The way in which it responds is determined in each case by the qualities it has received from its ancestors. The form of the plant, therefore, depends on both these factors. Some plants are plastic and easily modified by external influences; others are not so readily affected. The very remarkable alterations pro- duced by insects, including the various kinds of galls, the “witches’ brooms” produced by attacks of fungi, completely altering the habit of the plant, and the “ green flowers” due to small insects, make us realize the great possibilities of external influences. The analysis of all these phenomena should enable us eventually to control them. Literature. The reader is referred to the following publica- tions for further information: Lectures on the Physiology of Plants, J. Sachs; the two books, Power of Movement in Plants, and The Various Contrivances by Which Orchids are Fertilized by Insects, Charles Darwin; Text-book of Botany, E. Strasburger and others ; The Physiology of Plants, W. Pfeffer ; Lectures on the Physiology of Plants, S. H. Vines ; Plant Geography, A. F. W. Schimper ; Organography of Plants, K. Goebel; Comparative Anatomy of the Vegetable Organs of the Phanero- gams and Ferns, A. de Bary; Plant Physiology, Paul Sorauer ; Practical Text-book of Plant Phys- iology, D. T. MacDougal; An Introduction to Vegetable Physiology, J. R. Green; Text-book of Plant Physiology, G. J. Pierce; the two books, Disease in Plants, and The Oak, H. M. Ward; Natural History of Plants, Anton Kerner; The Great World’s Farm, S. Gaye ; The Soil, F. H. King. There are many good school and college texts that will aid the general reader. 22 RESPONSE OF PLANTS RESPONSE OF PLANTS TO ARTIFICIAL LIGHTS . By G. E. Stone Light constitutes one of the most important external factors affecting vegetation, and plays a prominent réle in modifying the configuration of plants. Photosynthesis, or the assimilation of car- bon, is one of the most fundamental processes in the vegetable kingdom, and is dependent on light. The activity of this process increases proportion- ally to light intensity. Except in the polar regions, plants are exposed to the influence of light during only half their life period ; the other half is spent in darkness. So far as is known, plants do not assimilate carbon during bright moonlight nights, although sensitive appli- ances for determining light intensity are capable of registering the comparatively feeble illumina- tion of even bright nights, which would tend to show that the minimum amount of light necessary for photosynthesis is comparatively strong. Pho- tosynthesis takes place under the influence of elec- tric and artificial lights, as has long been known, but the activity of the process depends on the in- tensity and the spectrum of the particular kind of light. In glasshouse and other intensive cultures, it is important to know whether artificial lights of any kind can be used economically to supplement sun- light and thereby produce an earlier or better crop. It is also important to know what effect artificial lights have on plants in exhibition halls. This subject: has been the theme of considerable experimenting, but little very practical agricul- tural result has yet been secured. In the winter, particularly in cloudy climates, artificial light may very likely come into prominence in the growing of some kinds of crops. The following account gives a brief survey of what has been accom- plished. Hlectric are light. Many experiments have been made relating to the influence of electric light on vegetation, more particularly with the stronger lamps, such as the are light. The spectrum of the ordinary electric are light is that of carbon, with a slight addition, in some cases, of the spectra of certain gases. It is especially rich in the rays of high intensity, lying in the ultra-violet or actinic part of the spectrum, beyond the range of vision. It is well known that electric light possesses more of the ultra-violet rays, with probably less of the orange rays, than sunlight; therefore it would not be ex- pected that electric light would possess the same value to plants as sunlight, even if the intensity of each were the same, since the rays which are the most valuable for photosynthesis are those located in the yellow and orange bands of the spectrum. On the other hand, the highly refrangible or ultra- violet rays of the spectrum stimulate growth of a spindling nature, which would be, undesirable to most crops. Hervé-Mangon was one of the first to demon- TO ARTIFICIAL LIGHTS strate that electric light was capable of producing chlorophyll in plants as well as inducing heliotrop- ism, and as far back as 1869 Prillieux showed that electric light is capable of promoting assimilation. The first recorded horticultural experiments with electric light were made by Dr. C. W. Siemens, an English physicist. He experimented with a variety of plants, such as strawberries, tomatoes, grapes and melons, and found that an arc light produced decided effects on the growth of these crops, sometimes producing beneficial, and, at other times, injurious effects. He ascertained very early in his experiments that a naked or unscreened light was injurious at short range, but that the inter- position of a glass globe or ordinary window-pane prevented such injury. He demonstrated that an are light could be placed over a greenhouse with good results, the glass in such cases screening off the injurious rays, and found that plants developed earlier under screened lights than otherwise. As a result of his experiments he became very sanguine that electric light could be used to advantage in horticulture, and he was the first to employ the term “electro-horticulture ” to designate this new appli- cation of electrical energy. He showed that growth can be hastened by the addition of electric light to daylight, and that injury does not necessarily fol- low continuous light through the twenty-four hours ; that electric light often intensifies the green color of leaves, producing a deeper color in flowers and modifying the flavor of fruits. Siemans maintained that the addition of electric light enables plants to stand a higher temperature in a greenhouse. At the time Siemens, in England, was conducting his experiments, Dehérain was making investiga- tions in Paris along the same line. He attempted to grow plants by continuous electric light, that is, with no daylight whatsoever. He found, as Sie- mens did, that an unscreened light injured plants, although it promoted assimilation more effectively than a screened light. He found that barley, flax, chrysanthemums, pelargoniums, roses and others were severely injured after seven days of continu- ous exposure to electric light, and that this injury was manifested by the dropping off or turning black of the foliage. In the case of lilacs, when the leaves were screened or protected by the upper leaves, no injury took place. Plants which received sunlight by day and electric light by night were injured in the same manner, but to a less degree. He found that electric light was far inferior to bright sunlight in its effects on photosynthesis, and that electric light was particularly injurious to seed- lings, as most of them died before forming leaves. Dehérain’s conclusions are briefly as follows : Elec- tric light contains rays harmful to vegetation. These, however, can be modified or eliminated by the use of transparent glass. It contains enough rays to maintain full-grown plants 24 months, but is too weak to enable seedlings to reach maturity. Among those in America who have experimented with electric light are L. H. Bailey, of Cornell University, and F. W. Rane, formerly of the West Virginia Experiment Station. Bailey made exten- sive experiments with the arc light, covering a RESPONSE OF PLANTS TO ARTIFICIAL LIGHTS 23 period of four or five years. Rane, formerly Bailey’s student, used the incandescent light. At first, Bailey employed a 2,000 candle-power un- screened arc lamp suspended inside his forcing-house, and this was kept running all night. He made his experiments in a forcing-house 60 feet long and 20 feet wide, this being divided by a partition. In one part of the house, plants were exposed to an elec- tric light at night, in addition to the daylight which they received, while the plants in the other part of the house were grown under normal conditions, receiving daylight only. According to his experiments the general effect of the electric light was to hasten maturity, and the nearer the plants were to the light the greater was the accelera- LiL = TLL LLL more than in the normal plants. Nitrogen, however, was the same in both cases, but more amide nitro- gen had been changed into other forms than in the normal plants, and those grown under an electric light were richer in albumenoids. Dwarf peas blossomed and fruited earlier but yielded only four- sevenths as many seeds as those under normal con- tion, which was par- ticularly marked in the case of crops like endive, spinach, cress and lettuce. He noticed a ten- dency for the plants to run to seed, and the leaves which de- veloped near the light became small and curled. The amount of starch in the leaves of both the electric and the non-electric plants was the same, al- though the starch appeared to be more developed in those plants exposed to electric light. Lettuce plants within three feet of the lamp were killed outright soon after they came up, and the remaining plants were seriously injured, developing small, curled leaves. The farther away the plants were from the light, the more vigorous they appeared, but they were not so vigorous as those grown in sunlight. Radish plants made strong bendings toward the electric light; their foliage curled and the injury was in direct proportion to the proximity of the lamp. Those plants located within three to six feet of the lamp were nearly dead in six weeks, while those fourteen feet away showed little injury. The normal crops during the same length of time made twice the development of those subject to the electric light. Chemical analysis proved that there was more ash in them, twice as much potash, and the chlorophyll was somewhat Fig. 44. Lettuce of the same age and variety grown under normal conditions of sunlight (above) and with naked electric are light running part of the night in addition (below), five weeks after planting in permanent quarters. (Bailey.) ditions, while the plants were considerably shorter in growth. Bailey found that carrots showed the least injury from the effects of the arc light. The experiments just described were all made with a naked arc light; but he further experi- mented on the effects of screening the arc light with glass, in which case he made use of opal globes. This screening eliminated many of the ill effects brought about by the naked arc light ; while the loss in radishes from the use of the naked are light was 45 to 65 per cent, with the screened light it averaged only 1 to 5 per cent. His results with lettuce were the most encouraging. This plant seemed able to adapt itself completely to screened light, while other plants, as before, showed a ten- dency to run quickly to seed. He then attempted to operate his electric light for only half the night, with the result that the foliage of radishes was noticeably larger. Peas, on 24 RESPONSE OF PLANTS TO ARTIFICIAL LIGHTS the other hand, showed small leaves and less fruit under these conditions. The most favorable results, however, were secured in the case of lettuce, when the house was lighted only half the night (Fig. 44). At the end of three weeks the lettuce plants under the influence of electric light were fully 50 per cent in advance of those in the normal house, and the color and other characteristics of the plants were equally good. The lighted plants had received about 704 hours of electric light during this period, and they were ready forthe market one month later; but it was six weeks before the plants in the normal house were equally developed. This forcing required 1612 hours of electric light, at a cost amount- ing to about $7. This experiment was repeated several times, with practically the same results. Further experiments showed that the injurious effects of electric light can be overcome by the interposition of glass, and good results were ob- tained by suspending a lamp surrounded by a globe. Plants that were injured by the naked arc light hung inside the house, were benefited by the same light hung above the roof. Experiments were also made with colored screens. The practical con- clusions which Bailey drew from his researches are that lettuce can be profitably forced by the use of the electric light, and that probably many flowers can be similarly benefited. Bailey’s experiments with other market-garden crops and flowers under glass gave varying results which, on the whole, were not encouraging, the light in some cases not producing much modifica- tion, while in others modifying them in an unde- sirable way. Some of the unfavorable results which he noticed were a spindling growth, a bleaching of some of the leaves, disintegration of the cells and a collapse of the chlorophyll bodies; but these injuries are lessened or prevented by the inter- position of clear glass, which cuts off the ultra- violet rays. W. W. Rawson, a Boston market-gardener, has employed electric light for some years in connec- tion with his lettuce business, and has reported beneficial results from the use of an arc light sus- pended over his houses. Bonnier, of the University of Paris, has investi- gated extensively the effects of electric light on plants and has arrived at many interesting con- clusions which are not at variance with those of other experimenters. He found that electric light contains more of the ultra-violet rays, which can be screened out or weakened by the use of thick glass, and that plants illuminated by screened electric light differed widely from those cultivated normally, as well as from those cultivated under an intermittent light,—twelve hours of darkness and twelve of light. According to his observations, plants grown entirely under electric light possessed much greater quantities of chlorophyll, and even the deeper-lying tissues not normally possessing chlorophyll were green. The axes of plants were also shorter than those grown under normal con- ditions, the leaves smaller and thicker and the flowers normally developed but more highly col- ored. The internal structure of such plants strongly resembled etiolated plants ; that is, the me- chanical tissues were not well differentiated. On the other hand, he found that plants exposed to discontinuous electric light showed some abnormal symptoms, but, in general, they possessed similar characteristics to plants grown in sunlight. It is thought that an uninterrupted duration of illumi- nation is responsible for the deviation from the normal structure. Bonnier made comparisons with plants grown in northern latitudes and those grown on the moun- tains of central Europe, and he maintains that the plants of northern latitudes possess less differen- tiation of structure than those in the mountains of central Europe, and that the same species of plants grown in continuous light resemble those which are found inthe polar regions. Electric incandescent light. Rane experimented with incandescent light, the results of his work appearing in Bulletin No. 37 of the West Virginia Experiment Station. His results appear to be very similar to those secured by Bailey and others with the arc light. The essential difference between the are light and the incandescent light in this connection is that in the are light the chemical or actinic rays are prominent, while in the incandescent light these are only slightly present. The spectrum of the in- candescent light is that of carbon at low intensity, the luminous part of the lamp being cellulose ; it is modified somewhat by the glass of the bulb. The incandescent light is much steadier than the are, and it casts no sharp shadows; it is less expensive and requires almost no care. Rane found (1) That the incandescent electric light has a marked effect on greenhouse plants. (2) That the light appears to be beneficial for some plants grown for foliage, such as lettuce. The lettuce was earlier, weighed more and stood more erect. (38) That flowering plants blossomed earlier and continued in bloom longer under the light. (4) That the light influences some plants, such as spinach and endive, to run quickly to seed. (5) That proper watering appears to be more important with radishes, beans and cuttings than improper watering plus the electric light. (6) That the stronger the candle-power the more marked the results, other things being equal. (7) That most plants tended toward a taller growth under the light. Acetylene light. The use of acetylene light for forcing plants has not yet had sufficient study to justify positive assertions regarding its value. Perhdps the most important investigations were those made at the Cornell Experiment Station in 1905 and 1906, and reported by John Craig, in the “ Acetylene Journal ” for September, 1906. The following discussion is an abstract from this report. (The full report, in bulletin form, to be made by the Cornell Station, is not published as this article is written) : RESPONSE OF PLANTS TO ARTIFICIAL LIGHT 25 The chief interest in the use of acetylene light for forcing plants, centers about the fact that in its composition it more nearly resembles sunlight than any other artificial illuminant in use. It is composed of the same colors and in very similar degrees of intensity. Miinsterberg makes the fol- lowing comparison of color values of acetylene and sun rays, allowing 1 to equal the value of each color of sunlight : Sun ACETYLENE Red 1 1.03 Yellow 1 1.02 Green 1 71 Blue 1 1.46 Violet 1 1.07 Indigo and orange are not given. The ultra-vio- let rays, the injurious factors in the case of electric light, are practically absent in acetylene, although blue and violet are equally strong. In these experiments, acetylene was added to sunlight, being turned on after twilight. For com- parison, the experiments were conducted in warm (60°-65°), medium (50°-55°), and cool (45°-50°) rooms. Lettuce, parsley and spinach were hastened ; coleus increased in vigor ; asparagus showed little effect ; begonias gave increased growth, but delayed flowering period; Cobea scandens produced 15 to 20 per cent more vine; ferns, leeks, onions and beets showed very little effect ; radishes in the cool house in the dark days of autumn produced more than twice the root product, the time period was increased 62 per cent, and the maturing period shortened about 20 per cent; strawberries grew more vigorously and ripened fruit sixteen days earlier ; peas and bush beans were benefited ; pole beans produced a much heavier vegetative growth, but matured fruit later; cucumbers were appar- ently injured. The results of the experiments may be briefly summarized. Comparing the results of the differ- ent vegetables, we find (1) That with the exception of the cucumbers,. all the forms had a decided increase of the foliage parts, (2) That the time of fruit-maturing is variously affected, the strawberries and peas maturing ear- lier, the tomatoes and pole beans later, and the cucumbers and other forms practically unchanged. (8) That there is, as a rule, an increase in the amount of fruit, also in size of individual fruits, the cucumber being the chief exception. (4) That the chief beneficial effects of the light are to make up for deficiency of sunlight, to give, with few exceptions, stronger and more vigorous top growth, and to help overcome unfavorable con- ditions in certain other lines. (5) That there seems to be a limit in rapidity of growth, beyond which plants cannot be forced at all proportional to the attendant expense. Just what conditions govern this limit or where the limit is in forcing-house plants, is as yet unknown. Photosynthetic processes are completed to the point of starch-making ; root systems increased in the main proportionately with top development. Influence on blooming.—With three exceptions, all plants bloomed earlier under acetylene light than under sunlight. Some of the geranium plants bloomed twenty days earlier. The blooming of car- nations was hastened, but the stems were elongated to an injurious extent. The growth of Easter lilies was increased and the flower- ing period has- tened (Fig. 45). The influence on the quantity of the bloom was marked. In every case there was an increase, two or three times as many blossoms being produced in some plants. The effect on the duration of the bloom was some- what contradic- tory. Cucumber flowers remained on the vines a shorter time. Lily and narcis- sus flowers lasted longer under the acetylene. Bulb plants came to maturity ‘under acetylene light alone with no sunlight, and other plants made green foli- age (Fig. 46). General sum- mary.— These preliminarytests gave marked results, but much more experimental work must be done. Ninety to ninety-five per cent of the plants experimented with responded favor- ably to the stimulus given by the acetylene light. There was no uniformity of results within a group of related plants. No striking detrimental results were observed except when plants were grown under optimum conditions. Fig. 45. Lily grown only in sunlight, at the right; a plant of equal strength and age grown with acetylene light in addition to sun- light, at the left. Incandescent gaslight. L. C. Corbett experimented with the Welsbach incandescent gaslight, the results of his work ap- pearing as Bulletin No. 62, of the West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. These tests were of an economic rather than a scientific nature. In no case was the artificial light found to be a satis- factory substitute for daylight. But it is thought that, could the conditions of the plants in the dark chamber during the day be kept as nearly normal as are the conditions for plants exposed to the arti- ficial light at night only, the results would be very different. A possible explanation of the stimulus 26 RESPONSE OF PLANTS TO ARTIFICIAL LIGHT following the use of the incandescent gaslight and the incandescent electric light as well, as gathered from these experiments, is from their richness in red and orange rays. A summary of the results of Corbett’s work showed : (1) The incandescent gaslight of the Welsbach burner was an active stimulus to plant growth when used at night to supplement daylight. (2) Lettuce plants subjected to the influence of the incandescent gaslight at night were taller and heavier than plants of the same variety and seed- sowing grown in normal conditions. (3) Lettuce and spinach subjected to the stimu- lating influence of the light grew faster and com- pleted their growth in less time than plants of the same sorts from the same seed-sowing grown in normal conditions. (4) No injurious effects resulted from the use of the incandescent gaslight. (5) The stimulating influence of the light as indi- cated by the growth of plants used in various tests is shown by the order in which the sorts are named, the first being the most susceptible — spinach, cab- bage, radish, lettuce, tomato. (6) The range of the light was somewhat vari- able for the different crops. In general, the maxi- mum growth was attained at twelve to sixteen feet from the light, while a perceptible increase was noted at twenty-four feet. (7) Bloom record of tomatoes showed markedly earlier bloom in the light house,— eight days the least and eighteen days the greatest difference. (8) In the case of radishes, top growth was stim- ulated, but evidently not markedly, at the expense of root. With sugar-beets, top growth was greatly stimulated, evidently at the expense of root growth. (9) While the roots of beets grown in the nor- mal house were larger than those in the light house, the sugar contents and the percentage of purity were markedly higher in the light-house grown plants. (10) Spinach, lettuce and radishes all tended to make seed-stalks earlier under the light. Fig. 46. Plants grown wholly by acetylene light, with no sunlight. (11) Lettuce and spinach under the influence of the incandescent gaslight not only grew faster during the growing period, but the period was actually longer than for plants in the normal house. The Cooper-Hewitt mercury vapor electric light. C. P. Close, of the Delaware Experiment Station, endeavored to determine the effect of the Cooper-Hewitt mercury vapor electric light on plants. The re- sults of his work were presented before the Society for Horticul- tural Science, at its second annual meeting, and are recorded in the proceedings of the society. In conducting this test it was necessary to have an enclosed place practically light-tight, so as to ex- clude the daylight and allow the plants to have the artificial light only. This was provided by build- ing in the greenhouse a “double- deck” bed, using the upper bed for plants in sunlight and the lower bed for those in artificial light. The lamps used were the Cooper-Hewitt 4-H pattern. These were suspended as nearly over the center of the bed as possible. Owing to variation in the electr- cal potential — from 100 to 125 volts —a constant intensity of light could not be maintained. The light from these lamps is perfectly white, devoid of red rays. The candle-power of a 4-H lamp, or tube, is about 650, and the expense per candle-power is about one-eighth that of the candle- power of the incandescent electric light, and about three-fourths that of the arc light. The light is caused by the vapor of mercury in the tube becom- ing heated white hot as the electric current is passed through it. One end of the lamp-tube is positive, the other negative, and the vapor of mer- cury completes the circuit by connecting the two. Tests were made with lettuce and radishes. Over the lettuce at first only one lamp was used, placed about sixteen inches from the soil. The growth was unsatisfactory because of the unfavorable tem- perature and atmospheric conditions of the bed, due to the tight enclosure, allowing no ventilation. The excess of moisture that accumulated in the atmosphere was a great hindrance. The plants received light only during the night. They partook of the nature of twining plants. The stems were long and produced leaves at intervals of two or three inches; and not being strong enough to sup- port their weight, assumed a recumbent position. It was impossible to keep plants alive for any length of time when they were more than two or three feet beyond the end of the lamp-tube. The time for germination was the same as for seed sown in daylight. The formation of chlorophyll seemed to be perfectly normal. After a few weeks the plants came practically to a standstill. With two lamps, the results were but little more en- couraging. RESPONSE OF PLANTS TO ARTIFICIAL LIGHT 27 The results with radishes were practically the same. There was no fleshy root development, and the plants were long and weak. There was very little leaf-growth, although there was production of chlorophyll. These experiments must be considered prelimi- nary. They demonstrated that chlorophyll could be formed by this light, devoid of red rays. With im- provement in the electrical apparatus better results are to be expected. Influence of colored light on plants. Investigations pertaining to the effects of the dif- ferent rays of light on plants have been conducted for many years, although many of the earlier ex- periments are more or less faulty, since pure spec- trum colors were not always employed, nor were the plants always subjected to the same degree or intensity of light. Flammarion found in his experiments with sen- sitive plants that red light accelerated growth the most, this being followed by green, white and blue light, in the order named. His experiments were made in a small conservatory behind clear and colored glass, which, however, did not in all cases furnish strictly monochromatic light. Other obser- vers have shown that plants grow more vigorously in orange rays and that they resemble those which grow in darkness, while those subject to blue light resemble plants grown in daylight. While orange light produces effects similar to those in plants grown in darkness,—that is, they develop small leaves and elongated internodes, resembling etio- lated plants,—their leaves are green. On the other hand, blue light prevents the expansion of the cotyledons in some cases, and, since it does not induce photosynthesis, there is little need of their expanding. The effect of orange light on the growth of fungi is similar to that brought about by darkness. For example, the aérial hyphe of Pilobolus become greatly elongated when grown in darkness or in orange light. Blue light, however, induces irritable movements or heliotropic curvatures. Sachs found that the elimination of the ultra-violet rays has an effect on the production of flowers, causing a less luxuriant development of them. The accurate ex- periments of Englemann, Reinke and Timiriazeff have shown that photosynthesis in green plants reaches its maximum in the red and orange rays of the spectrum between the lines B and C. In the case of the red alge, however, the region of maxi- mum assimilation is somewhat different, since the greatest photosynthetic activity is shown between the yellow and green bands, while in the blue-green alge this occurs between the orange and yellow. There is some reason to believe that such pigments as phycoerythrin, found in the red alge, may pos- sess some ecological significance, since the plant frequently grows at considerable depths in the ocean. The most active assimilation is caused in the purple bacteria in the infra red rays or those rays having wave lengths of 800 to 900 ux. Some investigators have noted an injurious effect of the green rays on certain plants. This may be accounted for by unlike methods used in experi- menting, although it is well known that different plants respond in a different way to the same light stimulus. Plants respond to the ultra-red and ultra violet rays, which are well known to make no impression on the retina; and the same may be held to be true in regard to other forms of radiant energy. It has been shown that electrical radia- tions characterized by wave lengths vastly longer than the last visible red rays are able to produce certain physiological effects on plants, but whether this will apply to the Rontgen and Becquerel rays has not been definitely proved. There is little likelihood of monochromatic light being employed to advantage in growing crops, since plants are best adapted to mixed rays, such as occur in sunlight. Literature. J Reinke, Untersuchungen tiber die Einwirkung des Lichtes auf die Sauerstoffausscheidung der Pflanzen, J. Mitt. Bot. Ztg., XVI, also, II, Mitt. Bot. Ztg. XLIT; T. W. Engelmann, Various papers in Arch. f. d. Ges. Physiol., Vols. XXV, XXVI, XXVII, XXIX, XXX; Cf. Bot. Ztg., Bd. XLI, XLI, XLVI; Timiriazeff, Ann. de Chim. et de physig., Vol. XII, Comp. Rend., Vol. CX, 1890; J. W. Draper, On the Decomposition of Carbonic-acid Gas by Plants in Prismatic Spectrum, American Journal of Science, XLVI; J. W. Draper, Scientific Memoirs, 1878 ; C. Flammarion, Etude de Vaction des diverses radiations du spectre solaire sur la vegetation, Comp. Rend., CXXI, 1895. Some of the more important literature on artifi- cial light in its relation to the growth of plants is as follows: L. H. Bailey, Some Preliminary Studies of the Influence of the Electric Arc Lamp upon Green- house Plants, Bulletin No. 30, Cornell Experiment Station, August, 1891; Second Report upon Elec- tro-Horticulture, Bulletin No. 42, September, 1892; Third Report upon Electro-Horticulture, Bulletin No. 55, July, 1893. (Subsequent studies have never been published.) G. Bonnier, Influence de la lumiére électrique continue sur la forme et la structure des Plantes, Revue général de botanique, Tome VII, 1895 ; F. W. Rane, Electro-Horticulture, Bulletin No. 87, West Virginia Experiment Sta- tion, July, 1894; C. W. Siemens, On the Influence of Electric light on Vegetation, and on Certain Physical Principles Involved, Proceedings Royal Society, XXX, 210-219; and Some Further Obser- vations on the Influence of Electric Light on Vegetation, Proceedings Royal Society, XXX, 293- 295, by the same author; C. W. Siemens, On Some Applications of Electric Energy to Horticultural and Agricultural Purposes, Report of British Asso- ciation of Advanced Science, LI, 474-480; P. P. Deherain, Untersuchungen tiber des Einfluss d. Elektrischen Lichtes auf das Wachsthum d. Pflan- zen, Annales Agronomiques, T. VII, 81, P. 551-575 ; Wollny, Forschungen auf d. Geb. der Agricultur- physik, Bd. V, p. 488; M. J. Iorns, Acetylene Light for Forcing Plants, Cornell Countryman, May, 1906 (from this article Figs. 45 and 46 are redrawn). 28 THE STIMULATION OF PLANT GROWTH BY MEANS OF WEAK POISONS THE STIMULATION OF PLANT GROWTH BY MEANS OF WEAK POISONS By Howard S. Reed That plant growth can be accelerated by the action of certain poisons has been known for some time. The method was at first practiced in labora- tory cultures, but has now been applied success- fully to plants growing in the field. Experiments indicate that the tillers of small farms and market- gardens would profit greatly by the practice of crop-stimulation ; they will be able not only to raise larger and more succulent vegetables but to hasten the maturity of them. In the practice of medicine it is well known that when small doses of poison (e. g., strychnine, alcohol, arsenic) are administered, a stimulation of some part of the body results. In a general way, the same principle has been noticed in the growth of plants. The application of gypsum, or land- plaster, while it undoubtedly sets free potash in the soil, has long been recognized as stimulating. The application of fungicides, as Bordeaux mix- ture, has been found beneficial: first, the mixture kills parasitic fungi; and, second, it stimulates the plants to more vigorous growth. Grapes and goose- berries sprayed with Bordeaux mixture were found to contain 1 to 2 per cent more sugar than the fruit from unsprayed but healthy plants. Experiments with poisons. Experiments in pure cultures have been con- ducted principally on the lowly plants, viz., the alge and fungi. In 1897, Richards discovered the stimulating effects of zinc salts on the growth of the mold fungi. Ono, working in Japan, found that compounds of zinc, copper and iron, when present in very small quantities, exerted a stimulating effect on the growth of alge. In this case he found that the stimulation was more manifest in the reproductive activity of the plants than in the growth in size of the individuals. Le Renard found that the greatest stimulation with mold fungi oc- curred in the presence of the best and most avail- able food supply. As supplementary to this fact, we may mention that the presence of very small amounts of copper in distilled water is fatal to the growth of the roots of seedlings; while in the pres- ence of food it would undoubtedly cause stimulation. The writer has observed that seeds which have been soaked in very weak potassium bichromate solution to kill adhering germs, germinate in shorter time than those soaked in pure water. Miani found, too, that pollen-grains germinated better in water containing copper coins than in pure water. The effect of chemicals on seed germination has been studied by many investigators, under a variety of conditions, and the literature is rather extensive. With the exception of certain reagents, however, no definite general statements can be made regard- ing their action. Further work is needed to estab- lish the principles on which action takes place. It is probable that the factors influencing germination differ fundamentally in certain respects from those affecting later growth. One need not expect, there- fore, that germination will be stimulated by the same compounds that stimulate the growth of the adolescent plant. Richards and his students have recently estab- lished the fact that stimulated plants work more economically than unstimulated plants, i. e., they attain to a’given size and weight with a much smaller consumption of food material. _ . The results obtained from growing plants in pure culture are not all applicable to plants growing in the soil. Compounds of iron, manganese, fluorin, and iodin seem to promise most for practical agri- culture. The best results have often been obtained by applying a mixture of two or more compounds. Sulfate of iron (copperas) has often been the subject of experiment. Some experimenters re- ported favorable results, some unfavorable, and some inferred that it had no influence whatever. Its benefits varied according to the quantities used. Loew found that the application of 1 to 2 ounces of sulfate of iron per ton of soil resulted in a stimu- lating action, and Griffiths observed very good results when it was applied at the rate of 50 to 100 pounds per acre. The advantage of applying two stimulating sub- stances to the soil instead of one may be seen from the results of an experiment which Loew performed, using tobacco plants. The plants were grown in soil in pots, some were watered with dilute solutions of manganous sulfate and iron sul- fate (0.8g MnSO, + 0.2g FeSO, in 100 cc. water), others with manganous sulfate or iron alone. The average height to which the plants attained in eleven weeks after the application of stimulants was as follows: When no stimulant was applied, 45 inches; when manganese and iron were both applied, 59 inches; when manganese alone was applied, 58 inches; when iron alone was applied, 55 inches. The average number of flowers and buds on the same plant was also distinctly greater on the plants that received two stimulants. Those that received both manganese and iron produced 63 flowers and buds; when manganese alone was applied there were 50; when iron only was applied there were 55, and on the control plants, none. It is thus shown that the application of stimulants not only produced larger plants, but hastened their period of blossoming. An additional point in favor of iron sulfate and manganous sulfate is their cheapness, since both salts can be applied directly in the raw, unpurified state. Compounds of iodin have given marked stimu- lation to plant growth. However, since they are extremely poisonous to plants, they must be used in very small quantities. A top-dressing of iodid of potassium, applied at the rate of 50 pounds to the acre, injured wheat and barley. Suzuki found that such small quantities as one-third of an ounce per acre were sufficient to cause stimulation, and that four ounces per acre was amply sufficient. These small quantities were dissolved in water and sprinkled on the soil. This substance increased the weight of radishes 81 per cent over the yield on control plots. The writer has tried the effect of some poisonous THE STIMULATION OF PLANT GROWTH BY MEANS OF WEAK POISONS 29 substances on the growth of potatoes. Although the results are far from complete, they indicate that magnesium carbonate, applied at the rate of 200 pounds per acre, and iron and manganous sul- fate applied at the rate of 17 and 175 pounds per acre respectively, exert a stimulating action on the growth of potato tubers. The benefits of stimu- lation were shown not only in the increased yield of the tubers, but also in their improved quality. The action of the same poisonous compound is not always the same on different crops, just as the feeding of different crops must vary. The action will probably vary also on soils accord- ing to their content of acids or alkalies. The application of small quantities of organic substances having a toxic effect at high concentrations is often beneficial, especially when applied to certain un- productive soils. Bulletin No. 28 of the Bureau of Soils of the United States De- partment of Agriculture describes the beneficial effects of tannic acid and of pyrogallol when applied in small quanti- ties to an unproductive soil. The applica- tion of tannic acid at the rate of one part per million of soil increased the growth of wheat seedlings about 75 per cent. In another experiment, pyrogallol was added at the rate of 500 parts per million of soil. On soil so treated, the growth of wheat plants was twice that on the un- treated soil. While it is not probable that the application of either of these last- named substances will be profitable for the commercial grower, it is shown that growth may be accelerated by a wide range of substances. Etherization. It may be in place to mention the action of anes- thetics on plant growth, since the anesthetics behave as poisons if they are allowed to act for any length of time. The plants are inclosed in a tight compartment and exposed for a short time to the vapors of ether or chloroform. At the Government Botanical Garden in Dresden, lilacs treated with ether on October 19 produced blossoms November 8. Another season the etherized plants blossomed November 13. Etherization does not hasten the blooming period of lilacs if the period of rest is entirely completed before the anzsthetic is applied. The practice of etherization is meeting with favor among the florists of France. In America it has been applied with success to the forcing of Thubarb and asparagus. Sandsten showed that chlo- roform and ether had an accelerating influence on seedlings, but they were injurious to narcissus. Experiments made at the Cornell (N. Y.) Experi- ment Station gave interesting results. A Persian lilac, Syringa vulgaris, was placed’ in the forcing- house on November 24, after having been etherized for 24 hours. Within five days many leaf-buds were entirely open, and by December 11 the plant was in full leaf. The first flower-buds opened on December 6, and the plant was in full bloom on December 25, just 31 days after the beginning of the experiment. A check plant did not reach full bloom till six days later. When the plants were exposed to ether fumes for a longer period, more marked results were secured. A lilac etherized for 48 hours made a gain in coming to full flower of 8 days over the check plant; one etherized for 72 hours gained 10 days. Astilbe Japonica etherized for 24 hours, in one instance was in full bloom a month to five weeks before the check plant. Experi- ments with bulbs also showed favorable results from etherization (Fig. 47). Narcissus showed a gain varying from two days to three weeks in Fig. 47. Narcissus etherized (at the right) and not etherized (at the left). coming to full bloom, results contradictory to those secured by Sandsten. Two lots of Lilium longi- florum showed a decidedly taller growth, but no gain in the time at which first blossoms appeared. A third lot, which had been etherized for a longer time, showed a gain in both time and height. [A brief account of these Cornell Experiments, by J. Eaton Howitt, and Claude I. Lewis, appears in The Cornell Countryman, May, 1906; a bulletin of the work has not appeared as this article is written.] Literature. The following references include most of the liter- ature that has been published on plant stimulation : Raulin, Etudes chimique sur la végétation, Ann. d. Sci. Nat. Bot. [v] XI. 91, 1869; Richards, Die Beeinflussung des Wachstums einiger Pilze durch chemischer Reize, Jahrb. wiss. Bot. 30, 665, 1897 ; Sandsten, The Influence of Gases and Vapors on the Growth of Plants, Minn. Botanical Studies, Vol. 2, p. 58, 1898; Richards, The Effect of Chemical Irrita- tion on the Economic Coefficient of Sugar, Bulletin, Torrey Bot. Club, Vol. 26, 463, 1899; Ono, Ueber die Wachstumsbeschleunigung einiger Algen und Pilze durch chemischer Reize. Jour. College, Science, Imperial University, Tokyo, Vol. 18, 141-186, 1900; Loew, On the Treatment of Crops by Stimulating Compounds, Bul. College Agriculture Imperial Uni- versity, Tokyo Vol. VI. 161-175, 1904; Latham, Stimulation of Sterigmatocystis by Chloroform, Bul. Torrey Bot. Club, Vol. 32, 387, 1905. 30 EFFECT OF ELECTRICITY ON PLANTS EFFECT OF ELECTRICITY ON PLANTS By G. EB. Stone The relation that exists between electrical stimulation and plant growth has been a subject of much study, covering a great range of methods and conditions, and producing varied and conflicting results ; but the question has not yet had the care- ful and systematic study necessary to the formu- lation of rules for practical application. Much has been written on the subject, and the reader will find a few citations at the end of this article. It is here possible to give only a very general outline of the experimental methods that have been tried and the results. Historical sketch of methods and results. Investigations pertaining to the effects of elec- tricity on plants have been made by various ex- perimenters for 150 years or more. It might be supposed that electricity, which so universally manifests itself in nature, would under certain con- ditions be capable of acting as a stimulus to plants. That the roots of plants are susceptible to the influence of galvanic currents (galvanotropism) has been shown by the experiments of Elfving, Brunchorst and others ; and Hegler has shown that the aérial hyphe of Phycomyces nitens are nega- tively electrotropic ; that is, they bend away from Hertz waves. It has also been known for some time, through the experiments of Kunkel and others, that electric currents exist in the plant itself. The cause of these currents has been attrib- uted to minute streams of water passing through the plant. The experiments of Haake have shown that differences in the electrical potential in the plant are chiefly caused by metabolism and res- piration. The influence of current electricity on plants has received the most attention. Attention was first called to the influence of electricity on growing plants about the middle of the eighteenth century. The experiments made by Dr. Mainbray, of Edin- burgh, in 1746, were among the first. He electrified two myrtles for a period of one month, and reported that not only was their growth accelerated but that they put forth blossoms, which was not true of myrtles not electrified. About the same time, Nollet, a distinguished French physicist, who had heard of Mainbray’s experiments, took up the sub- ject. He had previously been occupied with the phenomena connected with the behavior of fluids in capillary tubes, and Mainbray’s experiments sug- gested to him the possibility of the increased growth in plants being due to the increase in the flow of sap brought about by electrical stimulation. His first experiments were made on various fruits, which after being weighed were electrified and then weighed again, and the result showed that elec- tricity considerably accelerated evaporation. In 1747, Nollet experimented with two wooden pots filled with earth, in which were planted mustard seeds. One was treated daily with an electrical machine, the other being kept as a check. He found as a result of electrifying that germination was considerably increased, and in the course of a week or more the electrified plants were nine inches high, while the non-electrified ones were only three inches high. Nollet repeated the experiment a number of times with various plants, always obtaining the same result. He found, howeyer, that the electrified plants were, as a rule, weaker than the non-electrified. Jallabert, in 1746, re- peated Nollet’s experiments on mustard and cress seeds, and obtained similar results. He also elec- trified bulbs of hyacinths, jonquils and narcissus placed on cakes of resin in glasses filled with water, the resin being connected with wires leading to a frictional machine. He found, as had Nollet, that the electrified ones gave off more moisture than the non-electrified ones, and also that the electrified plants grew more rapidly. Their leaves were larger and their flowers opened sooner than the ones not electrified. Experiments were made about the same time also on bulbs planted in boxes, with similar results. In 1747, Boze electrified several different kinds of shrubs, the growth of which was accelerated. Similar results were obtained by Menon, in 1748. In 1771, Sigaud de la Fond experimented with bulbs, and found that when they were electrified they grew faster and formed more healthy plants. De Lacepede, in 1779, found growth and germina- tion invariably accelerated by the use of electricity. Marat, in 1782, experimented with lettuce and ob- tained positive results. Bertholon subsequently repeated the experiments of Nollet and obtained similar results, and he moreover made many obser- vations in regard to the effects of electricity on the ripening of fruit, color of flowers, and the like. He was the first to attempt to apply electricity in a practical way in the growth of crops, and he even went so far as to recommend it as a panacea for all diseases caused by insects and fungi. Achard, De Saussure and Gardini likewise reported beneficial results from the use of electricity. Gardini stretched iron wires over his garden at Turin for the purpose of experimenting with atmos- pheric electricity. After a short time the garden, which had been unusually prolific, began to fail, the plants became unfruitful and wilted. Ingen- housz and Schwankhard, in 1785, made experiments with plants cultivated in Leyden jars filled with water, and obtained negative results. The experi- ments were criticized by Duvarnier, who maintained that the methods employed were not satisfactory. Ingenhousz’s negative results were confirmed by Sylvestre, Paets, Van Troostwyck and Krayenhoff. Ingenhousz and von Breda repeated Gardini’s experiments with overhead wires across a garden, but both failed in observing any effect whatsoever on the plants. In 1768, Carmoy sowed grains of wheat in electrified tin vessels and found germi- nation and growth accelerated. Rouland secured negative results with cress seeds planted on plates of cork in electrified porcelain vessels filled with water. D’Ormoy electrified mustard and lettuce seed for several days in moist earth and found their germination always accelerated. Bertholon enclosed seeds of turnip, endive and spinach in tin-foil and EFFECT OF ELECTRICITY ON PLANTS 31 kept them constantly electrified for some days, after which they were sown. He found germination accel- erated. Vassalli, in 1788, obtained beneficial results from treatment, and so did de Rozieres, who experi- mented with wheat, beans, rye, peas, radish, and others. De Rozieres maintained that not only was germination accelerated, but in all cases the electrified plants were larger, with longer roots and greener leaves. Hum- boldt believed that electricity exerted considerable influence on plant growth. On the other hand, Sene- bier was doubtful, while de Candolle was led to think by his The electrified plants, he asserted, were much more robust. He attributed the beneficial effects of elec- tricity to the decomposition of certain salts in the soil. Holdefieiss found both growth and germination to be accelerated. Maercker experimented with sugar-beets, and his experiments showed no differ- ences between the treated and the untreated plants either in the weight or percentage of sugar. Some experiments that elec- tricity had very little effect on plants. The various experi- ments which were made with electricity up to this time were made with static elec- tricity. With the dis- covery of voltaric electricity, other methods of experimenting were employed. From the year 1800, the suject of electricity and plant growth received little attention until 1844, when there was considerable interest manifested in the subject from the results of Forster’s experi- ments. He endeavored to utilize the atmospheric electricity by stretching wires over a crop of barley, and found that growth was increased in a most extraordinary manner. In 1844, Ross made some experiments with galvanic currents which were described in the proceedings of the New York Farmers’ Club. He planted a field of potatoes, at one end of which he buried a copper plate five feet in length and fourteen inches deep, connected with a wire to a zinc plate of the same size 200 feet away, at the opposite end of the row. According to Ross, potatoes grown on the treated row were two and one-half inches in diameter, while those grown on the untreated row in July were only one-half inch in diameter. Similar gal- vanic culture experiments have been made by Sheppard, Helmert, Fitchner and Sohne, Tschinkel, Holdefleiss, Maercker, Wollny and others. Sheppard employed copper and zinc plates two feet long and nine inches wide. These were connected with wires and buried in the soil nine feet apart, and a num- ber of seeds of different kinds were sown in be- tween them. He found that many of the seeds germinated poorly, and some of the plants eventu- ally died, although the electrically stimulated turnip plants showed a greater development than the check plants. Helmert found in some instances that growth was accelerated; on the whole, how- ever, he obtained negative results. Fitchner and Séhne secured positive results with buckwheat, sum- mer wheat, peas, and certain other crops. The gain was 16 to 127 per cent. Tschinkel obtained a con- siderable acceleration in germination and growth. tor’s feet. (After Wollny.) (g)) The man was to stand on an insulated mounted platform drawn by the two attachments at the right. The electric current was to be carried by a wire attached to the pot, and uncoiling at the opera- experiments were made by Wollny on a more exten- sive scale and in a very careful manner, with rye, beans, peas, potatoes, rape, beets and others, and in almost every instance he obtained negative results. Chemical analysis of the treated and untreated soil showed no difference in the amount of potash, ammonia, phosphoric acid and potassium nitrate, even when comparatively strong currents had been passed through it. Blondeau found that when seeds of peas, beans and wheat were treated one minute with a constant induction current, germination was hastened, and the electrified seed gave rise to stockier and greener plants. He also found that the fruit of the apple, pear and others ripened much earlier when subjected to electrical treatment. Chodat employed static electricity, and found that the germination of the pea was accelerated, and that the electrically treated seedlings were longer and thinner, and their leaves somewhat smaller than normally grown plants. Paulin, who likewise used static electricity, obtained positive results. He placed his seeds inside a Leyden jar in which was suspended a copper wire connected with the conductor of a frictional machine. In order to get the best results, he found that the jar containing the seeds must be charged hourly, the length of time which this must be kept up depending entirely on the kind of seed empioyed. He maintained that electricity not only accelerates germination but that it is capable of awakening the dormant life in seeds. Speschnew found germination greatly accele- rated by the use of galvanic electricity. According to Speschnew, treated seeds germinated four or five days earlier than untreated seeds and possessed longer and stockier stems. Weakes applied electri- fied water to seed, which resulted in an accele- rated germination and growth of seedlings. McLoud found, by the use of direct currents, that many seeds 82 EFFECT OF ELECTRICITY ON PLANTS germinated earlier. The growth of the treated seeds, moreover, exceeded that of the normal. Paulin erected poles in the middle of his experi- mental plots, which supported a collector composed of numerous copper wires. An insulated wire con- nected the collector with an iron wire buried in the soil. He asserted, as a result of his experiments, a gain of 333 per cent in the production of potatoes. Jodro experimented in a similar way. However, he connected his collector, which was on a pole 85 feet high, to a wire attached to zinc plates in the soil. He obtained an average increase of 25 to 50 per cent, and in some instances nearly 100 per cent. Maccagno’s method was somewhat different from the preceding one. He attached wires directly to sixteen grape-vines and endeavored to pass the atmospheric electricity through the plant. Chem- ical analysis of the plants at the end of the season five months later showed only a slight difference in the normal and treated plants. Aloi found that atmospheric electricity works favorably in the germination and growth of Lactuea sativa, Zea Mays, Triticum sativum, Nicotiana Tabacum, and Faba vulgaris. Celi employed static electricity. He asserted positive results by charg- ing a wire provided with numerous small points, which were suspended over growing seedlings. Freda experimented in a similar way with Penicil- lium, but obtained negative results. Lemstrém obtained favorable results with static electricity in a large number of cases, in which he used a large Holtz machine. The wire meshes were suspended over the plants which connected with the positive pole, the negative pole being connected with the ground. His experiments extended over a period of years, during which time he employed a larger number of plants than any of his prede- cessors and, on the whole, his experiments are the most trustworthy. He used a large variety of plants, some of which were favorably and others unfavorably stimulated. He demonstrated that strong charges were unfavorable, and arrived at the conclusion that electricity acts in an indirect way, and that ozone is produced by electrical dis- charges which have an influence on plants. Atmospheric electricity. . Duhamel, in 1758, maintained that electricity may be concerned with those remarkable atmos- pheric changes which affect plants in so marked a manner. Similar ideas were entertained by Mann and Beccaria, who believed that after thunder- storms plants of all kinds grew with remarkable vigor. However, he attributed more marked effect to the constant but feeble electric conditions of the earth. Bertholon, in 1773, called attention to the influence of meteors and lightning on the germina- tion of seeds and the growth of plants. He attrib- uted the failure of the hop crop in 1787 to the comparatively small amount of lightning during that year. In fact, it has been believed for many years in Europe that there is some connection between thunder-storms and the behavior of plants. A common saying among the German peasants is that if a thunder-storm occurs during blooming time buckwheat will not set its fruit. Some years ago Lindley made measurements of plants during a thunder-storm and found no particular differences in their rate of growth, and Matthew thought to have disproved the notions about buckwheat. Among farmers and others the idea has long been held that milk sours very rapidly during thun- der-storms. There appears to be some foundation for this belief, although bacteriologists attempt to account for it by the occurrence of the warm and humid condition of the atmosphere which usually precedes thunder-storms. Our experiments on the influence of electricity on milk tend to show that the farmer’s idea is well founded, at least in many instances, since a very slight charge of electricity given to milk increases the number of bacteria enormously in a very brief period of tme. Review of ‘the early work. Taking into consideration the results of the various experiments which are embodied in the foregoing résumé, there would appear, notwith- standing the negative results, which, however, are considerably less than the positive ones, to be some reason for believing that electricity exerts an influence on plant growth. Many of the experi- ments giving positive results were notably crude, especially the earlier ones, and even many of the later ones are not detailed enough to allow of any reliable conclusions being drawn. In the greater majority of cases too few plants were used, faulty methods were employed, the seeds were usually sown in earth where no accurate means of deter- mining the relative acceleration of germination was possible. In the utter absence of measurements of current strength and the growth of plants, the results based on mere superficial comparisons were of little more value than guesswork. In some of the more recent experiments, however, compari- sons have been made of the treated and untreated plants by weighing, and in some instances chemical analysis, a very uncertain method, was resorted to. On the other hand, it should be borne in mind that it is easy to repeat some individual experiment that gives a positive result, and by introducing some slight variation in the methods employed, or modifying the strength of current, results of a quite different nature may be secured. The most severe criticisms that can be brought against the various experiments pertain to the lack of sufficient data concerning the current strength employed ; nor are there any data concerning the resistance or electrical potential from which the current strength might be calculated. The insuffi- cient number of plants used and the lack of repe- tition of various experiments under the same con- ditions constitute serious objections. It would appear that individual variation as a factor was ignored in the majority of these experiments. Since there is a limited range of current which accelerates growth, it is an easy matter to over- step the range and obtain negative results. This would seem to be the case in the very carefully conducted experiments of Wollny. The same criti- cism can be brought against Freda’s experiments EFFECT OF ELECTRICITY ON PLANTS 33 with Penicillium, in which case he obtained nega- tive results. The writer is unable to find any indi- cation of the potential employed in his experiments, but from his results it would appear that he was entirely out of range. If he had employed a poten- tial of about fifty volts, different results would uudoubtedly have been obtained, inasmuch as such has been the case with Monahan’s experiments with Mucor and Phycomyces, which are equally delicate organisms. Recent efforts and results. The writer and some of his students have con- ducted for many years an extensive series of ex- periments dealing with the influence of current electricity on plants. Only a part of the results of these experiments has been published, and in giving a résumé of the subject of electricity and plant- growth, the writer will draw deductions from his various experiments representing data secured from the use of over 50,000 plants. The experiments made by Kinney in 1896 showed considerable acceleration in the germination of seeds and growth of seedlings, and the idea that weak currents of electricity act as a stimulus was proved to be well founded. He experimented with static electricity and also with direct and alternat- ing currents, all of which gave decidedly positive results. His experiments have been repeated by the writer and assistants, with similar results. From experiments which the writer and his assistants have conducted for many years in large boxes charged with direct and alternating currents and atmospheric electricity, it has been shown that lettuce and radish crops are considerably accele- rated in growth in all instances. The average per- centage of gain in the electrically treated lettuce plants in all experiments, as compared with the nor- mal, or untreated plants, was 34.81. The average percentage of gain of the electrically treated radish plants over the normal, or untreated, ones was 87.34. The radish roots showed a gain of 17.26 per cent, while the tops or leaves showed 42.90 per cent gain. The strength of current employed ranged from .05 to 1 milliampere. In these experi- ments a large variety of plants has been employed, with practically similar results. Bacteria are greatly affected by electricity ; they increase in numbers at a very marked ratio when stimulated. The process of fermentation by yeast is also greatly accelerated by the application of minute direct currents or by a single tiny spark from a frictional machine. The range of currents acting favorably on growth is limited and may be represented as rang- ing from .005 to .55 milliamperes. Direct currents are not so stimulating in all cases as alternating currents, but static electricity stimulates very appreciably. In the many thousand seeds which have been used there is no evidence that electricity awakens life in dormant seeds. It always acts asa decided accelerator to germination and growth, but the ‘germinating capacity is in no way affected. Monahan has shown that charging air with static electricity constitutes an important stimulus to B38 seeds and plants. Germination and growth in such instances are greatly accelerated. He employed a: potential ranging from 50 to 175 volts, with most excellent results. A too high potential or a too strong current prevents growth, and if the current is increased sufficiently it is easy to kill plants. The maximum or death current is determined by the nature of the plant, as well as the conditions under which the plant is stimulated. On the other’. hand, too weak currents do not produce perceptible ' reactions. The optimum or best current the writer found to be about .22 milliamperes. The connecting of copper and zinc electrodes placed in soil constitutes a very effective method, as well as one of the cheapest ways, of stimulating crops by electricity. Strips Sie of copper and zinc one foot wide and four 1 to six feet long connected with wires furnish a bat- tery when placed in soil, which under certain conditions will generate an optimum current. The amount of cur- rent which these will produce de- pends, of course, on the size of the —-++—-—-- - metal plates em- ployed, together with the nature of the soil and other factors. A soil lack- ing in organic mat- ter and plant-food will give less cur- NU = + rent than a richer L soil. Plates six inches by three feet pig. 49. ‘To show the growth, of seedlings treated with positive and negative currents of electricity. N, normal untreated plant; U —, treated with negative eurrent; +, with positive current. in some soils would give a current ranging from .02 to 1 milliampere when placed four feet apart, whereas, if these same plates were put’ in some of the highly manured Boston market-gar- den soils, they would generate ten to twenty times as much current in a tolerably dry soil, when placed farther apart. The amount of resistance in well- manured market-garden soils is extremely small, and it has been estimated that if a large house were provided with copper and zinc plates located at either end and these were connected with wires, a current could be generated sufficient to run a small incandescent lamp. General observations. The extensive use of electricity in a commercial way has introduced factors which have a bearing on vegetation. The numerous high tension wires used for street lighting purposes frequently come into contact with beautiful shade trees and cause muth atury Such injury, however, is mainly of a 84 EFFECT OF ELECTRICITY ON PLANTS local nature—that is, trees are injured or burned only at the point of contact of the wires with a tree, and it can be positively stated that there are no authentic cases of alternating current wires killing large trees. The circumstances, however, might be different in the case of direct cur- rent lighting wires, providing sufficient grounding occurred; nevertheless, so-called direct current trolley wires have been known to kill large trees where certain condi- tions prevail. (Fig. 50.) There is also some evi- dence in support of the prevailing opinion that a certain leakage or grounding from a trol- ley system through a tree may cause its death in time without any material burning tak- ing place. In such cases the tissues are over - stimulated, as it were, resulting in the possible disintegration of the protoplasm of the cells. There is much evi- dence in support of the idea that electric- ity plays an important réle in nature. The air and earth are constantly charged with it, and vegetation, being in contact with both, is un- doubtedly affected. Grandeau and others main- tain that when plants are surrounded with wire netting they develop less in a given space of time than plants grown under similar conditions as regards light and other factors in a free atmos- phere. The interpretation of this phenomenon is that wire screens modify the atmospheric potential to the detriment of the plant. Grandeau secured similar results by growing plants under chestnut trees, and he concluded that trees modify to a large extent the atmosphoric potential in their immediate neighborhood. Electrical experiments made for three years at the Massachusetts Agri- cultural College Experiment Station show that the electrical potential at corresponding heights in the free atmosphere and in an elm tree are identical during the season when no, foliage is present. When, however, the foliage develops, the potential drops materially in the air surrounding the tree and remains in this condition until the leaves fall, at which time the potential becomes identical again. This is apparently a case of the foliage of a tree absorbing atmospheric electricity or screen- ing it in the some way as does a glass structure. It may be interesting.to note in this connection that there is no atmospheric electricity in greenhouses, but the effect of its absence on plants is not easily Fig. 50. Elm tree killed by a direct current from an elec- tric railroad system. discernible, since there are too many other factors in greenhouses which modify the configuration of plants. The electrical potential records secured by the writer and his assistants under conifers, such as the Norway spruce, proved the potential to be similar most of the time to that of the earth and not of the air, as secured under deciduous trees, like the elm. Lemstrém was of the opinion that the numerous small pointed leaves common to conifers serve as points of discharge or accumulators of electricity. This theory has some foundation, since the apices of leaves of trees have been known to discharge electricity, and the electric potential of the air and earth may be more or less equalized by vegetation. The phenomena underlying electrical stimulation are still imperfectly understood. There are many theories, however, inregard to its action. Nollet and Jallabert thought that the accelerated growth resulting from electrical stimulation was induced by the augmentation in the movements of the sap, and this view has been more recently held by Lemstrém. Fichtner, Sohne and Tschinkel main- tain that electricity renders soluble certain con- stituents of the soil, as a result of which germina- tion and growth are accelerated. On the other hand, Jodro attaches double significance to the action of soil currents, viz., a chemical and a mechanical action. Chemically it renders those constituents necessary for plant growth more soluble; mechanically it sets the particles of soil into: a state of vibration which results in an in- creased rate of growth. It may, be noted that both the chemical and mechanical theo- ries fail to explain the results of stim- ulation of seeds not sown in soil. It is well known that feeble currents accelerate the movements of pro- toplasm, and the augmentative cir- culation theory has more to commend it than any of the others. Notwith- standing the con- siderable amount of accelerated growth manifesting itself as a result of elec- trical stimulation, the time is not yet opportune to apply this force very Fig. 51. To show the effect of earth discharge (lightning) through the largely to the tree, causing splitting of the trunk growth of crops, and limbs. since the application of current electricity to crops has not been sufficiently tested on a large scale; neither has it been demonstrated that electrical INSECTS” AND DISEASES 35 stimulation would always prove advantageous to plants. There appears to be a tendency for electri- cally stimulated plants to develop a more spind- ling growth than those grown under ordinary conditions. Conclusions concerning the effect of current electricity on plants. In conclusion, it may be stated that the application of electrical stimulation to crops is not as yet practicable, al- though undoubtedly in the future electricity will be more exten- sively employed in agriculture, and it is hoped that agricultur- ists will be able to make use of the enormous amount of electri- cal energy constantly stored in the atmosphere. From the work that has been done, the follow- ing very general conclusions may be drawn: (1) Electricity exerts an ap- preciable influence on plants. (2) Electrical stimulation gives rise to an accelerated ger- mination and growth of plants, the foliage in some instances (radishes) being stimulated more than the roots. (8) The strength of current inducing acceleration is confined to a narrow range. (4) There is a minimum, opti- mum and maximum stimulus. The minimum cur- rent is equal to about .005 milliamperes, the opti- mum to about .22, and the maximum is determined entirely by conditions. Fig. 52. To show the characteristic grooves on the trunk of an elm tree caused by a feeble stroke of lightning. {Com- pare with Fig. 51.) Literature. Some of the literature pertaining to the influence of current electricity on plants is as follows: L. H. Bailey, Electricity and Plant Growth, Transactions, Massachusetts Horticultural Society, Part 1, pp. 54— 79, 1894; Bertholon, De V’électricité des végétaux, Paris, 1783; De Candolle, Physiologie végétale, Tome 3, p. 1088; R. Chodat, Quelques effets de Vélectricité statique sur la végétation, Laboratcire de botanique de l’université de Genéve, Ser. I, Fase V, p. 58-56; Bot. Cen. p. 92, Tome LV; Gardini, De influxu electrititatis atmospherice in vegetantia dissertatio, 1784; L. Grandeau, De Yinfluence de Vélectricité atmospherique sur la nutrition des végétaux, Ann. de Chim. et de Physiq., Ser. 5, XVI, 145-226, Feb., 1879; A. 8S. Kinney. Electro-germination, Bulletin No. 48, Hatch Experi- ment Station, Amherst, Mass., 1897; Selim Lem- strom, Electricity in Agriculture and Horticulture, Van Nostrand Company, New York City; J. Mac- cagno, Ueber den Hinfluss der atmospherischen Elec- tricitat auf das Wachsthum des Weinstocks; Wollny, Forsch. Agricultur-physik, Vol. VI, p. 198, 1883 ; H. M. McLeod, The Effect of Current Electricity on Plant Growth, Transactions and Proceedings New Zealand Institute, XXV, 479-482, May, 1898, 1894 ; the same, Ibid XXVI, 468, 464; N. F. Monahan, The Influence of Atmospherical Electrical Potential on Plants, Sixteenth Annual Report, 1904, Hatch Ex- periment Station; G. E. Stone, Injuries to Shade Trees from Electricity, Bulletin No. 91, 1893, Hatch Exp. Sta.; G: E. Stone, The Influence of Current Electricity on Plant Growth, Sixteenth Annual Report, 1904, Hatch Exp. Sta.; Stone and Monahan, The Influence of Electrical Potential on the Growth of Plants, Seventeenth Annual Report, 1905, Hatch Exp. Sta.; E. Wollny, Forsch. Agricultur-physik, 1882, 1888 ; Ueber die Anwendung der Elektricitat bei der Pflanzenkultur, Miinchen, 1883; Geo. 8. Hull, Electro-Horticulture, N. Y., 1898. CHAPTER II INSECTS AND DISEASES agriculture. NSECTS AND PLANT DISEASES are the plagues of the husbandman. Their incursions have been deplored from the earliest times, although plant diseases have not long been recognized except under the indefinite terms of blights and rusts and cankers and mildews. These pests and ailments have entailed endless human labor and have sacrificed numberless animals and crops; yet the net result has been the enforcing of a more vigorous and constructive The ailments of plants are constantly becoming more numerous and the knowledge con- nected with them more complex, owing to dissemination of the parasites into new regions, the increase of food supply due to new and more extended cultures, to changes in habits of parasites and hosts consequent on the disturbance of the normal equilibrium in nature. At the same time, however, the means of contending with these difficulties are increasing with phe- nomenal rapidity. Numbers of persons are now employed at public expense in the study of insects and diseases and in devising means of combating them. This is the guarantee of the future. In fact, our present-day agriculture would be impossible were it not for the entomologists and plant-patholo- 36° INSECTS AND DISEASES gists. These persons have become as much a part of our modern needs as, in a related realm, have the physicians and sanitarians. For the most part, the work of insects is at once recognizable ; but plant diseases are obscure as to 1 cause, and it is only within the past fifty years that very careful study has been made of them. The special study of para- sitic fungi, which cause many of the dis- eases of plants, is commonly dated from the work of M. J. Berkeley (1803-1889) in Eng- land about the middle of the century just passed. It is also astonishing that the life- histories of most of the common insects were not understood a century ago; and there are numerous insects all about us whose life-cycles have never been worked out. A good part of our current, economic ento- mological study is devoted to discovering the main phases of the insects rather than to the adding of new facts and incidents. The subject of the intimate relationship of insects to each other, to weather, to food supplies, and to other factors of their environment, where- by their relative prevalence is largely determined, is yet practically an unexplored field; yet it is in this eco- logical domain, rather than in merely destroying in- sects by what may be called mechanical means, that the greatest permanent pro- gress in contention with in- sects is to be looked for. The gradual growth of the idea that one plant may be parasitic on another and cause what may be called a disease, would be a subject of great attractiveness to one who is interested in human history. The idea is so recent that it should not be difficult to trace. A recent development of it is the discovery that there are germ diseases of plants as well as of animals, a history that is recorded by its literature in E. F. Smith’s “Bacteria in Relation to Plant Diseases” (Carnegie Institution, 1905). Other classes of diseases are yet known only by their external manifestations. Of these, peach-yellows and other peach diseases are examples. What causes the mal-nutrition and what carries the disease are undetermined. No doubt many ailments of plants are physiological and organic,—using these words in their human-medicine sense—rather than due to germs or filamentous fungi. Plants Example of a biting or chéwing tnaeut:, Army-worms eating up a stalk of corn. Fig. 53. have scarcely begun to be studied in respect to their intimate pathological processes and their response to sanitary or unsanitary environment. Very likely we await a new era in plant cultivation. , The plant diseases that are likely to be most clearly recognized by the general observer are those occasioned by the filamentous fungi. These low spore-bearing plants are related to the molds that appear on bread and decaying substances. It is impossible for one who has not studied these forms patiently under a microscope really to understand what they are. The ragged and spidery pictures of them that appear in ' Fig. 54. Example of a sucking in- sect. San José seales(enlarged) attached to a twig «and ex- tracting the juices from it. Plant-lice are sucking insects; also the stink- bugs and their kin, INSECTS AND DISEASES 37 the public prints convey little intelligence to the general reader. Perhaps Figs. 56, 57 and 58 will help to a vague understanding of what these parasitic fungi are, and how they work. These fungi are species of plants, without flowers or seeds or leaf-green or any of the parts and organs that we usu- ally associate with plant forms. They have neither roots nor leaves, for they do not abstract mineral food from the soil nor construct organic food in the presence of sunlight. They live on organic compounds,—that is, on foods that Hwee have already been formed or organized by other plants or, through them, by ani- ie *, mals. They run their vegetative root-like threads, or mycelium, into the food supply; : and they propagate their kind by means of special- ized cells known as spores. The injury they do to their host is of two kinds,—they appropriate food, and they impair the tissues by punc- turing them or breaking them down and by plugging the vessels or natural open- ings. : We are just now in the epoch of the control of insects and plant diseases by means of applications of substances. This epoch will never pass ; but in time we shall give greater emphasis to such an organi- zation of the business of plant-growing as to circumvent the difficulties. We seem to have passed the epoch of mere plant doctoring,—a suggestion, no doubt, from the prevalent medi- cine-habit in man—whereby we hope to kill the insect or cure the disease by putting some substance into the “circulation” of the plant; but the day of quacks has not gone by. It would seem to be needless to say to any person that he would better get expert professional advice, when he is in diffi- culty with insects or plant diseases, were it not for the fact that it is necessary to say it. Howbeit, the person to whom this needs to be said will not read this book, so that we may at once pass on to profit- able matters. Fig. 55. The life-cycle of an insect. Tent-caterpillar: eggs, enlarged; mass of eggs on x» winter twig; larva; cocoons, on a board; moth. Formulas. The chemical materials used for destroying insects and plant diseases are very many, and they can- not be discussed in full here. The cultivator must keep himself posted by consulting the most recent pub- lications of experiment stations and the United States Department of Agriculture. The materials used for seed diseases are mentioned on page 49; those employed in fumigating for insects, on page 45; soil diseases are also treated in Chapter XIII, Volume I. The main insects and diseases of the various crops are mentioned with the discussion of those crops in Part III. (See also pages 44, 45.) Spraying materials are either insecticides (to kill insects), or fungicides (to kill fungi). The insecti- cides are, again, of two kinds,—poisons for chewing insects, and corroding astringent or oily compounds for sucking insects. Some of the leading materials are now mentioned: Insecticides that kill by external contact. Lime-Sulfur Wash (for dormant trees and bushes).— Lime, 15 pounds; sulfur, 15 to 20 pounds; (salt, 15 pounds, was formerly added, but does not appear to be necessary); water sufficient to bring the boiled product up to 50 gallons. The lime and sulfur must be boiled or steamed. The mixture may be made by boiling in iron kettles. Heat the water before adding the lime and sulfur All the sulfur should be thoroughly reduced. Pour into the sprayer through a strainer and apply to the trees while warm. Steaming is liked best by those who have tested both. The following method is recommended by Geo. E. Fisher, former San José Scale inspector for the Province of Ontario, Canada: “Steam is employed to dissolve the lump sulfur and cook the mixture. Provide yourself with eight barrels. Put one-quarter the full amount of sulfur and fresh stone lime in four barrels, with a proportionate amount of water. Turn the steam under a pressure of 80 to 100 pounds (15 to 20 pounds pressure works well) into these four barrels. When the water has boiled for a few minutes in these barrels, turn off the steam. It may then be turned on to four more barrels which have been prepared in the same manner as the first set. The full amount of lime and sulfur is then added to the first set of barrels slowly enough to prevent boiling over by the heat generated by the slaking lime. When the lime is all slaked, turn on the steam again for two or three hours or till the mixture is thoroughly cooked. It is quite possible to feed each barrel during the boiling process with a small stream of water, which will gradually fill the barrel 38 without preventing the boiling. The mixture becomes quite thin during the boiling process, and when finished is of a deep orange color.” This is one of the popular and reliable remedies for San José scale. Fig. 56. Spore-bearing stalks of a wilt fungus (Acrostalagmus albus). In this fungus the spores are borne in heads; some of the heads are ruptured at the right. (After Van Hook.) Kerosene Emulsion.—Hard, soft or whale-oil soap, $ pound ; boiling soft water, 1 gallon; kerosene, 2 gallons. Dissolve the soap in the water, add the kerosene and churn with a pump for 5 to 10 minutes. Dilute 4 to 10 times before applying. Use strong emulsion for all scale insects. For such insects as plant-lice, mealy-bugs, red spider, thrips, weaker preparations will prove effective. Cabbage-worms, currant-worms, and all insects which have soft bodies, can also be successfully treated. It is advisable to make the emulsion shortly before it is used. For San José scale, use 1 pound of whale-oil soap and dilute in proportion of one part to six of water. Especially effective in summer to kill the young and tender lice. Miscible or “Soluble” Oils.—Recently various oils that emulsify readily when poured into water have been put on the market. Some persons have found them to be of great value and others report poor or indifferent results. Emulsified with twelve to fif- teen times their quantity of water, they are applied to dormant trees for scale. Distillate Spray.—In order to overcome some of the difficulties in the making and use of kerosene emulsion, California citrous growers are now using a mechanical mixture of a special distillate of petroleum and water. The mixture is prepared by a sort of churn propelled by a gasoline engine, and the same engine applies the spray. For scale insects and mites on citrous fruits. Tobacco Water.—Prepared by placing tobacco leaves and stems in a water-tight vessel, and then covering them with hot water. Allow to stand sev- eral hours, dilute the liquor 3 to 5 times, and apply. For soft-bodied insects. Whale-oil Soap.—On dormant trees for San José scale, dilute 2 pounds to 1 gallon water ; for sum- mer use on scale or aphis, 1 pound to 5 to’7 gallons. Dissolve in hot water if wanted quickly. Fig. 57. How a fungus works in a leaf. Insecticides designed for the insect to eat. Paris Green.—Paris green, 1 pound; water, 75 to 250 gallons. If this mixture is to be used on fruit trees, 1 pound INSECTS AND DISEASES of quicklime should be added. Repeated applications will injure most foliage, unless the lime is used. Paris green and Bordeaux mixture can be applied together with perfect safety. The action of neither is weakened, and the Paris green loses its caustic properties. Use at the rate of 4 to 12 ounces of the arsenite to 50 gallons of the mixture. It is sometimes used as strong as 1 pound to 50 gallons, but this is usually unsafe and generally unnecessary. This is the old and best known insecticide, used for potato- beetle, codling-moth, canker-worm, tent-caterpillar and very many other insects. Arsenate of Lead.—See page 44. White Arsenic.—White arsenic, being cheaper and of more constant strength than Paris green, is becoming increasingly popular as an insecticide. It may be safely used with Bordeaux mixture, or separately if directions as to its preparation are carefully followed; if, how- ever, these are neglected, injury to foliage will result. It is-unwise to use white arsenic without soda or lime. Methods numbers one and two are recommended as the least likely to cause injury. (1) Arsenite of Soda for Bordeaux Mixture—To a solution of 4 pounds salsoda crystals in 1 gallon of water, add 1 pound of white arsenic and boil until dissolved. Add water to replace any boiled away, so that 1 gallon of stock solution of arsenite of soda is the result. Use 1 pint of this stock solution to 50 gallons of Bordeaux. (2) Arsenite of Lime.—(a) If used alone (not in con- nection with Bordeaux) white arsenic should be prepared thus:—To a solution of 1 pound of salsoda crystals in a gallon of water, add 1 pound of white arsenic and boil until dissolved. Then add 2 pounds of fresh slaked lime and boil 20 minutes. Add water to make 2 gallons of stock solution. Use 1 quart of this stock solution to 50 gallons of water. Po ce v Tissue. Leaf : Diagrammatic cross-sec" tion in a bean leaf affected by rust (Uromyces appendiculatus). The cells of the leaf-tissue contain the chlorophyll grains. The mycelium of the fungus is seen ramifying in the tissue. ‘The spores are formed on the ends of mycelial threads, and as they crew ene epidermis of the leaf is pushed up and broken. (After etzel. INSECTS AND DISEASES (6) Boil 1 pound of white arsenic in 2 gallons of water for one-half hour and use the solution while hot to slake 2 pounds of good, fresh quicklime. Add water to make 2 gallons of stock solution, and use 1 or 2 quarts of this to 50 gallons of water or Bordeaux mixture. (c) Slake 2 pounds of good, fresh quicklime and add water to make 2 gallons of milk of lime. Add 1 pound of white arsenic and boil hard for forty min- utes. Add water to bring the resulting compound up to 2 gallons. Use 1 or 2 quarts of this stock solu- tion to 50 gal- lons of water or Bordeaux. London Pur- | ple.— This is used in the same propor- tion as Paris green, but as it is more caustic it should be ap- plied with two or three times its weight of lime, Anthracnose Canker or with 7 A. sg ee} the. Bordeaux ’ RIED mixture. The Y 5, op composition of 4 la MD London purple is variable, and unless good reasons exist for supposing Starch Grains \ Fig. 58. Soe Gh 4 Y OLEEL EEE ON KO BT RIN LE ORNS ak Corey cosa, se) a 389 There are many proportions in which the ingredients are combined to make Bordeaux mixture. The 6-4-50 for- mula is not now often used, as the amount of copper sulfate (or blue-stone) is greater than need be. The 3-4-50 formula is now much used. : Make stock solutions by dissolving 1 lb. sulfate to 1 gal. water in a barrel; and by dry-slaking the lime and then Anthracnose Spores much maqnified «Gy Dead Tissue Germinated ESOS A 2 ~ ; ‘ Ate , Fatt * BY SERRE RRO ce EU ee — \ Be eX “Seed Coat se “a J How a fungus works in a bean pod. To the left above is a diagram of a section across a bean pod through an anthracnose canker. The large drawing below is a much enlarged view of a part of this same section. It is largely diagrammatic. It shows how the mycelial threads of the fungus may penetrate the that it contains as much arse- nic as Paris ‘green, use the seed-coat and enter the starchy tissue of the seed, there to remain dormant until the following season, On the left of the large drawing is shown a spore germinating and penetrating the epidermis. This germ- tube branches, spreads through the tissues of the pod and so gives rise to a new spot or canker. To the right above is shown a magnified view of some of the spores of the anthracnose fungus. One has germi- nated. (After Whetzel.) latter poison. Do not use London purple on peach or plum trees unless considerable lime is added. Once much used. Hellebore. — Fresh white hellebore, 1 ounce; water, 3 gallons. Apply when thoroughly mixed. This poison is not so energetic as the arsenites, and may be used a short time before the sprayed parts mature. For insects which chew. Much used for currant-worms. Fungicides. The Bordeaux mixture, with variations in the propor- tion of water to suit the particular kind of plant and grade of development of the crop and of the disease, has become practically the universally used medium for spraying purposes. The standard formula is as follows : Copper sulfate, 3 to 6 pounds; quicklime, 4 pounds; water to make 50 gallons. This solution is often used successfully at half strength on delicate foliage. The solution of copper sulfate is some- times used without the lime on diseases of woody parts, such as apple canker and anthracnose of raspberry canes. In case of such use, the spraying must be done at a time before the foliation begins. The Bordeaux mixture may be combined with Paris green and other arsenites, as explained under those heads on the preceding page, and thus destroy both insects and fungous diseases at the same time that the caustic or injurious effect of the arsenic is lessened. adding water till one gallon holds 1 Ib. lime. Dilute these stock solutions before they are put together. There must be lime enough to kill the caustic action of the copper sulfate. This may be tested by dropping a solution of ferrocyunide of potassium on the surface of the Bordeaux mixture: if the drops turn brown or red, more lime should be added. Ammoniacal Carbonate of Copper.—Copper carbonate, 5 ounces; ammonia (26° Beaumé), 8 pints; water, 45 gallons. Make a paste of the copper carbonate with a little water. Dilute the ammonia with 7 or 8 volumes of water. Add the paste to the diluted ammonia and stir until dissolved. Add enough water to make 45 gal- lons. Allow it to settle and use only the clear blue liquid. This mixture loses strength on standing. For fungour diseases. Copper Sulfate SolutionCopper sulfate, 1 pound; water, 15 to 25 gallons. Dissolve the copper sulfate in the water. This should never be applied to foliage, but must be used before the buds break. For peaches and nectarines, use 25 gallons of water. For fungous diseases, but now largely supplanted by the Bordeaux mixture. A much weaker solution is recommended for trees in leaf. Potassium Sulfid Solution—Potassium sulfid (liver of sulfur), $ to 1 ounce; water, 1 gallon. This preparation loses its strength on standing, and 40 MEANS OF CONTROLLING INSECTS should therefore be made immediately before using. Particularly valuable for surface mildews. Maxwell Dust-Spray.— Fresh lime, 1 barrel; copper sulfate, 25 pounds ; concentrated lye, 5 pounds; powdered sulfur, 25 pounds; Paris green, 6 pounds. Spread lime in a large, shallow box, breaking into as small lumps as possible. Dissolve the copper sulfate in six gallons boiling water; also dissolve the lye in five gallons hot water. Keep separate. Sprinkle copper sulfate solution over the lime. Follow with lye water. If the lime does not all crumble to a dust, use clear water to finish. Screen the lime through a fine sieve, rub the sulfur through the sieve into the lime, add the Paris green and thoroughly mix both with lime. Lime should crumble to powder, not granules. Copper sulfate water must be used hot, or the copper will recrystallize. Mixing should be done out-of-doors or in a separate building, as lime in slaking becomes very hot. Missouri Experiment Station dust-spray. (To make 70 pounds of stock powder):—Copper sulfate, 4 pounds; quicklime, 4 pounds; water in which to dissolve copper sulfate, 24 gallons; water in which to slake quicklime, 2% gallons ; air-slaked lime thoroughly sifted, 60 pounds. Dissolve the copper sulfate and slake quicklime separately, each in 24 gallons water. Pour at same time milk of lime and copper solution into a third vessel and stir thoroughly. Surplus water is then strained out and remaining wet material is thoroughly mixed with the 60 pounds of air-slaked lime. All lumps must be sifted out and the mixture must be perfectly dry. One pound each of sulfur and Paris green may be added. The dust-sprays are useful where water is scarce or land is too rough or steep for the regular spraying machines. MEANS OF CONTROLLING INSECTS By M. V. Slingerland Careful estimates indicate that the value of farm products now destroyed each year by insects in the United States aggregates the vast sum of $700,000,000, or more than the entire expenditures of the national government. Thus, one of the most serious problems that confront the American agri- culturist is that of controlling the insect enemies of his crops. He is now menaced by nearly twice as many different kinds of insect pests as in 1850, and three or four times as many as a century ago. And the outlook is far from encouraging, for all the old pests will doubtless continue their ravages indefinitely, with “up” and “down” periods at un- certain intervals. Furthermore, the American agriculturist will have the best plants and animals the world produces, no matter whether he does thereby introduce other such destructive pests as the San José scale from China. There are still many insect pests in Europe, Asia, Australia, Africa and Mexico that are liable to be introduced at any time, and they may be much more destructive here than in their native home, where their enemies and surrounding conditions largely hold them in check. Thus, the unbroken ranks of the insect pests of a century ago will be constantly augmented by new kinds that are either disturbed by man in their wild haunts here (as the Colorado potato-beetle), or that come in naturally from adjoining countries (as the cotton boll-weevil from Mexico), or that are brought in by commerce from foreign lands (as the cattle horn-fly and over half of the other standard insect pests). But the outlook is not really so gloomy, for the American agriculturists are well equipped with insecticidal batteries, and they are waging a most scientific and successful fight against in- sect enemies. Many millions of dollars are being spent annually in America by national and state governments and by individuals in fighting insects and in devising and testing new remedial meas- ures; it is estimated that over $8,000,000 is expended each year in spraying apple trees for the codling-moth alone. Natural checks. In this warfare that man must wage against his insect foes, he should not forget that nature has provided active and often very effective insect- destroyers without which man could not grow crops, or even exist himself. Were it not for the many little enemies of plant-lice, these insignificant creatures with their wonderful powers of multipli- cation would soon overrun the earth, and destroy all vegetation, thus robbing man of his primary food supply. Among the forces of nature which thus aid man in his insect warfare may be men- tioned strong winds, sudden changes of tempera- ture in winter, rains, and forest and prairie fires. Then among the plants and animals there are some very efficient insect-destroyers. Bacteria and fungi often kill a large proportion of army-worms or chinch-bugs that are devastating crops. Many of the birds feed largely on insects and should be encouraged to stay on every farm, for they are among .the most effective of nature’s insect-des- troyers. But it is among their own kind, the insects, that insect pests find their most destructive foes. Vast numbers of insects, some so tiny that several of them can live inside an insect egg (codling-moth egg) not larger than a pin’s head, are constantly prey- ing on the insect enemies of man’s crops. And these parasitic and predaceous insects are often very effective in aiding man in his strenuous war- fare to protect his crops from insect pests. A little lady-bird beetle saved the citrous industry of Cali- fornia from destruction by a scale insect, and it would be impossible to grow wheat successfully in many sections of the United States were it not for the tiny insect parasites of the hessian fly. Man is coming to realize more and more the value of these natural aids in his warfare against insect pests. In Hawaii and California, thousands of dollars are expended annually in searching for and importing from foreign lands beneficial insects to prey on insect pests, and some striking successes have been attained. Europe is now being searched for the natural enemies of the gypsy and brown- tail moths to aid in checking and finally controlling these serious pests. Administrative control. While these insecticides of nature are often very effective and finally accomplish their purpose, man MEANS OF CONTROLLING INSECTS Al can not wait but must usually resort to artificial insecticides to save his crops. For centuries man has been fighting insect enemies. The Greeks mixed hellebore with milk to kill flies, and the tional efforts in controlling insect pests by quar- antine regulations and by the introduction of bene- ficial insects. Nations can scarcely overdo this kind of control work against injurious insects. Compulsory state legislation to ale oes ( TA ER ae re NE Ye is ; u ae TAGs ee ee nee h 4 NAY a i ae Pas Ace Y wD. 0, \ ~ a Hise control insect pests will often lack the necessary support of public opinion and hence be difficult to administer; attempts to annihilate the San José scale in Canada by the axe and fire were soon stopped by adverse public opinion. The state inspection laws to prevent the spread of insects by nursery- men have accomplished much good. Local authorities can do much to check the ravages of insects over limited areas by offering prizes or insisting that owners of infested premises shall use certain destruc- tive measures or pay for having NASR Ys Fig. 59. A hopper-dozer at work in kafir corn. (Kansas Experiment Station Bulletin.) Romans required the inhabitants of infested regions to kill certain amounts of grasshoppers. In the middle ages the methods used for the destruction of insects were largely of a spiritual nature; priests marched around infested fields praying ; anathemas were pronounced over grasshoppers ; or the accused insects were summoned to appear in court and judgment was rendered in the form of an excommunication. Scarcely thirty years ago, two governors of states in America issued procla- mations appointing days of fasting and prayer to stop the ravages of Rocky mountain locusts. It is only within the past quarter of a century that most of the modern scientific methods of control- ling insect pests have been devised. Previously, American farmers resorted to hand-work or to simple mechanical devices, such as bands for canker-worms and codling-moth. The word “in- secticide” was unknown half a century ago, and, according to the dictionaries when man kills an- insect he is an insecticide, he may use an insecti- cide, and he also commits an insecticide. Usually, however, the word is restricted to some material or spray used by man to kill insects. We may classify the methods used against insect pests as: international, national, state, local or neighborhood and individual. The first three of these mostly comprise laws or commercial regula- lations, by the enforcement of which attempts are made to prevent the spread of insect pests from one country or state to another, and also to provide for the introduction of beneficial insects. Neigh- borhood and individual efforts usually aim.at the immediate death of the insects either through the enforcement of municipal regulations, by the offer- ing of prizes, by practicing better farm methods, or by the use of insecticidal batteries. Laws or regulations are often necessary in insect warfare, but they must be supported by public opinion to be effective. Far-reaching and valuable results have been attained by interna- the authorities do it. A few neigh- bors can do much to mitigate the ravages of the hessian fly by com- bined action in using early trap strips of wheat and sowing as late as practicable. And yet, after all has been said and done by international, national, state or local authorities to stay temporarily the inevitable spread of the world’s injurious insect fauna, each individual who raises crops will often find himself face to face with the problem of fighting successfully some insect pest or the loss of his crop. Legislation and inspection or fumigation certificates are then of no avail. Usually his parasitic and predaceous insect friends are also too slow. A nation may profit- | ably spend much money to introduce new insect friends; doubtless an extensive national quarantine would keep out some injurious insects for a time, Fig. 60. A practicable and effective sticky shield for captur- ing adult grape leaf-hoppers in the spring. and the state and local authorities can do much to check the spread of a pest; but in the end the brunt of the fight will fall on the individual whose crops are attacked, 42 The means which the individual may use in endeavoring to control his insect enemies are many and varied. They may be classed as me- chanical methods, farm practices and the applica- tion of mate- rials commonly called insecti- cides. . Mechanical methods. It is often practicable to hand-pick or dig out insect pests. This is largely prac- ticed in coun- tries where cheap labor is available. No cheaper and ef- fective method has yet been found for com- bating borers and many pests (as cutworms and white grubs) working in gardens and on other small areas. Children have done very effective work in collecting eggs of tent-caterpillars and tussock- moths on shade trees. A box-like covering of wire- screen or mosquito-netting is often placed over hills of squashes, melons and cucumbers to protect them from the ravages of the striped beetle. and stink-bug. Seed-beds of cabbages, radish beds and various choice or rare plants can be thus protected from insects at slight expense. Bushels of young grasshoppers and swarms of small leaf-hoppers are often collected on the western prairies by drawing large iron pans smeared with tar or containing ker- osene, and called “‘ hopper-dozers.” (Fig. 59.) Thous- ands of grape leaf-hoppers can be collected on sticky shields held near while the vines are jarred. - Fig. 61. Canker-worm moths stopped by sticky band in their progress up a tree. MEANS OF CONTROLLING INSECTS (Fig. 60.) Sticky bands have long been used effec- tively to prevent the wingless female moths of canker-worms ascending trees to lay their eggs. (Fig. 61.) For a quarter of a century before the advent of spraying, the principal means em- ployed to reduce the numbers of the codling-moth were various kinds of cloth or hay-rope bands around the trunks of the trees to form more attrac- tive places for the caterpillars to transform. Large numbers of the caterpillars gather under these bands, where they are easily killed. This effective banding method can now be used with profit to supplement the poison spray when a second brood of the insect occurs. Farmers often use the barrier method to prevent chinch-bugs, cutworms or army- worms from marching into other fields. Two furrows plowed to- gether and a narrow _ strip of coal-tar poured along the ridge thus formed, effec- tively stop chinch - bugs. (Fig. 62.) To stop army- worms a deep furrow is plowed with the perpendic- ular side to- ward the field to be protected, and post-holes are then dug in the furrow at intervals of a rod or less. The caterpil- lars can not readily scale the furrow and so wan- der along it, finally dropping into the holes, where they can be killed with kerosene or crushed; bushels of the worms are often killed by this bar- rier method. Some insects may be jarred on sheets or into catchers. (Figs. 68, 64.) for vineyards, but now little used. a t/t id ac t Farm practices. The American farmer who grows field crops mostly, must depend largely on im- proved or different methods in growing his crops, or on what may be called farm prac- tices, to prevent and control the ravages of insect pests. Often the horticulturist or gardener can also use these methods to good advantage. Thorough and frequent cultivation, especi- ally in early autumn, discourages and finally effectively controls wireworms and white grubs more than anything yet devised. One rarely sees a well-cultivated orchard seriously infested with canker-worms, as many of the Fig. 62. Ridge formed by Marcy implement for protection against chinch-bugs. Post-holes are dug beside the ridge about fifty feet apart. This barrier is smooth and compact, and very little affected by the rain. The line of coal-tar along the top has been successful in all weather conditions, (Kansas Experiment Station Report, 1896-97.) pupe in the soil are thus destroyed. A fre- quent rotation of the crops is one of the most effective methods of controlling insects which attack field crops, as corn, clover, wheat, potatoes and similar crops. The in- MEANS OF CONTROLLING INSECTS 43 sects are starved out by finding their favorite food-plant replaced by some crop they do not like. Many field crops may suffer for a season or two Fe ° SOR eag, Tale _ Fig. 64. Jarring peach tree for curculio. from wireworms or white grubs if planted in fields, as pastures or old meadows, that have been in sod for several years and are the favorite breed- ing grounds of these pests. But thorough cultiva- tion of such crops will soon discourage the insects. Clean culture, or the destroying of weeds and clearing away of rubbish, will often help in the warfare against insect pests. Many insects find favorable hibernating quarters in rubbish, old stone walls, near-by clumps of bushes or forest lands. One fruit-grower has largely eliminated the plum curculio from his peach orchard by planting it away from such favorable hibernating quarters. The removal or burial of old cabbage stumps, old squash or cucumber vines, and other garden refuse, so as to leave the ground clean in the fall, will help much in controlling garden insects, like the cabbage, radish- and onion-maggots, cutworms, and other serious pests. Sometimes an attractive plant is used early in the season as a decoy, to be de- stroyed when it has served its purpose and become well infested with the pest. Then the main crop to be protected is planted later and often escapes serious infestation. A strip of mustard or early cabbages may be sown early in spring to attract the hibernated harlequin-bugs, which can then be killed with kerosene before the main crop of cab- bage is put out. A strip of wheat sown in August will often attract a large proportion of the autumn brood of the hessian fly. This infested strip can then be plowed under in September, or just before the whole field is prepared for the main crop, which should be delayed in planting as long as local conditions will permit. This “farm practice” method of an early decoy strip and late planting will usually circumvent this serious wheat, barley and rye pest. Gardeners who grow cucurbitaceous vines sometimes plant a strip of early squashes along one side of the field Fig. 65. A beetle, one of the chewing insects. Cucum- ber beetle (Epitria« cu- cumeris). Adult beetle much enlarged. and delay putting out the main crop, so as to at- tract many of the striped beetles, stink-bugs and borers to the decoy strip. ; Extensive investigations have demonstrated that the cotton boll-weevil can be controlled only by cultural methods. Profitable crops of cotton can be grown in spite of the weevil by planting early- maturing varieties farther apart and earlier, by thorough cultivation, by plowing up and destroying all the old stalks in early autumn, and by a more liberal use of fertilizers—all these are “farm prac- tices.” By burning fruit-tree prunings before spring, the hibernating stage of several fruit pests, as plant-lice eggs and bud-moth larve, may be de- stroyed. The application of a little quick-acting commercial fertilizer will sometimes stimulate a plant to overcome or outgrow the onslaught of its insect enemies; but when used in practicable or fertilizing quantities, these fertilizers will not kill the insects. It is an alluring thought that we may be able to develop insect-resisting varieties of many kinds of agricultural plants. The resistance of certain American native grape roots to the phylloxera plant-louse is proving to be the salvation of the grape industry in Europe. Promising efforts are now being made to develop a boll-weevil-resisting variety of cotton. Sometimes certain varieties of wheat seem to be resistant to the hessian fly. Much can be done around farmhouses to reduce the numbers of house-flies and mosquitos. Put the horse manure in tight sheds so that flies can not breed, or spread it on the fields every two or three days in summer. Drain off or fill in low places where water stands continually or after showers, as such places breed “wigglers” or mosquito larve. Fig. 66. Two examples of sucking insects, belonging to the group known to entomologists as the true bugs. If the rain-barrel is also screened with wire netting, it will not become the breeding-place of thousands of mosquitos. House-flies may bring to human food the germs of typhoid fever on their feet or mouth- parts, and the only way one can get malaria is through the agency of certain kinds of mosquitos (Anopheles) that may have sucked the diseased blood from some malarial patient, which they then inject into the body of another when they “bite.” (Vol. I, p. 297.) Spraying and other insecticidal methods. For a half century before 1875, the materials used by American farmers to kill insects consisted largely of whale-oil soap, hellebore, lime, tobacco, sulfur and salt. These materials were dusted or sprinkled or syringed on the plants. With the ap- pearance and rapid march of the Colorado potato- beetle across the country from 1860 to 1870, there 44 MEANS OF CONTROLLING INSECTS came into use Paris green poison, which was des- tined to revolutionize insecticidal methods. In 1872, it was suggested that a Paris green spray be applied on cotton plants for the cotton worm and on apple trees to kill canker-worms. Six years later it was found that the poison spray effectively checked the codling-moth, and this gave a new impetus to the warfare against insects, which has finally resulted in the modern formidable array of insecticide materials and elaborate machinery for their application. The materials used as insecticides may be divided into three groups, based largely on the two differ- ent ways in which insects eat. Some insects, as caterpillars, potato-beetles, and many others, have their mouth-parts provided with strong jaws which enable them to bite off and swallow solid particles of their food-plants. (Figs. 53, 65.) Many other insects, of which the plant-lice, stink-bugs, scale- insects and mosquitos are familiar examples, have their mouth-parts drawn out into fine threads which are forced into the plant-tissues along a stiff, sup- porting beak ; such sucking insects are unable to eat solid particles and hence cannot be fed a poison sprayed on the surface, for they can suck only liquid food from the inner tissues of the plant-host. (Figs. 54, 66.) To kill biting or chewing insects, it is necessary only to apply a poison on the surface of the plant where they are going to feed. But each individual sucking insect and not a certain part of the plant must be hit with some material that will soak into its body and kill, or that may smother by covering the breathing holes along the sides of the body. The third method is fumigation. Biting insects.—The insecticides used for killing biting insects consist mostly of poisons which have for their basis white arsenic. This substance can not be used alone, as it dissolves slowly, and this causes it to burn foliage severely. But it can be combined with salsoda and lime to form a cheap and effective poison spray. Boil 1 pound of arsenic and 2 pounds of salsoda in 4 quarts of water until dissolved ; then slake 2 pounds of stone lime with this solution, and add 2 gallons of water. Use about 14 quarts of this stock mixture in 40 gallons of water or Bordeaux mixture, for general orchard spraying ; for potato-beetles, double the dose of poison. More than 2,000 tons of Paris green are now used annually in America against insect pests. It is the standard poison spray, and is used at the rate of 1 pound in 100 gallons on orchards, except plum and peach, where only about half this amount is safe; on potatoes it is used at least twice as strong. The arsenite of copper or green arsenite is simi- lar to Paris green. = : i | MANNS hs eck sen ee IY yy 1 SLE thames Noh ambos ivy) slit We = oe es Fig. 68. Spraying outfit that will give good service in an apple orchard of forty to sixty acres. The arsenate of lead, which was first used against the gypsy-moth in 1892, is coming into general use. It adheres better to the foliage and can be used very strong with safety, thus making it especially useful against certain insects like the elm leaf-beetle, codling-moth, plum curculio, rose-chafer, and grape root-worm. It is sold in a paste form, one pound of which contains only about half as much arsenic as Paris green, thus necessitating using twice as much of the arsenate of lead, or 2 to 4 pounds per 100 gallons for apple orchards and 4 pounds per 50 gallons in vineyards for grape root-worms. Hellebore is still much used for currant-worms, but has been largely replaced by the Paris green spray. Sucking insects.—The insecticides used for kill- ing sucking insects are largely powders, oils or soaps, which kill by contact or when they hit the body of the insect. Pyrethrum powder is often used for house-flies, but it is too expensive for general use in spraying. Tobacco in various forms is largely used for fighting plant-lice in greenhouses, and sometimes as a spray outdoors or in “washes” or “dips” for domestic animals. Tobacco stems may be burned slowly, creating a killing smoke, or tobacco dust may be freely scattered over the plant, or decoctions and extracts may be sprayed on the plants. Whale-oil and fish-oil soaps and various common soaps are effective insecticides for plant-lice, scale insects and many other sucking insects. Two pounds ‘of soap dissolved in one gallon of water is the neces- sary strength for killing scale insects on dormant plants in winter, and one pound in four to six gal- lons will kill plant-lice and recently hatched scale insects. Kerosene and crude petroleum are among the most effective materials for killing sucking insects. Sometimes they can be applied in a fine spray on dormant trees with little or no injury, but usually it is necessary to combine them with soap in an MEANS OF CONTROLLING INSECTS 45 emulsion, which can then be diluted with water. The emulsion is made by dissolving 4 pound of soap in 1 gallon of hot water, then adding 2 gallons of the oil and thoroughly agitating the mixture into a stable emulsion. This should be diluted with 3 or Se Gi ) rad vA Df oGe, hres Fig. 69. Niagara carbonic acid gas sprayer. 4 parts of water for scale insects and with about twice as much water for plant-lice and other suck- ing insects. Pumps have been designed for combin- ing the oils and water into a good mechanical emul- sion, but usually the percentage of oil can not be satisfactorily controlled. So-called soluble or miscible oils which quickly emulsify with water are now made and are very effective against scale insects. A lime, salt and sulfur mixture (often without the salt) is a very effective and safe spray to use on dormant plants for the San José scale and the peach leaf-curl fungus. This “wash” is made by boiling for about an hour 15 pounds of flowers of sulfur and 20 pounds of stone lime in 50 gallons of water; by using about 6 pounds of caustic soda this “ wash” can be made without boiling and is nearly as effective, but costs more. Fumigation. Both sucking and biting insects succumb to the fumes of carbon bisulphid or to hydrocyanic acid as. . Carbon bisulphid is largely used in killing insects infesting stored grains or seeds. It is poured into shallow dishes set on top of the grain in tight bins, or it may be sprinkled over the grain. The fumes are heavier than air and sink all through the grain; as the fumes are explosive, no lights should be near. A little of the liquid poured on clothing stored during the summer will kill the destructive clothes moths. Cucurbitaceous vines have been covered with cloth and successfully treated for plant-lice with carbon bisulphid. : Hydrocyanic acid gas is generated by dissolving cyanide of potassium in sulfuric acid and water. It is used largely under tents by the citrous orchard- ists in California for scale insects, and by many nurserymen for fumigating their stock to kill San José scale and other injurious insects. Greenhouses, dwellings, cars and flouring mills have been fumi- gated successfully with this gas for the white-fly, household insects, and the flour-moth. The usual formula for fumigating everything but green- houses is 1 ounce of cyanide of potassium, 2 ounces of commercial sulfuric acid, and 4 ounces of water for each 100 cubic feet of space ; the fumigation should be continued for half an hour for nursery stock and several hours or all night in buildings or cars. For green- house fumigation, 4 to 1 ounce of the cyanide is used at night for each 1,000 cubic feet. This gas is exceedingly poisonous to persons when breathed, causing death instantly. Spraying methods and machinery. Many growers of fruits, potatoes and garden crops now include spraying as one of the regular and necessary “farm practices” to protect their crops from insect and fungous enemies. To spray the most successfully requires skill, practice and some knowledge of the enemies to be fought. Much energy and money is wasted every year in trying to kill sucking insects with poison sprays which they can not eat, or by uninterested laborers who hurry through the more or less dis- agreeable job. It is often necessary to success that we follow closely the detailed directions for mak- ing the sprays; for example, it is very essential that dilute and not concentrated mixtures of copper sulfate and lime be poured together in making Bordeaux mixture. Successful spraying is scientific and thus requires the services of faithful, trained men. Only the most thorough work with the best materials and machinery will accomplish the most paying results. To control successfully the San José scale, for example, each tiny scale not larger than a pin’s head must be hit thoroughly with a powerful insecticide, thrown with force through fine nozzles so as to penetrate every crevice in the bark. Machinery for the application of insecticides has developed from a bundle of twigs or a broom, through syringes and ill-adapted pumps, to a formi- dable array of powder-guns and pumps specially adapted to various conditions and crops. Insecti- cides and fungicides are now combined into a fino Fig. 70. Spray rig with steam power pump. dust that is blown into trees with powder-guns. This miscalled “dust-spray” is not so effective as the liquid sprays in orchards, as judged by present experiments, and is used mostly where water is scarce and the land is rough. For applying liquid 46 THE MEANS OF CONTROLLING PLANT DISEASES sprays there are little atomizers holding a quart or two with which house plants, small gardens, or a few cattle may be sprayed. Next come the bucket pumps and knapsack sprayers, which will be found useful on most farms for spraying small areas or isolated trees in gardens. For several years barrel Fig. 71. pumps were much used in all spraying operations, but now large tanks equipped with more powerful pumps in which the power is developed by horses, by steam or gasoline engines, by compressed air, or carbonic acid gas, are mostly used in spraying large areas of orchards, vineyards, potatoes and other crops. The horse-power pumps, in which the power is developed from the wheels by chain or eccentric attachments as the machine moves, give sufficient power to do satisfactory work only on potatoes and similar low field crops. A small compressed-air tank attached to these horse- power pumps greatly increases their efficiency for the spraying of small orchard trees and vineyards. The pumps using compressed air for power do very effective spraying of all kinds, but the necessary outfit of several spray tanks, an engine and an air- compressor are rather expensive. Steam spraying rigs are heavy but are easily managed, and fur- nish cheap and abundant power. Gasoline engines are lighter and are being much used instead of steam power. The tanks of compressed carbonic acid furnish ample, easily manipulated but slightly more expensive power than the engines. Some of the forms of spray rigs are shown in Figs. 67-71. Good nozzles are an essential part of spray pumps. Several types of spray nozzles are used. A modern spray rig, with mounted gasoline engine. Some, like the cyclone and Vermorel nozzles, pro- duce a very fine, funnel-shaped spray. In another type, like the McGowan, the spray is fan-shaped and can be thrown farther. The various modifica- tions of the Vermorel type of nozzle are now most extensively used, often several nozzles being grouped at the end of a light rod attached to the spray hose. The manufacturers of spraying apparatus are constantly improving and modifying their machines so as better to adapt them to the practical needs of the agriculturist. American farmers are un- doubtedly the best equipped with insecticidal bat- teries, and they are putting up the most scientific and successful fight against their insect enemies. Literature. The literature on the means of controlling insects is very extensive and scattered, much of it having to do with controlling specific pests. The reader will find a great deal of interesting material in special articles in the yearbooks, in bulletins and circulars of the Bureau of Entomology and Farmers’ Bulletins, of the United States De- partment of Agriculture, and in bulletins issued by the federal and state experiment stations of the various states. The following publications should also be consulted: Annual Reports and Bul- letins issued by the State Entomolo- gists of New York (Dr. E. P. Felt, Al- bany), Illinois (Prof. 8. A. Forbes, Ur- bana) and Minnesota (Prof. F. L. Wash- ===. burn, St. Anthony Park, St. Paul), and = by the Government Entomologist (Dr. J. Fletcher) at Ottawa, Canada; Lode- man, Spraying of Plants, 1896; John- son, Fumigation Methods, 1902; Smith, Economic Entomology, 1896; Weed, Insects and Insecticides, 1895 ; Sanderson, Insects Injuri- ous to Staple Crops, 1902. THE MEANS OF CONTROLLING PLANT DISEASES By Henry L. Bolley Almost every farm, garden and orchard crop is open to the attack or influence of one or more kinds of infectious disease. As farming, garden- ing, or fruit-producing districts age under cultiva- tion, the soil ages, and the conditions and materials that are favorable to the development of disease accumulate. Hach crop, or type of cultivated plant, unless properly handled, becomes more and more susceptible to disease, and is more liable to be attacked by disease-producers that are natural to the habits and growth conditions of that particular kind of crop. Practically every known cultivated plant and crop, including hothouse-grown plants, vegetables, fruit and shade trees, grasses and cereals, is thus attacked and the yield and quality are often greatly reduced. It is to be expected that the warfare will continue. THE MEANS OF CONTROLLING PLANT DISEASES 4? Parts of the plant attacked. Many plant diseases may be said to be systematic or constitutional in the same sense as observed in animal troubles. Though certain parts may be pri- marily the chief source of attack, as, for example, leaves in the case of rust, yet the effect on the physiology of the plant finally becomes general. All such diseases reduce the vitality of the plant body as a whole. The points of first injury are various, according to the kind of plant attacked and the nature of the organism which brings about the dis- ease. There are “root diseases,” “leaf diseases,” “diseases of the stem” and “diseases of the fruiting parts,” but, as indicated, these terms are so applied largely because the disease first appears on certain parts or is finally most destructive to these parts. The destruction or damage depends largely on the part that is thus attacked, but also varies greatly according to the kind of organism that produces the disease, the period in the life of the crop when the disease appears, and almost directly according to the environment of weather and soil conditions. The cause of disease and the effects produced. The effects produced by disease on the individual plant and on a crop depend on the character of the plants attacked, the nature of the organism that causes the trouble and, as just indicated, on the life conditions, such as heat, light, moisture, fertil- ity of soil, drainage, soil texture, and the like. Some diseases are of parasitic character and are directly infectious, as, for example, fire-blight of apple, wheat-smut, or wheat-rust. Others are im- perfect parasites, or merely decay-producers, which become materially destructive only under special conditions of the soil or atmosphere. Some of these last-named types at times become exceedingly de- structive, as in the case of numerous decay bacteria and molds on vegetation under conditions of ex- cessive moisture. The work of the various damp- ing-off fungi is a good example. Some plant diseases are more or less local in action and temporary in results, depending on the character of the plant and the part attacked or on sudden changes in the weather. There are many others, such as plum-pocket, black-knot and potato- scab, that are perennial or persistent, year after year, dependent on special peculiarities of the life history of the organism that causes the trouble, peculiarities of the life of the plant attacked, on some method of cultivation and handling of the crop or soil, or on soil characters that allow of persist- ence from year to year in the soil; or, again, the disease may be transmitted on the parts of the plants that are necessary to continued yearly propagation. These numerous peculiarities as to conditions, types of disease, modes of attack, differences in types of plant affected, and so on, allow us to contrive as to methods of combating or controlling crop diseases. Such features, closely studied, often make means of complete prevention possible. In some of the most destructive diseases of farm crops, such as potato-blight, stinking smut of wheat, and grape-rot, methods of prevention have been found quite practicable and have come into general use. One cannot estimate accurately the value of the results obtained, but the writer be- lieves that from the smuts of cereal grains alone the people of the United States, through practices of seed disinfection, save annually in crop yields in values approximating $20,000,000 to $80,000,000. There are yet other plant diseases, such as wheat- rust and apple-blight, in which the natural condi- tions influencing their development are so compli- cated that means of prevention or control, as yet recommended, have given slight results. In order to arrive at proper control or reason- ably complete prevention of plant diseases, farmers and gardeners must study all characteristic fea- tures of the soil, climate, and conditions of plant growth, that affect the development of the indi- vidual plants or crops attacked, as well as those conditions that affect, further, or prevent the de- velopment of the disease. In this connection, it must be remembered that the development of disease in the crop is associated directly with the conditions that favor the propagation and dis- tribution of the disease-engendering organisms. Therefore, close attention should be given to all features affecting the relationship of soil, air, seed and individual plants to crop development. All conditions should be sanitary. Soil considerations. In this connection the soil is a factor of great importance, and one should consider such features as texture, drainage, chemical nature, fertility and position, that is, the kind or type of soil and location of the field for the particular crop which it is intended to produce. It must be such as to furnish the properly balanced food supply for the crop or plant growth, so that there may be a regular proper growth and evenness of ma- turing. Soil drainage must be right, for it greatly affects many features and conditions that gov- ern plant growth. It directly influences such fea- tures as soil texture, soil and atmospheric mois- ture, and temperature; and it has a particular bearing on the dissemination or distribution and life of plant diseases in the soil. Surface waters not only cause a souring of the soil and a general sickening of plant growth, but they also serve as a means of rapid distribution of the spores of disease from plant to plant and from soil area to soil area, until, in such soil diseases as cotton root- rot, potato-scab or flax-wilt, all flooded areas are quickly overrun or permeated by the disease-pro- ducing organism. Poorly drained farm lands not only directly distribute certain diseases but also, through evaporation, directly affect the air con- ditions, causing heavy fogs and dews. In the case of such diseases as the rusts of cereal grains, these conditions result in the greatest possible crop destruction. If soil drainage is not proper, it must be made so before one may hope for best results in the control of some of the plant diseases. Treatment of the soil is a phase of work not evenly developed. There are numerous types of dis- 48 THE MEANS OF CONTROLLING PLANT DISEASES ease, especially those which find permanence in the soil, that may be controlled to a large degree through proper culture, rotation of crops, soil resting, and soil weathering. In certain types of troubles, chemical applications have been found to Fig. 72. Showing difference in growth of wheat from rusted and unrusted mother plants of the same crop (alternating). Seeds planted same day and plants same age. be efficacious. All such methods and treatments de- pend for their basis on the nature of the particular disease-producing organism. Proper crop rotation rests the land, keeps up an equable plant-food ration, and lessens the possibility of disease accumulation, because each plant disease is special in its wants and cannot increase in the absence of its host. Soil disinfection by means of chemical substances directly applied does not yet give great promise. The disease-producers are usually possessed of greater powers of resistance than the delicate roots of cultivated plants. Careful study of the soil constituents and physical condition often allows of soil treatment that is beneficial in reducing the effects of disease. Some diseases, such as potato- scab and flax-wilt, caused by soil fungi, are found to develop with much greater damage on markedly alkaline soils than on soils of neutrality. This is comparatively easy of correction through the use of barnyard manures, the growth of grasses, and the like. Soils of poor texture often result in such weak growths that ordinary infectious diseases become more destructive than under proper tillage. Such features must be remedied by proper methods of handling the soil preparatory to cropping. To this end, plowing and cultivating at the proper time aérate the soil, allow it to weather and become a large factor in destroying germs of disease that hold over in the soil from year to year. This, we are rapidly learning, is one of the real truths back of proper crop rotation. [Another discussion of this subject will be found in Vol. I, pages 450-453.] Climatic conditions. When considering possibilities of controlling plant diseases, the matter of prevailing climatic conditions, to which the crop must be subjected, is of much importance. It decides, primarily, whether or not one should attempt to produce the crop under question, and indicates what variety of the particular crop or type of plant should be selected. While prevailing climatic features can- not be directly controlled, one may often avoid the difficulties which they bring about. This matter of climate governs the time of planting, mode of har- vest, the types of cultivation, and all such features. To escape the worst effects of disease on farm crops, one must take such features into consider- ation, avoiding, if possible, those types of work and methods which allow natural climatic condi- tions to favor disease development. For example, in the case of spraying to prevent diseases such as apple-scab and potato-blight, one must consider carefully the time when the work will prove most effective. This will depend almost wholly on the prevailing atmospheric and weather conditions, which account for the spread of the various types of disease-producing parasites and for their vary- ing stages and destructiveness of development. Seeds and seed treatment. Of all the features of cropping which allow of direct effort toward controlling or avoiding disease, the seed is open to the easiest and most effective study. It is an old saying that the seed-time de- cides the harvest. It might as truly be said that the type of seed, how it is cared for and handled and prepared for the soil, decides what the harvest shall be. This is particularly true with types of plants that are subjected to certain crop diseases. In handling the seed preparatory to the greatest possible control of plant disease, one should always have in mind a number of very important factors. The introduction of new varieties into standard cropping regions is often attended with troubles arising from disease introduction. Some varieties may not only prove worthless because of lack of Wi) N (| VA | h Vif, \ i ‘ Me f lia NN Hf} Ni | ; oe ® iN oe, 2 i) tif Fig. 73. Wheat from treated and untreated seed. Two bun- dles of wheat heads cut at the same distance from ground from two plots of wheat (the actual area two square feet). 1. From very smutty untreated seed; 76 per cent of smutty heads in this sample. 2. Grown from same seed but treated by the formaldehyde method to prevent smut. disease-resisting powers, but also may often prove to be great disseminators of disease to the standard crop of the locality. This feature may be noticed in all types of plants, but is markedly noticeable among cereals with reference to rust, as in differ- ent varieties of oats and of wheat. For example, it is very probable that the introduction of winter varieties of wheat into noted spring-wheat areas is alone sufficient to account for the rapid disappear- THE MEANS OF CONTROLLING PLANT DISEASES 49 ance of the spring crop, this result being brought about by rust which early developed on the winter crop and fell on the immature spring crop. For similar reasons, mixtures of varieties should be avoided when possible. This is especially true of cereals, but applies equally to fruit and vegetable culture. When attempting to control crop diseases, it is a matter of the greatest concern that in the crop there should be an evenness of development and maturing. One can often protect plants or crops of the same grade of growth or maturity, but it is difficult to avoid damage when there is no uniformity in these features. Saving seed.—After purity of variety, there are no features of caring for the seed of greater impor- tance than those which insure proper harvest, curing and storing. Aside from conditions that may cause weakened vitality of the seeds, there are many features of these processes that may introduce or multiply the chances of introducing infectious dis- eases. Each crop and its special diseases must be studied with these points in mind. Vitality or initiative growth power in the seed or cion is of great importance. It is of much moment that the growth period from seed-time to maturity shall be as short as possible. This applies especially to annual crops. This initiative seed power can be gained and maintained only by per- sistent seed selection, cleaning and grading. With this point in mind, one selects to secure varieties and individual types which are the least susceptible to disease, cleans them thoroughly to free them from possible disease-bearing parts, and grades them to get rid of diseased seeds, those that are predisposed to disease and those that are not up to the standard of excellence. Note Figs. 72-74. Treatment of seed.—Proper seed treatment pre- supposes a proper selection of seed, proper cleaning and grading. Seed thus prepared is then ready for treatment or disinfection. The theory of seed dis- infection rests on the principle that some plant diseases, indeed many, are transmitted by way of the seed either to the soil or to the new plant directly by way of the embryo. Phyto A Misr. d Fig. 74. Treating seed grain by spraying and shoveling, as practiced on large farms in the Northwest. Taking up this feature of the question, it is necessary to consider just what diseases are to be prevented. Some are known to be directly trans- missible by way of the seed, the embryo or germ B4 layers being internally infected as in the case of flax-wilt or anthracnose of beans and loose smut of wheat. By far the greater number of diseases, such as the stinking smut of wheat and onions and numerous diseases of garden vegetables, including potato-scab and potato-rot, however, are easily transmitted to the ground and the new plant because of the presence of external spores, struc- tures that are simply dusted on the seeds, and only await an opportunity to prey on the roots. (Fig. 75.) For all such diseases, seed disinfection is an Fig. 75. Potato-scab growing on sugar-beets. This illustra. tion is from the original experiment which proved that potato-scab fungus lives from year to year in the ground, and may attack other vegetables besides potatoes. easy and direct remedy, and numerous formulas and washes or solutions suited for special diseases have -been developed from time to time, among which may be named the following examples: Cop- per sulfate solution, corrosive sublimate solution, hot water treatment, and the formaldehyde treat- ments. Usually the treatment demands that individual seeds shall be subjected thoroughly to the action of the disinfecting medium for a definite period of time. It is well to remember that, as in the case of serving medicine to persons, or administering washes to wounds, only certain strengths are suit- able to particular cases. Therefore, the directions for using must be followed closely if prevention can be reasonably expected, the aim being to pre- vent the disease, and, at the same time, in no way to injure the growth from the seed. It is an inter- esting feature of seed disinfection that, whenever a proper treatment for prevention has been made, the yield may very greatly exceed that from the untreated seed of the same type, even though no particular disease is known to infest the seed. This may be readily accounted for by the fact that dis- infection does away with many unknown or unob- served organisms on the seed that cause trouble to the young plant sufficient to be of great detriment to its growth, and yet not sufficient to give results that would ordinarily be characterized as dis- ease. Thus, with seed properly treated by the for- maldehyde method of disinfection, bacteria, yeasts, molds, all types of organisms which readily set up fermentations in the moistened seed, are disposed of, leaving the young plantlet to draw unmolested the full amount of food materials stored in the mother seed. The following farm crops are grown with much greater advantage if the seed is first disinfected : Wheat, barley, oats, millet, grass seeds, flax seed and corn. The method of disinfection is now almost 50. THE MEANS OF CONTROLLING PLANT DISEASES uniformly some modification of the formaldehyde treatment. Formulas for seed treatment.—Only a few of the standard formulas for seed treatment may be noted here. The steps in different cases are very similar. Persons interested in some special method of seed treatment should consult their nearest experiment station officer interested in such work, or look up the matter in the general literature of the stations and the Department of Agriculture. Hot water: Temperature and time of immersion vary according to kind of seeds and type of dis- ease ; especially recommended for stinking smut and the smuts of oats and barley; for stinking smut in wheat dip at 135° Fahr., for three to five minutes ; for oat- or barley-smut, immerse at 183° Fahr., for fifteen minutes. (Consult bulletins of Indiana, Kansas, North Dakota, and other experi- ment stations.) Corrosive sublimate solution: One ounce to six gallons of water ; used successfully to treat potato: tubers for destruction of spores of scab, rot and blight ; immerse whole tubers for one and one-half hours. Plant on disease-free soil. This solution is also very effective against stinking smut of wheat. (See bulletins of North Dakota Experiment Sta- tion and others.) Formaldehyde solution: The most economical and successful seed disinfectant; now in general use for all types of seed and all types of plant dis- eases. Especially recommended for prevention of smuts in cereal grains, wheat, oats, barley and millet, flax-wilt, onion-smut and potato-scab. Very effective in improving the first-growth powers of weak or moldy seeds, especially grass seed, corn, garden seeds, and the like. It prevents the early action of molds, damping-off fungi and other diseases. The strengths used on cereals and seeds is generally sixteen ounces of 40 per cent formalde- hyde to forty gallons of water; for potato-scab, sixteen ounces to thirty gallons. It is used either as a spray or dip. (For special methods, consult experiment station literature.) Sulfur and lime have often received high com- mendation for use in seed disinfection. The writer, after many trials, has been unable to find them of use against any fungus which attacks by way of seed or soil. The growing crop or plant. It is essential to take into consideration the growing plant or crop, noting the many features that have particular bearing on disease develop- ment or, at least, those that allow one to guard the crop against excessive destruction. Any feature of soil or environment which may chance to give an unfavorable growth period during the regular. growing season may lay the crop open to serious damage. Thus, the drainage and character of the soil, as already said, and its cultivation may par- ticularly affect the character of the crop with reference to its ability to develop in the presence of disease. The influence of drainage is always. distinctly noticeable in its effects on the develop-. ment of blights, wilts and rusts. For example, poorly drained areas in the great spring - wheat belt of the Northwest bring about heavy dew for- mations, and this results in extreme rust infection and consequent damage. The matter of fertilization of the flowers by insects often plays a direct réle in introducing new infection, as, for example, when bees and flies visit infected trees and carry infection from flower to flower and from tree to tree. This has been clearly demonstrated in pear- and apple-blight. The application of fertilizers and barnyard manures may exert a direct influence on the devel- opment of plant disease. One often sees the ill- effects of the injudicious use of such agents. It need only be emphasized that an unbalanced food supply readily produces an irregular growth which may be open to the attack of many types of disease-producing agents, as, for example, rust of wheat in case of excessive use of nitrogenous fer- tilizers or barnyard manures. Weeds in many ways may be unfavorable in their effects on the grow- ing plant, and directly favorable to destructive action of plant parasites on the crop. They draw away nourishment in time of drought and by keep- ing the crop befogged in times of dampness, as in the case of the rust parasites, they bring about profuse spore germination and infection. Certain weeds are also direct breeders of the parasites which prey on special cultivated crops. Clean cul- ture, therefore, always has its direct merits. The matter of considering the growth periods of the crop becomes one of actual necessity when preparing for the work of spraying for prevention. It determines the time of spraying and the strength of solution that may be used with success. Spraying for prevention. Spraying for the prevention of plant diseases has now become a fixed practice in the better agri- cultural regions throughout the world. It owes its existence to the simple fact that many of the special diseases which attack farm, garden and orchard crops are infectious by nature, and spread from plant to plant by means of small seed-like struc- tures, called spores, which may be readily borne by the winds, water, insects or other agencies. When they fall on the growing plant, they begin to grow either by attacking the plant surface or by send- ing filaments into the internal structures. It has been found that certain solutions, applied at the proper time, cut short the lives of these spores and their developing growths, preventing injury to the plant on which they fall, or on which they are spreading. The aim of spraying is to cover all surfaces that are likely to be attacked, or on which spores are likely to fall, with a film of some chem- ical, either dry or in solution, that will prevent the germination of the spores and the development of the disease-producing organisms, and, at the same time, not injure the foliage and living tissues of the plant on which the spray falls. It is thus merely a matter of disinfection. The time for spraying can be properly deter- mined only by a close observation of the period at which the. disease is spreading and by con- Crab-apple in fruit. Indiana Plate Il. Orange tree in fruit. California THE MEANS OF CONTROLLING PLANT DISEASES 51 sidering the stage of leaf, flower or fruit develop- ment. Usually the earlier spraying is done on orchards and permanent plants, in order to destroy the first series of spores that may come from dis- tant regions. Two or three, and in some cases four or five treatments are applied during the growing season for a like reason. If spraying is done properly, one need not expect to see much indication of the diseases which are thus preventable in the sprayed crop. It is wholly a matter of prevention. Therefore, forethought must be exercised; for when the disease is once started, spraying, in most cases, will not prevent the particular plant sustaining injury, as in the case of a potato plant which has become attacked by blight. Proper spraying, however, will prevent the disease spreading from this plant to other plants,—indeed, will keep it confined to the parts of the plant already attacked. Even the individual plants that are once attacked are benefited because their future growths may continue uninterrupted. Spraying has become so universal that one need only cite a few diseases that are thus preventable. Tt must be remembered that, as each plant disease has a particular life-history and attacks its host- plant in a particular way, there are special reasons for modifying spraying processes to fit each crop and each peculiar disease; therefore, one who wishes to take up the work should consult proper authorities, or bulletins dealing directly with this phase of the question. The following list of diseases that may be pre- vented by proper spraying is only an indication of the actual number: Apple ripe-rot, anthracnose, canker or bitter-rot, leaf-spot and scab; aspara- gus-rust; bean anthracnose; beet leaf-spot; celery- blight; cucumber damping-off, mildew and blight; gooseberry mildew; grape-rot and anthracnose ; lemon-scab; lettuce leaf-rot, leaf-mold and mildew; melon mildew and anthracnose; olive-scab; orange- scab and mold; peach leaf-spot and scab; pear- scab and leaf-spot ; plum-rot and shot-hole fungus ; potato early blight, late blight, rot and mildew; raspberry anthrancnose; squash fruit-blight, rot and mildew; tomato anthracnose, leaf-blight and damping-off ; violet mildew, mold and blight. Sanitary prevention. Since all of the plant diseases that affect field crops and plants generally, excepting those that are due to improper agricultural technique or par- ticular chemical nature of the soil, may be looked on as essentially infectious, either directly from plant to plant or from soil to soil, one may put the whole matter on sanitary bases similar to those which apply to the prevention of diseases among animals and man. An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. In the case of farm crops and garden plants, it is clearly true that a slight amount of energy placed to the credit of proper methods of prevention adds greatly to the crop returns. The chief methods of prevention that are usually practiced have been cited when we mention seed treatment and spraying. These strictly belong to this heading of sanitary prevention, but, as they have become matters of common practice, the writer wishes to call attention to the fact that there are other sanitary methods of avoiding diseases in farm and garden crops aside from these two. Much may be done to put the environments of the crop in sanitary condition, as the cleaning- up of the field after the previous crop, the elimina- tion of diseased parts of permanent platts, trees and shrubs, the disinfection of bins, machinery, sacks, storehouses, elevators and all containers and contrivances that are to be handled in connection with the cultivation of the new crop. And, finally, the farmer should look to the breed, striving to procure breeds or strains that are resistant to the diseases that affect their race and variety. In the case of crops that are annually attacked by diseases, an intelligent, concerted action on the part of the farmers throughout the country must, of necessity, have great bearing on the reduction of disease-producing influences. Every farmer knows that to grow potatoes year after year on the same patch of ground results in gradual reduction in yield and quality because of scab, rot, blight and wilt, and numerous apparent but unknown troubles. This is but an example of the accumulation of the infecting spores of such diseases in a particular area of soil or in the immediate neighborhood. There are probably none of the fungi producing known diseases, that are not able to survive the winter on the refuse of the preceding crop. We have numerous suchexamples: mildew of peas and beans, bacterial disease of cabbage, cotton root-rot, wilt of flax, stinking smut of wheat, the black smut of corn, potato-blight and potato-rot, apple-scab, apple canker, pear-blight, grape-rot, and so on. While some of these diseases are maintained from year to year on wild plants, the great majority of them gain their excess of development on the more ten- der abnormally developed agricultural plants. It has thus become one of the tenets of agriculture that the waste products of these, such as potato tops, waste fruit or vegetables, whatever they may be, should be eliminated as quickly as possible. This may be accomplished by gathering them care- fully in heaps to be burned on the ground, or per- haps better by thorough composting. It has been said that thorough composting results in the de- struction of most types of spores; yet, on the out- side of all such manure piles and compost heaps it has been found that many of the diseases, such as the smuts and imperfect fungi, may even develop their spores in great quantities. The writer has known whole areas of virgin soil in North Dakota to be ruined for flax production through the use of poorly composted flax straw in barnyard manures. Old-time gardeners have always believed in the elimination of weak and sickly plants. Greenhouse men of greatest success have always “rogued” all their beds. It will be clearly seen that, if such weakly and sickly plants are destroyed by fire, the chance of spreading disease is greatly lessened. In the case of perennial plants, trees and shrubs, there are many diseases for which proper pruning may largely lessen the possibilities of disease distribu- tion. In the case of apple-blight, pear-blight, and 52 THE MEANS OF CONTROLLING PLANT DISEASES many of the common fruit diseases, a persistent cut- ting back of the diseased parts and burning is suf- ficient largely to reduce the damage done by these very destructive diseases. Indeed, at present it seems the only effective means of controlling such diseases. In these cases which directly infect th: internal tissues of the plants, the pruning to elim- inate diseased parts must be done at a consider- able distance below the actual place of disease in order that the disease may not continue below that point. One also keeps a disinfecting solution for the purpose of disinfecting his hands and tools, so that the disease may not be transferred from limb to limb. In the case of pear-blight, which may be taken as a good example of such troubles, the organism that occasions the blight may be trans- ferred in the sticky juice that exudes from dying parts to other parts by any agency which comes in contact with the disease-bearing liquids and afterwards wounds or perforates delicate parts of other trees. A concerted action of the fruit- growers throughout the United States might readily reduce to a minimum the injury occasioned by this disease. In order to make such efforts effective, farmers interested in particular crops, whether of fruit, vegetables or cereals, will need to bring as much influence as possible to bear on their neighbors, and indeed on all persons con- cerned. It is only in concerted action that sanitary prevention can become of general benefit. When education along such lines is general, losses from disease will be reduced to a minimum. A point in disease control which is often over- looked by many who are otherwise quite successful, is that of caring for the seeds after harvest. This especially applies to vegetables and cereal grains. All bins, machinery, granaries, storehouses and elevators should be kept thoroughly clean and, as nearly as possible, free from dust. The farmer who practically breeds and selects his own seed grain and plants for propagation, after once having procured a pure strain, need seldom take other precautions than those previously mentioned of eliminating the weak and inefficient plants and the like, providing he holds himself to cleanliness in regard to machinery and seed storage. It is easy to introduce such a disease as stinking smut of wheat, by allowing the machine which has pre- viously threshed a smutty crop to come on the farm before it is properly cleaned. It is clearly evident that diseases of cereals and vegetables, including potatoes and smaller crops, can be transmitted readily in sacks and other containers. In most cases it is a simple matter to disinfect these con- tainers at the time that the process of seed disin- fection is being carried out. Breeding and selection. All of the above processes that have been men- tioned for avoiding or controlling diseases have for their basis the assumption of the fact that we have a particular kind or strain of plant or crop that we wish to protect against disease. Control- ling diseases of farm crops by means of breeding and selection has in view the supposition that those valuable strains of farm plants which we now possess, by proper breeding and selection may be increased in their efficiency of resisting disease without materially interfering with their economic value. Proper processes of breeding and selection, therefore, would presuppose the. ability on the part of the breeder or selector to maintain, in his crop, its ability to produce quantity and quality and yet have the crop possess the added power of disease resistance. To accomplish this does not demand the effort of a scientific plant-breeder alone. It demands that the farmers gain that simple knowl- edge that enables them to recognize the plant or crop that does resist the prevailing diseases, and then that they should save the seed and propagate this crop to the exclusion of those types of plants or crops which are inefficient in this respect. New kinds are often secured by the process of crossing and breeding. This is usually the work of the expert or, at least, of men who have means and time to tend to the work. But new strains, so far as the actual crop is concerned, may be secured by straight selection of individual plants. This line of work lately has been found to give results of enormous crop value. One has only to save the seed from the types that best serve the purposes, and persist in doing so to gain greatly in this respect. This is the newest field of work along the line of controlling plant diseases, but it is sufficiently past the experimental stage to allow one to assert with confidence that any farmer who will may thus greatly benefit himself and aid all mankind toward the elimination of plant diseases. For example, if we gain a type of wheat that does not produce on its leaves one-third as much rust as has been produced previously in that region on the common types of wheat, it is a self-evident fact that there will not be so much rust to be distributed to other fields. If, by care- ful and consistent selection of varieties and indi- vidual strains from the varieties, the farmer finally attains a crop of potatoes that is no longer open to the attack of potato-rot and potato-blight, it is a self-evident fact that his fields will not be distributers of the disease to other fields. It is too much to expect, perhaps, that this process will eliminate entirely some of the most destructive diseases, such as rust of wheat, rot of potatoes, blight of pear, root-rot of cotton, and wilt of flax, yet the results gained in this direction in the past ten years are such as to convince the most skep- tical that herein lies a most effective means of reducing the destructive action of plant diseases. The process is so simple that any one may engage in it with success. Diseases weaken, mar, shrivel and lessen the produce from plants that are non- resistant. Mother plants that are resistant produce the more perfect products. It is from such that one should propagate the succeeding crops. It is but to put the “survival of the fittest” principle into direct action in crop production. Literature. The literature on plant diseases is voluminous. It is impossible here to cite monographs. Refer- THE BREEDING OF PLANTS 53 ences to these may be found in writings specially devoted to this subject. Many of the diseases that have to do with special crops are discussed or referred to under these crops. Most of the experi- ment stations and the United States Department of Agriculture have issued general and specific bulletins on plant diseases. The card catalogue of experiment station literature, issued by the United States Department of Agriculture, is especially helpful in this connection. A few important publi- cations follow: Centralblatt fur Bacteriologie und Parasitenkunde; Cobb, Plant Diseases and Their Remedies, Department of Agriculture, New South Wales; Cooke, Rusts, Smut, Mildew and Mold; Cooke, Introduction to Study of Fungi; De Bary, Morphology and Biology of Fungi, translated by Garnsey and Balfour; Engler and Prantl, Die Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien; Hartig, Pflanzen- krankheiten ; Hartig, Diseases of Trees, translated by Sommerville and Ward; Journal of Mycology ; Kuster, Pathologiche Pflanzenanatomie; Masse, British Fungus Flora; Revue Mycologique; Scrib- ner, Fungus Diseases, Selby, Handbook, Diseases of Cultivated Plants, Ohio Agricultural Experi- ment Station Bulletin, No. 121; Smith, Diseases of Field and Garden Crops ; Smith, Spread of Plant Diseases, see Massachusetts Horticultural Society Report, 1898 ; Sorauer, Pflanzenkrankheiten ; Stone, Diseases of Crops, not Generally Supposed to be Caused by Fungi or Insects, Massachusetts Agri- cultural Experiment Station Report, 1905; Under- wood, Moulds and Mushrooms; Von Tubeuf and Smith, Diseases of Plants; Ward, Diseases of Plants; Freeman, Minnesota Plant Diseases. CHAPTER III THE BREEDING OF PLANTS 'NTEREST IN PLANT-BREEDING is now one of the dominant notes in American agri- culture. We have tended to proceed along one line of progress at a time. The enriching of the soil has long been the most dominant note in agriculture. Of late years, the importance of tillage has been again very strongly emphasized, with some misapprehension, no doubt, of some of the real issues involved. In some periods, underdrainage has been especially advised. At present, the desire to breed adaptable kinds of plants has come strongly to the fore, following long years of insistence on the part of prophets here and there. This plant-breeding phase of our development is not likely to isolate itself, for we now have a body of investigators and teachers and of so many minds that all phases of agriculture are likely to receive somewhat codrdinate attention. The larger part of plant-breeding work is now centralizing about the experiment stations and the Department of Agriculture. This is characteristic of our time, for the institutions hold the leadership. In time, when agricultural affairs have readjusted themselves, leadership will again lie in good part in men engaged in commercial farming. There is every reason for supposing that plant-breeding should be a personal enterprise as well as an institutional enterprise. These remarks do not lose sight of the fact that there are a few personal and isolated plant- breeders, standing out strongly and doing their work by methods of their own. In this class, Luther Burbank is preéminent. Burbank’s work has been misjudged and sensationalized by reporters (a danger which just now threatens all work of this kind), until the public is in great error in its estimate of it. Mr. Burbank is experimenting with an unusual variety of plants in great numbers and under propitious natural conditions, with strongly personal methods and points of view. His place abounds in surprising and interesting results in the variation of plants. Some of the results will no doubt be of marked economic value. But his work is not occult, nor is it revolutionary. It will rank among the great efforts in the amelioration and adaptation of plants. It is calling attention to the fact that the intellectual interest in variation may be quite as much worth while as interest in the esthetic or other companion- ship with plants. The reader will now want a statement of what plant-breeding is: it is the producing of plants that are adapted to specific conditions or requirements. The mere production of something new, or unlike anything then existing, may have little merit or purpose, and it is not plant-breeding in the best sense. It will be seen, therefore, that the first step in plant-breeding is a definite purpose or ideal; one does not develop this ideal until he has a clear conception of his business. The professional plant-breeders may be the persons to produce the larger and bolder races or groups ; but it must lie with the individual farmer to adapt these things to his own place, or to be able to 54 THE BREEDING OF PLANTS choose those that are already adapted, as it is also his part to determine what kinds of fertilizers he shall use or what kinds of crops he shall grow. Good farmers have always been plant-breeders: they have “selected the best” for seed; they have changed seed from place to place; they have exercised a shrewd discrimination in varieties and strains. The present phase of plant-breeding differs in attach- ing more importance to plant adaptations and in a better understanding of the principles underlying the practices. The good stockman does not use common stock for breeders ; the good plantsman does not use common stock for breeders. \ Every good farmer, then, is of necessity a plant-breeder. He knows the points and merits of his wheat or cotton, as the dog-fancier knows the points of his dogs. Knowing this, he will also know what improvements are needed to adapt the plants to his soil or climate or system of farming or markets. He will then set about it to secure these improvements by (1) looking for plants that most nearly approach the ideal or causing them to vary toward that ideal, (2) selecting seed from these plants, (8) repeating the process as long as he lives. The remainder of the work is detail. This process may not produce any very striking or permanent new vegetable forms; but the efficiency of a personal business lies mostly in these smaller grades of differences. If a man is aseller of new plants, he may want plants with new names. For certain regions and certain purposes, also, wholly new kinds of things may be needed; but with the producing of these the individual farmer will not often concern himself. It is significant that some of the most important seed business of the present day rests on the sale of improved, selected or pedigreed seed of standard varieties. Every ambitious, careful and clear-headed farmer should now be able to produce superior seed-stock of his staple crop to sell for planting at good living prices. The public is now ready to believe that there are grades of quality in seed-stock of the common crops as there is in butter or cheese or liquors (some time we will also know that there are grades of quality in plain drinking-water). The above advice rests on the principle that improvement is made by means of selection. This is the Darwinian principle. Selection, however, rests on variation. Why variations (or differences) arise, nobody really knows, although nearly everybody has an opinion. It is known, however, that variations accompany changes in soil, climate, methods of growing, and other changed conditions. Variation may also be induced or started off by crossing one plant with another, and such differences are likely to be marked. Some variations appear without any apparent reason, and they may be more or less stable from the first; they are “sports,” or, as we now say, mutations (following the terminology of DeVries). These marked so-called “sudden” variations may reproduce remarkably true from seed. The recent evolution discussions have tended to divide variations into these two classes,—the small individual variations that do not reproduce or “come true” (and are therefore presumed to be of no permanent ‘effect in the evolution of the type), and the variations, usually wider, that do “‘come true.” We do not _ know, however, what are the ultimate origins or what the physiological differences. Divested of technical questions and controversial phases, the practical difference between mutations and other variations is one of definition,—the mutations come true, the others do not. The mutation theory controverts the older doctrine that variations may be augmented by selection until the differences become morphologically great, and until they also become “fixed” or able to reproduce themselves,—that is, that species originate by means of selection ; but the mutation theory does not controvert the importance—but rather empha- sizes it—of selection as an agent in the improvement of agricultural plants. Even if a mutation (or hereditable variation) appears, it may still be greatly improved in its minor features by careful selection. The mathematical law of chance or probabilities applies to hybrids as well as to other numerical com- binations. If a plant with three given characters, for example, were to be crossed with a plant of three contrasting characters, the law of probability would predict about how many of the offspring would have one combination of characters and how many would have another combination. The law might not be exemplified in any one plant, but it would very likely be apparent in the average of a number of plants ; and the greater the number, the more regular the results, due to the subordination of exceptions. Mendel found that this law applies to characters that are united in crossing; if the law applies, it means that the characters or marks have an identity or individuality of their own, that they are carried over entire rather than as blends. In order‘to explain the application of the mathematical law of chance to hybridization, therefore, we suppose that characters are units and that they are represented directly in the germ-cell ; and hereby arises the theory of the “purity of the germ-cell.” That is to say, the mathematical law requires a biological hypothesis to explain why or how it works with animals and plants. Very many experiments have shown that the characters of parents reappear in offspring approxi- mately in the given mathematical proportions ; on the other hand, other experiments show a different or THE BREEDING OF PLANTS 5B contradictory result. Some hybrids also are blends. A very complex body of speculation has been built up around the so-called Mendellian law, as there has been about other pronouncements in times present and past; how much of it is truth time only can tell. The Mendellian discussion has challenged our notions of hybridization and heredity and has modified the methods of experiment; but there is no indi- cation that the Mendel law will enable us to produce new plants with certainty, as some of its early adherents predicted. Plant-breeding societies. This Editorial is written from the viewpoint of the farmer: the professional plant-breeder will take care of himself. The farmer needs help in this particular effort, as he needs it in other ways. The organ- ization of breeding societies is one of the best means of spreading and unifying the work. A number of these societies are now in existence, indicating the interest in the subject and the grip that it has on practical men. Associations for plant-breeding are as necessary as societies for animal-breeding. As an illustration of the kind of effort that these organizations stand for, citations may be made from the literature of the Ohio Plant Breeders’ Association : “The purposes of this association shall be to encour- age the improvement of plants and to provide an official record for breeders who are giving special | attention to this work.” The rules for the registry of seed corn are as follows: “Section I.—Hligibility. “Tn order that a strain of corn may be eligible to registry with the Ohio Plant Breeders’ Association, it is necessary that it trace directly and exclusively to remnants of ears that have ranked not lower than fourth in point of yield of grain, protein, starch or fat in a duplicate ear-row test of not less than ., twenty-five ears ; and that each year’s breeding or testing work shall have been conducted and recorded: in accordance with the requirements of the Association. “Section II—Ohio Pedigreed Corn. “Any corn which is the product of a cross between two ear remnants, one as sire and the other as dam, each of which has been selected as per Section I, shall be entitled to the name Ohio Pedigreed. The records shall show whether the cross was made by artificial or natural pollination. “Section III.—Ohio Standard Corn. “Hight or more registered ears, as per Section II, or ear remnants, as per Section I, may be merged by shelling and mixing together the grain from all, before planting. If this merged corn, or corn descended exclusively from it, shall, on the average, excel in yield of grain, protein, starch or fat per acre, each of three other varieties (including the one from which it has descended and a standard variety which shall be supplied by the council upon request), when tested upon not less than tenth-acre plots for three consecutive years, the owner of it shall be entitled to a certificate under the seal of the ‘Association, setting forth the record numbers under which the work upon this corn has been recorded, together with a statement that it has filled the requirements of the association and is entitled to the name Ohio Standard. A fee of $10 shall be required for this certificate and copies of same shall be issued at 25 cents each to accompany any corn that traces directly and exclusively to this merging. “Section IV.—Transfers. “Transfers of grain, together with all breeding privileges, may be made at any time, but in order that the progeny of such grain may be eligible to registry with the Association, each transfer must be entered for registry with the Recording Secretary of the Association within three months of the time of transfer. A certificate of transfer shall then be issued under the seal of the Association showing the record numbers under which the work of the breedérs upon this corn has been recorded. A fee of $1 shall be charged for each record of transfer.” How to cross plants. One of the means of inducing variation, as already explained, is to cross one plant with another. By crossing, also, it may be possible to combine some of the attributes. of two or more plants into one. The reader will want to know how crossing is accomplished. 56 THE BREEDING OF PLANTS For most farm purposes it is sufficient to grow the intended parents side by side, if they are wind- or insect-pollinated, and let the chance of crossing rest with natural agencies. The seeds are then taken from the most likely parents and sown separately. In the progeny, one may expect to find some plants 1 to his liking or at least such as are suggestive for further experiment. Plants that are WY _ freely visited by bees, as the fruit trees, or those in which the sexes are in separate flow- NXg} ers, as maize and hemp and chestnuts and melons, are almost certain to be crossed by this method. If the stigma happens to receive pollen from its own flower or plant and also from another plant, the foreign pollen will usually accomplish the fecundation. No doubt a great many of our agricultural varieties have arisen from such natural and appar- ently promiscuous crossing. : If one wishes to make an exact experiment, however, he must ‘transfer the pollen himself under conditions of control, both to ensure that crossing takes place and that the pollen is from a given parent. The manual operation of crossing is of four parts: (1) protecting the pistil from undesired pollen; (2) protecting the pol- len; (8) applying the desired pollen; (4) protecting the ovary and fruit. The operator must first be familiar with the parts of the flower. If he has no teacher, he may secure this information from any of the school botanies; and Figs. 14 to 17 and 76 will aid him. In the succeeding pages he will find the flowers of the different crops displayed. (1) Protecting the stigma.—If the flower contains stamens, the anthers must be removed before pollen is discharged. The discharge is likely to take place about as soon as the flower opens. The pistil must also be protected from foreign pollen. This means that the pistil must never be exposed to wind or insects. The protecting of the the pistil, then, is of two kinds, removing the anthers (emascu- lation), covering the flower. Usually the bud is opened just . before it is ready to burst, the anthers clipped off or broken off, and the flower covered securely with a thin paper or muslin bag. (2) Protecting the pollen—TIn the meantime the pollen- bearer has been looked after. It is safest to cover with a bag the flower or cluster of flowers from which pollen is to be taken, for insects may leave foreign pollen on the anthers. This precaution is not often taken, however, for the operator is careful to take his pollen only from unopened anthers. In some cases the pollen ripens in advance of the pistil, or it must be secured from a dis- tance. It will usually retain vitality a few days if carefully dried (not heated) and kept dry in an envel- ope. Some species have short-lived pollen, and some have relatively long-lived pollen: it should be the aim to have it as fresh as possible, when applied to the stigma. (8) Applying the pollenUsually the stigma is not Fig. 76. Flowers (of funkia or day lily) in various stages of development. The open flowers show the stamens, 8s, and _ pis- tils, p. The large buds above these are in the proper stage to be opened and emascu- lated. It is well to emasculate all the buds that are mature enough; the remaining buds and any open flowers are removed, and the emasculated ones covered with a ripe or “receptive” when the flower is emasculated. The flower is to remain covered, therefore, until the, stigma is receptive. This epoch is determined by the looks of the stigma, a point to be accurately deter- mined only by experience. The ripe stigma usually exudes a sticky or glistening covering, or it becomes rough and papillary. A hand lens will aid greatly in determining the proper Fig. 77. Crossed flowers pro- tected by a paper bag. pels time. A fresh ripe anther is crushed (if the pollen is taken fresh from the flower) on a knife-blade or thumb-nail, and some of the liberated pollen applied to the stigma by means of a needle-point or other small implement. The stigma is completely covered if possible. Then the bag is replaced. P (4) Protecting the forming fruit.—The bag is allowed to remain a few days, until all danger of further fecundation is removed. It is usually replaced by a mosquito-netting or tarlatan bag, in order to protect the fruit from insects or mechanical injury. This bag also aids in locating the fruit amongst SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF PLANT-BREEDING 57 the foliage and it catches the fruit when it falls. When the cross is made, a label or tag is secured to the flower or branch to identify it. It is seldom that all crosses “take.” The proportion of successes depends somewhat on the skill of the operator and very largely on the kind of plant. Some plants cross very readily and some with great difficulty. The seeds are now to be sown. The hybridizer always anticipates satisfaction with the results. SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF PLANT- BREEDING By Herbert J. Webber We are inclined to think that plant- breeding is based on old and well-established laws. The fact is, however, that the fundamental principles of plant- breeding were not made known until the latter part of the eighteenth century. The sexuality of plants was established experimentally by Camera- rius in 1691, and the first hybrid of which we have any record was made by Thomas Fairchild, an English gardener, in 1719, being a cross of the carnation with the sweet william. Hybrids were carefully studied by Koelreuter, but not from a practical breeding standpoint. Plant-breeding had its real beginning with the work of Thomas Andrew Knight, an eminent English plant physiologist, working in the early days of the nineteenth cen- tury. About the same time Van Mons, a Belgian horticulturist, also carried out experiments in a similar direction. A large part of our knowledge of plant-breeding has come down to us from these two investigators. Knight worked mainly in hybridization, and in 1806 said: “New varieties of every species of fruit will generally be better obtained by introducing the farina of one variety of pollen into the blossoms of another than by propagating from a single kind.” Knight also enunciated what we may call the law of food sup- ply, which is now generally recognized. This pred- icates that one of the principal factors which causes or induces variation in plants is an increase of food supply or a modification thereof. Van Mons worked mainly in selection, and it is inter- esting to note that his experiments were carried out primarily with pears. He preached the doctrine of continuous selection, and produced very many valuable varieties. Van Mons and Knight, there- fore, were the exponents of the important factors of selection and hybridization in plant-improve- ment. It is probable that a large part of the suc- cess of Van Mons’ work was due to the fact that pears are normally sterile to their own pollen, requiring cross-fertilization, and, therefore, many of his new varieties were probably hybrids. He was not aware of this fact, however, and it made no great difference in the establishment of the prin- ciple which has since proved to be so important. In this country very valuable work was done in the improvement of plants and in discovering the principles of plant-breeding, by Carman, Pringle, Hovey, Ricketts, Rogers, and others, and in more recent years by Burbank, Hopkins, Hays, Bailey, and very many others. The rediscovery of Mendel’s now famous law by DeVries and Correns, in 1900, and the publication of DeVries’ Mutation Theory in the same year, marked the beginning of a new era in plant-breed- ing. No matter what the final conclusions may be regarding Mendel’s principles and the mutation theory, the general attention and investigation directed to plant-breeding as the result of these two theories will serve greatly to modify and extend our understanding of the general laws of breeding. ‘Classification of varieties. To understand clearly the character of organisms with which we are dealing, we need careful defini- tions of the different groups of cultivated plants which are ordinarily known as varieties. We speak of varieties of wheat, corn, apples and pears, yet we know that these varieties differ from each other as natural groups. In order to distinguish clearly these differences, the writer has proposed the fol- lowing classification of varieties into races, strains and clons: . Races are groups of cultivated plants which have well-marked differentiating characters, and propa- gate true to seed except for simple individual vari- ations. The different groups of beans, peas, wheat, oats, corn, cotton, and the like, referred to com- monly as varieties, are thus in a more restricted sense races. Boone County White, Leaming, Reid’s Yellow Dent, and the like, would be recognized as races of field corn, and Turkey Red, Fulcaster, Fultz, and the like, as races of wheat. Strains, the writer would recognize as groups of cultivated plants, derived from a race, which do not differ from the original of the race in visible taxonomic characters. When the breeder, by a careful selection of Blue Stem wheat, produces a sort of Blue Stem that differs from the original race only in the quality of yielding heavily, it would be called a strain of Blue Stem. Clons are groups of cultivated plants, the different individuals of which are simply transplanted parts of the same individual, the reproduction being by the use of vegetative parts such as bulbs, tubers, buds, grafts, cuttings, runners, and the like. The various sorts of apples, potatoes, strawberries, chrysanthemums, and so on, commonly denominated varieties, in a more restricted sense would be clons. Clons of apples, pears, strawberries, potatoes, and the like, do not propagate true to seed, while this is one of the most important characters of races and strains of wheat, corn, and the like. The term variety would thus be used in a general sense, and would include races, strains and clons. -Factors of breeding. Heredity.—The laws of heredity are of primary importance to the breeder. It is a general principle 58 SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF PLANT- BREEDING that ordinarily like begets like, but it is also true that like frequently gives rise to unlike. There are thus apparently two conflicting principles in plant- breeding. On the one hand, the breeder seeks to Fig. 78. Smooth seeds above Individuality in cotton bolls. and fuzzy ones below, from four bolls of one hybrid plant. produce variations in order to get new types as the foundations for improvement. On the other hand, when such a variation from or improvement on the normal type is secured, he then reverses the pro- cess and tries to establish heredity and reduce the amount of variation, so that the aphorism, “like begets like,” will hold true. In pedigree or grade breeding, and in- breeding to produce new varieties, the importance of hereditary strength, prepotency or transmitting power, cannot be overestimated, as it is only by rendering this power very great that any new form can be brought to what is called a fixed type. Unity of individual—the unity of the individual is also an important factor in plant-breeding. If, for instance, the breeder is attempting to producc a seedless fruit, it is important that he discover the tendency to seedlessness in the entire individual. It would not be the correct policy for a breeder to select simply a single fruit which might acciden- tally be nearly seedless. He should examine a large number of fruits of different individual plants, and find a plant on which he can discover a general tendency toward seedlessness showing in all of the fruits produced. By selecting seed from such indi- viduals, he may be able to find in time one such individual that would transmit to its progeny this tendency to produce few seeds. While this is certainly generally true, there are some instances in which divisions of the individual are important. As an illustration may be mentioned the case of hybrids between a smooth- and a fuzzy- seeded cotton: when one is breeding to produce a smooth, black seed, it may be desirable to select a part of an individual. In this case the writer has found that very frequently a cotton hybrid of the above parentage will produce bolls that vary greatly in the amount of fuzziness on the seed, and that this variation does not seem to be limited to any part of the plant in particular, but seems to be a variation in certain branches or bolls (Fig. 78), and is thus a sort of bud variation. The writer’s experiments have shown that by taking seed from certain bolls in which the seeds are nearly smooth and black, a much larger number of plants is produced the next year with smooth black seeds than are pro- duced when bolls are selected in which the seeds have considerable fuzz, although the seed in both cases were borne on the same plant. This illustra- tion shows that in some instances it is desirable to select a certain fraction or part of an individual which shows more clearly the character desired. Variations. —It is well known that all plants: vary. Plants differ from each other just as do men. Each plant has a facial expression, as it were, which marks it as distinct from any other plant of the same variety (Fig. 79). These slight fortuitous or individual variations are of the greatest value to the plant-breeder in connection with what may be termed pedigree breeding. By these variations alone, however, we would not expect to produce strikingly new varieties. A second type-of variation which is of value to the breeder is those known as “sports,” or muta- tions (Fig. 80). These differ from individual vari- ations only in degree. They are what may be termed large-type variations, and ordinarily reproduce true to seed. A very large number of our new races and varieties of cultivated plants are the results of such mutations or seedling sports. All vegetable-growers know that far the larger number of their new varie- ties are apparently produced suddenly. For instance, Livingston, who has bred a great many new varie- ties of the tomato, followed the practice of examin- ing carefully his different plants for variations. Occasionally some striking new type differing from other varieties would be found. This was selected and used as the foundation stock for a new variety. Our good apples, pears, and peaches, have been found in many cases in fence-corners, and new varie- ties of wheat, cotton and other crops have resulted very largely from tho selection of strikingly good plants which, because of their superior quality, == — - ee =| ss e SSS = = a os = ae —— EBS ZA. eo f, SJ ‘ts S ye ) Ms AN) Say = tS a oN Fis Fig. 79. Variation. Differences between tobacco plants, in size, shape of leaves, and also in time of maturing. have attracted the attention of growers, and have been propagated. While many of these accidental discoveries are doubtless of hybrid origin, still it is rs that the majority are simply mutations or sports, SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF PLANT- BREEDING 59 The third type of variation which is of impor- tance to the plant-breeder is that produced by hybridization or crossing, and here we probably have the most prolific source of variations, and, therefore, the class of variation of the greatest importance and most consequence to the breeder. It has come to be an established policy to combine the good qualities of two races into a single race by hybridization and selection. Influence of environment.— It is a well-known fact that environment has a decided in- fluence on the form and char- acter of the plant. It is by no means cer- tain, however, that these changes are of any value to the plant- breedor. It seems certain that those changes which are the conse- quence of en- vironmcnt purely are not hereditary. It is a well-known fact that if climbing or twining beans or viny cowpeas are transferred from a south- ern to anorthern climate or from a lower toa higher altitude, they tend to produce a dwarfed type which will not show the twining or viny habit in such marked degree; and in order to secure bush types by selection, breeders have sometimes advocated the transferring of types to more northern latitudes or to higher altitudes, where the experiments may be made under conditions that naturally lead to the production of a lower bush type. It is doubtful, however, whether such a transfer would be of material aid. While it is recognized that such variations are produced as an influence of the environment, it is also known that, on the whole, those variations which are produced as an immedi- ate influence of the environment are not hereditary. Individual variations and mutations are of greatest use to the plant-breeder. Without question, if the cowpea or bean were cultivated under southern conditions it would show individual variations in the degree in which it shows the climbing or twin- ing habit. Even under southern conditions, certain individuals would doubtless show more of the bush type than others. It is believed by the writer that a bush type can be secured just as quickly under southern conditions by selecting from these lower and more bushy plants as it can by the same selection made in more northern localities or at higher altitudes. Fig. 80. Dwarf leafy sport or mutation of corn on left, which, when self-pol- linated, reproduced original type. Mother parental types on right. Location of breeding plots. It is important to consider the conditions under which the breeding patch or plat should be grown. Some growers are inclined to locate their breeding patches in the garden and give the plants the very best possible care, thinking that this is the best means of determining which plants are superior. Animal-breeders also isolate their breeding stocks and give them every possible care and advantage. On the contrary, some plant-breeders assert that it is best to have the breeding patch located on soils which are most like those on which the gen- eral crop is to be grown. The writer has given this matter considerable thought, and he is strongly of the opinion that the most satisfactory method is to cultivate the breeding patch under the same conditions under which the ordinary crop is to be grown: Plants are fixed in one place, and are entirely dependent on the local soil conditions. If, therefore, the plant has been bred and adapted to one soil condition, it cannot be expected to give as good results under different soil conditions. If a variety is being bred for sterile soils, the selection should be conducted on similarly sterile soil in order to breed a race of individuals that are “ gross feeders,” as planters term it, and capable of deriv- ing their nutriment from sterile soils and making a sturdy growth even under adverse conditions. If, for example, plants were being bred to adapt them to alkaline conditions, the breeding patch should not be placed in a sheltered, favored spot, where the soil does not contain alkali. The plants must be grown under alkaline conditions in order to discover, as a result of natural selection, those plants which do the best where the alkali is present, and thus guide us in the selection. The same would be true in breeding plants for arid regions. The plants should be cultivated in the arid region rather than in a moist region of heavy rainfall, or in a thoroughly irrigated patch. In urging that the breeding patch be placed on the ordinary soils and cultivated under the condi- tions to which the crop is to be subjected, it is not intended to convey the idea that the breeding patch should not be given careful cultivation. Slipshod methods of cultivation should never re- ceive encouragement. The breeding patch should be given thoroughly good cultivation; and such thoroughly good cultivation should also be used in the field when the crop is grown on a more exten- sive scale. Necessity of a clearly defined ideal. Careful breeders have found it very desirable and necessary to have a clearly defined ideal type which they are striving to produce. In the selec- tions within the race it is necessary that the breeder have clearly in mind all of the characters of the race which he is breeding, and the writer thinks that all breeders should be recommended to draw up carefully a description of the type which they are breeding and the objects which they are attempting to obtain, otherwise it is difficult properly to limit the selections. All breeders know that in growing a large number of plants for selection, different types that appear very promis- ing are likely to crop out here and there. We may be selecting for a certain type, and find in the row of plants which we are examining an individual 60 SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF PLANT- BREEDING that differs somewhat in its character but which seems to be of exceptional value. The temptation under such circumstances is to take this new plant and discard the old ideal. Many breeders have found that by taking such selections they have made serious mistakes, and lost the improvement already secured. Whenever a plant of different character springs up it is entirely an unknown quantity, and it may not transmit the desired characters; and, even if it should, they are differ- ent from the qualities of the ideal strain for which the selection was first started. Control of parentage. In plant-breeding, as in animal-breeding, the isolation of the parents is a very important con- sideration. It is necessary that we should know the character of both parents whenever this is possible. In breeding plants more attention is given ordinarily to the mother parent, and in very ee oe SE EEOS Fig. 81. many instances the characters of the father parent are entirely neglected. Animal-breeders, on the contrary, give more attention to the characters of the male parent, and much improvement in ordi- nary herds has been accomplished by the introduc- tion of improved blood through the male. In plant- breeding, it is desirable that the seed of the select individuals be planted in a field by themselves. This insures that only progeny of carefully selected plants will be planted near together, and thus no ordinary stock will enter as a contamination. One can be certain that each plant of the progeny is fertilized with pollen from another similarly good plant, or at least from a plant derived from good parentage. One difficulty, however, has been ex- perienced by plant-breeders in planting continu- ously their selected stock in such isolated plots. If this method is continued year after year, it results in fairly close inbreeding, which in the case of plants frequently results in loss of vitality and vigor. In animal-breeding it is apparently the case that ordinarily there is no noticeable effect from close inbreeding, and many of the most famous animals have been produced as a result of the closest in-and-inbreeding. In plants, however, it is possible to secure much closer inbreeding than in the case of animals, as in many cases a plant can be fertilized with its own pollen. Within recent years much activity has been shown in the careful breeding and improvement of corn. The corn plant has been shown, as a result of experiments made by various investigators, as, for example, by the Illinois Experiment Station and the United States Department of Agriculture, to lose vitality very rapidly when self -fertilized. (Fig. 81.) Within three or four generations, by Loss of fertility in corn by inbreeding. Pile on left from cross- fertilized seed; on right from inbred or self-fertilized seed. the most careful inbreeding, it is possible to reduce corn to almost total sterility. The general practice of corn-breeders who have been giving attention to the production of pedigree strains, is to plant the rows of corn from different select ears side by side, giving a row to each select ear, and each year selecting, from the progeny of those rows which give the largest yield, plants to continue further the selection. Planting these select ears together every year, therefore, means that they are more or less inbred, as the closest relatives are planted together in the same row. While in follow- ing this policy at first no effect was visible, corn- breeders are now finding in some cases an appar- ent decrease in yield, which seems to be traceable to the effect of inbreeding. It seems necessary for us, therefore, in corn and in other plants that are affected by inbreeding, to use methods that will avoid close inbreeding. The detrimental effect of inbreeding is largely limited to those plants which are normally cross-fertilized, this fact being strikingly brought out in Dar- win’s “Investigations on Cross- and Self-fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom.” Tobacco, wheat, and some other plants that are normally self- fertilized do not show this decrease in vigor as a result of inbreeding. In- deed, in such plants cross-fertilization ordinarily results in decreased vigor and should be avoided. Principles of selection. Selection is the principal factor of breeding, both in the improvement of races and in the pro- duction of new races or varieties. The keynote of selection is the choice of the best, and a factor of the highest importance is the examination of very large numbers in order to secure the maximum. Galton, writing on this subject, says: “One gene- ration of 99-degree selection is seen to be more effective than two generations of the 90-degree selection, and to have about equal effect with the the 80-degree selection, carried on to perpetuity. Two generations of the 99-degree selection are more effective than four of the 95-degree, and than the perpetuity of the 90-degree.” The use of de- grees in representing the perfection in which a character is shown may not be possible, but it is possible for any breeder to examine large numbers and to find one or two plants which produce in the greatest degree the character desired. It is these plants that should be preserved as mother plants in starting the selection. In the production of new races, it is of interest to us to know whether by pure selection we can lead plants to vary so greatly that they may be considered to have passed beyond the bounds of the race, and thereby the breeder to have estab- lished a new and distinct race. It is certain, of course, that, by careful observation and selection from any particular race, ultimately a new race may be produced. The question is whether the individual or individuals selected in producing the new race have not varied by mutation or seed- SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF PLANT-BREEDING 61 sporting rather than being simply representative of the cumulative result of the selection of slight individual variations. The sugar-beet furnishes an interesting illustration in this direction. It will be remembered that Louis Vilmorin started the selec- tion of sugar-beets for richness in sugar, between 1880 and 1840, selecting first by means of specific gravity, the method being to throw the beets into solutions of brine strong enough so that the great majority of them would float, the few which sank being of greater specific gravity and presumably of greater sugar content. Considerable improve- ment was produced by this method. About 1851 the method of chemical analysis was introduced to determine the exact sugar content. At this time the sugar content was found to vary from 7 to 14 per cent, and in the second generation of selection individuals with 21 per cent of sugar were found. The selection based on sugar content, using the beets highest in sugar content as mothers, has been continued regularly since that time, and the indus- try has come to rely entirely on careful selection for high sugar content. It would be expected that under these conditions the sugar content would have increased sufficiently so that the selected plants could be considered a different race or strain. Yet, after fifty years of selection, the highest sugar content found is only about 26 per cent, and this in a very few instances, seldom over 21 per cent being found. At the present time many thousand analyses are made every year, so that abundant opportunity is afforded to find individuals producing a high sugar content. On the contrary, when Vilmorin’s work was started the determina- tion of sugar content was by very laborious meth- ods, and was limited to comparatively few indi- viduals. It is not improbable that if Vilmorin had been able to make analyses of the sugar content in many thousands of roots he would have found cer- tain individuals producing as high as 26 per cent. The inference from this illustration would be that the limitations of the variation within the race have not been surpassed as a result of selection. It may be argued, however, that in this case we are dealing with a physical impossiblity, as it is clearly evident that it would be impossible for a plant to produce a root containing a proportion of sugar beyond a certain percentage, and it is thus possi- ble that 26 per cent, or thereabouts, represents the maximum. It must be admitted that in many cases we have an apparently cumulative effect of selection, and it seems almost impossible to draw the line between improvements created by continuous selection of slight individual variations within the race or the selection of those plants which are mutations. In the case of the gooseberry, tomato and many other plants, the fruits have been increased in size grad- ually, until they are now four to eight times that of the original wild fruits. Much of this increase in size has of course been accompanied by hybridi- zation between different wild species and different races of the same species which have been mixed together, yet it is a cumulative gain in size, as none of the wild types ever produce fruits nearly so large as those of the cultivated races that have been developed. Practically the entire development of the tomato has taken place within the memory of men now living, and in this case the develop- ment has not been accompanied by hybridization of different species but by the selection of different races within the species and the hybridization of these races. One of the experiments conducted by DeVries with corn is of interest in this connection. This experiment was undertaken for the purpose of increasing the number of rows of kernels on the ear. The corn ‘used in the selection averaged twelve rows at the time the selection began. After seven generations of selections from ears which bore the largest number of rows, the mean was raised to twenty rows. In the first year of the selec- tion the variation in number of rows ranged from 8 to 20. In the seventh generation of selection the variation in number of rows ranged from 12 to 28. This shows clearly the increase in the number of rows and the development of an apparently new race by simple selection. However, when the selec- tion was discontinued the improvement or new character was soon lost. The majority of new races produced as a result of selection are due, without much doubt, to the choice of mother plants showing marked variations which.we would term mutations, and which are referred to by gardeners ordinarily as sports. In reviewing the history of cultivated varieties, one is surprised at the large number of varieties, which have had their origin in this way. Many of our apple, pear and peach varieties are simply accidental seedlings which have sprung up in fence- corners or door-yards, and a number of our wheat, tobacco and cotton varieties have been developed by selection from certain individual plants that have attracted attention because of the exhibition of superior qualities. It is probable that a large number of these accidental and selected varieties, particularly in the case of apples and pears, are really the results of accidental hybridization, and the same may be true of many wheat, corn and cotton varieties. Yet there are many cases in which the mutations or extreme variations cannot be traced back to hybridization. In the production of the Cupid sweet-peas, for example, the first small dwarf plant of this type was found growing in a row of the Emily Henderson, which is one of the normal climbing forms of the sweet-pea. At that time no other dwarf type of the sweet-pea was known, and this variation, therefore, cannot be accounted for as due to hybridization with some other dwarf form. It is impossible to account for these striking variations which sometimes occur, but it is important that all plant-breeders be on the lookout for the occurence of new types and variations of this sort. The writer has been asked frequently whether it is possible to select a plant so highly that it will not revert to the original mother type. Experience would indicate that when the mother plant from which the selection is made is a true mutation, like the sweet-pea mentioned above, the type will maintain itself even after the 62 selection has been discontinued, and indeed this is practically the only real criterion as to whether a new race has been produced. For example, in the case of the corn mentioned above as selected by De Vries, that in seven years had been increased from 12 to 20in the number of rows to the ear, DeVries found that it required only about three years of cul- tivation without selection to fall again to the original aver- age of 12 to 16 rows. Ina case like this it would seem, therefore, that no distinctly new character had been added as a result of selection, but that the average of the race had been increased by the continuous selection under isolation, and that when the different individuals were al- lowed to breed together freely, without selection, the mean of the race, as a whole, was again quickly reéstablished. Systematic methods of selection, or pedigree breeding. Two distinct methods of selection are in use, which are termed (1) the nursery method, and (2) the field method. The nursery method, which was used first by Hallet about 1868, so far as the writer is informed, consists in cultivating each plant under the most favorable conditions possible for its best development. By this method, with wheat, for example, Hallet pursued the policy of planting the individuals in squares a foot apart, which would give the plant abundant opportunity No:-. Lacs-[-les Fig. 82. very fruitful. Centgeners of flax. Plats on right bred for seed production, thus short and Plats on left bred for fiber production, thus tall and less fruitful. (Notice difference in height is shown by difference in height of man’s hand.) COTTON-INDIVIDUAL:NOTES. SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF PLANT-BREEDING for stooling, and also enable the investigator to distinguish clearly each individual plant. In more recent years this method has been strikingly em- phasized by the work of Professor Hays, at the Minnesota Experiment Sta- tion, who, at the same time, has modified the principle somewhat into his centgener method (Fig. 82). In Profes- sor Hays’ method, the progeny of each plant, presumably about one hundred individu- als, are grown together in a small plat or centgener, the individuals being planted four to six inches apart in the case of wheat and small grains. The field method, which was emphasized by Rimpau about 1867, and has been used by many investigators, consists - in selecting from plants grown under normal conditions. The argument for this method is that the plant will show what it will do and its true worth only when it is grown under the method of ordinary field culture. Both of these methods depend on progressive or cumulative selec- tion, the building up and adding together of small improvements. Breeders who are conducting careful experi- ments will find it necessary and desirable to use what may be termed statistical methods of judging their plants. While we are breeding possibly for one primary improvement, as, for example, in- creased yield, it is necessary, at the same time, that we should keep the product up to the standard Year, L703. qui if one sttn a P.B. Form 7 ane ; i ity, C otumbiae SC 7 Locality, A Experimenter, 44 _fACUT YE... : Season. Bouts, SEED. Lint. TIEED) oon Toran : Opening. Size by |Covering. Uni- Drag. | OF SEED | CENT OF) scone, IV. Early, |V. Large,| Smptth, | Weight. Length. | Color. Very formity. vps Corton. {| Lint. dy, Liphe, |y pfoq | Tufted, Ege. Fine, | = str¥ng, Mick Medium,| Medium, Goose. or 6 { | leit, i A ip, Jet. Strong, | Strng, 305-9 } ‘Late, | Small, Mediun Interme-| ¥ Good, / fat Medium,| Good, | Medium,| Strong, e 33,/ V. Late. |V. Small.| “poor | diate. o | Fair, ‘! Coarse.| Fair, | Weak. | Medium, t iy Poor. | AWe Poor. Weak. . : Botts: No. L ‘dy om ; shape ovale. Blan Frvirrunness: Excellent, good, medium, light medium, poor. No, locks-.. --3 No.-seeds to lock 2/0; weight 10 bolls seed Type. cotton ...-------; No. of bolls open 90 estos on ..| - REsIstaNce TO— Disease: Very resistant, resistant, medium, slight, none. Storm: Very resistant, resistant, medium, slight, none. Insect: Very resistant, resistant, medium, slight, none. JL Basat Brancurs: No. 3 length Cotton—Individual Sheet. , asceffing, nearly erect, Jen—orange, deep yellow, yellow, c small, npdo ; deep red, red, pink, faint. Leaves: Large, meffim, small; light or dark green; Lype—Sea Island, uySfad, intermediate, Fig. 83. COLON eos edn ne deee sce ceuesl } Smooth, rough, haiy; horizontal, Fuiowens: Large, medi, small} orange yellow, erffm, whitish ; “Pol- Mn, whitish; Petal spot—large, 7 parted, smooth, glaucous, pubgefent; Lobes—deep, medium, shallow; Selected mnoliang Ste Form of Plant -_--------- ee Save: Very}food, good, medium, poor. om -Height- (7 z A score-card for cotton. SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF PLANT- BREEDING 63 in other characteristics, namely, quality, disease- resistance, drought-resistance and the like, and that we see that all of the good qualities of the variety are retained. To do this properly necessi- tates the use of a score-card, on which each char- acter of the plant which is im- portant is given its relative weight or grade. By the use of such a score-card the breeder can judge each character separately, and by the adding up of the scor- ing get the rank of different plants in a comparative way (Fig. 83). Test of transmitting power. A factor of primary impor- tance in all breeding work is the testing of what is termed the transmitting or centgener power. It is necessary for us to know that a certain plant, which, for example, gives a heavy yield, has the faculty of transmitting this tendency of producing heavy yield to its progeny (Fig. 84). It is frequently found that two select plants that are equally good so far as their yield is con- cerned will give progeny which, as a whole, differ greatly in this respect. In the progeny of one almost every plant may have in- herited the desired quality, while in the progeny of the other only a few of the plants may show in any noticeable degree the inheri- tance of the quality. To determine the prepotency or transmitting power, it is necessary to grade carefully the progeny of each individual; and this is the primary reason for planting the progeny of different individuals in separate rows or separate plats, so that they may be examined easily. (Fig. 85.) It would seem to be an easy matter, when we plant the progeny of different plants in rows or small plats by themselves, to get the comparative yield, for example, of 100 plants, and from this to figure up the average percentage of the transmitting or centgener power. This matter, however, is very difficult in many cases. In corn, for example, cer- tain individuals may stool and form suckers that have fairly good-sized ears. If the corn is planted thin enough on the ground these suckers will tend to increase the yield, and render the proper judg- ment of the transmitting power very difficult. It would seem at first thought that such suckering, if it increased the yield, would be desirable, and should be considered a favorable character in con- nection with the individual. However, if the soil is heavy enough to have allowed this suckering to give increased yield, it would have been possible on the same soil to have placed the plants closer, and, as seed is of little comparative value, it would be best to have a non-suckering type, and plant the corn as closely as the soil would properly per- A, Result of breed- ing from smallest grains; average head (after 4 years). B, result of breeding from the plumpest and heaviest grains; average head (after 4 years). mit. Again, it is almost impossible to get perfect stands, and a change in the stand may affect the yield. Very many difficulties and problems enter into the figuring out of this transmitting power, and it is obviously impossible to give directions for all cases. The breeder must study conditions and determine carefully what policy to pursue in each case. The use of hybridization in plant-breeding. Ever since the time of Knight, hybridization has been used extensively by plant-breeders, and it seems that this is the only sure means of forcing variations. Whenever it is possible to secure dis- tinct species and races that can be hybridized, it is possible greatly to increase the variation in differ- ent directions, and thereby afford opportunity for greater selection than would otherwise be possible. Plant-breeders have come to understand that when desirable characters are exhibited by different species or races it is possible frequently, if not usually, to unite these characters in a hybrid if the work is done intelligently and ona large scale. (The writer uses the term hybrid here in a general sense, referring to any product of across when the parents were noticeably distinct from each other, whether the parents belong to different races, clons, varieties or species. It may be stated that this general or broad use of the term hybrid has become almost universal in recent years.) When plants of different races are crossed, as, for example, different races of wheat, corn or cotton, the hybrid usually comes nearly intermediate between the two parents in the first generation. And this is the case also when different fixed species are crossed. If, how- ever, individuals belonging to unfixed’ races are crossed, there is usually a considerable variation in the first generation. This is well illustrated by the crossing of different clons of apples, pears, oranges, and the like, when the different so-called varieties are simply transplanted parts of the same Fig. 85. Planting individual grains of flax and other cereals so that the individual growths of the plant may be watched and selection made from the very best. This machine allows a man to know exactly at what depth each is peat. so that each grain has an equal chance with the others. individual seedling which have not been bred to a fixity of type. It is well known that if seeds of an apple variety be planted, the resulting plants exhibit many different variations in the first generation. The parents themselves, therefore, not being of fixed 64 SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF PLANT-BREEDING type, when they are hybridized they produce progeny . which in the first generation is variable. An illus- tration is afforded in the crosses made by the writer of the trifoliate orange with the ordinary sweet orange, in which the hybrids of the first generation vary in fruit, foliage and branching qualities, so that almost every individual differs markedly from every other individual of the same combination. In the crossing of races which have been bred true to type, whether of the same or of different species, the first-generation hybrids, however, are nearly uniform in the characters presented, and in such instances it is necessary to secure a second gen- eration of the hybrids in order to accomplish the breaking up of the characters and the production of a large number of variations. Ordinarily, there- fore, desirable variations are looked for in the second generation. This, as has been explained above, is true only in the case of hybrids of species and races that are fixed in type. (1) Mendel’s law of hybrids. The preceding discussion represents fairly well the general understanding of hybrids until about 1900, when DeVries and Correns rediscovered what is now termed “Mendel’s law of hybrids.” While Mendel’s laws or principles may not be of great value from an economic standpoint, they have proved of the greatest scientific interest, and the general fundamental principles of the law or laws should be thoroughly understood by every practical breeder of plants. It has been known for many years that a splitting up and redistribution of parental characters occurs in hybrids, and it is on this fact largely that the practical application of hybridization in plant-breeding depended. Ordi- narily, careful plant-breeders would plan to hybri- dize varieties or races having a definite combi- nation of characters in view, as, for example, the combining of the fruit quality of one parent with the hardiness or drought-resistance of the other. Until Mendel’s law was discovered, however, we had no understanding of why or how such a com- bination could be made, and it was necessary to experiment extensively in order to determine what could be accomplished. Mendel’s law includes several important features which must be thoroughly understood before its important bearings can be comprehended. One re- quisite for the application of the law is that the two parents shall possess certain ‘characters that are opposed to each other. These two opposing qualities or characters are termed a “ character- pair.” As illustrations of such character-pairs, may be cited bearded and bald heads in wheat, sweet and starchy kernels in corn, fuzzy and smooth seeds in cotton, and stringy and stringless pods in beans. When parents possessing these opposed or contrasted characters are crossed, the hybrid contains a combination of the potentialities representing both characters, and the first-gene- ration hybrid will thus show an intermediate form of the particular character under consideration in case the two characters are of equal strength or potency. If, however, as sometimes occurs, one of the characters is very strong or dominant, only this character will show in the first-generation hybrids, the other character remaining recessive or masked, although present. For example, in crossing a race of wheat having bald heads with a race having bearded heads, all of the first-generation hybrids, or at least the major- ity of them, will have bald heads, this character being strong or dominant over the bearded char- acter. In some instances where the potentialities of these two characters appear to be of nearly equal strength or potency, the beards seem to be produced in the first-generation hybrids but are reduced in length, being intermediate between the bald and the bearded state. A number of inter- mediate cases of this kind were shown to the writer by Dr. C. E. Saunders, of the Canadian Experimental Farms. Frequently, in crossing flow- ers of different colors, the resulting hybrids will show a blend of the two colors, being light pink, for example, when the parents crossed are a white and a red. In other cases, however, one color or the other becomes the dominant character, and the first-generation hybrids show the color of one parent only. The second important principle of Mendel’s law is what is termed the purity of the germ-cell. It seems certain from the researches that have been conducted that, when the germ-cells of the first- generation hybrids are formed, the potentialities which represent the two different characters under consideration, and which were united by the hybri- dization, ordinarily segregate again in the cell divisions, which lead to the formation of the germ- cells, so that certain germ-cells include the poten- tiality of one only of the two characters. We have thus two kinds of germ-cells formed with respect to this one character-pair. Taking as an illustra- tion a hybrid of wheat having bald heads with one having bearded heads, when the germ-cells were formed a segregation of the two potentialities representing the two opposed characters would take place, and we would have germ-cells of one kind containing the bald-head potentiality and of a second kind containing the bearded-head potential- ity. This segregation, it must be understood, takes place in the formation of both the egg-cells and the sperm-cells or pollen-grains. We thus see that the first generation of the hybrid when two such characters are combined contains two kinds of egg-cells and two kinds of sperm-cells, so far as this one character-pair is concerned. The third important principle of Mendel’s law is what is termed the law of probability, and ex- plains what may be expected in plants of the second generation of such a hybrid. Remembering that we have formed in the first-generation hybrid, as explained above, two kinds of egg-cells and two kinds of sperm-cells with reference to the opposed characters, what would happen if the hybrid were bred with its own pollen; or, in the case of an animal, if it were bred with another hybrid of the same parentage? For the purpose of illustration, suppose that a hybrid of a bald wheat with a SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF PLANT-BREEDING 65 bearded wheat be fertilized with its own pollen and that 100 egg-cells be fertilized with 100 pollen- grains of the same hybrid. There are two kinds of egg-cells produced, some with potentialities of the bald wheat and some with potentialities of the bearded wheat, and the same is true of the pollen- grains. Taking the egg-cells and pollen-grains without selection, therefore, we would expect to have of the egg-cells 50 with bald potentialities and 50 with bearded potentialities. In the pollen- grains also we would expect to have 50 with bald potentialities and 50 with bearded potentialities. If these are brought together, allowing the law of chance to govern the union, the probability is that we would have 25 bald uniting with 25 bald; 25 bald uniting with 25 bearded ; 25 bearded uniting with 25 bald, and 25 bearded uniting with 25 bearded. Representing the bald potentialities by B and the bearded potentialities by b, we have the following formule, which explain the probable unions graphically (and this is what is known as Mendel’s law) :— ONE HUNDRED IGG-cELLS BY ONE HUNDRED SPERM-CELLS. - (These do not contain potentiali- 25B X 258 = 25BB { ties of b, and will reproduce true.) (These are hybrids so far as this character-pair is concerned,— exactly the same as in the first generation, and contain poten- tialities of both B and b. These will not reproduce true to type, and will break up like second- generation hybrids.) (These do not contain the poten- tialities of B, and will reproduce true.) 25B X 25b = 25Bb 25b X 25B = 25bB 25b X 25b = 25bb “This formula for the hybrids,” writes Bailey, “ig Mendel’s law. In words, it may be expressed as follows: Differentiating characters in plants reappear in their purity and in mathematical reg- ularity in the second and succeeding hybrid off- spring of these plants; the mathematical law is that each character separates in each of these generations in one-fourth of the progeny and thereafter remains true.” The above illustration will explain the law of segregation, and probable ratio of recombination when hybrids are inbred with their own pollen, and when only one pair of characters is considered. When an egg-cell with bald potentialities unites with a sperm-cell with bald potentialities, this gives rise to a pure germ-cell containing only bald potentialities, and the progeny in subsequent gen- erations will breed true so far as this character is concerned. Also when the egg-cell with bearded potentialities unites with a sperm-cell with bearded potentialities, the result is a pure germ-cell con- taining only bearded potentialities, and the progeny would reproduce true, so far as this character is concerned, in subsequent generations. In the other two cases where, in fecundation, germs with bald potentialities unite with germs with bearded poten- tialities, giving the combinations Bb and bB, which BS amount to the same thing, we have in reality hybrids exactly the same as in the first generation, and the progeny from these in the next generation behave exactly the same as did the first-generation hybrids in the second generation. In such a case as this, where one of the characters, as the bald head, is strong and dominant, all combinations that contain the potentialities of this character, whether pure or mixed, show this character only. Thus, in the above table the 25bb would come with bearded heads, while the 75 of other combinations would have bald heads. To determine which of these 75 heads are the combination Bb, that is bald with bearded, and which BB, that is bald with bald, would require the growing of progeny, to deter- mine which were reproduced true to type. The ratio of the combinations, it will be noticed, is 1BB to 2Bb to lbb. While in certain hybrids of parents possessing two opposed parental characters this ratio of probabilities is not produced, if large num- bers are used the ratio will be found in many cases with little deviation. A sufficiently large number of cases have now been carried out with various plants and animals to place the conclusion beyond question. We do not know, however, how many characters follow Mendel’s law, and are not yet entirely certain whether those character-pairs that sometimes follow the law of segregation always follow it. The individuals of the second generation which contain the potentialities of both characters of the pair, if self-fertilized or bred with similar indi- viduals containing the potentialities of both char- acters, exhibit in the third generation exactly the same nature that first-generation hybrids exhibit in the second generation. The two potentialities are commingled in their cells, and to all intents and purposes they are exactly the same as first- generation hybrids. When such self-fertilized hy- brids are grown they give again, in the third gene- ration, the regular Mendelian proportion of 1BB to 2Bb to lbb. Here the individuals containing only potentialities of one character, that is, BB and bb, would come true.to these characters in succeeding generations, while those individuals containing the potentialities of both characters, Bb, would be ex- pected to appear again in the fourth generation in similar proportions. When we deal with more than one character- pair the matter becomes complicated, but will become clearer on careful study. If we combine with the above characters the character of hairy (H) and smooth (s) chaff in the head, and remember that the potentialities of these two characters in the hybrids segregate exactly as in the case of bald and bearded heads, we can foretell what will occur. In this case, the hairy chaff is the strong dominant character, as in the first-generation hybrids of hairy with smooth sorts the chaff is always or very generally hairy. We would thus represent these characters by H, for the hairy or dominant character, and s for the smooth or reces- sive character. In this character-pair we would expect a splitting and segregation to have occurred in the formation of the germ-cells of the first-gen- 66 eration hybrids, so that the hybrid plants of the second generation would exhibit these characters in Mendelian proportions, as in the characters described above. The progeny in the second gen- eration would thus exhibit these characters in the following combinations and proportions: 1HH to 2Hs to 1ss. This probable proportion should hold rather constantly, either in small or large numbers of hybrids, though in large numbers it would prob- ably be more accurately realized. The potentiali- ties of the four characters, or two character-pairs, are commingled in the cells of the first-generation hybrid. When the egg-cells or pollen-grains are formed, however, a segregation of the potentiali- ties of the two character-pairs occurs, but inde- pendent of each other. Hach egg-cell or pollen- grain will receive only the potentiality of one character of a certain character-pair, but will, at the same time, receive potentialities of other char- acters belonging to other character-pairs. Consid- ering the two character-pairs described, an egg- cell receiving the potentiality of the bald head (B) might contain the potentiality of either H or s, representing the characters of hairy or smooth chaff. These two character-pairs would thus give us egg-cells of four combinations, namely, BH, Bs, bH and bs. ‘ In the formation of the pollen-grains the same combination occurs, so that with reference to the two character-pairs described, the pollen-grains that would be formed have the same combination of potentialities as the egg-cells, namely, BH, Bs, bH and bs. We thus have four kinds of egg-cells and four kinds of pollen-grains, so far as these two character-pairs are concerned. If these are brought together, sixteen combinations are possible as follows : BHBH BsBH bHBH bsBH BHBs BsBs bHBs bsBs BHbH BsbH bHbH bsbH BHbs Bsbs bHbs bsbs Examining these combinations carefully, and cut- ting out the letters that occur twice, as the occur- rence of the same potentiality in both egg-cell and and pollen-grain serves only to reproduce the same character, we have the following nine combi- nations, all of which are different: 1BH, 1Bs, 1bH, lbs, 2BHs, 2BbH, 2Bbs, 2bHs and 4BbHs. In the illustration taken of the character-pair of bald and bearded heads, and the probable ratio of unions in second-generation hybrids, it was shown that out of 100 unions we should expect, by the law of chance, the ratio 25B to 50Bb to 25b. Now, con- sidering the second character-pair, that is, the hairy and the smooth chaff, in connection with these same 100 unions, we would have the follow- ing as the probable combinations, according to the same law of chance: 25B 50 Bb 25 b 6} BH ( 124 BbH 6t bH 25B 112k BHs | 50Bb 1 25 BbHs | 25b 1 124 bs 6t Bs | 128 Bhs GE bs SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF PLANT-BREEDING These nine combinations are the same as the nine given above, only multiplied by 6% in each case. In each of the nine combinations when only one of the potentialities of the character is present, the progeny from such an individual from self- fertilized seed will come true to this character in all succeeding generations, as the potentiality of the opposed character has been eliminated. Thus, in the first combination, BH, representing the potentialities of the bald head and hairy chaff, if such a hybrid is fertilized with its own pollen, it will produce only progeny with bald head and hairy chaff. In the second combination, BHs, we have present the potentialities of the bald head of one character-pair and both the hairy and smooth chaff of the other character-pair. Self-fertilized progeny of this hybrid should all come bald, but some should have hairy chaff and some smooth chaff. In the third combination, Bs, we have simply the potentialities of the bald head and smooth chaff, and such a combination should give plants that will come true to type in later genera- tions when self-fertilized. Similar conditions of purity or hybridity of the germ-cells can be figured out for each of the other six combinations. If a third character were considered, the propor- tions of the combinations can be determined in exactly the same way. Hach one of the above nine possible combinations would be again divided into three different unions in the same way as the three combinations of the one character-pair gave nine different combinations in the second character- pair. In the consideration of the three character- pairs there would thus be 27 different combinations of parental characters. And again in each ovary fecundated, when only one potentiality of each character-pair occurred, the opposing character potentiality being in each case eliminated, such a cell should give a plant that would reproduce its characters true to type. It is well known that almost any two different races or species that may be chosen for hybridization will ordinarily differ from each other in numerous characters. When there are a number of these opposing characters which form Mendelian character-pairs, the deter- mination of the possible combinations by Mendel’s formule becomes very complex and difficult to understand. It is only by taking a few well- marked character-pairs and carefully studying them that the segregation and new combinations according to Mendelian proportions can be followed and understood. Any character-pairs, following Mendel’s law, would segregate as indicated above in the case of bald or bearded heads and smooth and hairy chaff of wheat. These characters with wheat have been investigated by Spillman, Hurst and others, and are known to follow very closely Mendelian proportions in their segregation. The same segregation takes place in the case of the bald and bearded barleys, smooth and fuzzy cottons, sweet and starchy kernels in corn, and many other opposed characters in plants. It is by no means probable that all characters follow Mendel’s law of segregation and recombina- tion, and secondary characters in practical work SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF PLANT-BREEDING 67 need be given no attention. The knowledge of Mendel’s principles may not change greatly the practical methods of breeding which have been followed for a number of years, but they give us a more thorough comprehension of what we are do- ing, and also greater surety that certain combina- tions of parental characters can be secured. (2) The use and fixation of intermediate or blended types. The principle of the purity of the germ-cell, if strictly applied, would not recognize as possible the fixation into a race reproducing true to type of an intermediate hybrid, that is, one in which two characters of a certain pair are blended. Yet practical work shows that such a fixation certainly can be secured. In very many hybrids of plants cultivated for their flowers, intermediate colors have been bred to stability, showing that the inheritance is blended. The writer has been at- tempting to fix a hybrid of Black Mexican sweet corn having blue-black kernels, with Stowell’s Evergreen, which has a nearly white kernel, into a race of light blue-violet color, and strictly inter- mediate in this respect between the two parental varieties. Ordinarily, the color of these hybrids breaks up in Mendelian proportions, but neither color can be considered to be dominant in the true sense of the word. In practically all cases when the potentialities of the two characters are mixed in the same egg-cell, the coloration is intermediate rather than like one or the other of the parent vari- eties. The writer has uniformly selected the seed of such intermediate light blue-violet kernels for planting, and has kept the patch completely iso- lated. After four years of such selection, a type that produces nearly uniformly light blue colored kernels has been produced. There are still many reversions to the coloration of either parent, but these are growing fewer and the type is becoming fixed into a stable race, reproducing itself true to seed. Halsted, of the New Jersey Experiment Station, has produced such an intermediate colored race by the hybridization of Black Mexican with the Egyptian, and has already secured a new race which is practically fixed in its intermediate color. The writer thinks that in this and in a great many other cases it is possible by careful selection of plants showing the intermediate type to breed new races that exhibit a blend of characters, and such blends are frequently of great value. The work that has been carried out by the writer in the Department of Agriculture in the breeding of citrous fruits very clearly indicates that valuable intermediates may sometimes be secured. The writer, in conjunction with Mr. Walter T. Swingle, hybridized the hardy, cold- resistant trifoliate orange (Citrus trifoliata) with several varieties of the tender sweet orange, and as a result at least five different varieties of hardy oranges or citranges have been produced (Fig. 86). These hybrids are nearly intermediate between the two parents, having the characters in the first generation nearly blended. The leaves are trifolioliate, but are much larger than the leaves of the ordinary trifoliate orange tree, and show a tendency to drop off, the lateral leaflets producing an unifolioliate leaf. The trifoliate orange is decid- uous, while the sweet orange is evergreen. The hy- brids are semi-deciduous, holding a large share of their leaves through the winter. In hardiness they also seem to be intermediate, being much more cold-resistant than the ordinary orange, but not so hardy as the trifoliate orange. They are suffi- ciently hardy so that they doubtless may be grown with safety as far north as South Carolina, or 300 to 400 miles north of the present orange region. Some of the fruits produced are as large as the ordinary orange, but the majority are very nearly intermediate in size. They are very variable, how- ever, in the first generation. At least five of the fruits that have been produced are juicy and valuable. It is not probable that they would be reproduced true to seed, but orange varieties are clons, and the different types will, of course, be normally repro- rps duced by buds or grafts, so that from a practical standpoint it does not matter whether or not they would repro- duce true through the seed. In the second generation it is probable that these different characters would split up, possibly ‘ according to Men- del’s law, and it is likely that still more valuable va- rieties will be secured when a second generation has been grown. Similar groups of valuable intermediate types of fruits have been produced by Dr. Saunders, the Director of the Canadian Experimental Farms, by crossing varieties of the ordinary apple, such as the Pewaukee and Wealthy, with a very hardy cold-resistant crab (Pyrus baccata). Dr. Saunders has produced already numerous hardy intermedi- ate types which bid fair to be of very great economic value. hybrids, and the parents. mon orange; }, trifoliate orange; c, Willits citrange (trifoliate XX orange); d, Morton citrange (tri- foliate X orange); e, Rusk citrange (orange trifoliate) . a, com- (8) The combination of different parental characters not blended. The greatest value of hybridization in the pro- duction of new varieties lies probably in the possi- bility of combining in the new race certain valu- able characters of different races or species. This principle breeders have long recognized, but it cannot be too clearly borne in mind. The work which the writer has carried out in the Department of Agriculture, in the production of long-staple varieties of upland cotton, forms an interesting illustration in point. Ordinary upland cotton, 68 SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF PLANT-BREEDING which is grown all over the interior cotton regions of the South, produces a short fiber averaging about one inch in length. In the eastern part of South Carolina, southern Georgia and northern Florida, sea island cotton is grown. This cotton year, and each one was planted in an isolated patch in order that it would be fertilized only with pollen of related progeny. In each generation since, only those plants have been selected for seed which come the nearest to the original type, and now, after five generations of selection, two or has a fiber 12 to 24 inches in length. Ordinary up- land cotton has an average value of eight or nine cents per pound, while this longer staple sea island cotton is ordinarily worth twenty to thirty cents per pound. Other things being equal, a longer- fibered cotton is always more valuable than a short staple, and were it possible to secure the same yield it would be far better to grow long-staple cotton altogether. The sea island or long-staple cotton, however, has a small three-locked boll which opens very poorly, and is difficult to pick, and yields much less than does upland cotton. Up- land cotton, on the contrary, produces large rounded bolls, which open wide and are easy to pick, and yields much more heavily than the other. Sea island cotton has a smooth black seed, so that rol- ler gins can be used in separating the seed and fiber, and this is an important consideration with long-staple cotton, as the saw-gin tears and breaks the fiber. With the short-staple or upland cottons the seed is covered with a short close fuzz, and they are uniformly ginned on saw-gins. The tear- ing of the fiber which necessarily results to a con- siderable extent, does not matter greatly with a fiber of this short length. If longer stapled varie- ties are desired they should have smooth, black seed, so that aroller gin can be used. The writer under- took experiments in the hybridization of these two kinds of cotton, in the hope of producing a new race, which would inherit, on the one hand, the large bolls, tendency to yield heavily, and adapta- bility to upland regions, of the short-staple or upland cotton, and, on the other hand, the long, fine and strong lint and black seed of the sea island cot- ton. The first-generation hybrids were found to be nearly uniform and showed little breaking up of characters of the two parents. In the second gene- ration, however, all manners of types were formed, exhibiting the characters of the two parents in very different degrees. Out of several thousand second-generation hybrids several individuals were selected which showed almost exactly the combi- nation of characters which it was desired to pro- duce. These hybrids were self-fertilized the next beige: Fig. 87. Selection. Results of rogueing in a verbena seed-field. three of the types have been bred to a practical state of fixity, showing the pos- sibility of combining in a hybrid valuable characters from distinct parents. (4) Fixation of hybrids. When different types have been crossed and hybrids secured which possess the char- acters desired, it is necessary that careful methods of selection and breeding be fol- lowed in order to secure finally a type that will transmit its qualities. The-great ma- jority of such hybrids when first produced’ will not reproduce true to type. The policy followed by the writer in the cotton ex- periment above referred to, will usually serve as a good guide in the fixation of any hybrid. If self- fertile, the hybrids should be fertilized with their own pollen in order not to introduce any new hered- itary tendencies unless it is found that such fer- tilization too greatly reduces the vigor. In cotton, self-fertilization has been found not to decrease the vigor of the plants, and the same is true of wheat, tobacco, oats, and plants that are normally self- fertilized to some extent. In the case of corn, as it has been found that the inbreeding of a plant with its own pollen results in a great deterioration in vigor, it is the best policy to cross the desired hybrid with another hybrid having the same char- acters. The seed of such select hybrid plants should then be planted in isolated places, so that the plants will not be crossed with the pollen of either parent or other varieties. When the progeny of these select hybrids reach a point where their characters be- come visible it may be desirable to weed out the undesirable plants that are off type, in order that the plants which most nearly resemble the type desired will be fertilized with pollen from similar plants. In the writer’s cotton experiments, the seed of each individual selected plant of the second generation was planted in a small isolated plot of about one acre. As soon as the plants began to show their characters and it could be recognized that certain ones had inherited the desired qualities, the fields were carefully searched and all plants not true to type were pulled up, leaving only a few good plants of the right type. (Fig. 88.) This in- sured that all of the later bolls formed would be fertilized with pollen from similar plants of good type. Hach subsequent generation, the select plants should be grown in isolated plots and seed selected only from those plants which have reproduced the ideal type for which the breeder is working. The time required to secure fixed types is variable, but in wheat and cotton, when careful experiments have been carried out and recorded, the indications are that four to six generations are ordinarily required to reach a fixed stage. This does not mean, of course, that all variation is SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF PLANT-BREEDING 69 prevented, but that the hybrids have been bred to the same type as nearly as is the case in any ordi- nary race or variety. Selection of vegetative parts. No consideration of the methods of plant-breed- ing would be complete without a mention of the improvements which can be produced by what may be termed the selection of vegetative parts. While, in general, all buds of a plant are practically the same, as is shown by the fact that buds taken from the Baldwin apple almost uniformly produce Bald- win apples, yet there is considerable variation frequently in the product from different buds, and Sng Fig. 88. The rogueing, or removing of undesirable plants. These are cotton-fields. The upper picture shows men at work pulling out the plants that are not wanted; the lower picture shows a field after rogueing has been completed. it is well known that we have a class of variations which we have come to call bud-sports or bud-vari- -ations. In violets, for example, the propagation is normally by slips that are developed from different buds. These slips when grown into plants frequently show considerable difference, and Dr. B. T. Galloway and Mr. P. H. Dorsett, of the Department of Agricul- ture, have demonstrated that, by the selection of slips from plants which are very productive, the yield in the number of flowers to the plant can be increased considerably. In the case of the orange, seedling trees are almost always very thorny, yet certain branches may show a tendency to be more nearly thornless, and by the selection of buds from such branches the thorny character of almost all the standard varieties has been reduced. By the sys- tematic selection of vegetative parts, such as buds, slips, suckers, and the like, in many cases very important improvements could doubtless be secured, and the plant-breeder should have a thorough understanding of this method of improvement. In hybrids of mixed parentage frequently a bud on one side of a plant will sport, showing different tendencies, and many of our new varieties of roses, chrysanthemums and carnations have been pro- duced by the selection of such bud-sports. Many standard varieties of carnations have produced bud- variations that have proved valuable; the Lawson has given rise to the Red Lawson and White Lawson. The Enchantress has produced the Pink Enchantress and White Enchantress. The practice of exercising care in choice of chrysanthemum or carnation cuttings and of cions for fruit trees is therefore seen to rest on rational reasons. The variations in the character of the seed from different bolls in the case of hybrid cottons, re- ferred to on page 58, are bud-variations of this sort which, as pointed out there, may be of value to the breeder even in cotton which is propagated by seed. In the study of cotton, the writer has found similar bud-variations showing in the lint characters of hybrids. In quite a number of in- stances, certain bolls have been found which pro- duced much longer lint than other bolls on the same plant, and similar variations in strength and uniformity of length have been observed. Experi- ments indicate that such variations, which are doubtless to be classed as bud-variations, are trans- mitted in considerable degree. This being the case even in seed-propagated plants, it becomes desirable to observe and search for bud-variations. Literature. ' The principal general works are: Bailey, Plant- Breeding, 4th edition, 1906, The Macmillan Co., New York; Fruwirth, Die Zuchtung der Land- wirtschafllichen Kulturptlanzen, Berlin, 1904-06. The following are a few of the most important gen- eral papers: Production et fixation des variétés dans les végétaux, EH. A. Carriere, Paris, 1865; Die Pflanzenmischlinge, W. O. Focke, Berlin, 1881; A Selection from the Physiological and Horticul- tural Papers of Thomas Andrew Knight, published in the Transactions of the Royal and Horticultural Societies, London, 1841; Hybrids and Their Utili- zation in Plant-Breeding, W. T. Swingle and H. J. Webber, Yearbook, United States Department of Agriculture, 1897; Sur la production et la fixa- tion des variétés dans les plantes d’ornement, Jean Baptiste Verlot, Paris, 1865; The Improvement of Plants by Selection, H. J. Webber, Yearbook, United States Department of Agriculture, 1898; Hybrid Conference Report, Journal Royal Horti- cultural Society, Vol. XXIV, April, 1900 ; Survival of the Unlike, Bailey; Proceedings, International Conference on Plant-Breeding and Hybridization, New York Horticultural Soc. Memoirs, Vol. I, 1902; Proceedings of American Breeders’ Association, Vols. I and II, Washington, D. C., 1905 and 1906; Breeding Animals and Plants, W. M. Hays, St. Anthony Park, Minnesota. Bailey’s Plant-Breeding contains a very extended list of papers and books, CHAPTER IV PLANT INTRODUCTION By DAVID FAIRCHILD HERE IS NEED OF A MORE EXTENDED CROP FLORA. We are prone to look on the agriculture of this country as in a finished state, when, in fact, even the pioneer work has barely been done. The farmers have spread marvelously over the land. They » have tried corn and wheat in nearly every great area where water is to be found; they have planted potatoes from one corner of the country to the other, and have set out apple and pear trees wherever they have gone; they have found out the value of such a forage plant as alfalfa, which was a great crop in South America before the farmers of this coun- try heard of its existence. They have done the best that could be done with the materials at their disposal ; but, when the land was too moist to grow potatoes, they left it alone; regions in which corn and wheat failed because of the drought, they have given a wide berth; and they have allowed good farming land in New England to grow up in weeds because it was in too small areas to grow wheat or corn in competition with the great fields of the West. Rich alluvial fields in the Carolinas, which have easy water connection with New York, they have abandoned for a similar rea- son. One thing that farmers need is new crops,— grains that will grow on dry land where wheat fails, higher-priced crops for the abandoned New England farms, new and valuable plants for rice lands. Early efforts at plant introduction. Farmers are searching for these new plants and are willing to spend millions of dollars in testing them, but until recently there has been no organization to aid them in getting the necessary plants with which to experiment. : Their needs have long attracted the attention of the government, and when, in 1838, Congress made its first appropriation in aid of agriculture, this appropriation was in the form of a grant of one town- ship of land in southern Florida to Doctor Henry Perrine, former American Consul in Campeche, for the purpose of encouraging the introduction and the cultivation of tropical plants in the United States. In 1888, Mr. Ellsworth, Commissioner of Patents, made the following appeal to Congress : “Our citizens who are led by business or pleasure into foreign countries, and especially the officers of our navy and others in public employment abroad, would feel a pride in making collections of valu- able plants and seeds if they could be sure of seeing the fruits of their labors accrue to the benefit of the nation at large. But, hitherto, they have had no means of distributing, to any extent, the valuable productions of other climates which patriotism or curiosity has led them to introduce into our country. To a great extent, they have perished on their ‘hands for want of some means of imparting to the public the benefit they had designed to confer. Those who have not considered the subject in its wide details are very imperfectly qualified to judge of its importance.” In 1889, Mr. Ellsworth believed still more strongly in the work of plant introduction, for he remarks: “The diplomatic corps of the United States residing abroad have been solicited to aid in procuring valuable seeds, and the officers of the navy, with the appropriation of the honorable Secretary of that department, have been requested to convey to the Patent Office, for distribution, such seeds as may be offered. In many cases no charges will be made for seeds. If small expenses do arise they can be reim- bursed by appropriations from the patent fund, daily accumulating, and consecrated especially to the promotion of the arts and sciences. “The cheerfulness with which the diplomatic corps and the officers of the navy have received the request of this office justify sanguine anticipations from this new undertaking.” In 1840, the work of plant introduction, coupled with that of gathering statistics on agriculture, called for the first stated expenditure by the Commissioner of Patents for agriculture. The amount was only $451.58, but it was the beginning of an expenditure by the government that has increased in sixty- five years to over $6,000,000. (70) IMPORTANCE OF PLANT INTRODUCTION 71 The first government work in agricul- ture was to introduce new plants, but of this early work, no doubt much of it im- portant to the country, only traces or legends remain. Few records of the various introductions are to be found, and hardly a trace of where they were planted. Mr. Ellsworth’s idea was good, but the experi- ence of the past seven years has shown where the weakness lay. The seeds and plants collected by those in the diplomatic service were not gathered by trained men who knew the agricultural needs of the country, but were, in the great majority of cases, gathered by men who saw in a new plant some useful quality, without having the training necessary to find out whether it was capable of being adapted to our quite different conditions of labor, or to know in what part of the country it should be tried. An immense amount of valuable introduction work was done later by Mr. Saunders, who, for many years, had charge of the gardens and grounds of the Department of Agricul- ture, but no connected record of it exists. In 1870, the government made a notable introduction of cions of Russian apples. The work of persons not connected with government departments should not be for- gotten. Nurserymen and seedsmen have long been in the habit of introducing inter- esting plants from many countries. Many times they have introduced plants in ad- vance of the popular necessity for them, and the introductions have disappeared, to be introduced again later. Many citizens, from Washington down, have been influential in Fig. 89. Four types of Tunisian dates, showing the variation in this fruit. introducing plants. In later years the work of the late Professor Budd, of Iowa, and the late Charles Gibb, of Quebec, in introducing Russian fruits should not be overlooked, for they were pioneers in the modern movement. The organization of plant-introduction work and some of its problems. It was not until 1897 that this great work of finding, getting, importing, and sending out new plants was put on a scientific basis and the Section of Seed and Plant Introduction made an integral part of the Department of Agriculture. The organ- ization of the Office as it now stands owes its smoothly working machinery to the painstaking efforts of Mr. Adrian J. Pieters, who has put into the work years of study and thought, and who, _together with the writer, has general charge today. This Office has almost constantly had agricultural explorers and collectors in the field, and has worked out a system that takes care of every plant sent in and of every seed distributed, and it is on a basis of accurate codperation with the experiment sta- tions and farmers all over the country. Every one of the more than 19,000 specimens that have been sent in by agricultural explorers, by friends of the work or by correspondents, or that have been purchased abroad, has been put on permanent record and then sent out to some one who was especially interested in it; and, as far as possible, each introduction has been followed up and the result recorded. Over 120,000 cards record the distributions, and thousands of reports now on file form a most valuable historical record of the systematic plant introductions of the past eight years. The aim of the work has been pre- eminently a practical one, and the introductions have been made to meet some demand either of an experiment station or of a plant-breeder, or to carry out the idea of some one of the explorers who saw in a foreign plant industry the possibility 72 IMPORTANCE OF PLANT INTRODUCTION of its utilization in this country. The work of early years failed in doing the great good that it was capable of because it was not systematic, because no adequate records were kept, and be- cause the public were not alive to its great possi- bilities. Today the interest in new plants is so much greater than it was twenty years ago that large numbers of the really suggestive applications from private experimenters cannot be met by the Office for lack of funds. A very brief sketch of some of the interesting problems that are on the program of the Office will illustrate the opening vista of plant introduction as a government enterprise. The largest collection of date varieties ever made is now growing in gardens in Arizona and California (Figs. 89,.90). The largest collection of tropical mangoes in the world is in greenhouses or already in the hands of experi- menters in Florida, Porto Rico and Hawaii. Thous- ands of the Japanese matting rush plants, from which the valuable Japanese matting is made, of which this country imports several million dollars’ worth every year, are being grown in South Caro- lina. A new and valuable salad plant from ? Japan, the udo (Fig. 18), is being grown , from Maine to Flor- ida. The superior varieties of French bur artichoke have J been introduced for trial in the trucking re- gion of the South. The berseem, the greatest of gj). annual winter forage crops YW from the Nile valley, is y now being grown experi- mentally in the new irri- gated regions of the South- west (Fig. 91). Kafir corns from the uplands of Abyssinia, ‘the east coast of Africa and India are being tested in Kansas and other places in the West. New varieties of alfalfa, the one from Turkestan, the other from Ara- - bia, are both attracting the attention J. of alfalfa-growers in those sections where alfalfa is the great forage crop. In Alaska a newly found variety of oat, from northern Finland, is proving superior to all others. Before these lines are printed the sisal industry of Yucatan will have been given a start in Porto Rico through the assistance of the organization that the Office of Plant Introduction has built up. At the request of the State Experiment Station of North Carolina, peanuts have been gathered from all over the world for the use of breeding experi- Fig. 91. \ menters in the South. Pentzia, an in- (Trifolium \ teresting fodder plant of the “kar- Alezan- roo,” has been sent to one of the bar- drinum). ren islands of the Hawaiian group for trial. The Hanna, a pedigreed barley ; ‘ui v i Ds tN fl,“ ; a Comal yl een Fig. 90. Egyptian date palm in fruit at Indio, California. Imported by Department of Agriculture in 1889, variety from Moravia, is now being given a practi- cal test by the brewers in St. Louis and California, and its uniform character and good yields on the Pacific coast have aleady led to its cultivation on a large scale. A new root crop from Porto Rico, the yautia (Figs. 114, 115, page 105, Vol. I), promi- nently brought forward by Mr. Barrett, now of this Office, is to be practically tried in northern Florida and the Carolinas, in both of which places it has proved its ability to grow. The plant from which Japan makes her papers of unexcelled quality is growing in the plant-introduction garden in Cali- fornia (Pig. 92). The wood-oil tree of the Yang-tse valley has been imported from Han Kow, and there are on hand in California hundreds of plants with which to make the first trials of this interesting oil- producing plant, the product of which is imported into America in increasing quantities every year to be used for varnish and imitation rubber manu- facturing purposes. The hardy bamboos of the Orient have been imported, and, as far as the funds of the Office have allowed, these have been placed at several places in the South where the old “cane- brakes,” which are growths of a commercially worthless species of bamboo, indicate that the valuable kind from Japan may be expected to grow successfully. Answering an appeal from the rice- planters of the Carolinas, whose plantations have been devastated by a very serious disease, rices of the type of the famous Carolina Golden have been imported from the Orient, Africa, the West Indies and Italy, with the hope of finding one that will resist the disease. This hope has not yet been ful- filled, although there is one variety at least that has some promise of being useful in the rice-fields of the region. An early introduction of one of the agricultural explorers was the fenugreek, a plant. the seeds of which, when ground, form the body of most of the condition powders so much used by raisers of fat-stock show animals; and although the manufacturers of these condition powders still import their seed from abroad, the Californians IMPORTANCE OF PLANT INTRODUCTION 73 in the hills. (£dgeworthia Gardneri.) have learned that fenugreek is one of their best cover-crops, as it stands up especially well and can be plowed under easily. One of the most far-reaching in its possibilities of all the introductions of the Office is the drought- resistant durum wheats, which yield crops where all ordinary wheats fail for lack of water. Largely through Mr. M. A. Carleton’s effort, this grain, un- known on American grain markets seven years ago, is now grown in such quantities that in 1905 the United States exported 6,000,000 bushels of it. Another introduction was the Japanese Kiushu rice, which was in part responsible for the great develop- ment of the Texas and Louisiana rice-fields and which is now planted on one-half the rice area of these states. These problems, chosen from among the many engaging the attention of the Department special- ists, should give an idea of the way in which this branch of the government is affecting the agricul- ture of the country. Other interesting or important food plants that the Office is introducing ‘ or disseminating are shown in Figs. 93 to 99. These are products of well-known species and need not be further de- scribed here. A feature of the in- troductions that de- serves especially to be mentioned, since it is growing rapidly in im- portance, is the getting of material for those en- gaged. in breeding new races of plants. In order to break up a species it is often necessary to cross it with some nearly related species, and such near relatives are often wild plants or forms that are not to be found in this country. It is one of the pleasant parts of the work to secure a plant from the ends of the earth that some breeder Fig. 93. The Bohemian horse- radish or Maliner_kren. Root grown at Edge- water Park, N. J., from introduced root-cuttings from Malin, Bohemia. may incorporate it into a new hybrid of value. The citrange of Messrs. Swingle and Webber would not have been made had not an ornamental, the Citrus trifoliata, been introduced from Japan; the inter- esting tobacco crosses that Mr. Shamel has made owe their origin in part to the fact that he had Sumatra seed to work with; the.interesting series of hybrid cottons that Dr. Webber has been work- ing with are the results of cross-pollinations be- tween the American and Egyptian cottons. To help Mr. Swingle in his work on the pistachio-nut, which may prove a new nut industry for California, the Office is searching for a Chinese species that will resist cold, a species native in Afghanistan that’ will resist alkali, the mastick and terebinth of southern Europe, and a native Texan species that Mr. Swingle thinks will be valuable for use as stocks. The problem of the introduction of the tropical mangosteen of the Dutch East Indies is being worked out by Mr. Oliver, the expert propa- gator of the Department, chiefly through the use of as many of the nearly related species of the genus Garcinia as can be brought together. There are over sixty species in this tropical genus, and, as fifteen of these bear edible fruits, it would be Fig. 94. English Broad bean (Vicia Faba) as grown in America. Pods ready for the table. strange if at least one should not be available as a stock or of worth for breeding purposes. The suc- cessful introduction of this, the most valuable of East Indian fruits, probably hangs on the utilizing of some of these other and more vigorous species of Garcinia. Most fortunately for the Office, the possibilities of plant-introduction work appealed at the outset. most strongly to the practical mind of a past master in the art of travel, who for over forty years has wandered almost constantly over the world,—Mr. Barbour Lathrop, of Chicago. Seeing such widely different crops in the many lands that he visited, his unusual foresight saw in the work 74 IMPORTANCE OF PLANT INTRODUCTION of plant introduction a great wealth-creating power, and, convinced of the good he could do for his country by aiding its progress, he spent the greater part of his time and en- ergy during the years of 1896, 1898-99, 1901-02, and 1903 in making, at his own expense, a tour of reconnaissance of the world in the interest of the Office of Plant Introduction. He took the writer with him as his agri- cultural explorer, and estab- lished correspondents in most of the principal points of plant in- terest in the world. This list of correspondents is one of the great assets of the Office, enabling it to secure quickly from any re- gion the seeds or plants desired for hosts of experiments which the Office is pressed by private experimenters to take up. In the course of these six years of travel a mass of material was imported from all parts of the world, aggregating at least 1,200 different. selected things that seemed worthy of trial in Amer- ica. Many of these are now form- ing subjects of study and exper- iment in different parts of the country and have been alluded to under the successes achieved or the problems now being worked out by the Department specialists. The profession of agricultural exploration has been originated and developed by the Office of Plant Introduction. The first explorer, Mr. N. E. Fig. 95. The Hun- garian paprika as grown by Dr. R. H. True in South Carolina. Until this was taken up bythe Bureau of Plant Indus- try all the pap- rika used in America was im- ported from Aus- tro-Hungary and other European countries. Fig. 96. The prickly pear or Tuna (Opuntia Ficus-Indica), as sold on the streets and in the fancy fruit stores of this country. Hansen, made an extended trip through Russia and the steppes of Siberia in search of hardy fruits and drought-resistant forage plants, the result being the introduction of the Turkestan alfalfa plants. Mr. W. T. Swingle, on two separate trips, explored the oases of the Sahara for the best sorts of date palms, and unearthed a host of new and interesting forage and fruit plants in Algeria, with many of which various experimenters are now at work; he studied and perfected the best method of sending over the caprifying insect. that has since made Smyra fig culture a success in California, and started investigations of the pistachio industry in Sicily and Asia Minor, besides calling the attention of olive-growers to the dry-land olive culture of Tunis. Mr. C.S. Scofield spent a summer in Algeria collecting the seeds of a lot of promising legumi- nous plants that are now attracting interest as new fodder plants in California. At the same time he secured the best of the Kabili fig varieties that are now growing in the same state. The two Russian expeditions of Mr. M. A. Carleton were made in search of cereals that would resist the rust and the extreme droughts of the great western plains, and the tons of seed wheat that were dis- tributed as the result of his trips have led to the establishment of the durum wheat industry in the Dakotas, Nebraska and Kansas, and that is now attracting the atten- tion of the Californians as a possible solution of their serious wheat prob- lem. Mr. E. A. Bessey made a journey through the Caucasus after hardy grapes and cherries, and went into Turkestan for sand- binding plants and alfalfas. Dr. 8. A. Knapp was sent twice to the Orient to study the rice varieties of those great rice- growing countries, and introduced among other things the Kiushu rice that has been referred to. Mr. T. H. Kearney has made two explorations of the north coast of Africa, the first to select strains of the best Egyptian cotton (Figs. 100, 101), the second to make a collection of the many important dates that grow in the oases of southern Tunis. He has given the first account by a trained agriculturist of the date-palm industry written on the ground at the time of ripening of the fruit. Mr. O. W. Bar- rett, during the time he was stationed at Porto Rico, was sent to other of the West Indian islands, and he has introduced a number of valuable plants into the tropical territory there, notably varieties of the cacao and the yautia, the root crop already men- tioned, the arracacha of Venezuela and others. The discovery by Mr. P. H. Rolfs that the vanilla can be fruited in Florida led to his recent trip to Mexico to study the vanilla industry of eastern Mexico, Fig. 97. The passion fruit (Passiflora edulis), one of the commonest pro- ducts in the Nata] mar- ket and which in Aus- tralia and New Zealand is a popular table fruit. IMPORTANCE OF PLANT INTRODUCTION 75 and resulted in the importation of a number of varieties of this valuable plant to serve as experi- mental material for his researches. Mr. Rolfs also An American-grown fruit The true Corsican citron. Fig. 98. from the only paying plantation of this fruit yet estab- lished in America, that of Dr. Westlake, of Los Angeles. The cions were secured for the Division of Pomology by David Fairchild, his first piece of plant-introduction work. made a trip to Jamaica to study the cassava in- dustry, and there made a collection of cassava varieties which is now established in Florida. A short investigation of the Alpine trial gardens of Austria was made last summer by Mr. Edgar Brown, who also secured for trial the Ladino clover of the irrigated valley of the Po. At the present time Mr. Frank N. Meyer, agricultural explorer of the Office, is in northern China, and from this region he is sending, week by week, cions and seeds of hardy fruits, vegetables, nuts, grains and orna- mental plants that may be expected to have an important bearing on the agricultural industries of the Atlantic and middle western states. The government responsibility in plant introduction. It will be evident from what has been said that the aims of this Office are not at all identical with those of such a wonderful botanic garden as that of Kew, Berlin, or New York. It does not main- tain a collection of living plants, whether of practical value or not, but its funds are spent in importing for the use of experimenters throughout the country material with which they can work. Scarcely a day passes without some request being received for seed which is not carried by any seeds- man in the country. A potato-breeder in Vermont wants the new Solanum Commersonii from the wet lands in Uruguay to hybridize with the ordinary potato; a settler in southern Texas wants to try bamboos on the Rio Grande; the representative of a land-development company on the Sacramento wants to plant the Egyptian horse-bean for a green- manure crop; the Experiment Station of Hawaii wants wine-grape varieties introduced into the islands; and the director of the Alaska Experiment Station asks for North Swedish grains and vege- tables for the Klondyke. The government enterprise of plant introduction should not interfere with the private seed trade, but, on the contrary, benefit it, for its object is to create a demand which the seedsmen will supply. Seedsmen have kept on their catalogues for years certain species for which the demand is so small that it does not pay to handle them, and yet some of them are worthy of wide cultivation in this country. Government plant introduction brings these to public attention. Had the work of intro- ducing new fa.m and garden plants been a profi- table one, there would certainly be in this and other countries commercial firms with their collectors in all parts of the globe, as there are rug- and tea- importers; yet it is safe to say that there is no private concern in America that would undertake to get at moderate expense the Manchurian millet through fields of which the Japanese soldiers marched in the recent Russo-Japanese war, nor would it have thought it profitable to supply the Canadian wheat experimenter with the early-ripen- ing wheat from the Ladoga sea from which one of the best wheats for the Northwest has been originated. Experimental work is expensive, and it is only when the first stages in the experiment have been Fig. 99. The Carob bean, or St. John’s Bread, of the Mediterra- nean. Pod of a fodder-producing tree. (Oeratonia Siliqua.) passed—when a demand has grown up for the seeds “ —that there is money in keeping in stock a supply for this demand. Understanding this point fully, 76 IMPORTANCE OF PLANT INTRODUCTION the work of the Office of Plant Introduction is planned to cease as soon as experiments have shown the money-making value of a crop—as soon, in other words, as the seed firms decide that it is to their advantage to take it up. There is another great reason why the plant in- troduction of a country should be in the hands of the government. This lies in the danger of the introduction of noxi- ous weeds, insect pests and fungous parasites. This idea is quite distinct from that of a quarantine affecting all private introductions. The damage wrought by fungous and insect pests in Europe has been so great that practically prohibi- tive quarantines have been placed against the introduction of foreign plants in Italy and Greece; and in this respect these countries have been followed by the Ar- gentine. The result has been that the potato-growers of Greece have seen their potato varieties deteriorate without being able to get a change of seed, and in Argentine the pres- fm sure to get new W732 things was so great . that seeds were im- ; ported clandestinely in large quantities, and the law has had to be repealed. The doors had been shut to private introduc- tion and yet no pro- vision was made for the government to meet the legitimate demand of the people for foreign plants. In bringing a new plant into a country, with all we now know of plant diseases, it would be a calam- ity to introduce its particular disease with it, yet, unless done with the greatest care and under the supervision of experts who know how to inspect, disinfect and fumigate, this is almost sure to occur. Two important plant industries which the Depart- ment is now at work on, the mango and the pistachio, could be seriously injured by injudicious private introductions that would almost surely bring in the destructive mango weevil of Java and <2 oie. Fig. 100, The Ashmuni Egyptian cotton used by Dr. Webber in his hybndizing experiments. Tt has a long staple. wy Fig. 101. The common upland cot- ton of America. a dangerous pistachio bud-borer from Sicily, pests * that are now unknown here, The possibilities of plant introduction. The possibilities of organized plant introduction are almost unlimited. Enough has already been done in this country to attract the attention of other nations which had not hitherto realized its importance ; and the time is not far off when the interchange of plants between countries will assume proportions that are now not dreamed of even by the most enthusiastic believer in the work, and the building up of new plant industries in a country will one day rank with the greatest of national duties, The rate at which new plants arrive today is such that the inventory of accessions in the Office in the last two years comprises over 7,000 entries, while in the three years preceding, only 4,000 new things were brought in by the Office; altogether, since 1898, over 19,000 selected seeds or plants have entered. It is not intended to give here even a partial list of the introductions of the Office of Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution, but only to mention some of the species whose names do not appear in former cyclopedias of horticulture or agri- culture. , Agropyron cristatum, J. Gaert. Graminee. From Walujka Experiment Station (in the dry steppes about 50 miles east of Rovnaya, south of Saratof on Volga river), Russia. Received through Prof. N. E. Hansen, May 25, 1898. Native dry steppe grass. Seed from plants culti- vated one year. Director Bogdan, of the Walujka Station, regards this species promising for cultivation. : Andropogon rufus, Kunth. Jaragua. Graminee. From Matto Grosso Province, Brazil. Presented by the Brazilian minister, Hon. J. F. de Assis-Brasil, December 1, 1900. A native fodder grass called by the Portuguese provi- sorio. Described by Mr. Assis-Brasil in his book on Bra- zilian agriculture. Angelica sylvestris, Linn. Umbelliferee. From Naples, Italy. Received through Mr. W. T. Swingle, May, 1899. Said to have a much more fleshy leaf and stalk than the ordinary Angelica (Archangelica officinalis). Of this lat- ter plant Vilmorin says: “The stems and leaf-stalks are eaten preserved with sugar. The leaves are also used as a vegetable in some parts of Europe: The root, which is splendidly shaped, is employed in medicine. It is some- times called ‘The Root of the Holy Ghost.’ The seeds enter into the composition of various liquors.” By some, the candied angelica is preferred to citron. Arracachia esculenta, D. C. (A. xanthorrhiza Bancr.). Arracacha. Umbelliferee. From Jamaica. Received through Messrs. Lathrop and Fairchild from the Hope Botanical Gardens, Kingston. A carrot-like vegetable much used in tropical and subtropical South America, especially in Venezuela, where it is called apio. The roots are propa- gated by subdivision, and the culture is much like that given to celery, though no blanching is necessary. Suc- cessfully introduced into Porto Rico. In South America generally eaten in soups, but said to be best when fried. Astragalus falcatus, Lam. Leguminose. From France. Received through Mr. W. T. Swingle, December, 1898. A species native to the Caucasus. It should be tried as a forage plant in the Rocky mountain region. Astrebla pectinata, F. Muell. Mitchell grass. Gram- inew. From Coolabah, New South Wales. Presented by Mr. R. W. Peacock, August 3, 1900. This is one of the famous Mitchell grasses and is regarded by some as the best of all native grasses, both for its drought-enduring qualities and for its fattening properties, IMPORTANCE OF PLANT INTRODUCTION wT Blennodia lasiocarpa, F. Muell. Hairy-podded Cress. Cruciferee. Annual, 1 to 14 feet high, covered with pubes- cence. Pod hairy. Peculiar to the Darling river, sandy plains near the Murray river, and generally over the arid plains of Australia. Makes its growth during the hottest part of the year. Valuable for forage. Reference: For- age Plants of Australia, p. 4. Introduced by J. H. Maiden, Sydney Botanic Garden, March 1, 1904. Cesalpinia brevifolia, Baill. Algarobillo. Leguminose. From Santiago, Chile. Received through Messrs. Lathrop and Fairchild, July, 1899. A desert shrub from the region about Huasco, growing where often no rains fall for an entire year. The shrub produces an abundance of small pods that are remarkably rich in tannin. The industry of their export has been very profitable in Huasco, and it has been proposed to cultivate the shrub in other sections of Chile. At present only wild plants furnish the pods of commerce. This is a shrub eminently suited to Californian desert conditions, and should be tested in Arizona.as well. It may be expected to bear fruit in four years. The seeds should be taken from the pods, carefully sown in the open ground, and covered with about three-fourths of an inch of soil. Care should be exercised to give them only a little water. The plants could be potted and transplanted, but the better way would be to try a few in the open ground. This is worthy of serious attention. The amount of tannin borne by the pods is very great, and it is said that they contain a valuable coloring matter as well. Cesalpinia coriaria, Willd. Divi-divi. Leguminose. From France. Received through Mr. W. T. Swingle, March, 1899. A small leguminous tree 20 to 30 feet high, from the West Indies to Brazil. The pods contain a high percentage of tannin and are largely exported to Europe. The tree thrives only on the seashore or in salt marshes. For trial along the Florida coast and in the tropical pos- sessions. Capparis inermis, Forsk. Spineless Caper. Capparidez. From France. Received through Mr. W. T. Swingle, March, 1899. Caprier sans épine, an improved variety of the caper. The buds are much easier to gather than those of the ordinary spiny sort. This variety is said to come true from seed. Carica heterophylla, Poep. and Endl. Jarrilla. Passi- floracese. From Celaya, Mexico. Presented by Prof. Felix Foéx. Received December 10, 1900. A curious fruit, being drunk as one would swallow a raw egg, and not eaten. The name is Jarrilla, or “little pitcher,” because it is shaped like a pitcher and is always full of water. The water contained in it is fresh and slightly acid, resembling lemon juice. When the fruit is taken from the plant it. acquires in a few days a bitter taste, something like lemon peel, but without its aroma. The plant is a perennial, half climber, and grows wild on the hills around Celaya. Centaurea Jacea, Linn. “Jacée des prés.” “ Chevalon.” Meadow Knapweed. Composite. From France. Received through Mr. W. T. Swingle, December, 1898. Perennial; a plant for aftermath in elevated meadows, suitable to enter into natural and artificial mixtures. Its presence among the herbage is considered an indication of good quality. The stem and leaves contain a yellow coloring matter. Under this name several species and varieties closely related to it and having nearly the same qualities are fre- quently confounded in commerce and cultivation. Chloris virgata, Sw. Rhodes Grass. Graminez. From Cape Town, South Africa. Received through Messrs. La- throp and Fairchild, May 6, 1908. A species of pasture grass that, although scattered widely through the tropics of both hemispheres (according to the books), has probably not before been brought into culture. Mr. Cecil Rhodes had the seed of this plant collected several years ago and sown in large patches on his place near Cape Town, called “Groote Schur.” The grass has done well there, forming heavy sods of a good herbage. This does not seem to be a drought-resistant form; at least, it is not able to with- stand very severe dry weather. However, a grass which has attracted the attention of so keen a cultivator as Mr. Rhodes and is meeting with favorable comment from many practical men at the Cape deserves a thorough trial in America. Diplachne fusca, Beauv. Swamp Grass. Graminen. From Coolabah, New South Wales. Presented by Mr. R. W. Peacock, August 3, 1900. This annual grass grows plentifully in damp and swampy places and is worth culti- vating on low-lying waste lands. It makes desirable hay and ensilage. The plant produces an abundance of seeds which ripen late in the winter. Eucommia ulmoides, Oliver. Trochodendracee. From London, England. Purchased from Messrs. James Veitch & Sons, Ltd., November 25, 1904. At one time much spoken of as a possible new source of rubber. Its leaves contain a substance similar to India rubber, but as yet no large quantity has been experimented with. For experi- mental plantings in the South. China. Eutrema hederefolia, Franch & Sav. Dry-land wasabi. Crucifere. From Yokohama, Japan. Presented by Mr. H. Suzuki, of the Yokohama Nursery Company, through Mr. David Fairchild. Received April 18, 1904. This dry- land wasabi, or Japanese horse-radish, is said to grow well in shade, but, being native of the central part of Japan, might not resist our climate. It seems much easier of cultivation than the ordinary wasabi (Eutrema Wasabi), though it will take some years before it grows to the size of ordinary wasabi roots; but, as the leaves have a very good flavor, it is said to be eaten by the natives as one of the best kinds of spice. Wild; not in culti- vation yet. Eutrema Wasabi, Maxim. Japanese horse- radish. Crucifere. (Fig. 102.) From Yokohama, Japan. Presented by Messrs. Lathrop and Fair- child. Received December 7,1903. The wasabi takes the same place in Japan that the horseradish does in America, furnishing, : when served at the table, a delicate, light green condiment, with a sharp, agreeable, pungent flavor, in some respects superior to horse-radish. The plant is cultivated in mountain valleys, in springy land where there is an abun- dant supply of moisture. Half shade is given. The ene method of cultivation is Sadh described in Bulletin No. wig. 102. Japanese horse-radish or ee Se . Reerelact ean aa dustry, Department of were. Agriculture. PRU SE HN Festuca pabularis, Sodiro. Graminex. From Quito, Ecuador. Presented by Mr. Luis Sodiro, 8. J., a botanist and student of Ecuador agriculture, through Mr. David Fairchild. Received May 25, 1904. Mr. Sodiro remarks that this is one of the most remarkable forage grasses of the mountain region of Ecuador. It is likely to prove of value in certain parts of this country. Garcinia Celebica, Linn. Guttiferea. From Buitenzorg, Java, Dutch East Indies. Received from Dr. Treub, Sep- tember 28, 1904. Designed for use as a stock on which to graft the mangosteen, or for breeding purposes. Garcinia Cochinchinensis, Choisy. Guttifere. From 78 IMPORTANCE OF PLANT INTRODUCTION Durban,Natal. Received through Messrs. Lathrop and Fair- child, November 9, 1904. This tree is a more vigorous one, and easier to adapt to cultivation than G. Mangostana, the true mangosteen. It is also a heavier bearer, and it is valuable in connection with experiments on the cultivation of the mangosteen in Porto Rico and Hawaii. The fruit is of a golden yellow color, one-seeded, with characteristic agreeable acid-flavored pulp. Ilex Paraguensis, A. St. Hil. Paraguay tea. Maté. llicine. From France. Received through Mr. W. T. Swingle, March, 1899. The leaves of this shrub or small tree are extensively used in South American countries as a substitute for tea. This is a small tree reaching the height of 15 or 20 feet, which grows all through southern South America. The leaves are prepared by drying and roasting; but instead of being handled separately, as in preparing Chinese tea, large branches are dried by a wood fire and then placed on the hard floor and beaten with sticks until the dry leaves fall off. These leaves are then used in much the same way as ordinary tea. It is used as a beverage by millions of people in South America and is used as medicine to a small extent. The tree is not culti- vated in South America, but there are said to be numerous and extensive forests where it is the predominating species. Lotus uliginosus, Schkuhr. Bird’s-foot trefoil. Legu- minose. From France. Received through Mr. W. T. Swingle, December, 1898. Perennial; a very good plant for meadows and damp woods, demanding more humidity than L. corniculatus; taller and gives more fodder ; suc- ceeds well in the shade, in peat bogs, heaths and acid marshes, not calcareous; has been suggested for the for- mation of artificial prairies and is very suitable for mix- tures for meadows and natural pastures. This lotus is a little more prolific in its seeds than L. corniculatus. It may be sown from March to May and even in autumn. Medicago falcata, Linn. Medic. Leguminosae. From Walujka, Russia. Received through Prof. N. E. Hansen, May, 1898. Regarded by Director Bogdan, of the Walujka Experiment Station, as a promising fodder plant for dry steppes, where it is found native at Walujka. Medicago sativa, Linn. Turkestan alfalfa. Leguminose. A Turkestan variety or strain of the ordinary lucerne or alfalfa, introduced by Prof. N. BE. Hansen, in 1898, and has proved a distinct success, more particularly in those regions subjected to severe drought, and on soils impregnated with alkali. Its resistance to severe cold has not been so satisfactorily proved as its hardiness under conditions of drought and alkali. Professor Hansen secured seed of this variety from Bokhara, Samarkand, Tashkend, Sairam, 150 miles north of Merke, in the Kirghiz Tartar steppes, and from Kuldja, China, Djarkent and Kopal. This variety, as well as other drought-resistant forms introduced from Algiers and Arabia, is likely to play an important réle in alfalfa cultivation in this country. Melilotus macrostachys, Pomel. Melilot. Leguminose. This species of melilot, native to Algeria, differs from most of the sweet clovers in having no pronounced odor. In consequence of this it is readily eaten by cattle. It has succeeded very well at the Experiment Station at Rouiba, where it attains a height of 3 to 6 feet. Melinis minutiflora, Beauv. Molasses grass. Gramines. From Brazil. Presented by Senhor I. Nery da Fonseca, of Pernambuco. This is said to be the finest pasture grass in . Brazil. Should be tried in Florida. Miscanthus condensatus. (7). Graminesw. From Yoko- hama, Japan. Presented by Mr. H. Suzuki, of the Yoko- hama Nursery Company. Received March 9, 1904. In the native region where this plant is grown, its leaves remain green all through the year, and the cattle are fed on it. It should be cut while young, before it reaches its full growth, as the stem gets hard if left too long. Young stems can be cut from time to time throughout nearly the entire year, but a few stems on each clump should always be left, as it sometimes dies if cut too severely. It is diffi- cult to get seed of this plant, as the stems are constantly cut by the villagers. It seldom seeds. The roots, however, can be secured in any quantity. Myoporum deserti, A. Cunn. Sweet-fruited myoporum. Myoporacee. Erect shrub, 3 to 4 feet high, with linear leaves 1 to 2 inches long. Said by some to be pois- onous when in fruit. Others state that it is a good forage plant. Found principally in the interior of all the colonies of Australia. (See Forage Plants of Australia, p. 40.) Introduced by J.H. Maiden, Sydney Botanic Garden, March 1, 1904, Nephelium lappaceum, L. Rambutan. Sapindacee. Pre- sented by Dr. Treub, Buitenzorg, Java, through Mr. David Fairchild. Received March 31, 1905. This species and Nephelium mutabile, Blume, known as the “capoelasan,” produce fruits far superior to the litchi in lusciousness. The fruits differ from that of the litchi in having distinct long protuberances from the fruit-skin which make them resemble superficially well - developed “cedar apples,” though much darker in color. They are two of the show- iest and most delicious fruits cultivated in Java, and oe have been introduced long ago into the West ndies. Ononis avellana, Pomel. Ononis. Leguminose. This is said by Doctor Trabut to be a good green-manure for heavy soils. It is found only in Algeria, where it occurs in few localities on clay hills. Oxalis erenata., Jacq. Oca. Geraniacez Yellow variety. From France. Received through Mr. W. T. Swingle, Feb- ruary 13, 1899. The oca of western South America, where it is much appreciated as a vegetable. It is a perennial plant, but cultivated as an annual. Its tubers, which resemble potatoes, are acid when fresh, but after exposure to the sun become floury and sweet. When dried for several weeks, they become wrinkled and taste something like dried figs. In this condition known as calli. For directions for planting, see Vilmorin’s Vegetable Garden. Panicum molle, Sw. Para grass. Graminee. From Jamaica. Received through Messrs. Lathrop and Fair- child, March, 1899. A tropical hay and pasture grass, introduced before 1899 by private individuals, adapted to cultivation on rich muck or swampy soils. Propagated mostly by root division. Has proved profitable in southern Texas, and is being experimented with throughout the South. An exceedingly vigorous grower, and a very succu- lent-stemmed species. Paspalum digitaria, C. Muell. Graminew. From Cape Town, South Africa. Presented by Prof. P. MacOwan, Government Botanist, through Messrs. Lathrop and Fair- child. Received May 6, 1903. Seed of a grass which, according to Professor MacOwan, is promising for moist bottom land. It will not endure cold weather, but is suited to subtropical conditions. Pentzia virgata. Less. Karoobosch. Composite. ioe Ward No. 3, Jansenville, South Africa. Received through Messrs. Lathrop and Fairchild, May 2,1904. A low-grow- ing, spreading bushy composite, which layers naturally when the tips of its branches arch over and touch the ground. In the eastern provinces of Cape Colony, where rains occur in summer, but where long, severe droughts are frequent, this Pentzia is one of the most valuable of all the Karro plants for fodder purposes. It is especially good for sheep and goats, which eat it down almost to the ground. Though tested unsuccessfully in Australia, the plant is of such great value that it deserves a thorough trial in America and should be used in experiments on the dry lands in Hawaii and in southern California. It has grown and fruited for several years at Berkeley, California, where it was intro- duced previous to 1904. Phaseolus viridissimus, Tenore. Gram. Leguminose. From Athens, Greece, Received through Mr. D. G. Fair- IMPORTANCE OF PLANT INTRODUCTION 79 child May 9, 1901. One of the smallest and most delicate beans in the world. The beans are not much larger than grains of rice and are of a deep green color. They are said to be most delicious when cooked alone or with rice in the national Greek dish called pilaff. Their culture in Greece is restricted and the beans are con- sidered a great delicacy. Prof. Th. de Heldreich, of Athens University, called attention to this species, of which he has made a special study. Probably a variety of the gram of India (Phaseolus Mungo). Has proved of value for cultivation on barren soils in the South. _Phleum Boehmeri, Wibel. Boehmer’s timothy. Gra- mine. From the experiment grounds of the agricultural academy, Moscow, Russia. Received through Mr. M. A. Carleton, March, 1899. A promising grass for dry regions. Pistacia vera, Linn. Pistachio or Pistache. Anacar- diacez. The introduction of the pistache into California promises to be a success, inasmuch as trees of this species have already fruited well at Niles, California. The work of introduction has been largely in the hands of Mr. Swingle, and the best varieties have been secured from Sicily; the hardiest stocks have been collected by Mr. Swingle from Asia Minor and Italy, and still hardier species than these are being sought for by the Office in Northern and Central China and Persia. The advantages of this pis- tache industry, from which the delicious table nut used extensively in the Levant is secured, is that the plants will be likely to grow and bear well in localities where the almond has proved a failure, owing to the late spring _ frosts. The nut furnishes the flavoring extract known by the same name, and is also a most delicate table nut when roasted and salted. Poa mulalensis, H. B. & K. Graminee. From Quito, Ecuador. Presented by Mr. Luis Sodiro, S. J., through Mr. David Fairchild. Received May 25, 1904. Mr. Sodiro remarks that this is one of the most remarkable forage grasses of the mountain regions of his country. Polygala butyracea. Polygala. Polygalacee. From Paris, France. Received May 8, 1900. Presented by A. Godefroy-Lebeuf. This plant produces a vegetable butter. It will grow in summer in the hot sections of California and Florida, and as the plants can be grown as annuals it will probably prove successful. Polygonum Weyrichii, F. Schmidt. Polygonaces. A species apparently having all the good qualities of Polyg- onum Sachalinense, but with leaves more tender and branches not so woody as in the latter species, which forms the latter’s chief objection. This species was dis- covered by the Russian physician Dr. Weyrich. It came originally from Sachalin island, and was introduced by Mr. M. A. Carleton. It has been grown at the Imperial Botanic Gardens of St. Petersburg. Portulacaria afra, Jacq. Portulaceez. From Durban, Natal. Received through Messrs. Lathrop and Fairchild, November 9, 1904. A native South African shrub, or small tree, with succulent shoots which are said to be keenly relished by live-stock. The plant is reported to grow on dry, waste places without requiring attention. The cuttings take root easily, and the plant may even be propagated from the leaves. This species will probably thrive only in a frostless region. It grows on hot, rocky slopes, preferably of a doleritic nature, and is now being grown for trial on the dry islands of the Hawaiian group. Trials in Arizona showed it susceptible to the low temper- atures there. : Quercus cornea, Lour. Oak. Cupuliferw. (Fig. 118, Vol. I.) From Hongkong, China. Presented by Mr. 8. T. Dunn, Superintendent of the Botanical and Afforestation Department, through Mr. David Fairchild. Received April 27, 1904. An evergreen oak, said to be very showy and ornamental as grown on the island of Hongkong. It bears acorns with as hard shells as those of ‘the hickory-nut, and kernels almost as sweet as the sweetest Spanish c*estnut. These acorns are sold in the markets of Canton and Hongkong by the ton, and are keenly relished not only by the Japanese, but by Europeans. Although difficult to predict how hardy this species will be in America, it is worthy of trial in all regions where citrous fruits can be grown. Solanum Commersonit, Dunal. Aquatic potato. Solan- acee. (Fig. 103.) Introduced from Marseilles, France. Secured through Dr. E. Heckel by Mr. David Fairchild. Received January 2, 1904. The so-called “aquatic potato” of Uruguay. This species is being experimented with by Dr. Heckel, of Marseilles, who is breeding it with the ordinary potato, and finds that it gives successive crops on the same soil without the necessity of replanting. It also Fig. 103. Aquatic potato (Solanum Oommersonii). Specimen grown at Santa Rosa, Cal., by Luther Burbank. (Reduced.) gives abundant foliage, which he thinks may be used for green forage. He further points out that, in his opinion, the bitter flavor of the skin will protect the potatoes against the depredations of subterranean ene- mies. The special point to be emphasized in connection with this new species, however, is its possible immunity from the potato diseases. One difficulty in its culture con- sists in the necessity of carefully working over the soil to a depth of 15 cm., because the tubers are deeply buried in it. It flowers abundantly, beginning in June and ending in September, the flowers having a perfume similar to that of jasmine. Their odor on a hot day is perceptible for several meters. Planting takes place in southern France by means of whole or cut tubers in April, and the harvest is in October. Hybrids of this species with Solanum tuberosum have been made by Burbank, who introduced it previous to 1904. Dr. Heckel’s experiments are reported on in the Revue Horticole, No. 581, December, 1902, p. 200 ; Contribution 4 L’Etude Botanique de Solanum tuber- iferes, par M. Edouard Heckel, a separate publication. Doubt has been expressed regarding the authenticity of the adver- tized hybrids of this species. Promising for experiment. Sporobolus Lindley (S. pallidus), Lindl. Graminew. A slender-growing perennial grass. Grows on rich soil, and is much relished by all kinds of stock. All colonies except Tasmania. Introduced by J. H. Maiden, Sydney Botanic Garden, March 1, 1904. Trifolium Alexandrinum, Linn. Egyptian Clover, or Berseem. Leguminose. (Fig. 91.) Berseem is the prin- cipal winter fodder crop of Egypt. It is an annual, very rapidly growing clover, adapted to irrigated conditions in countries having a mild winter climate. It seems to be injured by intense summer heat, which causes it to run to seed prematurely, and it is killed by temperatures below 25° F., in winter. It requires a large quantity of water, and makes an exceedingly vigorous growth when these conditions are met. As many as five cuttings of excellent fodder are taken from a single seeding in Egypt. The trials in America have not been successful, but expe- rience seems to indicate that these trials have been made without a due regard for the requirements of the plant. Successful plots have been grown and seeded in the widely separated regions of Galveston, Texas ; Phoenix, Arizona, and Mecca, California; and it is thought that this plant will find a permanent place in the Southwest as an annual winter fodder plant for irrigated regions. It is a wonder- ful soil-enricher, and may find a place in the orchards of 80 IMPORTANCE OF PLANT INTRODUCTION California. The introductions of this plant are due to the efforts of Mr. Barbour Lathrop and Mr. David Fairchild. Trifolium Johnstoni. Uganda clover. Leguminosae. Introduced from Uganda, Hast Africa. Received through Mr. David Fairchild, from Mr. R. N. Lyne, Director of Agriculture, Zanzibar, Hast Africa, January 30, 1904. According to Mr. Lyne, this is the Uganda clover, a dis- tinct species which may be of value for breeding experi- ments of this country. It forms a part of the luxuriant pasturage of the high plateau of Uganda, which, although in the tropics, has a comparatively mild climate. Trigonella corniculata, Linn. Small fenugreek. Leguminose. This species, which has the same strong odor as fenugreek, from which it differs, however, in having very much smaller pods and seeds, grows very vig- orously at the Experiment Station at Rouiba, where it attains a height of 3 to 5 feet. It could not be used for feeding milch cows, as the strong odor would make the milk unsalable. It is used, however, for fattening stock and as a green-manure. It is said to resist drought very well. Trigonella gladiata, Stev. Trigonella. Leguminosae. This plant also resembles fenugreek in odor. It has been cultivated with some success at the Experiment Station at Rouiba. Trichinium nobile, Lindl. Yellow hairy spikes. Ama- rantacese. Stout perennial herb, not easily affected by drought. Affords a rich succulent herbage even in very dry weather, of which stock are very fond. Interior of New South Wales and South Australia and Victoria. Reference: “Forage Plants of Australia,” p. 85. Introduced by J. H. Maiden, Sydney Botanical Garden, March 1, 1904. Trichinium obovatum, Gaudich. Silver bush. Ama- rantaces. An erect undershrub 1% to 4 feet. Flower- spikes globular. Has remarkable drought-enduring quali- ties. Will grow in the driest of soils when once fairly established. Valuable as a forage plant. Arid interior of all Australian colonies. Introduced by J. H. Maiden, Sydney Botanical Garden, March 1, 1904. Ulex nanus, Forsk. Dwarf Furze. Leguminose. From France. Received through Mr. W. T. Swingle, December, 1898. A much smaller species than Ulex Europeus. It is of spreading habit and thrives in moist situations, even in swampy places, where the other species would not grow. It might prove of use as a winter soiling crop in regions inclined to be barren, but its utility is likely to be local. Ullucus tuberosus, Caldas. Ulluco. Chenopodiacee. The ulluco of the Peruvians is grown on the Sierras, 8,000 feet above sea-level. The tubers are considered very nutritious by the common people and are eaten by them mixed with salt meat. Although the tubers are much smaller than the potato, they are worthy of consideration for breeding purposes. Various distinct varieties exist in Peru. Introduced by Mr. Fairchild in 1899. Vicia angustifolia, Clos. Vetch. “Vesce 4 feuille étroite” (narrow-leaved vetch). Leguminosa. From France. Received through Mr. W. T. Swingle, December, 1898. Vicia biennis, Linn. Biennial vetch. ‘ Vesce bisannu- elle.” Leguminose. From France. Received through Mr. W. T. Swingle, December, 1898. Biennial and perennial, hardy, very large species, yields much: fodder, demands the support of some other plant with firm, erect stalk ; very scanty in seeds. Vicia calcarata, Desf. Vetch. Leguminose. This vetch is native to the Mediterranean region. The seed of this particular sort was secured at Boghar, in Algeria, where the climate is very dry. This is one of the species introduced into culture by Dr. Trabut. Vicia Ervilia, Willd. Leguminose. From Canné, Crete. Received through Mr. D. G. Fairchild, May 17, 1901. Oro- bus. A forage plant very largely cultivated in the island of Crete. It is sown like any ordinary vetch, and the seeds are fed to the oxen and cattle. Vicia fulgens, Battaud. Scarlet vetch. Leguminosae. An Algerian vetch with handsome red flowers. It is an annual and grows with extraordinary vigor, reaching a height of 6 to 8 feet and yielding an abundance of excel- lent forage. Doctor Trabut reports that it yields forty tons of green fodder to the acre. Vicia hirta, Balb. Vetch. Leguminose. This plant, which is usually considered to be a hairy form of Vicia lutea, occurs very commonly in Algeria and has been in- troduced into cultivation by Doctor Trabut. It reaches a height of 16 to 18 inches at the experiment station at Rouiba. 2 Vicia Narbonensis, Linn. Narbonne vetch. “Vesce de Narbonne.” Leguminosae. From France. Received through Mr. W. T. Swingle, December, 1898. Annual; very vigorous and very early, remarkable in its stalks, its foliage and its general appearance, which recalls that of a small bean, but earlier. To be sown early in spring in the North. In more temperate climates than ours (latitude of Paris) it may and even should be sown in autumn. This species has been confounded for some time with V. ma- crocarpa, and sold under that name. It is generally sown alone, but it may be found advantageous to have it enter mixtures for green cutting, which are to be sown early in spring, or to mix it with oats or rye or some other cereal grass. Vicia sepium, Linn. Hedge vetch. Leguminose. From France. Received through Mr. W. T. Swingle, December, 1898. Perennial. A common plant (in France) along bor- ders and paths in the woods; it prefers shade and mois- ture, but succeeds equally well in good wholesome and even dry soils. Seeds scarce. Xanthosoma atrovirens, C. Koch & Bouché. Yautias or Taniers. Aracez. Varieties of this common tropical American food plant and its two very closely related spe- cies, X. sagittefolium, Schott, and an undescribed species, have been introduced into the southern states from Porto Rico. The yield is about 8 to 15 tons of edible tubers per acre; and in quality these are equal or superior in many respects to potatoes. This is thought by some to be the oldest crop in the world and the only one which never produces seeds, About fifty varieties were culti- vated in the western hemisphere at the time of the dis- covery of America by Columbus. It deserves to become a staple vegetable for export from the tropics and tem- perate regions. (See Bulletin No. 6, Porto Rico Experi- ment Station. Barrett.) Literature. There is a large amount of information on plant introduction scattered through the periodicals to which reference cannot be made here; the follow- ing are the most important books: Charles Pickering, Chronological History of Plants; Man’s Record of His Own Existence Illus- trated Through Their Names, Uses and Companion- ship, Boston, 1879; Paillieux et Bois, Le Potager dun Curieux, Paris; Baron Ferd von Mueller, Select Extra-Tropical Plants Readily Eligible for Industrial Culture or Naturalization, 9th Edition, Robert 8. Brain, Government Printer, Melbourne, 1895, pp. 654 ; Inventories Nos. 1 to 10, inclusive, of foreign seeds and plants imported by the Section of Seed and Plant Introduction, and later by the Office of Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribu- tion, comprising 841 pages in all; appearing as bulletins of the United States Department of Agri- culture. Von Mueller’s is the only comprehensive work on the subject, and it is a pity that the work is difficult to secure. CHAPTER V CROP MANAGEMENT FOW TO ORGANIZE A FARM BUSINESS so that it shall be profitable and ‘otherwise satis- A factory is the fundamental problem in agriculture. It is to be feared that in the past generation we have placed relatively too much emphasis on information; and, in fact, this danger has not yet passed. This is a consequence of the remarkable discoveries of recent years and the rapid diffusion of facts. The best farmer is not the one who knows the most “science,” but the one who is best able to organize the facts and the business into a harmonious system or ; plan. The principles that un- derlie such organization are now beginning to be apprehended, and we think we see the possibilities of a sound \farm philosophy, with wise generalizations from the mass of rapidly accumulating facts and practices. Farm management will be a fertile subject ow Be for writers in the years to come. skin yh The basis of farm organization is the cropping plan or the crop management. On this project or scheme rests the maintenance of fertility and conse- quently of productiveness, the subsistence of live- stock, the economy of labor, the type of business. The crop management must be considered in reference to the entire layout and design of the farm enterprise. In the article following this Editorial it is so dis- cussed in the approximate proportion that the author thinks it should hold. The article covers some of the ground that is specialized in Vol. I, but what. Fig. 104. Crop labor, as often performed in Europe. Drawn from life, in Bavaria. The rotation of crops. Crop management is a scheme, not a lot of practices. An important part of it is the rotating or alternating of crops on given areas. This phase of the subject may now be given a general treatment, inasmuch as it is not fuily treated as to underlying reasons in other articles. All crop management, and crop rotation in particular, Fig. 105. Grain sickle, once used in New England. The sickle B6 from which this illustration is made was purchased in 1835 by a man, who is still on the farm, when he was 15 years old. With it he reaped many acres of rye. When he was 17, he was reaping rye on a mountain side and laid the sickle down by a fire; the handle was burned off. The length of the blade from top of shank to tip, following the curve, is 26% inches, great- est width 34-inch. A cross- section is shown at ce. The . owner of this sickle has lived in three eras of harvesting devices: The hand sickle; the grain cradle; the reaper and binder. In this period, crop Management has undergone a complete change. has been greatly changed by the introduction of machin- ery. Larger areas of cereal crops can now be grown because of the use of the self-binder as compared with the cradle and sickle. Larger areas can also be handled in intertilled crops, and those that require much heavy labor in the harvesting. Pictures of some of the old American tools will contrast this fact (Figs. 104 to 119) by suggest- ing some of the kinds of devices that were formerly in use and the former state of invention in farm machinery. On the other hand, the present scarcity of acceptable farm labor is tending to reduce the area of crops that require much care. Wherever grass is a foundation crop, the tendency is to grow less of the tilled crops. (81) 82 OUTLINE OF CROP MANAGEMENT The term “rotation of crops” is used to designate a system of recurring succession of plants cover- ing a regular period of years, and maintained on alternating fields of the farm. Its purpose is primarily to increase the productiveness of the various crops by conserving the fertility of the soil and eliminating weeds, pests and crop dis- eases. All farmers practice rotation to some extent, but usually it is imperfect and unplanned. In most parts of the northern states it is common practice to have oats follow corn, and wheat follow =\ oats. Such indefinite practices are perhaps to be called modes or systems of cropping rather than crop rotations. The real rotation of crops is a more purposeful and orderly procedure; in grass- growing and cereal-growing countries it assumes alternations of grain crops, grass crops, intertilled crops. It would be better if all writers used the term rotation of crops to designate only well- laid systems or courses. Definite rotation is usually a practice of old and well-settled countries, where the virgin fertility of the soil has been somewhat depleted and crop enemies are numerous. In most new countries, the husbandry is at first haphazard and unscientific. The land is exploited. Fertility is seemingly exhaustless and little attention ROS is given to conserving it. The land is robbed, and the robber Fig. 106. Rake and cradle still used in moves on. But when the Delt M SEOARY land must be used over and over again, century by century, the farmer looks to the future and lays out a plan that will cause his land to increase in value. The rotation and diversification of crops are subjects of increasing importance in North America. These remarks are well illustrated in the depletion of lands once devoted to tobacco and cotton. Wheat production constantly moves westward. George Washington wrote to \ Arthur Young, in England, as follows, in 1787: “Before I~ undertake to give the information you request, respecting the arrangements of farms in this neighbourhood, &c., I must observe that there is, perhaps, scarcely any part of America, where farming has been less attended to than in this State [Virginia]. The cultivation of tobacco has been almost the sole object with men of landed property, and consequently a regular course of crops have never been in view. The general custom has been, first to raise a crop of Indian corn (maize) which, according to the mode of cultivation, is a good preparation for wheat; then a crop of wheat; after which the ground is respited (except from weeds, and every trash that can contribute to its foulness) for about eighteen months ; and so on, alternately, without any dressing, till the land is exhausted ; when it is turned out, without being sown with grass-seeds, or reeds, or any method taken to restore it; and another piece is ruined in the same manner. No more cattle is raised than can be supported by lowland meadows, swamps, &c. and the tops and blades of Indian corn; as very few persons have attended to sowing grasses, and con- necting cattle with their crops. The Indian corn is the chief support of the labourers and horses. Our lands, as I mentioned in my first letter to you, were originally very good ; but use, and abuse, have made them quite otherwise. “The above is the mode of cultivation which has been generally pursued here, but the system of husbandry which has been found so beneficial in England, and which must be greatly promoted by your valuable Annals, is now gaining ground. There are several (among which I may class myself), who are endeavouring to get into your regular and systematic course of cropping, as fast as the nature of the business will admit; so that small areas and rough lands. Fig. 108. ‘The improved horse-rake,’’ 1821. OUTLINE OF CROP MANAGEMENT 83 I hope in the course of a few years, we shall make a more respectable figure as farmers than we have hitherto done.” Fallowing. A significant part of Washington’s letter is the statement that land was “respited” for eighteen months. He meant that the land was allowed to lie idle or fallow. It is an old notion that land “rests” when allowed to go wholly uncropped ; and, in fact, it is true that the succeeding crops may be better for the fallow, Fig. 109. ‘'The mowing machine,”’ 1823. Invented and patented : * by Jeremiah Bailey, Chester county, Pa. “It has been exten- but in most instances equally good results can sively used and approved of during the last season. . . . Itis be secured by other means and without the loss understood that it will mow ten acres per day.’’ The cutting ; is done by a horizontal revolving circular scythe, working of a year’s crop. The fallow was a regular part against a whetstone. of early rotation practices. Fallowing was employed by the Jews, Greeks and Romans. It is common in many large parts of Russia and other countries to-day. In special cases and in regions of insufficient rainfall, fallowing is still an allowable practice ; but in general it belongs to a rude and unresourceful type of agriculture. In most of the humid regions of this country the practice, if employed at all, is diminished to “summer fallowing,” whereby the period of idleness is reduced to a minimum. The summer fallow was formerly often employed in order to fit the land for wheat. The land was kept in more or less clean and free tillage from spring till fall, without crop, for the purpose of destroying weeds and of putting it in good condition of preparation. With improved tillage implements and well-planned rota- é = tions, these special results usually can be secured a a SSS" without resort to fallow. : Pi patient Wi Diane. coke cna Loy el fe Why rotations are useful. from fifteen to twenty-five acres per day. It can be : 7 i used to good advantage even on quite rough ground.” There is no dispute as to the value of rotation of Price, $7.50 to $9.00. a bind + crops. The only differences of opinion are in respect to its feasibility in particular cases and the merits and demerits of the different courses. Many experi- ments have reénforced common experience as to the importance of rotation, particularly in recuperating old lands. Experiments made at Rothamsted are perhaps the most conclusive, because of the long period. Wheat has been grown without rotation for sixty-six years and other crops for varying periods. No method of fertilizing potatoes or clover kept up the yield without rotation. Rotation alone did not fully maintain the yield of any crop, but the combination of manure or fertilizers with rotation increased it. At the Louisiana Experi- ment Station (to cite only \ one more illustration), it was found, as a result of eleven years’ work witha three-course rotation (first year corn, second year oats followed by cowpeas, third year cot- ton), that the yield in- creased from 12 to 25 per cent even without AN the application of ma- i" " \ \\\ \ nure. In another part of V Fey. = a a aon the same experiment, ma- \ AC IN TRA AN Ww KN nure was applied and the Fig. 111. Hussey’s reaping-machine; from a print of 1852. 84 OUTLINE OF CROP MANAGEMENT RE ee ee In SS ae Fig. 112. A threshing device as pictured in 1845 (Warren’s horse-power and thresher). ‘‘The machines may be placed as follows, viz.: The horse-power, Fig. 1, and the pulley-box, Fig. 3, outside the barn, and the threshing machine, Fig. 2, inside any convenient distance, say about 4 feet." general increase in yield was 400 to 500 per cent. This shows that a plain rotation is itself capable of increasing yield, but that a greater increase is to be expected by a combination of rotation and manuring. The first rotation-farming to gain wide attention in North America seems to have been the so-called Norfolk system. This was chiefly a four-crop rotation employed on the light lands of Norfolk, England, and which had grown up during a long course of years. A century and more ago this system was explained by writers and thereby became widely known, the more so because at that time the American agricultural literature was drawn chiefly from English sources. An account of “the Improvements made in the County of Norfolk” comprised the larger part of Jared Eliot’s “Fourth Essay upon Field Husbandry,” published at Killingworth, Connecticut, in 1753. The exact rotation itself—comprising roots, barley, clover, wheat, in various combinaticns—was of less impor- ——— tance to the American colonies than the fact that Fig. 113. The double-shovel plow in 1820, used until = attention was called to the value of rotation-farming Bi aaa in general. At the same epoch another aystent of farming practice was also coming in from English sources. This was the clean- tillage system introduced by the epoch-making experiments of Jethro Tull. Between the discussions of the Tull “new husbandry” and the Norfolk rotations, agricultural practices were challenged and overhauled in the new country. One of the early explanations of the good-results of rotation of Cae crops was the doctrine that some plants exhaust the soil of certain materials which are not needed by other plants; therefore the value ‘ : ; he Fig. 114. Picture ofa cultivator attend- of rotation depended on securing such a combination of crops as would —_‘ing an advertisement in ‘‘American 7 a ante as . Farmer,’’ 1821. ‘The advertisement in time utilize all the elements of the soil. There is, of course, some also says that “persons transmit- : B . . : ting the cash for any of the follow- truth in this teaching, but we now know that the question is by no ing articles, will be carefully put means one of so-called exhaustion alone. up and shipped to any part of the : ; United States: Clover, Timothy Another explanation was found in the and other grasses and garden seeds : ranted of good quality.” theory that roots excrete certain sub- 9 “@7niee oF Bood duality stances that are noxious to the plants excreting them and innocuous or even beneficial to other plants. The excretory theory was taught early in the past century by the renowned Swiss botanist, Pyramus de Candolle. It was no doubt a suggestion from the animal kingdom. This theory was practically given up before the middle of the past century. Yet it is most interesting to find recent experiments in England on the growing of grass in orchards leading to the suggestion that one plant may exert some influ- ence on the soil deleterious to another plant. It is suggested that this influence, however, is biological rather than chemical—in some way, per- haps, concerned with the little-understood germ life of the soil. Recent publications by the United States Department of Agriculture (Bureau of it! i : Soils) state that root excretions are probably very intimately associated “Fig. 18. She Geddes eine with soil productivity, that much of the value of manurial substances lies 1845. Price $12. in the cleansing of the soil of these toxic excreta, and that the value of OUTLINE OF CROP MANAGEMENT 85 rotation of plants is determined largely by the presence or absence of such excreta. Some of the reasons why rotation-farming is considered to be advan- tageous (under present teaching) may now be mentioned. (1) One crop tends to correct the faults of another crop. The contin- uous growing of one crop usually resuits in the injuring of the soil in some respect; a rotation tends to overcome and eliminate such effects. It evens up and works out the inequalities. The general average of many or several kinds of treatment is better than the effects of one treat- ment. (2) Plants differ considerably in the proportions of the kinds of foods Fig. 116. ‘‘Theirrigator,’’ pictured that they take from the soil. In rotations, the different plants make the Mae ne aneeiing oat : < . . * . eulated to wate < maximum of their draft on the soil at different times in the year, grounds, cotton and provision * : sys and, and with a boy and horse, thereby allowing the progress of the seasons to even up the inequalities, ought to water one or two acres (8) By a judicious choice of crops, different plant-food materials per day, according to the dis- 7 E eae - oa tance of the river from the may be incorporated in the soil in available condition, through the decay ae feo ae Goske 2. . 6 e; 3, Fe 74, ; of the parts plowed under or left in the ground. The most marked GS, Ping: helen al. bot ede; 6, Seat for the boy.” pounds through the use of leguminous as JK Ne TX plants. These plants have the power, eye \ fixing the free atmospheric nitrogen Uy play EY SVN of the soil; and the new compounds benefit of this kind probably comes from incorporation of nitrogen com- = by means of their root nodules, of Le nN NG vy / are turned back to the soil in : ae condition to be = = ™:.. utilized by plants oe Sen he 3 == ===== that do not have Fig. 117. Woodside’s machine for harrowing, sowing and rolling, 1833. The seeder or sieve is at H;_har- the power to row at B; roller at I. ‘From the above it will be perceived that I can of a truth affirm, that I can appropriate the sit in the front of my cart, under a canvas covering, sow the grain, harrow and roll it in, without pprop: exposure to the sun, leaving the ground without any impression of the horses’ feet, my own feet, or nitrogen of the the cart wheels.’ > 2 ; air. Since nitro- gen is the most expensive and usually the most easily lost of the plant-food elements that the farmer has to buy, this rdle of the leguminous plants is most important. It is significant that most of the early rotations, developing before rational expla- nations of them could be given, comprised some legume. (4) Some plants have the power, more than others, to utilize the content of the subsoil. Such plants may not only make less proportionate draft on the upper soil, but by their decay may add to Sane ene 5 the richness of such soil. It has been determined, Fig..118. Bachelder’s corn-planter, as illustrated in 1846. for example, that lupines are able to take more Seen meant Hie Renee ries wend ie -tae food from the subsoil than oats. Most of the row; the corn is then dropped by arms moved by a crank.” sn bes faa legumes have similar power, largely because of their deep-rooting ~ SSas habit; and this affords additional explanation of the good results FAGRGNURVAURAG «© accruing from the use of such plants in the rotation. (5) A rotation of crops can be so planned as to maintain the supply of humus in the soil. This humus, coming from the decay of organic matter, adds to the plant-food content of the soil and, what is usually more important, exerts a great influence in securing a PF: proper physical texture of the land. The Bureau of Soils recently Fig. ae eae ae a gain asserts that the chief value of humus is to cleanse the soil of toxic “This machine will plant wheat, excreta. The humus is chiefly supplied by the grass crops and clover ey can nus teemibey and can'bs crops in the rotation. The practice of “ green-manuring” rests chiefly ee sa a cS ,ny required 4) the need of supplying humus. Green-manure crops are those that 86 OUTLINE OF CROP MANAGEMENT are grown for the special purpose of being turned under, root and top, and are not usually a definite part of the rotation; but, so far as it goes, the root-and-stubble part of similar crops employed in ; the rotation answers the same purpose. (6) Well-considered rotation schemes reduce the necessity of excessive use of concentrated or chemi- cal fertilizers. On the other hand, they may utilize such fertilizers to greater advantage than do the con- tinuous-cropping schemes, as has been shown by the Ohio Experiment Station. (7) A good rotation provides for the making of farm manures, because it grows crops for the feed- ing of live-stock. As a general practice, it is better : a ~ to market the hay and straw crops in the form of ani- Fig. 120. Four-row beet cultivator of today. mals or animal products than to put them on the mar- ket directly ; for the farmer not only has the opportunity to make an extra profit by an extra process, but he gains the manure with which to maintain the fertility of his lands. He raises the crop to feed Buc Orwe SO § his stock to secure manure to raise a better crop. In ) the maintaining of fertility, the live- stock farmer has the great advantage of the horticul- @) turist or other special farmer, for the latter must resort to special practices or special pur- \ chases in order to maintain the produ- cing power of his land. (8) Rotation is a cleaning process. Cer- tain weeds follow certain crops. Chess and cockle are common weeds in old wheat-lands. The life-cycle of these plants is so similar to that of wheat that they thrive with the wheat; and the seeds may not be removed from wheat-seed in the ordinary cleaning process. These weeds are soon eliminated by the grass-course in the rotation, or by some clean-tillage course. Most weeds are eradicated in the course of a good rotation ; in fact, a rotation cannot be considered to be good unless it holds the weeds in check. With - crops which are not grown as a part of a rotation, as rice, it is sometimes necessary to Fig. 121. Stubble digger, to fit land for a succeeding crop, 1906. interject another crop for a year or two in order to clean the land. Insects and ‘§ plant diseases follow certain crops. There are no insects or diseases that follow all crops. \f{ Therefore a rotation cleans the fields of many of these troubles and pests. Nearly all continu- ® ous-cropping schemes run into these difficulties sooner or later. A short and sharp rotation, for example, is the best means of contending with wire- worms. It is not uncommon sometimes to find onions failing year after year in the best onion regions. The trouble is likely to be due to pests or diseases. Two or three years of celery or other crop may clean up the difficulty. The horticulturist is particularly liable == to suffer from insects and plant diseases, especially if he is an orchardist, because he cannot well practice a definite rota- tion. The larger part of the spraying devices and materials are devised to meet the necessities of the horticulturist. (9) A rotation allows the farmer to meet the needs of the staple markets by providing a continuous and predictable Fig. 122. Modern riding cotton- and corn-planter. output. OUTLINE OF CROP MANAGEMENT 87 / (10) Rotation-farming develops a continuous and consecutive plan of business. It maintains the continuity of farm labor, and reduces the economic and social difficulties that arise from the employing of many men at one time and few men at another time, Rotation practices, Just what rotation scheme shall be adopted in any case must depend on many local and special considerations. What some of these considerations are may be briefly discussed. (a) The rotation must adapt itself to the farmer’s business—to the support of live-stock if he is a dairyman or stock-farmer, to the demands of the grain trade if he is a grain-farmer, to the cotton market if he is in a cotton region. (6) It must adapt itself to the soil and the fertility problem. Often the chief purpose of a rotation is to recuperate worn and depleted lands. In such case, the frequent recurrence of leguminous humous crops is preéminently desirable. (e) The fertilizer question often modifies the rotation— whether manure can be pur- chased cheaply and in abundance or whether it must be made on the place. (d) The kind of soil and the climate may dictate the rotation. (e) The labor supply has an important bearing on the character of the rotation- course. The farmer must be ~ careful to plan to keep the number of plowings and the amount of cultivating within _ the limits of his capabilities. (f) The size of the farm, and whether land can be rented for pasturage, are Fig. a ft senior ete also determinants. It is not SS. x profitable to grow the cereals and some other crops on small areas; in fact, rotation-farming is chiefly successful with large-area crops. (g) In the future more than in the past, the rotation must be planned with reference to the species of plants that will best serve one another, or produce the best interrelationship results. (h) The rotation must consider in what condition one crop will leave the soil for the succeeding crop, and how one crop can be seeded with another crop. One reason why wheat is still so generally grown in the East is because it is a good “seeding crop”; grass and clover are seeded with it, and it therefore often makes a rotation practicable. In some parts of the Hast, rye takes the place of winter-wheat in the rotation course. Every careful farmer soon comes to know that a cer- tain tilth or condition of soil may be expected to result from certain crops. Thus buckwheat has a marked effect on hard-pan soils, leaving them mellow and ash-like. The explanation of this action of buckwheat is unknown. Potato- growers who have hard land like to grow buckwheat as a preparation for potatoes, although buckwheat is rarely a regular part of a rotation. Winter-wheat commonly follows oats, for the reason that the oats are harvested Fig. 123. A modern 11-foot seeder. 88 OUTLINE OF CROP MANAGEMENT early enough to allow the sowing of wheat in the fall. However, barley is considered to be a better preparation crop for wheat, as it comes off the land earlier and does not deplete the moisture content of the soil so much; it therefore usually allows the making of a better seed-bed for the wheat. It must be remembered that the rotation is not confined to a single field. If a perfect system is practiced, there must be as many equal fields concerned in the rotation as there are years in the course, so that every crop is grown on some part of the farm every year. The farm is therefore laid off into shifts or blocks, It is unusual, however, that a farm is sufficiently uniform in surface and soil to allow of such a perfect arrangement, and consequently the output of the various crops varies from year to year. Of course, it is not expected that the entire farm is to be laid under a rotation system. Parts of it will be needed for gardens, orchards, woods, permanent pasture, and for special crops. Not all the crops of the farm are adapted to rotation. The cereal and hay crops are most adaptable. Cotton ordinarily is not a part of a rotation scheme; and this is one reason why cotton-lands so soon become “exhausted.” The adopting of a short and good rotation, in which cotton would be the pivot crop, would no doubt add immeas- urably to the wealth of the south- ern states. Some crops occupy the land for a series of years and therefore do not often become parts in a rotation. Of such is alfalfa, now largely grown in the West and rapidly working its way into the East. But even this crop will probably tend more and more to occupy a place in rotation courses; and in the South (and even in other regions) this may be enforced in order to overcome dis- ease affecting the plant. Usually a rotation contains at least one ‘‘money-crop,” that finds « direct and ready market ; one clean-tilled crop ; one hay or straw crop; one leguminous crop. Form- erly the manure was applied mostly to one crop in the rotation, but the tendency now seems to be to distribute the application of some kind of fertilizer throughout the various years of the course. Some crops, however, may receive the coarse manure, others the fine or rotted manure, and others the chemi- cal fertilizer. It is now thought that there is advantage in rotation of fertilizers. In the Norfolk system, manure is usually applied heavily with the root-course. Grass crops follow clean-tilled or “exhaustion crops.” Pas- turing eliminates the weeds of tillage, compacts the land following tillage- practice, and provides ma- nure in the droppings of the animals. The leguminous rota- tion crops most used in North America are red clover and cowpeas. The clover is adapted to the humid North, cowpeas to the South. The use of the cowpea supplies the missing link in the rotation for the South and makes humus; it adds nitrogen, obviating the necessity of depending on chemical fertilizers Fig. 126. The common form of spring-tooth hay-rake. Fig. 127, Side-delivery rake of recent make. Fig. 128. A truss-frame sweep hay-rake. OUTLINE OF CROP MANAGEMENT 89 alone, which has been such an undesirable practice in the South. Velvet bean and beggar-weed are special leguminous crops sometimes employed in the extreme South. __ Nearly all special crops can be grown without rotation, because the market value of their products is so high that the grower can afford to resort to extra manuring and other expensive practices in order to keep the land in good heart. This is the chief reason for the excessive use of stable-manure, in mar- ket-gardening, a use which usually far exceeds the needs of the crops in mere plant-food. When the land is not too high-priced, it is a practice with gardeners to “rest” part of the land now and then in clover. Orchards do not lend themselves readily to rotation, although peaches generally do not follow peaches directly nor apples follow apples. In order to supply the humus to these lands and at the same time to secure the benefits of tillage, the practice of cover-cropping has lately come into practice. This is © Pam lene ay pt Fela mie Ft hay Eu Peedi ai, Nee Fig. 129. The modern reaper and binder. the use of some quick-growing crop that can be sown in midsummer or later, after tillage is completed ; usually this is plowed under early the following spring. Acceptable cover-crops are crimson clover, vetches, peas, rye and sometimes buckwheat, rape or cereals. aa, Suppose the six columns six fields, twenty Acres in each, shews six Sorts of Crops, Natural | Meadow s E 2 to follow each other in Rotation, four of which are charged to this Account, but the two tase. 10 ac. eae #35 Clover crops go to maintain the Cattle and are charged to them. this Farm |this Farm Ba aes A B Cc E F G 33 20 acres 20 acres 20 acres 20 acres 20 acres 20 acres 20 acres | 10 acres 1785 | Wheat Oats Turnips Barley Clover grass | Clover hay Grass | Meadow 1786 | Oats Turnips Barley Clover grass | Clover hay | Wheat Grass | Meadow 1787 | Turnips Barley Clover grass | Clover hay | Wheat Oats Grass | Meadow 1788 | Barley Clover grass | Clover hay | Wheat Oats” Turnips Grass | Meadow 1789 | Clover grass | Clover hay Wheat Oats | Turnips Barley Grass | Meadow 1790 | Clover hay Wheat Oats Turnips Barley Clover grass Grass | Meadow 5 £ £ 2 £ £ e |#22 |2223 x @ 568 568 | «= 568 568 568 568 Sees |Sese Sy |Total Produce |Total Produce |Total Produce |Total Produce |Total Produce |Total Produce | Fg 1 |Firg 2 ‘S58 | ofthisField| ofthisField} ofthisField| of thisField) ofthisField| of thisField| -2 $9 32 |-3 5 8 = | insixyears.| insixyears.| insixyears.| insixyears.| insixyears.| in sixyears.| © a g & a a # a A contrast of rotations (to be compared with those on succeeding pages). Tabular view of “a regular Succession of Crops in Rotation,” as proposed by Varlo in “A New System of Husbandry,” Philadelphia, 1785. This is part of a farm scheme for a property of 150 acres, to be stocked with horses, cattle, hogs and sheep. Countiiag all labor and other outlay, Varlo estimates an annual expense for the six years of £265 16s., and an annual profit of £402 4s. 90 DISCUSSION OF FARM MANAGEMENT FARM MANAGEMENT By A. M. Teneyck Farm management is the application to personal farming of all the facts, principles and sciences related to agriculture. It includes the conducting or organizing of the farm, not only as regards present success and profits, but also with refer- ence to the future fertility of the land. It is the crowning study in agricultural practice. A knowl- edge of the natural sciences and good judgment as to their applications, and skill in producing large crops and fine herds are important factors, but proper executive management of the farm and the farming business is the essential feature which largely determines success. The discussion of many subjects may properly be included in a treatise on farm management. The proper consideration of this subject is a study of the farming business in all its wide variations of class, character and place, and it is possible in a short article to discuss briefly only some of the important phases of the subject. The subject of crop management and rotations is likely to have strong local color, depending on the region in which the writer lives; but the nature of the problem is similar everywhere and many of the principles can be elucidated by any system. It is probably needless to say that this article is written from the prairie-states point of view. Laying out the fields. The first essential in introducing a definite sys- tem of soil management and crop rotation is that . the farm be laid out uniformly in fields of nearly equal area. So far as possible the division lines of the several fields should follow the natural division lines of the land, which separate quarter-sections, sections, eighties, forties and so on. The size of the fields will be determined largely by the size of the farm and the kinds and number of crops. Often the average farm is cut up into many small fields, irregular in size and shape, while with large farms sometimes the fields are very irregular in size, some being very large and others small, mak- ing a regular system of crop rotation impossible. Figs. 130 to 133 illustrate practical plans for lay- ing out the fields, and also show how the fields of a badly managed farm may be rearranged and made more uniform in size and shape, thus making it pos- sible to rotate crops in a systematic way and to pre- scribe some definite system of maintaining the soil fertility. When possible, the fields should be laid out in rectangular form, with the longer distance extending east and west in order to give the crop as much protection as possible from the sun and wind. Small grain drilled east and west breaks the force of prevailing southern and northern winds more than the grain drilled north and south; also, the shading of one row by another seems to be of some benefit to the crop. The writer has observed that wheat drilled north and south rusted and blighted worse than that drilled east and west, and it is often remarked by farmers that larger yields of wheat may be secured by planting in drills east and west, than by drilling north and south. Also with corn, in dry, hot climates, there is an advantage in rowing east and west when the corn is planted in drill rows, as is the practice through a great part of the West and South, because the greater shading of the ground, when the corn is planted in this way, prevents to some extent the excessive heating and drying of the soil. In some instances, as on sloping land, it may be advisable to lay out the fields with the longer dis- tance extending north and south, in order that the tillage and cultivation of the crop may be across the slope, rather than up and down the slope, and other factors may make it desirable to lay out irregularly formed fields; but as a rule the prac- tice should be to follow natural division lines of the land in dividing the farm into fields. The sketches and diagrams and the discussion refer particularly to the laying out of new farms, or the rearrangement of farms that have not been improved to any extent, but many of the suggested features may be adapted successfully to the remod- eling of old farms. Roads, lanes, fences, shade trees, drains and irriga- tion ditches. The plans for rotating crops proposed in this article call for the gradual fencing of a new farm, by which the expense may be distributed over sev- eral years at no serious inconvenience to the farm- ing operations. The purpose is each year to fence the pasture, that being made a part of the crop rotation system. In this way an eight-year rotation on eight fields, in which a field is seeded to grasses each year and another grass field is broken up, will require eight years to fence the farm. It is not desirable to have too many permanent division fences between the several fields. Rather, the field division fences may be made temporary and easily movable. A permanent fence is a nuisance in the tilling of the land and the cultivation of the crop ; it makes a harbor for weeds and throws good fer- tile soil out of use for cropping. However, it is not the purpose of this article to discuss the fence question. [See Vol. I, Chap. VIL] From the plans already mentioned it is clear that, so far as possible, all roads and lanes that are neces- sary in getting to and from the several fields should follow the natural division lines of the land. In laying out new fields and in building permanent fences, this rule should be observed also. This is an element of handiness in measuring the area of fields, in keeping records, and in having an easy and accurate means of describing and locating each field in a farm. Permanent lanes with permanent , fences should be established, leading from the barns and building site to the center of the farm, and from thence to the pasture and to every field that is included in the regular crop rotation system. By such an arrangement the live-stock may be sent to pasture without a driver, and if properly treated the cows will be at the bars in the evening when the farmer is ready to milk them. In certain sec- tions of the country it is very important, and often DISCUSSION OF FARM MANAGEMENT 91 necessary, to plant hedges and shade trees for the purpose of protection against wind and storms. Usually it is not desirable to have many hedges around the fields; and, although shade trees are necessary in the pasture, it is not best to distribute them over the field, but to have a group of trees in one corner or in some spot which takes little of the tillable land and does not interfere with the farm- ing operations. As regards drainage and irrigation ditches, the natural lay of the land will determine largely where they must be placed. In every well-regulated 01Grain = figoiGrain: § |igatGrain —}1901 Corn \O2Grass ‘O2Corn ‘02 Grain ‘oz Wheat (03 Grain Os Wheat =| ‘03 Corn ‘03Grass {04Grain | ‘04Grass ‘Ot Wheat ‘0¢Grass ‘o5Corn ‘05Grass | ‘0SGrass ‘O5Grain ‘o6Wheat | ‘06Grain ‘O6Grass ‘p6Grain. 1 ‘07Grass_ | ‘07Grain ‘07Grain ‘o7Corr. ‘08Grass. | ‘o8Corn ‘08Grain ‘08 Wheat 2 es in | ‘09 hed ‘09Corn ‘09Grass 0 Grain loGrass l0Wheat, | ‘10Grass Bo IH 2016 20 30 41901 Wheat ]1901Grass | \901Pasture | ligoiRootss(com ‘ORGrass | ‘O2Grain | ‘oe Rootarfgn eae ‘03Grass | '03Grain ‘O3Grain ‘03 Pasture.’ (0¢Grain® | '04Corn . 03 Grai n ‘O5Wheat {E 10} 10 toy | ‘06Corn ‘06Grass ard. ‘| 'a7Wheat | ‘o7Grass |i90IGrin a ‘Bas ‘o8Grass | ‘08Grain | ‘OZAsture |80 @ ~ 89 O9Grass | ‘O9Grain | ‘OSRostse[ert 128 g a ‘oGrain NOCaer. Fodder} B ooudnas 1c 206 20/A 10} Soqoaood Lay h ae N, PR Wilds, “He, Clover’, : : ‘ —— ‘Tima ’) = Cover” © Net “Sieh cA sre cee ae crer ae hon Corn \ y 1 x 2 7 g Timothy 4 Clover Fastured Fig. 130. Plan of farm before (below) and after (above) Jay- ing out into regular fields; also plan for rotation of crops. (Figs. 130-133 by Professor Wilson of Minnesota.) farm acareful survey should be made and a thorough system of drainage established, so that the surface water may be readily removed from the yards and fields and carried to the natural drainage channels, and not left where it may damage the land and growing crops and form cesspools for the breed- ing of diseases. It is desirable in some sections of the country to build artificial ponds and lakes for catching the drainage water. Such places should not be made the wallows for cattle and swine, but should be surrounded with dry, grassy banks and kept clean and wholesome, otherwise they may be- come the breeding places for injurious germs and thus the source of disease. A map of the farm. An outline map of the farm is valuable and handy. It may often save steps in the directing of workmen and others to different parts of the farm. On a very large farm a map is almost a necessity. By means of a set of outline maps, very condensed records of the cropping of the different fields on the farm may be kept each year. The map should be large enough to note not only the crops growing on each field, but the dates of planting and harvest- ing, yield per acre, date of plowing, and other records of importance. A better plan still is to have a map small enough to be bound in book form, introducing with each map several blank pages on which the notes relating to each field may be writ- ten. Sueh maps may be readily printed at small expense from a zinc etching prepared from an orig- inal inked line drawing. The several figures and diagrams here shown illustrate what is meant by the map of the farm. It is simply an outline drawing showing the divi- sion of the farm into fields, the location and plan of the building site, the location of lanes and roads, and the natural features which need notice, such as the groves, streams, draws, and the like. A careful survey of the farm will have to be made in order to locate properly the points and objects which need to be noted on the map. The map should be drawn accurately on a small scale, an inch to 50 or 100 feet. Almost any bright boy or girl, having exact measurements and distances and the area of the fields, with a little help can draw a map of this kind. Soil management. In the management of the farm, the handling of the soil is of the greatest importance. It is impossible to grow good crops on the same field year after year, except by thorough tillage and cultivation, the addition of fertilizers and the proper rotation of crops in order to maintain the fertility of the land. It has been truly said that “tillage is manure” to the crop. The plant-food of the soil is largely in an unavailable condition, and is made available for the use of plants only by the action of physical and chemical agencies. The presence of air and moisture is necessary that decomposition and chemical change may take place, by which the insoluble and unavailable plant-food elements are made soluble and available to the plants. Thus, tillage and cultivation, by aérating and pulverizing the soil, and by the conservation of soil moisture, make favorable conditions for the development of bacteria, hastening the processes of decomposition and chemical change which make the plant-food available. Simple tillage, however, will not maintain the fertility of the soil. It becomes necessary finally to replace the plant-food, exhausted by the contin- uous growing of crops, with the application of manure or chemical fertilizers or by the rotation of crops, in which the legume crops, such as alfalfa 92 and clover, are introduced in order to restore again the humus and nitrogen. When land has been farmed a long time in wheat or corn, it finally ceases to produce profitable crops. The soil is not neces- sarily exhausted in fertility, but by a long period of continuous cropping with one crop the diseases DISCUSSION OF FARM MANAGEMENT from the air in the soil is made available for the use of the plant, and not only may large yields of forage rich in nitrogen and protein be taken from land planted with legume crops, but by the great root-growth and the accumulation of humus by these crops the nitrogen of the soil is actually increased. Moreover, perennial legumes, such iene Wheat [Fallow Flax | Grase Pacara TERS, [ates as clover and alfalfa, are very deep feeders ; 904 Wheat |Oate Fellow Flan, se gna eee thus a part of the mineral elements of plant- lee Bente pate Eedaice eae | race Ceres) | food required by these crops is taken from 1907 Gras Barley Corn Fred ge || depths in the soil below the feeding-ground of 11009 Kedelen |Graes! eed pes | eeeeattald ordinary crops, and by the large root-growth 1910. Oats 1 [Fodder _| Grass | “le! in the surface soil there may be accumulated e202 Wheat = [Flax Oats | a supply of the mineral elements of plant-food =|1903 Oats./ Wheat |Wheat . o2Grass}Grass |Grass |.5| a ‘labl th ti 190% Gorn\ _ {Wheat Wheat P3Flow Fallon Fallow 18 which gradually becomes available, as the roots arle Tass srass. nA La rr . 1906 Grass’ [Grass roddec: bswia|Grass |eracs¢] | decay, to crops which follow the legume crops. oon Soaes a: phedaer eat Hilal nda ge When the wild prairie is first broken, the 1909 Oats. | Cones Barley “ys soil is mellow, moist and rich, producing eNO Conn eerie sgn ees abundant crops. sete few yon a canon es ous grain-cropping and cultivation, the physi- Crise 7 cal condition of the soil changes—the soil- | grains become finer, the soil becomes more Corn. |} Gives Wheat compact and heavier to handle; it dries out ra quicker than it used to, and often turns over ! in hard clods and lumps when plowed. The perfect tilth and freedom from clods, so char- er | }) acteristic of virgin soils, is always more or 4 less completely restored when land has been Wheat Millet ‘Wheat Giraea laid down to grass for a sufficient length of time. , Rotation of crops. Fig. 131. Plan of farm before (below) and after (above) laying out into regular fields; also plan for systematic rotation of crops. and insects which prey on the crop have accumu- lated in the soil, and the organic matter and humus and nitrogen have become more or less exhausted. The land is really “wheat sick” or “corn sick,” as the case may be; what it needs more than any- thing else is a rotation of crops, which shall include legumes and grasses, by which the organic matter, exhausted by continuous cultivation and cropping with one crop, may be restored. Grass is a soil-protector, a soil-renewer and a soil- builder. Covering the land with grass is nature’s way of restoring to old, worn-out land the fertility and good tilth characteristic of virgin soil. The true grasses do not add nitrogen to the soil, as do clover, alfalfa and other legume crops, yet the grasses are, in a sense, nitrogen-gatherers, in that the nitrogen of the soil is collected and stored up in their roots. Thus, grasses prevent the waste of nitrogen and other plant-food elements and serve to protect the soil and to maintain its fertility. By their extensive and deep-penetrating root svstems, many grasses also tend to break up and deepen the soil, gathering and storing plant- food in the roots and thus actually increasing the available plant-food content. The legume crops, such as clover and alfalfa, not only accomplish all that grasses may accom- plish, as described above, but also actually in- crease the total and available supply of nitrogen in the soil. By means of the bacteria which grow on the roots of legume plants, free nitrogen taken In order to maintain soil fertility, and at the same time to make the greatest profit in farming, a practicable and scientific rotation of crops should include the following : (1) Grasses and perennial legumes. (2) Pasture, with an addition of manure one or two years previous to breaking the sod. (8) Intertilled crops. / (4) Small grain crops, with green-manuring crops planted in the stubble after harvest. For a self-sustaining farm, small grain crops must be grown. Often they are the greatest money-making crops ; hence they must be given a prominent place in the general crop rotation system. Intertilled crops are often the money-making items of the farm, also, and they are useful in a rotation plan in order that the land may be cleared of weeds. Especially is this true in a locality where small grain is the main crop. Cultivation also con- serves the soil moisture and develops the fertility of the soil. Pasture must be had on every farm carrying live-stock, and it is essential that it be made part of the regular crop rotation. Many soils become too light and mellow by continuous cropping and need the trampling of stock to firm them. Much more grass can be produced on tillable lands when the pastures are kept fresh and new, and the increase of fertility and improvement of soil texture result in larger crops of corn and grain when the meadow or pasture is broken and planted again to these crops. In some sections of the United States permanent pastures develop the best sod, and on many farms DISCUSSION OF FARM MANAGEMENT certain fields may be kept more profitably in grass than in any other crop; but such fields will not enter into the regular crop rotation system. _ Aconvenient and desirable time to manure land is while it is being used as meadow or pasture. If the manure is applied a year or so before breaking, it will stimulate the growth of grass and cause a greater production of hay or pasture. Meanwhile, the soil is enriched by an increased root-growth and the formation of more humus. Besides these beneficial results, some plant-food will be supplied by the manuring for the use of the first crop that is grown on the breaking, at a time when available plant-food is much needed, because the larger part of the fertility in new breaking is in an unavailable condition and cannot be used readily by the new crop. / Soils in which the organic matter and humus are deficient may be improved in fertility and texture by green-manuring. A cheap and practical method of green-manuring is to plant a crop adapted to this purpose (the annual legume crops, such as cowpeas, soybeans, field-peas and vetches being preferred) in the grain stubble immediately after harvest. The method at the Kansas Experiment Station is to follow the binder directly with the drill; thus, when the harvest is finished the field has been replanted. Cowpeas, rape or sorghum seeded in this way usually make a good stand and 93 an excellent growth, and furnish forage or pasture, or the crop may be plowed down for green-manure or left as a winter cover. It is necessary, in carrying out permanent plans for crop rotation, to have fields of nearly equal area, in order to grow about the same acreage of the several crops each year, thus making it possible to keep a certain number of live-stock, and from year to year to have regularity and uniformity in the farming business. In order to demonstrate the working of practical systems of crop rotation, as outlined, assume for illustration a farm of 160 acres, divided into eight equal fields, as shown in the diagrams : RoTaTiION PLAN No. 1. The farm plan, showing crops on all fields for one year. Legumes and forage Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat plus legumes Pasture (manured) Spring grains (seed to grass) Grass and clover Com = ip®@Oo0e i ‘ r [Corn Torna, gga [ppm a i £8 SSS 03 Wheat Sa ‘Bs i oer 04 Grain SD, HF Corn| a 107" 05 Grass | U550! ‘esForage : (> 08 Grass | TimPPrgg oats 2 Wheat 1Ses- Stumps feet 9%0idon Gar oO MOLL! 1901 Wheat flocc) \ 1901 Grass a 199001 ‘02 Grain | BS BO Malisture EH i2e°9'Clover 03 Corn ' 6290; 0» S 12e31 (04 Wheat 1/200 1 ‘Uforage ai es! (05 Graire 18d 63 !d(itoots Oo ‘ foo! ,06 Grass i 66aS | Ope t 160 O51 ) JH 07 Grass 1 eo iq ooeCorin f : ! ! "y eoo;oscoa of . Sasiaeas ox acoeRy Son | 1901 Grain out a 2 N Bessge° e e Grass 200. 1s 2 d ass seo ma" 86] Wheat lanecya #4 of Wheat W901 Roots Potatoes ‘05 Grain Flax w —E SeFerage Cr 106 Corre fhe, Ress oseeetey Poems: || ‘07 Wheat : 06 Forage Dd | ; s 1901 Grain (901 Wheat pina easeernrn-] iar Wheat oe Grain 1 ‘ ed roi Tass : 1S Fence Gorn || (OF Grass Fence = | i . oe : hea’ ‘05 Whee he fast Oats iWheat Corn ny 18 DIVIS(Ort ee eeeeenes (08 Graire ‘06 Grairt | Division, NA 10 Lines A Grass E 07 Cort Lines : nN 1901 Grain | \ Birt || © A wy eal Oo i ' WON, ‘ : Figs. 180 to 133 are fur- b. A Oo O*%™” od ane ee nished by Professor A. D. , ft 0 0 GY L. ‘06 Wheat os oO eee hey are diagrams / oOo PON 07 Gai : of actual farms in Minne- SS Bi ef Grain oo # CG sota ae ese, beck ar Loi Y ranged and adapted to a ae So oc practical methods of rota- 03 Graite One tion of crops. 0+ Grass Jey ag A. ‘05 Grass |: i Pe ay 06 Wheat oe oe c 07 .Graire Fo Oo O Fig. 132. Plan of farm before (left) and after (right) laying out into regular fields; also plan for systematic rotation of crops. 94 DISCUSSION OF FARM MANAGEMENT Rotation plan, or order of crops on each field. First year. . . . Grass and clover. Second year . . . Pasture (manured). Third year . Wheat. Fourth year . . . Wheat. Fifth year. . . . Legumes and forage, Sixth year. . . . Wheat. Seventh year. . . Wheat plus legumes. Highth year . . . Spring grains (seed to grass). It will be observed that the crops growing on the eight fields each year are the same as the “order of crops on each field” in eight years. By carrying out successfully the above plan of rotation on a 160-acre farm, the farmer will raise each year 80 acres of wheat, 40 acres of grass and clover (20 of which may be used for pasture), 20 acres of small grains other than wheat, and 20 acres of forage crops, part at least consisting of annual legume crops. Hach year 20 acres of grass land is given a dressing of manure, and a 20-acre field in wheat is renewed in fertility by a crop of cowpeas or other green-manuring crop planted after the wheat is harvested. Meanwhile, once in eight years the whole farm will have been seéded to grass and clover, each field remaining in grass two years. This rotation is adapted to a wheat-growing country, and the money crop, wheat, is grown on one-half of the farm each year, while the other half of the farm is kept in crops that have a more or less renovating effect on the land, and which may be turned into money indirectly by feeding them to live-stock on the farm. In a corn country, corn may be substituted for wheat in the above rotation. If this system of rotation does not leave the land in grass long enough, the farm may be divided and the following systems of rotation practiced on each division of four fields for eight years, when the systems may be interchanged, the first taking the place of the second, and the second of the first : No. 1 A. Rotation plan, or order of crops on each field. First year... ... Grass. Second year... .. Grass. Third year. ..... Pasture plus manure. Fourth year... .. Pasture plus manure. Fifth year... 2... Wheat. Sixth year. . . . . . Wheat. Seventh year... .. Wheat. Highth year . . . . . Wheat. No. 1 B. Rotation plan, or order of crops on each field. First year. . . Legumes and forage. Second year . . Legumes and forage. Third year. . . Wheat. Fourth year . . Wheat. Fifth year. . . Wheat. . Wheat plus legumes. . Spring grains. . Spring grains (seed to grass). Sixth year. . Seventh year . Eighth year . It will be observed that this is really a double eight-year rotation, or, in fact, a sixteen-year rota- tion; that is, keeping each of the fields in grass four years at a time requires that one field be seeded to grass every two years and that one grass field be plowed every two years and planted again to wheat, requiring sixteen years before the whole farm shall have received a rotation with grass. RoTATION PLAN No. 2. The farm plan, showing crops on all fields for one year. Corn Corn Small grains (seed to Corn alfalfa in fall). Alfalfa (manured) Alfalfa Alfalfa (manured) Alfalfa Rotation plan, or order of crops on each field. First year . . . Alfalfa. Second year . . Alfalfa. Third year. . . Alfalfa plus manure. Fourth year . . Alfalfa plus manure. Fifth year. . . Corn. Sixth year. . . Corn. Seventh year. . Corn. Eighth year . . Small grains (seed to alfalfa in fall). If the above plan keeps too much land in alfalfa, the farm may be divided and the following systems of rotation practiced on each division of four fields for eight years, when the systems may be inter- changed, the first taking the place of the second, and the second of the first : No. 2 A. Rotation plan, or order of crops on each field. First year. 2... 2... Alfalfa. Second year. ..... Alfalfa. Third year. 2... 2. Alfalfa plus manure. Fourth year ...... Alfalfa plus manure. Fifth year... .... Corn. Sixthyear. ...... Corn. Seventh year... ... Corn. Highth year... 2... Corn. No. 2 B. Rotation plan, or order of crops on each field. First year. . Second year . Third year. . . Corn. Fourth year . . Corn. Fifth year . . . Corn plus manure. Sixth year . . . Corn plus manure. Seventh year. .Spring grains. Eighth year . . Spring grains (seed to alfalfa). . Legumes and forage. . Legumes and forage. It may be desirable to grow grass as well as alfalfa on the same farm in order to supply pasture for cattle and hay for horses and other stock. If this is so, then the alfalfa rotation plan may be slightly changed and a third system introduced, making a double eight-year or a sixteen-year rota- tion, as follows: DISCUSSION OF FARM MANAGEMENT 95 No. 2 C. b Rotation plan, or order of crops on each field. First year. . . Alfalfa. Second year . . Alfalfa. Third year. . . Alfalfa plus manure. Fourth year . . Alfalfa plus manure. Fifth year. . . Corn. Sixth year. . . Corn. Seventh year. . Small grains. Eighth year . . Small grains (seed to grass). No. 2 D. Rotation plan, or order of crops on each field. First year. . . Grass. Second year . . Grass. Third year. . . Pasture plus manure. Fourth year . . Pasture plus manure. Fifth year. . . Corn. Sixth year. . . Corn. Seventh year. . Small grains. Highth year . . Small grains (seed to alfalfa). The rotation will not ordinarily be perfected until the end of the third year, as most of the farms are growing corn and small grain almost exclusively. This rotation of crops is well adapted only to a grain-farm that carries much live-stock. It will be observed that four fields, or one-half of the farm, is always in alfalfa or grass, but occasionally there may be only one field in alfalfa and three in grass, or vice versa; this is the result of the arrangement by which the seeding and breaking of grass and alfalfa sod is made to come in alter- nate years in order to distribute the work evenly from year to year. There will always be two fields of corn and two fields of small grain, although, if it were preferable, corn or some other crop might be grown instead of small grain, on one of these fields each year previous to the year in which the land is seeded down, and not interfere at all with the regular system of rotation. A Rotation oN EicHT FIELDS witH ALFALFA, GRASS, CORN AND SMALL GRAIN, BEING AN EXHIBIT OF Rotation PLans Nos. 2C anp 2D. YEAR Field 1 Field 2 Field 3 Field 4 Field 5 Field 6 Field 7 Field 8 1906 . . . | Small grain Corn Corn Corn Small grain Corn Corn Corn (8 A) (S G) 1907 . . .| Alfalfa | Small grain Corn Corn (M) Grass Small grain Corn Corn x meadow (S G) 1908 . . .| Alfalfa | Small grain Corn Corn Grass Grass _| Small grain Corn (S A) meadow (M)} meadow 1909 . . .| Alfalfa (M)| Alfalfa | Small grain Corn Meadow or Grass Small grain Corn pasture (B)| meadow (8 G) 1910 . Alfalfa (B) Alfalfa | Small grain Corn Corn Meadow or Grass Small grain “ | GA) pasture (M)| meadow 1911. Corn Alfalfa (M)| Alfalfa | Small grain Corn Meadow or Grass Small grain pasture (B), meadow (S G) 1912... Corn Alfalfa (B) Alfalfa | Small grain | Small grain Corn Meadow or Grass (S A) pasture (M)| meadow 19138 . . . | Small grain Corn Alfalfa (M) Alfalfa | Small grain Corn Meadow or Grass (S A) pasture (B)| meadow 1914 . Small grain Corn Alfalfa (B) Alfalfa Alfalfa | Small grain Corn Meadow or (S G) pasture (M) 1915 . Grass Small grain Corn Alfalfa (M)| Alfalfa | Small grain Corn Meadow or meadow (S A) pasture (B) 1916... Grass Small grain Corn Alfalfa (B) | Alfalfa (M) Alfalfa | Small grain Corn meadow (S G) 1917 . Meadow or Grass | Small grain Corn Alfalfa (B)| Alfalfa | Small grain Corn pasture (M)| meadow (S A) 1918 . . .| Meadow or Grass Small grain Corn Corn Alfalfa (M)| Alfalfa | Small grain pasture (B) | meadow (S G) . 1919... Corn Meadow or Grass Small grain Corn Alfalfa (B) Alfalfa | Small grain pasture (M)| meadow (S A) 1920... Corn Meadow or Grass Small grain | Small grain Corn Alfalfa (M)| Alfalfa pasture (B)| meadow (S G) 1921 . . .| Small grain Corn Meadow or Grass Small grain Corn Alfalfa (B) | Alfalfa : pasture (M)| meadow (S G) 1922 . . .|Small grain Corn Meadow or Grass Grass Small grain Corn Alfalfa (M) s (S A) pasture (B)| meadow meadow 1923... Alfalfa | Small grain Corn Meadow or Grass Small grain Corn Alfalfa (B) pasture (M)| meadow (S G) 1924... .| Alfalfa | Small grain Corn Meadow or | Meadow or Grass | Small grain Corn (S A) pasture (B) | pasture (M)| meadow (M)=Manured. (B)=Break sod either in fall or spring. of alfalfa secured without losing a crop. (S the spring with the grain in the central and eastern states. (S A)=Seed to alfalfa; this may be done in the fall and a catch G)=Seed to grass, which may be done in the fall in the West and South, and in 96 With this plan of rotation practiced successfully, each of the eight fields in the farm will have been in alfalfa four years and in grass four years at the end of sixteen years of cropping, and in this period the entire farm will have been manured twice. Meanwhile four fields should have produced, each year, large crops of corn and grain. There is little question that a farm thus managed may be even more fertile at the end of the sixteen years than it was at the beginning. Rotation Puan No. 3. The farm plan, showing crops on all fields for one year. Grass Corn Pasture 7 (manured) Small grain Corn plus legumes Wheat (seed to grass) Rotation plan, or order of crops on each field. First year. . . . . . Grass. Second year... .. Pasture (manured). Third year... ... Corn plus legumes. Fourth year... .. Corn. Fifth year... 1... Small grain. Sixth year... 2... Wheat (seed to grass). The above is a six-year rotation and cannot be well adapted to eight fields; it is given to show how crops may be arranged for a smaller number of fields. Rotation PLAN No. 4. A SIXTEEN-YEAR ROTATION WITH ALFALFA, SMALL GRAIN AND CorN ON Four FY.ps. DISCUSSION OF FARM MANAGEMENT This plan of rotation 1s more readily understood in this way: It is really a three-year rotation on three fields, one of the four fields being kept continually in alfalfa, as shown in the plan. The order of the rotation on each field is corn, followed by corn, followed by small grain. Thus, two fields of corn, one of small grain and one of alfalfa are grown on the farm each year. At the end of four years the field in alfalfa, which has not been included in the three-year rotation, is plowed and planted to corn the succeeding season, while one of the three fields which has been in the regular rotation is seeded to’ alfalfa and comes out of the regular three-year rotation plan, remaining in alfalfa for four years, when this field is plowed and planted to corn and becomes one of the fields in the three-year rotation series; then another field that has been seeded to alfalfa is thrown out of the regular rotation sys- tem, and so on. It will be observed that such a plan may be followed with five fields, six fields, or, in fact, any number of fields. With four fields, by the method described, one-fourth of the farm is kept continually in alfalfa. With five fields, one- fifth of the farm would be in alfalfa each year, and it would take twenty years for the alfalfa rotation to be carried out on all the fields. With three fields, one-third of the farm would be in alfalfa all the time and the rotation system would be completed in twelve years. Manure and fertilizers. There is no waste on the farm which is so wanton and inexcusable as the too common waste of stable and barnyard manure. It is true that it is neces- sary to have well-drained yards, yet a side-hill barn- yard may result ina great loss of the soluble ele- YEAR Field A Field B Field C Field D ments of the manure un- less provision is made for 1906* Small grain (8) G Corn (M) 6 spreading the drainage oo. mail grain orn orn orn 1907 ..| Alfalfa (M) | Small grain (CC) Corn Corn sus mies aa a 1908 Alfalfa Corn (M) Small grain (CC) Corn Aso: 3 Pp b d 1909 Alfalfa Corn Corn (M) | Small grain (CC) 80; Ian Open: Darnyar 1910 Alfalfa (B) | Small grain (8) Corn ~~ Corn (M) a liberal use of straw or 1911 Corn Alfalfa (M) | Small grain (CC) Corn other absorbents will 1912 Corn Alfalfa Corn (M) Small grain(CC) often save in manure 1913 Small grain (CC) Alfalfa Corn Corn (M) much more than the value 1914 Corn (M) Alfalfa (B) Small aa (8) ai Corn (ca of the bedding. 1915 Corn Corn Alfalfa (M) mall grain " 1916 Small grain (CC). Corn Alfalfa Corn (M) oe ae ee 1917 Corn (M) Small grain (CC) Alfalfa Corn i is fo lanl it 1918 .. Corn Corn (M) Alfalfa (B) Small grain (8) ang Manure, 1S) vO Dawl a 1919 . .| Small grain (CC) Corn Corn Alfalfa (M) directly to the fields as 1920 . Corn (M) | Small grain (CC) Corn Alfalfa fast as it is made and 1921 Corn Corn (M) Small grain (CC) Alfalfa spread it at once. This is 1922 . .| Small grain (S) Corn Corn (M) Alfalfa (B) practicable in the hand- 1923 t oe Alfalfa (M) Small grain (CC) Corn Corn ling of stable manure, but not with manure in *It is assumed that this farm has been cropped largely with corn and small grains and has received little rotation of crops. No alfalfa is growing on the farm in 1906, when field “A” is seeded. The rotation really begins in 1907. + Observe that this is a repetition of 1907 crops: viz., this rotation is repeated every six- teen years, each of the four fields having received a rotation of four years in alfalfa. (B)=Break alfalfa sod, (This should be done in the spring (CC)=Catch-erop, or green-manur- (S)=Seed to alfalfa in fall. when the new catch of alfalfa by fall seeding is assured.) ing crop, planted in the stubble after the small grain is harvested. yard manure applied in the fall and winter on alfalfa as a surface dressing, or on corn-stubble land and plowed under previous to planting the following crop of corn. open yards and sheds.. However, if barnyard ma- nure is exposed in open yards, the sooner it can be removed to the fields after the winter’s feeding the better. The manure (M)=A dressing of barn- DISCUSSION OF FARM MANAGEMENT from the stable should not be thrown out under the eaves of the barn to leach; neither should iv be thrown in large piles and allowed to fire, as is so often done. It is a good plan to feed cattle and other stock under sheds simply for the purpose of better preserving the manure. The manure-spreader is a useful implement, and | when the manure is handled regularly as made and spread in the fields, the spreader may be used very profitably on the farm that carries much live-stock. On the small farm, or on the farm in which the practice is to haul the manure out at intervals and turn all hands to the work for a time, the spreader - cannot be used so advan- tageously. There is little question, however, but that in the spreading of large quantities of manure on year a good spreader wil soon pay for itself, not only ARE es 3a in the saving of labor but in the more even spreading of the manure, thus giving 06 Cult Crop) ‘0? Wheat ‘08 Grass} Rented ) “easture> vest ‘03 Wheat ‘04 Oats ‘05 Cult.Crop more uniform results and | ‘08 Wheat- making the manure cover Of Grass _ 08 Grass more land. The manure 1901 Oats I8A- Pasture 7A 1901 Wheat 20A. Cult.Crop 5A. ' Yor Wh ak a 1901 Wheat OZ Grass 05 Grass, (04 Wheat 05 Cult. Crop ‘06 Wheat ‘07 Oats 08 Cult.Crop 201 Wheat 02 ~Wheat 03 Grass 0% Grass ‘05, Wheat. ‘06 Cult.Crop ‘07 Wheat 08 Oats 1901 Wheat 15A-Pasture 10A. 20% Cult.Crop~ 03 Wheat ‘0? Cult Crop: ‘08 Wheat “s — \"02 Wheat ‘oF A{Oats lA. Pasture JA. should be put on the grass " land when grass is used in the regular order of rotation, as described above. [For a discussion of the economy of the manure-spreader, see Vol. I, Chap. VI, page 215; also page 499.] Manure should be spread thinly, the purpose be- ing to cover a large area of land with a relatively small quantity, rather than to give a very heavy dressing to a smaller area. When the manure is spread thinly, over a large area, the crop on the land may get all the value of the ma- nure and no harm be done; but when spread thickly, especially when plowed un- der, the crops may not make full use of the manure, and often there is danger, espe- cially in dry seasons, that the crop may be injured or destroyed by “burning out” of the soil. This means that the heavy coat of manure breaks the capillary connec- tion between the soil and the subsoil, cutting off the sup- ply of water and ina period =f of drought the crop suffers. | : . The purpose and methods of | Tittottty Meadow green-manuring have al- : Corn: Mangqles fissure ) Oats: Tintcthy Fasture ready been discussed under - : : crop management and rota- Fig. 133. Plan of farm before (below) and after (above) laying out into regular fields: tion on preceding pages. BT also plan for systematic rotation of crops. 98 Crop practices. Details cannot be given here of the planting, culture, harvesting, storing and marketing of the several staple farm crops. In general, successful farming depends on doing everything at the right time and in the right way. After a crop has been grown it should not be lost or allowed to become damaged by a little carelessness in handling or storing, through the negligence of the farmer. The quality of wheat and other grain often is in- jured seriously by harvesting too late, by leaving in the shock too long, by wetting or heating in the stack because of careless stacking, and by thresh- ing and storing damp grain, resulting in bin-burn- ing and other evils. Often wheat that might have graded No. 1 or No. 2, grades No. 3 and No. 4, or is rejected, simply because of the neglect in taking proper care of it. Much of the wheat sold grades low because of being mixed, or not pure in type. Farmers should grow well-bred, pure types of grains. Much of the corn which farmers sell grades as mixed because it is not pure in color. Pure white or pure yellow corn of the same quality as mixed corn will often sell for two or three cents more per bushel. The subject of crop breeding is now attracting great attention. It pays to breed and grow pure varieties of crops as well as of live- stock. The writer believes that farmers should store and hold their grain and not sell so largely at harvest time. This practice throws a surplus of grain on the market, which usually results in low prices and less profits to the farmer, and perhaps not always greater profits to the dealer. Grain may be stored and kept for a time in small quantities with less loss to the growers than to the dealers when the same grain is bought and stored in large quantities. This is especially true with corn, much of which is sold in the fall and early winter, too damp to keep weil when stored in large quantities. It is true also of wheat and other grain that, when hauled from the threshing machine, it may be too damp to store in large elevators. There is a risk to the dealers in handling such grain, hence the low prices. Also, doubtless, there -is a tendency on the part of the dealers to make as low prices as possible when the farmer sells the bulk of his crop. Some farmers are obliged to sell ag soon as the crop has been harvested or threshed, needing the money and hav- ing perhaps -no suitable storage room. But this is a hand-to-mouth method of living and farming, and the thrifty, experienced farmer will make himself independent of such conditions. From the results of several trials at different experiment stations, it appears that the shrinkage of grain put into the bin in good condition is very slight, and corn put into the crib in the fall, fairly well cured and dry, will not lose over ten per cent in weight during the four or five winter months, the shrinkage usually being much less, proportion- ately than the rise in price. Also, as sold in the fall, ten to fifteen per cent greater weight per bushel of ear corn is required .by dealers than is required in the winter or spring. The farmer should watch the market and sell at THE TRIENNIAL CROP ROTATION SYSTEM the highest prices. A good seller is usually a suc- cessful farmer. Farmers should give more atten- tion to the marketing of their products in this day of trusts and combinations. They should co- operate and protect their interests in maintaining fair prices for their products. But let us urge that every farmer, by his own efforts as well as by codperation, seek first to prepare for the market a ‘prime article, which on its own merit will bring the highest price. Literature. There has been little published on farm manage- ment as such, though various phases of the subject have received much separate treatment. Such books as The Fertility of the Land, by Roberts ; The Soil, by King; Cereals in America, by Hunt ; Grasses, by Shaw, treat more or less on the subject of farm management. Somewhat fuller accounts will be found in Agricultural Economics, by Henry C. Taylor; Physics of Agriculture, F. H. King (chapter on Farm Mechanics); Chapters in History of Agriculture, T. F. Hunt. The most specific in- formation will be found in the two bulletins, An Example of Model Farming, and Farm Manage- ment Investigations, by W. J. Spillman, United States Department of Agriculture; Successful Farming, by William Rennie, Sr., published by Wm. Rennie’s Sons, Toronto. For farm bookkeep- ing: The. Farmer’s Business Handbook, I. P. Roberts, The Macmillan Co.; The Model Farm Record, Minnick, Bliss & Co., Chicago; Farm Account Book and Farm Record, E. A. Boehne & Sons, Hansen, Nebraska; Practical Bookkeeping for Farmers, published by H. G. Phelps, Bozeman, Mont. The importance of study of this subject is being recognized, and the future will find available much helpful farm-management literature. THE TRIENNIAL CROP ROTATION SYSTEM By Hugh N. Starnes After the red-clay lands of the southern cotton- belt have been protected from erosion by terracing (Vol. I, page 402), experience has proved that a simple three-year crop rotation will rapidly restore their original fertility without materially derang- ing existing conditions or interrupting the contin- uous production of the three principal staples of that section—cotton, corn and oats. The two fac- tors which simplify the process are (1) the reten- tive clay subsoil and (2) the rapid growth and effective service (both chemical and mechanical) of the cowpea. This valuable legume, in the space of 90 days, not only stores in the soil, through its decaying roots and stubble, a large quantity of vegetable matter for subsequent conversion into humus, and transfers from the atmosphere a con- -siderable supply of immediately available nitrogen, but it also “pays its own way” while so doing. In principle, the process is of course not new, but its adoption as a practice is recent and by no means universal, as yet, though making rapid headway, particularly in Georgia, CROP ROTATION SYSTEMS IN CANADA, UNITED STATES, AND ELSEWHERE 98 Details of the system. In brief, the details of the process are as follows: An equal farm area is devoted to each of the three staple crops. The best third is planted in cotton, the next best in corn and the poorest third in fall oats. The three areas need not be all in one body; indeed, it is seldom found possible, at the start, so to locate them. After the oats are harvested in June, the stubble is turned under and the area sowed broad- cast with cowpeas, which are later cut and con- verted into either hay or ensilage, leaving only the roots and stubble to be turned under, since there would be no economy in utilizing a feeding material for a fertilizer at forage prices. The cowpea area is planted the second season in cotton, and the former cotton area is put in corn, while oats occupy the previous corn plat. With the corn, cowpeas are also generally planted, either in the drill after the corn is waist-high or upward, or sowed broadcast on “lay- ing by,” thus introducing a legume or nitrogen- gatherer into the rotation two years in three. The rotation is invariably (1) corn (with peas) after cotton, (2) oats and peas after corn, and (8) cotton after oats and peas—the grossest feeding crop, cotton, thus following the nitrogen-gatherer, the cowpea. The result, after two or three complete rotations, is an impressive increase in yield all around. Each crop, however, is, when planted, given its own specific fertilization, the formulas for which in the South are well-established standards. Results. At the end of the first rotation, that is to say in the fourth year, when the area first planted in cot- ton is again occupied by that crop, the increase in yield is always marked and frequently surprising (100 per cent is by no means uncommon); and the poorer the land originally the more likely is the percentage to be attained. For example, an initial yield of one-third of a bale, or 500 pounds of seed cotton per acre (the average output), often reaches two-thirds of a bale or 1,000 pounds of seed cotton, after the first rotation; one bale, or 1,500 pounds of seed cotton, after the second rotation ; and one and one-third bales, or 2,000 pounds of seed cotton, after the third rotation. Here uniform increase seems to stop. .Given a sufficient supply of moisture there would be, theoretically, no limit to the in- crease in yield, since the mechanical condition of the soil would be steadily improving under its en- larging content of humus, which would of course render possible a corresponding increase in the ap- plication of commercial fertilizers for each staple. As the water-supply, however, is a most erratic factor, it is found in practice that after the third rotation (or tenth year), the yield fluctuates con- siderably, yet seldom falls short of one and one- third bales as a minimum and frequently, in more propitious seasons, attains a maximum of one and three-fourths to two bales per acre, in which there is a most satisfactory profit. The increase in the yield of the other two staple crops is neither so uniform nor so large, relatively, as the increase for cotton, yet it is nevertheless very obvious, When the available supply of lot manure, usually limited in the South, is distributed broadcast over the poorer spots, or “galls,” in order to bring their fertility up to the average of the surrounding area, a terraced cotton-farm, subjected to the “triennial rotation” for ten or twelve years, presents a high type of progress, and becomes, with little cost or inconvenience, an impressive and profitable object lesson, and one that is fortunately placed each year more and more in evidence. The general adoption of the system throughout the entire cotton-belt is unquestionably assured. EXAMPLES OF CROP ROTATION SYSTEMS IN CANADA, UNITED STATES, AND ELSEWHERE By S. Fraser The list following includes the most common rotations employed in America, in Great Britain and parts of the continent, and some in other lands. The effort is not to make a complete list of all crop rotations in use: this would be useless, if indeed not impossible. The more common ones that have come under the writer’s notice, and that will serve to show the importance generally attached to crop rotation in the farm management scheme, are given. The same rotation may be in use in many states, but it is given in one place, only where some special significance attaches. The rotations given under any state or province, for this reason, may not be the ones in general use; the latter will be found elsewhere on the list. In most cases, however, the rotation or rotations are the ones most gener- ally accepted. A few states have been omitted, as it has been impossible for the writer to secure any authentic record of rotations in use. These rota- tions are made as a matter of record, not for recommendation ; nor is it to be understood that the persons cited as authorities necessarily recom- mend them, nor have they furnished them all. These records cannot fail to be suggestive to the reader. I, CANADA Ontario. (G.E. Day.) Ontario Agricultural College Report, 1905. 4-course: 1, Rutabagas, mangels, potatoes, corn, barley, oats or peas ; 2, fall-sown wheat, or spring- sown oats or barley, and seeded to timothy and clover ; 3, meadow ; 4, meadow or pasture. A modification of the above in use at Ontario Agricultural College is: 8-course: 1; Roots, corn or potatoes; 2, fall- sown wheat, or spring-sown oats or barley, with four pounds of timothy and eight pounds of red clover per acre, and sometimes a little alsike clover; 3, meadow ; 4, dwarf essex rape, land plowed and cultivated until June, rape sown and grazed; 5, barley, oats or peas (spring-sown); 6, fall-sown wheat, or spring-sown oats or barley, with four pounds of timothy. eight pounds of red clover and five to eight pounds of a mixture of orchard-grass, meadow fescue and tall oat-grass. The addition of the three latter grasses has proved of considerable 100 value for pasture, enabling more stock to be car- ried per acre than on timothy and clover alone; 7, meadow ; 8, pasture or meadow, cut once and then grazed, it being usually arranged to have the area in pasture so that it may be grazed with the rape. When stock have access to both grass and rape at all times, better results are secured than from either alone. This land is manured and fall-plowed for the succeeding root crop. J. H. Grisdale, Experimental Farms Report, 1905, pp. 77-89: 8-course: 1, Oats; land plowed twice in previous fall, oats sown in spring and ten pounds of clover and ten pounds of timothy ; 2, clover hay, manured in fall ; 3, timothy hay or mixed clover and timothy. 8-course: 1, Oats; land plowed twice in pre- vious fall, and twelve pounds of timothy sown with oats; 2, timothy hay, land manured; 3, timothy hay. 8-course. Primarily for feeding hogs: 1, Roots, turnips, carrots, mangels, sugar-beets; sugar man- gels are grown, part being pastured by hogs; of these, mangels and sugar-beets were preferred by the hogs ;.2, grain (oats, etc., with peas), used for soiling or the peas pastured when ripe. Alfalfa or some other pasture crop is sown with the grain crop; 3, hogs pastured on alfalfa or other crop, land manured and fall-plowed ready for the root crop. 3-course. Suitable for farmer having consider- able rough pasture and desiring to keep consider- able stock. Roots might-be grown in place of some of the corn: 1, Corn, land manured and plowed the previous fall, depth of plowing about five inches. The land is again fall-plowed when the corn is cut; 2, grain, oats or barley spring-sown, with ten pounds of red clover, one pound of alsike clover, five pounds of timothy; 3, hay, mown twice, and manured and fall-plowed for succeeding corn crop. 8-course: 1, Corn, land manured the previous fall and winter and plowed in spring; 2, grain; oats or barley, spring-sown, with ten pounds of red clover, one pound of alsike clover, five pounds of alfalfa, five pounds of timothy seed per acre; 3, pasture. Thus far, pasturing the land, instead of mowing as in the previous rotation, has not been so remunerative. 4-course: 1, Roots; 2, grain (oats), land being fall-plowed if possible and ten pounds of red clover, one pound of alsike, ten pounds of timothy sown with the oats ; 3, meadow, mown twice ; 4, meadow, mown twice, land manured and fall-plowed. 4-course. For a sheep-farm: 1, Roots, areas of the following crops being grown to furnish a succes- sion: White turnips, cabbage, rutabagas or swedes, kohlrabi, thousand-headed kale, rape, mangels, etc.; 2, grain, oats or barley, used for soiling or for grain as circumstances dictate. The following seeds are sown with the grain: Alfalfa, red clover, alsike clover, awnless brome and timothy; 3, meadow, mown once, the aftermath being devoted to pasture for newly weaned lambs; 4, pasture, manured in the fall and plowed for the succeeding root crop. 5-course: 1, Oats, with clover and timothy among; 2, meadow; 3, meadow, plowed twice in the fall and left ridged for winter; 4, oats, with CROP ROTATION SYSTEMS IN CANADA, UNITED STATES, AND ELSEWHERE ten pounds of red clover per acre as a cover and green-manuring crop, land manured in winter; 5, corn; land spring-plowed for the corn and fall- plowed after its removal if possible. 5-course: 1, Oats, with ten pounds of red clover, one pound of alsike clover, and five pounds of tim- othy per acre ; 2, meadow, manured in the fall and winter; 3, corn or roots, land spring-plowed ; 4, oats, with clover and timothy as before; 5, meadow, and land fall-plowed for succeeding oat crop. 6-course: 1, Oats, land fall-plowed, and ten pounds of red clover sown with the oats and allowed to grow until late fall, when it is plowed under ; 2, oats or barley, with eight pounds of red clover and ten’ pounds of timothy per acre; 3, clover hay, mown twice and last aftermath not grazed; 4, mixed hay, land manured; 5, timothy hay ; 6, timothy hay, land fall-plowed. If straight timothy hay is desired all the time, no clover need be sown; such a course is not so profitable for general farming. Il. Unitep STATES Alabama. (J. F. Duggar.) Rotation not often attempted. 1, Corn with cowpeas between; 2, small grain, usually oats, with cowpeas; 3, cotton; 4, cotton or corn as before. : 1, Cotton; 2, cotton; 3, cotton; 4, oats with cowpeas. (Wilcox county.) Arkansas. Cotton continuously on bottom-land. 1, Corn; 2, cotton ; 3, oats with cowpeas. California. (B. J. Wickson.) Rotation not general, in fact, generally avoided. Grain crops are sometimes grown after beans or alfalfa. Watermelons, tomatoes, etc., are followed by grain. Grain and pasture are alternated. 1, Corn; 2, wheat; 3, oats. (Napa county.) 2-course: 1, Barley; 2, fallow. (Monterey county, etc.) 2-course: 1, Wheat; 2, fallow. (San Joaquin county, etc.) 1, Corn, for silage; 2, oats, for hay. (Sonoma county.) Considerable multiple cropping is done on irri- gated land. Colorado. (W. H. Olin.) No general use of rotations. 1, Grain ; 2-4, alfalfa, cut two or three times per year ; 5-7, roots, potatoes, sugar-beets, etc. 1, Peas ; 2, potatoes ; 3, wheat; 4, fallow. 1, Potatoes ; 2, wheat; 8, potatoes; 4, wheat; 5, alfalfa, one to several years. Potato-growing sections. 8-course: 1, Potatoes ; 2, potatoes ; 3, wheat ; 4, barley or oats and seeded to alfalfa ; 5, 6, 7, 8, alfalfa, manured before plow- ing under for potatoes. Connecticut. (L. A. Clinton.) Rotation common. 1, Corn, manured, cut for silage, and rye sown among for cover-crop and plowed under; 2, corn eueIpul «“YIOM 4e Iopurq pue dayseaieQ ‘JIT a1vIg CROP ROTATION SYSTEMS IN CANADA, UNITED STATES, AND ELSEWHERE cut for silage and rye sown in fall; 3, rye, and seeded to timothy and clover ; 4, timothy and clover mown and retained as long as possible. Tobacco continuously. (Hartford county.) 1, Corn, with rye as cover-crop; 2, rye plowed under and tobacco planted; 3, grass for one or more years. (Litchfield county.) 1, Tobacco; 2, tobacco; 3, corn; 4, tobacco; 5, clover. (Tolland county.) Delaware. (A. T. Neale.) Rotations in general use. Most common one, now in use over one hundred years: 1, Corn; 2, oats or potatoes; 3, wheat seeded with timothy and clover ; 4, hay retained as long as considered profitable. 1, Corn, with crimson clover seeded in it; 2, crimson clover cut for seed and a volunteer crop allowed to grow until August, then plowed under and seeded to wheat; 3, wheat seeded with tim- othy and clover ; 4 and 5, hay, or 4 hay ; 5, pasture. Dairy-farm. 1, Corn cut for silage, with crimson clover seeded in July; 2, crimson clover cut for hay in May, followed by corn cut for silage, with a late variety of crimson clover sown in it; 3, crim- son clover cut for hay and land seeded to cowpeas cut for hay, and land seeded to wheat in September ; 4, wheat and land seeded to timothy and clover ; 5, hay ; or the latter crop may be omitted if desired. A very successful rotation. Florida. a. M. Conner.) Rotation not largely prac- ticed. 8-course: 1, Corn; 2, cotton; 3, velvet beans or cowpeas. (G. K. Holmes) 1, Cotton; 2, corn with peanuts (Madison county). 1, Corn; 2, cotton; 3, corn; 4, cotton; 5, oats (Jackson county). Multiple cropping is often practiced ; thus, the following crops are often grown on the same land in one year: Cabbages, beans and hay; melons, sweet- potatoes and turnips; melons, sweet-potatoes and perhaps peas; two crops of hay and cabbage; cab- bage, beans and hay; vegetables, followed by rice; corn, or cotton, followed by beggarweed (for hay in corn-fields but not in cotton-fields); tobacco, fol- lowed by Irish or sweet-potatoes, peas, turnips, etc. A crop of hay is generally grown after all early cultivated crops. Georgia. (R. J. Redding.) Rotation not common. See Alabama. : 6-course: 1, Cotton; 2, cotton; 3, cotton; 4, oats with cowpeas ; 5, corn with cowpeas ; 6, oats or small grains with cowpeas. (Baldwin county.) Considered only as a compromise, with all the advantage in favor of the cotton. 8-course: 1, Corn, with cowpeas; 2, oats, with cowpeas; 3, cotton. Recommended by Georgia Experiment Station. On thin land it is recom- mended to extend it to a 4-course, as follows: 1, Corn, with cowpeas; 2, oats or wheat, with cow- peas; 3, oats or wheat, with cowpeas ; 4, cotton. Frequently two or three crops are grown on the same land in one year; thus, small grains, as oats, 101 sweet-potatoes, potatoes, corn, cotton, cowpeas, millet, peanuts, sorghum hay, cabbage, watermelons, follow one another, and three crops are secured by growing these after a crop of oats or wheat. Idaho. (H. T. French.) Rotation practiced to con- siderable extent. 7-course for irrigated land : 1-4, Alfalfa for four years; 5, wheat; 6, oats; 7, barley, seeded to alfalfa. Northern part of state. 3 years: 1, Wheat; 2, wheat, oats or barley; 3, bare fallow. 5 or 6 years: 1, Wheat; 2, oats; 3, barley, seeded with timothy and clover; 4 and 5, timothy and clover. Illinois. (C. G. Hopkins.) For the corn-belt : Most common rotation: Corn for two or three years, followed by oats for one year. Sometimes clover is seeded with the oats and plowed under the next spring for corn. 4-course: 1, Corn, with cowpeas, soybeans or clover as a catch-crop, sown at last cultivation; 2, oats, with wheat seeded in fall; 3, wheat, clover seeded in spring; 4, clover, first crop used for hay, second for seed or grazed. For the wheat-belt : 5-course: 1, Corn; 2, corn; 3, oats, with clover and timothy seeded ; 4, meadow ; 5, pasture. 4-course: 1, Corn; 2, oats; 3, wheat; 4, cow- peas or soybeans. 8-course: 1, Wheat, with cowpeas or soybeans as a catch-crop; 2, corn, with cowpeas or soy- beans as a catch-crop ; 3, cowpeas or soybeans. Some multiple cropping is done, as: Rape in corn; cowpeas after rye or wheat; corn after strawberries ; millet after winter rye, which has been used as pasture until June; millet, turnips or rape after early potatoes, etc. Indiana. (A. T. Wiancko.) Rotation generally practiced. The 3-course is most common: 1, Corn; 2, wheat; 8, clover, used either as hay or for seed production. N. W. Indiana: 1, Corn; 2, oats; 3, clover. 4-course: 1, Corn ; 2, oats; 3, wheat; 4, clover. E. and 8. Indiana: 1, Corn; 2, wheat; 3, clover ; 4, grass. 2-course: 1, Wheat; 2, clover, fertilizers being applied to the wheat. lowa. 1, Corn; 2, oats; 3-5, grass and clover. 1, Corn; 2, oats; 3, clover. 1, Corn; 2, corn; 3, oats; 4 and 5, hay for two or more years. (Common.) Kansas. (A. M. Ten Eyck.) Rotation not general. Northeastern Kansas: 1, Corn; 2, wheat, oats or other small grains, and seed to clover and grass ; 3-5, clover and grass. Southeastern Kansas: 1, Corn; 2, oats; 3, wheat. For others, see article on Farm Management, page 90, by Professor Ten Eyck. 1, Kafir corn ; 2, rye; 3, corn; 4, millet. 102 1, Kafir corn ; 2, corn. 1, Kafir corn; 2, corn; 3, sorghum. Kafir corn is grown as a catch-crop after wheat. Kentucky. (J. N. Harper.) 1, Kentucky blue-grass for several years, hemp for several years, corn two years, wheat, cowpeas, wheat, clover two years, timothy and Kentucky blue-grass ; grass land manured ; fertilizer applied to hemp and corn. Tobacco, two years ; corn, three years ; wheat, two years; clover, two years; timothy and Ken- tucky blue-grass, the latter remaining for several years, Tobacco; corn, with peas; wheat; cowpeas; wheat; corn, two years; oats; cowpeas; rye; corn; wheat; clover; timothy; Kentucky blue- grass. 1, Corn; 2, rye; 3, clover; 4, clover. (Clark county.) 1, Tobacco; 2, rye; 3, clover. (Grant county.) : Tobacco ; 2, wheat ; 3, clover. (Graves county, etc. 1, Corn ; 2, tobacco; 3, wheat ; 4 and 5, clover. (Christian county.) ; Multiple cropping is practiced, as: Potatoes, followed by sweet corn, beans, corn, turnips, cab- bage; onions with cabbage; rye and millet, soy- beans, clover, cowpeas being sown with rape; corn and small grains, with cowpeas, clover, etc. Louisiana. (F. H. Burnette.) 2-course: 1, Cotton; 2, corn with cowpeas. Rice-growing: Rice for two years; one year rest, with no crop. Sugar-growing : Cane for three years ; corn with cowpeas. In use in 1850 and maintained until the land be- came unproductive: 1, Cotton; 2; cotton ; 3, corn. . Some multiple cropping is practiced. See Florida and Georgia. ‘ Maine. (W. D. Hurd.) Rotation not general. 1, Potatoes; 2, corn, manured, cut for silage; 3, oats, seeded with grass and clover ; 4 and 5, hay. Potato-growers’ rotation: 1, Potatoes; 2, oats or spring-wheat ; 3, grass and clover. 1, Oats; 2 and 8, clover ; 4, potatoes. This re- quires but one plowing in four years, viz., that for the potatoes. Maryland. (W..T. L. Taliaferro.) Rotation com- monly practiced. General farming. Very common: 1, Corn; 2, wheat or oats; 38, wheat, with grass and clover, stubble pastured ; 4, mixed hay cut once, second crop grazed ; 5, timothy cut once, second crop grazed. 1, Corn ; 2, wheat, followed by some rapid-grow- ing cowpea ; 3, cowpeas plowed under and seeded to wheat with grass and clover; 4 and 5, hay and pasture. 1, Corn with crimson clover between rows; 2, crimson clover plowed under and corn planted ; 3, wheat ; 4, winter oats; 5 and 6, timothy. 1, Corn; 2, wheat; 3, clover, pastured. CROP ROTATION SYSTEMS IN CANADA, UNITED STATES, AND ELSEWHERE 1, Tobacco; 2, wheat with clover; 3, clover grazed. Often the clover fails when sown so fre- quently, and the third course is largely weeds. See Tennessee. 1, Corn, with cowpeas between the rows and crimson clover sown at last cultivation ; 2, clover plowed under and cowpeas put in for hay or silage ; 8, wheat, with timothy and clover; 4 and 5, hay. Massachusetts. (Wm. P. Brooks.) Rotation gener- ally practiced. Dairy-farming, 5-course, soil medium loam, good: 1, Corn, manured for grain; 2, corn, manured, cut for silage and grass and clover sown in the corn; 3, grass and clover mown twice; 4, grass and clover, sometimes fertilized and mown twice; 5, grass and clover, usually fertilized and mown twice. 5-course. Heavy loams. Good: 1, Corn, manured ; 2, oats, with grass and clover seeds; 3, 4, 5, grass and clover, usually mown twice and fertilized the last two years. ; 5-course. Light soil. Fair: 1, Corn, manured, for silage; 2, corn, manured, for grain; 3, rye, with grass and clover seeds; 4 and 5, hay cut twice a year and fertilized. Potato-growing, 5-course. Medium to light soils. Good : 1, Potatoes fertilized; 2, corn, for silage, manured ; 3, oats, cut for hay, and seeded to grass and clover; 4 and 5, hay, cut twice a year and - fertilized: 3-course. Light soils. Poor: 1, Potatoes with fertilizers ; 2, winter rye; 3, clover. 4-course. Light soils: 1, Corn manured; 2, potatoes with fertilizers ; 3, rye; 4, clover. 1, Corn; 2, oats; 3, rye; 4 and 5, grass and clover. (Hampden county.) In. Buckland : 1, Corn, manured ; 2, oats manured, and land laid to grass, which was allowed to grow until the yield dropped to 1,500 pounds per acre. First crop usually 2 tons per acre. In Shelburne, on one of the best farms: 1, Corn on a grass sward, manured; 2, spring-wheat, laid down to grass or sometimes rye ; then oats, or oats and peas ; then wheat, with grass; grass remain- ing for five years. In Deerfield: 1, Corn, manured; 2, spring-wheat, or wheat and oats, or rye with southern clover ; 3, clover, then plowed again. Sometimes an early crop of hay is followed by millet, barley or winter squash ; green rye by corn, oats or millet ; oat hay by barley. Coleman in Fourth Report of Agriculture, Mass., 1841, says that rotation is limited. Michigan. 1, Corn; 2, rye; 3, clover. (Gratiot county.) 1, Corn; 2, rye; 3, rye; 4 and65, clover. (Alle- gan county.) Minnesota. (A. D. Wilson.) 8-course for dairy sections: 1, Grain, as oats, etc.; 2, clover ; 3, corn. 5-course: 1, Wheat, seeded to grass and clover ; 2, meadow; 3, pasture; 4, grain, usually oats; 5, corn, manured at eight tons per acre. CROP ROTATION SYSTEMS IN CANADA, UNITED STATES, AND ELSEWHERE Grain-growing. 7-course: 1, Corn; 2, wheat and seed to grass ; 3 and 4, grass; 5, 6, 7, grain crops with clover or rape among the grain, on at least one occasion, and plowed under as green-manure. 4-course: 1, Corn; 2, peas; 3, barley ; 4, clover. 5-course: 1, Wheat; 2, clover and timothy, mown; 3, meadow; 4, oats; 5, mangels or pota- toes. 1, Wheat; 2, wheat ; 3, oats; 4, wheat; 5, flax. 1, Corn; 2, wheat ; 3, wheat; 4, oats. 1, Barley ; 2, barley ; 3 and 4, clover. 1, Barley ; 2, corn; 3, oats; 4, corn; 5, wheat. Last four poor. Mississippi. 1, Cotton, with annual vetch in winter, contin- uously. 1, Corn and cowpeas continuously. 2-course: 1, Oats and cowpeas ; 2, cotton. 2-course: 1, Corn and cowpeas ; 2, cotton. 3-course: 1, Cotton; 2, corn and cowpeas; 3, oats and cowpeas. 8-course. Poor: 1, Cotton; 2, cotton; 3, corn (poor). Missouri. (M. F. Miller.) Systematic rotation not largely followed. Common rotation on black loam: Corn for one to five years, followed by oats or wheat, seeded with timothy and clover (left for two or three years). Stony loam: 1, Corn; 2, corn; 8, wheat; 4, clo- ver or clover and timothy, in which case the timothy may again be cut the fourth year. Montana. (A. Atkinson.) 6-course: 1, Wheat; 2, clover; 3, oats; 4, sugar-beets ; 5, barley; 6, peas. 8-course: 1, Wheat and barley; 2, clover; 3, roots and peas. Most common one: 1, Barley; 2, clover; 3, clover ; 4, oats or wheat ; 5, wheat. New Hampshire. (F. W. Taylor.) Few definite sys- tems in use. Dairying, clay loams. 6-course. Good: 1, Corn; 2, corn; 3, oats and peas, with grass and clover seeds ; 4, 5, 6, hay or pasture. Loams. 7-course. Good: 1, Corn; 2, corn; 3, potatoes; 4, oats and peas; 5, 6, 7, clover and timothy for hay or pasture. 8-course: 1, Corn; 2, potatoes; 3, barley seeded with clover and grasses; 4, clover hay; 5-8, grasses, used for hay or pasture. Upland light loam, used by Prof. J. W. Sanborn, Gilmanton, N. H.: 1, Corn; 2, oats and peas; 3, clover; 4, potatoes; 5, Hungarian (millet); 6, 7, timothy (hay); 8, pasture. New Jersey. (E. B. Voorhees.) General farming. Medium clay loam. 4-course: 1, Corn; 2, oats; 8, wheat ; 4, timothy and clover. Heavy clay loam. 5-course: 1, Corn ; 2, oats; 3, 4, 5, hay. Same. 4-course: 1, Corn; 2, wheat; 3, 4, hay.. 103 Loam. 4-course: 1, Corn ; 2, potatoes ; 3, wheat ; 4, hay, timothy and clover. 3-course : 1, Potatoes; 2, wheat; 3,clover. Has been used by T. B. Terry, Ohio, for several years, but he is abandoning it now, since a clover crop every third year is too frequent. Sandy loam. 4-course: 1, Corn; 2, tomatoes ; 3, white potatoes (early); 4, clover. Light sandy loam. 4-course: 1, Corn; 2, sweet- potatoes; 3, rye; 4, clover. Dairying. Clay loam. 3-course: 1, Corn (cut for silage); 2, rye; 3, timothy and clover. Medium loam. 3 years: 1, Corn (cut for silage); 2, oats and peas, followed by millet or cowpeas ; 3, rye. New York. Gravel loam: 1, Potatoes, with rye sown in fall; 2, rye, with clover sown in spring and plowed under for potatoes. No manure or fertilizers used. Successful for past twelve years. 8-course: 1, Beans; 2, wheat; 3, clover. 4course: 1, Potatoes or corn; 2, beans; 3, wheat and sown to clover; 4, clover cut for hay. 4-course: 1, Wheat, manured and seeded to clover; 2, clover hay; 8, potatoes, cabbage or corn; 4, oats. 5-course: 1, Corn, manured; 2, oats; 3, rye, manured, with grass seeds; 4 and 5, grass and clover hay. - Heavy loams, 4 crops in three years: 1, Rye or * vats, with clover; 2, clover, cut once, land plowed and sown to buckwheat ; 3, potatoes. 8-course: 1, Corn; 2, wheat or oats ; 3, timothy and clover for hay. 4-course : 1, Rye, seeded to clover, etc.; 2, clover and timothy; 3, corn or. potatoes ; 4, oats or barley. 4-course: 1, Wheat, manured, seeded to clover and timothy ; 2, clover and timothy (hay), manured before plowing; 38, corn or oats; 4, barley or beans. Clay, 6-course: 1, Corn; 2, oats; 3-5, hay; 6, pasture. 5-course : 1, Beans, cattle beets or cabbage ; 2, oats, with timothy and clover; 38, meadow; 4, meadow ; 5, pasture. Cornell University 4-course. Very successful for over thirty years. Dairy-farm, with one-third of area in permanent pasture. Clay loam: 1, Corn (manured), cut for silage; 2, oats; 3, wheat (ma- nured), and timothy and clover sown; 4, meadow, cut twice. Dairy-farm : 1, Corn, cut for silage ; 2, oats and peas ; 3-5, grass and clover. (Delaware county.) 1, Strawberries planted; 2, strawberries har- vested in June, land plowed and sown to rutabagas, followed by rye, which is plowed under the next spring for strawberries. 1, Corn ; 2, cabbage ; 3, peas, followed by buck- ee wheat; 4, oats ; 5, wheat, with grass seeds; 6, meadow. Used in western part of Long Island, mentioned by General Washington in 1790: 1, Indian corn on clay, manured in the hill or scattering the dung broadcast ; 2, oats or flax; 3, wheat, with what 104 manure can be spared, seeded with 4 to 6 pounds of clover and a quart of timothy; 4, meadow, left down three to six years. For dairy-farm, soil gravel loam; 33 per cent of the land permanent pasture, the remainder cropped as follows: 1, Corn, manured, cut for silage, clover to be sown at last cultivation; 2, land manured, plowed and sown to peas for canning; land disked after peas come off and sown to clover, which is grazed in fall; 3, land plowed, sown to barley or oats with alfalfa, grain crop cut for hay; 4, 5, 6, alfalfa, mown three times a year and manure applied in fifth and sixth years; 7, corn, cut for silage, with clover sown; 8, clover mown twice and manured in fall, or oats; 9, potatoes, beans, sugar-beets or cabbage ; 10, wheat, manured, with grass and clover seeds; 11, clover and grass, mown twice; 12, pasture. Some straw or other material will need to be purchased for bedding. Part of the alfalfa will be mown green for soiling the cattle. Surplus hay may be sold, also peas, potatoes, wheat, to furnish cash to buy concen- trates. North Carolina. (C. K. McClelland.) Cotton-growing districts : 2 years: 1, Cotton, followed by crimson clover ; 2, corn with cowpeas. 3 years: 1, Cotton, followed by crimson clover ; 2, corn ; 8, wheat, followed by cowpeas. 3 years. Cotton and grain: 1, Rye, wheat or oats; 2, cotton; 8, corn. A poor rotation, no legumes included. 3 years. Cotton and grain: 1, Cotton; 2, corn with cowpeas; 3, wheat, followed by cowpeas. Better than one above. Tobacco-growing districts. 2 years: 1, Tobacco ; 2, wheat, followed by cowpeas. 4 years: 1, Clover; 2, corn with cowpeas; 3, tobacco ; 4, wheat seeded to clover. Grain-growing. 2 years: 1, Corn with cowpeas, latter not harvested ; 2, wheat, followed by cow- peas or crimson clover. Corn and potatoes: 1, Corn with cowpeas, fol- lowed by rye; 2, Irish potatoes, followed by vetch or crimson clover. Corn and potatoes. 4 years: 1, Corn with cow- peas; 2, oats with red clover; 3, clover; 4, Irish potatoes. Forage. 5 years: 1, Corn; 2, oats with red clover; 3, clover; 4, cowpeas for seed or hay; 5, wheat. 1, Cotton; 2, corn; 3, peanuts. 1, Corn with cowpeas or crimson clover; 2, peanuts ; 3, oats with.cowpeas ; 4, peanuts. 1, Corn with cowpeas; 2, peanuts; 3, cotton ; 4, cotton. North Dakota. (J. H. Shepperd.) Rotations not settled. 1, Wheat ; 2, flax ; 8, oats; 4, barley; 5, fallow. (Benson county.) 1, 2, Flax; 3, 4, small grain (Ramsey county.) 1, Corn; 2, flax; 8, wheat; 4, oats. (Cass county.) CROP ROTATION SYSTEMS IN- CANADA, UNITED STATES, AND ELSEWHERE 1, Wheat ; 2, wheat; 3, flax; 4, wheat ; 5, oats. (Grand Forks county.) Ohio. 1, Tobacco ; 2, wheat ; 3 and 4, grass and clover. Also, 1, Corn; 2, beardless barley; 3-6, alfalfa. (J. E. Wing.) s-course: 1, Tobacco ; 2, wheat ; 3, clover. 8-course: 1, Corn, manured; 2, wheat; 3, clover. 4-course: 1, Corn; 2, soybeans or cowpeas; 3, wheat ; 4, clover. 5-course: 1, Corn; 2, oats; 3, wheat; 4 and 5, timothy and clover. T. B. Terry’s 3-course: 1, Potatoes; 2, wheat ; 8, clover. Has been considerably used in England. (See Bavaria, p. 107.) This rotation “keeps the land moving.” It repeats clover every third year and thereby becomes a great rejuvenator of the land. Oklahoma. (F.C. Burtis.) Rotation not general. 8-course: 1, Corn; 2, oats; 3, wheat and cow- peas. 5-course : 1, Castor-beans; 2, kafir corn; 3, cot- ton; 4, oats; 5, wheat and soybeans. 1, Corn; 2, kafir corn; 3, sorghum. county.) Wheat and kafir corn the same year continuously. Kafir corn continuously. (Greer Oregon. (James Withycombe.) Many practice ro- tation. Dairying: 1, Corn, cut for silage and wheat drilled in between rows ; 2, wheat; 3, clover; 4, clover ; 5, wheat. 2-course : 1, Barley or oats ; 2, vetch. 1, Wheat ; 2, oats; 3, corn or fallow. (Marion county.) 1, Wheat; 2, oats ; 3, oats; 4, grass and clover. Pennsylvania. (G. C. Watson.) Rotation common and long practiced. Clay loam: 1, Corn; 2 oats ; 3, wheat or rye; 4, clover and timothy for one or two years. 5-course: 1, Corn; 2, tobacco; 3, wheat; 4, wheat ; 5, clover and timothy. 5-course: 1, Potatoes; 2, oats; 3, wheat; 4, wheat; 5 clover and timothy. 4-course: 1, Tobacco; 2, oats; 8, wheat; 4, meadow. (Clinton county.) Gravelly soils: 1, Corn; 2, oats; 3, clover; 4, oats ; 5, clover and timothy. Gravelly soils: 1, Corn; 2, oats; 3, rye, clover and timothy ; clover and timothy are left down as long as desirable, frequently two or three years, the second and subsequent crops being largely timothy. John Beale Bordley, on the rotation of crops, 1792, Philadelphia, Pa.: Old English: 1, Fallow; 2, wheat ; 3, peas or beans ; 4, barley. Maintained on half the farm for ten or twenty years, the other half being in grass, then vice versa. New English (suggested): 1, Barley ; 2, clover ; 8, wheat ; 4, clover ; 5, peas, beans or turnips. CROP ROTATION SYSTEMS IN CANADA, UNITED STATES, AND ELSEWHERE Old American systems: 1, Maize; 2, wheat or rye; 3, rubbish pasture. I, Maize ; 2, naked fallow ; 8, wheat ; 4, rubbish pasture, Yields of wheat six to eight bushels per acre. Suggested systems: 1, Maize ; 2, wheat or bar- ley ; 3, clover; 4, rye or winter barley ; © and 6, clover. 1, Maize; 2, beans; 8, barley; 4, clover; 5, wheat ; 6, clover for one or two years. Montgomery county, 5-course. In use over one hundred years: 1, Corn on sod, limed and plowed in fall or spring; 2, oats; 3, wheat with timothy sown in fall and red clover in spring ; 4, clover and timothy mown ; 5, pasture. The old York and Lancaster rotation is similar to the above, but the grass is left down longer. A successful rotation long practiced in parts: 1, Wheat ; 2, rye; 3, clover; 4, wheat; 5, corn; 6, oats ; 7, wheat; 8, clover. Porto Rico. (D. W. May.) Rotation not general in the island. Low land: Sugar-cane for three to eight years, and then Para grass cut and sold. A better rotation would be: Sugar-cane, rotated with cowpeas or alfalfa, the latter being fed and the manure returned to the soil. Rhode Island. (H. J. Wheeler.) 8-course: 1, Winter rye, with clover sown in spring ; 2, clover hay; 3, potatoes. A-course: 1, Winter rye, with red clover sown in spring ; 2, clover hay ; 8, maize on clover sod; 4, potatoes. 5-course : 1, Rye, seeded with grasses and clover ; 2, hay; 3, hay; 4, corn; 5, potatoes. 6-course : 1, Corn, on grass sod; 2, potatoes ; 3, winter rye, seeded to red clover, timothy and red- top ; 4-6, grass. When the land is poor it is bet- ter to begin the rotation with rye. Market-garden: 1, Sweet corn (Cory), followed by beans, with clover sown at last cultivation as a cover-crop; or beans followed by corn (Crosby), with clover as cover-crop; 2, clover plowed under, tomatoes planted and rye sown as cover-crop in fall; 3, potatoes (early), followed by cabbage, or early cabbage followed by carrots; 4, spinach, fol- lowed by celery, followed by spinach again, or transplanted lettuce followed by celery. South Dakota. (J. 8. Cole.) Rotation not general. In northern and western parts of state: Corn, po- tatoes or other intertilled crop, followed by wheat. In southern and eastern parts of state: Barley or oats grown instead of wheat. South Dakota Experiment Station. The following is a list of twenty-four rotations which are now, and have been, on trial for the past ten years: 1, Flax; 2, barley ; 3, millet ; 4, wheat ; 5, corn.—l, Wheat; 2, oats; 3, peas (fed off by stock); 4, wheat; 5, roots.—1, Oats; 2, wheat; 3, fallow; 4, wheat ; 5, corn.—1, Wheat; 2, barley; 3, peas, plowed under for manure; 4, wheat ; 5, corn.—l, Wheat ; 2, oats; 8, corn; 4, flax; 5, millet, fed off by 105 stock.—1, Wheat ; 2, barley; 3, peas; 4, wheat; 5, corn, fed off by stock—1, Wheat; 2, corn; 3, wheat: 4, oats—1, Wheat; 2, corn; 8, oats; 4, millet.—1, Wheat; 2, corn, land manured; 3, weat; 4, oats.—1, Wheat; 2, corn; 3, oats.—l, Oats; 2, fallow; 3, wheat.—1, Barley ; 2, millet; 3, wheat.—l, Barley; 2, peas; 38, wheat.—1, Wheat; 2, wheat ; 3, fallow.—-1, Wheat ; 2, wheat; 8, corn.—1, Wheat ; 2, fallow.—1, Wheat ; 2, corn. —l, Wheat; 2, vetch.—Wheat continuously, no manure.— Wheat continuously, manured every five years.— Wheat continuously, manured every three years.—Wheat continuously, manured every year. —1, Wheat, seeded to awnless brome-grass; 2, brome-grass; 3, brome-grass; 4, flax; 5, wheat; 6, corn.—1, Wheat, seeded to awnless brome-grass; 2, brome-grass; 38, brome-grass; 4, wheat; 5, corn.—(For details of these rotations, see South Dakota Bulletins, Nos. 79, 98, and Yearbook, United States Department of Agriculture, 1903, pp. 447-452.) Tennessee. (H. A. Morgan.) 1, Wheat and cowpeas. (Same rotation is used year after year ) 2-course : 1, Wheat and cowpeas; 2, corn. 4-course: 1, Wheat seeded to clover ; 2 and 3, clover ; 4, corn. 1, Cotton; 2, corn with cowpeas sown in it; 8, oats followed by cowpeas the same year. 1, Corn; 2, wheat; 3, grass for two to three years. 5-course: 1, Cowpeas, followed by rye (plowed under the following spring); 2, cowpeas ; 3, corn; 4, wheat ; 5, clover or cowpeas. 1, Wheat; 2, clover; 3, clover (pastured) ; 4, wheat, peas; 5, corn (peas planted in the corn); 6, oats followed by cowpeas. Common dairy-farm rotation: 1, Corn or sors ghum or corn and sorghum; 2, wheat, seeded to clover ; 3, clover. Utah. (W. M. Jardine.) Rotation little considered in the state. Sandy loam, 5-course : 1, Sugar-beets ; 2, peas and oats for forage ; 3, sugar-beets; 4, oats, seeded to alfalfa; 5, alfalfa, two crops mown, third plowed under. 1. Corn (manured) ; 2 sugar-beets; 3, peas for forage ; 4, sugar-beets ; 5, wheat, preferably fol- lowed by alfalfa, making a six- or seven-year course. Virginia. Rotations long established. 1, Irish potatoes (2 crops); 2, sweet-potatoes ; 3, sweet-potatoes ; 4, corn. (Accomac county.) 1, Potatoes followed by corn; 2, oats, followed by cowpeas. 1, Corn; 2, wheat; 3, clover; 4, wheat; 5, oats or pasture. 1, Corn ; 2, wheat or oats; 3, wheat; 4, hay for two to nine years. ; In use in 1800, and previously (Farmers’ Regis- ter, Va.): 1, Corn ; 2, wheat or oats; 3, land allowed to grow weeds, which were grazed. 106 On poorer land: 1, Corn; 2, natural cover of weeds, either grazed or burned off. 4-course, along James river, A. D., 1800: 1, Corn or oats; 2, wheat and clover; 3, clover grown as green-manure and plowed under ; 4, wheat. 1, Tobacco ; 2, wheat; 3 and 4, clover. 1, Tobacco; 2, wheat. 1, Corn with cowpeas or crimson clover sown among; 2, peanuts. 1, Corn with cowpeas; 2, peanuts; 3, cotton; 4, cotton. 1, Corn (soiling crop); 2, oats or other grain; 3-5, hay and pasture. Colonel Taylor’s rotation, about one hundred years ago: 1, Corn; 2, wheat and clover ; 8 and 4, clover, neither mown nor grazed. His idea was that this was necessary to prevent depletion of the soil. The Eastern Shore rotation consisted of three crops in two years: 1, Maize; 2, oats, followed by Magothy Bay beans (also called partridge peas) which were plowed under. West Virginia. ' Buckwheat up to 6 ants without change. (Pres- ton county.) 1, Buckwheat ; 2, wheat; 8 and 4, grass and clover. (Marshall county, etc.) 1, Buckwheat; 2, corn; county.) 3, wheat. (Tucker Wisconsin. 1, Buckwheat ; 2, rye; 3 and 4, grass and clover. (Juneau county). 1, Potatoes ; 2, potatoes ; 3, buckwheat ; A, rye; 5, corn. (Juneau. county.) 1, Potatoes ; 2 and 3, grain; 4 and 5, grass and clover. (Waupaca, etc, counties.) 1, Potatoes ; 2, corn; 3, potatoes; 4 and 5, grass and clover. 1, Potatoes ; 2, wheat ; 3 and 4, clover. 1, Corn ; 2-4, tobacco. Wyoming. (B. C. Buffum.) Rotations not generally used. 1, Oats on sod; 2, potatoes ; alfalfa; 4 to 9, alfalfa. 2-course : 1, Field peas, harvested or pastured by lambs ; 2, grain. 1, Legume, either peas for one-year crop or alfalfa for three to five years; 2, roots, either turnips or beets for stock or potatoes for sale ; 3, grain. 3, wheat, seeded to III. GREAT BRITAIN 8-course: 1, Wheat; 2, beans; 3, fallow. In use before the Roman invasion, and in some places as late as 1870. Norfolk 4-course. Introduced by Lord Townsend in 1730 on his Norfolk estates. Soil sandy and poor: 1, Turnips, fed on the land by sheep; 2, barley with clover seeds; 3, clover hay; 4, wheat. Mutton, wheat and barley are the products sold. This course is expensive in labor, and it has been found to be impossible to grow clover so frequently as once in four years on many soils. CROP ROTATION SYSTEMS IN CANADA, UNITED STATES, AND ELSEWHERE Suffolk : 1, Turnips; 2, barley ; clover; 4, peas; 5, barley. Light calcareous soils : 1, Turnips; 2, barley; 8, peas; 4, wheat; 5, turnips ; 6, roots; 7, barley; 8, sainfoin for ten or more years. (Alfalfa is sometimes used instead.) 1, Peas; 2, oats; 3, turnips; 4, barley with grass and clover seeds ; 5, meadow. Peaty soils: 1, Turnips or cabbage; 2, oats; 3, turnips or cabbage ; 4, oats; 5, clover; 6, wheat. (Everything fed to stock except wheat.) 1, Potatoes (sold for seed); 2, oats; 3, turnips or cabbage; 4, turnips or cabbage; 5, oats, with grass and clover seed; 6,-meadow. (Everything fed to stock except potatoes.) Heavy peaty land: 1, Cabbage ; 2, oats ; 3, beans or clover; 4, wheat; 5, cabbage or mangels for « feed; 6, oats. Light soils: 1, Turnips; 2, barley; 3, 4, 5, clo- ver and rye-grass; 6, peas; 7, rye; 8, wheat. Common Hertfordshire system: 1, Turnips; 2, barley ; 3, clover; 4, wheat; 5, peas or oats. Sir Mordaunt Martin’s course one hundred years ago: 1, Turnips; 2, barley; 3, clover ; 4, wheat ; 5, potatoes, mangels or vetches; 6, turnips; 7, barley; 8, trefoil and rye-grass; 9, peas; 10, potatoes, mangels or vetches. 1, Turnips ; 2, barley ; 8 and 4, grass and clover ; 5, vetches ; 6, wheat. Heavy loam: 1, Beans or oats; 2, turnips; 3, barley; 4, clover or winter vetches ; 5, wheat; 6, turnips or mangels; 7, barley with grass and clo- ver; 8, grass and clover for three or more years. Old system: 1, Oats; 2, beans; 8, wheat; 4, grass and weeds for four or five years. 1, Oats ; 2, turnips; 3, barley with grass seeds ; 4-6, grass and clover. 1, Peas; 2, barley; 3, clover; 4, wheat; 5, turnips; 6, barley, with grass seeds; 7-10, grass and clover. Clay: 1, Fallow; 2, wheat or barley; 3, peas or beans. 1, Fallow; 2, wheat; 3, clover; 4, oats. In use over one hundred years ago: 1, Fallow; 2, wheat ; 3, outs; 4, fallow; 5, wheat. Another method: 1, Fallow; 2, wheat ; 3, clover; 4, clover ; 5, wheat or other grain. 1, Fallow or roots, manured ; 2, oats with grass seeds; 3, pasture; 4, oats; 5, beans, manured ; 6, wheat. The Rothamsted course is: 1, Rutabaga; 2, barley; 3, beans or clover ; 4, wheat. 8, rye-grass and Ayrshire, Scotland. 1, Oats; 2, oats; pasture. Clover-sick land: 1, Turnips; 2, barley; 3, grass seeds for one or two years; 4, wheat; 5, barley or oats; 6, peas; 7, wheat. 1, Turnips or potatoes; 2, barley; 3, clover; 4, wheat; 5, turnips or mangels; 6, barley; 7, vetches or beans ; 8, wheat. 8, meadow ; 4-7, meadow or Midlands of England. 6-course: 1, Wheat; 2, barley; 3, roots; 4, oats; 5, clover and grasses mown; 6, pasture. Wheat CROP ROTATION SYSTEMS IN CANADA, UNITED STATES, AND ELSEWHERE is grown before barley to ensure a more uniform sample of the latter. Grain and stock are sold. 1, Turnips; 2, barley; 3, barley; .4, clover, grazed until May and then allowed to mature seed ; 5, wheat; 6, oats. 1, Turnips; 2, barley; 8, peas; 4, fallow or intertilled crop; 5, wheat; 6, oats. Common North England and Scotch. 5-course: 1, Wheat or oats; 2, turnips and pota- toes, part in each ; 8, barley or oats ; 4, clover and grass mown; 5, pasture. This permits heavy crop- ping and there is but one intertilled crop in five ; labor bill comparatively light. Scotch (Lothians) 5-course. Land rented high: 1, Oats; 2, potatoes or beans; 3, wheat ; 4, tur- nips ; 5, wheat or barley ; 6, clover or grass. Scotch 7-course used in the north of Scotland : 1, Oats; 2, barley; 3, turnips; 4, oats; 5, 6, 7, clover and grass. Practically all of the crops are fed to the stock. Sometimes the oats are made into oatmeal. Aberdeenshire, Scotland, 1762: The Aberdeen rotation: 1, Bere; 2, oats; 3, oats. Long practiced. The Hast Lothian: 1, Summer fallow, manured ; 2, barley ; 3, oats ; 4, peas; 5, wheat. The Carse: 1, Summer fallow and peas; 2, wheat ; 3, barley; 4, oats. The Norfolk 4-course was also used. Scotland, A. D., 1900, W. S. Ferguson, Picston- hill, Perth; farm, 1,000 acres: 1, Oats; 2, turnips; 8, barley ; 4, potatoes ; 5, wheat; 6, grass for one or two years. George Bell, Errol, Perth: 1, Wheat ; 2, turnips ; 3, barley or oats with grass and clover ; 4, meadow; 5 and 6, pasture ; 7, oats; 8, potatoes. W. F. Bell, Dundee, farm, 2,000 acres. .His rota- tion is: 1, Oats ; 2, potatoes ; 3, wheat; 4, turnips; 5, oats ; 6 and 7, grass, cut green and sold. For the past one hundred years all crops have been sold off the farm in Dundee, and manure hauled back, the grass going to cow-keepers. The farm is as pro- ductive as ever. ° Cunningham, of Delachy, Aberdour. Area, 593 acres. Half the farm is in grass, the remainder is cropped as follows: 1, Potatoes; 2, wheat; 3, turnips ; 4, barley; 5, hay; 6, oats. Cattle and sheep are bred and sold fat. None are bought for fattening. IV. OrnER RoraTions Europe. Used by beet-growers, 1900. 8-course: 1, Oats (manured); 2, beets ; 3, wheat. 8-course: 1, Oats ; 2, beets (manured); 3, wheat. 4-course : 1, Wheat; 2, beets (manured); 3, bar- ley or oats; 4, clover. 4-course: 1, Wheat; 2, clover; 3, rye, or oats ; 4, beets (manured). Ireland. Flax-growing regions. In use in 1906. 4-course: 1, Oats; 2, potatoes, mangels or tur- nips; 3, oats, barley or flax; 4, rye-grass and clover. By changes in 2 and 3, this can be made 8-course, flax being grown once in eight years. 107 Bavaria. (Schubert, 1700-1800.) 1, Potatoes; 2, barley; 3, clover; 4, wheat. The land became clover-sick under this system. This was later found to be true by Lawes and Gil- bert, Rothamsted, England, in the Norfolk four- course of roots, barley, clover, wheat; and still more recently by Terry, in Ohio, in his rotation of wheat, clover and potatoes. Belgium. Flax-growing districts. In use 1906. 7-course: 1, Rye; 2, oats; 3, clover; 4, barley or rye; 5, potatoes; 6, barley, wheat or rye; 7, flax. Clover or carrot seed is often sown with the flax. The rotation is often extended to an 8-, 9- or 10-course, but practically none of the land is seeded for pasture. France. 1750. Main crop woad: 1, Wheat ; 2, millet ; 3, woad; 4, grass, allowed to remain several years; sometimes two successive crops of woad were taken. For saffron, A. D. 1750, eighteen to twenty years rotation, the statement being made that it could not be grown at closer intervals. The crop takes four years to mature: 1, Land fallowed and frequently plowed ; 2-6, saffron, one crop ; 7, oats, and seeded to sainfoin ; 8-16, sainfoin cut for hay ; 17, grapes for several years or barley ; 18, wheat ; and then land fallowed as before. 1750. Main crop teasel: 1, Land manured, fall- and spring-plowed and sown to wheat or rye in fall, teasel seed sown with it or inspring ; 2 and 3, teasel, takes two years to mature. 1750-1760. Main crop flax: 1, Fallow; 2, fallow; 3, flax; 4, grass for several years. 1, Maize or turnips ; 2, beans; 3, flax; 4, grass for several years. 1, Flax or hemp; 2, turnips or other roots; 3, wheat or barley; 4, clover or alfalfa for severai years. 1, Beans; 2, carrots; 3, wheat or barley; 4, alfalfa or clover for several years. Normandy and Guienne, 1750: 2-course: 1, Wheat; 2, fallow. 2-course: 1, Wheat ; 2, clover. 2-course: 1, Wheat; 2, maize, land manured.- 8-course: 1, Wheat; 2, clover, sown on wheat ; stubble irrigated and grazed by sheep in winter. and spring, irrigated again later and mown for hay ; 3, land plowed and sown to kidney beans or millet. Patullo’s rotation for rich land: 1, Fallow, manured, sown to wheat in fall; 2, wheat; 3, oats or barley ; 4, wheat. 1760. Patullo’s rotation for light land. Land cleared, fallowed, manured and wheat sown in fall; 1, Wheat, stubble plowed and sown to turnips; 2, peas, followed by turnips as a catch-crop; 3, barley, and seeded with clover; 4, clover (hay) manured ; 5, clover (hay); 6, clover grazed and plowed in fall; 7, barley ; 8, wheat. Angoumois, 1760: 1, Meslin of barley, oats, wheat, peas, etc., cut green; 2, maize; 38, wheat; 4, barley or oats or a mixture of same; 5, fallow. 108 1, Maize; 2, wheat; 3, maize, barley or oats ; 4, wheat or fallow. 1760, 5-course: 1, Maize; 2, potatoes; 3, wheat; 4, clover, mown ; 5, clover pasture, for one or more years. 1, Turnips, carrots, potatoes fed to stock; 2, wheat or barley ; 3, alfalfa for several years. Normandy and Brittany, 1760: 1, Oats; 2, gorse or whin for several years, cut for stock and bruised. 11 years: 1, oats, sown thinly and sainfoin ; 2-10, sainfoin, mown; 11, wheat or rye. Bayeux. 1760. Ten years, good: 1, Buckwheat, sown end of June, land manured, followed by wheat; 2, wheat; 3, oats or barley; 4, peas, vetches or turnips, and sown to wheat in fall; 5, wheat; 6, oats and clover seed; 7-10, clover, pastured. Holland. Flax-growing district near Rotterdam. In use 1906. 7-course: 1, Rye or wheat; 2, beets or oats, manured ; 3, flax, the land having been previously manured with liquid manure; 4, beans or clover; 5, potatoes ; 6, rye or oats; 7, clover. The rota- tion is not so strictly adhered to as formerly, owing to various economic conditions, largely scarcity of labor. Land is rented at about fifteen dollars per acre, per annum. Italy. Old rotations. A. D., 1500-1600. 1, Millet ; 2, wheat. Brescia: 1, Flax and millet ; 2, maize ; 3, wheat ; 4, pasture for a long time. Brescia: 1, Wheat; 2, clover; 3, flax and mil- let ; 4, maize; 5, pasture for several years. Venice. C. Tarello, 1566, suggested the following 4- course and was granted a royalty thereon, same to be paid by any person using the rotation : 1, Fallow (manured); 2, grain; 3, clover and grass ; 4, clover and grass. Russia. (I. M. Rubinow, United States Bureau of Statistics, Bulletin No. 42, p.53.) There is lit- tle systematic rotation of crops in practice. The most primitive system in vogue, and the one largely used both in European Russia and Siberia, is to clear the land from the forest and sow to wheat or rye, which are grown continuously until the yield is reduced to almost nothing, when the land is abandoned for 10, 15 or even 30 years. A more advanced system is the “three-field,” consisting of: 1, Winter rye; 2, spring-wheat; 3, fallow ; or, 1, winter rye; 2, oats; 3, fallow. In some regions, the introduction of potatoes, sugar-beets, maize, tobacco and sown grasses has led to their use in the system instead of the fallow. Egypt. 8-course on reclaimed irrigated alkali land: 1, Samar (Cyperus levigatus, a reed); 2, rice; 8, cotton. 1, Samar; 2, cotton; 3, maize. CROP ROTATION SYSTEMS IN CANADA, UNITED STATES, AND ELSEWHERE India, in general. The rotation of crops is well understood and is generally practiced with more or less system. Voelcker states that the same fields have grown the same crops on much the same system as at present for centuries; it is averred, too, that, by rotation and fallows, the land receives the neces- sary change of cropping and the “rest” from cul- tivation which prevents its going down in quality (p. 86, Indian Agriculture). A remarkable feature is the frequent use of legumes and the sowing of mixtures of crops together, the same to be har- vested at different times. For example: Juar or millet (Sorghum vulgare) and arhar or pigeon pea (Cajanus Indicus) are sown in alternate rows like corn and cowpeas in the southern states; a grain and a leguminous crop being secured from the land in one year. Cotton and arhar, or Cotton and juar (millet) sown together are often more profitable than cotton alone. Wheat and gram or chick-pea (Cicer arietinum). Wheat and mustard. Wheat, barley and gram (Cicer arietinum). Wheat, barley, gram and rape. (From Report on the Improvement of Indian Agriculture, J. A. Voelcker, pp. 234, 235.) The following crops are placed in the order in which they would ripen and be cut; two or more of them are often sown together. Rape, sveti-sorse, mustard, lentil, linseed, native peas (Pisum arvense), khesari (Lathyrus sativus), wheat, barley and gram or chick-pea. (From Hand- book of Indian Agriculture, p. 266, N. G. Mukerji.) Rice is grown continuously on flooded land. Indigo (a legume) is frequently grown contin- uously on the same land. Bengal. Main crop sugar. Four crops in two years. Prep- aration: Jungle cleared in March to May and sown to aus paddy or maize, which is harvested in Sep- tember ; then potatoes: 1, Potatoes, harvested in February and sugar-cane planted; 2, sugar-cane, harvested in February and followed by either cow- peas, dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata), sunn hemp (Croto- laria juncea) or indigo, to be succeeded by potatoes, gram (Sorghum vulgare) or pulse, preferably kurthi (Dolichos biflorus). High and light soils. Nine crops in five years: 1, Aus paddy (May:to September), foilowed by a pulse or oilseed crop or the two mixed together (October to March); 2, jute (April to September); followed by a pulse or oilseed crop or the two mixed together (October to March); 3, aus paddy (May to September), followed by potatoes (October to February); 4, sugar-cane (February to February); 5, aus paddy (May to September), followed by a pulse crop (October to March). (Handbook of Indian Agriculture, p. 367, N. G. Mukerji.) For low and light soils. Hight crops in five years: 1, Maize, sown in April, til (Sesamum Indicum), and barley, sown in September; 2, sugar-cane, sown in February ; 3, sunn hemp and jute, sown in March, and mustard and country-peas (as distin- CROP ROTATION SYSTEMS IN CANADA, UNITED STATES, AND ELSEWHERE guished from European or American peas), sown in October ; 4, aman paddy, sown in June; 5, cucur- bitaceous catch-crop, sown in January, and aman paddy, sown in June. For high and heavy land. Eight crops in six years: 1, Sugar-cane, sown January to February ; 2, buhri cotton (if virgin soil), or (if old tilth) arhar or pigeon-pea (Cajanus Indicts), sown in May; 3, jute, sown in April; linseed and gram (chick-pea), sown in October; 4, maize, sown in April; linseed or kalai (Phaseolus radiatus), sown in October ; 5, aus paddy, sown in May; cowpeas, sown in September ; 6, fallow, also used as a cattle run, on which the cattle graze and are fed. For low and heavy soils. Six crops in five years: 1, Aman paddy, sown in June, and a cucurbitaceous catch-crop, sown in January; 2, aman paddy, sown in June; 3, jute, sown in March, kalai (Phaseolus radiatus), musuri or lentils (Hrvum lens), khesari (Lathyrus sativus) and linseed, sown in October ; 4, aman paddy or a sugar-cane that can with- stand water; 5, fallow. (Consult the Handbook of Indian Agriculture, p. 368, by N. G. Mukerji, Calcutta.) Burdwan division, India. Dearh land (sandy soils near rivers). A six-year rotation, furnishing ten crops and one year fallow. Good rotation, recommended for such conditions: 1, Aus paddy (an early-maturing, rather coarse rice), followed by a pulse or oilseed crop, or the two mixed together; 2, jute, followed by a pulse or oilseed crop or the two mixed together ; 3, aus paddy, followed by sugar-cane ; 4, sugar-cane, fol- lowed by aus paddy; 5, potatoes, followed by aus paddy ; 6, bare fallow. 2-course : 1, Aus paddy ; 2, wheat or barley. Dacea. .8-course: 1, Potatoes ; 2, rice or jute ; 3, chilies (Capsicum frutescens). 2-course: 1, Jute; 2, tobacco or a pulse (legu- minous) crop. Lohardaga. On uplands. 4-course: 1, Millet; 2, rice; 3, pulse; 4, millet, followed by an oilseed or pulse crop. Palamau. 3-course: 1, Cotton; 2, gingelly (oilseed); 3, Kodo (millet, Paspalum scrobiculatum). 6-course: 1, Maize or millet; 2, wheat; 3, wheat ; 4, wheat ; 5, legume; 6, legume. (Voelcker, Indian Agriculture, p. 235.) Northwest provinces of India. A4-course: 1, Indigo ; 2, barley and peas: 3, fal- low ; 4, wheat. 4-course: 1, Millet ; 2, fallow (green crop plowed in); 3, wheat or other winter cereal; 4, millet. 2-course: 1, Maize, with carrots between the rows: 2, if rainfall is heavy, gram or chick-pea (Cicer arietinum), poppy, mustard or safflower. 2-course: 1, Maize, with carrots; 2, wheat’ or barley. 109 Punjab. Three crops a year: Wheat or barley harvested in March, followed by melons, harvested and land fitted by July and sown to maize. (Handbook of Indian Agriculture, Mukerji, p. 257.) 4-course, with main crop sugar-cane: 1, Dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata), sunn hemp (Crotalaria juncea), or cowpeas (Vigna Catjang), cut when in bloom (August), and potatoes planted in October; 2, potatoes, harvested in February and sugar-cane planted ; 3, sugar-cane, harvested in February, and land sown to arhar (pigeon-pea, Cajanus Indicus) or aus paddy and then to potatoes; 4, potatoes, harvested and sugar-cane planted. 4-course on dry (barani) land. Two years fallow, two of crops: 1, Fallow; 2, wheat and gram; 3, chari (fodder juar, Sorghum vulgare); 4, fallow. 5-course on rich land: 1, Cotton; 2, senji (a millet); 3, sugar-cane ; 4, maize; 5, wheat. 4-course: 1, Wheat or barley, with gram (chick- pea) and oil seeds; 2, judér (sorghum) or bdjra, with pulses; 3, fallow; 4, fallow. (J. A. Voelcker, Report on Indian Agriculture, p. 235.) Bombay. Gujarat: 1, Cotton; 2, wheat or juar (sorghum); 3, gram (chick-pea) or other legume. Mahim: 1 and 2, Betel vine (Piper Betel); 3, ginger (Zingiber officinale); 4, sugar-cane; 5 and 6, plantain (Musa sapientum); T, rice. Surat: 1, Sunn hemp (Crotalaria juncea), plowed in, followed by sugar-cane; 2, sugar-cane; 8, rice, with arhar (Cajanus Indicus) or other legume; 4, legume. Konhan, on hill land: 1, Nagli; 2, warai; 3, niger seed (Guizotia Abyssinica); 4 to 9, fallow. (J. A. ee Improvement of Indian Agriculture, p. 235. Literature. In addition to works mentioned in the text, con- sult the Yearbook, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., 1902, pp. 519-582, for modern American systems. The Complete Far- mer, London, England, five editions between 1767 and 1807, contains many examples of rotations in use in Europe previous to and at this period. The writings of Sinclair and Arthur Young contain many examples of rotations in use in Europe, and the Journals of the Royal Agricultural Society of England and the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland contain frequent reference to this topic. The reports of the Boards of Agriculture of some of the eastern states contain articles on this subject. Current agricultural books give some attention to rotations. A systematic rotation of crops is more commonly practised in Great Britain, Ireland and other coun- tries of northern and central Europe and in the eastern parts of the United States and Canada, than elsewhere. The subject has received but little at- tention in Australia, and practically none in Alaska, Philippine Islands, Central and South America and the greater parts of Africa and Asia. This note will guide the reader where to look for literature. 110 WEEDS, AND THE MANAGEMENT OF THEM WEEDS, AND THE MANAGEMENT OF THEM Weeds are plants that are not wanted. They are of two general kinds, —those that inhabit waste or unoccupied areas, and those that invade cropped lands and compete with the plants that the husbandman grows. Certain species of plants are by nature adapted to occupy such places or to engage in such competition, and these particu- lar plants are commonly known as weeds; but weediness is not charac- terized by species but by habits and adapta- % bilities. Any plant may be a weed at times. 3 Buckwheat or rye is a weed when it volun- teers in other crops and becomes a nuisance. Elm-tree seedlings may be pestiferous. When any crop is too thick, there is competition among fellows, and the weaker and useless ones are weeds to the better ones. It has been said that the worst weed in a corn-field is corn. All plants are contending for a place in which to live and to spread their kind. They - all are invading new fields. The more suc- cessful their invasion, the more inimical they are to other plants. They overrun, and we call them weeds. The weed plants are there- fore virile and persistent types. They are weeds because of one or all of these attri- butes: (1) They are adapted to a wide range of conditions ; (2) many of them have a life-cycle similar to that of some cultivated plant ; (8) they are tenacious of life; (4) they produce seeds or other propaga- ting parts in abundance ; (5) they have means of disseminating the Fig. 134. Pigweed, lambs-quarter seeds or parts, either by natural Cov enenadses aay) agencies or by resembling crop seeds so closely in size or weight that they cannot be read- ily separated. All this sounds very simple, but it is a fact that we really do not know just why some of the weeds follow cer- tain crops or how they injure the crops. More than once the editorials in these volumes have suggested that there may be relationships between plants that have been past finding out. On the face of it, it seems plain enough that weeds reduce the yields in crops by competing for water and 2? WEB Ne S B, a A . N food. We think we know that this is often the case. MA These discussions at once suggest the one means of WA dealing with weeds,—the working out of such a system of tA crop management that they find the least opportunity to \G az SS ol gain a foothold. It is commonly advised that the farmer do this and do that to destroy weeds — always putting the em- phasis on the word destroy; but while it may be useful to prevent wild carrot from seeding, it is much more to the point not to have wild carrot. Much of the current advice on the destruction of weeds is of small value, tor the farmer ‘ : has little time or opportunity to hunt out the different se ee een ? WEEDS, AND THE MANAGEMENT OF THEM 111 species and then laboriously to prevent them from seeding or to spud them out at a certain season of the year, or to practice other very special methods. The fundamental thing is to apprehend the fact that certain weeds follow certain crops and certain EZ methods of farming. i “i I Crop management, there- ‘ WSS wes fore, necessarily involves weed management. A weed- infested farm is not merely a shiftless farm in the sense of being untidy, but it is a poorly farmed farm. Some of the fundamental means of preventing weeds are: good rotation courses; clean till- age; cleaning up of waste places in which weeds breed; care in the choice of clean seed; care to see that the manure does not carry seeds; alertness to recognize new weeds when they begin to invade the neighborhood. This means that the farmer should endeavor to deter- Fig. 137. Stick-tight or beggar-tick (Bidens frondosa). 9 Z mine why he is possessed of certain weeds: ra % this discovered, he can then proceed to treat $2 93 the question rationally. t B3 aS There are, of course, special methods é. 3s a for certain weeds and cer- : a ais a 2 tain conditions. Summer- 22 23, aM 73 fallowing is a means of 2 & z ae % BOP ; 2 cleaning fields of weeds, but 5 é 5 ee 2 e TS” VES f gs 34 it is usually necessary for “Ae 55 8 AN PAIR : aR 433 this purpose only in new ite 4 ‘e =~ J 8S ig lands or those that have % OLY I se Nf & 28 es it eS been improperly handled. a ae \ SUSSENERAS 2: Ry eee Pasturing with sheep is an- co ‘ xy , other special method. Spray- ing with poisons will despatch some Cs Pd So NG” s kinds of weeds. Mowing at certain times sete lt @. Ts \ Di aN vibe § 4 of the year will dispense with others. “WN Mea= “Sa 4% Burning the fields is often useful. In meadows and lawns, it is often possible to eliminate weeds by fertilizing and re-seeding the invaded parts, for usually the weeds do not run out the grass, but the weeds invade because the sod is poor. In the contest with weeds, the farmer should dis- tinguish the kinds as to duration. It is obviously one problem to deal with perennials and another problem to deal with annuals. In the annuals, it is necessary only to prevent seeding, so far as dissemi- nation or persistence is concerned. In perennials, it Fig. 136. Ragweed (Ambrosia artemisic- folia). 112 WEEDS, AND THE MANAGEMENT OF THEM may be necessary to destroy or crowd out the entire plant, root and all. In grass lands, the annuals perish as a matter of course; or, if they do not, it is because the grass is poor. The annual weeds follow tilled crops; among such are the pigweeds, purslane, chess, ragweed. The perennials that follow cultivated crops are mostly such as have root- stocks or other underground parts that are car- ried by the tools; as bindweed, quack-grass and nut-grass. The weeds of dooryards are mostly perennial or, at least, biennial, as docks, bur- dock, plantains, self-heal, round-leaved mallow. In the accompanying pictures, Figs. 184 to 148 show annuals; Figs. 149 to 154 biennials; Figs. 155 to 171 perennials. Whenever any area becomes badly infested with weeds, it is safe to assume that the place should be given a radical change of treatment. Areas long used for garden are likely to become very weedy: seed down the place and make the garden somewhere else for a time. A patch of Canada thistles can be killed by seeding down heavily and mowing for a few years. Meadows badly infested with carrot, daisy or hawkweed (paint-brush or hieracium), or dandelion should be broken up, thor- i oughly tilled and put in rotation until it is safe to lay them down to grass again. NE “e Roadsides and waste Fig. 138. Napa thistle or tocalote ( Centaurea, Melitensis). places should be kept clean. Naturalized in California. Most states or localities have laws to compel property owners to mow the roadsides. It is probable that these weedy roadsides are less real menace to farming lands than is popularly supposed; but the laws should be enforced, nevertheless, for the effect of attractive roadsides in elevating public taste is everywhere worth consideration. It would not be right to leave the impression that all weedy fields are Hi Ges Seed deg -ae ie necessarily poorly managed fields. In humid climates it is usually better that Shepherd’s Purse (Cap- ground be bearing plants than that it be idle. Nature covers all the waste sella Bursa-pastoris). and raw places; and nature knows. If land is to go fallow for any rea- x son, it may be very good practice to let the weeds grow, with the pur- pose of plowing them down for humus. The carcass of a weed may make just as good humus as that of a plant in good standing. Weeds in orchards may make good cover- crops; although this does not mean that other plants may not make pig. i40. purslane or pusley better ones. (Portulaca oleracea). The kinds of plants that are known as weeds are legion, but the really important or belligerent kinds in any community will usually not exceed two dozen. They are mostly homely plants, but this does not in the least interfere with their efficiency as weeds. A description of the kinds of weeds would scarcely be worth the while in this Cyclopedia, where every inch of space is needed for the most ‘ j significant matters. The pictures will identify a few of the old friends. Of course, everybody deplores weeds. They always have. They wie, a2 Chicken, a: wlntar aumiedl probably will continue to deplore them even after this Cyclopedia (Stellaria media). is printed. But it would be an interesting question if some one were Fig. 141. Spray of knotweed (Polygonum aviculare). WEEDS, AND THE MANAGEMENT OF THEM iS Fig. 143. Charlock, one of the mustards (Bras- Sica arvensis), Fig. 144. ° Com Cockle (Lychnis, or Agrostemma, Githago). Thrives mostly in wheat fields, Fig. 145. Mayweed. oa Fig. 150. Wild carrot. (Daucus Carota). Fig. 148. i Fig. 147. Prickly © Milk thistle (Sily- ¥ i lettuce (Lactuca bum Marianum). _ Fig. 151. Scariola). An- A naturalized weed in Cali- Evening primrose in seed Bull or pasture thistle nuat or biennial, fornia; annual or biennial. (Ginothera biennis). (Onicus lanceolatus). B8 114 WEEDS, AND THE MANAGEMENT OF THEM to ask to what state our agriculture would probably have attained at this time if it had not been for weeds. There is no danger, however, that we shall cease to be taught. Poisonous plants. Certain plants are poisonous either when eaten or when handled. The most deadly of the poisonous plants are some of the mushrooms (which see, in Part III), and the water parsnip (Fig. 167) and poison hemlock (Fig. 168). The last two are rank-smelling, strong herbs, members of the parsnip family (Umbellif- ere), inhabiting wet places. V. K. Chesnut in “Thirty Poisonous Plants of the United States” (Farmers’ Bulletin No. 86, United States Department of s"- Agriculture), writes as follows: The musquash-root, or water hemlock (Cicuta maculata) “is one of the most poisonous native plants in the United States, being rapidly fatal to both man and animals. The roots are especially dan- ; gerous, because the taste, being aro- - Burdock (Lappa major). matic and to some people suggesting ; gf? that of horse-radish, parsnips, artichokes, or sweet cicely, is on EP apt to lead children to eat them when they are found forced out of the soil by washing, freezing, or other causes in early spring.” The poison hemlock (Conium maculatum) contains “the well-known volatile alkaloid, conifie, which is found in the seeds, and, especially at flowering time, in the leaves. The root is nearly harmless in March, April and May, but is dan- gerous afterwards, especially during the first year of its growth. The poison hemlock is the most generally known ; poisonous plant historically, it being, without much doubt, the plant ad- ministered by the Greeks to Socrates and other state prisoners. Recent cases of poisoning have arisen ac- cidentally from eating the “© = seed for that of anise, the Fig. 154. Mallow or “* Cheeses’? (Malva rotundifolia). Biennial or perennial. Lier, : leaves for parsley, or the roots for parsnips; also, from blowing whistles made from the hollow stems. Sey It has recently been shown that some of the anise seed in both foreign and domestic markets is contaminated with hemlock seeds, but it is not known whether serious consequences have resulted therefrom.” The only other poisonous plants or weeds that need be mentioned here are two or three spe- cies of the sumac genus: Rhus Toxicodendron, the poison ivy (Fig. 169); PR. Des diversiloba, the poison oak of the Pacific coast (Fig. 170); R. venenata, the Fig. 153. Mullin (Verbas- poison sumac (Fig. 171), an attractive bush growing in swamps. These are cum Thapsus). poisonous to the touch to many persons. It is enough for the present purpose merely to identify them by means of pictures. Poisoning by ivy and sumac is treated with a solution of sugar of lead (poisonous if taken internally), in 50 to 75 per cent alcohol. Add the sugar of lead “until no more will easily dissolve. The milky fluid should then be well rubbed into the affected skin, and the operation repeated several times during the course of a few days.” There are a number of plants that are poisonous to live-stock, and these will be treated in Vol. III; and there are others that have medicinal qualities, and these are mentioned in Part III of the present volume. 3 L A) Fig. 155. Bindweed (Oonvolvulus arvensis). CHEMICAL WEED -KILLERS OR HERBICIDES CHEMICAL WEED-KILLERS OR HERBICIDES By L. R. Jones The use of chemicals as herbicides offers no spe- cific cure-all against weeds. Cultivation, short rotations, watchfulness against the introduction and scattering of weed seeds, are all of more fun- damental importance than chemicals in combating weeds. There are, however, various cases in which chemicals intelligently used are more expeditious and economical than any other means for weed- killing. A practical difficulty is so to use the her- bicide as to kill the obnoxious plants without working permanent irijury to the soil or to neighboring cultivated plants. This difficulty limits the chief usefulness of chemicals as weed-killers to the following cases: (1) When an especially obnoxious weed, as poison ivy, occurs in a limited locality and is to be destroyed regardless of consequences to soil or neighboring plants. (2) When the aim is to render the soil permanently sterile, as in roadways, tennis courts, and the like. (8) When the weed plant, as orange hawk- weed and mustard, is much more sensitive than the associated useful plants to the action of some herbicide. Chemicals useful as herbicides. Any soluble chemical, even including the : : oS 2 4 Heads of various commercial fertilizers, if used in orange hawk- sufficient amount, will kill plants. Some act weed. directly and quickly as poisons, e. g., arsenic and carbolic acid; others, such as salt, have little or no direct poisonous effect but kill the plants primarily by drawing the water from the tender foliage, or by holding the moisture of the soil so that it cannot be absorbed by the roots. It is important in this connection to note that in either case the herbicide is most effective on young plants that are in active growth. Effectiveness in one or the other of these ways, together with cheapness and convenience of application, are the things to determine choice among the various compounds available. Without attempting to list all of these, we include those whose worth has been best estab- lished by trial. Salt (sodium chlorid) is probably more commonly used than any other compound, chiefly because of cheapness and handiness. Its action depends almost wholly on the withdrawal and retention of moisture from the plant, therefore it should be applied dry or in strong solution; and it is most effective in hot, dry weather. Salt can be used in any weed- killing operation, but it is most valuable on road- ° ways and like surfaces and for certain lawn weeds. Blue vitriol (copper sulfate).—This is more pow- erful in herbicidal action than salt, but its cost prohibits its general use. For most purposes it is best used in solution, 2 to 10 per cent being effec- tive. It is often used on gravel walks and similar surfaces, but salt will generally be found cheaper Fig. 157. 115 and arsenical poisons more effective. Its chief value is against charlock, as noted on page 117. Kerosene.—This and other coal-oil products will kill plants. Because of handiness it is frequently used, but it is weak in efficiency, and relatively more costly than any other chemical here listed. A pint of crude carbolic acid will do better service than two gallons of kerosene, and costs much less. When crude petroleum is available at very low price it is commended. Carbolic acid.—This is one of the quickest and most valuable herbicides. The crude acid is rela- tively cheap. It is not quite equal to the arsenical poisons for penetrating the soil or in lasting effects, but it is often preferable because of cost or convenience. It does not corrode metals, hence, may be applied with any can or pump. An effective method is to squirt the strong acid from an ordinary oil can on the roots or crown of in- dividual weeds. If it y Fig. 156. The orange hawkweed, or paint-brush (Hieracium aurantiacum). This plant originated from the runner shown at the lower right-hand corner. The two young runners at the left have already taken root and will soon give rise in turn to new plants. (Adapted from Vermont Experiment Station.) 116 CHEMICAL WEED-KILLERS OR HERBICIDES Fig. 162. Narrow-leaved. dock (Rumex crispus). Fig. 158. Goldenrod or solidago. Fig. 160. Milkweed (Asclepias Oornuti). Fig. 166. Buttercup (Ranunculus acris), 2S Fig. 163. Fig. 161. Broad-leaved dock Canada thistle (Rumex obtusifolius), (Onicus arvensis). Fig. 164. Fig. 167. Water hemlock (Oicuta maculata). A similar spe- Toad-flax (Linaria cies, also poisonous, grows from Idahn westward. vulgaris), Fig. 165. Yarrow CHEMICAL WEED-KILLERS OR HERBICIDES is to be sprayed or sprinkled broadcast on the foli- age or ground, it should be diluted with 15 to 30 parts of water, and this mixture agitated fre- quently during use. Sulfuric acid (oil of vitriol).—This, of course, is ange i con . 4 A a > ae Mais “NV af, ri 5 Fig. 168. Poison hemlock (Conium maculatum). destructive to everything it touches. It can be applied in the crown or about the roots of coarse or especially hardy plants, provided the user is willing to kill the adjacent vegetation, also. In general, carbolic acid will be preferred, partly be- cause sulfuric acid can be handled only in glass vessels, Caustic soda.—A strong solution of this makes a cheap and effective herbicide, commended especially for pouring on soil where it is desired to destroy poison ivy or other deep-rooted or woody plants. Of course, soil so treated will be rendered sterile for some time, but the soda will gradually leach away. Like salt, this is most effective if applied in hot, dry weather. Arsenical compounds.—One or another of the soluble arsenical compounds form the most effec- tive herbicides known. These form the basis of all or nearly all of the various proprietary “herbi- cides” or “weed-killers.” Such compounds are handled by leading horticultural supply houses, and, so far as the writer has tested them, are highly efficient. The only reason for seeking elsewhere is their high price. Soluble arsenical poisons as a rule can be bought considerably cheaper in the drug trade and are similar in action. The simplest to employ is arsenate of soda. This needs only to be dissolved in water for use, at the rate of 1 pound in 3 to 9 gallons of water. White arsenic is still cheaper, but according to Schutt’s formula, which the writer has used, it must be combined with sal soda, which is somewhat both- ersome. (White arsenic, 1 pound; washing soda, 117 2 pounds; water, 3 to 9 gallons.) An important characteristic of these arsenical poisons is that they endure for a long time and do not readily wash or leach away. For this reason they are the most useful herbicides to use on roadways and other plain surfaces, as explained below. More specific directions for use. Any of the above chemicals will kill any plant if applied directly to it in sufficient amount. In addition to the more general advice included in the above account, the following specific directions are adapted to special cases. Gravel roadways, gutters, tennis courts and like surfaces can be kept free from weedy growths by the application of any of the above. If salt is used it should be scattered freely in the dry form. Caution is necessary where it is liable to be washed on to lawns, lest it damage the grass bor- ders. Carbolic acid or arsenical poisons are pref- erable, being: both less liable to wash and more enduring in their action. One quart of crude car- bolic acid in 8 gallons of water, or one pound of either arsenical compound mentioned above in a like amount of water, will suffice to cover a square rod or more of surface; and one, or, at most, two applications per year, will be sufficient. Charlock, known also as kale or wild mustard (Brassica arvensis, Fig. 143), is easily destroyed in oat-, wheat-, or other grain-fields by spray- ing with a solution of 1 pound of copper sul- fate in 4 to 6 gallons of water (2 to 3 per cent solution). A force pump should be used, supplied with fine nozzles. The treatment is most effec- tively made when the grain is 3 to 6 inches tall, Fig. 169. Common poison ivy (Rhus Toxicodendron). Climbing or trailing. since at this stage the large charlock leaves spreading above the grain are easily covered by the spray. One barrel or less of the solution (30 to 50 gallons) suffices to cover an acre and destroy 118 the charlock, and this amount causes Jittle or no damage to the grain. This same treatment is reported to be more or less effective against a variety of other common grain-field weeds. The Ny RE \ ANN SRYS, ‘ i \ y ANN Fig. 170. Pacific Coast poison oak (Rhus diversiloba). A trailing or climbing plant. wild turnip (Brassica campestris) and some allied cruciferous weeds are less easily killed because the spray does not adhere to their smooth leaves. Experiments by the Cornell Station gave the tollowing general conclusions: Wild mustard grow- ing with cereals or peas can be destroyed with a solution of copper sulfate, without injury to the crop. A 3 per cent solution (about 10 pounds to the barrel, or 40 gallons of water), at the rate of 40 to 50 gallons per acre, gives very satisfactory results. The following notes on the effect of the copper sulfate solution on different plants are from obser- vations and reports from various sources: “Plants reported killed by copper sulfate solu- tions: wild mustard, wild radish, wild barley, penny-grass (if young), shepherd’s-purse, wild buckwheat, lamb’s-quarters, ragweed, sow-thistle, hemp-nettle, bindweed, dock, dodder. “Plants reported severely injured: curly dock, black bindweed, dandelion, sow-thistle and senecio. “Plants reported as not injured: wild. rose, pop- pies, pigweed, spurge, corn-flower, field-thistles, chamomile, couch-grass, bent-grass and horsetails. “Crops that may safely be sprayed: all cereals, as wheat, rye,. barley and ¢orn; the grasses; peas; sugar-beets. “Crops that are killed or severely injured by the copper sulfate solution: beans,- potatoes, tur- nips, rape.” Lawn weeds.—Orange hawkweed (Hieracium aurantiacum, Fig. 156-7), chickweed (Stellaria media, Fig. 142), and some other of the shallow- rooted succulent weeds of lawns and grasslands can be combated more effectively by the use of salt than by any other chemical. Fine, dry salt should be applied on a bright, hot summer day CHEMICAL WEED-KILLERS OR HERBICIDES (late June or early July best), broadcasting it so as to cover all plants uniformly, since it kills chiefly by drawing water from the leaves. One to four quarts of salt can be used per square rod, with little or no permanent injury to the grass if on a strong soil in the northeastern states. Since the effect varies with local conditions, advance trials should be made on a small scale. Following the application, the dead weeds should be raked out and a liberal application of grass seed made. Poison ivy and similar woody-rooted pests can be eradicated by cutting off the tops in hot, dry weather in midsummer and pouring a saturated solution of caustic soda about the roots, The arsenical solutions mentioned above can be used, but are generally objectionable because they render the soil sterile for so long a period thereafter. Literature. For more extended discussion the reader should consult: Bolley, The Destruction of Weeds in Ce- real Crops by the Use of Chemicals Sprayed on the Foliage, Proc. Soc. Prom. Agri. Sci. XX, 107 (1899); Jones and Orton, The Orange Hawkweed or Paint- brush, Vermont Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 56 (1897); Killing Weeds with Chemicals, Vermont Experiment. Station, Report XII, 182 (1899); Report XIII, 282 (1900); Shutt, Canada Experimental Farms, Bulletin No. 28 (1897); Report for 1899, Fig. 171. Poison sumac (Rhus venenata). page 194; Voelcker, The Destruction of Charlock, Journal Royal Agricultural Society, England, 3 Series, X, 767 (1899). This last gives an excellent summary of results in England. Stone, Cornell Persil Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 216, CHAPTER VI GROWING PLANTS UNDER COVER OUSES IN WHICH PLANTS MAY BE GROWN have come to be one of the necessi- ties of agriculture. Until recently, these houses have been chiefly glass structures used for the so-called horticultural crops; but various slat-covered sheds have been devised to protect crops and plants in the extreme South from sudden periods of cold, and now the cloth-covered house has begun to come into somewhat extensive use, not only for horticultural plants but for plants that are customarily grown as field crops. The demand for certain high-class products the entire year has made it nec- essary to protect plants from heat and sun and storms in summer as well as from cold and snow in the winter, and the cloth house is often substituted in summer for the hot and uncongenial whitewashed glass house. Moreover, it is now found that certain field crops, of which some kinds of tobacco are examples, actually thrive better and produce a better product when protected from the sun. Hereby has also arisen a new subject in agriculture,— the study of the effect of shade on plants. With the ever-increas- ing niceties of agriculture, protection to plants in summer will assume added im- portance. All this means that we are constantly pressed by the necessity of growing plants under conditions of control; and this control now runs the round of the year. The gar- deners have long practiced such control, and they have carried the cultivation of plants to its greatest perfection. These ideas are now working out into general field condi- tions, demanding a new kind of crop man- agement. The general subject of plant-grow- ing under cover is scarcely germane to the present work. It is discussed in its many relations in the Cyclopedia of American are grown. Horticulture. Two phases of it may be considered to be within the scope of this volume,—the growing of plants under shade (the subject will be referred to again under Tobacco in Part III), and the making of glass houses for the cultivation of vegetable-garden crops. Figs. 172 to 178 illustrate some of the new practices; see, also, page 100, Vol. I. In addition to these phases, it may be worth while to add to the chapter some advice to the farm-wife on the growing of plants in windows. THE SHADING OF PLANTS By B. M. Duggar The shading of plants is a relative expression. It is qualitative and means simply reduced light intensity. As used by horticulturists, shading has reference most frequently to half or partial shade, © or to the growth of plants under some form of improvised screen. The extremes of shading are great ; and properly to circumscribe the subject we must consider all plants exposed to grades of a light intensity between bright diffused light, as one extreme, and the darkness of cellars and caves, as tho other extreme. Shading is a distinct phase of horticultural work, and it has its physiological, or fundamental, side. Such quantitative physiological work as has been done relates, for the most part, to absolute shading, or darkness, and an insignificant amount of accurate physiological data have to do with half or partial shade, which latter is more important horticulturally. The physiological work is not yet so helpful as it might be, but some of the general principles modifying form, size and quality of plants in shade or darkness enable us better to direct half-shade operations, and better to interpret the results that may be secured. The subject offers -an interesting field of investigation. (119) 120 A general discussion of shading involves the following considerations: I, THE PLANT. (a) Direct effect on the plant. (b) Indirect effect on the plant through environment. (c) Kinds of plants with which the operation of shading may be employed. II. THe SCREEN MECHANISM. Laths and boards, cloth screens, plant covers. The plant. (a) Direct effect.—It must be borne in mind that plants are very differently adapted to light in- tensities. Some plants to a large degree are in- dependent of light conditions. Certain small fungi grow equally well in total darkness or in strong diffused light. The common mushroom, so far as the production of the fruit, or mushroom proper, is concerned, is uninfluenced by light, ex- cept in so far as light affects temperature and, thereby, evaporation. Among common green plants there are shade-loving and sun-loving species. In the shade of certain trees, no green plant may live constantly. In the deepest gorge the densest ferns may grow, and on the exposed cliff a grass or a heavy vine may find its suitable home. In considering the direct physiological effects of shading on plants, we may note the effect on THE SHADING OF PLANTS elongation of the main axis accompanied by some suppression of branches. This is of little practi- cal advantage. Plants with restricted stems, and consequently with basal or truly “radical” leaves, usually show an elongation of the petiole with re- duction of the leaf-blade. This effect is of prac- tical value when the plant has been grown pre- viously under full light, and has accumulated in root and stem an abundant supply of nutriment. A crop in point is rhubarb when grown by the “new culture’ method; and celery is somewhat similarly influenced in "addition to the blanching effect. (3) The diminished development of tough fiber in etiolated plants has been known since the time of Sir Humphrey Davy, and even earlier. The re- duction is largely in the amount of mechanical or supporting tissues. This effect is an advantage when succulence is a chief concern. It is true of the crops mentioned in the preceding para- graph, and it may also be of interest in growing certain salads. (4) The dry weight of certain shaded plants is less than of plants under normal light intensity, and this probably is due largely to the lessened chlorophyll activity. In this connection, however, it is important to remember the specific light re- lations of the plant. It is asserted that under favorable conditions of temperature and moisture the common evening primrose (Gnothera biennis), a sun-plant, has the power to fix in direct sunlight (1) Color: Etiolation or blanching. (2) The form and size of the plant. (8) The minute structure, i. e., on the ws elements of the framework which i have to do with texture and suc- culence. (4) The bulk of the plant, by reducing or modifyingthe products of growth. (5) The checking of nitrogen assimila- tion and albuminoidal synthesis. (6) Modification of the acid content, as well as the content of soluble carbohydrates, (J The aromatic content in the plant juices, and other minor meta- Nit ay nae Es oi i i vi ath i) a if bolic modifications affecting the quality of the product. (8) The development of flowers, fruits and seeds. (1) The effect on color is considerable. The intensity of the light will usually directly affect the chlorophyll development. In darkness most plants are soon etiolated, or blanched, and many are much affected in half-shade. The produc- tion of brilliant color is also less under dimin- ished light. In garden products blanching may add directly only to the appearance or tenderness, freshness or crispness; it is in its indirect relation to other modifications discussed below that it is most important. (2) The ordinary green plant shows, with the exclusion of light, either partial or complete, an Fig. 173. A tea nursery in South Carolina. (C. U. Shepard.) about three times as much CO, as in ordinary dif- fused light. The common polypody (Polypodium vulgare), on the other hand, has shown a more energetic assimilative (photosynthetic) activity in diffused light than in direct sunlight. This doubtless would be true for the ginseng. Indeed, it may be said that shading is an antidote for ills with one species, while with another it may prove abane. Varieties may likewise show diverse sun relations. It is therefore of comparatively little value to make shading tests with only two or three of many diverse varieties of a cultivated plant, the extremes of whose light relations have. been merely assumed. (5) In ordinary green plants light seems to be THE SHADING OF LANG GNIS da WR 1 Fig. 174. Raising tea under shelter in South Carolina. essential to nitrogen assimilation. Just what in- tensity of light may be the optimum for this par- ticular function is not known, and there are doubt- less complex relations to be considered. At any rate, the proteid content is usually less in shaded plants. (6) It has been held that there is an increase in the acid content of shaded plants. This may be relative. A certain amount of acid lends {| quality and flavor, while an increase without gain in sugar may be deci- dedly objectionable. In shading strawberries with cheese-cloth it has been shown that there is an actual reduction in the acid content. The acid- ity, however, is more marked in taste, and this be- cause of a marked reduction of sugar. The reduc- tion of the sugar content, as well as of certain other carbohydrates in fruits, seems to be general under such cultural conditions. (7) The aromatic products may not be very important as animal nutrients, but they are physiologically essential, and represent almost the sole value of eco- nomic plants used as condiments. In 1838, De Candolle called attention to the diminished production of savors and odors in shaded: plants. It was found later that plants removed from south- ern latitudes to the latitude of Scandi- navia during the two months of maxi- i aN nl Fig. 175. Hi Muslin-covered plant house. Experiment Station. PLANTS 121 will develop normal flowers or fruit, even when grown from bulbs or other storage organs, and a general effect of etiolation is usually apparent in the reduction of fruit- ing, while increased or continuous illumina- tion often hastens flowering or fruitage, or may lengthen the flowering period. How- ever, when there is only partial shading it is quite possible that the size of succulent fruits may be increased, and the time of ripening hastened, for the moisture and temperature factors under half-shade will play important réles. It has been found, for instance, that under cheese-cloth sev- eral varieties of strawberries bear a larger fruit ; and that lettuce runs earlier to seed. (b) Indirect effect through the environment. —tThe practice of shading may modify the factors of the environment in a variety of ways; and each of these factors is impor- _ tant in the life relations of the plant. The purpose, of course, is primarily the modified light effect, yet frequently the effect on other factors is much more important. Aside from reducing the light, shading is important in the relations of the plant in order (1) To regulate hu- midity. (2) To conserve soil water. (8) To mitigate or equalize temper- ature. (4) To give partial protection from wind. (5) To maintain bet- ter physical con- dition of the soil. (1) In wet periods, shaded plants may have no advantages, certainly none so far as the humidity is concerned ; but in dry weather the humidity is reported as more reg- ular under partial shade. This relation is important in dry regions. It is a mistake to assume that ] i tl Hawaii es mum sunshine in the latter region, showed an increase in the development of aromatic products. Indeed, it has long been suggested that many fruit-bearing plants containing objectionable flavors ee be benefited by etiolation. (8) In total darkness very few plants Fig. 176. Interior construction of house shown in Fig. 175. 122 because of: greater humidity plants will always be more subject to fungous diseases. The relation of plants to fungous diseases is complex, and the general vigor of the plant is usually of more importance than any single environmental factor. (2) The evaporation of water from the soil is THE SHADING OF PLANTS on all the above environmental factors, but, of course, it would be absurd to use such devices merely for the regulation of some of these, such as the conservation of soil moisture or the mainten- ance of a good physical condition of the soil. (c) Kinds of plants to shade.—Shading is appli- cable to celery, rhubarb and tobacco un- der a variety of conditions, and may be Fig. 177. Cheese-cloth shelter for vegetables. unquestionably less under the covers used in shad- ing, and this has been experimentally demonstrated time and again. The extent of the benefit would necessarily be determined by the dryness of the season or the region, (8) Extremes of temperature are somewhat miti- gated by shading. Radiation from the soil is pre- vented to a considerable extent, and the light that does enter carries with it heat, much of which is absorbed. The minimum temperature under cover devices will always lag behind the minimum of the external air. Experiments in the North in early summer in moist seasons have shown a desirable in- crease in the temperature under cloth cover. Other experiments in July and August, when the amount of sunshine is much greater, have shown a slightly lessened temperature under cover, yet a greater uni- formity. Repeated experiments in the South, how- ever, show that by shading a very desirable equali- zation of temperatures is effected. In the famous market-garden and floricultural region of France, east of Toulon, many crops are grown throughout the winter under the protection of half-shade. The temperature thus secured is sufficient for the main- tenance of growth in the semi-hardy flowers and vegetables. (4) Shading devices are not wholly unimportant from a consideration of the wind relation. There is, in the first place, a lessening of the mechanical injuries, and, in the second place, the prevention of desiccation or excessive loss of water at times when the water content should be conserved. (5) Under cover the soil does not bake so'readily and is more or less constantly in excellent workable condition. Shading devices may have an important bearing employed for cauliflower, lettuce, aspara- gus and probably some other crops,— these all being plants commonly culti- vated throughout the country. It is par- ticularly applicable in pineapple-culture in Florida, and it has been shown to ke undesirable in citrous culture in the same state. In addition, shading must be prac- ticed to a certain extent in the cultiva- tion of those greenhouse or floricultural plants whose native habitats are beneath the shade of the forests in subtropical or tropical regions. Among such plants are some species of ferns, palms, selaginella, anthurium, caladium, certain orchids and many others. Indeed, in the case of orna- mental plants, a knowledge of the habitat will generally indicate the procedure to be used in their propagation with refer- ence to light. Moreover, in some cascs it will be necessary in drier regions to pro- pagate under half-shade plants whose native habi- tats are more moist. Under the severe sunshine of the Sahara, shading is practiced on a large scale, for the garden cultures are beneath the palms of the oases. In other lands, tea may be grown in forest glades. The screen mechanism. Lath screen.—The materials to be used in the construction of the shading screens will depend on local conditions and prices. One of the earliest forms of screening was a lattice composed of sepa- rate lath screens supported on scantling at the height desired. Such screens are still in use where tropical plants are being propagated. The lath screen is durable but, of course, is expensive in most regions. A desirable lath shed for half-shade work, suit- Fig. 178. able in the cultivation of pineapples or tobacco, may be made as follows: Posts of 2x 4-inch or 8x 38-inch pine are placed nine or ten feet apart the short way and fourteen feet apart the long way. For solidity these may be GLASS HOUSES FOR VEGETABLE CROPS set about one foot in the soil. Boards sixteen feet long are nailed across the long way and spliced at the posts, forming the joists of the structure. Stringers, 1x 3 inches, are then nailed across the boards, the. stringers in turn supporting plastering laths, nailed about one inch apart. The shed may be of any height desired, but for ease in cultiva- tion it should be at least seven feet high. Cloth screen.—In recent times, the cheese-cloth screen has come into very general use in tent-mak- ing on a large scale. The screens may be either open or closed at the sides, and the height will vary according to the crop and the cultivation to be given. Details of the cost of such screens per acre are available. When 2x4 scantlings are used for posts and good support is given overhead by means of scantling and stout wire, the materials and labor have been variously estimated at $300 to $350 per acre the first year. The lighter grades of cheese- cloth, which are preferable for most cultures, can- not well be used a second season; nevertheless, the cost for the second and subsequent years will be materially lessened. Heavier grades of cloth may be used in some cases. Cloth is now manufactured in sixteen and one-half-foot breadths for this pur- pose. “Domestic” is sometimes to be recommended; for small, more resistant covers, such as for cold- frames, this material may be treated with linseed oil. A good shelter-tent for tobacco, and, conse- quently, one suitable for almost any shade - crop, may be constructed as follows : Posts of pine, chestnut, locust or other durable wood, eleven feet long are placed two feet in the ground and sixteen and one-half feet apart each way. Sixteen -and-one-half-foot stringers, 2x 4 inches, nailed at the top of the posts, run one way, and across the other way are stretched No. 9 cable wires, stapled to each post and secured at the bor- ders of the field by stakes placed six to nine feet beyond the tent borders and connected by a base- board. Two lines of smaller wire (No. 12) are placed between and parallel to the heavy cables, hence, five and one-half feet apart. The lighter wire may also be run along the stringers and baseboard, over which wire may be wrapped the selvage of the cloth when stapled. G. B. cloth of a special width (sixteen and one-half feet) may be employed in this construction, or a heavier grade if it is hoped to use the cloth through a second year. G. B. cloth is somewhat heavier than cheese-cloth. At the two open sides twelve-foot cloth may be employed. When the shade is desired for only a part of the growing season this construction may be consid- erably simplified by reducing the height of the shed, the size of timbers, and the like. Shelter-tents in the form of propagating-houses could be used advantageously in those sections in which the winters are mild, but where some form of shed is essential. Small frames covered with cloth for coldframe purposes should be painted with raw linseed oil if imperviousness and durability are desired. Miscellaneous screens.—In some regions, mat- tings may be cheaply prepared from plant products. In the far South palmetto leaves have been used 123 successfully, and straws of various kinds have been employed in countries where labor is cheap. In the Riviera section of France and Italy a very common species of heath, Hrica arborea, is valuable for this purpose. Its uniform height after a few years of growth, the slender yet dense branches, and its lightness, render it very efficient and remarkably cheap. Bamboo has been employed where it is sufficiently common. Literature. General references: The Pineapple Industry in the United States, Yearbook United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, 1895, p. 274; American Gin- seng, Bulletin No. 16 (revised edition), Division of Botany, United States Department of Agriculture, 1898; Growing Sumatra Tobacco under Shade, Bulletin No. 20, Bureau of Soils, United States Department of Agriculture, 1902 ; Growing Straw- berries Under Cover, The Strawberry Specialist, February, 1902; Experiments in Ginseng Culture, Bulletin No. 62, Pennsylvania Agricultural Experi- ment Station, 1903; Shading, Proceedings of the Society for Horticultural Science, 1903 (several papers); An Experiment in Shading Strawberries, Bulletin No. 246, New York (Geneva) Agricultural Experiment Station, 1904; Tent-Covering for Vegetables, Rhode Island Experiment Station Re- ports, 1904 and 1905; Experiments in Growing Sumatra Tobacco Under Shelter-Tent, Bulletin No. 72, Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station, 1905; Tent-Grown Berries and Celery, American Culturist, Vol. 67, p. 2, 1905. Physiological references: Physiology of Plants, Vines, Oxford; Pfeffer’s Physiology of Plants, Vols. I, II and III, Ewart, Oxford ; Effect of Light upon Plants, MacDougal, Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, 1903. GLASSHOUSES FOR VEGETABLE CROPS By L. R. Taft For many years gardeners made use of cold- frames and hotbeds for the starting of vegetable plants in the spring, and for the forcing of lettuce and radishes, to get them on the market before they could be produced in the open air. A de- mand soon sprang up for a great variety of other vegetables, and it was found that, if they could be produced throughout the winter months, the prices they would bring would be sufficiently remunerative to make their culture very profit- able. This has led to the erection of numerous forms of vegetable forcing-houses, and some of the ranges are so extensive as to cover several acres. Some of the larger houses are several hundred feet in length and fifty to one hundred feet in width, and are so arranged as to permit teams to be driven through to bring in soil and manure; and horses are often used for plowing and working the ground. The modern vegetable forcing-house makes it possible to produce crops of all kinds of vegetables with comparatively little risk, and with far less labor and expense 124 than was possible with hotbeds or coldframes or eae the form of greenhouses used in the early ays. The business of growing vegetable plants either for sale or home use has assumed large proportions. In some cases, the houses that have been used for the growing of vegetables or flowers are used for this purpose, while in others spe- cial houses are used. Although not necessary, it will be convenient to have raised benches in houses to be used for this purpose, at least enough to serve as seed - beds, other- wise the vegeta- GLASS HOUSES FOR VEGETABLE CROPS houses and there will be less waste room. By building the houses where there is a slight gradual slope of the land toward the south, it is possible to erect a house forty or fifty feet in width without having the ridge excessively high, while the amount of space lost along the south wall will be much less than when three to five houses are required to give the same area. (Fig. 0, In addition to the ordinary form of greenhouse with vertical walls, a style that will add eight to ten feet D . to the available width of the house, without ble houses will greatly increas- answer very well. Less care is re- quired in the con- struction of é houses to be used 4 exclusively for i} the starting of * plants in the Fig. 179. spring. The roof covering of small houses can be of hotbed sash, and the houses can be heated by means of flues. Types of houses. The forcing-houses in use thirty years ago, and which are occasionally found today, were about ten feet in width, with wooden walls and the roof covered with a row of hotbed sash on each side of the ridge. They were commonly heated with a flue. The width of the houses was gradually increased to about twenty feet. (Fig. 179.) The walls were either of posts covered with a double thickness of boards, or there was a row of glass one to two feet in width under the plates to furnish light and ventilation. In addition to the two benches about four feet wide found in narrow houses, these contained a bed or bench through the center about eight feet wide. this size were heated with flues, hot water was more commonly used, although in large ranges steam was generally preferred. This width and style of house gives good satisfaction, and even today will be found very well suited to the pur- pose if only one or two small houses are required. The modern vegetable forcing-houses are more commonly constructed of widths varying from twenty-six to fifty or more feet, as it has been found that better crops can be grown in the wide Re Fig. 180. A side-hill greenhouse. 48! 10" Even-span glass house with wooden posts. While some of the houses of ing the cost of construction or of tn heating, is built with a sort of hip- roof; that is, in- it stead of having u vertical walls, the plates are ‘sup- ported by means of iron posts and the side walls stand at an angle so that at the ground the walls are three to five feet outside of the plates on each side of the house. If the houses are not sufficiently large to make it worth while to drive in at the ends with compost, there should be either ventilators or movable sash in the side walls that can be taken out so that soil can be thrown in. The most common form of roof for vegetable- houses is the even span, with the houses running either east and west or north and south. The three- quarter-span houses, with the long slope either to the south or tothe north, are also much used. In the former case, the north wall is usually somewhat higher than the south, but if the long slope is to the north the walls are of the same height. It is possible to build a house fifty or more feet in width under a single roof by placing it on a gentle slope. As much as five-sixths of the roof may then be in the south slope. a ere The framework. There is considerable variety in the methods of construction used for vegetable-houses, as indi- cated in Figs. 179-183. , In some cases, posts of cedar, or some other durable timber, are set at intervals of six feet so as to stand five or six feet above ground. They are then covered to the height of two or three feet with sheathing and siding, with a double thickness of building-paper between. .. A sill is placed on this and the space up to the plate is filled in with sash-bars and glass. Another method is to build a wall of concrete to the height of two feet. In this, two-inch gas-pipes are set at intervals of five feet. These support the plate, . and the space between the plate and the concrete -’ is occupied by glass. In other cases, angle or flat bar iron is used for the posts, to the upper ends of which iron rafters are fastened. GLASS HOUSES FOR VEGETABLE CROPS 125 Fig. 181. When several houses are built with common gut- ters between the adjacent houses, if they are used for the same classes of crops, a row of posts to sup- port the gutters will be all that is required. (Fig. 181.) Although less commonly used for vegetables than for flowers, what is known as the ridge-and- furrow style of construction has much merit, espe- cially for tomatoes and cucumbers. As now con- structed these establishments are made up of several narrow houses, with a width of sixteen to twenty- four feet, and at least six feet in height to the gut- ters. As there is nothing but posts under all except the outside walls, it practically makes one wide house. There is less trouble from the shadows of the gutters than in most narrow houses, as the walks are located where the deepest shadows fall. The roof. For the construction of the roof of a green- house there is no material equal to southern cypress that is free from sap-wood. If soaked in oil and the joints put together in white lead, a cypress greenhouse will last for many years when kept properly painted. Although iron rafters and purlins make possible the use of lighter sash-bars (Fig. 182), a great majority of vegetable-houses are built without rafters, the framework of the roof being formed of cypress sash-bars that run from the plates to the ridge. These are two to two and a half inches deep and about one and one- eighth inches wide, according to the size of the glass and the distance between the supports. The plates may be either of wood, beveled so that the water will run off, or formed into a gutter to carry the water to a drain; or various forms of iron plates and gutters may be used. The iron gutters are of course more durable, but the houses are harder to heat and with some kinds the ends of the sash-bars decay sooner than with wooden gutters and plates. Ventilating. Ample means should be jf provided for the ventilation “4 of vegetable-houses. This can be secured by means of a row of ventilating sash at Fig. 182. Even-span greenhouse with iron rafters. Ridge- and furrow-houses with iron gutters. the ridge and another row beneath the plates, which should have a width of two to three feet. They should be supplied with some of the modern ventilating machinery that will permit of opening stretches of one hundred feet at a time. Glass. The glass most commonly used is sixteen by twenty to twenty-four inches, double strength, and of “B” quality, although “A” glass is better. For small houses it answers fairly well if it has a width of twelve to fourteen inches. The putty used for bedding the glass should be mixed with about ten per cent of white lead. In laying the glass, it should be lapped about one-eighth of an inch. As the lower edge of each pane will be raised from the sash-bars the thickness of the glass, a sufficient amount of putty should be placed on the rabbets to fill this space before the glass is laid. Care should be taken to select the panes so as to make tight joints where they-lap, and they should be held in place by zine shoe-nails, using four to six ac- -cording to the size of the panes. The double-pointed glazing tacks also answer well for holding. the lower corners of the panes in place. No putty should be used on top of the glass and all surplus should be scraped off, care being taken to fill all of the cracks. In addition to soaking the sash-bars in oil, and giving them a coat of paint after they are in place but before the glazing is done, the roof should receive a final painting after the glass is in place, care being taken to “draw” the putty wherever it shows. It is economy to repaint every five years. 126 Benches and beds. In the narrow houses it has been customary to have raised benches three or four feet in width along the walls, with one or more others six or eight feet in width in the middle of the houses, the walks being eighteen to twenty-four inches in width between the benches, or the walks placed along the walls, and all of the benches have a width of seven or eight feet. In some cases, the gutters are supported by means of arches so as to permit the placing of walks under the gutters, where the space is less useful than in the center of the houses. The raised benches are often built entirely of wood, or with wooden bottoms and some PURLIN_ Psy NOE LONG SLOPE VEGETABLE HOUSE a WIDTH| 45 [FEET GLASS HOUSES FOR VEGETABLE CROPS in five feet in the width of the house. This some- times hastens development 10 to 25 per cent. Heating by means of flues. Various methods are used for heating vegetable houses and all have their merits under certain con- ditions. The old-fashioned flue answers very weli for small houses in sections where wood can be ob- tained cheaply for fuel, but it is not very reliable in the colder climates, except after severe cold weather is over. A brick furnace is constructed at one end of the house, with a length of three to five feet according to the length of the wood. An opening can be left at one end near the bottom to ER \ Fig. 183. less destructible materials such as gas-pipe or cement for the supports. In some cases, cement has been used with good satisfaction for construct- ing the bottoms of raised benches. The practice is becoming more common in the construction of houses designed entirely for vegetable forcing, to do away with raised benches. Sometimes the ground is handled exactly as in a garden, all of the ground being covered with the crop with the ex- ception of a narrow space every fifteen or twenty feet for use when watering or ventilating. It is more common, however, to keep the surface soil a foot or more above the level of the walks. This certainly helps in the drainage of the soil. If the soil is inclined to be heavy, it is an excellent plan to sink the walks or to fill up the beds so as to make the surface at least eighteen inches above the walks. The soil can be held in place by cement walls that need not be more than two inches thick at the top. If drain tiles are run about a foot be- low the surface, either across or lengthwise of the beds, it will aid both in the drainage and the aéra- tion of the soil. Even better results can be secured by running one of the heating pipes in a tile once Details of construction of a long-slope greenhouse. serve for a draft, and a tile or iron smoke-pipe should lead from near the top of the other end, with a slight ascent, to a smoke-stack at the far- ther end of the house. There should be a door for putting in the fuel in the end or top of the furnace. In addition to the increased danger from fire when a flue is used, these furnaces give more or less trouble with smoke and do not work well when the flue is more than fifty feet long. For use in fire hot- beds, which are really low and narrow greenhouses used for starting lettuce and similar crops in the spring, a flue with a tile running through the soil at the depth of a foot answers very well. Heating with hot water. For greenhouses with less than 5,000 square feet of glass, a hot water heating system will be more satisfactory than either a flue or steam system, as, although it will cost nearly 50 per cent more to install, it will be more economical in fuel and will require less attention than a steam-heating plant, besides giving a more regular heat if run without a regular night fireman. In a hot-water system the water is heated in GLASS HOUSES FOR a boiler and then carried through the houses in a series of pipes. The circulation is due to the fact that cold water is heavier than hot water, and as one end of the circuit of pipes is attached to the bottom, while the other is connected with the top of the boiler, the heavy cold water in the greenhouse flows back in the pipes and pushes the light hot water out at the top to flow off into the system to take its place. A great variety of hot-water boilers, of both cast- and wrought- iron, are made for greenhouse heating. The cast- iron boilers are to be preferred for small plants, but there are a number of tubular boilers that are made for hot-water heating that answer very well. An ordinary tubular steam boiler will also be found very satisfactory for hot-water heating, although if a tubular boiler is to be constructed for the purpose it would be better to have tubes also in the top of the boiler. Four-inch cast-iron pipe was formerly used for hot-water heating, but two-inch wrought-iron pipe is now more commonly used for the coils, and the same size will answer for the flow pipes in hovses less than 100 feet in length. In deter- mining the amount of pipe to be used in a green- house, it will be safe under ordinary conditions to use one square foot of pipe for three square feet of glass, when a temperature of 60° is desired, or for four square feet of glass if 50° will suffice. All of the glass in the roof, sides and ends of the house should be computed, and it will be safe also to con- sider the exposed woodwork as equivalent to 20 per cent as much glass. After determining how many feet of radiation will be required in the house, the size and number of flow pipes should be determined. As a rule, two-inch pipes can be used in houses 50 feet in length if they are not more than 20 feet wide, but they should not be used to carry more than 200 square feet of radiation, including that in the main itself. While a larger number might be used in short houses, when the boiler is some distance below the coils, the circulation will be more even when not more than two two-inch returns are supplied by a two-inch flow pipe. A two and one-half-inch flow pipe will ordi- narily handle 400 square feet of radiation, in- cluding its own surface. Unless the houses are rather long, it will be best not to use flow pipes within the houses larger than two and one-half inches. It is an easy matter to adjust the radiation in a greenhouse. If a house is 20 feet wide and 100 feet long, and has two feet of glass in each of the side walls, it will require about 1,000 feet of radi- ating surface to heat it to a temperature of 60° in zero weather, provided the house is reasonably well built and is not too much exposed to strong winds. From the above, it will be seen that three two-and- one-half-inch flow pipes should be used. These will supply 225 square feet of radiation, while twelve two-inch returns will supply the remainder of the radiation required. In addition to the data given above, one merely needs to know that a two and one-half-inch pipe has .75 of a square foot of sur- VEGETABLE CROPS 127 face, while a two-inch pipe has .621 of a square foot for each foot in length. In arranging the pipes, it will ordinarily be well to place the return pipes on the walls and under the benches, or in the walks when beds are used. The flow pipes may also, be under the benches, provided the returns are above the level of the heater; but a better circulation can gen- erally be secured if there is one flow pipe placed on each of the plates. When more than two flows are required and are not placed under the benches, one or two may be carried on the center posts two to four feet below the ridge, and, in wide houses, one can be on each row of purlin posts. In all systems of heating, the ‘return pipes should be given a fall of one inch in ten or fifteen feet to allow the air to escape. The flow pipes give the best circulation when they also are given a slight fall, but they can run uphill with but little loss of circulation. If the downhill system is used, it will not be necessary to use air-valves, provided the pipe which connects the system with the expansion tank leads from the highest part of the main flowspipe. It will also be well to place a valve on each of the flow pipes to the different houses so that the circulation of the water can be regulated. If the lower ends of the returns are higher than the top of the boiler, there will be little difficulty in securing a good circulation, even though the flow pipes are on the same level. By giving the tlow pipes considerable elevation, a fairly good circulation can be secured even when the returns are only slightly above the bottom of the doiler. The above applies to what is known as the open- tank system. This will always be most satisfactory for small ranges, but by the use of a closed system, the water, which with an open tank seldom has an average temperature of more than 160°, can be raised above the boiling point. This makes it possible to use fewer and smaller heating pipes, thus reducing the cost of installing the plant ; but it is less economical of fuel, requires greater care, and may become somewhat dangerous. Steam heating. In a general way, much that has been said re- garding hot-water heating plants applies to steam- heating. Both wrought- and cast-iron boilers are used, the latter being rather more expensive and lasting but little longer than tubular boilers that are well cared for. The ordinary return tubular boilers seem well adapted to the heating of green- hvuses containing more than 5,000 square feet of glass. Aside from the steam boiler fittings, there is but little difference in the arrangement of a hot- water and a steam-heating plant except that the pipes used for the latter are much smaller and the air-valves are placed at the lower end of each coil. In a general way, it can be said that the number of one-inch steam-pipes required to heat a greenhouse will be about the same as the number of two-inch pipes when hot water is used. In all except very small houses, it will be better to use one and one- fourth-inch steam-pipes for the returns. The flow 128 PLANTS IN RESIDENCE WINDOWS pipes also can be much smaller than with hot water, a two and one-half-inch pipe being amply large for a house 20 by 100 feet. Two methods are commonly used for arranging the steam heating pipes in greenhouses. In one, the flow-pipe is carried to the farther end of the house where it is joined by means of branch pipes to the coils, which are distributed about the same as with hot water. The other way is to connect the flow pipes with the coils at the end nearest the boiler. Each of the coils may be provided with a return pipe for the drip, or all of the coils may be connected at the farther end of the house with one pipe which serves as a common return pipe for the series. Literature. Greenhouse Construction and Greenhouse Man- agement (two books), L. R. Taft, Orange Judd Co., New York. For chapters on the building and care of greenhouses, see also Gardening for Pleasure, Peter Henderson ; Success in Market Gardening, W. W. Rawson; Vegetable Gardening, S. B. Green; Vegetables Under Glass, Henry A. Dreer. The Forc- ing-Book, L. H. Bailey. All recent garden books are likely to offer good advice. Recent years have seen great changes in methods of constructing glass houses for both vegetable gardening and floricul- ture under glass. The reader will need to consult the current horticultural periodicals to keep in touch with the progress. The tendency is toward very wide houses of simple construction. Some of the newer forms are shown in Figs. 184-188, as well as in the pictures on preceding pages. Fig. 184 is redrawn from a print in The Florist’s Bx- change. Fig. 184. A modern floricultural establishment. (Pierce Bros., Waltham, Mass.) PLANTS IN RESIDENCE WINDOWS By Charles E. Hunn There is no one way to grow plants in windows, since there are so many kinds of plants to be con- sidered ; but it will be worth while to give the farmer’s wife advice. There is no intention of cov- ering the general question of window-gardening in this article ; that will be found in many special books and articles. It is purposed only to mention the four or five main causes of success and failure, omitting all details of the culture of special plants. General cultural requirements. Soils that will grow a good corn crop, will, with the addition of manure and sand, generally grow good crops of flowers. But for the best results, a made soil is preferable. This soil may have for a base any good garden soil or the,soil next under the sod of an old pasture, to which may be added well-rotted manure, leaf-mold and sand. The pro- portion of the latter to the former will depend somewhat on the kinds of roots the plants have ; whether strong, stiff roots, capable of pushing through the soil, or fine, fibrous roots that require mellow, easily penetrated soil. As to the kinds of manure to use, preference should be given to well-rotted cow manure, as this is a cool, slowly available plant-food. Horse ma- nure is of value, but heats and soon loses its value as plant-food. Sheep manure, poultry manure and the commercial fertilizers are best used in the liquid form, dissolved in water, and are of value as a stimulant after the plants have filled the pots with roots. There are no rigid rules as to the make-up of soils, and plants may thrive in a vari- & mre Fig. 185. Modern greenhouse construction. 150 FT. : Design of even-span house, 150 feet wide. & (King Construction Company.) PLANTS .IN RESIDENCE WINDOWS ety of mixtures of soils. With a larger number of plants a mixture of three parts Joam, one part each of well-rotted manure, sand and leaf-mold, or woods dirt, will prove satisfactory. Having in mind the fact that the growing of plants in a room through the winter is an unnat- ural process, every care should be taken to make all conditions favorable for plant growth. The most important point in house-culture of plants is to have ample drainage in the box. The neces- ia FEE ‘ Se Fig. 186. House without eaves. The glass at the shoulder or plate is bent, and the glass extends nearly to the grouud. sarily dry atmosphere of the living-room soon dries out the soil and frequent waterings are neces- sary; but if there is imperfect drainage there may be water standing around the roots of the plant when the top soil needs moisture. With but few exceptions, such as callas and cyperus or umbrella plant, water is decidedly injurious to plants and facilities for the escape of excessive water should be furnished, leaving only moisture. When one has facilities, window-boxes should be used rather than shelves or ledges, setting the potted plants in the box and filling in around the pots with moss or sifted coal-ashes. This prevents the soil drying out, keeps the roots cool, and saves in the watering. ; Kinds to grow. A prime cause of failure in raising house plants is a poor choice of the kinds. The practiced grower usually has a rather small range, such as experi- ence has taught ‘him will thrive under his condi- tions. The choice of the plants, therefore, is of the greatest importance. In this age of furnace- warmed and gas-lighted houses, the range of plants that may be successfully grown in a dwelling- house, to a certain extent, is limited; yet a good choice remains if one is willing to give the atten- tion that the plants require and will use good judg- ment as to temperature and moisture. The so- called “foliage plants”—those grown for their graceful or colored foliage rather than for their flowers—are, perhaps, the easiest to manage. Hav- ing no flowers or buds to be injured by water, they may be sprayed or washed as often as re- quired ; and, needing no change in the temperature to develop flowers, they may be grown together without difficulty; and, as many of them can be B9 129 grown from seed, they may be had cheaply. Choos- ing a list of six plants of this character, we could start with Dracena indivisa, a graceful, narrow- leaved, erect-growing plant with a drooping leaf habit. Another good choice would be Grevillea robusta, or silk-oak, a rapid-growing plant of erect habit and graceful, finely-cut, dark green foliage. For a drooping plant, nothing is better than Asparagus Sprengert, a rapid grower and a plant that lends itself to almost any treatment, training along the windows, held upright, or hanging ina natural way. The Boston fern, or some of the more graceful types of the same species, are en- tirely satisfactory. A small Date palm, Phenix reclinata, and either a Kentia or an Areca palm, will finish the list, giving one a range of upright, spreading and drooping plants, all requiring prac- tically the same general treatment. The Dracena, Grevillea and Asparagus may readily be grown from seed, plants from seed sown in early summer growing to good size by winter. The other three plants may be purchased at rea- sonable prices. The common rubber plant (Ficus elastica) should not be omitted from the foliage plants. When young and vigorous, it is attractive. Among the flowering plants that submit to house treatment, the geranium is perhaps the most popu- lar, and a well-grown plant in full bloom speaks of very careful treatment. The objections to this plant are the tendency to grow leggy or spindling, having a bare stalk with a few leaves at the top, and the habit of turning its leaves toward the light and becoming one-sided. Begonias, both the orna- mental-leaved and the flowering type, may be grown to fine specimen plants if given care. Primroses grown from seed sown in May, or purchased in November, should bloom profusely through the winter. Cyclamen grown from seed sown in Jan- uary make fine winter. A few careful grow- ers with excep- tional _ facili- ties and the knack of mak- ing plants thrive, succeed with a wide range of plants; but one who has only a limited experience and but little time to devote to plants should attempt to grow but few, if any, of the plants most difficult of culture. Window-gardens are never complete without a show of spring-flowering bulbs. These take the place of plants that have bloomed through the winter and have become unsightly, thus allowing une to have his windows full and, at the same time, to have a change of blooms, Hyacinths, narcissi Fig. 187. 130 and freesias are perhaps the best to grow. The first two, if potted in October or November and set away in a cool, dark place to form roots, will be fit to put into the windows in six to eight weeks, or may be allowed to remain cool until wanted later. The freesias may be placed in the window as soon Tava EK MP] RSL 2A - { { iy RON q Ma eel i fl EGE PLANTS IN RESIDENCE WINDOWS may be filled by pots of bulbs that are ready to be brought into flower, or the whole box may be changed into a bulb bed with very little trouble.. One more point in favor of these boxes is the fact that, if they contain no climbing vines, or if such vines are not attached to the walls, the boxes may easily be moved from an exposed window and protected through severe weather. Pests and diseases. = Red-spider and green fly are the two pests that are most commonly found on house plants. The former is a very minute mite, hardly visible to the naked eye, but whose presence is easily known by the gray ‘ appearance of the under side of the leaves, 7) and when the spider is abundant by a fine cobweb covering both sides of the leaf. This insect lives only in a dry atmosphere and if attention is given to spraying and washing the foliage, there is very little danger of its obtaining a foothold. The green fly may be destroyed by fumigation v with tobacco or by dusting fine tobacco over the plants. Insects of minor importance are, mealy Fig. 188. Interior of one of the great modern glasshouses. There are no eaves. (F. R. Pierson Company.) as potted, but will give better satisfaction if grown cool for a month before being set in the window. The freesia bulbs may be saved after blooming for the next winter. The hyacinth and narcissus bulbs do not furnish satisfactory bloom the second year, but, if planted out, will grow and bloom for several years. Window-boxes.: A very satisfactory type of window-gardening is the window-box made to set into the window ledge or supported in front of the window. By means of such a box, which should be at least six inches deep and ten inches wide, a more even con- dition of moisture and a more abundant supply of plant-food may be had and consequently a larger range of plants may be grown. Climbing as well as drooping vines, such as parlor or German ivy, Asparagus plumosus, Lygodium scandens or climb- ing fern, or maurandia, all rapid growers, may be trained along the windows. The last mentioned vine, maurandia, has, added to its attractive leaves, a profusion of light blue flowers produced through the entire season. Of drooping vines, perhaps the best is the Asparagus Sprengeri, followed by wandering jew, saxifrage, and Kenilworth ivy. Geraniums, begonias, in fact all plants recom- mended for house-culture may be grown to advan- tage in such a box, and as spring advances the seeds of such annuals as sweet alyssum, candytuft, lobelia and mignonette may be sown along the edge, thus renewing the plants and changing the character of the box from a winter to a spring collection of plants. It often happens that one or more plants in such a window-box fail to make a satisfactory growth, in which case their places bugs, whose presence is known by a cot- tony appearance in the axils of the beans, and several species of scale which infest palms, ferns, and other plants. For the mealy bug, lay the plant on its side and spray forcefully with clear water; or dip the plant in strong soapsuds and after a few moments clean it with clear water. The scale may be destroyed by spraying the leaves with soapsuds, or, in severe cases, with a solution of whale-oil soap (one pound to five gallons of water). Soon after this treatment the plant must be cleansed with clear water. House-plants often show a sickly appearance, and from some cause or other fail to thrive. If the leaves turn yellow and fall, one of two things is the cause,—imperfect drainage and consequent sour soil, or neglect in watering and consequent drying up of the sap in the plant: very rarely can the wilted, yellowing leaves be saved. The trouble may be rectified and the plant recover. Another disease, due to sudden changes in tem- perature, is mildew. It is revealed by a whitish or grayish appearance of both sides of the leaves, causing them to fall. The treatment is to dust the plants with flowers of sulphur or spray with sulfate of potassium (one-half ounce dissolved in two gallons of water). Literature. Some American books are: Anders, House Plants as Sanitary Agents; Julius J. Heinrich, The Win- dow Flower Garden; Eben E. Rexford, Home Flori- culture ; E. 8. Rand, Jr., Window Gardener ; Daisy Eyebright (Mrs. S. O. Johnson), Every Woman Her Own Flower Gardener ; Edwin A. Johnson, Winter Greeneries at Home; N. Jonsson Rose, Window and Parlor Gardening; Henry T. Williams, Window Gardening ; Lizzie Page Hillhouse, House Plants and How to Succeed with Them. CHAPTER VII SEEDING, PLANTING AND YIELDS IELD CROPS ARE PROPAGATED chiefly by means of seeds, rather than by means SA, of cuttings or other special parts. Moreover, the seed-propagation is of the easiest and simplest kind, adaptable to wholesale methods. There is no necessity for the employing of grafting or other very special practices. For these reasons, the subject of propagation of plants is usually considered to belong to that phase of agriculture known as horticulture. A very few of the field crops are propagated by asexual parts or cuttings of them, as white potato, sweet-potato, sugar-cane, cassava, chicory. Whenever cutting- propagated plants are raised from seeds, the seedlings are likely to vary greatly, so greatly, in fact, that seed propagation may be employed with such plants for the purpose of securing new varieties. The white or Irish potato is a good example; and as this species seeds relatively freely and seedlings are easily grown, the number of varie- ties is very large. The sweet-potato and sugar-cane seed so rarely, at least in this country, that this means of securing new varieties is practically little employed, and reliance must be had on variation through asexual parts. The reason why seeds give such uncertain results in cutting-propagated plants, as potatoes, apples, grapes, strawberries, is because there has been no seed-selection to make them “come true.” In the seed-propagated plants, as the cereal grains and garden vegetables, selection has been practiced so long and so carefully that the tendency to vary has been largely bred out. The tendency of seeds to give variable offspring is greatly increased, as a general thing, by crossing, whereby different elements or tendencies are combined. Fig. 189. Seed storage room. Quality in seeds. The merits of good agricultural seeds lie in the following characteristics : They are “strong,” or able to produce vigorous normal plants ; They are free of disease ; They are of the proper variety or strain ; The sample carries no impurities or adulterations. Whether seeds are strong depends in part on the vigor or strength of the plants that produced them, in part on their age, in part on the way in which they were grown, and in part on the way in . which they have been handled and kept. Tables of longevity,—that is, of the number of years that seeds retain their germinating power,—are of some value in determining whether seeds of a given age are likely to be good. Such a table, compiled from various sources, for some of the field crops is given below. Such tables present only averages, however, and are likely to be of more use as information than as advice. Many conditions influence the longevity Fig, 150. Poor and good cabinets. In the chest on the of a seed. When well ripened and kept in a dry cool eft, rats and mice pass readily from one drawer to the oe Dg aa a other. In the one on the right, this is impossible be- aérated storehouse, the viability may be retained # solid partition bet ; 1 sites sae oe ellie Wallet) powween drawers. (Cornell ionoer for some seeds than the figures indicate. The (131) 132 SEEDING, PLANTING AND YIELDS tables usually represent extreme average longevity. The vigor of the seed—as expressed in crop-pro- ducing power—may decline long before it ceases to retain life. Fresh seed is therefore safest; although certain seeds of the melon family are said to produce better crops when a year old. LONGEVITY oF CERTAIN SEEDS. The asterisk (*) denotes that the seeds had not all lost their germinating power at the termination of the number of years recorded. Average Extreme Average Extreme years years years years Barleyis: 3. 32 ie Ge ds av 3 Mustard... ....-- 3 ROAM, 3. of ca ocay ay, Gunes aes 3 8 Oats: ose. 3 BeGts oie. ee cee: can fo ee 6 10 Orchard-grass 2 Buckwheat. ....... 2 PAFSNIP: x. eo. ake es wy ae 2 4 Cabbage. . a ie ee 5 10 Peanut se ns ew se 1 1 Carrot, with the spines. . . 4 or 5 10* Peas) sc we we ew ws 3 8 Carrot, without the spines . 4 or 5 10* Pumpkin. .... es 5 9 Chicory ......... 8 10* Rape: <6sese ten 0 top ge eee 5 Chick-pea ........ 3 8 RY Cr 5 es ey so we ee a ee 2 Clover? 2.3. apie ee te Ss 3 Soybean... 2. 2 eee 2 6 Plax: Gr ee ei ee Be . 2 Squash .......---. 6 10* Hop 3 2 4 Timothy... ....--. 2 Lentils 6 wiwee ee de 4 9 Turnip 2.5 6 ea 8 5 10* Maize 422. Aiwa ees ia 2 4 Wheat ........-. 2 7* MANGO ie oa sg ater eee as 2 HABERLANDY’S Figures oF LoNcrviry (Quoted in Johnson’s “How Crops Grow”). Percentage of seeds that germinated in 1861 from the years 1850 1851 1854 1855 1857 1858 1859 1860 Barley -...... 0 0 24 0 48 33 92 89 Maize .. 1... ee 0 not tried 76 56 not tried 17 100 97 Oats dena pbs aoe 60 0 56 48 72 82 80 96 Rye . 0 0 0 0 0 0 48 100 Wheat ....... 0 0 8 4 73 60 84 96 Experience and experiment have determined certain seed standards. The following standards of purity and germination in seeds are recommended by the Department of Agriculture: “The term purity, the percentage of which is reckoned by weight, denotes freedom from foreign matter, such as chaff, dirt, or seeds of other plants, but it has no reference to the genuineness of the variety, which is Fig. 191. Millet’s seed-sower. called by seedsmen purity of stock. The percentage of germination is reckoned by count from a sample freed from foreign matter, a seed being considered as having germinated when the rootlet, or radicle, has pushed through the seed-coat. It is not to be understood from these standards that the real value of a quantity of seed is dependent wholly upon the number of pure germinable seeds it contains. The ancestry of the seed and its trueness to type are factors of pri- mary importance in determining seed value, especially in the case of vegetables. These points, however, are very difficult, if not impossi- ble, to determine at the time of purchase, while the purity and germi- nation are easily ascertained and are very essential points. The germination standards are based upon tests conducted between moist blotters in a germinating chamber. Such tests usually give a little higher result than those made in soil. For the best results in blotter tests of lettuce and beets the seed should first be soaked in water for from four to six hours.” The following table showing percentages of the purity and the germination of leading agricultural seeds of high grade is prepared for this book by J. W. T. Duvel, of the Seed Laboratory of the United States Department of Agriculture. These figures represent what may be considered a high average for such seeds, but not the maximum, even of commercial seeds. While the figures are only tentative and subject to change, it should be stated that they are the result of all the information available at the present time, including nearly fifty thousand germination tests conducted in the seed laboratory of tho Department of Agriculture. SEEDING, PLANTING AND YIELDS 133 PERCENTAGE OF PURITY AND OF GERMINATION OF HIGH-GRADE SEED. i i Purit erminat: SEED Pa ae SEED Per a Per ete Alfalfa. 4:06 ef & Koa ‘i 99 95 Millet, common .... 9 Asparagus ....... 99 85 Millet, hog ..... 2. 99 90 Barley is i. cas sense ee 99 98 Millet, pearl. . 2. 2. 99 90 Beans .......006 99 98 Mustard .......-. 99 95 Beet, garden ...... 99 *150 Oats ia. ia) tei 36 et is wes 99 96 Beggarweed. . ....- 99 90 Okra.s ss ee % 18 99 80 Bermuda-grass......- 98 90 Onion ess) sce, eas 99 96 Blue-grass, Canada. . .. 95 85 Orchard-grass ..... é 95 90 Blue-grass, Kentucky . . . 95 85 Parsley 2.3. 6: « 3% sie 99 80 Brome, awnless ..... 90 90 Parsnip ....... . 98 85 Buckwheat ....... 99 96 Peas go eter ea SS as 99 98 Cabbage ........ 99 95 Pumpkin ..... ecnese 99 96 Caraway ......- . 98 90 Radish... ...... 99 97 Carroth. wit sascas caterer fee SS 98 85 Rape. .... tial) ee Son 99 96 Cauliflower ....... 99 85 Red-top ....... % 96 90 Celery’ a ce. aw GS 98 85 RIGG a 4 ee a ah awk en 99 95 Clover, alsike ...... 98 95 RY sa. ta ier ee ee eee 99 96 Clover, crimson ..... 98 97 Rye-grass, Italian .. . . 98 90 Clover,red .. 2.2... 98 95 Rye-grass, English .. . . 98 90 Clover, sweet ...... 98 90 Nalsify sa ss 6 & eS 98 85 Clover,white ...... 96 90 Sainfoin ........ 99 95 Collards 3 24080 we a 99 95 Sorghum ..... arcane 98 95 Corn, field ....... 99 99 Soybean ........ 99 95 Corn, sweet. ...... 99 94 Spinach ........ 99 90 Cotton... .. 2. .e 99 90 SPUITY 6% Giese we 99 90 Cowpea ..... ee 99 95 Squah ...... ae 99 96 Greps: ie ek ws ew ts 99 90 Sugar-beet (large balls) . . 99 *175 Cucumber ....... 99 96 Sugar-beet (small balls) . . 99 *150 Eggplant .......-. 99 90 Sunflower. ....... 99 90 Endive. .......-. 99 85 Sweet-pea. ....... 99 90 Fescue, meadow ..... 98 90 Teosinte . . 2... +e» 99 90 Fescue, sheep’s ..... 96 85 Timothy ........ 99 96 Baxi. is: te yin kate 99 95 Tomato. ...... ete 99 94 Hemp: 4 a eee a 99 90 Tobacco ..... 2. ee 99 90 Kafr . Silica dea Fah ere 99 97 TROND: 0) 5 ee ses es aaa 99 98 Kal i) 26-565 sap Go's Zo. “i i, 99 95 Velvet bean. . 2... 99 90 Lettuce ...... he 99 98 Velvet grass (hulled) . . . 97 85 Melon, musk ...... 99 96 Veteh i. ae we ae : 99 93 Melon, water ...... 99 96 Wheat ..... at ah ate 99 98 *Hach beet fruit, or “ball,” is likely to contain two. to seven seeds. The numbers given in the table represent the number of sprouts from one hundred balls. The seed-bed. The character of the seed-bed, or the ground in which the seed is planted, has very much to do with the success of the crop. A vigorous start is a long step toward a good crop. Such a start contributes to early continuous growth, the plant has “constitution” to with- stand adverse conditions, it may be able to overcome insects or plant diseases or to recover from the attacks of them. The fit preparation of land has for its object the making of a good seed- bed, the increasing of the pasturage for roots, the physical and chemical ameli- oration of the soil. If the seed germinates freely, it must be in close con- Fig. 193, A wheelbarrow grass-seeder. Fig. 192. Hand broadcast seeder. tact with a firmly settled soil. This means that the soil must be finely broken and evenly surfaced. Many implements are now manufactured to aid in putting the finish on the seed-bed, as smoothing harrows and special forms | of cultivators. After the crop is well up, the seed-bed Fig. 194. A horse broadcast seeder. 134 SEEDING, PLANTING AND YIELDS Fig. 196. Another model of garden seeder. Fig. 195. A hand seed-drill. Fig. 198. A one-horse corn-drill. Fig. 199. A one-horse double planter, planting corn ' and cowpeas at one operation. Fig. 201. One-horse combined. cotton- and corn-planter. Fig. 202. A five-hoe grain-drill. Fig. 203. A five-disk grain-drill. SEEDING, PLANTING AND YIELDS 135 is broken up by subsequent tillage; or if the crop is not tilled, as the cereal grains, the seed-bed disappears by the action of the elements and the natural settling together of the soil. The seed-bed is therefore only an epoch in the care of the field. The comminuting tillage tools leave the ground loose and more or less open. In this loose earth the seed is readily incorporated. But the earth may be too loose to promote the best germination. In such cases the roller is used to compact the earth. The soil-grains are then settled about the seeds, and the subsurface moisture passes up from grain to grain or through the small cavities, and supplies the seed. This moisture is on its way toward evaporation into the air; therefore it is well to break up the com- pact surface by tillage, as soon as the plants are well established, in order to prevent the further loss of moisture, particularly if it is the case of a spring-sown a : crop. The com- ed: mon practice of Fig. 204. Combined disk-drill and force-feed seeder. tramping on the row in making garden hereby finds explanation; and it is probable that the custom of spatting the hill with the hoe in the steadfast old days when we planted corn by hand, had other merit than merely to mark the spot where we had dropped five kernels from a bed-ticking bag. SES The quantity to sow. The reader will want to know how much seed of the various things is required for an acre. This information was once easy to give, when fields were small and every one followed the cus- tom of his father or his neighbor. But now we plant in hilis at all distances, or drills at all distances, or semi-broadcast at no distances, and we grow crops for more purposes than were ever dreamed of in the old philosophy. The tables, therefore, represent either averages or extremes, and the person who is looking for See) ateaehiments precise direction is likely not to find it, and he is told that it all depends on conditions, and as likely as not he does not know what the conditions are. However, a table has been compiled from good sources, and the reader is referred, for further information, to the articles on the special crops comprising the major part of this book; from these sources the reader should be able to derive some help. QUANTITY OF SEED PER ACRE. Alfalfa (broadcast). . ... é 20-25 Ibs. Carrots (for stock) . ..... 4-6 Ibs. Alfalfa (drilled) ...... 3 15-20 lbs. Cassava ie o.w ow se aye ew By cuttings Artichoke, Jerusalem ..... 6-8 bus. Chick-pea. . ... 2. anar Ze 30-50 Ibs. Barley ..... tees da dace 8-10 pks. Chicory (and by cuttings) ... 1-14 Ibs. Barley and peas ..... . 1-2 bus. each Clover, alsike (alone, for forage). 8-15 lbs. Bean, field (small varieties) . . 2-3 pks. Clover, alsike (on wheat or rye Bean, field (large varieties) .. 5-6 pks. inspring). ....... 4-6 lbs. BO6b. ooca soo ee oe ee eee 4-6 lbs. Clover, Egyptian or berseem . . 4-1 bu. Beggarweed (for forage) ... 5-6 Ibs. Clover, Japan (lespedeza) .. . 12 Ibs. Beggarweed (for hay). .... 8-10 Ibs. Clover,Mammoth ...... 12-15 Ibs. Bent-grass . 1... 2s eee 1-2 bus. Clover, red (alone, for forage) . 16 lbs. Berseem ..... +e eee 4-1 bus. Clover, red (on small grain in Blue-grass ........ . 25 Ibs. (pure) spring)... . 2. wee 8-14 Ibs. Brome-grass (alone, for hay). . 12-15 Ibs. Clover, sweet (melilotus). . . . 2 pks. Brome-grass (alone, for pasture) . 15-20 Ibs. Clover, white ........ 10-12 Ibs. Brome-grass (in mixture) ... 2-5 lbs. Clover, yellow (forseed). . .. 3-5 lbs. Broom-con . ..... ree 3 pks. Clover, yellow (in mixture). . . 1 lb. Broom-corn (for seed). . ... 1 pk. COTM oe ek ae nat Soh eae dese 6 qts.—1 bus. Buckwheat .......4.. 3-5 pks. Corn (for silage). . . . 2. 9-11 qts. Bur-clover .....2 see 12 Ibs. Cotton « «eb we we Hee 1-3 bus. Cabbage ... 2... e ewe 2-1 Ib: Cowpea: 2 a: 49 i wee ew 1-14 bus. 136 SEEDING, PLANTING AND YIELDS QuaNTITY oF SEED PER Acrg, continued Cowpea (in drill, with corn) 5 $-1 bu. Rescue grass .. . + - «+ 80-40 lbs. Cowpea (for seed) ....- < 3 pks. Ric@ 4. 6 wi we hw & 1-3 bus. Crimson clover... . 1. 12-15 lbs. Rutabaga. . 2. ee ew ew 38-5 Ibs. Durra. See Kafir and Milo. Rye (early) ....-.- . 8-4 pks. Field-pea, (small varieties). . . 2 bus. Rye (late)... 2+ see 6-8 pks. Field-pea, (large varieties) . 3-34 bus. Rye (forage) Gas 8-4 bus. Flax (for saad) SL sarc a hac iat Se 2-3 pks. Rye-grass. . 2. 2 2 ee ee 2-3 bus. Flax (for fiber)... . 2... 13-2 bus. Sainfoin . (shelled ee) 40 lbs. Guinea-grass.. 2... 2.4... Root cuttings Sand lucern (broadcast) 15 Ibs. Hemp (broadcast) ...... 84-4 pks. Serradella (alone, in drills) . 40-50 Ibs. Hungarian grass (hay)... .. 2 pks, Sheep’s fescue... ....-.- 24-3 bus. Hungarian grass (seed) . . 1 pk. Sorghum (forage, broadcast) . . 13-2 bus. Johnson-grass ... 1... 1-13 bus Sorghum (for seed or syrup) . - 2-5 lbs. Kafir (drills)... 2... 0. 38-6 lbs. Sorghum, saccharine (for silage Kafir (for fodder) .. 2... 10-12 lbs. or soiling, drills)... . . 6 Ibs.-4 bu. Kale ® sp egg ahi is Gs 2-4 Ibs. Sorghum and peas ...... 3-4 pks. each Kohlrabi. 2s is ws ee we 4-5 lbs. Soybean (drills) ....... 2-8 pks. Lespedeza. . 2... 2. eee 12 lbs poe (broadcast) ..... 1-13 bus. Dupinie! a av dh asi ee Se as Ge we 14-2 bus. Spurry ss He ee ww 6-8 qts. Mangels... 2. 2. we ee 5-8 lbs Spare (for seed). . 1.2... 4 qts. Meadow fescue. . . 12-15 lbs, Sugar-beets ..-.....--. 15-20 lbs. Millet, barnyard (drills) | 1-2 pks Sugar-cane .. 1... ee ee 4 tons of cane Millet, foxtail (drills)... .. 2-3 pks. Sunflower... 2... 2a 10-15 lbs. Millet, German (seed). . . . . 1 pk. Sweet clover. .. .. econ | 2-4 pks. Millet, Aino (drills)... 2... 2-8 pks. Sweet-potato. .......- 14-4 bus. Millet, Pearl (for soiling) ... 4 lbs Teasel, s. = ea a ee aoe we 1-14 pks. Millet, Pearl (for hay)... .. 8-10 lbs Teosinte ..... 2.2 eee 1-3 lbs. Millet, Proso or Panicle (drills) . 2-3 pks Timothy .......2.+.. ae eS MANO i a. i ene ee es ye 5 lbs. . timothy Se Oat-grass, tall... 2... . 30 Ibs. Timothy and clover. . . . . { clover 4 lbs. Oats 47 iss gs en , - S 2-3 bus {1 tablespoonful to oats 2 bus. Tobacco ......2.- 100 sq. yds. to set Oats and peas ....... } peas } bu. out 6 acres, Orchard-grass ........ 1 15 lbs. (pure) Turnip (broadcast) ...... 2-4 Ibs. Para-grass .... 2. ees Cuttings Turnip (drills). .... fs 1 lb. Parsnips: 6,20. ee es we ee 4-8 lbs. Turnip (hybrid) a a a 8-5 lbs. Popcorn. . j Oe ao ae ; 3 lbs. Velvet bean. . 2.2... 1-4 pks. Potato (Irish) average... .. "10-14 bus. . F 1 bu. + 1 bu. Potato, cut to 1 or 2 eyes . 6-9 bus. Vetch, hairy (drilled) . : “s4 fuer ra ‘i Potato, recommended by many 13 bus. yu. for best yields... 2... 15-20 bus. Meteh; Katy (broadcast) -{ small grain Pumpkin . . eee 4 lbs. Vetch, kidney’. . ... 2... 5 18-22 ve Rape (in drills) ....... 2-4 Ibs. pks. + 1 bu. Rape (broadcast)... .... 4-8 lbs. MAT EPS Va. ey ae we { small grain Red-top...... (recleaned) 12-15 lbs. Wheat: 2504s ei ere! Suwa 6-9 pks. Permanent meadows: Permanent pastures : Timothy ..... 12 Ibs. Timothy ..... 3 Ibs. Red clover 4 lbs. } 20-24 Ibs. per acre. Orchard-grass 2 Ibs. Alsike ...... 2 lbs: Red-top ..%. .. 2 Ibs. Timothy ..... 16 Ibs. Kentucky blue-grass 2 Ibs. Red-top .... . 16 lbs. Italian rye-grass: 1 |b. Red clover 4 lbs. Meadow fescue . . 2 lbs. Red-top ..... 13 lbs. - Red clover. . . . 4 lbs Orchard-grass . . . 18 lbs White clover... 2 lbs. Meadow fescue 9 Ibs. Kentucky blue-grass 8 lbs. Red clover 4 lbs. White clover... 4 Ibs. Tall oat-grass . . . 28 lbs \ Perennial rye-grass. 9 lbs. Red clover 8 lbs. Red fescue. . 3 lbs. Timothy ..... 8 Ibs. Red-top .....: 8lbs. Red clover 4 lbs. Red-top ..... 14 Ibs. Alsike ...... 2 lbs. Alsike x. 3. 6 3 «3 8 lbs. Kentucky blue-grass. 2 lbs. Creeping bent. . . 6 lbs. Wet pasture. Red-top ..... 2 lbs. Perennial rye-grass. 12 lbs. Tee ae 5 éj . Red fescue. . 20 lbs, Red-top (recleaned) « 3. Red-top ..... 10 Ibs. . . Red-top (in chaff). . 12 Ibs. Kentucky bluegrass 8 lbs, [ Light sandy soil. Tall meadow oat-grass 12 lbs. White clover : . . 2 lbs. Red clover * 8 Ibs. Timothy, red-top, Kentucky blue-grass and red clover, Alsike clover 4 lbs. equal parts, 8 to 20 pounds per acre of the mixture. SEEDING, PLANTING AND YIELDS 137 Storing of seeds. The first requisite to the keeping of seeds is to have them well grown, from strong and healthy parents. The second requisite is to have them well cured, or free from mold and damp. Usually it is best to thresh before storing, for there is less danger from damp and from vermin, and the seeds occupy less space. The room should be dry and devoid of great extremes in temperature. Very low temperature is less inimical than very high temperature. Moist seeds are less able to withstand extremes of temperature than dry seeds. Ordinary winter temperatures in a secure loft are harmless. In large quantities seeds are usually best stored in bags. (Fig. 189.) In all cases, it is well to keep the bags or boxes tied or shut, to avoid currents of air and thereby avoid either too much dampness or too great drying, and to exclude vermin. Most nests of drawers allow runways for mice. Fig. 190 illustrates poor and good construction. Peas and beans and maize are specially liable to in- jury by weevils when in storage. Bisulfid of carbon may be poured into the receptacle on the seeds. It quickly volatilizes and destroys all animal life if the receptacle is immediately closed tight. A tea- spoonful is sufficient for eight or ten quarts of seed in a very tight box or drawer. Carbon bisulfid is very inflammable and care should be exercised to avoid the danger of an explosion. It should never be handled freely in rooms containing fires of any kind. It is a thin liquid, volatilizing at low temperatures ; therefore the receptacles containing it should be tightly sealed. Hydrocyanic acid gas (made by pouring sulfuric acid on pieces of cyanide of potassium) may be used to destroy insects when they infest whole rooms or buildings. This gas is exceedingly poisonous, however, and it should be used only by those who have had experience. (See page 45.) Fig. 206. A corn-planter. Planting calendar. In the great expanse of North America, it is impos- sible to give in any brief space a very useful list of dates for the planting of the various field crops. The subject is one that demands careful and pro- longed study, however. It needs to be approached from the point of view of phenology, and to be related to farm-practice questions. (See discussion of Phenol- ogy on pages 532 and 533, Volume I.) To be of much service, such records should be averages of several years. The farmer, long accustomed to a locality, depends less on the calendar than on the general state of the weather and the “signs” of the season. It is an old custom to plant corn when the oak leaves are the size of a squirrel’s ear. In order to systematize their business and to establish a fixed point to which men may work, some large planters set a formal date on which they plant certain crops year after year. The season, however, properly determines the date of planting. The forwardness of grass and trees, the condition of the soil, the type of crop succession, all indicate season of planting. As a suggestion to the uninstructed planter, the average or usual dates of planting have been secured from careful persons in several parts of the country, and these dates are given on the following pages for what they may be worth to the reader. These records will. be suggestive to the beginner, to whom any fixed points or standards, of whatever kind, are valuable in enabling him to plan his work. As he becomes expe- rienced, the fixed and formal epochs will have less significance to him. In a restricted region, it is pos- sible to give advice by months. Once books called “calendars” were popular, particularly with gar- deners; but these are inapplicable to continental areas, Fig. 208. A sulky lister, for planting corn. Fig. 207. Riding cotton- and corn-planter. 138 SEEDING, PLANTING AND YIELDS USUAL PLANTING DATES Maritime Central Georgia and Indiana Provinces *Quebec New England New York Alabama (Lafayette) Alfalfa .. May 10-July | May May-July May-Aug 15 ED les April-August Artichoke ... faces | May 9 we wai as May, June March |..... . Asparagus... .|...... | May April soa PRE hence April 15 Barley. .... May May, June April, May April, May 15 | Sept. 20-Oct. | April 1 Beans... . .| June 1-15 May 15-30 May May 15-Ju. 25 | April-June May 20 Broom-corn. . .] «.. +... | May 15-30 May 15-25 aren es Ca retl & April, May May 20 Buckwheat. . .| June May-July June 1-20 June 15-July 5| March 15-30 | June 1 Cabbage. . . .| May 1-15 Hotbed April | Mar—June 15 | May Jan.—Marcht | Apr. 10-June 1 Carrot. . . 2s May May May May Mar. 20-April | April 15 Clover. .. ..| May May Mr. 15-Sept. 1} March—Aug. Mar., Sr., Oct. | Feb.—April Cotton... --] eee eee [ee eee ec PS seb se: es ares aay, i tet se ase as . | Mr.20-May15|...... Cowpea ....|--2e--- |.-.-e- | May15-Junel| May 15-Ju. 25 | May—Aug.1 May 15-25 Field-pea. . . . | May May Mar. 15-May | April-June Feb., April April 1 Flaxf..... May May ey By ee ey wes? epee | re ee or ae Bie Kafircorn . . «| 2. so wee er Pee wi eat et | May April-June May 20 Kohlrabi. ...| 2... Hotbed April | April May March April 15 Lespedeza ...)/ 2... eee wee ee lew we we fw ew ee « | March 1-15 ari ee) Lupine . 2...) 22-2. May April-May 12 | May March asta Say ests Maize... May 20-June1| May, June May 10-Ju. 10 | May March-July 1 | May 1-20 Mangels . . . . | May 1-20 May Apr. 15-My. 20} May Mar., Aug. 1 | May 1-20 Melilotus....|...... | May July March-Sept. Feb., March Bia ie Millet... .. June May-July May 10-Ju. 20 | May 15-Jy. 10 | April-July June 1 Wales see a3 May May,June ‘| April April Ete Mr. 15-Apr. 10 Parsnip ... May May April, May May Mr. 25-Apr. 25] April 25-30 Pean itis ae: seca: | Serer 2: eta Seine mereee ia) | Neeweretay mire ef: hae sy cay ents May,June |...... Potato... .. May 15-June1| May Apr. 15-My. 10] March-July 5 Te April-June Pumpkin. . . .| June l May 15-30 May 5-31 May May May 15 Rape ..... June May-July April May-July March, Oct. May-July RIGS pa a ede ade eee es Ge SS Sot B) eee tand I[eieeneeneey pce Gey deep ees March-May |...... Rutabaga .. iar Seige ASP oe May, June June 5-30 May, June July April 20-25 Rye. .....{| May May or Sept. | Apr.,My.,Sept.| August-Oct. | Mr.,Sr.-Nov. | Sept.20-Oct.10 Saino, ce cee: ei Gee ee cae ee ete, Gee ce oh ee ee ws GE eee Sw Sept. Oct. |... .e. Sorehumis: aoe 2] cee re ee es! weve we May 10-30 May 15-Ju. 25 | Mar. 15-June | May 20-31 SOybOAD ss: es eves] ee ees ae Pe eS - | May May, June April 10-June | May 15-25 Squash May 10-June 1] May 15-30 May 15-Ju. 15 | May, June April 5-30 May 1-10 Sugar-beet . . . | May 15 May §|...... May | we swe as May 1-20 Sugar-cane. . . eRe aioe aa ee 23 Bh 3 Mar.21-Apr.5|..... : Sweet-potato. .|...... Maye Wisse eetee areca Weel ae ea erase May 1-Julyt | May 10-15 Timothy... May May eines 15, March-Sept. March-Oct. Sept., Oct. Tobacco. ... ‘ * eae May 20-Ju. 15 es May dt te era Turnip... .. May 15-Ju. 30 | May-July a re st | May-July ee May-August Vetch. .... May May, June July May—August hoe April 1 Wheat . | May May April April-Sept. Oct., Nov. Sept. 20-Oct.10 Mr.=March ; My.—May ; Ju.=June; Jy.—=July ; Sr.=September. *District of Quebec; District of Montreal about twelve days earlier. + For others, see article on flax. } Transplanting. SEEDING, PLANTING AND YIELDS 139 USUAL PLANTING DATES, continued Wisconsin Manitoba Pampered Oklahoma New Mexico Colorado t Montana April 10-July 1 | May 15-June 1 pecan Poel eae ,| Mar.15-Apr.20) Apr. 15-My. 10 May, June May 18 April1-80 |... . ee Jee eee April =|...... ai as ool sei ara . | Shoots May 6 | Mr.20-Mayl }...... ]...... | April May 15 April 10-25 May 10-25 Mr. 20-Apr. 10} Feb.15-Mr.15) ..... . | March 15-30 | May 5 May 10-30 June 11 See MNase nccoeoe ax aaae ie May 15-June1| May 20 aaa bees or aed « fee ee + ~ | May 10-25 Apr. 1-May 15 | April, May May 15 April 10 June 20-July 10 | May 1 Not-growmm {ea sees | ew we es June 15-July |... 2.2. 6 Tr. May 15-30 April 25 Mr. 15-Jly. 15 | Apr. 1-June 1 «ee ee | April 15 May 20 April 25-May 15 | May 7-16 Mr. 20-Apr.15]}...... ; April 1-15 May 1 April 15-May 10 | May 15-Junel| Feb. 1-Apr.1|...... «+ «+. « | Mar.15-Apr. 20} May 10 ae Cy 2a ceivesea lh coe ar piak, pounatee June 1-10 Apr. 15-My.15} .. 2... - | ee eee a a8 May 20-31 June 11 June 1-July 10 | May 15-Jy.15 | Spring @ sum. | Junel |j..... . April 20-30 May 4-8 Mar. 1-Apr.1 | March 1 March-June April 1 May 1 shane ea Besa May LO sdm1 be) za uee eer sca Bese ye car aa I] Gee ea ap Ges a | ee April 10 eter |i, der veo ah Oh te May 1-25 April 1-July 1 | March-June May 15 April 10 Pare . Mar.1-Apr.80]} ......].....- Aprill5 |...... Fah oe ae wt | Pde tetas Sede Wd eo ea wet [alee aap in eee ee le) Mae: Tb April re ae May 15-30 May 21-Junel | May 1-25 Mr. 15-Ju. 15 | April, May May 15 May 12 May 1-15 May 16 May 5 April 1-May 1| May, June April 15 May 1 April 15-30 ae aoe | April;May | ee we eww Poe te) ata Les)\ || Gee es BG fade . May 20-July May 1-8 June, July Mar. 1-June 1} June, July | ...... May 15 April 10-80 May 10-20 March 15-31 | Feb.15-Mr.15| Feb.—July Mar.15~—Apr.15| May 10 . .. . | April 10 Mar.1-Apr.] |...... aha April 1-10 May 10 si a a om “Wak Sores Lae Se Se oe s | Apr. U5-May 1) Apri 16-Jm15| s2 2 see lee eww | ee we ws < May 1June 30 | May 18 Mr. 15-Apr.30 ee 13 April-May} | May 20-Ju. 10 | May 25 May 10-30 June 7 May 1-June1 | April 1-May UG eee May 25 May 20 May 1-August 1 | Apr. 20-Jy.1* | March—May Feb. 15-Apr. 1 oa April, May Up to July 10 May 1-30 May, June May 25 April1-May1|..... . | March-June May 5 Aug. 25-Sept. 10 | Apr.10-My.10| Sept., October | Aug.15-Nov.15 ee oe Apr. 1-May 10 May 10-200 ff 7 ww eee fe ee ee fee ee ee Sica) ala ws Pe, Se ergs Ih aah ie ee May 15-30 May 21-Ju. 1 | May 1-25 Mar. 1-Aug. 1 | March-June May 20 May 10 May 10-30 June 11 June 1-July 10) May 15-Jy. 15 a 22 | Ihave, won ten 20s oad ae aeecorel Ne) te May 20-June 10 | June 7 May 1-June 1 | Apr. 1-May 15 May 20 May 20 May 1-30 May 16 Mayo: hekeiie airan | ea are Se Mr. 15—Apr.15 | May 1 Bias Ts 7 Mayla25: | force eee es ee ee el ae May 20 y ae Sova deiaais dee Ube eS Wee cae ete My. 15-Ju.15 | Aprill-Mayl]...... |... 220 Jue ee ee April-Sept. May 15-June1| April, Sept. | ...... é Mr. 15-Apr.15| May 10 Tr. Mayl-Junel} ...... May de2be |i) see egteen cee. PAE Ao ae 8 | O> ao, Seder Se May 1-20 May 16-21 March-August | Jy.15-Aug.31| ...... March-June May 5 April 20-30 May 15-June1| April, August |... ... |... .2.., September |...... April-August | Apr. 10-My.10| Sr. 15-Oct. 30 | Sr. 10-Noy.80| J@%-~April 15, | a6 15-Apr.15 | May 1 Sept. 1-Oct. 15 *If there is enough moisture. + Grown only at high elevations. {For irrigated crops ; for non-irrigated crops, as soon after March 25 as conditions allow. 140 SEEDING, PLANTING AND YIELDS USUAL PLANTING DATES, continued * Arizona (Phenix) Nevada California Oregon Washington Alaska Alfalfa . «| apres | March-August | October-Feb. | March-May 15 | Apr. 20-My.15..... . Artichoke). i: a: a|w! oe Gago ag [oe soe we Dec.-March March-May15| Aprill-Mayl|...... Asparagus... gh Beate lee cae sara Dec., January | March-May15| Mr.10-May15,;...... Barley... .. Sept.—March 1| April Dec.—March re 2 5, April 20 May 1-15 Beans. .... as Siege Bi May 20 April, May March—May 15 | Apr.25-My.25)..... 5 Broom-corn. . .| ... e+. Apr. 20-My.20| April, May May 15-June 1| May 10-20 a ie Buckwheat. ../...... May 1-10 May March-May 15 | May 10-20 May 10 Tr. Jan., Feb., Sipe Mar.-May 15, | Mar. 15—Apr.1 Cabbage... . Sr. 15, Oct: 20 May 15. Sept.—April Oct.—Dec. (ander giass)| “°° °° o Carrot... . Jan., Feb, | May 15 Sept.-April | March-May 15| Apr. 15-My. 15] May 1 Clover cee) March, April | APH, May, | MarMay 15, | yy, apr, Sept| April 1 ede Wesel ese an a as arch, Apri Cee iek, Oct._Dec. ., Apr., Sept.| Api Cotton. .... April = f[....ee April, May f Ss tee tae ee | eer ae i tay 58 ow Cowpea . . April-August | ...... April, May ic teny Cale grey’ HN) Sten Servic fal S52 9 IP) sep op sh 22 GS i Field-pea. . . .| J@%»Feb» | | April, May | Sept.-May | March-May 15) Mr. 15-May 15| April 15 Aug. 20-Nov.20) 445 1-20 (not Play: ooo ce ha ed es aa | Dec.-April March-May 15 | May 1-15 May 1 Kafir Corn. 2 a) we eee a8 eae April-June March-May 15 | May 1 eile) See aghoe Kohlrabi. . . .| April-June |. May 15 Dec.—April | March-May 15 Padi Tr. June 1 Lespedeza . era fet ue ah Bap dee ae terra ara ha ee pd ee ere ee [SE ae es SE ie Lupine. «wa sl ee eos Go| ee ee ew October-Feb. | March-May15/ Apr.15-May1|]..... iS Maire ca a ie tae Apr.20-My.20| April, May | March-May15|May1-15 |...... Mangels o43 <0 |) we 3 ew Apr.15-My.15| October-June | March-May 15 | April 1-June1| April 15 Melilotus. .. 2.) ......- Be se Abe Batty G8 | Ih Ses Meta OE a March-May 15; March-May | ...... Millet... . August Early April ‘April, May May15-Junel| ......|].e.25-. ; A March-May 15, f Oats...... October-Dec. | Early April | Dec.—April Oct.—Deo April 10 Apr. 20-My. 15 Parsnip ....|..... . | May 15 April, May March-May 15} Aprill—May 1 | April 15 Peantty. aa ie) |e ee eee ek Se April, May asa Sat eedieeriek Mist We Pac wacaar tothe oo nae Gee ate Potato... . eres a Apr. 15-My.15| Sept.-May March-May 15| April 1-May 1 | May 1 Pumpkin. . March—June May 10 April, May May 15-June 1] May 1-15 S44 i] : Rape: «we ge | ww % oe oes 5 March-August | April1-June1| May 1 Rice; ear ei anas]ice ee ese | wieok: 3 8 BS ee decane tee | oasis ae vee. Se eo es cape ae ia eerie sey Bese Rutabaga ...)/....2.--. May 1-10 Sept.—April March-May 15 | May 1-June1 | Apr. 15-My. 15 Feb.—April, 2 March-May 15, Winter, July RY Ga 25 Sa Mtr eo seh ot ee tat Sept.-Nov. Dec.—Feb. Oct.—Dee. Mr., Apr., Sept. Spring, May 1 Sainfoin . . pat ete ed ee || May ae Re atom tees March-May 15} ...... eee ee Sorghum. . . .| May, June Apr. 20-My.10| April-June March-May15| May1-15 |...... Soybean... .-[.....2- 4] - Bah! Gen dee Gay Feb.—April May15-Junel| Aprill §=j|...... Squash... .. Mr., Ju., Aug. | May 20 April, May May 15-June 1| May 1-20 Sugar-beet . . . dene hes Apr. 20-My.10| January-May | March-May15| Mayl /|...... Sugar-cane. . «|. . 2 eee oy Se ey ar) | | ea ee eee least es Co rcandan om May 1-15 | ...... Sweet-potato . ./ March-May |..... + | May Suds eral |p Mayd=1b~ |) aS. ae Bee Timothy -...[...-.0- March, April | April, May ¢ October—Dec. | Mr., Apr.,Sept.|) .. 2... ; TODACGO S53 (1a? we |) eee cates lee he es Sept.—May March-May 15 cae A ii oe BS = 3 Turni Jan. Feb. | May 15 Sept.-Ma Marck-May 15) 4 oil Juno Dt Oe Aug.-Oct y Phe 14 oot Dee P April-July 81 Vetch raervnet| |Revareraera er Bee ap arate Sept.-Feb. a eye April-Sept. eaeeres a ‘ a March-May 15,| Feb.—April, Winter, July Wheat os. are | ehecaie ele Early April Dec.-March Ocean, Ang. Bent | Sprig, May * Prom Bull. No. 48, Part III, Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station. +No commercial product. **See article on flax. £ Grown only in extreme northern part, PRACTICAL ADVICE ON SEED-TESTING Seed machinery. 141 Seed-sowing is one epoch in crop practice. Whatever modifies the crop management of a farm also modifies the methods or purposes of seeding. In Chapter V it was shown that crop management has been profoundly influenced by the invention of machinery. Some of this invention, also, has been modi- fied and directed by changes in crop management. The same remarks may be made with special force in reference to the seed-sowing phase.of the work. In seeding and harvesting machinery we have made great progress. Figs. 191-208, and also Figs. 117-119 and 122, 123, illustrate some of the progress in seeding machinery, and at the same time exhibit most of the mechanical principles that have been applied for putting seeds into the ground. The number of different patterns and styles of machines is very great. Every largely grown crop has its own range of planters or seeders. PRACTICAL ADVICE ON SEED-TESTING By E. Brown and F. H. Hillman The quality of agricultural seeds, especially of forage crops, has been given much more attention in Europe than in America. European countries have seed control in various forms, with over one hundred seed-control stations, some of them with an international reputation. We have developed a system by means of which commercial fertilizers are sold under guaranteed analyses, and a large part of the work of some of our state agricultural experiment stations is given to making these chemical analyses ; but comparatively little atten- tion has been given to the quality of seeds. No seeds sold in this country are guaranteed as to purity and germination, and but few experiment stations have facilities for seed-testing. The United States Department of Agriculture and some of the agricultural experiment stations, however, have done much to show the importance of good seeds. Publications have been issued calling atten- tion to the quality of various kinds of seeds on the market, and samples have been tested for the infor- mation of the senders. Large quantities of low-grade screenings, espe- cially of clover and alfalfa, are imported annually to be mixed with better seeds and sold as medium and low grades. Besides dirt and dead seed, these screenings contain large quantities of weed seeds. Beal has shown (Bot. Gaz., August, 1905, “The Vitality of Seeds”) that the seeds of many com- mon weeds grow after having been buried in the ground for twenty-five years. Among these are pigweed, black mustard, shepherd’s purse, pepper- grass, evening primrose, smart- weed, purslane, curled dock, pigeon- grass, chickweed and mayweed. The Fig. 209. Tripod magnifier. purchaser of low-grade seed is fouling his land with weeds which may appear for years afterward, whenever the conditions are right for their germination. Farmers make the mistake of thinking that there is not so much difference in quality as in price, while as a matter of fact the good seed in the low grades costs often many times as much per pound as the good seed in the best grades. Testing for purity. Everyone buying seeds should have some kind of a lens with which to examine them. The form shown in Fig. 209, costing twenty-five to fifty cents, is satisfactory. By spreading grass or clover seed thinly on a sheet of white paper and looking at it carefully with a lens, it is easy to detect the presence of any considerable amount.of weed seeds or chaff. The seeds used as adulterants are much more difficult to distinguish, and in all cases of sus- pected adulteration samples of the seed should be sent for examination to the state agricultural ex- periment station or to the Seed Laboratory of the United States Department of Agriculture. All seed should be practically free from weed seeds and chaff, and contain no adulterants. Clover and alfalfa should be bright and contain no brown seeds or dodder seed. Testing for germination. All the quick-germinating seeds, such as clover, timothy and grain, can be easily tested for ger- mination by any one with the simple tester shown in Fig. 210. Mix the seed thor- oughly and count out 100 or 200 seeds just as they come, mak- ing ne selection ex- cept to discard any weed seeds. Put them between a fold of canton flannel or some similar cloth that has been washed in boiling water, tak- ing care not to let the seeds touch one another. Lay the cloth on a plate, moisten it well but do not saturate it, cover with another plate and keep at a temperature of about 70° F. Every day count and take out the sprouted seeds. In four to ten days all of the good seeds will have sprouted, and the percentage of seed that will grow is known. Some of the grass seeds are more difficult to test, requiring more exact conditions and an alter- nating temperature. In all cases where seeds do not germinate well in the simple tester shown, it is best to send them away to be tested before dis- carding them. Fig. 210. “A simple home-made seed-tester. See pp. 280, 281, Adulteration. Several of our most important forage crop seeds are frequently adulterated with seeds costing one- 142 third to one-half the price of those with which they are mixed. Red clover, alfalfa, Kentucky blue- grass and orchard-grass seed are the principal ones affected. The seed of yellow trefoil is imported in Fig. 211. plants that are sometimes found in grass seed. ** Seeds’? or perigynia of species of carex, sedge large quantities from Germany to be used as an adulterant of red clover and alfalfa. It is a low- growing, leguminous plant not cultivated in the United States and of no value where red clover or alfalfa will grow. Bur-clover seed, which is combed out of South American wool, is also imported from Germany and mixed with alfalfa seed. English and Italian rye-grass and meadow fescue seed are frequently mixed with orchard-grass seed in vary- ing proportions. Canada blue-grass seed, although used to some extent in this country, is imported in large quantities from Canada, to be mixed with, or sold as Kentucky blue-grass seed. All of these seeds used as adulterants resemble so closely the seeds with which they are mixed that they’ are difficult to distinguish. In the following discussion, enlarged pictures are given of the true seed, in order that the examiner may distinguish adulter- Fig. 212. Fig. 213. Alsike clover. Red clover. ants. The sedges frequently occur with grasses but are not used as adulterants. Some of the seeds or fruits are shown in Fig. 211. Farm seeds and adulterants. RED CLOVER (Trifolium pratense). Fig. 212. Fresh, well-matured seed is plump and has a slight luster. The color is clear yellow, violet or variegated. Old seed loses these colors, which are replaced by dull brown. Artificial polishing produces a high luster but does not redeem the original colors. Shriveled screenings are thin owing to the poorly developed embryo, and dull greenish or brown. Well-devel- oped seeds are somewhat triangular, rounded and have a broad notch at the scar. Samples of com- mercial seed exhibit considerable difference in the average size of the seeds. PRACTICAL ADVICE ON SEED-TESTING ALSIKE CLOVER (Trifolium hybridum). Fig. 218. Seeds smaller than in red clover, averaging some- what larger than white clover seed. Fresh seed has little if any luster, but the olive to dark green color is bright, and the mottled surface exhibited by many of the seeds is distinct. Old seed loses its green color and becomes dull brown, the mottling becoming indistinct or disappearing. Such seed is not readily distinguishable from old white clover seed. CRIMSON CLOVER (Trifolium incarnatum). Fig. 214. Crimson clover seed is readily distinguished from that of the other clovers by the large size, oval and more rounded form of the individual seeds. Fresh seed is reddish pink and has a pronounced luster. A dull reddish brown replaces these in old seed. There is considerable variation in the size of seeds in commercial samples. ALFALFA OR LUCERNE (Medicago sativa). Fig. 215. Fresh, well-matured seed has a clear greenish yel- Crimson clover. Fig. 215. Alfalfa seed. Fig. 214, low color but no distinct luster. Its greenish color readily distinguishes it from the seed of the culti- vated true clovers. Individual seeds vary consider- ably in form, since several are produced in each spiral pod. They are angular, oval-oblong or kidney- shaped and usually have a light stripe on each side. YELLOW TREFOIL (Medicago lupulina). Fig. 216. This seed is largely used as an adulterant of red clover and alfalfa, and to some extent in alsike and crimson clovers. Individual seeds are practically the same size as those of red clover and alfalfa, but larger than alsike seed and smaller than average crimson clover seeds. The admixture of 35 to 45 per cent of this seed in red clover seed gives the latter in bulk a greenish tinge. It lightens the general color of alsike seed, but does not materially change that of alfalfa or crimson clover seed. Its detection is readily accomplished by examining in- dividual seeds with a lens. The seeds are produced singly in the pod and so are fairly constant in form. ep Ye w Os Fig. 217. Bur-clover, an adulterant, Fig. 216. Yellow trefoil, an adulterant, PRACTICAL ADVICE ON SEED-TESTING They are oval, with the scar notch near the smaller end with a prominent projection beside it. A light stripe on each side usually extends from the scar toward the broader end of the seed. These seeds Fig. 218. Timothy. Fig. 219. Orchard-grass. are faintly greenish yellow, becoming reddish brown in age. Red clover seed (Fig. 212) is distinguished by its lighter yellow or violet colors, its triangular form, broad scar notch and the absence of a pro- jection at the scar. Alfalfa seed (Fig. 215) is dis- tinguished by its more angular, oblong or kidney form, only the latter having a projection beside the nearly central scar. The contrast in form is even more pronounced in alsike and crimson clover seeds. (Figs. 213, 214.) BuR-CLOVER (Medicago Arabica, aa; Medicago denticulata, b). Fig. 217. These kinds are used as an adulterant of alfalfa seed. Medicago Arabica seeds are mostly kidney-shaped, the scar being nearer one end than in alfalfa, a distinct projec- tion beside it. Fresh seeds are light yellow. The large seeds are larger than alfalfa seeds and are readily distinguished from them, the smaller being distinguished only with difficulty. Medicago dentic- ulata seeds are mostly larger than alfalfa seeds, oblong -kidney -shaped, the scar notch prominent near the center and the projection slight or want- ing. Most of these seeds are distinguishable from the others. They are commonly darker than the seeds of Medicago Arabica. TimotHy (Phleum pratense). Fig. 218. This seed has a characteristic appearance and is readily rec- Fig. 221. Red-top. Fig. 220. Meadow fescue. ognized. It is not subject to adulteration, but is often an impurity of alsike seed, sometimes of red clover seed. The seed may either bear the hull (aa) or be free from it (b b). The presence of the hull gives fresh, well-cured seed a bright, silvery white appearance. The dull, oval seeds free from the hull are darker, 143 ORCHARD - GRASS (Dactylis glomerata). Fig. 219. This seed appears mostly in the hull. In this form it is straw-colored or darker. Individual seeds are triangular in section, being sharply angled along the back, tapering toward the ends, the apex awn- pointed. Viewed from the angled back or front they are curved to one side (a). The surface may be smooth or somewhat hairy, the back hairy toward the apex. The rachilla segment is slender, terete and slightly curved. Seeds rest on the front face (a) or oblique sides (b b) on a level surface. MEADOW FESCUE (Festuca elatior). Fig. 220. This seed in the hull is dark straw-colored or light brown. Individual seeds are somewhat boat-shaped, tapering to the ends, often frayed at the thin, papery apex. The inner face (a) is flattened and concave, the back rounded, not angled ; seeds rest- ing on the front or back on a level surface. The rachilla segment is slender, terete, straight, dis- tinctly expanded at the apex, important in distin- guishing this seed. RED-ToP (Agrostis alba). Fig. 221. Seeds minute, mostly in the hull (a a), or in the “chaffy” grades largely surrounded by the outer chaff (b). In the Fig. 223. Canada blue-grass. Fig. 222. Kentucky blue-grass. “fancy” grade the seed, practically all in the inner hull, is very light gray; individual seeds spindle- shaped, slightly angled on the back, the edges of the hull separated on the inner face, exposing the grain. “Chaffy” seeds, covered by the outer hull, are longer, lance-shaped and bear a part of the flower stemlet. Such seed is darker colored and much lighter in weight than the “fancy.” “Extra” or “fancy cleaned” seed consists largely of this outer chaff devoid of seed. KENTUCKY BLUE-GRASS (Poa pratensis). Fig. 222. Bulk seed is light brown and well-cleaned seed is free from chaff. Individual seeds are in the hull, which is lance-shaped, tapering to each end, broadest at the middle and triangular in cross-sec- tion, the back of the seed being sharply angled. The intermediate nerves of the hull, one along the center of each oblique half of the back, are plainly evident under a lens as broad ridges (a a). These are important in distinguishing this seed. The edges of the hull are separated along the inner face (b). The free grain of the seed (c) is lance- shaped, wine-colored and grooved on one side. Commercial seed is usually rubbed free of the hairs on the angles of the hull and the frail apexes are usually more or less torn. CANADA BLUE-GRASS (Poa compressa). Fig. 228. This seed: in bulk is usually somewhat lighter col- 144 ored than Kentucky blue-grass. Individual seeds are very similar to the latter, hence this seed is used successfully as an adulterant. The apex of the seed is less sharply pointed and often flares somewhat, becoming rounded (c). The seed usually is widest a little above the middle (a). The intermediate nerves (b) are very’ indistinct. The presence of Canada blue-grass seed as an adulterant can be de- termined only by the use of a lens. PERENNIAL OR ENGLISH RYE-GRASS (Loliwm per- enne). Fig. 224. The seed is so similar to, that of meadow fescue that it is distinguished with diffi- culty. The distinguishing mark lies in the rachilla segment (a) which is flattened externally and grad- ually broadens toward the apex, which is scarcely expanded. ITALIAN RYE-GRASS (Lolium Italicum). Fig. 225. The seed is similar to that of perennial rye-gasss, with the exception that most of the seeds bear a slender awn at the apex. The rachilla segment is some- ! what intermediate in form between that of perennial rye-grass and that of meadow fescue, but usually dis- tinguishes the rye- grass from the fescue. Both kinds of rye-grass seed are used as adulterants of orchard- grass seed. Their flatter form and the awn of Italian rye-grass readily distinguish them from the angular, curved seeds of orchard-grass. Fig. 224. English rye-grass. Fig. 225. Italian rye-grass. GROWING SEED CROPS By W. W. Tracy The requisities for growing farm seed of the best quality are, (1) a field free of weed seeds or plants; (2) the use of pure stock seed of desira- ble strain; (8) so to harvest the crop as to secure a clean, bright sample of high vitality; (4) the careful use of machines for threshing and cleaning the seed. The way the machines are used is quite as important as their structure. Often one person will secure a poor sample of seed when another, by a wiser use of the same machines, will get an extra-fine sample from a similar lot of seed. The business of growing seed crops on the farm may be considered under three general divisions, according to the direct purposes for which the seeds are grown: (1) The growing of seeds, usu- ally of cereal and forage crops, to be sold on the market by sample, as are other farm crops; (2) GROWING SEED CROPS the growing of seeds, chiefly of garden vegeta- bles, on contract with seedsmen; (8) the grow- ing and breeding of improved strains of seeds to be used on the farm, with the sale, perhaps, of the surplus. (1) Growing cereal and forage-crop seeds for the general market. The crops grown specifically for seed in the past have been chiefly the grasses and clovers, the only special effort being to secure pure seed unmixed with weed seeds; but of recent years there has been increased attention to growing seed: not only of grasses and clover but of cereals, corn and other crops of selected strains that are adapted to spe- cial soils and uses. Certain sections are especially adapted to the growing of certain kinds of seeds. For example, millet seed can be grown best in the southern states, clover and wheat in more northern sections, and field corn in the central states. The methods vary with the kinds of seed and the places where they are grown. Usually timothy is cut, bound into bundles, cured, and then threshed, being cleaned in ordinary farm mills with special screens. Orchard-grass is harvested in much the same way. Kentucky blue-grass is harvested by strippers, which strip the seed from the standing stalks. The gathered seed is allowed to cure in windrows, on hard earth floors or in open sheds, and is there threshed and cleaned. Clover is gen- erally cut with the mower, allowed to cure in windrows or bunches in the field, and is then threshed in special machines or hullers. With the exception of the stripper or comber used in gather- ing blue-grass, red-top and a few other kinds, and possibly of some fingers to be attached to the cut- ting-bars of mowing machines for cutting clover and peas, no special machines are necessary. Spe- cially constructed machines for hulling clover are desirable, but in sections where clover seed can be grown profitably, threshers with such machines usually move from farm to farm. The final clean- ing for market is done by farm mills, of which there are many forms that do good work. (2) Growing vegetable seed crops on contract. To many farmers, seed-growing for a widely advertised firm is more attractive than growing ordinary farm crops; and a seed crop which can be sold only to the contractor and cannot be used or frittered away has advantages for one who rents on “crop-share rental,” so that such contracts are eagerly sought, with the exception of biennial plants, as onions, which are usually grown on spe- cial seed farms. Seedsmen secure most of their stock of vegetable seed by contracting with farm- ers to plant a certain area and deliver the entire seed product at an agreed price. The seedsman furnishes the stock seed, the farmer only under- taking to grow and harvest the crop so as to secure a good clean sample, the seedsman being responsible for the quality of the stock. Although a single seedsman, but ore of the largest of the more than five hundred in the country, annualiy contracts with farmers for the product of 20,000 GROWING SEED CROPS to 80,000 acres of vegetable seed crops, yet a very small proportion of the farmers of the country can easily produce all the seed needed, and a slight over-production results in a surplus and a conse- quent reduction in the contract prices that seeds- men are willing to offer, so that generally a seed crop is not especially profitable. One who has soil and climatic conditions espe- cially adapted to the growing of some particular vegetable, and who is familiar with its culture, but who is situated where he cannot handle profit- ably the ordinary farm product, can frequently grow seed to advantage. The cultural require- ments of a seed crop are not different from those of a crop for market except in the harvesting and curing of the seed, and these features are not especially laborious or expensive. Careful attention and the doing of the work at the proper time are the real essentials. Sweet corn, peas and beans are grown and the seed harvested and cured in the same way and at no greater ex- pense than is required for a crop of the grain, except that it is more important to gather, cure and handle these in such a way as to secure a bright sample and to avoid mixing in seed from other crops. The yields that may be expected vary greatly with different varieties, but generally are a little less than those of field sorts. The prices paid are usually somewhat higher, so that the seed crops are often more profitable than the grain crops. With tcmatoes, cucumbers, melons and other pulpy fruits, the fruits are allowed to ripen and the early-maturing ones to get a little over-ripe but not soft, so that the bulk of the crop can be gath- ered in one to three pickings. The fruit is crushed by passing through rollers, and the seeds are sepa- rated from the skins and coarse pulp in a slowly- revolving cylinder of wire netting of such size as to allow the seed and fine pulp to pass through, while the skin and coarse pulp pass out at the end. The cylinder is set at an angle and revolves slowly so that the seed will all be shaken out into a vat or into a simple board-lined pit in the ground, and only the coarse pulp pass out at the open end of the cylinder. The seed and liquid pulp is then allowed to ferment for a few days, care being taken that there is no water or rain added while fermenting. As soon as the mass is sufficiently soured so that the seed will slip clear of the pulp (2 to 10 days, according to temperature), it is sep- arated and washed by passing it through a trough or sluice box of slowly-moving water. The seed settles to the bottom to be removed by perforated scoops, while the pulp floats off and away. The seed is then rapidly dried by spreading very thinly and stirring. If the seed is allowed to stand in a mass when wet, it will speedily be discolored or rot and become worthless for seedsmen. The cost of separating and curing the seed after the fruit is gathered is much less than one would suppose, and with the best conveniences need not exceed five to ten cents a pound, according to va- riety. Very little special machinery is required in vegetable seed-growing, and most of this can be constructed on the farm. B10 145 In Fig. 226 is shown a side view of a horse- power machine for seeding cucumbers, melons, summer squashes, tomatoes and other pulpy crops. The cut shows the machine ready for work, except that the reel is shown without the wire netting with which it should be covered. This netting should be of stout wire and of one-half-inch mesh, or a little larger. The reel is about three and one- half feet in diameter and six feet long. Its upper \\ \ oS cs Machine for seeding pulpy vegetables. The net- ting about the cyclinder is omitted. Fig. 226. _end is formed of two common bent felloes of buggy wheels, bolted together so as to break joints; the lower end has no rim except the selvage edge of the piece of wire netting. The reel is built on a shaft connected with the trundling rod from the power and the shaft of the roller by knuckle joints. These allow the reel to be given any desired incli- nation by raising or lowering the journal block in the jack which supports the lower end. The vat is simply a hole in the ground lined with boards so as to keep dirt out of the seeds but allow the juice to soak away into the soil. In practice the vat should be made deeper than is shown and have guard boards to prevent the seeds and juice flying from the reel out on the ground. It will be neces- sary to set the machine where there will be no danger of rain or other water soaking or running into the vat. In Fig. 227 the same machine is Fig. 227. Detail of seeder shown in Fig. 226. shown with the hopper and reel taken off, and the frame tipped forward to show the rollers as if we were looking down on them. The rollers should be made of hard wood, and are about sixteen inches long and twelve inches in diameter, having eight grooves about three inches wide and one and one- half inches deep, cut with a spiral of one cog. The teeth or cogs are about one and one-half inches wide and would be better if faced with strap iron. The rollers might be made of soft wood and the teeth faced with iron, but they would be much in- 146 ferior to those of hard wood. The bolts which secure the journal block, in which the left-hand roller turns, should move in slots in the frame so that the rollers can be set different distances a mee ato if bss wy i BMS yee BEUE pers Fig. 228. Machine for separating watermelon seed. apart. For cucumbers, tomatoes and watermelons, it will be found best to set the rollers as close as possible without injuring the seeds; but as open as possible and still turn, for summer squash and muskmelons. The frame is made of 4x4, and may be of pine. Fig. 228 illustrates the machine in action. In Fig. 229 is pictured a table on which cucumbers may be seeded. (8) Growing and breeding seed crops for home use. It has been clearly demonstrated that it is pos- sible to increase the product per acre of the average farm up to 40 per cent simply by the use of im- proved strains of seed developed on the farm itself, at the cost of a little well-directed effort on the part of the farmer. There is no more effective way of increasing the money profit of the farm and the attractiveness of farming as an occupation, particularly to alert-minded young men, than through wise efforts in the improvement of the quality of the seed to be used. A most important factor controlling the profit of any crop is uniformity in the plants. With most crops, the profit would be greatly increased if each plant were only equal in quantity and quality of yield to that of the best one-third of them. Superlative individuals rarely add to the value of a crop, while markedly inferior ones always detract from it. The character and potentiality of every plant grown directly from seed seems to be fixed and inherent in the seed itself, and is made up of a balanced sum of potentialities and limitations inherited in different degrees from each of its ancestors for an indefinite number of generations. There is a difference in the degree to which plants have the power of transmitting their individual characteristics to their descendants, or in their prepotency, and we can be sure as to the potential character of the seed only in proportion as we know the character and prepotent power of its ancestors. It may not be possible to know this fully, but we can accomplish much by a wise sys- tem of plant selection and breeding. A somewhat full discussion of this subject is given in Chapter III and under a number of the individual crops, so that it is necessary here to give only a few general GROWING SEED CROPS directions. Study your plant and settle on the exact type which would be most practically desira- ble, and write out as full and complete description of its characteristics as possible. With the descrip- tion in hand, select one to ten or more plants, which most fully accord with it, avoiding those of phenomenal excellence in some particulars at the cost of deficiencies in others. Save the seed of each selected plant separately, even if the plants themselves cannot be distinguished from each other, and plant that of each selected individual by itself, though all may be side by side in a single block. When the plants mature, go over the different lots, that is, the plants grown from the seed of each of the selected individual plants, and reject those lots in which the plants show the greatest varia- tions, even if in so doing you reject a few plants of superlative merit. Select the two or three lots in which the plants most uniformly accord with the description, and from these lots select plants to repeat the process. The object is to secure a fixed type of plants that are uniformly of the desired type, rather than superlative individual plants. The remainder of , the seed from the best lots can be used for a general crop. The _ essen- tials for success in seed - breed- ing are (1) a clear concep- tion of the ex- act type of plant wanted ; (2) a carefully written out de- scription of that type and very rigid ad- herence to in all selec- tions; (8) saving and planting separately the seed of each selected plant; (4) continuing to select from generation to generation from the product of the selected plants those that are most uniformly of the desired type. In some cases, where such crops as garden peas, beans or sweet corn, which have some feeding value, have been grown, farmers often come into possession of seed that has been rejected by seedsmen as unfit for their use, and plant it as a field crop, making no effort to have the seed pure and unmixed. Such stock speedily degenerates and can be sold only at a reduced price or when the regular supply has failed. Quite a proportion of the tomato seed used in this country comes from canning factories, being washed out from the waste of the tables where the fruit is prepared for canning, or from lots of fruit that is over-ripe, or that used for catsup. If saved from equally good fruit, such seed is as good as that from fields grown especially for seed, but usualiy it comes from a mixture of fruit of different sorts and qualities and is of very poor quality. Fig. 229. Table on which cucumbers may be seeded. The fruit is emptied on the table and halved by being pushed it against the set blade, and the seeds then scraped into barrels as shown. THE GROWING AND TRANSPLANTING OF FIELD-CROP PLANTS THE GROWING AND TRANSPLANTING OF FIELD-CROP PLANTS By L. C. Corbett From a cultural standpoint, field, as well as truck crops, may be divided into two groups: (1) those that are propagated from seed planted where the crop is to mature, and (2) those grown from seed planted under special environment for the purpose of producing plants which may be transferred to the field when the soil and temperature conditions have become congenial. The objects sought by the use of specially prepared seed-beds are to lengthen the season for plants requiring a long period for maturing, to bring plants to maturity out of their natural season and to increase the supply of plant- ing material from plants requiring special methods of propagation. Among the crops which are handled extensively in artificially prepared seed-beds, are the follow- ing: cabbage (page 221), onions, beets, sweet-pota- toes (page 618), celery, tobacco (page 639), tomatoes, peppers, and, to a less extent, sugar-cane (page 599) and cassava (page 227), the last two being crops which are grown by transplanting, although no special seed-bed is usually employed for starting the plants. With each of the crops mentioned, the peculiar nature of the plant, the time and method of transplanting it to the open, as well as its resist- ance to cold, determine to a large extent the type of seed-bed in which the young plants are grown. Advice on specific crops. Cabbage.—Plants for the early crop of cabbage at the South are grown from seeds sown in the open in September, for transplanting to the field in December; while at the North seeds are sown either in coldframes in September, and wintered under cover, to be transplanted to the open early in the spring, or they are sown in the greenhouse or hot- bed from January to March and grown in a low temperature with plenty of air in order that the plants may be of suitable size for transplanting to the open in April or May. Onions.—In the case of onions of the Bermuda type, the common practice in Texas is to sow the seed in September or October in a carefully graded and well-enriched bed, which can be irrigated and the young plants kept growing vigorously up to the time to transplant them to the field in Decem- ber. At the North onions are handled in a different way. All the onions which are transplanted for field purposes are grown either in coldframes or hotbeds, the seed being sown early in February or March and the young plants placed in the open after the soil has become thoroughly warm and in a high state of cultivation. Beets are less extensively transplanted than the two crops just mentioned, but in some localities they are sown in coldframes in the fall to be trans- planted to the field early the following February or March. Celery.—While celery is cultivated very exten- sively in certain parts of California, Ohio, Michi- gan, New York and Florida, plants are usually 147 started in plant-beds in the open. For some of the extremely early crops at the North, it is necessary to bring the plants on in the greenhouse or hot- bed, but for the main crop it is sufficient to sow the seed in the open in specially prepared beds, the seed being scattered in rows or broadcasted, and in some cases transplanted before it is finally set in the field. Ordinarily, however, on an exten- sive scale, the plant-bed is simply sheared or gone over with a light mowing machine before trans- planting in order to reduce the top surface. Then, with a special digging machine, the plants ure lifted. They are usually set in the field by hand. Commercial production of plants for transplanting purposes. Beside the methods of producing field-crop plants already suggested, which are usually practiced by the proprietor‘of the market-garden or truck-farm, there are those who plan to meet the inevitable losses and failures which annually befall a greater or less number of those engaged in the field culture of transplanted plants. Large and distinctive enter- prises of this character now exist near both Bal- timore, Md., and Charleston, 8. C. The managers of these industries maintain extensive seed-beds Fig. 230. A transplanting machine. The two men who handle the plants sit behind. both in the open and under glass in order that they may be prepared to meet the demand for plants for the garden or truck-farm at all seasons and in any quantity. One firm operating a business of this character annually devotes four to five acres to cabbage plants, four to six acres to celery, and large areas to tomatoes, beets, peppers and aspar- agus, beside some two acres under glass devoted to the propagation of ornamental bedding plants. These firms do exclusively wholesale business and, while well known in the trade, are little known to the public outside of truck-farming districts. One of the plant producers located in an especially favored locality on the south Atlantic coast, con- ducts a business which enables him to supply cabbage plants in carload lots. This grower six years ago, was able to meet the demand for cab- bage plants from sixty pounds of seed sown on two acres. At the present time he uses over one ton of seed on about seventy acres of land. Extensive growers are able to produce plants under favorable conditions at very low cost, and in many localities it has come to be the practice of the growers to depend on the “plant men” for their annual supply, often as a question of economy. 148 Transplanting machinery (Figs. 230, 848, 871). Sweet-potatoes, tomatoes and tobacco are the crops most extensively planted by machinery at the present time. The feasibility of handling cab- bage by machinery is attracting the attention of growers, because of the difficulty of securing suffi- cient hand labor to transplant the extensive acre- age of this crop now grown in the trucking region of the Atlantic coast. Up to the present, however, the work of transplanting the immense numbers of cabbage plants annually produced has all been done by hand, as is also the case with onions and beets which have been subjected to this type of cultivation. It is probable that a machine-trans- planter will never be adapted to the growing of beets or onions because of the limited space be- tween the individual plants, and the proximity of the rows in which they are set; but where the space between the individual plants is eighteen inches, and the distance between the rows suffi- cient to allow of cultivation by horse-power, as in the case of cabbage, sweet-potatoes, tobacco, toma- toes and peppers, it is perfectly feasible to use a machine to assist in transplanting these crops. Truck-growing has reached the point where it is necessary to take advantage of every opportunity to reduce the cost of production. The use of the mechanical transplanter is one of the factors which is bound to play an important part in reduc- ing the cost of producing cabbage. It will un- doubtedly do for cabbage what it has already done for sweet-potatoes and tobacco. Celery, while grown at sufficient distance between the rows to admit of using a transplanter, is set so closely in the rows that it is probable that it will never be feasible to use this implement for transplanting the crop. In fact, many of the plants which require special attention at transplanting time and are more or less exacting in regard to handling will always have to be transplanted by hand. It should be perfectly feasible to handle sugar-cane and cassava with the transplanting-machines, LEGAL WEIGHTS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS I. Unirep States.—Adapted from Circular No. 10 of Bureau of Standards, Department of Commerce and Labor, issued April 15, 1905. “These tables show the weights in pounds per bushel legally established for various products by the several states and (for customs purposes) by Congress. The lack of agreement between the weights thus locally established is greatly to be regretted; they are published here exactly as they appear in the statutes. The local weights for the more common commodities, such as wheat, corn, and oats, are fairly uniform, but even these do not agree with the weights of Standard United States bushel measures of the respective products. In many cases, moreover, in which the weight of the bushel is fixed by law, purchase and sale are also permitted by capacity measures, which deliver quantities differing from those based on the legal LEGAL WEIGHTS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS weights.” Since these figures were compiled, Indian and Oklahoma territories have been combined, and it is not known to what extent the figures now apply in the new state. List of products for which legal weights have been fixed in but one or two states : Apple seeds, 40 pounds (Rhode Island and Ten- nessee). Beggarweed seed, 62 pounds (Florida). Blackberries, 32 pounds (Iowa); 48 pounds (Ten- nessee); dried, 28 pounds (Tennessee). Blueberries, 42 pounds (Minnesota). Bromus inermis, 14 pounds (North Dakota). Cabbage, 50 pounds (Tennessee). Canary seed, 60 pounds (Tennessee). Cantaloupe melon, 50 pounds (Tennessee). Cherries, 40 pounds (Iowa); with stems, 56 pounds (Tennessee); without stems, 64 pounds (Tennessee). Chestnuts, 50 pounds (Tennessee); 57 pounds (Virginia). ; Chufa, 54 pounds (Florida). Cotton seed, staple, 42 pounds (South Carolina). Cucumbers, 48 pounds (Missouri and Tennes- see); 50 pounds (Wisconsin). Currants, 40 pounds (Iowa and Minnesota). Feed, 50 pounds (Massachusetts). Grapes, 40 pounds (Iowa); with stems, 48 pounds (Tennessee); without stems, 60 pounds (Ten- nessee). Guavas, 54 pounds (Florida). Hickory nuts, 50 pounds (Tennessee). vot 60 pounds (Ohio); 62 pounds (Tennes- see). Horseradish, 50 pounds (Tennessee). Italian rye-grass seed, 20 pounds (Tennessee). Johnson-grass, 28 pounds (Arkansas). Kafir, 56 pounds (Kansas). Kale, 30 pounds (Tennessee). Land-plaster, 100 pounds (Tennessee). Meal (?), 46 pounds (Alabama ; unbolted, 48 pounds (Alabama). Middlings, fine, 40 pounds (Indiana); coarse mid- dlings, 30 pounds (Indiana). Millet, Japanese barnyard, 35 pounds (Massa- chusetts). Mustard, 80 pounds (Tennessee). Plums, 40 pounds (Florida); 64 pounds (Ten- nessee). Plums, dried, 28 pounds (Michigan). Popcorn, 70 pounds (Indiana and Tennessee); in the ear, 42 pounds (Ohio). Prunes, dried, 28 pounds (Idaho); green, 45 pounds (Idaho). Quinces, 48 pounds (Florida, Iowa, and Tennes- see). Rape seed, 50 pounds (Wisconsin). Raspberries, 32 pounds (Kansas); 48 pounds (Tennessee). ‘Rhubarb, 50 pounds (Tennessee). Sage, 4 pounds (Tennessee). Salads, 30 pounds (Tennessee). Sand, 180 pounds (Iowa). Spelt or Sniltz, 40 pounds (North Dakota); 45 pounds (South Dakota). Spinach, 30 pounds (Tennessee). Strawberries, 32 pounds (Iowa); 48 pounds (Ten- nessee). Sugar-cane seed, 57 pounds (New Jersey). Velvet-grass seed, 7 pounds (Tennessee). Walnuts, 50 pounds (Tennessee). LEGAL WEIGHTS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS LEGAL WEIGHTS (IN POUNDS) PER BUSHEL. 149 Apples Beans a 3 Corn Corn meal | Cotton seed oO 3 a ” 3 H |_| a x, |Egis 12) 5 |e [ee E Bie ee SB) 82) | 8 lablasl 2 (222 Si~ml el 2132) w : * o| S| * a i) ae Sla2| 6 |. ElEs Bl2laleg/e2/ 3/8] 2 /s/sle| B | EES ES] S| lESIES| S lesigs 2\/AlalaldS |&/ae]/alalals|sa|s|s"j8"| a] & \S"\87| 8 jas United States .. {48}. . 1 50 42 56]. .-)../.. | 48 ite Alabama . . 24/47} 60). . ne -.| 70) 75| 56]. . 82 Arizona. . «|. .|../ 45/355 |- ie aa ewer |e govtes| es) ae a | SOA [Lees [Sayeae eee) [Mae ea ei es Arkansas . . |>50 | 24/48/60 14 | 20 |48|52/../ 60}. .| 70 | 74 | 56 | 48 834]. . California. . 23 Pace OO oe. 2s ge cfs Wak abe AOL sire oe. eco tee eel ced oe Thee ss ia [Pe Colorado . .|..]..{|48] 60 eta EA |e ae fs (952 | xs | 60 70 50 ae ee | ais Connecticut . | 48 | 25) 48] 60 - {60 |. .| 20]..)]48) 50} 60 ee 50 |. | ans . | 44] 80 Delaware. ./../..|../-.- a a Bia lieyoatl| ren te . . | 44] 48 Sell Seni Dist: Gols s-a 4] o.c5 easel adie os he x we lsel ses tan Vee ‘ee seal tects ete lend Meet Florida. . . |>48 | 24] 48|*60 | 48 20 70 | 56 | 48 82 |46/.. Georgia. . . 24/47/60 |. . 14 | 20 |,.|52 60 70/. 56 | 48 380 Hawaii. ..]../../48]..].. yl aa wae Zee canine lll ogy es detalles ie gigas ce moe Idaho. . . . |45 |28/48/. .].. | cel selbst Se 42|/..]| 60 a0 Se vee Illinois . . «|. . | 24/48/60 | 46 «| 14 | 20 52|..| 60 70 56 | 48 Indian Ter. . sess | ae a fice. os Be | See ia beet arass [leas dl sey oa eee ee Indiana. . .|. . | 25)48] 60 | 46 14). .]../50/..] 60}. .1 @ 56 | 50 Towa. . 48 | 24! 48] 60 | 46 14 | 20 | 30|52|..] 60 . |>70 56). . Kansas . . . [548 | 24;-13) 60 | 46 14 | 20}../50/..) 60]. . | 470 . .| 50 Kentucky . . |. . | 24)47/|°G0 |*45 14 | 20/;../56)..| 60 |K70 |. . 56 | 50 Louisiana . . is | AB ee | ae Oe Madoc | Sania ards - .| 56 as der Pare Maine .| 44 ]}..|48] 60 60 - {48/50}. .| 56 . . |°50 Maryland . .|..|]../..].. ie ee | Rs [Lael Go wll vastenad tae geil Shs dear Massachusetts| 48 | 25) 48/160]. . . -| 20)..)/48/50)] 60 aN ede ™50 | 50 44 | 30 Michigan . .| 48 | 22/48; 60 | 46/..|14)..]../48]..] 60}. .!>70 56 | 50 wa |e Minnesota. . |50 | 28/48] 60]. .]| 50 | 14 57/50] 45 | 60 70 56]. . Mississippi. .|. . | 26) 48|°60 | 46 14 | 20 |..|48]..] 60 72). ./| 56 | 48 | 44] 48] 32 ‘ Missouri. . . | 48 | 24) 48/760 | 46). .| 14 | 20 52| 50] 60 . .-| 70 | 56] 50]..]..] 38 3 Montana . .| 45 |../48} 60]. .) 50 | 14 | 20/../52)/50] 60 70}. ./ 56 | 50].. i> é Nebraska . . |. 24/48/°60 | 46). .| 14] 20]../52]..] 60 70 56 | 50]... 3 Nevada... ete, P Soseaall-se: Soell bee as Si ap ret dee: [Piss a 5 eis danill ase [stg N. Hampshire}. .|..}..| 62 ics: | ee’ | se ei DS 50 New Jersey .| 50 | 25/48] 60 50/..; 64].. 3% New Mexico.|..|..|..]/.. ace aes tees peer ae =O eae New York. .| 48 | 25/48} 60 20 |}..148)50) 60 50 |../..]. . | 44) 30 NorthCarolina]. ./|../48]. . ae 50}../| 60 . - (46/48) 80 ]..].. North Dakota | 50 | ../ 48] 60 60 |. .| 20 | 80/42/..! 60 70 56 Ohio. . . .| 50 | 24) 48] 60 56 |. - .|--{|50/50} 60 68 56 Oklahoma. .|. .|..| 48] 60 60 |. 20 | 30} 42]. .) 60 70 56 Oregon. . .| 45 | 28/46]. . a atl oo foe | 42 ce | BOP ee fie ee Pennsylvania. olla ae PAE bas .» | 48 60 | 58 Rhode Island. | 48 | 25| 48] 60 | 46 | 50 20 |../48)50! 60 70 56 | 50 |..]..]. . | 44/80 South Carolina}. .|../..]..]/../.. it eeilh om [ieee een ae wi . . {P48 | 46/48] 80 | @].. South Dakota.|. .|../48/ 60). ./ 60]. ./ 20 |80|42|..; 60 TON ca cca | BO Ases war | dose | eel] Ge Tennessee . . |50 | 24| 48 |""60 | 46 | 50 | 14 | 20 | 42/50] 50 | 560 70 |'74 | 56 50| 48| 28 Texas. . . .| 45 | 28] 48 | °60 20 |..|42]..] 60 70 | 72 | 56 82 Utah sa ee fs ea |e | ee boas awe |coit face: | ace ba se aliases o3 Vermont . .| 46;../48] 62 60}. . .-|48| 50} 60 a Sateael dae ate is Virginia . .|. . | 28/48/°60 se fe .|52]..] 60 70 56 | 50 82 Washington . |545 | 28/48). . .{42}..| 60]... ‘ West Virginia}. . | 25} 48] 60 es ..|--/52|..] 60 | 56 : ie ocala Wisconsin. .| 50 | 25/48} 60 50 20 |..|/50) 50} 60 é é 50 . | 44 | 30 Wyoming. . Sol sien teetell ad ft ec exe ellie : a ele * Not defined, f Wheat bran. jIndian corn in ear. P Standard weight bushel corn aSmall white beans, 60 Ibs. bGreen apples. © Sugar-beets and mangels. dShelled beans, 60 Ibs.; velvet beans, 78 los. € White beans. & Corn in ear, 70 Ibs. until Dec. 1 next after grown; 68 lbs. thereafter. hTn the cob. iEnglish blue-grass, 22 Ibs.; native, 44 lbs. k Corn inear, Nov. 1 to May 1, 70 Tbs.; 68 lbs., May 1 to Nov. 1. 1 Soybeans, 58 lbs. m Cracked corn. n Green unshelled beans, 30 lbs. oIndian corn meal. meal, bolted or unbolted, 48 Ib Ss. 4 Matured. r Dried beans. S Red and white. tGreen unshelled corn, 100 Iba. 150 LEGAL WEIGHTS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS LEGAL WEIGHTS (IN POUNDS) PER BUSHEL, continued. 3 4 @ 8 Lime Onions a 3 8 ge) ee 2 /® | % ae 3 Els! Ei 2/2) @/2.|8s) {2 » | 2/3,] 21 8 | esl e Q 2 @ a b mae ao a A a | 2 s 8 Ss a oO o 3 5 a Aa 38 Pl 6 a A H n 3s H ® a O;m#;/ S!C/H) tie {4 }Aaye 2l1alol/o];/o]o jo} a /a [a] a United States 56 84 82 o Alabama . . ihe oe 82 . 33 Arizona... a eet | eel es : “6 Arkansas . . 56 catadilis «|| 50-132] 5% . 33 California. . a Boe cf ee hee | etl] BB a . 3 Colorado . . a 44). .}..) 56/80}. ./../..) 82 | 57 deca ce Connecticut . 55 45|/..{56/70}..]/..]../] 82] 52 45 | 33 Delaware . . ae Si cat 0 |ADOM Odes lis: de! ek ay Idee thst ow é eel aice Dist. Col. . . te cx ew | eos ee |G ote Florida. . . 50 | 82 | 56 22} 60 Georgia. . . 56 8 | 44 as | ate BOL] ea Pia eB? | OF 33 Hawaii... ar BG. slecsalaeetl aoe cay Hee, Sv Be bs te Idaho. ... 56 BEN ge | as oa fc fey sa 8B 28 145 Mllinois . . . 56 8 | 44 - .]--| 80] 88]. .| 82] 57 83 i Indian Ter. . oa es oe Indiana. . .| 33 ]..]. . 44;..]/..])..]..)- .]985 | 50 | 32 | 48 14 | 33] 55 | 33 Towa. . ..|../56/ 40]. ./44/../ 50]. ./80]. .]. .] 50] 32] 57 . ./82/. .] 33 Kansas... 56]. .| 68/44). .| 50/56 }..]/ 80] 82] 50] 82/57}. ./..4].. 83 Kentucky . . 56 8/44). .) 50]. .)..) 85]. .| 50 |82 | 57 |486 | 14 8 Louisiana. . os SB ieveleey ce [ee de Pew wcll sel ee ga ca Teg ae tee dee Ue Sadie ae Tee Maine ... os HA | orca AD oe ee] a ce Pee ae fe) ae SB!) BS 45 Maryland . .|..|.. beast eco Soe | eee! Pew oat fiw sec [ee ee ZOE | ance ae Massachusetts|. . | 55 se] 45 |e. |956 (70). 2). 2] | 82 | 52 oe BUH oes Michigan . .| 40/56]. ./. ./44/../ 50]. ./70/../. .| 50] 82] 54 14/33]. . Minnesota. .| 86 |..| 40 | °8 |50). .| 48]. .|80}../. .| 48 | 82 | 52 14/..] 42 Mississippi. . 56 44). .| 50]. ./..] 80} 88} 50] 82} 57). .}. .]..].. ee Missouri. . . 56 44). .) 48]. .]..]. .| 88 | 50 | 32 | 57 | 28 | 14 | 36] 44 48 Montana 56 44;..|50/..]..] 80] 801...) 82) 57]. .]. .]..] 50 45 Nebraska . . 56 8 | 44}. ./ 50). .]..] 80) 80 | 50 | 82 | 57 | 25 82). . ete Nevada... 6% i 2% N. Hampshire ate 8 sede ee geld Co: || op es Bee fee New Jersey . 55 BE] cs is ce [is | sl BOP) BT New Mexico . aes jee we ce ve] je | a ei) wh es New York. .|. ./55 45}. ./56/70|/..;..]. .] 82] 57 cs NorthCarolina} . . | 55 ge tg, bse ysa DOs ater) ant sa! | corde | Se BE Ns. ce 22 North Dakota 56 Bie alle ai ae foe a] eee PRO ie: oc] we: [SBOo} 82) | 52 Ohio... . 56 -{44/. ./ 50]. .]/70}. .| 84] 50 | 32 | 55 Oklahoma. . 56 eief ary Vis @) eo: [BO we [cee fae x fest | D2 oer Oregon... ap BG: | 4a |e we See ton | BZ es 45 Pennsylvania. 56 ]../..].-]. .| 82 | 50 a Rhode Island.|. . | 56 44). .| 50]. ./70}. .}| 88 | 50 | 82 | 50 ..| 50 exe South Carolina]. .|.. grat et etl ae | ee Be gee mee tae ieee eae aed epee eae: @ io South Dakota. BG's ao) | a ad ee fay ee lee wt ee | BOM ee we Pos a ew PBR BS ewe ise ace dee sical os ee Tennessee. . 56} 48 | 8 |44/..] 48]. ./@] 80]. ./*50 | 82 | 56 | 528 | 14 | 83] 50 23 | ‘56 Texas... . 56 44). .| 48]. .}/..]..]. .} 50 | 82 | 57 Utah. ... Sha 62 ey oes sep I deta A ee aol eal zed cee ll bo Pega ta ae 8a sae'll at Oa Vermont . . es ves] ost | AB Pg geet DOE areal xe caclfes ole. | BBB: Is ge Hee a ace | heel ae a nes Virginia 56 8 |44] 12] 48}. .]..] 80] 88 | 50] 80 | 57 | 28 | 14 | 84 82 | 22 Washington .|. . | 56 BG] oes ccs cect oy CS Whee cal] BS ; 145 West Virginia]. . | 56 asset] ae a8 65° Spill woo Bet ah awl Lede cosa Se awh aa aa. | epee | eels 5 eae ex Wisconsin. . 56 8 | 44/. .| 48 | 56 | 70} 80 | 34 | 50 | 32 | 57 44 Wyoming. . oe ie apsd oell ay avi aw set | ae fa seal eva eM Se ato oes | ee or *Not defined. @Malt rye. ‘ > Unwashed plastering hair, 8 lbs.; washed, 4 lbs. Shelled. £Slacked lime, 40 lbs. 4 Bottom onion sets. hGerman Missouri and Ten- ¢Strike measure. nessee millet seed. fTop onion sets. ‘Matured onions. JButton onion sets, 32 lbs. kMatured pears, 56 dried pears, 26 Ibs. 'Green. lbs.; ‘LEGAL WEIGHTS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS LEGAL WEIGHTS (IN POUNDS) PER BUSHEL, continued. 151 Peas Potatoes Salt Turnips ed o| ¢ 3 og to 2 ta 7 3 a) 7 Q *, B Ble. /eleieleialelel : e12|%/2/2/2/8/ Eel - g\85) %/s/s/e)/e/8} e/8] eolol%| a] 8151 Bl] a] 8] elasl 3 ES le lelSlEl lal elélalelale)/slal Fs) léléle le United States 60 }60]..].. 56 ae 60 Alabama . . 60 |..|55] 60 56 55 60 Arizona... aR peal aed flee, a BE] aaa s Sve Eola 60 Arkansas . . 60 | 60) 50 14 56|50]. . 50 60 | 57 60 California. . oe | eel We a 54]... dou unl abs 60 Colorado . . « «/60)../... el ase RW et [96 [:80 | cas cee [eee eee 45 . «| 60 Connecticut . 60 | 60) 54] 60 45 60| 50 |56/..| 50 | 70 | 20 ae 50 | 60 Delaware . by tetleaaat || wedi ok wee Digan Nie Dorian] aie ets . .{| 60 Dist. Col. . . 60 wales sae laee = wa cd ee Florida... .-|60] 60 56 | 60 56 «| 54 60 Georgia. . .| 25 60 |..|55| 60 43 56|. 45 | 55 60 Hawaii. ..].. ee doe Worigell & Se ee 56]. eee 60 Idaho... . 60/..].. 56 Wace |e ed ae aey:| jence 60 Illinois . ..|50] 60 56|..| 55 | 50 45 | 55 60 Indian Ter. . tees oe ook [jer ee ase ness a Indiana. . .].. 60 | 55 56] 50] . f tela 45 | 55 60 lows... « &. les 60/46). . wae 56| 50]. . {230 45|.. 60 Kansas. ..|.. . ./60}50,,. 56 56,50]. . 56 45/55]. .| 60 Kentucky . .| 24 60 | 60/55) 60 Ba 56| 50) 55 46 45/60]. .| 60 Louisiana. «|. . sar beteadl| Mey ella ey oe BG |e] = a wa! | wecailll sev eel, BO Maine ‘ 60 |60}. . |60} 50 |50]..) 60 |) 70 we elas 50 | 60 Maryland. .|].. + « /56] se) 2 s |iaalles spac ael|ae bere [lace ewe [ac 60 |.. as Ie Massachusetts}. . 60 |60)54}..]../45].. 50 |56}..} 50 | 70 | 20 a [4B] os 60 Michigan . . 60 |../56/ 60 j*14]..). .])..]. . | 56/56). .)..4..4.. . | 45 | 58 60 Minnesota. . 60 |..|55} 60 |>14 . (52). ./56].. 57 -|45].. 60 Mississippi. .| 24 )..| 60 ]../60/ 60). . ..|. .|56]50 42 |}. .|45/55/. .| 60 Missouri. . .|. .|56/°60 |../56| 60 |>14 50;. .|56|50]. 42 | 45 |}45)..] 42 | 60 Montana .. ..| 60 |60]..). .].. we 56| 50] . ..{|. .|45/50}. .| 60 Nebraska . . 60 |..|50] 60 56 | 50 380 . |45/55]. . | 60 Nevada... axe seein ais: | ae ain B08 dee aie N. Hampshire 60 |}60|..]... 50 | 56 60 Now Jersey . 60 |..|54) 60 . . {56}. 60 New Mexico . Mac lfeatialbara|teae. oe 3nd se Sonlhae sass eee hain a eles 2 eo: New York. .|/.. 60 |}../54|/ 60]. ./45/.. 50 | 56 56 | 70 | 20 . (451.. 60 NorthCarolina] . . 60 eal a. . (44)... ot ee (BGG een fee ei lg wi eg oe oes 60 North Dakota 60 |..|46] 60 .|56/80}.. . .{45/60|. . 1 60 Ohio. ... 60 |..|50] 60 5) FBG] esos [sae 56 | 45/60 60 Oklahoma. . 60 |..|46] 60 .|56/80).. . . {42/60 60 Oregon... - -/60]..].. BGi| eal ay caw. sng [lS 60 Pennsylvania. 56].. 56|..| 62 | 85 60 Rhode Island. -|60 |..|54) 60 50 |56|..] 50 | 70 | 20 56 | 45/50 60 South Carolina] . . 6 ve figs: oars | eS Be ee [ee a) ads evnaser| aan eles os ayaa [senes | Kotte: | cat etl egecs South Dakota. -|../ 60 ]../46] 60]. . . |56) 80]. . = - «|. - 142/60]. .| 60 Tennessee. . . |80| 60 |..|50] 60 |>14 56/50]. . ‘ 50 | 56 |45|50/. .| 60 Texas... . : .|55] 60 . 56/50]. . 55 | 45 | 55 60 Utah. ... sd saeh ae Sap sey | Geta Sl : as sav eared hh Be eee oy idl sease-il kee [Pas oa Ill ez Vermont .. a) GO 160] ow] & «| sca fee .|56/70].. . . [45/60 . |°60 Virginia .- (960 |../56) 56} 12/.. -|56/50].. . | 45 | 55 60 Washington . ‘ .{60].. 56]. = 3 ex [eas 60 West Virginia a lise 5] OO cow |e ve Sc ator fee [DG] coe | ay awe Pee Ze | ase Son fe . - |45/].. 60 Wisconsin. . -| 60 |..|54] 60 45 56| 50 |56}..] 50 | 70 | 20 . | 45 | 42 60 Wyoming . . wl ayn eat [as ts ahs aa] ee | a ee ee Soins a @Sorghum saccharatum seed. > Seed. ©Including split peas. 4Black-eyed peas. €Indian wheat, 46 lbs. f Ground Salt, 70 Ibs. 152 II. Canapa.—Section 90 of the Inspection and Sale Act of the Department of Agriculture for the Dominion of Canada, dealing with the legal weights of farm products, reads as follows: “Tn contracts for the sale and delivery of any of the undermentioned articles a bushel shall be determined by weighing, unless a bushel by measure is specially agreed upon, and the weight equiv- alent to a bushel shall, except as hereinafter pro- vided, be as follows: Pounds Barley ce ew a WO GS We SS ee 48 Buckwheat ....... bo ROE ee 48 Plaxséed cee oe se te eee SE 56 Tndiad. cork 62 6 ee ee ee 56 Oates: od. Gah ee. ae we See, Bec ae 84 POASEt aos, ten > can ia res te Ser ao Catv vap May ta Cee Ss 60 RYO ig iy es Se See a ew se 56 Wheat 23 ee Se eb wae we Oe 60 Section 337 reads as follows: “Tn contracts for the sale and delivery of any of the undermentioned articles the bushel shall be determined by weighing, unless a bushel by meas- ure is specially agreed upon, and the weight squivalent to a bushel shall be as follows : Pounds Beans se od ew Be a 60 Beets: 5.4 4m Be Xe OR ww SO 60 Blue-grass seed . 2... 2.2.2 ee ee 14 Carrots’ is. 4. va aera lat aac ee ee ae 60 Castor-beans .. 1. 21 ee ee eee 40 Clover seed « s 2%: es ee we ee Hw 60 Hemp seed ....... * 44 Malte as ee Bah A ee we 36 Onions... 2... 6 eo ese Se We 50 PAPSDIDS)- je: 2 ae! XS ceo he SE LR. ee a 60 POtAtOGS sb ss cs se er ae ay ew we BO Timothy seed .. 1... 2-2 eee eee 48 PPUEMIDS 515, ve: tae ie ask ae eae Se SO Ge we 60 “In the province of Quebec when potatoes are sold or offered for sale by the bag, the bag shall contain at least 80 pounds.” Fruit packages. Sub-section I, Section 825: The minimum legal limit of apple barrel is a barrel having a dimension of not less than twenty-six inches and one-quarter: between the heads, inside measure, and a head diameter of seventeen inches and a middle diameter of eighteen inches and one-half, representing as nearly as possible ninety-six quarts. Sub-section 8, Section 325: “When apples are packed in Canada for export, for sale by the box, they shall be packed in good strong boxes, of seasoned wood, the inside dimensions of which shall not be less than ten inches in depth, eleven inches in width and twenty inches in length, repre- senting as nearly as possible two thousand two hundred cubic inches.” Sub-section 2, Section 326, of the Inspection and Sale Act, dealing with fruit baskets, now (May, 1907) reads as follows: “2. Every basket of fruit offered for sale in Canada unless stamped on the side plainly in black letters at least three-quarters of an inch deep and wide, with the word ‘Quart’ in full, preceded with LEGAL WEIGHTS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS the minimum number of quarts, omitting tractions, which the basket will hold when level-full, shall contain, when level-full, one or other of the fol- lowing quantities : “(a) Fifteen quarts or more. “(6) Eleven quarts, and be five and three-fourths inches deep perpendicularly, eighteen and three- fourths inches in length and eight inches in width at the top of the basket, sixteen and three-fourths inches in length and six and seven-eighths inches in width at the bottom of the basket, as nearly exactly as practicable, all measurements to be inside of the veneer proper, and not to include the top band. “(e) Six quarts, and be four and one-half inches deep perpendicularly, fifteen and three-eighths inches in length and seven inches in width at the top of the basket, thirteen and one-half inches in length and five and seven-eighths inches in width at the bottom of the basket, as nearly exactly as practicable, all measurements to be inside of the veneer proper, and not to include the top band: Provided that the Governor in Council may by proclamation exempt any province from the opera- tion of this section. “d) Two and two-fifths quarts, as nearly exactly as practicable.” YIELDS OF FARM CROPS. The yields of farm crops in any given locality are influenced by a multitude of factors,— seed, weather, soil preparation and management, care, harvesting, and the like. Any effort, therefore, to tabulate yields of widely grown crops must be considered as suggestive and provisional rather than definite and constant. Yet, when an exten- sive area is considered, as a continent, a fairly accurate determination can be arrived at, and the effort will be of value in measuring up the adapta- bilities and possibilities of any area for a given crop grown in that region. In the tables that follow, the average and best yields of the more important field crops of the United States and Canada, as reported by good observers in several parts of the continent, are recorded. In some cases census figures have been available ; in others, the reporter has had to deter- mine the yields for his state or province from such figures and estimates as he was able to secure. It is not improbable, therefore, that some error has been made in certain cases, especially in reporting the best yields. If the best yields, as reported in these tables, have any significance, it is to show what has been accomplished, and, therefore, what can be accomplished again, even though in special cases the best reported yields may seem to be very exceptional. Unfortunately, the aver- age yields of all crops are greatly lowered from the average yields attained by successful and painstaking growers by the small yields of the careless and indifferent growers, and the small figures of poor crop years. Hence, no progressive farmer will be satisfied to attain. merely the average. As reported for this YIELD OF FARM CROPS YIELDS OF FARM CROPS volume by observers in several parts of the continent. 153 Quebec New York North Carolina Alabama Average Average Best Average Best Average Best Alfalfa, i. ss ss aw @ @ 3 tons 2.3 tons 7 tons 1.7 tons 5 tons 3.5 tons 7 tons Barley 25 bushels | 23.9 bus. 50 bushels | 10 bushels '| 25 bushels | 12 bushels 45 bushels Beans, field ....... 20 bushels | 10.5 bus. | 45 bushels | 10 bushels | ..... | .... Broom-corn ....... 565 lbs. 1,000 Ibs. | 455 Ibs. 400 lbs. 600 lbs. Buckwheat ....... 25 bushels | 16.9 bus. | 40 bushels | 10 bushels | 30 bushels Cabbage. ........ 12 tons 10 tons *40 tons 100 crates | 200 crates | 5 tons 10 tons Carrots... ... eee 12 tons LO tons 20 tons BE sae Fe Clover ...... 7 2 tons 1.1 tons 4 tons 1-2 tons 3 tons 2 tons 3 tons Cotton... 1... ee. 4 bale 2 bales [{200 Ibs. 1,000 Ibs. Cowpens: sa. «se ae 10 bushels | 30 bushels | 19 bushels | 30 bushels Field-pea ........ 25 bushels | 17.1 bus. | 45 bushels | 1-2 tons Flaky ie 59h ew es 15 bushels | 8.5 bus. 15 bushels ee ares Kohlrabi. .. 2... ww. Pee Lespedeza fae 1.25 tons 2 tons 2 tons Maize... 2. eee eee 25 bushels | 32 bushels | 100 bus. 13 bushels | 100 bus. 14 bushels | 75 bushels Mangels... ...... 20 tons 24 tons 40 tons 28 Melilotus ........ 2 tons 2 tons 38.5 tons Millet... ....... 1.7 tons 5 tons 1.5 tons 4 tons 1 ton 3 tons Oats, sa: see sy ew erey el aS 35 bushels | 32 bushels | 80 bushels | 10 bushels | 50 bushels | 15 bushels | 70 bushels Parsnips......... 835 bus. 1,000 bus. ou Potatoes... 2 2. wee 150 bus. 79 bushels | 500 bus. 70 bushels 60 bushels | 300 bus. Pumpkin . RB peh io eh a A OS ate 20 tons = Rice i SW ee eS Sk) Hae Ne 360 Ibs. es 12 bushels | 30 bushels Rutabaga ........ 10 tons 14 tons 30 tons 100 bus. Ry6 ele atve ee 4 oa 15 bushels | 16 bushels | 35 bushels | 5.5 bus. 20 bushels | 7 bushels | 20 bushels Sorghum ........ aT ae 5-6 tons | 10 tons 2.5 tons 7 tons fete aha | AOtaial | Ia | sh Sugar-beets ......-. 15 tons 7.8 tons 30 tons Sugar-cane ....... 7-8 tons 12 tons +200 £600 Sweet-potatoes...... 119 bus. 200 bus. 85 bushels 80 bushels | 400 bus. Timothy. ........ 2 tons 1.1 tons 4 tons 1-2 tons 4 tons ae Tobacco. .......-. 1,000 Ibs. | 1,155 Ibs. Peeeriaa 650 lbs. 500 Ibs. 1,000 Ibs. Turnips.. . 1... eee 10 tons 12 tons 28 tons 100 bus. Vetel soso a ae eo wa 2 tons ecb aS 1-2 tons 3 tons 1.5 tons 3 tons Wheat S87 ot Aft 15 bushels | 18.9 bus. | 60 bushels | 7-8 bus. 30 bushels | 8 bushels | 20 bushels * Including varieties grown for stock-feeding. + Lint. $ Gallons of syrup. 154 YIELD OF FARM CROPS YIELDS OF FARM CROPS, continued As reported for this volume by observers in several parts of the continent. Indiana Wisconsin Manitoba Eastern Texas Average Best Average Best Average Best Average Best Alfalfa. . 3-4 tons 6 tons 8 tons 6 tons 3 tons 4 tons 3 tons 7 tons Barley . . 25 bushels | 40 bushels | 80 bushels | 65 bushels | 30 bushels | 75 bushels Beans, field . . 18 bushels | 30 bushels 150 bus. 200 bus. Broom-con. .| .... é - Buckwheat ..| .... 15 bushels | 35 bushels ae Cabbage ...| .... 4,000 Ibs. | 6,000 Ibs. Carrots. ...] 2... 10 tons 18 tons 300 bus. 800 bus. 9,000 Ibs. -] 12,000 lbs. Clover. . ..{| 1.5 tons 2.5 tons Hey ed ee 2 tons 4 tons eis Cotton. . ..] .. 4 bale 2 bales Cowpeas . . . | 18 bushels | 30 bushels 8 bushels | 15 bushels 1.5 tons 3 tons Field-pea. . . 38 10 bushels | 25 bushels | 40 bushels | 65 bushels | 40 bushels | 60 bushels Flax... .. . 13 bushels | 25 bushels | 18 bushels Kohlrabi. . 1] 22] 1,200 lbs. | 2,000 Ibs. Lespedeza Beals oe ee Maize .. 40 bushels | 100 bus. 41 bushels | 100 bus. 30 bushels | 90 bushels Mangels . . . | 18 tons 25 tons 25 tons 60 tons 800 bus. 1,200 bus. | 5 tons 6 tons Melilotus. . . 2.5 tons 4 tons Millet .. ..{| 17 tons 4 tons oe seed on ees 2 tons 4 tons 1 ton 2 tons Oats. ... 30.bushels | 80 bushels | 36 bushels | 97 bushels | 40 bushels | 110 bus. 85 bushels | 85 bushels Parsnips’ . 8 tons 15 tons 800 bus. 600 bus. 9,000 Ibs. | 12,000 Ibs. Potatoes . 100 bus. 200 bus. 92 bushels | 400 bus. 300 bus. 800 bus. 60 bushels | 150 bus. Pumpkin... | .... are 6 tons 8 tons Rape. .... . 15 tons 35 tons 10 tons Rice... . Ait): GS BLP hens 50 bushels | 100 bus. Rutabaga. . an a 12 ions 40 tons | 500 bus. : 1,000 bus. 6 tons 8 tons Rye: 25 ee sets. 14 bushels |*50 bushels | 16 bushels | 40 bushels | 20 bushels | 40 bushels Sorghum . 9 tons 15 tons oe seed 2 cbs 2.5 tons 6 tons Soybean . 20 bushels | 35 bushels | 15 bushels | 35 bushels Sugar-beets . . | 14 tons 20 tons 12 tons 30 tons 300 bus. 800 bus. 4 tons 6 tons Sugar-cane . .] 1. i 3 46 25 tons 40 tons Sweet-potatoes. 100 bus. 400 bus. Timothy ...{| 1.5 tons 2 tons 1.5 tons 3.5 tons 1.5 tons 4 tons Tobacto ... are . 1,280 lbs. | 1,800 Ibs. eect 800 Ibs. 1,200 Ibs. Turnips....| . 10 tons 35 tons 600 bus. 1,100 bus. | : 6 tons 8 tons Vetch . +8 tons +12 tons 2 tons 3 tons Wheat . . . . | 14 bushels | 45 bushels | 12 bushels | 35 bushels | 27 bushels | 56 bushels | 12 bushels | 48 bushels *Winter rye. +Green feed. YIELD OF FARM CROPS YIELDS OF FARM CROPS, continued As reported for this volume by observers in several parts of the continent. 155 New Mexico Wyoming Washington British Columbia Average Best Average Best Average Best. Range Alfalfa... .| 3 tons 7 tons 3 tons 8.5 tons | {6 tons fl0tons | ....-..s Barley .. 40 bushels | 70 bushels | 35 bushels |, . . . . 29.7 bus. | 80 bushels | 35 bushels to 105 bushels Beans, field . . | 600 lbs. 1,000 lbs. 18bushels | .... 15 bushels to 25 bushels Broom-corn . ee 3,000 Ibs. Se ea Buckwheat ..| .... aa ee, . 19.4 bus. 18 bushels to 41 bushels Cabbage ‘i ‘ S 16,150 Ibs. | 2,855 heads 3 tons to 25 tons Carrots. és «| ww % % . 12,000 lbs. | 21,107 Ibs. | 476 bus. Nod es 4 tons to 85 tons Clover ....] .... suet 2.2 tons 5 tons 1.5 tons to 4.5 tons Cotton ....] 2... ote oh st ie 5h es eh yis en Ja fae tal es wet Cowpeas . . a ie we ei aan ra. Se Be GS Sa set Field-pea. ..] . 2. e- anes 18 bushels | 34.7 bus. | 26 bushels | ... 25 bushels to 106 bushels Flax. .... slice ae eee - . ». | 16bushels | 5.7 bus. a er te ae I! Gectelage areca ger we sad te Kohlrabi . . .| 2... oe-¥ 8 15,475 lbs.| 2... eel as 10 tons to 16 tons Lespedeza . Sei Se . a sarge os ar ac Se tee arree ae ee cis a hdl (Wl and Aah eine Gay Sanaa Maize... .. 22 bushels | 60 bushels ee 21 bushels | 40 bushels | **10 tons to 45 tons Mangels ...) 2... a ane 600 bus. 13 tons to 50 tons Melilotus ...|/ .... oa Ya . BY Gerd) | eanac ier pee a fap Goda ae Millet ....]. 1.5 tons 1 ton to 6 tons QOata ae ss Se 35 bushels | 85 bushels | 40 bushels | 187 bus. 42 bushels | 150 bus. | 35 bushels to 125 bushels Parsnips ee 8,200 Ibs. | 877 buss | 2... | we ee ee eee Potatoes . ae 75 bushels | 972 bus. 142 bus. 500 bus. 8 tons to 28.5 tons Pumpkin .. . let a eee 16 te ka C8 aE Sa ete Rape. .... = ae bre Ye 6 8 Rice... .. . i Sonneries Nill, ished ae! Zor “Srvey Gare Rutabaga ... 15 tons as 20 tons to 63 tons Rye ses as ‘ 18 bushels | 34 bushels | 14.6 bus. 15 bushels to 32 bushels Sorghum . ‘ aay cee Be sad cap tas |W aap ae EP day ah ae sca ae Soybean 4.5 tons Sugar-beets . ./ 11.5 tons | 19.5 tons | 10 tons 28.7 tons 8.3 tons |§18 tons 6 tons to 23 tons Sugar-cane . eat ce ee . 2.9 tons oS He Se KS Sweet-potatoes . | 10,000 Ibs. | 18,000 Ibs. - - - | 90bushels | .... oe 8 we ww Timothy ... te as 1.5 tons : 7 ea aa 2 tons to 5.5 tons Tobacco ... oe aoe e a3 236 Ibs. aries Pee eles eae Turnip ....| . Aer a 40 tons a Ses af oe Se woes Vetch «2. es] eee % Boat te > aye 3 tons errata Sr ora den Gel ae as Wheat . . . .| 80 bushels | 63 bushels | 25.5 bus. [,>2 bushels | 95 nushels | 100 bus. | 11 bushels to 43 bushels +78 bushels * Field culture. } Garden culture. {Under irrigation. On dry land, 2.5 tons and 4 tons, respectively.’ For silage. § Under irrigation. PART II THE MANUFACTURE OF CROP PRODUCTS Every important crop affords material for one or more manufuctured products. These products are of several classes or kinds, as: Preserved products for use as food for men or live-stock; construction products, as lumber, in which the plant material is merely put in shape or form for use, without change in its structure; extracted or expressed products, as wines; ground or pulverized products, as flour; transformed structural products, in which the identity of the original materials is lost, as in woven goods, paper. It would be interesting to make a list of the manufactured or manipulated products of the plants described in this book, beginning with the meal made from the alfalfa plant and ending with the flour and other products of the wheat grain. If the list were at all complete, the number would be astonishingly large and would impress the reader with his great dependence on the common crops of the field © For the most part, the manufacturing of crop products is not agriculture. This manufacture is delegated to other persons who make it their exclusive business. The farmer, however, is closely governed in many cases by the necessities of the manufacturer. In fact, the need of manufactured goods has had a tremendous influence on agricultural practice, dictating the kinds of crops to grow in great regions, the varieties, the methods of growing them, the season at which they shall be delivered, the methods of harvesting and of marketing. It is clearly not the concern of a work of the nature of this Cyclopedia to discuss in any completeness the manufacture of crop products, for farming properly ends at the factory door. Certain manufacturing processes, however, are home industries, or they may be local and practically codperative, and are therefore nearly or quite within the sphere of this Book. Such processes are the various forms of preserving crop products for human consumption, and the making of juices and beverages. It is proposed, therefore, briefly to discuss some of these familiar subjects to aid the housekeeper and also to give information on some of the commercial relations of these industries. , With the increase of population, the utilization of secondary or waste products in manufacture becomes more marked and important. In time, a use must be found for everything, and everything must be saved. This is well illustrated in wood. products, paper now being made from kinds and sizes of trees that were passed by a few years ago, and lumber being sawn from small and crooked stuff that not long ago was left in the forest: to be burned. A closer economy of materials will, of course, augment the influence of manufacture on crop production. In the old days, every good farm establishment conducted much of its own manufacture. It did its own weaving of cotton, flax or wool. It tanned its own hides. It “put down” its own meats. In many cases it made its own meal or flour. The manufacture moved to the village and finally to the city and remote from the farm. There is every reason to expect that manufacture is to return to the farm, perhaps not of the staple articles above mentioned, but of many secondary products that must be saved or that need: to be added to the necessities of living. Every good farm will be equipped with light power, which will be utilized in the saving of labor and in manipulating crop products. Neighborhood manufacture is returning, particularly in dairy regions; this introduces new methods of codperation, and produces social as well as economic results. Unfortunately, there seem to have been few studies of these subjects in this country from the agricultural point of view. The literature is of two kinds,—the purely domestic writing, largely of the recipe-book order; and the technical writing for the use of manufacturers or students of the scientific principles involved in the manufacture. We shall find, however, that these subjects have close relation to farm management and to crop-growing. It is impossible, for example, to find adequate advice on the growing of crops for canning factories. The field or farming phases of these subjects are in need of study. (156) punorsyovq ay} ui sdigg ‘seed Jospeoy ‘Arunoo orem La 84} Ur ausos Arojovy Buruurg “AT a1¥Ig CHAPTER VIII PRESERVED PRODUCTS EW METHODS OF MANUFACTURE have greatly extended the importance of can- ning and of other methods of preserving, and have widened their influence on crop production. These methods have been largely in the way of perfecting machinery to take the place of hand-labor in preparing the products, making the cans or receptacles, and in cooking or sterilizing. The modern art and practice of canning are said to have begun with Nicholas Appert, in France, toward the close of the eigh- teenth century. It was about 1810, however, before the method became prominent, at least in England, whence Appert had received financial assistance for his work. Within ten years thereafter, Ezra Daggett and his son-in-law, Thomas Kensett, introduced into New York the method of hermetically sealing perishable products. Later they secured a patent for an improvement in the art of preserving. Nearly or quite contemporaneously, Charles Mitchell introduced the method into Boston, entering the employment of William Underwood, who established the firm of William Underwood and Company, in 1822. The canning of fruits, vegetables and meat products spread slowly for many years, but great impetus was given it by the gold-fever exodus, in 1849 (creating demand for compactly preserved food), later by the Civil War, and thereafter by the rapid growth of cities and the dependence on the market. At first the scientific principles involved were not understood, but they have now been ex- plained by the studies of Tyndall, Pasteur and many others. The underlying principle is sterili- zation,—the killing of the germs that cause change and decay,—and the hermetical sealing to prevent contamination. The canning industry has experienced very great extension in this country, gradually moving west- ward with the development of diversified agriculture. The Central West has now become the principal packing section for certain leading goods. This is marked in the westward éxtension of corn packing. In 1906, Iowa held first place in the output of canned corn, with 1,593,000 cases of two dozen cans each. Pumpkins, peas and other general field crops are heavily packed in the upper Mississippi valley states. The output in different years is likely to fluctuate greatly, however, as between localities or regions. The great importance of the various industries that preserve crop products, or extract their juices is shown by the following figures from the Twelfth Census (for 1900) : Machinery, astenmber _g| Total eapital Land Buildings | ‘tools and: Cash and Fruits and vegetables, can- ning and preserving. . . 1,808 $27,748,067 $2,702,470 | $4,517,008 $4,797,719 $15,725,870 Vinegar andcider .... 1,152 6,187,728 708,857 1,410,215 1,956,010 2,112,646 Later statistics, from the Statistical Abstract for 1906, give figures as follows for canning and pre- serving fruits and vegetables : Number ital _______—Wageearners Cost of material | Val £ duet Census year establishments Capita Eecasuadeel Gta ost of materia alue of produc 1880.... 411 $8,247,488 31,905 $2,679,960 $12,051,293 $17,599,576 1890.... 886 15,315,185 49,762 4,651,317 18,665,163 29,862,416 1900.... 1,813 27,795,621 87,189 8,251,471 37,382,541 56,427,412 1905.... 2,261 47,629,497 89,988 10,428,521 51,582,460 78,142,022 (157) 158 CANNING INDUSTRY IN CALIFORNIA This class of products figures heavily in the exports of the United States, as shown in the following exhibit. (Statistical Abstract, 1906). Domestic Exports. YEARS ENDED JUNE 30. Cider Spaned Malt otal Vegerables Vinegar Gallons Dollars Dollars Bushels Dollars Dollars Dollars Gallons Dollars 1897... 687,672 | 77,695 | 1,686,723 | 289,548 | 177,292 | 698,714 | 408,840 98,969 | 11,572 1898... 465,873 60,063 1,624,741 | 406,702 | 287,473 | 728,749 | 386,039 | 108,657 12,939 1899... 490,803 | 64,500 | 2,380,715 | 453,088 | 824,145 | 676,380 | 555,691 | 107,317 | 13,488 1900. . . .| 483,367 | 64,983 | 3,127,278 | 296,742 | 215,198 | 625,592 | 608,288 | 115,372 | 12,583 1901. . . .| 462,048 | 61,182 | 3,006,109 | 357,947 | 250,099 | 504,573 | 528,914 83,780 | 13,231 1902... .]| 121,006 21,869 1,195,685 | 401,375 | 266,894 ) 450,825 | 560,612 95,675 19,754 1908. . . .| 598,119 84,084 1,789,571 | 847,147 | 252,801 | 815,176 | 597,759 | 103,417 18,072 1904... .| 714,476 | 103,314 2,637,002 | 438,580 | 815,676 | 486,693 | 719,580 | 132,450 19,192 1905. . . .| 894,728 61,204 2,541,025 | 487,158 | 342,851 | 383,457 | 580,048 | 111,994 17,158 1906. . 844,117 53,577 2,348,064 | 881,523 | 598,458 | 351,550 | 658,739 92,027 16,266 The literature of canning and preserving is scattered in bulletins of a few agricultural colleges and stations, the national Department of Agriculture, the trade journals, proceedings of societies, in the agri- cultural press and a few books. The writers in this chapter suggest the following titles: H. W. Conn, Bacteria, Yeasts and Molds in the Home ; Mrs. Sarah T. Rorer, Canning and Preserving ; Hester M. Poole, Fruits: How to Use Them ; Fletcher Berry, Fruit Recipes ; Gesine Lemcke, Preserving and Pickling. Farmers’ Bulletins : No. 98, Mary Hinman Abel, Sugar as Food; No. 203, Maria Parloa, Canned Fruits, Preserves and Jellies ; No. 183, Andrew Boss, Meat on the Farm. Cornell Reading-Course for Farmers’ Wives, Bulletin No. 20, Series IV, Canning and Preserving. Following are a few of the technical publications on this subject: Art and Science of Canning, published by Canner and Dried Fruit Packer, Chicago; E. W. Duckwall, Canning and Preserving of Food Products, with Bacteriological Technique, Aspinwall, Pa.; C. A. Shinkle, American Commercial Methods of Manufacturing Pickles, Preserves and Canned Goods, Canyon City, Colo.; Sci- ence and Experiment as Applied to Can- ning, published by The Sprague Canning Machinery Company, Chicago (1902); pa- pers by W. Lyman Underwood and S$. C. Prescott, entitled Microorganisms and Ster- ilization in the Canning Industries, Tech- nology Quarterly, Vol. X, No. 1, and Vol. XI, No. 1, Boston (1896, 1897). The mutual relations of canning fac- tories and farming are very intimate, one dictating to some extent the methods of the other. These relations have probably developed as far in California as elsewhere, and a brief account of them may serve to express the nature of the problems and progress involved, as well as to supply information of a certain region. — =s Fig. 231. Cherry orchard, the fruit used largely for canning. ment in this industry. With the rapid increase in fruit crops throughout the state, large tracts of land have been set out without regard to any particular market. Nearly every fruit-growing community in turn has found it difficult, if not CANNING INDUSTRY IN CALIFORNIA By C. H. Bentley Owing to the wide variation in soil and climate, there is great divergence in the canning products and the canning industry in the states of the Pacific coast and Rocky mountains. California, having a climate favoring the widest range of products and a location best suited for marketing them, has shown the largest develop- impossible, to market the crop in the fresh condi- tion. The local cannery, often started on a semi- cooperative plan by growers and other interested parties, has been a natural though rarely success- ful development. When operated on a strictly business-like basis, it has given reasonably good returns to the owners. In some cases, the canner CANNING INDUSTRY IN CALIFORNIA has grown his own fruit, but he has usually bought from year to year according to the crop and mar- ket conditions, or has entered into a term contract with growers for a period of years to buy fruit of a size, quality and condition suitable for canning, at an agreed price or scale of prices. Through such term contracts the canner has exercised a beneficial influence. It has been to his interest to see that only the most improved varieties of fruit are grown; that the orchard is properly pruned, plowed, cultivated and protected against pests of every kind; that the crop is thinned when neces- sary and that it is harvested properly. Operating under such contracts, orchardists have been brought to see the benefit of intelligent and busi- ness -like farming. Information from the best authorities, relating to preferred varieties of fruits, methods of cultivation, pruning and fighting of . pests, harvesting and the like, has been distributed to the growers through the agency of the canners, and the latter have frequently pioneered some sug- gestion of the State College of Agriculture or of the United States Department of Agriculture, looking to improved conditions of horticulture. Placer county, California. In the growing of vegetables, canners have appeared even more prominently in bettering the conditions surrounding the growth of canning products. From the very limited acreage of aspara- gus grown for the local produce trade, has devel- oped a great industry, thousands of acres now being grown for the exclusive purpose of canning. When this industry was threatened by the para- sitic rust, canners were the first to propose and con- tribute to a fund handled by the College of Agri- culture of the University of California in making scientific investigation, which promises to be of lasting benefit. Similar conditions have arisen in connection with the growing of peas, tomatoes and string beans. Sweet corn has not been grown to good advantage in California, and practically none has been canned. The worm which almost invariably appears in each ear of corn has made it impossible for canners to operate with any profit. The past season, through means provided by the canning interest, the College of Agriculture has had the opportunity of experimenting on sev- eral hundred acres of corn. While the results have not seemed to justify development in this business, a distinct advance has been made. 159 The season begins in March with the canning of asparagus, the better packs being made in the peculiar peaty soil found in a few favored locali- ties. Fig. 233 shows a small part of an asparagus Fe ce ee TS eR Se Fig. 233. Cutting asparagus for canning. 2 ra See ee eee field of 1,000 acres grown exclusively for canning purposes. The light loose soil is built up over the root crowns to a considerable depth, so that the shoots can grow without resistance during the time of harvesting. During the height of the sea- son the entire acreage must be cut daily, as the asparagus is not allowed to grow above the sur- face, and each spear is cut as rapidly as the point is exposed to the air. In this way, the white as- paragus, so much preferred, is secured. If exposed, the point turns first to a purple then toa green color. Sugar peas are handled extensively under what is known as the “viner system,” the vines being mown at the harvest time and hauled in hayricks to the cannery, which is located close to the field where the peas are grown. The vines are put into viners or threshers, as indicated in Fig. 234. This method is in general use throughout the country and is not peculiar to California. Tomatoes are contracted for delivery in early Fig. 234. Pea-field, viner and cannery. September after the rush of the fruit season. They are usually safe from frost until the middle of November. Frequent crops of fifteen tons to the acre are secured. Fig. 235 shows tomato vines 160 during the month of July. These vines were planted in May. Fig. 286 shows the tomato field at the time of harvesting, when the vines cover the CANNING INDUSTRY IN CALIFORNIA apples, figs, lemons, logan-berries and oranges are also used in the preparation of jams, jellies and preserves. DURATION OF THE CALIFORNIA CANNING SEASON—By KINDS OR VARIETIES Showing Earliest and Latest Day’s Packing for Period of 42 Consecutive Years in San Francisco EXPLANATION : entire season. Mmmm heavy period. Jan. Feb. | Mar. | Apr. May June | July | Aug.’ | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. Asparagus Strawberries Peas ... Gooseberries Cherries, red Cherries, white ... Currants String Beans Blackberries Apricots Green Gages 2 sw cs tfe ec else ela we a faa Egg Plums... . . R[x aw fe wow [ae alle « White Free Peaches . .|...]/...]...]-... Yellow Free Peaches. . be A acaehie Nectarines. ... Pears: <6. aia tg sy a Yellow Cling Peaches. . Golden Drops White Cling Peaches . . Damson Plums . . Tomatoes Grapes Quinces tee eR == a ee we ew we ee 8 ew ee we ee ee we wee eee ee we All varieties, entire sea- SON 6 & & Fs es oo aba es nepal 4j° ee . 9 - ef ee ee e ede 13 419 19 3 . 24: = + 29 Dis # Bis 14 i (Even | qo + 8 ground. As no rains are expected in California until the very end of September, there is no necessity for the use of trellises. The beginning of the canning industry in Cali- fornia was made in 1860. In 1868 the total pack was about 7,000 cases. It has increased as follows: S(O 6 ei ae ei 36,000 cases TE Orgs cal coon ss ees Wee a Ces aa, ge 61,000 cases VSSO i. cae cas see er c Sy vad ee av ae se 221,000 cases VSB 35: ae Ee a toe Cen Sea ed - 615,000 cases N90: 2 ae tas Sw ag ie . 1,495,000 cases 1895 a ee ewe He eS 1,639,000 cases V90O ae ee we ee a We 2,775,000 cases WOO: ve: Ase Shesskt de: Lav er sey Ge? GE 3,800,000 cases By reason of the diversity of soil and climate, the canneries are scattered throughout the state, specializing more and more so as to handle prod- ucts where they are grown to the best advant- age. The above table gives the duration of the can- ning season by varieties. The heavy black line indicates when the season is at its height. This table also gives a list of the more important varieties used in canning, although it is to be noted that artichokes, baked beans, lima beans, beets, cabbage, carrots, cauliflower, celery, corn, onions, parsnips, potatoes, pumpkin, spinach, sprouts, squash and turnips are packed in consider- able quantities. In addition to the varieties of fruits mentioned, it should be noted that crab- It is safe to say that the canneries in California are using the product of 15,000 acres bearing fruit and 10,000 acres bearing vegetables. The canned asparagus, apricots, peaches, pears and plums are shipped to all the open markets in the world and are regarded as superior. The cheaper staples, as peas and tomatoes, are marketed usually on the Pacific coast, as the cost of transportation limits the sale of such products as are generally produced throughout the country. With berries: Fig. 235. Tomato-field in July. At the time of harvesting the vines will have covered the ground. California. and apples, California enjoys no advantage over other localities, and for a like reason these products are, under normal conditions, sold in Pacific coast territory. Other vegetables, such as potatoes and HOME PRESERVING AND CANNING cauliflower, are distributed largely in logging, mining and construction camps, and in cold and remote regions where fresh supplies cannot be secured. It is generally thought that the industry will not show the rapid growth in the future that it has in the past, for the reason that communities formerly dependent on canned goods for their supplies of fruits and vegetables, are now in many cases growing, and even can- ning, their own products. In other cases, with the im- proved ship- ping facilities and extension of railway lines, compara- tively remote communities are now able to receive apples, citrous fruits and vegetables in safety throughout the winter. The constant improvement in the quality of dried fruits and their relative cheapness has had the tendency to reduce the volume of business on the cheaper grades of canned fruits. On the other hand, the demand for the better grades shows gratifying increase, and the development of new markets offsets the falling off of others. Fig. 236. Harvesting tomatoes in Cali- fornia. The vines cover the ground. HOME PRESERVING AND CANNING By Anna Barrows Primitive man early discovered that dried foods are more easily transported from place to place and have better keeping qualities than when fresh; and that the salt of sea-water and the smoke of the camp-fire have further preservative influence. Generations ago housekeepers found out that dense substances would keep longer than those that were watery, so they packed cooked meat in its own fat, and made preserves rich with honey, or sugar, and savory with spices. The air-tight tin can and glass jar, sterilization and cold-storage, have done much in solving one of the most complicated problems of modern civilization, but all the possibilities have not yet been fully investigated. The efficiency of all ancient processes of food preservation is explained by the later knowledge of the habits of microérganisms. Failure in can- ning and preserving is usually due to lack of knowl- edge of these subjects. The essential points are these: Bacteria do not thrive in substances con- taining less than 25 per cent of water, such as preserves or jellies thick with sugar; they are destroyed by heat; they do not flourish in the presence of acids, alcohol, salt, spices, or the sub- stances deposited by smoke. Foods containing little nitrogenous matter are less liable to the attack of bacteria; therefore bacteria are less troublesome in the preservation of fruits than of fish and meats. Molds and ferments or yeasts are the common Bll 161 enemies of preserves, jellies and the like. (Figs. 237, 238.) These growths usually are killed in a few minutes at the temperature of boiling water, 212° Fahr. A lower degree of heat continued for a longer period — half an hour or more—is often as effectual and less detrimental to the flavor and texture of the fruit. The spores, or undeveloped organ- isms, resist heat that would be fatal to those fully grown, so in lab- oratories or canning factories steam, under pressure, is used to secure a temperature much higher than 212° Fahr., and thus wholly to sterilize the food. Here the housekeeper cannot compete with the factories, and must practice intermittent sterilization as was done long before the existence and habits of these microorganisms were known. The material to be sterilized is heated to the boiling point and kept there for half an hour on three or more successive days. Between these scaldings it is left at an ordinary tempera- ture, that the spores may germinate and become active organisms. These are then killed by the next heating, and after the final boiling the exclusion of air prevents the entrance of others. It is essential that everything exposed to the air, filled as it is with “ germs,” should be sterilized before it comes in direct or indirect contact with the food to be preserved. Fruits are constantly exposed while growing, or in market, and their skins harborvast numbers of microorganisms; hence they must be thoroughly washed. The removal of skins from peaches, tomatoes and like products by scalding has more than one beneficial effect. If pared fruit must stand before cooking, it should be dropped into water with lemon juice or vinegar in Fig. 237. Forms of yeasts of different kinds. Fig. 238. Molds. .A, Mucor, showing sporangia bearing spores; B, Pencillium, showing conidiophore bearing spores. it, to prevent the discoloration probably due to the action of a ferment. The room in which such work is to be done should be as clean as the operating-room of a hospital. All possible dust should be removed with adamp cloth. Every utensil should be boiled ten minutes or more, and kept in the water till it is to be used. The jars had better be filled over the stove where the air is sterilized by heat and steam, rather than by an open window, where dust-laden air can come in contact with them. We have become so accustomed to certain flavors 162 in pickles and preserves that we forget that they are used primarily for their preservative effects and that they may retard digestion as much as the newer preservatives, the use of which is so justly condemned. In her “Frugal Housewife,” published in 1830, Mrs. Lydia Maria Child says, “ Economical people will seldom use preserves, except for sickness. They are unhealthy, expensive and useless to those who are well.” To a modern student of dietetics it seems singular to give the sick anything unsuitable for the well, but certain pharmaceutical values were ascribed to “conserves” in the early days of their manufacture. Thomas Tusser, who died in 1580, author of “Five Hundreth Pointes of Good Housekeeping” has this to say in their favor: “Good housewife provides, ere a sickness do come, Of sundry good things in her home to have some; Conserves of barbary, quinces and such, With sirops, that easeth the sickly so much.” The thorough sterilization of such articles is in their favor, and the value of sugar as a food is now recognized. Dr. Robert Hutchison makes this statement regarding homemade jam: “The acids of the fruit, aided by the high temperature employed in the course of preparation, bring about the conversion of a considerable proportion of the cane-sugar into the invert form. Homemade jam is boiled fora longer time than the commercial article and con- sequently contains more invert and less cane-sugar than the latter. The larger the proportion of cane- sugar which has been inverted, the less likely is the jam to interfere with digestion.” In a discussion of preserves and preserving, a number of preparations may be considered. It is but a step beyond the making of ordinary pre- serves to the preparation of candied, glacé or crystallized fruits. Preserves also naturally merge into fruit butters, jams, jellies and marmalades, some fruits being better adapted to one form than to another. These terms are often used inter- changeably and vary in their application according to locality. These several preparations will here be considered in order. Preserves. This type of sweet should not be served as freely as the ordinary canned fruits in which there is less sugar and more water, but there is no objec- tion to its use in moderation. The fruit is cooked in thick syrup, and more thoroughly than for can- ning. The denser the syrup the better the fruit will keep its shape, but when there is a tendency to jelly or caramelize, more water must be added. The proportion of sugar and water for the syrup must vary according to the juiciness of the fruit. For preserves, three-fourths to one pound of sugar is allowed for each pound of fruit. At the begin- ing the syrup may consist of twice as much sugar as water, for average fruits. A few pieces are put into the kettle at once, that each may be sur- rounded by the thick, hot syrup. As soon as these sections of fruit are cooked, in many cases becom- HOME PRESERVING AND CANNING ing somewhat transparent, they are removed to the jars, and more are put into the syrup. More water or sugar is added as needed. At the end, the remaining syrup is used to fill the jars containing the fruit, and often forms a firm clear jelly in which the fruit is imbedded. Strawberries, stoned cherries, and any fruit likely to lose form and flavor if cooked, are sometimes sprinkled with sugar and the syrup thus formed is scalded and poured hot over the uncooked fruit placed in the jars. If the syrup is then scalded two or three days in succession and poured over the fruit again, there is little danger of fermentation. Preserves will keep in jars that are not air-tight, but they should have much the same protection as jellies. The texture of each lot of fruit should be carefully observed, since varieties of the same fruit, and any one variety at different stages of growth, may produce a marked difference in the product. Hard fruits, as quinces, some pears and apples, may be improved by steaming until tender before cooking in the syrup. When any fruit is to be preserved whole, the center must be as thor- oughly sterilized as the outside, which must be accomplished by slow, gentle cooking, otherwise the surface will be broken and unsightly. There is a certain transparent appearance when the syrup has penetrated throughout. Candied fruit. This is to be classed with candies rather than with fruits, since the sugar predominates. Among the fruits most commonly subjected to this treat- ment are apricots, cherries, peaches and pineap- ples. The fruit is preserved in a thick syrup, then drained, cooled, dried and rolled in sugar. The time given to each process depends on the texture of the fruit and the size of the pieces. Experi- ments in this country have been hurried too much to produce as satisfactory results as are obtained in France. One of our consuls has given this report on the methods pursued there: “Some of the denser fruits, as citron, are soaked first in sea-- water. All are carefully sorted as to size and degree of ripeness, and stones and parings are removed. The fruit is then plunged into boiling water and drained, thus removing much of the juice. If this process is too long continued the fruit is overcooked or left too woody, but if the juices are not extracted sufficiently, less sugar is absorbed and there is more danger of fermentation later. Experience is the only guide.” Syrups of different densities must be provided for different fruits,—the softer the fruit the denser the syrup required. The fruit, after thorough draining, is soaked in the syrup for a time before heating. When a cloudy appearance in the trans- parent syrup indicates the beginning of fermenta- tion, the vessel containing syrup and fruit is heated to 212° Fahr. The process of soaking in syrup takes about six weeks, and the mass is heated about three times during the period. After this, the fruit may be crystallized by cooling slowly to about 90° Fahr., which causes the thick syrup that covers it to granulate. Or it may be glazed by dipping ina ” HOME PRESERVING AND CANNING thick syrup and drying rapidly in the open air. The syrup remaining is worked up into various confections. Housekeepers frequently use up their orange and lemon skins in this way, and keep them in salt water until enough accumulate to make it worth while to prepare them. The salted skins are first boiled in fresh water to remove the salt and make them tender, then they are cooked in the syrup. Sweet flag and ginger roots should be cooked in several waters, to remove the too in- tense flavor before they are candied. The yellow plum tomatoes make a fair substitute for figs, if treated in this way. In all cases care must be taken not to cook the fruit at too high tempera- ture or to dry it too much. Fruit butter. Fruit butters seem to be of Dutch or German origin. They are smooth pastes made by long-con- tinued stirring. They are given their name from being used as or in place of butter. Sometimes several fruits are combined. Skins and seeds are removed, but the mass is not sifted. Sugar may or may not be used. The apple butter of Pennsylva- nia and Ohio is closely akin to the cider apple sauce of New England, but is usually a smoother paste. To make apple butter, sweet cider is boiled down one-half, then pared and cored apples are put init. There should be rather more apple than cider, but if too thick add more cider; if too thin add more apples. Stir with a wooden paddle till a rich, dark color and the desired consistency are secured. Further evaporation may be secured by putting the butter in stone jars in a slow oven. Spice may be added for variety, or when the apples are of inferior flavor. The better the apples and the more care given to every detail, the better will be the result. This product has had a market value, but is used mainly for home consumption, always ready as a relish for any meal. Apple-but- ter “frolics” once ranked with corn-huskings among the autumn festivities. (Fig. 239.) Jam. Jam is the general English term for any fruit conserve. The origin of the word seems evident, but it is also traced to words meaning t» congeal or thicken. Jams are usually made from the smaller fruits and berries, which may be jammed or mashed without previous cooking and which do not require the straining and longer process in- volved in jellies, marmalades or fruit butter. The fruit is cleaned, put into the kettle and jammed with a wooden masher as it heats, enough juice flowing out at once to prevent burning. Since no water is added, less time is required for evapora- tion, and in most cases cooking for half an hour is enough before the sugar is put in; then cooking should continue five or ten minutes more. As com- monly known, jams are seldom as firm as jellies and marmalades. Similar compounds are some- times called fruit purées. Currants, if clean and thoroughly mashed, may be combined with an equal amount of sugar, and 163 will keep without cooking if packed in sealed jars, their natural acid being enough to repel bacteria. Marmalade. “After a good dinner, left Mrs. Hunt and my wife making a marmalett of quinces,” says Mr. Pepys in his Diary, November 2, 1663; so mar- malade is no new product. The derivation of the word shows that the quince was probably the first fruit used in this way. Its modern form is usually made from acid and semi-bitter fruits, and has a texture between the fruit butter or jam and jel- lies. The fleshy fruits with much pulp are desira- ble for this purpose, and those too ripe to keep their shape if preserved whole may be used. Some fruits may yield material for both jelly and marmalade. The cleaned fruit is cooked, with water enough to prevent burning, until soft. The clear juice is then drained off for jelly, and the pulp while still warm is sifted through coarse cheese-cloth (or a hair sieve, a purée strainer, or potato ricer) for marmalade. To avoid burning, the fruit pulp may then be cooked until thick before adding sugar, which is generally used in a smaller proportion than for jelly. Fruit lacking flavor may be improved by moderate use of spice. Firm, solid marmalade, cut in strips and rolled in sugar, may form an agreeable addition to a box of homemade candy. In England, experiments have been tried of packing fruit pulp, cooked with sugar, in brick form, when it will keep indefinitely Fig. 239. Making apple butter. (Adapted from "' Rural New-Yorker."’) in a wrapping of waxed paper. For use, these fruit bricks may be reduced with water as desired. Jelly. The ideal jelly is transparent, of uniform con- sistency throughout, firm enough to come from the glass in one mass and retain its shape, but with a quivering texture which divides readily and with- out‘any approach to gumminess. Some fruits are not adapted to jelly-making, though ambitious housewives, wishing to display a great variety, attempt to utilize all kinds of fruits. This effort is often the cause of failure to secure perfect 164 jellies. Good results may be obtained from combi- nation of fruits, one giving consistency, another flavor. Just what the changes are that take place in the transformation of hard fruits into sparkling jellies does not appear to be fully settled by the chemists. Referring to the group of carbohydrates known as “pectin bodies,” or “pectose,” Dr. Robert Hutchi- son says, “These are the substances which give to fruits their power of forming jellies when boiled, and little is known of their exact chemical nature, but they appear to be converted into a special kind of sugar when digested (pentose), which is at least partly assimilable by the body.” At present the general opinion seems to be that the pectose, insoluble in unripe fruits, under the influence of a ferment-like body called pectase, which is present in ripening fruits, or of acids and heat, becomes pectin, a soluble substance which stiffens the juices and produces the compound we know as jelly. As Miss Parloa says, “Pectin is at its best when the fruit is just ripe or a little before. If the juice ferments, or the cooking of the jelly is continued too long, the pectin undergoes a change, and loses its power of gelatinizing.” By continued evaporation of certain fruit juices containing much pectin, jelly may be made without addition of sugar. Currant jelly may be made by combining the warm juice and warm sugar without further cooking, placing the glasses where sunlight will do the remainder. The effect of a damp season may be seen in jellies. There appears to be less of the jellying property, more boiling is needed to evaporate moisture, and there will be more shrinkage of the jelly in the glass afterwards. The apple may be used to illustrate the general process of jelly-making, since that contains a large proportion of the pectosic principle, and having a less distinctive flavor of its own may be combined with more expensive fruits, as the pine- apple, to produce satisfactory results. A goo supply of jellies may be secured from differeu:t varieties of apples alone, the different kinds ranging from the pale color of the Porter to the deep red of some winter varieties, with flavors as unlike as the shades of color. The fruit is cleaned, quartered and cooked in water until soft, but no longer. The average proportion is one quart of water to two quarts of apples, but this varies with the juiciness of the apples. The cooked fruit must drain without pressure. One simple old-fashioned way to accomplish this is to spread a square of cheese-cloth over a large agate or earthen pan, pour the hot fruit into this, tie the opposite cor- ners of the cloth together, and hang over a strong stick placed across two chairs so the juice will drip into the pan. Better than chairs and stick is a strong bird-cage hook in the wall over the kitchen table; or the cheese-cloth may be laid over a hair sieve which is set in a pan. The frame of the sieve will raise the fruit out of the juice. The cloth should always be moistened before the fruit is put in it. Jelly-making is seldom as successful in damp HOME PRESERVING AND CANNING weather as on a clear, bright day, for evaporation is slower. Sugar is peculiarly affected by the weather and, though in less degree, some of the same difficulties attend jelly-making as the manu- facture of candy. On a clear, windy day evapora- tion is rapid and less boiling is required. In mid- summer, bacteria are so active on some of the hot, muggy days, that it is almost impossible to make everything sterile. The juice must be measured and boiled rapidly in a shallow kettle. It is often more satisfactory to boil lots of one or two quarts than in larger quantities. The process is hastened by heating in the oven for ten minutes the nearly equal weight of sugar, while the juice is boiling on the top of the stove. When the sugar will hiss as it meets the liquid, it is put in, stirred till blended, and the whole boiled for about ten minutes more. Careful skimming at intervals is essential to secure a clear jelly, for if the froth once boils in, the jelly, even if strained afterwards, will never be quite clear. The time and the general appearance of the jelly tell us when to stop. If uncertain, single drops on a cold surface will show the consistency. Strain the jelly quickly through a new wire strainer into a pitcher and pour from that into the final receptacle. Tumblers are generally preferred, giving a good form for the table, but tin covers are undesirable. When the jelly is cold and firm, melted paraffine may be poured over till one-fourth inch thick. One thinner layer may be allowed to cool, and then the remainder poured on will cover any cracks. Papers dipped in alcohol or brandy, laid directly on the jelly, will prevent mold, but a layer of absorbent cotton or batting is an addi- tional safeguard, and strong paper may be pasted over all. Jellies crystallize because of excess of sugar or too hard boiling. A temperature even 2° higher will make the color darker, and cause a loss of flavor in the jelly. Fruit syrup. Jellies that do not stiffen properly, and any sur- plus syrup from preserves, should be bottled for future use as the foundation of many desserts, such as gelatine or custard puddings, ice creams, and the like. Often several odd lots of fruit juice may be combined for a summer beverage. Qcca- sionally it has been found more convenient to can the fruit juice and make jelly at another time. Fruit syrups seem to be slowly taking the place of the homemade wines by which our great-grand- mothers set such store. W. M. Williams, in his “Chemistry of Cookery” says, “We shamefully neglect the best of all food in eating and drinking so little fruit. As regards cooked fruit, I say jam for the million, jelly for the luxurious, and juice for all. With these in abun- dance the abolition of alcoholic drinks will follow as a necessary result of natural nausea.” Yet much of the fruit syrup which has been used in “temperance drinks” was composed of artificial colors and flavors, with hardly a trace of the fruits whose names they bore. Under the new pure food HOME PRESERVING AND CANNING laws these will not be allowed to pass for the real article. Homemade preserves for market. Notwithstanding the consolidation of industries, there is a constant demand for high-grade home- made preserves at prices as high as for other fine hand-work. Every detail must be looked after to secure perfection. The price-list of any first-class grocery in our large cities mentions certain “spe- cialties” of Miss or Mrs. at fifty cents per quart-jar and upward. Even at the low- est figure, a woman may earn more money at home than she can save from city wages, but she must control her conditions to secure a regular income in this way. Much cheap jelly has been made from poor fruit sweetened with glucose and flavored artificially, while in some sections of the country fruit rotted on the ground. There are many combinations of fruits possible which would be more attractive to customers than some of the usual articles. Such are pears cooked in grape-juice, currants with raspberries, barber- ries with wild apples. Insipid fruits are improved by combination with raisins, lemon-peel or spices. Ground spices are easily added and are not objec- tionable in a dark marmalade or ketchup. Whole spices may be tied loosely in a bag, and cooked in water from which syrup is to be made, while, in some cases, oils and essences are preferred to either whole or ground spice. Economics of preserving. There are many women who would do better to employ some country friend to provide them with a supply of canned fruits, jellies and the like, than to do it for themselves if they must buy all the fruit. Whether for ourselves or for sale, much discretion is necessary to adapt the fruit at hand to the many varieties in preserves. We can sel- dom raise or buy perfect fruit, therefore it must be sorted carefully. To preserve whole, select that of uniform medium size and good shape. From abnormal sizes and imperfect shapes parts may be cut to preserve, and the remainder used for mar- malades and the like, with the fully ripe fruit which would not keep its shape to cook whole. Clean skins and cores, undersized fruit and inferior ‘parts will yield ample material for jellies and fruit syrups. This is the method we follow when cooking meats: the large, tender, sections for roasts and steaks, the smaller pieces of clear muscle for stews, the bones and tough parts for soups. To keep its shape, fruit must be cooked slowly, a few pieces at a time in syrup; for other prepara- tions it is better to add the sugar later. When a single variety of fruit must be the main dependence, it should appear in as many forms as possible, and with different flavors. . Peaches, for example, may be cooked whole, or in halves, or in slices, with little sugar or much, with cracked pits for the flavor, or in spiced vinegar, or made into marmalade. About one pound of fruit will be required for each pint-jar of preserve, and this pound will ‘165 measure roughly, one quart before cooking. Thus, a woman may estimate the number of jars to be secured from a given quantity of fruit. In this way she can decide whether to buy fruit and pre- pare it for herself, to pay some one else for skilled hand labor, or to depend on the factories. Evaporating. [The home evaporating of fruits under eastern conditions is described on pages 174 to 177. A note may be inserted here on the sun-drying of fruit in dry regions. There is practically no evap- orating in California as it is understood at the East or in the moist-air sections of Oregon and Washington. Evaporating machines and houses are practically unknown as home devices, although they are used in connection with large canneries for the purpose of saving fruit which is a little too ripe for the canning process. Not less than nine- tenths of all the dried fruit produced in California is cured by sunshine in the open air; and by wise use of sulfur fumes immediately after cutting dis- coloration is prevented, so that California sun-dried fruit sells as “evaporated.” Thirty years ago many evaporators were erected to apply the Alden and other pioneer processes, but they were all abandoned as soon as the proper, sun-drying process was developed. Since then repeated attempts have been made to introduce various styles of evaporators, without success, because no artificial drying agency is so cheap as sunshine acting under the very dry summer air and practical absence of rains. Con- sult Chapter XXXV, Wickson “California Fruits,” 3d edition ; also bulletins of Oregon and Washing- ton Experiment Stations.—Hditor.] Canning. Although in some respects a simpler process than those already described, the discussion of canning has been left until the last because it’ is a later discovery. When fruits and vegetables are freed from bac- teria and packed in air-tight cans, little or no preservative material need be combined with them. Hence, canned fruits, being in a more natural form and more dilute than jams and preserves, are con- sidered to be more digestible than such prepara- tions dense with sugar. Acid materials, as rhubarb or cranberries, may be canned without cooking. The cut pieces are put in glass jars, the spaces filled with fresh cold water, and the jars sealed. Thus the sour juices act some- thing like vinegar as a preservative. Usually, however, sterilization by heat is essen- tial. The fresher and cleaner the article to be canned, the more certain we are of securing com- plete sterilization. Overripe fruit, or that exposed in dusty markets, may harbor bacteria not easily destroyed at the boiling-point. Here the home canner cannot compete with the factory, as there it is possible through steam under pressure to secure a higher temperature. Firm fruits may be stewed or steamed and then packed in jars. The softer fruits may be steamed in thin syrup or, better still to preserve their form and 166 flavor, put in jars and set in a pan of water in the oven or in a steamer to cook and then be filled with thin syrup. Before sealing, a spoon should be put down between jar and fruit to let out all air-bubbles. The pressure of the atmosphere on the surface of the preserving kettle causes some vari- ation in the dens- ity of syrup, how- ever the sugar and water were pro- portioned at first. When canning acid fruits, the syrup used to fill the jars may be made of equal measures of sugar and water, while, for sweet fruits, the sugar may be reduced. The canning of vegetables is usually considered a more difficult process under ordinary conditions than that of canning fruits. With due precautions as to cleanliness and a long period of cooking in the jars placed in a steam cooker or wash-boiler (Fig. 240), many housekeepers are as successful with vegetables as with fruits. Some vegetables are more subject to fermenta- tion than others. Where the skin is cut, as in sweet corn, there is greater opportunity for bac- terial action. String beans may well be parboiled in salted water before putting into the jars, where the cooking process must be continued two or three hours. Tomatoes are less liable to spoil if thoroughly skimmed while cooking. When they have proved most trouble- some to housekeepers, it ap- pears that they have not been cooked long enough for the center of the tomato to be raised to the boiling point. The country housekeeper who can bring perfect fruits and vegetables from her gar- den directly into the preserving kettle and air-tight can will have little trouble with “germs”; but the city woman who must secure raw materials through many middlemen would better depend on reliable canneries for her main supply. Utensils. While excellent results have been acecmplished by many housekeepers with very poor appliances, any one who is to make preserves as a busi- ness needs the best utensils, not the most expensive, but those best Fig. 240. Common wash-boiler and slats for heating cans preparatory to sealing. Fig. 241. Fruit pricker. Made by thrusting needles through cork. Glass cylinder (A) and syrup gage (B) (Figs. 241-244, Farmers’ Bul- letin No. 203). HOME PRESERVING AND CANNING adapted to the purpose. Everything should be of shape and substance easy to handle, not readily affected by acids, and affording little hiding-place for molds and ferments. Scales give greater accuracy than measures. A silver-plated fruit- knife with sharp edge is best for paring and cor- ing, or steel knives, if \ used, should be kept bright. Wooden, enamel, or silver spoons should be used, never tin or iron. Wy ANS ‘ Si AAAS Fig. 243. The old porcelain- ; a y Wire basket for scalding lined iron kettles trans- tne enki. mitted moderate heat with little danger of burning the con- tents. There are brown earthenware kettles, raised from the stove by short legs or a metal rim, that are useful when slow evaporation is essential, as for marmalades or ketchups. Agate- ware kettles are light, easy to lift, and clean, and with asbestos or a metal trivet underneath do not burn readily. There should be several of different sizes, and new ones are desirable since fruit acids often remove stains which cannot be scoured off,— and that does not improve the hue of a jelly. Broad rather than deep kettles should be Fig. 244. p ples A wooden chosen, since evaporation is thus hast- ~ for ened, and whole fruits should be cooked in shallow layers. A wire basket is a great help in scalding fruit to remove skins. A wire spoon or bright skimmer is needed occasionally. Enamel strainers and col- anders are convenient. A wooden masher is best for jam. Fruit-presses, cherry-stoners, and the like are required when large quantities are to be prepared. For accurate results, a thermometer and syrup gage are as essential as any other tools. Never try to fill many jars without a large- mouthed tin funnel. Strong linen cheese -cloth strainers and a flannel bag are necessary for jellies. To protect tables from stains and make it easy to clear up afterward, cover with several layers of paper, those on top being clean brown paper. Jars. To hold different quantities of fruit and, later, to serve a family of varying size, the jars should be of all sizes, half-pint, pint, quart and two- quart. Better pay a few cents more than to get jars with imperfect edge, sure to result in cut fingers, or with blisters of glass inside that will break and mingle with the contents of the jar, or with letters and trade-marks in the way of complete sterilization. The best covers are those of glass held in place by a metal spring fastened about the neck of the jar. When a glass top is fastened ina metal rim it is impossible to keep it perfectly clean. PRESERVING AND CANNING New rubber rings should be provided each year, though a few of those left over may be usable. Sometimes two rings should be used, they are so thin. Wide-mouthed bottles may be tightly corked and covered with a cement of rosin and beeswax. Bottles are suitable for the fruit syrups, but the self-sealing ones are best. For all purposes, even for jellies, air-tight jars with glass covers have many advantages. Sterilization is as necessary for jelly tumblers as for jars. After jars are filled properly, they should be labeled and dated. Printed labels already gummed may be bought at low rates, so there is no excuse for indistinct or untidy labels. The closet where filled jars are kept should be light, dry and easy to keep clean. For the first oe yp IY I gE re WTALA AT NOR OS boul hy MY tp y VR PN ve a fi, SSS LA opine») \ Dy iy Res eb, Fig. 245. Amanita muscaria. A poisonous white-spored agaric. month, watch all jars, and, if there is any indica- tion of fermentation, open, scald, and use at once. Summary. This is no place for detailed recipes, since those may be found in cook-books and bulletins. The essential points in all canning, jelly-making, pre- serving and pickling may be given in few words: The article to be preserved and everything to come in contact with it must be sterilized, and then the air must be kept from it. Constant watchfulness and absolute cleanliness are the only magic arts employed. The housekeeper of today must not for- get the traditions and experience of past genera- tions, but even in these every-day processes she must apply also the results of the experiments of modern scientists. Though many of these processes 167 have passed out from the home, there is still a place for the homemade preserves which have a distinct quality and with which no factory goods can compete. Preserving and preparing mushrooms. (By B. M. Duggar.) In the preservation of mushrooms the processes may be either by drying or canning. By both processes some of the flavor of the mushroom is lost, but, nevertheless, the product is an impor- tant article of commerce, and commands a price averaging, perhaps, half that of the fresh mush- rooms. A discussion of edible native mushrooms will be found on page 474. Figs. 245-247 show some of the mushrooms to be avoided. Drying.—The simpler method is by drying, and this is commonly used by the peasantry of Europe for the preservation of such common forms as Boletus edulis (Steinpilz cépe), Agaricus campestris (the common mushroom), and, in addition, several species which are used primarily for soups and stews. The method is, however, applicable to a large number of fleshy species. The method which is recognized as giving the best results consists in thoroughly cleaning the fungi and then immersing them for a moment in boiling water which is slightly acidulated with vinegar or lemon _ Juice. It is asserted that the acidulation prevents, to some extent, the darkening of the mushrooms, yet the addition of acid is not a universal custom. Taken from the boiling water, the mush- rooms, if small, are fre- quently strung on threads and hung in the sun or over the stove. Large specimens should be sliced. When dried in quantity, it is unquestion- ably desirable to desiccate more promptly by placing the material in a slow oven (a temperature of 90° to 100° C., or 194° to 212° Fahr.) or it may be disposed over wire netting suspended over a stove or oven. When dry they are frequently hung in sacks, or merely as strung, in a dry room where pep- pers, dried apples, and other such products are preserved. For commercial purposes, however, they may be imme- diately placed in glasses or tins, well closed or sealed. In moist weather much mois- ture may be taken up, if exposed, and molding will Fig. 246. Amanita phalloides. A deadly poisonous, white-spored agaric. Showing cap, stem, ring and cup-like volya with a free, prominent limb. 168 more readily result. All mushroom growers will find the drying process of value in order to make use of portions of the stems and of mushrooms rather too far advanced for the demands of the best markets. They may then, moreover, be reduced to powder, by passing through an ordinary grinder, and this powder is in considerable demand for sauces and as seasoning. The canning of mushrooms in liquid, according to many methods which have been published, involves ae aie Bess Wh i Saag " Bis Fig. 247. Boletus felleus, the bitter boletus of doubtful reputation. blanching by means of a solution containing alum and bisulphite of soda. An effective home method, preserving the flavor fairly well, is this: Peel and throw into boiling water, containing for each gallon three ounces of salt and the juice of two lemons. After five minutes, put into clean pint-jars and cover with a brine containing per gallon from one to two ounces of salt and a little lemon- juice. They are then brought gradually to the boiling-point and boiled for about fifteen minutes. Preserving in butter, an expensive but common process, is somewhat as follows: Clean and peel as usual and place for a few minutes in cold water, acidulated with vinegar or lemon-juice. Dry with a clean cloth, and use for each quart of mushrooms three ounces of butter, a small teaspoonful of salt, a little pepper and the juice of one lemon. Melt the butter in a stewpan, add the mushrooms and the seasonings; cook slowly. until nearly dry, shak- ing to prevent sticking. Then put into jars and fill with melted butter. Heat in boiling water for ten minutes, close the top, cool gradually and seal. THE COMMERCIAL CANNING INDUSTRY Mushroom ketchup is commonly made as follows: Clean, cut into slices and dispose in layers one- half inch thick in an earthen dish, sprinkle with salt, and repeat until the dish is full. Place in the refrigerator or a cool place for at least two days. Then crush and strain the product through a cloth. Boil the liquid in a porcelain-lined kettle, adding for each quart one-fourth ounce allspice, one-half ounce ginger root, one dozen cloves and several blades of mace. Boil fifteen minutes, strain through flannel into sterile bottles, cork and dip into sealing wax. Or, in the spring, omit the ginger, and add instead, at the time of maceration in refrigerator, to each two pounds of fresh mushrooms about three ounces of fresh walnut husks, finely chopped. Again, gelatine may be added prior to the last boiling, and the product may be used as a jelly, when it is not desired to keep it for a long period of time and to avoid bottling. Pickled mushrooms may be readily prepared, but they are not greatly esteemed. THE COMMERCIAL CANNING INDUSTRY By Samuel C. Prescott Canning is so called because the food material, either animal or vegetable, is “packed” in metal or glass containers, hermetically sealed and steril- ized or “cooked” by the application of heat. The containers, commonly spoken of as “cans,” are generally made of tin plate, although, for certain kind of foods, glass jars are sometimes used. The process is capable of very wide application, as all kinds of foods, except those eaten only in the raw condition, may be preserved in this way, and thus the abundance of one season or one locality may be made available at another place or time. The general object of the process is apparent from the foregoing, but it may be stated that the main problem is to prevent decomposition or spoil- ing, changes induced in foods by the activity of various kinds of microorganisms which ferment or putrefy the foods, giving rise to products of harmful or undesirable character and rendering the food unfit for use. / From a sanitary point of view, canned foods, if properly prepared, are of the highest value, as they are free from bacteria. This fact, combined with their convenience and the ease with which they may be transported, has led to an enormous manu- facture and consumption of these very satisfactory food products. In this article the canning of vege- table foods only will be considered. Methods of sterilization. Sterilization of the can and its contents is effected by one of the following methods : (1) water bath, (2) chemical bath, (3) steam under pressure in strong chests or kettles frequently called “retorts.” Figs. 248 and 249 show sterilizing or cooking apparatus. (1) The water bath. As its name implies, steri- lization by this means consists in boiling the cans or jars for a single period or discontinuously, a THE COMMERCIAL CANNING INDUSTRY temperature of 100° Centigrade (212° F.) being thereby obtained. (2) The chemical bath. This consists of a strong solutionof somesalt, gen- erally calcium chlorid, because of its great sol- ubility. The boiling point of the solution being much higher than that of water, higher temper- atures may be reached by its use than with the ordinary water bath, and consequently a shorter time is required to bring about sterilization. This method was first em- ployed in this country | about 1868, but was not a success because the cans of that time were not strong enough to withstand the pressure generated within. The method of use is the same as with the water bath, i.e., the filled cans are boiled for a certain definite period. (8) Steam under pressure. This method of steril- ization was introduced about 1870. The tempera- ture in this case may be varied by control of steam pressure. The steam being confined in the retorts, of course the pressure is equal within and without the cans; thus, unless the outside pres- sure is removed suddenly, the strain on the cans is not great and loss from bursting is small. Most of the modern cans, however, are sufficiently strong to withstand sudden changes without injury. There are two modifications of the retort, known as the “wet retort” and the “dry retort.” In the former, the kettle is filled with water and steam under pressure blown in, so that the boiling-point of the water is much raised owing to the increased pressure. These kettles are generally cylindrical and are placed in a vertical position, with a heavy lid on the upper end. When in use, this lid is fast- ened down by means of heavy bolts. The kettles are genera!ly provided with three valves,— an intake valve for steam at the bottom, an outlet for water at the bottom and an exhaust valve for steam in the lid. Although spoken of as a “ wet retort,” it can be used without water in the same way as a “dry retort.” In the “dry retort,” the steam under pres- sure is blown in, directly replacing the air and coming directly into contact with the cans. The Portland type of retort consists of a heavy iron chest, about cubical in shape. One side of the cube is the door, which is hinged and fastens by bolts. With the exception of the door the retort is cast all in one piece, the door forming a separate casting. Both types of retorts are provided with ther- mometers and pressure gages. In the use of retorts of either kind it is essential that a current of steam under pressure be passed continuously, this Fig. 248. A commercial corn cooker. - accurately only by experimental tests. 169 “circulation” being effected by leaving the ex- haust valve slightly open. The temperature may be kept constant by regulating the amount of steam entering the retort and the amount of the exhaust. As already mentioned, this method is most effi- cient in its action on the resistant spores of bac- teria, consequently is the safest method to employ in the preparation of canned goods. It is neces- sary, however, to avoid excessive heating, as dam- age to the foods may be done in this way. One result of over-cooking is to produce discoloration of the food substance, a defect which sometimes interferes with the commercial value of the article. Temperatures above 120° C. (248° F.) are rarely used, the best temperature for any material being determined directly by experiment. In sterilization of canned foods, it is necessary that the whole contents of the can be subjected to the required temperature for a period of time long enough to destroy all germs whether spore-produc- ing or not. This period of time can be determined It is of equal importance to know the length of time necessary for the required heat to penetrate to the center of the cans, this time varying very much with different materials, owing to their different conductivity for heat. Liquids are, in general, good conductors, while solid or semi-solid substances conduct but poorly. Knowledge on this point is absolutely essential in order to prescribe a satis- factory process. The vacuum. It is customary in the preparation of canned foods to have a partial vacuum in each can, and . t me TG A ANOAAAN SN Ws Ae TELL Fig. 249. Improved steel process kettle, manufactured to hold 800, 1,000 and 1,200 two-pound cans. for many years it was thought that this vacuum was the principal factor in keeping the goods. While this is untrue, it is desirable to have the vacuum as it allows a means of inspection of the cans, The vacuum is indicated by the concavity of 170 the ends of the cans and should always be present in sound cans. If, however, putrefaction or fer- mentative changes take place, in which gases are produced, the ends bulge out, owing to the pres- sure of the gas within, and so may be easily de- tected. Even in case no swelling of the cans takes place, skilful inspectors can distinguish between good and bad cans by the sound when the cans are struck on the ends. The vacuum is generally pro- duced by filling the cans with the material in a hot condition and sealing them immediately. When water-bath sterilization is employed, the cans are sometimes unsealed or punched while hot and the steam allowed to escape, the aperture being closed again at once. Principles involved in canning specific crops. In the canning of fresh vegetables, the raw materials are substances high in their percentage of water and relatively high in carbohydrates, but relatively low in proteid matter. Because of dif- ferences in texture and composition, no hard and fast rules of procedure can be laid down. The details of the processes for various kinds of canned goods cannot be given here, but the general prin- ciples involved in the different classes may be mentioned. In the preparation and preservation of all kinds of canned goods the necessity for cleanliness is evident, since the entire operation is one in which the aim is to prevent bacterial action. Although in the final process absolute sterilization is to be brought about, the length of time necessary to produce this end may be much shortened if care is A steam apple-butter cooker. Fig. 250. taken to exclude the organisms from external sources. Owing to the preponderance of carbohy- drates, fermentations taking place are most likely to give rise to acids, lactic acid, probably, being the one most frequently found. Putrefactive fer- mentations sometimes occur, especially in those vegetables having considerable nitrogenous sub- stances, as beans, peas and asparagus. Asparagus is packed in large quantities in Cali- fornia and the middle Atlantic states. After plac- ing the stems in the cans, a dilute salt solution is THE COMMERCIAL CANNING INDUSTRY added in sufficient amount to fil! the cans. Unless the freshly cut plant is used, a poor product is obtained, as, on standing, it rapidly becomes with- ered and tough. If not sufficiently “processed” it Fig. 251. Whirlpool blancher for use in canning factories. undergoes fermentation, losing color and assuming a rather bitter, acid taste. If too highly heated, it is darkened and has an overcooked taste. Peas.—In packing peas, the peas are first removed from the pods by a machine, either a “viner” or a “podder.” In construction the “viner” consists of a large hollow cylinder, enclosing a wire cylinder, within which a paddle wheel revolves rapidly. The vines are fed in at one end of the cylinder, and as they are struck by the paddles the pods are burst open and the peas dislodged, the bruised vines being delivered at the other end of the cylinder. The peas and fragments of leaves, pods and the like, fall on a broad endless rubber belt which travels up an inclined plane, where separa- tion by gravity takes place, the peas rolling down into a trough while the lighter impurities are carried away by the belt. In the “podder” the mechanism is still simpler. Instead of passing the whole vines into the machine, the pods are picked off by hand and these are fed into the machine through a hopper. The removal of the peas from the pods is effected in the same way as in the viner, and the peas and pods delivered by chutes. From a bacteriological point of view, the latter process is the more desirable, as it leaves the peas clean and dry, while in the case of the “viner” they become wet and sticky with the juice of the bruised vines, and consequently more or less con- taminated with dirt and dust. After grading, i.e., separation by sieves into peas of different sizes, and further removal of fragments and poor peas, washing and blanching or scalding takes place. In this process much of the adherent dust and other contamination is removed, and the peas pass to the “filler” where they are delivered into cans, then to the “ briner,” where a boiling hot solution of sugar and salt is added. The cans are then sealed and are ready for the final cooking process or sterilization. This is done by steam under pressure, the length of time being determined by the age and quality of the peas. The temperature and time given varies with different manufacturers, ranging from 280° to 240° for thirty to forty minutes. . The fermentations which are likely to take place in case of insufficient sterilization are numer- THE COMMERCIAL CANNING INDUSTRY ous. There may be the formation of acids—lactic, acetic, and butyric particularly—-with formation of gas; acid production (lactic) without gas forma- tion; or putrefactive fermentation. The fermenta- tions vary with the conditions and in many cases are due probably to mixed infection, thereby giving a large variety of products. These fermentations often take place rapidly, and are generally favored by a temperature of 35° to 40° C. (95° to 104° F.). These rapid actions are generally accompanied by evolution of gases, sometimes the pressure of the gases generated being sufficient to burst the cans. In other cases, the action is very slow and but a small amount of gas is produced. The sweating of green peas when allowed to stand in boxes has been studied to some extent by Underwood and the writer. Rapid fermentation takes place with the formation of acids and a slimy layer envelops the peas. Because of this action, peas should never be allowed to stand over night or for any length of time before being steri- lized. The bacteria causing these fermentations have been studied by Prescott and Underwood. Beans.—The canning of green beans or string beans is done in much the same way as the canning of peas. Baked beans, however, being somewhat denser and more resistant to the penetration of heat, require somewhat longer cooking in order thoroughly to sterilize. They are generally packed together with pork or with the addition of some sauce, as tomato. Sweet corn is canned in immense amount in the United States. The corn is cut from the cobs by a machine, mixed with water and a little “brine,” and heated in a “cooker,” in which it reaches a temperature of about 80° C. (176° F.). Sugar is added in small amount and the heated corn is filled into cans and sealed immediately. The sterilization is done by steam under pressure of thirteen to fifteen pounds, and the time required for steriliza- tion varies with the consistency, percentage of Fig. 252. Peach peelers for canning factory. water, starch and the like, variations of fifty to seventy-five minutes being found in different fac- tories. Sweet corn undergoes fermentative changes even more rapidly than do peas, because of its high percentage of sugar, and especially from the fact that the kernels are broken, thus allowing direct 171 access of bacteria to the saccharine juices. Unless means were taken to prevent it, fermentation would take place in a short time. An extended study of this fermentation has been made by W. L. Underwood and the writer. Several species of bacteria were discovered in cans of “sour” corn, some of these being able to resist five hours’ boiling without being destroyed. Further investi- gation showed the source of these germs to be Fig. 253. Peach pitter. the ears of corn. Bacteriological examination of healthy ears of fresh corn’ revealed the presence of germs on the kernels beneath the husks. These bacteria give characteristic reactions with nutrient media, and produce rapid fermentation of sugars, giving rise mainly to lactic acid, but also to forms of butyric and acetic acid. Sterilized sweet corn was converted in a few hours to a mass with strong acid reaction and sour taste. The most favorable temperature is 86° to 40° C. The effect of the various steps in the canning process was also investigated. In the “cooker” many bacteria are destroyed, the more resistant ones, however, remaining uninjured. Two-pound cans which were given a heating’ at 120° C. (248° F.) for thirty minutes were found to contain living bacteria, and cans so treated frequently become much disturbed within a few days. On the other hand, if the heating process is continued for a sufficiently long time all bacteria are destroyed. The reason for the necessity of the long period of heating is the low conducting power for heat of the corn. Experiments made with maximum regis- tering thermometers showed the time necessary for the temperature applied to record at the center of two-pound cans, as follows: Temperature applied,— ‘Temperature recorded -——_ Min. Time 235° F, 240° F 245° BF, 250° F. + + . 226 233 234 2387 45... . 227.8 234.5 236.5 240.5 50. . . 229 236 239 244 55... . 231 287.4 241 247.5 60. . . 233 239 243 250 65. . . 235 240 245 250 70... . 285 240 245 250 7. . . 285 240 245 250 This is strikingly confirmed in a practical way by the fact that souring, in many cases, is found only at the center of the cans, and in a majority of cases the fermentation probably begins at that point. 172 The use of mild antiseptics has also been of frequent occurrence in the packing of corn, the object being not only to prevent development of bacteria, but primarily to render the corn white in color. Excessive heating gives a slightly brownish coloration to the corn, which has been counteracted to some extent by the use of sodium sulfite and similar compounds. The use of antiseptics or bleachers of any kind is not free from objection, as, even if the amount is so small as to be uninju- rious to health, the flavor of the article may be somewhat affected. Tomatoes.—In the canning of tomatoes, the fruit is first scalded to make easier the removal of the skins. The peeled and properly prepared pulp is then put into the cans by means of a machine which may serve both as a preliminary heater and as a filler. The preliminary heating is of advantage as it saves time in the final heating or steriliza- tion process. As with other vegetables, the cans are generally capped by use of a machine, when the canning operations are conducted on a large scale. As tomatoes are more watery than corn, they may be more readily heated through and hence do era Sih RS Wh 2 (6 ; = . BEE a Wi eee EE FY) “ CHES V4 Zgasd = qi Vea al BS Y We sy Vi ——— = at . See = ff | Fig. 254. Apple paring, coring and slicing machine. not require so long a sterilization process. They are, however, extremely liable to fermentative changes if the heating is not thoroughly done. Other kinds of vegetables are prepared in simi- lar ways. It is essential to take into considera- tion oniy the physical character of the food and the changes it undergoes on heating to modify the process to suit an individual case. Fruit-packing. The packing of fruits is in general accompanied by less danger of spoilage than with vegetables, owing to the presence of natural acids and to the greater water content and resulting higher con- ductivity. As in the case of vegetables, specialized machinery has been devised for the carrying out of certain processes. A good example of this is in the peach peelers and pitters. Small stone-fruits are packed whole, i.e., without removal of the pits. A syrup of cane-sugar and water is added to supply liquid, THE COMMERCIAL CANNING INDUSTRY The sterilization may be carried out in retorts, or an open water bath may be employed, in which case the temperature does not get above 100° C. (212° F.). The spoiling of fruits is of a different character from that found in vegetables, as in the former case the sugar is most frequently fermented to alcohol and carbon dioxid. Trouble from this source is relatively rare, however. Extent of the canning industry. The canning of fruits and vegetables has shown an interesting tendency toward centralization in those localities especially adapted for the growth of special kinds of materials. Baltimore, the most eminent canning center, is perhaps an exception to this, as here are packed annually enormous amounts of pineapples as well as other suuthern fruits. New York state lead, in 1899, in canning corn, apples and pears, and also packs large amounts of beans and peas. A second corn-canning area is found in Maine, the only one of importance in New England, and a third of greater extent in the central states of Iowa, Illinois and Indiana. Tomato-packing is perhaps the most widely dis- tributed of these special branches of the industry, and in this line Maryland stands in first place, fol- lowed by New Jersey, and then by Indiana, California and Delaware. The tomato may perhaps be regarded as the most typical canned fruit. In 1906, there were 9,074,965 cases of this fruit packed, aggregat- ing over 200,000,000 cans of three pounds each. The industry, as has been said, is one which has had a rapid growth in this country, and with care and strict aahaeenee to making quality a first con- sideration, is bound to increase to still greater pro- portions. This fact is made evident by a study of the Census figures showing the increase from 1889 to 1899 in the five leading canning states for tomatoes and corn. The figures refer to the num- ber of cases of twenty-four cans each : TOMATOES, 1899 1889 United States . . . . 8,905,833 2,942,440 Maryland... ... 2,793,522 671,333 New Jersey. .... 1,080,059 516,701 Indiana. ... 1... 878,791 194,150 California. ..... 796,080 234,020 Delaware. .... . 168,836 191,797 Corn. 1899 1889 United States . . . . 6,865,967 1,726,096 New York ..... 1,341,352 272,925 Illinois... . 7... 1,082,196 200,750 TOWA: se: ne me ee 995,718 70,100 Maryland... ... 852,859 400,104* Maine ....... 715,211 505,362f * Including Virginia. } Including Vermont. The pack (cases) of peas for 1899 was as follows in the five leading states : United States... 2... 2,738,251 Maryland oo 64) es Bw ow aes 758,431 New York 2 22% Ses ew % 751,585 Wisconsin 2... 1 ee eee 490,296 Tndianay ieee ce. eee ce: be wy a es 209,154 Delaware... 1... ee te ee 101,038 HOME-MADE PICKLES AND KETCHUP In 1899, fourteen states packed 94.6 per cent of the tomatoes and 92.3 per cent of the corn for the United States. Maryland alone packed 31.4 per cent of the total pack of tomatoes, and Maryland, New Jersey and Indiana, 53.4 per cent. New York alone produced 21.1 per cent of the total can of corn, while New York, Illinois, Iowa, Maryland and Maine produced 78.3 per cent. For further detailed statistics the reader is referred to the reports of the Bureau of the Census. For Canada, in 1891, there were sixty establish- ments engaged in fruit and vegetable canning, with a total capital of $571,520, employing 2,304 per- sons, paying $523,151 for materials, and turning out a product valued at $929,778. In 1901, there were fifty-eight establishments, with a total capital of $2,004,915, employing 4,640 persons, paying $1,571,681 for materials, and turning out a product valued at $2,831,742. HOME-MADE PICKLES AND KETCHUP By Anna Barrows There is but slight difference between acid fruits preserved with sugar and spice (spiced currants for example), and the sweet pickles in which vinegar is added to supply lack of acid in the fruit, or to make a preserve more acceptable to serve with meats. The average proportion for sweet pickles is one- half pint of vinegar, one-half to one pound of sugar, one ounce of mixed spice, to two pounds of fruit. Because of the uncertain quality of ingre- dients this is subject to variation; some vinegar is so strong that it should be diluted with water; brown sugar is often preferred and sweet fruits require less sugar. Vinegar is a product of bacterial action, but after the acetic acid, which is its most important principle, is formed, it protects anything placed in it from change. Thus it is used often for a tem- porary preservative of vegetables, such as pickled beets or turnips for salads. Cider vinegar is usu- ally preferred. Spices are a further protection against ferments and mold. Vinegar has also the power of softening the cellulose of green vegeta- bles, and thus renders some most unpromising sub- stances acceptable as condimental food; the hard green cucumber and tomato, melon rind, string beans and the like, are thus made usable. It is a question whether, now when we can bring fresh fruit from all the world, we are wiser to retain some of these, or to discard them as we have the rose-haws, which our fore-mothers used to pre- serve. Some of these materials keep better and lose objectionable flavor if they are first soaked in brine. Some are so hard that they should be stewed in weak vinegar before scalding in the syrup. Ripe fruits are oftener treated to intermittent sterilization. The ordinary sour pickles are pre- pared in the same general way, omitting the sugar. The green cucumbers, and the like, fre- quently are packed in salt as fast as they grow, 173 and the final preparation with vinegar and spices is left until they are needed for use. Sauer kraut is cabbage prepared with salt, but not enough to prevent fermentation, so that there is some acid formed which softens the cellular tissues of the cabbage. It is difficult to retain a fresh green color in pickles that have been long salted. It has been secured by scalding the pickles and vinegar in a brass kettle, but this is dangerous. Grape leaves, or others rich in chlorophyll, placed in a jar sometimes aid in producing the desired color. : To make pickles more crisp, old recipes often recommend the addition of one tablespoonful of powdered alum to the gallon. This may not be seriously harmful, but it may well be omitted. The best way is to make the pickles more quickly, so that color and crispness are not lost, instead of packing in dry salt which extracts their juice and makes it necessary to soak them for a long time to remove salt and restore water. Soak small cucum- bers in salt water over night, then drain and pour hot spiced vinegar over them and leave for several weeks. The flavors of the different jars may be varied, onion in one, dill in another, and mixed spice in another. A horseradish leaf on top of a jar of pickles is thought to retard mold. Ketchup and like preparations. Ketchup, catchup, or catsup, is “‘a spiced condi- ment for meats” which is not mentioned in our earlier dictionaries. Yet it is probably of very ancient origin,—a form of the East Indian “kitjap” from which these names are evidently derived. Dr. William Kitchiner, in his ‘Cook’s Oracle” published in 1838, gives recipes for mushroom, walnut and oyster ‘“‘catchups.” The cook-books give many formulas for appetizers of similar nature, many of them doubtless of similar origin: “Tndia relish,” “chowchow,” “chutney,” “picalilli,” “chilli sauce,” appear with many variations. These bear much the same relation to pickles that jams and marmalades bear to preserves; some are strained, others are not, but all are fluid. Almost any fruit or vegetable pulp may be used as the basis for these preparations, and this is supplemented by additions of salt, sugar, vinegar and spices. Tomato is perhaps more generally used than any other foundation, but apples, gooseberries, grapes and plums may be prepared in the same way. Imperfect tomatoes and those not fully ripe may be used in this way to advantage. After cooking and straining, the seasonings are added to the ketchup, and then it is cooked down to a con- sistency as thick as will pour easily. The brilliant color which has been seen in some tomato ketchups is plainly artificial. Small bottles are best, since after opening, anything of this nature is liable to mold, unless it contains strong preservatives. Olive oil is sometimes used on top of fruit syrups and ketchups to keep out air. When the bottle is opened, the oil may be removed by a swab of cotton or soft paper. 174 EVAPORATING AS A HOME INDUSTRY IN EASTERN UNITED STATES By G. F. Warren In the past twenty-five years great progress has been made in each of the three methods of preserving fruit: drying or evaporating, canning or preserving, and extracting the juice. Canning for market has largely passed into the hands of firms that operate expensive canneries and make this their business. Evaporation has also passed through a period of great development from the old methods of drying in the sun. But while it has progressed to so great an extent, it still remains as a home industry in the East. Perhaps it is because the equipment of a good evaporator lies within the means of a farmer, while the equipment of a canning factory is very expensive. The Twelfth Census report gives the total product of evaporated fruit in 1899 as 144,- 804,638 pounds. A large part of this represents the product of the farmers’ home evaporators. The evaporator furnishes a profitable outlet for fruit that is undesirable for market purposes. It not only makes such fruit a source of profit, but keeps it from the market where it would compete with good fruit and lower the price. In years of low prices, the entire crop can be evaporated and held for better prices. Not all of the fruit evaporated is of poor quality. In some regions, fruits are grown primarily for evaporation. In Wayne county, New York, nearly half of the apple- growers regularly evaporate all their crop or sell it to neighbors for that purpose. Extent of the industry. Apples, pears, raspberries, peaches, plums, cher- ries, quinces, huckleberries, currants, peas, corn, potatoes, pumpkins, and other crops are evaporated to some extent in the Kast. The apple-evaporating is by far the most important. The following table gives the average amounts of dried apples exported and shows the increase in these amounts: Fig. 255. A cabinet evaporator. Annual average Pounds Value Price 1864-1870 ..... 1,067,920 | $114,681 | $0.107 1871-1880 ..... 4,632,460 289,986 063 1881-1890 ..... 13,305,098 773,508 058 1891-1900 ..... 19,368,301 | 1,088,104 056 1901-1904 . . . . . | 82,980,363 | 1,968,808 .059 EVAPORATING AS A HOME INDUSTRY IN EASTERN UNITED STATES The center of the apple-evaporating industry is Wayne county, New York. This county undoubt- edly produces more evaporated apples than any state outside of New York, except perhaps Cali- fornia. In 1902, this county evaporated over 8,000,000 bushels of apples, producing about 20,000,000 pounds of dried stock. The average for the past five years (1900-05) has been about 15,000,000 pounds. Over 70 per cent of the total crop is evaporated. This evaporation is nearly all done by the farmers who grow the fruit or by their neighbors. The evaporators are almost as characteristic of the farms as are the barns in a dairy region. Evaporating is also done in the villages. The methods described in this article are founded on New York experience. (See page 165.) Sun drying. Until about 1870, sun drying, or drying over the kitchen stove, were the only methods used. Prob- ably, the beginning of the evaporating industry was with the invention of the Lippy fruit-drier, in 1865. It was about fifteen years later before the evaporator largely replaced the sun-drying method. Many farmers still dry fruit in the sun, but in the East large quantities are not often so dried by one person. The sun-drying is ordinarily done on racks, made of lath placed about one-fourth inch apart and covered with cloth or paper, or made of thin Fig. 256. Fruit evaporator adapted to kitchen stove. lumber. Slices of apples are sometimes strung on strings and hung in the sun to dry. Evaporation gives a much better looking product, that is more palatable and more digestible, and that consequently brings a much higher price. At the date of this writing (February 1906) the best quality of evaporated apples is quoted in New York City at eleven and one-half cents per pound, while the best sun-dried stock is quoted at seven cents. EVAPORATING AS A HOME INDUSTRY IN EASTERN UNITED STATES The poorest grades are quoted at seven cents for evaporated and five cents for sun-dried. Other fruits show similar differences. Not only is the sun-dried product less valuable than the evaporated, but the process is slow and inconvenient. The fruit must be pro- tected from showers and dew. In rainy weather, it is almost impossible to get it dry without having it damaged. Artificial evapora- tion. In the process of evaporating, two dis- tinct methods are followed: one, by means of air heated by stoves or fur- naces and then made to circulate through the drying fruit; the other, an indirect system, by means of steam-pipes that pass through the evaporator. The latter system has not yet been generally employed, but it has many points in its favor and seems likely to replace the direct-heating system in large evaporators. There are three general types of construction of the direct-heating system: the cabinet, the kiln, and the tower or flue. Cabinet evaporators— The cabinet evaporators usually consist of a series of drawers with screen bottoms, placed above a furnace or stove so that the hot air passes up through the fruit. Sometimes the floor under the lower screen is solid, with open- ings at the sides. The hot air strikes this floor, is divided into two currents that pass up on the sides, then over the fruit to the center of the evaporator and out atthetop. Fig. 255 shows an evaporator of this type. In these evaporators, the fresh fruit is Fig. 257. A fruit drier set on an ordinary cook-stove. Fig. 258. Fruit evaporator and furnace. 175 usually placed in the upper drawer. When that on the lower screen is sufficiently dried, it is removed and each screen is lowered one space, making room for a new screen in the top space. Usually there are two series of drawers carrying twenty to twenty-five screens, which are one to four feet square, according to the size of the evaporator. There are many sizes and styles of these cabinet evaporators. Some are small enough to stand on the kitchen stove (Figs. 256, 257), cost three to five dollars, and have a capacity of one to four pecks per day. Fig. 258 shows one of a larger size, made of galvanized iron and provided with its own fur- nace. This has twenty 12x 24-inch screens, and has a capacity of four to five bushels per day. Fig. 259. Asimple portable evaporator, provided with its own heater. Larger evaporators constructed by farmers usually consist of a wooden building on a brick basement, in which the furnace or stove is placed. The stove pipe is carried around the basement so as to get the full benefit of the heat. These usually have two compartments, each of which has room for ten to twelve screens that are about four feet square. Another form of cabinet evaporator sometimes used is made with doors at the front and at the back, and is much larger, so that there is room for six to ten screens on one plane. Hach newly filled screen is put in at the highest level, and as it goes in it pushes the preceding one toward the back. When the first one reaches the back, it is put in the next lower level and started toward the front again. The screens are thus run back and forth till they come out at the lowest level when the fruit is sufficiently dried. Because of their cheapness and simplicity, the cabinet evaporators are very popular with begin- ners and with small growers. The smaller ones are well adapted to evaporating for home use. Kiln evaporators.—The kiln evaporator is simply a room with a slatted floor, underneath which air- pipes or smoke-pipes from a stove or furnace are conducted. The buildings are usually constructed with double walls or with some other device for retaining the heat. The drying floor is placed 176 about nine to twelve feet above the floor of the furnace room. It is made of slats of hard wood that are about one inch wide on top and one-half inch wide at the bottom, so’that they have cracks one-eighth to one-fourth inch wide. The cracks are larger on the lower side, so as to prevent clog- ging. On such a floor, hops, apples, pears, rasp- berries,and the like are evapo- rated. Fig.260 shows such a kiln filled with apples. This kiln is the com- mon size in New York, 20 x 20 feet, and will evaporate one . hundred bushels of ap- ples per day, or more if run all night. In this evaporator, two men had charge of the furnace and of six kilns that were evaporating 400 bushels per day. Fig. 261 gives the outside view of a five-kiln evaporator of this type. It shows the ventilator at the ridge, coe the hot air escapes after passing over the ruit. This system is open to the objection that the fruit must be shoveled over from time to time to insure uniform drying. If not skillfully done, some will be too dry while other parts will not be dry enough. The handling itself is likely to damage some fruits. However, a skilled man overcomes these objections. The system has some very decided advantages over the tower system. Kilns are cheaper to build, are less likely to take fire, and require much less labor to operate. In some neighborhoods the tower evaporators are now being replaced by the kiln system for evaporating apples. Tower or flue evaporators.—The tower evaporators are the commonest ones in New York, where apple- evaporating has become such a great industry. They consist of a chimney-like structure of wood or brick extending from the basement of the building to a point higher than the roof. A stove Fig. 261. A five-kiln evaporator. or furnace in the basement furnishes hot air that passes through the tower. The tower is usually three to four feet square and is provided with an endless chain or other lift- ing device on which the screens may be placed. The screens of fresh apples are placed in the tower EVAPORATING AS A HOME INDUSTRY IN EASTERN UNITED STATES at the first floor. By means of the lifting device, the entire charge can be lifted by one operation, so that the screens gradually rise as more are added at the bottom. The screens of evaporated fruit are removed on the second floor. In some forms there is a double shaft, so arranged that the screens are carried up to the top and down again in the other side of the shaft, so that they may be removed on the first floor. It will be seen that in the former case the fresh fruit is placed directly in the hottest part of the shaft, so that the vapor and steam from this pass through the fruit that is partly dried, while in the cabinet evaporators it is placed in the coolest part and comes to the hottest part as the drying nears completion. There is some dispute as to which of these methods is the more desirable, but the latter seems to be so. In Fig. 262 is shown an evaporator with three brick towers. Each of these towers has a capacity of twenty-five trays, each forty-nine inches square. Such a plant will evaporate about fifty bushels of apples or 1,600 quarts of raspberries per day for each tower. Handling the crop. If the entire crop of an orchard is to be evapo- rated, the apples are shaken from the trees. They are cored, pared and sliced by machinery. Be- fore slicing,they are inspected by a “trimmer,” who removes any remaining skin, core or de- cayed places. Before evapora- ting, the apples are p.aced in the fumes of burn- ing sulfur for a few minutes for the purpose of bleaching. With a one- tower evapora- tor, fifty to sixty bushels can be evaporated in one day by one parer, two trimmers, one slicer, and one man to tend the evaporator,—five persons, four of whom may be women and children. If kilns and self-feeding slicers are used, the labor may be much reduced. The average cost per bushel of evapora- ting is eleven to fifteen cents. A bushel (50 pounds) of apples produces five to eight pounds of dried stock. The early apples produce less than the winter varieties. There is also much difference between different varieties of the same season. If properly dried, the average is six and one-fourth to seven pounds. Apples that are not suitable for drying are chopped and evaporated without paring or coring, and are sold as “chops.” The cores and skins are also dried, and are sold for the manufacture of jellies and wines. , erent Fig. 262. Three-stack evaporator (coal- shed on left) in Wayne county, New York. JUICES AND LIQUORS Raspberry evaporating. One of the other important evaporated fruits is the raspberry. Usually only the black varieties are dried. There is not much demand for red ones, and they are so tender as to require more careful handling and give less dried stock per quart. For evaporating, the berries are sometimes hand-picked and are sometimes “batted.” In the latter method of harvesting, the picker carries a frame covered with cloth and so arranged that the berries that strike against it are caught at the bottom. The vines are pulled in with a hook and are hit with a bat, so that the berries fall into the box at the bottom. The process of evaporation is much like that for apples, except that no sulfur is needed, and that, if a kiln is used, the floor is usually 177 covered with muslin cloth. It requires about three to four quarts (four to five pounds) of berries to give one pound of dried berries. Literature. Bulletin No. 100, Cornell Experiment Station, and Farmers’ Bulletin No. 218, Department of Agriculture, discuss different types of evaporators in detail and describe the methods of raising and evaporating raspberries (Fig. 256 is adapted from the latter); Bulletins Nos. 226, 229 of the Cornell Station give statistics and some discussion of apple- evaporating in New York; Yearbook, United States Department of Agriculture, 1898, p. 309; Farmers’ Bulletin No. 291, Evaporation of Apples, H. P. Gould, from which Fig. 259 is taken, CHAPTER IX JUICES AND LIQUORS ITH THE PERFECTING OF MECHANICAL METHODS, and the con- sequent cost of installing apparatus, the manufacture of beverages has practically ceased to be a home industry, although cider is still sometimes made on the farm. The business of making juices and liquors is still very closely associated with land culture, however, inasmuch as the products are made from fresh and perishable materials that cannot be transported great distances or kept for any length of time. From being an incidental business, using only the cull or inferior fruit, these industries have now developed to such an extent as to take the entire product of whole farms, the crops being grown for the express pur- pose of supplying the manufactories. It is probable that the making of fruit juices of many kinds will very largely increase, affording a staple means of finding a market for large areas of crop produce. The extent of this group of industries is already very large, as the following statistics indicate : UniTED STATES CENSUS FicuRES FoR 1900. Pickles, preserves and sauces Vinegar and cider Number establishments Capital Number salaried officials, clerks, etc... . 2... 2. Salaries . 474 1,152 2 $10,656,854 $6,187,728 " 1,845 456 : $1,652,051 $391,541 : $12,422,432 $3,272,565 . $21,507,046 $6,454,524 FIGURES FOR VINEGAR AND CIDER. (From Statistical Abstract.) Nanher i Wage-earners . Census year establishments Capital aan eaibee tal awe Cost of material | Value of product 1880.4. « «s 806 $2,151,766 1,257 $413,451 $1,888,178 $3,418,088 1890... . 694 5,858,395 2,637 720,681 8,268,455 6,649,300 1900... 613 5,629,930 1,557 652,077 3,134,313 5,931,692 1905. . 568 7,519,853 1,528 725,148 8,852,233 7,265,469 The total number of wine-making establishments in the United States in 1900 was 359, of which by far the larger part (236) ~ere small establishments owned by individuals rather than firms or incorpo- B12 178 GRAPE AND OTHER FRUIT JUICES rated companies. The total value of the product for that year was $6,547,310, of which $3,937,871 was the value of the California product. New York was second with a product valued at $942,548, and Ohio third with $801,684 ; New Jersey, North Carolina and Missouri follow in the order given. The gallons of Domestic Wines consumed (not including exports) are as follows for a series of years: 1900 5 pe ende ae ices ed 26,242,492 TOON per aie tees ake 24,008,380 HOOD inch ece athe ies cs 44,743,815 TONS doe bah rte Boa 32,634,298 GRAPE AND OTHER FRUIT JUICES By A. M. Loomis Grape and other fruit juices have become, of recent years, articles of commercial importance; their manufacture is recognized as a noteworthy industry; and the sale of fruit for this purpose is of sufficient volume to be an influential factor in establishing the market price. Grape juice is now manufactured and sold as a beverage, for its nutritive and tonic value in sickness, and for its —— = SSS FS SS Fig. 263. Battery of presses and steam-heated aluminum kettles used in making grape juice. use for flavoring other foods and drinks. Other fruit juices are sold largely for their uses as flavors, particularly to the soda-fountain, baking and confectionary trades. The amount of grape juice made probably exceeds many times the amount of all other fruit juices, although of recent years there has appeared in the markets an unfermented apple juice and an unfermented orange juice in considerable quantities. Distribution and extent of the industry. The greatest manufacture of fruit juices in the East is in New York state, and in the West in California. The manufacture of apple juice, pro- perly so-called, being a different product from cider, in that it contains no product of fermenta- tion and no alcoholic content, is being practiced in increasing measure in several sections, particu- larly in the western New York apple-belt and some other apple-growing sections. Orange juice is put ap in California on a somewhat extensive scale. The manufacture of grape juice grew up as a 1904 st ee SS eR ee 37,538,799 T9OD 696: Ge. Eck, SPS) Be 29,369,408 VQOG eae een ce a ea eS 39,847,044 commercial enterprise entirely apart from the wine industry, contrary to the general impression that the wine industry is the parent of the grape- juice business. It can be said to have had its beginning at Vineland, N. J., with Dr. Thomas B. Welch. In 1869, Dr. Welch put up a few bottles of grape juice for use at the communion table of the Vineland church of which he was a member, and each succeeding year found a larger demand for his product. It was made in the kitchen of his own home. Sugar was used for preservation; but even in the earliest days it was seen that much sugar destroyed the more delicate flavors of the juice, and its use was gradually lessened until later methods of perfect sterilization make its use unnecessary with grapes of ordinary quality. When the vineyard inter- ests of Vineland and the surrounding sec- tions of New Jersey began to fail, the Welch business, then grown to fair-sized propor- tions, was moved to Chautauqua county, N. Y., and the factory of the Welch Grape Juice Company was established at Westfield. Prior to the removal of Welch to West- field, in about 1890, other persons, in a more or less experimental way, had begun to make grape juice in that section, and today there are several large factories other than the Welch factory located there. Notable among these experimenters was M. B. Gleason, of Ripley, who evolved a secret process. W. H. Bigelow, of Dunkirk, N. Y., was another pioneer, producing a staple unfermented juice by a secret process as early as 1892. In other states, of recent years the industry has grown. In Ohio, there are two or three factories, notably the one at Sandusky, which gets its supply of fruit from the Kelley island group. In Michigan there are several factories, and in New Jersey the industry still exists on a small scale at Vineland. In Georgia there is a small grape-growing area, and the manufacture of unfermented juice is practiced. In California, since 1900, several fac- tories have started, and one or two companies have been in the business for over twenty years. The extreme sweetness of the California grapes, which are of the European varieties and much different in flavor from those grown in the more northern climates, makes the juice from them very unlike that made and sold in the eastern factories. The total production of unfermented grape juice for the year ended December 31, 1906, for the United States, is estimated at 1,000,000 to 1,200,- 000 gallons. Of this, the western New York sec- tion produced over 750,000 gallons. GRAPE Principles involved in making fruit juices. The making of fruit juices is an outgrowth of the preserving industry. Preserving, as commonly known, is a process of saturating a fruit pulp during cooking, or a partial drying process, so thoroughly with common (cane) sugar that by the action of the sugar alone decay is prevented and the fruit held in palatable condition for months, even years. The art of canning is based on another principle, that of destroying by excessive heat the ferment-producing organisms, in which process sugar is often used: to secure a palatable product, its preser- vative effects being a secondary con- sideration. The fruit juices sold for soda-fountain and flavoring purposes are thickened and preserved, in large measure, by the liberal use of cane-sugar, and are more in the nature of syrups than of fruit juices. As might be inferred from the above, the first attempts to manufacture fruit juice products util- ized a considerable quantity of sugar; so, today, many manufacturers are using sugar in larger or smaller quantities, and the home maker of grape juice usually finds it convenient and an insurance against “spoiling,” which is but fermentation, also to use sugar in considerable quantity. Sugar does not destroy the basic flavor of the juice, and with some varieties of grapes, or even with the best grapes in cold wet seasons, when the sugar content of the juice is low, its use is essential to produce a palatable product ; but with perfect sterilization this is entirely unnecessary, and its use has an effect on the medicinal value of the juice, and covers up and obliterates the more delicate flavors 04 bl PF” of fF AND OTHER FRUIT JUICES Fig. 265. a i — Empty storage carboys for grape juice. and aroma which are preserved by the more scien- tific and careful methods of manufacture without sugar. The manufacture of grape juice, and also both apple juice and orange juice, as sold for beverages, is based on the principle of sterilization and per- fect cleanliness, not preservation by sugar or other- wise. Grape juice, as marketed today, is an undi- luted, unadulterated and unpreserved product. It is the pure juice of the grape, sterilized as it comes from the fruit, put up in sterile bottles, handled only in sterilized machinery, and sold to the consumer, still contained in sealed and sterilized smaller bottles. The ordinary housewife can dupli- cate this process in her own kitchen with very little trouble by the observance of the one rule, namely, perfect sterilization of everything that comes in contact with the juice, and the applica- tion of such a degree of heat to the fruit and the juice as will keep it perfectly sterilized at all stages of the process. The commer- cial product is allowed to stand in its first eos Zee f > | containing vessels, after being drawn from ALB in |, the presses, for at least three months to MM ge fc settle, and is then drawn away from the : $i 6 YEE eo . ° ( Zip ZEEVAGEE-EEE sediment, which formerly was thrown away HH, 2 LMU Zi SUZ but is now a valuable by-product. In the SS ——=— > ZZ —— Fig. 264. Press for the manufacture of grape juice. kitchen this settling must be provided for, if best results are to be secured. A second sterilization is necessary when the juice is changed from the settling vessel to the smaller bottles. . Details of the processes. Fruit juices, other than grape and apple juice, are made by cooking fresh fruit, pressing it and adding sugar to the juice, and cooking or evaporating it down to a consistency of thick cream, in which con- dition preservation is not difficult. This product is used for flavoring in the manu- facture of confectionary and baked goods, and as the flavoring part of the commonly sold soda-fountain beverages. Apple juice is made by pressing apples as for cider but 180 using a better grade of apples, and following by an immediate sterilization and bottling of the prod- uct. The sterilization prevents fermentation and the product is a pure apple juice. Orange juice is put up in the same way. The manufacture of grape juice begins with the picking of fully ripe grapes, of good quality. In vineyards that are free from rot, “run of vine- yard” grapes are used, but they are allowed to remain on the vines and mature some weeks after picking for commercial purposes has begun in other vineyards. The grapes are taken to. the fac- GRAPE AND OTHER FRUIT JUICES pulp, seeds and skins is then placed in power presses, usually hydraulic, where it is subjected to great pressure. (Figs. 263, 264.) The juice again goes to the heating kettles, where it is heated to at least 180° Fahr., this being the lowest point of sterilization. Heating above this point spoils flavor, and it is the aim of the manufacturer to maintain a steady temperature at this point until the stor- age in the five-gallon carboys is completed and the juice sealed in these receptacles. (Figs. 265, 266.) Here it stands three months before being put into the smaller bottles for the wholesale and retail trade. It is generally figured that ele- ven to thirteen pounds of grapes are used in mak- ing one gallon “A@le ele By | 3 SMC) KC) Ue) AC) Nall alae lis AIP Gis ep cad EST ALC] DICT DC: EXC) DEC) MES | DE of unfermented grape juice. The amount varies with the season, the soil of the I vineyard, the QM Gd | quality and ripe- — - ness of the grape GISCIS and also with the alse a@is variety. VYGIS GIOG By-products. RI A sediment is deposited in the storage carboys. The juice is care- fully decanted and the sediment dried out and sold. It is largely cream of tartar and is used for Fig. 266. Storage of grape juice in five-gallon carboys. tories in picking crates, holding forty to sixty pounds each, and taken by an elevator to an upper story and passed through a stemmer. The stems contain a large proportion of tannin, and if kept with the grapes will affect the flavor of the juice. After being stemmed, the grapes are placed in aluminum steam-heated kettles (Fig. 263), large enough to hold fifteen hundred to two thousand pounds each, and gently heated, not boiled. Care is taken at this point, as in every application of heat to the grape and its products, not to allow too high temperature. If the temperature at any time reaches the boiling point, a “burned taste” is caused. The color comes from the pigment cells of the skin, and can be varied by the amount of heat and pressure used. At the first heating, not more than 100° Fahr. is used. The seeds do not lose their vitality in this heating process. The minimum heat used in most factories in this stage is 80° Fahr., although what is known as the “light juice” is made in some factories by pressing before any heat is applied, thus leaving the pigment cells in the skin undisturbed. The heated mass of juice, the preparation of the purified or commercial cream of tartar. The juice is resteril- ized, and rebottled in the pint, quart, or gallon bottle of commerce; it is then labeled, packed and shipped. Pomace.—Another by-product is pomace, which has a fertilizer value but is more largely sold to distilleries, where from it is made a grape brandy containing a high grade of alcohol. The use of the pomace from which to make denatured alcohol is anticipated as an enterprise which legislation may make possible. This pomace is composed of the skins, pulp and seeds left after the juice is expressed. Uses of grape juice. The use of grape juice as a beverage is becoming very common, as the sale of 1,250,000 gallons during the current year will indicate. It has a very important use, also, in the hospital and sick room as a tonic and nutrient. There is every reason to expect greater popularity for it. The juice, subjected to chemical analysis, shows the following composition : WINE, CIDER AND VINEGAR In 100 parts, grape juice Albuminoid and nitrogenous Matters. ser we siece eae ES Se yes 1.7 Sugar, gum,ete. . 2... ewe ee 18.05 Mineral substances .......... 1.7 Water ge go ei See heise ta 75 to 80 The food value of the grape is greater than that of any other fruit in popular consumption. This superior nutrient quality is due to a larger content of sugar, gluten, mineral salts and fruit acids, together with a lesser quantity of water, than so great a content of nutrients generally affords, especially in the fruits. Grape-sugar (of the grape) is the chief nutritive constituent. The particular advantage which grape-sugar possesess over all other types of sugar is the ease of its assimilation. Grape-sugar, unlike other sugars, is naturally in the state to which all other carbohydrates must be reduced by preliminary digestion before they are ready to be absorbed by the system. This physical property rests on the fact that its constituent elements are in looser chemical combination, and therefore the greater part of the sugar passes into the circulation unchanged. The grape is unusually rich in albuminoids. It also contains a very fair percentage of vegetable fats. Literature. Wm. T. Brannt, A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Vinegar, etc., Part IJ (Manufacture of Cider, Fruit Wines, etc.); A. Hausner, The Manu- facture of Preserved Foods and Sweetened Meats ; Bioletti and del Piaz, Preservation of Unfermented Grape Juice, Bulletin No. 130, California Experi- ment Station; Bioletti, A New Method of Making Dry Red Wine, Bulletin No. 177, and The Manufac- ture of Dry Wines in Hot Countries, Bulletin No. 167, Calif. Exp. Sta.; Husmann, Home Manufacture and Use of Unfermented Grape Juice, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 175, United States Dept. Agric. WINE, CIDER AND VINEGAR By Samuel C. Prescott These beverages are prepared from the sugar- containing juices of fruits by means of the alco- holic fermentation produced by microorganisms known as yeasts. The fermented juice of grapes is known as “wine,” while that produced from apples is “cider.” Technically, they are very similar. Fermented pear juice is known as pear cider or “perry.” The juices of certain fruits or vegetable bodies other than grapes may result in the forma- tion of special kinds of so-called “wines,” as “‘elder- blow wine,” “rhubarb wine,” and the like. These are produced, however, only on a very small do- mestic scale, and have no importance commercially. The alcoholic fermentation. The alcoholic fermentation, which is the basic process on which the preparation of cider and 181 wine depends, is a chemical change induced in sugar solutions by the activity of a group of microérganisms technically known as the Sacchar- omycetes, and commonly spoken of as “yeasts.” Of these there are a large number of species, but the ones of industrial importance, so far as their utilization is concerned, fall, in general, into two more or less distinct types. One of these, the Saccharomyces cerevisie type, includes the yeasts employed technically in brewing, fermentation preceding distillation, as in the manufacture of spirits and of whisky, and in the preparation of compressed yeasts or other yeasts for bakery or domestic purposes. The second type, the Sacchar- omyces ellipsoideus, is used in the fermentation of wine and cider, champagne, and in the fermenta- tion for distillation of brandy. All these organ- isms are widespread in nature, the Saccharomyces ellipsoideus being found especially on the surfaces of ripe fruits and in the soil of orchards and vine- yards. The chemical change induced by these organisms consists in the breaking up of sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxid, the latter, a gaseous product, escaping for the most part, unless special effort is made to confine it or absorb it in the fermented liquid itself. Chemically, the change may be expressed Ly the equation CeH1206 = 2C2H;0H + 2C02 — Grape-sugar Alcohol This equation, while expressing the change theo- retically, is not absolutely exact, as small quanti- ties of other products, generally called the by- products, are also formed. These include glycerin, succinic acid and traces of other acids and ethers. Since the fruit juices in general contain con- siderable amounts of sugar, these are especially susceptible to the alcoholic fermentation, and require only that the organisms resident on the surfaces of the fruits be brought in contact with the juice in order that the change may take place. This is generally accomplished by crushing or grinding the fruits, and in this way the yeasts, together with other organisms which may also be present on the fruits, come into intimate contact with the sugary juice. If the desired organisms are predominant, the fermentation is likely to. proceed normally and give a good product. If, on the other hand, organisms of less desirable types gain the ascendency, the fermentation may result in a wine or cider which is bitter, turbid, or in other ways abnormal and unsatisfactory. This may be prevented in a great measure by introducing into the freshly expressed juice a pure culture of a desirable yeast, and thereby artificially making certain that the proper type of organism is in a suitable excess. The fer- mentation may thus be controlled in a way analo- gous to the control of brewing operations by the use of a pure culture of yeast. The course of the fermentation is somewhat as follows: After the crushing of the fruit, pressure is applied and a juice, more or less colored, accord- ing to the kind of fruit, is obtained. In wine- Carbon dioxid 182 making, this is known as the must; in cider-making, it is sweet cider. This juice may be nearly clear, or it may be rather turbid, and contains, besides the sugar, some acid, the natural acid of the fruit, ethers, salts and other soluble matters. The alcoholic fermentation proceeds most rapidly at a temperature of about 25° to 26° C. (77-79° F.), or a few degrees above the ordinary temperature, and is retarded by cold and entirely prevented if the temperature is sufficiently high. With ordinary temperatures, the first twenty-four hours after the juice is expressed sees but little apparent change. During this period, however, the yeast cells are multiplying rapidly and the turbidity of the solution increases. Then a change, beginning slowly but increasing rapidly, takes place; small bubbles of gas rise to the surface, and flecks of foam are formed. Finally the solution seems to be undergoing a mild “working” or ebullition (hence the name fermentation, from fervere, to boil), and the fermentation is at its height. The solution is now changed in taste as well as appearance. The sweetness largely gives place toa mild stinging taste as alcohol is formed. Gradually the “working” ceases, as the sugar is used up or the alcohol becomes sufficiently large in amount to inhibit further action by the yeast. The yeast settles to the bottom of the liquid and the fermen- tation, except for a slow change, the after-fermen- tation, which persists for several days after the active period of change, comes to a stop. The solution thus acted on cannot be further changed by the same organism, but may be again fermented by the acetic bacteria. [See Vinegar, p. 183.] Generally, not over 10 per cent of alcohol may be produced by yeast, and the ordinary ciders and wines contain less than this amount. I. THE MANUFACTURE OF WINE The preparation of wine on a small scale has been practiced in this country since its settlement. It is, however, only about one hundred years ago that the first systematic attempt at grape-culture for wine-making was made in North America (except in California, which was not then a part of the United States). The first really successful attempt was made at Cincinnati, in 1825, by Nicholas Longworth, who planted a vineyard with cuttings of the Catawba grape, a native vine taking its name from the Catawba river in North Carolina. Owing to fungous diseases, the industry had to be abandoned at Cincinnati about 1865, but meantime it had been taken up in other parts of Ohio, and in New York and Missouri. In California, wine-making has been conducted successfully for more than a hundred years. The introduction of foreign vines, which were not suc- cessfully cultivated elsewhere, was here immedi- ately successful, and, from the first attempt to grow these vines at the Catholic missions in 1771, the industry has developed, until now California produces more than four times as much wine as all the remainder of the country combined. The making of wine is a process requiring very great care and watchfulness. From the moment WINE, CIDER AND VINEGAR the juice is expressed until the product is ready for the market the wine must be treated with scrupulous care. After the expressing of the juice the first fermentation proceeds in vats or barrels, after which the wine is “racked” into bottles, where the finishing and the after-fermentation take place. Deep-seated chemical changes, result- ing in the formation of ethers, or substances giving the pleasant aroma and flavor to wines, are brought about during this period, which may ke of long duration. In most instances these changes proceed very slowly, so that wine must be several years old before it reaches the highest quality. Attempts have been made to imitate this aging, with its interaction of alcohol, acids and ethers, by the use of electricity and other agencies, but the naturally ripened product is unapproachable in real delicacy of flavor and aroma. While the principle underlying the manufacture of wine is very simple and easily comprehended, the actual process is one which requires years of detailed study to master, owing to the effect which minute variations in the quality of the grapes, or in the environmental conditions, may exert. Classification of wines. Wines may be divided (1) according to color into red and white; (2) according to the amount of unchanged sugar left in them at the end of the fermentation process, into “sweet” and “dry”; (8) according to the presence or absence of carbon dioxid held in solution under pressure, into “sparkling” or “ effervescing,” and “still” wines. Red wines are made from grapes with dark- colored skins. The skins are allowed to remain in the fermenting mass, and the alcohol as it is * formed dissolves out the red coloring matter. White vines are usually made from light-colored grapes and the skins are carefully eliminated. Sweet wines are those still containing a consider- able amount of sugar after the fermentation is at an end, while on the other hand, those which are fermented out, or have the sugar exhausted in the final fermentation, are called “dry.” It is thus possible to have red or white wines which may he either sweet or dry, still or sparkling, and the number of types or varieties is very large, includ- ing champagnes, clarets, Sauternes, Rhine wines, Burgundies, sherries, Madeiras and ports. Many of the kinds are named for the province or locality in which they originated. Champagnes are effervescing wines, so called from the province in France where they were first manufactured. In addition to being made from the finest grapes, and fermented and handled with the greatest care, champagnes usually have added to them a cuvée made from sugar, water, cordials and the like (generally each maker has his secret for- mula), and subjected, in strong bottles, to a final fermentation in which the gas formed is absorbed under great pressure, so that on opening the bottle a marked effervescence results, They are classed as sweet, dry and extra dry. Clarets are dry red wines, originating in the region of Bordeaux, while Sauternes are dry white WINE, CIDER AND VINEGAR wines. The Rhine wines are dry and usually white, although sometimes red. Sherries, named from Xeres, Spain, are “fortified” wines; that is, they have added to them some alcohol in excess of that produced by fermentation in order to prevent deterioration. This treatment is not uncommon with sweet wines. II. CIDER The production of cider is fundamentally like that of wine, the fermentation being of the same character. Cider-making, however, is not so extensively a commercial enterprise as is wine- making. A certain amount of bottled cider, “cham-' pagne cider,” and the like, is to be found in the market, however. Tn cider-making, much depends on the character of the fruit used. Not all kinds of apples are equally well adapted to cider-making. Varieties like the russet and crab, which are apparently high in tannins, appear to be best adapted for this purpose. Many other varieties will produce excel- lent cider, however. For the preparation of good cider, the fruit © a should be mature, clean and free from bruises or decayed spots. These spots always contain cells of molds which may exert an unfavorable influence on the fermentation or by their own fermentative action give rise to undesirable products. Accord- ing to some authorities, the fruit should be allowed to remain on the trees as long as possible, and then piled up for a sufficient time to allow a sweating process to take place. This is supposed to cause uniformity and completeness of ripening. The fruit is next ground or crushed and the pulp reduced to a fine state of division, in order that the cells may give up their burdens of saccharine juice. Pressure is then applied to this mass of pomace, as it is called, and the more or less colored sweet cider or juice is thus secured. The color depends to a great extent on the time during which the pulp is exposed to the air before pressing, as certain components of the fruit become oxidized through the agency of oxidase enzymes in the cells, and turn brownish in color. The pressing was formerly, and in some parts of the country still is accomplished with alternating layers of pomace and straw to give firmness to the “cheese,” and to allow a more ready exit for the juice. Racks for holding the pomace, and press cloths of a fairly coarse material are now more generally used, and are to be pre- ferred, as the straw is likely to impart a musty taste to the cider. After pressing out the sweet cider, it is gener- ally allowed to undergo a spontaneous fermentation in a moderately cool place. In domestic operations the fermentation is carried out in barrels. After the first violent fermentation is over, the barrels may be tightly bunged and the slight secondary fermentation allowed to take place without further attention, except to keep the temperature fairly low. If the cider is to be bottled, it should be Fig. 183 done after the primary fermentation is at an end, but before the secondary fermentation is com- plete, so that some of the carbon dioxid may be retained by the cider. “Champagne cider” is pre- pared in this way, with the addition of some brandy and more sugar, so that the secondary fermentation may be considerable in amount. Apple juice generally contains 10 to 14 per cent of sugar. If less than 10 per cent is present, a cider with good keeping quality cannot generally be made, unless, of course, the cider be “ fortified.” The cider should be protected from direct con- tact with air, otherwise acetic fermentation will take place and vinegar will result. Sometimes for the preparation of specially fine cider, sugar and raisins are added, and the solution clarified by isinglass or catechu, in order that the color may not be changed on exposure to air. Cider, like wine, is subject to a number of troubles or “diseases” caused by invading or undesirable organisms, due oftentimes to poor 267. Knuckle-joint cider press, with power attachments and reversible platform. fruit and uncleanly conditions. As in wine-making, to obtain a really excellent product requires good raw material and scrupulous care and attention to cleanliness. III. VINEGAR Vinegar as used as an article of food is the pro duct of a process of fermentation in which a liquid of low alcoholic content is changed to a dilute solution of acetic acid, together with certain com- pounds which give a fruity ethereal odor or “bou- quet.” This substance has been known for a very long time, as is not strange when it is noted that the change goes on in nature, entirely without man’s intervention, if the juices of sweet fruits are exposed to the activity of numerous micro- 184 organisms which are abundant in the soil and on the surfaces of the fruits themselves. For certain uses, or when only the acidity char- acteristic of the acetic acid is desired, “vinegar essence,” containing high percentages of acetic acid in a relatively pure state, may be made from certain kinds of wood by a process of distillation. Undoubtedly much of the cheaper grades of vinegar for table use has its origin in this way. It is cheaper than the production of the acetic acid by fermenta- tion. By a proper admix- ture of ethers and flavor- giving bodies a solution may be made which simu- lates the product of the fermentation process, but never has the “ bouquet” oe the fine quality which characterizes the latter ind. Fermentation vinegar. Fermentation vinegar, or that properly used as a condiment, may be prepared from numerous kinds of alcoholic solutions, but especially from cider, wine or beer, through the agency of a class of bacteria generally known as the acetic bacteria. These little organisms have the power, under proper conditions of temperature and aération, of oxidizing the alcohol to acetic acid and water in accordance with the chemical equation CoH50H ++ O2 = CH3.COOH + H20 Probably an intermediate substance, aldehyde, is formed sometimes, although it is not certain that this is always the case. In order to have this reaction proceed it is necessary to have (1) a lively and suitable micro- organism ; (2) solutions of relatively weak alcohol, as the organisms are poisoned by amounts much over 10 per cent, and, indeed, will not work rapidly in solutions approaching this concentration; (8) an abundance of air; and (4) a well-regulated and favorable temperature. The acetic group of bacteria comprises a number of species, perhaps twenty of which have been iso- lated and described, all characterized by their power of oxidizing alcohol to acetic acid almost in accor- dance with the chemical equation given above. They are also to be recognized by the fact that they require air for development and form large masses or scums of gelatinous character (zodglea), the so- called “mother of vinegar.” The formation of these masses is progressive, and goes on so long as the food and other conditions remain suitable for the organisms. The cell wall of each individual swells to a large size and becomes practically fused with the cell wall of its neighbor, until huge masses of jelly-like consistency, and containing millions of bacterial cells, are produced. The upper temperature limit of growth of the organisms is about 42° C., the lower limit about Fig. 268. The cutting or grinding mechanism of a cider mill, WINE, CIDER AND VINEGAR 5° to 6° C., while the action is manifested most strongly at about 34° C., a fact that is of great importance in the production of vinegar. Metheds of making vinegar. Two distinct methods of vinegar manufacture have been developed. One of these is practically an imitation of what might be called the natural acetic fermentation, while the other is a fermenta- tion carried out under forced draught. The former is generally called the French or Orleans method because it was and still is used in making vinegar from wine; while the latter is known as the “quick process” or the German process. The custom prevailing among farmers in this country is, in many respects, similar to the Orleans method. It is well known that if a barrel ot cider be freely opened so that air comes in intimate con- tact with the cider it “turns,” especially if kept at a moderately warm temperature. The explana- tion of this is that the organisms, which were present in large numbers on the skins of the fruit, gain entrance to the cider, but so long as there is no free access of air they develop but slowly, if at all. Given access to air and a favorable tempera- ture, they immediately begin the oxidation of the alcohol to acetic acid, and the cider turns slowly to vinegar. In the Orleans method this process is varied somewhat. Vats or barrels having free accéss of air are filled about a quarter full of good vinegar. This supplies the “culture.” An equal amount of wine is then added and the alcohol oxidized. At the end of a few days another quantity of wine is added and finally a third. The vat is now full, and after the oxidation of the alcohol has become essen- tially complete, three-quarters of the vinegar is removed and the process re- , peated over and over. Bythis © method ex- cellent vine- gar may be made, but with con- siderable expenditure of time. The “quick pro- cess” is based on the facts previously noted,— namely, the rapid oxidation at the optimum temperature of 34°C. and neces- sity for large amount of air. In the “quick process” large tanks, technically known as “generators,” are em- ployed. These are in the form of truncated cones, six to twenty feet high, with a false bottom near the lower end and a perforated horizontal disk or false head near the upper end. The space between is filled with some substance which is without action on either solution or bacteria and which will supply a large amount of surface to the el a= pill ne ' rl Fig. 269. Farm cider press. WINE, CIDER air. This surface is usually supplied by use of shavings, blocks of wood, cobs, strips of rattan, coal and the like. The generator must first be charged or infected with the proper kind of bacteria. This is generally done by pouring through it a culture of some desirable species. The organisms are deposited on the surfaces of the substratum employed and devolpe their zodglea masses, so that the whole is covered with a layer of the slimy mother. In the perforated disk or false head are a large number of small holes, each generally provided with a piece of wicking or string, down which the alcoholic solution can trickle and thus be brought, in a thin layer, in con- tact with the bacteria. The alcoholic solu- tion is introduced into the space above the false head, either by a spout, tilting trough or “sparger,” a set of revolving arms per- forated -with holes from which the alco- holic solution is forced into the top of the generator. Below the false bottom is a row of holes through which air is admitted, and at the bottom a receptacle for the liquid which has passed through the generator. The oxidation of the alcohol within produces heat, and there is a constant updraught of air inside the generator from the holes below. Thus the solution which has been added is constantly coming in contact with fresh organisms and fresh air and oxidation is rapid. It is found practically that it requires about 1,000 liters of air to oxidize each 100 grams of alcohol. Great care has to be taken with the heating as well as the ventilation of a vinegar factory. Since so much heat of oxidation is produced within the generators where the action is taking place, it is necessary to regulate the surrounding tempera- ture so as not to get too high heat for the best bacterial activity. As the oxidation is usually not complete in a single generator, a vinegar factory is generally so arranged that the solution has to be pumped but once, and then flows by gravity from one generator to another until all the alcohol has been oxidized. It is manifest that any substance which can be fermented to alcohol may be used as a starting point in vinegar-making. Thus, sugar, starch, and the like, may be used, but in such cases a prelimi- nary alcoholic fermentation, by means of yeast, is necessary. The product of the fermentation by the acetic bacteria, while mainly acetic acid and water, also contains acetal, aldehyde, and acetic and formic ethers, all of which combine to give the typical fruity refreshing odor and the characteristic taste. The yield based on theory. Knowing the alcoholic strength of the solution fermented, the chemist can easily calculate what the theoretical yield should be from the equation given. In practice it is found that the yield is about 80 to 90 per cent of the amount theoretically possible, and may even fall to 70 per cent. AND VINEGAR 185 The character of the organisms may be of importance here in addition to the other fac- tors which have been indirectly suggested above (evaporation and insufficient oxidation). Some forms of acetic bacteria are so powerful in their oxidizing abilities that they even attack the acetic acid itself, oxidizing it to carbon dioxid and -water. Special vinegars. Special kinds of vinegars are sometimes pre- pared, having peculiar or characteristic tastes and Fig. 270. Evaporator. For continuous cider- and jelly-making and the like. odors. These are generally due to the addition of essential oils of certain plants, or maceration of the plants themselves with some of the vinegar. Tarragon, anise or herb vinegar may be cited as belonging to this class. Home-making of cider vinegar. The following instructions for making cider vinegar at home are from Bulletin No. 258 of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station (1904): “Among the conditions which may produce vine- gar below standard are these: (1) The juice may be poor to start with because made from varieties of apples low in sugar, from green apples or from overripe or decayed apples; or the juice may be watered either directly or by watering the pomace and pressing a second time. (2) The fermentation processes may be delayed or disturbed by using dirty fruit or unclean barrels, thus affording entrance to undesirable organisms and causing the wrong kind of fermentation; the temperature may be too low to insure the necessary activity of favorable organisms; or air may be excluded by filling the barrels too full or putting the bung in too tight so that the bacteria can not live and work. (8) The acetic acid may disappear after its formation, destructive fermentation being encour- aged by leaving the bung-hole of the barrel open or the barrel only partially full. “Briefly summarized, the method to be employed for the manufacture of good vinegar at home, without the use of generators, is this: Use sound, ripe apples, picked or picked up before they have become dirty, if possible, otherwise washed. Observe the ordinary precautions to secure cleanliness in grinding and pressing, and discard all juice from second pressings. If possible, let the juice stand in some large receptacle for a few days to settle, 186 then draw off the clear portion into well-cleaned barrels which have been treated with steam or boiling water, filling them only two-thirds or three- fourths full. Leave the bung out, but put in a loose plug of cotton to decrease evaporation and to prevent the entrance of dirt. If these barrels are stored in ordinary cellars, where the tempera- ture does not go below 50° or 45° Fahr.; the alcoholic fermentation will be complete in about six months; but by having the storage room at a temperature of 65° or 70° the time can be con- siderably shortened, and the addition of Fleisch- mann’s compressed yeast or its equivalent at the rate of one cake to five gallons of juice may reduce the time to three months or less. Use a little water thoroughly to disintegrate the yeast cake before adding it to the juice. The temperature should not go above 70° for any length of time, to avoid loss of the alcohol by evaporation. “After the sugar has all disappeared from the juice, that is, when the cider has entirely ceased “working” as revealed by the absence of gas bubbles, draw off the clear portion of the cider, rinse out the barrel, replace the liquid and add two to four quarts of good vinégar containing some “mother” and place at a temperature of 65° to 75° Fahr. The acetic fermentation may be complete in three months or may take eighteen months, accord- ing to the conditions under which it is carried on; or if stored in cool cellars may take two years or more. If the alcoholic fermentation be carried on in the cool cellar and the barrel be then taken to a warmer place, as outdoors during the summer, the time of vinegar formation may be reduced from that given above to fifteen or eighteen months. Where the alcoholic fermentation is hastened by warm temperature, storage and the use of yeast and the acetic fermentation favored by warmth and a good vinegar “start,” it is possible to produce good merchantable vinegar in casks in six to twelve months. When the acetic fermentation has gone far enough to produce 4.5 to 5 per cent of acetic acid, the barrels should be made as full as possible and tightly corked in order to prevent destructive changes and consequent deterioration of the vinegar.” Literature on cider and vinegar. For cider, consult Bulletins Nos. 71 and 88, United States Department of Agriculture (Division of Chemistry); Bulletins Nos. 186, 148, 150, Vir- ginia Experiment Station; J. M. Trowbridge, The Cider-makers’ Handbook, New York, 1890; C. W. Radcliffe Cooke, A Book about Cider and Perry, London, 1898. An early American book was J. 8. Buell’s, The Cider-makers’ Manual, Buffalo, N. Y., 1869. Brannt, Manufacture of Vinegar, etc., London. For vinegar, consult Bulletins No. 258, A Study of the Chemistry of Home-made Cider Vinegar, and No. 258, popular edition, Making Cider Vin- egar at Home, New York (tate) Agricultural Experiment Station ; Bulletin No. 22, Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture. INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL— DENATURED ALCOHOL INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL—DENATURED ALCOHOL By H. W. Wiley The term “denatured alcohol” is applied to alcohol intended to be used for industrial purposes,’ which is so treated as to render it unfit for use as a beverage. Pure alcohol is used extensively for mixing with other beverages, such as whisky, brandy and rum. It is much cheaper than any of these and can be used in large quantities without the consumer being aware of it. It is this par- ticular use of alcohol which denaturing is intended to prevent. In the manufacture of neutral spirits there is separated in the process of distillation 10 to 15 per cent of the total volume of the distillate which it is found impossible to purify so highly as to make it suitable for the mixing purposes above stated. It is, however, of a character which renders it easily prepared for drinking by those who are not particular respecting the kind of alcohol which they consume. In the trade this product is known as “alcohol,” and is a lower grade of the more refined article known as neutral spirits. Heretofore this article has been sold for industrial purposes and for the preservation of specimens, subject to a tax of one dollar and ten cents on every proof gallon or about two dollars on every wine gallon of alcohol of 95 per cent strength. It is this pro- duct which it is proposed to use for industrial pur- poses under the existing law permitting its sale free from tax when sufficiently denatured as to be un- suitable for consumption. Preparing denatured alcohol. Industrial alcohol is derived from a number of sources. In this country it has been made chiefly from corn, in Germany it is made principally from potatoes; in France it is made chiefly from sugar- beets and beet-sugar and molasses. It may be made, however, from any material which contains sugar or starch, and nearly all plants contain both. Alcohol is also distilled from wood. Wood alcohol is an entirely different kind of alcohol, but is a real alcohol, the same in chemical classification as that derived from corn and sugar. For example, saw- dust is treated with an acid under pressure which converts it into dextrose, and this dextrose is subsequently fermented, producing with proper distillation a pure ethyl alcohol. The alcohol which is made for industrial purposes, after it is produced by fermentation of any of the substances mentioned, is separated by the processes of distillation and purifying and concentrated by the processes usually employed for making alcohol and neutral spirits. Under the Revenue Law, alcohol of this character may be denatured in bonded ware- houses by adding to it such substances as are approved by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue. For general purposes alcohol is denatured by means of wood alcohol, or wood spirits, and benzine, which is one of the varieties of coal-oil products. The wood alcohol is added at the rate of ten gallons per hundred, and the benzine at the rate of one- INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL— half gallon per hundred. Wood alcohol may be used with pyridin bases in the following propor- tions: To each 100 gallons of alcohol of not less than 180 proof, two gallons of wood alcohol and one-half gallon of pyridin bases. Alcohol thus treated is said to be denatured for general pur- poses, suitable for burning in lamps to produce illumination, in stoves for heating and baking, in engines for driving automobiles, and in certain in- dustries in the preparation of varnishes and veneers. There are many uses of an industrial character, however, to which alcohol treated in this way could not be put. The law, therefore, permits special denaturing agents for special purposes, and the Commissioner of Internal Revenue establishes, from time to time, special forms of denaturing. As an example of special denaturing the method of treating alcohol for the manufacture of tobacco may be cited. To each one hundred gallons of alcohol there is added one gallon of the following solution: 12 gallons of an aqueous solution con- taining 40 per cent nicotine, 745 pound acid yellow dye (fast yellow), s45 pound tetrazo brilliant blue, and sufficient water to make 100 gallons. It is seen by the above regulation that alcohol to be used in the manufacture of tobacco is denatured principally with nicotine, which is a poisonous alkaloid natur- ally existing in tobacco. The addition of this nico- tine in connection with the coloring matters is sufficient warning to the intending drinker that the material is not fit for consumption. Alcohol can be denatured only in a Government bonded warehouse under the supervision of the Revenue officials, and when so denatured is marked under the supervision of the Revenue officials and can then be sent into commerce free of tax. Economie uses of denatured alcohol. Denatured alcohol, or industrial alcohol, is used extensively in the manufacture of coal-tar dyes, smokeless powder, varnishes, lacquers, ether, medi- cines and pharmaceutical préparations, imitation silk, artificial vinegar, flavoring extracts, and in many other industries. The present law does not permit the use of free alcohol, however, for making any medicinal preparations, and therefore it cannot be used free of tax in this country for making ether or any medicine or pharmaceutical prepara- tion except in cases in which it is entirely elimi- nated before the material goes into use. In other countries it is used for these purposes tax free. Many manufacturing industries in this country have been prevented from development because of the high tax on the industrial alcohol which they were compelled to use. For example, the manufac- ture of smokeless powder, except for Government use, has grown very slowly in the United States because such powder, made as it is usually with ether and alcohol, costs eighty cents to one dollar and twenty-five cents a pound when the tax on the alcohol must be paid. If tax-free alcohol could be used for making smokeless powder it probably could be made for thirty-five to forty cents a pound. At present prices of the material used in this country, viz., corn, the actual cost of a gallon DENATURED ALCOHOL 187 of alcohol of 95 per cent strength is not much less than thirty cents. A gallon of such alcohol weighs, in round numbers, seven pounds, and requires four- teen pounds of starch or sugar for its production. A bushel of corn will make not to exceed two and one-half gallons of such alcohol. At forty cents a bushel it is seen that the raw material for the making of a gallon of alcohol would cost at least sixteen cents, that is, the starch in corn is worth a little over a cent a pound. The cost of manufac- turing and packing for market is not much less than fourteen cents, making the total cost of each gallon thirty cents. In order that fair profits may be secured, a gallon of denatured alcohol cannot be sold at retail at much less than forty cents. In order that the price be brought lower cheaper raw materials must be secured. Perhaps the most hopeful source is found in the refuse of the sugar factories and refineries. The molasses which comes from the manufacture of high-grade sugar usually contains so many impurities as not to be suitable for consumption. This alcohol can be had very cheap. About two and one-half gallons of it will make one gallon of industrial alcohol. At eight cents a gal- lon the material would cost just about as much as the quantity of corn necessary to make a gallon. As the sugar industry increases in this country and the processes of making sugar become more efficient, the molasses will be worth a less price and probably will furnish in the future a large part of the industrial alcohol required. The refuse of certain factories, such as those which can sweet corn, may also be utilized. The sandy fields of the south Atlantic coast may be made to produce large crops of sweet-potatoes and yams suitable for the manufacture of industrial alcohol. At present it is seen that industrial alcohol cannot be used for many purposes in competition with gasoline. There are, however, many pur- poses for which industrial alcohol can be used, as in the manufacturing industries mentioned. The immediate future, therefore, will see a very large increase in the quantity of alcohol used in this country for certain manufacturing purposes, but will not see much of an increase of the use of alcohol for driving engines, automobiles and like purposes. One important use of denatured alcohol will be for illumination and for heating purposes in the household. For these purposes gasoline is altogether too dangerous and denatured alcohol will naturally take its place. The law authorizing the denaturing of alcohol did not make any changes in the law relating to the manufacture of alcohol. It follows, therefore, that alcohol which is manufactured for industrial purposes must be made under exactly the same supervision of the Internal Revenue as attends the manufacture of alcoholic compounds for beverage purposes, Literature. Farmers’ Bulletins No. 268, Industrial Alcohol: Sources and Manufacture, and No. 269, Industrial Alcohol: Uses and Statistics, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 188 BREWING By Samuel C. Prescott By the term brewing is generally comprehended the processes by which ale or beer is prepared from its raw materials. These processes are somewhat diversified in character, and as a result the brew- ing industry is one of exceptional interest to the biologist and chemist. Briefly, we may define brewing as the series of chemical changes by which barley or other grain or saccharine materials are prepared, subjected to alco- holic fermentation by means of yeast, and made into a beverage of low or moderate alcoholic percentage. The brewing industry is dependent on two funda- mental chemical changes: First, the transformation of starch to sugar by enzyme action, and second, the fermentation of the sugar thus formed. The transformation of starch to sugar. It has long been known that starch may be hydro- lyzed or converted into sugar through the interven- tion of certain digestive or fermentative enzymes. In the germination of seeds, as barley, which have a large amount of stored-up starch, a similar action takes place, and the starch is changed by the action of enzymes secreted by the living cells of the seed into a sugar, maltose, which by the action of yeast is “fermented.” Fermentation of sugars. The alcoholic fermentation of sugars has been known and practiced for hundreds of years. Its true nature, and the exciting cause, and the char- acter of the products were not thoroughly eluci- dated until within comparatively recent years. Many theories of alcoholic fermentation have been current, but it remained for Traube, in 1858, to suggest what appears to be the true explanation of fermentation. According to his theory, fermenta- tion is brought about by the action of substances secreted within the cells (ferments or enzymes) which act in a way analogous to that of digestive ferments, but in this case transfer oxygen from one group of atoms to another, thereby causing a breaking up of a complex sugar into simpler sub- stances. Strangely enough, this theory did not gain general credence and support, and it was not until the discovery of zymase in yeast, by Buchner, in 1897, that the accuracy of Traube’s theory became evident. Many species of yeast are known, but those of industrial importance belong especially to the two species, Saccharomyces cerevisie and Saccharomyces ellipsoideus. The former is the yeast employed in brewing, while the latter is the specific fermentation organism of wine. The action of yeast on sugar may be expressed chemically by the equation : CoHi206 = 2002 + Sugar. Carbon dioxid. 2CoH;0H. Aleohol. Types of beer. While the fundamental chemical changes indi- cated above are basic for the brewing industry, we SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF BREWING may nevertheless recognize a number of types of the finished product as, for example: (1) The Munich or Bavarian type of lager beer with dark color, malt flavor, and sweetish taste, not with pronounced aroma and flavor of hops, usu- ally sparkling and lively, or bubbling with carbon dioxid gas, (2) The Pilsen or Bohemian type of lager beer with light color, pronounced hop aroma and bitter taste, not particularly sweet, and also usually lively and sparkling. (8) The American type of lager beer, brilliant, clear, lively and sparkling, light in color, pro- nounced hop aroma, but less bitter than Bohemian. (4) Ale, with light color, very marked bitter taste and aroma of hops, and with rather high per- centage of alcohol and tart taste in the aged pro- duct ; may be either lively or still, generally clear. (5) Stout, with very dark color, sweet taste and malt flavor, heavier than ale, but generally con- taining less alcohol; usually lively and with tart taste in aged product. (6) Weiss beer, very light in color, no marked hop or malt flavor; pronouncedly tart and very lively, but generally turbid rather than brilliant. (7) Common or steam beer, light in color, hop aroma and bitter taste, not very pronounced ; very lively, but not necessarily brilliant. Beers may be further classified according to the kind of fermentation employed in their production. Certain types of yeast, known as “bottom yeast,” and causing “bottom fermentation,” are employed in the preparation of the German lager beers and the American lager and steam beers. ‘Ale, porter, stout and Weiss beer, on the contrary, are fer- mented by “top yeasts.” Bottom fermentation differs from top fermentation in the temperature at which action takes place, the amount of acid formed, the amount of alcohol formed (generally) and in the behavior of the organisms, the bottom ferment developing especially in the depths of the liquid, while with top fermentation abundant masses of yeast are found at the surface of the solution. Certain differences in chemical and bio- logical behavior have also been detected, but the organisms have been generally supposed to be of the same species (S. cerevisie). Of late, however, the question of species of yeast has been regarded with less certainty than in earlier years. We may now follow through the actual processes comprehended in brewing. (1) Malting. This is the general name given to the process whereby the starch of barley or other grain is changed to maltose by the diastatic enzyme. The product is known as “malt.” The grain is carefully selected and cleaned, and then is subjected to a steeping process in “steep tanks,” or big iron cylin- drical hoppers with conical bottoms. The object of steeping is to soften the outer coating and promote rapid germination. When the steeping has been sufficient, the grain is carried to the place where germination takes place. Until comparatively recently, the malting took SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF BREWING place on what are known as the growing floors or malting floors, large cement floors in rooms kept at the proper temperature and light regulation. Of late years, mechanical devices have been intro- duced so that most of the malting of today is done by the “box” system, although some use of revolv- ing drums is made. In the box system, the malt after steeping is introduced into long box-like compartments with perforated floors, through which the properly warmed moist air passes. Traveling over and along these boxes are stirrer- like devices, which lift, stir, and aérate the grain. As the grain is kept at favorable and constant humidity and temperature, germination takes place rapidly and in the course of a few days the acro- spire or germinating sprout of the grain is well developed, and the rootlets are apparent. In drum malting, a much smaller amount of air is used than with the mechanical floors or boxes, and there is also more uniformity in the treatment, as the aération, moistening, and the like can be regulated nicely by mechanical means. The “drum” consists of two concentric perforated cylinders with the grain in the space between. The drums revolve, thus keeping the grain in motion, and causing more perfect aération, as the grain in all parts of the cylinder receives uniform treatment. When the green malt has reached the desired stage of growth, further change is prevented by quick drying or “kilning.” The green malt is carried by conveyors to perforated floors below which are furnaces, so that heat to any desired degree may be applied. By the control of the two processes of malting and kilning, the malt may be prepared for the different kinds of beers indicated above. Of all the ingredients used in brewing no other one has so much importance as the malt, for the character of the beer depends very largely on it, beers of totally different character being pos- sible because of the differences in chemical compo- sition due to the varied malting processes. The color of the beer is determined largely by the heat applied in kilning; the chemical character by both malting and kilning. The product now obtained is known as malt, and presents the same general appearance as the grain itself, except that it may be much darker in color, owing to the roasting. (2) Preparation of the wort. The prepared malt is next to be made into a “mash,” from which the “wort” is obtained. The malt is ground and mixed with warm water in the proper proportion, and then heated in a kettle or “mash tub,” provided with a stirrer. This process not only dissolves the maltose and the soluble proteids already produced in the grain during the malting period, but it also brings about further conversion of starch to maltose, malto-dextrins, and dextrin and liberates some of the enzymes, which are developed in germination to a greater amount than the starch-content of the grain de- mands. It is therefore possible to introduce still more starchy material in the form of corn-flakes and the like, which the excess of diastase may con- vert into fermentable sugar. 189 The taps are then opened and the liquid part, now known as the “wort,” is allowed to run off; the spent grain is washed or “sparged” by sprinkling with hot water several times. The wort is next boiled with the addition of hops. The hops give a bitter flavor to the beer and aid in its preservation; moreover, the hop-oil and tannins seem to assist materially in the precipi- tation of some of the proteid matter. The whole process of boiling might be regarded as having several results, e. g., destruction of diastase, pre- cipitation of the proteids, concentration, extraction of hop-oil and hop resin, and sterilization. After settling, the wort is again drawn off and the residue sparged. The hot wort is then cooled by passing over a large Baudelot cooler, or “‘ beer- fall,” consisting of a series of copper pipes through which cold water or a solution from a refrigerating machine passes. The cooling is accompanied by aération, which is very desirable; but great care should be taken at this point to prevent infection by bacteria and other mizrodrganisms from the air. Special devices to prevent this are in use in the most scientific breweries. (8) Fermentation. After proper cooling and aérating, the fresh wort is ready to pass to the fermenting tuns, and is inoculated with yeast or “pitched.” In case pure cultures of yeast are not maintained for ferment- ing, the yeast is frequently added to the wort in the pan at the base of the Baudelot cooler, and the whole mixed mass run through pipes to the fer- menting room. When special pure cultures are employed, a “pure culture apparatus” is necessary. In this the yeast is developed, starting from a single cell, until sufficient has been prepared to “pitch” the whole volume of wort. As has already been stated, the top fermentation is employed for ale, stout, porter, and Weiss beer, and the bottom fermentation for lager and Ameri- can steam beer. Bottom fermentation proceeds at temperatures ranging from 42° to 51° Fahr., top fermentation at 57° to 78° Fahr. The control of temperatures in the fermenting cellar is therefore a matter of importance. The bottom fermentation proceeds somewhat the more slowly, requiring eight to fifteen or sixteen days, while top fermen- tation is finished in a few days. Fermentation may.be regarded as occurring in two distinct stages: (1) The “primary” or “principal” fermentation, in which the maltose is especially acted on at tem- peratures of 42° to 51° Fahr., for bottom yeasts, and 57° to 73° Fahr., for top yeasts. (2) The “secondary” or “after -fermentation,” in which the malto-dextrin is transformed by bot- tom yeasts at 84° to 87° Fahr., and by top yeasts at about 55° Fahr. The yeasts used should in either case be freshly developed, free from contaminating organisms, and in actively growing condition. The amount added depends on a number of conditions, so that the experienced brewer uses his judgment rather than a definite rule. The fermenting tuns are generally large wooden 190 tanks (50-barrel capacity) in the form of a truncated cone, open at the top, and provided with a coil of pipe in the bottom to regulate temperature. Bottom - fermentation beers——In lager-beer mak- ing, after the tanks are filled with the freshly aérated, pitched wort, the fermentation sets in slowly at first. Within fifteen to twenty-four hours, small bubbles of gas appear around the the walls of the tank, and the whole surface is soon after covered with a fine white foam or froth. This gradually increases in amount, but remains thickest at the walls of the tank. When the foam becomes a certain depth, owing to the active fer- mentation, a breaking up into rounded masses is seen, and a general movement from the walls toward the middle of the tank. This is known as the “Kraiisen” or “cauliflower” stage, from the resemblance of the masses of foam to heads of cauliflower. Two stages of “‘Kraiisen” are recog- nized — “ young Kratisen” and “high Kraiisen.” As a large amount of heat is developed by fer- mentation, it is necessary to keep the solution dur- ing this period down to about 50° Fahr. by means of the attemperators, and, as soon as the fermenta- tion slackens in activity, the temperature is brought to 39° to 40° Fahr. The whole period of fermentation is of eight to sixteen days’ duration. During this time, the color of the beer deepens, and the suspended yeast and other materials should collect in little flecks, leav- ing the beer perfectly clear. A large amount of yeast is developed during fermentation, as the sugar is transformed to alcohol and carbon dioxid. The carbon dioxid escapes as gas, displacing the air over the fermenting liquid in the vats. About one-fifth of one per cent remains in solution. The amount of solids in solution is determined by an instrument known as a saccharometer. As fermentation proceeds the readings become less and less, showing the “attenuation” of the beer. When the principal fermentation is at an end, the beer is practically ready for the storage vats, where it undergoes the secondary fermentation. During the primary fermentation the sugar is not all destroyed, and this residue of maltose and some of the malto-dextrin are now slowly acted on by the yeast, and eventually become very clear. The dura- tion of storage depends on the destiny of the beer ; if for present use, a quick treatment with clarifica- tion is employed; if for export, a storage period varying from six weeks to three months follows. (4) Finishing. The beer finally undergoes a finishing process in the “chip cellar.” The objects here are: (1) to produce a lively, that is, well-carbonated beer, either by adding ‘‘Kratisen” or by carborating or both, and (2) to produce brilliancy, which is done by clarifying with isinglass or “chips,” or by fil- tration. “Chips” are small pieces of wood, which expose a large surface to the beer and to which suspended matters readily adhere. The process of clarification by the use of chips or isinglass is known as “fining.” After fining, the casks containing the beer are tightly bunged so SOME OF THE PRINCIPLES OF BREWING that the solution may become charged with carbon- dioxid and promote sedimentation of suspended material left in the beer. After the proper period for bringing about the desired results, the beer is “racked,” that is, run off into the barrels or kegs, in which it goes to the trade. Clarification by filtration is now much used. This process consists in forcing the beer under pressure through layers of wood-pulp, by which means the suspended matters are mechanically removed. The composition of a finished beer is obviously dependent on the amount of raw mate- rials used, and the method of treatment employed. The amount of alcohol in ordinary beers varies from about 3.2 to about 4.5 per cent. Top-fermentation beers. Top-fermentation beers or “ale” differ from those previously mentioned in the method of treat- ment, although in the main the equipment of the brewery is essentially the same. A carbonating room may take the place of the chip cellar. In the preparation of present-use ales, about 70 per cent of malt and 30 per cent of unmalted grain is used (or 75 per cent malt and 25 per cent sugar). The mashing is carried out until conversion of the starch is complete, when the solution is bailed, the hops being added and run into the fermenting tanks. Here the phenomenon differentiating ale fermentation from beer fermentation takes place After being pitched with the requisite amount 0° yeast,— the temperature being not far from 60f Fahr.,— bubbles of carbon dioxid begin to rise to the surface in two to three hours. In two or three hours more the froth appears on the surface around the sides of the tank, and soon covers the whole surface. The “cauliflower stage” is reached and is followed by the “rocky head stage.” Great masses or heads of foam are developed until they may attain a height of three or four feet above the surface of the wort, owing to the violent ebullition. The frothy appearance gives place to the more compact “yeasty head,” which consists of masses of yeast carried up by the gas and accumulating at the surface. About forty-eight hours after pitching, the yeast is in such amount that it is skimmed off, or removed, and this process is repeated from time to time, until the practical judgment of the brewer determines when to stop. After the active fermenta- tion is over, the ale is allowed to settle for two days, when it is filled into the trade barrels, and to it is added 10 per cent of Kraiisen, taken thirty- six hours after pitching. For brilliant ales the treatment is nearly the same, but, in general, great care is taken in fining and the solution is carbonated. Ales contain more alcohol than lager beers, while the amount of extract may be variable. The average of several samples of stock ale analyzed by Wahl and Henius gave 55 per cent. Cream and sparkling ales contain less alcohol, ranging from 4.0 to 4.90 per cent. Analyses of many samples show that American ales are less alcoholic than the English products. “ PART III NORTH AMERICAN FIELD CROPS Having now obtained a general view of some of the primary considerations involved in the growing and handling of all crops, we may proceed to specific discussions of the different kinds of crops. In this work we are to confine ourselves to field crops, or those that are considered to be apart of general farm practice. In doing so, we distinguish these crops from the horticultural crops. This distinction is customary rather than logical; but it has special justification in this instance because the horticultural crops are treated in the Editor’s Cyclopedia of American Horticulture. Certain of the horticultural crop groups are grown under general field conditions, however; and in order to give the present work some further degree of completeness, particularly with reference to farm management questions, comprehensive articles are inserted on Fruit-growing, Nurseries and Truck-growing. Agronomy. The classification of agricultural ideas has gone farther in the colleges of agriculture than elsewhere. The curriculum of the modern college presents such a dividing of the subject as would have been considered impossible a quarter-century ago. This dividing of the field and rearranging of the groups will proceed. The old professorship of agriculture is breaking up into component or separable parts, each part in charge of a specialist. One of these parts is agronomy. This is a new word to common speech. Its literal equivalent is “the law of the fields.” The group of subjects comprised in agronomy is not yet clearly defined, nor is the group homogeneous. Animal husbandry, dairy industry, agricultural engineering and machinery are distinguished from it. It signifies, prac- tically, field crops and their management. Horticulture and forestry are also distinguished, for practical rather than for rational reasons. It comprises all such questions as crop management, rotations and the cultivation of field crops. This Volume II is practically a treatise on agronomy, together with some questions of technology (in Part II) that properly lie outside its scope. Phytotechny. All knowledge, practice and industries concerned in the raising of animals have been included, in recent discussions, under the one word zodtechny (from two Greek words meaning animal and art or handicraft). Similarly, the knowledge, practice and industries concerned in the growing of plants have very recently been designated by the new word phytotechny (phyton, Greek for plant). This word is practically equivalent to the phrase “Plant Industry,” as applied to a bureau in the United States Department of Agriculture. It includes agronomy, horticulture, forestry, and any other knowledge directly associated with the rearing of plants. Crop-growing advice. Perhaps no agricultural writing needs to be more carefully read than that giving advice on the growing of the different crops. In the first place, the reader must recognize the fact that bits of advice which are so small and apparently unimportant as to be overlooked may be the very ones that determine success or failure in a given crop. Yet, in the second place, too much blind reliance on these very points may be disastrous in certain years or under peculiar conditions. The reader, if he intends practicing what he reads, must have some groundwork or background of experience or reason, whereby he is to test all things. Again, allowance must always be made for the local color of the writing. Farming is a local business. One’s experience is usually acquired in one locality, or in localities that are similar: he is likely to have this locality chiefly in mind in his writing. Still (191) 192 NORTH AMERICAN FIELD CROPS again, it makes a difference whether the writer or the reader is thinking of small-area or large- area enterprises. There is a tendency for the large-area man, or the man who lives in one of the great homogeneous agricultural regions, to think that his farming establishes the norm by which all other farming shall be judged. The best individual farming is not necessarily to be found in the so-called best farming regions ; but it is easier and safer to generalize from the large-area regions. These remarks suggest the proper purpose or value of a book on agriculture: such a book is valuable for its suggestion and its guidance rather than for its dictum. The failure of the old-time “book farming” was quite as much the fault of the reader as of the book. The reader who has called himself the “practical farmer” has usually wanted recipes. If one were writing a book for a single township, he probably could give something like positive directions. The writers in these volumes have given their best information and advice; but beyond that point they cannot assume responsibility. In this volume the special crop articles state the Latin name of the species of plants involved, with synonymous or equivalent names immediately following in parentheses. The name of the natural family follows: this indicates the plant’s relationships. The abbreviated words following the Latin binomials indicate the author of the binomial: Linn., signifies Linneus; Willd., Willdenow; Trin., Trinius; DC., De Candolle, the elder; ADC., Alphonse De Candolle. These and others are authors who originally described the plants or who gave them their proper places and standing in the classification of human knowledge. The botanical history of many of the plants is traced more fully in the other Cyclopedia. These tech- nical records suggest to the student sources of information and means of tracing records and origins ; and for the general reader they will not lessen the value of the advice that follows them. So far as practicable, the subjects are arranged here in alphabetical order. In some cases whole crop groups are treated together, and in other cases only single species are so handled. This may lead to some confusion as to the place in which a given plant is discussed, but the index will set the reader right. As much space has been given to each subject as seemed to be necessary to present it adequately ; therefore, the lengths of the articles may bear little relation to the economic importance of the crops they discuss. Literature. References to the literature of agronomical knowledge will be found in many appropriate places in the first two volumes of this Cyclopedia. The writings on special crops or crop groups are mentioned under those crops in the pages that follow. Some of the general American crop literature in book form may be recorded here: Johnson, How Crops Grow and How Crops Feed, two notable and standard works (the former went to a revised edition in 1890); Morrow and Hunt, Soils and Crops of the Farm; Hunt, The Cereals in America; Saunders, The Leading Cereal Crops in Canada (Report Experimental Farms, 1903); Brooks, Agriculture (Vol. II); Wilcox and Smith, Farmer’s Cyclopedia of Agriculture. Several recent text-books of agriculture give brief discussions on the growing of various crops. The reader should keep himself in touch with current discussions’ and progress by means of the agricultural press and the various kinds of government publications. ALFALFA or LUCERNE. Medicago sativa, Linn, Asia, and was in use centuries before the Christian Leguminose. Figs. 271-282. By J. M. Westgate. A deep-rooted, long-lived, perennial forage plant. Stems 1 to 4 feet high, numerous from a crown; leaves numerous, pinnate ; leaflets 3, obovate-oblong, prominently toothed near apex; flowers purple, rarely white, clover-shaped, in oblong, compact racemes (Fig. 271); stamens 10, united into a tube around the single pistil, one of them on the upper side partly free ; pods slightly pubescent, coiled in 2 or 8 spirals (Fig. 273); seeds several, kidney- shaped, one-twelfth inch long. Alfalfa is a staple forage plant of the agricultural districts of southern Europe, southwestern Asia, South America and western United States. It is native to southwestern era. It spread successively from Media (Persia), to Greece (Persian War, about 480 B.C.), Italy (first century A.D.), Spain (Saracean Invasion, eighth century A. D.), Mexico and South America (Spanish Invasion, sixteenth century). Alfalfa was introduced into California from Chile (1854) and has spread over the irrigated regions of the West. It came from Mexico to Texas in the early part of the nineteenth century. Its production has been extended more recently to the non-irrigated parts of the Great Plains region. It was introduced into New York from Europe as early as 1791. Its culture in the East has been confined to comparatively limited areas. Several sections of the South are proving to be adapted to its growth. It has been grown, experimentally Plate V. Alfalfa at the blooming stage. ALFALFA at least, in all parts of the United States, and is competing with red clover in certain sections of the East, especially on well-drained calcareous soils. It is the principal forage plant of the United States west of Iowa and. Missouri. In 1899 the acreage in the United States was 2,094,011, and the tonnage 5,220,671. . Varieties. The varieties are largely adaptive (drought-, cold-, disease- or alkali-resistant) and little struc- tural difference is to be noted between them and the : ordinary variety, which includes the great if bulk of European- and == oli American - grown seed. YD \ There is no apparent difference between the California seed intro- duced originally from Chile and the European importations into the eastern United States. Turkestan.—The orig- inal importation was secured from Turkestan by N. E. Hansen, under the auspices of the \% United States Depart- ye ment of Agriculture. Seed from the drier, colder parts of Turkes- MZ Vi om Fig. 272. Alfalfa flowers. Enlarged. tan has produced a hardier and more drought- resistant crop than ordinary alfalfa, though appar- ently no hardier than Grimm and northern Montana seed. The forage is sweeter and has finer stalks than ordinary alfalfa. As seed production in the United States is difficult, the commercial seed is largely imported. Experiments indicate that it is slightly superior in the semi-arid West, where the moisture is sufficient for but one or two crops a season of ordinary alfalfa. Grimm.—This was first noted in Carver county, Minnesota, where it is hardy. It was introduced by the Minnesota Experiment Station. It is apparently slightly hardier than Turkestan alfalfa. Perhaps identical with Sand lucerne. Dry-land.—This is the name given throughout the West to seed (especially Utah-grown) pro- Bl ALFALFA 198 aueee without irrigation in areas of light rain- all. Arabian. — Arabian alfalfa was introduced through the United States Department of Agricul- ture. It is of apparent value in the Southwest, Fig. 273. Diagrammatic cross-section through alfalfa flower, showing relation of’ parts. Dotted lines show position taken by stamen-tube, resulting from the disarticulation of parts by insects. The upper filaments contract and forcibly bend the anthers and stigma upward against the body of the insect. C, calyx; D, standard: W, wing; K, keel; T, stamen-tube; F, filament of free stamen; X, stigma; Y, style; O, ovary; E, erect position of stamen- tube after release. and is a prolific yielder. The stems and leaves are pubescent. Sand lucern—tThis is thought to be a cross between Medicago sativa and M. falcata. It has been grown successfully by the Michigan and Wisconsin Experiment Stations. Its production is still in the experimental stage, but it is proving hardy and a heavy yielder on light, sandy soils in Michigan. The flowers vary from yellow + purple. The seed came originally on from Germany. ak Propagation and production. ‘A deep, well-drained, non-acid, fertile soil reasonably free from weeds is required. Excessive alka- linity (in the West) is overcome by flooding and draining ; acidity (East) is corrected by liming. Well-rotted manure is a satisfac- tory fertilizer. A deep, permeable subsoil is necessary, as the roots normally extend to depths of six to twelve feet, and sometimes to considerably greater depths. (Fig. 275.) Inoculation of the seed or soil with root nodule bacteria is generally advisable in the humid regions. Repeated harrowings after plowing produce the fine well-settled seed-bed required. For seeding in the West, twelve to, bye ah i. twenty pounds, and in the East, eet nlarged. twenty to thirty pounds of seed per acre are used, broadcasted and harrowed or drilled in one and one-half inches deep, or less in clay soils, generally without a nurse crop. Choking out by weeds the first summer and winter-killing the first winter are to be especially guarded against. : 194 ALFALFA Late summer seeding, which permits consider- able growth before winter and reduces danger from weeds to a minimum, is to be recommended if the moisture conditions are favorable, unless danger from winter-killing (North) makes spring seeding necessary. In the North the plants should go into the winter with a considerable growth to hold snow to check freezing and heaving. Occasional mowings the first year, with the cutter-bar set high, hold the weeds in check and induce heavier stooling. It is not pas- tured until after the first year and then but sparingly. In the West the stand lasts indefinitely, but in the East it is often run out by June-grass or Kentucky blue- grass (Poa pratensis) and in the middle South by crab-grass. Disk- ing with the disks set nearly straight is destructive to weeds and beneficial to alfalfa plants over two years old. The number of cuttings (one ton or more each) varies from two or three, where the summers are short, to six or seven where they are long. A normal yield is four to five tons per acre. It is cut when the first blooms appear, as later cut- ting reduces the protein content and decreases the feeding value. Great care is necessary to pre- vent the loss of leaves, which constitute as high as 63 per cent of the total protein of the plant. In the West it is usually raked into windrows a few hours after cutting, and as soon as cured sufficiently to prevent heating is hauled to the stack, or baler, on racks or hay sweeps, “go-devils” or “bullrakes.” Hayforks (capa- city 800 to 600 pounds) facil- itate stacking and reduce the j«.~ jim loss of leaves. In humid re- &% gions the hay is cocked some- what green from the wind- rows, and when sufficiently cured is hauled on racks to the stack or barn. Fig. 275. Alfalfa plant; roots well established. Uses. The feeding value of alfalfa depends on its high protein content and palatability. Alone it constitutes a main- tenance ration, but it is gen- erally fed in connection with starchy feeds. It is superior to clover hay in feeding value and may be substituted in part for bran ina dairy ration in Fig. 276. Dodder on alfalfa (after first cutting), ALFALFA the proportion of one and: one-half pounds of alfalfa to one pound of bran, It affords excellent pasture but must be grazed with caution, as cattle are likely to bloat, espe- cially if turned on when hungry or when the alfalfa is wet. It is well adapt- ed for soiling pur- poses, but is little used for silage unless continued rains prevent field curing. In common with other leg- umes it is a val- uable soil-renova- tor, although in the West it is rarely turned un- der, the fields sometimes re- maining in alfalfa fifty years. The hay is sometimes ground and sold as alfalfa meal, either pure or mixed with prepared concen- trates such as bran, corn chop and molasses. A considerable. saving in freight rates is effected by this process, as the ordinary bales are too bulky to be shipped to the best advantage. For ordinary shipment the hay is baled 110 cubic feet to the ton. For transoceanic shipment double compressed bales are used (fifty-five to eighty-five cubic feet to the ton). Causes of failure. The causes of failure may be stated under three heads, as follows : (1) General. — Lack of at- tention to soil requirements, preparation of ground and care the first year. (2) Weeds.— Fox -tail and crab-grass in the Middle West, June-grass (Poa pratensis) in the North, Johnson grass and crab-grass in the South. The remedies for these are the use of clean land, frequent mow- ings and occasional diskings. (8) Inoculation — Lack of inoculation (humid sections) is often a cause of failure. Har- rowing in soil from an old alfalfa field at seeding time is the natural method and gener- ally successful. The disadvan- tages of this method lie in the difficulty of transporta- tion (100 to 400 pounds per acre) and the danger of intro- ducing weeds and plant dis- eases. The commercial cul- tures formerly on the market Fig. 277, Alfalfa Jeaf-spot. ALFALFA did not prove generally successful. With the improvement in methods of preparation and appli- cation now being made by the United States De- partment of Agriculture, the effectiveness of the artificial cultures promises to equal that of the soil transfer method without its disadvantages. Enemies. Dodder, or love-vine.—(Fig. 276.) This is a para- sitic weed with golden thread-like stems and no \ hy we oe Sa a ay RU A202 Fig. 278. leaves. It is especially troublesome in New York and Utah, being carried with the seed as an impu- rity. The remedy is close cutting and careful removal of the stalks from the field. Burning the infested area and close pasturing frequently are successful. Leaf-spot (Pseudopeziza medicaginis.)—(Fig. 277.) This is the most common disease and is especially noticeable when the plants are allowed to stand for seed. It is held in check by mowing, as the spore production is reduced and the growth of the plants made more vigorous. Anthracnose (Colletotrichum trifolii, Bain). —This is a new disease, reported only from the humid states. It attacks the stems, producing well-defined purple patches. The plants turn yellow at the top and sometimes are killed over a considerable part of the field. Mowing the infested area and the application of a nitrate fertilizer probably are the best procedures. It is sometimes necessary to plow the infested area to prevent further spreading. Root-rot (Ozonium sp.).—This disease is confined to the South and is the same as the cotton root-rot. It spreads in circular patches in the field. The only remedy is plowing under and keeping the land out of alfalfa until the spores are destroyed. Animals.—Gophers (Geomys spp. and Thomomys spp.) and prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.) do considerable damage in the West, especially where it is impos- sible to irrigate. Traps, carbon bisulfid, arsenic and strychnine are effective remedies. Insects.—The web-worm, army-worm and grass- hoppers are destructive at times in the West. Mowing the field promptly checks the increase by reducing the food-supply. Fall disking is destruc- tive to grasshopper eggs. First cutting of alfalfa in New Jersey. ALFALFA 195 Literature. Practically all of the experiment stations have issued bulletins on alfalfa-growing in their respec- tive states. The following list includes only a few of the more important. Discussions will also be found in most of the more recent general works on agriculture and throughout the agricultural press : Aljfalfa, F. D. Coburn, 1901; The Book of Alfalfa, Coburn, 1906; Lucerne Grass, B. Rosque, London, 1765; Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. (Paris) 184 (1902), No. 2, pp. 75-80; Agricultural Gazette, N.S. W., 7, 1896; United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers’ Bulletins No. 194, “‘Al- falfa Seed,” and No. 215, “Alfalfa Growing”; Canada, Central Ex- perimental Farm, Bulletin No. 46 ; Pennsylvania Bulletin No. 129; Kansas Board of Agriculture Quar- terly, March, 1900. The following bulletins of state experiment sta- tions: Alabama, Bulletin No. 127; Colorado, Bulletin No. 35; Kansas, Bulletins Nos. 85, 114 ; Michigan, Bulletin No. 225; Minnesota, Bul- letin No. 80; Mississippi, Circular No. 18; Maryland, Bulletin No. 85 ; Nebraska, Bulletin No. 85; New Jersey, Bulletin No. 190; New York, State Station, Bulletins Nos. 16, 80, 118, N.8.; New York, Cornell Station, Bul- letins Nos. 221, 237; North Carolina, Bulletin No. 60; Oregon, Bulletin No. 76; Texas, Bulletins Nos. 22,66; Utah, Bulletins Nos. 48, 58, 91; Wiscon- sin, Bulletins Nos. 112, 121. Alfalfa in the Central West. By F. D. Coburn. The appreciation and increased sowings of al- falfa, within recent years, in the states and terri- tories west of the Missouri river, and especially in the plains region eastward from the Rocky moun- tains, have constituted one of the phenomena of American agriculture. Typical of this has been its advancement in Kansas, where, prior to 1891, no official cognizance had been given it as one of SS SBT, Fig. 279. Practical way of protecting alfalfa from rain while curing. the state’s products, and where, in that year, the official enumerators discovered a total of but 34,384 acres. In 1906, there were 614,813 acres, and two counties (which in 1891 had together but 800 acres) had, combined, an acreage of more than 196 ALFALFA 69,200, and twenty-five counties had more than 10,000 acres each. The aforetime theory that alfalfa would not thrive without irrigation, or unless planted on soils that were proved to be adapted to the growth of corn or cottonwood trees, has been found to be entirely fallacious, and, instead, alfalfa is growing with more or less prosperity on much of the wide diversity of soils the western half of the continent affords, however unpromising their appearance, whether river “bottom” land or the high plateaus 60 to 100 feet above available water, gravel, desert sand or richest mold. In fact, in many places sup- posedly least encouraging, and even on rough lands far removed from any accessible water-supply, it grows with a persistence that almost tempts one to class it as a weed. Owing to its yields of sev- eral profitable cuttings in a season, its unusual protein content, extreme palatability to live-stock of nearly every class, and its longevity, aside from its nitrogen- gathering qualities, the extent and penetration of its root-system and the soil-improv- ALFALFA many parts of the Central West, by seeding to alfalfa, lands have been doubled and trebled in value, and in numerous instances its being planted on them has converted lands before regarded as practically worthless into highly profitable invest- ments. The method of seeding found most satisfactory is with horse-drills, which deposit the seed at a depth of an inch or less, in Whey ce. bil one Sth rows six to eight inches apart, fifteen to twenty pounds per acre, on land in fine tilth, harrowed smooth, and somewhat compacted rather than light and po- rous. By some growers, half of the seed is drilled in one direction and the other half crosswise of this, to facili- tate its more equable distri- Fig. 281. ing effect as fertilizer and renovator, it is rated as by far the most desirable forage plant in cultiva- tion. In California and elsewhere it has produced in a season, under the most favorable conditions, when irrigated, six to nine cuttings, and in Okla- homa, without irrigation, has yielded nine cuttings, averaging one and one-half tons per acre of cured hay. The hay is a large factor in live-stock-rais- ing, and it is coming to be shipped extensively in bales to distant markets, even so remote as Hawaii, Alaska, and vari- ous transoceanic points. Mills are established in vari- ous parts of the country for grind- ing the hay into meal, which is eco- nomically trans- ported and affords convenient mate- rial, used with most wholesome results, for balancing prop- erly the rations of milch cows, horses and poultry. In Stacking alfalfa in the West with the alfalfa-stacker. bution. Other growers sow the seed broadcast from either the hand or a machine. Sowing in August is more popular than spring seeding, and without a nurse crop. A disk-harrow, which stirs the soil surface, destroys weeds, and splits and spreads the root crowns, causing an increased number and finer growth of stems, is the approved cultivator, and on many fields it is used immediately after each mowing, always adding vigor to the suc- ceeding growth. ALFALFA Alfalfa in the East. By F. #. Dawley. It should be known that alfalfa was independently introduced in the East, although its present vogue has been quickened by the interest arising in the West. An earnest attempt was made to introduce it into New York state (under its French name, lucerne), in 1790 to 1800. In 1793, Robert Living- ston had fifteen acres growing in Jefferson county, divided into seven plots, each given different treatment. It is reported as “ growing luxuriantly ” during the first season, then turning yellow and “pining away.” In 1812, it was tried in Central New York by Sterling Lamson and Moses Dewitt with about the same result, although straggling plants from this parentage, it is thought, are still growing. In 1852, Henry Meigs exhibited a few plants before the American Institute in New York. All of these attempts seem to have proved un- satisfactory, and alfalfa-growing on a successful basis can be traced to a shipment of seed in the chaff, which was hand-gathered on the Pacific coast and sent to Onondaga county, New York, in 1867. With this came the inoculation which seemed nec- essary to prevent the plants dying the second year because of the lack of root nodules. In 1894, the New York State Experiment Station at Geneva issued a bulletin on “ Alfalfa Forage for Milch Cows,” and the agitation of the subject at farmers’ institutes, together with the reports of successful fields in Onondaga county, New York, seemed to awaken new interest in the crop; and a little later, when it was learned definitely that old fields where it was growing successfully contained bacteria which could be transplanted to other fields and cause the plant to grow there, its spread be- came more rapid and today marks one of the great achievements of science as applied to agriculture. Where drainage and physical conditions are favor- able in the East, alfalfa will flourish, if seeded prop- erly and the soil inoculated when necessary. It is usually advised, in the East, to sow alfalfa in spring (between oat and corn planting) unless the land is very foul, in which case the land may be cleaned and the seed sown in July or August. In the East, where dairy farming in the future must occupy the attention of a large proportion of land-owners, the advent of alfalfa marks a new era. Home-grown protein in alfalfa will solve the ques- tion of economical milk production, whether the silo can be made available or not. The first and last cuttings of alfalfa can be ensiled if the weather conditions are not favorable for curing it for hay. The writer put the first alfalfa into the silo in 1891, and has stored more or less of it in that way each year since with satis- factory results. This method solves the curing of the first crop, which is the greatest difficulty to be overcome in the East. Alfalfa is now being ground into meal, and if the last crop, cut before it is in blossom, is used for this purpose, it makes a very satisfactory product. The first alfalfa meal was ground in Fayetteville, New York, in 1891, the machines being made by Samuel Jackson. ALFILARIA 197 ALFILARIA. Erodium cicutarium, L’Her. Gera- niacee. Filaree ; heron’s-bill; pin-grass and pin- clover (whence the name alfilaria, from Span- ish for pin, in allusion to the pin-like carpels or “seeds”); name spelled also alfileria and alfilerilla. By the Spanish, it is called alfilerilla, the double “1” being pronounced as “y,” with accent on the last syllable. Western farmers usually call it “filaree,” with accent on the first syllable. Fig. 283. By J. J. Thornber. Alfilaria is a small, annual, hairy, slightly viscid, erect or ascending herb, attaining a height of six to eighteen inches, utilized as wild range pasture, and now sometimes grown for hay. The leaves are opposite or alternate, and pinnate, , the divisions being finely dissected \ nearly to the mid-vein. It forms a Wise compact, many- \ Y leaved rosette Hp which frequently attains a diameter of ten to twelve inches. The flower parts are in fives, and are produced in axillary, stalked, several- flowered clusters or umbels. The flowers are purple. In fruit, the My, five styles of the & flower elongate conspicuously, be- come hairy on the. inside, and at ma- turity are dehis- cent (that is, are separated into defi- nite parts), and twisted spirally, the seeds at the lower ends of the styles becoming in the mean- time sharp-pointed at their bases. The plant gen- erally has a slight musky odor. Seven other species of Erodium are found in this country. Two species, introduced from the Medi- terranéan region—FE. moschatum, known as musk filaree or musk clover, and E£. Botrys—are grown in the Pacific coast country. The Texan alfilaria, E. Texanum, is a native species occurring in the southwest. Fig. 283. Alfilaria, affording range pasture in the southwest. History. Alfilaria is a native of the Mediterranean region, where it is regarded, commonly, as a weed. From there it has spread over parts of Europe, Asia and Africa, and North and South America. It was probably introduced by the Spanish into the west- ern hemisphere in the sixteenth century, in parts of Mexico and South America, and later in Cal- ifornia. From these centers it has gradually spread over large areas. It is probably not a native of the Pacific coast country. 198 ALFILARIA Distribution. The region of the greatest production of alfilaria is confined to California, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico and Utah. It also extends into Mexico and Central America and parts of South America. The distribution is affected and to a large extent deter- mined by a few climatic features, namely, mild win- ter temperatures, fall and winter precipitation, and altitude as influencing precipitation and tempera- ture. Soil conditions are of minor importance, although, in general, alkalinity should be avoided. A rainfall in winter and spring of five to seven inches will serve to produce a good growth of the crop. Two or three inches of rainfall in December, January and February are needed to start the plants. If the moisture conditions are right, growth will take place through the winter, subject to occa- sional checks due to unusually low temperatures. Elevation as related to rainfall and temperature is important. Alfilaria does best between 1,500 and 4,500 feet altitude. Above this height the winter temperatures are generally too severe for growth, and below it there is likely to be deficient rainfall. The fact that alfilaria begins its growth in the late fall or early winter adapts it especially to southwestern United States. At that time the moisture conditions are most satisfactory. The plant rapidly develops the low, spreading rosette, which gets the maximum amount of heat and light. The formation of a deep taproot enables it to withstand drought and to start a rapid growth when the warm days come. In Washington and similar latitudes, alfilaria is usually a spring or summer plant. Growth. The seed and seeding.—Heretofore seeding has been accomplished largely by sheep, and the method has been sufficiently successful to be con- sidered an effective and reliable system. The seeds are furnished with twisted awns and an abundance of hairs so disposed as to aid them to fasten to and penetrate the furry coats of animals. Sheep, on passing through a field of alfilaria, get more or less covered with the seeds, besides carrying away many between their toes. The incessant trampling serves to plant the seed to the proper depth. The same is true of other stock. When planting is to be done over a considerable area, the seed should be gathered and sown as soon thereafter as convenient. If the seed is stored through the summer and sown in the fall, a large percentage of it will lie in the ground for a year ; whereas, if it is sown soon after maturity, the summer weather seems to fit it for quick growth when fall rains come. The seeds mature in spring and are gathered in May and June. If ungathered, they will remain on or in the ground in a dormant state until fall, no matter how favorable the conditions for growth. A southern exposure is preferable. If the seeding can be done among shrubs, the seedling plants will be protected against animals until they are established. The par- tial shade afforded by the shrubs also seems to have ALFILARIA s, beneficial effect, making the temperature and mois- ture conditions more uniform. The seed is harrowed in to a depth of about a half inch. Development.— The fall rains induce rapid ger- mination and growth, and the seedlings soon develop compact, many-leaved rosettes, which lie close to the ground. The rosettes grow slowly during the winter by increasing the leaf surface. Flower- buds are formed at their centers. At the same time a deep heavy taproot is formed. The flowers begin to show with the first warm days of late winter. Several vigorous stems soon spring up from each plant, which continue to grow until April or May. Six to eight weeks elapse between the flowers and the formation of much seed. Uses. As a forage crop.—Wherever alfilaria has become abundant it has doubled the spring forage supply, without interfering with the later growth of summer species, principally grasses. Once estab- lished it is permanent unless grazed to the detri- ment of seed production, which is unlikely. It is relished by all range stock, at all stages of its growth. It is especially relished by sheep, which are able to nibble its flattened rosettes some time before the larger animals. The only objection is that the seeds in the wool reduce the value of the latter as much as a cent and a half a pound. Shearing twice a year—in March and September— has been found to reduce this objection to a min- imum. As a forage crop, alfilaria is both nutri- tious and succulent. As a hay crop.—tThe use of alfilaria as a hay plant is yet limited. If cut when in blossom and cured as is alfalfa it is very palatable. But, in order to attain a growth sufficient for this pur- pose, it shouldbe grown under favorable con- ditions on the richer soils of valleys, swales, mesas and similar areas. Under ordinary con- ditions, a fair yield is a ton and a half of hay per acre. Unfortunately, the common method of hand- ling the crop for hay is exceedingly wasteful, the long weathering causing the loss of the most valuable constituents. Composition of alfilaria hay.—Analyses made at the Arizona Experiment Station by Vinson showed alfilaria to contain a high percentage of ash. The fat is present in larger proportion than in alfalfa, but slightly less than in most varieties of hay. The protein content is high, comparing favorably with hay from legumes. The crude fiber is moder- ate, being about the same as in good timothy hay. The carbohydrates are abundant. Literature. Comparatively little has been written on alfilaria in this country. The most comprehensive discussion is found in Bulletin No. 52, of the Agricultural Experiment Station of the Univer- sity of Arizona, from which this article is largely adapted. A few of the experiment stations have bulletins on the subject, and the 1901 Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture gives a few notes, ARROW-ROOT ARROW-ROOT. Fig. 284. By S. M. Tracy. Arrow-root starch is a product manufactured from the underground parts of a number of differ- ent plants grown in tropical and subtropical coun- tries, It is valued principally as a food for invalids, especially in cases of persistent diarrhea and dysentery. In South Africa and the East Indies, Maranta arundinacea (Fig. 284) is the plant most commonly cultivated for this purpose. This is much grown in the Bermuda islands, and therefore is commonly known as Bermuda arrow-root. In Aus- tralia, Maranta nobilis, Manihot utilissima (cassava) and several species of Canna,—C. Achiras, C. glauca, C. edulis, and others,—are used for the same purpose, and C. flaccida, a native of the south- ern part of the United States, is one of the most profitable species. Recent experiments show that the common canna used in this country for decorative purposes (C. Indica, Indian shot) can be made a profitable source of arrow-root in all the southern states. In the Pacific islands, especially in Guam, the Hawaiian islands and the Philippines, Tacca pinnatifida, a plant belonging to the Taccacee and closely related to the yams, is more commonly used, and to a considerable extent also in India. Both the marantas and the cannas have fleshy rhi- zomes, while the cassava and the tacca have fleshy roots resembling sweet-potatoes. Cassava starch is considered the best for laundry purposes and is much used by manufacturers of linen goods. Some varieties of this plant received recently from Colombia, South America, yield as much as 39 per cent of their weight as starch. Manufacture.—From whatever source the arrow- root may be derived, the process of manufacture is practically the same. The fresh roots are washed and are then grated to a fine pulp. This pulp is diluted with water and repeatedly strained, diluted and settled to remove all fibrous material, and also to extract the coloring matter and a bitter principle which is more or less prominent in all the roots used in the manufacture of the starch. The com- mercial value of the arrowroot is largely depen- dent on the number of washings, as each successive washing renders the starch whiter, more palatable and more easily digested, though it is said that the darker-colored product which has been given fewer washings is more effective when used for the cura- tive treatment of dysentery. Arrow-root starch is not now produced in the United States, but a starch made from cassava (Manihot utilissima) is used very largely as a substitute, and appears to be more valuable. Cassava is grown extensively in Florida, and its cultivation is extending westward along the gulf coast to Texas. The following notes on Bermuda arrow-root are by T. J. Harris, Superintendent of Public Gardens, Hamilton, Bermuda: “The commercial value of the arrow-root de- pends largely on the soil and climate in which it is grown and the care bestowed on its manufacture. The St. Vincent product is sold for 23d. per pound, BANANA 199 while Bermuda arrow-root brings 1s. 9d. per pound in the open market. It is of special value as food for invalids, as it contains nothing whatever of 4 deleterious nature. Dissolved and injected with laudanum, it is a specific for extreme cases of dysentery. In Bermuda, every care is taken to ensure absolute cleanliness, the natural conditions aiding in this respect: the soil in which the rhizomes are grown is a red, sandy loam derived from coral rock, and is quite devoid of volcanic mineral substances; the per- petually damp at- mosphere ensures the gradual and even deposition of each successive layer on the starch granule; the water used in the washing is distilled in a dust- less atmosphere and caught on immacu- late lime - washed roofs. - “There is but one factory in Bermuda, working on a capital of £3,000 and paying about 10 per cent per annum. “An acre of arrow-root in Bermuda will yield in a fair season about 14,000 pounds of rhizomes, 15 per cent of which is recovered as dried starch.” Fig. 284. shoots (Maranta arundinacea). Bermuda arrow - root BANANA-GROWING IN AMERICAN TROPICS. Figs. 285, 286. By G. N. Collins. The rapidly attained popularity of the banana in the United States offers a striking example of a recent addition to our traditional list of foods. Thirty years ago the banana was practi- cally unknown outside the tropics, yet to-day it must be classed as one of our staple articles of diet. This rapid growth in favor is doubtless due to the peculiar character of the fruit, which is entirely unlike any of the temperate and gsub- tropical products in use previously. It is, perhaps, the best adapted of fruits for handling in large quantities. One stroke of the machete gathers 75 to 150 individual bananas, compactly united into a cluster convenient for handling, comparable to an entire crate of any of our northern fruits. ‘The structure of the individual fruits is equally con- venient, since they are protected perfectly by a tough skin which is removed readily without the use of any instrument, while the pulp is luscious without being juicy. Throughout tropical America the banana is con- sidered a vegetable rather than a fruit. Indeed, as a fruit the banana is taking a relatively more im- 200 BANANA portant place in the United States than in the regions in which it is grown. Thus, in Porto Rico, it would be classed fourth or fifth in a list of the most popular fruits, while as a vegetable it would rank second or perhaps first. Botanical discussion. The banana plant, or tree, as it is often called, is a large herb with a perennial rootstock. The part above the base, which reaches a height of ten to thirty feet, consists entirely of the leaves and their clasping, sheath-like petioles. The inflorescence forces its way through this stem-like growth and appears as a large raceme, which soon becomes pendent. The flowers are borne in clusters of eight to fifteen, which when mature are known as “hands.” Each cluster is enclosed in a large subtending Fig. 285. Loading bananas on a plantation in Costa Rica. bract, purple in most species, that rolls back and drops as the flowers open. The basal flowers, which open first, are pistillate, with only aborted stamens. Toward the apex the stamens become larger and more perfect, while the pistil is gradually reduced, until at the apex the flowers are entirely staminate. Usually less than half of the flower-clusters de- velop as fruit, though the opening of the staminate flowers toward the apex continues until the fruit at the base is mature. The closely packed clusters of unopened flowers at the end of the fruit-stalk are known as the “navel.” (For accounts of the botanical characters, see Cyclopedia of American Horticulture, under Banana and Musa.) Varieties. The almost countless varieties of bananas and plantains are all classified under species of the genus Musa, which, with five other genera, com- prises the family Musacez. In the latest revision by Schumann the genus is divided into forty-two species. The various varieties of edible bananas are usually all included under the two species M. paradisiaca and M. Cavendishii. The latter is the dwarf banana, grown in the Canary islands for the English market and also in Hawaii. M. para- disiaca has two sub-species : normalis, comprising BANANA the plantains or cooking bananas, which are of coarse texture and only slightly sweet, and sapien- tum, comprising the majority of the varieties of sweet-fruited bananas that may be eaten raw. By many writers the plantain (normalis) and the common banana (sapientum) are regarded as dis- tinct botanical species. Practically the only va- riety that appears in the northern markets is the Martinique or Jamaica, also known as Gros Michel and Bluefields. The chief advantage of this va- riety is the superior shipping quality of the fruit. It is to be regretted that this one desirable char- acter has been allowed to exclude all the other varieties, many of which are decidedly superior as table fruit. The plantains or cooking bananas are worthy of greater consideration than they receive in this country. Throughout all tropical countries they are preferred for cooking, and it would seem only a question of time until they will be added to our list of vegetables. In New Orleans the population is sufficiently in touch with the tropics to afford a limited market for plantains, and about 6,000,000 individual plantains are annually shipped to that city from British Honduras. Propagation and growth. The banana is entirely seedless, and propagation is accomplished by planting the suckers or sprouts that arise from the base of old plants. These are of two kinds, known as “broad leaf” and “sword” suckers. The former arise from short, thick, sessile bulbs borne at the surface of the ground around the parent plant, the latter from stalked bulbs that arise lower down. Sword suckers are usually considered the more desirable. For plant- ing, these are removed when about six feet high and the bulbs four or five inches in diameter. As soon as they are taken up they are cut back to about one foot in length, and in this condition they can be kept for a month or more before planting. The banana is very exacting with respect to soil. To do well the land must be very rich in humus, moist, but very well drained. In poor situations the plants may do well at first, but will run out in a few years and need to be replanted, whereas on good land they will continue to produce fine crops for fifteen or twenty years. The plants are usually spaced fourteen to twenty feet each way, except in parts of Costa Rica, where a system of block planting, originated by Mr. John Keith, is practiced. This system, which has shown an increased yield wherever tried, is to plant in blocks of four plants each, the individual plants being about four feet apart, in the form of a square; the blocks are 25x25 feet. This pro- vides a better shade for the base of the plant during the early stages of its growth, and thus prevents excessive suckering. — The plants usually require about twelve months to produce a mature bunch. Before the bunch appears, suckers will start from the base which will take the place of the old plant or trunk, when it is cut down in harvesting the bunch. Only enough suckers are allowed to develop to keep up the suc- BANANA cession of plants, and it requires some experience to judge of the proper time to allow suckers to grow so that there will be large cuttings in the season when the highest prices prevail. Until the plants are large enough to shade the ground, it is neces- sary to keep down the growth of grass and weeds. Some planters have found it profitable to sow cowpeas at the time of planting, which occupy the ground and reduce the number of cleanings that it is necessary to make. One of the worst enemies of the banana-grower is grass. Its appear- ance in a plantation may be taken as a sign that the plantation will soon cease to be productive. It is not clear whether the grass is merely an indi- cation that the soil is in some way depleted, or whether it is itself the real cause of the dete- rioration. Diseases. The banana is attacked by comparatively few diseases. The only one causing serious damage in any of the centers of production here considered appeared in the Bocas del Toro region of Panama. This disease has been made the subject of a special investigation and found to be of bacterial origin. The same disease has been reported in Costa Rica, but it seldom attacks vigorous plants growing in suitable situations. Production. The chief centers of banana production in America are Costa Rica and Jamaica. The imports for the year 1905, by countries, were as follows : VAMBICH, oy 45. Seow wee ge es Be $8,245,536 Costa Rica .. .. 2... ‘ 1,888,939 Cuba. .... a! Meals en ves 1,487,952 Honduras si & ss es we me Hs 1,480,580 Colombia «i «wa 6 «aw He 585,489 Panama: 2. 6 es ee Ow 415,495 Nicaragua... 1... ee ee 891,142 Santo Domingo ..... ‘ 283,950 British Honduras ......-. 112,605 Guatemala ... 1. 2 2 eee 97,688 Other countries ..... ‘ 8,445 There are marked differences between the cul- tures of Costa Rica and Jamaica, and also in the methods of handling the fruit. In Costa Rica the plants grow to a much larger size and produce, on the average, larger bunches. In Jamaica the mini- mum bunch that is accepted is that of five hands, while in Costa Rica nothing smaller than seven hands will be received. In Costa Rica the culture is less intensive than in Jamaica. In the latter place, especially on the south side of the island where the plantations are irrigated, they present a very regular appearance. The ground is kept clean and the rows in good alignment. In Costa Rica, many of the large plantations receive little attention aside from the removing of superfluous suckers. Transportation. As bananas are all grown in the tropics and all sold in temperate countries, the industry is to a large extent a question of transportation. This phase of the subject has received much more care- BANANA 201 ful attention than has the more strictly agricul- tural side. The business is chiefly in the hands of large companies, which are interested primarily in transportation. These are now consolidated, so that nearly all the fruit received in the northern markets is handled by the United Fruit Company. When locating plantations in Costa Rica, land is usually selected through which it is possible to construct railroads, this consideration bearing quite as much weight as the nature of the land. Every effort is made to handle the fruit promptly. In many cases it is possible to leave the fruit on the plant until the steamer that is to transport it is sighted. Telephonic orders are then sent to the different plantation managers and the fruit is rushed in by train-loads, so that it not infrequently happens that a steamer leaves the wharf at Port Limon with 30,000 bunches of Fig. 286. Loading into cars that run to the wharf. Costa Rica. bananas that were growing in the plantations twenty-four hours before. The service calls for steamers especially constructed to carry this fruit. The holds are especially well ventilated, and in many of the more recent steamers the air is arti- ficially cooled before it passes over the fruit. Cold storage in the ordinary sense can not be applied to the banana. If the green fruit is subjected to a temperature much below 50°, it is injured, so that, although it may keep almost indefinitely, it will never ripen. To avoid this, the wharves and the cars into which the bananas are loaded are heated in bringing the fruit into northern ports in the winter months. The distribution of bananas to the various cities is handled with the same expedition as the ship- ping. Before a cargo arrives it is apportioned to the different centers of consumption, so that ina few hours after the arrival of a ship the fruit is on its way to distant parts of the country. Literature. The Banana in Hawaii, J. BE. Higgins (1904), Hawaii Agric. Exp. Sta., Bull. No. 7 ; The Banana Industry in Jamaica, Wm. Fawcett (1903), Bull. Botanical Dept., Jamaica, Vol. IX, part 9; Text-Book of Tropical Agriculture, H. A. A. Nicholls (1892). 202 BARLEY BARLEY. Hordeum sativum, Jessen. Graminea. Figs. 287-94. By B&. A. Moore. An annual cereal grain, supposed to be native of western Asia, and cultivated from the earliest times. It is grown for the grain and herbage, the p grain being used as food for live-stock, but | chiefly in the making of malt for beer. Flowers perfect, the stamens 3, styles 2, arranged in spikelets that are borne 2 to 6 on notches or nodes of the rachis and form- ing a long head or spike; flowering glumes 5-nerved, one of them usually long-awned, usually persisting about the grain as a hull; empty glumes very narrow and surrounding the spikelet. Barley was very widely grown before the Christian era and was used largely as food for human consumption. Its use as a bread plant was universal throughout the civilized countries of Europe, Asia and Africa, down to the close of the fifteenth century. It gradually gave way to the bet- ter grains for bread-making, and is now, and will henceforth probably be used mostly as an animal food and for brewing purposes. The inhabitants of the European and Asiatic countries used barley rather generally as a food for horses, and the practice is common at present in several of those regions. According to the Twelfth Cen- sus there were in the United States 272,918 farms reported as pro- ducing barley in 1899. They de- voted to the crop 4,470,196 acres, and secured a production of 119,- 634,877 bushels, valued at $41,631,762, The four states giving the highest production are, in order, California, Minnesota, North Dakota and Wiscon- sin. According to the Fourth Census of Canada (1901), there were in the Dominion, 871,800 acres in barley, which produced 22,224,366 bushels. Varieties. For all practical purposes, barley may be classi- fied as six-rowed, four-rowed, and two-rowed. There are also beardless, bearded and hulless varie- ties of the above groups. The four-rowed barley does not seem to be a distinct variety, but a vari- ation of the six-rowed, as often the six-rowed bar- ley drops two rows midway up the spike, the upper part being nearly four-rowed. Linnzeus and the earlier botanists recognized six species : Fig. 287. Flower of barley. a. Hordeum hexastichum b. Hordeum vulgare e. Hordeum distichum d. Hordeum Zeocriton | e. Hordeum cceleste * (jf. Hordeum nudum Botanists now generally group all these as sub- types under the botanical name of Hordeum sati- Six-rowed barleys . { Two-rowed barleys . ; Naked barleys . BARLEY vum, which is taken in the sense of a group-species. All the cultivated barleys are supposed to be de- rived from the wild West Asian Hordeum spon- taneum, C. Koch. The term “variety” is used by seedsmen, plant- breeders and farmers in a wider and not so rigid sense as that applied by the botanist. Races of barley, the type of which has been materially changed by careful selection or cross-breeding for a period of years, are in common practice desig- nated as “ varieties.” The Manshury or Manchuria, Oderbrucker, Golden Queen, Hanna, Silver King, and the like, are terms that have been given to various strains of barley, and each is often used as applying to a distinct variety. In common practice the name of the country from which a grain is received is often applied to the variety and may become known over a great extent of territory. The Manshury barley is known throughout the United States and Canada, and is more generally grown in parts of the middle West than any other type. Culture. Adaptability—Barley is grown under a wider range of soil and climatic conditions than any other cereal, and readily adjusts itself to the natural environments under which it is placed. In Europe, barley is grown from the Mediterra- nean sea to Lapland, 70° north latitude, and in WES vy Fig. 289. Characteristic heads of Oderbrucker barley, with lower beards clipped to show arrangement of ker- nels from side and edge. Fig. 288. (or Manchuria) barley, for. comparison with Oderbrucker. Heads of Manshury BARLEY America from southern California and eastward to the Copper River Experiment Station farm in Alaska. While barley can be raised on a wide range of soils, it grows best and yields the most marketable grain when grown on old, well-subdued lands, where the plant-food is readily obtain- able. Barley is an early-maturing cereal, and the root growth is shorter and less abundant than that of oats or wheat; consequently, it is necessary to sow it on land that is in a high state of fertility and cultivation. A rich clay loam seems to be preferable. It is easily injured while the plants are young by an overabundance of moisture, and, therefore, should not be sown on land that is soggy, or where the water-line is too near the surface. Rotation.— Barley should be grown in rotation, and not con- tinuously on the same land. When corn is one of the crops, a good rotation is corn on land that the previ- ous year had been in hay or pasture, and barley to follow corn, at which time the land should be seeded to clover and timothy, or clover and _ blue- grass. One or two crops of clover can be cut the year following barley, and the land can be used for pas- ture or hay-land the year following clover. The land may be ma- nured to advantage at any time after the clover is secured, pref- erably the following fall and winter. By running a fine - tooth harrow over the grass- land in the spring, the manure will be dis- tributed evenly, and the fine roots of the various grasses will hold the fertility near the surface, where it can be utilized to a certain extent by the grasses and subse- quently by the follow- ing corn and barley crops. The above is recommended when a regular four years’ ro- tation is desired. Bar- Fig. 290. spikelets at joint of rachis, a characteris- tic common to the six-rowed barleys. Three French Chevalier bar- ley, astandard two-rowed va- riety. Lower beards clipped to show arrangement of ker- nels from side and edges, Fig. 291. BARLEY 203 ley does well on land that has grown potatoes, beets and garden-truck the previous year. Seed-bed.—Much care should be given to the preparation of the seed-bed to get the best yields. Fall-plowing is preferable to spring-plowing. When the land is fall-plowed, it should be disked thoroughly in the spring and put in good tilth as early as the ground will admit of working to advantage. After disking, if the ground is inclined to be lumpy, it should have a planker or roller run over it to crush the lumps; then the preparation is finished by going over the ground with a fine-tooth harrow. Sowing the seed.—Barley is sown with either the drill or the broadcast seeder at the rate of one and one-half to two and one-half bushels of seed per acre; when the seeder is used, about one peck more seed per acre should be used than when it is sown with the drill. The time of seeding varies in different localities, but in general follows the wheat-seeding, and precedes oat-sowing. In Wisconsin, barley is sown April 10 to May 10, depending on the earliness or lateness of the _ Season. In the southern states, barley is sown with success in the fall, but spring-seeding is the general custom throughout the bar- ley-growing states of the North. In Wisconsin, at the Experiment Station farm, all except one of the tests made with fall-sown barley have resulted in a complete failure. After the barley is sown, it is well to run over the surface of the ground with a fine-tooth harrow. Lumps of dirt, clots of manure or any coarse litter should not be left on the land. No cereal crop can be used to better advantage as a nurse crop with alfalfa, clover or hay grasses in general, than barley, as it sel- dom lodges and is not so tall and leafy as to prevent the entrance of air and sunlight. It does not draw so heavily on the moisture of the soil as the other cereals, which is a decided advantage to the clover and grasses. When used as a nurse crop with alfalfa or common clo- vers, it should be seeded at the rate of three pecks or one bushel of seed per acre. When it is desira- ble to sow barley on very rich, mellow soil, it is well not to sow more than five pecks per acre, as the tendency is to lodge, if sown more thickly. Barley fills better than most cereals after lodging, . but is fully as difficult to harvest, and therefore an effort should be made at the time of seeding to prevent lodging, when the soil is of doubtful character. If land is very rich, and the cereal crops gener- ally lodge, the over-abundance of fertility can be reduced readily by growing corn, wheat or millet. Often a crop of millet can be secured after a cutting of oat-hay has been taken from the land, Fig. 292. Beardless hulless six-rowed barley. 204 BARLEY which will usually put the land in proper condition for barley the following year. As a rule, the far- mer will have more difficulty in supplying his land with the proper food elements as a preparation for ; ’ a barley crop than in re- ducing them. Harvesting.— One of the chief arguments used against barley-culture in the past has been the many annoy- ances experienced because of the beards while binding, threshing and other handling. This attitude dis- played by farm- ers led to the in- troduction of beardless barleys, which have not as yet proceeded beyond the ex- perimental stage. At the Wisconsin Station, through a several years’ test, the beard- less barleys were found to be weak in straw and poor yielders compared with the bearded barleys. The ker- nels were much more shrunken, and did not look so healthy and vigorous. The grain of the beardless barleys weighed two to ten pounds less per measured bushel than that of the bearded barleys grown under the same conditions. The yield was fifteen bushels less per acre than that of the Manshury or Oderbrucker barleys on the Station farm. The ob- jection to the beards by barley-growers is consid- erably lessened since the advent of the harvester and self-feeder. Barley is more easily injured by rain, dew or sunshine than the other cereal crops, and is often reduced in value from the maltster’s standpoint one-half because of discoloration of the grain. The discoloration of the grain does not cause the feeding elements to deterioraté, to any great ex- tent, and the farmer should feed such grain rather than try to force it on the market. To prevent discoloration, the grain should be harvested before \ Fig. 293. McEvans bearded hulless barley, with lower beards clipped to show arrangement of kernels from side and edge. Kernel joined to rachis, with beard ex- tended, at right. BARLEY the ripening has advanced too far. If put in round shocks, using about ten bundles in a shock and covering with two bundles as a cap, barley will cure nicely without discoloring unless heavy rains occur. The bundles used for capping can be drawn in and threshed separately from the bulk of the crop, and retained for feed or seed. Barley diseases. Barley is affected by rust, mildew and smut. No effective remedy has been found for rust and mildew. Smut can be reduced by the formaldehyde method of treatment. Smut is a fungous disease caused by minute spores lodging underneath the hull of the barley grains previous to the ripening period. These little spores remain inactive until the barley is planted, when they germinate with the seed and send hair-like threads up through the stem of the plant. Practically all heads growing. from a seed which contains the smut spores are smutted and the grain is destroyed. As soon as the smut is matured fully, it is blown by the wind to unaffected heads of barley and finds lodging beneath the hulls of the unripened kernels. The hulls close over the spores at the time of ripening and hold them securely until germination begins when the spores begin their deadly work. Two kinds of smut affect barley, the closed or covered smut (Ustilago hordei), and the loose smut (Ustilago nuda). The formaldehyde treatment is satisfactory against the closed smut, but not against the loose or open smut. Hot water is now recommended for both kinds. The barley crop of Wisconsin was affected with smut to the extent of 5 per cent in the season of 1905. When barley had been sown on test with and without treatment, a reduction of 4 per cent was reported in favor of the treated seed. Treatment.—Make a solution by pouring one pint of formaldehyde into twenty gallons of water, the solution to be placed in barrels or a trough. Sacks of barley should be submerged in the solu- tion for ten minutes, then emptied on a threshing floor or platform to dry. After the treatment, if the seed barley is covered for about two hours with oilcloth or blankets so that the fumes of the formaldehyde can act on the spores, the treatment will be much more effective. Extensive experiments hdve been made at the Wisconsin Station with the hot-water treatment of seed for smut. The hot-water treatment was found thoroughly effective against both kinds of smut, and it is a very simple operation. The grain is placed in gunny sacks and submerged for twelve hours in cold water to soften the hull and berry. It is then removed and allowed to drain for an hour. The sacks are then submerged in hot water at a constant temperature of 130° F., for a period of not over six minutes. Provision must be made to add hot water to keep the temperature constant, as it will be lowered when the grain is put in. It is well to put the grain in another tank of hot water that has a temperature a little below 180° F,, in order to heat the grain before putting it in the tank with the constant. temperature. The seed a > » 3 3 oS b> a oO a ~~ 3S £ a 3 > Ls) 5 a 1 B < > a a a 2 aS 4 BARLEY should be sown the same day or the day following, as it will sprout. The experiments made at Wis- consin are reported in the Twenty-third Annual Report of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, 1906. BARLEY 205 feed for dairy animals. Horses and other farm animals are fed to a limited extent on brewers’ grains, and are said to relish them. The brewers’ grains, which may be secured either wet or dry, Uses in America. In the United States and Canada, barley is used almost exclusively for malting purposes and as a food for domestic animals. Its use as a human diet is limited, be- ing confined to a few preparations commonly known as pearl barley. In DB GVM “f ees af | = = ES the Pacific states barley is grown generally as hay and grain for horses. As a hay it is cut and cured when in the early milk stage. The grain is fed whole, or milled by passing between rollers which merely crush it. If ground like mill feeds, the abundance of gluten therein makes a sticky mass when brought in contact with moisture. Horses are fed barley only to a limited extent in the oat-growing states. In Canada and the United States, swine and poultry are fed rather generally on barley, and all feeders attest to its high value as a producer of pork and bacon of the finest grade. The use of barley as a Fig. 294. Barley ready for shipment. Gallatin county, Montana. are the barley grains after the soluble dextrin and sugar have been extracted for the purpose of making beer. These by-products accumulate at breweries in great quantities, and often can be purchased for less than the actual fertilizing value contained therein. By judicious feeding and a proper regard to the saving of the manure a farmer may secure the feeding value practically free. The digestible nutrients, fertilizing constituents and composition as given in Henry’s “Feeds and Feeding” are as follows : DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS AND FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS OF BARLEY, MALT-SPROUTS AND BREWERS’ GRAINS. Dry Digestible nutrients in 100 pounds ||Fertilizer constituents in 1,000 pounds Name oF FEED in 100 ‘ Carbo- Ether * Phosphorie pounds Protein hydrates extract Nitrogen acid Potash Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Barley ...... ee ae ee 89.1 8.7 65.6 1.6 15.1 7.9 4.8 Malt-sprouts.. ......--e- 89.8 18.6 87.1 L7 35.5 14.3 16.3 Brewers’ grains (wet) ....... 24.3 3.9 9.3 1.4 8.9 8.1 0.5 Brewers’ grains (dried) ...... 91.8 15.7 36.3 5.1 36.2 10.8 0.9 AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF BARLEY AND ITs By-PRODUCTS. Percentage composition Water Ash Protein | Crude fiber eee lace Tee Basisy 25-4 Ure Rk Re 10.9 24 12.4 2.7 69.8 18 10 Barley meal . . 2. 2 2 es ee ee 11.9 2.6 10.5 6.5 66.3 2.2 3 Barley screenings. ...-.-- - 12.2 3.6 12.3 7.3 61.8 2.8 2 Brewers’ grains (wet) .....+- | 5.7 1.0 5.4 3.8 12.5 1.6 15 Brewers’ grains (dried) 8.2 3.6 19.9 11.0 51.7 5.6 3 Malt-sprouts ...... 2 2 0 ss ee 10.2 5.7 23.2 10.7 48.5. 17 4 StraWie ui eae Stew a 8.3 3.8 3.7 42.0 39.5 2.7 food for domestic animals is becoming more popu- Literature. : lar as the farmers learn its feeding value. By-products. The principal by-products of barley when used for brewing, are malt-sprouts and brewers’ grains, the latter of which are used extensively as The reader is referred to the bulletins issued by several of the experiment stations, and by the United States Department of Agriculture. More or less extended treatment of barley is given in the following publications: American Brewers’ Review; Fream, Elements of Agriculture ; Henry, 206 BEANS Feeds and Feeding; Hunt, Cereals in America; Wilcox and Smith, Farmers’ Cyclopedia of Agri- culture; Wisconsin Experiment Association, 8d and 4th reports; Wisconsin Experiment Station reports, 20, 21, 22, 28; Yearbooks of the United States Department of Agriculture. BEAN, FIELD. Phaseolus vulgaris, Linn. Legu- minose. Figs. 295-302. By J. L. Stone. Annual plants of bush or twining habit, of un- known habitat but probably native to the New World, grown for the edible seeds. ~ Leaves 3-foliolate, the leaflets stalked and stipellate, entire ; flowers papilion- aceous, greenish, whitish or tinted with blue or blush, few at the apex of a short axillary peduncle, the stamens 9 and 1, pistil 1 and contained within the stamen tube, which is enclosed in the spiralled or twisted keel (a, Fig. 295); fruit a long, 2-valved pod containing many oblong or sometimes oval seeds of many colors. The common garden snap beans are of the same species. The bush beans are often separated as a distinct species, P. nanus, but both bush and pole varieties are undoubtedly domestic de- rivatives of one species, Fig. 295. Flowers of the common Mite GZ = bean( Phaseolus vulgaris), with & W/ A eX one flower opened (a) to show : DD \ History. While beans have been grown ana used for human food in various forms from a very early date, the production of commercial dried beans is of recent origin. It is stated that in 1836 Stephen Coe brought from the eastern part of New York into the town of Yates, Orleans county, a single pint of beans. He planted them, and from the successive products of three years, his son, Tunis H. Coe, in 1839 raised a small crop of beans and sold a load of thirty-three bushels to H. V. Prentiss, of Albion, the only man in the county who could be induced to buy so many. This is supposed to be the first load of beans sold in western New York, and it is probable that up to that time there had not existed anywhere in the world an organ- ized industry for producing and distributing commercial dried beans. From this humble beginning sprang an industry that has produced in the state of New York alone for the last thirty years one to two million bushels of beans per year. For many years the production of commercial beans was confined to Orleans county, but it gradually spread to other counties and later was taken up in other states. This devel- opment has occurred in about sixty years, but during the first twenty-five years of this period the production did not rise to 2 per cent of its present volume. The early settlers of western New York depended principally on the sale of wheat for their cash income, and eastern markets were largely dependent on the wheat grown in western the structure. BEANS New York. The advent of the weevil in 1846, which proved very destructive in the wheat-fields, offered to farmers the first inducement to experi- ment in raising beans. However, the industry made little growth down to 1861. At this time the government began to buy beans for use in the army and during the years of the civil war pro- duction increased very rapidly. At the close of the war the government demand ceased, but the soldiers had learned to eat beans and they carried the habit back with them into home life and induced others to eat beans also. Thus arose the consump- tive demand for beans that has made possible the great development of the indus- try. Other causes have influ- enced the extension of the con- sumption of beans-in certain ‘ localities, but none were of so widespread influence as the civil war. At the present time the practice of canning beans in convenient and attractive forms is doing much to extend their use. According to the Twelfth Cen- sus of the United States (crop of 1899), Michigan is the larg- est producer of commercial dried beans of any of the states. In the previous census reports of the crops of 1879 and 1889, New York ranked first in bean production. In 1879, New York produced 42.4 per cent and in 1889, 35.1 per cent of the total crop of the United States. The weather condi- tions in New York in 1899 were more unfavorable and the bean crop was numerically small, falling to 26.9 per cent of the total crop of the United States, while Michigan produced 35.7 per cent of the same. It is asserted by dealers in beans in New York that the state still leads in production in normal seasons, but owing to the fact that no Fig. 296. y The common bean {f (Phaseolus vul- garis). BEANS statistics relating to beans are taken except in eensus years, it is difficult to confirm or refute the assertion. The following table, from the Report of the Twelfth Census, gives the statistics of bean pro- eg for the season 1899 as compared with 9: BEANS 207 Climate.——As to the climatic limitations of com: mercial bean-growing, we are uncertain. Asa mat- ter of fact, the industry is at present confined te the northern border of the United States, a part of California and to southern Canada. The garden beans are extensively grown in more southern and warmer localities, and no doubt the field crop States CuLtivaTinc 1,000 Acres or More or BraNns IN 1899, ARRANGED IN DESCENDING 7 ORDER OF PRODUCTION; ALSO THE PRODUCTION IN 1889. Number of Average Average Production Per cent bushel i praia Kons. | aspen | Wein] Baniols ocean | im uan | ctlncease Michigan. ....... 167,025 1,806,418 | $2,861,020 10.8 $1.31 434,014 316.2 New York ...... | 129,298 1,360,445 2,472,668 10.5 1.82 1,111,510 22.4 California ......-. 45,861 658,515 1,022,586 14.4 1.55 713,480 Te PIOPIda. aero a a eva 9,189 176,304 189,349 19.2 0.79 6,613 2,566.0 Maine: i si ie eg We 10,252 187,290 290,885 13.4 2.12 149,710 8.3* Nirginias «je. a % os 6,411 56,189 66,066 8.8 1.18 24,048 183.7 North Carolina ..... 5,881 49,518 50,708 9.2 1.02 36,909 34.2 Tennessee ....... 5,563 48,736 57,660 8.8 1.18 29,780 63.7 Missouri... ..... 4,376 45,647 73,850 10.4 1.62 29,682 54.0 Minnesota ....... 3,290 36,317 49,685 11.0 1.37 61,009 40.5* New Mexico ...... 8,349 86,022 73,001 10.8 2.03 7,843 359.3 Indiana «ss sw 6 2,999 30,171 46,281 10.1 1.53 34,988 13.8* Illinois. . 2. ww Z 8,451 80,122 46,084 8.7 1.53 21,308 41.4 New Hampshire ..... 2,892 29,990 62,799 10.4 2.09 44,589 82.7* Colorado... .. F 2,634 28,570 49,169 10.8 1.72 7,265 293.3 Vermont. .....-.- 2,404 27,172 51,629 11.3 1.90 31,880 14.8* Towa... ... e 408% 2,427 24,908 38,296 10.3 1.54 33,769 26.3* Pennsylvania. ..... 2,182 23,957 38,719 11.0 1.62 11,356 110.0 OO: 2 2 aa ee evap ee 1,828 19,042 33,307 10.4 1.75 80,213 87.0* Alabama.......- 1,765 17,865 15,507 10.1 0.87 4,841 269.0 Georgia ......2.. 1,927 17,489 17,982 9.1 1.03 19,619 10.9* Arkansas.ss 2% «4% « % 1,490 15,582 17,046 10.5 1.09 8,570 81.8 South Carolina ..... 1,657 14,925 18,986 9.0 93 8,018 86.1 * Decrease. The Dominion of Canada had’ 46,634 acres of beans in 1901, with a yield of 861,327 bushels. Culture. Soil.—“Too poor to grow white beans” is a com- mon expression with some farmers in describing soils in a low state of fertility. This would seem to indicate that beans will thrive on poor land bet- ter than most crops. Beans will grow on a variety of soils and perhaps give fair yields on soils not strong enough for satisfactory results with corn or potatoes ; nevertheless, profitable bean-growing requires soils well adapted to the crop and in a good or even high state of fertility. Like most leguminous crops, beans reach their highest de- velopment on limestone soils. Clay loams, if well drained, and sandy or gravelly loams if well sup- plied with humus and properly fertilized, will grow profitable crops of beans. Heavy clay and sandy soils are less suitable. Peaty soils are not desirable, as they produce a rank growth of vine that is sub- ject to diseases and the ripening of the seeds is uneven. Land that will produce both good corn and good wheat will grow beans successfully, although the beans will not thrive on such heavy soils as will wheat nor on such light soils as will ¢orn. . would grow there satisfactorily. Insects and other pests are more abundant, however, in the warmer localities and they interfere with the ripening of sound seed, and probably would render results with the field crop uncertain. The market-gareners of the South resort to northern-grown beans for seed because of the prevalence of the weevil in seed of their own production. It is probable that the effect of climate on the pests of the bean crop has more influence in limiting the area of production than has either soil or climate on the crop itself. Even within the limits of New ‘York there are great differences in the destructiveness of the weevil. Beans grown in the northern counties are rarely affected by weevil, while those grown in the south- ern counties as rarely escape. Place in rotation.—Beans do best on an inverted clover sod and usually are given this place in the rotation. A three-year rotation of clover, beans and wheat is practiced in a considerable part of. the bean-growing section. Corn and potatoes are usually secondary to beans in these localities. When grown, they get a part of the clover sod and are often followed by beans, so that the rotation becomes one of four years. When beans are to be followed by winter wheat, the early-maturing varieties are preferred, as they are off the land 208 BEANS early enough to permit thorough fitting of the soil for wheat. Late-maturing varieties are more fre- quently followed by some spring-sown crop, as oats, Seed-bed.—Harly plowing is essential to best results with beans. As the planting is not done till late spring at earliest, there is a tendency, owing to pressure of other work or to slackness, to delay plowing till near the time of planting, much to the disadvantage of the crop. As in the case of wheat and buckwheat, the land should be plowed five or six weeks before the time of planting and should receive frequent harrowings to bring it into the best possible condition. By this treatment a Fig. 297. Types of beans. Left, Yellow-eye; center, Black Turtle-soup; right, Boston Small Pea. (Reduced.) larger quantity of moisture is held in the subsoil and becomes available for the crop later in the season. The weed seeds are also given a chance to germinate and to be killed before planting, so the after-tillage of the crop is less expensive. More fre- quently than otherwise the crop suffers for want of moisture at some period in its growth, and early plowing and thorough fitting are the best means of guarding against this contingency. Probably no one thing results in so much loss to bean-growers as late and hasty fitting of the land. When grown on poor land, beans respond well to dressings of barnyard manure or of commercial fer- tilizer, though it is not a general practice to manure or fertilize the crop. In experiments conducted by the Cornell Experiment Station, it is indicated that applications of phosphoric acid are especially likely to prove profitable. Seed.—The quantity of seed required per acre varies with the variety. Of the small varieties (Marrow Pea and Boston Small Pea), many growers plant one-half bushel per acre, although some secure better results with three pecks or even one bushel. Five or six pecks of Kidney beans are recommended, and intermediate amounts of other sorts, according to size. BEANS Planting.—Beans are usually grown in drills. The distance between rows varies from twenty- four to thirty-two inches; it is usually twenty- eight inches. The ordinary grain drill is used almost exclusively for planting, by stopping the tubes that are not needed. Special bean planters are sometimes used in planting large-seeded varie- ties, as some of the grain drills will not handle these successfully. The time of planting varies somewhat with the locality, but more especially with the variety of bean. The Kidney and Black Turtle-soup varieties require more time for development than the smaller beans and should be planted somewhat earlier. In New York, the Kidneys are usually planted in the last half of May, while the Pea and Medium varie- ties should be planted June 5 to 20. The Marrows and Yellow-eyes come intermediate. Very early planting of beans is not to be rec- ommended. If placed in soil too cold or too wet for quick germination the seeds rot quickly, and even if a fair stand is secured the young plants do not get an even start. The strongest and best seeds start first under these unfavorable conditions and a little later some of the weaker seeds grow, resulting in a stand of plants of unequal size and vigor. This uneven start results in uneven ripening at harvest time,—one of the troubles of the bean- grower. This trouble is not so likely to be met if the planting be deferred till the soil becomes warm and in acondition to favor rapid germination and vigorous growth. Cultivation Beans come up quickly under favorable conditions, and cultivation may begin early. The young plants are tender and break easily at first, hence care is required in working among them. Some farmers use the weeder on the crop after the plants have formed several leaves, but this practice is of doubtful propriety, as any mutilation of the plants increases the liability to disease. Cultivators of various designs are used in the bean-fields ; the ordinary one-horse hand-cul- tivator has been used chiefly in the past; but wheel tools cultivating two or more rows at a time are now in much favor. Tillage should be frequent enough to prevent weeds getting a foothold or a crust forming at the surface of the soil. Culti- vation should not be given while the leaves are wet from dew or rain, as under these conditions disease spores are readily transferred from dis- eased to healthy plants. Varieties of field beans. There are grown in the states seven or eight distinct varieties of commercial beans and some of these have several sub-varieties. These varieties are quite distinct from the vegetable or garden sorts that are grown for the canning factories or for sale in the green state. They may be named as follows: the Pea varieties, including Marrow Pea bean, Boston Small Pea bean; Medium bean (with sub-varieties of Day Leafless Medium, Blue-pod Medium, Burlingame Medium and White Wonder) ; White Marrow (with sub-variety Vineless Marrow); Red Marrow (which is probably a sub-variety of BEANS Red Kidney); Improved Yellow-eye, White Kidney, Red Kidney and Black Turtle-soup. The four varieties constituting the bulk of the beans pro- duced in New York are the Pea beans, the Mediums, the Red Kidney and the White Marrows, and in the order named. The others are grown in limited quantities. The White Marrow, , Yellow-eye, and Red and White Kidney va- 4% rieties seem to require a stronger and more fertile soil to produce a satisfactory crop than do the Pea or Medium varieties. Data secured by the Cornell Station indicate \ that in their present state of fertility most New York soils will produce larger yields of the smaller white varieties than of the larger ones. Harvesting. Formerly beans were harvested by hand- labor, but now this work is done chiefly by machinery. The bean harvester or cutter (Fig. 302) is a two-wheeled machine, hav- BEANS 209 weather is unfavorable, the punches must be turned frequently to prevent the beans in those pods resting on the ground becoming damaged. Wet weather does not injure the crop seriously ing two steel blades so adjusted that as the machine passes over the ground they sweep along just at or below the surface and cut the bean-stalks or pull them up. The blades are set obliquely, sloping backward and to- ward one another, so that the two rows of beans which are pulled at one time are moved toward one another and left in a single row. Soon after the beans are pulled, men pass along with forks, throw- ing them into small bunches ; or they are made into bunches by the use of a horse-rake. After drying, perhaps for one day, the bunches are turned and so moved that three rows, as left by the puller, are made into one, leaving space between rows to drive through with wagons. If drying weather prevails, they will become fit for drawing and storing in the barns without further turning; but if the B14 Fig. 298. Types of beans. Left, Red Kidney; center, Medium Bean; right, White Marrow. (Reduced.) Fig. 299. A garden bean at various stages of development. A, first picking (for “string’’ beans); B, about half grown; O, about three. fourths grown; D, fully-grown pods. providing the beans are not allowed to rest on the wet ground long at a time; but the frequent turning necessary to prevent their taking harm involves considerable labor. When dry, they are stored in barns like hay and may be threshed at convenience. The threshing is done by specially constructed machines much like the ordinary grain-thresher. Some growers prefer to thresh with the old-fashioned flail, maintaining that the saving in beans that otherwise would be split, compensates for the slower work. Cleaning.—As the beans come from the threshers, there are among them more or less that are discol- ored and damaged, and also gravel and dirt of vari- ous sorts, This refuse must be removed before the beans are ready for market. Much of this work can be done by machinery, but some of it must be accomplished by hand-picking. Usually, ‘beans going into market are “hand-picked,” which means that practically every bean is perfect. The work of preparing the crop for market is now almost exclusively in the hands of the bean dealers. At many of the railway stations in the bean-growing sec- tions are “ bean-houses,” usually the prop- erty of a local produce dealer who buys the crops of the locality. The farmer delivers SS his crop at the bean-house. It is sampled. } The sample is weighed, picked and weighed again to determine the loss by picking. The farmer is usually paid for the estimated amount of picked beans which he de- livers. At the bean-houses the beans are run through special machines that remove much of the refuse and sometimes grade the beans according to size. The hand-picking is usually performed by women and girls. The work is much facilitated by a 210 BEANS mechanical device which causes the beans, thinly spread on a movable canvas apron, to pass slowly in front of the picker, who has opportunity to see each bean and time to pick out the gravel and damaged beans. By means of a foot-lever the operator controls the movement of the apron and the rapidity of the flow of the beans, which are led by means of spouts from the storage room above. Some dealers arrange the work so as to keep ten to twenty persons employed throughout the year. By-products, Cull beans.—A by-product of the bean-houses are the damaged beans removed from the crop. These are mixed with more or less of gravel which the machines could not separate from the beans. These cull beans have a high feeding value, although the admixture of gravel interferes somewhat with their use. Sheep are fond of beans and will sort them out, leaving the gravel. Swine eat the cooked beans, and by stirring in water while cooking, the gravel falls to the bottom of the vessel and leaves the food practically free from it. Ground and mixed with other grains, the beans may be fed to cattle, and when the animals become accustomed to them they are apparently relished, although at first they are usually rejected. The presence of the gravel is especially objectionable when it is desired to grind the beans. Probably the best use of cull beans is for sheep and swine food, and for this pur- pose they have a higher value than farmers have usually assigned to them. It is important, however, that they be fed in connection with other more carbonaceous foods, as corn, instead of being made the exclusive diet, or the health of the ani- mals may be impaired. Samples of cull beans from the bean-houses of New York have been analyzed by Cavanaugh and reported on as follows: BEANS Diseases. There are a number of diseases affecting the bean plant, each of which assumes considerable economic importance at times. The most destruc- tive of these is the bean anthracnose (Colletotrichum Lindemuthianum, Fig. 58), though bean-blight (Bac- terium phaseoli) also often causes considerable loss. In 1904 and 1905, these diseases, especially YL. ANH, Sh = st Za Fig. 300, A garden bean with full crop. the former, were very abundant and destructive in New York. The bean anthracnose occurs in almost every case as the result of planting diseased seed. If conditions are favorable it may develop rapidly, resulting in the destruction of the plant while still small; or under other conditions its progress may COMPOSITION OF CULL BEANS. ‘ F Nitrogen- Refuse most], Water Protein Fiber fra ox tenes Fat Ash gravel v Per cent Per cent Percent | Percent Per cent Per cent Per cent Qullbeans ......2.2-- 10.00 21.60 3.70 47.50 1.20 3.20 12.80 Bean-straw is also a by-product of considerable economic importance as forage. Sheep are fond of the pods and thrive on them. When fed to dairy cows they are productive of good results. Al- though if used freely there is a tendency to pro- duce looseness of the bowels, a danger that should be guarded against. The digestible nutrients con- tained by bean-straw, as computed by Cavanaugh, are as follows: be so slow as to attract little attention till the pods are well formed, when it may appear as “pod- spot.” The diseased seedlings may be recognized by the brown or black sunken spots or pits on the stems and cotyledons. The stem may become so diseased and weakened at the base as to fall over of its own weight. When the beans are affected after the leaves are well developed, these will show the disease chiefly on the under side DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN BEAN STRAW. Total dry matter Protein Fane + Total Nutritive ratio Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Bean straw. . 95.00 8.60 39.70 43.40 1:11.0 BEANS along the veins, which become brownish and dead. The blade itself may often become affected. If the attack develops late in the season, it is on the pods that it becomes most characteristic and destructive. Here it forms large, dark brown sunken spots in the tissue of the pods. The spores of the fungus may often be seen as a tiny pink mass at the center of these spots or pits. The dis- -ease gradually works through the pods, and, at- tacking the seeds, forms pits or discolored places in them. When the seeds are dried the fungus becomes dormant, only to become active again the next season, when the diseased cotyledons are lifted above the soil on the growing stalks. Diseased seed usually may be recognized by the discolored areas on the coat and by the shriveled condition. Weather conditions do not cause or originate bean anthracnose, but they have very much to do with its development and destructiveness. The spores are held together by a gummy substance which is easily dissolved in water, permitting them to be disseminated to healthy plants by means of insects, tools of tillage and in other ways. It is for this reason that tilling beans while wet with dew or rain almost always results in marked increase of anthracnose. The treatment for anthracnose must be pre- ventive rather than curative. Below are given what are now considered to be the best means of controlling this trouble: (1) Plant clean seed. If possible, secure seed from fields known to be free from the anthracnose. If seed from diseased fields must be planted, it should be hand-sorted carefully, and all seeds not perfect and bright should be rejected. (2) Go over the field just after the beans are up, and carefully remove and burn all diseased seed- lings. If left on the ground they will serve as centers of infection for the growing plants. ‘a ih . . sited ‘ i “alii fil } Mi i i fh) uit ‘ Fig. 301. Bean plant in crop. (8) Spray thoroughly with Bordeaux mixture. The normal strength should be used : 6 lbs. vitriol, 4 pounds lime, 50 to 60 gallons water. The addition of resin soap will add to the effectiveness of the mixture by making it spread more evenly, and it will be less easily washed off by rains (resin soap : 2 pounds resin, 1 pound crystallized salsoda, 2 BEANS 211 quarts water; boil until a clear brown solution is secured). Add this to one barrel of the Bordeaux. ‘Apply thoroughly with a nozzle giving a fine spray. The first application should be made just about the time the third leaf is expanding, or Fig. 302. Bean harvester. earlier if the disease appears to any considerable extent. Repeat the application three or four times at intervals of ten to fourteen days or whenever the rains wash the Bordeaux off. (4) Do not hoe or cultivate diseased beans when they are wet, as this will tend to spread the dis- ease to healthy plants. Insect enemies. The most troublesome insect pest of the bean industry in localities where it abounds is the bean- weevil (Bruchus obtectus). The adult is a brown- gray beetle about an eighth of an inch in length. Tn the field, the eggs are deposited on or inserted in the pod through a hole made by the jaws of the female and through openings caused by the drying and splitting of the pods. In dried beans the eggs are dropped loosely among the beans or placed in the holes made by the beetles in their exit from the seed. The eggs hatch in five to twenty days, being much influenced by temperature. The young larve burrow into the beans and there undergo their transformations, emerging as mature beetles. The larval stage lasts eleven to forty-two days, and the pupal stage five to eighteen days, so that the life-cycle covers a period twenty-one to eighty days according to season and locality. Hence a number of generations are produced annually. In localities where these beetles abound the damage done to the mature beans is often such as to render them valueless for human food or for seed and of but little value for stock-feeding. No effective means are known for the prevention of the attacks of the bean-weevil in the field; hence, we must place our chief reliance on the thorough destruction of the insects in the dried seed and perhaps not attempt the production of culinary dried beans in localities infested with the weevil. Fortunately the weevil seems not to have established itself in those parts of the United States where the dried-bean industry is most developed, which is the region bordering on the Saint Lawrence river and the Great Lakes. The northern counties of New York seem to be free 212 BEAN, BROAD from this pest, while in the southern counties oe industry is practically excluded because of it. The weevil in beans may be destroyed by the same methods employed in the case of pea-weevil, which see. If the infestation is but partial and treatment is resorted to immediately after harvest the seed may be preserved in satisfactory condition for planting. Literature. The following publications will be found helpful. The first three are concerned with the culture of beans and the remainder with bean enemies :— Transactions of New York Agricultural Society, 1895, p. 823; 1897, p. 8328; Cornell University Experiment Station Bulletin No. 210; Report of New York State Department of Agriculture, Vol. 8, 1890, p. 49; Transactions New York State Agricultural Society, 1892, p. 238; Tenth Annual Report of New York State Experiment Station, Geneva, p. 23; Yearbook, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, 1898, p. 233; Connecticut (New Haven) Experiment Station, 20th and 21st Reports, Part 111, p. 189; Cornell University Experiment Station Bulletin No. 239. BEAN, BROAD. Vicia Faba, Linn. (Faba vul- garis, Moench.) Leguminose (Windsor, Horse, English Dwarf or Scotch Bean). Figs. 303, 304. By John Fister. The broad bean is grown for its grain or seed, which is used as food for man and for live-stock, and also for its herbage, which is used as fodder. It is a strong, erect annual, 2 to 4 feet tall, glabrous or nearly so, and very leafy; leaflets 2 to 6, the terminal one wanting or represented by a rudi- mentary tendril, oval to elliptic and obtuse or Flowers and leaf of the broad bean. Fig. 303. mucronate-pointed ; flowers axillary, dull white and with a large blue-black spot ; pods numerous, large and thick, two or three inches up to eighteen inches long ; the seeds large arid often Hat. This bean has been in cultivation since prehistoric times, and its nativity is in doubt. It is probably native to northern Africa and southwestern Asia. It is much grown in the Old World. In America its cultivation is restricted by our hot, dry summers BEAN, BROAD and it is little grown outside of Canada. It is adapted in a measure to the northern Pacific coast country and to similar regions where the summer temperatures do not run high. It is particularly successful in the maritime provinces of Canada. The plant is hardy. Its culture has been spreading since the introduction of the silo. Varieties. The varieties of broad beans are numerous. It is of no value to recommend any special varieties, as local conditions largely determine which is profit- able, and experience alone can direct the grower in his choice. Culture. Soils.—Broad beans will thrive on a. wide range of soils, as long as they are rich, deep and well drained. It does best on clay loams. Immediately after the preceding crop isremoved the land should be gang-plowed. In order to destroy all weeds, late summer and autumn cultivation should be given, if possible. Late in the fall the land is plowed deeply ; and-if there is a stiff subsoil, the subsoil plow should be employed. Just before planting in the spring, the land is given a thorough surface cultivation to destroy any weeds that may have started, and to make the seed-bed fine. Manuring.—In the fall or spring, a dressing of barnyard manure is given, at the rate of twelve tons per acre. If the manuring is not performed until winter or early spring it will be necessary to plow the land again. Seeding.—When grown for seed broad beans are commonly sown with a grain drill in rows twenty- eight to thirty-five inches apart. They may be hand planted. The plants should stand about two inches apart in the row. Forty to fifty pounds of seed per acre are required. When grown for silage, fodder or green-manure, it is best to sow in rows 21 inches apart. The plants will grow thicker but not mature so early, giving a heavier yield per acre. It will then be necessary to sow 50 to 60 pounds of seed per acre. The best time for planting in eastern Canada is May 15 to June 1. Place in the rotation.—Broad beans usually come between two grain crops, but as they can make use of a liberal supply of humus they may profita- bly follow meadow or pasture. For the bean crop a field should generally be used that is in need of cleaning ; and poor soils may be greatly benefited because of the nitrogen-gathering habit of the broad beans. Subsequent care—Just before the plants appear above the surface, a thorough harrowing should be given to destroy weeds. Care must be taken not to tear up the small bean plants. It is advisable to use a harrow that has short teeth, or teeth that slope backward. After the plants are up, frequent cultivations should be given until the plants meet in the rows. Harvesting.—If the crop is to be used for silage, it should be cut when the grain is in the late dough stage, that is, just before it is ripe. When ensiled, one part of beans should be mixed with BEAN, BROAD ten parts of corn. If the plants are grown for their seeds, the seeds or grain should be allowed thoroughly to ripen, when the plants may be cut with an ordinary corn harvester. A fair yield of beans is about thirty bushels to the acre. After threshing, care should be taken to see that the grain is thoroughly dry, otherwise it may heat in the storehouse. Uses. The broad bean has a diversity of uses,—the grain as food for man and stock, the fodder for silage and soiling, and the plant as a cover-crop and soil-renovator; and “coffee” may be made from the beans. The plant has been largely tested at some of the Canadian experimental farms, and is frequently mentioned in the reports of these exper- imental farms. In the report for 1904 (pp. 125, 126) is the following discussion of its use as a cover-crop : “In the report for 1903, experiments on the use of the English horse bean and hairy vetch were described. It was shown that horse beans and hairy vetch sown in rows twenty-eight inches apart had given very satisfactory results. These were sown in this way because it is sometimes difficult to get a good ‘stand’ for a cover-crop in the autumn, by sowing about the middle of July and later, owing to the dry weather which often occurs after seed- ing, delaying the germination of the seed; and in the North it is very desirable to have the cover- crop tall, so that it will hold the snow. By sowing the seed in rows, it can be sown comparatively early, and the soil cultivated between the rows when the plants come up, thus conserving moisture and making sure of a good cover-crop. Cultivation may be discontinued about the middle of July or a little later. The horse beans sown on June 18, 1903, were three feet six inches to four feet in height on September 21, and it was estimated that the green crop per acre was 7 tons 733 pounds above ground and 2 tons 852 pounds of roots, or a total of 9 tons 1,585 pounds per acre, containing, according to the figures given by Mr. Frank T. Shutt, Chemist of the Experimental Farms, in his report for 1903, 78 pounds of nitrogen as compared with 180 pounds from mammoth red clover, and 147 pounds from hairy vetch. These beans stood up well all winter, holding the snow admirably, and by spring were still two to two and one-half feet in height. A land roller was put on as soon as the soil was in condition to work, and the beans were rolled down. The disk-harrow was then used and it was found that they broke up readily; they were then cultivated in with a spring-tooth cultivator. Owing to the coarse nature of the stems, they vere noticed in the soil longer than clover or vetch, but in a comparatively short time they decayed and gave practically no trouble. Horse beans were again sown in drills, this year on June 16, and were three feet five inches in height when frozen. The advantage of horse beans is that they winter- kill and are easily worked under in the spring, while hairy vetch and clover are more difficult to deal with, and if left until late in the spring will BEAN, BROAD 218 take considerable moisture from the soil. The dis- advantage of the horse bean is that there isno mat of vegetation close to the soil, and if there should be a winter without show, it might not prove so effective as red clover or hairy vetch. In order to ensure a mat of vegetation which would cover the Broad beans in the field. Fig. 304. ground in winter, and which would be dead in the spring, rape was used in one part of the orchard, and it is thought that English horse beans and rape grown together will prove one of the most satisfactory cover-crops where they will succeed. The horse beans will furnish nitrogen and humus, and will hold the snow well; the rape will cover the ground, thus protecting the roots, and will also add humus. At Ottawa, horse beans sown in the last week of June, at the rate of one bushel per acre, in drills twenty-eight inches apart, and culti- vated two or three times, and rape sown broadcast between the rows in the latter half of August, should furnish a very satisfactory combination. Both English horse beans and rape are moisture- loving plants, and will not succeed so well in dry soils as they will where there is a fair amount of moisture. When the hairy vetch is grown for seed, horse beans sown in drills at the same time as the vetch should prove very useful the following sea- son in holding up the vines, thus insuring a larger crop of seed.” In Canadian experiments with oats and barley - after different crops, it was found that the broad bean is an excellent crop to use in the rotation. Many farms undoubtedly would be greatly benefited by growing this crop as a soil-restorer. Following is the yield per acre of oats grown after various crops, in comparison with the broad bean: 214 BEAN, BROAD Bus. Ibs, engine After flax oats gave... .. 49 14 40 to 45 in. After grain oats gave... .58 28 43 to 48 in. After broad bean oats gave . .69 14 46 to 50 in. After soybean oats gave .. .49 14 40 to 45 in. After corn oats gave ....52 32 40 to 45 in. After millet oats gave . . . .438 «18 36 to 40 in. The next year barley was grown on the same plots as the above, with the following results: Bus, Peat? After flax, 2 years previous, barley . 35 387 to 39 in. After grain, 2 years previous, barley . 39 8 36 to 38 in. After broad bean, 2 years previous, barley S Fig. 343. Loading crimson clover in the South. there is lime in the soil. It makes good bee pas- ture, and is liked by all animals. When in seed it sometimes salivates horses, making them to “slob- ber.” It is exceedingly nutritious. It should be sown in all mixtures for permanent pastures. The seed being very small, no more than two to four pounds per acre need be sown. It does well with most grasses, enriching the soil, giving place to them when they are vigorous, but reappearing again when they are subdued. It is usually too short for hay. All animals relish it, and it is very fattening except in unusually cold, wet seasons. COFFEE AND COFFEE-GROWING, with Special Reference to Porto Rico and Hawaii (Coffea Ara- bica, Linn., and C. Liberica, Hiern). Rubiacee. Figs. 344-358. By J. W. Van Leenhoff. Coffee-growing is essentially a tropical industry. It is of vast proportions. The annual production in the world exceeds 1,500,000,000 pounds. Within recent years there has been over-planting and over- production, with a consequent falling in price that has practically stamped ‘out the industry in parts of the Hawaiian islands and elsewhere. Africa, Arabia, Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia, Central Amer- ica, Ceylon, Hawaiian islands, Java, Mexico, Porto Rico, all grow considerable coffee, Brazil alone producing nearly three-fourths of the world’s sup- ply. The two species, Coffea Arabica and C. Liberica, furnish most of the commercial product. [For a botanical discussion of species, see Coffea, Cyclo- pedia of American Horticulture.] In order to show the extent to which the industry has grown, the following table of production and consumption is given. It was prepared by Stein- wender, Stoffregen & Co., New York City, on Janu- ary, 1, 1907, 4 240 COFFEE COFFEE PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION IN Bacs* oF ALL Kinps oF COFFEE FOR THE LAst FIFTEEN YEARS. PRODUCTION (Crops) CoNnSUMPTION World's Production | Consump- Visible Supply Crop Year| Rio & Santos All Others Total Total Over Con- tion Over on July 1 sumption Production 1890-1 5,358,000 8,965,000 9,323,000 8,718,661 604,339 | 1891 1,909,120 1891-2 7,897,000 4,582,000 11,979,000 10,804,551 1,174,449 1892 2,955,023 1892-3 6,202,000 5,082,000 11,284,000 10,946,228 , 887,772 aay ae 1893 8,100,618 1893-4 4,309,000 5,092,000 9,401,000 10,571,533 . . .. | 1,170,583 | 1894. 2,146,423 1894-5 6,695,000 5,069,000 11,764,000 11,212,851 551,149 a ei aay, 1895 3,115,680 1895-6 5,476,000 4,901,000 10,377,000 11,142,813 oa ahi 765,813 | 1896 2,588,193 1896-7 8,680,000 5,238,000 18,918,000 12,244,204 | 1,673,796 Ses 1897 8,975,880 1897-8 10,462,000 5,596,000 16,058,000 14,571,902 | 1,486,098 . 1898 5,435,974 1898-9 8,771,000 4,985,000 18,756,000 18,480,904 275,096 Sfaglicibe de 1899 6,200,013 1899-1900 8,959,000 4,842,000 18,801,000 14,972,699 | .... 1,171,699 | 1900 5,840,561 1900-1 10,927,000 4,178,000 15,100,000 14,329,925 770,075 Be tactone 1901 6,867,627 1901-2 15,439,000 4,296,000 19,735,000 | 15,516,663 | 4,218,337 1902 11,261,331 1902-3 12,324,000 4,340,000 16,664,000 15,966,498 697,502 ae 1903 11,900,173 1903-4 10,408,000 5,575,000 15,983,000 16,183,707 - «+. | + 150,707 | 1904 12,361,454 1904-5 9,968,000 4,480,000 14,448,000 16,163,353 1,715,858 | 1905 11,265,510 1905-6 10,227,000 4,565,000 14,792,000 16,741,215 1,949,215 | 1906. 9,636,563 *A bag is 132 pounds. History. inches annually, evenly distributed, gives best re- Nicholas Witsen, a Hollander, was the first to transfer the coffee plant from its native soil in Arabia, thus laying the foundation on which grad- ually the world’s present enormous coffee industry has developed. The plant prospered which he took from Mocha in 1690, and planted in Batavia, capital of the Dutch East Indies. It is probable that seed from this tree and its descendants were in the course of time transported to the different coffee zones of the world, where its descendants now cover vast areas and are the means of suste- nance for millions of people, while its products have become almost a necessity of life for millions more. A seedling was sent from Batavia to the Botan- ical Gardens in Amsterdam, from which in 1712 the French artillery officer, Ressous, secured a seed- ling. He gave it to King Louis XIV, who had it planted in the Jardin des Plantes, where it soon died. In 1714, the Burgomaster of Am- sterdam sent another seedling to Louis XIV which was planted in the Jardin des Plantes, “/ lived and produced seeds, of which, after an unsuccessful attempt by Dr. Isambert, a seedling was brought in 1720 to Martinque by a French officer, de Clieux, and planted with success. Seeds from this plant were distributed to the colonists in Martinique and other French possessions in the Antilles. Not many years later, French refugees form Hayti brought seeds to Porto Rico. General culture. Climate.— Coffee reaches its best development at altitudes of 1,000 to 2,500 feet above sea-level, 2,000 feet being perhaps the optimum elevation. Other conditions being favorable, very good crops are grown frequently at lesser altitudes. Gener- ally, the higher elevations are associated with greater rainfall and a lower temperature, making less shade necessary. The higher altitudes seem to produce a larger bean. A rainfall of 50 to 200 sults. Freedom from severe winds is essential. An equable temperature, having an average minimum of not less than 60° is required. Soil— Coffee will thrive on a variety of soils, but adeep, rich soil is desirable, a large content of humus being especially favorable. Volcanic de- posits are well adapted. In Porto Rico, the Adjun- tas clay and Alonzo clay give the best results. The former is a pink-red or dark brown clay, three to eight inches deep, underlaid by a pink or red subsoil twenty inches or more in depth. The latter is a dark, purplish clay loam, eight to thirty- six inches deep, containing more or less pebbles and boulders. These clay soils are subject to less To Seri a al Fig. 344. Coffee flowers (Coffea Arabica). erosion, as a rule, than sandy ones, retain moisture better and wear much longer. Very sandy or gravelly soils, especially if closely underlaid by coarse gravel or broken rock, should be avoided. If such soils are virgin, the coffee trees will grow well for a few years but will soon fall into a de- cline, owing to the rapidity with which such soils deteriorate under the washing of heavy tropical rains. After the humus and surface fertility of such soils are depleted they withstand drought COFFEE poorly, because of their porous nature and the steep topography of most of the country which so quickly and completely drains away the water. The clay soils are more retentive of moisture and retain their fertility longer. As a rule, the coffee lands are naturally well Fig. 345. Coffee, showing the way in which ; the berries are borne. - (5) drained, but occasional small and comparatively level areas occur, which need artificial drainage. In constructing drains, care should be exercised so to place them as to cause the minimum amount of erosion. Other things equal, virgin forest land will give best results, because of its greater fertility. Its fertility and freeness from noxious weeds, thus reducing the subsequent cost of weeding the plan- tation, will often more than counterbalance the extra cost of clearing the land and the disadvan- tages of poor location, with reference to transpor- tation, frequently attendant on the taking up of new land. Preparing the land.—If time permits, the land should be cleared as thoroughly as possible, and all the waste material burned. Some persons rec- ommend not burning over the land, in order to save ferns which are invariably found in forest lands. It is presumed that the ferns keep the ground moist, prevent weeds from growing, protect the young coffee trees from insects and do not interfere with the growth of the coffee. Frequently the trees that are cut are allowed to rot on the land, the branches being trimmed so as not to interfere with the planting; or the underbrush may be cleared away and the trees girdled. The latter practice, however, is not to be commended, as it later is dangerous to the workers and to the coffee trees. Still another practice is to clear the underbrush and allow the trees to stand, planting the coffee directly under the forest trees, the trees being removed only after the artificial shade has grown. Trees should be left standing on ridges and on the side from which the prevailing wind blows, to serve as windbreaks. If the winds are strong, it may be necessary to plant some quick-growing tree as a windbreak where the forest trees will not serve. B16 COFFEE 241 If roads and drainage-ditches are necessary, they should be constructed assoon as the land is cleared. Seedling plants.— Volunteer seedlings, which occur in large numbers in all coffee groves, are usually procured. They are generally drawn from the ground by main force, though occasionally a spade or other instrument is employed. They vary from one to three years old, according to the preference of the planter. Frequently, however, seedlings are raised in seed- beds, which is the more ra- tional practice, as the volun- teer seedlings cannot be relied on fully. For this, the best-de- veloped berries should bechosen and carefully pulped by hand. The seed-beds are best located near the permanent planting, and should be of such a size as to facilitate planting, weeding and watering. Ordinarily it is safe to raise 25 per cent more seedlings than will be needed for the first planting. The seed-beds must be shaded and carefully protected from heavy downpours of rain. The hot sun should not strike the plants. (Fig.348.) The soil for the bed must be fined and leveled, and free from extraneous matter. It should be moistened thoroughly the evening previous to planting the seeds. The seeds are pressed lightly into the soil, about two inches apart each way. The bed is covered with a layer of wood-ashes and again moistened. As soon as the first round leaves are formed the plants may be transplanted into the nursery-beds. This will generally occur in about ten or twelve weeks after the seeds have been planted. The nursery-beds are similar to the seed-beds. The young plants are set in rows about six inches apart each way. Only those are reset that have Fig. 346. Coffee-tree branches loaded with berries. Guatemala coffee. straight, well-developed taproots. The taproots are cut back to a length of about four inches. Much care is required in the planting to see that the plants are set straight, and that they are buried just 242 COFFEE to the same height on the stock that they were in the seed-bed. The nursery-bed is watered after planting, and from time to time if the weather is dry. As the plants develop the shade is gen- erally removed until they are exposed to full sun- light. It should be planned to expose them to the full light and air when they have developed four pairs of leaves. After being exposed for some time they are ready to be planted in the field. It is pre- ferable that five pairs of true leaves be developed before transplanting. (Fig. 349.) Planting.—The planting distances should be marked carefully before any of the trees are set. The best distance between the rows is still un- settled. Seven to nine feet is common practice. Where coffee can be grown on somewhat flat land, as in Brazil, and machines used between the rows, a greater distance is desirable. The coffee lands in Porto Rico are generally very steep and irregular. Holes about two feet deep and as wide as neces- sary are made at the points determined for the planting. In Porto Rico a good practice is to place the subsoil on the lower side of the hole, and fill the hole only with surface-soil scraped from the vicinity. This makes a small table or flat, which can be gradually enlarged, which expedites hoeing about the young trees and reduces soil - washing during heavy rains. | Planting is done usually at the beginning of the rainy season, as it is necessary that the soil be moist and the sky at least partly cloudy. The seedlings to be planted should be thrifty and well developed. If branches have been formed and the stem thickened, the seedlings should be pruned back to about six inches from the collar. Planting is an important process and should be done with great care. It is important that the taproot be planted straight, and that it be not injured. The safest way is to lift the seedling on a spade, with the earth attached. The roots must not be exposed Fig. 347. The beginning of a coffee plantation; clearing the forest. Dwelling house and workman's house are shown, constructed from the felled forest trees, sawn by hand. to the sun, and any that extend beyond the clod should be removed by sharp scissors. The seedling is placed in the center of the hole, and the soil pressed firmly about it. The collar should be slightly below the surface. If the seedlings are COFFEE set bare, that is, without the clod, the plant hole should be filled and a hole of sufficient size made in the center by means of a rounded stick or dibber. The space about the root must be completely Fig. 348. Coffee seed and nursery beds under artificial shade. Porto Rico, Experiment Station. filled. Only seedlings that have not yet developed branches may be planted bare. The taproots are cut with sharp scissors at the point where they bend easily, and the side roots are pruned. The tap- root should not touch the bottom of the plant hole, and the side roots should be placed as nearly nor- mally as possible. Sometimes the fields are not ready to receive the seedlings when the latter are ready, and the seedlings develop too far. They should be cut back to about six inches, as above mentioned, and planted as “stumps.” Stumps are more vigorous and may be planted when the sun is shining, pro- viding the roots are not exposed to the sun. Many shoots or suckers will soon appear. When these become about two inches long, all but one should be removed with a sharp pruning knife. The re- maining shoot should develop into a strong plant more quickly than the seedlings. A certain percentage of the total number of trees set out will fail, and this number must be provided for resetting. An allowance of 10 per cent for this should be an abundance; and, with proper care, it would be excessive. Cultivation and subsequent care.—After the trees are set and the plantation started, the further care is very slight. The work consists almost entirely of weeding and replanting. One man can look after ten to fifteen acres. The weeding is done twice a year generally. It is essential that the land be kept clean, and that no weeds be allowed to run to seed. When the land becomes hard, sur- face tillage will be required. A practical method is to cultivate in a circle around the tree, gradually enlarging the area as the tree branches. . The first cultivation should always be made outside the original plant hole. Good crops demand that the soil be kept loose. The frequency of cultivations will be determined by the frequency with which the soil becomes sun-dried or packed by heavy rains. The extent of erosion or washing must also be considered, as in the steeper plantations it may make much surface tillage inadvisable. COFFEE Suckers should be removed as they appear and dead branches and unnecessary and undesirable parts cut away. The practice of pruning is falling into disuse in many coffee-growing regions because of labor and financial conditions, and has been en- Fig. 349. Coffee seedling. tirely abandoned in Hawaii. It is frequently advis- able to allow a lower shoot to remain to replace the original stem which has suffered from the dying off of the lower branches. When the new stem begins to bear, the old one may be removed. Shade.—The most mooted question in coffee-cul- ture is that of shade. The opinion that heavy shad- ing is necessary has led to much injury of the industry, notably in Porto Rico. That high-grade coffee can be grown without shade has been shown in Guatemala and Brazil. The prevalent idea that shading benefits the foli- age and fruit is erro- neous. However, it is quite probable that shading the ground is a cultural advantage. Le- guminous trees are frequently planted for shade, and their nitro- gen-collecting powers have no doubt been bene- ficial to the coffee-plants. In Java, Ceylon and Africa, leguminous trees are used largely. Other possible advantages are protection against drought, and the moder- ation of the temperature of the upper layers of soil. The shade trees must not be so dense as to shut out light and air. A single tree may be COFFEE 243 placed in the center between blocks of four coffee trees each; that is, each block of four trees will have a shade tree on each side of it in the row. For a discussion of this subject the reader should consult Bulletin No. 25, Division of Botany, United States Department of Agriculture, Shade in Coffee Culture, by O. F. Cook. The trees used for shading in Porto Rico are guaba (Inga vera), guam4 (Inga laurina), moca (Andira inermis), and bucare (Erythrina microp- teryx). The first two are used most extensively. In Mexico, the shade tree is Inga Inicuil. In. Hawaii, coffee shading is practiced, the trees used being, in order of importance, silky oak (Grevillea robusta), kukui, Java plum and Monterey cypress. The native ohia tree, the principal forest tree in Hawaii, is usually left standing at intervals in new land until the planted grevillea is large enough to afford protection. (Fig. 850.) In Hamakua, the Grevillea robusta has been found so much superior to all other trees that it is now the only one recom- mended. It is clean and free from blight, and throws off leaves profusely, thus reducing the hoe- ing and supplying fertilizing material to the soil. Furthermore, the shade is variegated, and not too dense. The best practice seems to be to provide a row of shade trees every thirty-five or forty feet. The shade trees are pruned generally by cutting away the lower branches and clearing them of dead wood; and they are thinned out when neccessary. In new plantations the ferns are allowed to re- main to supply shade for the coffee seedlings, and more especially to lessen the loss from cutworms, which are very destructive to cultivated plants when the field is completely cleared. Most of the planters hold to the idea that if the coffee trees are topped, shade is a necessity ; if the trees are not topped, no shade is required ; but if the soil is poor or the field wind-swept, shade is beneficial. Harvesting.—The coffee trees begin to bear 244 COFFEE about the third year, giving light crops until the fifth or sixth year. The trees blossom at least three times a year, the fore blossoming, the large blossoming, and the after blossoming. These occur in the months of February, March, April and May, according to location. Generally after seven or vai) AU ice ih aes f Teen ni H hi PO TINEION tal via ya ie Na ae ya \ si i, SS Si Ahh, i Wi a id I i hi iit il | Fig. 351. Method of drying coffee in the sun in drawers that are slid under a house when there is no sunshine. eight months the berries are ripe. This throws the harvesting in the last four months of the year. The berries ripen unevenly, so that the plantation must be gone over several times. The picking is done by hand. The yield per tree varies greatly, according to the care given. One pound of dry coffee per tree is a general estimate, although this may be greatly increased. In Porto Rico the pickers are paid by the meas- ure, which is called “almud” and should contain twenty liters. About six or seven cents are paid for a measure. Twenty liters of berries are equal to about five pounds of coffee ready for the market. The expense of picking is $1.20 to $1.40 per 100 pounds of coffee. In Hawaii, the cost of picking and transporting the coffee to the mill averages about three and one-half to four and one-half cents per pound of market coffee. Handling the product. ‘ When the berries are picked they are subjected to one of two processes. The berries may be dried at COFFEE once and later put through machines called “hull- ers,” to extract the seed ; or they may be “pulped,” that is, have the outer fleshy coat removed, before drying. In Porto Rico, pulping is usually done at once. The pulping machine is driven by hand, water or other power. Sometimes the separated pulp is used as a fertilizer. The beans are collected in wooden or cement tanks in which they remain to fer- ment upwards of thirty hours, in order further to disintegrate the saccharine matter of the external coat, after which they are washed, either mechani- cally or by hand, and put on large cement floors in the sun to dry to a point where they can be stored safely. From these floors or from the storeroom they are put in drying drawers, These drawers, for the most part, are constructed underneath the high floors of houses, run on rails in the open, where they are kept: as long as there is sunshine (Fig. 351); at the least danger of rain the drawers are run back under shelter. During the whole drying process the grains are repeatedly turned. In some places me- chanical hot-air drying apparatus is used. As soon as the coffee is dry, which should be when it is brittle when broken between the teeth, it is either hulled or left in the parchment (the tough inner integument, also called hornskin) and taken in 100- pound bags to the most convenient market. Coffee merchants established there buy the coffee for cash. They hull, polish and separate it into different grades by special and mostly modern machinery, and finally pick it over by hand. : Hawaiian coffee is all fermented and washed. It is thought by many that the method of fermenting has a strong influence on the flavor of the coffee. The Hawaiian berry is first run through a pulping machine, immediately after being picked. When hulled, the bean in the parchment is fermented in shallow trays or bins eight to twelve inches in depth. When the beans have fermented and there is no longer a marked rising temperature, they are washed in a stream of running water to remove the gum and then transferred to drying-houses, or the product is taken to the beach and dried in the sun. This product, known as. parchment, is then packed and sent to the coffee milling establish- ments and is run through machinery which removes the parchment. The beans are then graded and polished and in many establishments hand-picked. When put up in bags of 100 to 150 pounds, the coffee is ready for market. Enemies. While a number of insects and fungi infest coffee plantations to a greater or less extent, the crop is remarkably free from serious annoyance. In Hawaii there are no serious diseases or insect pests, the torpedo bug (Stphanta acuta) and the brown-eyed disease (Cercospora coffeicola) of leaf and berry being the most troublesome. Both are readily amenable to preventive measures, the best preventive being thorough cultivation, the proper degree of shading, and the use of fertilizers. The coftee blight (Pulvinaria psidii) has done serious damage in some districts. It seems to occur prin- cipally in neglected plantations. It will probably Plate VIII. Coffee in bearing. Shaded by orange. Cuba COFFEE continue to be a pest, since it infests also the guava and certain ferns. Nematode worms are often present in the roots, and rarely occur in the stem and berry, causing the latter to drop before matu- rity. A “black fly” (aphid) is abundant on new growth in Hawaii. Porto Rico is not so fortunate in the point of numbers of enemies, but is comparatively free from serious annoyance. The diseases and insect pests thus far observed are as follows: Coffee leaf blight, provisionally called by F. S. Earle, Sclerotium sp., is a fungus which covers the trees from the roots up with brownish mycelial threads, spreading out, as the leaves are reached, ‘into a fine white weft. The attacked leaves blacken soon and fall. The remedy is plenty of sunlight and spraying with Bordeaux mixture. Stilbum flavidum, so-called American coffee dis- ease, is a fungus making on the leaves nearly round spots of about one centimeter in diameter and of a yellowish color, causing the leaves to drop. Reducing excessive shade is recommended as a remedy. Lately the same fungus has been discovered on the fruit, causing blackened spots on the pulp and seeming to eat its way into one of the kernels, on the parchment of which it causes wart-like growths which extend to the kernel itself. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture is being tried. Fig. 352. Cement floor for air-drying the wet-washed coffee. These diseases, as well as coffee root-rot, do not occur frequently, however, and mostly in too moist and overshaded localities. Coffee leaf-miner (Leucoptera coffeella) is perhaps the most serious coffee pest thus far observed. It is a minute silvery moth, which in its larval state burrows within the leaf tissues, causing brown, dead patches on the leaves. Sometimes more than one larva is found in the same patch, and the leaves are sometimes covered wit: such patches, thus COFFEE 245 seriously deranging the nutrition of the plant. On rich soil the harm is not very apparent, but must certainly influence the crop. On poorer soils the leaves drop off, leaving the trees entirely leafless or with only a pair of small leaves at the point of each branch, thus giving the growth of the plant a tremendous setback. Hand-picking and burning the attacked leaves have been resorted to, but without result ; as soon as new leaves are formed they are again and again attacked. Thus far the only remedies are its natural enemies (discovered on the island in 1904 by 0. W. Barrett), Chryso- charis livida, and Zagrammosoma multilineata, parasites, the larve of which are found inside the coffee leaf-miner on which they feed, and an apparently fungous disease which attacks the miner in its larval state. It has been estimated that the leaf-miner is responsible for the loss of upwards of $100,000 worth of coffee in Porto Rico annually. Coffee scale (Lecanium hemisphericum) is present everywhere. It sometimes occurs so plentifully on the tender twigs that they seem to dry out, but this is very seldom, and the harm from the scale is not otherwise apparent. Larve of lady-birds, and a white fungous disease which seems to grow in the bodies of the scale, spreading over all the scale on the same twig or stem or plant, seem to be ‘sufficient to hold the scale in check. Weevils do much harm in some places by eating the young leaves, and by attacking the green soft parts of the twigs, in some instances causing those parts bearing the fruit to drop or die. The most damage apparently is done in young coffee. Mealy bugs sometimes appear at the roots of old trees. May beetles dig holes in the earth near the stem and their larve do damage to the roots. Other larve, bugs, rats and ants attack the coffee plant, but none of them is serious. Coffee in Porto Rico. The climate and soil and nearness to European and North American markets, the dense population and the short distances between the seaports and the mountain slopes on which the coffee is grown, .adapt Porto Rico especially to this industry. The rugged mountainous topography which comprises three-fourths of the total area, makes the cultiva- tion of other important crops than coffee almost impossible. As a result, coffee-growing has become the leading industry of the island, and the crop is grown in nearly every district. The best coffee is produced in the southwestern part. Formerly coffee was grown on the lowland, where it did well. The production of sugar, however, has driven most of it to the highlands. The high-water mark was reached in 1896, when 58,780,000 pounds, valued at $13,519,400, were exported. Most of this went to Europe. Spain takes a large share, and Austria, Hungary, Italy, France and Germany are good markets. United States takes very little of the output. The lower grades are shipped to Cuba or are sold for home consumption. The acreage in 1904 was reported as 183,541. The industry is not in so prosperous condition as it 246 COFFEE should be. The changed political relations of the island, with the attendant effect on its commerce, the general decrease in the price of coffee on the market, and the destructive hurricane of 1899, from which many plantations have not recovered, have all tended to depress the industry. The average production per acre had fallen in 1903 to 25() pounds. This could be increased to 1,000 pounds with improved methods. Selection for quality or yield has been little practiced, and the planting methods are careless. It is gratifying to note, however, that modern methods of cultiva- tion are finding a place. A project for the estab- lishment of a school for coffee-growers is under consideration by the government. According to the census of 1899, the average size of coffee plantations was nine acres. A few have 1,000 acres and more. A considerable number have 100 to 1,000 acres, but the majority consist COFFEE value of the coffee land in Hawaii. The low prices now paid for coffee, however, are discouraging new plantings. The annual production is about 3,000,- 000 pounds. Yields of 750 pounds of marketable coffee per acre are secured in Kona and Hamakua on fields that receive proper attention. The coffees are mild, and of high flavor, and frequently sell. above the average market prices. The bean is large and flat, resembling Javan rather than Brazilian coffees. All of the coffee produced in Hawaii is milled and graded before being sent to market. Practically no parchment is exported. The average cost of production is about nine and one-half cents per pound. The picking season in the Kona or lee- ward districts runs from November to January, and in the windward districts from January to May. Fig. 353 is a Hawaiian coffee mill. There are three types of coffee in cultivation,— the so-called native Hawaiian of unknown source, introduced into the islands about eighty years Coffee mill in Hawaii. Fig. 353. of less than 100 acres, even going so low as a fraction of an acre. The larger plantations, as a rule, have their own population, who live in houses or huts provided for them by the plantation, free of rent. Usually they live in families, of which only the male members work in the fields, except in harvest time, when the entire family goes to pick coffee. This help may be supplemented, when necessary, by laborers from the smaller towns in the interior or by small proprietors. Full-grown laborers get thirty-five cents and boys ten cents and up fora day’s work of about eleven hours. Much work, however, is done by contract, which nets the workers more. The quality of the labor is very satisfactory, and is mostly white. Coffee in Hawati. Coffee has been cultivated in the Hawaiian islands for eighty years or more. The conditions for producing this crop are almost unexcelled. There are over 300,000 acres of land adapted both by soil and location to the production of a high- grade product. The climate is equable, the tem- perature seldom dropping below 50° or rising above 85°. Some experiments are being made with rubber trees as a coffee shade, and indications are that their succéss will materially add to the ago, a hardy form which stands neglect and hard usage and lack of care better than any other cultural form in Hawaii; the Java, in- troduced directly from Java about fifteen years ago; and Horner’s Guatemala, said to _have been introduced from Guatemala about 1890, but its exact source is uncertain, proba- bly Javan. The last is the one most largely cultivated in Hawaii. It is a hardy tree that bears heavily, and is not very subject to dis- ease. The berry is large and flat like the best grades of imported Java. The industry is suffering because of the low prices for coffee. The hope for reviving the industry lies in the creation of a market in the United States for Hawaiian coffees in- dividually. Growers assert that the industry will soon be ruined unless the United States government protects it by tariff. Literature. Coffee, Its Culture and Commerce, C. G. Warn- ford Loch, editor, 1888, contains a compilation of nearly all the literature then existing. Other works are : Colonial Reports, Darling & Sons, Lon- don; The Improvement of Indian Agriculture, Dr. J. A. Voelcker, London ; Tropical Agriculture, P. L. Simmonds, London; Ceylon Soils and Manures, John Hughes, London; Tropische Agrikultur, Sem- ler; Culture du Caféier, C. Raoul, Paris, 1899; Shade in Coffee Culture, O. F. Cook, Bulletin No. 25, Division of Botany, United States Department of Agriculture. Various German, French and Dutch publications contain valuable discussions of coffee. For a discussion of the industry in Porto Rico, the reader should consult Coffee Planting in Porto Rico, J. W. Van Leenhoff, Circular No. 5, Porto Rico Agricultural Experiment Station, from which parts of this article are adapted. For Hawaii, see the Annual Reports of the Hawaii Agricultural Experi- ment Station, 1901, 1902, 1908. See list of publi- cations on tropical agriculture, Vol. I, page 99. Ref- erences on the industry in Porto Rico and Hawaii will also be found in the articles on these countries in Vol. I (pages 109, 114). COTTON COTTON. Gossypium. Malvacee. Figs. 854-867. By Herbert J. Webber and E. B. Boykin. The cotton of commerce is the hair or fiber on seeds of plants belonging to the genus Gossypium, a mem- ber of the Mallow family. This genus is distinguished from the other genera of the family by the presence Res Se HALL LY 1 ZIT WZ e FE SN | PASS CUERSS IN LH SN: LEAR SNUG NAN IN SR NUK. SF aN etry pil ng AY » a . Fig. 354. A cotton flower, and a bud or ‘‘square,’’ showing the bracts. of three to five bracts surrounding the flowers, and by the seed being covered with wool. Many attempts have been made to classify and limit the species of Gossypium, but so far the authorities have failed to agree. The great variability and tendency to hybridize make it very difficult to determine to what species a given plant may belong. However, it is commonly conceded that there are only a few spe- cies whose products enter into commerce, and that the bulk of the production is from two species, namely, G. hirsutum, which furnishes the upland cottons (Figs. 101, 355, 356, 357), and G. Barba- dense, the source of the sea-island and Egyptian cottons (Figs. 100, 356, 357). The ordinary upland cotton in American literature has been commonly referred to as G. herbaceum, but after a careful study of types Mr. L. H. Dewey, of the United States Department of Agriculture, has concluded that this is an error and that our upland cotton, which is apparently derived from a wild Mexican variety, is.G. hirsutum. In the United States G. hirsutum and G. Barbadense are the only two species that are cultivated commercially. The crop of India, which, aside from that of the United States, is the largest produced by any country, is probably derived principally from varieties of G. herbaceum, while the Egyptian crop is produced by varieties which are supposed to belong to the species G. Bar- badense. Tho Egyptian cotton varieties resemble COTTON 247 sea-island cotton very closely in all of their prin- cipal characters aside from the lint, which in some of the varieties, such as Mit-afifi and Ashmouni, is light brown and rather coarse and crinkly. All cultivated species are perennial in climates without frost, but in cultivation they are usually treated as annuals. The plants are mostly shrubby, more or less branching and two to ten feet high. The roots consist of several laterals, and a tap- root which penetrates the soil to a considerable depth. The limbs of sea-island are smooth, while those of upland are covered with delicate, whitish hairs. The leaves are three- to five-lobed—sea- island usually having three and the upland five. The flowers ‘are perfect and resemble the holly- hock or hibiscus. When newly open they are large and white in upland, turning red with age, and creamy yellow in sea-island, with a purple spot at the base of each petal. They are surrounded by three to five fringed or deeply cut bracts form- ing the “‘squares”—the number corresponding to the number of cells in the bolls or pods. These bracts are much larger and the indentations are deeper and more numerous in sea-island than in upland varieties. Stamens are many, united in a tube about the single compound pistil; stigmas three to five. The fruit consists of three- to five-celled capsules or “bolls” which burst open at maturity through the middle of the cells, each cell liberating seven to ten seeds covered with long fibers. The fiber is a tubular hair-like cell z¢455 to roo Of an inch in diameter, somewhat flattened, and spirally twisted. It is this latter character which gives the cotton its spinning qualities. The length, tenacity and fineness of the fibers determines the value of the cotton. Sea-island excels upland in these respects and therefore commands a much better price. Sea- island cotton seeds are small, black and smooth, while, as a rule, upland seeds are larger, and, after the fiber is removed, are covered with a detise whit- ish or greenish fuzz. The bolls of sea-island rarely contain more than three cells, while those of up- land usually have four and sometimes five. Sea-island bolls are much smaller and more pointed than upland. There are many com- mercial varieties in each of the above spe- * cies which have never been classified botani- cally, and whose true history will probably never be known. It is very difficult to classify them, owing to the readiness with which they are cross-fertilized and the great range of variation of the individual plants in a given variety. Some of them possess characters which suggest that they are produced by the hybridization of sea-island and upland varieties, while many seem to be the products of natural variation and selection. Aside from the cottons ordinarily classed as sea-island and upland, which are cultivated ex- Mature plant of upland cotton. 248 COTTON tensively in the United States, a third group, known as long-staple uplands (Fig. 357), is grown in considerable quantity, over 100,000 bales being produced annually. The long-staple upland cotton ranges from one and one-fourth to one and five-eighths inches in length of lint. While the derivation of the long-staple upland varieties is not positively known, it is probable that they have developed from variations of the ordinary short-staple upland, and they are ordinarily referred to the same species (G. hirsutum). History. In what land and in what period of antiquity cotton was first used will probably never be known. Its use seems to be coeval with human history. Early writers tell us that it was worn by the ancient Egyptians and used for other purposes, more than a thousand years before Christ. With the progress of civilization it has grown in favor and in extent of cultivation, until it has become one of the most important crops in the world, the greatest of all fiber crops, and the most widely manufactured of all textiles. This great extension of the industry, however, has developed within comparatively recent years. Previous to the middle of the eight- eenth century, cotton had to be spun and woven by hand machines. There was also great difficulty experienced in separating the seed from the fibers, as it had to be done by hand. This work was usually done at night. After finishing the ordinary Fig. 356. A, Mature boll of Truitt, a big-bolled upland cot- ton; B, mature boll of Peterkin, a small-bolled upland cotton; C, mature boll of sea-island cotton; D, mature poll of Griffin, a long-staple upland cotton. (About one- half natural size.) day’s work, the members of the family would gather around the fireside and begin the work of pulling the fibers from the seed with their fingers, the task of each one being to separate four pounds, or enough seed to fill one of his or her shoes. Because COTTON of these primitive. methods of manufacturing the article and the great difficulty in separating the lint from the seed, it was for a long time produced only in limited quantities, mainly for domestic purposes, and thus prevented assuming the dignity of an important industry until little over a cen- tury ago. In the latter half of the eighteenth century there was a great in- dustrial revolu- tion. The cotton industry was greatly stimu- lated, mainly by the invention of the spinning- jenny, the self- acting mule, the power loom, the 3." steam engine, the saw-gin, and other useful ma- chines. After theseinventions, = the house indus- try soon gave way to the fac- tory, and ma- chines were substituted for hand labor. The demand for raw material became greater, and production was immensely increased. There was a minute division of labor and a great specialization of the industry. The markets for the manufactured products were enormously extended, and thus was developed almost as oy magic the most widely diversified industry in the world. The growth of the cotton industry in this country has been marvelous indeed. With but few inter- ruptions, there has been a rapid and steady increase in production since the invention of the saw-gin by Whitney. Estimating 500 pounds as an average bale, in 1792 less than 6,000 bales were produced; in 1820 the production was 320,000 bales, in 1840 it reached 1,668,221 bales, and by 1860 it had in- creased to 4,483,311 bales. During the great civil war in the sixties, the production of cotton prac- tically ceased, thereby causing a cotton famine in this country and in Europe. Hundreds of mills had to cease running, thousands of operatives were thrown out of employment, and prices soared be- yond all bounds, reaching the high mark of over a dollar per pound and carrying the shock of the con- test to the uttermost parts of the globe. During this period great efforts were made to stimulate the production of cotton in India and other parts of the world. The failure of other countries to supply the demand while stimulated by these fabu- lous prices is a splendid demonstration of the prac- tical impossibility of maintaining the industry without the American cotton. After the close of —— Fig.357, Seeds of cotton, showing staple. (1) Sea-island cotton; (2) long-staple upland cotton (Allen); (3) upland cotton. (Slightly over one half nat- ural size.) COTTON: the civil war, production was resumed in this country and has been continued since at a rapid rate of increase, reaching 8,547,468 bales in 1892, and 13,693,279 bales in 1904. In a single century, from 1804 to 1904, the crop increased from 130,- 000 bales, valued at $13,000,014, to 13,693,279. bales, valued at $557,147,306.65. In the early his- tory of cotton cultivation the seeds were not valued at all. Growers were troubled to know how to get rid of them. But in 1904 the seeds alone were valued at $90,258,227.86, making the total value of that year’s crop, unmanufactured, $647,405,534 51. Cotton now furnishes clothing for a large part of the human race, and millions of people are de- voting their exclusive attention to its cultivation. Millions more are engaged in its transportation and manufacture, and it furnishes the basis of credit for a large part of this country and Europe. In fact, the magnitude of the cotton industry has be- come so great that any disaster to it will seriously disturb the economic conditions of the world. Regions of cultivation. Cotton is probably indigenous to the tropical and semi-tropical regions of both hemispheres. The earliest records of the Asiatics and Egyptians speak of it; Columbus found it growing abundantly in the West Indies, while other early explorers found it growing in Mexico and South America. Its range has been greatly extended by the amelioration due to cultivation, and now it may be said to extend around the world, embracing thirty to forty degrees of latitude on either side of the equator. However, various modifications due to economic, soil and climatic conditions exist in this wide belt, the most favorable conditions being found in the United States. The soil and climatic requirements of sea-island cotton limit its growth mainly to the islands and lands along the coast of South Carolina, Georgia and Florida, while upland cotton is adapted to a much wider range of conditions and its pro- duction far exceeds that of sea-island. There is no region in the world which has such a favorable combination of suitable land, intelli- gent and plentiful labor, cheap capital and ade- quate transportation facilities for the cultivation of cotton as the cotton-belt of the United States. It has been the chief source of supply of the cotton mills of the world, for in this:section has been raised several times the quantity of cotton pro- duced in all other countries of the globe. There are various other countries which seem to possess the soil and climatic requirement for its growth, but for various economic reasons the industry has not been greatly developed in them; however, a considerable quantity is produced in the following countries, in about the order named : India, Egypt, China, Italy, Turkey, Brazil, West Indies, Mexico, South Africa, Australia and South Sea Islands. There are no available statistics showing the annual crops of all cotton-producing countries, but the consumption of the mills of Great Britain, the continent of Europe, the United States, India, Japan, Canada, Mexico, and other countries fairly approximates the world’s production. According COTTON 249 to the United States census of 1900, the consump- tion for the year 1899-1900 was 138,535,000 bales of 500 pounds each. In the year 1900 the United States produced 9,990,900 bales. This will give an idea of the unique position which this country occupies among the cotton-producing countries of the world. Cotton culture. The two important crops of southern United States are cotton and corn,—the former as a money crop and the latter as a food crop. These two have been grown almost to the exclusion of home supplies. The cost of cultivation of corn is less than of cotton, but even at the lowest prices reached by cotton in many decades, it is a better- paying crop. So we find cotton as the very center and soul of southern agriculture. Profitable cotton-growing depends on the climate, fertility of the soil, good preparation of the land before planting, thorough cultivation of the grow- ing crop, and the quality of the seed. Climate.—The climatic requirements are plenty of moisture during the growing and fruiting period, dry weather during the opening and harvest season, and a temperature ranging from 60° to 90° Fahrenheit for at least six months of the year. Too cool weather in the spring stunts the plants; too much rain during the growing season encourages plant development at the expense of boll production, renders cultivation difficult and promotes the growth of weeds; drought stunts the plant, causes early maturity and reduces the yield ; and early frost in the fall reduces the crop by preventing the further development of the young bolls and causing them to open prematurely. Rotation.— A three-course rotation is easily adapted to many of the cotton-growing farms. The following have given satisfaction : (1) Cotton, followed by crimson clover ; (2) corn; (8) wheat, followed by cowpeas; or, (1) Cotton; (2) corn, with cowpeas; (8) oats, with cowpeas. Several rotations are suggested for the cotton-growing states on pages 100-106. A short-course rotation (of two or three years) is fundamentally essential in the cotton-belt. Soil and fertility—Cotton very readily adjusts itself to the seil conditions, and will usually yield a crop in proportion to the fertility of the land; however, there are certain necessary ex- penses in the cultivation of cotton regardless of the yield, and it is unprofitable to grow it on land which is not sufficiently fertile to produce a crop whose value exceeds these expenses. In some sections, like the delta region of Missis- sippi, and various parts of Louisiana, Texas and Arkansas, the soils are rich enough to do this, but most of the cotton lands require the application of artificial manures, the rotation of crops and other means of increasing or retaining their fertility to enable them to grow cotton profitably. Millions of tons of commercial fertilizers, consisting largely of acid phosphate, kainit, muriate of potash, nitrate of soda and cottonseed-meal,' are used annually by cotton-growers to enrich their land. 250 COTTON Barnyard manures also serve an important purpose in improving cotton lands. They supply a small quantity of plant-food and a considerable quantity of organic matter which opens the soil and im- proves its mechanical condition. They are also supposed to act on the constituents of the soil in a chemical way, converting the plant-food into an available condition for the use of the plants. Probably one of the cheapest and most effective means of soil-improvement is crop rotation. Cotton would never exhaust the land if washing could be entirely prevented and the seeds were returned to it each year, as the lint cotton, the part necessarily removed, contains only a very small quantity of plant-food ; but unfortunately in many cases the seeds are also removed without substituting their equivalent in other manures. This is a source of great loss, for the seed contains large quantities of the most valuable elements of plant-food. Sur- face washing is also a source of great impover- ishment to cotton-fields, as the nature of the crop necessitates a method of tillage which causes an extreme surface exposure of the soil for practically every month in the year, thereby intensifying the bad effects of heavy rains. During heavy rains the water is quickly shed into the middles of the rows, where it is confined to a very small part of the available area and has great power to wash away the fine soil as it runs off. Unless these conditions can be counterbalanced, cotton-fields will gradually grow poor. This can be accomplished in a large measure by planting from time to time leguminous crops which enrich the soil by collecting nitrogen from the air, and which occupy a larger part of the surface and necessitate a minimum surface exposure of the soil, thereby greatly reducing the loss by surface washing. This is usually done by rotating cotton with corn, small grain and cow- peas. Other methods of preventing soil-washing are terracing, deep plowing, and running the rows at right angles to the-direction of the slope of the land. Preparation of the land—The preparation of the land before planting consists of breaking the soil and making the seed-beds. This breaking can be done in the winter or just before planting. As a rule, when cotton is to be planted after grain or other crops, the land is broken broadcast with a turn-plow in the winter. The rows are laid off several weeks previous to planting, and the seed- beds are made just before planting. When cotton has been grown on the land the previous year, the above method is sometimes followed, but more fre- quently the new bed is made in the old middle, and the trouble of laying off new rows is thereby avoided. The method is not so important, the only essential point being to have the soil thoroughly broken, and to have fresh, loose seed-beds. Seeding.—There are cotton-planters on the mar- ket that give good service. Some of them, however, have a tendency to drop too many seeds, making much hand-hoeing or chopping necessary later in the removal of the surplus plants. The number of plants can be reduced and the stand regulated in COTTON part by the use of a weeder or a harrow when the plants are small. Many farmers dig plant-holes with a hoe and drop eight to ten seeds in each hole. In consequence of the waste in planting, the quantity of seed per acre varies considerably. The seed required will vary from one to three bushels per acre. One bushel is plenty when properly sown. The common practice is to have the rows four feet apart. On the lighter soils three to three and one-half feet will give as good results. This dis- tance, as well as that between the plants in the row, varies with varieties and soil conditions. The distance between the plants in the rows varies from twelve to twenty-four inches. Twenty inches is, perhaps, a safe distance on good soils. On poor soils the planting should be closer. Time of planting.—It is the general experience that cotton planted early most often gives best results. The time of planting varies with the dif- ferent localities. In Florida and southern Georgia, cotton can be planted much earlier than in North Carolina or Tennessee. The following table of dates, from Mr. A. B. Shepperson’s “‘ Cotton Facts,” will give the approximate dates when planting begins and ends: Srarss ee) ee North Carolina... .. April 15 May 10 South Carolina... .. April 15 May 7 Georgia. .... 2 es April 10 May 1 Florida... ow. es, 4 April 1 May 1 Alabama ......-. April 5 May 10 Mississippi. . . .. April 5 May 10 Louisiana... .... April 1 May 10 TeXaS.. oe 4 38 ope March 15 May 10 Arkansas... 2. ee April 15 May 15 Tennessee. .....- April 15 May 15 Thinning.—After the seeds come up to a stand, the cotton is chopped out with hoes, leaving one hill for every twelve to twenty inches and one to three plants in each hill. A few days later it is thinned again, removing all but one plant from each hill, leaving the most vigorous one. Cultivation —Owing to the variable weather conditions, the subsequent cultivation can not ; follow any specific methods. How- ever, it is very important to culti- vate the crop thoroughly and rapidly, thus giving the plants an opportunity to me _make a steady and vigorous growth from the time of germi- nation through- out the growing season. In cul- tivation, sweeps (Fig. 358) are ordinarily used, which break the ground to a depth of about two inches, leaving a loose soil mulch over the sur- face. If this is done thoroughly and as soon as possible after each heavy rain, surface evaporation Fig. 358. Sweep used in cultivating cotton. COTTON is reduced, and the bad effect of drought lessened ; excessive capillary action near the surface is pre- vented, and the plant-food in solution is thus kept from being carried above the root zone and left by evaporation at the surface, where it can be redis- solved and washed away by the heavy rains; a better circulation of air in the interstices of the soil is secured ; a larger proportion of the rainfall Fig. 359. A bale of cotton. Bales are of different sizes and shapes, depending on the apparatus in which they are pressed; but they usually weigh about 500 pounds. The average yield is about one-third of a bale to the acre. A good crop is one bale; an extra crop is a bale and a half. goes into the soil instead of running off, conse- quently the loss of fertility by surface washing is lessened, and the plants are thereby enabled to get the maximum benefit of the plant-food and mois- ture in the soil. Use of heavy seed for planting.—Recent experi- ments by the writers demonstrate the value of sep- arating cotton seed, and planting only the heaviest grade. Plantings of heavy seed have given an increase in yield of over 10 per cent more than plantings of the same seed unseparated. Thor- oughly practical machines and methods of separa- tion have been devised, so that it is now possible for every grower. to separate his planting seed at very slight expense. Descriptions of the methods and machines are given in recent publications of the United States Department of Agriculture. Picking. Picking or gathering the cotton in the fields is a heavy item of expense. In upland varieties it amounts to thirty-five to seventy-five cents per hun- dred pounds of seed cotton, and more for sea-island. It must be picked by hand, as no mechanical appli- ance for harvesting has yet been invented which gives satisfactory results in practical working. The amount of cotton that one person can pick in a day varies from 100 to 500 pounds, depending on the skill of the picker. One man can very easily care for the cultivation of twenty acres of cotton, but it requires two to four pickers to harvest such a crop rapidly enough to prevent loss. This extra labor in harvest time is usually supplied by the wives and children of the laborers. The harvest season extends over a period of about four months, beginning August 15 to September 10, according to the locality. COTTON 251 The great desideratum of the cotton-grower of today is a machine for picking or. harvesting the crop. Several machines now under trial, using the principle of a spirally twisting steel picking fingers, have proved promising in preliminary trials and it seems very probable that a thoroughly satisfactory picking machine will ultimately be secured, Ginning. Upland cotton is ginned (the lint or fiber taken off the seeds) with saw-gins. Ginning outfits are estab- lished all over the cotton-belt, where the cotton is ginned for the near-by growers. These outfits con- sist of an elevator for sucking the cotton from the wagons to the gin, a gin, or as a rule one to six gins, and a press where the cotton is packed into bales. '@ig. 359). A modern ginning outfit can gin and pack thirty to forty bales per day. The operation usually costs the grower a dollar to a dollar and a half per bale. Saw-gins frequently cut and seriously injure the fibers, and for this reason they are not used in ginning sea-island cotton. A specially constructed roller-gin is used for this purpose. However, it is adapted only to ginning smooth-seeded varieties; therefore, it cannot be used for ginning the tufted- seeded upland varieties. After ginning and baling, if the cotton is to be shipped a very great distance, it is usually recompressed into smaller bulk; Cotton com- press companies are located mainly in the larger cities and usually handle enormous quantities of cotton (Fig. 360). Insects and diseases. There are many insect pests which are a men- ace to cotton-growers. Among those which do the most serious damage are the red spiders, cater- pillars, plant-lice, cutworms, cottonboll-worms and Mexican cottonboll-weevils (Figs. 8361-363). Cotton is also attacked by a large number of diseases. The roots and stems of the plants are frequently affected by root-knot, sore-shin, wilt, and anthracnose of the stem. Among the diseases EGON GE Sih Tae: Yard of a cotton compress (Shreveport, La.). Fig. 360. of the leaves are rust, which is a common term applied to a large number of diseases, angular leaf-spot, leaf-blight and mildew. The bolls are often seriously damaged by anthracnose, boll-rot and shedding. Clean cultivation is an essential factor in hold- ing in check many plant enemies, as it destroys in 252 COTTON part their lodging places and food supplies. A thorough dusting with Paris green will control the webworms and cotton-square borers. Plant-lice are destroyed by plowing under their host plants in late fall or winter. When it becomes necessary to take some other course, spraying with whale- oil soap, kerosene emulsion or tobacco solution is effective. Cutworms are controlled by placing about the fields bunches of grass or weeds im- mersed in Paris green. The better method, how- Fig. 362. Larva of Mexican cotton- boll-weevil. More enlarged. Fig. 361. Mexican cottonboll- weevil. Enlarged. ever, is to kill them by thorough winter cultiva- tion, and keeping down all vegetation in the early spring. The cotton-worm (Aletia argillacea), bollworm (Heliothis armiger) and Mexican cottonboll-weevil (Anthonomus grandis) are not so easily controlled, and their ravages have been costly. The cotton- worm is now more easily controlled than formerly. It is a blue-green caterpillar, with black spots and stripes on its back. It is most severe in late sum- mer, but is present the entire summer. There are several generations each year. The common method of combating it is to apply dry Paris green to the plants. ‘The cottonboll-worm is a common garden pest, attacking various crops, as corn, tomatoes, peas and squash. The caterpillar is somewhat darker than the cotton-worm, but otherwise the two are very similar in their early stages. This, too, has several generations in a season. It is most effec- tively controlled by the planting of an early trap- crop. Sweet corn is much used. As soon as the corn is infested it is removed and destroyed or fed to stock. Lantern traps for the moths and arsenical sprays for the worms have given limited success. The most serious problem confronting the cot- ton-grower today is the control of the Mexican cottonboll-weevil, which is threatening the de- struction of the industry. The weevil is small, three-eighths inch, or less, in length, of a dark brown or black color. The eggs are laid in the young bolls, and the larve begin their work by eating the inside of the bolls. No very effective direct method of combating the weevil has been found. Its control depends on strict attention to many details in the culture of the crop, and to a modification of the farm practice. It is very important to mature the crop early, and then to _ clean up the plantation as soon as the cotton is picked, burning or plowing down all stalks and. COTTON refuse ; this will largely control the weevil, at the same time that it improves the cropping practice. The seed should be fumigated with carbon bisulfid to be sure that the pest is not introduced in this way. Early trap-crops may be planted about places where the weevils are likely to hibernate, as about cotton-gins, and sprayed with arsenical poisons ; later the crops are destroyed. Sometimes the weevils are jarred from the trap-crop into pans, and destroyed. Volunteer cotton-plants must be destroyed. Attention must be given to the picking and destroying of infested squares. All rubbish, infested squares that have dropped, stalks remain- ing at the end of the season, weeds and litter should be gathered and burned. Among the diseases attacking the cotton-plant, wilt is controlled by planting disease-resistant seed, the burning and careful destruction of all infested plants, and the rotation of crops. Sore- shin, or damping-off, is checked by liming the soil and cultivation to keep the surface mulch dry. It is caused by excessive dampness. No remedy for anthracnose is known. Red-rust is not serious. Vigorous plants will withstand it. It is usually localized in its attacks. Crop rotation is the most effective means of controlling the root-knot fun- gus (see article on “Soil Diseases,” Vol. I, page 450). Angular leaf-spot attacks the plants in June and July, forming watery spots on the leaves. The growing of vigorous plants is the best insurance against infestation by it. Leaf-blight is common but not very serious. It forms a tan or light spot, surrounded by irregular reddish spots, on the older or less vigorous leaves. No remedy has been sug- Cotton boll infested with three boll-weevil larve. Figs. 361-3 adapted from Yearbooks. Fig. 363. gested. Mildew is not serious and no treatment has been found. Shedding of the bolls is common in unfavor- able seasons. Extremes of rain and drought, or their alternation, are the probable causes. The trouble is to be prevented to some extent by maintaining good soil conditions and employing hardier varieties. Manufacture. The manufacture of cotton consists of the various processes in the production of thread or yarn and woven fabrics from the fiber. The spin- ning of yarn and the manufacture of coarse cotton. COTTON cloth has been practiced in many parts of the world from a remote period. Until slightly over a century ago, only very rude implements were used, the work being done almost entirely by hand machines. However, the industry has been completely revolutionized, and the enterprise of modern commerce has carried the cheap products of modern machinery to remote sections of the earth, rendering the ‘hand-spun and clumsily woven cloth of earlier periods practically extinct. There are various steps in the process of spin- ning. The loose cotton from the bale is first run through an opener or picker, where it is subjected to the action of a beater, which cleans it from impurities such as broken seed, fragments of leaves, burs and stalks, dirt, and the like, sep- arates the individual fibers, and delivers the cot- ton at the end of the machine in a uniform layer, called a lap. The lapping machine is fed with three laps at once and the three layers are drawn out to the thickness of one, the object being to neutralize the irregularities of each layer by averaging them with those of two others. From here it goes to the carding, combing and drawing machines, which extract the very short fibers, straighten out the others, and secure a uniform distribution of them in parallel series. It is next drawn through the “slubbing-frame,” the “inter- mediate frame” and the “roving frame,” which draw the “sliver” to a more uniform size and give it a slight twist. It then passes to the last pro- cess, the spinning, where it is still more twisted. By far the largest part of the yarn is woven into plain cloth, but a considerable quan- tity is used as warps in woolen and worsted goods or for knitting into underwear, and a large part COTTON 253 water, washing it with pure water, then treating it with dilute sulfuric acid and again washing it with water. The treatment causes both a chemical and a physical change in the constitution of the fiber. The fiber before treatment is flattened and somewhat twisted, but by mercerization it becomes rounded into cylindrical shape, the walls of the tube become thicker and the cavity is correspond- ingly reduced, the surface becomes smoother, the length of the fiber is reduced, it assumes a spiral shape and acquires greater strength. The industry has become very important. According to the Twelfth Census, over 7,973,000 yards of cloth and 1,600,000 pounds of yarn were mercerized in 1900, causing an additional value of $697,490. Egyptian and sea-island cottons are best adapted to mercer- ization, as they have long, silky fibers which are more uniformly acted on. Great Britain is the chief seat of cotton manu- facture. The United States ranks second. For a long time the industry in this country was mainly confined to the New England states, but in recent years it has rapidly risen into prominence in the southern states. Since the year 1890, this section has probably enjoyed a greater activity in the development of the industry than any other section in the world. The achievements in those states have been so marvelous as to cause serious alarm in New England and Great Britain. However, the southern mills are engaged mainly in producing yarn and cheap grades of goods; therefore their products are not nearly so valuable as those of New England and Great Britain. The following tables will give an idea of the status of the industry, as shown by Shepperson’s “Cotton Facts” and the United States census report: NuMBER OF SPINDLES AND CONSUMPTION OF COTTON FOR THE YEAR 1902-03 IN CoUNTRIES NAMED. rae Conti t Northern Southern Total i ; Groat Britain | of earope | ysis ota, | untks Sertes | United States | India Spindes ........ 47,000,000 84,300,000 | 15,100,000 6,900,000 | 22,000,000 5,007,000 Consumption in bales (500 pounds each) ..... 3,185,000 5,148,000 1,980,000 1,910,000 8,890,000 1,350,000 SUMMARY OF THE INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES AS SHOWN BY THE CENSUS REPoRTS oF 1900. | Salaried officials No. , Wage- ‘ = m cTenitE ae Salaries peiate Total wages expenses eae re Cotton goods i 973 | $460,842,772 | 4,718 | $7,123,574 | 297,929 |$85,126,310 |$21,650,144 | $178,441,890 | $332,806,156 Cotton, sma ; wares . 82 6,397,385 | 189 226,625 4,932 | 1,563,442 462,534 3,110,137 6,394,164 Total . . . .| 1,055 | $467,240,157 | 4,902 | $7,350,199 | 302,861 |$86,689,752 |$22,112,678 | $176,551,527 | $839,200,320 of the product of sea-island cotton is converted By-products. into sewing thread. Within recent years the process known as mer- cerization has become an important adjunct to cotton manufacturing. It consists of subjecting the cotton to the action of caustic soda dissolved in Until comparatively recent years, cotton was grown entirely for its fiber, but now the by- products represent a large percentage of the total value of the crop. The roots supply a chemical substance similar in its action to ergot; the bark 254 COTTON is used to some extent for making bagging, coarse carpets and the like; but by far the most valuable by-products come from the seeds. For a long time growers either threw them into a stream or dis- posed of them in some other convenient way, as they were not regarded as having any value. Later they were used for manure ; finally the value of their oil was discovered, and a great industry has been developed in extracting and refining it. About 7 per cent of the seeds produced are used for planting, a large quantity are still used for manure, but the bulk of them are run through the oil mills. The quantity thus consumed from the crop of 1904 was 4,032,375 tons, or 63.2 per cent of the total supply. The average price per ton paid to growers for them this season (1904) was $14.15. At this rate the value of the entire crop of seed was over $90,000,000. When the seeds reach the oil mills they are: reginned for the purpose of removing the fuzz which covers them. This fuzz is called linters. It amounts to about thirty pounds per ton of seed and is used in upholstering, making cheap felts, and the like. The seeds are ther. run through a machine which separates the hulls from the kernels. The hulls are used very largely for cattle food; how- ever, they have some other minor uses. The ker- nels, “meats,” are steamed or cooked and: then placed in presses, where they are subjected to an enormous pressure for the purpose of extracting the oil. The residue is called oil cake. It is ground into meal and used as a concentrated cattle food and as a fertilizer. A ton of seed yields thirty- eight to forty-five gallons of crude oil, which is refined in mills especially constructed for this purpose. This oil has a great variety of uses— the more refined part being used for human food (right) from same field. Left, seed 632 grams, lint 314 grams; right, seed 113 grams, lint 51 grams. under various names, while the less refined part is used for soap stocks and in various other manu- facturing processes. Cotton breeding. Breeding is one of the important factors in the production of a good cotton crop, which is almost wholly neglected. The great majority of cotton- planters ordinarily use any cotton seed without regard to variety and without practicing any COTTON selection. On the seed depends the crop, and it is just as important to use good seed as it is to cultivate and manure the crop. The results of careful experiments have shown that by sys- tematically selecting and improving the seed, the yield can be greatly increased with but little extra Fig. 365. Desirable and undesirable types of Jones improved cotton. cost (Fig. 364). In any general field crop where the margin of profit is so slight as in cotton, it behooves the grower to use every possible method to increase the profit, and no cotton-grower can afford to neglect the proper selection of the seed which he expects to plant. Every cotton-grower, in attempting to improve his crop, should test comparatively a number of the standard varieties in order to determine what variety or varieties do the best under the local conditions presented on his plantation. This test of varieties is important, and should precede any work of breeding, as it is important to start the breeding with the best available foundation stock. How to improve cotton by selection.—Selection of type-—After having tested varieties and deter- mined in general what variety is best suited to the local conditions, grow a large field of this variety on soil which is as uniform throughout as can be selected. Give this field ordinary culti- vation. The next step is to determine what type of plant of this variety is the best. Every grower knows a good cotton plant. Ordinarily, plants should be selected of medium height and stocky, with the habit of putting on numerous bolls early in the season on the lower branches (Fig. 365). A careful observation of the plants in the field will enable the grower easily to determine the best type of plant, which gives the most cotton in general earliest in the season. Harliness in almost all cases is an important point, and in sections threatened by the boll-weevil and _ boll-worm, earliness of maturity should always enter into the consideration of the type of plants selected. Selection of plants.—After having determined the type of plant which is thought to be most desirable, the next process is to make the actual selection of plants. The selection should be made just before the first picking. Delay the first pick- ing until the cotton is pretty well open and needs picking rather badly. Then go over the field row by row, walking slowly along each row and letting the eye have sufficient time to size up each plant. The great majority of the plants can be thrown COTTON out ata glance. When good plants are observed, examine them care- ° fully, and if they are up to what is considered the highest stand- ard, mark them by tying a strip = of white rag to one of the upper -& limbs where it will show plainly. The problem is to select from a large field possibly about one hun- dred of the best plants. In mark- ing the plants the first time, prob- ably two or three hundred will be chosen. After this first pre- liminary examination, the field should be gone over a second time, and the marks removed from any plants which are not truly superior plants, reducing the total number probably to one hundred marked plants. In this second examination, attention should be given to the amount of lint on the seed, as this in general determines the lint turn-out, and is im- portant. The breeder should be provided with a small aluminum pocket-comb, about four inches long, which can be used to separate and straighten out the fibers on the seed, so that the covering or amount of fibers becomes plainly visi- ble, as well as the length of the fiber. Every cotton-grower should learn this method of cotton-combing, as it is essen- tial to the careful judging of cotton. By using the fingers, the cotton can be separated or parted down the middle of the seed; and then carefully using the comb, holding the fibers at their base meanwhile to prevent their being torn off the seed, the fibers can be combed out straight, as shown in Fig. 366. In this way, the amount of lint on the seed, and the length and uniformity of length, become clearly visible and easy to judge. The pro- : = cess of combing requires some practice before it can be done successfully, but it will well repay the time spent in learn- ing. As one goes over the plants either the first or the second time, several seeds from different bolls on each plant should be combed out, and any plants discarded in which the seeds are not well covered with lint of good length. In ordinary short- COTTON 255 staple cotton, no plant should be taken for seed which does not pro- duce lint of at least one inch in length. In the long-staple uplands, the standard of length will neces- sarily depend on the variety grown, as some sorts produce 13-inch lint, while others produce as high as 13-inch lint. In going over the select plants the second time, take all these im- portant points into consideration, and retain only those which are the very best plants and which represent the highest ideal type. These plants should be plainly labeled and numbered, and the product of each plant should be picked separately in a paper bag numbered to correspond with the number on the plant. The best bags to be used in picking and preserving sepa- rately the product of each of the select plants are the ordi- nary manila paper bags of about eight-pound size, which can ordinarily be purchased in any grocery store. The first pick can be made in these numbered bags and preserved, and the same bags can be taken to the field and the second or later picks placed in them, compar- ing the numbers on the plants and bags each time, to see that the product of each plant is kept together. Ginning the select plants.— At the close of the season some special arrangement should be made so that a single gin can be disconnected from the stand of gins and used to gin these select plants. The gin should be arranged so that tie seed cotton of a single plant can be fed in and ginned. . After the product of each plant is ginned, the seed should be carefully collected and placed back in its numbered bag. It is highly important that the seed from each select plant be kept separate and free from mixture with other seeds. Keeping records.—It is very important, if the breeder is to know what advance is being made, that records be pre- served showing the weight of seed cotton and the lint pro- Fig. 366. Improvement in length and abun- dance of lint produced by selection. A, Im- ported Egyptian cotton; B, first-genera- tion selection; C, second-generation selec- tion. duced by each select plant. With these weights, the per- centage of lint can. be deter- 256 COTTON mined readily, and all of the important factors which go to produce a heavy yield thus be re- corded. The preservation of such notes regarding the select plants will enable a comparison to be made of plants selected in various years, and will greatly enhance the value and interest of the work. Planting the selections.—The next year a field should be chosen for the breeding patch which has good soil, typical of the plantation and region so far as possible. It is important that the soil throughout the patch be of uniform quality and kind, and not patchy. Do not. choose the richest and best land available, as this may be different from the land on which the improved variety is later to be grown. The breeding patch, if possible, should be isolated from any other cotton-field a distance of 500 to 1,000 feet at least. This is to avoid crossing or mixing with different varieties and unselected stock. Such isolation is very im- portant, if we are to avoid deterioration. A good. place to put the isolated patch is in the middle of a corn-field, where it is surrounded for some dis- tance on each side by corn. If an isolated patch cannot be provided, the breeding patch as a second choice may be in one corner of a cotton-field planted with seed of the same variety from which the selections were made the preceding year. Under no conditions place the breeding patch in close proximity to cotton of other varieties or kind. The writer would urge that an isolated patch be provided in all cases, as this insures that all ferti- lization will be by pollen from plants coming from select mothers. The seed from each individual should be planted in a single row by itself, a plant to a row, by what may be termed the “ plant-to- row” method. As each row is planted, a stake with the number on it of the plant from which the seed was taken should be placed at the end. Owing to the small quantity of the seed from each selection, it is best to plant it in hills about eigh- teen or twenty inches apart in the rows, dropping five to eight seeds in a hill. In the thinning or chopping, the laborers should be instructed care- fully to cut out all but the strongest and most vigorous plant of each hill. Give the breeding patch the same manuring and cultivation as is given an ordinary crop, but remember that in all cases this should be sufficient and thorough to in- sure the best results. Examination and selection of progenies. — When the cotton in the breeding patch is well open and it is important that the first picking should be made, go over the patch very carefully and study the progenies from the different select plants. It is important to determine which of the plants selected the first year has transmitted to its prog- eny, in the greatest degree, the good qualities of high yield, good lint and other features, for which it was selected. This is probably the most important point to be determined in all breeding work, as a select plant to be good must have the property of transmitting its desirable qualities to its progeny. A careful comparison of the one hundred or more progenies will usually result in COTTON the breeder finding a few progeniés.or rows which, as a whole, are considerably superior to the others. When these have been found, they should be marked, and the individual selections for continuing the breeding should be taken from these rows. Making the second-generation selections. — After the best progenies in the breeding patch have been selected, the breeder should then carefully go over these progenies, plant by plant, and select and mark those plants which are found to be the most productive, and come up to the stan- dard set for length of lint, abundance of lint to seed, type of plant, and the like. The plants selected should be numbered as in the year pre- ceding. A good system of numbering these se- lected plants, which will show their pedigree at a glance, is as follows: For example, if one of the best progenies is from the original selection No. 2, label the selections in this row 2-1, 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 2-5, and so on, the second number after the dash being the number of the individual selected in this generation, while the first number, 2, is the number of the original selection. In the same way, if progeny 51 is one of the best, the selections made from this would be numbered 51-1, 51-2, 51-3, and so on. When the third-generation selections are made, they should be numbered in the same way, separating the generation by a dash. For example, the selections made from progeny of 51- 1 would be labeled 51-1-1, 51-1-2, 51-1-3. The second-generation selections should be picked separately, as in the case of the first- generation selections, and ginned separately, the seed being preserved to plant a breeding patch the next or third year. Securing select seed for general planting. —To secure select seed for planting a general crop, take intelligent’ pickers and train them to recog- . nize a good, productive plant. Then, after having selected and marked the best plants in the breed- ing patch, send these pickers over the breeding patch, instructing them to pick all of the seed from the productive plants that are not marked as special selects. Use this seed to plant a general crop. If this seed is not sufficient to plant a general crop, plant what you can with it, in what may be termed a multiplication plot, and from this multi- plication plot have the select pickers pick suffi- cient seed, as above indicated, to plant a general . crop the ensuing year. Continuing the selection.—In the third year, the individual selections made the second year should be planted in a special breeding patch, such as described for planting the first-year selections, and the planting should be made in the same way, using the “plant-to-row” method. The individual selections should be made in the same way as in the first and second years, when the progenies of the second-year selections have reached fruiting condition. In the succeeding years, the same method should be pursued, forming, as will be seen, a continuous method of pedigree selection. Each year, also, second choice seed should be taken from the breeding patch to furnish seed to plant a larger Iddisstsstjq ut u0}309 Bury%tg ‘XI Id COTTON multiplication plot, from which in turn choice seed can be taken to plant a general crop. Literature. The following are some of the principal works treating on cotton: Structure of the Cotton Fibre in its Relation to Technical Applications, F. H. Bow- man, Second Edition, Manchester, 1881; Cotton: Its Uses, Varieties, Fibre Structure, Cultivation, etc., C. P. Brooks, New York, 1898; Cotton: Its Cultivation, Marketing, Manufacture, etc., C. W. Burkett, New York, Doubleday, Page & Co., 1906 ; The Cotton Plant: Its History, Botany, Chemistry, Culture, Enemies and Uses, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin No. 33, Washington, 1896, 483 pages; Notes on Egyptian Agriculture, Geo. P. Foaden, United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin No. 62 ; Lyman, Cotton Planters’ Manual ; Cotton Facts, A.B. Shepperson, New York ; Cotton and Cotton Oil, Cotton Plant- ing, Cultivation, Harvesting, etc., Dz A. Tompkins, Charlotte, North Carolina, 1901, two vols. ; Trans- actions, New England Cotton Manufacturers’ Asso- ciation, Waltham, Mass. (issued annually); The Cost of Cotton Production, J. W. Watkins, United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Statistics, Bulletin No. 16; Watt, Dictionary of Economic Plants ; Improvement of Cotton by Seed Selection, H. J. Webber, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, Yearbook, 1902; Growing of Long-Staple Upland Cotton, H. J. Webber, United States Department of Agriculture, Year- book, 1904; Story of the Cotton Plant, Frederick Wilkinson, D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1902. In addition, bulletins issued by the agricultural experiment stations in the cotton-growing states, give much valuable advice on specific phases of the subject. Perhaps the best published information on cotton soils is the record of the work done by . Hilgard, found in the Report of the Tenth Census, Vols. V and VI. Practical Suggestions on Cotton-Growing. By W. B. Mereier.. The following comments on cotton culture are drawn from the author’s personal experience, mostly in Mississippi and Louisiana. The advice will necessarily need to be modified somewhat for other regions and conditions. Fertilizers.—Cotton does not make excessive de- mands on the soil, but it is a clean-culture crop, and adds little humus to the soil, so that its con- tinued growth will wear out. even-the richest delta lands. Crop rotation, with the growing of a legume crop after the small grain and in the corn, is the most satisfactory way of rejuvenating the soil. But all lands will be benefited by the addition of some fertilizer. It hastens maturity on bottom lands, and increases the yield on poor uplands. Many farmers produce 500 to 800 pounds, and more, of lint per acre, while the average yield is less than 200 pounds per acre. It is evident that many growers are doing a losing business. The B17 COTTON 257 reason is not hard to find, when we consider that cotton is grown on the same land continuously without fertilizers or other means of supplying the constant drain. The writer averages 350 pounds of lint per acre on large areas of hill land, with the application of 200 pounds of commercial fertilizer per acre in drills under the cotton. It has been his experience that with medium prepa- ration and culture, about 250 pounds of commercial fertilizer per acre is the most profitable quantity to apply. A greater quantity will frequently pro- duce a greater yield, but it is doubtful whether it is economy. In the more sterile soils in some parts of the eastern states, however, from 600 to 1000 pounds of fertilizer is frequently used per acre with profit. On fresh lands, and on lands on which leguminous crops have been grown, acid phosphate alone gives best results. On medium to poor soils, cottonseed-meal and acid phosphate mixed equally gives splendid results. Potash does not give bene- ficial results as a cotton fertilizer in Mississippi or Louisiana, as is shown by experiments. Notwith- standing this fact, 90 per cent of all fertilizer sold in these states contains potash. Variety to plant.—There are two general kinds of cotton grown, long-staple and short-staple. The writer has grown both, and always with the result that the short-staple is the more profitable under average conditions. He has never grown a - long-staple variety that would yield more than 70 per cent as much as short-staple variety on the same land with the same treatment. No long- staple he has yet tried gives more than 27 per cent lint, while any good short-staple gives 33 to 35 per cent lint. The difference in price is usually about two to three cents a pound. There are somany varieties of cotton seed now offered for sale that one not accustomed to the advertising schemes of the high-priced new variety man will be puzzled to know what is best to plant. There are, in fact, only a few distinct varieties. One not familiar with the business cannot do better than to consult the leading farmers in his section as to what are the best varieties for that special locality. Some varieties will do well in one place that will be failures in another. In the writer’s experience, a short-staple variety, making a vigorous growth with medium long limbs, good-sized bolls, and seed with a tendency to early maturity, is best for general culture. Growth characteristics.—A few facts in regard to the general nature of the cotton plant may be of interest. There is no fixed time as to when the seed will germinate after being planted, as this is governed entirely by the temperature dnd the moisture in the soil. Also, there is no definite interval from the date of germination to the time when the first “form” or square is seen, as this is determined by various factors, such as time of planting, variety, soil, temperature and culture. It will average twenty-one days from the time a square first appears until it is a bloom; then it will average forty-two days from the bloom to the time of opening. The first blooms will be a few days longer in opening, .as will also 258 COTTON the first bolls. The bioom opens wide early in the morning, and is of a light cream-color; it begins to close and change to a pink color in the afternoon, and by the following morning is a deep pink color, and falls to the ground. Gathering season.—The gathering season usually begins in the hill country about the first of September, reaches its height in October, and is generally finished, except for scattering bolls, in November. On bottom-lands, the season usually begins later and lasts longer. The writer makes about three pickings, getting 20 per cent the first time, 60 per cent the second, and the remainder the third or last time. Handling the crop.—Before gins were so numer- ous, farmers would pick out several bales, and COVER-CROPS per cent of the business is done on what is known as the “furnishing” or credit system. The crop is virtually put in the hands of the merchant and commission man before the seeds are planted. The farmer pledges his crop to the merchant for supplies (mules, tools, feed for himself and teams) to make his crop with. The merchant, in turn, pledges all the cotton he controls to: ‘the commission man and banker for money tc supply the farmer. This system necessarily forces the bulk of the crop on the market in three or four months. Consequently, the speculators and others interested manipulate the prices very much to their own liking, and nearly always to the hurt of the producer. There is a decided ten- dency of recent years, however, to market the YW ow 4 op Say Z; SY Z Ze Ft Fig. 367. Typical cotton-hauling scene. Mississippi. often their entire crop, before hauling to the gin. When this was the practice, we had a much prettier staple. The practice now is to pick, haul and gin the same day, if possible. This is not a good practice, for much of the cotton is green, and nearly always has on it dew or rain enough to make it damp; hence it is impossible for the gin to do first-class work. The ginner is often crowded, in this way, until he cannot do good work. Many public gins employ incompetent men, and through their carelessness there is great loss to the farmers. The package in which cotton is marketed is called a bale, and it is recognized as the most unwieldy package handled in commerce. It is only because of the pressing demand for cotton that many carriers will handle it. For a number of years the round, compressed bale was used, and it was much more convenient and neat. There is a great demand now for a better package. A bale of cotton (Fig. 359) weighs about 500 pounds. A characteristic load of cotton is shown in Fig. 367. Marketing.—The usual means of marketing the cotton crop is unfortunate, to say the least. Ninety crop more slowly, and its effect has already been felt in the markets. A complete change in the system must be effected before the farmers are to get their proportion of the value of the product. The prices received for cotton varies from year to year, depending on a number of conditions. The law of supply and demand is the determining fac- tor. Ten cents per pound of lint cotton may be taken as the market price at present. COVER-CROPS. Figs. 368-370. By E. B. Voorhees. The term “cover-crop,” which, until 1898, was not distinguished from “catch-crop,” or from “ green- manure crop,” is now applied to a crop grown to: prevent injury and losses to soils, and either directly or indirectly to improve them, and often to afford protection to trees or other plants, rather than to secure the proceeds or products of the crop itself. A catch-crop is one that is grown between the periods of other crops, as after early potatoes and before winter wheat; or, sometimes the word is used to designate companion-crops, or those that COVER-CROPS are grown between the rows of other crops, as turnips grown between potatoes. The purpose of the catch-crop is to utilize the land to the utmost, securing an incidental crop. Green-manure crops are those grown for the purpose of enriching the land, whereas cover-crops are grown to protect the land, or trees, or other plants that may be growing on it. Cover-crops may or may not be green-manure crops. Cover-crops usually remain on the ground in winter. [See the article on Fruit-growing for another discussion of cover-crops.] Uses of cover-crops. Cover-crops are used, (1) to prevent the loss of soluble plant-food, which occurs when lands are left uncovered during the late fall and winter, especially in the case of corn, potato and tobacco lands, and for small-fruits or cultivated orchards; (2) to prevent the galling or surface erosion of hill- sides or slopes by winter: rains; and (8) to prevent root injury by excessive freezing of orchard lands, which danger, however, is apparent chiefly in the North and West, from Nebraska to North Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin and Can- ada. In all of these cases, the benefits, in addition to those mentioned, are due to the introduction into such soils of vegetable matter. The advantages of cover-crops in conserving and increasing fertility may be stated more in detail as follows: They absorb the plant-food from insolu- ble sources, and convert it into organic forms; they retain plant-food, particu- larly of a nitrogenous character, that would be carried away from a bare soil by leaching; and they regulate temperature and moisture conditions, thus promoting nitrification when seasonal conditions are favorable. Cover- crops improve physical character by providing roots to break up the soil particles and make them finer, besides adding vegetable matter or humus-forming material to the land, thus making the moisture conditions more favorable. They encourage the deeper rooting of orchard trees and prevent deep freezing by acting as a mulch. The effect of the cover-crop on the land will depend, to some degree, on the root habit of the crop. The clovers are very deep rooters (Fig. 369), and are prized for this reason as well as for other merits. Crops that are used as a cover to accomplish these results should not be confused with those which are used for green-manures. If they are made to serve as green-manures the real advantage of the cover-crop may be lost, for if a cover-crop is left too late in the spring it may cause injury by robbing the main crop of the needed moisture ; and when plowed down, after making too large a growth, it will injure spring-sown crops by cutting off the capillary supply of ground-water. These points should be carefully observed, for while many cover-crops may serve a specially useful purpose as green-manures, the direct manurial effect should be COVER-CROPS 259 regarded as an incidental gain, secondary to that secured from their use as cover-crops. Plants used as cover-crops. A very large number of plants have been used for cover-crops in the United States. These may be divided into two groups, viz., the legumes, or nitrogen-gatherers, and the non-legumes, or those which are sometimes distinguished as nitrogen-con- sumers. Of the legumes, the following have been used with considerable success: the several varie- ties of ‘red clover and Canada field-peas, widely useful in the northern tier of states ; alfalfa, in the western states and California; soybeans, cowpeas and crimson clover in the central. and southern states; velvet bean and beggarweed, especially Usually it should be ‘plowed under before it blooms. useful only in the South; hairy vetch and spring vetch, most successfully used in the South, though rather generally grown in the northern states; sweet clover and sometimes, for peculiar conditions, serradella, Of the non-legumes, rye, wheat, oats and barley of the cereals are probably more com- monly used than any others; rape and turnips of various varieties are used commonly, though they are not hardy in the northern sections of the coun- try ; buckwheat, white mustard and spurry have also been used with satisfaction under special con- ditions. Various mixtures and combinations of these plants are sometimes used, in order that the cover may extend through a longer period, or to insure a covering of the land should conditions be unfavorable for one or more members of the combination. The knowledge gained through experiment sta- tion work as to the usefulness of cover-crops, is constantly increasing, and they are now considered an important part of rational agricultural prac- tice. Kind of crops to use. The principle that should govern in the use of cover-crops is to employ such crops as may accom- plish the special purposes desired. To get the best 260 COVER-CROPS results, a cover-crop should be used when there is a period in a succession of crops in a rotation when the land would be likely to lie bare for any consider- able period, or, as in the case of orch- ards, when it is desirable to increase the vegetable matter in the soil and to retard the vegetative growth of the trees and bushes, and thus to encourage a more complete maturity of the plant. The kind of crop to plant must be determined by the local conditions and the local needs; that is, whether a grass, cereal, legume, or cruciferous plant shall be used, will depend on whether the habits of growth and char- acteristics of the plant will accomplish the purpose desired. For example, in the southern states, Bermuda-grass is admirably adapted to prevent erosion of land, yet this crop would not be recom- mended for northern conditions. In Delaware, and in certain other of the middle states, crimson clover is gener- ally seeded in corn as a cover-crop. It is hardy, grows well in the fall, and protects the soil during the winter ; in addition, it starts early and grows rap- idly in the spring, accumulating a large mass of vegetable matter containing nitrogen, in time to plow down for a spring crop. The conditions in these states are favorable for the use of crim- son clover as a cover-crop, whereas farther north the plant is not hardy and may serve as a cover-crop only in the fall. In the more northern sections, therefore, wheat or rye would be more desirable, as it will serve as a cover during the fall and continue to grow through the winter and early spring, absorbing and retaining soluble plant- food and gathering useful vegetable matter. In market-gardening, when it is necessary to plant early in spring, such crops as turnips, rape, oats, Canada peas, cowpeas, or soybeans, which die after freezing weather, are serviceable as fall cover-crops, because they accu- mulate large quantities of vegetable matter, cover the land with a mulch during the late fall and early win- ter, and are in condition to decay rapidly when the ground is plowed, which frequently may be done in early March. Literature. The following bibliography of ' some of the experiments conducted “A in this country will serve as a guide under the varying conditions of climate, location and cropping: ms Ser S S 4 ¥ To. so the kind of crop to be grown fig. 369. Root habit of (top) crimson, (middle)mammoth (bottom) winter clover, Cornell Exp, Sta. vetch, COWPEA Tennessee Experiment Station, Bulle- tin No.4; Nebraska Experiment Sta- tion, Report 1899, pp. 50-61; Canada Experimental Farms, Ottawa, Canada, Report 1901, pp. 140-152 ; Ontario Agri- cultural College and Experiment Station, Report 1904; Cornell Experiment Sta- tion, Bulletin No. 198; Report of the , Secretary of Agriculture, Nova Scotia, 1902, Part I, pp. 70-90; Massachusetts Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 82; Missouri Fruit Experiment Station, Bul- letin No. 4; Delaware Experiment Sta- tion, Bulletins Nos. 60 and 61 ; Michigan Experiment Station, Special Bulletins Nos. 27 and 30; Connecticut Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 149; Proceedings of Western New York Horticultural Society, 1901, pp. 12-17; American Agriculturist, 1902, pp. 79 and 100. The term cover-crop was first used in this signification by Bailey in 1893, Cornell Bulletin No. 61. COWPEA. Vigna unguiculata, Walp. Leguminose. Figs. 370, 371. By J. F. Duggar. A summer-growing annual more closely related to the bean than to the pea, grown for forage, for green-manuring and cover-cropping, and sometimes for human food. The habit of the plant varies greatly, some varieties being erect or bush-like and others distinctly trailing. All intermediate forms occur, and the habit is dependent not only on variety, but on soil, time of planting and climatic conditions. The cowpea is never a true climber, being without tendrils, but its slender runners twine around adjacent objects. The leaves are three-foliolate, and somewhat similar in shape and appearance to those of the common garden bean. The flowers are usually whitish or whitish purple, some- times with a yellowish cast. The pods are normally of straw color, but are sometimes purplish or dark. They vary in length from five to ten inches and contain numerous edible seeds. The seeds are usually kidney-shaped or roundish, but in some varieties the ends are slightly truncated. The cowpea, although belonging to the genus Vigna, is closely related to species of the section Strophostyles of Phaseolus. It is a native of India and the region northwestward to thesouthern part of the Trans-Caspian District, but has been a cultivated crop for two thousand years or more. It was intro- duced into the West Indies in the latter half of the seventeenth century, and began to be cultivated on the mainland COWPEA of America somewhat later. At various times the cowpea has been known under several botanical names, the most common names being V. Sinensis and V. Catjang. The American varieties of the cowpea, however, are correctly classified as V. unguiculata (V. Sinensis), while the name V. Cat- jang properly applies to another species easily distinguished by its much smaller and more torose pods, and by its smaller seeds. By some, however, V. unguiculata is considered to be a synonym of V. Catjang. Geographical distribution. Varieties of cowpeas have become widely dis- tributed throughout the world, but only in China, India and the southern part of the United States has this plant been an important factor in agri- culture. Although cultivated in the United States for about a century, not until recent years has its cultivation received much attention north of the Ohio and Potomac rivers, and north or west of Ar- kansas and Texas. Within the past ten years, stim- COWPEA 261 ulated by tests made at the various agricultural experiment stations, the cultivation of the plant has been carried northward, and it now promises to fill an important place throughout the greater part of the humid United States. The northern limit of cultivation has never been traced in detail, but in a general way this area may be regarded as including the states of Massachusetts, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, much of New York, Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, all of Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma and Texas, and of course the region south and east of these states. Westward of this line it may serve a useful pur- pose, but can scarcely compete with alfalfa or red clover where these plants are generally successful. Composition. The seed of the cowpea is rather uniform in composition and is very rich in nitrogen, but not so rich in this element as is soybean seed. The forage varies considerably in composition because of the variation in the quantities of pods and leaves, ANALYSES OF PARTS OF THE COWPEA PLANT. ri : Nitrogen- Ether Moisture Ash Protein Fiber free Stent extract Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Hay © sss ple ay Sp Ae es 10.70 7.50 16.60 20.10 42.20 2.90 Green forage * ee ee 83.60 1.70 2.40 4.80 7.10 0.40 Silagef .. 2. 2.2 ee ‘ era 79.30 2.90 2.70 6.00 7.60 1.50 Seed, shelled*¥ ........ 14.80 3.20 20.80 4.10 55.70 1.40 Ebr ss fin, eh ses gee vs 5) May se da ep hk West a Xs 10.46 2.81 6.36 41.43 38.49 0.45 Leaves** ..... es < 10.65 10.98 22.44 16.78 81.69 7.46 Leaves fas «6 8 Se ew ww ww 11.05 11.24 18.84 19.74 32.48 6.71 Fine stems and leaf stems ** 8.97 6.87 11.88 43.59 80.74 1.75 Coarse stems**. 2... 1... 2 ae 8.47 4.92 9.44 42.19 33.12 1.86 Stems fs ass sei Be fee Gy YS 10.00 6.20 5.87 38.84 38.20 0.89 Fallen leaves and leaf stems**. . . 9.75 20.78 10.44 20.45 81.96 6.62 Roots and stubble**........ 5.25 24.75 8.63 56.25 3.82 1.48 * Handbook of Experiment Station Work. f Louisiana, Station Bulletin, No. 40; average for 12 varieties. +* Alabama Station Bulletin, No. 118. T Henry’s ‘Feeds and Feeding.” FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS IN THE PARTS OF THE COWPEA PLANT. Moisture Nitrogen Phosphoric acid Potash Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Entire plant (6)... .. ie cB gh Gand ~eat tenet teaslonwes Sars 10.95 1.95 0.52 1.47 Hay, blooming stage (a4) . 1. 6 we we ee we wee 8.15 2.57 0.81 2.86 Hay, ripening stage (a) .. » ee eee ee eee 9.05 2.46 0.85 2.14 Leaves(a@)....- 20s Ee STE 10.65 3.59 0.78 1.49 Leaves (b) .. 2.2. a ie oe Re ae ea eee 11.05 3.01 0.22 1.12 Fine stems and leaf stems ‘@- 5-We cle Lars oorcan Ces aS 8.97 1.90 0.64 0.68 Leaf stems (6) ......-- ay Sach Bs veh fan) Bh Cah ca 9.64 0.98 0.50 1.83 Coarse stems (@) .. 1. e+ ee ee ee ee : 8.47 151 0.42 1.49 Stoms.(b) 0k ke ew 8 ww ee 8 10.00 1.09 0.34 2.25 Fallen leaves and leaf stems ‘@ ae 5 a a ee eh aE 2S eee 9.75 1.67 0.387 1.09 Ripening stage, fallen leaves and stems (@) .....- 7,80 1.83 0.64 1.45 Blooming stage, fallen leaves and leaf stems (a) 6.80 1.36 0.59 1.15 Fallen leaves (c) . 2. 2. 26 ee ee ee ee ww 10.51 1.92 0.30 0.80 Roots and stubble (@) .......24.-. oe ae ws 5.25 1.88 0.26 1.11 Roots and stubble, blooming stage (@) .... ends 7.00 1.05 0.41 2.11 Roots and stubble, ripening stage (a2)... ..- 2+ VT7T 1.17 0.48 1.51 Roots (0) 2 6 i ea we 6 es ee we vers ues 1.82 0.42 1.51 Roots (<) . 2... 22. ee Bucket el ae Ay SP RUE eS 10.12 1.09 0.83 2.19 Dried tubercles... 1... ee ee ee we ee es ee 5.02 wid .% (a) Alabama Station Bulletin, No. 120; average 6 varieties. c) Louisiana Bulletin, No. 55; 1 variety. (b) Louisiana Station Bulletin, No. 40; average 12 varieties. 262 COWPEA Varieties, ‘ The cowpea is subject to such wide and easy variation as the result of climate and other envi- ronment that any treatment of varieties is unsat- isfactory. More than one hundred different names are on record purporting to be names of varieties, but in reality many of these are synonyms. Dodson states (Louisiana Experiment Station, Bul- letin No. 40) that there are probably about five botanical varieties, namely, those with (1) red seed, (2) black seed, (8) white seed, (4) the clay varieties, and (5) granite and similar strains, with fine, dark markings on a brown background. He regards all others as connecting links or inter- mediate hybrids. However, we must recognize a considerable number of true agricultural varieties, with fairly good distinctions, whatever may have been their origin. Perhaps the best attempt to classify any considerable number of varieties was that made by Starnes in Bulletin No. 26 of the Georgia Experiment Station, which classification is here quoted : “Among the more important characteristics which distinguish the different varieties are the following, in the order of their probable impor- tance : CHARACTERISTICS : (1) Form of pea. Main divisions : (a) Crowders. (b) Kidneys. (2) Habit of growth. Divisions: (a) Trailing. (b) Recumbent. (c) Semi-recumbent. (d) Erect. (8) Time of maturity. Divisions: (a) Very early. (b) Early. (ce) Medium. (d) Late. (e) Very late. (4) Color of pod. Divisions: (a) Dark pods. (b) Light pods. (5) Color of peas. Divisions too numerous to specify. (6) Size of pods. Divisions: (a) Very large. (b) Large. (c) Medium. (d) Small. (e) Very small. (7) Size of peas. (a) Very large. (b) Large. (c) Medium. (d) Small. (e) Very small. (1) Form of pea. “The form or shape of the pea necessarily in- volves, as well, the form or shape of the pod. Two main forms appear to be assumed: (a) A rounded COWPEA form so closely packed in the pod that the sides of the pea are flattened or indented, giving the pod a tightly stuffed, corrugated, plethoric appearance. This class of pea is known as crowder. (0b) A flat- tened form, kidney-shaped, and placed farther apart in the pod, which is smoother and leaner in appearance. The pods of crowders are generally stubby and short, those of the kidney type, long. areos: Fig. 370. Cowpeas as a cover-crop. Useful either in orchards or general field conditions. “Both of these types combine indiscriminately the other points of difference, being of diverse sizes and colors of pea and of either shade of pod, while their habit of growth is as likely to be trail- ing as erect, and they are of all stages of maturity. Among the forty odd varieties tested this year at the station, the following are crowders—all the others kidneys : “Mush, Purple Hull Crowder, Red Crowder, Small Lady, Smith No. 14, Speckled Crowder, Sugar Crowder, White Crowder, Williams Hybrid. (2) Habit of growth. “The following divisions obtain in regard to growth: (a) Trailing : Conch, Red Eye, Williams Hybrid. (6) Recumbent: Calico, Congo, Large Lady, Li- lac Red Pod, New Era, Pony, Red Crowder, Red Ripper, Saddleback, Small Lady, Smith No. 7, Smith No. 9, Smith No. 14, Speckled Crowder, Sugar Crowder, Vacuum, White, White Brown Hull, White Crowder, White Giant. (c) Semi-recumbent: Black, Black Hye, Blue Hull, Chocolate, Constitution, Everlasting, Forage or Shinny, Granite, Gourd, Mathews, Mush, Purple Hull Crowder, Redding, Red Yellow Hull, Rice, Shrimp, Smith No. 15, Taylor Prolific. (d) Erect : Clay, Coffee, Quadroon, Red, Unknown, Whippoorwill, Wonderful. “While the four divisions enumeratéd—trailing, recumbent, semi-recumbent and erect —are suffi- ciently distinct to form separate classes, it must be noted that any variety, no matter how erect its general habit, will trail or run before the end of the season if planted very early and in rich ground. This characteristic has led to some confusion in the identification of varieties. COWPEA (3) Time of maturity. “The divisions with regard to maturity are even more distinct than those characterizing growth ; they are as follows: (a) Very Early: Chocolate, Congo, New Era, Vacuum, White Giant. (6) Early : Granite, Red Crowder, Red Eye, Red Yellow Hull, Saddleback, Smith No. 9, Whippoorwill. (c) Medium: Coffee, Large Lady, Lilac Red Pod, Mush, Pony, Small Lady, Smith No. 7, Smith No. 15, White, White Brown Hull. (d) Late. Black Eye, Everlasting, White Crow- der, Williams Hybrid. (@) Very Late: Black, Blue Hull, Calico, Clay, Conch, Forage or Shinny, Gourd, Mathews, Purple Hull Crowder, Quadroon, Red, Red- ding, Red Ripper, Rice, Shrimp, Smith No. 14, Speckled Crowder, Sugar Crowder, Taylor Prolific, Unknown, Wonderful. “Of all varieties, Conch is the latest and the flattest grower, trailing close to the ground like a potato vine. (4) Color of pods. “Certain varieties possess pods of a dark color, some almost brown when ripe, others reddish brown and still others bluish black or purple. The color of the pod bears no relation whatever to the color of the enclosed pea, which ranges from pure white through different mottled shades to red. “The following peas are dark hulled, all others are light or yellow hulled : White Brown Hull; color of pod, dark brown. Blue Hull; color of pod, blue-black. Red Eye; color of pod, blue-black. Purple Hull Crowder; color of pod, purplish black. Lilac Red Pod ; color of pod, reddish purple. Saddleback ; color of pod, purplish black. (5) Color of peas. “Naturally, more diversity is apparent in this feature than in any other. The following list of peas tested the present season is grouped accord- ing to color: White: Black Eye, Blue Hull, Conch, Large Lady, Mush, Pony, Red Eye, Rice, Small Lady, Smith No. 7, Smith No. 14, Smith No. 15, Sugar Crowder, Taylor Prolific, Vacuum, White, White Brown Hull, White Crowder, White Giant. Lemon: Smith No. 9. Pale Buff: Unknown, Wonderful, Quadroon. Pinkish Buff : Everlasting. Cream : Clay. Clear Pink: Shrimp. | Dull Red: Purple Hull Crowder, Red, Red Crow- der, Redding, Red Ripper, Red Yellow Hull. Lilac Mottled: Lilac Red Pod. Red Mottled : Calico, Saddleback. Brown Mottled: Chocolate, Coffee, Williams Hybrid. COWPEA j 268 Brown Speckled (on gray ground): Granite, Speckled Crowder, Whippoorwill. Brown Speckled (on blue ground): New Era. Black Mottled: Gourd, Mathews. Jet Black: Black, Constitution, Congo, Forage or Shinny. (6) Size of pods, (a) Very large: Calico, Gourd, Mathews. (() Large: Black Eye, Clay, Coffee, Conch, Congo, Forage or Shinny, Granite, Quad- roon, Red, Smith No. 15, Unknown, Vacuum, Whippoorwill, White Giant, Wonderful. (©) Medium: Black, Blue Hull, Chocolate, Ever- lasting, Lilac Red Pod, New Era, Red Eye, Red Ripper, Saddleback, Smith No. 9, Speckled Crowder, Taylor Prolific, White, White Brown Hull, White Crowder, Wil- liams Hybrid. (@d Small : Constitution, Large Lady, Mush, Pony, Purple Hull Crowder, Red Yellow Hull, Rice, Shrimp, Smith No. 7, Smith No. 14, Sugar Crowder. (e) Very Small: Red Crowder, Redding, Small Lady. (7) Size of pea. (a) Very Large: Calico, Congo, Granite, White Giant. (}) Large: Blue Hull, Coffee, Gourd, Lilac Red Pod, Mathews, Red Ripper, Red Yellow Hull, Smith No. 9, Speckled Crowder, Vacuum, White Crowder. (©) Medium: Black, Black Eye, Chocolate, Clay, Conch, Forage or Shinny, Mush, New Era, Pony, Purple Hull Crowder, Quadroon, Red, Red Crowder, Red Eye, Smith No. 7, Smith No. 15, Taylor Prolific, Unknown, White Brown Hull, Whippoorwill, Williams Hybrid, Wonderful. (d) Small: Everlasting, Large Lady, Redding, Rice, Saddleback, Shrimp, Smith No. 14, Sugar Crowder. (e) Very Small : Constitution, Small Lady, White. “There are other minor characteristics, as that of smooth and wrinkled surface, serving to distinguish varieties otherwise apparently identical. Blue Hull, Chocolate, Pony, Saddleback, Vacuum and White Giant, are wrinkled. All of the others are smooth.” Detailed descriptions of a number of varieties may be found in bulletins of the various agricul- tural experiment stations, especially in Georgia Bulletin No. 26, Texas Bulletin No. 34, and Louis- jana Bulletins Nos. 19 and 29. In the Gulf states, the two varieties most extensively grown are Whippoorwill or Speckled, and Unknown or Wonderful. In yield of forage the Unknown is at or near the head of the list in the southern part of the cotton-belt. Its large yield and relatively upright growth make it a favorite for forage, while its heavy yield and large stems and roots make it one of the best for the improvement of the soil. It is not suitable for 264 COWPEA growing for seed much beyond the limit of the Gulf and South Atlantic states, nor for any. pur- pose in the far North, being a very late variety. Whippoorwill, a bushy or erect,rather early variety, is a general favorite for seed production, and is suitable for cultivation for forage or soil-improve- ment as far north as New York. The very early varieties, for example New Era, Warren Hybrid, Warren Extra-Karly, and Extra-Early Black Eye, mature seed considerably north of the line where the Whippoorwill completely matures. But both in the North and South, earliness is at the sacrifice of yield of forage. On the other hand, the New Era Fig. 371. A cowpea (Vigna unguiculata). and some other early varieties are prolific bearers ut seed, and on rich land make very satisfactory ay. The Iron cowpea is unique in being practically exempt from cowpea wilt, and from attacks of nematode worms, which commends it for use on the sandy soils of the southern parts of the Gulf and South Atlantic states. The seed resembles that of the Clay pea, and the plant in habit may be classed as a moderate runner. The yield of hay is good and of seed medium. The leaves are retained well, even after the plant has matured a fair crop of seed, so that hay may be made from this variety, while blooms, ripe pods and leaves are all abundant on the same plant. In mild winters in the Gulf states, the seeds lie in the ground uninjured, germinating late in the following spring. For forage or soil-improvement in southern Ohio, Alva Agee recommends the Black, a variety somewhat later than the Whippoorwill, and dis- tinguished both North and South for its large yield of forage. At the Georgia Experiment Sta- COWPEA tion, the varieties leading in yield of forage were Black, Mathews, Gourd, White, Taylor Prolific, Blue Hull, Speckled Crowder, White Crowder, Mush and Williams Hybrid. At the Alabama Sta- tion, among the most prolific producers of forage are Unknown or Wonderful, Clay and Iron. Among the varieties yielding most seed at the southern experiment stations are Black, Clay, Unknown, Taylor, New Era and Whippoorwill. Conditions that tend to dwarf the plant, to make it more erect or bushy and to hasten matur- ity are (1) planting late in the season aad (2) growing the parent seed in high latitudes. Culture. Soil—The cowpea is adapted to a wide range of land, being able to make some growth on prac- tically all soils except those that continue wet during the summer. Near the northern limit of its cultivation, sandy and loamy soils are prefer- able, as they hasten maturity. There its best use is for soil-improvement, which indicates that its usual place is on soil too poor or otherwise un- suited for the successful growth of red clover. A moderate degree of acidity is not fatal to its thrifty growth. Climate-—The cowpea is a native of a warm climate and is very susceptible to frost. Near the northern limit of its cultivation it must be started as early as the season is well settled, so as to give time for it to reach the desired degree of matu- rity ; but planting should be deferred until the soil is fairly warm. In the Gulf states, the earliest practicable date for sowing is the latter part of April, but this is usually at a disadvantage except when two crops per year are desired on the same land. May and June are the months preferred in the South. In Delaware, the latter part of June and early part of July have been found more de- sirable dates for sowing cowpeas than late May and early June. Early sowing has a tendency to cause the production of an excessive growth of runners, and may even change the habit of bush varieties. While moderately early planting usually increases the total yield of forage and the amount of tangling, rather late planting affords a larger yield of seed and tends to the development of a bushy plant. Planting.—Land on which cowpeas are to be grown should be plowed and well harrowed. Then planting may be done either in drills or broad- cast, the method to be used depending on a num- ber of conditions. Broadcast sowing reduces the labor but increases the quantity of seed. Usually, when soil and season are favorable, broadcast sow- ing gives a somewhat larger yield of hay, but in seasons of drought, drilling and subsequent cultiva- tion make a fair yield more certain than broad- casting. To broadcast cowpeas they may be sown by hand and afterwards disked or cultivated into the loose soil, or they may be put in with a grain- drill with every tube open. On sandy soil they are sometimes sown broadcast and plowed in shallow. In drilling cowpeas, the distance between the rows is usually thirty-two to thirty-six inches. The COWPEA seeds are dropped either by hand, by a one-horse planter, by the modern corn-planter in which the cells in the dropping plates may be filled to fit the peas, or by the grain-drill with most of the outlets closed. The grain-drills best adapted to this pur- pose are those having gravity or friction feeding devices, as the force feeds crack a much larger percentage of the peas. Drilling and cultivation usually afford the larger yield of seed. The seed.—The preferred quantity of seed for sowing broadcast is four to six pecks per acre, but varieties with large seeds may require a larger amount. For planting in drills, two to three pecks per acre are usually sufficient when the rows are wide enough to permit cultivation. At the Arkan- sas station, it has been found that the common practice mentioned above involves a larger quan- tity of seed than is necessary. In case drilled and cultivated cowpeas are to be mown, care must be taken to cultivate level, using ordinary culti- vators, or, in the South, heel scrapes. In the South, cowpeas are often sown broadcast or drilled among the growing corn. The seed is planted when the cultivation of the corn is nearly or quite finished. Inoculation has never been found necessary in the South because of the general prevalence in southern soils of the germ that causes the devel- opment of tubercles on the roots of cowpeas. However, there may be small areas in which this crop is seldom cultivated, where at first it will be an advantage to use as inoculating material 1,000 or more pounds per acre of pulverized soil from a field where cowpeas have recently grown and developed abundant tubercles. In a number of localities in the northern and western states, when cowpeas were first introduced, few nodules devel- oped on the roots; whenever this occurs the need for inoculation is indicated. Pollination—The cowpea is self-pollinated. Dodson made notes of the insect visitors, and concluded that insects were seldom concerned in bearing pollen from bloom to bloom. Artificial cross-pollination is exceedingly difficult in the field, but a larger percentage of hand-pollination is successful when the plants are grown in a greenhouse. Companion-cropping.—Since the leaves of the cowpea easily fall off in curing, unless weather conditions are altogether favorable, it is some- times advantageous to grow cowpeas in connec- tion with some grass crop, the presence of which makes curing quicker and entangles the leaves, thus preventing their loss. For this purpose the latest varieties of millet, especially German millet, are satisfactory for mixing with the early varie- ties of cowpeas, sowing one to one and one-half pecks of millet per acre with one bushel or more of cowpeas. Soybeans are sometimes grown in connection with cowpeas. Many southern farmers prefer a mixture of cowpeas and amber sorghum, about one bushel of each per acre. The admix- ture of sorghum greatly increases the yield on fair or good land, but somewhat increases the difficulty of curing the forage. A volunteer COWPEA 265 growth of crab-grass is, perhaps, in the Gulf states, the most generally satisfactory addition to cow- pea hay. A satisfactory mixture for the silo consists of drilled corn and cowpeas, the latter sometimes being drilled in several weeks after the planting of the corn. Although the cowpeas usually con- stitute the smaller part of this forage, their presence serves to increase the percentage of protein in the silage. Manuring.—The cowpea is most useful on the poorest grades of land, but often needs the help of commercial fertilizers. In the South, the most general requirement is for phosphoric acid, although on some poor and very sandy soils the addition of potash as well as phosphate is profitable. Tests in Delaware and Connecticut indicated that pot- ash, which was used at the rate of 160 pounds (muriate of potash) per acre, was the principal fertilizer needed. A common application is 200 to 400 pounds of acid phosphate per acre, to which, on soils needing potash, may be added fifty pounds of muriate of potash or an equivalent amount of kainit. The cowpea is a leguminous plant, and so, after reaching the stage at which its roots are abundantly supplied with tubercles, derives its nitrogen very largely from the air. Hence, the use of nitrogenous fertilizers is not generally very economical, though the cowpea, in common with nearly all other plants, thrives best in the pres- ence of vegetable matter, and profits greatly by an application of stable manure, of which, how- ever, more advantageous use can usually be made. The yield is very slightly increased by applications of nitrate of soda, and nitrogenous fertilizers have little effect on the composition of the resulting forage. In one test at the Connecticut Storrs Experiment Station (Report 1898), potash not only increased the yield but increased the per- centage of protein in the forage. Harvesting.—In curing cowpea hay, the same rules obtain as in curing clover hay. Especial care must be taken to leave the cut forage exposed to the sun in the swath for as short a time as practi- cable, the curing being completed in cocks, or in such other way as to protect the bulk of the hay from long exposure to the sun. No definite rule can be given, but it is usual to rake the hay twenty- four to thirty-six hours after mowing and to pile it in cocks the afternoon of the second day after mowing. Here in fair weather it should remain for two or three days, at the end of which time the cocks may be opened for a few hours before being hauled to the barn. One method of hay-curing is thus described in Bulletin No. 40, of the Mississippi Experiment Station : “The mower is started in the morning as soon as the dew is off and run until noon. . . « As soon as the top of the cut vine is well wilted the field is run over with a tedder. . . . When the crop is very heavy the tedder is used a second time. Vines that have been cut in the morning and teddered in the afternoon are usually dry enough to put in small cocks the next afternoon, and if the weather promises to be favorable they are 266 COWPEA allowed to remain in the cocks two or three days before they are hauled to the barn. If it should rain before the vines are put in cocks they are not touched until the surface is well dried, and are then tedded as though freshly cut. We find the only safe plan is to put the hay for a few weeks in a stack covered with straw, or, still better, in a barn, where it should not be piled too deep. After a month it may be packed without danger of finding moldy or dusty hay in the cen- ters of the bales.” Some persons store cowpea hay in the barn when merely well wilted, and disavow any fear of spontaneous combustion or molding. When this is done it is necessary that the crop be nearly mature, about one-half of the pods having assumed a straw-color; that there be no external moisture on the plants when placed in the mow; and that the hay be not moved, no matter how hot it may become, since forking over the hay would admit additional oxygen that would facilitate fermenta- tion or combustion. Until more is known of the conditions under which this procedure may be safe, it cannot be generally recommended. In the southern states, September and October are usually the driest months, and if the crop can be sown at such time as to bring the haying season in these months, this, together with the use of haycaps (Fig. 279), will greatly reduce the danger of loss in curing. The harvesting of cowpea seed is not yet on a satisfactory basis. The pods are usually picked by hand and afterwards shelled by beating with a flail. Pickers have been patented and tested, but never extensively manufactured nor adopted. Hand-picking, the usual procedure, is too slow. The most rapid method is to cut the vines after most of the pods have matured, using a reaper or scythe; carefully to cure the whole in cocks; and to pass the vines and pods through a shredder, which cracks very few of the peas. Some persons advise running the vines through a grain thresher, driven at low speed and with blank concaves, pre- cautions which in our experience have not entirely prevented the cracking of a considerable propor- tion of the peas. Uses. The cowpea is useful for the following purposes: (1) For the improvement of the land, through the addition of vegetable matter and of nitrogen secured from the soil air. (2) For forage that may be utilized either as hay, as a soiling crop, for silage, or for pasturage. (8) For the production of a highly nutritious seed crop that serves as food for mankind and for domestic animals. .(4) As a crop to fit the land for sod, in the North. The most profitable means of utilizing the crop is to use the top as forage, and to secure in addition the very considerable fertilizing effect of the roots, stubble and other residue left on the land. By this method the forage is utilized twice, once as food for animals and later in the form COWPEA of barnyard manure, which will then be very rich in nitrogen. If the crop cannot be converted into hay, the next best use is to pasture it, thus leav- ing most of the fertilizing material on the land. The analyses heretofore given show that all parts of the cowpea plant are rich’in nitrogen. The hay is similar in composition to wheat-bran, and experiments at the Alabama Experiment Sta- tion (Bulletin No. 123) showed that one ton of cowpea hay was practically equal to 1,720 pounds of wheat-bran in the ration of dairy cows. At this station, the grazing of cowpeas by dairy cows showed a value of about five dollars per acre of cowpeas grown as a catch-crop between the rows of corn, and a value of about eight dollars per acre in low-priced pork when nearly ripe cowpeas were grazed by hogs (Bulletin No. 118). The cowpea makes a satisfactory silage when passed through a silage cutter and well weighted in the silo. It is usually preferable, however, to mix in the silo cowpeas with corn or sorghum. The cowpea as a fertilizer. What clover is to the North and West as a means of improving the fer- tility of the soil, the cowpea is to regions south of the clover-belt. A ton of cowpea hay contains about forty pounds of nitrogen; hence, with a yield of two tons of hay per acre, we have in the entire plant, including roots and stubble, more than 100 pounds of nitrogen per acre, equivalent to more than in 600 pounds of nitrate of soda. Of the total nitrogen in the plant, that in the roots and stubble usually constitutes 20 to 40 per cent, averaging about 80 per cent. Crops grown after the stubble of the cowpea, yield considerably more than when following non- leguminous plants, but usually much less than when the entire growth of the preceding crop of cowpeas has been plowed under as fertilizer. Diseases and insect enemies. In parts of the southern states near the coast, and especially on sandy soil long in cultivation, the cowpea is subject to the cowpea wilt (Neocos- mospora vasinfecta, var. tracheiphila) and to injuries of the root by nematode worms ( Heterodera ra- dicicola). To both maladies the Iron variety is practically or entirely immune. Mildew, leaf-spot and other diseases of the foliage occur, but exten- sive damage from these is unusual. The leaves are sometimes eaten by grasshoppers and other insects. Literature. The literature on cowpeas is extensive. Much information will be found in the agriculturai press and agricultural books. A few bulletins and reports are mentioned here: Alabama (College) Experiment Station Bulletins, Nos. 14, 107, 114, 118, 120, 122 and 128; Ala- bama (Canebrake) Experiment Station Bulletins, Nos. 9, 10 and 22; Arkansas Experiment Station Bulletins, Nos. 31, 58, 61, 68, 70 and 77; Connect- icut (Storrs) Experiment Station Bulletins, Nos. 6 and 23; Reports 1888, 1898, 1895; Delaware Experiment Station Bulletins, Nos. 46, 55 and 61; COWPEA Reports 1892, 1893, 1895; Georgia Experiment Station Bulletins, Nos. 3, 17, 23, 26 and 71; Illinois Experiment Station Bulletin, No. 94; Ken- tucky Experiment Station Bulletin, No. 98; Report, 1902; Louisiana Experiment Station Bulletins, Nos. 8, 19, 29, 40, 55 and 72; Michigan Experiment Station Bulletins, Nos. 224 and 227; Mississippi Experiment Station Bulletin, No. 40; Missouri Experiment Station Bulletin, No. 34; New Jersey Experiment Station Bulletins, Nos. 161, 174 and 180; Report, 1893; North Carolina Experiment Station Bulletins, Nos. 73, 98 and 162; Oklahoma Experiment Station Bulletin, No. 68; Reports 1899, 1901 and 1905; South Carolina Experiment Station Report, 1889; Texas Experi- ment Station Bulletin, No. 34; Vermont Experi- ment Station Report, 1895; Pennsylvania Experi- ment Station Report, 1895; Bulletin, No. 180; United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin, No. 25; United States Department of Agriculture (Agrostology 64), Cir- cular, No. 24; United States Department of Agri- culture Yearbook for 1896. DYES AND DYEING. Figs. 372-378. By C. S. Doggett. Dyestuff materials are derived from the animal and vegetable kingdoms, and, in the last fifty years, those made synthetically from products obtained from coal-tar. In 1856, W. H. Perkin, an English chemist, discovered the production of a violet dye when experimenting with aniline, a body found in coal-tar ; soon afterwards, other dyes were made from the same products and they became known as aniline colors. Unfortunately, these colors were inferior to the natural coloring matters, which they surpassed in brilliancy, so that, although very many artificial colors have been made that equal or surpass those derived from natural products (in some instances the identical natural product being made synthetically), “aniline colors” even today are regarded in the popular mind with more or less suspicion. Over twenty-five thousand patents have been taken out covering these dyes or processes relating thereto, and more than two thousand arti- ficial dyestuffs have found more or less commercial value. The natural coloring matters are rapidly becoming of historic interest only and their cul- ture is being abandoned. A few are now secured from native trees of the forest. Twenty-five years ago madder began to be replaced by alizarine, the coloring principle found in it, which is now manufactured in enormous quantities; and within the last six years, the artificial production of indigo has been compelling the producers of the natural product to improve their methods or succumb. Indeed, it is only the cheap labor of India that renders any competition possible. Dyestuffs are used for coloring all sorts of materials. Addition of coloring matter to a food product to disguise its appearance or character partakes of the nature of fraud. Harmless color- ing materials may be used in confectionery and the like, where it is evident that no deceit is intended. DYES AND DYEING 267 Coloring materials vary so much in properties that it is not possible in this place to give the de- tails of their extraction. Coloring matters that exist as such are extracted with the proper solvent : water-alcohol and ether are the chief solvents. Many of the natural coloring matters, such as that of logwood, are not found in plants in the free state, but in combination with a glucose-like body, and are called glucosids, and only after a kind of fermentation or oxidation is the coloring principle in condition to be extracted. In common with many plants possessing medicinal properties, the special ferment also exists in the plant, so that fermen- tation proceeds when the proper conditions are met. List of natural animal and vegetable colors. The following very complete list of natural col- ors of vegetable and animal origin, compiled by Wilton G. Berry and published in Circular No. 25, of the Bureau of Chemistry, Department of Agriculture, rescues from oblivion many coloring matters and fairly indicates their importance and use. The source of the color is given in Italics: Alder bark : Alnus glutinosa. Yellow. Alkanet: Baphorhiza tinectoria (Alkanna tinctoria, Anchusa tinctoria). Used in coloring oils, medicines, po- mades, wine, etc. Red to crimson. Alkanna green has also been prepared from the root. Aloes: Cape aloe (Aloe spicata), A. arborescens, A. lucida, A. Succotrina, A. vera. Yellow. Al root or Aich root, soorangee, suranjee (India) : Morinda citrifolia, M. tinctoria. Alumina lake, yellow. Annatto, or anotto, orlean, roucou, orenetto, attalo, terra orellana, achiote: Bixa Orellana. Used for color- ing oils, butter, etc. (Fig. 372:) Archi], or orchil, orseille, oricello, orchilla: Rocella Montagnei (new), RB. fuciformis (old), R. tinctorta. Also prepared from any lichens containing orcin or its deriv- atives, i. e., Variolaria, Lecanora, Evernia, Cladonia, Ramalina, Usnea. Appears in liquid, paste, and powder forms, the latter being a sulfonated derivative. Dyes unmordanted wool in neutral, alkaline and acid solutions, giving a bright bluish red. The color is not fast to light. Asbarg or gandhaki (Afghanistan): Delphinium Zaltl. Yellow lakes prepared from the blossoms. Bahia wood: Cesalpinia Brasiliensis. Exported from Bahia. Sometimes called Brazilwood. See under Red- woods. Barberry: Berberis vulgaris. Yellow basic dye. Barwood, or camwood, kambe wood, bois du cam: Baphia nitida. From west coast of Africa and Jamaica. See under Redwoods. Bastard hemp: Datisca cannabina. Alkaline solutions, yellow. Bilberry, or whortleberry : Vaccinium membranaceum, V. Myrtillus. Blue to purple. Box myrtle, or yangme of China, kaiphal of India: Myrica Nagi (M. sapida and M. integrifolia), M. rubra. Alumina lake, brown orange. Brazilwood, or fernambourgwood, pernambuco wood, fernambuck wood, bois de fernambuoc, rothhola: Guilan- dina crista, Cesalpinia Braziliensis. Chiefly from Brazil and Jamaica. See under Redwoods. Brazilettowood, or Jamaica redwood, Bahama redwood : Balsamea sp. See under Redwoods. Buckthorn: Rhamnus cathartica. Purple juice which when treated with alkali becomes green. Used in confec- tionery as sap green. 268 DYES AND DYEING Buckwheat: Fagopyrum esculentum. Yellow color from leaves and stalk. Buttercup: Ranunculus bulbosus and other species. Yellow. Cabbage: Brassica oleracea. Contains cauline, prob- ably identical with the cyanine of wine. Camwood, or gaban wood, poa-gaban: Closely allied to barwood. From African coast. See under Redwoods. Fig. 372. Annatto pods, from which butter color is derived. Capers: Capparis spinosa. Yellow. Caramel: Sugar heated above its melting point turns brown and is converted into caramel. Brown. Carrot : Daucus Carota. Yellow. Catechu: Acacia Catechu, Ourouparia gambier. Brown to dull red colors. Influenced by oxidation. Contains catechin. Celery, or smallage: Apium graveolens. Yellow-green. Chamomile (Ger.), or matricario: Matricaria Chamo- milla. Alumina lake, yellow. Chay root, or ché root, cherri vello, sayavee, imbural, turbuli: Oldenlandia umbellata. Contains alizarin, pur- purin, etc. See under Madder. Chelidoine juice: Chelidonium majus. Yellow. Chica-red, or crajina: Arrabidea Chica (Bignonia Chica). Vermilion-red powder, insoluble in water; alka- line solutions, orange to red. Chinese green, or lokoa: Rhamnus tinctoria, R. Dahurica. Only green dye other than chlorophyll. Chinese yellow: Gardenia grandiflora. Other Chinese yellows are wongsky, wougsky, wongschy, hoang-teng, hoang-tschi, hoang-pe-pi, and ti-hoang. Chrysamic acid: Aloes. Action of nitric acid on aloes. Yellow in alcohol. Chlorophyll : Green color of plants. Cochineal, or cochenille, coccionella: Coccus cacti (dried bodies of the female insect). Contains carminic DYES AND DYEING acid soluble in water with purple color; lakes, red to purple ; alum or tin lakes, cochineal carmine or coccerin. Cotinin : Preparation from young fustic. Yellow. 5 ey or red bilberry: Vaccinium Vitis-Idea. ed. Cudbear, or cudbeard, perseo: Lecanora tinctoria, Variolaria orcina (lichens). Differs from archil in being in powder and free from excess of ammonia. Bluish red. Cyanin: Coloring matter from petals of flowers. Occurs in wine. Blue, turning pink with vegetable acids. Dragon’s blood (palm): Demonorops Draco. Red resin, used chiefly for coloring varnishes, for preparing gold lacquers, for tooth tinctures and powders, and for staining marbles. Dragon’s blood (Socotra): Dracena Cinnabari. Red resin. Dwarf elder: Sambucus Ebulus. Red. Dyer’s broom: Genista tinctoria. Yellow. Dyer’s woodruff : Asperula tinctoria. Contains colors similar to alizarin. Elderberry : Sambucus Canadensis, S. nigra, S. pubens. Red. Fairy cup or blood cup: Chlorosplenium eruginosum. Calcium lake, green. Flavin : Prepared from oak bark. Olive yellow to dark brown powder. Yellow. Forget-me-not : Myosotis palustris. See Cyanin. French purple: Prepared from archil by treatment with acid. Fustic (old) or yellow Brazilwood, Holland yellow wood, murier des teinturiers, bois jaune, gelbholz: Chlorophora tinectoria (Morus tinctoria). Contains morin and maclurin. Yellow. Fustic (young) or bois jaune de Hongrie, du Tirol, aes fustel: Rhus Cotinus. Contains fisitin. Yel- ow. Galangal (Chinese): Alpinia officinarum. Alkaline solutions, yellow. Used in Russia for making “Nastoika,” a liquor. Galangal (Javan): Alpinia Galanga. Alkaline solu- tions, yellow. Gamboge: Garcinia Hanburyi, G. Morella. Red resin. Lakes, yellow. Garancin : Formerly prepared from madder. Of his- toric interest only. Gentian: Gentiana lutea. Alkaline solutions, yellow. Goa powder: Vouacapoua Araroba (Andira Araroba) Aguiar. Contains chrysarobin and chrysophanic acid. Yellow. Golden seal or Canadian yellow root: Hydrastis Cana- densis. Yellow basic dye. See Medicinal Plants. Harmala red: Peganum Harmala. Basic color in- soluble in water ; alkaline solutions, red. Heartsease, or pansy, lady’s delight: Viola tricolor, var. arvensis. Yields quercetin. Yellow. Hollyhock: Althea rosea, Malva sylvestris, M. rotun- difolia. Solutions, violet-red. Crimson with acids. Green with alkalies. Alumina lake, violet-blue. Horse-chestnut : lakes, yellow. Indian yellow, or piuri, piouri, purree, purrea arabica, jaune indien. Prepared in India from the urine of cows fed on mango leaves, and contains yellow coloring matters, free and in form of magnesium or calcium salts. Indigo: Indigofera Anil and other species. (Fig. 373.) Insoluble in water. Becomes soluble by treatment with sul- furic acid, forming sulpho salts. Indigo carmine (blue). Soluble under reduction to indigo white in alkaline solutions containing a reducing agent, such as copperas, zinc dust, glucose, and certain organic ferments, bran being em- ployed in wool dyeing. On exposure to air, indigo white is oxidized to indigo. The dyeing process depends on this reaction. Indigo made artificially is very largely used. Indigo was once an important product of South Carolina, DYES AND DYEING “In 1742, George Lucas, governor of Antigua, sent the first seeds of the indigo plant to Carolina, to his daughter, Miss Eliza Lucas (afterwards the mother of Charles Cotes- worth Pinckney). With much perseverance, after several disappointments, she succeeded in growing the plant and extracting the indigo from it. Parliament shortly after placed a bounty on the production of indigo in British possessions, and this crop attained a rapid development in Carolina. In 1754, 216,924 pounds and, in 1777, 1,107,660 pounds were produced. But the war with the mother country, the competition of indigo-culture in the East Indies, the unpleasant odor emitted and the swarms of flies attracted by the fermentation of the weeds in the vats, and above all the absorbing interest in the cotton crop, caused the rapid decline of its culture, and in the early part of this century it had ceased to be a staple product, although it was in cultivation in remote places as late as 1848.” (From “South Carolina,” by Harry Ham- mond.) Jackwood, or jack fruit of Ceylon: Artocarpus integ- rifolia. Alumina lake, yellow. Kamala, or kameela, ramelas, rottlera: Philippinensis (Rottlera tinctoria). Red powder. Kermes berries, or portugal berries, poke berries, pigeon berries, scoke berries: Phytolacca Americana (Phytolacca decandra). Reddish. ermes, or false kermes berries, graines de kermes, vermillon vegetal: Coccus ilicis (dried bodies of the female insect). Solutions and lakes, blood red. Kino: Pterocarpus Marsupium, Butea frondosa, B. superba, and varieties, Eucalyptus corymbosa. Red color. Lac-dye, or lac-lac: Coccus lacce (from the female insect). Colors similar to cochineal. Lapacho, or taigu wood: Tecoma Lapacho and allied species. Yellow color. Lima wood, or Costa Rica redwood: Martha wood. See under Redwoods. Liquorice : Glycyrrhiza glabra. Brown. Litmus, or tournesol: Rocella, Lecanora, Variolaria (lichens). Red and blue. Used as an indicator by chemists; acids change the blue to red, and alkalies the red to blue. Logwood, or Campechy wood, Blauholz: Hematoxylum Echinus Similar to St. _~— as ‘ ee Fig. 373. Indigo (Indigofera Anil), formerly grown in the South, and still cultivated in India. DYES AND DYEING , 269 Campechianum, The unfermented extract forms yellow solutions if neutral, and blue precipitate with calcare- ous water. The unfermented solution contains chiefly a glucoside which, on fermentation, yields hematoxylin, and the latter is easily oxidized to hematein. Various Fig. 374. Madder (Rubia tinctorum). a and b and their op- posites are probably not true leaves but large leaf-like stipules; the leaves of R. tinctorum are opposite. Former source of the Turkey red dye. colored lakes are formed. Hematoxylin forms rose-red color with alum and a black violet lake with iron alum. Hematein forms bluish violet with alkalies; reddish purple with sodium carbonate; reddish purple with ammonia; bluish violet lake with ammoniacal copper sulfate ; violet lake with ammoniacal tin chlorid; black with ammoniacal iron alum. Logwood and fustic are the principal natural coloring matters not yet replaced by artificial products. They are not used so exclusively as hitherto. Their coloring principles have not yet been made synthetically, and their low price and good qualities keep them important. Lopez root: Toddalia aculeata. Contains ber- berin. Yellow. Lomatiol: Tricondylus ilicifolia, Tricondylus myricoides. Yellow. Madder: Rubia tinctorum. (Fig. 374). Natural source of alizarin dyes. Formerly considered the most important of all dye-stuffs used by calico- printers, and cultivated very extensively in Italy and France, but is now entirely displaced by arti- ficial alizarin. The plant is a native of Asia Minor. Color dyed with it is the well-known Turkey red. Mang-koudur, or oungkoudon, song-kou-long, jong koutong: Morinda umbellata. Lakes, yellow to red. Marsh marigold : Caltha palustris. Yellow. Mountain wormwood, or Genepi des alpes: Artemisia Absinthium. Yellowish. Munjeet : Rubia cordifolia. Similar to madder. Myrtle berry: Myrtus communis. Bluish red. Nettle: Urtica sp. Nicaragua wood: Guilandina echinata. Boughs or twigs used. See Redwoods. Onion: Alliwm Cepa. Alumina lake, yellow-brown. Oregon grape root: Berberis Aquifolium. Yellow basic dye. Panama crimson : Vine called “ China.” Parsley: Apium Petroselinum. Alumina lake, yellow. Peachwood, or St. Martha wood, Martin wood, bois du 270 DYES AND DYEING sang: Guwilandina echinata. From the Sierra Nevada in Mexico. See under Redwoods. Persian berries, or yellow berries, Kreutzbeeren, Avig- non-Korner, graines de perse, graines jaunes, graines d’ Avignon (Rhamnus infectoria), French berries (R. Ala- ternus), Spanish berries (R. saxatilis), Italian berries (R. infectoria), Hungarian berries (R. cathartiea). Alum lake, bright yellow ; iron lake, dark olive. Poppy, or field red corn: Papaver Rheas. Red. Poplar buds: Populus sp. Alumina lake, yellow. ‘Prickly pear: Opuntia vulgaris. Red. One of the chief species of cacti on which the cochineal (which see) insect lives and propagates. Privet berries: Ligustrum vulgare. Bluish red. Purple heart: Copaifera publifora. Alum lake, yellow. Puriri: Vitex littoralis. Alum lake, yellow. Quercitron: Quercus velutina and varieties: Yields quercetin, yellow. Quercitron bark extract is still used extensively. Quebracho: Quebrachia Lorentzti. Yellow color. Redwoods: See Brazil, Bahia, Peach, Nicaragua, Sapan, Lima, Braziletto, Barwood and Camwood. These woods Fig. 375. Safflower (Oarthamus tinctorius). Source of a yellow dye. yieid on treatment various red to yellow-red colored solutions, no two woods giving exactly the same shades ; i. v., Brazilin,- probably occurring as a glucoside, forms Brazilein on oxidation and yields lakes similar to alizarin in shade, but inferior in all other qualities. Florence, Berlin and Venetian lakes are lakes of the soluble red- woods. Rhubarb: Rheum officinale. Yields chrysophanis acid. Yellow. Rue: Ruta graveolens. Alum lake, yellow. DYES AND DYEING Safflower, or dyer’s saffron, carthame, safran batard, bastard saffron: Carthamus tinctorius. (Fig. 375). Yel- low. ‘Triturated with French chalk and dried, forms various bright “rouges”. Saffron, or azafran (Afgh.): Crocus sativus. Yellow. (Fig. 376). Sage: Salvia officinalis. Yellow. Sandalwood, or santalwood, lignum santalum, red san- talwood, Saunders wood, red sandalwood, red Sanders wood, bois de santal, Sandelhola: Pterocarpus santalinus, P. Indicus. Contains santalin, a fine red powder easily soluble in alcohol and acetic acid with a blood-red color. See under Redwoods. Sapan wood, or sappan wood, Japan wood, bois du Japon ; also called red sandalwood, santalwood, sumbawa wood: Cesalpina Sappan. Probably identical with caliatur wood or cariatur wood. See under Redwoods. Saw-wort: Serratula tinctoria. Alumina lake, yel- low. Sepia: Sepia officinalis, Loligo tunicata and other species of cuttle-fish common in the Mediterranean and Adriatic. Dark brown coloring matter from the ink- bag of these animals. The pure pigment constitutes four- fifths of the dried ink-bags as they occur in commerce. Dark brown ink-like pigment. Sorgo red, or durrha: Andropogon Sorghum. Lakes. crimson red. Spanish trefoil: Trifolium sp. Spinach: Spinacia oleracea. Yellow. Stringy bark: Eucalyptus macrorhyncha. Orange to: yellow. Sun dew: Drosera Whittakerii. Lakes red to brown. Sumac (Cape), or pruim bast: Colpoon compressum. Alum lake, yellow. Sumac (Sicilian): Rhus Coriaria. Alum lake, olive. Sumac (Virginian): Rhus hirta. This and the above are used in dyeing processes as a source of tannin. Tyrian purple: Murex, Purpura, Buceinium, etc. (sea shells). The purple dye of the Phenicians, Greeks and Romans. Turmeric, or curcuma, Indian saffron, terra merita, souchet, safran d@’ Inde: Curcuma longa, C. rotunda. Yellow. Ventilago Madras-patana, or oural patti, pitti, lokandi, kanwait, etc.: Ventilago Madraspatana. Lakes, blue. Virginia creeper: Parthenocissus (or Ampelopsis) quinquefolia. Red color. : Waifa, or hoai-hoa, Chinese yellow berries: Sophora Japonica. Alumina lake, yellow. Wallflower: Cheiranthus Cheirt. Yellow lakes pre- pared from the blossoms. Wall lichen: Parmelia parietina. Yellow. Waras: Moghania congesta (Flemingia congesta). Red resinous powder. Weld, or wau, gaude, yellow weed, dyer’s rocket: Reseda Luteola. (Fig. 377). Alumina lake, yellow. With chromium, olive-yellow ; with tin, bright yellow ; with iron, olive. Considered superior to all other natural yellow color- ing matters, but now displaced by several synthetic dye- stuffs. Whitethorn, or blackthorn: Yellow lakes from blossoms. Woad, or pastel, waid: Isatis tinctoria, I. Lusitanica. (Fig. 878). Contains indigo. Formerly cultivated in Eng- land and Holland. Crategus oxyacantha. Mineral coloring matters. Of the many inorganic coloring matters, only chrome yellow, chrome orange, iron and manga- nese oxids and Prussian blue may be treated under dyestuffs. None of these is used as such, but they are produced on textiles by chemical reactions. DYES AND DYEING The goods are first treated with a solution of one of the chemicals, and then on working in another solution the pigment is produced. In calico-print- ing, any pigment can be fastened mechanically as in ordinary printing, except that gum arabic, dex- Saffron (Orocus sativus). Fig. 376. trin, starch, albumen, and the like, are employed instead of varnishes. Definitions. Lakes are insoluble compounds of alumina and coloring matters. If these are formed by them- selves, a color-lake or pigment is produced ; but if a fabric is first impregnated with alum or other metallic salts for which the fiber has an affinity, on subsequent treatment in the coloring solution the color-lake is produced in and on the fiber, which is then said to be dyed. Several other metallic oxids also possess similar properties, often giving differ- ent colored precipitates with the same dyestuffs. These metallic compounds are called “mordants” (from the French mordre, to bite). Tannic acid forms insoluble compounds with an entire series of coloring matters and is similarly used. Although dyeing has been practiced from time immemorial, and by all nations of the globe, no satisfactory theory has been advanced to explain the process. Mechanical attraction, chemical affin- ity and “solid solution” are given as explanations, all having experimental evidence in support. In wool dyeing, the chemical affinity theory best elucidates the process. Source of a yellow dye. DYES AND DYEING 271 Classification of dyestuffs. The dyestuffs may be classified either according to their chemical composition, in accordance with the fibers for which they are most suitable, or with the methods used in their application. The first classification is of importance to the chemist, while the last is best for practical purposes, and is shown in the following grouping : (a) Direct cotton colors. These dye cotton in full shades without the aid of mordants; in conjunction with them, certain salts, such as glauber salt or common salt, are used to aid in the absorption of the dye, as these salts tend to force it out of the solution. Alkaline salts, such as soda, soap or phosphate of soda, have an opposite effect and tend to retard the dyeing ° process and to prevent uneven dyeing. as The direct cotton colors also act as “Sis mordants, combining with the colors sy of the following class. These dyes may be converted into others by treat- & ment with certain chemicals, thus making a new dye on the goods. (6) Basic colors. Colors of a basic nature, which form compounds with tannic acid, insoluble in water, and aie which dye the vegetable fibers with #¢ the aid, and animal fibers without the aid, of mordants. (©) Acid colors. Colors of an acid nature, which dye the animal fibers without the aid of mordants. (d) Mordant colors. Colors which are dyed with the aid of metallic mor- dants. Most of the natural coloring matters come under this head. (e) Sulfur colors. Colors of recent discovery. Most of them are insoluble in water, but soluble in water contain- - ing sodium sulfid. They are used for vegetable fibers as direct col- ors, and are similarly applied. (f) Miscellaneous colors. These include those having little in com- mon, and require individual treatment. Some of the most important come under this ~“S head. (1) Indigo. See same in list of natural coloring matters. (2) Eosines and rhodamines. Especially valuable for pro- ducing brilliant pigments in conjunction with metallic pre- cipitants, for making artifi- cial vermilion, etc. (3) Aniline black is pro- duced by impregnating the cotton yarn or cloth with ani- line and the proper amounts of the required chemicals; on after - treatment, oxidation Fig. takes place and the color is 377. Weld, or dyer’s socket (Reseda luteola). formed. Other colors of much gource of a yellow dye. 272 DYES AND DYEING importance are produced by processes which con- sist essentially in manufacturing the dye in an insoluble form in the goods. Calico-printing. Calico-printing may be considered as local dye- ing. It is the art of producing on woven material a design in color by certain processes, one of which Fig. 378. Woad (Isatis tinctoria). a, Lower leaf; 5, first year leaf; c, mature fruit. Source of a blue dye. is a printing process. The art has been developed from the early painting of cloth in India (in Cali- cut, hence the name “ calico”) to the modern print. There is probably no other industry in which so great a combination of artistic, mechanical, chem- ical and technical skill of the highest order is required, and this, too, to produce so cheap a finished product. Formerly the prints were made from wooden blocks cut in relief, there being a set of blocks equal in number to the colors desired if the pattern were small, or, if large, as many for each color as were necessary to make the complete design. This process is known as block printing and is done by hand. For large designs, or for those of more than twenty colors, this method is employed today and to a considerable extent to meet the demand for more artistic goods. The DYES AND DYEING Japanese produce some very beautiful goods by ap- plying the colors with stencils. This method can be used by any one, and very artistic effects can be produced at a trifling expense. In fact, this work should prove most interesting to amateurs, as most elaborate designs may be made. The modern calico-printing machine consists of a large iron cylinder about which copper rollers are mounted. The cylinder is padded and the design is engraved in the copper rollers, each roller being engraved to apply one color ; as many rollers are necessary as there are colors in the pattern. Beneath each roller is a trough or “color-box” from which the color is carried to the roller by a wooden roller covered with cloth, or by a cylindri- cal brush. The entire surface of the copper be- comes coated with the color, but as it revolves, a sharp blade, known as the “doctor,” scrapes off all the color except that in the engraved part. The cloth to be printed passes between the large cylin- der and the copper rollers, and the color is trans- ferred to it. With one passage the entire design is produced. In order to give it a resilient surface, an endless web, called the blanket, also passes through, and between it and the cloth to be printed un- bleached cloth passes, which serves to take up the surplus color. A second “doctor,” called the lint doctor, removes any loose fibers from the copper roller., The rollers areso mounted in the framework that they may be adjusted while the machine is in operation, so that any misfit can be corrected. As the cloth passes from the machine it is dried and given such other treatment as the style of work may require. Pigments are printed by being mixed with blood albumen, or the white of egg, for delicate shades. On steaming the printed goods, the albumen is coagulated, becomes insoluble and fixes the color. Basic colors are mixed with tannin and acetic acid, in which the tannin lake of the color is soluble ; in drying, the acetic acid evaporates and the insoluble lake is produced. Mordant colors are similarly applied. Another process consists in printing on the thick- ened mordants and then dyeing the goods. The color is fixed where the mordant has been printed. Patterns are produced by printing dyed goods with chemicals which destroy the color. This is known as discharge work. Starches, gums, flour and other similar bodies are used in making the printing pastes. Wool, silk and yarns are also printed; the latter, however, on a machine in which the design is in relief. Both sides of the cloth may be printed in one passage through a double machine. If the patterns on both sides are to be alike and are required to fit properly, it is necessary to have the séts of rollers engraved in pairs, and in reverse order. Home dyeing. In all dyeing processes it is essential to have the goods free from grease, dirt and foreign mat- ter, and, for light colors, they should be bleached. In home dyeing, strict attention should be paid to cleanliness of the goods, and care taken accurately DYES AND DYEING to carry out dyeing instructions. The package dyes, sold everywhere, are very serviceable, though not always entirely satisfactory. It should be remem- bered that the after-processes add a great deal to the appearance of the goods, and that amateurs have neither the necessary apparatus nor the skill of the professional dyer. Valuable material should be sent to a first-class dyer. By carrying out the following tests on small samples, which can be made readily, the suitability of the material for any particular use may be as- certained easily, and much after-annoyance avoided: (1) Fastness to light and atmospheric influences. The sample is exposed to sunlight under glass, and compared from time to time with a reserved part. Expose for two or FARM GARDEN 273 Organic Chemistry, contains a full bibliography on the subject. The book, Programme of the City and Guilds of London Institute, contains very full lists of books on many branches of technology, including dyeing and bleaching ; Patterson, Colour Matching on Textiles; Rawson, Gardner and Lay- cock, Dictionary of Dyes, Mordants, etc.; Hurst, Silk Dyeing and Printing. FARM GARDEN. Figs. 379-3891. The farmer’s garden should be simple, ample and abounding. There is no need that it be stinted or cramped. The hand labor is increased when the garden is small and enclosed, for the spaces are moreweeks;thelonger . the better. A more se- vere test is to expose to the weather. (2) Fastness to rub- bing. Rub with a piece of white cloth. (8) Fastness to iron- ing. Press with a hot- iron, and compare. (4) Fastness to washing. Wash with hot soap four times, allowing the goods to dry in the air be- tween each two treat- ments. (5) Fastness to al- alkali. Immerse in strong ammonia and then in washing soda (one part in ten of water); dry without washing. (6) Fastness to perspiration. Treat for one hour with a teaspoonful of 30 per cent acetic acid in a pint of water at about blood heat. White wine vinegar diluted with an equal quantity of water will answer. (7) Fastness to boiling in soda. Boil for one hour in a gallon of water in which two ounces of wash- ing soda and one-half ounce of castile soap have been dissolved. Literature. Georgivics, Chemistry of Dyestuffs; A. G. Green, Survey of the Organic Colouring Matters; Allen, Commercial Organic Analysis; Fraps, Principles of Dyeing ; Knecht, Rawson and Rosenthal, Manual of Dyeing; Hummel, Dyeing of Textile Fabrics ; Cain and Thorpe, Synthetic Dyestuffs; Rawson, Gardner and Laycock, Dict. of Dyes, Mordants, etc.; Crookes, Handbook of Dyeing and Calico- printing ; Rothwell, Printing of Textile Fabrics ; Leffmann-Weyl, Sanitary Relations of the Coal Tar Colors; Berry, Coloring Matters for Foodstuffs and Methods for their Detection (being Bulletin No. 25 of the Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture; this also contains many references to literature on the subject); Bulletin No. 100 of same; Sadtler, Industrial B18 by horse. narrow and the rows short, preventing the use of a horse. A garden area should be as much a part of the farm establishment as the cows or chickens are. Three classes of products may be grown in farm gardens,— flowers, vegetables, fruits. If the es- tablishment is a fruit-farm, the fruits will be sup- plied from the orchards or fields; but even then there may be some kinds of fruit that will be grown only in a garden space. The garden may be field-like in its size and treatment; it may be called a garden because it is part of the home idea rather than the money-profit idea, being accessible to the residence and supplying products that are used therein. Long, straight rows allow of cultivating by horse. As land is plenty, the rows may be placed far apart. Too often the farmer follows the dis- tances advised in the catalogues and books, and thereby plants his garden so close that he must hoe it and till it by hand. The distances given in the books are those that the plants require in order to arrive at proper development ; greater distances are no harm to the plants. At one side of the garden area, the bush-fruits and asparagus and rhubarb may be placed. The other parts may be planted in rotation. Even some of the flowers may occupy long free rows in the garden space, afford- 274 FARM GARDEN ing abundance of bloom which may be picked with the same freedom that tomatoes and strawberries are picked. Or, the flower-garden may be made a part of the landscape or pictorial setting of the Sein Fig. 380. Cornel cherry (Oornus Mas). An early blooming small tree, the handsome little fruits of which are some- times used in preserves. Example of an odd or interesting plant that may be grown in a home garden. residence ; this relationship of it is discussed in Chapter IX of Vol. I, particularly at pages 312, 817-18. Whether a part of the landscape features or of the separate garden area, the flowers should be of the kinds that require least special care and are surest to afford abundant bloom under indifferent or even adverse conditions. The main part of the flower-garden should be permanent, comprising perennial plants. Such plants come up of them- selves year after year. Many of the perennials, as the phloxes, need to be divided or renewed (page 10) now and then, but this entails less labor than the growing of most annuals. Some of the perennials that are easily grown and that will unite to extend their bloom from early spring to late fall are as follows: Snowdrop and snowflake, crocus, tulip, hyacinth, narcissus, polyanthus, English daisy, pinks, forget-me-not, peony, bleeding heart, lychnis, columbine, iris, larkspur, poppies, lilies, yucca, gas plant or dictamnus, hollyhock, phlox (improved kinds), certain kinds of sunflowers, Golden Glow rudbeckia, perennial pea, outdoor chrysanthemums, goldenrods, asters, Japanese anemone. Some of the most easily grown and satisfactory annuals for the general flower-garden are: China aster, marigold, cornflower or bachelor’s button, petunia,verbena, sweet alyssum, Phlox Drummondit, cosmos (for late bloom), annual chrysanthemum, zinnia, stock, pansy (for a moist or semi-shady piace), nasturtium, sweet sultan, nicotiana (two or three kinds), annual poppies (bloom of short dura- tion), balsam, portulaca or rose moss (for sunny places), sweet pea, morning-glory, hyacinth bean. FARM GARDEN Certain shrubs may be grown primarily for their flowers as well as for their shrub effect, as: Lilac, syringa or mock-orange, crape myrtle (at the South), deutzias, hydrangea, snowball, spireas, blue spirea or caryopteris, weigela, rose of sharon or hibiscus, kerria or Japan rose, and various wild bushes of most neighborhoods. The Farm Fruit- and Vegetable-Gardens. By S. T. Maynard. The farmer’s garden is proverbially the least productive area on the farm, whereas it should be the most productive and profitable, and should afford an abundance of the most wholesome !ux- uries of country living, fruits, vegetables and flowers, in a condition in which they cannot be found on the market. The farm affords a variety of soils from which may be selected that which is adapted for the best growth of garden prod- ucts. It provides all of the tools needed for the most thorough cultivation. It can supply an Grape Vine Asparagus Rkubarb |, 112 *iT(@l Hele idt 4s o {8 | ° LET eg 3 Ble fej eres’ B Rois i alee ; Qigiadl« * st S hak Eo = > Solely ops x vw j Liv wr ee é ,® fo. ai gi: PA ie + _ ele'el®@ lower-qarder, —— Rooft. Fig. 382. Garden plan, with short rows. abundance of plant-food, and the farmer or some of his family is on the place all the time and can look after the garden. The garden should afford recreation for the women and children of the family, and a means, if they choose, of earning a little “pin money” by the sale of surplus products. The home garden is also a place in which various interesting fruits and other plants may be grown, largely for curiosity (Fig. 880). It is a place for odds and ends of things mentioned in books and advertized in +35ft. Grape Vine citaloenes: \ ’ = FID The garden 8] Ale Vegetables =e S may be divided ala DEC , aile into three © : = oF 3 /Pear % Plurt. Sooseberries =="ei/s,_ Parts or sepa- Ar S sag BS 8 9 HQ HGH GQ 21S" rate gardens, ; IRgtbed ota ren Tee ost MARAT SS AOI A Mae APN SR * rl ION nner = ® —the ae Tool{nouse ENG * Se SBS 2 S Qe Ger >*-KE vegetable- an Apple Blackberries ‘Peack Currants Raspberries Fig. 381. Garden plan, with long rows. flower-gar- dens; or allmay be combined in FARM GARDEN one. (Figs. 381 and 382). On the farm there are advantages in having the three divisions in one lot, and that not far from the house. The daily supplies may be gathered easily, and it will be more con- stantly under the eye and will be less liable to neglect. However, it may be best to have each separated a little from the others, when land is abundant. The work can then be performed more easily than when all are mixed together. , Location of the garden. The vegetable-garden may be a part of any field crop, such as corn or potatoes, the vegetables being planted at the ends of the field rows so that both crops may be cultivated at once. The best soil for the apple, pear and plum trees is a rich, deep, moist loam, on an elevation sloping to the southwest, west or northwest, to insure good circulation of air and thus some freedom from blights and rots. The peach and the cherry do best in a thinner soil, if possible on a north- west or western slope.. The cherry, especially the sweet varieties, will grow on the lawn or by the roadside without cultivation, so long as the soil is good. The peach is generally given thor- ough cultivation, but may be made to grow in turf if an abundance of plant-food is supplied, and the grass is cut frequently under them, or a mulch is spread as far as the branches extend. The trees must be made to grow vigorously, whether in the garden or on the lawn. [See the-article on Fruit-growing.] Small-fruits generally succeed well on any deep, loamy soil containing an abundance of organic matter from decaying turf, stable manure or green crops turned under. Making the garden. If the land for the. garden is clear and we are starting a new one, the first effort is to put the soil in good condition by plowing under a liberal quantity of stable manure, or by growing a cover-crop to be plowed under the season before the garden is to be made. For this purpose, peas and oats may be sown in the spring, and when the latter are in bloom the crop is turned under and harrowed thoroughly a few times until about August 1. Then peas and barley are sown. This crop is left on the land until the follow- ing spring to protect it from washing, and is plowed under whenever the land is needed, from April to June. For vegetables, a dressing of five to ten cords per acre of fine, rich stable manure should then be worked into the soil with a disk- or spring-tooth harrow. If stable manure is not available, any good commercial garden fertilizer may be used, at the rate of one-half to one ton per acre, or 50 to 120 pounds per square rod. This may seem to be a large quantity of fertilizing material to apply, but garden vegetables must make a quick growth to be succulent. Market-gardeners frequently use fifteen to twenty cords, or more, of stable manure per acre, and commercial fertilizer in addition, and make greater profits than if less were used. FARM GARDEN 275 The large orchard fruits. Given a well-fitted soil, good trees are the first essentials for success. They should be secured from a reliable nursery as near home as possible. Strong No. 1, two-year-old trees of apples, pears, cherries and Buropean plums should be chosen having a clean, straight trunk and a growth of three to six clean branches, one to two feet long, starting at three to four feet from the ground. No. 1 one-year-old peach, Japanese plums, and some varieties of cherries, are better than older trees. Many orchardists prefer a small No. 1, or a No. 2 peach tree, as a low head can be formed more certainly from it than from larger trees. Preparing the trees for planting.—As the roots of trees dug from the nursery are largely de- stroyed in digging, it is always best to remove a large part of the top at planting. Cut the lateral shoots back to a few inches in length, cutting out entirely any shoots not needed to form a good head. In the formation of the head we leave only three or four main branches. Each of these is branched when a foot or more in length. The pur- pose is to have three or four main lateral branches and one central leader. The modern orchard tree is grown with a low head, the main branches starting about three or four feet from the ground; but in a mixed garden, where we cultivate other crops among and under the trees, they must be trained higher in order that the horse may go under them with the plow and cultivator. Planting.—If the land has been fitted by deep plowing, the hole for the tree need be only as large as the spread of the roots; if not, then a hole considerably larger must be dug, making the soil fine and mellow a foot or more deep. Fine, rich soil must be worked firmly about the roots until the hole is nearly full and the roots well covered, when the remainder of-the soil is spread on loosely to serve as a mulch. Coarse green sta- ble manure should not be placed in contact with the roots, but it is very valuable on the surface about the tree, or over the roots when the hole is about half-filled. After-pruning and care—If young trees are properly pruned when set out, they will require but little pruning until they begin to bear, except to check the growth of shoots coming out on the trunk or along the main branches that are not desired to make a well-formed head. Here and there should be cut out branches that cross others or tend to smother their foliage by drooping down on them. The tree should be kept shapely. In pruning old fruit trees, the aim should be to pre- vent crossing and crowding of the branches and to thin out the old wood, so that the number of fruits is reduced, and young and vigorous wood will take its place. "The ends and the highest branches should ‘be cut back so that the lower branches will be renewed and sunlight and air admitted. Pear, peach and plum trees are pruned in prac- tically the same way as the apple, except that they all need more heading in to force the growth into the lower and lateral branches. 276 FARM GARDEN Varieties of large fruits. The nursery catalogues give long lists of varieties of all of the large fruits, and from their description it would seem as if all were valuable, when in any one locality perhaps a half-dozen varieties comprise nearly all of the valuable qualities desired. Varieties suggested as excellent for general cultivation for home use are as follows: Apples: Summer: Astrachan, Oldenburg, Will- iams, Yellow Transparent.—Autumn : Gravenstein, McIntosh, Wealthy, Fall Pippin—Winter: Hubbard- ston, Jonathan, King, Baldwin, R. I. Greening, Spy. Pears: Clapp, Bartlett, Seckel, Sheldon, Bosc, Hovey. Peaches: Mountain Rose, Oldmixon, Crawford Early, Elberta. FARM GARDEN For Colorado, eastern slope (W. Paddock): Apples: Summer : Yellow Transparent, Red June, Oldenburg.—Fall: Wealthy, Utter, Plum Cider.— Winter: Jonathan, Stayman Winesap, Delicious. Plums: DeSoto, American Eagle, Arctic. Cherries: Montmorency, Morello. For Colorado, western slope : Apples: Summer: Yellow Transparent, Red June. —Fall: Maiden Blush.—Autumn: Strawberry. Winter: Jonathan, Winesap, Rome Beauty, Grimes, Pears: Bartlett, Howell, Seckel. Peaches: Crawford, Elberta, Mountain Rose. Plums: Burbank, Italian Prune, French Prune. Cherries: Mayduke, Black Tartarian, Bing. For Alabama (R, Plums: Euro- pean: Bradshaw, Lombard, Imperial Gage, Damson, Lin- oy coln, Quackenboss, [s4; Fellenburg, General Hand.—Japanese : Abundance, Bur- bank, Wickson, Oc- tober Purple. Cherries: Sweet: Governor Wood, Yellow Spanish, Black Tartarian, Downer Late.— Sour: Early Rich- mond, Montmo- rency. The following va- rieties are adapted for home use in the colder parts of Ontario and Quebec (W. T. Macoun): Apples: Yellow Transparent, Duchess, Lowland Raspberry, Langford Beauty, St. Lawrence, Wealthy, McIntosh, Fameuse, Swazie, Milwaukee, Scott Winter, Baxter. Pears: Flemish Beauty, in favorable localities. Plums: American: Bixby, Mankato, Cheney, Wolf, Hawkeye, Stoddard——European: Mount Royal, Raynes, Glass, Montmorency, Perdrigen.— Russian: Early Red. Cherries: Orel 25, Ostheim (Minnesota), Mont- morency. For Iowa (A. T. Erwin): Apples: Summer: Duchess, Lowland Raspberry, Benoni.—Fall: Wealthy, Grimes Golden.—Winter: Roman Stem, Jonathan, Stayman Winesap, Gano. Crabs: Florence, Whitney. For severe locations in northern Iowa: Apples: Duchess, Charlamoff, Patten Greening, Wealthy, Okabena. Pears: Seckel, Lincoln, Longworth, Kieffer. Peaches: Champion, Greensboro, Hill Chili, Russell. Plums: Wyant, Brittlewood, Hunt, Hammer, Wild Gouse, Miner. Cherries: Montmorency, Early Richmond. Fig. 383. Dwarf apples, on doucin roots. These roots are not hardy in the upper Mississippi valley. §. Mackintosh): Apples: Early: Early Harvest, As- ¥ trachan, Horse, Red June.—Autumn: Buncombe, Equine- tele—Late : Wine- sap, Terry, Yates. Figs: Celestial, Brunswick, Brown Turkey, Lemon, Green Ischia. Pears: Kiefer, LeConte, Garber. Pecans: Stuart, Frotscher, Pabst, Centennial. Peaches: Sneed, Greensboro, Alex- ander, Mamie Ross, Carman, Elberta, Family Favorite, Belle, Mountain Rose, Emma, Gen. Lee, Globe, Picquet, Columbia. Persimmons, Japanese: Hachiya, Yemon, Okame, Tsura-no-ko, Yedo-Ichi, Hiyakume. Pomegranates: Acid, Large Sweet, Spanish Ruby. Plums: Red June, Burbank, Abundance, Gonzales. ye, 7 Gathering fruit for home use. Most fruits for home use should be allowed te ripen on the tree, and with low-headed trees this can be done, if there is a mulch on the surface so that fruits that fall on the ground will not be much in- jured. With early, bright-colored apples, this is the practice of many growers. The fruit is allowed to color perfectly, when it falls to the ground and is picked up every morning and marketed in open bushel-boxes. Pears should be allowed to reach full maturity, but should be picked while hard and ripened in a dark, dry place. Peaches, plums and cherries should get mellow on the tree before being picked for home use. For market and to extend the season, all of these fruits may be picked before they are mellow, but they should be fully grown, and may be kept several weeks or months if put in cold-storage at a temperature between 32° and 83°. The season may be considerably extended without cold-storage by gathering at one time only the fruits that are fully ripe. FARM GARDEN Winter fruit should be allowed to hang on the trees until fully mature, but must be picked before it mellows and before heavy freezing weather comes. After picking, it should be put in a place with an even, low temperature. On the farm this may be in a north shed, the north side of a high building, or a cellar, where the temperature has been lowered by opening the windows on frosty nights and closing them during the day, or by a quantity of cracked ice and salt (ice-cream freezing mixture). A half-ton of ice and fifty pounds of salt will cool a large space down to a good keeping temperature for most fruits. This temperature in the North can be kept low by closing the doors and windows during the day and opening them at night, when the outside temperature is lower than that inside. Dwarf fruit trees. Pear trees are prevented from growing large by being budded on quince stocks. Apples are dwarfed by being worked on paradise or doucin stocks (small-stature forms of apple tree). Dwarfs occupy less space than standard or free stocks, usually come into bearing earlier, but they require more care in pruning, spraying and thinning. Dwarf pears are often grown commercially, but dwarf apples are not yet planted for profit in this country. Any variety of apple may be grown on the dwarf stocks ; but inasmuch as apple-dwarfing is a home- garden practice, only good dessert varieties should be grown. Dwarf pears may be planted ten to twenty feet apart, depending on how closely they are kept headed in. About one rod asunder each way is the usual distance. Apples on doucin (Fig. 383) may be given such distances; those on para- dise stocks may be set at half these distances. All dwarfs should be started low and kept well headed back. Paradise-stock apple trees should be little more than bushes, or they may be trained as espa- liers or cordons. [For further information, see Waugh’s “Dwarf Fruit Trees,” New York, 1906, and Bailey’s “Pruning-Book.”] Small-fruits. The average farmer’s family consumes less of the small cultivated fruits than the average city or village family, notwithstanding the advantages they have for producing fruit of the best quality,s, and that may be used in a fresh, ripe condition. The strawberry.—The strawberry is especially“ adapted to growth in the home garden, and is of the greatest importance from the fact that a crop” can be secured in a little over a year from plant- ing. Its yield per acre is equal to that of the apple in quantity. We may expect to secure 5,000 to 15,000 quarts to the acre, or 50 to 150 barrels, which, with apple trees 40 x 40 feet apart, making about thirty trees to the acre, would be three to five barrels per tree, which is above the yearly average. For the largest and best returns from small- fruits it is best to plant on new land. The straw- berry is fruited by most growers only one or two seasons, and after the fruit has been gathered the FARM GARDEN 277 plants and mulch are plowed under. The land is then devoted to some crop, such as celery or late cabbage, that may be planted after the middle of July. New land, old ‘pasture or clover sod, is planted with potatoes or some other hoed crop to get rid of the white grub (larva of the May beetle). The following spring straw- berry plants are set as early as the land will work up fine and mellow. Some growers further prepare land of this kind by sowing a crop of peas and barley after the potatoes; or sufficient organic matter may be incorporated by plowing under a heavy dressing of manure in the fall. Thorough cultivation must be practiced and all weeds kept down from the time the plants are set until the ground freezes in the fall. In the North the beds must be protected in winter from freezing and thawing. A covering of straw, old hay, coarse, strawy manure, pine needles or other light material, put on just before severe freezing weather, will serve. Only a light covering, two or three inches thick, is needed, just enough to shade the ground, as the injury comes from the tearing action on the roots and crowns by freezing and thawing, and the lifting of the plants out of the ground. Raspberry and blackberry.—These two bush- fruits do best in a rather moist, loamy soil, al- though they may be grown successfully on any soil that contains a good quantity of organic mat- ter, if the surface is kept fine and mellow dur- ing the entire season, .and especially in hot, dry weather. Plantations are generally renewed after growing six to ten years in one place, although under favorable conditions they sometimes last longer. The best time for planting is in the early fall, root-cutting plants being better than those from suckers, although the latter are more frequently used. They are grown in hills or in rows, the former requiring a stake at each hill, or low-training of the bushes by top pruning to make them branch low and thus stand without supports. Cultivation may be done with the horse both ways, when the hill-method is used. In rows, the canes may be supported by two wires, one stretched on each side of the plants and held in place by a nail driven into the cross- piece of the support, slanting toward the center. (Fig. 384.) The wires may be raised at any time and drawn into the middle of the row so as to get outside of all the canes, and then be put back 278 FARM GARDEN in place, thus drawing all the outside canes close together between the wires. The wires may be caught over the stake without any cross-arm, but this sometimes breaks the canes that are drawn in Fig. 385. Raspberry (Columbian) before pruning. next to the stake. No. 12 galvanized iron wire is used for this purpose. The pruning required is simply the removal of the fruiting canes as soon as the crop is gathered. If in hills and the canes are not supported by stakes or wires, the ends of the new canes are pinched to make them grow stocky. In spring the bushes may be cut back. (Figs. 385, 386.) The raspberry is easily pruned with the hand pruning-shears, but to do the work comfortably among blackberries, long-handled shears or a blackberry hook is required, with which to reach in among the thorny canes. Few varieties are perfectly hardy, and so the canes may need protection during the winter in the North. Raspberry canes are easily protected by bending them over and laying them on the ground; blackberry plants must be loosened a little at the roots to enable them to bend without breaking. Blackberries are seldom covered except in the extreme North. Currants and gooseberries.—These two fruits are almost necessities in the farm garden. They are easily grown and yield a large quantity of fruit for the space occupied and the labor ex- pended. They delight in a deep, moist, rich soil, the size of the fruit depending more on the rich- ness of the soil than on the variety. Strong one- year-old plants are best. They are planted four by six feet apart. The pruning required is to remove wood more than three or four years old to encour- age the growth of strong new canes. The best fruit is borne on wood two or three years old. The greatest difficulty to be met is the injury by the ‘currant-worm, which eats the foliage soon after the leaves unfold. This pest is destroyed by dusting the bushes with powdered hellebore when the leaves are wet, or applying it in water. A blight attacks the leaves soon after the fruit is ripened, sometimes causing them to fall, thus leav- ing the bushes bare from the middle of July until winter. This weakens the bushes so much that the fruit the following season is small and of poor quality. Spraying the bushes with Bordeaux mix- ture-is often necessary. FARM GARDEN The gooseberry requires practically the same treatment as the currant and is subject to the same pests. The English varieties are more subject to mildew. The fruit is not so much.in demand in the markets, but is delicious and should be more largely used. Varieties of small-frutts. The following varieties of small-fruits are rec- ommended for general home planting : Strawberries: Brandywine (St.), Sample (P.), Marshall (St.), Clyde (St.), Senator Dunlap (P.), Haverland (P.) Raspberries: Cuthbert, Columbian, Loudon, Cum- berland. Blackberries: Agawam, Snyder, Ancient Briton, Eldorado. Currants: Fay Red Cross, Wilder, White Grape, White Imperial. Gooseberries: Downing, Red Jacket, Josselyn. The following varieties are adapted for home use in the colder parts of Ontario and Quebec (W. T. Macoun): Strawberries: William Belt, Bubach, Greenville, Lovett, Splendid, Senator Dunlap, Excelsior. Raspberries, Red: Herbert, Clarke, Cuthbert, Marlboro.—Yellow: Golden Queen.—Black: Hilborn, Older. Blackberries: Agawam, Snyder. Currants: Red: Pomona, Victoria, Wilder, Cherry.—White : White Grape.—Black: Saunders, Victoria, Collin Prolific. Gooseberries: Red Jacket, Downing or Peail. For Iowa (A. T. Erwin): Strawberries: Dunlap, Bederwood, Warfield. Raspberries: Red, Cuthert, Turner, Loudon.— Black: Gregg, Older, Cumberland. Fig. 386. Raspberry (Columbian) after pruning. Blackberries: Ancient Briton, Snyder. Currants: Perfection, Red Dutch, White Grape, Red Cross. Gooseberries: Champion. FARM GARDEN For Colorado, eastern slope of the Rocky moun- tains (W. Paddock): Strawberries: Captain Jack, Jucunda. Raspberries: Red: Marlboro.—Black : Kansas. Blackberries: Wilson, Erie. Currants: Cherry, Fay, White Grape. Gooseberries: Downing, Champion. For Colorado, western slope: Raspberries: Red: Cuthbert, Marlboro.—Black : Gregg. Currants: Cherry, Red Cross, White Grape. Gooseberries: Chautauqua, Downing, Oregon. For Alabama and neighboring regions (R. S. Macintosh): Strawberries: Excelsior, Lady Thompson, Klon- dike, Aroma, Gandy. Raspberries (North Alabama only): Turner, Cuth- bert, Loudon, King. Blackberries: Dallas, Mercereau. Currants and Gooseberries: Not grown. Dewberries: Australian. The grape. The grape may be grown on a trellis, a fence, a stone wall or the sides of a building. The best #, Fig. 387. trellis is made of stakes and No. 14 galvanized wire, as the vines cling to the wires and do not need much tying. For the best results, the vine should have a warm southern exposure and a thin, well-underdrained soil. The third, fourth and pos- sibly the fifth year from planting the fruit may be good without pruning, but as the canes grow older they form many lateral branches, thus producing a large number of small bunches of fruit that never ripen or are so small as to be of little value, and which are specially liable to rot. The remedy is pruning. The rule for pruning grape-vines, under all con- ditions, is to cut away each year as much of the old wood as possible, saving enough strong new or year-old canes to replace those cut away. Each new cane must have an abundance of space so that the sun and air will surround the leaves and fruit and thus prevent rot and mildew. The number of new canes to be preserved depends on the strength of the vine, the space to be covered and the root space occupied. A single vine may be made to cover a very large space if the feeding area in the soil is sufficient. An instance of this is the noted Mission vines in California, which sometimes cover thousands of square feet of surface and produce tons of fruit. A very simple, yet very satisfactory method of A good, simple garden method of training the grape. FARM GARDEN 279 training the vine, is shown in Fig. 387. By this system, all the pruning required is to cut away in the fall or winter the old fruiting canes and bring up the new canes to take their places. During the growing seasons, the laterals on the fruiting canes are kept pinched off just beyond the last bunch of fruit, and all laterals along the main vine and the new cane are kept from growing by pinching off as soon as they start. The pruning of vinifera grapes, grown in California, is quite different from this. Varieties of grapes.—The most generally adapted varieties of grapes are as follows: Purple: Worden, Concord, Campbell.—Red: Dela- ware, Brighton, Wyoming Red.—White: Winchell, Niagara, Diamond. The following varieties are adapted for home use in the colder parts of Ontario and Quebec (W. T. Macoun): Purple: Moore Early, Campbell Early, Rogers 17, Merrimac, Wilder.—Red: Moyer, Delaware, Brighton, Lindley.—White: Golden Drop, Moore Diamond. : For Iowa (A. T. Erwin): Purple: Worden, Moore Early, Concord.—Red : Delaware, Brighton. For Colorado, eastern slope (W. Pad- dock): Purple: Concord, Moore Early.—Red: Brighton, Delaware.—White: Niagara. Colorado, western slope (W. Paddock): Worden, Purple Damascus, Cornichon, Brighton, Niagara, Sweet Water. For Alabama (R. S. Macintosh): Moore Early, Concord, Delaware, Niagara.— Scuppernong, Eden, Memory. The vegetable-garden. It is a painful fact that very many farmers buy their vegetables from the market, where they are received from the metropolitan markets, other far- mers having grown them. In many cases, to be sure, it is cheaper to buy, because it is difficult to secure labor to grow them; but a different farming plan might enable one to raise vegetables with greater economy. The successful market-gardener endeav- ors to keep his land occupied with growing crops all of the time, and makes his land very rich, that the crops may grow quickly and be tender and succu- lent. Most farmers till too much land. In most cases, if the land were made richer, we might grow our garden crops on half of the area, or less, with more profit and much less labor. A small area, made rich and thoroughly tilled and cared for, would supply a large family. The entire area need not be planted at the beginning of the season. If such crops as radishes, lettuce and peas are put in very early they may be harvested in time for sweet corn, cucumbers, squash, late beets, cabbage, cauliflower, and the like ; after early beans, sweet corn, potatoes and 280 FARM GARDEN others, we may plant celery, turnips, spinach, and the like. To secure a succession of such vegetables as sweet corn and peas, early, medium and late varieties are planted at one time, and some stan- dard sort is put in at intervals of a week or ten days afterwards. It is well to provide means, as boxes and hotbeds, to start or force plants ahead be a ._.., Of their season, if Fig. 388. Fig. 394. Ramie (Boehmeria nivea). Second crop of the season ready for harvest. as they should be for fiber production, they bear no branches. When cut during the growing season, new shoots spring up from the roots, so that two to four crops may be had each season. Ramie is native in Asia, and is cultivated com- mercially in China, Formosa, southern Japan and to a less extent in India. It has been widely intro- duced in experimental cultivation in the warmer temperate zones of both hemispheres. The plant may be grown without difficulty, but it has not been demonstrated that the fiber may be produced profitably outside of Asia. Ramie requires a fertile soil, not subject to drought, but with good drainage. It grows well on sandy loam or alluvial soils, but can not be grown successfully either on stiff clay or light sandy soils. It requires a warm moist climate during the growing season. The plant is propagated by seeds and by root- cuttings, and in India to some extent by cuttings of the stems. Transplanting root-cuttings is the FIBER PLANTS surest method, but growing from seeds, if carefully attended to, gives a larger number of plants for the same labor. The seed is very small, like tobacco seed. It is germinated in glass-covered flats in greenhouses, or in warm weather out-of-doors in beds inclosed with boards and muslin or canvas cover which is frequently sprinkled. The seeds are sown on the surface, pressed down, but not covered, and they require a warm moist atmosphere for ger- mination. When about an inch high the seedlings must be gradually accustomed to drier air, to pre- vent damping off. When eight to twelve inches high, and after several days’ exposure to outdoor conditions, they may be transplanted to the field. The seedlings are set in rows about twenty-four inches apart, and about ten inches apart in the row. If root-cuttings are used instead of seedlings they may be transplanted directly to the field, in rows the same distance apart. In either case, the space between the rows must be cultivated until the ramie is high enough to shade the ground. Seedlings or roots set out in May or early June should yield the first crop of shoots about the last of August. Afterward two to four crops should be produced each season. As the plants grow more thickly after the first crop, there will be fewer branching stalks and an increased yield. On rich soil, the fertility of which is kept up by the appli- cation of barnyard manure, the plants will con- tinue to yield shoots for twenty years or longer. Where the winters are cold enough to freeze the ground to a depth of three inches, or to the tops of the roots, the land should be mulched every fall. The shoots are harvested when they begin to produce flowers (Fig. 394). The stalks are cut or broken by hand. In some parts*of China the indi- vidual stalks are cut as they reach maturity, the younger stalks being left to develop and the har- vest being thus practically continuous in the same field. In some places the plants are allowed to dry and are afterward soaked in water before prepar- ing the fiber, but usually the bark, including the fiber, is peeled off immediately after the stalk is cut. It is then cleaned while still fresh by draw- ing it between a wooden or bone knife and a bam- boo thimble, which removes the outer bark and most of the green coloring matter, after which it is dried. This hand-cleaned but not degummed fiber is known commercially as “ramie ribbons” or “China grass.” In China, after more or less manip- ulation to subdivide it, it is spun and woven by hand, being used very extensively for summer clothing. It is exported to Europe where it is degummed, bleached, and combed, making a fine silky filasse for spinning. Ramie yields two to four cuttings each year after the first, and at each cutting four to eight tons per acre of green stalks from which the leaves have been stripped. The yield of dry ramie ribbons is about eighty pounds per ton of green stalks. These ribbons are quoted in European markets at four to eight dollars per hundredweight. There is a wide variation in quality, the best coming from Formosa. Practically no market for ramie fiber has been FIBER PLANTS established in the United States, and few ramie goods, sold as ramie, are made in this country. It is used extensively for dress goods in China, Japan and Korea, and in Europe its use is increasing for portiéres, upholstered furniture, clothing and various other kinds of woven and knit goods, but thus far, excepting the knit ramie underwear made in Europe, ramie goods are little known in the United States. Rhea(Behmeria tenacissima), also called ramie, is cultivated to a small extent in India and the East India islands. It differs from B. nivea in hav- ing leaves green on both surfaces, and in requiring a more tropical climate. ‘ Aramina. (Fig. 395.) Aramina,a word meaning “little wire,” is a trade name recently applied in Brazil to the fiber secured from the inner bark of the carrapicho plant, Urena lobata, Linn. (Fig. 395.) This plant is a shrubby perennial, belonging to the Malvacee or Mallow family. It is native in India, but is now widely distributed in the warmer parts of both hemispheres. It is an aggressive weed in Florida, and is there called “(Caesar weed.” Its fiber, obtained in small quantities from wild plants, is used in a domestic way in many places, as for paper and cordage in St. Thome, for cheap cordage in Porto Rico, for sacking and twine in India, tie material for house-building in West Africa, and fishing-nets in Brazil, Only in the Sao Paulo in southern Brazil is the plant regularly cultivated for fiber production on a commercial scale. It is there called “guaxima.” The fiber is prepared by stripping it by machinery in the field, dry- ing, and shipping to the factory where it is treated chemically and mechanically to prepare it for spinning. It is asserted that it will yield about 900 pounds of fiber per acre. The fiber is four to eight feet long, light yellow or creamy white, somewhat ribbon-like, but capa- ble of fine subdivision. It resembles India jute in color, texture, length and strength, but lasts better. It is used most extensively in making sacks for shipping coffee, but it has been demonstrated that when suitably prepared it may be used in the manufacture of ropes, canvas, carpets, trimmings and curtains. Sunn hemp. (Fig. 396.) Sunn hemp is a bast fiber obtained from Croto- laria juncea, an annual plant of the Leguminose or ) Aramina (Urena lodata). Fig. 395. FIBER PLANTS 285 Bean family. (Fig. 396.) It is raised most exten- sively in central India. Like hemp and flax, it is not known in the wild state except where it has escaped from cultivation. It requires a light sandy soil and only a moderate rainfall,—fifteen to thirty inches. It will endure more cold than jute. The seed is sown broadcast at the rate of fifty to one hundred pounds per acre, usually in the spring, although in some localties it is grown as a winter crop. The plants are harvested by cutting with a sickle, or more frequently are pulled by hand, at flowering time or soon after. After the stalks have wilted so that the leaves fall readily, they are placed in bundles in stagnant pools or slow-running streams for retting, a process requiring four to eight days. When sufficiently retted, workmen enter the water, and, picking up the stalks a handful at a time, beat them on the surface of the water until the fiber separates. The fiber is further cleaned by washing it and wringing it by hand. It is then hung on bamboo poles to dry in the sun. The aver- age yield of fiber is about 640 pounds per acre. Sunn hemp is lighter colored, coarser and stronger than jute, and lasts better. It is stiffer than jute or hemp, and cannot be spun so readily. ne LLIN f WZ) Fig. 396. Sunn hemp (Crotolaria juncea). It is used in India for cordage, sacking, and gen- erally as a substitute for jute. The small quanti- ties imported into the United States are used for the manufacture of coarse twines. The sunn hemp plant grows well in southern Florida, and as a leguminous crop, improving the 286 FIBER PLANTS fertility of the soil, it would doubtless be valuable in rotation if there were a satisfactory mechanical method for preparing the fiber. Ambari. Ambari, or deccan hemp, is a bast fiber obtained from Hibiscus cannabinus, an annual belonging to the Malvacee or Mallow family. The plant has deeply parted leaves, giving it somewhat the ap- pearance of true hemp, though the foliage is much lighter in color. The stalks and leaf-stems are cov- . ered with very short spines, making them disagree- able to handle when mature. The plant is cultivated in India. In Egypt it is grown on the borders of the fields for a wind- break. The fiber is prepared in about the same way as that of sunn hemp. It is called “Bimlipitam jute” in the London market. A very similar plant has recently been exploited in Brazil under the name Canhamo Braziliensis Perini. Miscellaneous bast fibers. Bast fibers for domestic purposes have been secured from many different kinds of plants, but in most instances these have been superseded by com- mercial twines and cordage. Some of the most important of these fibers are the following: (1) Majagua (Paritium tiliaceum), used for hal- a. and cordage for small boats in Porto Rico and uba. (2) Olona ( Touchardia latifolia), formerly used for harpoon lines and fishing lines in the Hawaiian islands. (8) Colorado river hemp (Ses- bania macro- carpa), growing wild in large quantities on the overflowed lands near the mouth of the Colorado river, , used by the In- dians for bow- strings and other light cord- age. (4) Indian hemp(Apocynum cannabinum). — A perennial i: plant of the , Dogbane family, native through- out the greater part of the United States and especially abundant in the West. It was the most important source of bast fiber used by the North American Indians. (Fig. 397.) (c) Harp FiBers. The most important hard fibers are abacé, sisal, New Zealand hemp, Mauritius hemp, ixtle and San- severia. Fig. 397. Indian hemp (Apocynum can- nabinum), a common native plant. FIBER PLANTS Abacd. (Fig. 398; also Fig. 142, Vol. 1.) Abaca or Manila hemp is derived from the sheath- ing leaf-stems of the abaca plant, Musa textilis, Nee., a perennial belonging to the Musacee or Banana family. [See account in Vol. I, page 125.] Fig. 398. Abac4 (Musa textilis). Two-year-old seedlings.~ The fiber, as found in our market, is six to twelve feet in length, rather coarse and stiff, reddish yel- low to nearly white, light in weight, and the better grades remarkably strong. The approximate break- ing strain of the current abaca ropes of different sizes is as follows: f-inch diameter ..... 550 pounds. $-inch diameter . . . . . 2,000 pounds. l-inch diameter... .. 7,000 pounds. 2-inch diameter ..... 25,000 pounds. The abaca plant is very similar in appearance to the banana plant. It consists of a stalk or trunk six to fifteen inches in diameter, and six to fifteen feet high, made up of herbaceous, concentric, over- lapping leaf-stems, bearing at the summit long, pinnately-veined leaves. (Fig. 398.) It reaches maturity when two to five years old. A flower- stalk pushes up through the center of the trunk, emerging at the top where it bears a cluster of flowers, followed by small, seed-bearing inedible bananas. The stalk then dies, but meanwhile two to twenty others of various ages are growing in a rather open clump from the same root. The fiber is composed of the fibrovascular bundles near the outer surfaces of the leaf-stems. Abaca is native in the Philippines. It has been distributed throughout the greater part of the Philippine archipelago, and also has been intro- duced into Guam, Borneo and the .Andamann islands. It is cultivated commercially only in a comparatively small part of the Philippines. The most important abaca districts are the Camarines, Albay and Sorsogon in the southern part of Luzon, and the islands southward, Mindoro, Marinduque, Masbate, Samar, Leyte, Cebu, Negros and Mindanao. FIBER PLANTS A heavy and evenly distributed rainfall, sixty inches or more, and a continuous warm temperature are essential to the successful growth of abaca. A rich, deep, well-drained, mellow soil, containing plenty of humus, is necessary for well-developed plants. The best abacd lates (plantations) are on the southern and eastern coasts, and on the lower slopes of old volcanoes. Abac& is grown on the same land ten years or longer, without rotation or the application of fertilizer. While the plants sometimes persist in low land, they will not make a good growth in swampy ground or where the soil remains saturated about their roots. Abac4 plants may be propagated by seeds, root- cuttings or suckers. In practice, suckers are used almost universally, except when they must be trans- ported long distances. Good seed is difficult to secure, since cultivated plants are cut before the seed is ripe; and, furthermore, it is of very un- certain germination. Seeds must be germinated in a carefully prepared and protected seed-bed, and the seedlings transplanted to the field. Suckers or root-cuttings are set out directly in rows nine to twelve feet apart each way, or about 225 to 530 plants per acre. Sweet-potatoes (“camotes”) or some other crop are sometimes grown with abaca. The grass and weeds must be cut every two or three months, and the soil immediately around the abaca plants kept loose to allow a free growth of suckers. Experiments on the San Ramon Government Farm indicate that abacd plants make a much better growth on land plowed before setting and then kept well cultivated by horse-power cultivators, than on land merely cleared and burned over, then culti- vated with sweet-potatoes, as is the usual custom. Unless shade trees have been left at intervals of twenty to thirty yards, corn should be planted between the rows to serve as a partial shade and protection from the wind. : The stalks are cut between the flowering and fruiting stages. If cut earlier or later the fiber will be of inferior quality. The first stalks are ready to cut twenty to thirty-six months after planting, and afterwards the fields are cut over about once in eight months until the plants become unproductive at the end of fifteen to forty years. The new plants continue to grow as the older ones are cut. The plants are cut with asharp bolo, leaving the stump three to six inches high, slanting so as to shed water. Immediately after the stalk is cut the leaves are trimmed off. The outer fiber-bearing surface of each successive leaf-stem composing the trunk is then stripped off with the aid of a bone knife. The fiber is cleaned by drawing these fresh green strips between a knife and a block of wood, the knife be- ing pressed against the wood by means of a spring pole. The work requires strength and skill. Twenty- five pounds of clean dry fiber is a fair day’s work. The annual yield of fiber varies from 300 to 1,000 pounds per acre, the average being probably not far from 500 pounds. Abaca fiber is used in the Philippines for making hand-woven cloth, known as “tinampipi” and “sina- may.” The fiber for this purpose is selected and FIBER PLAN'S 287 tied end to end, not spun into yarn. It is also usad for domestic cordage. Nearly all of the abacd fiber exported is used in making twines and cord- age. It is used for the best grades of binder twine, well-drilling cables, power-transmission rope, hoist- ing rope, and for nearly all marine cordage. Old manila rope, especially worn-out marine cordage, is used to make “rope manila paper.” Abacd rope of the best quality has a working strength about twice as great as sisal. Standard or current abaca is about one and one-half times as strong as sisal. It is also lighter and more durable. — Abaca fiber constitutes about three-fourths of the total exports of the Philippines. The principal markets are the United States and Great Britain. The importations into the United States during the past ten years are shown in the following table: Average Year Quantity Value import price : per ton Tons 1896 ...... 47,244 | $3,604,585 $76 30 TBO ero Ge kas) Gs 46,260 8,408,322 73 68 OOS! ah cae eee 50,270 8,239,341 64 44 1899) 6 iw wwe 53,195 6,211,475 116 77 1900...... 42,624 | 7,172,368| 168 27 DOOD: varias ee so 43,735 | 7,115,446 162 69 1902: oe ene oe 56,453 | 10,555,272 186 97 1903 . 61,648 | 11,885,510 192 79 1904 ...... 65,666 | 11,428,895 173 96 T9OD eee a 4 61,562 | 12,065,270 195 98 Sisal or henequen. (Figs. 399, 400 ; also Fig. 22.) The fiber known in our markets as sisal is ob- tained from the leaves of two closely related plants, henequen, Agave rigida, var. elongata, Baker, and sisal, Agave rigida, var. Sisalana, Engelm. These Fig. 399. Sisal (Agave rigida, var. Sisalana). No leaves are cut above an angle on the stem of 45°. plants belong to the Amaryllidacee or Amaryllis family, and are somewhat similar in appearance to the century plant. They are both native in Yucatan and there, as elsewhere in Spanish America, both are called henequen. The varieties are distinguished in Yucatan by the Maya names, “sacci” for var. 288 FIBER PLANTS elongata, and “yaxci” for var. Sisalana. The variety elongata, cultivated only in Spanish America, is known by the growers as “‘henequen,” while the variety Sisalana, cultivated mostly in English- speaking countries, is called by the growers “sisal.” Both plants are perennial. They have rosettes of fifty to seventy-five rigid, nearly straight, erect or Fig. 400. Drying fiber of sisal. spreading leaves, three to five feet long, three to five inches wide, and about one-fourth inch thick above the base, terminating in a sharp reddish brown spine about one inch long. At maturity, eight to twenty-five years, the plant sends up a flower-stalk ten to twenty feet high, bearing dense clusters of erect flowers at the ends of horizontal candelabra-like branches. The flowers are followed by bulbils, or sometimes by seed-pods in elongata, 1,000 to 4,000 bulbils (“mast plants”) being borne on a single “pole.” After flowering, the plant dies. Suckers are sent up from the roots after the first year until the plant dies. Sisal is a hard fiber three to five feet long, rather coarse and stiff, light yel- low or nearly white, nearly always lighter-colored than abaca. The variety elongata, henequen or sacci, develops an elongated trunk two to six feet high, and its leaves, two to two and one-half inches thick at the base, always have marginal spines, while the variety Sisalana, sisal or yaxci, has no distinct trunk; its leaves are usually without marginal spines and rarely more than one inch thick at the base. It produces a stronger, softer, whiter fiber, but in less quantity than the other variety. In eastern Yucatan the variety Sisalana is culti- vated to a small extent for fiber for domestic pur- poses, for hammocks, bags and the like, but the fiber for export is secured from the variety elon- gata, cultivated most extensively in the region about Merida. This variety is also cultivated in Cuba, and to some extent in East Africa. The va- riety Sisalana is cultivated in the Bahamas, Turks and Caicos islands, Santo Domingo, Hawaii, Central America, East Africa and India. The production of Yucatan exceeds the combined production from all the other localities. Sisal requires a continuous warm and rather dry climate. The lowest recorded temperature in the sisal-growing region of Yucatan is 48°, and the annual rainfall twenty-nine to thirty-nine inches. It endures light frosts in Tamaulipas. FIBER PLANTS In Yucatan, and also in the Bahamas, the principal regions of sisal cultivation, the plants are grown almost exclusively over partly disin- tegrated porous lime rock, largely of coral or shell origin. Sisal will not grow well in light, sandy soil, nor where water stands about its roots. In most places it is grown at altitudes not more than 100 feet above sea-level. Land is prepared by cutting and burning the brush, and, unless too stony, it is’ plowed. Lines about nine feet apart are marked, and the plants are set about five feet apart in the rows. Suck- ers taken from old plantations are used for pro- pagation, except for starting plantations at long distances, when bulbils are sometimes used, as they are smaller and more easily transported. So far as possible, the young plants are set out at the begin- ning of the rainy season, especially in regions sub- ject to severe drought. After the plants are set they require no further care, except to cut the weeds and grass about twice each year. Cultiva- tion should be given two or three times each year when the character of the soil permits. Vegetation must be kept down, as it chokes and retards the growth of sisal plants and furnishes material for ‘field fires, the most serious menace to the crop. The leaves are cut when three to five feet in length, and the outer ones are nearly horizontal. In the Bahamas the first crop is cut in the third or fourth year after the plants are set, and annual crops thereafter for six to twelve years. In Yuca- tan, the first crop is not cut until the sixth or sev- enth year, and after that a crop is cut every eight -months for twelve to twenty-five years. The leaves are cut witha large knife and tied in bundles of twenty-five each, for transporting to the cleaning- machine. Only the outer leaves are taken. Nearly all of thé sisal of commerce is cleaned by machinery. The different kinds of machines are all similar in principle. The fresh green leaves are fed sidewise at the rate of 10,000 to 30,000 per hour, and the green pulp crushed, beaten and scraped away by two or three rapidly revolving drums, against: which first one end of the leaf and then the other is pressed by means of adjustable curved aprons. In some machines, streams of water play on the fiber as it passes from the scraping wheels. It is taken directly from the machine to the drying-yard, and, when dry, is baled for mar- ket, usually without sorting, as it is rather uni- form in quality. The yield of fiber ranges from 3 to 4 per cent of the weight of the green leaves. The average yield of clean, dry fiber is usually between 500 and 1,000 pounds per acre. Sisal is used most extensively for binder twine. It is also used for lariats and general cordage of one inch diameter and under for use on land. It kinks in pulley-blocks and rots in salt water, hence is not suitable for hoisting-ropes or marine cord- age. It is heavier than abacd, and its working strength is about one-third less than that of current abac4 rope of the same size and type. The increasing importance of sisal in our fiber industries is indicated by the following table, FIBER PLANTS showing the annual imports and increasing values during the past ten years : . Average Year Quantity Value import price : per ton Tons - 18996 ...... 52,130 | $3,412,760] $65 47 1897 638,266 | 3,834,732 60 61 1898 69,322 | 5,169,900 74 58 1899 ee aoe ee ier 2 71,898 | 9,211,377 128 12 D900 eo ios be Say se 16,922 | 11,782,263 153 ,17 1) eer 70,076 | 7,972,564 118 77 1902 ve oe wy 89,583 | 11,961,213 183 52 1908... 2... 87,025 | 18,289,444 152 71 1904 109,214 | 15,935,555 145.91 1905 ...... 100,301 | 15,250,859 152 05 Phormium or New Zealand hemp. (Fig. 401). The fiber known commercially as New Zealand hemp and New Zealand flax is obtained from the leaves of the Phormium hemp plant, Phormium tenax, Forst., belonging to the Liliacee or Lily family. Neither the plant nor the fiber has any. resemblance to hemp or flax. The plant is similar in habit to the common blue flag or iris, but much larger. Its many tigi Me Awe Vt Lys y ttt \ Fig. 401. New Zealand hemp (Phormiwm tenaz). coarse, grass-like leaves, one-half to one and one- fourth inches wide and three to twelve feet long, grow in dense clumps from perennial roots. A flower-stalk bearing lily-like flowers grows at length from the center of the leaf-cluster. The old roots in the middle become weaker and die, and the outer plants in turn become new centers of growth. Many different varieties are recognized, B19 FIBER PLANTS 289 varying in length and width of leaves, and in habit as well as habitat. The plant is native in New Zealand, and is dis- tributed in many parts of Australasia. It has been introduced as an ornamental in California and the southern states, and also in Europe, even as far north as Ireland and Scotland. It is cultivated for fiber-production on a commercial scale in New Zea- land,’ and to a small extent in southern Europe. It is the only important hard-fiber plant of the tem- perate zones. In New Zealand it grows between latitudes 85° and 45°, where it is subject to frost and snow, but it will not endure the more severe winters of our northern states. It grows best in a rich, porous, sandy or loamy soil, moist but with good drainage. Some of the varieties will grow in swamps. It is propagated by transplanting roots. The leaves are cut about once each year, and the fiber is cleaned in part by machinery. The machines thus far brought out leave the fiber but partly cleaned, requiring considerable: hand-work to pre- pare it for market. Under favorable conditions, the plants yield 800 to 1,200 pounds of fiber per - acre. The fiber is five to ten feet long, reddish yellow or nearly white.’ In color and appearance it resembles abaca, but it is much softer, more flexible, usually more finely subdivided and less strong. It is some- what elastic, a valuable quality in tow-lines, and it is less injured by salt water than other com- mercial hard fibers aside from abacé. It is used for fodder yarn, lath yarn, and either mixed with sisal or abaca or alone for binder twine. In New Zealand, and also in Europe, it is made up into a great variety of woven goods. It has been quoted in the New York market at one-half to one cent per pound less than sisal until recently. The demand for it is gradually increasing. Mauritius hemp (Fig. 402). Mauritius hemp is a hard fiber obtained from the leaves of the Mauritius fiber plant, Furcrea fetida, Haw. (F. gigantea), belonging to the Amaryllidacee or Amaryllis family. Aloes vert, as the plant is called in Mauritius, is a perennial, with a rosette of sixty to eighty erect or spreading, straight, rigid leaves, six to ten inches wide, and four to eight feet long, similar in appearance to agave leaves, but usually thinner above the base in proportion to their size, and somewhat plicate toward the apex. The terminal spine is rather weak and the marginal spines weak and irregular, or usually absent. The flower-stalk, attaining a height of fifteen to fifty feet, bears a rather loose panicle of drooping, light yellowish green flowers, followed by bulbils. Suckers are produced from the roots, and if the young flower- stalk is broken, suckers are produced in abundance from adventitious buds. Aloes vert is native in tropical America, but it is widely distributed in the tropics of both hemi- spheres. This and closely related species are the “maguey” of Porto Rico, the “molina” of Hawaii, the “pita floja” of Costa Rica, the “fique” of 290 FIBER PLANTS Venezuela, and one of the plants called “cabulla” of Central America. In most of these countries its fiber is produced in small quantities for domestic use, but only in the islands of Mauritius and St. Helena is it systematically cultivated for the pro- duction of fiber for export. FIBER PLANTS fiber twenty to thirty inches long, resembling sisal but somewhat finer and more flexible, is used largely in the cheaper grades of twine and cordage and for ore sacks. This fiber is secured from Agave lophantha in the Jaumave valley about sixty miles from Victoria, in Tamaulipas. (Fig. 403.) (2) Tula istle, shorter and coarser Fig. 402. Porto Rican Maguey (Furcre@a tuberosa). Three-year-old plants from bulbs. It requires for its best development a tropical climate with a moderate rainfall, and a soil of good fertility. Under favorable conditions it grows more rapidly than sisal, producing its first crop of leaves in the third year. The leaves are crushed and the pulp scraped away by machines, but the fiber is afterward washed in soap and water, rinsed, dried, beaten and picked over, requiring a large amount of handling. The green leaves yield about 3 per cent of dry fiber, the yield per acre ranging from 1,000 to 2,000 pounds. Mauritius fiber is white, soft, more elastic than sisal, but also weaker. It is used either alone or mixed with sisal and other fibers in the cheaper grades of coarse twine and cordage of small diame- ter. During the past five years Mauritius hemp has been quoted in the New York market at six to seven and seven-eighths cents per pound, usually one-fourth to one cent per pound less than sisal. Ixtle. (Figs. 403, 404.) Ixtle (axt’-lé) or istle (ést’-ls) and tampico are names applied to a group of hard fibers ten to thirty inches long, obtained from the cogollos (cé-hol’-yos) or inner immature leaves of several different kinds of agaves and yuccas, all growing without cultivation on the dry table-lands of northern-central Mexico. None of the ixtle-pro- ducing plants has been cultivated for fiber produc- tion, and they are rarely found even in botanical gardens or collections of economic plants. - Three kinds of ixtle are recognized by the trade. (In trade quotations the name is usually spelled istle, instead of the Mexican ixtle.) — (1) Jaumave istle (How-mah’-vé), a nearly white than Jaumave istle, also used for the cheaper grades of cordage, is espe- cially adapted for the manufacture of brushes. This fiber is secured partly from Agave Lecheguilla (Fig. 404) in the states of San Luis Potosi, Coahuila, Tamaulipas, Nuevo Leon and Zacatecas. The plant is abundant in western Texas, but rarely utilized there. The leaves of Agave univitiata, A. cerulescens and A. Kerchevei, all growing in the dry highlands of the above-named states, are also used for the production of tula istle. (8) Palma istle, a rather gummy, yellowish fiber, ten to thirty inches long, used chiefly in the manufacture of cordage, is obtained from several species of yuccas or “palmas,” as these plants are called in Mexico, the principal ones being “palma sam- andoca,” Samuela carnerosana; “palma pita,” Yucca Treculeana and Y. Treculeana, var. canaliculata. All of these plants grow along the lower slopes of the mountains rising from the high table-lands of Mexico. The ixtle fibers are cleaned ‘chiefly by hand by drawing each leaf, first one end and then the other, repeatedly between a blunt knife and a block of wood. The palma leaves have to be steamed or given an alkaline bath before the pulp can be scraped away. Machines are beginning to be used for cleaning ixtle, but the results are not yet entirely satisfactory. Ixtle fibers have been used in Mexico for textile purposes from prehistoric times, but until within the last decade they were used in this country only for shoe-brushes, clothes - brushes, scrubbing-brushes and the like. The high prices of sisal and abac& have made it mneces- _ sary to introduce cheaper fibers for low-priced cordage, and im- proved cordage machinery has made it possible to use ixtle fibers with good effect. The fiber is strong and durable, but rather stiff and harsh. Sacks made of ixtle are said to endure ten years of constant use in handling ores in Mexican mines. In the past ten years the importations of ixtle fibers have increased Ly Fig. 403. Jaumave istle (Agave lophan- tha). Fiber is obtained from the inner leaves. FIBER PLANTS from 6,000 tons to 15,000 tons, and the prices have risen from one and one-half and three cents to four and five and one-half cents per pound. Manila maguey. This is a hard fiber similar to sisal, but not quite so strong. It is obtained from the leaves of the Manila maguey plant, Agave Cantula, naturalized in the Philippines and now being cultivated there. Aloe fiber. Bombay and Manila aloe fibers are hard fibers three to five feet long, similar in appearance to Fig. 404. Lecheguilla leaves and fiber. sisal but weaker and more elastic, used to some extent in the manufacture of medium grades of cordage. They are obtained from the leaves of agaves. Maguey fiber. Fiber for domestic use is occasionally obtained from the leaves of the large maguey plants, Agave atrovirens, A. collina, A. Potosina, A. Tequilana and A. vivipara, growing in central Mexico. The intro- duction of fiber-cleaning machinery in the last two years gives promise of the production of Mexican maguey fiber in commercial quantities. The fiber is three to eight feet long, nearly white, elastic, but not so strong as sisal. Several species of magueys are cultivated for the production of the Mexican beverages, pulque and mexcal, but none of them is cultivated primarily for fiber. Zapupe. Two agaves, known as “zapupe verde” and “za- pupe azul,” have been planted extensively in recent years for fiber production in the states of Tamau- lipas and Vera Cruz, Mexico. Both have straight, rigid. leaves, three to six feet long, narrower, thinner and more numerous than the leaves of sisal or henequen. Zapupe verde, having green leaves, has long been cultivated for fiber by the Indians of the district of Tantoyuca, Vera Cruz. Zapupe azul, with bluish glaucous leaves, is of uncertain origin. In appearance it very closely resembles Tequila azul, Agave Tequilana, but it is not used in eastern Mexico for the production of “tequila wine.” Both species of zapupe produce fiber very similar in quality. It is finer and more flexible than sisal, and of about the same strength when compared by weight. It is extracted on sisal-cleaning machines, but it has not been placed on the market in suffi- cient quantities to determine its real market value. FIBER PLANTS 291 Sansevierias. The name “bowstring hemp” is applied to most of the fibers obtained from the leaves of a dozen or more species of the genus Sansevieria of the Lily family. Most of these species are native in tropical Africa, especially the dry bush country from Abys- sinia to Mozambique. One of the earliest known of this group of fibers is “moorva” or “murva,” obtained from the leaves of Sansevierta Roxburghi- ana in India and Australasia. It is said that this fine, elastic, strong fiber was used by the ancient Hindus for making bow strings. Two species, San- sevieria Guineensis and 8S. longiflora, are widely distributed in the American tropics. Numerous unsuccessful attempts have been made to exploit these plants. Recent efforts in Venezuela promise better results. At Nairobi and Voi, British East Africa, the fibers of Sansevierta Stuckeyi and S. Ehrenbergit are being extracted in commercial quantities by machines similar to those used for extracting sisal. The first has cylindrical leaves standing up from the ground like green stakes four to eight feet high, and one to two inches in diam- ‘eter. The second has clusters of equitant leaves three to five feet long and one to two inches thick, arrow-shaped or triangular in cross-section. The leaves of both species yield 7 to 10 per cent of dry fiber. The fiber is similar to sisal in appearance, and is suited to the manufacture of twines and cordage. It has not been produced in sufficient quantities to establish a market value. Bromelia fibers. Hard fibers of remarkable strength and fmeness are obtained from the leaves of at least four dif- ferent species of Bromelias growing without culti- vation in the moist lowlands from eastern Mexico through Central America to Colombia, Brazil and Paraguay. These include the “caraguata” of Ar- gentina, and the pita, silk grass (Honduras) and pinuela of Colombia, Central America and Mexico, obtained from B. Karatas, B. sylvestris and B. Pin- guin. These fibers carefully prepared are sometimes sold in the Mexican market at one dollar (Mexican) per pound. The finest Mexican hammocks are made chiefly of this fiber. It is also used for making game-bags, and even fiddle-strings. The plants grow abundantly over thousands of acres, but there are no satisfactory machines for cleaning the fiber, and it is not produced in quantities sufficient for export. Pineapple fiber. Pineapple fiber is obtained from the leaves of the pineapple plant, Ananas sativus, Schult., cultivated in nearly all warm countries for the fruit. The fiber is produced chiefly in the Philippines from long-leaved varieties cultivated especially for fiber, the fruits of these varieties being of little or no value. The fiber is cleaned by hand, by scraping away the pulp with a bone or a piece of broken crockery. After various processes, usually including beating, washing and sorting, the fibers are tied together end toend. The strands made in this man- ner, not spun or twisted into yarn, are woven by 292 FIBER PLANTS ae in the Philippines, making the beautiful pifia cloth. __ Attempts touse the leaves of pineapples in Flor- ida for fiber production have not given results that _ warrant taking up the work on a commercial scale, II. PLAITING AND ROUGH-WEAVING FIBERS Coir. Coir, or coconut fiber, is obtained from the thick outer husk of the coconut, or fruit of the coco palm, Cocos nucifera, Linn., belonging to the Pal- macee or Palm family. Coir is a rather coarse, stiff, elastic fiber four to ten inches long, of a brownish color. In this country it is used for door- mats and floor covering. In Asia, and to some extent in Europe, it is used for cables and towing hawsers, valued for their elasticity and lightness. It is sometimes woven into coarse sail-cloth. The coconut palm grows in abundance along the sandy shores of nearly all tropical countries, and occasionally in inland localities, but the production of the coir of commerce is confined almost exclu- sively to the Laccadive islands and adjacent shores of southern India and Ceylon, and in southern China. Coir is obtained from green coconuts. The fiber from mature coconuts, such as are sold in the markets, is coarse and brittle and of little value except for jadoo fiber, used in place of leaf-mold for growing conservatory plants. Machinery is now used for shredding the fiber and twisting it into a coarse yarn, the form in which it is exported. Raffa. Raffia is a flat, ribbon-like fiber, consisting of strips of the epidermis peeled from the leaves of the raffia palm, Raphia Ruffia, Mart., growing in Madagascar, and the jupati palm, Raphia tedigera, Mart., of eastern Brazil. These palms belong to the Palm family. They are plentiful in the wild state, and are not systematically cultivated. In this country raffia was formerly used almost exclusively as a tie material in nurseries and gar- dens, but now it is largely used in basketry, milli- nery and various kinds of fancy work. Its use for these purposes has increased the demand and re- sulted in doubling the price within the last six years. In Madagascar, raffia is made into woven goods. Matting fibers. Matting fibers are plaiting or rough-weaving materials, not textile fibers. Entire stalks or leaves are used with a warp of cotton or hemp yarn, or in many instances, especially in the Pacific islands, the same or similar materials are used in both directions, that is, for warp as well as woof. Japanese matting is made from the mat rush, “round grass” or “bingo-i,” Juncus effusus, Linn., or the “three-cornered grass,” “shichito-i,” Cyperus tegetiformis, Roxb. The mat rush is distributed throughout the greater part of the north temperate zone. It is plentiful in many parts of the United States, but is not used here except as a tie material FIBER PLANTS by Chinese gardeners. In Japan and the region about Shanghai, China, it is cultivated with great care in the rice-fields. It is propagated by roots set out first in nursery beds, then transplanted to the fields late in the fall after the rice crop has been removed. The crop is hoed, well fertilized and watered, somewhat like rice. It is cut in July. The roots are then dug to make room for transplanting rice, and to be used for future planting. The shoots are dipped in a pond of water, holding white clay in suspension, to give them a coating which tends to preserve their color and toughness. When dry they are stored away in bundles until used. In the Ningpo and Canton districts of China, and in Formosa, the Chinese mat rush “ Kiam- tsau,” Cyperus tegetiformis, is cultivated largely in the rice-fields to supply material for matting. In the region about Calcutta and for the fine Tinnevelly mats of south India Cyperus tegetum, Roxb., is used. Its leaves are harder than those of C. tegetiformis. ; Nearly all of the “round grass,” Juncus, used for matting is from cultivated plants, and the stalks, mostly sterile shoots, are used whole, while the sedges, “three-cornered grass” of the genus Cyperus, are largely from wild plants, and the stalks are split into two or three sections before drying. The matting made in China and Japan is woven on hand-looms, and affords employment to thousands of men, women and children. The United States imports floor matting to the value of about $4,000,000 every year, and its use is steadily increasing. A power-loom has been devised for weaving floor matting, and efforts are being made, with only partial success thus far, for securing in this coun- try a satisfactory supply of rushes. Hat fibers. Hats are made from round or flat plaited or woven fibrous material, chiefly straw or shredded leaves of palms or palm-like plants. Panama hats are made from finely divided strips of the palm-like leaves of the “jipi-japa” plant, Carludovica pal- mata. This plant belongs to the Cyclanthacee, not to the Palm family. It is a native in Central America and tropical South America. The fan-like leaves, two to six feet in diameter, borne on stalks six to fourteen feet high, are cut while young, slit into shreds and immersed in boiling water, then dried and bleached in the sun. In drying, the slender strips roll up into cylinders, like fine straws. These are woven by hand into bowl-shaped bags, and afterward pressed into the form of hats. The weaving is done chiefly in the morning and evening, as the dry air of mid-day makes the straw too brittle to work well. The finest panama hats are made in Ecuador and Colombia. Cheaper grades are made from other species of carludovica. Porto Rican hats are made from the leaves of the “yaray” or hat palm, Inodes casearia, a rather small palm scattered across the southern part of Porto Rico and most abundant near the shore a FIBER PLANTS few miles south of Mayaguez. The palm leaves are treated very much like those of the jipi-japa. The weaving is done by women and girls in their own homes. The center of the industry is at Cabo Rojo, where the open plaza in the center of the town is devoted to drying and bleaching the leaves. Straw braids for hats are made from different kinds of straw. Wheat and allied species are used extensively in southern Europe and also in China. In Europe. the straw is grown chiefly in the prov- inces of Tuscany, Modena and Vienza, in northern Italy. The seed is sown thickly, and the straw is pulled up by the roots before maturity.. After dry- ing, the upper joints, the only part used for fine braids, are removed by hand, sorted and tied in bundles. This straw is used for the Tuscan, Leg- horn, Venetian and Swiss braids, extensively used for hats for both men and women. Rye is also grown in Italy, where it is treated much like wheat for the production of a plaiting straw. Bar- ley and rice are cultivated in Japan for the pro- duction of Japanese straw braid, which is exported in large quantities to the United States. Tl. UPHOLSTERY AND STUFFING FIBERS This group includes a large number of fibrous materials of vegetable origin. The straw of flax, grown for seed and threshed in an ordinary grain- threshing machine, thus ruining it for textile pur- poses, is put through a series of fluted rollers, which crush it and fit it for a coarse stuffing material used in couches, car seats and carriage cushions. Crin vegetal is a fiber obtained from a small palm, Chamerops humilis, native in Algeria and cultivated in southern Europe. The leaves of the plant are shredded and the strands twisted into a coarse yarn, making, when picked open, an elastic material somewhat like curled hair. A similar material is also made from the leaves of the saw palmetto, which grows in great abundance over hundreds of acres in Florida and westward along the gulf coast of Texas. Florida moss (Dendropogon, or Tillandsia, usne- oides), not a true moss, but a flowering epiphytic plant of the same family as the pineapple, grows in abundance on trees along rivers and bayous in the coast region from the Dismal Swamp of Virginia to Florida and Mexico. When abundant it is very injurious to the trees on which it grows, often be- coming a serious pest in orange groves. In many places in Florida it is collected, and placed in heaps until fermented to loosen the outer covering, which is removed by running it through a crude machine consisting essentially of a revolving toothed cylin- der and toothed concaves. The tough inner fibrous material resembling horse-hair is extensively used for cushions and mattresses. Kapok is a soft cotton-like down growing in the seed-pods of the silk-cotton trees, Ceiba pentandra, Ceiba grandiflora and Bombax malabaricum, native in the tropics of both hemispheres. Although abundant in many parts of the tropics, nearly all of the kapok of commerce comes from the Dutch FLAX 293 East Indies and Ceylon. The pods are collected from the wild trees, and the down separated from the outer covering and from most of the seeds and packed for shipment. It is too short and brittle for spinning, but it is very light, fluffy and elastic, making an excellent substitute for feathers for cushions, pillows and mattresses; and it is also used in place of cork and hair in life-preservers. Literature. Herbert R. Carter, The Spinning and Twisting of Long Vegetable Fibers, London, 1904; Charles Richards Dodge, A Descriptive Catalogue of Useful Fiber Plants of the World, Washington, 1897; John W. Gilmore, Preliminary Report on Commer- cial Fibers of the Philippines, Manila, 1903 ; Wil- liam J. Hannan, Textile Fibers of Commerce, Lon- don, 1902; J. Forbes Royle, The Fiber Plants of India, London, 1855; Jose C. Segura, El Maguey, Memoria sobre el cultivo y beneficio de sus pro- ductos, Mexico, 1901; M. Vetillart, Etudes sur les fibres végétales employées dans lindustrie, Paris, 1876; Julius Zipser, Textile Raw Materials and Their Conversion into Yarns, London, 1901; Vege- table Fibers, Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information, Additional Series II, Royal Gardens, Kew, 1898. Rafael Barba, El Henequen en Yucatan, Mexico, 1905 ; Harold H. Mann, Sisal-Hemp Culture in the Indian Tea Districts, Calcutta, 1904; T. F. Hunt, The Forage and Fiber Crops in America, 1907. FLAX. Linum usitatissimum, Linn. Linacee. Linum (Latin), Linon (Greek), Lein (German), Lin (French), Llin (Celtic). It is from these names that we get our common words, linen, lint, linseed and line. The specific Latin name means “most useful.” [See also Fiber Plants.] Figs. 405-410. By C. P. Ball. Flax is annual, grown for the fiber of the bast and the oil of the seeds. It grows one to four feet tall. Flowers are borne in cymose inflorescences Fig. 405. The flax flower. a, open flower and bud just open ing; Db, petals removed, showing close relation of anthers and stigmas; c, anther and pollen; d, stamen; e, pistil; poae g, plan of flower; h, section showing arrangement of parts. and are distinctly 5-parted in every respect; sta- mens 10, monodelphous; stigma 5-parted ; sepals 5; petals 5, blue, sometimes white; each loculus of the ovary is incompletely halved and bears 2 294 FLAX seeds; fruit, a capsule, 5-celled, FLAX PRODUCTION OF FLAXSEED IN MINNESOTA AND NortH Dakota. with 10 seeds. This species is the only cultivated form of the flax Acres Bushels oe i coer Bee ie family (Linacee), except for orna- ment, but some of the species so Minnesota . . .| 449,008| 5,073,790] $9 72* | $0 86 | 11.3 bus. closely resemble it that the hus- North Dakota. . | 1,857,171 /15,748,184| 9 74* 84 | 11.6 bus. bandman would be unable to recog- nize any difference. A large number 1,806,179 |20,816,974 of species are recognized by botan- ists. Bessey reports 135 species in all, and 22 native to America. Some of these are perennial. Many of them are of easy culture in an open and warm place, where they are fully exposed to the sun, giving attractive bloom. History. It is not definitely known to what country may be attributed the origin of the flax plant. L. angustt- folium is said to grow wild from Palestine to the Canary islands. It is also reported as being the species grown by the Swiss lake dwellers. L. usi- tatissimum, it is said, is the ancient flax of Egypt and Assyria. The ancient use of the fiber is evident from the fact that the Egyptian mummies are found wrapped in linen and the flax plant is carved on their tombs. Another evidence of its antiquity is found in Genesis xli. 42: “Pharaoh took off his ring from his hand and put it on Joseph’s hand and arrayed him in vestures of fine linen.” Its introduction into Europe dates from very remote times. Its importance was materially lessened by the general introduction and use of cotton. The introduction of flax into the United States was made at an early date, probably by the early Pilgrims. No definite records are available. Up to some thirty or more years ago it formed a part of most farmers’ harvest, but since the opening of the new lands in the West, and the wonderful manu- facturing achievements, it has been a crop with which to reclaim the native sod. The farmers of older lands gave up its culture to cheaper lands. At present (1906), a new interest is awakening. A wide-spread use for the fiber calls for added care in harvesting, and a better knowledge of the science of agriculture develops the fact that flax is not “hard” on the land, and that crop rotation permits of the use of the crop on every well-managed farm. The production of flax in America is now placed on an entirely new basis. Geographical distribution. In America the flax industry stands as one of the oldest. The production of flax has been confined largely to the newer, western lands, as it gradually became less profitable on the older eastern farms. The importance of the industry in the United States is shown by the number of acres (2,534,886) de- voted to flax, the number of bushels (28,477,753) of seed produced, and the farm value ($24,049,072) of the crop. [These figures and following table from the agricultural Yearbook, 1905.] For the most part, flax is grown in the northern states and Canada, the two Dakotas and Minnesota pro- ducing about 90 per cent of the total American oroduct. *Computed. It does not seem to matter much, for the produc- tion of flax seed, whether the climate be hot or cold. It is.grown in north and south Europe, and in this country from Texas to Manitoba. For fiber, however, it has been asserted that certain localities, as Michigan and Oregon, produce a better quality for spinning purposes. The production of flax seed at present exceeds the home demand, but a ready market is found in European countries, especially England, for all the export trade that can be supplied. The exports are mostly by-products of the oil-mills,—oil-cake and oil-meal. Until the year 1891, the domestic supply was not equal to the demand, and most cf the flax seed used in the East was imported from Europe, the home products being nearly all manufactured and used in the states west of the Alleghanies. AVERAGE YIELDS OF GRAINS IN BUSHELS PER ACRE FoR 1902, 1908 AND 1904 IN MINNESOTA. Wheat | Oats | Barley| Flax | Corn Bus. Bus. Bus. Bus. Bus. Marshall. . . .| 145 | 47 28.5 | 12.2 | 40 Northfield . -. | 47 31 11.8 | 40-50 Halstad .. . 13.3 | 29.5 27.4 DL les sat oe Propagation and cultivation The propagation of flax is entirely by the seed, which is planted in the spring (the middle of May to the middle of June in Minnesota) of the same sea- son that the crop is harvested. It requires eighty- five to one hundred days in which to mature the crop. At present, flax in the United States and Canada is grown almost exclusively for seed. The demand for linseed oil has been an important factor in stimulating the seed-producing feature. The fiber has been neglected in this country until the last few years. Several companies are now at work on machinery and other equipment necessary to the making of cordage and coarse-woven materials. Cost oF PropucING FLAX IN MINNESOTA. Land Land Cost of Total value rental |producing} cost Marshall, South- west Minnesota. | $60 00 | $8 00 | $5 857| $8 857 Halstad, North- west Minnesota.| 30 00] 1 80 5 0538] 6 853 Northfield, South- east Minnesota.| 70 00 | 3 50 6 326{ 9 826 Large farm, North- west Minnesota.| 30 00 | 1 80 4 387] 6 187 | FLAX These figures represent the cost when flax is grown on stubble land. When it is grown on new breaking, the cost is slightly higher. Choice of soil_— The flax, having a delicate and relatively small root system, and growing to ma- - turity in so short a time, demands a soil that is rich in soluble organic matter and in moisture. The character of the soil does not seem to be of so much importance. Good crops have been produced on very sandy soil, but the straw in such cases is very short. On the other hand, the larger crops are grown on the heavier clay soils, -but in this case at the expense of the quality of the fiber. & Experiments have been conducted in various states on many types of soil, and the consensus of opinion seems to be that the heavier lands ‘give better results, but that more seems to depend on the preparation before seeding than on the type of soils. In short, experience teaches that flax may be grown on a. variety of soils, but for the best results a moist, deep, friable loam or clay loam is prefer- able. In the great flax-growing areas of the Northwest, the virgin upland- prairie homestead farms are plowed and seeded to flax without regard to the soil. In the older sections, flax is used as a reclamation crop to reduce the low land to arable fields. These low-lying pieces (prairie sloughs) vary in size from one to several acres, and originally were \ too wet for cropping, but as the country be- came older, the water gradually disappeared so as to render them useful for pasture and 3 finally dry enough to plow. The farmers, eager for more acres on which to grow grain, have reclaimed the border of these sloughs from year to year, and are thus maintaining the an- nual flax area and getting their farms into form and condition for systematic crop rota- tion. Thus, flax has been valuable in subduing the virgin sod. On the older and heavier lands it has a tendency to improve the physical condi- tion of the soil. Preparing the soil—This feature in the flax industry receives too little attention. A com- mon practice in the western states is to break the sod in July or August and “back-set” later in the fall, but more often the back-setting is not done. The following spring the soil is harrowed (or disked if the farmer possesses a disk) and seeded. It is worthy of note in this connection that on the new prairie upland sod thus treated, the yield, often as high as thirty bushels per acre, is sufficient to pay the price of the land. It is gener- ally conceded, however, that flax needs a better prepared soil, and, as the country grows older, the preparation of the seed-bed receives more and more attention. No definite rules can be laid down that would be suitable for all types of soil, and in all | | FLAX 295 climates, but a few general principles must always be observed: . (1) The land should be plowed deep in the fall previous to the spring in which the seed is to be sown. If the land is sod, five inches will be suffi- cient, but if it is old land, it should be stirred six to eight inches deep. (2) Heavy clay soils should be worked deeper , than the lighter loam Wa or sandy soils. Y (3) Generally it is not advisable to har- row in the fall. (4) In the spring, the heaviest of soils should be plowed again, then disked and harrowed un- til smooth and firm. The lighter soil should be disked as early as | / it is sufficiently dry l/it) # to permit of working, y Z then harrowed and pul- verized fine. i (5) Flax should not be seeded on land that is wet, lumpy or weedy. Manuring.—It is a waste of time to sow flax on impoverished land. The returns will not repay the cost of production and the seed, to say nothing of the rental value of the land. Flax is com- monly regarded as an exhausting crop, but it is relatively no more exhausting of soil fertility than other grain crops. The root systems of flax plants are not large when compared with other grains, as wheat and oats. Flax may be considered, therefore, as a deli- cate feeder. This means that soil on which flax: is to be grown must be rich in soluble organic matter, or be supplied with the necessary ele- ments of plant-growth. In this country very little attention is given to the use of manures and commercial fertilizers for flax. It is doubtful whether the latter are necessary, if the farmers use proper systems of crop rotation, and by the use of farm manures and waste products maintain the soil fertility. In the use of manures, it is always preferable to have them ina fine or composted condition, espe- cially on the lighter soils. It is not advisable to apply the manure the same year that the seed is sown, as it causes an uneven crop, a tendency to- ward coarseness of the fiber, and frequently light seed. Aside from this, it brings more or less weed seed to the soil. A few of the states report the use of fertilizers, such as nitrate of soda, muriate of potash, dried blood, dissolved bone-black, dried, fish and various barnyard manures, but no authen- tic results have yet been recorded. The eastern states, as a rule, practice methods of manuring, while the western country gives little / Branch of flax plant. 296 FLAX or no attention to this feature of crop production. On the older farms of the East, fertilizing is necessary for the success of the crop. On the newer western farms, flax may be grown for a number of years without the use of manures; but, sooner or later, manures will become an absolute necessity. It is recommended that the shives from the mill and the flax straw from the threshing machine be returned to the soil. If this is done, a very larg2 part of the fertilizing ingredients are returned. The only elements removed and not returned to the _ Soil are those of the seed, which are as follows: Water, 12.3 per cent ; ash, 3.4 per cent; crude fiber, 7.2 per cent; albuminoids, 20.5 per cent; carbo- hydrates, 19.6 per cent; fats, 87 per cent of the total weight of the seed. When the straw is pool- retted for the manufacturing of the fiber, large returns may be secured by sprinkling the pool steep, which is rich in organic matter, on the flax- field. This is likely to introduce the wilt disease, however, if flax is to follow in the next few years. The seed.— It was supposed for a long time that, in order to procure the best results, seed-flax must be imported, at least every three or four years, from the filax-growing countries of Europe. How- ever true this may be for the production of the flax fiber, it does not hold true for the production of seed. Many imported varieties of flax have been tested at the Minnesota Experiment Station, but none has proved so valuable a seed-producer as the common or native flax, which is undoubtedly an acclimated stock of the well-known Riga. It is not definitely known that it is necessary to import seed in order to secure fiber for the production of the finer linens. In growing flax for seed, a farmer can afford to use nothing but the best. There is such a vast dif- ference in the individual seeds in their power of growth and production, that to use the small, shrunken seeds is but to encourage a small yield. In ordinary farm practice, however, it is seldom that afarmer makes any effort to select the largest, heaviest, plumpest and most matured seed (those known by experience and experiment to give best results) for seeding purposes. He sells all the seed as threshed, except enough in the bottom of the bin to plant his next year’s acreage, many times not even saving this, but depending on the local elevator for seed the next spring. : The selection of the seed can best be made on the specific gravity basis, i. e., taking advantage of the difference in the weights of the seeds. The ordinary fanning-mills will do this work quickly and effectively when operated intelligently. The better form to use is the “sideshake” mill. This form drops the seed off the feed-board under the hopper in a steady stream. The wind blast here catches and carries the grain with it to various distances according to the weight of the kernels, the lightest seeds being carried out at the back of the mill, while the heaviest ones drop nearly straight down. By setting the sieves in the lower shoes of the “shake” (one so as to catch the heavy kernels and the other farther out so as to catch the medium FLAX and lighter grains), the best can be saved for seed and the other, called “market grain,” can be cleaned. The small percentage thus saved does not lower the market grade of the grain, for separating this from the chaff arid lightest seeds more than compensates for the small percentage saved for seed purposes. So far as the writer is aware, no experiments have been made comparing the results from good, medium and poor seed-flax, but with ail other classes of crops the results have shown marked advantages in favor of the well-graded seeds. Seeding practices—Flax is planted in the spring after all danger from frost is past. As it requires only eighty-five to one hundred days for maturing, the planting is seldom done before May 10 in the Middle Northwest. In some of the new sections on low spots where water stands on the surface in the early spring, the planting season is materially lengthened, seeding often being done as late as July 1. It is unsafe, however, to sow flax later than June 15 in the great northwest flax section. Early seed- ing, May 10 to 20, always gives the best results, as the plants get well rooted and strong before the hot, dry summer weather comes. From an account given in Report No. 10 of the United States Office of Fiber Investigation, the fol- lowing dates for sowing and harvesting in the . various states are taken : State Sown Cut Days Massachusetts. . | April 29 August 1-6 94-100 Connecticut May 11 Aug. 7-23 88 May 22- July 13- ny New York ... April 30 ‘August 26 45-97 Maryland. . . .| May 4 August 25 | 113 Kentucky April 29 August 11 105 Ohio ..... April 30 July 15 77 Indiana . . . .| April 10-15) Sept. 5-12 | 148-150 Illinois... . April 24 July 30 98 Kansas May 30 August 3 76 Missouri . . May 23 pee 1-8 71-83 March 15- | August 15— is Towa ....-. June 10 October 1 114-154 California . . .| April 25 June 20 57 Wisconsin . . .| June l August 30 92 Michigan. . April 20 August 20 92 5 April 30— | August 7- = Minnesota .. . June 1 Sept. 5 78-119 Nebraska. . . .| May7 August 3 89 South Dakota. .| May 15 August 15 93 Oregon ‘ May 18 August 14 89 The depth to plant varies somewhat with the soil and season. On the heavier, wet soils the seed should be planted shallower than on the lighter soils. In the ordinary soils, flax should be planted not deeper than one and one-half inches. The quantity of seed used by the American farmer varies from two to six pecks per acre. For the production of seed, the Minnesota Experiment Sta- tion has found that for Minnesota conditions two pecks give most satisfactory results, but the farm- ers of the Northwest usually sow a little more. For fiber, the quantity sown is never less than four FLAX ee per acre, six pecks being generally considered est. If the flax is grown for seed, it is at the ex- pense of the quantity and quality of fiber, and conversely. The difference is occasioned by the thickness of the seeding. The quantity of seed pro- duced depends on the number of branches that bear the seed-bolls. By sowing two to three pecks per acre, the plants are sufficiently far apart to permit of reasonable branching. Under such conditions, the straw grows about thirty inches long. When six pecks per acre are seeded, the plants are very close together, thus preventing the branching habit and forcing a taller and finer . growth. At present, there are but two general methods of sowing, viz., with the so-called grain drill and with the ordinary broadcast seeder. With the former, the seeds are planted in parallel rows six to eight inches apart. All seeds are placed at an even depth and in a compact seed-bed. This method is pre- ferred for seed production, as the plants have a better chance to branch and to form seed - bolls. In broadcasting, the seeds are scat- tered promiscu- ously over the ground and cov- ered by the gangs of cultivating teeth following the seed spouts. By this method, a trifle more seed is needed per acre. For fiber purposes, the broadcast method is said to produce a better and more even quality. Any conditions which stimulate branching or coarseness are adverse to the making of a long, fine fiber. The drill rows permit of an uneven crowding which brings about an uneven growth of the plants (Fig. 407). Place in rotation.—Although flax is not a gross feeder and does not yield profitable returns if planted on the same land year after year, it is not exceptionally “hard” on the soil. It requires an Fig. 407. Flax. At Ais shown a plant grown for seed; at B, for fiber. The difference between open and close planting is evident. abundance of organic matter in the soil, and for. this reason follows corn (for which barnyard ma- nure has been applied), a clover sod, or a grass- ley to good advantage. Since flax does not do well on any one field oftener than once in six or seven years, it works best into long-course rotations. A FLAX 297 suggested rotation of this kind is as follows: First year, corn; second year, oats or barley, or both, third year, wheat (seeded to grass or clover) ; fourth year, meadow; fifth and sixth years, pas- ture or meadow as desired; sixth or seventh year (as the case may be), flax is planted. It is often suggested to plant flax once in two cycles of a short-course rotation. In such a case it would come every other year, or three or four years in succession in every alternate cycle of the rota- tion; thus, in a four-year rotation, flax would appear on the same field once in eight years: Four-YEAR ROTATION WITH FLAX. Year Field I Field II Field III | Field IV 1906. . .| Corn Oats Clover Flax 1907. . .| ‘Oats Clover Flax Corn 1908. . .| Clover Flax Corn Oats 1909. . .| Flax Corn Oats Clover 1910* ..| Corn Oats Clover Wheat 1911* . .| Oats Clover Wheat Corn 1912* ..| Clover Wheat Corn Oats 1918* ..| Wheat Corn Oats Clover 1914. ..] Corn Oats Clover Flax 1915... Oats Clover Flax Corn *No flax during this cycle of the rotation. Varieties—The average American farmer recog- nizes but two general varieties of flax,—the White Blossom Dutch and the Russian Riga. The latter is generally used and is considered best. The former has been tested repeatedly at the Minnesota and North Dakota Experiment Stations, but ho stock has yet been found to surpass the Riga in seed pro- duction. At Yale, Michigan, and at Corvallis, Ore- gon, the growers for the most part have followed the example of the farmers of ‘Great Britain, Hol- land and Belgium, and imported new seed from Russia (and some from Holland) every two or three years. It is reported that the home-grown seed does not produce so fine a grade of fiber as the imported seed. It is also said that the White Blos- som Dutch variety loses its white blossom char- acter in a few years after importation. In this connection, it is worthy of note that the new flax (Minn. No. 25), introduced in 1905 by the Minne- sota Experiment Station to the farmers of Minne- sota, came to the Station in 1891 as a white blos- som variety. It now has a blue blossom. If such: changes take place in color characters, it is not unreasonable to suppose that the character of the fiber may also be affected by the change. How- ever, the quality of the fiber of home-grown flax is being improved by breeding. Experts state that the low grade of fiber of American flax is due to the method of sowing more than to the seed. The high-priced labor of this country is nearly a complete barrier to the production of flax for fiber chiefly. For this reason it is imperative, in the Middle Northwest at least, that a fair crop of both seed and fiber be produced. Varieties of superior 298 FLAX seed- and fiber-yielding properties have been se- cured, but until labor is cheaper and more reliable, or until a higher price is paid for fiber, the grow- ing of flax fiber will have to be coupled with seed production. It must not be inferred from this that flax is grown for fiber alone in the flax-producing countries of Europe, excepting perhaps in parts of Ireland ; the seed is saved and is regarded to be a secondary product of considerable value. Breeding. The systematic American breeding of flax has been limited to the Minnesota and North Dakota Experiment Stations. But limited as it is, some lessons have been learned and results have been secured that are of vast economic importance. The Minnesota Station has bred two high-yielding varie- ties, one for seed and one for fiber. North Dakota Station has bred one that has proved to be notice- ably wilt-resistant. Minnesota experiments.—The general plan for breeding flax at Minnesota has been as follows : (1) To secure, through systematic methods of testing, a few of the most promising varieties. (2) To save the seed of these and to grade it carefully, eliminating all but the very best seeds. (8) To plant two to five thousand hills of each, with two or three seeds per hill. (Fig. 408.) (4) When the plants are a few inches high, to thin to one plant per hill. (5) At maturity the best ten to twenty-five plants are secured by a gradual elimination of the poorest plants. These are selected on the basis of the economic character that is desired: If seed is the object, the plants selected are those that have a number of top branches and bear a large number of seed-bolls. If fiber is desired, the tallest, stiffest and least branched are saved. The plants thus selected are termed mother-plants and are given a register number (nursery-stock number). Certain notes are taken on them, as height, number of branches, quantity of seed, and the like, and the best 250 seeds are saved to plant a centgener the succeeding year. (6) At harvest the next year, the best ten plants are again selected from which the seeds are saved as one lot. The total number of plants is recorded. All plants are carefully tied in a bundle and threshed in an especially devised centgener thresher. The total weight of the seed from all the plants is divided by the number of plants, thus giving the average weight per plant. This weight, together with centgener notes, is a measure of the inherited ability of the mother-plant. Such a cent- gener test goes on for three years. (7) At the end of three years an average is made of each mother-plant’s progeny for the three years. The best one or two nursery-stock numbers having highest yields, other things being equal, are saved for future trial. All others are discarded. (8) The best of all the bulk seed, saved from all plants harvested the last year of the three years’ 1Centgener is a name given to the product of a single mother-plant ; in this case used to designate the plants resulting from the 250 or more selected seeds. FLAX test, is planted in a “nursery increase plot,” and given a Minnesota number.? From the field plot results another three years’ test, and the average is made. Each year such notes as height, days to mature, per cent lodged, evenness in height and ripening, type, yield per acre, and the like, are taken. . . (9) If in this test a certain stock shows by its record, as did Minnesota No. 25, that it is superior to all others, the bulk seed is again saved. This seed is planted in “field increase plots” until sev- eral hundred bushels of well- graded seed are secured. (10) This “field increased” seed is then sold to farmers of the state in lots of four bushels or less, at a price slightly above the ordinary market price of flax. (11) These farmers, by signing a contract, be- come codperators of the Experiment Station. At harvest time a blank form of inquiry is sent to each cooperating farmer to fill out and return to the Experiment Station. From the replies, a com- parison of the new variety with the common variety under farm conditions is made. (12) Inquiries coming in from other farmers in following years for the improved variety are re- ferred to the codperators. To illustrate the results that have been secured, the following table giving the results of compara- tive tests made by forty-eight farmers in various parts of Minnesota is introduced: Fiax, Minnesota No. 25 COMPARED WITH CoMMON VARIETIES. Minnesota No. 25. ...... 15.0 bushels per acre Common flax grown by farmers. 11.9 bushels per acre 3.1 bushels per acre 26 per cent Gain Rate of increase MinNEsoTA No. 25 COMPARED WITH VARIETIES SOLD BY COMMERCIAL Houses IN 1901. Average Yield Yield Yield yield 1902 1903 1904 3 trials Minnesota No. 25 .... .- 214 1938 17.1 1938 Minnesota No. 12, Seedsmen . 11. 19.1 184 163 Minnesota No. 14, Seedsmen.12.5 20.3 15.4 16.0 Minnesota No. 18, Seedsmen. 9.6 20.0 166 15.4 Average yield of Minnesota No. 25 for three years is 19.3 bushels. Average yield of three commercial varieties for three years is 15.9 bushels. Increase in favor of Minnesota No. 25 is 3.4 bushels. In addition to the improvement shown in these tables, No. 25 is a week earlier than common vari- eties, and is more even in growth and in maturity. North Dakota experiments.—At the North Dakota Experiment Station, Bolley has been breeding flax with a view to getting a variety that is immune to the wilt disease. In this work, he has followed closely the Darwinian hypothesis that success attends the survival of the fittest. One of the common varieties was selected and planted on a 24 Minnesota number is given to any new accession introduced into the field test in comparison with all other promising stocks and varieties from various sources. FLAX plot of soil known to be “flax-sick.” The majority of the plants succumbed to the disease. The very few that survived were carefully harvested and stored. The seeds from these were in turn planted on “flax-sick” soil. Year by year the proportion of plants surviving the attacks of the disease grew larger until, in 1904, a comparatively immune or wilt-resisting variety was secured. This experi- ment, though simple and dealing only with one of our economic crops, has an immense economic value. It opens the road to success in breeding disease-resistant varieties of all our field crops, garden crops and flowers. Harvesting. The ideal way to harvest flax for the best quality of fiber is to pull it by hand, thus securing the full length. In Europe, where labor is cheap and the acreage per farmer small, the flax is nearly always pulled and stood up in bunches (stooks) to dry, but the high price of labor and the relative efficiency of harvesting machinery makes the pulling of flax almost prohibitive in America, and it is practiced only to a very limited extent. When fiax is grown exclusively for the seed, it is cut with the self-rake reaper or the binder. Occa- sionally, in the absence of a better machine, the mower is used. Its use, however, is not at all satis- factory, as it leaves the crop in condition difficult to handle without considerable loss. When cut with the binder, the farmers seldom use twine, and the gavels are thrown from the machine and lay as if cut with a reaper. If twine is used, the bundles are gathered into small, loose shocks that permit of rapid drying. If cut with the reaper, the gavels are left in position as they fall until well dried on the upper side. They are then turned with an old-style barley fork so as to expose the other side to the sun, When dry, the crop is either stacked or Fig. 408. Nursery planting machine used in breeding experiments. threshed. Often, in the absence of the threshing outfit, the crop remains in the field until the outfit arrives. For this reason, there is considerable loss caused by rains. The flax grown on the low ground is generally low grade if not carefully guarded, FLAX 299 through molding and successive wetting and dry- ing. A flax field at harvest-maturity is shown in Fig. 409. A few trials have been made to determine the possibilities of heading the standing flax, then cutting and binding the straw, thus possibly de- creasing the cost of preparing the straw for man- Fig. 409. Field of flax ready for harvest. ufacturing purposes. Nothing has as yet proved to be practicable. Ideas of special machines for pulling and preparing the flax have been conceived, but thus far efforts have failed. Obstructions to growth. Weeds.—One of the greatest drawbacks to the production of flax is the ever-present weed incur- sion, which sooner or later must be met by every farmer. On old land, especially, is it impossible successfully to grow flax for seed with present methods of culture. On the newer lands weeds are no serious menace to the crop, although they are generally present in limited numbers. The nature of the flax plant gives ample opportunity, with thin sowings for seed purposes, for weeds to de- velop. When five or six pecks are seeded per acre, weeds are crowded out if the ground is well pre- pared before sowing, thus giving the plants a good start before the weeds get started. A good sys- tem of crop rotation with flax following a grass- lay or a corn crop for which manure has been applied, will quite eliminate this trouble. The weeds commonly found in flax-fields of the Northwest are as follows: Foxtail (Chetochloa viridis), lamb’s-quarter (Chenopodium album), pig- weed (Amaranthus retroflexus), pepper-grass (Lepid- ium Virginicum), wild mustard (Brassica arvensis) and other of the mustard family, French weed (Thlaspi arvense), smartweed (Polygonum Persi- caria). Many other weeds occasionally find their way into the flax-field, but do not attract attention as do those named. None of the weed seeds are ex- ceptionally difficult to separate from flax seed, but when present they increase the cost of manufactur- ing and decrease the market price, and cause a dockage to be levied, not to mention the cost of freight on them. In the flax-straw, weeds greatly decrease the value. of the fiber. The weed-stalks are hard to break. When broken, the pieces catch in the fibers and cause tangling and breaking. 3800 FLAX They also interfere with the scutching. Any weed- fibers that get into the skein are a detriment to the cloth or cord manufactured. Disease.—One of the most dreaded of all diseases of field crops is the flax-wilt (Fusarium lini, Bolley). So prevalent is the disease that no flax -bearing country is free from it. Bolley says, “The plants are attacked at all ages and die early or late in the stage of growth, according to the time and inten- sity of the attack. If the soil is much affected, that is to say, ‘flax-sick,’ most of the plants are killed before they get through the surface of the ground.” Young plants, two to five inches high, wilt suddenly, dry up, and soon decay if the weather becomes moist. Older plants take on a sickly, weak, yellowish appearance, wilt at the top, slowly die, turn brown and dry up. Nearly mature plants when attacked, but not dead, are easily pulled, the roots breaking off at about the level of the furrow slice. The diseased roots have a very characteristic ashy appearance. Flax-wilt is different from many fungous dis- eases, in that it lives a long time in the soil and that it is carried with the seed. Thus, a wilt-free soil may produce a flax-wilt crop if the seed-flax was grown on flax-wilt ground; or a flax-wilt soil will produce a flax-wilt crop even though the seed had no flax-wilt to carry with it. In either case, however, the first crop under these conditions may not give much evidence of the disease. Succeeding crops would be badly infested. A careful and exact study of the life-history of the cause of flax-wilt has made it possible suc- cessfully to combat it. The fungus is an imper- fect one and lives normally as a saprophyte, but occasionally becomes a parasite. Its chief means of distribution is by the spores which are carried on the seed of the flax. Obviously, then, by treat- ‘ing the seed, the disease can be very largely obviated. Until recently, no treatment for the dreaded flax- wilt disease had been discovered, but the working out of the life-history of the fungus by Bolley, brought out the fact that treatment of the seed with certain fungicides will eliminate the disease from seeds known to be from an infected crop. A farmer with soil free from flax-wilt germs can safely sow seed from a flax-wilt crop if the seed has been thoroughly treated. At the North Dakota Experiment Station, a series of tests were made to prove the value of seed treatment for flax-wiit, and in every instance when the seed was treated and sown on soil free from wilt, there were no signs of the disease. But the same lot, untreated, sown on wilt-free soil, showed the presence of the disease. There were several fungicides which might be used, but it was necessary to find one that was strong enough ‘to kill the spores of the wilt and yet not injure the vitality of the seed. Formalin is recommended as the cheapest and quickest effectual solution. The treatment as recommended by Bolley is as follows: Mix thoroughly one pint or one pound of the formalin with forty gallons of water. This quantity of solution is sufficient to treat about one FLAX hundred bushels of seed. Before applying the solu- tion, the seed must be carefully cleaned and graded with a fanning-mill. If this is not done, pieces of broken stems and shriveled seeds carrying the disease will not be completely disinfected. Thus the wilt will be carried to the soil. In treating the seed, it is advised that about five bushels be spread thinly on a floor or canvas. The solution is then sprayed on the seed with a fine nozzle (a common sprinkling-pot or a patent sprayer may be used). At the same time the flax is stirred rapidly with a rake or shovel in order to get every seed in contact with the fungicide. After spraying, the stirring should continue a short time to aid the drying. Care in the application of the solution is impor- tant. An excess of water will cause the flax seed to stick together and will interfere with seeding. Ordinarily, with careful treatment, the grain can be seeded ina few hours after treatment. [See also page 50.] : Flax rust (Melampsora lini) is another menace to the flax crop, but happily it is not causing much damage. It was first reported in the Northwest in 1905,—a very wet season. It completely destroyed some fields in the Red river valley. It is not prob- able that great damage will come from this dis- ease, since flax for the most part is grown in small, disconnected areas and is changed from field to field. Manufacture. Flax has long been known as a valuable plant for the production of wearing apparel and matting fiber. It has also been the source of a valuable oil, useful for many purposes, especially in the making of paints. Until recently, flax has been grown almost exclusively for its oil in this country. There were no means to make use of the fiber and com- pete with the fiber productions of Europe. At present there are four distinct manufactur- ing interests which employ the flax crop. One of these uses only the seed. The other three are dis- tinctly fiber industries, and manufacture cloth, thread and yarn, insulating material and binding twine. For these interests, the crop is generally taken from the farmer just as he is pleased to har- vest it. Ina few instances, as at Yale, Michigan, the crop is sometimes pulled by hand. For the oil- mills, the flax seed is commonly delivered direct to the local elevator from the threshing machine. From here, in due time, it finds its way to the mill, where it is separated from weed seeds and other foreign material before being ground. Linseed oil.—One of the first commercial manu- facturing uses to which flax was put in America was based on the oil contained in the seed. The demand for linseed oil, as it is called, and the in- dustry have developed rapidly, until an oil-manu- facturing plant today entails an investment of a million or more dollars and employs hundreds of men. The supply of flax for the oil-mill is shipped mostly from the local elevators, and stands in the transfer yards until graded by the State Inspec- FLAX tion Department. In the meantime, it is bargained for by the various firms. The cars are then side- tracked to the mills, where the mill hands unload into their elevators. Once in the elevator bins, the flax is spouted into the hoppers of large clean- ers, which by means of their many shakes and sieves separate the flax from the straw, dust, weeds and other seeds. The foreign seeds are sold for various purposes. The flax is elevated from the cleaner to a vertical system of five large rolls or breaks; the upper ones barely crush the ber- ries, while the lower ones reduce them to a fine meal, which is carried to large cookers that temper it and heat it to 160° to 200°. Some seeds need more moisture, others have too much. The tempering adds to or takes from the grain enough moisture to bring it to a common temper. From the cookers the hot meal is drawn into a conveyor that distributes it evenly in a mould about 12 x 20 x 24 inches. To hold the meal after these moulds are removed, a camel’s-hair cloth is placed around it. The moulds or forms are placed in a hydraulic press and subjected to a pressure of 3,500 pounds per square inch. The oil is squeezed out and. flows into a small sluice tank to rid it of the finest meal particles. It then goes to the large tank or to the refining tanks. From these the various grades of oil are drawn off into original packages (barrels, etc.) for market. The grades of oil are named according to a sys- tem peculiar to each mill. Thus, the same grade of oil may have two or more names as it is put out from two or more mills. The oils are used for a variety of purposes, from the making of patent- leather shoes to paints. Fiber.— The processes employed in making the various products from flax fiber are. too long to be described in detail. The old methods followed by our fathers and mothers, as recently as 1870, were crude, but were apace with the progress of other industries at that time. A half-acre or an acre was the extent of the flax-field, but each farmer grew some flax for making the family’s “homespun.” The flax was pulled, retted, hackeled, spun and woven by hand. Today, the hand labor is elimi- nated almost entirely. In fact, it is difficult te get men to do any of the hard work for which ma- chinery has been invented. When cut, if the flax is stood up in shocks, there is damage done to the stalks where they touch the moist soil. After harvesting, the seed is threshed from the straw. This is done in some instances by holding the heads of the bundles in the cylinder of the threshing machine. In others, the heads are cut from the stalks in the process of breaking and are threshed in a separate device. In olden days, the seed was pounded out by whipping the “hand” (a handful) over a barrel, or it was “rippled,” that is, drawn through a coarse comb. Flax grown for fiber in this country is threshed by passing the heads repeatedly between rapidly revolving cylinders or belt pulleys, the seed being afterward cleaned with fanning-mills. Special threshing machines are used at the two binder twine factories. FLAX 301 In preparing the fiber for weaving, the straw must be passed through a process of decay, called retting. This loosens the outer covering and shives (the inner or woody part of the plant) from the bast fibers and makes the separation of the fiber easy. The retting is accomplished in two ways: (1) By aérial- or dew-retting, i. e., spreading the flax on the ground in an open field or pasture ; (2) by placing the bundles in slow-flowing streams or pools (Fig. 410). The latter is the true way of retting, makes a whiter, better fiber and is much quicker. The steeping in this way acts constantly on the mucilage that holds the fiber and wood to- gether. Rain-water is said to be best, although river-water is most commonly used. One or two weeks is sufficient time for pool-retting, while many weeks are often necessary properly to dew-ret. It is obvious that the fermentation must stop at the proper time. This is observed to be just when the fiber separates easily and freely from the woody stalks. The straw should then be removed from the water and spread out thinly and allowed thoroughly to dry. When dry, the straw goes to the “break.” The hand-break was a large wooden mallet which fitted into a V-shaped bed-piece and was worked up and down by hand. The power-breaks vary in style, but consist essentially of corrugated rollers which draw the straw through and at the same time crinkle the fiber and break the shives into small pieces. From the break the broken straw is scutched and hackled, i. e., pounded by hand or Fig. 410. Retting flax in the river at Northfield, Minn. pulled over a series of rapidly revolving fingered rollers to remove the shives. In scutching, the broken straw is held in hand- fuls against revolving paddles which beat off the shives. In hackling, the scutched fiber is drawn by hand across sets of fixed upright steel pins to comb, separate and straighten the fibers. Machine hackles are used for cheaper grades in some mills. In the early days the fiber went to the loom with- out further preparation or treatment. But the latter-day American must have his linen immacu- late and uncolored by threads of natural color. For this reason the fiber goes through a boiling and bleaching before it is made into cloth. This practice, to a certain degree, is detrimental to the lasting quality of the cloth. This, however, does not apply to American-grown flax, as this flax is not used for fine linens. Shoe- 302 FLAX thread, carpet-yarns, fishing-lines and seine-twines are products of the best American flax, and huck toweling or crash from the tow. (Tow is the coarse and broken material resulting from scutching.) As yet, manufacturers use the American-grown flax fiber only for making the coarse grade of cloth (crash, so-called “Russian linen,” toweling). All of the fiber for making the finer linens is im- ported from Europe. The American farmer must soon learn the necessity of producing flax with a long-line fiber. In this work the various experi- ment stations will prove a valuable source of aid. Binding twine——The making of binding twine from flax is a new industry. For this the flax does not require retting. It is bought from the farmer and delivered unthreshed, as it was cut and cured, from the field to a baling station. The company bales it and ships it to a warehouse to become thor- oughly dry. When dry, the straw is passed through a tempering tunnel, on an endless moving apron. Here it is heated to drive off any excess moisture. It next passes sidewise through a heading and break machine. The straw comes out fluted, with the shives broken, and falls on a moving platform which con- veys it into a slowly revolving spiked apron. On the moving apron a small quantity of heavy, coarse fiber (similar to sisal) is added to give the twine sta- bility. From the spiked apron it is removed by a very rapidly revolving spiked apron which draws the strand out and brings it to a common center, where it is delivered into a tall, cylindrical basket. These baskets of fiber are fed into other machines which draw the strands out more and aid in remov- ing the last of the shives, and which again deliver the strands to baskets. From these the fiber is fed into the twiner and skeiner, a machine which twists the twine and reels it on large wooden spools. These spovis are taken to the ballers, where the twine is reeled off and wound into balls. The balls are then baled the same as other binding twine. A tester takes an occasional ball and tests its strength and length to see that the output is held up to a good average. As yet, there is no cordage but binding twine being manufactured. It is but a question of time when American flax will be manufactured into all grades of cord and thread and rope. Miscellaneous uses.—For upholstering and similar purposes, flax fiber is being used extensively in the Northwest. The so-called tow mills receive the straw from the farmers just as it comes from the threshing machine, and put it up in bales and ship it to the central market or factory. One extensive industry is located in Minnesota. At this place the fiber is chemically prepared and passed into layers of different thicknesses. The thinner ones are sewed between two pieces of building paper. Such mate- rial is used for insulating, cold storage, refrigerator cars, ice-boxes, and the like. Exhibiting. --There has been as yet no attempt, so far as the writer is aware, to gather the flax and its various products (in process of manufacturing) for exhibition purposes. At the Minnesota Experiment FLAX Station the writer is gathering samples of mate- rial illustrative of the various steps in the develop- ment of flax from the seed to the manufactured products, with a view to having a connected museum history of flax. Such an exhibit will be of immense value from an educational standpoint, and would very properly occupy museum space in any educa- tional institution, at agricultural expositions and fairs. It is seldom that anything but the seed is exhibited. A few bundles of the mature straw are often used for decoration. These are not generally so labeled that the average visitor knows what they are. Managers of expositions and fairs, as well as exhibitors, have much to learn in improving the manner of display. Markets. There are no special markets for flax. Asarule, farmers do not hold their crop long after threshing. They sell the seed to the local elevator. A few ship direct to the factories. The great bulk of the straw is burned. The grain companies buy flax seed as they do other grain, and sell to the linseed mills according to the standard grade and price. The seed often is transferred directly to the consumer ; at other times it is stored in terminal elevators. The average farm price of flax for the past ten years is $1.094 per bushel. The ten-year average Min- neapolis price is $1.205 per bushel. Market grades of Minnesota commercial flax seed. No. 1 Northwestern.—Shall be mature, sound, dry and sweet. It shall be northern-grown. The maximum field-, stack-, storage- or other damaged seed shall not exceed 12 per cent. The minimum weight shall be fifty-one pounds to the measured bushel of commercially pure flax. No. 1 flax seed.—No. 1 flax seed shall be north- ern-grown, sound, dry and free from mustiness, and carrying not more than 25 per cent of immature or field-, stack-, storage- or other damaged flax seed ; and it must weigh not less than fifty pounds to the measured bushel of commercially pure seed. Rejected flax seed.—Flax seed that is bin-burnt, immature, field-damaged or musty, and yet not to a degree to be unfit for storage, and having a test weight of not less than forty-seven pounds to the bushel of commercially pure seed, shall be rejected. No-grade flax seed.i—Flax seed that is damp, warm, mouldy, very musty, or otherwise unfit for storage, or having a weight of less than forty-seven pounds to the measured bushel of commercially pure seed, shall be no-grade. The above grades represent only one market. The grades for other markets differ somewhat and depend on the location. Literature. Textile Fibers, Maxwell ; Yearbook United States Department Agriculture; Fiber Investigations, Reports, United States Department Agriculture, Martin Dodge; North Dakota and other State Ex- periment Station Bulletins; Minnesota Plant Dis- eases, E. M. Freeman ; Soils and Crops of the Farm, Morrow and Hunt, FORAGE CROPS FORAGE CROPS. Forage is herbage food, whether green or cured. The forage crops are grasses (whether utilized in meadows, pastures or otherwise), all coarse natural grazing crops such as animals are likely to find provided in nature, and miscellaneous roots and vegetative parts grown specifically for feeding purposes. They are distinguished from the threshed grains and all manufactured products. It will be seen at once that there are two cultural groups comprised in the class of forage crops,—the group occupying the land for a series of years (meadows and pastures), and the group comprising the annual-grown or biennial-grown plants (as maize, cowpea, pea, millet, roots). These groups overlap, however, so that no hard and fast line can be drawn between them. The word roughage is applied to the coarser for- age products, as maize, cowpeas, kafir corn ; some- times it is used as equivalent to forage. Fodder is practically equivalent to the word for- age, but is less specific ; it is by some restricted to dried or cured forage. The word is commonly used for the coarser kinds, in distinction from hay. Soiling is the feeding of green harvested forage direct from the field to the animals. The feed is carried to them. This system is distinguished from pasturing. The animals are kept in small enclo- sures or in stalls, and thereby their feed is regu- lated and the crop is not injured by them. The term is probably derived from that use or origin of the verb to soil that indicates to satisfy or to fill. ~ A species of pasturing is sometimes known as soiling. By means of movable fences, the animals are allowed to graze a part of the crop clean, and then to move on at the next feeding to fresh for- aging. This use of the term is allowable, since the object is the same,— to supply the animal with a given amount of succulent food: the ani- mal does the harvesting. This practice may be known as pasture soiling. It would not do to al- low animals to roam at will and to gorge them- selves in such crops as maize, growing grain, heavy alfalfa, clover or cowpeas; consequently the animals are soiled on these crops in one way or another. Silage is green or un- cured forage that is pre- served, or ensiled, in a tight receptacle or silo. Silage is discussed in Vol. III in its feeding rela- tions. Its philosophy is discussed in the present volume under Maize and Silage. There are several special or restricted usages of the term “forage plants” or “forage crops”; but FORAGE CROPS 803 common-language usage must prevail with a word which has so long been general property. In this Cyclopedia, the main forage groups are treated separately, for cultural and other reasons. Some of the leading forage discussions may be found under Grasses, Meadows and Pastures, Le- gumes, Root-Crops, Soiling Crops, Silage. Detailed information on the different kinds of forage crops is given under the names of the crops, in the proper alphabetic order. Some of the leading for- age crops are alfalfa, cabbage, the various cereals, clovers, cowpea, kafir corn, maize or Indian corn, mangels, millet, rape, soybeans, sorghum, vetches. There are very many minor plants that are used for forage in a small way now and then. Such of these plants as give promise of becoming impor- tant or have attracted attention are treated together in this article. Many native plants are foraged by live-stock now and then, but it would be interminable and unprofitable to try to dis- cuss them here. Their names sometimes occur in current agricultural literature. Most of them have been mentioned in one place or another in experi- ment station literature, and they can be traced through The Experiment Station Record. Unless a plant has been prominently mentioned, it is not discussed in this book. Literature The current periodical and bulletin literature on forage crops is very large. Some of the book- writings are as follows: Flint, Grasses and Forage Plants, J. H. Sanders Publishing Company, Chicago; Shaw, Forage Crops, Clovers, Grasses, Soiling Crops and the Silo (four books), Orange Judd Company, New York city; Wallace, Clover Culture, Iowa Yield, twelve tons per acre, New Jersey. Homestead, Des Moines, Iowa; Hunt, Forage and Fiber Crops in America, Orange Judd Company; Beal, The Grasses of North America, two vols., Henry Holt Co.; Spillman, Farm Grasses of the United States, Orange Judd Company, New York ; Myrick, The Book of Corn, Orange Judd Company ; 804 FORAGE CROPS Dreer, Grasses and Clovers; Phares, Farmers’ Book of Grasses; Coburn, Alfalfa; Peer, Soiling Crops and Ensilage, M. F. Mansfield, New York city; Stebler and Schroter, The Best Forage Plants, Lon- don; Voorhees, Forage-Cropping. The Significance of Forage-Cropping. By Charles S. Phelps. The term forage refers to any form of herbage used as food for live-stock. It consists of the leaves and stems of fresh or air-dried plants, together, in some cases, with the attached seeds. It includes err Brn SgeE———v" "a + eg eg A etl ZZ Zane Be Fig. 412. New Jersey. mainly pasturage and soiling crops; hay of the meadow-grasses, legumes, millet, and cereals ; field- cured fodder corn, sorghum, and kafir corn; the stems and leaves of some grain crops after the seeds are removed; silage crops; and root crops. The acreage in forage crops, according to the cen- sus of 1900, exclusive of pasture lands, represents approximately 15 per cent of all improved land, and a little over 21 per cent of the area devoted to all crops, while the percentage of the total value of all crops is 16.6. Forage crops stand second in total acreage and in total value in the list of culti- vated crops, corn being in the lead, while the value per acre is only seventeen cents less than the aver- age for the cereals. , Pasturage was the earliest form of forage used and is still the chief food of live-stock in nearly all countries in the summer season. In earlier times pasture lands were all held and used in common and ouly small fenced areas were devoted to the growing of cultivated crops. As the population in- creased, the proportion of cultivated lands became larger and the proportion devoted to grazing be- came less. This change was necessary in order that the land might furnish support for the increasing inhabitants. In the earliest days of stock-raising, dried fodder was the only feed used in winter in cold climates. Wild grasses were doubtless the first plants dried for winter use. The ease with which these could be air-dried and preserved led to the J FORAGE CROPS selection of the seed of some of the best kinds, and to their being sown on cultivated lands. Little is known as to when the common grasses were first brought into cultivation, or which kinds are the oldest. It is said by one writer that up to 1815 not over three or four species were in cultivation throughout Europe. Clover was introduced into England from Flanders about 1650 and soon took an important place in the agriculture of that country. In the earlier history of this country all cereal grains were needed as food for man, and dried herbage was used exclusively as food for live- stock. Little effort was made to produce milk or to fatten cattle, sheep or swine, except during the summer sea- son. The live-stock was sustained @ through the winter on what was often less than a healthy mainte- nance ration. As the country de- veloped and the proportion of the non-agricultural population grew larger, animal products increased in market value and the winter production of such products be- came profitable. This led not only to the use of grain feeds, but to the production of a better grade of forage. In many parts of this country there are large areas so rough and uneven as to be of little value for any other use than pastures. Even in the newer parts of our country there is a steady decrease in the area devoted to grazing and a steady increase in the area devoted to cereals. In the older European countries the area used exclu- sively for pastures is much less than in the United States. Where land values are high it is a common practice to rotate pasture with cultivated lands, and in this way the pastures are improved and made to support more stock. Areas in use for growing grain are frequently sown to clover or rape in the spring and thus are fitted to supplement the regular pastures late in the season. In many parts of Europe and in some of the more densely populated parts of this country, the summer feeding of green forage crops, or soiling, is replacing pasture feeding. By this plan of feed- ing, more stock can be kept on a given area, the expense for fencing is greatly reduced and the manure can be more completely saved, but the labor involved is somewhat greater. In this country the high price of labor and the large amount of rough, low-priced land will long defer the general adoption of the soiling system. Irregularity in the supply of pasture, however, as a result of periodic droughts, makes advisable the partial substitution of green forage for pasture feeding. Such a plan of feeding is especially suited to high-priced lands, because more stock can be kept per acre than by exclusive pasturing. A large number of crops can be made available for this plan of feeding, and these can be grown so as to furnish valuable feed throughout the summer season. A number of soil- FORAGE CROPS ing crop successions have been published by the experiment stations, those by the New Jersey, Connecticut (Storrs) and the Massachusetts Stations probably being the best. The preservation of herbage in an air-dried state for winter use is a common practice in all countries where snow covers the ground part of the year. In the northern part of the United States, east of the Mississippi, grasses and clovers are more gen- erally grown for hay than any other crops. In the southern belt of states cowpeas, soybeans and Japan and crimson clovers form the chief hay crops, while in parts of the Rocky mountain region and Pacific coast states alfalfa is grown almost exclu- sively as a dry fodder. On many farms where dairy- ing is an important branch of farming the grain crops, cut before the seed is matured, add much to the supply of dry fodder. Some of the annual grasses, such as the millets and Hungarian grass, are grown in most of the states. These prove especially valuable because of the short period needed for their growth and the large yields given by some varieties, especially the Japanese millet. They often prove useful to supplement the regular hay crop during seasons of shortage in that crop. In some of the southern states and in Kansas and Nebraska, sorghum and kafir corn are grown considerably and field-dried as cattle feeds. These crops thrive better in regions of low rainfall than do the common grasses or maize. In the older states of the East, the stover of the corn crop has been carefully saved and utilized for many years, but in the great corn belt, up to within a few years, this part of the crop has been left in the field to be used only for grazing, while much of it was trampled by the cat- tle and thus wasted. As a system of mixed hus- bandry replaced exclusive grain-growing, the value of the stover was more fully appreciated, and the crop is now generally saved and used in feeding. The preservation of forage in the form of silage has given rise to a newer branch of for- age-cropping. It affords a means of preserving coarse, bulky fodders, that can be dried only with difficulty, in a small space, and thus renders them available in a succulent form when green feeds cannot be obtained. While the preservation of fodders in a closed pit was practiced in Germany before 1850, the first experiments with the silo in this country were made in 1875. At first their introduc- tion was slow, but they soon found many advocates, and since 1880 their use has —~ increased rapidly. The chief reason for the general adoption of the silo in the northern belt of states is that corn, a crop well adapted to the climate, is the best one for preserving in the silo, coupled with the fact that silage is a cheap and valuable feed for dairy stock. Silage is not likely to replace dry fodders, yet in all of the older states it has become an important adjunct to the older system of dry feeding, particularly for the dairy. The growing of forage crops lies at the founda- tion of the practice of mixed husbandry. The rearing of live-stock and the marketing of the B 20 FORAGE CROPS 805 greater part of the farm crops in the form of animal products affords greater immediate profit and causes a smaller drain on soil fertility than does the direct sale of farm crops. Except in warm climates, animal husbandry, and especially dairying, can be practiced successfully only where forage is grown and stored for winter use. As the market value of grains becomes higher, owing to the increasing demand for cereal foods by man, forage- cropping is sure to take a more prominent place in animal husbandry, and effort ‘will be made to ‘produce forage of higher food value. The great group of forage crops comprised in the grass family are all deficient in protein, while the plants of the clover family are relatively rich in protein. The tendency of late years has been to grow more forage of the plants of the clover family, and their use for this purpose is likely to increase as grain-feeds become more expensive. Forage-cropping affords opportunity for a more complete system of crop rotation than does grain- farming. On all stock- or dairy -farms a rotation should be arranged so as to include grasses and clovers, the smaller cereals, and corn grown for silage or for grain. A valuable rotation on dairy- farms will be found to be a six-years plan consist- ing of (1) rye sown after grass, with clover as a cover-crop; (2) corn, with a cover-crop of rye or clover ; (8) oats; (4) clover and mixed grasses, to be continued for three years. Where the winters are mild and the ground is free from snow much of the time, there is great waste of fertility unless a winter cover is provided. Forage crops like rye, rape and clover, often can be grown for this purpose, and at the same time furnish valuable pasturage in the fall or spring. The adaptability of the crimson and the Japan clovers to the mild climate of the South makes these crops particularly valuable as cover-crops in that part of the country. Experiments at the Minnesota Experiment Station have shown that continuous grain-growing is very wasteful of soil fertility, not so much because of the large amount of plant-food removed by the crops as because of Fig. 413. Hay-stacking scene in Oregon. the decomposition of the humus and the loss from the surface soil of the soluble constituents. A rotation with cereals and clover was found greatly to reduce the loss from what took place under continuous grain-culture. Most forage crops are also directly less exhaustive of soil fertility than the grain crops, and than many of the truck crops. The grass crop serves, in a measure, as a soil-reno- 806 FORAGE CROPS vator, preventing the loss of humus and of plant- food by keeping the soil covered with a crop throughout the growing season. The turf and fine “aftergrowth” adds much to the fertility of the surface soil, when the meadows are plowed for cultivated crops. The clovers, and other legumes, so extensively grown as forage, take much of their nitrogen from the air and add considerable to the stores already in the soil. As a rule, forage-crop- ping and the feeding of the forage to farm live- stock is therefore a more economical system of farm management than the direct sale of farm crops. Incidental Forage-like Plants. Figs. 414-423, By the Editor, C. F. Wheeler, and others. The main forage crops are treated elsewhere in this Cyclopedia, in their proper alphabetical order. There are many incidental and littl:-grown plants sometimes mentioned in connection with forage and rotation discussions that may be brought together here. Bird’s-foot clover, Bird’s-foot trefoil, Yellow trefoil (Lotus corniculatus). Leguminose. A peren- nial clover-like plant with a long taproot, stems spreading, from a few inches to two feet long, with clusters of five to ten bright yellow flowers on the ends of the stems. It is widely spread in the Old World and naturalized in this country, espe- cially in the South, where cattle and sheep eat it readily. It withstands drought and may be sown in mixtures in dry pastures. It does well on light, sterile soils, and roots deeply. It begins to grow early, and is chiefly valuable as a spring pasture. Broom sedge. A name applied to several spe- cies of Andropogon or Beard-grass, especially to Andropogon Virginicus, which is common in sandy soil from eastern Massachusetts to Virginia, IIli- nois and southward. Stock eat this grass readily when it is young, and it furnishes pasturage during the season. When fields are left without culti- vation for a time, it becomes one of the worst weeds. Buffalo pea. A name given to Astragalus cras- sicarpus (Leguminose), which grows throughout the Mississippi valley. The straggling stems pro- duce many fleshy pods two-thirds of an inch in diam- eter, which are relished by hogs, sheep and cattle. The pods appear early in the spring and reach full size the last of April in southern Texas and by June in North Dakota. Successful attempts to cultivate this plant are not on record. Burnet (Poterium Sanguisorba). A deeply root- ing perennial herb of the rose family about a foot high, with alternate leaves and small flowers in a dense head. It is a native of limestone regions in central and southern Europe and temperate Rus- sian Asia, where it is used for pasture. Early in the last century it was highly recommended in this country for the same purpose, but it is seldom seen in cultivation at present. It is fairly hardy and somewhat drought-resistant in places. It is not very palatable, and is a weak grower. It is adapted FORAGE CROPS to dry, sandy and calcareous soils. It may be sown in April and again in September in mixtures. It is seeded at the rate of thirty pounds to the acre. The leaves are sometimes used in flavoring soups and other dishes. Fig. 414. Chick-pea or Gram (Cicer arietinum). Chick-pea (Cicer arietinum). Leguminose. Fig. 414. Also called Gram, Garbanzo, Idaho pea, Chuna, Bengal grain. A native in Europe, and little cultivated here. It is much grown in south- ern Europe, Asia and Mexico for its seeds, which are used for cattle food and also as human food. It is a branching annual, growing two feet high, as a bushy, hairy plant. Many upright stems rise from the same root. The leaves have several pairs of small, roundish or oblong leaflets; the flowers are white or reddish, small, single and axillary, on short stalks. The seed is roundish, flattened on the sides, with a projection on one side. The plant matures in about ninety days, and yields little green stuff. The herbage contains a poisonous secretion that renders it unfit for stock feed. The seed is sown at the rate of thirty to fifty pounds per acre, depending on whether it is drilled ‘or broadcasted. It is planted late in the spring. There are several varieties, adapted to a wide range of soils; a loam soil is best. It is better adapted to arid and semi-arid regions than to humid. It is very sensitive to cold, and likes plenty of sun during its growing period. It is valuable as a nitrogen-gatherer, and the seeds are useful for horse, cattle, sheep and poultry feeding. Under the name of chuna a variety was introduced in the Southwest to be used as a substitute for coffee. The chick-pea is used as an adulterant of coffee. Chinese yam (Dioscorea glabra). Dioscoreacee. This plant was introduced into this country as a substitute for the potato soon after the rot threat- ened the extermination of the potato. For a while it was cultivated. It forms a long, club-shaped root two to three feet long, being largest at the lower end. The plant is propagated from small FORAGE CROPS bulblets or tubers that are produced in the axils of the leaves, or from cuttings of the upper part of the root. On a rich loamy soil, the yield of these tubers may exceed fifty bushels per acre. Animals are fond of the herbage, and hogs relish the small tubers that lie on the ground uninjured through moderate winters. In France it is sometimes culti- vated by sowing the bulblets broadcast. The roots are extremely brittle, and being largest below they are difficult and expensive to dig. At present it is seldom grown except as an ornamental vine. Chufa (Cyperus esculentus, sometimes known as earth almond). A perennial sedge (family Cyper- acee) that is frequently a noxious weed in low damp places on southern farms. It produces an abundance of small, cylindrical, underground tubers. The tubers or nuts are much relished by hogs. The hogs are generally turned on the field and allowed to harvest the crop. When cultivated, the nut has a fine flavor if properly dried. The crop does best on sandy soil that has been well fertilized. Heavy soils should be avoided. The tubers are planted early in spring, and about two inches deep. The rows are two to four feet apart, and the tubers are set twelve to fifteen inches apart in the row. No cultivation is neces- sary, except that weeds must not be allowed to grow. In October or November the tubers will be ripe, and the hogs may be turned on. The crop is recommended for fattening hogs. Colza. An annual variety of Brassica campestris (the rutabaga species), also called summer rape. It is cultivated especially for oil in Europe. It is unfortunate that in England and many parts of the continent the name coleseed or colza has been applied to rape as a synonymous term. They are perfectly distinct; the seed produce of colza is much greater, though inferior to rape. The Swedish turnip is a cultivated form of this plant, bearing somewhat the relation to the normal form that kohlrabi doe¢ to the cabbage. Elliott’s Sida (Sida Elliottii). Malvacee. A deep- rooting, malvaceous shrubby plant of some value as a dry-land forage. It is rather drought-resistant, but does best on moist land or under irrigation. It — will not stand frost. It is a scant grower, reaching only about one foot in height and bearing little foliage, which is against it. Stock like it, and rab- bits are destructive to it. It matures seed, and has been found to volunteer. It has been tested at the California Station. Fenugreek (Trigonella Fenum-Grecum). Legu- minose. An annual forage and medicinal plant in- troduced from the Mediterranean region. Stems erect, more or less branched, eight to twelve inches or more high; leaves three-foliolate; leaflets smooth, wedge-oblong, obtuse, coarsely toothed above, about one inch long; flowers one or two in the axils of the leaves, sessile or nearly so, yel- lowish ; pod linear, one and one-half to three inches long, more or less curved, veiny, long-beaked. The seeds have aromatic and stimulant qualities, and are used in veterinary medicine and in patent cat- tle feeds. The pods ripen successively from the bottom of the plant to the top; this results in the FORAGE CROPS 307 shattering of the older pods, making it necessary to harvest the plant while many of the pods are still green. The yield of seed is small. Fenugreek is a low grower and cannot be cut to advantage with the mower. It is not a promis- ing crop for soils deficient in lime. It is scarcely worth cultivating for forage, as the yield is small and it is little relished. It endures low temper- atures, but requires an abundance of moisture to make winter growth. In its native home, it is seeded in the spring at the rate of thirteen to six- teen pounds per acre, preferably after rains. Furze (Ulex Europeus). Leguminose. Also called Gorse and Whin. A shrub, native of Great Britain and adjacent parts of Europe, where it is much used as a winter forage, the green sprigs of one year’s growth being eaten. Branches dark green, spiny, usually almost leafless ; flowers yellow, pa- pilionaceous, axillary and often crowded at ends of branches. The plant is propagated by seed at the rate of twenty-five pounds per acre, or by greenwood cut- tings under glass when used as an ornamental. It grows in waste places and rocky hillsides unfavor- able for cultivated crops. It prefers a sandy or gravelly soil and a sunny exposure. The seed comes up sparingly and the plants are usually killed by hot, dry. summers. It may furnish some grazing, but is of little value. [Fig. 2608, Cyclo. Hort.] a, | ¥S Y [VES Ft OTS e Ye fies a A S Fig. 415. Flat pea (Lathyrus sylvestris), Flat pea (Lathyrus sylvestris). Leguminose. Fig. 415. A tall viny plant, native of Europe, intro- duced about twenty years ago under the name of Lathyrus sylvestris, var. Wagneri. Wagner improved the wild plant by cultivation and recommended it as a very promising new forage plant. The Ex- 308 FORAGE CROPS periment Station at Michigan tried the flat pea extensively for ten years, and reached the conclu- sion that it is of little value as a fodder plant or green-manure. In Kansas it was slow to start, but yielded an ex- cellent forage for a long period. It is adapted to soils that will grow alfalfa. It is very resistant to drought and has been recommended for arid regions. It has given fair results in parts of the South, but its real worth has not been established. Hagy or Hagi (Lespedeza bicolor). Leguminose, A perennial forage plant, introduced in recent years from Japan, that has some promise for lands where it is difficult to get a catch of clover, and on light, dry soils. It grows rapidly, sometimes to a height of six feet, and is leafy “and bushy. It is planted in the spring, sprouts readily, flow- ers late in summer and remains green until , killed by hard frost. Its usefulness is limited somewhat by the fact that it becomes woody soon after blooming. It has.small blue flow- ers and produces a heavy crop of seeds. Grown also for ornament. [See Fig. 1268, Cyclopedia of American Horticulture.] Kidney vetch (Anthyllis Vulneraria). Leguminose. Fig. 416. Perennial, with spreading stems to a foot high ; whole plant covered with short silky hairs ; flower-heads in pairs at the ends of the branches ; flowers small, yellow to a deep red. It is found throughout Europe and western Asia, from Kidney vetch (Anthytlis Vul- \ neraria). \ the Mediterranean to the arctic circle. It ees nig Leguminose. A small, spiny grows where soil is poor, in limestone re- pabularia). shrub or tree which is the most gions. It was first cultivated by a German peasant about fifty years ago. It has been reported as of small value wherever tried in the United States. [See Circular No. 6, Revised, page 7, Divi- sion of Agrostology, United States Department of Agriculture. ] Krishum. Under this name the inhabitants of Cashmere cultivate a leafy species of the blue-flag genus for forage (Jris ensata, Thunb., var. pabu- laria, Naudin, or Iris pabularia, Naudin). Figs. 417, 418. Seeds of this plant have been offered for some years by at least one American seedsman, but it does not appear to have attracted much attention. The plant is perfectly hardy and vigor- ous at Ithaca, New York, on poor soil, but it has not been tried for forage, being used as an inter- FORAGE CROPS esting border plant. It makes a profusion of ribbed grass-like leaves nearly or quite a half-inch wide, reaching a height of two to three feet. The leaves are said to afford hay and ‘pasturage. It is a per- ennial, the subterranean parts forming a tough hard growth. The flowers are small, not showy, lilac-blue. Krishum is said to thrive in very dry places. Lentil (Lens esculenta). Leguminose. . Fig. 419. A much-branched, tufted annual, one to one and one-half feet high. The leaves have several _ leaflets and end » inatendril. The flowers are = small, white or “Jo pale blue, axil- lary and borne in pairs. The pods are short and broad, very flat, and contain two flat seeds. The lentil is a very ancient food plant, and ranks among the most nutritious of vegetables for human food. It is used in Europe and somewhat in the United States for fodder, made from the vines. If the plant is cut early intits growth, and is cured properly, it is said to make a very @ palatable stock food, es- pecially for dairy caws. It is of easy culture, re- quiring no special care between seed-time and harvest. The seed may be sown in drills one and one-half to two feet apart, in early spring, preferably on warm, sandy soils of moderate fertility. It is harvested when the stems begin to turn yellow. When the pods are dry the seed may be beaten out with a flail. The plant is hardy and prolific. Mesquit (Prosopis juliflora). common woody plant of the southwestern arid region. It is often found in groves with a short trunk much like an apple tree. It is very valuable as a honey plant, as its period of bloom extends over two months. Its forage value lies in the pulpy edible pods which are six to ten inches long, containing about a dozen hard seeds. The pods are very nutri- tious, and are eaten by natives and travelers as well as by stock. The leaves, pods and bark are rich in tannin. The seeds are said to be next in value to barley for fattening horses, cattle, sheep and hogs. Fig. 418. Tris pabularia seed-pods. FORAGE CROPS Mexican clover (Richardsonia scabra). Rubiacee. Known also as Spanish clover, Florida clover, pigeon weed, ipecac weed, water parsley and others. An annual forage plant, native of Mexico and Central Fig. 419. Lentil (Lens esculenta). America, but naturalized along the gulf coast and occasionally farther north. Stems branching, dif- fuse, two to four feet long, creeping; leaves nu- merous, oval, rough; flowers nearly white, in small heads. In its general habit it resembles red clover. Mexican clover makes its best growth late in the season and comes into cultivated fields after other crops are removed. It demands a sandy soil for its best growth. The yield of hay may exceed two tons per acre, and is commonly mixed with crab-grass. The hay seems to be succulent, nutri- tious and palatable to most stock, though feeders are not agreed as to its value. It is not adapted for pasturage. Its chief value is as a renovator of sandy soils, and as a covering for the ground in late fall and winter, to be plowed under in the spring. i Modiola (Modiola decumbens). ¢ Malvacee. A perennial forage XY plant introduced from Chile into Wellton, California. Its value has not W FORAGE CROPS 809 in value to alfalfa. It has wide adaptability to soils, withstanding alkali, and thriving on either moist or dry lands. It grows readily from either seeds or the nodes on the prostrate stems. Partridge pea, Sensitive pea, Magothy Bay bean (Cassia Chamecrista). Leguminose. Fig. 420. A native stout herb with showy yellow purple- spotted flowers, highly recommended in colonial times in Maryland and Virginia for green-manuring [see page 106]. So far as known to the writers it was not used directly as forage, but only to prepare land for forage and other crops. It is one of the plants called “‘sheep-kill,” said to be very purgative to sheep. The practice was to plant the partridge pea with oats in spring, using about one pint of the seed to one bushel of oats. After the harvesting of the oats, the partridge peas grew to maturity and produced a large crop of seed. The next year this land was put in corn. The cultivation of the corn resulted in destroying large numbers of the seedlings, but a sufficient quantity of them came on after the last cultivation of the corn to produce a satisfactory stand. The opinion was general that, with a rotation of oats or rye and corn, it was very advantageous to grow the partridge peas, especially as having once been seeded they per- sist for many years without re-seeding. To a very slight extent the plant is still used in this way, but owing to the enormous superiority of the cowpea this use has been practically abandoned. (See Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc. II, p. 226 (1798). Magothy bay is in Maryland on Chesapeake bay.] Prickly comfrey (Symphytum asperrimum.) Bor- raginacee. Fig. 421. A perennial forage plant; stem erect, two to four feet; leaves dark rich green, long and narrow, abundant, rough, mucil- aginous ; flowers purple, in nodding, one-sided clus- ters. It has given greatest success in New York, Michigan and Florida, in the latter state on waste lands. It is now rarely grown in this country. It is said to be much grown in Europe. If cut and fed in the green state, the leaves and stalks make valuable forage. Stock must be trained to like it, as it is somewhat unpalatable. It is used for soil- ing, but is not to be pastured and does not make good hay. Prickly comfrey produces an abundance of seeds, but is nearly always propagated by cuttings of the fleshy roots. The planting dis- 0) tance varies from eighteen to q Y WES), g < . Oty. yy; thirty-six inches each way. As Wf GU, Yf f the plants attain a large size, Yi the greater distance is prefera- ble. A light sandy soil is best; several cuttings may be had each ) year. , Russian thistle (Salsola Tra- gus). Chenopodiacee. been fully determined. It is ray ag Fig. 422. Introduced much liked by stock and seems _gagpoy-\ UN Wee from northern Eu- to increase the flow P y Cat’ y YIAGSE. rope into the north- of milk when fed to ae (Ap UN, western United States dairy cows. A few by Russian immi- growers have consid- grants about thirty ered it nearly equal Fig. 420. Partridge pea. An old-time rotation plant. years ago. For a 310 FORAGE CROPS time it was thought that the rapid spread of the pest would render farming impossible west of the Mississippi, but at present it is considered harmless and perhaps of some value as a forage plant when fed early. Fig. 421. Prickly comfrey (Symphytum asperrimum), Sacaline (Polygonum Sachalinense). Polygonacee. A tall bushy perennial (6-12 ft.) forage plant that gives little promise. It does not grow well from seeds, but may be propagated by root-cuttings. The stems are woody when two to three feet high ; leaves broad and heart-shaped. It is not drought- resistant. It met with some success in Florida, where the succulent young stems were relished by stock. It forms a great mass of roots and is tena- cious. Once much advertised as a forage plant. (Fig. 1881, Cyclo. Hort.) Samphire (Salicornia herbacea). Chenopodiaceae. A succulent annual plant with leafless, jointed, branching stems six inches to two feet high. It belongs to the goosefoot or pigweed family. It is abundant along the coast from Anticosti south to Georgia; it is also found in salt marshes in the interior from Manitoba to Utah. It is much relished by cattle. Not in cultivation. Scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius). Leguminosae. A leguminous shrub, with yellow pea-like flowers on nearly leafless green stiff branches, native to Europe. (Fig. 423.) It is naturalized in this country, growing on stony or sterile soils and establishing itself in open woodlands. The slender twigs are used in parts of Europe as a sheep for- FORAGE CROPS age, being said to be more valuable than furze. It appears not to have attracted much attention as a forage plant in North America. As a naturalized plant it occurs mostly from New Jersey, southward in the seaboard region, and it is reported in Massa- chusetts and Nova Scotia; also on Vancouver Island. Shad scale (Atriplex canescens). Chenopodiacee. The most important of the American galtbushes, of which there are about fifty species in the western part of North America. Shad scale is a scurfy, branching, shrubby perennial growing four to ten feet high. The fruit has four broad thin wings looking somewhat like shad scales. It is native of the high valleys and plains of Wyoming, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico and western Texas. The leaves and branches are eaten by cattle. Seeds are produced in great abundance, often a half bushel or more on a single plant. These are readily eaten by sheep and are considered very fattening. In the Southwest shad scale is found on alkaline soils, and even withstands small amounts of the black alkali. Its resistance to cold adds greatly to its value. (See Farmers’ Bulletin, No. 108, U. 8. Department of Agriculture ; also article on Saltbushes.) Square-pod pea (Lotus tetragonolobus). Legumi- nose. A quick-growing annual, native of southern Europe, where it is grown for ornament and for salad. It is notable for its heavy production of root-tubercles, making it a valuable soil-renovator. It makes an unusually heavy growth of herbage, having yielded in test plats at the California Sta- tion, where it was introduced, at the rate of twenty-four to twenty-six tons per acre, equal to about five tons of air-dry hay. The seeds are rather large, and are borne in four-sided, winged pods. It has been disappointing, however, as it is unable to withstand frost and brief intervals of drought in the winter season, rendering it unfit for field growth. Sulla (Hedysarum coronarium). Leguminose. A strongly-rooted, vigorous perennial legume with numerous very succulent radical compound leaves one to six feet high, according to soil and climatic conditions. It is a native of southern Europe. In the dry climate of Algeria in soil not irrigated, sulla was the most satisfactory plant grown for feeding and green-manuring. It failed in North Carolina, and was of no value in Michigan. It grows vigorously in early spring, but is tender, FORAGE CROPS and will not stand frost. It is not recommended except in Florida. There it grows through the winter. [Bulletin No. 22, Division of Agrostology, page 57.] Tarweed (Madia sativa). Composite, A rank- growing annual, native in Chile and California. A variety is said to be a useful plant for sheep pas- tures in dry soil. It is cultivated in the arid South- west and parts of California. In many places it is considered a troublesome weed. In Chile it is grown for the lubricating oil contained in its seeds. The leaves have a viscid ex- udation and the plant has a rank odor. It is spring- sown and grows rapidly after warm weather comes. The seed- heads ripen un- evenly and shat- ter badly. Tagasaste(Cy- tisus proliferus var.albus). Legu- minose. A shrub, native in the Canary islands where it is greatly valued as a forage. It is used there chiefly for cows and is said greatly to increase the flow of milk. On the strength of its reputation there it has been in- troduced into many countries for the same pur- pose. It has been tested at the California Station and elsewhere, with rather unfavorable results. Unless kept down by browsing or grown in dry places, it becomes large and woody, good only for firewood. On drier lands it makes a low, shrubby growth that is browsed by stock when the more succulent grasses disappear. All of the plant is ex- ceedingly leafy. It has been recommended for all stock, but has not yet demonstrated such general usefulness. It is said to be unsuitable for horses except as a dry fodder. It is intolerant to frost. It has been recommended for light, dry soils. A loose, friable soil is an advantage, as the taproot can penetrate to greater depths, enabling it better to withstand drought. The soil should be well drained. In favorable situations it grows luxu- riantly, and is very attractive because of its dark green foliage and profusion of white flowers which are much visited by bees. It is adapted to barren hilly lands, and will endure for twenty years or more. ag Tangier pea (Lathyrus Tingitanus). Leguminose. Fig. 423. Scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius). FORAGE CROPS 311 Tangier Scarlet Pea. A vigorous annual plant, native of Barbary. Stems spreading, winged, gla- brous, three feet long; leaflets linear-lanceolate, obtuse, mucronulate ; stipules lanceolate ; peduncle two-flowered ; flowers dark red-purple ; pod four to five inches long. The seeds may be used for table use and the plant is liked by cattle. It is spring- planted in close drills. It seems to be hardy, and as a native of the Mediterranean region it should be resistant to heat and drought. It was first tried in California in 1889. It is sometimes grown as a flower-garden plant. [See Fig. 1242, Cyclopedia of American Horticulture.] Teff (native name of Eragrostis Abyssinica). An annual grass of northeast Africa, grown for food ; its small grains are made into bread. Two varieties are cultivated, a white and a red variety, the first being much superior to the second. It produces seeds abundantly and may be of use for hay in the southern states. When grown from imported seed, it makes a heavy yield of fine hay, but seed grown in this country has thus far germinated poorly. White mustard (Brassica alba). Crucifere. An erect, much-branched annual, bearing stiff hairs on the stem. The leaves are deeply cut and rough- hairy. The flowers are yellow. The pods are spread- ing, hairy, the lower part thick and few-seeded ; the seeds are large, roundish, pale yellow, and sticky when wet. It is widely scattered, appearing as a weed, but is grown for its seed, as a catch- crop, green-manure and forage. It is a short-season crop and a rank grower, exceedingly rich in nitro- gen, which gives it its value for these purposes. Many attempts have been made to show that it draws on the nitrogen supply of the air in the same way as legumes, but they have failed. Asa catch-crop it is most useful, since it may be sown after many other crops are harvested, or in the last cultivation of tilled crops, as corn, when it will serve the purpose of pasture for sheep or young stock, as a cover to prevent soil-washing in winter, conserve soil nitrogen, and improve the soil as a green-manure when plowed under. There is little difficulty in ridding the land of mustard where it has been grown. It is not much used by cattle, and must be supplemented when used for sheep or young stock. White mustard will thrive on a wide range of soils, but does best on a calcareous loam soil that is well supplied with moisture. It is sown any time after the danger of frost is past in the spring, as it is very susceptible to frost. It may be sown alone for pasture or green-manure, at the rate of six to fifteen pounds of seed per acre, broadcasted. If sown with rape or a like crop, as is recommended to lessen bloating of sheep pastured on the rape, the proportion of mustard to rape should be about one to three. It may be advisable to sow the mus- tard after the rape is started, as it matures more quickly. The stalks quickly become woody, so it is best to pasture the mustard before it blooms; and when it is to be used as a green-manure it should be plowed under before it gets woody. White mus- tard, as also black mustard and charlock, are now common weeds. 312 FORESTS FORESTS. Figs. 424-487. _ If agriculture is the raising of products from the land, then forestry is a part of agriculture. In the past we have considered the forest to be the free and uncontrollable gift of nature, as are the mines, the sea and the air. We have also been obliged, in all the older regions, to destroy the forest to make it possible to practice farming. Unlike the mines and the sea, however, the forest can be renewed. The renewing is a species of crop- ping. This cropping has its own laws and demands its own special practices, but it is cropping, never- theless, — ' Most persons have the tree sense well developed, but do not have the forest sense developed. Ever so many trees may not make a forest. The forest is an organism. One tree has relation to other’ trees, and it thrives or fails to thrive largely be- cause of that relationship. The forest has climate and weather. It has flora and fauna. The forest must be treated as a unit, not merely as a collec- tion of trees, any more than a city is treated as a mere collection of houses. A person may be ever so skilful in growing forest trees and yet know nothing about forestry. A man may be ever so good a builder, but may know nothing about plan- ning, organizing and administering a city. The planting and care of trees is arboriculture. The trees may be pears, oranges, maples or pines. The raising and care of trees in forests is stlvi- culture; this is one part of forestry. Other parts of forestry are forest management, harvesting, marketing. If a forest is a crop, the product must be har- vested. This means that the trees must be cut. The person who merely admires trees, thinks of. them as inviolate. They may be inviolate in the yard or on the roadside, but in the forest they are destined for harvest, as are the stalks in a corn- field. If the crop is to be harvested, provision must be made for raising a new crop. As the natural forests disappear, timber must be raised. Some of it must be raised on ordinary farms. With all the use of cement and iron, the demand for timber is increasing. A forest may be as necessary to a good-sized farm as pastures are. The farm forest, therefore, becomes one factor in the general scheme of farm management,—as consciously part of it as the orchard, or the cereal lands, or the live-stock. If one is to understand what forestry is, he must get it out of his head that natural forests are necessarily perfect forests. From the standpoint of products, man can grow a much better forest than the major part of the natural forests. The natural forests are likely to be as weedy as ne- glected corn-fields, with whole acres that have a good tree only here and there, and great ranges of trees that are contending with most adverse con- ditions. In all the old eastern states, the woodlot is an almost constant part of the farms. It is a ready source of home supplies. In the last census year New York furnished more than seven and one-half millions of dollars’ worth of farm forest products FORESTS (probably one-third of the state is in woodland), leading all the states and being closely seconded only by Michigan. Probably every one of these farm woodlots can be improved more markedly than can the orchards on the same farms. The novelty of systematized ideas about forest- cropping is indicated by the newness of the word forestry itself. The first lexicon definition of for- estry in this country seems to have appeared in Webster’s Dictionary in 1880. Even in 1895 the Standard Dictionary defined it as a word of very limited usage. At the present day it is misunder- stood by the greater part of the persons who use _ it: most of them think it means merely tree-plant- ing, even shade-tree planting; others think it means the cutting or lumbering of the native for- ests. It isnot the purpose of the Editor to attempt a definition here—what has just preceded may give a hint, and what is to come will explain some of the field; —but it may be said that it has to do both with the making of new forests and with the utili- zation of the old ones. A modern cyclopedia of agriculture would be greatly deficient if it omitted a rather full discussion of the subject of farm forests. While forestry is an agricultural subject, it is also a public policy subject, a fact that is expressed in the German custom of associating forestry instruction with the schools or departments of economics. Forests are concerned with the public welfare in the maintenance of water-courses, regu- lation of floods, and modification of wind _ and weather ; and they afford a means of utilizing pub- lic and communal lands and of providing public supplies. In other countries, whole towns or com- munities own forests in common. There are regions in this country in which it would undoubtedly pay the town, county or state to purchase lands for the purpose of setting them aside as long-time invest- ments in timber-growing. Under wise management, a town forest might go a long way toward pay- ing town expenses, at the same time that it pro- tected the streams, held back the rainfall, afforded labor in the winter, encouraged thrift in the in- habitants and contributed to the attractiveness and wholesomeness of the region. A man might do far worse than to bequeath a forest to maintain a school (at the same time that it kept the children close to nature and to home), or to aid a charity, or to provide for dependents. The United States and Canadian governments are fully alive to the public policy aspects of forestry questions, as is evidenced by their growing forest services, a sub- ject that will be considered briefly again in Volume IV of this work. There is still another aspect of the forest that must not be overlooked. It is essentially native, natural and wild. It maintains an area of abun- dant and free life in the midst of a civilization that razes and levels the surface of the earth. It is part of the real out-of-doors, comparable with the mountains and the sea. No child should be for- bidden the influence of a forest ; and no nation can afford to lose the forest if it hopes to foster free- dom and inspiration. IMB NCSI mm i Harts | ecm sprint wishes 0a AI Pa nD tir PLLC 1 ones FORESTS Farm Woodlot : Its Place in the Farm Economy. By B. E. Fernow. When the first settlers in the northeastern Uni- ted States hewed their farms out of the forest, turning into pasture and field the larger part of their holdings, they left parts uncut for their domestic wood-supply,—the farm woodlot. This was to furnish fence-posts and rails, repair wood for buildings and implements, and, above all, fuel. It was natural to clear the better land first and to leave for the woodlot the poorer parts; and this is proper. Unsuitableness of the ground for farm use and inconvenience of location were probably the main or only considerations by which the woodlot was reserved. It is not likely that the idea of a timber crop, which could be reaped and re-grown at will, like other farm crops, had been present either tn locating or in using the crop. It was con- sidered 1nerely a storehouse of material from which the farmer might draw at any time to supply his needs. 1f the intention had been to make it serve its purpose continuously, it was certainly, in most cases, treated most improperly,—culled and cut without any regard to reproduction. Instead of using first the dead and dying, the crooked and inferior trees, the limbs and leavings, for fire-wood, and thus improving the condition of the remaining growth, body-wood of the best trees was considered. none too good for the stove, and the best trees of the best kind were chosen for posts, fence-rails and other inferior uses. As a consequence of this culling system, which left only undesirable kinds and trees,—the weeds among tree-growth,—many woodlots have become well-nigh useless, mere weed patches. Many have ceased to supply even the domestic fire-wood. The soil, which -was of little use for anything but a timber crop, is rendered still less useful under this SS Se ey S SSS SS Se : Fig. 424. A typical Vermont woodlot (sugar-bush) showing the rocky ground better adapted to forest growth than to agriculture. SS] = — treatment. In addition, the compacting of the soil by the constant running of cattle makes the start- ing of a crop of seedlings nearly impossible. It would not pay to turn it into field or pasture ; the farm has by so much lost in value, simply because FORESTS 3138 the woodlot was worked like a mine instead of like acrop. If, after cutting the original, growth, a new crop sprang up, this was merely an accident or natural sequence, not a result secured by a deliber- ate effort or premeditated plan, except in sporadic WN "i \ impossible. Absolute forest land. cases. In the deciduous forest, composed of broad- leaf trees, the sprouting capacity of the stumps was responsible for re-growth, and many woodlots became sprout-lands, which were cut over and over again, also without any care for the stocks, and by this neglect and the browsing of cattle became poorer and poorer. In this way, notably in the southern New England states and Atlantic coast sections, a regular system of coppice, as this kind of sprout-forest is technically called, being cut over every twenty to thirty years, established itself. There are cases on record, however, and probably many cases have remained unrecorded, in which farmers in the East have deliberately sown or planted pine and other trees for a timber crop. Again, abandoned fields and pastures have been seeded to pine and other kinds of trees by natural processes, increasing the woodlot area. Undoubt- edly, there have also been sporadic efforts to im- prove the resulting timber crop by thinning, and other practices of conservative treatment have existed here and there; but until very lately such efforts have been extremely rare. In many of the southern states, the proportion of woodland to field in farmers’ hands is still such that the woodlot forms the larger part, and the farmed area is shifted by making new clearings, the exhausted farm land relapsing into woodland. Similar conditions are also still prevalent in the western forested sections. When the forestless prairies and plains were being taken up for farm use, and it became neces- sary or desirable to plant trees, it was not only or not so much the question of wood-supplies as cli- matic amelioration that was looked for in the wood- lot, and here, therefore, the location was considered with reference to its function as a wind-break ; the plantings were made around the house and farm- buildings, or on the windward side of the orchard, or in shelter-belts alongside of fields. 314 FORESTS Within the last ten or fifteen years, since not only the stores of the farm woodlots, but the for- est resources of the country in general, have begun to show signs of exhaustion, there has been more attention paid to the woodlots, and the propriety of treating them as crops rather than as storehouses or mines, has been frequently discussed. Besides, their value to the farm, aside from furnishing the domestic supply of wood, is also more fully recog- nized. In this connection it may be proper to point out that wood prices have risen in the past, and will rise still more rapidly in the future, and hence the neglected woodlot may become a more important Fig. 426. Steep rocky slope supporting forest growth, but unfit for agriculture. Absolute forest land. rent-producer, if properly used, than could have been supposed a short time ago. This rise in prices, to be sure, affects mainly the better kinds and cuts. In some regions, as in Massachusetts, where the good timber is cut out and poor fuel-wood is plen- tiful, there is naturally no such rise noticeable,— a good inducement to pay attention to the woodlot and to improve the character of its product. One point that the average farmer raises against timber-cropping is that it takes time to grow wood, and one must wait twenty, thirty, forty or more years before one can harvest. This is true. Never- theless, we insist that it is good policy to bestow the patience required, considering that this crop is frequently growing on soil otherwise useless; that each year it grows nearer to a realizing value, and hence increases the value of the farm, even though it may not admit of harvest,—and all this without, any expense, or, at most, very little. FORESTS Moreover, with a woodlot already in existence, the time at which the results of improvement in the methods of its treatment are reaped are by no means so distant. The response in increased incre- ment will be soon experienced; with little expendi- ture, the rate of growth may be doubled and the result reaped within five or six years. This is one of the places where, again and again, mere care in the use has produced astonishing results. On a well-regulated farm of 160 acres, at least forty to fifty acres could be advantageously kept under wood, even if only the home consumption is to be satisfactorily supplied by the annual growth, and the waste land to be made productive. Importance of the woodlot. As to the importance of the woodlots and their value to the nation as wood-producers, we can gain an idea from the Census statistics. For the year 1900 the Census shows that over $100,000,000° worth of wood was cut on farmers’ woodlots, and that in round numbers about one-third of the area held in farmers’ hands is under wood, or waste fit only for wood production, namely, about two hun- - dred and eighty million acres. The value of the woodlot to the farmer we may place in four categories : (1) As a@ wood-supply,—In many cases, the obvious value which lies in the supply of wood materials may be the least important one, and, if there were no other advantages to be derived, the farmer might very well dispense with it. The de- velopment of means of transportation and improve- ment of roads have made coal accessible to many farmers, so that the fuel-supply, to these at least, is not now so important a question as it once was. Again, wire fences are better and often cheaper than the wooden fences. The wood trade in many regions is so well developed that the farmer can buy wood-supplies of any description from the lumber-yard. But, aside from the fact that these new ways require expenditures of ready cash, the length of haulage and the consequent waste of time and energy often make it economy to rely on home supplies. There come times, also, as in continued snow-blockades or during coal strikes, when in- dependence from such market supplies is appre- ciated; many farming communities deficient in woodlots have suffered fuel-famines which set them a-thinking about their waste places that might have furnished the needed fuel. Yet we must admit that, with the exception of such rare occasions, the wood-supply question frequently may not of itself be a sufficient reason for maintaining woodlots, (2) As a poor-land crop.— The greatest value of the woodlot is that it is capable of producing more returns from certain parts of the farm than any other crop, from those parts which are not fit for farm use because of soil conditions or topography. We have heard a great deal about unprofitable farming. We feel sure that, in many cases, lack of proper adaptation of crop to soils and lack of con- sideration for the small matters, neglect of the FORESTS apparently unimportant corners of the farm, may account for it. There are on most farms soils that are fit only for timber crops; there are also every- where conditions of farm soils and of markets which make it doubtful whether farming the soil pays ; others, where pasturing is the only profitable use of the ground; and, again, others where, although farm crops might still be raised, timber cropping alone is advisable. A German authority on farming matters some years ago made an extensive investigation to find out when, under the conditions prevailing in his country, it was more profitable to abandon farming and to plant to forest. He found that on land fit only for oats and rye, which does not give a net yield of more than eighty cents per acre, or on wheat soil of more than one dollar and eighty cents per acre, it would pay better to plant to forest, pine in the first case and spruce in the second case, provided the owner could wait forty or fifty years for the return. According to various circumstances, the financial result from wood-cropping would then be 15 to 60 per cent higher than the accumulated farm returns, with wood at three to seven cents per cubic foot, and an annual production of sixty to seventy cubic feet per acre, say two-thirds of a cord. Although we cite this calculation from a foreign country, where entirely different conditions of market exist, merely to make it clear that such matters are capable of calculation, yet the figuring may not vary so very much in this country with spruce wood worth now four cents or more, and pine in places bringing twelve to sixteen cents per cubic foot. (8) Utilizing of labor — A value not to be under- estimated lies in the fact that the work in the woods can be performed at the season when other work is slack. This factor is discussed at length in the succeeding article. (4) In its influence on its environment.— Lastly, we should mention the influence of the woodlot on Fig. 427. Desert where yuccas still maintain themselves, but farm crops fail entirely. (Figs. 424 to 428 are from photo- graphs loaned by the Forest Service.) the climatic, soil and water conditions of the farm, wherein in some situations may lie its greatest value: not only on the wind-swept prairie farms, but in the eastern and southern sections of the country as well. We are not inclined to overesti- mate these influences. But we do know that springs FORESTS 315 have run dry when the shading wood was cut off and were replenished when forest conditions were reéstablished. Not everywhere and under all cir- cumstances will this be experienced, for there are other influences at work which give rise to springs and which may be so po- tent that the forest influ- ence becomes negligible. Yet the fact that in gen- eral on moun- tain slopes a forest cover is influential in producing equable water conditions, that it pre- vents erosion and washing of the soil, is not doubted by any one who has studied the history of the results of defor- estation in France, where thousands of farmers became homeless by the terrible work of the tor- rential mountain streams and where, by reforest- ing, favorable conditions have been reéstablished. In our southern states, especially where the com- pact soils are liable to gullying, the proper location of woodlots, together with proper methods of culti- vation, will reduce this danger. The philosophy of this forest influence lies in the fact that a forest cover changes surface drain- age into sub-drainage, checking the rush of water over the ground by the litter, brush and tree trunks, and thus giving time for it to penetrate the soil and to drain off slowly. Generally speaking, larger amounts of water penetrate the soil and are stored under forest growth, which prevents rapid evaporation. Later it becomes available by sub- drainage, feeding the springs and other subsoil waters, and thus ultimately becoming a benefit to neighboring fields. This action presupposes that the effective forest floor of mulch and litter and shrubs has not been destroyed by fire or by over- pasturing and tramping by cattle. The farmer in the West has learned by experi- ence the benefit of the windbreak, and orchardists have long known its value ; but that crops in fields protected by timber-belts yield better than in unprotected fields, and especially that winter frosts are prevented by such protection, is not fully realized by farmers. By preventing deep freezing of the soil the winter cold is not so much prolonged, and the frequent fogs and mists that hover near forest growths prevent many frosts. That stock will thrive better where it can find protection from the cold blasts of winter and the heat of the sun in summer, is another fact which gives value to the woodlot where stock is kept out. Experiments have shown that every foot in height of a forest growth will protect one rod in distance, and a series of small timber-belts would produce most favorable farm conditions. trees, enabling them to grow on soils and situations unsuitable to farm crops. 316 FORESTS This windbreak benefit, as well as that of regu- lating water and soil conditions, is secured by proper location of forest areas. While, therefore, in the first place, soils and situations unfit for farm purposes are to be selected for the woodlot, to secure its bene- ficial influences may make other disposition desirable. Factors in woodlot management. Choice of species.— While we Fig. 429. = speak of a timber crop as one, American larch (Larit there is quite as much variety Americana). i as z possible in timber crops as in farm crops. Not only are there many different kinds of wood, each possessing distinct qualities and fit for distinct employment, but there are dif- mod} ferences of treatment which pro- : duce differences of result..There are the conifers,—pines, spruces, hemlocks, firs, larch, cedar and the like,—which furnish building ma- Fig. 430. terials and grow from seed only Arborvite (Thuya (with few exceptions), requiring a occidentalis). long time to make suitable size for the purpose for which they are best fitted; and there are the broad-leaf trees of great variety, hard and soft woods, fit for a variety of purposes, g« and often becoming available for use sooner than the con- ifers, capable of reproduction by sprouting from the stump (coppice) as well as by seed. Whether it be in the man- agement of an established woodlot or the starting of a Fig. 431. new plantation, a choice of Bald cypress (Taxodium species and method of treat- distichum). ment must be made from the first, with the object clearly in view that the crop is to serve. Limitations as to output.—We have started to . consider the woodlot as destined, in the ‘first place, to supply domes- tic needs of fuel and small-dimen- sion material; but the question may arise whether it could not be managed with a view to supplying the general market. By general market we mean the requirements of sawmills and lumber - yards. r Excepting special cases, the far- mers’ woodlot is not well fitted for the practice of commercial forestry,—the growing of timber for the general market. The reasons for this inapti- tude are partly economic, partly So ZX based on the natural history of a forest-growth, and on silvicultural Fig. 432. Black walnut (Juglans nigra). peculiarities. ‘Wood is a crop which, unlike other farm crops, does not have a , physical maturity indicating the harvest time. This time is a ques- tion of decision by the harvester, based on financial considerations, Fig. 433. Butternut (Jug- lans cinerea). FORESTS or on considerations of size. Size is ultimately the basis of financial considerations also, for with increasing size the usefulness and value of the tree increases ; and size is, of course, a question of time. Therefore, by the accretion in diameter and height, the timber crop not only grows in volume annually, but in value also. Practically valueless until, say ten years, it then may begin to be fit for hop-poles, hoop-poles, bean-poles and the like; at twenty years, not only a larger amount of good fuel wood, but posts and fence-rails may be cut; at thirty years, in addition, telegraph poles and railroad ties and perhaps some other small-dimension material may be secured ; but to grow logs for mill use we should have to waif twice that time. It would be rare to get satisfactory log sizes before sixty to seventy years, for the sawing of logs of small dimension is wasteful and unprofitable; for ex- ample, the loss in slabs and saw-kerf with logs twelve inches in diameter, under best practice is still over 30 per cent, and of logs eight inches in diameter may be over 60 per cent. And since with. most species, on the poorer soils which are to be devoted to the timber crop, even these sizes are not plentiful, though the crop is well tended, the long-time element involved would, in most cases, deter the farmer from engaging in growing saw- timber. There are also reasons against such a proposi- tion, which lie in the nature of forest development and the limitations of the woodlot. If size of the tree is of importance in determining its value and harvest time, size of the area on which forestry is to be practiced is of importance in determining the purpose and method of management. The limited size of the woodlot, say fifty acres at most, if a continuous business with annual harvests of sixty- year-old timber were contemplated, would make the annual harvest so small as to appear impracti- cable except under special conditions, while an intermittent management, under which larger areas or quantities from period to period are har- vested, may find equal objection because of the requirement of the sawmills for assured amounts of annual supply. The growing of log timber in the woodlot, therefore, in most cases will’ be found impracticable as a business proposition. In addi- tion, the usually isolated position of the wood-lot in small patches is inimical to timber-growing. Exposed on all sides to the drying winds, the soil under the older trees standing more open is likely to deteriorate, and not only thereby is the incre- ment on the standing timber reduced, but natural regeneration is impeded, and other silvicultural practices are rendered more difficult, unless special pains are taken to preserve a “wind mantle” on the outskirts. Altogether, it will be found in most places impracticable to devote the woodlot to any other purpose than the production of home supplies of fuel and small-dimension material. Cooperative management.—The difficulties men- tioned, however, could be overcome and the far- mers’ woodlands profitably devoted to log-timber production, if they were located together and man- aged codperatively under one plan. Such codpera- FORESTS tive management by farmers exists in Europe; it has the same advantages as any trust organization, and makes possible the conduct of forest-cropping in a business-like way under business conditions, and under direction of a competent manager. This would be impracticable for the individual owner. Distinction between field and forest crops—While the farmer is the cultivator of the soil and has this general calling in common with the forester, and hence may properly learn to manage his forest crop, he must realize that the farm crop and the forest crop have, after all, not very much in com- mon, and he must appreciate the difference between the two, if he is to make a success of his woodlot management. We have seen that, from the business point of view, the long time of development and the absence of a definite maturity indicating harvest time make an essential difference between field crops and forest crops. When to cut the timber crop is a matter of judgment and calculation, based on measurement. There are in every vocation of life those who conduct their business indifferently by the “hit or miss” method, without measuring or figuring; but, even if farming could be conducted by such a method, for a mistake in one year can be corrected the next, it is most detrimental in forest- cropping. Mistakes often show themselves here only after many years, and can be corrected only once in a lifetime. Much more deliberation is advisable, and measuring and figuring are indispensable, if business success is desired in forest management. Not less striking is the difference in the natural history of the two crops and, in consequence, of their treatment. This difference lies essentially in three directions: (1) the forest crop makes different demands for its development from the field crops ; (2) is not necessarily reproduced by cutting and replanting, as is usual with farm crops, although this may be done; and (3) its development cannot be influenced to any extent as in farm crops, by the methods of fertilizing and cultivating the soil with which the farmer is familiar. By the mere mode of harvesting the old crop, the new crop can be produced, and almost alone by the use of the axe can its development be accelerated. The most important condition which in these operations needs consideration is the light which is at the disposal of the different components of the crop. The timber crop, as a rule, is not of one kind, but of different species in mixture which grow at different rates and make different demands for light; or, at least, it is of different-sized trees, and the question arises which of them to favor with additional light by removal of their neighbors. We see, then, that while the forest crop, like the wheat crop, consists of masses of the crop plant, unlike the wheat crop the single individual in the forest crop requires attention. It is the manipulation of light conditions, also, that provides a desirable seed-bed, secures plentiful seed production, gives a satisfactory start, and influences the progress of the young crop. The forest crop makes very little demand on the elements of plant-food in the soil, getting its carbon [standards] which are FORESTS 817 from the air and drawing on the soil chiefly for water. [This question is discussed in detail in the succeeding article.] Again, the farm crop is dependent on the weather, success or failure being a matter of the seasons of each year, and the opera- tions of sowing, culti- vating and harvest- ing requiring prompt attention. The forest _ Fig. 434. ; crop, although also Mountain ot ee Ameri. dependent on the sea- son, is never an entire failure, and, consisting of the accumulations of annual increments, averages up the good and the bad seasons in its final harvest. There is also a greater lati- tude as to the time when op- erations in the forest crop may be performed. A few years’ difference in making the desirable improvement cuttings does not entail , heavy loss, and only when \ attention is required by the young crop may a few weeks or months of delay be detri- mental. The harvesting may usually be done when con- venient. Finally, in the woodlot managed under coppice or under coppice with standards (that is, a coppice- growth with a short rotation, with occasional trees White ash (Frazxinus Americana). given a longer rotation), which are the most suit- ‘ able systems for a far- mer’s use, only a little knowledge and skill are required to make a success. As has been pointed out, a simple, judicious work- ing plan, laid out once for all, is desirable with a crop which takes such a long time to mature, while in the farm crops changes from year to year may be desirable. Forest distribution in the United States. We may anticipate a very different attitude of farmers to their woodlots and a very different treat- ment in the different sections ‘% rn of the country by virtue of KER the difference in forest con- ditions, as well as in market conditions. From these points of view we can divide the country variously into regions. Botanically speaking, it has been customary to divide the country from east to west into three great regions: (1) Atlantic forest region, Fig. 436. Hop hornbeam or ironwood (Ostrya Virginica). Beech( Fagus ferruginea, or F, Americana). 318 FORESTS bounded by the Mississippi basin on the west and reaching south into Texas, once a large hard-wood forest, often mixed with conifers which also some- times occupy extensive areas by themselves. (2) The Pacific forest region on the western moun- tains, composed almost exclusively of coniferous growth, and (8) the prai- ries and plains region, be- tween the first and second Fig. 438. ‘ ‘ : Black locust (Robinia TeSiOns, bearing only scat Pseudacacia). tered tree growth, mainly along the water courses. If we add climatic and economic considerations, many more subdivisions may be made, and certainly not less than a dozen would fairly represent the different conditions. Maine, perhaps the best wooded state in the coun- try, is still so much in the woods that it stands by itself; but, taking the en- tire New England states as a group, we find that they are still one-half in woodland, and, according to the nature of the topog- raphy and soil, must re- main so for many years. This is also the most densely populated section of the country, and the farmer’s woodlot, which is usually within easy reach of a market, should occupy an important position and would pay well if properly “ cared for, and if not merely abandoned to eke out an exist- ence. Coppice-growth and Fig. 439. Honey locust (Gleditschia triacanthos). f . white pine groves on abandoned $e pastures and fields are the z characteristic features of the woodlot area. Not very different are the q y a ‘ Fig. 440. conditions in the Middle Atlan- Basswood (Tilia — tic states, except that a much Americana). larger area is and can be under cultivation, more than one-half being now under farm. Hard-woods, especially chestnut and oak, are in preponderance. The easy reproduction of the white pine, which is a striking feature on New : > England farms, is not seen here. The Southern Atlantic states exhibit at least three different topographic regions: the coast | region of sandy lowlands and swamps, in which coniferous growth prevails; the foothill region of mixed growth ; and the mountain region in which hard- woods are most prominent. These states are still almost as exten- sively wooded or else as unfit for agricultural use as Maine, but have only one-third the popula- Fig. 441. Western catalpa (Oatalpa speciosa). FORESTS tion per square mile of the first two divisions, hence, the woodlot question is probably rarely raised. Abandoned or neglected fields grow up so readily to wood that the forest constantly threat- ens to regain its empire. Much the same conditions prevail in the Gulf states, except that here the lower half is mostly an extended, sandy, pine forest, the northern uplands having hard-wood with pine intermixed. Hardly 20 per cent is cultivated, and the popula- tion is still very much less than in the Southern Atlantic states. The central southern states, north of this group, are much better developed, with over 35 per cent under farm and a population as dense as in the southern Atlantic states. The forest is mainly hard-wood and is densest in the eastern mountain region. The largest farm area is found in the three states, Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, with over 70 per cent of the land improved and a population which rivals in density the New England ‘states. Here is another region in which proper management of the woodlot would unquestionably pay, since scarcely over 12 per cent is in forest, and the waste land scarcely 18 per cent, most of which could probably also be utilized for timber crops. These states are almost devoid of coniferous growth. The lake states, which have supplied the bulk of our lumber consumption for so many years, are being rapidly exhausted of their coniferous growth, although the extensive hard-wood areas will still hold out for a generation. The southern parts are sufficiently densely populated to make attention to farm forestry worthy of consideration. Placing in one division, although climatic and economic conditions are variable within it, the great and practically forestless interior area of approximately one million five hundred thousand square miles, we have that part of the country in which timber-planting has been long practiced, where climatic amelioration is the main function of the woodlots, and where there is endless oppor- tunity for further extension and more rational management. The Rocky mountain region is relatively scantily wooded with short coniferous growth, improving to the northward. Farmers and miners will some day bemoan the destruction by fire which has so uselessly wasted thousands of square miles.” The mountain regions of the Pacific coast states are still so densely wooded with magnificent conif- erous growth, that the practice of farm forestry probably could not find lodgment even in the agricultural valleys adjoining. But in southern California there are forestless regions where the woodlot, planted eucalyptus groves, has already earned its well-appreciated position. Forests of Canada. The forest area of Canada, including the wood- lands of the northern territories and of the pra‘ries, is estimated at approximately 1,250,000 square miles, but the area in strictly commercially valu- able wood probably does not now exceed 500,000 FORESTS square miles, nearly half of which is in British Columbia. Commercial timber is now, and will con- tinue to be, secured from the forests of the old eastern provinces and British Columbia,the remain- ing territory being either forestless or depleted of its valuable timber. Some twenty-five millions of acres have been cut out in the settlement of the country for farm purposes. The composition in general is the same as that of the northern forest in the United States : hard- woods (birch, maple and elm prevailing) with conifers mixed, the latter, especially spruce, be- coming pure occasionally. The nearly pure hard- wood forest of the southern Ontario peninsula has been supplanted almost entirely by farms, and here, even for domestic fuel, coal, imported from the United States, is used. Although white pine, the most important staple, is found in all parts of this forest region, the best and largest supplies are now confined to the region north of Georgian bay. Unopened spruce- and fir-lands still abound, especially in Quebec on the Gaspé peninsula. Spruce forms also the largest share in the composition of - the New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Newfound- land forest, the pine in the first two provinces having practically been cut out. Extensive, almost pure balsam-fir forest, fit for pulp wood, still covers the plateau of Cape Breton, while Prince Edward island is to the extent of 60 per cent cleared for agricultural use. Much of this eastern forest area is not only culled of its best timber, but burnt over, and thereby deteriorated in its composition. North of the Height of Land (a plateau with low hills, which cuts off the Atlantic region from the northern country, and marks the northern limit of commercial forest) in Ungava and west- ward, spruce continues to timber line, but, outside of narrow belts following the river valleys, only in open stand, branchy and stunted, hardly fit even for pulp, for the most part intermixed with birch and aspen. This open spruce forest continues more or less to the northern tundra and across the continent to within a few miles of the mouth of the Mackenzie river and the Arctic ocean, the white spruce being the most northern species. In the interior northern prairie belt groves of aspen, dense and well developed, skirt the water-courses and form an important wood-supply. Thé forests of British Columbia partake of the character of the Pacific forest of the United States, the Coast Range with conifers of magnificent devel- opment, including Douglas fir, giant arborvite, western hemlock, bull-pine and a few others, the Rocky mountain range also of coniferous growth, but of inferior character, large areas being covered with Alpine fir and lodge-pole pine, important as soil cover and for local use in the mining districts, but lacking in commercial value. For farm forestry, the southern part of Ontario offers the most promising field, for probably 50 per cent of the farm area would be better under wood. Beginnings of forest planting and woodlot manage- ment have been made here within the last few years with the aid of the Agricultural College at Guelph. FORESTS 319 Factors in Timber Production. Figs. 424-428, By Raphael Zon. Although the growing of wood, inasmuch as it must make use of the soil, is a part of agricultural production, yet it hag many dis- p tinctive features which justify discussing it independently. A clear understanding of the way in which wood crops grow, and of the factors involved in their production, is essential to an in- telligent treatment of the far- Fig. 442. mer’s woodlot. White oak (ueree alba). Three factors are invariably present in the production of all raw materials,— nature, labor, capital; and it is the way in which these factors are combined in the production of timber crops that distinguishes the latter from all other agricultural crops. $i, While these factors have been brought out in the pre- ceding article, it is impor- tant that we here emphasize certain features, that we may more clearly compre- hend their relation to forest production, and hence to Red oak (Quercus rubra). the adaptation of the woodlot to the farm scheme. Nature. In no other agricultural crop does nature play so prominent a part as in the £ production of wood crops. In / raising field crops the farmer _/ 4 deals, as a rule, with annual - plants, tender and highly plas- tic, which have had their original characteristics radi- cally changed in accordance with the needs and wishes of man. In the production of timber, one deals with Fig. 444. tree-species, perennial, gg /gyZ “auetoak wild plants, yielding with ZW " eoceinea). difficulty to human influ- SPs = ence. The long period, often more than a lifetime, required by trees to grow from seed to maturity, prevents man from leaving his impress on them ; while the short cycle of development of agricul- tural plants offers opportunity, year after year, to mould and adapt them to the conditions desired. This explains, to a large ‘extent, why our farm crops are now being widely yu, grown in climates very differ- =2ii ent from those of their original home, while only compara- tively few tree-species have been extended beyond the lim- its of their native region. By proper planting or timely thin- ning, to be sure, one can stim- ulate the growth of trees in Shagbark hickory (Hicoria ovata). 320 FORESTS height or thickness, produce clear boles, or even improve the quality of their wood; but the power of influencing the inherent character of the species by breeding forms adapted to new climatic or soil conditions is very limited. During the long time required for the ripening of timber crops, man must practically remain a passive observer, leaving na- ture to do all the work of growing the wood. Tim- ber crops must be con- sidered, therefore, largely the work of natural FORESTS amount of mineral substances required by a field of wheat of the same area. Roughly speaking, the amount, of mineral substances required by forest growth is about one-half of what is needed by agri- cultural crops, as may be inferred from the follow- ing comparative analyses of the ashes of forest and agricultural products, made by Ebermayer (Physiolo- gische Chemie der Pflanzen, 1882: Vol. I, page 761): AMOUNT OF MINERAL SUBSTANCES CONSUMED BY AGRICULTURAL AND Forest CROPS Per AcRE PER YAR. forces; at least, our ‘i ‘s gale American forests, with Mixed neon ot tacebt, ta Hate aa eee arcu) wood | (0) Wood | fr 'anral mab eee more ih paves only Z stances i a mulated by nature with- * i Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. out the assistance of man. gui. «g, O82 $%-e4 ae 37 29 1.6 z Although so essentially potash (K,0) 11 11... 78 li 4 3 the product of the free Lime (Ca0).........- 43 62 9 a forces of nature, the for- Magnesia(MgO)....... 17 10 2 4 est claims from nature Phosphoric anhydrid (P2Os) . . 28 8 14 7 much less than agricul- Sulfuric anhydrid (S03)... . 11 3 0.4 3 tural plants (the demands Other constituents... .. . 21 3 0.6 7 which plant-life makes on Total amount ...... 235 126 19 4 nature are the require- i ments of climate, soil and topography). In the North and in the mountains, the forest extends beyond the range of the hardiest 7 cultivated plants, where, i) Me together with pasture and i) 24 meadow, it is the only pos- 5 sible means of utilizing the soil. Forest trees, as a rule, are far less sensitive to unfavorable climatic condi- tions than most agricul- tural plants. A prolonged drought that proves ruinous to farm crops is often not felt at all by forest trees, which depend for their . water-supply on the deeper layers of the soil. The forest, although it thrives best on gocd soils, will grow also on soils lacking the chemical and physical properties necessary for the support of agricultural crops. This is demonstrated by the mag- nificent pine forests which grow on dry, sandy soils,and the good growth of arborvite or balsam fir in swamps. The ability of forest trees to grow on poor soil is doubt- less due partly to their roots, which penetrate deep into the ground and spread over large areas searching for water and food ; but it is due mainly to their slight demand on the nutritive substances of the soil, especially . the minerals. Beech, for example, Fig. 446. Tulip tree (Liriodendron Tulipifera). Fig. 447. American Elm cana). Chestent (Octanea needs annually but one-third, and dentata). the pine but one-sixth of the Especially significant is the relation of wood and farm crops to nitrogen, the most indispensable ele- ment of plant life. The sources of nitrogen are precipitation, assimilation of the free atmospheric nitrogen, as by the root tubercles of the legumi- nous plants, and fertilizers. Precipitation furnishes yearly about 10.7 pounds of nitrogen per acre. An acre of beech forest consumes every year 45 pounds of nitrogen, fir forest 387 pounds, spruce forest 85 pounds, and pine forest 80 pounds; an average crop of potatoes consumes 54 pounds, wheat 55 pounds, rye 47 pounds, and barley 39 pounds. For the building up of leaves, four to five times more nitrogen is consumed than for the building up of the wood itself. The 10.7 pounds of nitrogen conveyed annually to an acre of soil by precipitation is just sufficient for the production of the wood substance, but not for the leayes. The nitrogen required for the production of the leaf substance is furnished by the forest itself in the form of fallen foliage and needles that have stored up large quantities of nitrogen. In farming, the need of nitrogen above the amount supplied by precipitation must be artificially introduced into the soil by manuring or fertilizing, or by the use of legume crops. Since the bulk of all mineral substances is also deposited in the foliage and not in the wood (see table), the forest trees, every fall, return to the soil, in the form of dead leaves, the greater part of what they have taken up through their roots. Thus forest trees, in addition to furnishing their own fertilizer, by bringing up mineral substances from the deeper layers of the soil and depositing them on the surface, accomplish practically the same result that is brought about in farming by deep plowing. Therefore, the soil under the forest (provided the leaf litter is not removed or other- A A well-managed forest. ‘‘Cathedral Aisle’? of white pine, Intervale, Plate XI. White Mountains, New Hampshire FORESTS wise destroyed) is constantly gaining in fertility instead of becoming exhausted,—just the reverse of what happens in farming, where every harvest impoverishes the soil by depriving it of a part of its nutritive substances. While farm land must, of necessity, be fairly level, since a slope of 20° renders it unfit for till- ing, and an incline of 25° unfits it even for pasture, gradients up to 45° are still capable of sustaining tree-growth. On slopes from 5° to 380°, the forest finds its true home, producing there more wood, and often yielding greater revenues than when grown in the valley. The reason for the increased growth of trees on moderate slopes is to be found in the stimulating effect of favorable exposures with their greater amount of light and air, of more perfect drainage, and of greater protection from wind and frost than is usually found on flat ound. The ability of the forest to grow on situations too poor or otherwise unfit for agriculture led to designating such situations as absolute forest land (Figs. 425-6). To absolute forest land, therefore, belong all territory north of the range of cultivated plants, all steep slopes, gullies, situations too rocky or too dry for agricultural plants, and swamps. It is impossible, of course, always to draw a distinct line of demarcation between absolute forest land and other land, since the soil may be artificially im- proved, as, in the case of swamps by drainage, but such improvements are, as a rule, very costly, and in this country, where there is still a comparative abundance of land, the absolute forest soil may be made profitable without improvements, by devoting it to forest growth, for which it is fitted, as it were, by nature itself. Labor. The raising of agricultural crops demands a great amount of human effort. The land must be plowed, harrowed, manured or otherwise fertilized, the seeds put in the ground, the harvest gathered and threshed, and all this has to be repeated year after year. In the growing of wood crops the application of human labor is very limited. The forest provides for the fertilization of its own soil, new crops start, as a rule, from self-sown seeds transported by wind or birds, or from stumps or roots of old trees, and wherever man does undertake to assist nature by sowing or planting cut-over land, the work on the same area has to be done only once in many years. It is only the harvesting of the timber crops which requires any considerable, labor, and this occurs at very long intervals. Tens, often hundreds of years must pass before the new crop becomes ready for the axe. While farm crops must be harvested as soon as they ripen, a delay of even a few days often caus- ing considerable loss, the harvesting of timber crops may be postponed for many years without injury to the crop, and can be done at a time and rate most profitable and convenient to the timber owner. . The relative importance of labor as a factor in Bal arranged in the order in which FORESTS 821 the production of timber and farm crops is well shown by the fact that while the 414,000,000 acres of improved farm land, given by the Twelfth Cen- sus, engage 10,000,000 men, or one man to every forty acres, the 700,000,000 acres of forests engage only 120,000 men, em- ployed in harvesting the timber and getting it out to the nearest points of shipment, or one man to every 5,800 acres. This dif- ference is especially large in this country because most of the labor that is employed in our forests is engaged solely with harvesting and transporting the timber crops, and practically Fig. none with forest-culture proper, Cottonwood (Populus which is still in its inception. deltoides). But even in forests managed most intensively, only one-tenth to one-thirtieth of the labor required by an acre of farm land is needed per acre of forest land. The different branches of agricultural production may be 449. each calls for labor, beginning with that which needs least, as follows: Ranching, wood-grow- _ ing, hay-raising, production of cereals, fruit-growing and ' truck-farming. At a smaller expenditure of labor, forest land is capable of Fig. 450. producing at the same time an dara 3 ox elder cer Ne- equal, if not a greater amount wane. of useful vegetable substance than farm land. Thus, common farm crops yield on an average 8,400 to 4,600 pounds of vegetable substance per acre; of this, only about one-third (1,000 to 1,500 pounds) is in « the form of grain. An acre of forest produces under human care 8,000 to 10,000 pounds of vegetable substance annually, and of this about one-half is in the form of wood, the re- mainder being roots (450 pounds), and leaves (8,000 pounds). Deducting from the { wood the amount of water held by it mechanically, there re- mains 1,500 to 3,600 pounds (dry weight) of vegetable sub- stance, as the product of one acre in one year. Putting these facts together with the Census fig- ures, according to which there is one man for every forty acres of improved farm land, the inference may be drawn that in agriculture the labor of ore man is instrumen- tal in raising annually 40,000 to 60,000 pounds of useful vegetable substance ; the same amount of labor expended in growing wood crops could pro- Fig. 451. Silver or soft maple (Acer dasycarpum). Fig. 452. Hard or sugar maple (Acer saccharinum). 822 FORESTS duce under forest management of similar intensity, between 400,000. and 600,000 pounds of useful vegetable substance, or ten times as much. These , figures, of course, must not be consid- ered, even for a moment, as absolute. To begin with, the average acreage of farm land cultivated by one man, as given by the Census, is altogether too large, since not all land that has been reported as improved farm land is Fig. 453. actually cultivated—a great part of Red ceda: ; j ; ( saaetie it remains idle. These figures are Virginiana). Merely brought forward to illustrate approximately the relative réle which labor plays in the production of wood and of agri- cultural products.’ Capital. Wood-cropping, to be done continuously, needs investment of capital, and, in a certain sense, of a ait larger capital than is re- quired for farming. The form in which most of the capital is tied up in wood- cropping is very charac- teristic of forestry as an @ industry. It is not the land that claims most of the investment, since land devoted to forest growth is, as a rule, poorer and therefore has a considerably lower value than farm : land. Nor do buildings, tools, machinery or labor absorb much capital, be- cause all these items are a source of considerably less expenditure in for- estry than in farming. The forest crops do not need buildings to house them ; the tools used in harvesting or caring for the harvest are very simple and inexpensive ; the application of machinery, with its concentration and division of labor, is very circumscribed because . of the bulkiness of the product, = and because variety in the size 3 and shape of trees requires the constant exercise of judgment = Fig. 454. Z Hemlock (Tsuga b Oanadensis). : Balsam fir (Abies balsamea). there are no seeds nor manure to buy ; very little wages need be paid. In other words, the ay Fig. 456. capital needed for defraying the ai Norway spruce current expenses of growing (Picea excelsa). wood-crops is small as compared to that needed for raising agricultural crops. Thus, while in Europe the current expenditure per acre of forest land managed most intensively does not a exceed two dollars on the average, according to the figures of the United States De- partment of Agriculture for 1898, the cost of raising wheat and corn crops Fig. 457. Black spruce (Picea Mariana), on the part of the wood-cutter ; . FORESTS in this country was $8.88 and $8.68, respectively, not including the rent for land and the cost for superintendence. The chief demand for capital in continuous wood-cropping is the necessity of keeping a large supply of growing, immature trees on hand. Here- in is the most essential difference between forestry and agriculture : while farm crops mature in one year, and all that has grown during the year is harvested at the end of the season, trees must be left to grow for many years before sufficient wood of the desired kind accumulates. A tree is not born old; starting from the seed or stump, it grows in height and thickness year after year until it reaches the size required for the market. If the most marketable size is attained at the age of eighty years, then to secure the best returns it must be left on the ground for eighty years to accumulate the requisite amount of wood. If one eighty-year-old tree is to be cut each year, there must be on hand seventy-nine trees of ages varying from one to seventy-nine years. When one eighty-year-old tree is cut down, seventy-nine trees must be left standing, because they are all needed to produce annually that one mature tree. Continuous wood-cropping requires, therefore, an accumulation of a large amount of immature, growing timber, which forms as essential an ele- ment in continuous wood-production as machinery does in a factory. While the farmer may dispose of the products of his annual harvest, the grower of timber crops is compelled to. leave the annual growth made by the trees for a number of years, and in this way must tie up in growing trees a capital equal to the aggregate value of the unsold annual crops of the whole period. That the grow- ing, still immature timber is a real capital and not an imaginary one, is only too well shown by the temptation to which so many owners of small timber tracts succumb, to realize on it prematurely by selling it at the first opportunity. The larger the required sizes of trees, or the longer the period needed for their maturing, the larger must be the stock of young, growing trees on hand, and consequently the larger must be the capital tied up for continuous production of wood, and vice versa. Thus, to supply continually an annual demand for the product of one acre of eighty-year-old trees, a total area of eighty acres is needed; while one-fourth of the area would be sufficient to grow every year one acre of twenty- year-old trees, such as would make fence-posts. In forests managed systematically for continuous timber crops, the growing stock of wood usually amounts to 75 or 80 per cent of the total invest- ment. For this reason, the raising of continuous crops of large timber for construction purposes can be done advantageously only on considerable forest areas, with a large capital tied up perma- nently in young, growing trees. The owner of a small woodlot will inevitaby find it most profitable to raise chiefly fire-wood, mine props, fence-posts, ties, and similar timber products that require a comparatively short time for their production, using for that purpose only quick-growing species, FORESTS or managing his forest as sprouts which possess at an early age a capacity for more rapid growth than trees started from seed. The fact, however, that the woodlot, as a rule, is not an independent enterprise, but an adjunct to farming or some other business, enables its owner to manage it not ona strictly financial basis, because of the many bene- fits which he derives from it indirectly, in the form of windbreak or shelter to his cattle, in addition to the products raised for his own home con- sumption. There are also purely technical reasons which make extensive forest tracts better adapted for raising timber crops than small woodlots would be. In a large forest the proper distribution of trees of various ages, which is so essential to con- tinuous wood-cropping, can be more easily attained; on a large tract the main body of forest, being well protected by the outer rows of trees on the edge of the forest, suffers less from wind than small woodlots, which are frequently exposed to the sweep of gales; in a large forest there are always more seed trees and more seed on hand, and the conditions for starting a new crop are generally more favorable than on small tracts. Timber crops, unlike farm crops, can not be managed very intensively. Intensive industries are characterized by their capacity for absorbing a considerable amount of labor; and forestry, with the exception of harvesting timber crops, offers, as has already been pointed out, but little opportunity for the application of labor. Besides, forests grow, as a rule, on the poorest soils and roughest situa- tions, which makes any intensive management financially unprofitable because of the expenditure being out of proportion to the possible gain in net returns. If to this be added the fact that it takes 100 to 150 years for trees to reach large dimen- sions, and therefore only zéo or zo of the total forest area can be cut over every year, if annual sustained yields of large timber are desired, the . need of vast forest areas for continuous wood-pro- duction becomes self-evident. All this taken together emphasizes the impor- tance of capital as a factor in the production of wood crops, and has even led to designating for- estry as a “capital intensive” industry in distinc- tion from agriculture which requires a relatively smaller fixed capital but a larger amount of labor. The three main factors of forest production may be thus arranged in the order of their importance : Nature, capital and labor. Literature. B. E. Fernow, Economics of Forestry, Thomas Y. Crowell & Co., 1902; John Nisbet, The Forester, Vol. I, William Blackwood & Sons, Edinburgh and London, 1905 ; Gifford Pinchot, A Primer of Fores- try, Parts I and II, Bulletin 24, Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture ; William Schlich, A Manual of Forestry, Vol. I, Introduction to Forestry, London, Bradbury, Agnew & Co., 1896 ; “Forsten,” by M. Enders in ‘‘Handworterbuch der Staatswissenschaften,” edited by Conrad, Elster, Lexis and Leenig, Jena, 1900. FORESTS 823 Raising the Timber Crop. By Samuel B. Green. Trees may be divided into two classes: (1) Those that are called shade-enduring or tolerant, and (2) those that are light-de- — manding or intolerant. These ‘ characteristics of trees are of great importance in considering the subject of the renewal of growth on forest lands, or even in the matter of planting land that is not yet in forest. While Fig. 458. it is not an absolute rule that Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens). tolerant trees have a thick mass of foliage, and intolerant have open foliage, yet this statement is so generally true that when this characteristic is known it serves as a very reliable indication. Among our tolerant trees may be mentioned the spruce, balsam, white cedar, red cedar, oak, hornbeam and hard maple. Among our intolerant species are the poplar, cottonwood, willow, soft maple, birch and jack and red pine. The ideal forest is one that might be called a two-storied affair, that is, having an in- tolerant species above and a tolerant species below, much the same as in a crop of corn, where we may have pumpkins growing under the shade of i White pine (Pinus Strobus). thecorn. Trees protect one an- other and are mutually helpful, i and as a rule are most hardy \ when grown in groups. Trees also interfere with one another, and in their struggle for light and soil privileges the weaker trees are often suppressed and per- haps all of them are injured. On the other hand, crowding forces them to take on an upward growth and kills out the lower branches, which is necessary for the production of good timber. Trees that grow in the open have side branches and make inferior lumber that is full of knots. The forest rotation. There is a popular fancy that a natural rotation of trees exists, and where soft woods are cut hard-woods naturally follow, and the _=== reverse. In reality, there is === little to justify this notion. Fig. 460. Red or Norway pine (Pinus resinosa). Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris). = . Fig. 462, Under natural conditions, Grey or Jack pine (Pinus sometimes hard-wood will divaricata), 324 FORESTS follow pine, or pine will follow the hard-woods, where the two were mixed at the time of cutting and there was on the ground a young growth which had an opportunity to grow when its competitor was removed. When land is severely burned after being cut over, the trees that show first are the kinds that produce seed in great abundance, and whose seed will float long distances in the wind, such as poplar and birch; or else those having fruits especially liked by birds, such as the bird cherry, which is widely distributed. The pine, and perhaps other trees, may come in later, owing to their being seeded later, or owing to the later advent of con- ditions favorable to their germination and growth. It may often happen in the case of burned-over pine land, that pine seed is distributed over it the first year after it is burned, but owing to the lack of protection from the sun the young seedlings, which are very delicate and require slight shade, are destroyed. On the other hand, the young poplars, on newly cleared land, may find just the condition for growth, and the land becomes thickly seeded; later there comes a general weakened condition of the poplars by reason of too much crowding. Under the growth of these weakened poplars, pine seedlings may find the right conditions of shade for their most suc- cessful growth, and will gradually force their way up through the poplars, and finally kill them out. On the other hand, the poplars, birches and other trees, grasses and shrubs growing on the land when the timber is cut, may make so strong a growth as to kill, for a time, the young pine seedlings that are on the land. Forest regeneration. The term regeneration is commonly used in for- estry to signify the renewal of forest trees on the land. It is a convenient term and well worthy of general use. The different forms of regeneration may be referred to as, (1) regeneration by natural seeding ; (2) regeneration by artificial seeding ; (8) regeneration by planted seedlings; (4) regenera- tion by planted cuttings; (5) regeneration by sprouts and suckers (i. e., coppice-growth). The method of regeneration best adapted for one section may not be at all fitted for another section under different conditions, and often it is best to combine two or more of the different forms of regeneration. Where natural regeneration of valuable species can be easily brought about, it is generally the best practice. This is especially true in sections where timber is comparatively cheap, as is generally the case in this country where the returns from the land can hardly be expected to pay for any great amount of labor. (1) Natural regeneration by seed may be greatly assisted by stirring the surface of the soil in good seed years, just before the seed is scattered, and by thinning enough to let in light and air to the seedlings. When it is desired to have an open field adjoining woodland thus seeded, the land may be plowed or loosened with a disk harrow or drag, and put in such condition as to make a sufficiently good FORESTS seed-bed. When the soil will not permit of such exceptional treatment, it may be loosened by @ drag made by tying together several oak branches or small logs, which, when dragged over the ground several times, will gradually break up the surface. This will be especially necessary where there is a thick covering of mold or “duff” on the land. This same method of stirring the soil is applicable when the land is to be seeded by hand. Good seed years do not often occur in our most desirable species, and it is very important to take advantage of these good years when they do come. . Natural re-seeding is almost the only practical means of re-stocking large areas of forest lands, as other methods are too expensive. It generally takes place readily, and the chief reason why it is not more successful is the frequent destruction of the young seedlings by fires, by cattle and improper methods of logging. The methods of cutting adapted to secure natural regeneration by seed in the forest naturally separate themselves into three systems, each of which may be best adapted to some special condi- tions. They are known as (1) the selection method ; (2) the strip method ; (8) the sprout method; and (4) the group method. Selection method.—The selection method refers to the cutting of mature trees and the removal of inferior trees to make room for the better kinds. In this system much care should be exer- cised to prevent the growth of grass, which generally comes in when the cutting is done more rapidly than the seeding trees can seed the bare land and furnish it with a good covering that will keep out the grass and other weeds. On the other hand, it is just as important to exercise great care in providing sufficient light for the young seed- lings which have started, so that they can make a good growth and not be shaded out by the older trees. The removal of a single tree, even though it be a large one, often lets in so little light that seedlings cannot get a good start. For this reason the group method (referred to later) is probably best adapted for general use, since it opens up a sufficient space to warrant considerable attention being paid to securing good conditions for the young seedlings. Strip method.—The strip method may be used to advantage where the soil and tree growth is very uniform over large areas. The strip method is a form of clear cutting and is chiefly applicable to large tracts of even-aged pure stands of conifers or any light-seeded species and when there is a ready market for timber of all sizes. The location of the strips and their alternate cutting involves the laying out of plan of management for many years ahead. The woodlot owner, therefore, will seldom find it necessary to resort to this method of forest treatment. Under this system the trees are removed in nar- row strips, as a rule not wider at any time than twice the height of the trees, so that the remain- ing older trees can easily re-seed the denuded land ; but the best width of the strips will depend on the species and the local conditions. For example, in FORESTS the case of oak, perhaps, the strips should not be wider than the height of the trees, while in the case of birch, elm, maple and pines, the strips might exceed in width six or eight times the height of the trees, and still they would be re-seeded suc- cessfully. Such strips should generally be started on the side opposite the prevailing winds at seeding time, so that the seeds may be blown on to the denuded land. Of course, in the case of oak, beech and similar trees, where the wind has compara- tively little effect on the carrying of the seed, this point is not to be so much insisted on. Group method (Fig. 463).—The group method is a system of cutting irregular strips successively on the inside of certain groups. This may be termed a natural method, and for general use, especially in mixed woods, and where the land and tree condi- tions are rather variable, it is much the best. If this system is followed, one can adapt the method of cutting to the different species and to the differ- ent conditions which may be found in the forest. For example, a tamarack swamp, a dry knoll cov- ered with oak, a steep hillside, and level rich rocky land covered with elm, and very often various other conditions, would very likely all be included in almost any forest track of considerable size in the northern states, and each part, for best results, should receive special treatment. Under this plan we can begin with one group or several, and we can start our regeneration in each group perhaps where there is already a good growth of desirable young trees. In fact, this system gives us a chance to begin regeneration where the greatest necessity or the best opportunity for it already exists. The size of the openings will depend, as in the strip method, on the species grown and on the natural conditions of the land. As a rule, the first open- ings should be one-fourth to one-half acre or more, and the strips taken around these openings should not exceed in width the height of the trees in the strips next to be cut; but, as previously stated, this matter should be determined largely by the kinds of trees. Successive strips should be cut only when the previous strips have become well stocked with trees, that is, when regeneration is accomplished. Of course, the regeneration in each of these strips should be given the same care that would be given to any well-managed forest in order to bring about a predominance of the most valuable kinds under the best light and soil conditions. (2) Regeneration by artificial seeding.—Occasion- ally it may be desirable to sow seed in woodlands. This is often the case with ash, hard maple and birch, and with our nut-bearing trees, such as black walnut, butternut, the hickories, chestnut and oaks, which readily renew themselves by such means. These may be planted in spots or broadcasted after the land has been loosened. In the case of pine and spruce, however, success is uncertain under such treatment, and should seldom be attempted. Per- haps it is most certain to furrow out between the trees with a plow, where it is practicable, as it might be, for example, on some of the sandy lands of Wisconsin and Michigan, where furrows might FORESTS 825 be run between the trees or the land loosened in patches with a hoe. In these furrows, or in patches in the forest, the seed of pine or spruce might often find just the right conditions for growth. Such methods of treatment are occasionally used in the pine forests of northern Germany, to secure a regeneration of Scotch pine and beech. When the seed is to be sown in patches, these should seldom be over two square yards in GeeE@) area. From these patches Ay a the seedlings may be set in ae @ near-by openings, after they are well established. This treatment can be made successful only where the standing trees afford the proper shade conditions for the seedlings. Under some conditions, tree seeds may be sown Fig. 463. Diagram illus- trating group method of cutting. Cuttings are begun at points marked land are gradually ex- tended by successive cuttings, as indicated by figures 2, 3,4 and 5. (After Schlich:) broadcast on the land and be covered by the treading of sheep. This would often work well in the case of brushy pastures on rocky land. Ash, box-elder, maple, pine, beech and other tree seeds are sometimes sown in clear fields with oats or other grains, where the straw protects from the sun in summer and the stubble holds the snow and acts as a winter protection. Seeds of ash, maple, elm, and some other trees may sometimes be sown to advantage in the hills with corn in prairie planting, and wil- low cuttings may be used in the same way, or these may be planted in the hills with beans. (8) Regeneration by planting seedlings——The re- generation of land by planting seedlings is prac- ticed to considerable extent in sections where timber is high in price. For instance, in parts of Hessen it is no uncommon sight to see large areas of land planted in spruce at as regular intervals as corn is planted on cultivated land ; when the crop is mature it is taken out by the roots and the land plowed and again planted. In the parts of Hessen referred to, however, there is a good market for even the stumps of trees and the smaller twigs. Such a condition is seldom found in any part of the United States. There is a large part of this country where the land cannot be stocked with valuable trees without resorting to replanting. This is often the most economical way of securing a stock of conif- erous trees in almost any part of the United States under the conditions which frequently pre- vail on our cut-over lands, where there is very little chance for natural or artificial regenera- tion of desirable kinds by seed, owing to the fact that all seed-producing trees were cut when the land was logged or have since been destroyed by fire, and the ground covered by a growth of grass, raspberry bushes, other weeds and inferior small trees. Seedling pines often can be set out at intervals of perhaps ten feet apart each way, under conditions where they would be sufficiently crowded by the weeds, poplars, hazel-brush and 826 FORESTS other growths, so that they would take on an upright form, quite free from branches until their tops interlaced, after which they would properly crowd one another. Such planting often can be done at an expense of less than two dollars per acre. In planting seedlings under such conditions, the best implement to use is a mattock, with which a space a foot or more in diameter is cleared of brush and the soil brought into condition for the seedlings. Under very favorable conditions the work can be done for even a less figure than that given. It is not too much to expect that a man and a boy, in a day of ten hours, under reason- ably favorable conditions, can plant at least 1,000 seedlings and handle them with all the care nec- essary to keep the roots from getting dry. Pine and spruce seedlings are best kept in a pail partially filled with water when carried to the field. After the seedlings are planted, it is neces- sary for success that they be looked after for a few years until they are well established, other- wise they may be smothered by the surrounding weeds and trees. It is a good plan, under such con- ditions, to go over the land at least once in the summer with a large knife, and with a few slashes give the planted seedlings an advantage over the surrounding vegetation. In the planting out of old fields, where for any reason it may be undesirable to plow the land ha ie LCE RAS Zz NN NYY | Ah " oe fl i it Fig. 464. Hardy catalpa plantation of the South Amana Colony, South Amana, Iowa. Trees twenty-four years old. entirely, a good condition for plariting may be secured by furrowing out in autumn where it is desired to plant, and in the spring planting on the edge of the furrow where the soil has fallen from the furrow-slice. In the case of hillsides of this kind that are liable to wash, the furrows should run across the slope and be made nearly FORESTS level, or with a gentle slope so that the water will follow the furrows without gullying them. These furrows will hold the water and prevent the seedlings drying out. On wet land seedlings are sometimes planted on the surface, and the soil mounded up over the roots. This method is well adapted to white cedar on wet land. (4) Planting of cuttings——There are few trees that can be grown in general practice from cut- tings, but it is the best way to start willows and some poplars, since seedlings of them are difficult to secure. It may often happen that willows and poplars can be planted to good advantage on the cut-over land, where renewal of growth is expected from such shade-enduring trees as basswood, hard maple, hickory and chestnut. Under such condi- tions the willows will grow rapidly and form a predominant covering under which the other species will flourish. (5) Regeneration by coppice.—The commonest and simplest way of natural regeneration is the sprout method. This is based on the capacity possessed nearly exclusively by the hard-woods (of the coni- fers only by the California redwood) to renew themselves after cutting by shoots produced from the stump or roots. As a matter of fact the bulk of all our second growth hard-woods originated in this way. This method does not depend on the occurrence of good seed years, it is little affected by fires, which sometimes even stimulate a more vigorous sprouting, and is adapted to small as well as large timber tracts. The sprouts for the first 40 to 50 years grow faster than trees started from the seed and are, therefore, capable of producing tan-bark, firewood, fence posts, ties, telephone and telegraph poles within a much shorter time than trees from seed. For this reason this method lends itself most readily to woodlot owners, especially in the central hard-wood belt, where the composition of the woodlot is chiefly hard-woods and the de- mand for small-sized timber is great. Chestnut, oaks, particularly the chestnut oak, ashes, willows, maples and poplars are well suited for regeneration by sprouts. In cutting coppice-growth the trees should be cut off close to the ground when they are dor- mant, and the stumps left highest in the center so that they will have a tendency to shed water and not be so liable to rot as when left hollow in the center. The advantage of cutting close to the ground is that the sprouts that come out from the trunk soon get roots ‘of their own, and such sprouts are much more durable than when they depend entirely on the roots of the old stumps; and they are less liable to be broken off ina high wind. After a number of years the ability of the stump to sprout will gradually cease, although with good management and protection oak and other hard-woods may. be reproduced for a long ° time in this way. Choice of species to plant. The choice of species will naturally be limited by soil and climatic conditions, and also by the time required to get returns. The slow-growing species, FORESTS such as oak, ash and white pine, do not offer any great inducement for the private individual, except in the case of such kinds as renew themselves readily from the sprouts or where the land is already stocked with a young growth. The fast- growing species are the ones to which individuals are largely limited in making their plantations. Among the most desirable of these is Catalpa speciosa, which under favorable conditions will make good post timber in ten or fifteen years. The yellow or black locust, which has a little wider range northward, and is fully equal to the catalpa in rapidity of growth at the North, is also well adapted for post tim- ber. In some sections the white willow and cottonwood may be grown to advan- tage, the willow being used largely for uel and poles, while the cottonwood is ‘used largely for dimension lumber in jcheap construction. These four trees promise the quickest returns of any deciduous trees that are grown in our northern states. In the case of willow, the average yield per acre of cord-wood on good soil, under favorable conditions, will not be far from three cords, when once the land is well stocked with trees. Under the con- ditions which exist in many central- western states, such plantations may prove very profitable. While cottonwood lumber at present is regarded as of little value in most of the timber sections, yet on our prairies it is indemand for floor boards and dimension stuff in cheap construction, and will often increase in growth at the rate of 500 to 1,000 feet board measure per acre per year. Of the coniferous species, spruce is probably the most promising. White and Norway spruces grow at about the same rate, but as the seed of the Norway is much the more easily secured, it will naturally be given preference. It will yield thirty to thirty-five cords of pulp-wood per acre when thirty years old. It is in demand for paper pulp, and the outlook is for an increase in the price of this material. ; The future will undoubtedly see a more general use made of inferior woods, by impregnating them with antiseptic materials, and it is probable that we shall, in this way, find a much wider use for such wood as that of the common cottonwood and soft maple. Seeds and seeding. Source of seeds.—One of the most important fac- tors for the grower of tree seedlings to have in mind is that the source of the seeds may sometimes have a very considerable effect on the value of the seedlings. It may be laid down as a safe general rule that those seeds are most desirable which come from trees grown in aclimate as severe as that in which they are to be sown. As trees reach the limit of their growth they have a tendency to become dwarfed, and the seedlings from these trees undoubtedly perpetuate (more or less) this dwarfing Fig. 465. Forest of Picea excelsa (known in this country as Norway spruce) in Hessen, planted for paper pulp; side branches removed as soon as dead. FORESTS 827 tendency. Hence, even though an essential point in considering the value of any tree is hardiness, the question of size is also important and should be taken into account. We may conclude, then, that since trees from milder climates generally lack in hardiness, and those from a very severe climate may lack in size, it is best to procure seeds from the best trees grown near by, or from those grown under similar climatic conditions elsewhere. Generally, it, is not necessary to limit this range very closely, and a range of one hundred miles north or south of a given point will seldom make much difference in hardiness. Gathering seeds.—In some cases it is best to pick the seed from the trees even before they are quite ripe, as they will generally ripen if kept dry after being picked: Very unripe seeds do not keep so well as perfectly ripe seeds. Most kinds of tree seeds can be gathered cheaply from the ground after they have fallen. This method of gathering often can be greatly facilitated by clearing the land under the trees, so that it will be smooth and even. The seeds of some species can be swept up at little expense under trees growing along high- ways or city streets. Seeds of coniferous trees, such as pine, spruce, tamarack and arborvite, are dry and winged, but the red cedar has a fleshy, berry-like covering sur- rounding its seed. The seeds that grow in cones are most easily gathered before being shed from the cones. The cones should be gathered before they open, and then dried, after which those of most species will open and the seeds can be threshed out. Cones of a few trees, as those of the jack pine, will not open without artificial heat. These can be opened by gently heating them over a stove or in an oven to a temperature of 100 to 150° F. Seeds of this class grow readily, but must be very carefully stored or they will lose their _vitality. They may be kept like the seed of ash and box-elder, but are more liable to injury than these kinds from too much moisture or heat, and 328 FORESTS for this reason some careful growers prefer always to keep them mixed with dry sand in a cool shed. The seeds of the red cedar hang on the tree all winter and must be picked by hand. They should be soaked in strong lye for twenty-four hours, the a fleshy covering silly. Wie. 12S, te removed by rub- / bing them against a fine sieve, and then stratified in sand, where they will be frozen during the winter. Even with this treatment they will seldom grow until the second year. Stratification.—Stratification is a term used to describe a certain method of storing seeds. It is adapted to almost any of our seeds, but is especially useful with the black walnut, hickory, basswood, plum, cherry, mountain ash and hawthorn. When only small quantities are to be cared for under this method, it is generally best to put them in boxes, mixed with several times their bulk of sand, and bury in the dry ground out-of-doors; but when large quantities are to be handled they may be mixed with the soil on the surface of the ground, covered with mulch and left until spring. Seed-storing.—In the matter of storing seeds it is difficult to lay down any exact rule. How- ever, it is perfectly safe to winter over all of the seeds of hardy plants which ripen in autumn, by burying them in sand out-of-doors, and yet the seeds of ash, hard maple, box-elder, locust, and other dry seeds may be stored to advantage in any dry, cool room. It is very important to have them thoroughly dry before they are stored in any large bulk. A very good way of wintering seeds of the ash, birch, hard maple and box-elder is to spread the seeds on the surface of the hard ground and cover with an inverted box. It is an advantage to have a small ditch around the box to carry off the water. Seed treatment.—The seeds of leguminous trees should be scalded in order to get good results. This applies to the black, yellow and honey locust and the coffee tree. To do this successfully, the seed should be placed about one inch deep in a large milk-pan or similar vessel and hot water (130° ‘to 160° Fahr.) poured over them, perhaps three inches deep. This should be allowed to stand until cool, when it will be found that some of the seeds have swollen. These should be picked out and the remainder treated again with hot water, and the process repeated until all have swollen. Seedlings of this class are managed in much the same way as those of ash and maple. Seed planting (Figs. 466-469).— Seeds may be classified into three groups: (1) deciduous-tree seeds that ripen in spring and early summer ; (2) Fig. 466. Diagram illustrating method of planting seeds in patches in woodland. deciduous-tree seeds that ripen in autumn; (8) . coniferous-tree seeds. Among the seeds that ripen in spring and early FORESTS summer are soft and red maple, the elms, cotton- woods and willows. These should be gathered as soon as ripe, and, with the exception of the red elm, should be sown in a few days or weeks, as they retain their vitality but a short time. Red elm seed will not grow until the foilowing spring. The thousands of seedlings of cottonwood, elm and soft maple that naturally spring up along the sand-bars and river and lake shores, show what are the best conditions for the germination of these seeds, but seeds of white elm and soft maple generally do well when sown in any good garden soil. Cottonwood seedlings can be grown by scat- tering branches bearing unopened seed-pods along the furrows in moist soil and covering the seed lightly, when they will shell out; but they are of such uncertain growth that most nurserymen depend on the sand-bars and lake shores for their supply. Willows are seldom grown from seed, as these are difficilt to raise, and the trees start easily from cuttings. Elm, soft maple and mulberry seeds generally grow well on any good moist soil, but that which is somewhat sandy is best. They should be sown thickly in drills eight inches wide and three feet apart, when they may be easily cultivated by a horse cultivator. Or they may be sown in rows sixteen inches apart and culti- 4 4 * eh 2: OEE Te ae Re Fig. 467. Young conifercus evergreens growing under screen at Sherman Nursery, Charles City, Iowa. For the first two or three years evergreens of all kinds have to be screened from the sun, after which they need no protection. vated by hand. Elm and soft maple seed should be covered about three-fourths inch, mulberry about one-fourth inch and soft maple about one inch. Ifthe weather is dry at the time the seed is sown, the soil over the seed should be thoroughly firmed, and if the weather continues dry the rows should be watered. Watering, however, is seldom necessary on good retentive land, if the soil has been prop- erly packed. When watering is resorted to, it is a good plan to cover the drills lightly with some mulch or litter, or shade them with boards, but these should be removed as soon as the seed- lings first appear. With proper conditions, seeds so planted will start quickly and grow rapidly. The seedlings of soft maple and white elm will gen- erally be large enough for transplanting to the young forest or windbreak the first season ; how- ever, they may be allowed to grow another year in the seed-bed without injury, but should generally FORESTS be transplanted before the growth of the third year begins. The seeds of deciduous trees that ripen in autumn may be sown to advantage at that time, provided the soil is such that it will not pack too firmly, or when the seeds are not liable to be washed out or eaten by rodents or other animals. Our most successful nurserymen generally prefer r IT oO Fig. 468. Coniferous seedling bed with details of lath screen; five-eighths inch lath is used for cross and diagonal braces and one-half inch for others. to sow such seeds in autumn, and they aim to bring about the conditions that make it successful, but good results also generally follow the early sowing of such seeds in the spring. The distance between the rows, and the covering, should be the same as recommended for elm seedlings. It is important to keep the soil loose and mellow between the seedlings, and to keep the weeds very carefully removed until at least the middle of July, after which they may sometimes be allowed to grow to advantage to afford winter protection ; but in the case of very small seedlings this protection is best given by a light mulch, put on in autumn and taken off in spring... The weeds should be kept out. If the seeds of red cedar, black thorn, mountain ash and others that require a long time to start are sown in the spring and do not germinate, it is a good plan to cover the bed with an inch or two of hay or leaves to keep out weeds, and let this mulch remain until the following spring, when the seeds will probably be in condition to grow. The mulch should then be removed. Quantity to sow—The proper quantity of seeds of deciduous trees to sow in nursery rows depends very much on the kind and quality of the seeds and the soil in which they are to be sown. As a rule, thick sowing is better than thin sowing. The seeds of box-elder, ash and maple should be sown at the rate of about one good seed to the square inch; elm and birchshould be sown twice as thickly. Plums and cherries sown in drills should be allowed about one inch of row for each good seed. Black walnut, butternut, hickory and similar seeds should preferably be planted three or four in a place, where they are to grow, and all but one seedling cut out when several years old. If sown in drills, they should be placed three to six inches apart. Rather thick seeding does not seem to be any great hindrance to the making of a sufficient growth by seedlings of most of our broad-leaved trees the first year, but if left thick in the seed-bed the second year they are often seriously stunted. FORESTS 829 The quantity of seed to sow in order to secure a given number of seedlings will depend also on the quality of the seed and on the soil and weather conditions at the time of sowing. The quality of seed varies much in different years and from differ- ent trees. The only way to be at all accurate is to test the seed, but as this is troublesome, and as the seed of most of our common trees is very cheap, it is seldom practiced, and growers simply plan to sow two or three times as much seed as would theoretically produce the number of seedlings desired. The number -of seeds in a pound varies greatly with the size of the seed and dryness. In the case of the , birch there are perhaps four hundred “ey thousand; in Scotch, shortleaf and red pine and Norway spruce there are perhaps seventy thousand; in white pine about thirty thousand; in box- elder and white ash about ten thou- sand; in basswood and sugar maple about eight thousand; in soft maple about four thousand ; in black walnut twenty of the dry nuts in one pound, and in hickory nuts forty to sixty in a pound. i Raising coniferous trees from seed. The land selected for the seed should have a light, porous surface soil, preferably underlaid with a moist subsoil that will not dry out easily. It should be so located as to have good circulation of air over it, that the plants may dry off quickly after rains; and it must be so shaded as to keep — — — — 7 7 | | | 7m IAAP Hf 4 [ae PAN IF I r] CT rT i] TI UT [| Ld PUG eo EL ee Fig. 469. One of the slat-screens used in Fig. 468. off about one-half of the sunlight. In practice, we aim to secure these conditions as follows: A piece of well-drained, rather sandy soil in an airy place is selected and laid out in beds four feet wide. In May, or later, the seeds are sown rather thickly (about three good seeds to a square inch), either broadcast or in rows, and covered with about one- fourth inch of sandy loam and then with about one- 330 FORESTS fourth inch of clear sand. Before the seedlings break the ground, a permanent framework at least three feet above the beds is made and covered with laths, laid about one and one-half inches apart, running north and south, or with sufficient brush to shut out about one-half the sunlight; or a movable lath frame may be built, as shown in Fig. 467. If the bed is very much exposed to the winds, it should have similar protection on all sides. Under such conditions, or in woodlands where these conditions can be fulfilled, evergreens can be raised with much certainty, while, if seed is sown in the open ground, most kinds fail. A cheap and convenient screen can be made from common lath 4 x 4 feet square, leaving a space the width of a lath between each two and nailing the ends between two lath at right angles. Such screens can be made for about thirteen cents each. Sparrows and gophers are prevented from destroy- ing the seeds or young seedlings by placing boards along the sides of the beds and then covering the whole bed, screen and all, with small-mesh wire netting. The most common cause of failure with those who try to raise evergreens is a fungous disease called ‘damping off,” which occurs only while the plants are growing rapidly the first year. The seeds may start well, and the seedlings may grow vigorously for a short time, or until there is a spell of damp weather, and then die off with great rapidity. The use of sand on the surface and plenty of air circulation in moist weather, will largely remedy the difficulty. Most of the coniferous tree seedlings grow very slowly when young. Many species do not make a growth of more than three inches the first year nor more than five or six inches the first two years. In fact, many species could be planted at the age of five or six years without inconve- nience as far as the size of the tops is concerned, but the growth of the roots is more rapid when younger, especially in rich soil. For this reason, evergreen seedlings should be planted out at an age of two, or, at the most, three years, while the roots are still manageable. Under some con- ditions it is possible to plant out one-year-old seedlings, but, as a rule, these are too small for convenient handling or successful growth in the open. Mulching forms an important factor in the growing of evergreen seedlings. It should con- sist of a three-inch covering of straw or leaves, evergreen branches or other material. This mulch should be applied to the seed-bed as soon as the seed is sown to preserve the mois- ture in the soil and to prevent the weeds start- ing before the trees. Careful watch must be kept, for if the mulch is not removed as soon as the seedlings break the soil they will all die. On the approach of winter the same sort of mulch should be put over the seedlings to protect them from the sun and from alternate freezing and thawing. This should be removed in the spring after all danger from drying, cold winds has passed, FORESTS ‘Literature. Bruncken, North American Forests and Forestry, G. P. Putnam & Sons; Gifford, Practical Forestry, D. Appleton & Co.; Green, Principles of American Forestry, Wiley & Sons ; Green, Forestry in Minne- sota, published by Minnesota Forestry Association ; Roth, A First Book of Forestry, Ginn & Co.; Sar- gent, Forest Trees of North America, Report of Tenth Census ; Forestry for Farmers, United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 67; Forest Planting and Farm Management, Farm- ers’ Bulletin, No. 228. The following bulletins of the Forest Service (formerly the Bureau of For- estry) of the United States Department of Agri- culture, are selected from a long list of helpful bulletins: Forest Growth and Sheep Grazing, No. 15; Forestry Conditions and Interests of Wisconsin, No. 16 ; Experimental Tree-Planting on the Plains, No. 18; Osier-Culture, No. 19; A Primer of For- estry, 2 Vols., No. 24; Practical Forestry in the Adirondacks, No. 26; Practical Tree-Planting in Operation, No. 27; The Forest Nursery, No. 29; The Woodman’s Handbook, No. 36; The Woodlot, No. 42; The Planting of White Pine in New Eng- land, No. 45; Forest Planting in Western Kansas, No.52; The Natural Replacement of White Pine in New England, No. 68. Practical Protection and Improvement of the Farm Woodlot. By Alfred Akerman. Most of the woodlots on American farms have been mismanaged or unmanaged. One of the serious problems facing the farmer today who sees his wood-supply rapidly diminishing is how to treat his mismanaged woodlot. Before entering into a discussion of this, however, it is well to call atten- tion to the factors involved in the proper care of a woodlot. The first of these is protection from harm; the second is the actual improvement of the crop. Protection. Protection of the woodlot is fundamental, for without it planting, pruning and thinning amount to nothing. The two most important phases of this subject ave protection from fire and from the graz- ing and browsing of animals. Protection from fire-—In dealing with fires, as with ailments of the body, an ounce of preven- tion is worth a pound of cure. For this reason, farmers would do well to examine into the con- ditions which surround their woodlots, to ascer- tain whether the liability to fire may not be lessened by a few simple and inexpensive pre- cautions. For example, a woodlot which borders on a public road may be protected by a cleared strip along the road; for a great many fires start from a cigar-stump or lighted match which is tossed aside by a passing smoker. Such cleared strips, or “fire lines” as they are called, should be cleaned up once or twice a year by burn- ing at a time when the fire will not spread, or by raking back the leaves and other inflammable material that may have accumulated. The cost of FORESTS such a precaution is insignificant in comparison with the loss from a fire in the woodlot. Fire lines are also useful between woodlots, if the neighbor- ing property is not well protected. (Fig. 470.) Another inexpensive preventive measure is the posting of fire notices. A great many persons, and especially boys, start fires because they are thought- _ less. A notice posted in acon- spicuous place will often make the careless more thought- ful. When a fire is set, prompt- ness in begin- ning to fight it is the most im- portant consid- eration. As soon as it is discovered, all hands _— should go to the place at once. A few minutes’ delay may mean the loss of timber that it has taken years to grow ; it may mean the loss of farm buildings and haystacks as well. The method of fighting fire varies greatly with circumstances. Sometimes a good thick brush is used to beat it out. Sometimes rakes and forks come in handy. When the soil is light the most effective method is to shovel earth on the burning material. Nothing is effective against a top fire, except a back fire; but top fires rarely occur in farm woodlots. Protection from grazing and browsing.— Cattle, sheep, goats and hogs should not be allowed to run in young growth, nor in old growth when repro- duction is desired. Many of our broad-leaf trees are eaten greedily by cattle, which also destroy many seedlings by treading on them. It is difficult to bring about a satisfactory combination of pas- ture and forest. From the time the young trees have lifted their branches out of reach until the reproduction time comes round, grazing does little harm. The same is equally true of deer, moose and similar animals. Improvement. Pruning.—The object of pruning forest trees is to produce clear lumber. Hf that object can be accomplished without going to the expense of prun- ing, it may be dispensed with. If trees are grown at the correct distance apart, the side branches will be shaded to death while they are small, and in most cases will drop off in a few years. There are exceptions to this rule, however. Some trees retain their dead side limbs for many years; and it may be wise to assist the tree, in such cases, in ridding itself of them. The question then resolves FORESTS 331 itself into whether the clear lumber is worth more than the cost of pruning. In one case, at least, it is worth while to prune. The white pine (Pinus Strobus) is one of the trees that holds its side limbs. The price of clear pine lumber justifies a small outlay on pruning. It is a waste of time to prune trees that have reached a diameter over six or eight inches. As just stated, the object of pruning is to secure clear lumber ; and to prune large trunks is to lock the door after the horse is stolen, for large knots are already formed. It is also a waste of time to prune more than two hundred or three hundred trees to the acre. The very best trees, ten or fifteen feet apart, should be selected. If more than these are pruned, some of them will be shaded out before the stand is mature, or will be taken out in improvement thin- ning, if thinning is practiced. In either case, a part of the labor put into pruning will be lost. In pruning, any number of dead limbs may be removed without injury to the trees ; but live limbs should be taken sparingly. It is a good plan to take the dead limbs up to where the live ones begin, and, if necessary, to take two or three whorls of the dying and dead ones, and then to wait a few years before going farther. The work may be done with an axe or with strong pruning-shears. The cuts should be close to the trunk, so that the knots will grow over as soon as possible. If the axe is used, great care should be exercised not to bruise and hack the bark of the trunk. Thinning (Figs. 471, 472).—Thinning is the most important improvement work which may be done in the woodlot. By thinning is meant the sys- tematic removal of a part of the trees in a grow- ing crop of timber to benefit those that remain. It should not be confused with the removal of mature trees, which is a very different operation. ea: 3 " j WT ; - by Pei ig Hise bY) fi i pe A HV RIVe SH Ai thinned, The practicability of thinning has been ques- tioned. Among other things, the cost of the work, the injury by falling trees, lodgment of trees against those remaining, and increased liability to windfall have been urged. As to the cost of the work, it is conceded that in some circum- 332 FORESTS stances it is prohibitive. For this reason, a young stand should be allowed to wait until the material to be removed has reached such a size that its sale will pay for its removal; and it should not be thinned again until the material to be removed has accumulated in sufficient quantity to pay for its removal. If the wood more than pays for its removal, so much the better; but if it pays only for its removal, the improvement is a net gain. The farmer who knows the price of labor, the cost of drawing to market, and the price to be secured, can easily determine when a thinning may be safely undertaken. ‘ In reply to the other objections, it may be said that, when thinning is done properly, the Dense stand of young hard-woods in need of moderate thinning. Fig. 472. falling trees do little injury, they do not lodge so that they can not be brought down with a twist of a cant-hook, and the remaining trees do not blow down. The principal object of thinning is to preserve the balance between height-growth and diame- ter-growth of the trees that are to form the final stand. Increase in volume is determined by height- and diameter-growth. If the trees stand too close together, height-growth will be in excess, followed by a reduction in vitality. If the trees stand too far apart, diameter-growth will be in excess, accompanied by large side limbs. In either case the quantity and quality of the timber will be affected. Therefore, by preserving the balance between the two, an acre of land is made to produce more and better lumber in a given period of time. The extent to which a closed stand may be opened depends on several conditions. The kind or kinds of tree that compose the stand, the nature of the soil, the character of the undergrowth, the purpose for which the timber is grown, all play a part in determining the degree of thinning. This is one of the many matters in forestry that cannot be reduced to a rule, but must be based on a study of each woodlot. There are, however, several con- siderations which indicate the extent to which a woodlot may be thinned. The classes into which trees in a closed stand gradually become separated, in the course of their struggle for existence, are FORESTS of assistance in selecting trees for removal. Four classes are usually distinguished: (1) dominant, (2) intermediate, (8) suppressed, and (4) dead. Dominant trees are those that have their crowns in the light; they have kept ahead of the others in height-growth. Intermediate trees are those that still have their crowns in the light, but are somewhat backward, and are destined to become suppressed in the near future. Suppressed trees are those that stand slightly below the intermediate class and will probably die within a few years. Now, moderate thinning would involve the removal of such of the intermediate trees as are interfering with the best development of the dominant ones. Care should be taken not to open up the stand to such an extent that undesirable undergrowth will result. In the case of shallow-rooted species, like the spruce, the stand should not be opened up too much or it will become liable to windfall. The cover must be broken into enough, however, to stimulate the growth of the remaining trees, or very little good will have been accomplished by the operation. In no case should the cover be broken to such an extent that it will not close in two or three years. Whether suppressed and dead trees should be removed depends principally on whether they con- tain enough wood to make their removal, along with the remainder, worth while. Some stimulation will result from the removal of certain of the suppressed trees, but most of them are so far behind the dominant trees that are to compose the final stand that their presence or absence has little effect, one way or the other, on the development of the dominant ones. Yet it often pays to remove some of the suppressed, and sometimes even a part of the dead trees, while the more important thin- ning is in progress, although, except in extraor- dinary cases, it would not pay to go into a stand for suppressed and dead trees alone. On the general principle of cleaning a stand of all useless material that might add to the dissemination of disease or increase the danger from fire, it is sometimes ex- pedient to remove dead and suppressed trees, when it can be done without extra cost, while thinning is being done. On the other hand, it is sometimes desirable to retain the suppressed trees, or a part of them, in order to keep the ground as well shaded as possible. Certain species in a mixed stand are more desir- able than others. If it comes to a choice between two trees of different species, other things being equal, the more desirable kind will be left. For example, a white ash and a yellow birch tree are standing side by side, and the conditions demand that one should be removed; the birch would be removed and the ash should be allowed to grow, for white ash logs sell for over twice as much as yellow birch. A defect in an individual of a desirable kind may render it less valuable than a tree of inferior kind. For example, a decayed spot in the ash mentioned above may have made its removal pref- erable to that of the yellow birch. The shape of the crown and its position relative FORESTS to surrounding crowns are of special importance. The processes of respiration and assimilation are effected in the foliage which composes the crown of the tree. The crown of a tree is its lungs and stomach, so that the development and health of the crown are closely related to the growth and health of the tree; and when a decision is to be made, the position, shape and health of the crown should be given great weight. In addition to the above considerations, which should be studied in determining the extent to which a thinning should be carried, another method, though a rough one, may be found useful. The amount of wood standing on the area to be thinned is estimated, and a percentage of the vol- ume of the stand is removed. For example, a given stand would run twenty-six cords to the acre; about four cords an acre, or 15 per cent of the volume of the stand, would be removed in a moderate thinning. One of the advantages of thinning that has not been mentioned, and which should not be over- looked, is that it may be combined with other operations in practice, although in theory quite distinct. As an example of this, an improvement thinning may sometimes be combined with har- vesting a part of the final crop. How to treat a mismanaged woodlot. There is no better way to outline the treatment of mismanaged woodlots than to describe the work done in a few concrete cases. A burned-over stand of hard-woods may be taken as an example. The species represented in the stand were chestnut, red, white and yellow oak, with scattering white-wood, white ash, sweet birch and beech. Most of the trees were of sprout origin. The stand ran about eighteen cords to the acre. Fire had been allowed to run through the lot a few seasons before. Many of the chestnuts were badly scorched about the base, and were dying back in the crown. The other trees had also suffered to a considerable extent. There was very little seedling reproduction on the ground. It was evidently im- possible to do anything with any but the best of the existing trees; it would have been a waste of land to allow the others to cumber it. The stand, therefore, was severely thinned, about one-third of the volume being removed. The thinning was done in the winter; as spring came on, the tops and larger limbs were piled and burned, in order to prepare the ground for planting. Then the whole was underplanted to white pine. Two-year-old seedling stock was used, the distance being six feet each way. The planting cost about six dollars an acre. Ninety-seven per cent of the plants were alive the following spring. The wood was sold the winter following for three dollars a cord on the pile, which insured a net profit of over a dollar a cord on the thinning operation. It was removed while the snow was on the ground, and hence there was no injury to the young pines. The result of this treatment will be a pine stand with a mixture of hard-woods. A part of the hard-woods will be removed when the pine is thinned, but the re- FORESTS 833 mainder will remain until the final crop is gathered. Another example is a stand of old-field white pine. When taken in hand the main body of the stand was about fifty years old, with scattering trees that were older. The older ones, or wolf trees, had a start over the others and had developed large side limbs; they were not fit for anything except the cheapest kind of lumber. The main body of the stand was too dense, and, with the help of the large wolf trees, was beginning to choke itself into a stunted condition. The stand ran about thirty-five cords to the acre. It was thinned moderately, by removing some of the intermediate and suppressed trees. Where the large wolf trees could be thrown without injury to the better growth, or without leaving too large an opening, they were taken out. Six cords of firewood and over a thousand feet of boxboards per acre were secured from the thinning. The stand may be let alone for some ten years, when it can be decided whether to cut the crop or treat it to another thinning, and allow it to grow a while longer. _ Another example of a mismanaged woodlot may be cited as illustrating very different conditions. The stand was composed in part of very old chest- nuts and oaks, some. of them three or four feet through; and under these there was a more or less complete under-stand of chestnut, oak, birch, maple and hemlock. The party who controlled the property had been making the mistake of refusing to allow any trees to be cut; and the result was that the large trees were deteriorating and the younger ones were much too crowded. The lot was gone over carefully, and a part of the large trees removed, and at the same time a very moderate thinning was executed in the smaller growth. Care was exercised in throwing the large trees, and the smaller ones were not broken to any great extent. As reproduction was abundant in the places where no under-stand existed, it was not necessary to resort to planting. The treatment was successful financially as well as silviculturally. Literature. Schlich, A Manual of Forestry, Vol. II, Part III, London, Bradbury, Agnew & Co.; The Woodlot, Graves & Fisher, Washington, United States Forest Service ; Alfred Akerman, Forest Thinning, Boston, Massachusetts State Forest Service. Harvesting and Marketing the Timber Crop. By #. EH. Bogue. Perhaps the most important step in the manage- ment of a timber crop is the harvesting, as on it depends the future existence and usefulness of the crop. This is strikingly true of the farm woodlot, in which every care must be exercised to perpetu- ate the crop in its most productive condition, to meet the annual requirements of the owner, and at the same time to be a source of income. The prac- tices employed in harvesting the woodlot and the forest crop have many points of difference, and at FORESTS Fig. 473. Stand of pine ready for harvest. the same time have much in common. A discus- sion of the practices employed in harvesting tim- ber on a large scale will be suggestive to the thoughtful reader, and will enable him better to direct his efforts in a small way; and the few points regarding the harvesting of the farm wood- lot that need especially to be noticed will be more easily comprehended. Methods of harvesting. There are two distinct methods of harvesting forest crops practiced in the United States,—clean cutting and selection cutting. Each has its ad- vantages and advocates. Clean cutting has been practiced more exten- sively in the past, and it is still in vogue where timber is plentiful. It has the advantage of free- dom of action, little or no attention being given to saving young trees for future crops ; the ground is gone over but once to secure the marketable ma- terial ; and economy of logging and milling opera- tions is effected. Clean cutting is the most prac- tical method where the trees are even-aged or are of nearly the same size, all having reached a stage when growth is slow or has nearly ceased, and practically all are ready for the harvest. This is frequently the best method in coniferous forests, where there is often but little undergrowth. Some lumbermen who have had wide experience in cut- ting hard-woods, including broad-leaf trees, in- sist that this is the most practical method even under those conditions. In the case of clear plant- ings that have reached the proper stage, clean FORESTS cutting is used for final harvest, thinnings having been removed from time to time. When this method is to be employed, in order to know approximately the quantity of timber, it is customary to engage a timber -cruiser, who passes through the timber along more or less definite lines making careful observation to the right and left, estimating the quantity of tim- ber of each kind as he passes. Record is made of the estimate of each part of a section, and at the end the estimates are summarized. It requires a man of much experience in-a particular ‘kind of timber to be of any value as a cruiser. A man habituated to the timber in the lake or gulf states would be at a loss among the redwoods and sugar pines of the West. Selection cutting consists in removing the more mature trees of a given species or of all species down to a certain diame- ter limit. On large tracts a valuation sur- vey is made at the time to determine the quantity of timber in board feet above a certain diameter limit. In measuring the diameter it is always taken at breast- height (Fig. 474), or four feet and four inches from the ground, to avoid the usual expansion at the base. The diameter limit is any that may be determined on, but is usually twelve, fourteen or sixteen inches ; the lower the limit the greater the harvest at the time and the longer the period that must elapse before another equal harvest can be gath- ered from the same land. Usually 2 to 6 per cent of the timber is measured, and from this the re- mainder is estimated. If the tract is small, a higher percentage or even all the trees may be measured. As this ; ‘ method implies ‘ making calcula- tions for another crop, the diameter of all species down to two inches is frequently taken. Calipers are used for measuring the diameter and a hypsometer for determining the height, although the height may be ocularly estimated for all practical purposes in that 4 particular kind of .“% timber. If a hyp- +: someter is not at hand, the height of a tree or any point on it may be determined by triangulation, according to the following diagram (Fig. 4'75): spe DE; or, in figures, suppose AB equals 90, Fig. 474. Measuring with calipers. FORESTS and ab equals 20; then AB by ab equals 1800; divided by AC, supposed to equal 22, it gives nearly 82 feet as the height of the tree, or DE in the diagram. In practice, a gang of four men is frequently engaged in making the survey. A half chain of thirty-three feet is fastened to the belt of the chain-man, who is guided by a man with a compass in order to make as straight a line as possible through the woods. A man on either side of the chain-man calipers the trees for a lateral distance of thirty-three feet, and calls out the result to the chain-man, who makes record of it on a sheet especially prepared for the purpose. The chain-man also makes note of the direction and size of streams, of hills and of inclines that may be of interest or use in the harvest. The gang proceeds for twenty half chains, when an acre has been covered. The measured acres are equal distances apart to the right and left of a base line through the tract. Sometimes circular areas of such radii as to contain a certain fraction or a whole acre, considered to be an average of the whole stand, are measured. The volume is approximated by multiplying the area of the base of the tree at stump height by one-half the height. Each cubic foot of saw tim- ber will cut out five to seven board feet. About eighty-five cubic feet of wood will pile up a stand- ard cord of 4x4x8 feet, or about thirty solid cubic feet will pile up a cord of sixteen-inch wood. Asa further means of determining the most prof- itable procedure, stem analyses are made by de- termining the increase through decades by measur- ing the thickness of each ten annual rings, begin- ning at the bark. By deducting from the present volume that at any year previous, the increment during that period is obtained. From the average increment of a sufficiently large number of trees, a reasonably accurate account of what the whole area has been doing can be given and a working plan laid out. This method will determine for the owners whether the area being exploited is large enough to keep the mill running indefinitely. D The capacity of mills is usually far too "|" large for the area, so that after a few ..” years’ cut a move must be made or pray the mill go out of the business. - Felling. (Figs. 476, 477.) a In felling. the tree is | chipped with the axe a on the side in the ” direction in ” which it is a to fall, in : Fig. 475. Diagram showing how to determine height of ‘ tree by triangulaticn. FORESTS 335 order to direct its course. Considerable skill in this matter is often necessary in order to place the tree where it is wanted on the ground. The cross- cut saw is used for the remainder of the cut, Fig. 476. Felling a tree. Drawn from a photograph of a chopper in action. beginning on the opposite side from the chipping. When the tree is about to fall the workmen should step off at right angles to the direction the tree is taking, in order to avoid falling limbs that are often thrown in the line with the tree. No attempt should be made to drive farm animals from danger after the tree begins to fall. Failure to heed one or the other of these precautions costs numerous lives every year. Care is taken to avoid breakage as much as possible and to have the logs in a con- venient place for loading. When wood is frozen, it is much more brittle than at other times. When trees are small enough to permit of it, they are cut close to the ground, which makes a saving of timber. In felling the large trees of the West, the choppers stand on a scaffolding. (Fig. 477.) Sawmills. (Figs. 478-480.) The location of the mill is one of the most im- portant factors in the harvesting of a forest crop. The large mills are always located on a pond, stream or lake, in order to provide water for the steam boilers and to have water into which the logs may be rolled before they are taken into the mill. The logs are taken into the mill by means of a jack-ladder,—a heavy, endless chain that runs in the bottom of a V-shaped groove extending into the water, over which logs are floated,—or other suit- able conveyance. The small portable mill, which is moved about to gather up what the larger mills do not take, is located in a position convenient to most 336 FORESTS FORESTS of the timber, the water: for the boiler being supplied from a tank, pool or small stream ; and the logs are rolled on to the carriage from askidway. The capacity of mills varies from one furnished with both circular and band saws and which runs night and day, cutting in twenty-four hours one or two hundred thousand feet, to one that runs for a longer or shorter period during the day, according to the demand of the customer and the will of the sawyer, cutting a few hundred or a thousand feet per day. American ingenuity has modified machinery to meet the demands of the timber in each locality as far as possible. On the western coast the trees are so large that the machinery used in the East would be useless, so the power and capacity has been in- creased to meet the demand. Some of the logs are so large that they can not be moved and must be blasted apart to reduce them to portable or work- able size. In such cases the percentage of waste is very high. Small tools. The small tools are few in variety but ample in quantity. Each camp is provided with a few pairs Fig. 477. Harvesting the forest crop in western Washington. The undercut on a giant cedar nearly completed; the tree will soon be felled. of skidding tongs, which are similar to ice-tongs but heavy enough to stand the strain of one or more teams of horses. They are used to get logs Fig. 478. Harvesting planted cottonwood. The logs were cut out as thinnings. out of inconvenient places. Chain is bought by the keg and made up by the blacksmith as needed. Cant-hooks for rolling logs by hand are always in evidence. Cross-cut saws are made ready for use by a man who is employed much of the time keep- ing them in order. Axes are bought by the dozen. A good strong man wants a four- to six-pound axe. The style known as double-bit is best liked by most choppers. The flattened handle and evenly balanced blades make guiding easier, and the edge capacity is double that of the single-bit or poled axe. Transportation to market and mill. (Figs. 481- 485.) Water.—In the New England and lake states water has performed an important part in the transportation of logs to the mill. Logs have been thrown into the lakes and streams and carried many miles, where the lumber was available to canal, steam-boat or railway. Often the logs were left in the water for months, until some of them became water-logged and sank to the bottom. In such a bountiful harvest these were but straws and were never missed, but now companies are formed and rights are purchased for the purpose of raising these “dead -heads.” The logs are peeled and piled on the bank to dry for a year, when they are again put into the water and floated to the mill, and cut into lumber, which is scarcely inferior to that which the logs would have made had they not sunk. Hard-wood logs are so heavy that they are not often driven for long distances in the water. In the southern states, cypress trees are often felled into the water and towed or poled to the bank. This is known as “jam-sticking.” In certain parts of the West, wooden chutes, several miles in length and furnished with water, are used for running railway ties and other timber down the mountains. ‘ Big wheels—Where water is not available, other means must be resorted to. In the North, snow and ice roads are used in the cold season. During open weather in the North, and throughout the year in the South and parts of the West, what are known as “big wheels” are used (Figs. 483, 484). These wheels are said to have been used first in Michigan. They are built. with a strong axle, the wheels standing six to.ten feet high. Between the FORESTS wheels one to several logs are suspended, the rear end being allowed to drag. Roads.—Fairly good roads are made through the woods for a single crop, because a large number of heavy loads must be hauled over some of them. Swampers cut out the underbrush and clear away obstructions, after which grading is done if necessary. Miscellaneous means.—In some mountain- ous regions, where rocks do not interfere, timber is allowed to slide down the incline on the bare ground. In the extreme West and Northwest, huge logs are dragged on the ground, rollers being supplied to con- vert sliding-friction into rolling - friction. Cattle, a means of power which has been largely used in harvesting crops, are used for this purpose because of their strength and convenience. ‘In the South, what is called “drumming” is employed to a limited extent. This appliance consists of a large . cylinder made to revolve, and which winds up a rope or cable, the outer end of which is fastened to the log. A much more pow- erful and practical method is the steam skidder, which, by means of pulleys and a cable, gathers the logs from a few thousand feet on either side of the track on which it moves and places them on the cars, if need be. Temporary tracks of either narrow or standard gauge are laid into the woods and camps, and when the timber in one place has been harvested they are taken up and relaid in an- other place. These are contrivances for short hauls to get the logs to the steam railway, on which they are placed and transported longer dis- tances to the mill. A great deal of lumber is now kiln-dried either after air-drying for a time or fresh from the saw, thereby making it fit for use much sooner than by air-drying alone. When the lumber is finally ready for the wholesale or retail dealer, it is again trans- FORESTS 337 ported to the most likely sale-place, so that in any up-to-date market we find spruce from Maine, pop- lar (whitewood) from the hard-wood belt between North and South, yellow pine and cypress from the South, cedar and redwood from the West. The best grades of American lumber are shared with TATE Fig. 480. dee sawmill. other countries. The poorer grades are found on the local country yards. Waste in lumbering. Some thirty years ago only about 30 per cent of the available timber of a stand was placed on the yard. The best and most convenient was taken and the remainder left to grow, burn or decay as chance might determine. It did not pay in those days to be saving. With increased value, however, more care is now exercised to cut the crop closer. Some timber-land has been cut over for the third or fourth time, each time all that was worth har- vesting being taken. Virgin stands are now worked very close in clean cutting where timber is valu- able. All logs down to four inches at the top are taken to the mill, where there are two sets of saws. As the logs come into i Nha, le cn 4.4 Fig. 479. Portable sawmill. the mill, the better ones are thrown to one saw and the poorer to the other. The better logs nearly all make lumber,while the poorer ones are mostly cut into four- foot lengths from which is made wood alcohol, acetic acid, charcoal and the like. In hard-woods, the proportion is about one cord of wood to each thousand feet of lumber. Where timber is valuable for fuel, the tops and limbs are worked into cord- wood to supply local demand, and the 338 FORESTS brush in some cases is burned to avoid uncon- trollable fires. This should be done more fre- quently. The Forest Service has made investiga- tions along this line and has found that in a cer- FORESTS feet. By this rule, if a log is twenty inches in diameter and ten feet long, it contains 160 board feet. The Doyle rule gives less than Scribner’s in logs up to about twenty-nine inches, and more than Scribner’s en tain locality in Minnesota the cost of burning the brush from pine timber was ten cents per thou- sand feet of lumber. In other places it would be more or less, depending on conditions. Formerly, great vertical cylinders called consumers, used for burning waste, were conspicuous objects at a large mill (Fig. 480), but present economy in some places leaves these as monuments to mark a stage in the progress in the economical development of timber harvesting. On small timber lots there need be no waste except the small brush, which should be left scattered so that it will decay more readily if it is not convenient to burn it. Fig. 481. Sorting logs at market. Northern Michigan. above that. Cost. Other things being equal, it costs as much to harvest in- ferior classes of -timber, like beech and ma- ple, as it does walnut and hickory, and more than pine and cedar; hence the cost of harvest will be higher for the inferior timbers as com- pared with their value. The cost of lay- ing the lumber on the yard is frequently one-half the market price. There are many factors which must be considered, any one or all of which may vary with the kind of timber, distance from mill, appliances, kind of help, wages paid, and other items. When the pri- vate owner can use help during part of the year that would otherwise be idle, as on the farm, he can deliver the logs to the mill at little expense and save that much on his stumpage. Harvest time. Ripeness end fitness determine when to cut. Valuation. In disposing of a piece of timber, the owner should know by what rule the tim- ber is to be scaled. There are some fifty log rules; any one of them may be used, but comparatively few of them are in common use. One rule may be used in one locality and a different one in an- other locality. Theoretically, they should agree, because no rule can change the volume of a log. Logs are usually scaled at the small end inside the bark, but the practice of scaling in the middle prevails in some places. The rules that have found most favor are the Doyle, Doyle- Scribner, and the Scribner. Just how log rules are computed is not always easy to ascer- tain, but the Doyle rule is so simple that one may construct a table any time. It is essentially as fol- lows : Reduce the diameter of the log at the small end by four inches; square one-fourth of the re- mainder and multiply by the length of the log in a Fig. 482. Steam and water transportation. Northern Michigan. Basket-willows, hoop-poles, fence-posts, telephone and telegraph poles, piles and the like, must be harvested when they are the proper size or age for the purpose; but for lumber, the trees should stand until the climax of growth is well passed. Trees are often swept off just when they are doing FORESTS Se SS Fig. 483. The use of big wheels in harvesting of southern hard-woods. The common method of bringing in large white oak, gum and other hard-woods in the tide-water region of Virginia. their best. This is particularly true of white pine, for which there is always a demand. This species makes its best growth FORESTS 339 Clean cutting is admissable only when there are a number of mature, valuable trees, with little or no undergrowth, and when the protection afforded by the woods is not important. If the area is to be con- tinued as a woodland, then replanting by seed or seedlings is resorted to. Under other conditions, selection cutting should be employed. For firewood, posts, poles and similar requirements, the dead or dying, slower-growing, undesirable species and forest weeds should be removed. For dimension stuff, only the mature trees should be taken. Care must be exercised in the selection of the cutting, in order that the conditions for the best growth of the remain- ing trees and the re-occupancy of the opened spaces may be promoted. It is important that the open spaces be filled either by nat- ural growth or by planted seedlings. Judg- ment is required in the felling of the trees to avoid damage to the surrounding trees and to the undergrowth. The logs must be snaked out where they will least from the thirtieth to the eightieth year, but good profit on clear stuff in the future is often sacri- ficed for box material at present. Species that are prone to Jecay while standing should be cut when in full vigor. The owner of small pieces of timber will adapt such appliances as best suit his needs, and choose such time or season for harvest as will most eco- harm the seedlings. When considerable di- mension stuff is removed, a portable sawmill may be employed and placed in or near the woodlot. Frequently the logs are sledded to the local saw- mill. In colder regions the time for this work will be in winter when other farm work is not so pres- sing and when the logs and lumber can be moved on sleighs. Whether in summer or winter, a pair Harvesting the woodlot. ut ae be I Much of what has rolling up logs, where been said applies to the farm woodlot. A fewfacts they can be handled with a chain or for dragging of special significance to the woodlot, however, them out of inconvenient places. A cant-hook is a should be pointed out. The farmer very frequently convenience that one can not afford to be without. finds himself with a poor, thin wood crop. The best species have been removed, and the crooked and im- perfect trees have been left; and this, too, without any justification. The main demand on the woodlot is for firewood, posts and poles, and, occasionally, a little dimension stuff. This can all be had to the improve- ment of the woodlot, when the har- vesting is done judiciously. The point to keep in mind in handling the farm woodlot is to perpetuate it and make it a constant source of income. The method of harvesting will finally be determined by the ,; SK purpose for which the product is So ngs A desired. Fig. 485. Car of white pine. Grayling, Michigan. nomically meet his de- mands. L Bie . Fig. 484. Pine logs ready for the road. Northern Michigan. 340 FORESTS Roads should be made with some care because nearly all young stuff is killed by driving over it afew times, and new growth does not come in for many years. Frequently a little drainage of wet places will prove very profitable. The details of handling team, chain, sleighs and trucks can best be learned by experience. Marketing timber crops. The marketing of timber crops differs from that of any other farm product in several particulars. Meats are sold by the pound, eggs by the dozen, coal by the ton, grain by measure or weight, each hav- ing its standard of denomination. Timber crops are sold by the tree, acre, thousand-feet board measure, cubic foot, pound and even by the sack. The stand- ard cord is 128 cubic feet, or a pile 8x4 x4 feet; , metry ee re Fig. 486. An improvement thinning in planted white pine. The white pines were planted in mixture with ash and box-elder, and a partial harvesting of the crop has taken place in which box-elder, ash and poorer pines have been removed. The open areas are being filled by under-plantings of white pine and hard maple as seen in fore- ground, 3 but in different localities the cord varies according to the uniform length of pieces composing it. Logs that will scale a thousand feet will generally make a little more than a standard cord of wood. A timber crop is an accumulation of annual growths, the nature of the plant making it impos- sible to market the annual growth each year. If the market conditions are not right one year, the crop may wait for even a score or more of years, or until such time as seems most favorable. The market for the crop has its ups and downs, but not nearly to the same extent as that of a perishable crop. The time and method of marketing will vary with the character of the crop itself, which varies in volume from the small willow whips only two feet in length, to the massive sequoias, the greatest of nature’s organized products. It is to the interest of the purchasing agent to buy lumber at the lowest possible price, for a thing well bought is half sold. He therefore tries to per- suade the owner that his timber is not growing very fast, that some trees show evidence of decay FORESTS and death, and that substitutes are on the increase, all of which may:be true enough and yet not be sufficient reasons for making immediate sale. The growing rate of timber can be determined as well by the owner as by the purchaser. The area of the stump of a tree in square feet multiplied by one- half the height gives the approximate number of cubic feet in the tree. If, now, the thickness of the ten outer rings be determined, and the diameter be reduced by double this amount, we can estimate the volume of the tree ten years ago. Since the height of nearly or quite mature stands varies but little, the same height-factor may be repeatedly used. About eighty-five of the cubic feet thus de- termined, when cut, will make a standard cord of wood and other lengths in proportion. The increase in volume of saw timber can best be determined by cutting some of the most typical average trees into logs, and with Scribner’s, Doyle’s, Bauman’s, or some other log book in hand, figure the board feet at present, and then by reducing the diameter by double the thickness of the ten outer rings it will give the board feet ten years before. The Wood- man’s Handbook, Part I, Bulletin No. 36, Forest Service of the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, contains over forty log rules, besides much other information valuable to the man who handles timber. It may be expected that under proper encouragement the more valuable trees in a stand may be made to increase more rap- idly than under unmanaged or mismanaged conditions. While the rings of one decade may measure less than those of a past de- cade, the lumber in the larger tree is more valuable. Since different kinds of timber vary in rapidity of growth, the determina- tion of one species will not answer for all. Forestry can be practiced in an almost ideal way on the farm woodlot of five to fifty acres. Unless the quantity to be dis- posed of at one time is very small, one should know where the best markets are, the same as he would for other farm products. There are several publications devoted entirely to the lumber business. All large cities are great lumber mar- kets. Chicago is a great pine market and St. Louis leads in hard-woods. It is quite possible for the forest owner to post himself on prices and pros- pects of market and crops by reading quotations and by correspondence with dealers. If he has a good article, it will sell almost any day. If one firm does not handle the goods he has to dispose of, it will usually direct him to parties that do. Expert advice can be secured for the asking of the official forester of the timber-owner’s state or of some other. Such advice is usually given free of charge as long as there is no considerable expense of time and travel incurred. Personal inspection and con- sultation may be had at nominal cost. At all events, whatever plan of sale is adopted, the timber-owner should know whether selling for a lump sum, by the thousand, by the acre or by the cord, will bring him the most satisfactory returns. FORESTS The portable sawmill has done much to relieve the market of waste material. It is practicable only where there are several hundred thousand feet to be sawed. It should be a means of securing the highest price, since there is no expense of transporting almost worthless material in the form of sawdust and slab. However, what is waste today may be a valuable product tomorrow. There is now a market for both chestnut bark and wood for tannin, thus utilizing the whole tree. The tops of the trees not suitable for saw-timber are used by alcohol plants. In some places sawdust is an article of commerce. The discarded tops and butts of white cedar are now collected and made into shingles as far as the condition of the timber per- mits. Half-decayed pine logs and stumps are sawed into four-foot wood and shipped to brick and tile factories, or for use in other industries where wood fuel is preferable to coal. The logs that have lain on the bottom of lakes and streams for a score or more of years,— the remnants of a past harvest,—are now being raised and placed on the market. Kinds and grades of timber products. Willows for basketry must be marketed every year, or they become too large and too much branched. The bundles are easily handled and can be loaded on hay-racks like sheaves of grain and hauled to the basket factory or transportation medium. The price to the grower will depend very largely on the quality of crop and prox- imity to the place of manufacture. The _ whips should be two to eight feet long, all of one season’s growth. The marketing of this crop differs from that of most others of its class in that there is only one use to which it is put and only basket factories buy the product. There are at present few -basket factories in the United States, but since nearly all hand work is required the grower could without much outlay establish his own factory and to a large extent control the market for his crop. The splint basket mills are less expensive to establish than sawmills and are frequently built at some railway station, where the product can easily be shipped away. The timber is cut into veneers, and all waste is used for fuel to run the machinery. The mills use up the remnants of a stand of tim- ber, as the requirements are so moderate that crooked and knotty timber of many species can be profitably employed. The market for small birch, elm, black ash and hickory poles for half-round split hoops has praeti- cally passed. There is, however, some demand for hickory and white osk butts, twenty-eight to forty-two inches long and at least four inches in diameter at the small end, for pick and other handles. When trees of these species and others are to be placed on the market, the owners should correspond with the manufacturers of such tools. If these companies can not use the material, they will inform the owner where such materials can be marketed. Small-sized soft-wood trees will find FORESTS 341 most profitable sale for paper pulp in regions where this material is used. Sticks four inches or more in diameter and four feet long bring three to five dollars per cord delivered at the mill. If not used for pulp they will be in demand for fruit packages. Poplar and basswood in eight-foot lengths are most profitably disposed of for porch columns. Hard-woods and some conifers of better class than for basket stuff—straight trees to twenty-four inches in diameter on the stump,— are now profitably disposed of for piling, and the longer and straighter the better. Even such com- mon woods as beech, black ash, maple and tama- rack are now used for this purpose, but are not so good as oak and cedar. Second-growth white ash and hickory always find a ready market for handle stuff. Cedar is WEN \) ) HEMI = iW y i Fig. 487. Harvesting a woodlot of mixed hard-woods in southern Con- necticut. The quantity of timber removed in a heavy improvement eutting is shown by the piles of wood. Only the post trees of de- sirable species have been left. The original stand was dense. easily marketed in any size from posts three inches in diameter at the small end. As this timber is very light, it is often profitable to transport it on water even of small streams. As the tree gener- ally grows in swampy situations, it is best pre- pared for market in winter and transported in spring. It is necessary first to peel the bark with draw knives. Trees large enough for telephone poles command high price. The available quantity is now so small in the East that poles are being shipped from as far west as Idaho to supply eastern markets. Chestnut not suitable for poles is now sold for tannin, thus making use of what otherwise might be wasted. The uses of trees large enough for sawed lum- ber are very numerous. Chairs, coaches, tables, tanks, beds, boxes, shingles, spokes, floors, frames, and a long list of articles of familiar and common use are examples. Hard maple of the best quality should be mar- keted for flooring, but if no mill for its manufac- ture is at hand, it can be used for medium- priced furniture and other commodities, such as shoe lasts, boot-trees and fuel. The intrinsic value 342 FORESTS of this wood is such that it should command a much higher price than at present. White ash has long been the common wood for ball bats, but now maple, beech and black ash are all used for low-priced goods of this class. Immense quantities of all the cheaper grades of timber are used for dry barrels and a large num- ber of articles classed as “pail stuff.” Elm has experienced a rapid and steady increase in price as its possibilities have become better known. It is now used for a large part of the cheaper grades of furniture. When steamed it bends readily, and for this reason is largely used for flat hoops. Attention was drawn to the possibilities of all the elms when it was discovered that rock elm is an excellent wood for the manufacture of wood-rims for bicycles. The quantity of rock and red elm is very limited, but the supply of white elm, in spite of the fact that the timber decays readily and does not grow rapidly, is holding out well, probably because it withstands exposure well and frequently occupies land that is not well adapted to cultiva- tion or grazing. Small trees, four to twelve inches in diameter, are sometimes sold for hubs. This requires the sacrifice of young, growing stock, which, under most circumstances, would best be left inthe stand. It may be stated in this connec- tion that the pepperidge of the North, which is the black gum of the South, of suitable size, would better be used for hubs than for any other purpose. Because of wind-shake and other defects, hem- lock is uniformly used for dimension stuff. A]- though not a first-class lumber, there is steady demand for it at reasonable prices. With the increased value of wood has come a substitute of the poorer sorts, where formerly only the better quality would answer. Not long since, black walnut was considered the only wood suit- able for certain kinds of furniture. This has been replaced almost entirely by oak; but now oak is increasing in value to such an extent that some other wood must soon take its place. The art of veneering is helping to extend the use of the more valuable woods. Tables, desks, doors, and other articles of common use, are now made of hemlock and veneered with yellow pine, oak, or some other wood susceptible of a high finish. Consequently, timber good enough for work of this nature can be placed on the market almost any day at a good price. The owner of a fine specimen of white oak has been offered one hundred dollars for the tree on the stump, which was more than the value of an acre of the land on which the tree was growing. Three-fourths of our timber product is from cone- bearing trees. A large proportion of this is pine. The extensive tracts of timber, composed largely of cone-bearing trees, are owned by men of large means, companies or corporations, but these or- ganizations have not yet gained such control of supplies but that the owner of asmall patch of pine, if it is properly managed and marketed, may realize rich returns from the crop. Stands that twenty years ago brought two dollars and a half per acre now bring a hundred or more. In Michi- FORESTS gan, white pine is now worth ten dollars to twenty- five dollars per thousand feet on the stump. In Fig. 484 is seen a load of pine logs starting for market. The logs in the booms shown in Fig. 481 are mostly pine and hemlock. The car shown in Fig. 485 is loaded with 35-foot white pine logs, except a small Norway pine log (Pinus resinosa) on top. Development in lumbering industries. Some classes of timber have doubled in price in five years, while others have taken twice as long to experience a like increase in price. In spite of the many substitutes for wood, its consumption is increasing at the rate of about 3 per cent per capita per annum, the quantity now used being about three hundred and fifty cubic feet per capita in America; and forty cubic feet in Germany and fourteen cubic feet in England, where substitutes for wood are largely employed. That the demand for timber will continue to increase can not be doubted when we are reminded that, besides consumption for many other purposes, in lumber and pulp timber alone we clear an area of good virgin forest every year as large as the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island ; for boxes and crates, 50,000 acres ; for matches, 400 acres ; for shoe-pegs, 3,500 acres of good second-growth hard-wood ; for lasts and boot-trees, 10,000 acres ; while for fuel we require 17,971,200 acres, or four and one-half times the area of Connecticut and Rhode Island. These are examples of large and small consumption, the intermediate uses being almost indeterminate. The adaptation of the inferior woods to new uses has led to the convenience of a local though small market, where a timber-owner may dispose of material that he does not need or which is ill adapted to his purpose, and at the same place he may secure building materials that better meet his requirements. The difference in price of that sold and that purchased is necessary, considering the perishable and combustible character of the goods, the long hauls, and the freight rates, all of which must ultimately be met by the consumer. Literature. Nearly all forestry books contain advice on har- vesting. Following are a few useful references: Schlich, A Manual of Forestry; Gayer, Forstbe- nutzung, eighth edition; Ribbentrop, Forestry in British India; Nisbet, The Forester, Vol. II; C. A. Schenck, Forest Utilization ; William F. Fox, A History of the Lumber Industry in the State of New York, Bulletin No. 34, United States Forest Service; J. E. Defenbaugh, History of the Lumber Industry of America. The Woodsman’s Handbook, Part I, Bulletin No. 36, Bureau of Forestry, Wash- ington, D. C.; Forest Mensuration, by Henry Solon Graves, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1906; Rules and Specifications for the Grading of Lum- ber, Bulletin No. 71, Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture; Grades and Amount of Lumber Sawed from Yellow Poplar, Yellow Birch, Sugar Maple and Beech, Bulletin No. 73, Forest Service. FORESTS me Enemies of Woodlot Trees. Figs. 488- By A. D. Hopkins. The insect enemies of trees in the woodlot differ with the section of country and the kind of trees rep- resented. In the New England states, the woodlot may consist of almost pure stands of white pine, mixed spruce, pine, birch and the like, maple, oak and hickory ; farther south it may consist of pure stands ae crub TA MTA pine, pitch pine, ee i WW \ | { # black locust, or if mixed hard-wood, yellow poplar, if! walnut, beech, ’ chestnut; in the - south Atlantic and gulf states it may be loblolly or long-leaf pine, ; sweet gum or - mixed hard- | woods; north of a 6the gulf states it if}. may be mixed i ~=hard-woods, with oak, hickory, lo- cust, box elder or | cottonwood pre- dominating; in the Rocky moun- tain region it may be pine, spruce, aspen or cotton- wood; toward the Pacific coast, scrub oak, live oak, pine or redwood ; in the North- west it will consist of a different class of trees, growing under very different conditions from those found in any other section of country. Each tree and each section of the country has its peculiar class of insects, requiring special methods of control. It is readily seen to be impracticable to discuss in a short treatise even the more impor- tant insect enemies of the farmers’ woodlots in all sections of the country. If we take one section, however, we may give some general information on the character and extent of the depredations by a few of the principal and more widely distributed enemies, and methods for their control. Ah \ ti al Stay Fig. 488. Work of the hickory bark- beetle on surface of wood beneath the bark: a, primary gallery; 6, larval mines. Enemies of a special section. In the section east of the Mississippi river and north of the gulf states, the average insect losses affecting the medium- to large-sized hard-wood trees of the woodlot and small forests evidently equal, or even surpass, the average losses to the same class of timber by forest fires. The hickory bark-beetle has killed a large percentage of the hickory ; the black locust has been so badly dam- aged by the borer that in some sections where the conditions are otherwise most favorable for the growth of this valuable tree, it is rendered practi- cally worthless; the heart-wood of some of the -winterin the FORESTS 3843 finest specimens of oak and chestnut is often so badly damaged by timber worms that it is value- less for anything but fuel or rough boards. While the pines and spruces suffer more perhaps from fire than from insects, especially the young growth, there are certain insects, as the white pine weevil, which often cause serious damage. Thus we see from these four examples alone that the insect problem is by no means the least important to be considered by the farmer in the management of his woodlot. There are also local problems, like those pre- sented in Massachusetts and adjoining states by the gypsy moth and brown-tail moth, which are already demanding attention through federal, state and private effort and the publication of information. Controlling special cases. It may appear at first that the problem of con- trolling the more common and widely distributed insect enemies of forest trees is difficult and expen- sive, when, in fact, it is often just the reverse. A few special cases are cited to demonstrate this point. : The hickory bark-beetle (Scolytus quadrispinosus) is a short, stout, shining, black or brownish beetle, averaging about one-eighth of an inch in length, which attacks the medium to large hickory trees in the spring and summer, and girdles them by ex- cavating egg galleries and larval mines (Fig. 488) under the bark. The undeveloped brood passes the bark, and the matured brood of adults flies in May to August to continue the depredations. To: control an out- break of this pest it is neces- sary that all, or at least a large percentage of the hickory trees within a radius of a 2 few square miles that die & from any cause in the sum- mer, be felled and utilized for fuel, or other purposes, or be burned, to kill the over-win- tered broods. The work must be done in the period begin- ning with about the first of October and ending with the first of May. To prevent further trouble, living hick- ory trees for any purpose A Fig, 489. Locust borer (Oyllene robinie). Upper figures, mature should be cut in the spring and summer, so that the tops and unused parts of the trunks may be utilized by the beetles as breeding places and thus serve as traps, when they can be destroyed the following winter by beetle: left, male; right, female. Lower figures, the larva, * showing dorsal view on left and lateral view on right. (Up- per figures enlarged slightly less than one- half; lower figures slightly more than one-half, 344 FORESTS burning. [For further information, see Yearbook, United States Department of Agriculture, 1908; pp. 314-317.] The locust borer (Cyllene robiniw, Fig. 489) is a whitish, elongated, round-headed grub, which hatches from an egg deposited by a black-and yellow-striped long-horned beetle, found on.the trees and on the flowers of goldenrod from August to October. The eggs are deposited in August and September in the outer bark on the trunks and branches, and the young larve pass the winter in minute hibernating cells between the outer corky bark and the living bark. In the spring they bore through the inner bark and enter the wood. Their presence is indicated in May, June and July by the boring dust lodged in the bark and around the base of the infested trees. The young hibernating borers may be killed from November 1 to April 1 by spraying the infested trunks and branches with kerosene emulsion, one gallon to two gallons of water. The older borers, after they have entered the wood, may be destroyed in May to July by cutting out the worst infested trees and burning them or immersing them in streams or ponds. The cutting of locust for any other purpose, however, should be done between November 1 and April 1, so that the removal of the bark from the utilized part of the trunk and the burning of the tops will kill the young borers before they enter the wood. New plantations should be made where the locust is naturally free from general injury, and seed for the purpose should be from trees which show the least dam- age. [For additional information, see Bul- letin No. 58, Parts I and III, and Circular No. 83 of the Bureau of Entomology, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture.] The oak timber worm (Eupsalis mi- nuta) is a slender, whitish, cylindrical grub or worm, less than an inch in length, with the seg- ments toward the head much enlarged, and the last abdomi- nal segment smooth and rounded. These worms hatch from eges deposited in wounds in the bark and wood of living trees, and at first bore almost invisible holes directly into the wood. The burrows are enlarged and extended in all directions through the heart-wood until the larve have attained their full growth. (Fig. 490.) They then transform to adults within their burrows and emerge the next spring or summer to repeat the cycle in the same wounds or in the wood of Pinholes in oak, the work of the oak timber worm. Fig. 490. FORESTS dead trees, stumps and logs, either standing or felled. An axe wound in a large healthy tree may result in attack by this insect, and later the entire heart-wood become perforated with so- called pinhole defects. Wounds made by lightning NR | (i ly [ Tm WM ( is | ? : Ne A / | \ ly iit gt i! | it Pinholes in chestnut, the work of the chestnut timber worm. Fig. 491. or other cause may result in the wood of the entire trunk being thus rendered worthless for stave timber, clapboards or first-class lumber. This insect breeds in great numbers in the stumps of dead trees and in the stumps and logs of felled trees, and is ever ready to attack living trees wherever a slight wound in the bark offers an opportunity. To avoid the attack of this in- sect on living trees, all injured or dead hard- wood trees, as well as the logs of felled ones, should be promptly utilized or burned, and newly felled trees should be cut very close to the ground and the brush tops burned over the stumps. Indeed, the disposal of all places for the breeding of this insect will always be an important feature in the management of American hard-wood forests and farmers’ woodlots. [For additional information, see Yearbook, Department of Agriculture, 1903, pp. 328, 824 and Bulletin No. 35, West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, p. 294.] The chestnut timber worm (Lymexylon sericeum) is somewhat similar in general form to the pre- ceding, but is at once distinguished by the dark brown, horny plate with toothed edges on the last segment of the body. It hatches from an egg deposited by an elongated, brownish beetle clothed with fine silky hairs. The habit of this borer is practically the same as the oak timber worm, except that it is found principally in chestnut, though it sometimes infests red oak and white oak. It is exceedingly destructive to the heart-wood of old chestnut trees (Fig. 491), and never fails to enter the slightest wound in the bark on the trunks and around the bases of the dead branches of liv- ing trees, It also breeds in dead or felled trees, FORESTS stumps, arid the like, so that the method of control is practically the same as that recommended for the oak timber worm, especially as applied to chestnut and red oak. General advice. It should be remembered that after a tree is once attacked and seriously injured by one or more of these wood-boring insects, nothing can be done to repair the damage, and that therefore preven- tion is of primary importance. Thus it will be seen that the control of an outbreak of any of the principal insect enemies of the woodlot involves the adoption of methods of management by which the utilization of the infested trees at the proper time will destroy the insects and bring about the desired results with little or no additional expense, and this is to be supplemented by other features in the management which will prevent future trouble. Some of the rules of general application are as follows : Fell and utilize or destroy, in the fall or winter, all dying or recently dead trees before the broods of destructive enemies have had time to develop and emerge; utilize or destroy all tops, large branches, and logs from living trees cut the pre- vious winter, spring and summer, and burn the brush over the stumps. Avoid injury of any kind to the bark and wood of living timber, especially of oak and chestnut. Cut and utilize the old trees which show evi- dences of deterioration, and those which have been injured by lightning, storm or other causes; and if the trees are infested by destructive insects, do the work in the fall and winter. Forest and Timber Diseases. Figs. 492-497. By Hermann von Schrenk. The diseases which affect forest trees manifest themselves in various ways, depending on the part of the tree which is attacked. Diseased trees may be recognized by the yellowing or other discolor- ation of their leaves, a much reduced growth of the trunk and branches, the dying of the tops, the ap- pearance of swellings on leaves or branches, and by the growth on trunks or branches of punks or toadstools. A diseased tree forms less wood than a healthy one, and in many cases decays at the heart, (Fig. 492), with a resultant total destruction of the wood, and ultimate death. Trees are liable to become diseased from the first year on. They are most liable during the latter part of their life. A number of fungi attack seed- ling trees and cause their death, by strangling them or by killing the young leaves. As the trees grow older, the destruction of certain branches and leaves may not have any very serious results ; but after they have reached a period of maturity, they become more subject to disease, because larger branches will be broken off ; and more wounds are made in old trees than in young ones. Practically all kinds of trees are subject to disease, and some more than others, The redwood, cypress and the FORESTS 345 various cedars are comparatively free from disease ; so, also, are trees like the red gum, sycamore and sassafras. The oaks, beech, birch and other hard- woods are rarely attacked when young, but become very liable to disease after they have reached the age of fifty years or more; the same is true of pines, firs and spruces. Causes of disease, and points of attack. Diseases of forest trees may be due either (1) to unfavorable conditions of soil and climate, or (2) to parasitic enemies, as insects, fungi and higher plants. Wet, soggy soil will produce stag-headed trees; excessive quantities of sulfur gas in the air will result in a discoloration of the foliage of the entire tree, and frequently in its ultimate death. In dry years there will be very much less disease than Fig. 492. Section showing how fruiting body of wood-destroy- ing fungus grows, and the resulting internal rot. in years of heavy rainfall. Trees that are grown very close together will be much more subject to disease than those that are farther apart. Wood- lots in which all of the trees are of one kind will be much more liable to disease than woodlots in which different kinds of trees are grown. In seed- beds, diseases will be favored by poorly drained soil and by excessive mulching. Thrifty trees will always be very much less subject to disease than weak ones. The diseases due to fungi can be divided into (1) diseases of the living parts, and (2) dis- eases of the dead parts. The diseases of the living parts affect the leaves, the younger branches and the smaller roots, and a thin layer of the body of the tree, including the most recently formed wood and the inner bark. The diseases of the dead parts affect the older wood of the trunk, roots and branches, known as the “heart-wood.” The fungi that cause disease of the living parts bring about local or general disturbances, which at first weaken the tree and may ultimately kill it; those that attack the heart-wood bring about the decay of the heart-wood, resulting in the loss of wood, and when the decay goes far enough, in the weakening of the tree so that it is easily broken off. 346 FORESTS Nature of the disease fungi and their action. Fungi are a low class of plants, consisting of fine threads, called hyphe, many hyphe forming the mycelium. The mycelium grows in the dead or living parts, extracting certain food substances therefrom. After varying periods, fruiting bodies are formed, which develop spores. These fruiting bod- ies have various shapes, varying from microscopic structures to the large punks or toadstools so com- monly found on older trees. The spores are discharged into the air, and are dis- tributed from one tree to another by the wind ; they are also carried from tree to tree by insects, rain, or, when the fungi grow under the ground, by burrowing animals, such as moles and mice. When the fungus causes a disease of the leaves or branches, the spores usu- ally germinate directly on the leaves or branches, the fungus penetrating into the living tissue, and growing there. When the fungus attacks the heart-wood of the tree, the spore must get into some wound. During the early life of the tree these wounds are very few in number, but as a tree grows older many wounds are formed, and the tendency to close these wounds, either by the formation of callus or by the exudation of gum or resin, is very much reduced. Wounds are made by deer and other browsing animals, by wood- peckers, but chiefly by the breaking off of large branches by the wind or snow. Wherever a wound is made, the spores from numerous wood-rotting fungi enter and germinate, and the mycelium of the fungus grows down into the heart-wood of the tree. When it has reached the heart-wood, it grows both up and down in the tree trunk, and results in the partial or total destruction of the wood, as shown in Figs. 492, 493 and 494. When a sufficient amount of nutritive material has been absorbed from the trunk, a punk or toadstool forms on the outside, bearing new spores, as shown in Fig. 492. Fig. 497 illustrates a different type of injury. It shows the way in which mistletoe forms a ‘‘bird’s-nest” on lodge-pole pine. The fungi that attack leaves and branches are rarely present in sufficient number to kill a large tree, although they may stunt its growth. They are very much more dangerous to extremely young trees. The so-called “damping-off” fungi belong to this group, and they are particularly active in seed-beds. As the tree grows older, the wood-rotting fungi become more important, and the older the Fig. 493. Effect on wood of red spruce by the mycelum of Polyporus borealis. (Figs. 493, 494 are adapted from Bul- letin No. 193, Cornell Experiment Station.) FORESTS tree gets the more liable to disease it becomes. For most kinds of trees, a certain age usually will mean an almost certain attack by one or the other of the wood-rotting fungi, and it is generally well, when such trees are used for lumber, to cut them shortly after this age has been reached. For pines this may be about eighty to one hundred years. It is the latter class of fungi that are of particular interest to the lumberman and forester. Some of the important fungi which produce disease in forest trees are the red heart fungus (Trametes pint, Fig. 496), found on all coniferous trees; the false tinder fungus (Polyporus igniarius, Fig. 495), found on beech, apple, oak, poplar and other hardwoods, where it produces a white, soft rot of the trunk ; the sulfur mushroom, which causes a brown rot of many coniferous trees, and also of oak, walnut, cherry and other deciduous trees. The fungi that attack hewn timber and produce decay belong to a separate group. The factors ‘which favor their development are, a certain amount of heat, oxygen, water and food supply. Dry wood will last very much longer than green wood. A post set in the ground with its bark removed will outlast one with the bark on. Sap wood is very much more liable to attack than heart-wood. The rate at which different kinds of wood will decay differs, and woods are accordingly classed as long- and short-lived. Long-lived woods are such as white oak, cypress, cedar, chestnut and redwood ; and short-lived woods are such as fir, hemlock, beech, red oak, gum and the soft pines. Fig. 494. Disintegration of wood by Polyporus borealis. Prevention of disease. In forest trees—The prevention of diseases in forest trees is: more or less difficult. The best method of keeping a tree healthy is to remove those conditions which favor disease. Trees should be grown in well-drained, carefully prepared soil, free from previous fungous contamination. Seed-beds in which a disease has started should be sprayed with Bordeaux mixture. Trees that become dis- eased because of the attack of fungi on their leaves or younger branches should likewise be sprayed with various fungicides, notably Bordeaux mixture; this will prevent all mildews and blights, to a greater or less degree. For fungi that attack the heart-wood, careful attention to wounds is advisable. Wherever a branch is broken or sawed off, the exposed surface, wherever practicable, should be coated with some antiseptic substance, preferably coal-tar creosote that has been heated. All wounds should be carefully trimmed, so as to FORESTS facilitate the healing process. In large forest tracts measures of this kind may not yet be prac- ticable, and in such cases the only preventive measure is to destroy the source of infection, as far as pos- sible. On limited areas it is ~ possible to \ remove the punks or fruiting bodies of the wood- destroying fungi and, better still, to cut down all trees which show any signs of being dis- eased. A careful weed- ing out of diseased trees will remove the source of infection for the other trees, to a very large extent. In hewn timber.—The decay of cut wood may be retarded or pre- vented by various Fig. 495. Tinder fungus (Poly- porus igniarius) on beech log. The external part of the fungus is shown be- low; the heart-yot injury above. means. The easiest way to prevent the develop- ment of the fungi is to “treat” all wood which is exposed to atmos- pheric agencies. Charring will frequently be found useful. For getting longer service out of wood, it should be chemically treated by painting with some preservative, such as carbolineum or coal-tar creo- sote. Care should be taken, however, that only absolutely dry wood is painted. Timber immersed in a solution of one part of corrosive sublimate to Fig. 496. Red heart disease of Douglas spruce (Trametes pint). FORESTS 347 preservative is undoubtedly coal-tar creosote, which can either be ‘painted on the wood or be pressed into it by various mechanical devices. Literature. The following are some of the more important books and papers relating to the diseases of American trees and timber: G. F, Atkinson, Studies of Some Shade Tree and Timber Destroying Fungi, Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 193 (1901); E. M. Freeman, Minnesota Plant Diseases, Chapters on Diseases of Timber Trees (1905); Galloway and Woods, Diseases of Shade and Ornamental Trees, United States Department of Agriculture, Yearbook 1896, p. 287; Robert Hartig, Diseases of Trees (1894); F. D. Heald, A Disease of Cottonwood, Nebraska Agricultural Ex- periment Station, Bul- letin No. 19 (1906); Perley Spaulding, A Disease of Black Oaks, . Report Missouri Bo- . tanical Garden (1905); the following by Her- mann von Schrenk: A Disease of Taxodium, and of Libocedrus, Re- port Missouri Botan- ical Garden, No. 11 (1899); ADis = S ease of the 7 z Black Locust, «#7 Sch Report Mis- aad souri Botan- ical Garden, 2%7“s% No. 12 (1901); The Bluing and Red Rot of the Western ye Yellow Pine, Bu- ay AWN reau of Plant Ine —“ ~~ i x ip, dustry, Bulletin --}-*. t= ZZe, No. 36 (1903); Diss Jw PNG? eases of New Eng- Mig ips ~ land Coniferous nest’’ on lodge-pole pine. ew Ulgc a Lig his Trees, Division of Vegetable Physiol- ogy and Pathology, United States De- partment of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 25; Fungous Diseases of Forest Trees, United States Department of Agriculture, Yearbook, 1900; Two Diseases of Red Cedar, Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, United States Department of Agricul- ture, Bulletin No. 21; A Disease of White Ash, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin No. 32 (1908); Decay of Timber, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulle- tin No. 14; Diseases of the Hardy Catalpa, Bureau of Forestry, Bulletin No. 37; Diseases of the Redwood, Bureau of Forestry, Bulletin No. 38; Seasoning of Timber, Bureau of Forestry, Bul- letin No. 41; C. S. Sargent, Silva of North America (has numerous notes on fungous and insect diseases of trees); C. Freiherr von Tubeuf, Diseases of Plants, Longmans, Green & Co., New York (1897). 348 FRUIT- GROWING FRUIT-GROWING. Figs. 498-505. No branch of American agriculture has shown a more complete adaptation to modern demands and conditions than fruit-growing: it has become a large-area and real farm enterprise ; the field prac- tices have been completely changed within a score of years ; the products have come to be of national importance. Persons now purchase farms for the sole purpose of raising fruit on them; and on mixed-husbandry farms the orcharding part has taken on a broader and freer spirit, and is not merely an isolated or incidental part of the farm scheme. In other words, fruit-growing has assumed FRUIT- GROWING Where one would best engage in fruit-growing is a question difficult to answer. Once the Editor knew; but after he went away from home he began to doubt, and now he has no opinion. Fruit- growing is no longer confined to a few areas here and there. It is practicable in many regions that have been considered to lie outside the “fruit belts.” Wherever any fruit has been grown suc- cessfully, it can in all probability be grown again. Sometimes a region that has not been exploited for any kind of fruit may afford excellent natural adap- tabilities. The choice of a location is usually deter- mined by the general region in which one desires to live; then the intending fruit-grower can make Poss AULT aE ER a * CSR = Nay Fig. 498. commercial significance, and it must now be con- sidered in any fair discussion of farm management. That this has not always been true, is shown by the literature of fruit-growing. The older books are mostly a reflection of fruit-gardening, dealing with varieties and with small special practices. Within the past few years the writings have had a larger sweep, conceiving of fruit-growing in much the spirit that we conceive of grain-growing or live-stock-raising. The personal fruit-garden, as an amateur adjunct to a home, has been relatively neglected. Just now, however, there is a revival of the amateur interest in fruit-growing, express- ing itself as a reaction from the commercial busi- ness, and as a result of the suburban and country- home movement. While the practices in these two types of fruit-growing are similar in principle, the types themselves are quite distinct. One is a broadly agricultural type; the other is a fancier and connoisseur type. Clean culture in an apple orchard. Ontario type of tree. inquiries as to the parts of the region that are best adapted. The farm plan. The farm management phase of fruit-growing has received little careful study. The orchard occu- pies the land for years. Usually the man who likes to grow fruit does not care much for live-stock,— the two businesses require different mental atti- tudes. It is a question whether the relative lack of live-stock in fruit-growing communities is not a serious disadvantage, not only in relation to main- taining productiveness of the land, but to the developing of general rural activities. It is a ques- tion, also, whether labor, teams and implements could not be more economically utilized by some corollary system of simple field-farming. As at present conducted, orcharding is not a self-con- tinuing or self-regulating business in the sense that good rotation-farming is ; that is, there is no regu- FRUIT- GROWING lar provision for utilizing the land after the orchard is removed. The grower usually does not lay out a plan of land management, one item in which is the growing of orchards. In the case of apples, the life of the orchard is so great, at least in the east- ern states, that the grower feels that he is planting for a lifetime, and he leaves succeeding questions to those who may come after him. Even apple orchards may be retained too long for profit, how- ever ; and peaches, plums and some other fruits are not too long-lived to form part of a rotation plan. The rotation farmer may lay out a course that is not expected to mature within twenty years (pages 95, 96). Small-fruits are well adapted to rotation- ing. In fact, careful rotation is the very best means of keeping in check certain difficult diseases and pests of strawberries, raspberries and black- berries. The rotation may be between different kinds of fruits themselves, or between fruits and field-crop courses. The point is that fruit-growing practice ought not to be completely isolated from general farm management plans. Aside from a rotation of fields, it is often advis- able to lay out a rotation of crops in the orchards themselves when the trees are young. Such rota- tion practice would reduce the great amount of tillage labor by keeping part of the area always in clover or other sod, would correct the faults of a continuously recurring treatment, would guard against neglect, and would allow of a somewhat definite plan of work for some years ahead. The rotation should be short and should contain the maximum of tilled crops. A three-year course might fit the conditions well, for it would be adapted to the varying early stages of orchards, and would correspond with normal strawberry rotations and even with the best practice in raspberries. One to four three-year courses could be run in orchards before the trees are large enough to interfere, depending on the land, the kind of fruit and the distance apart. A three-year course for young orchards should preferably have two tilled crops and one legume or sod crop ; as (1) potatoes, roots or truck-crops, (2) corn, (8) crimson clover or vetch in fall or spring ; or, again, as (1) corn, (2) cotton, (8) cowpea or velvet bean. Sometimes it may be allowable to run only one tilled crop, in which case the potatoes-wheat-red clover may be useful. Care must be taken to see that first attention is given the trees, and this should call for manure or fertilizers with one or more of the courses. Rotation, between the fruit plantations them- selves, may be very desirable in some cases. If one has a hundred-acre farm on which he wishes to make a specialty of peaches, he might set aside six fields of ten acres each, and set them in twelve- year rotations or blocks, planting a new orchard every three years. In this way there would always be a new orchard coming into bearing, the grower could apply the experience of one orchard to the succeeding one, and he could prepare the land thoroughly in advance of each setting. This pre- paring of the land is exceedingly important in most cases and is usually neglected. It often should FRUIT- GROWING 849 include thorough under-drainage. The following display shows how this plan would work out. The heavy figures show orchards in bearing ; it will be seen that there are always three orchards in bear- ing after the plan is in full working maturity. It is assumed that six years intervene between the plantings on the same ground. The letters a, b, ¢ show how the elements in a three-course crop-rota- tion would combine with the orchards, if it is assumed that it would be safe or desirable to crop the orchard lightly for the first three years. The blank or treeless years would be used in general field-crop practice. It must be understood that this plan is not recommended, but is given to illus- trate the discussion and to suggest a line of study: RoTaTion SCHEME OF PEACH ORCHARDS. Heavy figures represent bearing years. First Second | Third Fourth Fifth Sixth orchard | orchard | orchard | orchard | orchard | orchard 1900a 1901 1902¢ 1903 1908¢ 1904 1904 1905 1905¢ 1306 1906 1906a 1907 1907 19076 1908 1908 1908¢ 1909 1909 1909 19094 1910 1910 1910 19100 1911 1911 1911 191le 1912 1912 1912 19124 1913 1913 1913 19136 1914 1914 1914 1914¢ 1915 1915 1915 19154 1916 1916 1916 19165 1917 1917 1917 1917e 19184 1918 1918 1918 1919b 1919 1919 1919 1920¢ 1920 1920 1920 1921 19214 1921 1921 1922 19226 1922 1922 1923 1923¢ 1923 1923 1924 1924 19244 1924 1925 1925 1925) 1925 1926 1926 1926¢ 1926 ete. etc. ete. ‘Tillage. In the great majority of cases, tillage for at least a part of the life of the orchard gives more satisfaction than continuous sod. This is because tillage aids in making plant-food usable and it helps to save the moisture and to keep down weeds. On steep and rough lands, clean tillage may not be desirable, both because of its cost and the exposure of the surface to washing. In lands or regions that are naturally well supplied’ with moisture, tillage may not be needful. Like all other agricultural practice, tilling of orchards is a local question ; but the presumption is that tillage is needed, and exceptions must be explained. The fruit in well- tilled orchards is likely to be later in maturing than in comparable untilled orchards, and to have a 350 FRUIT—-GROWING lower color; this is indication of the effect of tillage in maintaining vegetative activity by keep- ing up the supply of food and moisture. The fruit- grower should learn to regulate his tillage as carefully as he does the application of manure, in order to secure the maximum of benefit and the minimum of disadvantage. The perfecting of many wide-sweep surface- working tools has made the tilling of orchards comparatively simple and easy. The purpose of Fig. 499. A modern commercial peach orchard. Georgia. these tools is to maintain the surface mulch. When an orchard is well established, it is usually not necessary to plow deep, at least not if the original preparation has been good. Spring-plowing in bearing orchards may be necessary in order to break the soil and to make surface tillage possible, or to turn under a cover-crop; but if the soil is naturally loose and there is no herbage to be cov- ered, it may be unnecessary to invert the soil; the surface-working tools may be set at work before the land becomes hard. Usually a spading-harrow or cutaway of some kind will first be needed, or, if the soil is crusted and weeds have got a start, a shallow-working gang-plow may be used ; thereafter, spring-tooth and spike-tooth harrows, smoothing-harrows and weeders may be employed. Fall-plowing is sometimes advisable, particularly on hard lands, that the weathering may aid in the breaking down of the soil; in such case, the fur- row-slice should better not be turned flat (at least not unless there is much herbage or manure on the land), but left more or less broken or on edge. The surface-working tools may be applied to this open land early in the spring before it hardens. In the old days, orchards were mostly in sod. Fifteen years ago the importance of tillage began to be very strongly emphasized. This gospel has thrown into strong contrast the value of various kinds of sod-treatment for special cases. Sod- treatment of orchards is now often spoken of as the “mulching system.” There is no uniformity and little system in these practices, however. In some cases, the “system” is merely to leave the orchard in sod and to sell the hay; in other cases, the sod is merely pastured ; in others, the grass is mown and allowed to decay on the ground; again, ‘not only is the grass allowed to lie but straw may be added and commercial fertilizers and manure applied. It is, therefore, impossible to discuss the FRUIT -GROWING mulch method without knowing just what the practice is. It is apparent that these must be local practices. Some of them often give excellent results. Cover-crops. The present-time tillage practice in orchards assumes also a cover-crop. This cover-crop is usu- ally grown in late summer and fall, when tillage is least needed. The chief value of the cover-crop is to supply humus, in this regard taking the place of stable manure, which usually cannot be had in quantities for large orchard areas, since stock- raising and fruit-growing are not often practiced equally on one farm. In young orchards it is possible to make cover-cropping a part of a rotation plan. [See the article on Cover-crops, page 258.] Almost any quick-growing crop that produces abundant herbage may be used to advantage as a cover. A covering of weeds is often better than bare ground. In general, tillage is given early in the season. By midsummer or early fall, the cover- crop is sown, the land then being in good tilth. Cover-crops are of two main groups,—those that survive the winter and grow again in the spring ; those that are killed by frost. The former are usu- ally to be preferred, as they are likely to produce more herbage, and more completely to occupy the land with roots, and they may better prevent deep freezing, washing, and waste of rainfall. The dis- advantage is that they delay all the plowing till spring, and there is a temptation to let them grow too late in spring, thereby using too much soil moisture, and reducing the chance of a satisfactory preparation of the land. Some of the frost-killed crops may have greater effect on the land than is to be expected from the mere bulk of the herbage that they produce; this is particularly true of buckwheat. Following are some of the leading cover-crops mentioned or recommended for fruit plantations (the leguminous or nitrogen-gathering species being starred): Living over winter. *Clovers *Hairy or winter vetch (Vicia villosa) *Sweet clover (little used.) Winter rye Winter wheat Killed by freezing. *Cowpea *Soybean *Velvet bean *Pea *Bean *Beggarweed *Spring vetch (Vicia sativa) Rape Turnip Oats Barley (little used) Buckwheat Maize Millet (little used) FRUIT -GROWING When orchards are carrying a full crop, it may be impossible to sow a cover-crop early enough -to enable it to make much headway before winter sets in. In such cases, rye is about the only re- course, for it may be sown very late, and it will make rapid growth in the earliest days of spring. Even if it does not germinate in the fall, it FRUIT- GROWING 351 14 bus., rye 4 bus.; cowpea 14 bus., red clover 6 lbs.; oats 2 bus., peas 2 bus. Fertilizing. The special needs of fruit-bearing trees and bushes in the way of fertilizers have not yet been will probably come up in the spring and do well. A little fertilizer drilled in with the rye usually will cause a great gain in the growth of herbage. Rye will thrive fairly well even with very indifferent preparation of the land, and therefore is a most useful cover-crop on lands that are not yet well subdued. To insure a heavy cover, the seeding should be thick. Of some covers, the seed is expensive and often difficult to secure in ood quality. The grower may find it good practice to reserve one corner or side of a field for the gathering of seed. This can be readily done with winter vetch, crimson clover and the cereals. Following are aver- age quantities of seed to sow per acre for heavy cover-crops in fruit plantations : Barley a a «6 #0 s3 ww wx 2-24 bus RGSS! Sar ev ct ey Sey. ee Ga oe! Se Ge 14-2 bus. Beggarweed. ..-...e+.- 5-8 lbs. Buckwheat .......... 13 bus. Clover,red .......2.2-.2-. 10-15 lbs. Clover,mammoth ....... 15-20 lbs. Clover, crimson .......-. 15-20 lbs. Cowpea ..... eee eee 14-2 bus. Maizes se), 55.38, ee ee ha sak ce es oe 2-3 bus. Millet: 2: a: goes oS ee ee 13 bus. Oats) ee we si a ww SS, RS 2-3 bus. Pea: ey 8 a he ee we eS 2-8 bus. FRAPS) -goceioces es cava ee LG 2-5 lbs. BVO sei cal eo 0! Nematode root-galls—The nematode worm attacks ginseng plants, especially those in gardens near woodlots. The largest knots seem to be formed on the main roots. The galls may reach a large size, and rapidly rob the plant of its vitality and reduce the value of the roots. The most effective remedy is to remove the garden to an unaffected place, and to be careful not to transfer any of the worms or eggs from the old garden. Seeds or unaffected roots should be used to start the new garden. Freezing and drying of the ground are both destruc- tive to the worms. If the soil can be steam-steril- ized, the worms and eggs will both be killed. Snails eat the foliage and stems of young plants. A good method of extermination is to trap with slices of turnip or lettuce leaves. These may be placed about the garden and turned over from time to time, and the snails killed. With the aid of a lan- tern they may be gathered at night from the foli- age. Carbon bisulfid has been used with good ef- fect, especially by applying along the boards, which afford an excellent hiding place for the snails. Care must be exercised not to have the carbon bi- sulfid very strong. Air-slaked lime applied to the soil is said to give good results. A discussion of these pests is to be found in Cor- nell Bulletin No. 219, “Diseases of Ginseng,” by James M. Van Hook, from which these notes are in part adapted. Medicinal properties. In this country ginseng is considered of little medicinal value. The root is mildly aromatic and slightly stimulant. The Chinese and Koreans, how- ever, place a high value on it, and regard it as - a panacea. In Korea, the cultivated ginseng is smaller than the wild or mountain ginseng, the root of which attains a length of a foot or more and a diameter of an inch and upward. It is said GINSENG 361 that when this wild root is administered the patient loses consciousness for a time, and for about a month is tortured by boils, eruptions, sleeplessness and other ills. Rejuvenation then begins, the skin becomes clear, the body healthy, and the person will live (such is the belief) exempt from diseases for many years. The Chinese consider that it acts as a preventive by toning up the system. The root appears to be differently employed according to the source from which it is secured, probably partly on real and partly on fictitious grounds. There are said to be three ways of tak- ing ginseng, viz., as pills, confection and infusion. Its medicinal value is thought to be diminished by a steaming process to which it is frequently sub- jected for the improvement of its color. It appears to be given the character of a confection by steep- ing in honey or by the use of sugar. Markets and marketing. Ginseng roots are purchased by raw fur dealers in New York and other large cities. Many of these dealers issue price-lists, which are mailed to grow- ers and collectors from July to December. These buyers either dispose of their holdings to Chinese representatives or export directly to Hong Kong, which is the principal port for American goods entering China, There the roots are handled by Chinese merchants who purchase in large quanti- ties to supply the retailers, from whom the con- sumers buy. That there is a demand for American root in China is certain. The native supply is lim- ited, and it is to this country that China must look for a large share of the ginseng she uses. The market for the past two years has preferred that the roots be not washed with a brush, but that they be cleaned by a strong current of water thrown on them, as from a hose. The market price of ginseng fluctuates more or less, chiefly because of trade conditions and the rise and fall in silver. In the years 1905 and 1906, cultivated ginseng was subject to great variation in price, even being refused at one time. Prior to this very high prices had been paid. Leading New York dealers, who furnish the prices quoted below, say the business is still in a transitional state, which will probably last two or three years, until growers produce the medium -sized, ringed, dark, uniform roots in demand among the Chinese. In the spring of 1907 when these statements were made, prices for American wild root in New York city ranged from $6.35 to $7.25 a pound, and those of cultivated, from $5.75 to $6.40. Literature. Kains, Ginseng: Its Cultivation, Harvesting and “Market Value, Orange Judd Co., New York (1904); An Experiment in Ginseng-Culture, Pennsylvania State College Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 62; Ginseng: Its Nature and Culture, Kentucky Ex- periment Station, Bulletin No. 78; Diseases of Ginseng, New York (Cornell) Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 219; Pennsylvania State Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 27; Missouri Experi- ment Station, Bulletin No. 69; Division of Botany, 3862 GINSENG United States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 16; Daily Consular Reports for 1905, Nos. 2162, 2284, 2287, Department of Commerce and Labor, Washington D. C.; Monthly Reports of Exports and Imports, Department of Commerce and Labor (secured from Bureau of Statistics, Washington, D. C.). GRAIN: Shipping, Grading and Storing. Figs. 511-514. By C. S. Scofield. Before the middle of the last century, much the larger part of the grain produced in the United States was hauled to the mill by the farmer, and was either sold to the miller or ground for a toll charge and the product disposed of by the owner afterward. The high specialization of milling pro- cesses, involving more expensive milling plants, the rapid extension of grain-producing areas, and the development of railroads that offered a ready means of transporting grain long distances from the farm to the mill, have all taken place since 1850. The geographical separation of the grain- field and the mill has necessitated the development of a commercial system of moving grain from the farm to the mill, of storing it en route or at desti- nation, and of: classifying or grading it so that similar kinds may be kept together in transit and in storage. In order to meet the needs that have arisen with the rapid development of grain production and milling in this country, American methods of hand- ling, grading and storing grain have become more complicated and extensive than those of any other country. Shipping and handling grain. Instead of hauling his grain to the mill, the farmer now hauls it to the nearest railway station where there is an elevator or storage house, at which it is weighed and graded; and the farmer either takes his pay for it on the basis of the day’s quoted price, or accepts a storage receipt which states the quantity and grade of the grain deliv- ered. This storage receipt may be converted into cash at any time on the basis of the ruling market price, subject, of course, to discounts for storage and insurance charges. From the country elevator, the grain is shipped in carload lots to central milling or distributing points, where it is usually unloaded for storage in large elevators, and from which it may be with- drawn as needed, for either shipment or manufac- ture. The machinery for moving grain in bulk has been developed to such a degree of efficiency that grain can be unloaded from a car or vessel and’ placed in storage in an elevator for a quarter of a cent a bushel. Machinery for cleaning and other- wise improving grain in large quantities has also been brought into use, so that the farmer no longer finds it profitable to attempt to clean his grain before marketing it. Nearly all the grain marketed in the United States, east of the Rocky mountains, is handled in GRAIN ° loose bulk after leaving the farmers’ hands. It is stored in large bins in elevators and hauled from place to place in tight box-cars. This feature is unique to the American grain business. In all other parts of the world grain is handled almost exclusively in sacks, Owing to the fact that it is impossible to keep small lots of grain separate when handled in bulk, it has been necessary to use a system of classification or grading by which like kinds and qualities can be kept together and recog- nized as having a certain market value. Grading and inspecting grain. Like the custom of handling grain in quantity without sacking, the system of classifying and grading grain for commercial purposes is unique to the American grain trade. This practice was probably initiated by boatmen along the Chicago river in carrying grain from Illinois farms to Chicago. With the development of railroad traffic in the upper Mississippi valley, the movement of grain to Chicago and similar manufacturing and distributing points caused this custom of classifi- cation to spread rapidly. It soon came to be recog- nized as a part of the business of the trade and was. very quickly put on a semi-official basis. Rules, or descriptions of grades, were made out and men were employed to do the inspecting and grading professionally. Complaints of irregularities and injustices from various sources resulted in the transfer of the con- trol of inspection and grading from the commer- cial organizations to official state organizations in some of the western states. Illinois, Minnesota, Missouri and Kansas have long had state laws and state commissions to conduct the work of inspect- ing and grading, as well as weighing, while Wash- ington and Wisconsin have laws and commissions for the control of certain features of this work. The actual work of grain inspection and grading, as now practiced, is much the same whether under state control or under the control of commercial organizations. There are two methods of doing this work: one is by what is known as track in- spection and the other is office inspection, while sometimes a combination of the two is used. Track inspection—When the inspection is done on the track, a deputy inspector, with one or two assistants, goes into the railroad yards early in the morning every working day and opens such cars of grain as he finds there destined for his market, the names and numbers of these cars usually being furnished by the railroad companies. Each car is opened by one of the assistants and a sample of grain is taken from it with a special sampling tube and examined by the inspector, who determines the grade, tags the car with name and number of the grade, and closes it again, noting for his daily report the number of the car and the grade assigned. When the grain is destined for sale on the market, a sample is usually taken from the car and sent to the consignee for his information., In some markets practically every car is sampled and the sample sent directly to the trading floor, where it is shown for the information of buyers. GRAIN Office Inspection.—When office inspection is made, deputies are sent tothe tracks in the early morning to secure samples from the cars destined to the market, and the samples are sent to the chief in- spector’s office and the grade determined on the basis of the sample. Some kinds of grain, notably flax, are almost always given office inspection, since it is difficult to determine the grade satisfactorily with the hasty inspection on the track. Grading rules.—The rules for grades of grain are much the same in all American grain markets. There are slight variations from place to place, and some markets have more grades or different grades than others. The following samples of the grade rules for corn, now in use in one of the important markets, give a fair idea of the nature of such rules : ' No. 1 Yellow Corn.—Shall be yellow, sound, dry, plump and well cleaned. No. 2 Yellow Corn.—Shall be three-fourths yel- low, dry, reasonably clean but not plump enough for No. 1. No. 3 Yellow Corn.—Shall be three-fourths yel- low, reasonably dry and reasonably clean, but not sufficiently sound for No. 2. No. 1 White Corn.— Shall be sound, dry, plump and well cleaned. No. 2 White Corn.—Shall be seven-eighths white, dry, reasonably, clean, but not plump enough for No 1. No. 8 White Corn.—Shall be seven-eighths white, reasonably dry and reasonably clean, but not suffi- ciently sound for No. 2. No. 1 Corn.—Shall be mixed corn, of choice quality, sound, dry and well cleaned. No. 2 Corn.—Shall be mixed corn, dry and rea- sonably clean, but not good enough for No. 1. Fig. 511. View of the interior of a grain warehouse on the Pacific coast, showing the grain in bags. No. 3 Corn.—Shall be mixed corn, reasonably dry and reasonably clean, but not sufficiently sound for No. 2. No. 4 Corn.—Corn that is badly damaged, damp or very dirty, shall be graded no higher than No. 4. It will be observed that these rules are very brief and rather indefinite and are thus capable of lib- GRAIN 363 eral interpretation, and it must rest with the chief inspector as to just what shall constitute the actual grade limits. The deputy inspectors are therefore guided in their judgment by the chief inspector, Fig. 512. View of the interior of a large terminal elevator, showing the spouts leading from the scale hoppers on the floor above to the bins below. and he is usually guided by the commission or committee which has the matter in charge at each market. When either party to a transaction in which a grain grade is involved is dissatisfied with the decision rendered, it is usually possible to ap- peal from the deputy inspector’s decision and secure a ruling from the chief inspector or from a board of appeals. These appealed decisions constitute the unwritten law of the grain inspection department. Importance of grading and inspecting.—The chief function of grain grades, and consequently of grain inspection, is to permit price quotations on grain and to permit trading for future delivery. Were grain grades not in use it would be difficult to quote prices that had any meaning, and also to make transactions for future delivery of grain, and consequently grain inspection and grading is a very important feature of the grain business, since both transactions are a very large part of it. It is customary to establish in each market a cer- tain grade for each important cereal that is known as the “contract grade,” and in all deals and price quotations this grade is the one used, unless other- wise specified. Inspection tests and methods.—In order to be most efficient, grain inspection must be exact and uni- form, and every effort is made by those in control of this work to secure the greatest accuracy and uniformity possible. Many attempts have been made to provide for more accurate methods of inspection and grading than those now in use. A chondrometer, or apparatus for determining the weight per bushel of grain, has been in common use with inspectors for many years. More recently, the inspection of flax has been greatly improved by a system of percentage grading, by which the foreign material and imperfect grains are sepa- rated from a sample and their percentage deter- mined by weight. Still more recently, various at- tempts have been made to determine accurately the percentage of moisture in corn, since it has been Fi Plate XII. Three important grasses of the northeastern region—timothy, June-grass, and Canada blue-grass (the last, Poa compressa, being the small stiffer panicles in the lower left-hand corner) GRAIN the Rocky mountains, is a highly specialized type of building. (Figs. 512-514.) It consists essen- tially of a series of bins set close together, with hoisting, weighing and distributing machinery located above, and with cleaning machinery and loading devices below. Formerly these elevators were built almost entirely of wood, often covered with corrugated metal. More recently they are being built of steel, of concrete and of tile, so as to render them more nearly fireproof. ; When grain is received at an elevator it is hoisted at once to the top, usually by means of long belts which carry iron buckets or scoops. These buckets dump the grain into receiving bins, from which it is drawn into the hoppers of scales for weighing. The weighing of grain in elevators has been developed to a very high degree of accu- racy, so that it is possible to weigh a thousand bushels at a time with an error of less than one- tenth of one per cent. After the grain is weighed, it is drawn from the scale hoppers into the storage bins, which stand below the scales; or, in some of: the modern storehouses, as, for example, the one shown in Fig. 518, it is drawn out onto a broad transfer belt, which is simply a rubber-coated can- vas belt, from three to four feet in width, which runs over concave pulleys in such a way as to carry grain on its upper surface. When it is desired to clean grain or to load it out of an elevator, it may be drawn out of the storage bins from the bottom ; if it is desired to move it from one part of the elevator, it is drawn out on the transfer belt, which runs below the bins, and is carried from one point to another, to be hoisted again and emptied into another bin at the top. In this way bulk grain is handled very rapidly and very cheaply. It is pos- sible, for instance, to move 15,000 to 20,000 bushels of grain in an hour over a single transfer belt fifty inches wide. From the standpoint of their relations to the ‘public, there are two general types of elevators,— the so-called public warehouses and the private’ warehouses. In view of the fact that grain in storage represents an investment of capital that is not active or bearing interest, it is often desirable to use it as a basis for loans of money. In order that the amount and quality of the grain thus stored may be given an official guarantee, there are, in the larger grain markets, registered or public warehouses in which any person may store grain of any grade that will not deteriorate during a reasonable period of time. The grower, owner or broker may receive from the elevator manager a certificate of storage which states the amount and quality of grain stored, and this may be certified to by an official, representing the local grain trade organization or, in some cases, the state grain commission, and when so certified this certificate serves as collateral for loans. In this way, stored grain is relieved from bearing at least a part of the interest on the investment which it represents. Elevators in which the grain is stored merely for cleaning purposes or for immediate transfer are not registered and they ave known as private ‘warehouses. GRASSES 365 Literature. The reader should consult Lyon and Montgomery, Examining and Grading Grains (1907), Ginn & Co., for student laboratory methods; Hunt, Cereals in America (1904), Orange Judd Co.; Cobb, Grain Elevators, Department of Agriculture, Sidney, New South Wales, Miscellaneous Publications, 452; Bul- letin No. 41, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, The Commercial Grading of Corn, by the author. See also references to literature under the specific grain crops. GRASSES. Poacee or Graminee. Figs. 515-565. By A. S. Hitchcock. Annual or perennial herbs with characteristic narrow leaves and round or flattened, jointed, usually hollow stems. In the bamboos, the stems are woody and may reach the height of one hun- dred feet or more. The stems or culms are solid at the nodes or joints and usually hollow between, but may be pithy, as in the Indian corn and other large species. The basal part of the leaf envelops the stem, forming the sheath. The blades are parallel-veined. The flowers are inconspicuous, solitary or several together in spikelets, and these spikelets variously arranged in spikes or panicles. The flowers have no proper perianth but are in- cluded between scales in two ranks. A spikelet consists of a short axis bearing at the base two empty scales or glumes (empty glumes of some authors); above these are one or more flowers, each in the axis of a scale called the lemma (flowering or floral glume of some authors); between the flower and the axis is a two-keeled scale, the palea. The flower consists of a pistil and usually three stamens. The pistil consists of a one-celled ovary and two styles and feathery stigmas. The seed is usually grown fast to the pericarp, forming a grain, and it may also be closely united with the lemma and palea, as in the oat, The spikelet is one-flowered in Agrostis and Phleum, several-flow- ered in Poa and Triticum. In some genera, such as Panicum, the lower lemma is empty or contains only stamens. The spikelet appears then to have three empty glumes. The inflorescence or flower- cluster is a spike in wheat and a panicle in the oat, while in timothy (Phleum) the panicle is so con- tracted as to appear as a spike. The glumes and lemmas may bear bristles or awns on the tip or. back, as in barley. The staminate and pistillate flowers are in separate parts of the same plant (moneecious) in corn, and may even be in separate plants (dicecious), as in Buffalo grass and Texas blue-grass. Plants often produce creeping stems below the surface of the ground, by which they spread and form a sod. These rootstocks resemble roots but are jointed like stems and bear scale-like leaves. Familiar examples are Johnson-grass and blue- grass. Perennial grasses which do not bear root- stocks tend to grow in bunches or tussocks, and are known as bunch-grasses. Orchard-grass is of this kind. This article is restricted: to a botanical discussion 366 GRASSES of the grasses. In some cases reference is made to special articles on the individual grasses for the cultural notes. For cultural notes on all others the reader should consult Spillman’s article on Meadows and Pastures. KEY TO GENERA A. Spikelets dorsally compressed, with one perfect flower, sometimes a staminate flower below the perfect one, falling from the pedicels entire, either singly, in groups or together with joints of an articulate rachis : Flowers unisexual ; staminate spike- lets in a terminal panicle, pistil- late spikelets in axillary fascicled spikes more or less enveloped in large bracts (husks): Pistillate spikes compound ; grains in several to many rows about a thickened axis (cob) ..... Pistillate spikes simple, breaking into joints at maturity .... Flowers perfect, or staminate and pis- tillate together in same inflores- cence: : Glumes hardened ; lemmaand palea very thin: Spikelets all perfect, enveloped in long hairs, forming a dense silky panicle es Spikelets of two kinds,—the per- fect sessile, with a staminate one pedicellate on either side . Glumes thin, lemma and palea hardened ; spikelets all perfect : Spikelets not sunken in notches of the axis: Involucre none: Inflorescence spicate : Spikes digitate ; spikelets lan- ceolate. 2... 1. eee Spikes racemose; spikelets nearly circular. ..... Inflorescence paniculate:. .. Involucre of bristles below the spikelet : Grain enclosed in Jemma and palea at maturity... .. Grain globose, forcing open lemma and palea at maturity Spikelets sunken in notches of the flattened corky axis ..... 10. Stenotaphrum 1, Zea 2. Euchlena 8. Saccharum 4, Sorghum 5. Syntherisma 6. Paspalum 7. Panicum 8. Chetochloa 9, Pennisetum AA. Spikelets laterally compressed, one to maxy-flow- ered, the rachilla usually articulated above the glumes which remain on the pedicel after the florets have fallen ; (glumes deciduous in Oryza, Alopecurus and Holcus). . Spikelets not disposed in alternate notches on opposite sides of a flat- tened rachis : Stamens 6; glumes minute. . , . 11. Oryza Stamens 3; glumes more than half as long as florets: Perfect floret 1 in each spikelet : Fertile floret awnless, with 2 sterile lemmas below, falling attached to it: Sterile lemmas minute, awnless 12. Phalaris Sterile lemmas larger than the fertile one, awned. . . . . 18, Anthoxanthum Fertile floret awnless; a stami- nate, awned one below, not falling attached .... . . 14, Arrhenatherum GRASSES Fertile floret awned or awnless, no sterile floret below: Inflorescence a dense cylindri- cal spike-like panicle : Spikelets small; glumes longer than the very thin lemmas: Glumes abruptly aristate; lemma awnless . . . . . 15, Phleum Glumes not aristate; lemma awned on the back . . 16. Alopecurus Spikelets about 1 cm. long; glumes and lemma chartace- ous, sub-equal . 17, Ammophila Inflorescence an open panicle . 18. Agrostis Inflorescence of slender spikes, digitate at summit of culms . 19. Cynodon Perfect florets two to many in each spikelet : Plant velvety ; spikelets falling from the pedicel entire. . . 20. Holcus Plant not velvety; glumes per- sistent on the pedicel : Florets exceeded by the papery, striate glumes Florets not exceeded by the glumes : Spikelets flattened, in dense, one-sided clusters at the ends of the few panicle branches . . . 22, Dactylis Spikelets not in one-sided clusters : Inflorescence a dense spike ; spikelets of two forms, the fertile surrounded by sterile ONS; & 4 ste 2 ees 23. Cynosurus Inflorescence an open or nar- row panicle; spikelets all alike: Lemma keeled; awnless, often cobwebby at base . 24. Poa Lemma convex; never cob- webby: Apex of lemma entire; acute or awned. . . . 25, Festuca Apex of lemma two- toothed, awned just be- , low the apex or awnless ; grain adherent to the palea ...... . . 26, Bromus Spikelets sessile in alternate notches on opposite sides of a flattened rachis, forming slender or dense spikes : Joints of the rachis with one spike- let each : Placed edgewise on the rachis; plume do) ee Gee we ee 27, Lolium Placed with one side against the rachis ; glumes 2: Glumes bristle-like, one-nerved . 28. Secale Glumes lanceolate to ovate ; sev- eral-nerved : Rachilla not articulated ; florets persistent ; lemma ovate . . 29. Triticum Rachilla articulated above the glumes and between the flo- rets, which fall separately ; lemma lanceolate . . . . . 30. Agropyron Joints of the articulate rachis with 2 or 3 spikelets each; glumes bristle-like ....,.. .. . 381, Hordeum 21. Avena GRASSES 1. Zea (Latin name for spelt). A genus of grasses represented by a single American species known only in cultivation. Flowers monecious, the staminate borne in large termi- nal panicles (the tassel), and the pistillate borne in the axils of the leaves in several rows on a thickened axis (the cob), and en- t closed in several large foliaceous bracts, the whole constituting the ear. The greatly elongated styles project from the tip of the ear and form the silk. Mays, Linn. Indian Corn. Maize. (Fig. 515.) A well-known, large, annual grass with broad leaves, extensively cultivated for Fig. 515. Indian corn (Zea Mays). A, Pistillate spike- let, opened, with second glume cut off to show lemma (flowering glume), palea and ovary; B, staminate spikelet. forage and grain. The origin of the cultivated varieties of corn is uncertain but must be Ameri- can, and was prob- ably in the tableland ot Mexico or Central America where it has been cultivated Jongest. It has been sug- gested that it may have originated from Huchlena Mexicana, which it much resembles in habit, but differs from in having the several pistillate spikes united in a compound inflorescence or ear. [See Maize.] 2. Euchlena (Greek, eu, well, and chlaina, mantle, alluding to the large glumes). A genus of grasses represented by a single Mexican species. Flowers monecious, the staminate in panicled racemes terminating the stalks, the pistillate in jointed spikes fascicled in the leaf axils, each spike more or less enveloped in foliaceous bracts. Zea (Indian corn) differs from this chiefly in having pistillate flowers arranged in several rows on a single axis or “cob.” The varieties are recognized by some authors as species. Mexicana, Schrad. (Reana luxurians, Dur.). Teo- sinte. (Fig. 516.) A tall annual with long, broad leaves, resembling Indian corn in habit, native of Mexico and Central America, and cultivated in the southern states for forage. [See Maize and Teosinte.] 8. Saccharum (Greek for sugar). A genus of grasses containing about a dozen species, all but three of which are confined to the tropics of the Old Worle. ‘Tan grasses with usually large, termi- Fig. 516. Teosinte (Euchlena Mexicana). GRASSES 367 nal, spreading panicles, the small spikelets sur- rounded by long silky hairs. Spikelets usually in pairs at the joints of the articulated rachis, one . sessile and the other pediceled, one-flowered, with ‘ a sterile lemma below the fertile flower. oficinarum, Linn. Sugar-cane. (Fig. 517.) Stem tall and stout, panicles ample, silky. Cultivated in all tropical countries for the production of sugar. Native country unknown, but probably southwestern Asia. Propagated by cuttings of the stem, as the flowers very rarely produce seed. [See Sugar-cane.] 4. Sorghum. A genus of about thirteen species of grasses, including the cultivated sorghum and allied forms, many of which are considered as dis- tinct species by some authors. Spikelets in threes in a panicle ; the central spikelet sessile, containing a single perfect flower with a sterile lemma above the glumes; the lateral spikelets pediceled and staminate or neuter. Halepense, Pers. (Andropogon Halepensis, Brot.). Johnson- grass. (Fig. 518.) A coarse perennial with extensively creeping rootstocks ; stems usually 8 to 5 feet high ; leaves one to two feet long, one- half inch wide; panicle open and spreading, six to twelve inches long. Native of the warmer parts of . the Old World but a well established in the ig AH southern half of the United States, where it is cultivated for forage. In many parts of the South it has become a pernicious weed, especially in the black lands of Texas. This species is _ thought to be the Fig. 517. Sugar-cane (Saccharum officinarum). original of the cultivated sorghum. vulgare, Pers. (Andropo- gon Sorghum, Brot.). Sor- ghum. (Fig. 519.) Differs from the preceding in its larger size, annual roots without rootstocks, and usually large fruit and seed. The panicle varies much in shape in the different varieties. This is the species usually referred to as “millet” in China. [See Sorghum.] 5. Syntherisma (Greek, crop-making). A genus of grasses of about forty species, mostly tropical, Fig. 518. (Sorghum Halepense). Johnson-grass 868 GRASSES Fig. 520. Crab-grass (Syntherisma sanguinalis). A very common weedy grass. Fig. 519. Sorghum (Sorghum vulgare). with spikelets similar in structure to those of Panicum but arranged in one-sided, more or less digitate spikes. Considered by many as a section (Digitaria) of Panicum. sanguinalis, Dulac. Crab-grass. (Fig. 520.) A well-known annual weed common in cultivated soil, especially in the South. A native of the Old World. The stems reach a height of three feet and are branching. They are pros- trate at the base and root at the lower nodes. 6. Paspalum (Greek name for some grass, probably millet). A genus of grasses containing about one hun- dred species, in the warmer regions of both hemispheres. Spikelets one-flowered, ‘plano-convex or flattened, elliptical or circular in out- celed, arranged singly or in pairs in a one-sided spike. Lower glume small or obso- lete, upper glume and sterile lemma similar in length and texture, membranaceous ; fertile lemma indurated. Spikes single or in pairs at the apex of the long pedun- cle, or racemosely distrib- uted along the upper part. dilatatum, Poir. Water- grass. (Fig. 521.) A rather coarse, leafy perennial, growing in clumps two to five feet high; spikes two to ten; spikelets hairy. Produces many succulent basal leaves. A native of Brazil, from whence it was Fig. 523. (Panicum maximum). Guinea-grass Fig. 521. Water-gtass (Paspa- line, sessile or short-pedi- ‘ GRASSES Fig. 522. Para-grass lum dilatatum). (Panicum molle). introduced into this country ; now well established in the gulf states, where it is looked on asa native grass. 7. Panicum (Latin name for P. Italicum). A large genus of annual or perennial grasses, con- taining probably 500 or 600 species, mostly trop- ical, represented in the United States by about 130 species, particularly abundant in the southeastern states; a few occur as far north as Canada. Spikelets one-flowered, usually awnless, in one- sided spikes or in more or less diffuse panicles ; lower glume usually small ; upper glume and sterile lemma membranaceous, the latter sometimes with stamens ; the fertile lemma and palea indurated. molle, Sw. Para-grass. (Fig. 522.) A rather coarse, reed-like perennial, four to six feet high, with hairy nodes and narrow lax panicles, six to eight inches long; producing extensively creeping woody runners which root at the nodes. Native of South America, where it is culti- vated as a forage grass. It is alsocultivated in the West Indies and Mexico and to a limited extent in southern Florida and Texas. maximum, Jacq. Guinea- grass. (Fig. 528.) A coarse perennial, growing in dense tufts to the height of as much as ten feet, and pro- ducing creeping rootstocks. Inflorescence a large, loose panicle ; lemma transversely wrinkled. Native of tropical Africa, but extensively cul- tivated in tropical America as a forage plant. Somewhat grown in Florida, but will not withstand frost. This should FES Fig. 524. Hog or broom corn millet (Ps.-.- cum miliaceum). GRASSES not be confounded with Johnson-grass, which it resembles somewhat in appearance. It is not so hardy as Johnson-grass, and is less troublesome. It furnishes much of the roughage found on the markets in the West Indies. miliaceum, Linn. Broom-corn Millet. Hog Millet. (Fig. 524.) A rather coarse annual, two to four feet high, with hispid sheaths and large, drooping panicles. A native of the Old World, where it has been cultivated since prehistoric times. Cultivated in Europe and Asia for forage and also for the seed, which is used for food. In this country it is cultivated to a limited extent for forage. This is the true millet of the Old World. In the United States the name millet is given to Chetochloa Ttalica. (Because of its quick growth it is : adapted to the North, and is grown some- what extensively in the Dakotas. It is much more drought-resistant than the other millets.) [See Millet and Meadows and Pastures.] Crus-galli, Linn, Barnyard Grass. (Figs. 525 and 526.) A common annual weed probably introduced from Europe, though some forms are native in the United States. Differs from the other species in having awned spikelets, for which reason some authors refer it to the genus Echinochloa. Inflorescence a raceme of short spikes. Certain forms of this species fy are sparingly grown in this country under the name of Japanese barnyard millet. These and the form cultivated in Asia for the grain are sometimes known as Panicum frumentaceum, and are shorter-awned than the common forms. / 8. Chetochloa (Greek, bristle-grass). A genus of annual or perennial J Uy grasses of about forty species, found in the warm regions of both hemispheres. Spikelets with the structure of Panicum, but interspersed with rough- ened bristles which usually extend be- yond the spikelets. Inflorescence a dense, cylindrical spike. Also known as Setaria. Sev- eral species are common weeds in cultivated soil, e. g., C. viridis and C. glauca (Fig. 527), foxtail or pigeon-grass. italica, Scribn. Millet. Hungarian- grass. (Fig. 528.) A coarse annual with thick green or purple spikes, cultivated for forage, espe- cially in the region of the Great Plains. Native of the Old World. Also called Bengal-grass. [See Millet and Meadows and Pastures.] 9. Pennisetum (Greek, feather bristle). A genus of annual or perennial grasses comprising about forty species, found in the tropics of both hemi- spheres, but more especially the eastern. Spikelets B 24 GRASSES 369 as in Panicum, but surrounded by a cluste: cr bristles which fall from the axis with the spikelet (except in the cultivated form). Inflorescence a raceme or spike. spicatum, R. and S. (Pennisetum typhoideum, Rich.; Penicellaria spicata, Willd.). Pearl mil- let. (Fig. 529.) A tall, coarse, annual grass, resembling sorghum, but having a dense cylin- drical inflorescence six to fourteen inches in length and an inch or less in diameter. The origin of pearl millet is unknown, but it has been cultivated in tropical Africa and Asia for an indefinite period for forage and for the seed, which is used for food. It is now cultivated in the United States to some ex- tent for forage, and the seed is some- times sold under the name of Pencilaria and Mand’s Wonder forage plant. For Us further account, see United States is Department of Agriculture, Farmers’ ‘Bulletin, No. 168. [See Millet.] 10. Stenotaphrum (Greek, narrow trench, alluding to cavities in the rachis). A genus of grasses of three or four species, found in the tropical regions of both hemispheres. Spikelets as in Panicum, but sunken in the cavities of the one-sided broad axis, forming short spikes. secundatum, Kuntze (S. Americanum, Schr.). St. Augustine Grass. (Fig. 530.) A creeping grass with flat stems and obtuse leaves, found in the southern states,,mostly near the coast, as far north as South Carolina. The flowering stems may be as much as a foot high. The plants root readily at the nodes and form a thick sod, and hence the grass is especially valuable for lawns or for holding em- Fig. 525. bankments, Barnyard grass (Panicum Crus-galli). Common awned form. both in sandy and in mucky soil. The American plant is considered distinct from the Asiatic (S. dimidiatum, Kuntze). It is known locally as Charleston lawn grass and mission grass. 11. Oryza (Latin name for rice). A genus of grasses comprising about six species, occurring in the tropics of both hemispheres. Aquatic plants with flat leaves and terminal panicles. Spikelets one-flowered, strongly flattened laterally; glumes much shorter than the spikelet. sativa, Linn. Rice. (Fig. 531.) An annual grass, native of southeastern Asia and extensively culti- vated in the warmer regions of both hemispheres for the grain, which is used for food. [See Rice.] 12. Phalaris (Greek, ‘shining, referring to the seed). A genus of grasses of about a dozen species, mostly in southern Europe, but five in North America. Inflorescence a spike-like panicle. Spike- lets one-flowered, strongly flattened latterly, artic- GRASSES Fig. 526. Japanese barnyard millet( Panicum Orus-galli). ulated above the usually wing- keeled glumes. Below the lemma are two narrow or bristle-formed scales, which represent rudimen- tary flowers or sterile lemmas. Fertile lemma hard and shining in fruit and closely enveloping the grain. arundinacea, Linn. Reed Canary-grass. (Fig. 532.) A perennial grass from a creep- ing rootstock, growing to the Fig. 528. loa Italica). one aay height of two to four feet, (Ohetochloa glauea). With a narrow, branched panicle. Native in the north- ern half of the United States and also in Europe and Asia, where it occurs in wet meadow land. It is an important hay plant in the northern part of the Great Plains region and to the eastward perhaps more especially. A variety with striped leaves is cultivated for ornament under the name of ribbon-grass. Canariensis, Linn. Canary-grass. (Fig. 533.) An erect annual, with a compact, ovoid spike or head about an inch long. \ A native of the Old World, but introduced . in waste places in America and also occa- sionally cultivated for its seed, which is used for bird-food. 18. Anthoxanthum (Greek, yellow flowers). A genus of three or four species of European grasses, one of which is occasionally cultivated in this country as a forage grass. Spikelets one-flowered, with two unequal glumes, two narrow scales repre- senting rudimentary flowers or sterile lemmas, and a perfect flower with a lemma shorter than the glumes. Aromatic annual or perennial grasses, with contracted, spike-like panicles. edoratum, Linn. Sweet Vernal-grass. (Fig. 584.) Common millet or Hungarian-grass (Cheetoch- GRASSES St. Augustine grass (Stenotaphrum secundatum). Fig. 530. A perennial sweet-scented grass, native of Europe, but now introduced and widely distributed in the northern i Fig. 529. Pearl millet half of the United States. It (Pennisetum ig’ rarely grown in mixtures spicatum). for meadows; it imparts a sweet odor to the hay. It is an inferior fodder plant. 14. Arrhenatherum (Greek, arrhen, masculine, and ather, awn, referring to the awned staminate flower). A genus of six species of perennial grasses native of the Old World. Spikelets two- flowered, the lower staminate, the lemma bearing a twisted and geniculate dorsal awn, the upper per- fect and short-awned or awnless. Inflorescence a narrow panicle. elatius, Beauv. Tall Oat-grass. (Fig. 535.) A tufted grass, two to five feet high, sparingly cul- tivated for hay. 15. Phleum (Greek name for a kind of reed). A genus of annual or perennial grasses native in the temperate regions of both hemispheres. Spikelets one-flowered, laterally compressed - keeled, the thin lemma shorter than the glumes. Inflorescence a a dense cylindrical spike-like panicle terminating the culm. , pratense, Linn. Timothy. (Fig. 536.) Native of Europe and extensively cultivated in the cooler parts of North America as a forage plant. A short- lived perennial with erect stems and bulbous, thickened base. In New England this is often known as Herd’s-grass. 16. Alopecurus (Greek, fox-tail). A genus of annual or perennial grasses of about twenty species, - found in the temperate regions of both hemispheres. Spikelets one-flowered, laterally compressed, ciliate along the keels of the glumes, lemma awned from the back; palea usually none. Inflorescence a dense cylindrical or ovate, spike-like panicle. pratensis, Linn. Meadow Foxtail. A hardy peren- nial grass from a creeping rootstock, with leafy stem and cylindrical panicles. Occasionally grown in meadow mixtures on wet land in northeastern United States. 17. Ammophila (Greek, sand-loving). A genus of grasses of one or two species, occurring on the GRASSES sandy seashore of Europe and America. Spikelets one-flowered, rather large and chartaceous ; rachilla prolonged as a bristle behind the palea. Inflores- cence a narrow, spike-like panicle. arenaria, Link. Beach-grass. (Fig. 587.) A coarse perennial with rigid culms, long, tough, involute leaves and extensively creeping root- stocks, native along the sandy shores of the Great Lakes and on the Atlantic coast as far south as North Carolina. Much used in Europe to bind shift- ing sand, and recently used for the same purpose in this country, notably at Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, and on Cape Cod. Propagated by trans- planting young plants. [For further information, see United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletins Nos. 57 and 65.] 18. Agrostis (Greek name for a kind of grass). A genus of grasses including about one hundred species, mostly perennials, distributed over the entire globe in the cooler parts. Spikelets one-flow- ered, the lemma shorter than the glumes and often awned from the back ; palea small or wanting. In- florescence a panicle, varying from contracted and spike-like to very open and diffuse. alba, Linn. Red-top. (Fig. 538.) An upright perennial with short rootstocks and moderately open and spreading panicles. Palea one-half to two-thirds as long as the lemma. This species is variable. One form (var. vulgaris, Thurb.; A. vul- garis, With.) is more tufted and has more delicate culms and panicles. This form is more frequently found in lawns and open woods. It is sometimes awned. A variety of A. alba, with more contracted panicles and with extensive stolons, is cultivated as a lawn grass under the name of creeping bent. It is especially useful in the Middle Atlantic states, where it is too warm for blue-grass and too cold for Bermuda. In England, A. alba is called Fiorin and bent-grass;in parts of the South it is known as Herd’s grass. Fig. 532. Fig. 533. GRASSES 871 canina, Linn. Rhode Island Bent. (Fig. 539.) A delicate perennial resembling the smaller awned forms of A. alba vulgaris, but the palea is want- ing. Much of the seed sold under this name is A. alba vulgaris. 19. Cynodon (Greek, dog-tooth). A genus of four species of perennial grasses in the tropical regions of both hemispheres. Spikelets one-flow- ered, awnless, sessile, in two rows along one side of a slender axis, forming unilateral spikes which are digitate at the apex of the culm. Dactylon, Pers. (Capriola Dactylon, Kuntze). Ber- muda-grass. (Fig. 540.) Stems extensively creeping and rooting at the nodes, or in cultivated or sandy soil forming stout flattened rootstocks. On poor soil the leaves are short and the growth low, but in moist, rich soil it may grow tall enough for hay. Very common in the southern states, where it is the most valuable grass for summer pastures. It is also useful for lawns and for holding embankments. In cultivated fields it becomes a pestiferous weed, and is then often called wire-grass or joint-grass. 20. Holcus (Greek name for a kind of grass). A genus of annual or perennial grasses containing eight species in Europe and Africa. Spikelets two- flowered, the lower perfect and awnless, the upper staminate and awned. Inflorescence a dense termi- nal panicle. lanatus, Linn. Velvet-grass. (Fig.541.) Velvety- pubescent throughout. It is generally considered a weed, and finds use as a forage crop only in parts of the Pacific northwest, notably about Puget Sound. 21. Avena (Latin name for oats). A genus of about fifty species of grasses in the temperate regions of the Old World, a few in America. Spikelets large, two- to six-flowered; glumes membranous, longer than the flowers; lemma with a dorsal, twisted awn (or in cultivated forms straight or absent). Inflorescence a spreading panicle. Fig. 531. Reed canary-grass Canary-grass Sweet vernal-grass _ Tall oat-grass _ Fig. 536. Rice (Oryza (Phalaris arundi- (Phalaris (Anthozanthum (Arrhenatherum Timothy (Phlewm sativa). nacea), Canariensis). odoratum). elatius). pratense). 3872 GRASSES GRASSES Fig. 541. Velvet-grass (Holcus lanatus). Fig. 539. ; i Rhode Island Fig. 540. Bermuda-grass Bent-grass (Cynodon Dactyion), (Agrostis canina) with spikelet show- ing awn. Fig. 537. Beach-grass (Ammophila arenaria). DORs 4 ee M ‘yf Nk dy by N (i \f hn Fig. 546. Texas blue- grass( Poa arachnifera), pistillate plant. Stami- nate panicle and pistil- late spikelet enlarged. Fig. 545. Crested dog’s- tail (Cynosurus . eristatus). Cluster of ster- ile and fertile spikelet en- larged. \) 4 ; / Ny 3 : Fig. 548. Wood ; ; Fig. 544, Orchard-grass Fig. 547. Canada blue- meadow-grass Fig. 543. Wild oats (Avena fatua). (Dactylis glomerata). grass (Poa compressa). (Poa nemoratis). GRASSES sativa, Linn. Oat. (Fig. 542.) An annual with nodding spikelets and many-nerved glumes, the awns of the persistent lem- mas straight or wanting. A common grain thought by many to have originated from the wild oat (A. fatua, Linn., Fig. 543), which differs in having a geniculate and twisted awn, and a deciduous lemma more or less covered with red-brown hairs. The wild oat is abundantly intro- duced on the Pacific coast. A variety (A. fatua gla- brata, Peterm.) is cut for cov. hay in Washington, and oe this and an allied species (A. barbata, Brot.) are used for pasturage in Cali- fornia. [See Oats.] 22. Dactylis (Greek, finger), A genus of grasses com- prising one species or several closely allied species, native in the northern part of the Old World. Spikelets three- to five-flowered, in dense fasci- cles, these forming a glomerate panicle, spreading in flower but contracted in fruit. Glumes one- to three-nerved, the lemma five- nerved. glomerata, Linn. Orchard- grass. (Fig. 544.) Commonly cultivated in the northern states for forage and extensively es- caped in waste places. It is of considerable importance in Ken- tucky, southern Indiana, Ten- nessee, North Carolina, western Virginia, West Virginia and Maryland. 23. Cynosurus (Greek, dog’s- tail). A genus of four or five species of grasses found in the north temperate regions of the Old World. Spikelets of two forms in small fascicles, these forming a dense, spike-like pan- icle; terminal spikelets of the fascicles two- to four-flowered, perfect, the lower spikelet sterile, consisting of many linear one-nerved glumes. cristatus, Linn. Crested Dog’s- tail. (Fig. 545.) A perennial grass, one to two feet high, with fine and chiefly radical leaves. Occasionally sown in grass mix- tures but without much forage value. 24, Poa (Greek, for fodder). A genus of. about 125 species of grasses, chiefly in the cooler regions of both hemispheres. Spikelets two- to six-flow- a ye Fig. 549. Blue-grass or June-grass (Poa pratensis). GRASSES 3873 ered, the uppermost flower more or less imperfect ; glumes one- to three-nerved, keeled ; lemma keeled, five-nerved, awnless. Inflorescence a more or less spreading panicle. Annuals or perennials. arachnifera, Torr. Texas Blue-grass. (Fig. 546.) A dicecious perennial grass with running rootstocks. The staminate and pistillate panicles are distinctly different in appearance, owing to the fact that the lemmas of the staminate spikelets are smooth while those of the pistillate spikelets are densely long woolly, which character at once distinguishes this species. compressa, Linn. Canada Blue-grass. (Fig. 547.) A perennial with scattered, flattened stems, six to twenty inches high, from creeping rootstocks which form a strong turf. Panicle comparatively small and narrow. Because of the characteristic shape of the stem it is called flat-stem in the middle Alle- ghany region. In New England and in some other localities it is known as blue-grass, but this name should be restricted to Poa pratensis. It is also sometimes called wire-grass. The foliage has a peculiar blue-green color. It is a native of Europe and of the northern part of America. nemoralis, Linn. Wood Meadow-grass. (Fig. 548). A tall perennial (one to three feet) with open spread- ing panicle, four to six inches long; spikelets mostly two- to three-flowered, lemma webby at base, keel and marginal nerves pubescent, intermediate nerves glabrous and obscure; ligule very short. This European species is occa- 2 sionally cultivated as a meadow grass or in mixtures, and has escaped in the northeastern states. It is adapted to shaded situations. Probably not na- tive. Fig. 550. flower (Poa pratensis). 1, spikelet; 2, floret opened; fl, florets; g, glumes; pd, pedicel; st, stamen; a, Detail of blue-grass Fig. 551. Kentucky pblue-grass or June- grass (Poa praten- sis). anthers; f, filaments; s, stigmas; p, palea; 2,lemma; 0, ovary; 7, rachilla. pratensis, Linn. Kentucky Blue-grass. (Figs. 549-551.) A perennial grass growing in tufts, but producing abundant rootstocks by which it soon forms a firm sod. Panicles spreading but not dif- fuse, two to five inches long. Spikelets mostly three- to five-flowered ; lemma much as in the pre- ceding, but the intermediate nerves more promi- nent. A valuable grass, native in the northern part of both hemispheres and widely cultivated for pasture and lawns. It does not thrive in the South. 874 GRASSES triflora, Gelib. (P. serotina, Ehrh.). Fowl Meadow- grass. (Fig. 552.) This grass closely resembles P. nemoralis. It usually grows taller and has a larger panicle. Probably the best character to distinguish between the two is the ligule, which in triflora is about three millimeters (one-eighth inch) long, Fig. 553. Rough-stalked Fig. 552. Fowl meadow-grass (Poa triflora) and enlarged spikelet. trivialis) and enlarged spikelet. while in nemoralis it is scarcely measurable. This species is native in the northern part of America as well as in Europe. It has been incorrectly re- ferred to P. flava, Linn. Sometimes known as false red-top. trivialis, Linn. Rough-stalked Meadow- grass. (Fig. 553.) In general appearance much resembling P. pratensis, but usually with a larger and more spreading panicle. It differs in the absence of well- developed rootstocks, in the sheaths rough to the touch (hence the common name), and in the glabrous marginal nerves of thelemma. Occasionally grown in mixtures for meadows. A native of Europe but escaped from cultivation in the northeastern states. It is adapted to shaded situations. ; 25. Festuca (Latin, straw). A genus of about eighty species of mostly perennial grasses, scat- tered over all parts of the globe but chiefly in tem- perate regions. Spikelets several-flowered, glumes narrow and acute ; lemmas rounded on the back, or keeled at apex, often awned from the tip, faintly three- to five-nerved, rather hard in texture. In- florescence from a narrow raceme to a spreading panicle. elatior, Linn. Tall Fescue. A tall grass (three to four feet) with large flat leaves, large but rather narrow panicle and large, five- to ten- flowered, awnless spikelets (about one-half inch long). Native of Europe and cultivated for forage. Frequently escaped from cultivation. A smaller form (var. pratensis, Gray (Fig. 554); #. pratensis, Huds.), with narrower panicle of fewer spikelets, is more com- monly cultivated under the name of meadow fescue, and is a more valuable agricultural grass. Some- meadow -grass (Poa Fig. 554. GRASSES times called Randall grass. The tall fescue makes a ranker growth than the meadow fescue. ovina, Linn, Sheep’s Fescue. (Fig. 555.) A low tufted perennial without rootstocks having numer- ous very narrow, wiry basal leaves, narrow panicles, and short-awned lemmas. A variable species, native of temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. Much valued in Europe as a pasture grass, especially for sheep, but little grown in this country. Varieties or closely allied species of this go under the names of various-leaved fescue (F’. heterophylla), hard fescue (F. durius- cula), and fine leaved or slender fescue (F. tenuifolia). rubra, Linn. Red Fescue. (Fig. 556.) Resembles F’. ovina, but usually larger and with a more spreading panicle. Distinguished chiefly by the presence of short rootstocks or creep. ing bases of the stems, which are often red in color. Some varieties are native along the Atlantic coast and in the western mountains. 26. Bromus (Greek name for oats). A genus of about one hundred species of annual or perennial grasses, mostly of the north temperate zone. Spikelets several-flowered ; lemmas rounded on the back or sharply keeled, five- to nine-nerved, two-toothed at the apex and awned from between the teeth, or sometimes awnless. Inflorescence a panicle of rather large, erect or pendulous spikelets. Leaves flat. Our native species are all perennial. Several annuals introduced from Europe are troublesome weeds, such as cheat or chess (B. secalinus). Meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis). a Fig. 555. Fig. 556. Sheep’s fescue Red fescue 3 Fig. 557. Brome grass (Festuca ovina). (Festuca rubra). (Bromus inermis). inermis, Leyss. Russian Brome'grass. (Fig. 557.) Anerect perennial two to five feet high, with strong creeping rootstocks and a loose, open panicle four to six inches long. Spikelets scarcely flattened, erect, about an inch long, awnless. Native of GRASSES Europe, but recently introduced into this country and proving a valuable forage grass in the North- west, from Kansas to North Dakota and Washing- ton. Called also smooth, Hungarian, Austrian and awnless brome grass. secalinus, Linn. Chess. Cheat. (Fig. 558.) An annual, one to three feet high, with open panicle, smooth sheaths and short-awned spikelets. A com- Chess or cheat (Bromus secalinus). It was once sup- Fig. 558. Common in wheat fields. i posed that wheat turned to chess. mon weed introduced from Europe but cultivated for forage in Oregon and Washington. A closely allied species (B. racemosus commutatus) is common and can be distinguished by the pubescent sheaths and the less rigid and turgid lemma, especially in fruiting spikelets. The idea that chess may turn into wheat is now one of the curiosities of agricul- tural tradition. unioloides, H. B. K. Rescue-grass. (Fig. 559.) A tall annual (one to three feet) with an open panicle of broad, much-flattened, nearly or quite awnless GRASSES 875 spikelets. Native of South America. Cultivated in the southern states for winter forage. Also called arctic-grass, Schrader’s brome-grass, Australian brome and Australian oats. 27. Lolium (the old Latin name). A genus of six species of grasses in northern Europe and Asia. Spikelets several-flowered, solitary and sessile on alternate sides of the rachis, placed with the edges against the axis, forming a two-rowed spike. multiflorum, Lam. (L. Italicwm, A. Br.). Italian Rye-grass. (Fig. 560.) A short-lived perennial or scarcely more than a biennial. Spikelets with awns about as long as the lemma. On the Pacific coast sometimes called Australian rye-grass. perenne, Linn, Perennial Rye-grass. (Fig. 561.) Similar to the preceding, but somewhat more per- sistent and with awnless spikelets. Long cultivated in England, where it is highly esteemed as a forage Tass. 28. Secale (Latin name for rye). A genus of grasses containing two species, one of which is widely cultivated. Native in the Old World. Spikelets two-flow- ered, solitary and sessile, alter- nate on opposite sides of acon- tinuous rachis, forming adense # terminal spike. Glumes narrow and pointed; lemmas keeled, five-nerved, long-awned from the apex. cereale, Linn. Rye. (Fig. 562.) A well-known cereal in common cultivation in all cool climates. [See Rye.] 29. Triticum (Latin name for wheat). A genus of ten or twelve species of the Mediter- ranean region. Spikelets two- to five-flowered, solitary and sessile, alternate on opposite sides of the rachis, forming a dense terminal spike. Glumes ovate, three to many-nerved. Annuals, sativum, Lam. (T. vulgare, Vill). Wheat. (Fig. 563.) 2a». A common grain, long cul- tivated and existing in well- marked races and numerous varieties. The spikelets may be awned (bearded) or awnless (smooth). [See Wheat.] 80. Agropyron (Greek, wheat-grass). A genus of about thirty-five species of perennial grasses, distributed in all tem- perate climates. Spikelets three- to several-flowered, soli- tary and sessile at each joint of the axis, forming a terminal spike. Glumes narrow and MY, pointed. Differs from Triticum RO in the shape of the glumes and in having the lemma deciduous with the grain to which it ad- Rescue-grass (Bromus unioloides). Fig. 560. Italian rye- grass (Lolium multiflorum). 3876 GRASSES heres. Commonly called wheat-grasses. In native meadows in the Northwest several species are util- ized, especially A. occidentale, Scribn., called blue- stem and blue-joint in the Rocky mountain region ’ (not the blue-stem of the prairie states, » Andropogon fur- catus, Muhl., norof ' Minnesota, Cala- magrostis Cana- densis), and the slender wheat- grass of Montana and Washing- ton (A. tenerum, w Wry Centum Fig. 562. Rye (Secale perenne). cereale). Vasey). The seed of the latter is now a commercial article. repens, Beauv. Quack-grass. (Figs. 159, 564.) A perennial with a creeping, several-jointed root- stock. Culms may reach four feet Nf in height. Leaves numerous and | linear; spikes six to twelve inches long, erect; spikelets on opposite sides of a jointed and grooved rachis, erect, four- to eight-flowered. Glumes acute or short-awned; lemmas smooth; palea acute or slightly rounded. Also called couch-grass, twitch- grass and quitch-grass. 81. Hordeum (Latin name for barley). A genus of about sixteen species of grasses in both hemi- spheres. Spikelets one-flowered, two to three together at each joint of the articulated rachis, forming a dense terminal spike. Glumes two, nar- row or bristle form. _ vulgare, Linn. (or H. sativum, Jess.). Barley. (Figs. 287, 565.) A well-known cereal cultivated in all cool climates. There are normally three spikelets in a group at each node, each with its pair of awn- like glumes ; each lemma also long-awned. If all three spikelets are developed and form grains, six- or four-rowed barley is produced, according as the lateral spikelets on each side form two distinct rows or are coalesced into one. In two-rowed barley the lateral spikelets are staminate and do not form grains. The grain in most varieties adheres to the lemma in threshing, but in the naked barleys it falls out. Beardless barley is a form in which the awns are short and much distorted. [See Barley. Authorities differ in practice as to use of the two specific names; either is allowable.] a She 7 Fig. 563. Wheat (Triti- cum sativum), GRASSES Literature. The following is a list of the more important recent works treating wholly or in part of North American grasses. In addition, there are numerous local floras, monographs and technical articles in botanical journals that are not readily accessible to the general reader. Manuals and general works : Beal, Grasses of North America, Vol. II, 1896; Britton, Manual of the Flora of the Northern States and Canada (1901), Second edition, 1905; Britton and Brown, An Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States, Canada and the British Possessions, Vol. I, 1896 ; Chapman, Flora of the Southern Uni- ted States, Third edition, 1897 ; Coulter, Manual of the Botany of the Rocky Mountain Region, 1885; Gray, Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States, Sixth edition, 1890 ; Hackel, The True Grasses, translated from the German by Scribner and Southworth, 1890; Small, Flora of the Southeastern United States, 1903; Watson, Geological Survey of California, Botany, Vol. II, 1880 (the grasses are by Thur- ber); Monographs and special papers, United States Government pub- lications: Hitchcock, North American Species of Agrostis, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin No. 68, 1905; Hitch- cock, North American Species of Leptochloa, Bureau of Plant Indus- Fig. 564. Quack-grass (Agropyron repens). try, Bulletin No. 33, 1903; Merrill, The Native Species of Cheetochloa, Division of Agrostology, Bulletin No. 21, 1900; Merrill, The North American Species of Spartina, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin No. 9, 1902; Piper, North American Species of Festuca, Contributions from National Herbarium 10, No. 1, 1906; Scribner, American Grasses, I, Division of Agrostology, Bulletin No. 7, 1900; II, Division of Agrostology, Bulletin No. 17, 1901; III, Division of Agrostology, Bulletin No. 20, 1900; Shear, A Revision of the North American Species of Bromus Occurring North of Mexico, Division of Agrostology, Bulletin No. 23,1900; Vasey, Illustrations of North I NYY GIF 22 Fig. 565. Six-rowed barley (Hor- deum vulgare). HEMP American Grasses : Vol. I, Grasses of the Southwest, 1891; Vol. II, Grasses of the Pacific Slope, 1893, Division of Botany, Bulletin Nos. 12 and 13. HEMP. Cannabis sativa, Linn. Urticacee. Figs. 566-571. [See also Fiber plants.] By J. N. Harper. An annual dicecious plant, reaching a height of ten feet and more, grown for its long bast fiber, and -for its seeds. Staminate flowers drooping in axil- lary panicles, hav- ing five sepals and five stamens; pistillate flowers in short spikes, with one sepal folding about the ovary. ~\ Leaves digitate, ’ with five to seven nearly linear, coarse-toothed leaf- lets. Hemp is prob- ably native to cen- tral Asia. Fig. 566. Hemp. Staminate flower- cluster: a, pistillate and b, stam- inate flowers; c, pistillate flower cluster at left. History. Hemp has bean cultivated for cen- turies as a fiber plant. It was grown by the early Greeks and probably by the ancient Egyptians. It has been grown in this country for about 130 years, the seed having been brought from France. During this time, its cultivation has been confined chiefly to about twelve counties in central Kentucky, in what is known as the blue-grass region. For the last forty or fifty years, however, the industry has spread into a number of other states, notably Missouri, Illinois, Nebraska, Oklahoma, Minnesota, New York and California. Notwithstanding this extension of the industry, nine-tenths of the hemp crop of America is still grown in Kentucky. During the years it has been grown === in Kentucky, probably no other crop has brought an equal revenue. A few years before the Civil War it contributed more to the wealth of central Kentucky than all other crops combined. At that time, Kentucky produced annually 38,000 tons, with a gross receipt of $2,280,000. During the war the industry declined but revived a few years later, and again declined owing to the use of iron and jute in the bagging of cotton. Hemp is now used largely for making burlap, twine and carpet warp. Production. According to the Twelfth Census there were in 1899, 964 farms producing hemp, with an average acreage of 16.6 and a total acreage of 16,042. The average production per acre was 732 pounds, worth $34.06, or 4,6 cents per pound. HEMP 377 The figures for hemp in the Twelfth Census (1900) are as follows : Acres Pounds Value Arkansas ... 1 420 $20 California . .. 500 620,000 45,000 Illinois : 783 515,400 21,784 Missouri. . . . 10 2,000 100 Kentucky . . .| 14,107 10,303,560 | 468,454 Nebraska 638 305,400 10,752 Pennsylvania . . 3 8,850 228 16,042 11,750,630 | $546,338 Culture. The soil—While hemp will grow on almost any land containing a large amount of humus, it does best on well-drained silurian limestone soils. In Minnesota it thrives on drift soils. The moisture content is the important factor. The soil should be prepared thoroughly by breaking with a turning plow, plowing about six to eight inches deep, and by repeated harrowings and rolling. Hemp grows so tall and dense that it kills weeds by smothering them better than any other farm crop. A good growth of hemp is effective in killing even Canada thistle and quack-grass. It leaves the soil in excellent condition for any succeeding crop. Seeding.—The best results are secured by sow- Fig. 567. Hemp: pistillate or seed-bearing part. ing with a seven-inch wheat drill, running it both ways. The seed is sown at the rate of one bushel per acre. It is sown about two inches deep. After sowing, the land should be rolled. Hemp should 378 HEMP not be sown very thick, because in thinning itself it will crowd out many plants and the size of the hemp stalks will not be uniform. The best fiber is obtained from stalks about one-half inch in diam- eter; if a thin = stand is se- cured, the stalks fre- quently will grow to be three-fourths of an inch in diameter. Hemp drilled in gives a much more uniform stand than when yr as sown broad- 4 CM. WW ADIN 7) ABN Ws ey uM eas zt cast, because eke AANN VALI __ allof the seeds are placed at a depth to have sufficient mois- ture to insure immediate germination, and the young plants get an even start. Repeated experi- ments have shown that it does not pay to till hemp that is intended for fiber. The earlier the seed is planted in the spring the more assurance there will be of a good crop. Hemp requires a large amount of moisture and should be high enough to shade the ground and thus conserve all water that may fall in the early summer. The average time of planting for eight years at the Kentucky Experiment Station was April 25. The young plants began to come up in about one week’s time. It has been found by long experience that the seed that gives the best results is secured from China. The Kentucky Experiment Station has tested the value of anumber of Japanese varieties, but none has given as good results as those from Chinese seed. The first year the imported seed is planted the yield is much less than it is in succeed- ing years. Growers say that after the Chinese hemp Fig. 508. Hemp; staminate flowers indi- cate time for harvest. HEMP hemp grown in America for seed purposes. About two quarts per acre are sown. This is often planted in hills, seven feet apart, in rows six to eight feet apart. About four stalks are permitted to grow to the hill. This hemp is carefully cultivated and kept free from all weeds and grasses. The seed is used in the making of oils for paints, for bird and poultry food, and various other purposes. The yield of seed is fifteen to thirty bushels to the acre. As much as forty dollars per acre is often realized from hemp seed. The seed must not be stored in bulk or it will heat. Fertilizers— The Kentucky Station has experi- mented for a number of years on the use of com- mercial fertilizers on hemp, and the results show that, by the use of 160 pounds of nitrate of soda per acre, three to four hundred pounds more fiber = Fig. 570. Stack of hemp. can be grown to the acre than on unfertilized land. When 160 pounds of nitrate of soda and 160 pounds of muriate of potash are used together, at least four to five hundred pounds more fiber are secured than on the unfertilized areas. Acid phos- phate does not show a material increase. Nitrate of soda gives better results than does sulfate of ammonia or dried blood. The prime requirement is for nitrogen, and it should be furnished by apply- ing commercial fertilizers, or by barnyard or green- manures. A leguminous crop can be alter- Fig. 569. Shocking hemp. has been grown for a number of years it degener- ates and they seek newly imported seed. There are no well marked varieties. Seed-growing.—The hemp that is planted for seed is sown on the river-bottoms. A narrow strip along the Kentucky river produces nearly all of the nated with the hemp, and in parts of the South this can be done in the same year. Cutting and handling. The first blossoms appear about the first week in July, and hemp sown April 25 will be ready for cutting about the first of Sep- tember. Most of the hemp grown in Ken- tucky is still cut by hand by means of a knife made especially for this purpose. However, much has recently been cut by especially designed machinery. The yield from the handcut field is greater than that from the machinery-cut field, and some farmers maintain that there is enough difference to make up for the greater expense. The heaviest fiber is found on the internode next to the ground, and if the stubble is left any length, a great quantity of fiber is lost. It usually costs about one dollar per HEMP acre to cut by machinery and three dollars per acre to cut by hand. After the hemp is cut, it is spread evenly over the ground, the butts being placed down the hill if there is a slope. The stalks are placed in par- allel lines. In about one week it is sufficiently dry to rake up into small bundles. These bundles are tied with small stalks of hemp and are placed in shocks (Fig. 569) or stacks (Fig. 570). The Ken- tucky Experiment Station 'has shown that it pays to stack the hemp, as the loss of fiber is not so great and the quality is much improved. Stacked hemp rets more evenly and makes a much better fiber than when shocked. In the latter case, too much of the outer layer sunburns and over-rets. The shocks are liable to blow down, greatly to the damage of the crop. The shocked hemp, however, is much less expensive to handle and can be spread out at different periods, so that the quantity retted at one time can be controlled. If the hemp is allowed to remain on the ground too long after cutting, it will sunburn and the quality will be destroyed. It requires considerable judgment to stack hemp to avoid the sunburn. Care should be taken not to stack it before it is sufficiently dry, as it will heat in the stack with much injury to the quality. Retting.—About the middle of November or the first of December, the hemp is taken from the stack and spread over the ground as before stack- ing, to ret, a process which separates or liberates the bast. If the weather conditions are favorable, it will ret in about two months sufficiently to break. Ideal weather conditions for retting are alternate freezing and thawing, with an occasional snow that does not remain long on the ground. Early and late retting are not so good as winter retting ; and hemp retted during heavy freezes is much better than when rain-retted. After the hemp has retted sufficiently to allow the fiber to break readily from the hards (or “hurds”). it should be placed in shocks to prevent further retting. The artificial methods of retting have never been completely successful. Breaking.—The fiber is removed or extracted from the other tissue by the process of breaking. Most of the hemp of Kentucky is still broken by the old-fashioned hand-brake that has been in use for more than one hundred years. Large sums have been spent in trying to devise machinery for this operation, but so far most of the attempts have failed. Within the last year or so, however, ma- chines have been designed that promise successfully to break the hemp. Marketing. After being broken in the field, the hemp is tied up in hanks of six to eight pounds. These are put in about 150-pound bales, which are taken to the market, where the hemp is rehandled by the dealer. The rehandling consists in running the hemp through hackles of various degrees of fineness. The hackled hemp is shipped directly to the twine manufacturer. The best hemp fibers, which are water-retted, come from abroad, especially from Italy and France. HEMP 379 Returns per acre. Sufficient seed to sow an acre costs about $3; the breaking of the land costs $1.25; harrowing, 50 cents; breaking and rolling, 50 cents ; drilling the seed, 50 cents ; cutting, $8; tying and shock- ing, $1.25; spreading, 50 cents; taking up and shocking, 50 cents; putting in stacks, $1; break- ing, $1 per hundred, or about $15 per acre, thus making the total cost $27 per acre. Twelve hun- dred pounds is considered a good crop, and 1,800 pounds is often produced. The average price is about five cents per pound, making a gross income of $60 to $90 per acre, or a net income of $33 to $63 per acre. Enemies. The hemp plant is subject to few enemies. There is a parasitic plant that is causing a great deal of damage to the crop in central Kentucky. This parasite belongs to the broom rapes. It has been discussed in several bulletins issued by the Ken- tucky Station. Cutworms and a small fly (Pegemyia Susciceps) sometimes damage it seriously. Methods employed in Nebraska, California and Minnesota. At Havelock, Nebraska, where hemp follows hemp or a crop leaving the soil in equally good condition, the land is prepared and the seed sown and covered at one operation. A traction engine draws a gang of plows followed by a harrow, then a special drill and a second harrow to cover the seeds and settle the soil. The hemp is cut with Fig. 571. Hemp-cleaning machine in operation in Kentucky. ordinary mowing machines with an attachment: to throw the stalks smoothly in the direction the machine is going. The stalks lie where they fall until retted. They are then raked up with horse- rakes and taken to the power brake, consisting of fluted rollers followed by beating wheels, which prepares the fiber in the form of long tow. In Cal- ifornia hemp is cut with special self-rake reapers, bound and set up in shocks, until conditions are favorable for retting. It is then spread for dew- retting and afterward broken on the Heaney hemp brake, similar to the one at Havelock, making long tow. At Northfield, Minnesota, hemp is cut by self- binders of special construction and, after curing in the field, is water-retted in tanks and broken by machinery, producing a light yellowish fiber some- what like Italian hemp. 380 HOPS Literature. M. Molliard, Experimental Investigations on Hemp, Bul. Soc. Bot., France, 50, 1903; Viner, Experiments with Hemp, Khozyaene, 1901, No. 47, 48; Rev. in Zhur. Opuitn. Agron. (Jour. Expt. Landw.), 3 (1902), No. 2, pp 248-249 ; Dewey, The Hemp Industry in the United States, United States Department of Agriculture, Yearbook 1901, pp. 541-554; Boyce, Hemp,—a Practical Trea- tise on the Culture of Hemp for Seed and Fiber, with a Sketch of the History and Nature of the Hemp Plant, Orange Judd Company, New York, 1900. HOPS. Humulus Lupulus, Linn. Urticacee. Figs. 572-576. By Jared Van Wagenen, Jr. A perennial twining herb produ- cing burs or “hops” that are used in the making of beer. It has long shoots often reaching twenty-five to thirty feet in a season; rough hairy, the stems having minute prickles pointing downward; leaves ovate or orbicular-ovate in general outline, deeply three-lobed (sometimes five- to seven-lobed), or the upper ones not lobed; mar- gins strongly and uniformly dentate ; petioles long; staminate flowers in panicles two to six inches long; hops (mature pistillate catkins) oblong or ovoid, loose and papery, straw-yellow, often two inches or more long, glandular and odoriferous. The hop has a tough, fibrous inner bark and a color- less juice which makes an indelible stain on white fabrics. The stems climb as much as thirty feet high by the beginning of the flowering period, lengthen- ing from a well-marked terminal “head,” and nor- mally twining by rotating spirally around their sup- ports, “clock-wise” or “fol- lowing the sun.” The hop is dicecious, i. e., the pistil- late and staminate flowers are borne on separate plants. The fruit may be regarded as a compact cat- = kin, largely made up of the axis together with the large foliaceous bracts, each of which is covered at its base by a yellow, granular, resin-like mate- rial called lupulin. This is the essential principle in the hop, and imparts the __ bitter taste to beer. There are also a few seeds, although seed-production is irregular and scanty, a large proportion of the fer- tile flowers failing to mature seed. The plant is unusually drought-resistant and grows most rapidly Fig. 573. Hop. Pistillate flowers in clusters or catkins, and an indi- vidual flower. HOPS in extremely hot weather, sometimes increasing in length as much as a foot aday. The stems cling closely to a pole or string and, when once well started, will follow it with very little trouble. The growth is almost wholly increase in length -until the beginning of the flowering period (mid-July in Fig. 572. Hop. . Staminate or male flower cluster and individual flower. New York), after which short compound lateral branches are thrown out from the axils of the leaves, on which the flowers appear and the plant ceases to “run.” Botanically, the hop is closely related to hemp and is included in the great netile family. Geographical distribution. There are few plants that are more widely grown than the hop. It is native in Europe and is reported from practically every European country and from Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Tas- mania and other countries. In the United States, where it has been an important crop in certain sections for at least a century, its commercial pro- duction is limited to four states, in the order named: Oregon, California, New York and Washington, although at times it has been grown in Wisconsin, Michigan and Vermont. The relative importance of the crop in New York seems to be on the decline while it is increasing in the West, owing to the better climatic conditions and cheaper methods of production. The wild form of the plant, which dif- fers considerably from the cultivated hop, although easily recognizable, is found along certain alluvial creek-bottoms of the northeastern United States. The United States Department of Agriculture makes no official estimate of production, but by the best obtainable statistics, in the five years ending with 1905, the total production of the United States has ranged between 39,000,000 and 51,000,000 pounds. In the same series of years about 20 per cent of the crop has been exported. The United States returns less than one-fifth of the world’s total production. Culture. Soils.—The hop seems to adapt itself readily to a wide variety of soils, provided only that they are well drained. In parts of the East it is grown HOPS extensively on rich alluvial creek-bottoms and on poor sandstone hills. A rich sandy loam that is moist, but not wet, is preferable. The commercial value of the cured hop depends very largely on its color, a bright straw-color being the ideal, and this will not be secured on soils in which nitrogen is too abundant. A slight elevation, protected from north and northwest winds, and sloping toward the east or southeast, is preferable. Manures.—In starting a hop-yard in the East a liberal dressing of twelve to twenty tons of farm manure per acre is frequently applied. After the crop is established, the general method of manuring is by applying a good-sized forkful of stable manure on the crown of the plant in the fall, thus serving the two-fold purpose of fertilizing and a protective mulch. In the spring it is worked into the soil about the hill. Sometimes manure is used between the rows with good results. The large amount of nitrogen in farm manure has sometimes caused excessive leaf-growth and a green, undesirable hop. This has led some of the best growers to alternate the manure with applications of commercial fertil- izers, especially those containing a large percent- agé of potash, as wood-ashes. So far as quality is coy zerned, it is wisest to depend at least partially on commercial manures. Good quality has been secured from broadcasting one ton per acre of wood-ashes in the fall, and applying 500 pounds of ground bone at the first hoeing in the spring. The largest yields, however, seem to follow the applica- tion of the manure to the hills in the fall, assisted by an application of commercial fertilizer at the first hoeing in the spring. Possibly the highest yield per acre and the best market quality are not compatible. In the richer and newer soils of the West little attention is yet paid to fertilizing. Propagation.—Hops are always propa- gated from cuttings of the underground stems, called “roots.” These are grubbed 23 from the runners of estab- 2 lished hills and cut into pieces having two to six <4 “eyes” each, and four to eight of ee inches long. They are set (4 out in spring as early as pos- “WALD sible, at the rate of two to . four pieces in a hill, the pieces being six to eight inches apart in the hill. Some growers set the cut- tings upright in holes punched with a bar. This method is more diffi- cult, but is said to give more compact hills with a better root system. The tops are brought even with the surface of the ground, and they are then hilled up two or three inches. The cutting must not be allowed to dry out completely. Sometimes, espe- cially in the warmer parts of the West, it is nec- essary to plant the cuttings as soon as they are made, or “heel” them in on moist ground. The hills are usually placed about seven feet apart each way, which gives 700 to nearly 900 hills per acre. Many growers have found it advisable to set out about one per cent male plants to cause seed Fig. 574. Hops in fruit. These burs or strobiles are the matured f HOPS 381 production, thus increasing very appreciably the weight of the crops. In other cases, no attention is paid to the sexes. Roots are commonly sold in the East by the bushel, but sometimes by the hundred “sets.” Their price fluctuates very widely and may form a considerable item of expense in establishing a new yard. Since the hop yields no crop in the East until the second year, it is the universal custom to plant it with some other crop. Corn is sometimes used, letting a hill of hops take the place of every alternate hill of corn in each alternate row. Ob- jection has been offered to corn for this purpose on the ground that it shades the hops too much. Pota- toes and beans are used in the same way. This permits clean cultivation and good care of the young plants. Sometimes the hops are planted as usual and then the field is sown with oats, a method that has nothing to commend it. The hop is a plant that requires clean and exacting cultiva- tion. This companion-cropping does not apply in California, where the plants get an earlier start, being set out in January and February, and pro- duce a fair crop the first year. A yard commonly attains its best condition two to four years after setting, and by careful atten- tion and replanting of hills when necessary, it may be maintained for ten, and, occasionally, fifteen years. Probably six to twelve years may be taken as the average profitable life of a yard when good care is given. There is difficulty in getting a new plant to grow in the place where an old one has died, and when the entire field is plowed up and, replanted, care must be exercised pistillate catkins shown in Fig. 573. to have the new rows occupy the land between the old ones. Pruning.—The roots of the plant require prun- ing, or “grubbing,” as it is sometimes called, each year. The first pruning is given about a year after the plants are set out. The dead stump remaining from the previous crop, together with about one inch of the crown, is cut off clean. The shallow runners are also cut off and removed. This opera- tion exposes the poor or worthless roots, which may be taken up and replaced with healthy ones. Cultivation. So far as cultural implements are concerned, no very special tools are required. The 882 HOPS yard is usually shallow-plowed in the early spring with a small one-horse plow, and after that is kept clean until midsummer by surface cultivation. Various types of cultivators are used. As the sea- son progresses, the earth around the plant is gradu- ally ridged or mounded up into well-marked hills. Some growers assert that high hills aid in overcoming the damage from the hop grub. At any rate, high hills are a protection to the crowns in the winter. There is considerable variation in cultural method, but the best growers agree that it should be thorough and continued as late as pos- sible. A new yard should not be neglected the first year, but given the same care as later. Training.— One of the most important steps in hop-growing is the training. There has been an evolution of methods of training. A generation ago, when poles were plenty and cheap, the com- mon method was to have two good poles to each hill and use no twine. A system of stakes about seven feet high, with twine strung from one to the other horizontally across the yard in both direc- tions, was also extensively adopted. In the West is employed a method of running twine directly from the hills to heavy overhead wires carried on strong poles or masts, the so-called “trellis” system. A system of setting one tall pole to each hill, and then running two strands of twine from a point about five feet from the ground to the top of neighboring poles, has been rather generally adopted in the East. This is known as the “umbrella” system. Poles are preferably of cedar and should be twenty to twenty-four feet long. They cost about HOPS with the spiral curve in the proper direction and tying loosely in places. In bright, warm weather they will cling and care for themselves after hav- ing been started, but in cold, wet periods they make much trouble by slipping back and refusing to run. They cling to twine and follow it very readily if it is nearly perpendicular, but if the slope is greater than 45° they will need constant training. The tying is largely done by women. The question of how many vines to tie to a hill is open. The number varies among growers from four to perhaps fifteen or more. Successful growers recommend six as most desirable,—two up the pole and two up each string. Too many vines shade the hops and produce an inferior crop. The most promising vines are selected from the center of the hill. Varieties. Hops are so strictly a local crop, and the litera- ture on the subject is so limited, that the question of varieties is not in a satisfactory condition. Indi- vidual plants vary, and a rigid selection is not prac- ticed. However, three or four distinct types are recognized in New York. The most usual and desir- able is English Cluster, in which the hops are rather small and are borne in compact clusters on rather short, branched laterals. Pompey is perhaps a local name for a type in which the hops are much larger and more four-sided, with a tendency to be borne more scattering or singly. These two forms merge into each other. Humphrey Seedling is a variety maturing ten days earlier than the standard sorts, valuable chiefly to Fig. 575. A hop-yard. New York. fifteen cents each delivered. They are set in the ground in holes about two feet deep, which are punched with a special form of bar. It is important that this setting be well done, so that the poles do not blow over with the load of hops. Usually the poles are set as soon as the frost is out of the ground, although on some soils they may be set the previous autumn. The young vines must be started up the poles by wrapping them around the poles those persons having a larger area than can be harvested in the reg- ular season. Canada or Canada Red is a name given to a late, hardy, rough-vined sort. There is no doubt that careful, systematic .se- lection would do much to improve the vigor and desirable characters of the strains now grown. Harvesting. Hops should be picked when some of the seeds become brown and solid, when the end of the cone closes, and the hop feels solid and somewhat papery-like. The danger of loss from mold may make it advisable to begin * harvesting before the best condition is reached. Picking generally begins the last week in August and should be finished by September 20 at the latest, otherwise there may be serious damage to the crop by mold. Hops are gathered very largely by women and children, one man, the “box-tender,” taking down the poles, “sacking” the hops and waiting on four pickers. The size of the hop box varies, but usually holds either ten or twelve bushels. A picker should gather two to five boxes per day. It is very impor- tant that the hops be picked reasonably clean, i. e., HOPS the large, coarse leaves kept out and the clusters separated. The cost of picking averages about seventy-five cents per hundred pounds of green hops. Drying and baling. A hop-house or dry-house is a tight building with a large heater or furnace, fourteen to twenty feet above which is a slatted floor covered with open- meshed cloth. On this the hops are spread in a layer one to three feet deep, and kept at a temperature of HOPS 383 black mold. It is nearly always present to some extent, and in hot, damp weather it may spread with amazing rapidity, turning the inner part of the hop to a black, moldy mass and ruining the crop. There is no remedy beyond planting yards in breezy, well-drained places, avoiding too much nitrogenous manure, and in harvesting the crop promptly when it is reasonably mature. The red rust discolors the outer part of the hops, 125° to 200° until sufficiently dry, a process that commonly requires about twelve hours. Ventilation is provided above for the removal of the mois- ture. During the early part of the process, sulfur is burned beneath the hops to bleach out the green shade and to bring them as nearly as may be to a straw-color. The sulfur also acts as a pre- gervative. One pound of sul- fur will bleach one hundred pounds of green hops. The hops are occasionally turned in order that the drying may be uniform. The proper | curing of hops requires con- siderable experience and good judgment. From the kilns the hops are removed to the cool- ing-room, where they are “sweated.” Then, by means of a hand press they are made up into hard, solid bales, about twenty inches square and five feet in length, which are sewed up in cloth, and which should weigh about one hundred and ninety pounds each. A box of hops should weigh thir- teen to eighteen pounds when ready to bale. Two thousand pounds of cured hops per acre may be considered a maximum crop, although half this is a satisfactory yield. , cf 8 Uses. The almost exclusive use of hops is in the brew- ing of malt liquors, although in this they have many substitutes. It is said that there should be used about two pounds of hops per barrel of beer. Low-grade and very old hops are sometimes “ex- tracted,” i. e., a decoction or extract of the hops is made and shipped in barrels. A few factories have been established for this purpose. In the old cook- ery, 2 decoction of hops was used with flour or corn-meal in the making of yeast. Enemies. Weeds.— Hops have no special weed enemies beyond those common in other cultivated crops. In some soils under careless cultivation, quack- grass or couch-grass gains a foothold in the hills, but neither this nor the annual weeds are a menace to the careful grower. Diseases.— There are three serious fungous trou- bles, the more important of which is the universal pat se Se ok ES 5 i, Ne <= shy Bg Bs OOS = Ape: Ben STR, are el ee Se oo aS wees Fig. 576. Scene in hop-yard at picking time. New York. eres causing the cured product to look badly, but not greatly injuring the quality. This trouble is not so common nor so serious as the mold. Mildew (Spherotheca castagnet) attacks the leaves, forming white patches on both sides. In damp weather it spreads rapidly over the leaf. It some- times is found on the cones late in the season. It is controlled by spraying with standard fungicides or dusting sulfur on the leaves. It is not regarded as a serious pest in the Hast. Insects.—While many forms of insect life abound on hops, yet only two can be considered trouble- some pests. The hop grub (Hydrecia immanis), does great injury by working in the large suc- culent roots that form the crown of the hill, often greatly weakening if not entirely killing the plant. The eggs are laid on the tips of the new plants, and the larva eats into the vine, causing the end to drop. Later the larva drops to the ground and works up in the stem. There is no satisfactory remedy, but it is considered a good thing to en- courage skunks around the yard, as they burrow for the grub. They may be gathered from the ends of the young plants and destroyed. In extreme cases it is advised to put ammonia phosphate or wood-ashes about the roots before hilling up. The hop-aphis (Phorodon humuli), is always pres- ent, often in enormous numbers, but generally appears so late in the Hast that the crop is nearly mature before much damage results. It is very remarkable, however, that in 1885 the aphis ap- peared in the East much earlier than usual, prac- tically destroying the crop in New York state. It 384 HOPS is an interesting example of how an insect, ordi- narily not serious, may cause the total destruction of a crop. The presence of the aphis and the prev- alence of the mold seem to have some connection with each other. Spraying with whale-oil soap, kerosene emulsion, strong soap-suds or a tobacco solution is effective; but this treatment is not practiced in New York. : Value and cost. Hops are generally sold directly to representa- tives of jobbers. They are remarkable above all other agricultural products for wide and violent fluctuations in prices. In 1882, hops were sold by growers for at least one dollar and twenty-five cents per pound, and at other times they have been almost without a quotable value. The gen- eral estimate of the cost of growing and harvest- ing is about ten to twelve cents per pound, of which harvesting is one-half. For the five years ending with 1904, the price of “choice” New York state hops in New York city, as quoted in the trade journals, ranged between twelve and one-half and forty-one cents per pound, these years repre- senting a comparatively stable and prosperous period of the industry. Hop-growing requires a considerable investment and working capital. The main items of expense are the hop-house, poles, twine, wire (when the trellis system is used), fuel, sulfur and baling cloth. A large force of dependable labor is required dur- ing the harvest season, although thousands of itin- erant workers of varying degrees of worth drift into the hop districts during this time. Literature. . Myrick, The Hop: Its Culture and Care, Market- ing and Manufacture, Orange Judd Co., New York city; Hop Culture in California, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 115, United States Department of Agriculture ; Hops, Nevada Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 35. KAFIR AND DURRA. Andropogon Sorghum, Brot., or Sorghum vulgare, Pers. Graminee. Figs. 577-582. Strong- growing plants, somewhat resembling corn, used for forage and for the grain which is borne in the panicle or head. They belong to the same species as broom-corn and the sweet or syrup sorghums (not sugar-cane), but differ in the less saccharine juice and also in characters of the head and seed. [See article on Sorghum for further botanical discussion and classification, and also for comparative economic notes. ] Although belonging to the same species, kafir and durra represent two groups, quite as distinct as dent corn and flint corn. The methods of culti- vation and handling, however, are very similar, and they are therefore treated in a single article to avoid much repetition. The kafir group includes three varieties: White, Blackhull and Red kafirs, with small oval spikelets in erect, cylindrical heads. The durra group includes three varieties also: Yellow milo (usually known merely as “milo”), Brown durra and White durra, the last eften called KAFIR AND DURRA Jerusalem corn, rice corn or White Egyptian corn. These are characterized by compact, ovate or ellip- tical heads, mostly pendent or goosenecked, and large, obovate or nearly round spikelets. Unfortunately, there is no one common name that can be used generically for these maize-like plants. “Kafir” is apparently becom- ing popular, but it is loosely used. These plants are botanically all sor- ghums, but with farmers the word “sorghum” is understood to mean the syrup-producing kinds. Sorghums are of two kinds,—the sweet or sac- charine, and the non-sac- charine. The non-sac- charine sorghums are the kafirs, durras and broom- corn. The common word “corn” has been trans- ferred from maize or In- dian corn to these kafirs and durras in some re- gions, and confusion has resulted. For this rea- son, the compound word “kafir-corn” is not used in this article, and it would seem to be advisa- ae z aa mia ; 7 ] ackhull Ypic. ead 0: ble to discourage its use ete. Hed taae, generally. Furthermore, the word maize itself has been transferred from the true maize or Indian corn to some of these plants as a contraction of “milo maize.” The farmers of western Texas, and probably of other parts, reported “milo maize” as “maize” to the Census of 1900. It is said that a considerable part of the “milo maize” crop was thus reported as “maize.” In this article, and subsequently in this Cyclopedia, the word milo will be used for “milo maize.” The kafirs come from Natal and the coast region of east-central Africa, and the name kafir has come with them. Although originally a proper name, it now becomes a common class-name and must lose its connection with a locality or a people; there- fore it is treated here as a common-language term by being printed without a capital initial. Peach is a comparable instance; also timothy, and other words. Two varieties of kafir were exhibited by the Natal government at the Centennial Exposi- tion at Philadelphia in 1876. At least one of them was secured by the State Department of Agriculture of Georgia, and was grown and selected for several years by Dr. J. H. Watkins, and was distributed by the Georgia Depart- ment of Agriculture, from which the United States Department of Agriculture early secured the seed. The durras come from northern Africa, from Morocco to Egypt; also from southwestern Asia, from Arabia to Turkestan. The durras are much less grown than the kafirs. In Egypt, the word which is here rendered as durra (rendered by others KAFIR AND DURRA as dura, durrah, durrha, dourah, doura, dhurra, dhoura, dhura) is applied to all tall-growing suc- culent crops, whether maize, sorghum, or others, and subordinate specific names are used with it to designate special kinds. The word milo is a corrup- tion of the Latin milium, a name that has long been applied to various plants that are commonly known as millets. ee Cultivation of kafir and durra. By E. G. Montgomery and C. W. Warburton. Kafirs and durras all come from rather dry, or semi-arid regions. All are considered drought-re- sistant, are similar in general appearance, and are cultivated principally as forage crops. While the kafir is principally grown for forage, it unquestion- ably has great value as a grain crop in semi-arid regions. In Kansas, in 1899, about one-seventh of the acreage was grown for grain, the remainder . KAFIR AND DURRA 385 extent. The culture has had rapid development in Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas and California. Kafir and durra are peculiarly adapted to the drier sections of these states, owing to their ability to withstand hot summer winds and long droughts. They have not proved popular north of the 42d parallel, as none of the varieties mature satisfactorily that far north, while in the more humid regions east of the Missis- sippi river other forage crops seem more desirable. The culture of kafir probably reaches 1,500,000 acres at present. Its development was especially rapid in the period from 1898 to 1899, when some- what dry conditions prevailed in the Great Plains region. In that period the production increased in Kansas, which has always been its greatest pro- ducer, from 46,000 acres in 1893 to 618,000 acres in 1899. Two state experiment stations have made care- ful tests of the grain and forage produced in com- parison with maize, with the following results: for forage. Habits of growth. ‘Red kafir - Maize The plants average four to seven Place Bus. grain /Tons fodder) Bus. grain )Tons fodder feet in height, are erect, with rather Be) eee NO thick abe a saa an VOL” “nnlinttan, Kansas, Yorks SOMpaeh Heads ven to lwelve Incies i awarage, 1860-1895 55.01* | 4.71 39.13* | 2.41 length. The roots do not extend so gtitlwater, Oklahoma, 4yrs. deep as those of maize, but the root — average, 1900-1908 30.1 2.21 111 0.94 system is somewhat more dense in the upper eighteen inches of soil. Few of the roots are more than three feet deep. Kafir extracts soil moisture to a greater extent than maize, because of its long-continued growth in the fall. A valuable characteristic of the plant in dry regions is its ability to cease growth and remain dormant for several weeks during a period of drought. When hot, dry winds come, the leaves will roll up and the plant may remain with- Fig. 580. Yellow milo (or ‘‘milo’’). Fig. 579. Brown durra. out growth for weeks. When rains come again, growth is resumed normally. If the crop is cut the stalks will sprout again, in the South, and produce a second and perhaps a third crop. Distribution. The growing of kafir and durra in the United States is very recent, at least to a commercial B25 * Average for six years, 1894 being excluded. The above results were obtained under conditions too dry to be favorable for maize, as is indicated by the yields. Under conditions most favorable to maize, the kafir is usually at a disadvantage. The weight of a bushel of kafir is fifty-six pounds. Varieties. The three principal varieties of kafir are Red, White, and Blackhull. The principal difference in appearance is in the color of seed and hulls, from which the names are derived. White kafir usually averages four to five feet in height under fair conditions. Red kafir grows six to eight inches taller, and yields more fodder and grain. The seed-coat, however, has an astringent taste, mak- ing it less desirable for stock-food than grain from the white variety, which is not astringent. Black- hull kafir produces a yield of grain and forage about equal to the Red kafir, and the grain is not astringent, and therefore is considered by many to be the more desirable. The leading varieties of the durra group are the Yellow milo, Brown durra, White durra or Jeru- salem corn (rice corn, Egyptian corn). Yellow milo is grown rather extensively in some sections, especially in western Oklahoma and the Panhandle of Texas. It matures in about two weeks less time than kafir, and hence can be grown at higher altitudes and farther north than can that crop. The grain of Yellow milo is larger and more brittle than kafir, and hence is more easily masticated by stock. This crop is cultivated in every way the same as kafir. It is seldom grown 3886 KAFIR AND DURRA for hay, soiling or silage, being used almost exclu- sively for grain and. fodder. The fodder is usually considered less valuable than that of either sor- ghum or kafir, as the stalks are less leafy, and the crop is generally much more mature when cut. It is rather more difficult to harvest than kafir, as KAFIR AND DURRA White durra or Jerusalem corn is little grown in this country. The heads are very compact, usually turn down, are frequently injured by insects and fungous diseases, and the grain shatters badly. Any of the three preceding varieties will prove more satisfactory than will this sort. Hither kafir or Yellow milo usually ‘Fig. 581. Field of Red kafir. the heads often turn down and the stalks are not uniform in height. Thick planting is advisable, using at. least five. pounds of seed to the acre, as the percentage of goosenecked heads will be re- duced, and the time of maturity will be more uni- form. If planted thinly, Yellow milo stools and branches vigorously, and the heads on the various suckers do not ripen at the same time as the main head. It is most useful in the western part of the states of Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas and Nebraska ; eastern Colorado ; and in New Mexico and Arizona: In the warm, dry parts of the small grain-grow- ing sections, milo is an excellent crop to plant after the cereals are harvested. It may prove of value in eastern Oregon and Washington, especially if earlier strains can be developed. The so-called White milo is an inferior, tall- growing true kafir. - Brown durra is grown rather extensively in California under the name Egyptian corn, although this latter name is applied to other sorts, especially to White durra. It: is'very similar in many re- spects to Yellow milo, but the grain is darker in color and the heads are rather more uniformly goosenecked. The crop is less valuable than Yellow milo, as the grain shatters readily when ripe. Its cultivation is in every. way the same as that of kafir and Yellow milo. proves more satisfac- tory than White durra. Culture. Soils.— Kafir is capa- ble of considerable adaptation, and seems to do equally well on a good clay or on a loam soil. It succeeds much better on a poor soil than many other crops, but does proportionately better on rich land. Soil-preparation and seeding.— Land is pre- pared for seeding in much the same way as for maize. If the kafir is to be grown for grain, the land: is often plowed early in the spring, thoroughly worked down with harrow and disk and planted with a corn- planter, using the drill- ing attachment. List- ing, however, seems to be a more popular . method in the West, especially on warm soils and in late planting. To~ prepare for listing, the land should be disked early in the spring to conserve the soil moisture. At planting time furrows are thrown out with a lister, and the seed drilled in. The rows should be three to three and a half feet apart, and the plants three to five inches apart in the row. Three to six pounds of seed will plant an acre. When kafir is grown for forage the land is pre- pared and planted in the same way, except that the plants should be about one inch apart in the row. However, a great deal of kafir forage is raised by sowing either broadcast or with a press drill at the rate of one to two bushels of seed per acre. Kafir should be seeded when the weather is warm and settled. If the ground is cold the seed may rot. The seed should be kept in a dry place over winter, and not in bulk, to avoid heating, which destroys the germinating power. Seed from long, rather compact heads is preferred. The after-care of the crop is essentially the same as for maize. Because of the shallow root system, the cultivation should not be deep. The first one or two cultivations may be given with the sled culti- vator or with the spiketooth harrow. Later plow- ings may be given with any of the shallow-running shovel, sweep, or disk cultivators. Kafir is fre- quently planted on freshly broken sod, and in that Plate XIII. Kafir, as grown in Kansas KAFIR AND DURRA case it is seldom cultivated more than once, if at all. Under these unfavorable conditions, a good crop is frequently made. The crop requires 120 to 140 days in which to mature. Harvesting. The grain should be allowed to get fairly mature before harvesting ; the stalks may be cut with the corn-binder and shocked like corn, or the heads may be removed from the standing stalks with a header or a sharp knife. If cut in either of the latter ways, they should be stored in small piles or spread in thin layers until thoroughly cured, as the grain heats readily if at all moist. After the heads are removed, the stalks may be cut with the corn binder for stover, or they may be pastured. If the stalks are cut before heading, the heads may be removed when the fodder is thoroughly cured by laying the bundles on a block and cutting off the heads with a sharp knife, broadaxe or saw. When the heads are thoroughly dry, the grain may be threshed out by running the heads through an ordinary grain thresher. The grain may also be threshed out while the heads are still on the bundles, by inserting the ends of the bundles in the thresher and withdrawing the stalks when the grain is removed. The more improved separators have a circular saw attached, which removes the heads and drops them on the feeding table. If the kafir is desired for seed, a part of the concaves should be removed from the machine, to prevent cracking the grain. A fair yield of grain is twenty to forty bushels to the acre, although yields of over one hundred bushels have been reported ; the fodder crop ranges from one and one-half to four tons to the acre. Ten Kyck writes as follows on the harvesting of kafir : “There are several ways of harvesting kafir, the value of each method depending largely on how the crop is planted, the condition of growth and what is desired of the product. Where kafir is’ grown on a large scale, as in some of the western states, it is often harvested with a wheat header, the heads being drawn directly to the thresher or KAFIR AND DURRA 887 piled in narrow ricks and threshed later. This, perhaps, is the best way to handle the crop on a large scale, if labor is costly and the fodder cannot be used to advantage in the feed-lot. Kafir does not need to be harvested at an exact time, as is the case with many crops, as the leaves remain green and the seed is retained for a considerable time after it has matured. Some farmers have a home-made implement for cutting the heads from the standing crop in the field. This machine con- sists essentially of a gear attached to the hind wheel of the wagon and connected with an upright shaft, at the top of which, in a horizontal plane and flush with the top of the wagon, a spindle wheel revolves. The arms of this wheel catch the kafir and draw it toward the edge of the wagon- box, where a sharp knife is fixed so as to cut off the heads, which fall into the wagon-box. There are several machines made for heading kafir in the field. They are simply attachments to any ordinary wagon-bed something after the pattern of the home-made attachment described above. “Tf the fodder is desired for feed, the crop should be cut and shocked the same as corn. It is usually satisfactory to use the ordinary corn har- vester. Make the bundies small and do not tie them too tightly. Place in small shocks (twelve to fifteen bundles) so made that free ventilation will be allowed underneath. The shock should be firmly tied around the top to prevent the bundles falling over, which they are very’ likely to do, as nearly all the weight is at the extreme top. The kafir may be left in these small shocks until required for feeding throughout the fall and winter. Good re- sults have been secured by feeding kafir whole and on the stalk, but it is considered preferable to feed the grain and fodder separately.” Composition. Kafir contains a higher percentage of starch than maize, but less oil and protein. The following table, giving the composition of kafir, is compiled from Farmers’ Bulletin No. 37,-of the United States Department of Agriculture : Foop CONSTITUENTS IN KAFIR. In fresh or air-dry material ‘ Authorit; Water Ash Protein Biber |, dltmogen- | pat ares | Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Kafir (whole plant, green)... -- ee 76.13 1.75 38.22 6.16 11.96 0.78 |Pennsylvania Station Kafir (whole plant, . green). . + e+e 76.05 1.44 2.34 8.36 11.41 0.40 |New York Cornell Station Average. ... 76.09 1.60 2.78 7.26 11.69 0.59 Kafir fodder (whole plant)} 10.94 5.48 3.31 30.37 47,40 2.50 | North Carolina Station Kafir fodder (without heads) . +--+ ++ 8.67 7.14 4.89 28.02 49.75 1.53 Kansas Station Kafir (mature head) . . 16.28 2.02 6.92 6.79 65.18 2.86 | North Carolina Station Kafr seed ..-+-.-. 9.31 1.53 9.92 1.385 74.92 2.97 Kansas Station Kafir flour. .-.-.--. 16.75 2.18 6.62 1.16 69.47 3.82 North Carolina Station 388 KAFIR AND DURRA Uses and value. In Africa the grain of kafir is used as human food. In the United States, however, it is little used in this way, most of it being fed to stock, either as grain or as forage. Working horses may be fed the grain threshed or in the head, but for idle horses and colts better results can be obtained by feeding grain and stalks together. The grain Fig. 582. Blackhull kafir. Planted June 13 on flooded ground. Photographed 101 days later. First rod of four rows here shown averaged 79 stalks per row. Kansas. should be threshed and ground for feeding as a fattening ration to cattle, but for dairy cows and young stock the fodder may be used. The meal is much used with skim-milk for feeding to calves. For hogs, the grain should be ground and fed in troughs, using water or skim-milk to moisten the meal. Best results may be secured by feeding the meal with alfalfa hay or skim-milk, or by feeding when the hogs are on alfalfa pasture. For sheep, the whole grain, ground grain, or fodder may be used. The whole grain is excellent for poultry. The grain is similar in composition to corn, but is slightly higher in starch content and lower in protein. In feeding tests it has never been found quite equal to corn. The fodder is considered equal to corn stover. Care must be exercised in feeding the young growth, as it has been found that prussic acid devel- ops when the growth is checked. Under certain conditions, young growths of all sorghums may be poisonous. Frost and extreme drought are supposed to develop the poison by checking the growth, resulting in the action of an enzyme on a glucoside normally present in the plant. Literature. Farmers’ Bulletins Nos. 87 and 288, United States Department of Agriculture; Kansas Experiment Station, Bulletins Nos. 56, 93, 127; Nebraska Ex- periment Station, Bulletin No. 77; Oklahoma Ex- periment Station, Bulletin No. 35. KALE FOR STOCK-FEEDING. Brassica olera- cea, var. acephala, DC. Crucifere. Figs. 583, 584. By H. W. Smith. The kales (or borecoles) are leafy, headless forms of the cabbage species. Some of them are grown in vegetable gardens for “greens.” The purple and curled-leaved kinds are very handsome plants. The stock-feeding or forage kinds are mostly taller, KALE with heavy, rank foliage.. Kales are little grown in this country for forage. It is doubtful whether they will ever attain great prominence here. The thousand-headed kale furnishes a large quan- tity of very nutritious fodder for fall and early winter, helps to prolong the season for green fod- der, is a good soiling crop, and partially replaces silage in the early winter. It is hardier than most varieties of the cabbage family and less subject to disease and insects. In this respect it differs from the Scotch and curled varieties, which are really kitchen-garden subjects. Culture. Kale will grow on any soil of normal fertility, but it does best on warm, well-drained soils, such as sandy loams. The application of manure and fertilizer, especially nitrogenous fertilizer, will profitably increase the yield on most soils. To get the best results with the application of nitrates, two or three applications should be made during the season. Kale is a rank feeder, and does well on land that has been heavily manured the pre- vious season. The culture is similar to that of the large varie- ties of cabbage (which see). At the North, for garden use the plants may be started in the hotbed and transferred to the coldframe, not only to lengthen the growing season but to enable them to escape the attacks of the cabbage root-maggot. The plants should be set in rows three feet apart and about two feet apart in the row, depending on the variety. For forage, the seeds would need to be planted directly in the field. Thorough cultivation and clean culture during the early growth is essen- tial, but later the plants cover the ground and require no further : attention. Storing. The young plants are sensitive to se- vere frost, but the old plants will with- stand a heavy freeze. Thus they can be left in the field till win- ter sets in and can be kept through the winter like cabbage. The writer has found the following method of storing very satis- ae factory with a small ee - 1 oT 1g. . a at es Thousand-headea kale. the plants, which should either be run through a cutter or be cut up partially with a sharp spade so that they pack closely in the barrel. Salt is sprinkled in with the plants, and when they are thoroughly packed water is added to fill any spaces ; the barrel is then covered. Kale thus packed will be well preserved if kept cold. For feeding, they would better be used green, as gathered from the field, or else stored loosely in a shed. KALE Because of the high nutritive value of these plants, they should be fed carefully and never be used to make the bulk of the ration. All kinds of stock are fond of kale. Remarks on the feeding value of kohlrabi (see succeeding article) apply more or less closely to kale. Enemies. The cabbage root-maggot is the worst pest in the growing of kale, and, indeed, of any of the cabbage family. When this fly is abundant, it is some- times advantageous to sow a few cabbages in the field or transplant them to the field before setting out the main crop; then when the fly has deposited her eggs on these, they may be destroyed by applying kerosene oil directly to the plants and soil. The writer has found that thousand-headed kale is not so seriously attacked as curled kale or cabbage. The cabbage worms, as a rule, do not seriously attack this crop, but when they do they are easily destroyed by spraying on a warm, dry day with a solution of pyrethrum. Jersey kale. Fig. 584. A tall-growing collard, grown in the island of Jersey for stock feed, from which place it has been introduced into California. At the California sta- tion it produced green feed at the rate of sixteen tons per acre, and started again quickly after cut- ting. It seems to have value as a summer and fall feed for poultry as well as for stock. It requires an abundance of moisture, and does well under irrigation. It is hardy, and will thrive for several years if the ground does not freeze in winter. The leaves frequently attain a breadth of twenty-eight inches. There is very little available experience with this plant in North America. In the island of Jersey, the leaves are broken from the main stem for feeding to pigs and cattle, leaving pronounced scars on the stem. It is the third year, often, before the plant blooms, and by this time the stiff stem may be ten feet or more high. The stems are much used in the Channel islands for the making of canes and sticks to sell to tourists. KOHLRABI 889 KOHLRABI FOR STOCK-FEEDING. Brassica oleracea, var. caulorapa. Crucifere. Fig. 585. By J. W. Gilmore. Kohlrabi is valuable for stock-feeding, not only because it contains a considerable amount of nutri- ents, but because these nutrients are in a highly palatable and digestible form. In the latter respect Fig. 585. top; on the right, globe form and short top. Kohlrabi. On the left, tankard form and coarse the dry matter which it contains compares favor- ably with concentrated feeds from cereals. As an offset to these qualities, however, are the facts that it is rather high in water content, thus necessita- ting feeding it with dry grains or roughage; and that it is more expensive to grow per unit of area than corn. Kohlrabi for stock-feeding may be considered as a concentrate from the standpoint of the of the Channel islands. high digestibility of its nutrients and the large amount of net available energy de- rived from them. But, in common with other food products of this class, as mangels, turnips and rutabagas, it is so watery and succulent that it can not be fed in sufficient quantities to supply the amount of nutrients required. Hence it is a part of rational practice to feed it with grain of sufficient quantity and quality to make up a balanced ration for the purpose for which it is fed. It is not, therefore, the intention to recom- mend kohlrabi as a substitute for silage, or even to be fed with it, but it may be desirable to grow and feed it when condi- tions of soil and climate prevail that do not permit the production of corn. It is ex- tremely desirable that all domestic animals 390 KOHLRABI have some form of succulent food, especially in the winter, and kohlrabi is one means of supplying this need. The American farmer has an KOHLRABI mainly for table use. The three varieties grown recently at the Cornell station for stock-feeding have given the following statistical results : antipathy for that kind of labor which brings into action and strain the muscles of the back. For this reason, the tendency to grow kohlrabi for stock-feeding where corn and some of the roots can be grown is not strong. However, kohlrabi does mee = ao Yield per acre Leneeners ae Dry matter Tons Tons Per cent Carter’s Model. . 129,200 23.0 2.10 9.13 White Vienna . . 113,700 21.6 2.40 11.10 Goliath... .. ek Me 18.1 1.61 8.91 fit into into a cropping system for this purpose very admirably where it may be grown also for market purposes. If our system of agriculture becomes more intensive, perhaps kohlrabi will find a more welcome place in the rotation. Composition and yield. The composition of kohlrabi is very much the same as that of mangels, as shown by the following table compiled from results of analyses in Norway, where these plants are grown extensively for stock-feeding : Other varieties which have given good results in Canada are Purple Vienna and Short-top White. Cultural methods. Soil—Kohlrabi will grow and develop on a great variety of soils and under varying conditions of rainfall. In general, however, loams with a good supply of organic matter and good drainage, insur- ing aconstant supply of moisture, are best adapted. In 1905, at Cornell, a rather stiff clay produced 21.5 to 28.7 tons per acre for different varieties. Especially essential is a well-prepared seed-bed in order that germination may be ae : ; Wael ji ma quick and uniform, and that the ohlrabi (average 38 samples) angels (average 46 samples plants may be invigorated by a Composition | Yield per acre} Composition | Yield per acre good supply of moisture and plant-food. Per cent Lbs. Per cent Lbs. eee oe a 18 ss Dry matter. ..| 11.67 4,300.00 14.31 7,416.16 PELE: UNDOT van Ces a1 U preeen Protein... . 1.26 464.44 1.35 699,64 most of the seed is imported at Die wee 20 73.72 15 77.74 a cost of about two dollars per Crude fiber . . . 1.18 484.95 .96 497.52 pound, while in England it sells Ash... ... 65 239.60 .99 513.07 for one-half to one-fourth that Sugar’. 2. ss 5.94 2,189.48 8.35 4,327.39 price. A germination test Other substances . 2.12 781.43 2.52 1,306.09 should be made early in the season. The seed is sown at the Yield per acre: kohlrabi, 18.48 tons ; mangels, 25.914 tons. It will be noticed that the kohlrabi is deficient in two essential matters, namely, yield per acre and dry matter content. Both of these are serious defects, as they embody the main qualities for which any forage crop may be grown. Dry matter content is the most important consideration, yet in kohlrabi this is above the general average of the : production of dry matter in corn in the New Eng- land states. At the Cornell station, several varie- ties of kohlrabi for three years yielded a minimum of 3,570 pounds of dry matter per acre, a maxi- mum of 4,540 pounds, and an average of 4,040 pounds. The yield of grain from flint corn in the same seasons was about two thousand pounds per acre, while the yield of dry matter in silage from dent corn was about four thousand pounds per acre. Thus it is seen that the yields are satis- factory, but the principal drawback remains in the large amount of hand labor required in its production. Varieties. Not many varieties of this crop have been de- veloped, and those which have been grown are rate of four or five pounds per acre. Early sowing is necessary. In one year the three varieties mentioned above were sown on May 9 and again on June 14. The results were in favor of early sowing by about three tons of fresh sub- stance, and about one-fourth ton of dry matter per acre. Kohlrabi, like its relative the cabbage, re- quires a long growing period for a maximum yield, though such might not be desirable when grown for table use. The seed should be sown in drills twenty-four to thirty-six inches apart, similar to the manner of sowing turnips. Rows wide apart facilitate much in the use of horse implements in tillage. Fertilizing.—If by weakly plants or tardiness of growth the food-supply seems to be lacking, this may be added along the row in the form of nitrate of soda or guano. On most soils the plant responds well to rotted manure applied before planting, or to a complete fertilizer rather rich in phosphoric acid and potash, at the rate of 300 to 500 pounds per acre. Subsequent care.—It is during the early stages of growth that most labor and care must be expended on the crop. When well up, the plants KOHLRABI should be thinned by chopping to eight or ten inches in the row. After the plants are well established and weeds are destroyed, it is necessary only to cultivate shallow at intervals of a fortnight or so for the purpose of stirring the surface and keeping the land in good tilth. Harvesting and storing. Kohlrabi is usually allowed to remain in the field until frost, as light frosts do not injure it and during the latter part of summer and early fall it grows some and ripens. Sometimes, however, it is pastured in the field by swine or sheep. The fact that it stands out of the ground gives it an advan- tage for this purpose. If pulled, however, for im- mediate feeding, the leaves should be left on, as these are nutritious and palatable and add two to five tons per acre to the yield. If it is to be stored, the leaves should be removed, and the roots also if they cannot be freed from dirt. Kohlrabi may be stored either in a cellar or a ipit. The essentials of a good storage cellar are drainage, ventilation and that it be frost-proof. With these supplied, kohlrabi is not hard to keep. If stored in a pit, the pit should be located on a well-drained piece of ground. Two layers of straw should alternate with layers of earth for covering. Ventilation should be arranged at intervals in the top of the pit. The pit should not be opened for any length of time on warm days after the winter has set in. Enemies. Kohlrabi is attacked by the same enemies as cabbage, which see. Feeding. The product should be fed early in the season. If left until late, it dries, becomes pithy, stringy and sometimes hollow. For ordinary feeding, kohl- rabi should be cut into pieces or slices; for pigs and poultry, however, it may be fed whole. It is most economically fed with grain. Thirty to fifty pounds make one feed for a thousand-pound animal. There is no record of its having given a flavor to milk when fed to cows, but it should not be about the milk-room at milking time. No trials are reported of its having been fed to horses. Literature. From the kitchen-garden or horticultural point of view, many of the gardening books may be con- sulted. [For American forage-crop experiments, see Cornell Bulletins Nos. 243, 244.] LEGUMES. (Figs. 586-592). The leguminous plants have lately come into great agricultural prominence because of the power that some, perhaps all, of them have of fixing the free atmospheric nitrogen contained in the soil, and thereby enriching the land in this valuable element when they decay, to the great advantage of plants that do not possess this power. These are plants of the great natural family, Leguminose, which LEGUMES 391 contains several thousand species in all parts of the world, some of them being great trees, as mahog- any, locust, Kentucky coffee-tree. Some of them bear very gaudy flowers, pla- cing them among the most showy of all plants, as, for ex- ample, the royal poinciana of the tropics. The essential botanical characteristic that distinguishes the Leguminose from other plants lies in the struc- ture of the fruit. It is the kind of fruit known to botanists as a “legume,” being a simple pistil ripening intoa dry pod that opens on both su- tures and bears a row of seeds on the ventral side. The bean (Fig. 586) is a typical exam- ple. The most typical of the Leguminose have a papilio- naceous or but- tertly-like flower, as in the peas and beans, the corolla having j an upper mostly f<@fA broad andascend- ing part called a standard, two side-pieces called wings, and two other petals below, united into a keel (Fig. 587). The stamens are usually ten, and in the greater part of the common species these form a tube about the pistil, one of them, however, being free. The Mimosa or acacia sub-family has regular (not papil- ionaceous) flowers and few or many stamens, but it agrees with the other members of the family in the legume. The leaves of practically all legumes are compound; but in some of the acacias they are reduced, on mature plants, to phyllodia (expanded petioles). The field crops belonging to the Leguminose may be found in this Cyclopedia under the arti- cles alfalfa, beans, beg- garweed, berseem, clover, cowpea, forage, lespedeza, lupine, medic, melilotus, pea, peanut, sainfoin, ser- radella, soybean, spurry, velvet bean, vetch. Other leguminous plants are mentioned in the arti- cles on cover-crops, dyes and medicinal plants; also on meadows and pastures. Many species are grown in greenhouses and open gardens for ornament. The most popular is the sweet- pea. The everlasting flowering pea is an old favorite. Legume or pod of a bean. Fig. 587. A papilionaceous flower (sweet-pea). 3s, standard; w, w, wings; k, keel. 392 LEGUMES Legume Root-tubercles. (Figs. 588-592.) By George F. Atkinson. The legume root-tubercles, or “nodules,” are small galls on the roots of leguminous plants, which are caused by the activities of minute bacteria present in the soil wherever leguminous plants grow. The galls vary in form on dif- erent species or gen- era, being oval on the red clover, rounded and slightly lobed on the soybean, cylindri- cal or club -shaped, , simple or branched once or twice, on the vetch (Vicia sativa), or many times dichot- omously branched into a rounded mass, as in Medicago den- ticulata. They are whitish or of a pale flesh-color, sometimes sordid brown in age. They occur on the Red clo- Fig. 588. Root nodules. ver( Trifolium pratense). One and one-fourth times natural roots of nearly all leguminous plants, but are absent on size. some, as, for example, on the honey locust (Gleditschia triacanthos). History of the study of root-tubercles. While the history of the study of these root- tubercles of leguminous plants is extremely inter- esting, reference can be made here only to a few of the diverse views which have been entertained as to their nature, origin and significance. Some of the early observers thought that they were galls produced by insects, or by eel-worms. By others they were regarded as lateral roots with dwarf growth, or swollen lateral root organs for the purpose of absorbing food, while others held that they were lenticels which played some physiological \ réle in the life of the $ plant. They were also thought by others to be imperfect buds which could repro- duce the plant. They : were classed as fungi WAR FS of the genus Sclero- = tium by some, or as pathological out- growths. Since Wor- onin, in 1866, discov- ered in the nodules bacteria-like bodies, which he thought to be the cause of their formation, the theory has been generally accepted that they are galls produced by the presence of fungi or bac- dy aX 3! XQ = cy Fig. 589. Root nodules of alfalfa (clustered on small side root- lets in this case). Two-thirds natural size. investigations seem to show LEGUMES teria, which enter through root-hairs and stimulate the tissues of the root to the production of an abnormal rootlet, which is called the tubercle or nodule. The organism enters near the tip of the root- hair and stimulates the latter to curl into the form of a shepherd’s crook. It travels down the interior of the root-hair in the form of a homogeneous strand, as seen in fresh preparations. In sections of young galls this strand is seen branched through the tissues from its point of entrance from the root-hair. These strands pass through the cell- walls by minute perforations and then enlarge again in the cell-lumen. Often the strand swells into a large body in the cell, with irregular pro- jections, which led some to think that the bacteria- like bodies found in abun- dance at a later stage were budded off from these swel- lings. These strands present in the young tubercles led a number of students to be- lieve in the fungous nature of the organism, perhaps related to the smuts; but especially by some it was considered to be one of the slime-molds similar to the Plasmodiophora brassice, which causes the “clubfoot ” of turnip, cabbage, radish and certain other crucif- erous plants. For this rea- son Schroeter, a German botanist, named it Phytom- yxa leguminosarum, and this seems to be the earliest sci- entific name. More recent that the organism is one of the bacteria. Many bacteria form gelatinous masses of individuals, which take on various shapes often char- acteristic of the species. Especially on cultures on solidified artificial media are these colonies of various shapes very characteristic. These gelatinous masses are known as zodgloea. These strands, then, which are so characteristic of the younger stage of the tubercles, are zodglea. Frank, another German botanist, was one of the first to demonstrate this feature of the organism, and it is now generally accepted, although different views are held as to the mor- phology of the bacterium. He named the organism Rhizobium leguminosarum. The study of the organism in pure culture began with Beijerinck in 1888, who named it Bacillus radicicola, thus discarding the earlier specific name. He discovered, beside the rod-like form which is abundant in the old tubercles, and previously named “bacteroids” by Woronin, a very minute motile Fig. 590. Root nodules, Soybean (Glycine his- pida). One-half nat- ural size. LEGUMES form. These two forms of the organism are now generally recognized. The minute motile form is about 1 » long by 0.2 » in width (« is a micron or rove Of a millimeter). This is the form which enters the root-hairs, multiplies and travels in the strand-like zodglea into the root where the gall or nodule is stimulated. Because of this motile Fig. 591. Root nodules. Black medic (Medicago lupulina). Two and one-half times natural size. form, Moore has recently changed the name to Pseudomonas radicicola, though the relation of the cilia to the organism is not very clearly known, in consequence of which there may be some uncer- tainty as to the appropriateness of this name. The larger rod-like form is 1.5 » to 5 » long by 0.6 » to 2.5 » in width. These are the “bacteroids.” They are usually rod-like, but often branched forms occur which are Y- or X-shaped, or even sometimes more complicated in form. These bacteroids or rods which are found in such large numbers in the old tubercles are abnormal, or involution forms. It is thought by some that the Y and X forms are the result of branching, perhaps a false branching caused by division of the rods, several rods being held together within a gelatinous sheath. It is well known that these “bacteroids,” or dead invo- lution forms of the organism, are rich in proteid matter. The host plant, which is the legume, has the power of dissolving these and of absorbing the nitrogenous matter from the tubercles and using it as food. When the tubercles die, some of them are emptied into the soil, and the minute motile form also escapes, thus keeping the soil inoculated with this organism where legumes are growing. Why legumes are valuable in soil-enrichment. It has long been known that certain leguminous crops like peas, clovers and alfalfa, were better crops for the enrichment of the land in nitrogenous food when plowed under than the cereals or grasses. A series of investigations, notable among which may be mentioned those of Hellriegel and Willfarth in Germany, Lawes and Gilbert in England, and Nobbe, Hiltner and others in Germany, led to the clear demonstration that (1) in a soil possessing all the constituents of plant-food except nitroge- nous substances, if the soil were sterilized and then inoculated with a filtrate from garden soil, legumes LEGUMES 3893 would flourish and produce an abundance of seed, and the tubercles would be present on their roots ; (2) in similar sterilized soil, not inoculated with a filtrate from garden soil, legumes would develop no tubercles and the plants would develop only so far as the nitrogenous food stored in the seed per- mitted them; (8) in a similar soil, even if inocu- lated with a filtrate from garden soil, the cereals and grasses would make only a feeble growth; (4) in similar soil, inoculated with pure cultures of the legume tubercle organism, the tubercles are formed, which demonstrates that the tubercles are caused by the bacteria; (5) there was an increase in ni- trogen in the plants with tubercles over those with no tubercles; the soil also increases in nitroge- nous content where legumes with tubercles are grown; (6) races of the bacterium occur, since inoculations from pure cultures of the bacterium from pea tubercles will not produce tubercles on cytisus, robinia, trifolium, serradella and others, while they will on the pea, lupine and others, and vice versa. The fact that the nitrogen content of soils poor in nitrogenous plant-food is increased by the growth of leguminous plants, was used in support of the early theory that green plants assimilate the free nitrogen of the air, a theory which was shown to be unfounded by Boussingault more than sixty years ago. The fact that all other green plants except the legumes could not fix the free nitrogen of the air, and the latter could fix it only when the tubercles were present, led Frank to assert that the presence of the bacteria in the tubercles stimulated the legumes to assimilate the free nitrogen from the air through their leaves. It has since been shown that this is not the case, that when the tubercles are present on the roots, and the roots are supplied with air deprived of free nitrogen, no nitrogen is fixed by the legumes. On the other a hand, it has been ee shown by Mazé and others that under proper cultural condi- tions the tuber- cle bacteria on artificial media fix (by assimila- tion) free nitro- gen from the air. That they do fix free nitrogen from the air, when in the tu- bercles of the legumes under normal condi- tions, is abun- dantly proved, thus confirming the results of empirical observa- tions, that leguminous plants grown in soils poor in nitrogen flourish and sometimes have a larger content of nitrogenous substance at maturity than they could have obtained from the poor soil; that Fig. 592. villosa). Root nodules. Vetch (Vicia Two-thirds natural size. 394 LEGUMES soils poor in combined nitrogen are enriched in this substance when crops of legumes are grown on them, even though the crop of vines and seed is removed, because of the large amount of fixed ni- trogen in the bacteroids still within the tubercles in the soil; while with the cereals and grasses the nitrogen content of the soil is decreased. This explains why it is that leguminous crops are more important for green-manuring than the cereals and grasses when there is need of an increase of com- bined nitrogen. Races of nodule bacteria. While the nodule bacteria are widely distributed in the soil, the fact that there are several different races which dwell in the roots of certain genera of hosts, which cannot attack the roots of others, explains why it is that the bacterial races to which certain genera of legumes are susceptible, are not present in all soils, especially in soils where these hosts do not grow, while other races are present in those soils. This is shown in the case of the pea and lupine organism, which will not attack the roots of cytisus, robinia, trifolium, serradella and others, as shown above. It is also shown by ex- periences with the soybean from Japan. When ‘the seed of this bean was planted in America and Europe, no nodules were developed on the roots. It was only when soil from Japan, in which the soybean had grown, was imported and mixed with soil in which the soybean was planted, that the nodules were developed. This organism of the soy- bean nodules was thus considered by Kirchner to be a different species and was named Rhizobac- terium Japonicum. Besides the distinct races which cannot infect certain genera of hosts, there are probably sub- races or initial races which can infect a wide range of genera, but, by being confined to a limited num- ber or to single genera for several years, infect certain genera much more readily than others. Soil inoculation. This leads to an important method in practice, i.e. the inoculation of soils with the specific organism to which the legume which it is desired to grow on the particular plot of ground is susceptible. This method has been developed by the United States Department of Agriculture, especially through the work of Moore and Keller- man, and by some of the experiment stations. It consists in obtaining pure cultures of the needed different races on a medium poor in nitrogen com- pounds so as to create a state of nitrogen hunger in the organism, which makes it more likely to attack the roots of the legumes than organisms which have a nitrogen surfeit of food. Pure cul- tures were distributed, after being dried on cotton, or other suitable material, to the planters, who place them in a quantity of liquid nutrient media for a day or so in order to multiply the germs. This liquid is then scattered on the soil, or, better, the seed is sprinkled with the infusion before being planted. Under certain conditions this prac- tice, or some modification of it, promises good LEGUMES returns, especially in soils poor in nitrogen, where the crop in question has not grown for several years or where for any reason the specific organism for the specific crop is absent, or present in small numbers. When the specific organism is present in quantity or in soils already rich in nitrogenous plant-food, the increase in the crop is slight or nil as a result of inoculation of the soil. A method has not yet been perfected for sup- plying and applying cultures of the germ which is reliable under all circumstances, due to deteriora- tion or contamination of the organisms in cultures, either because of fault, careless or unscrupulous © methods on the part of manufacturers, or to imper- fect methods of multiplying the organism at the farm and of inoculation of the seed and soil. With some crops it is now a practice to transport the organisms with the soil in which the specific crops have been grown, for inoculation of soils. In this method, however, there is danger of the transpor- tation of the germs of fungus and bacterial diseases, which may be present in the soil. [Soil inoculation is ad discussed by Lipman, Vol. I, pages 447- 450. Relation between nodule bacteria and their host. The relation which exists between the nodule bacteria and their host is an interesting one. The bacteria can live in the soil for several years with- out the presence of the legume host,—how long is not known. Nor is it known what permanent bene- fit the organism derives from its association with its host. There is at least a temporary gain by the rapid increase in the number of bacteria which are formed within the nodule, but the larger number of these become surcharged with the nitrogen which they fix, pass into abnormal and involution. forms and die. It may be, however, that the living ones which escape again into the soil form an in- crease over what the increase would be in the soil, and also that the association with the legumes may give them new vigor. The host benefits by the association from the increased nitrogeneous sub- stance placed at its disposal. This is abundantly shown by experiment where there is an increase in size and product when the organism is present over that under the same conditions when the organism is absent. The few cases which have been observed under experimental conditions where the bacteroids assume a firm condition so that they cannot be dis- solved by the host, cannot be taken as proof against the general and almost universal benefit derived by the host from the association with the bacteria, ex- cept when the soil is already very rich in nitroge- neous plant-food. Even under these conditions, although the number of nodules is smaller than in nitrogen-poor soil, there may be an increase of nitrogen in the plant, though no increase in the crop. It cannot be denied, therefore, that there is a mutual benefit derived from this association of the bacterium and the legume in the nodules. The bacterium lives within the nodular root, and thus the nodules are endotrophic mycorhiza. This relationship of the bacterium and the legume is a good example of what is ordinarily called sym- LEGUMES biosis, a living together. The term is now gener- ally applied to those cases of symbiosis where there is a mutual benefit to the symbionts. This special kind of symbiosis is often called mutualistic or reciprocal symbiosis to distinguish it from those cases of symbiosis existing between a strict para- site and its host, which is called antagonistic sym- biosis. ‘Disjunctive symbiosis has reference to the relation of flowers and insects in pollination, while contact symbiosis has reference to the relation between the bacterium, Clostrydium pasteurianum, and certain low, blue-green alge in the soil, the alge supplying the bacterium with carbohydrates. These carbohydrates supply the Clostrydium with the energy which enables it to assimilate free nitrogen, Some have raised an objection against the use of the term symbiosis applied to the relation of the nodule bacterium and the legume, on the ground that the bacterium is a parasite, that certain cells in the tubercle are destroyed, and that it is difficult to see what benefit the host can derive from an association with a parasite which destroys some of its cells. It is beyond contradiction, however, that leguminous plants do benefit from this association, in the fixed nitrogen which they are able to absorb from the dead bacteroids in the nodule, except perhaps in soils already rich in nitrogenous plant- food, under which condition it is known that few nodules are formed, while in soils poor in nitroge- nous plant-foods many nodules are formed and the legume profits to a great extent from the symbiosis. The parasitism is confined to the nodular roots or mycorhiza. This nodule serves a useful purpose for the legume, and the fact that its formation is caused by a parasite, and that some of its cells die, does not necessarily lead to the conclusion that the legume does not benefit by the association. Other normal organs of the plant, as leaves, perform special and important work for the plant, and later die. But the good they have served the plant more than balances the loss of the part or the death of its cells. ; It has also been recently stated that since the early relation of the bacterium in the nodule is that of a parasite, this relation cannot be symbiosis in the sense in which DeBary used the term. Now, DeBary distinctly says in his “Die Erscheinung der Symbiose,” 1879 (the following is a translation), “The best known and most exquisite phenomenon of symbiosis is complete parasitism, i. e., that arrangement by which an animal or plant goes through its entire vegetative process on or in another organism belonging to a different species. The latter serves the parasite exclusively as a dwelling place and furnishes it with its entire food material ; it is in every sense of the word its host.” Literature. H. Marshall Ward, some recent publications bearing on the question of the sources of nitrogen in plants, Annals of Botany, 1, 825-357 (1888); Atkinson, The Biology of the Organism Causing Leguminous Tubercles, Botanical Gazette, 18, 157— 266, plates 12-15 (1893); Moore, Soil Inoculations LESPEDEZA 895 for Legumes, Bulletin No. 71, Bureau of Plant In- dustry, United States Department of Agriculture (1905); Pfeffer, Physiology of Plants, 1, 393-403 (1900). The literature referred to in these works will supply other references. Germ life in the soil is discussed at length in Vol. I, Chapter XIII, of this Cyclopedia, and should be read in this connec- tion. Additional references to literature are given there. LESPEDEZA. Lespedeza striata, Hook and Arn. Leguminose. (Japan clover, Japanese clover, King-grass, Hoopcoop.) Figs. 593, 594. By Samuel M. Bain. An annual forage plant with stems diffusely branched, decumbent, or erect when crowded, three inches to two feet or more in height, subpubescent; leaves three-foliolate, leaflets oblong-obovate, peti- oles very short ; peduncles very short, one- to five- Fig. 593. Japan clover (Lespedeza striata). flowered; flowers appearing singly in axils of leaves; corolla purple; pod small, little exceeding the calyx. In the vegetative state the plant is easily confused with Trifolium procumbens (low hop- clover). They may be readily distinguished when in flower, however, as the latter produces much smaller yellow flowers in true heads. Distribution. Lespedeza, or Japan clover, as it is more com- monly known, is supposed to have been introduced accidentally into South Carolina, where it was first 396 LESPEDEZA observed in 1849 near Charleston. It came from China or Japan. It spreads rapidly, and has already made its way over the entire South, as far north as Kentucky and Virginia, westward to Arkansas and eastern Texas. It is especially adapted to the Gulf and South Atlantic states, as it requires a warm climate and a long season of growth; it has not succeeded north of the Ohio river. It is vigor- ous, and will hold its own against weeds, and is said to crowd out Bermuda-grass and nut-grass. It should not be allowed, therefore, to gain a foothold in permanent grass-lands. On the other hand, it causes no trouble as a weed in cultivated areas. Chemical composition. Its chemical composition as found in Mississippi (Tracy) and Alabama (United States Department of Agriculture) is as follows : LESPEDEZA especially in thin upland soils not too densely wooded. McCarthy (North Carolina Bulletin No. 133) found a large-leaved variety of Japan clover (L. striata, var. lata) to be superior in some _ respects to the common form. Culture. Soil.—Lespedeza is successful on a wide range of soils, but does best on argillaceous lands. It is notable for its ability to thrive on all kinds of soil under greatly varying conditions. It prefers a moist situation but not a wet one. The extent of soil preparation may vary widely. The seeds will germinate and establish themselves on hard ground. Very often shallow stirring of the soil is all that is needed to secure a crop. Careful preparation, however, makes a large crop more certain. Potassium fertilizers are said to aid Water Crude protein Fat sige Sar Crude fiber Ash Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent Mississippi 3 13.99 12.62 2.64 40.76 24.44 5.55 Alabama; 3 4 2 @ ¢.a-4)% 9.13 13.70 3.99 47.52 21.55 All Related speries and varieties. . Two species of Lespedeza, aside from L. striata, have been tested in this country, namely, L. bicolor and L. sericea. The former was introduced in recent years by the United States Department of Agriculture. It is less branched than L. striata, and more erect, reaching a greater height. Its usefulness has not yet been determined, but it gives promise of having much value under special condi- tions. Besides these, a number of other species occur in various parts of the country, and contrib- ute largely to the value of the native pastures, the growth of the crop in the more northern regions of its production. Seeding.—Japan clover is not commonly sown, as it has become naturalized throughout a consider- able part of the South, and comes in of itself by dropping its seed, which germinates the following spring. It may be seeded to advantage, however, and in parts of Louisiana and elsewhere sowing is the practice when it is desired to secure a stand of lespedeza. It is sown at the rate of ten to twenty pounds per acre in the spring after all danger of frost is past, though it is occasionally fall-planted. The latter is not to be ee advised except in the extreme South, as the plant will not stand frost. A stand may be secured by scattering the manure of live- stock fed on the hay or green forage con- taining ripe seed. The same result is secured by allowing stock the free range of an ad- joining field which it is desired to seed. It will generally be most satisfactory to sow the seed when a hay crop is desired. If the hay crop is to be continued on the same land, disk- ing the meadow and re-seeding is sufficient. If the crop reaches maturity, enough seed may shatter out to in- Fig. 594, Harvesting lespedeza hay. sure the next crop. LESPEDEZA The seeding also may be done in the spring in any of the small grains, and preferably harrowed in; and the seed has been used successfully in grass mixtures for pastures. Lespedeza should occupy the land for two to four years. It can follow cotton or any other late fall crop. Harvesting and uses. Hay.— For hay, Japan clover should be cut before it is over-ripe; a good practice is to mow when about half of the lower crop of seed has matured. This provides for reseeding the next year on the same field, or by spreading the manure as above suggested. When the saving of seed is no object, the plants should be cut when in full bloom. On good land one to three tons of hay per acre will be secured. The hay may be cocked after thorough wilting on the day it is cut; one or two days in cocks is sufficient before final storage. It should be handled carefully to prevent loss of leaves. Tracy found lespedeza, with cotton seed as the grain feed, to be the cheapest milk-producing ration. The hay commands a ready sale in the market. On the hill lands near Baton Rouge, Louisiana, it is one of the leading hay crops. Seed.—For seed production, half-ripe hay may be threshed with a loss of value to the hay, or the seed may be gathered from siftings of the hay. To get the most seed, however, the crop should stand until a large part of the seeds are ripe. The self- rake reaper is used for harvesting, although the mower can be used when the stems are sufficiently erect. Pasture.—Lespedeza affords valuable pasturage for cattle, horses, hogs or sheep, though they must be accustomed to it in order to relish it. By some it is considered the best pasture plant for the poorer clay soils of the cotton-belt. As it will not start till the soil is warm, the pasturage will seldom be available before May. Under favorable moisture conditions it will continue until frost. It can be planted to advantage in all permanent pastures, where it will reseed itself if not pastured too closely. Soil renovation.—Lespedeza is a valuable reno- vator of poor lands, ranking with the other legumes in this regard. It is frequently used to fit poor, waste lands for exacting crops. Enemies. Lespedeza is almost devoid of serious enemies in the way of weeds, insects, or parasitic fungi. It combats successfully almost all the weeds. A species of Colletotrichum (a fungus) has been found on it in Tennessee, but as yet it has caused no serious injury. Literature. Dodson, Louisiana Station, Bulletin No. 72, Second series, 1902; McCarthy, North Carolina Station, Bulletin No. 70, 1890, and No. 133 ; Shaw, Clovers, New York City ; Tracy, Mississippi Station, Report No. 1, 1888; Report No. 3, 1890; Bulletin No. 20, 1892. LUPINE 397 LUPINE (Lupinus). Leguminose. Fig. 595. By H. N. Vinall. A large group of leguminous plants mostly con- fined to western North America, a few species occurring in eastern United States, in the southern states and in the Mediterranean region, some of them valuable for green-manuring and forage. Upwards of one hundred species are found in the western United States. Most of the species are her- baceous annuals or perennials, although a few are shrubby. The agriculturally valuable species are Fig. 595. Yellow lupine (Lupinus luteus). allannuals. Those most cultivated are native of the Mediterranean region. All are showy plants with conspicuous flowers in terminal racemes or spikes, borne on long peduncles. The flowers are blue, white or yellow, or a union of these, papilionaceous and free-blooming. ‘The leaves are usually digitate, with five to seventeen entire leaflets. Lupines are grown primarily as a green-manure crop. Their great value for this purpose depends on their ability to thrive on poor sandy soils and on their high nitrogen content. In Europe, large tracts of sandy soils have been brought into con- dition for profitable cultivation by green-manuring with lupines and fertilizing with phosphates and potash salts. As a forage crop, the cultivated lupines are of no great importance, and are but little used for this purpose. All of the species are rather coarse for fodder. Lupines are but little cultivated in the United States. In Europe and North Africa there are four species in cultivation, namely, the white (L. 398 LUPINE albus), the yellow (L. luteus, Fig. 595, adapted from Botanical Magazine), the blue (L. hirsutus), and the Egyptian (LZ. termis). Of these, the yellow lupine is used most extensively, the blue and white lupines being next in importance. In parts of the West, a number of species, notably L. leucophyllus and L. sericeus, grow wild in great luxuriance and are cut for hay. The numerous American native species are of considerable value on the ranges, many of them being eaten readily both by sheep and cattle. Some danger attends the feeding of this hay, especially to sheep, owing to the pres- ence of a poisonous alkaloid in the seed. [Consult Vol. III.) The cultivated lupines have been tested at many of the American experiment stations, mostly with decidedly unsatisfactory results. Only on the Pacific coast have the cultivated lupines appeared at all promising as green-manure crops, and even there other legumes are more satisfactory. Up to the present time, none of the species has become espe- cially valuable in the United States. It is not at all unlikely, however, when it shall become prof- itable to build up some of the sandy soils in the West, that one or more of the European species may prove valuable. One of the species, native to California (L. affinis), has been grown there as a green-manure crop and compares favorably with the European species. Culture. Soil.—A sandy, well-drained soil is essential, as the plants will not grow on wet land, and are par- ticularly averse to limestone soils. Their greatest value is on poor, sandy soils that will not grow anything else. On the other hand, it was found at the California station that lupines would tolerate much more lime on clay soils than on sandy soils. It is said that the large blue lupine (L. pilosus, var. ceruleus) and the pink lupine (L. pilosus, var. roseus) are adapted to limestone soils. Fertilizers.—Potash salts give the most beneficial results, although the addition of phosphates with the potash is profitable. Superphosphates have given detrimental results and should not be applied to the soil on which the lupines are to be sown. Seeding.—Lupine seed is usually sown at the rate of eighty to one hundred pounds per acre in drills ten to fifteen inches apart. If broadcasted, nearly double this quantity is required. The seed should be sown after the ground is warm, the early part of May or June being the usual time. The plants grow rapidly and are ready to plow under in the early part of August, by which time they will have developed seed and will contain the maxi- mum amount of nitrogen. Place in the rotation.—If used in a rotation, espe- cially on lands that are being built up, it is prefer- able to follow lupines with winter rye. In this case, at least a month should be allowed to elapse after the lupines are plowed under, before the rye is sown. Utilizing the crop. The native American species are pastured throughout the growing season. If cut for hay, MAIZE it should not be harvested until the pods have ripened and burst open and scattered their seed. This occurs the latter part of August or first of September. The seed of the cultivated species is very rich in protein and is used in Europe to some extent as feed. The feeding value is much lessened by the presence of a bitter alkaloid which is injurious to animals, especially to sheep. Before feeding the seed, it is necessary to remove some of the alkaloid by soaking or boiling. One method is to boil the seeds for one hour and then to wash them for twenty-four hours in running water. This re- sults in a loss of about one-sixth of the dry, principally non-proteid matter. The disembittered seed is then fed in much the same way as oil cake. MAIZE, OR INDIAN CORN. Zea Mays, Linn. Graminee. Figs. 596-648. By John W. Harshberger. Maize or Indian corn is a grass that is grown both for its grain and its herbage, which are used for food. The grain is used whole or ground, and in various preparations for both human and stock-food. The herbage is a forage used for soil- ing, silage or as dried and cured fodder. Various manufac- tured products are made from maize. The plant is annual, dying each year, even in its original semi- tropical. home in Mexico. It is the most important and most distinctive American crop. The word “maize” is de- rived from the Hay- tian word “mahiz,” the name by which Indian corn or maize was called when Go- lumbus found it growing on the island of Hayti. Mahiz, or marisi, is said to be an Arawak Indian word of South American origin. In North America the word “corn,” used generically in England for bread grains, more particularly for wheat, is em- ployed specifically for maize. The word has no other application than to maize in this country. It is common, however, to speak of the plant as Indian corn. Fig. 596. Botanical parts of the kernel of maize and its integu- ments. a, embryo; b, mature ovary; c, second glume; d, first glume; e, palea; f, lemma; g, sterile palea. Origin of maize. The writer has presented elsewhere the proofs of the Mexican origin of maize [see Literature, page 427]. Maize relates itself botanically to a na- tive Mexican grass, teosinte (Huchlena Mexicana, which see), and fertile hybrids of this grass and maize are known, producing a plant described by Watson as Zea canina. From the peculiar beha- vior of these hybrids, the writer has suggested bee LT Seba ote cece Ped bre dos “eg en i Mindat e aad ea grezsphini una rh AUP ees e ss AR OsU RCE ULE PEER AD EURAIL CS oo PPR RERRTER Ret Pp ny eayr crtenpseee eens Pra Tee SO e ATRL ALOMAR Bene tebe Pe EE Ait mp guasaasguegnuseee ay’, : psa Th wher Bh ah ey: CU rT bt x bl Leer ses : th ti ; Re Nh J St kd blac sh pitts) Cis Soe eee DT : PPPS RESSESEUOEOILESE Cee ] wo Plate XIV. Types of maize lint, green, two strains of White Pear] Pop, wd eg — Heed B35" 85 523 Ae oe sas Hass LSS QAR Read Fosos Esa Ke Sesse pOvaR Bas, ee Beaoks So Pome 2ae saabes Bane Se Boro ga BS we 8 Bi ees— QE Ue oe OLR 225 SG HKU eSof@n g2 5°23 AAs gue Ba oSae SEatse SkuamMmo Sete 3 4a 3 28 el lagu S33ph00 OlSst hn pnrk8#og Oe ee Zesmes SSsseg oa §2 2sye oR OD 57° 6S Canoe tH at 8 eco 4H SEs, caP confor Sees BEeES S § £ wa oD £ Boone County White, Minnesota 1 3 o a oO 2 Sh Bao Sa es Oy gese® 6 AES on SOme ES Sesty se aes STS d m4go mQEss 2 Sahay ESeee sghsss Seeetsa Das = “ae Ac’ 8 Sbyses a DO gaemas Q + ‘ae SEekse Ba288 mem Ea MAIZE that our cultivated maize is of hybrid origin, prob- ably starting as a sport of teosinte, which then crossed itself with the normal ancestor, producing our cultivated corn. This is speculative, but there ats, ' fT iy\ f ‘A i a 27S WW 60" o@ a ‘06s a 00 G0 AA 6 G6 Hf 60 Fig. 597. Types of kernels of corn. 24-28, yellow dent. grain in proportion to cob. (Hartley.) cannot be any doubt that the close relationship of maize and teosinte points the way to the determi- nation of the botanical characters of the original wild corn plant. Recently, Montgomery has sug- gested a theory as to the nature of the maize ear, in which, in conclusion, he states “that corn and teosinte may have had a common origin, and that in the process of evolution the cluster of pistillate spikes in teosinte were developed from the lateral branches of a tassel-like structure, while the corn ear pie se os the central spike. It is probable that the progenitor of these plants was a large, much-branched grass, each branch be- ing terminated by a tassel-like structure, bearing hermaphro- dite flowers.” [See lit- erature references at end of article.] The Zea canina of Mexico (first described ‘in 1890, by Watson) is of great interest in studying the origin of corn. Bailey experi- mented with this plant and made hybrids with forms of cultivated maize. Without com- mitting himself as to the origin of Zea canina itself, he made the following observa- tions (Cornell Bulletin No. 49, 1892) on its possible relations to Fig. 598. Pod or husk corn. 1, 2, White dent kernels of poor shape; 3, end view of thin and thick kernels; 4, edge view of thin and thick kernels; 5-7, flour corn of Peru; 8, Tuscarora or flour corn; 9-12, sweet corn; 13, Golden Pearl pop- eorn; 14, white rice popcorn; 15, white flint; 16, 17, yellow flint; 18-23, white dent; Long, wedge- shaped kernels like 9 and 25 permit of much MAIZE 399 Indian corn (subsequent experiments have not been published): “Tt may be worth while to inquire whether this Canina corn still retains a specific identity, whether it really is a distinct species from the common corn, Zea Mays. For myself, I am strongly of the opinion that it is not a distinct species. I am rather inclined to think, with the native Mexicans and Professor Duges, that it is the original form of Zea Mays, or at least very near it. It ex- plains many points in the evo- lution of Indian corn. Some varieties of sweet corn occa- sionally produce rudimentary multiple ears, and this Canina seems to tend to lose them under cultivation. The ten- dency of cultivation in all plants is to develop some fruits or some organs, rather than all fruits or all organs. The suckering habit has been discouraged in the selection of corns. The tendency to sucker, the tendency to produce tassels on the ends of ears, the profuse drooping tassels of many little-improved varieties, the predominance of flint corns northward and of dent or pointed corns southward, the occurrence of many curious and aboriginal corns in the Aztec sIRTET é fay a Rn ipa Fig. 599. Swan river comm, grown at Minitonas, Manitoba. 28 RT region—all these become intelligible if Zea canina is the original of Indian corn.” Botanical characters. Roots.—The roots of maize are of two kinds: (1) Those that are formed when the kernel germinates, which develop into the strong underground feed- ing roots ; (2) those that develop in a circle from the lower nodes of the stem, and serve primarily as prop or supporting roots. Before these adven- titious aérial roots reach the soil, they are covered by a copious mucilaginous material, which probably prevents dry air and dry winds injuring the important growing apex. Later these air roots absorb water ard plant-food from the soil into which they penetrate. Stem.—The stem of corn, known botanically as a culm, is divided into nodes (knots) and internodes (straight stem parts). The internodes differ from those of most grasses by being solid instead of hol- low. The basal part of each of the lower leaf sheaths is provided with a ring of soft tissue, which 400 MAIZE consists of cells capable of rapid growth. Hence the base of the sheath is ready at any time to grow, and if the plant is blown over by the wind, growth takes place, and the plant is thus assisted into an upright position. Another point of interest is that a number of the internodes are alternately grooved or flattened. Those persons who have made a “corn-stalk fiddle” will remember that it was this peculiar flattening, which accommodates the ears, that rendered possible the manufacture of the crude musical instrument. The sap bundles of the corn stem are isolated and of the closed collateral type. Leaves.—The leaves of corn are two-ranked ; that is, they alternate on opposite sides of the stems. Each leaf may be divided into three parts,—a sheath, which is open along one side, a ligule, or “ _ \ ay ate ee Fig. 600. High northern corn. Cross between large yellow flint and Improved Leaming corn; four years crossing. Waketield, twenty miles north of Ottawa, Canada, membranous outgrowth at the top of the sheath, and the blade. The ligule has been appropriately called the rainguard, as it acts in such a way that rain- water with dust particles held in solution, which runs down the grooved surface of the leaf, runs off on either side on reach- MAIZE keep the leaf-blade perfectly flat. In hot, dry weather, water is lost from these cells and the leaf-blade rolls up and thus protects itself against Fig. 601. Ears from the stalks shown in Fig. 600. desiccation and controls the normally high rate of transpiration, or water loss. Flowers.— The flowers of maize are arranged in clusters in two different parts of the plant. The male (staminate) flowers together form the termi- nal tassel of the plant, while the female (pistillate) flowers (Fig. 515) are placed on the cob, sur- rounded by the husks in the axils of the lower, or usually the middle leaves of the stem. The stami- nate flower cluster is known-as a panicle of spike- lets. Each ultimate division of the tassel (pani- cle) is a spikelet. Each spikelet consists of two dry scales (lower glumes) subtending two flowers of three stamens each. Each staminate flower is surrounded by a flowering glume (lemma) and a palea on the inside. When the anthers are mature, they dangle at the ends of long filaments, and thus the dry, smooth pollen-grains are consigned to the wind. The pistillate flowers are placed in even- numbered rows on the fleshy axis known as the cob. Hach spikelet on this axis consists of two flowers, subtended by two glumes more or less horny or leathery. One pistillate flower is abortive and is represented solely by a flowering glume and a palea, while the other pistillate flower, with sub- tending, flowering glume and palea, has an ovary surmounted by a long, hairy style, showing, under the microscope, two longitudinally directed vascu- lar bundles. Each style, or thread of silk, is hairy, to entrap the round, smooth pollen-grains, which ing the ligule and does not run into the space between the stem and sheathing base, where dirt might other- wise easily accumulate. The folds in the margin and base of the leaf, which are formed because the edge grows more rapidly than the middle, are in- genious natural or mechanical contri- vances to ease the strain on the leaf- blade when the wind blows. If a microscopic section is made of the leaf-blade, peculiar fan-shaped cells are found distributed in the upper epider- mis between the prominent parallel veins. These are bulliform cells and in ordinary weather absorb water and the northern states. It may yield forty or more bushels per acre. (Hartley.) Fig. 603. are produced in very great numbers, as many as 18,000,000 by a single plant. The pollen begins to be shed one to three days before the silk emerges from between the husks, and continues to fall for eight days, more or less, although the silk is pol- lenized usually on the first day of its appearance. The egg apparatus in the ovule of maize consists of three cells, and in the center of the embryo-sac is an endosperm nucleus. The fertilization of the egg cell results in the formation of the corn em- bryo, while the double fertilization of the endo- sperm nucleus -by the second sperm nucleus pro- duces an immediate effect on the color of the reserve food stored about the embryo. This imme- diate effect of the pollen on the offspring kernels is called xenia. Fig. 605. The sexes; pistil- Jate spike or ear, stami- nate panicle or tassel. B 26 left; on the right, ears well placed. Hopi corn grown by the Pueblo Indians. (From specimens in the United States National Museum.) MAIZE 401 Kernels. — The caryopses or kernels of corn (Fig. 596), re- sulting from the act of fertili- zation, are arranged in even- numbered rows on the fleshy axis, or cob, surrounded by the husk. Each husk represents the sheathing leaf base and the outer ones are usually tipped by a green, rudimentary leaf-blade, which occasionally displays a ligule. The outer, innermost husk is two-keeled, like a sled with runners, and thus it accommo- (¢ dates itself to the flattened or (( hollowed-out stem surface. Occasionally smaller ears are enclosed by the outer husks, so that the ear together with the husks is to be regarded as a short, axillary, branch bearing reduced leaves and flowers. Each caryopsis has two distinct coats, viz., the ovarian wall and the seed-coats. On microscopic section, the cell layers composing the ovarian wall, or pericarp, and the extremely thin seed-coats are distinctly visible. The reserve food in corn is horny proteinaceous material and mealy starch, while the embryo itself contains the largest amount of oil. The proteinaceous and starchy reserve foods comprise the albumen, which touches the embryo on the whole of one side, where the scutellum is found. The corn embryo, chit or germ, consists of the radicle surrounded by a root-sheath, or coleo- rhiza, a short hypocotyl from which arises the suck- ing organ, or scutellum, and a single cotyledon that surrounds several tightly-rolled plumular leaves. The epidermal cells of the scutellum secrete an enzyme which transforms the reserve food into a usable form when the embryo begins to grow. In germination, the radicle protrudes first by Squaw com grown in Manitoba. Seec- tion at a shown below. 402 MAIZE breaking its way through the coleorhiza, which remains as a circular collar about its upper part, and then the plumule elongates. The cotyledon re- mains yellowish green and membranous, while the leaves enwrapped by it elongate and assume a bright green color. Coincident with this develop- ment of the plumule, a considerable number of secondary adventitious roots arise, so that the primary root soon loses its identity. Classification of species-groups or “ agricultural species.” Several well-marked agricultural races of Indian corn may be distinguished. The asterisk (*) indi- cates Mays understood. The classification is that of Dr. EB. L. Sturtevant: (1) Zea canina, Watson. Maiz de Coyote, a re- puted wild form from Mexico. The writer has abun- dantly proved that this so-called wild species is a hybrid of the fourth or fifth generation produced by crossing teosinte and the black Mexican corn. (2) Zea * tunicata. Pod Corn. In this group each kernel is inclosed in a pod, or husks surround it, and the ear thus formed is inclosed in husks. Originally it was probably derived from Argentina in South America. (Fig. 598.) (8) Zea * everta. Pop Corn. This species-group is characterized by the excessive proportion of the corneous endosperm and the small size of the ear and kernel. The best varieties have the corneous endosperm throughout, which gives the property of popping. Probably cultivated by the Indians. (4) Zea * indurata. Flint Corn. A species-group recognized by the occurrence of a starchy endo- sperm, inclosed in a corneous endosperm, which varies in thickness in different varieties. First mentioned by Cartier in 1535 and Heriot in 1588. (5) Zea * indentata. Dent Corn. A group recog- nized by the presence of corneous endosperm at the sides of the kernel, the starchy reserve food ex- Fig. 607. Ear of corn, showing tendency to laminate. MAIZE tending to the summit. By the drying and shrinkage of the starchy endosperm, an indentation is formed. Cultivated as poketawes by the Powhatan Indians. (6) Zea * amylacea. Soft Corn. These corns are recognized by the absence of a corneous reserve food. The mummy corns of Chili and Peru belong to this class. (1) Zea * saccharata. Sweet Corn. A well-defined species-group characterized by the translucent, horny appearance of the kernels and their more or less crinkled, wrinkled or shriveled condition. The first. sweet corn cultivated in America was derived from the Susquehanna Indians in 1779 by Captain Richard Begnall, who accompanied General Sullivan on his expedition to subdue the Six Nations. (8) Zea * amylea-saccharata. Starchy-sweet Corn. The external appearance of the kernel is that of a sweet corn, but examination shows that the lower half of the kernel is starchy, the upper half horny and translucent. May it not be due to xenia? This species is based on three varieties found in the San Pedro Indian collection of Dr. Palmer, sent to Dr. E. L. Sturtevant in 1886. Maize is exceedingly variable in every part. Therefore it adapts itself to great numbers of uses and to wide ranges of territory. Some of the forms of it are shown in the half-tone plate and also in Figs. 597-618. Maize-Growing. By C. P. Hartley. The corn crop is preéminently the most valuable crop of the United States. Through this crop there is derived each year from the soil of the United States a value of more than a billion dollars. If Fig. 608. Corn triplets. Fig. 609. A large, heavy ear. the hay crop, though made up of crops of several distinct plants, be considered as a single crop, it is but one-half as valuable as the grain alone of the corn crop. Corn holds first place in the list of crops, hay second, cotton third and wheat fourth. North America produces four times as much corn as the remainder of the world. As continents, Europe stands second, South America third and Africa fourth. As a corn-producing country the United States has no rival; Argentina stands sec- ond, Hungary third and Italy fourth. If the corn crop of the United States for 1906 had been placed in wagons, fifty bushels per load, and allowing twenty feet of space for each wagon and team, the train of corn would have reached nine times around the world at the equator. Below are arranged the states of the United States in the order of the total amount of corn each state has produced in the five years 1902 to 1906, and again arranged according to the average yield per acre for the ten years 1897 to 1906. The figures are averaged from the reports of the Bureau of Statistics of the United States Department of Agriculture: AVERAGE CORN YIELDS FOR FIvE YEARS, 1902-1906. Bushels Tilinois;. 53s) tt wow ce a awe Bas 342,115,835 Towa... 2.2. +--+ es ~ - 801,666,176 Nebraskaircs oe se. ei Bi sola ool Ze 239,885,262 Missouri ........2.- « 210,082,426 Kansas). 3 6 ee 6 6 eS eS . 183,490,628 Indiana. 2... 2. ee eee . 165,666,854 TOXAS! | ior se- a2 eee “be se Paes cee 128,454,407 QWIO: ieee a a ee a wwe . 112,675,444 Kentucky «i ss is eww ee 91,957,099 Tennessee... .. oe ee ~~ 78,578,391 Indian Territory. ...... . 58,216,199 Pennsylvania ...... . . - 52,337,590 408 Fig. 610. A good short, erect ear. AVERAGE CORN YIELDS For Five Years, 1902-1906 —~ Continued. Bushels Wisconsin. . ... 4... ee 49,339,658 Arkansas, 5 «0 4 @ Woe 8 sw % 47,665,325 Oklahoma. . . 6s s ss a ea 47,548,686 South Dakota ... » ... . 45,942,636 GOON ee es sal al eS a ese 45,565,769 Minnesota ........2.-. 43,101,849 Michigan i. «2% a es bm 42,549,489 Virginia eae se & w « 42,587,984 Alabama ss 6 é ee ew 89,531,578 North Carolina ........ 89,263,224 Mississippi... .....-.4 35,000,660 Louisiana... ..... ees 23,548,048 Maryland... .... 0.24 20,934,903 South Carolina. . .. . . . . . 20,777,740 West Virginia. ........ “20,404,238 New York .......... 18,188,662 New Jersey .......-..-. 9,422,171 1) (0 a 6,259,542 Delaware ss se 6 se we we ee 5,577,944 Colorado: 6) 3k aay Ss 2,496,071 North Dakota ......... 2,462,990 Connecticut. .......-. 1,920,575 California. . . 2. ew we ee 1,795,668 Vermont ........+..-. 1,764,520 Massachusetts... ...... 1,518,261 New Mexico 945,294 New Hampshire ........ 803,606 Oregon se kk sk ew ee 449,199 Maine ii vce scae sexes Gay Sy alia 432,140 TOG oop as ao ok wi, eas ey es 8 820,660 Rhode Island ......... 317,845 Washington. .......2.4. 250,283 Arizona .. 1.2.24. . 188,428 Teal: sé: sbre rerce we Wea soe las 8 151,417 Montana .......+4.04 85,842 Wyoming... 25 2s ee as 58,001 404 MAIZE AVERAGE PRopuUCTION oF CoRN Per ACRE FoR TEN YEARS, 1897-1906. Bushels Connecticut ... 1.2.5.2 58 08s 6.00 Massachusetts ........2.06- 35.55 Maine: 23, he a ee A ee ee eS 35.13 Pennsylvania... .. ++ eee ee 35.04 OIG Sa i.e Gay sal dae kk ep teres ce Mee ED aah cae 34.91 Now: Jersey's. sé. ss. i ay We er eelien, os 34.60 Vermont 21 se eee ee ew ww 34.53 Indiana. se se aa ee Os 34.47 MNOS ise Sey rasi es na loseay eos ee eR a A 34.02 WisC0nsin: «on. eee ew ee 33.64 New Hampshire. ........+.-. 33.56 ToWas i es ee we ce a 32.49 Maryland... «03 «6 we ws Hu ee 82.26 Michigan e.3--3) Yo sep eo Zoe) a 32.05 Rhode Island ......-. eee ee 81.83 New Work ss. gs a Boda ee bad ed Gr dd 80.37 California 0. @ «we bee ee 29.72 Minnesota .. 1. ee ee ee eee 29.44 Missouri s- 3c 2 x we ewe Re He ew 27.98 Wdaho «4040s 6 eee a ee 27.83* Nebraska. 0.60 Wee ee ee ee Hew 27.71 Delawaren.: so! <)orke e eecay oe Ee es 27.63 Indian Territory. . .. 2. 2s eee 27.21* South Dakota... 1... ee we ee 26.55 West Virginia ... 1.2.2. - ee ee 26.40 Kentucky «i 2 @ © 6 6 ew me ote 25.98 Wyoming .. 1... ee eee nee 24.91 UWitali- 2? ae cay cny hoe es es Be ee 24.58 New Mexico ......2..228 ee. 24.50 Oregon ie Be sw 24.34 Oklahoma .. 1... +222. ee eee 23.78* AVIZONa Ca Gs Bee ee ees ake 23.48* Tennesse6 ss oe ee Hee ee 22.43 Kansas: oa ac ace es Re ca a as 22.08 Montana. 5, ie ese esl ee ce ee Bo oe 22.01 North Dakota... 1... 2.2 eee 21.87 Mirpinia sy; g:- 0 Veeee een ae se ter Be 21.80 Washington ios Gee eald ® cael tee ste iter o BLOT Colorado: is sh ser geen we ees 19.86 MOXAS: 3.6. sar ee pe eb ee Se a 19.08 ATICANSAS 3 eo e035 sw mS 18.78 Louisiana 16.76 Mississippi... . 6. ee ee ee ee 15.22 North Caroling ... 1... 2.2.2 ee 18.70 Alabama « ss 6 S&H Oe 12.99 Georgia. s-6 eke SS) es ee Se ae 10.56 South Carolina ... 2... 2.2 9.81 Florida. 2 2 sk Axe awa es Se eB 9.43 *Average production of corn for six years, 1901-1906. The following table of corn production in Canada is taken from the Canada Year Book for 1905. It is for the census year of 1901, being the crop of 1900. It is seen that very little corn is grown except in the province of Ontario. Quebec stands second, far behind Ontario, but much in the lead of the other provinces, where corn is unimportant. 1901 Acres Bushels in the ear Canada...... 360,758 25,875,919 British Columbia . . 51 1,849 Manitoba ..... 62 1,944 New Brunswick. . . 259 12,509 Nova Scotia... . 177 9,358 Ontario... 2... 331,641 24,463,694 Prince Edward Island «© 37 834 Quebec ...... 28,506 1,384,331 The Territories. . . 25 1,400 From the statistics of the last four census years it is seen that the production of corn is rapidly increasing. The figures are for all Canada: MAIZE TBST og woh Sees eye Ge 8,802,830 bus. TSS ug cous ou ales a 9,025,142 bus. S91 a. ow ise BS Se Ss 10,711,380 bus. 1901 2... 2s ee eee » . 25,875,919. bus. History. In the early writings and history of both North and South America, the importance of maize is recognized and frequent mention is made of it. However, these early writings mention it as a well-known plant, so that descriptions of it are few and nothing positive appears re- garding its origin or the char- acter of the plant when it was first utilized by the native in- habitants of America. We know that there were different kinds of maize in America at the time of its discovery. It is probable that such different kinds of corn as pod, flour, flint, dent, sweet, and pop of various colors, ex- isted at that time. It is certain that by seed selection, preserva- tion and cultivation the settlers of America have improved these different types. De Candolle states positively as follows : “Maize is of Ameri- can origin and has been intro- duced into the Old World only since the discovery of the New.” Edward Enfield, in his book on Indian corn, published in 1866, is positive that maize is of American origin and states, “If any further evidence were want- ing on this point, it may be found in the impossibility that a grain so nutritious, prolific and valuable, so ad- mirably adapted to the wants of man, could have existed in the eastern world before the discovery of America without coming into general use and mak- ing itself universally known. Had this cereal ex- isted there at that period, it would have made its own record too clearly and positively to leave any doubt on the subject.” Harshberger states, “The evidence of archeology, history, ethnology and philology points to southern Mexico as the primal habitat of this great New World cereal.” [See pre- ceding article.] The earliest explorers and settlers of all parts of the New World found maize in a state of cultiva- Fig. 611. A well-formed ear of dent corn. ‘tion and the principal food of the Indians. Thus, in Pickering’s Chronological History of Plants this statement is made: “About 1002 A. D., Thorwald, brother of Leif, wintered in Vinland . . . and on an island far westward saw a wooden crib for corn.” Columbus, in a letter to Ferdinand and Isa- bella, dated May 30, 1498, speaking of his brother, says, “During a journey in the interior he found a dense population entirely agricultural, and at one place passed through eighteen miles of corn-fields.” In Prescott’s Conquest of Mexico, mention is MAIZE made that Cortez, on his march to the city of Mexico in 1519, passed “amidst flourishing fields of maize.” The historian, Torquemada, has extracted the par- ticulars of the yearly expenditures of the Mexi- Fig. 612. Good corn tips. The nose or end is well covered with kernels. can Palace. One item’ is 4,900,300 fanegas, or 490,030,000 pounds, of maize. In 1589, De Soto, in Florida, speaks of Indian villages surrounded by extensive fields of corn. In one instance he narrates that his army passed through continuous fields of maize for two leagues. In one place they found 500 measures of ground maize, besides a large quantity of grain. The Puritans, in King Philip’s War in 1675, “took possession of 1,000 acres of corn, which was har- vested by the English and disposed according to their direction.” In 1680, La Salle found stores of corn in Illinois that the Indians had placed under ground for seed and subsistence. In his expedition Fig. 613. Good corn butts. against the Seneca Indians, Marquis de Nouville says, “On the 14th of July, 1685. . . . Weremained at the four villages of the Senecas ten days. All the time we spent in destroying the corn, which, includ- MAIZE 405 ing the old corn that was in cache, which we burned, was in such great abundance that the loss was computed at 400,00C minots, or 1,200,000 bushels.” This was in Ontario county, New York. Place of corn in American agriculture. From the time of the early settlements, when maize saved the colonists from starvation, till the present, this crop has held an important place, not only in American agriculture, but in the develop- ment and progress of this country. Other crops are of vital importance in certain limited sections ; so is the corn crop; but in addition to this it is of considerable importance in almost every part of America. To a greater extent than perhaps any other plant, it has become adapted to various en- vironments. For the various latitudes from Canada to the equator there are strains more or less per- fectly adapted which lend themselves readily to further improvement and better adaptation. Suited to the short seasons of the far North are strains that mature in ° seventy or eighty days and grow but three or four feet tall (Fig. 602), while in the southern part of the United States (Fig. 626), in Mexico, Central America and South America, there are strains that reach a height of twenty feet or more and re- quire half a year in which to reach ma- turity. The hard, smooth flints, mostly yellow flints and sweet corns, are generally grown in New England, the small early yellow dents and reddish dents in the northern states, large-eared white and yellow dents of the one-ear- to-stalk strains in the central states, and white dents partly of the strains that produce two or more ears per stalk in the southern part of the United States. Because of the need of a cultivated crop that can be used: in rotation with small grains, corn is now extensively grown in Minnesota, North Dakota and elsewhere, where but a few years ago all atten- tion was given to the growing of small grains, and corn-growing considered impracticable and unprofitable. The soils of the Pacific slope are also showing the exhaustive effect of one-crop farming, Fig. 614. seed cornin storage. (Holden.) Method of supporting _and corn for rotation is meeting with favor. Crop rotation is sure to replace the practice of summer fallowing, or resting the land. By early planting, some of the earliest maturing strains can be grown to maturity before the dry season has continued sufficiently long to prevent growth. Although produced so much more extensively 406 MAIZE than other grains, corn does. not figure so promi- nently in our export trade. Nearly all of it is fed to stock on the farms where it is produced. Only 4 per cent of the amotnt grown in the United States is shipped to other countries as corn and corn meal. It is used for the most part on the is sprouting. It is not enough that the kernels simply sprout; they should show strong germination. (Holden.) farms for fattening cattle and hogs for exportation and home use. It is well for the future of American farming that this custom prevails so generally. A removal of the corn from the farms would much more quickly deplete their fertility. The feeding of it on the farms is the chief means of retaining their fertility. “Consideration of the seed. In order to produce a successful corn crop it is necessary that attention be given to the selection of seed the fall previous to the year in which the good crop is expected. The opinion is rather prev- alent that if a good stand is obtained, it matters little by what method the required number of stalks is secured. The stand is sometimes obtained by planting a larger number of kernels per hill than the number of stalks desired. This method is not advisable for two principal reasons: First, such a method is sure to result in an uneven distribution of the plants in the field; and second, if the seed germinates poorly, so that it is necessary to plant more than the number expected to grow, it is cer- tain that the seed that does grow will have been reduced in vitality by the same conditions that caused the other grains to fail. One endeavoring to produce successful crops of corn must bear in mind that within each kernel is a partially developed corn plant differentiated into the part that grows into the stalk and that which develops into the roots. This partially developed plant necessarily endures the condition to which the seed ears are subjected during the winter. The best condition under which it maintains its vitality is that of dryness and an even temperature. It is not sufficient to make sure that the corn is once dried in the fall and then placed in a position MAIZE where it will be subjected to damp atmosphere and extremes of temperature. If but a few bushels of seed are required, a very convenient method of dry- ing it thoroughly is by means of twine and a well- ventilated loft or shed in which to hang the strings of ears. About a dozen or twenty ears can be tied on one string, placing the ears several inches apart on the string so they will not touch. (Fig. 614.) If such strings can be hung in a place that will re- main dry and at a comparatively uniform temper- ature, they may be left in this position until plant- ing time approaches. However, rather than subject such strings to the atmosphere of damp days and changes in temperature, it is better to take them down after the ears are thoroughly dry and place them in an attic or living-room of a dwelling or some building in which the temperature will remain rather constant and the atmosphere dry. If it is necessary to dry large quantities of seed ears, gently sloping floors or shelves made of one- and-one-half- or two-inch slats, with an inch and a half between the slats, can be constructed in a dry room heated by stoves so arranged that the warm air will ascend between the slats and escape by means of ventilators provided near the roof. The object of the sloping floors is to provide an easy means of moving all of the ears by withdraw- ing a part of them from the lower ends of the floors, causing the others to roll down a little dis- tance. Such movement enables the ears to dry on all sides. On these floors the seed ears are put only one or two ears deep. ° Seed corn should never be placed in tight boxes or barrels until thoroughly dry or until the mois- ture content is reduced to 10 per cent or less. When dried to this extent, seed can be tightly boxed with safety, provided the boxes are kept in a dry place. In order to guard against the weevil and the grain moth, it is well to place about a pound of naphtha or moth balls with every bushel of ears. Well-dried seed has been preserved in this way for four years without impairing its germi- nation to any extent, while equally well-dried seed Fig. 616. Six kernels taken from each of three ears of corn and tested in the germination box. No. 1, three swelled but sent out neither root nor stem sprouts; other three sent out weak stem sprouts but practically no root sprouts. No. 2, all six kernels gave strong, even germination; this is a good seed ear. No. 3, all weak germinators; such ears should never be planted. (Holden.) MAIZE suspended in sacks in a loft has deterio- rated greatly in that length of time. At the present time, germination tests of each ear to be used as seed are being advocated very strongly by experiment stations and corn-breeders, and the prac- tice is being followed by the most enter- prising and successful. corn-growers. There can be no doubt that there is great benefit in testing each ear to be used as seed, provided the supply of seed did not mature properly or has not been preserved in the best way. By means of a large number of germinating boxes, the germinating power of individual ears can be tested without much expense of money or time. It should be remembered that a good-sized ear of corn will plant a tenth to an eighth of an acre, and each ear that is found to germinate feebly saves the planting of that much ground to seed that would be sure to return but a small yield. It is a fact that the average corn- grower plows, harrows, plants and cul- tivates one-fourth to one-third of his corn acreage without receiving anything for his labor. This is because of the vacant hills, and hills that do not contain the number of stalks that the fertility of the soil demands. By not making sure of the perfect germination of every ear of corn used as seed, corn- growers not only are losing the use of one-fourth of their land, but are expending labor on the land without any returns. Many have become so accustomed to seeing very poor stands that if three-fourths of a proper stand is obtained they , are of the opinion that they have secured a good stand of stalks. The testing of each indi- vidual ear must not be taken as a remedy. for the neglect of seed preser- vation. No amount of seed - testing in the spring can make good seed of that which has been poorly pre- served. Al- though there may be found in a lot of Fig. 618. Root system of a corn plant four feet tall. Fig. 617. between the kernels from ears 1 and 3; also between 32 and 34, (P. G. Holden, lowa.) 407 Germination box ready for examination. Notice the contrast poorly preserved seed certain ears each kernel of which will grow, it should be remembered that the same conditions that have caused other ears of the lot to fail to germinate, have weakened the vitality of those that do germinate. They do not germinate so strongly nor produce so well as they would have done had they been better preserved. Some tests of well-preserved seed in comparison with that kept in cribs have shown that the one factor only, of preservation, is responsible for a difference in yield of sixteen or more bushels per acre. The important feature of these tests consists in the fact that the increased production of well- preserved seed is not due to its better germination or a better stand of stalks in the field, but to the fact that the stalks are more vigorous. While a test of the germinating power of each individual ear is very profitable, with a supply of seed con- taining some ears that do not germinate perfectly, it is more profitable to select and preserve the seed in such a way that it will contain no such ears. Of course, as a safeguard, it is advisable to test one hundred or more ears of seed selected and . preserved in the best way possible, but as it is usually found that the seed so preserved germi- nates perfectly or nearly so, it is often found use- less to make the test of each ear of the lot. Another very important factor in securing the proper stand of stalks is the grading of the seed ears. They should be selected or graded to a uniform size of kernel, and this is readily done before the ears are shelled. No corn-planter can drop the proper number of kernels in each hill unless the 408 MAIZE kernels are uniform. The ears should always be nubbed, that is, the very small kernels at the tip and the large, thick kernels at the butt should be discarded. It is advisable, even when large quan- wt va Fig. 619. ‘‘Sweeps’’ used in cultivating growing crops—one- horse cultivators. It is necessary to drive across the field two or more times to cultivate one row. (Hartley.) tities of seed are needed, to shell the seed by hand and in a small receptacle where the kernels from each ear can be examined before they are placed with the general supply. If the corn is variable as to width of kernel, it is best to divide the seed into two or more lots and change the adjustment of the planter in changing from one lot of seed to the other. No careful corn-planter will begin planting his crop until he has ascertained that his planter works satisfactorily on the grade of seed that he expects it to plant. Culture. Choice of land.—A very large part of the land at present planted to corn in the United States is too poor for profitable corn-growing, and should not be planted to corn until improved. The plant- ing of such land to corn keeps both the land and its owner in an impoverished condition. If corn- growing must be practiced in a section having such a poor soil, it is better to withhold the planting of corn until the land can be improved by the appli- cation of humus and the growing and plowing under of green crops, preferably legumes. The Fig. 620. Steel frame stalk-cutter. planting of corn year after year on the same land is a bad practice in any section, even though the ground be very fertile. River bottom that over- flows occasionally, and on which sediment is de- MAIZE posited, is the only kind of land that will stand continuous cropping with corn, and even here it may sometimes be inadvisable. Maintaining soil fertility—For good results, the corn plant requires a fertile soil, a soil of greater fertility than that required by many other farm crops. Good seed, good land and good culture are the essentials of a good corn crop. Unless nature has supplied the farmer with a fertile farm, the easiest of these three essentials to obtain is good seed, and unfortunately it is the essential in which most growers make the greatest mistake. New lands are usually good corn soils, and they are generally well supplied with humus or vege- table matter. Lands that have been cropped con- .tinuously for years, most of the humus having 3, been destroyed, become hard and the soil particles ‘MW pack together closely. Such a condition indicates that the soil requires humus or vegetable matter, and the conditions of such a soil can be very greatly improved by the application of coarse manures and the plowing under of large quantities of vegetable matter in the form of corn stalks, grain stubble, clover, and the like. The addition of Fig. 621. Combined sulky lister and planter. such material to soil almost invariably increases the yield of corn. Ten to twenty tons of farm ma- nure per acre each year or two will retain most -soils in a condition that will make possible the growing of good corncrops. Excessive applications of farm manure may result in decreased yields the first year after the application, especially if the season is dry. Most impoverished soils respond to a greater or less extent to the application of commercial fertil- izers composed of phosphoric acid, nitrogen and potash. The proportion of these elements must be varied to suit the requirements of the particular soil to which they are applied, and the most satis- factory way of determining the requirements of the soil is by actual field tests. Much of the im- poverished soil of the eastern part of the United States responds readily to applications of phosphoric acid. There are peaty swamp soils which, though apparently very fertile, produce two or three times as much corn per acre by the application of potas- sium chlorid. With the exception, however, of par- MAIZE ticular cases in which the application of a few elements to the soil in rather moderate quantities greatly increases the corn crop, the production of corn on impoverished soils by means of commercial fertilizers is not profitable. It is usually advisable to apply the commercial fertilizers to a small grain crop grown in rotation with corn. Such an application of fertilizers will usually assist in obtaining a good stand of clover or grass which is to follow the small grain crop. Whenever possible, the land should be kept busy growing legumes or grasses that can be plowed under, and, briefly speaking, this is the best fertil- izer for corn crops. When corn is to follow wheat, it is usually advisable to sow with the wheat or in early spring clover or some similar crop that can occupy the land from the time the wheat is removed until it is ready for corn. Some of the most successful farmers always sow clover with their winter wheat, when the land is to be planted in corn the next spring. If found advisable to use commercial fertilizers for corn, it should not be placed in the hills with the kernels. It may be injuri- ous to the ger- mination of the kernels or, at any rate, it is not at the base of the stalks that the feeding roots of the corn plant are found. At the time of tassel- ing and silking the roots of the corn plant are well distributed throughout the soil to a width and depth of three or four feet. For soils that are very porous, or when very soluble fertilizers, such as sodium nitrate, are used, it is thought best to make the application but a short time before the plants begin to tassel and form ears. (Fig. 618.) Preparing the seed-bed—Whenever possible, and it should be made possible in most cases, it is advi- sable to have the corn crop follow a hay crop. With a very few exceptions the sod should be broken in the fall. Double cultivators, two-row cultivators, or implements especially designed for the work can be used in the spring to tear up the decayed sod and place the seed-bed in a well-pulverized condi- tion. Disk-harrows are often used to advantage for this work. Fall-plowed land is usually found in the spring to contain more moisture and yet have a drier surface than other soils. For very level land, and land that is likely to remain very wet during a part of the growing season, a method of preparing the seed-bed should be adopted that will permit of some drainage for the young plants. A very good method for such soils is to throw up the land by back furrowing into beds about eight feet wide. When pulver- ized, the rows can be planted four feet apart, plac- Fig. 622. Cultivating young corn with a two-horse cultivator. (Hartley.) MAIZE 409 ing a row on either side and near to the water furrows. In this way the young plants will have drainage and the surplus water can remain in the water furrows. For very sloping or hilly land, the plowing and planting should be done along the ge Fig. 623. The right way to cultivate—shallow and not too near the stalks at this stage. hillside or around the hill. In fact, if the soil is inclined to wash, permanent terraces should be maintained at intervals along the hillsides, so con- structed as to maintain the same level throughout the field. No soil can be improved in fertility or kept in a fertile condition if much erosion is permitted. Planting— The method of planting must be adapted to the section of country in which the work is done. It is well recognized that for sec- tions where very dry weather is likely to prevail during the growing season, listing is best. This method consists of planting the corn in the bottom of a deep furrow or ditch. In many cases the en- tire process of planting is performed by one opera- tion, and without any previous preparation of the land. It is usually best to prepare the land by means of thorough plowing and then adopt some method of listing that will place the young plants MY ~ he Mies iia, ul Was Bi NF a f Ty i iy 4 Aiea) \ old NN Sa A Fig. 624. The wrong way to cultivate—too close and deep. Deep cultivation injures the roots and lessens the yield- ing ability. in a furrow, so that the soil can be gradually worked to them as they grow. Some corn-planters accomplish this by marking off deep furrows and running their drills or check-rowers in the furrows. A simpler method is to attach to the check-rower or corn- planter disks which will throw out the 410 MAIZE furrow just ahead of the shoo of the drill which places the kernels in tho soil, On heavy lands in wet climates, it may be best not to plant in furrows. There is but one principal plan to be considered in deciding whether the corn should be planted in checks, so as to admit of cultivation in two direc- tions or dropped one kernol in a place, This con- sideration is that of keeping the corn free from weeds, On river-bottom land and land that is foul with weed seed, it is usually best to plant in checks, otherwise hand-labor will be required in hoeing out the weeds. As the corn roots distribute themselves through the soil for a distance of three or four feet, there is no great advantage in having the plants stand one in a place, Repeated tests have shown that for middle Georgia the best time for planting is March 15 to 20 ; for central Illinois, May 11 to 18; central Indi- ana, May 1 to 11; central Kansas, the first week in May; South Dakota, Muy 10 to 20; but these dates are only the average for a number of years, and the advancement of the season must each year be taken into consideration and the planting done when the soil can be put in good condition, and when it has become warm enough to insure prompt germination of the seed. The old saying that it is time to plant corn when the oak leaves reach the Big. 625. Corn emut. (Pago 414.) size of a squirrel’s ear or the dogwoods are in blossom, is as definite a date as it is possible to establish. The rate of planting is also a point that must be settled for each locality and cach particular soil, For very fertile soil the usually adopted distances MAIZ5 are 84 x 84 feet, with three kernela por hill, When planted at this rate, the stand in tho fall should avorage at least two and ono-hal! stalls por hill, and, with this stand, yields of one hundred bushels and more per acre are possible, Tow =——-. te mt Ee bg rn MF A Bat “ Fret ot Ne , : Dy : A) i i hal w I Wh =x vant iy Kr ah AN ak S eh Me “4 —>— , Bet ter’ Fig. 626, Lato-maturing, tall-growing corn, charac torlatic of the southern states. (Hariley.) The amount of moisture as well as the fortility of the land are mattera that must be considered in deciding the rate of planting. If the stalks stand thickly in the rows the crop will suffer more from dry weather than if there is a thinner stand, In some sections where the soil is light, und dry weather is usual during the growing svason, beat results are obtained by having the rows four fuot apart, with one stalk every three feet in the row. When such thin planting as this is necossary, it is preferable to plant the corn-rows far enough apart so that peanuts, cowpeas, or some other such crop can be planted between tho rows, In the leading corn states, where the greater part of the land planted to corn is rather fertile, the mistake is made of planting the corn too thickly on the poor land. Rx- erience has taught the corn-yrowors that live in fesalitioe where all of the soil ia light, that thin planting is necessary, and the mistake of planting too thickly is not so common as in sections where the greater part of the land ia fertile. The result of planting too thickly is to reduce the size of the ears and the production of grain, and to increase the amount of forage. The rate of planting field corn varion from aix quarts to one bushel. For silage, nine to eleven quarts are planted. Cultivation.-Two principal results to be at- tained in giving corn good cultivation are, first, the prevention of the growth of weeds, and, second, the retention of soil moisture. It is always much casior and more satisfactory to prevent the growth of weeds or destroy them soon after the seeds germinate than it is to attempt their destruction after they have attained a firm foothold, Wide weeders and harrows with slant- back teeth are very good im en snts for prevent- ing weeds getting a start ahead of the corn. As they are rather light, and it is not desirable that the teeth penetrate the ground more than an inch very wide ones can be used and a good deal of lan passed over in a day. Nts REY RNY x OK WAN nay ti Fig. 627, Corm-harvesting scene near Belleville, Kansas. Weeders are most advantageous on light lands between the planting and the time the corn comes up. When the corn reaches a height that will not permit of the use of weeders or harrows and it be- comes necessary to use cultivators, fenders should be attached to the cultivators so that the young plants will not be cov- ered by clods or in- i = jured. In many sec- tions, surface cultiva- tors are used very successfully. These cultivators have hori- zontal knives that scrape only about an inch under the surface of the ground and cut off any weeds that have started. In some in- stances, when the corn is young and the ground has become water-soaked by ex- cessive rains, it is ad- visable to give deep cultivation to facili- tate the aération of the soil. As nearly as pos- sible a thorough shallow cultivation should fol- low every heavy rain. If the ground is left in a crusted condition the moisture passes rapidly into the air, while the formation of a dust-blanket will retain the moisture for the use of the plants. The mistake is often made of delaying the cultivation until a large part of the moisture has escaped. If the ground has become hard, and crusted and dry, it is usually better to defer cultivation until a rain occurs, as a cultivation when the ground is dry and hard will cause it to break up in large hard clods and will hasten evaporation rather than prevent it. The writer has seen many fields of corn ruined by being cultivated at the wrong time that would have produced good crops if the cultiva- Fig. 628. tion had been given at the proper moment. Even . after the corn has become too large for the use of the double cultivator, it is often advisable to restore the dust mulch by means of one-horse cultivators. Harvesting.—In the northern and north-central parts of the United States, where corn is grown extensively, a large part of it is harvested by = aks \ : Zz EB Cutting corn with the harvester with bundle- carrier attachment. Louisiana. MAIZE 411 means of corn-binders or corn-shockers. In the extreme northern part, where the stalks make but a very short growth, wheat-harvesters are some- times used for harvesting the corn, but such a practice is not to be advised, because the binder is not made for such heavy work. On very rich soil in. the southern states the stalks grow too tall to admit of a satisfactory use of corn-binders, and such corn is usually cut by hand or the ears jerked from the stalks. For many years it has been the custom in the southern United States to obtain forage by stripping the blades by hand from the standing stalks (Fig. 629), but the scarcity of manual labor makes this practice unprofitable. In the leading corn-growing states, the great bulk of the corn is husked by hand in November and December. Large quantities are husked from the shocks in the field, while a greater quantity is husked from the standing stalks and thrown into wagons that precede the huskers in the field. A high sideboard or throw-board is placed on one side of the wagon-bed to catch the ears and cause them to fall into the wagon. Implements. There has been a gradual evolution in regard to the machin- ery used, both in cul- tivating and in har- vesting corn, and the tendency is to advance to larger and more effective machinery that takes the place of manual labor. From , one-horse cultivators that require that the field be crossed at least twice for the cultivation of a single row (Fig. 619), an advance was made to the double cul- tivator or two-horse cultivator, which completes a row each time the field is crossed (Fig. 622). At the present time two-row cultivators are used very satisfactorily in connection with corn planted by s Fig. 629. Corn topped and stripped of blades. Cowpeas sown at last cultivation. (Hartley.) 412 MAIZE two-row corn-planters. When so planted, each pair of rows is at every point the same distance apart, so that a man can cultivate two rows as easily as one. For cultivating listed corn, three-row disk- cultivators are sometimes used, which completely cultivate three rows each time the field is crossed, four horses being used. These cultivators are pro- vided with sufficient play so that the disks of the cultivator are guided by the ridges made at the time the corn was planted. Corn-huskers and shredders are now growing in favor, which strip the husks from the ears and at the same time tear or chop the fodder into very fine particles. In this condition the fodder is fed with less waste. Corn-picking and husking ma- chines designed to gather the ears from the stand- ing stalks, husk them and deliver them into wagons driven by the side of the machine, are used to some extent and will probably be improved so that they will be more generally employed. Corn products. To a very slight extent compared with the amount of corn grown, the parts of the corn plant other than the grain are used in making various manufactured products. The silks are used as a filter, husks for the making of mattresses, the pith of the stalk for the packing of coffer-dams of battle- ships, the outer part of the stalks for the making of pyroxylin varnish and paper, cobs for the mak- ing of corn-cob pipes. The leaves and husks are ground finely and mixed with corn oil-cake to form a feed for chickens and cattle. So varied are the products obtained from different parts of this plant that one factory alone manufactures forty-two distinct products. Corn oil as extracted from the germs, usually by hydraulic pressure, is one of the most valuable products obtained from corn. It is used for culi- nary purposes and is vulcanized as a substitute for India rubber. About 75 or 80 per cent of the corn oil manufactured in this country is exported. In 1903 the United States exported 3,778,935 gallons pe ' y a Fig. 630. Corn harvest scene in the middle West. Preparing for wheat. MAIZE of corn oil, valued at $1,467,493; the next year the exportation amounted to 8,222,875 gallons, valued at $998,613; in 1905, 3,108,917 gallons, valued at $890,973 ; for 1906 the exports of this product reached a value of $1,172,206. Some of the leading products made from the grain of maize other than those mentioned are glucose, dextrine or American gum, alcohol and whiskey, starches, both edible and laundry, grits, hominies and a great variety of table products. Enemies. While this crop is preyed on by numerous ene- mies, such as rodents, crows, insects and fungous diseases, there are but few that sometimes destroy the whole crop. Root-worm.—The corn root-worm is one of the most injurious corn pests. At times its depreda- ANy fy pi BA ys he \ ee “! aD vty WY, oo GS tae tions become very apparent and entire fields are destroyed, but generally its injuries are moderate and widely distributed, so that the corn crop is cut short by millions of bushels and the cause not known or realized. The larva of the corn root-worm that does injury in the southern states is a slender, thread-like, yellowish white worm with a brownish head. It is about one-half inch long. Plants injured by this root-worm usually show one or more small round worm-holes just below the surface of the soil near the upper whorl of roots. Because it often begins its destruction as soon as the young plants begin their growth, it is commonly called the “bud- worm.” The corn root-worm of the leading corn-produc- ing states differs slightly from the southern corn root-worm. The larva is smaller, four-tenths of an inch long. The eggs hatch in the soil and the worms mine longitudinally either up or down through the corn roots. The adult does not possess the twelve black spots of the southern root-worm but is of a uniform grass-green color, and feeds mostly on the pollen and silks of the corn plant. While the green beetles do some damage by gnaw- ing on the silks, it is in the larval stage that this MAIZE insect destroys the corn crop to the greatest extent. Cutworms.—There are many different species of cutworms, and the life-history of the different kinds differs considerably. They destroy some young corn plants in almost every corn-field and occasion- ally destroy entire crops. Such destruction is most likely to occur when old meadows or pastures are plowed in the spring and planted in corn. Karly fall-plowing is very effective in preventing de- struction of corn by cutworms. They can be pois- oned by scattering about the field bran to which has been MAIZE 413 and the digging of holes at intervals in the ditch will cause them to be caught in large quantities in the holes. They can then be killed by pouring kerosene on them. Should a rain interfere with the preservation of the dusty trenches, a strip of coal- tar can be substituted to prevent the bugs enter- ing the corn. [See page 42.] If begun in time, grasshoppers can be prevented entering the corn by frequent use of wide catchers. These are drawn rapidly around the field or over adjoining meadow or stubble. Karly morning is added Paris green and molas- ses in about the proportions of thirty pounds of bran, one pound of Paris green, two quarts of molasses and enough water to moisten the bran. Succulent clover or alfalfa can be sprayed thoroughly with Paris green, then cut and scattered in small quan- tities where the worms are most destructive. Often when the entire field is severely attacked it is best to disk or till the ground, then wait a week or two and plant again. The writer has seen fields treated in this way in which the first planting was entirely destroyed and the second planting uninjured, resulting in a big yield of corn. Webworms.—lf the destruc- tion is the work of sod web- worms, it is not advisable to plant the field a second time till late in May, on the 40th parallel, as the worms begin to pupate at that time. Web- worms are easily distinguished from cutworms by being much smaller, about one-half inch long. They eat the young plants but usually do not cut them entirely off as do cutworms. Like the cut- : worms, they pass the days under clods near the base of the young plants. They are enclosed in a silken web, the web having small particles of earth attached. : Chineh bugs and grasshoppers often enter corn- fields in great hordes from adjoining fields. When wheat:is harvested, chinch bugs may enter adjoin- ing corn-fields in sufficient numbers to destroy the corn crop. If the work is begun in time, they can be trapped successfully as they are about to enter the corn, A strip ten feet or more wide should be plowed, disked and harrowed into a dusty condi- tion. Through this strip one or more dusty fur- rows or ditches should be made by dragging a log back and forth. If well made, the dusty sides of the ditch will prevent the bugs from escaping, Fig. 631. Husking corn in the field by hand. The old way, and still followed in very many parts of the country. the best time. As the grasshoppers take wing, the canvas comes in contact with them and they fall into the pan. They can be caught in large quanti- ties and furnish good food for poultry, especially turkeys. If used for this purpose, water, rather than kerosene, should be placed in the pan of the catcher. Crows take warning readily and will not trouble a field for several days after a few of them have eaten grains of corn that have been soaked in a strychnine solution. Alcohol dissolves strychnine more readily than does water. The corn should be soaked in the strychnine solution for a day or two and placed about the field soon after the corn is planted and before the crows begin pulling up the young plants. 414 MAIZE Corn smut (Ustilago zee) does some injury to almost every corn-field. It reduces the total yearly corn production of the United States by perhaps 2 per cent, or, in other words, reduces the in- come from our farms twenty million dollars each year. Treatment of the seed is of no avail. The brown or black spore clusters that form in huge masses on different parts of the corn plant contain millions of spores which do not affect other plants directly, but which carry the fungus through the winter and grow in manure or decaying vegetation, form- | ing other spores which start the disease in the next year’s crop. They gain entrance at any point where the tissue is tender and growing, and especially easily where the tissue is broken. The best known means of prevention is burning the infected plants and crop rota- tion. Corn-stalk manure should not be applied in the spring to land that is to be planted with corn that season. (Fig. 625.) Remedies.—It is very fortunate that crop rotation and fall-plowing, two of the leading features of good soil treatment, should also be the best-known methods of preventing depredations from the most destructive corn pests. Depredations from cut- worms, webworms, corn root-worms, wireworms, the corn root-louse, stalk-borers, corn bill-bugs, and corn smut are prevented successfully by crop rotation and fall-plowing. Maize-Growing for the Silo. [See also Silage.] By Jared Van Wagenen, Jr. The ensiling of cattle foods may be defined as the preservation of green or moist forage products by packing them in bulk in such a way that the subsequent heating shall expel the air and check the processes of decay, so that the forage will re- main green and succulent and wholesome, and be practically unchanged after the first fermentation has run its course. The success of the process de- pends partly on the fact that the heat of the initial Fig. 632. A harvest of 10,000 bushels of corn, on farm of H. B. Woodbury near Cawker City, Kansas. The product of 200 acres. fermentation is so great that many of the germs of decay are killed, and partly to the oxygen, which is entangled in the mass, being replaced by the carbonic acid gas that is formed and that acts as a bar to further changes. MAIZE The history of ensiling in Europe and America affords an excellent example of the evolution of agricultural methods. At times the practice has been subjected to sweeping condemnation and at Fig. 633. Old-fashioned rail corn-cribs. other times it has suffered from over-zealous friends. The idea has been prominently before the agricultural world for twenty-five years, and ensiling may now be said to have become a settled practice in all dairy-farming, and to a less extent in beef- and sheep-feeding operations. Its highest development has been reached in those dairy com- munities which lie in the northern part of the corn-belt. Corn as a silage crop. The corn plant, with its large, solid, succulent stalks which do not air-dry easily but which ensile very readily, is preéminently the silage plant, and throughout the great dairy sections of the North most of the corn is handled through the silo. At one time or another ensiling has been recommended as a method of handling all the following crops. Corn, clovers, alfalfa, meadow grasses, cowpeas, soybeans, Canada field-peas, sorghum, sunflower, millet, and, in fact, all crops used for forage, apple pomace, beet pulp, and canning-house refuse of various kinds. These have been ensiled with more or less success, but never with advantage over corn. Sometimes some of them are used to advan- tage with corn, as the last cutting of alfalfa. But corn has been and is likely to continue to be the peer among crops for the gilo. It loses somewhat in feeding value when put in the silo, but with proper care the loss need be very little,—4 to 8 per cent of the dry matter. In any event, it is less than when the fodder is cured in the field. Silo construction. It is of interest in this connection to mention briefly the evolution of silo construction. In its earliest development in Europe, the silo took the form of stacks of wet grass or ricks covered with earth. In the United States it was first a walled pit in the earth and later a masonry structure above ground, and it was thought essential, after filling, to weight the mass very heavily, often with stones or barrels of sand. These methods have now only historical interest. The wooden silo may be said to have passed from a square or rectangular structure, built like a barn frame, having double boarding with tarred paper between, to 2 cribbed- up hexagon or octagon, and then to a structure of MAIZE thin boards bent around a circle of studs, every board forming a hoop,—the so-called Wisconsin idea. Now the silo almost universally has taken the form of a tank-like vessel built of wooden staves, usually two inches thick, tongued and grooved and drawn tight together by round iron : hoops fitted with devices for shortening them as may be necessary. There is every indication that this represents the final step in the evolution of the silo, and that in its essential character this will remain the perma- nent form. Possibly as the years go by, the difficulty in securing suitable lumber may re- sult in the general adop- tion of concrete, built in cylindrical form, with heavy wire or light iron rods laid in the mold to strengthen it. Hemlock, pine, cedar and cypress are all used extensively in silo construction. The cypress is doubtless best, but its price is rapidly making it almost prohibitory. We have not as yet much data regarding the life of the stave silo, but even hem- lock endures for as much as fifteen years, providing the silo stands empty during the warm months, in adry, airy place. When filled and kept for sum- mer feeding, thus remaining damp, its life is greatly shortened. Cultural methods. Varieties and quantity of seed.—The best varie- ties of corn and the thickness of planting for silage are a somewhat different problem from when the ripe grain is the only object. When the crop is intended for the silo, the feeding value of the stalks is no less important than that of the grain, and the question really resolves itself into: What varieties and how much seed will afford the great- est quantity of digestible nutrients per acre? In general we may say that the best condition of the crop for the silo does not demand complete ripe- ness, so that it is advisable to use one of the larger Fig. 634. One-hole corn-sheller. and later varieties of corn even in the North, as. this will give greater tonnage. Thus, near the northern limit of the corn-belt, where only the flint type of corn is raised for grain, it is generally best to plant one of the dent varieties for the silo. Usually it is best to plant the largest variety of corn that will become reasonably mature in the locality. The same line of reasoning applies to the ques- tion of the thickness of the stand. Many more stalks will be advisable for silage than when the crop is raised for the grain alone. In fact, the Illinois station arrived at the conclusion that the greatest amount of nutrients would be secured when the corn was planted so thickly that the ears were choked down to not more than-half their MAIZE 415 natural size. Under Illinois conditions the most sound grain was secured by a seeding of about ten thousand stalks per acre, but for silage purposes at least twice as many are advisable, or say a stalk every seven inches when planted in rows three and one-half feet apart. This number would be supplied by seven to nine quarts of seed per acre, provided germination were perfect and no plants were destroyed ; but the writer, after con- siderable experience in growing corn for the silo on high lands in eastern New York, has arrived at about eleven quarts of seed per acre, preferring to err on the side of too thick planting rather than long unoccupied spaces. This, of course, provides for a considerable margin for poor seed, and the cutworm and the crow. Method of seeding.—Corn for silage is usually drilled in with a regular one-horse corn drill, one row at a time, or with a common eleven-hoe grain drill, with all the hoes but two removed. This implement will do very satisfactory work, planting two rows at a time, about forty-two inches apart. Manuring.—tThe silo is an outgrowth of the dairy industry, and wherever it is found large quantities of stable manure are available. The almost universal practice is to grow corn on sod ground—old meadows—to which manure has been applied in the preceding winter months. Rotation.—Generally the special dairy-farmer employs a rotation of corn for the silo, oats and grass, the seeding being made with the oats, and the mowing kept for two or more years. Companion cropping.—It has long been realized that the most serious defect of the corn plant is that it carries too small a percentage of protein to give the best results in feeding, and efforts have been made to grow other crops in combination with Fig. 635. A mounted corn-sheller. the corn to be cut into the silo with it. Cowpeas in the South and soybeans in the North have some- times been planted with the corn, and they have resulted in an increase of the total food constitu- ents per acre and at the same time have given a product of greater value for milk production. This is a very suggestive field for experimentation. 416 MAIZE Subsequent care.—The subsequent culture of corn for silage is essentially the same as when the crop is grown for ripe grain. Inasmuch as more seed MAIZE within which corn may be ensiled with excellent results. If put in very immature and without par- tial drying, it will become excessively acid and will sometimes develop disagreeable flavors. It is a mistake to ensile corn in this condition, for the amount of nutrients is very much less than at a later period. Sometimes, however, it may be neces- ° Fig. 636. Skeleton view of a corn-cleaner. per acre is used and it is planted in drills instead of hills, greater use can be made of such cultural devices as the smoothing harrow and the various weeders, because the destruction of an occasional corn plant is a less serious matter. Harvesting and en- siling. Corn should be put into the silo a few days before complete maturity. In general, the proper stage will have been reached when the lower leaves of the plant are turning yellow and some of the earlier ears are den- ted. It is possible to make good silage from corn that is fully ripe, but the Fig. 637. Sectional view of a cylinder corn-sheller. sary to handle late corn in this condition when frost is at hand. For example, south of Pennsylvania, in the truck- ing and canning sections, ex- cellent crops of silage corn are often secured after a crop of garden peas, but the corn may lack maturity when frost comes. Corn that is over-ripe or even badly frosted and dried will make good silage if there is a fair amount of moisture remaining. The less water in the corn when cut, the more serious the surface loss will be. When very dry, silage is almost free of acid, but it tends to spoil by white mold. It molds. a long way down from the surface and near the corners of a square silo, or where, for any reason, it fails to pack tightly. Corn has occa- sionally been put into the silo with- out any shredding, by laying the stalks compactly, shingle fashion. It is pos- sible to make a very fine quality of silage in this way, but the care and difficulty, both in putting in and in feeding out, has led to the aban- donment of the practice. The corn is nearly always cut or shredded into the silo. Ordinarily, the coarser parts of the stalks are less palatable and finer it is cut the better the results, owing to the the grain may be so hard that much of it will pass through the animal undigested. On the other hand there is no other stage in the growth of the corn plant when the quantity of nutrients is being increased so rapidly as during the ten days just preceding full ma- turity, and the ensiling of corn too early results in very serious loss. Probably it will be better to | err on the side of too great ma- ™ turity than to put the corn in the silo too green. While there is doubtless one best time to put corn into the silo, yet there is fortunately a considerable range of conditions Fig. 638. aon. Skeleton view of combination force-feed sheller. more intimate mixture of the grain and leaves and the more compact settling. MAIZE It is not a vital matter whether a silo is filled hurriedly in a day or two, or more gradually in a week or ten days. A silo which has been filled very quickly will begin to settle rapidly almost at once, and in the next ten days or two weeks will go down perhaps 20 per cent of its total depth. Hence the slow filling, giving an opportunity for the silage to settle, results in getting much more food in the same cubic space. Covering.—The best way to cover a silo is to begin to feed out of it the day it is filled. In this way, surface loss will be almost wholly avoided. When this method is not feasible, it will be necessary to cover the silage with some material, otherwise the upper foot or more will spoil. Any kind of straw or chaff well wet down, swamp grass, green buckwheat-straw or even sawdust, will do nicely. Possibly it will be just as well to snap off the ears of the last two or three loads of corn and let the stover act as a cover. Sometimes no covering is put on, but instead the top layer is thoroughly wet down. This results in the rapid fer- mentation of the surface few inches, making an air-tight covering for the silage below. The watering is done at the rate of two to two and one- half gallons per square foot of surface. Harvesting machinery.— The corn harvester or binder in its present form has been in use about ten years, and its use is becoming well-nigh universal in , handling the crop for silage. It is drawn by two or three horses. It cuts the corn and binds it into convenient sized bundles for feeding into the cutter. Under favor- able conditions a machine should handle five to eight acres per day. In a recent season the writer used 118 pounds of twine, worth say $13, in bind- ing an estimated crop of 300 tons of silage. The Fig. 640. Use of conveyor in making silage. ee TT 4 Fig. 639. Corn husker and shredder at work. harvester, on the whole, is exceedingly satisfactory in its operation. By a system of carrying chains and devices for straightening up the stalks, it is able to cut and bind corn even when it is badly lodged and tangled. The advantage lies not only in the labor saved over cutting with corn-knives, but to an even greater extent in the subsequent loading on wagons and feeding into the cutter. The machinery for cutting silage and elevating it into the silo is of two distinct types. In one, the cut material is elevated by means of a running elevator of sprocket chains, bearing wooden slats or sheet-iron buck- ets, which carry the corn away from the knives. The other type is known as the blower or pneu- matic elevator, in which the cut forage is blown into the silo through a sheet-iron pipe by a very powerful blast of air, generated by a fan or by blades fastened to the head to which the knives are bolted. The first type is the earlier one. Sale Use of the conveyor in filling an outside silo. Fig. 641. B2? Its disadvantage is that to set up and adjust the slat carrier for a tall silo is rather diffi- cult. Its advantage lies in the fact that it can be operated with much less power and at greatly varying speeds. A six or eight horse- power engine will generally be ample. The advantage of the blower type lies in the fact that it is very much more quickly set up, and that the corn can be taken care of in the silo more easily, as it is a more uniform mixture of the leaves and heavier parts of the plant. Its disadvantage is that very much more power is required and the speed must not fall below a certain minimum or the machine will clog. The blower type is steadily becoming the more popular in silo districts. Place of silage in the ration. The question of feeding silage belongs more especially to the domain of animal nutrition. However, it may be said in passing that about 418 MAIZE fifty pounds daily may be regarded as the maximum ration of silage for a cow, and this amount is rather more than is usually fed. The writer thinks that a silo filled with good corn in the month of Sep- tember offers by far the most satisfactory solution of the problem of feeding a cow during the months of summer drought. If the dairyman has in mind some summer feeding to supplement the pastures {and he should expect to do this to some extent), he will need about five tons of silo capacity for each cow. The tables of capacity provided by manufacturers are fairly dependable. Under ordi- nary field conditions, the yield of silage will range from eight to twenty tons.per acre. Silage may make up the larger part of the roughage, but some hay should be provided in addition. It is now an established fact that liberal rations of good silage are not incompatible with the health of the herd and with milk of the very highest standard of purity and flavor. It is not easy to over-emphasize the usefulness, not to say the virtual necessity, of the silo in successful dairying. Its greatest advan- tage in feeding lies not in the fact that animals do better on silage than on dry corn fodder, but more especially in the saving of labor. The silo ranks with the centrifugal separator in its effect on dairying. Popcorn. Zea (Mays) everta. Graminee. Figs. 642, 643. By J. G. Curtis. The popcorns are a special group of flint corns used for “popping,” as the name suggests, for eat- ing out of hand or in confections. They are char- acterized by the small size of the kernels and their excessive hardness, and by the excessive proportion of the corneous endosperm or horny substance con- tained in the kernels, which in turn ‘contains a large percentage of moisture and gives the kernels the property of popping or turning almost com- pletely inside out on the application of heat. In structure and composition popcorn varies but little from ordinary flint and dent corns, but since it yields so much less it is never grown for market as a stock-food. The stalks of popcorn are con- siderably smaller than those of field corn and vary in height from four to twelve feet, with a general average of about eight feet. In color they are usually rather lighter green than the flint corns, but may vary through all the shades of green, and even to a very dark red in some instances. The actual popping of the kernels has been shown to be due to the expansion of moisture in the starch-cells, the application of heat converting the moisture into steam, making the cell-walls give way and causing an explosion with sufficient force to alter the entire form and texture of the kernel. The value of popcorn lies almost wholly in its tendency to pop completely into a large, irregular, flaky mass, since this is the only form in which it has a sufficient value as an edible product to make it worthy of cultivation. While in popping it loses in weight about 10 per cent, due to the evaporation of moisture by the heat employed, it should in- MAIZE erease in bulk in the ratio of at least sixteen te one, and under the best conditions as high as twenty to one. There are several factors which control this result, such as the even application of heat and the condition of the corn. It may be too damp or too dry for best results, and since the moisture content is high when the corn is harvested, it is usually held over one season before marketing. Distribution. Popcorn is grown successfully throughout the northern half of the United States wherever other corn can be grown, and to a small extent on the heavier soils of the Piedmont section of the south- ern states. However, there has been a wide change in the methods of production within the last quar- ter-century, and whereas it was at one time planted in nearly every garden throughout New York and the New England states, it has gradually come to be a sort of special farm crop grown in a com- mercial way by men who have found it profitable and have made the growing, handling and market- ing of the crop a special study. This change is also coincident with the development of certain parts of the Middle West which, because of soil and cli- matic conditions, have proved especially adapted to the growth of the crop. The great bulk of the crop is now grown in Iowa, Michigan, Iilinois, Wisconsin and Nebraska. Some idea of the magnitude which the business has attained in certain favored localities can be gained from the statement that from one shipping point in Jowa in 1905 there were shipped more than three hundred car-loads of popcorn. Varieties. There are about twenty-five different varieties of popcorn, but these are simply variations of the two distinct types or classes known as rice corn and pearl corn. (Fig. 643.) The rice corn has kernels more or less pointed, with the outer coat, where ae Vi Ye Fig. 642. Three stages in the possible development of rice popcorn from the wild Mexican podcorn. A, Wild Mexi- ean podcorn; B, stage of partial development: C, modern white rice popcorn. the silks were attached, continued into a sort of spine, which may either stand almost erect or may be depressed by the crowding of the husk on the ear. The pearl corn has kernels rounded or flattened over the top and very smooth, the point of the attachment of the silk being lower down on the same side of the kernel as the germ. These two MAIZE classes may be divided into early, medium and late, and these again into white, yellow, and colored (not yellow). All of these varieties cross with each other so readily that it is difficult under ordinary methods to keep a vari- , ety strictly to Wi; any given type. The different va- rieties of both the rice and ‘pearl corn may vary as to color through the several shades of white, amber, yellow, red and black, also red an ; zi and white Fig. 643. Popcorn. A, Typical ears ‘ of white pearl; B, typical ears of apna of the white rice. best known white rice varieties are the Monarch Rice, Snowball and Egyptian. Of the white pearl varieties, the Common White Pearl, Mapledale Prolific and Non- pareil are standard varieties. Of the yellow pearl varieties, the most valuable are the Queen Golden and Dwarf Golden, each of which has a yellowish color when popped and has the taste peculiar to yellow corn. The black varieties are grown only in a small way as novelties, and the same may be said of the Golden Tom Thumb, which is a dwarf yellow variety that is so small that it has no value except as a curiosity. Two typical varieties or groups may be described as follows (Illinois Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 18): White rice: Stalk 7 to 8 feet high, rather short-jointed, leafy, dark green ; tassel long, slender, with few branches, drooping; suckers many, growing to about half the size of the parent stalk ; very few husk blades. Ear 3 to 5 feet from the ground, strongly tapering, dull white, with a white cob 5 to 7 inches long, 1.3 to 1.75 inches in diameter; cob .65 to .8 inches thick; kernels rounded over the butt of the ear and usually filling out the tips; rows of kernels fourteen to twenty, regular pairs of rows not very distinct. Kernel pointed, the tip being continued into a spine which is either depressed or nearly erect, .15 to .2 inches wide, .8 to .85 inches deep. White rice corn was ripe enough to cut in 132 days from planting. A single plot yielded in 1889 at the rate of 86.3 bushels per acre. This differs from Monarch rice in having a shorter ear with a greater number of rows of kernels, and the kernels more slender. White pearl: Stalk 7 to 84 feet high, rather large ; blades large, dark green; tassel long, with few branches, drooping; suckers many, reaching about three-fourths of the size of the parent stalk. Ear 3.5 to 4.5 feet from the ground, nearly cylin- drical, clear white, with a white cob 6 to 8 inches long, 1 to 1.4 inches in diameter; cob .55 to .65 inches through; kernels even at the butt; tip usually well filled ; rows of kernels ten to fourteen, regular. Kernel .2 inches broad, .25 inches deep, MAIZE 419 very smooth, somewhat flattened over the top. One plot of white pearl with 88 per cent of a full stand yielded forty-one pounds of ears, or at the rate of 46.1 bushels per acre. The ears are long, slender and smooth. It differs from the common white in having longer and more slender ears and in making a much smaller growth of stalk. It was ripe enough to cut in 125 days from planting. Culture. Sotl.— Any well-drained fertile soil, except a low peat or muck soil, is suitable for the growth of popcorn. A muck soil usually has an excess of nitrogen during the warm weather in the latter part of the season, which tends to cause too much growth of stalks at the expense of well-developed ears. This, of course, can be overcome to some extent by liberal applications of potassic and phos- phatic fertilizers, which will furnish the plant a better balanced food-supply ; but since this ten- dency to run largely to stalk is general with pop- corn under the best conditions of fertility, it is obvious that planting it on muck soil would in- crease the fault. Fertilizers— Whether the soil is sand, gravel, loam or clay, it must have a sufficient quantity of available plant-food elements to give the best re- sults. In furnishing any or all of these, one should remember that they are not needed to grow any specific crop, but rather to overcome deficiencies of available plant-food in that particular type of soil, All of these types of soil are usually lacking in available nitrogen unless well supplied with humus, and it should be supplied in large applica- tions of organic matter, either in stable manure or by the use of cover-crops ; and even then there will be a deficiency of available nitrogen early in the season, which should be supplied by a broadcast top-dressing of nitrate of soda, at the rate of one hundred to two hundred pounds per acre. The application is made when the corn is two or three inches high. For best results, the mineral elements, phosphorus and potassium, should also be applied at the rate of 400 pounds of acid phosphate (14 per cent avail- able) and 100 pounds of sulfate of potash (50 ner cent actual) per acre; these to be mixed together and drilled into the soil with the fertilizer drill three or four inches deep before planting. Seed.—In the growing of popcorn on a commer- cial scale, the selection of seed has more to do with success or failure than any other one factor. It is said that a man is the sum of his ancestors, and so is every plant that is propagated by means of a seed. It is not enough that we go through the field when the corn is ripe and select ears for seed from fine, healthy, productive individual stalks ; we must try to guard against the possible chance that any of the kernels on the ear which we select for seed could have been fertilized with pollen-grains from the tassel of another plant that may be either poorly developed or entirely barren. In other words, we must breed up our seed corn to the special type best suited to our needs, for the same reason that we breed our animals for special purposes ; 420 MAIZE and the same general principles seem to underlie the process in either case and the results are equally satisfactory when intelligently employed. The breeding of popcorn for seed purposes can best be done by growing the seed corn in a part of a field by itself that can be given a little extra fertilizing and care. The seed with which it is planted should be from typical ears that are as uniform in size, shape and color as possible, since they are to be the foundation stock from which the future strain of seed corn is to be developed. After planting the breeding plot, the only extra work necessary is to go through the plot just before the tassels begin to shed their pollen and remove the tassels and ears from those stalks which are barren or otherwise inferior. Then, when the corn is ripe, by careful selection of seed ears from the best of those remaining and with proper hand- ling and storing the results are sure to follow. Place in the rotation When grown in a regular rotation of crops, popcorn usually takes the place of the ordinary field corn and for much the same reasons, although frequently it is grown in place of one of the “money” crops, such as potatoes. This is often the case when the soil is too heavy for potatoes. The rotation then has to be arranged so that the popcorn and field corn are not grown in adjoining fields, as the pollen is carried by the wind and they become mixed very easily, which affects the quality and appearance of the popcorn. Planting.—For the main crop the seed should be planted about May 25 to June 5 in the latitude of central New York, or as soon as danger of frost has passed and the ground has warmed up so that the seed will germinate and not rot. The seed-bed should be thoroughly harrowed and pulverized. The planting should be done with a corn-planter or an ordinary grain drill, making the rows three and one-half feet apart and dropping the kernels every six to eight inches in the row. Subsequent care.—The field should be rolled im- mediately after planting; and it should be gone over cross-wise of the rows with a light slant-tooth harrow or weeder every five or six days until the corn is six or eight inches high. This will tear out a little of the corn, but more than was needed has been sown to allow for this. It is a large number of well-developed ears rather than stalks that we are trying to obtain. This work with the harrow or weeder will save the expensive hand labor with a hoe. The horse cultivator should now be used ‘at least every ten days, and oftener if necessary to break up a crusted surface after a rain. This should be kept up as long as practicable ; it should be shallow, not over two inches deep, unless after long-continued rains, when it is sometimes advis- able to cultivate deep to get air into the compact soil quickly. Popcorn ripens in one hundred to one hundred and thirty-five days from planting, according to the variety, weather conditions, climate and other factors. The maturity can be hastened to some ex- tent by using an abundance of phosphatic fertil- izer ; on the other hand, it is retarded by the use of large quantities of stable manure, which gives MAIZE an excess of nitrogen late in the season. It is es- pecially important that popcorn should ripen before frost comes, since if it is injured for popping it has little value for anything else. Nevertheless, the custom is general among growers in the eastern states to allow it to stand after ripening until the first frost comes before cutting it, as it is thought that the frost hardens it and improves its popping qualities. . : Harvesting and storing.—It is harvested either with one of the improved corn harvesters or else by hand with.the old-fashioned corn knife; in either case it is stood up in loose shocks in the field and tied with stalks or twine and left to dry and cure before husking. It is husked by hand. Where four cents per bushel of ears is paid for husking field corn, six cents per bushel of ears is usually paid for husking popcorn, as the ears are so much smaller. : After husking, if the corn is to be stored it is immediately placed in well-ventilated cribs in which it is protected from squirrels, rats, mice and other vermin. This is usually accomplished by lining the inside of an ordinary corn-crib with woven wire netting (one-fourth inch mesh) and hav- ing the crib built up on posts, each one of which has an inverted milk pan or some similar contrivance on top to keep the mice from climbing the posts and gnawing holes through the floor of the crib. The great difficulty in keeping popcorn from one season to another without having it destroyed by rats or mice is the chief reason why the business has gradually come into the hands of a small num. ber of growers, who are especially equipped for handling it successfully. Again, after a grower has supplied a certain trade for a few years with popcorn that will pop, the dealers come to have confidence in his corn and will hesitate to buy of a new man, which, of course, tends to discourage the new man. In some.sections it is a common prac- tice to hasten the curing of popcorn by kiln-drying in order to take advantage of the Christmas market the same season that it is harvested. Yield. A bushel of ears of popcorn when husked weighs 88 pounds, but when cured one season the standard weight is 85 pounds. There are 7 pounds of cobs in each bushel of ears, so that two bushels of ears (70 pounds) make one bushel of shelled corn (56 pounds) after shelling and removing the 14 pounds of cobs. Sixty bushels of ears per acre is consid- ered a good yield, although several growers have bred up their seed until with liberal feeding and careful cultivation they are able to get between eighty and ninety bushels per acre. Enemies. Diseases.—The only serious disease that affects popcorn is the corn smut, which is caused by a fungus known as Ustilago Zee. The smut itself con- sists of the brown spores of the fungus. It injures the crop in two ways: First, by destroying the ears, causing practically a total loss; second, by absorbing the nutrient juices of the plant and thus MAIZE preventing full growth, especially of the ears. The loss resulting from this one disease is esti- mated as about two per cent of the corn crop of the entire country. There is no known remedy that is entirely satisfactory. [See page 414.] Insects.—In Virginia and other southern states, the corn worm (Heliothis armiger) is a serious pest and makes the growing of popcorn in some sections an impossibility. Wireworms- and corn root-worms sometimes affect the plant, but not more seriously than they do the ordinary field corn. [See pages 413, 414.] Marketing. Popcorn is marketed in many different ways. The western grower usually raises it on contract at so much per pound shelled, or sells the entire crop to one of the several large dealers in the West who supply the wants of the trade throughout the country. In this case he ships it on the ear in barrels or shelled in bags, or packed in one-pound boxes for the retail grocer trade. At first the small boxes were very popular, as there was no waste for the grocer who had it on his shelves, instead of in a basket on the floor; it was soon learned, however, that it dried out too much in the boxes and would not pop so well as when left on the cob until wanted for popping. It seems that there is always moisture enough in the cob to keep the chit end of the kernel from becoming too dry and hard. The eastern growers usually sell it to the gro- cers in their near-by towns at about one dollar per bushel of ears, and the grocers retail it out in small lots at five to eight cents per pound. Some of the larger growers ship their entire crop in barrels to wholesale grocers and commission mer- chants in the large cities, where it is sold on account. Manufacture. The bulk of that which goes to the large cities eventually finds its way to the confectionery manufacturers, where it is made into sugared pop- corn balls, popcorn squares, prize packages and numerous other confections. There are several manufacturers whose entire output consists of pop- corn confections. These are generally a mixture of popped corn and molasses, or sugar syrup, fla- vored with one of the fruit syrups and pressed into bricks or squares. Frequently the popped corn is ground fine and mixed with freshly ground coco- nut and sweetened with syrup, then pressed into small cakes and sold under different names, such as honey corn, fruit corncakes and the like. The Breeding of Maize. Figs. 644-648. By Cyril G. Hopkins. Corn improvement should embrace both quantity and quality. But, because of the great importance of increased yield per acre, all selection looking toward improvement should be based first on yield, this to be followed, so far as practicable, with efforts which aim toward higher standards of MAIZE 421 quality. It is with these ideas that the following methods for corn-breeding are arranged. Physical selection of seed corn. The most perfect ears obtainable of the variety of corn which is to be bred should be selected. In making the selection for desirable ears, as judged from the physical characteristics, the larger the number of ears examined the better can be the selection. If the breeder wishes to improve the quality (chemical composition) of the grain, as well as the yield and type of his corn, it is recom- mended that he choose at least 200 ears of the desired physical type to be further examined as to quality. Chemical selection by mechanical examination. The method of making a chemical selection of ears of seed corn by a simple mechanical examina- tion of the kernels is based on the fact that the kernel of corn is not homogeneous in structure, but consists of several distinct and readily observable parts of markedly different chemical composition. For our particular purpose of judging from the structure of the kernel as to its composition, we need consider but three principal parts, namely : (1) The darker colored and rather horny layer lying next to the hull, principally in the edges and toward the tip-end of the kernel. This part, while Fig. 644. Kernels of com. On the left, high-protein kernels (much horny part, little white starch); on the right, low: protein kernels (little horny part, much white starch). chiefly starch, is fairly rich in protein and con- tains one-half to two-thirds of all the protein of the kernel. (Fig. 644.) (2) The white starchy-appearing part occupying the crown end of the kernel and usually also immediately or partially surrounding the germ. 422 MAIZE This part is poor in both protein and oil, consisting mainly of starch. (Fig. 644.) (8) The germ itself, which occupies the central part of the kernel toward the tip end. This is very rich in oil. More than four-fifths of the entire oil of the kernel resides in the germ. It is also rich Fig. 645. Kernels. On the left, high-oil kernels (large germs) ; on the right, low-oil kernels (small germs). in protein, containing nearly one-fifth of all the protein in the kernel, although the germ itself constitutes only about one-tenth of the weight of the kernel. (Fig. 645.) In selecting seed corn by mechanical examination for improvement in composition, we remove from the ear a few average kernels, cut them into cross- sections, preferably near the tip end of the kernel (see longitudinal sections), and examine these sec- tions as they are cut, usually simply with the naked eye, selecting for seed those ears the kernels of which show the qualities desired. Samples for analysis. In order that the breeder may know what he has accomplished in his work of mechanical selection, he should have an analysis made of two composite samples representing each of the two lots of ears ; that is, the selected lot and the rejected lot. One composite sample should be made by taking ten average kernels from each of the selected ears (ninety-six ears preferred) and another sample by taking ten average kernels from each of the rejected MAIZE ears (100 ears or more). Each of these two samples should be put into a separate sack, properly labeled, and sent to the chemist for analysis. Of course, if the breeder desires to breed for physical type and increased yield only, then no chemical analysis is needed, and all that is necessary to begin work is to select the ninety-six most nearly perfect ears obtainable for the breeding plot. Size of breeding plot. The best number of ears to use in a breeding plot is as yet an unsettled question. There are several conflicting factors entering into the con- sideration. On the one hand, the smaller the num- ber of ears, the choicer can be the selection of the seed ; while on the other hand, the larger the num- ber of breeding rows, the better can be the selec- tion of seed for the next crop. Then, again, there is undoubtedly some danger’ of evil effects from too close inbreeding by the use of too small a number of ears. From our present knowledge, how- ever, we think that ninety-six ears is a safe num- ber to use, so far as inbreeding is concerned, and this is the number that we suggest in these direc- tions, it being understood that alternate rows are to be detasseled and all seed corn selected from detasseled rows. Planting by the row system. The ninety-six selected seed ears are planted in ninety-six separate rows. These rows should be at least one hundred hills long, but they may well be forty rods long, as the quantity of seed will usually permit this. It is recommended that these ninety- six seed ears be numbered’ from 1 to 48 and from 51 to 98, the numbers 49 and 50 being omitted ; also, that ears 1 to 48 be planted in one-half of the plot and ears 51 to 98 in the other half, preferably end-to-end with the first half, leaving one hill un- planted to mark the line between the halves, and also leaving one row unplanted to mark the line between rows 24 and 25 and between rows 74 and 75, that is, between quarters. In this way, row 51 (planted with seed from ear 51) is a continuation of row 1 (planted with seed from ear 1), and the two rows may well extend eighty rods across a forty-acre field. The breeding plot can be planted with a corn-planter, although it will require some time and patience, and if the planter is an edgedrop it will be necessary to put a suitable cone or inverted funnel in each seed box to keep the small quantity of corn to the outside. Place the shelled corn from ear No. 1 in one box and from ear No. 2 in the other ; drive to the middle of the plot, thus planting rows 1 and 2; clean out the boxes ; move forward one hill; put in the corn from ears 51 and 52; use the foot-trip till the corn begins to drop ; then drive on and plant rows 51 and 52. Turn at the end; clean out the seed poxes; put im ears 53 and 54; plant back to the middle; clean out, put in ears 3 and 4; and then plant on back to the beginning line, thus continuing until the breeding 1 These numbers would be 101 to 148 and 151 to 198 the first year, 201 to 248 and 251 to 298 the second year, etc. [See under Register number, page 425.] MAIZE plot is ali pianted. The planting may then be con- tinued for the commercial field, using the same variety of corn, which should be of similar breed- . ing, finishing, perhaps, with the multiplying plot the side of the field opposite from the breeding plot. Each one of the breeding plot rows should be numbered to correspond with the “register num- ber” of the ear from which it is planted, as will be explained under the heading of “Register num- ber.” The breeding plot should be well protected from foreign pollen, by being planted as far away as possible from other varieties of corn. Detasseling. Every alternate row of corn in the breeding plot should be completely detasseled before the pollen matures, and all of the seed corn to be taken from the plot should be selected from these forty-eight detasseled rows. This method absolutely prohibits self-pollination or close-pollination of the future seed. By self-pollination is meant the transfer of pollen from the male flower (tassel) of a given plant to the female flower (silk) of the same plant ; by close-pollination, as here used, is meant the transfer of pollen from the male flower of one plant to the female flower of another plant in the same row, both of which grew from kernels from the same seed ear. It is recommended that no plants in any of the rows which appear im- perfect, dwarfed, im- mature, bare ren or other- wise unde- sirable, be allowed to mature pol- len. Occa- sionally, an entire row should be de- tasseled be- cause of the general infe- riority of the row as a whole. These are only pre- cautionary measures needing fur- ther study, while the value of de- tasseling to insure cross-poilination is an established fact. De- tasseling is accomplished by going over the rows as many times as mav be necessary and carefully pulling out the tassels as they appear. Indeed, great care should be exercised in this part of the work in order not to injure the plants and thereby to lower the yields. The tassels should not be cut off, as aie ee SS Fig. 646. Showing initial power of resist- ance to alkali (magnesium carbonate) exhibited in a single wheat plant; all other plants failed in the same pot. (Illinois Experiment Statier.) MAIZE 423 this produces an external injury and at the same time the stalk is often deprived of several unde- veloped leaves. But the tassel should be allowed to develop far enough so that it can be separated alone at the top joint by a careful pull. It is now determined that the detassel- ing of the breeding rows is necessary. This insures cross-pollination and mark- edly increases the yield of succeeding crops. Selection of field rows and seed ears. As the crop matures, the corn from each of the de- tasseled breeding rows is harvested. First, all of the ears on the row which appear to be good and which are borne on good plants, in a good position, and with good ear shanks and husks, are harvested, placed in a bag, with the number of the row, and finally weighed, together with the remainder of the crop from the same row. No seed ears should be taken within two or three rods of the inside ends of the rows. The total weight of ear corn which every detasseled row yields should be determined and recorded, for the yield is the primary factor in deter- ‘Showing hereditary mining the rows from which POM (nt oncciuse all of the ears for the next carbonate); third generation of re- sistant plants com- pared with ordinary plants growing in the same soil. (Tlli- year’s seed selection must be taken. Each lot of ears from each of the detasseled rows, and each single ear of the nois Experiment ninety-six ears ultimately Station.) selected for seed, is kept labeled with the num- ber of the row in which it grew, and finally with its own ear number also, and permanent records are made of the number and the description of the ear, the performance record of the row, and the like, so that, as the breeding is continued, an absolute pedigree is established, on the female side, for every ear of corn which may be produced from this seed so long as the records are made and pre- served. It should be the plan to record every fact that bears on the question of efficiency of the plants. We also know absolutely that we have good breeding on the male side, although the exact indi- vidual pedigree of the males cannot be known and recorded. . Planting for cross-pollination. In order to insure cross-breeding to the greatest possible extent, the plan given in Table I should be adopted, varied, perhaps, to meet the necessities of individual cases. The greatest care should be given to the lay-out. 424 MAIZE TABLE J, PLAN FoR PLANTING THE BREEDING PLOT TO AVOID INBREEDING. The numbers given in the “Guides” designate the field rows from which the seed ears MAIZE planted in odd-numbered rows to produce tassels (the male flowers) and to are taken. (All even-numbered rows are detasseled. ) furnish pollen ; an a we ce , Guide Guide Model : Guide Guide ae ea eet: 1 dealt Binlg Dor system for | system for Sue Epler system for ayeten Tor foran nate the ears to be even years] odd years | (yon year even years | odd y even year planted in the even-num- bered rows to produce 1 76 78 76 51 2 4 4 future seed ears. Of the 2 2 2 4 52 52 me re four seed a gules 3 80 82 84 53 6 each selected fie 4 6 6 10 54 56 56 a — two are used for e ot 86 a a a Ae 66 sire seed and two for. * 7s 7 “4 a : a te aon 7 is headed, 8 58 BA : z , 5 89 80 86 59 8 6 14 Guide system = even 10 8 8 14 60 58 58 60 ears,” is given a key or 11 86 84 92 61 12 10 20 pie by which to work 12 12 12 20 62 62 62 68 out the actual plan for a % % i oF 7 - = aie in all mi 4 numbered years; an a fa 2 cf 2 se a ba under the heading, 17 86 84 92 67 12 10 20 “Model example for an 18 10 10 16 68 60 60 66 even year,” is given an 19 76 78 76 69 2 a e actual en which has 20 4 4 8 70 54 been worked out, using a . = a a BS a oe four seed ears from six selected rows from each a . e a . A oe Bs quarter of the breeding plot. In the guide system. 25 52 54 52 75 26 28 30 a Ra 26 26 26 30 76 76 76 76 for the sake of simplic 27 56 58 58 77 30 32 ge <1 We wee toe bt 28 30 30 36 72 80 80 84 ears from each of the 29 60 62 66 79 84 36 42 first six even-numbered 30 34 84 42 80 84 84 90 rows in each quarter, 81 54 52 56 81 28 26 34 a selection which would a ee - a Be a a ey probably never occur in ice. ill a | a | #2 | a | s | s2 | a | 88 Seobserved thatthedam 85 62 60 68 85 36 84 46 36 236 26 46 86 86 36 92 seed ears for each quar- 37 BA 52 56 87 28 26 34 ter are ears which grew 38 26 26 30 88 76 7, | 76 in the same quarter, 39 58 56 60 89 32 30 38 while the sire seed is 40 30 30 36 90 80 80 84 always brought from an- 41 62 60 68 91 36 34 46 other quarter. For the i 5 a a a S eS _ first quarter (rows 1 to 44 28 28 34 o4 78 78 ey ae Site care Se 45 56 58 58 95 30 39 36 brought from the fourth 46 32 32 38 96 82 82 86 quarter. For the second AT 60 62 66 97 34 36 42 quarter, sire seed _ is 48 36 36 46 98 86 86 92 brought from the third. In each of these cases’ In this plan, the breeding plot is considered by quarters. Each quarter contains twenty-four rows and each row is planted with corn from a separate seed ear. All even-numbered rows are detasseled and seed for the next year’s breeding plot is taken from the six best-yielding detasseled rows in each quarter, four ears being taken from each selected row, making ninety-six ears in all. For convenience we use the term “sire seed,” or “sire ears,” to designate the ears that are to be sire seed is carried diag- onally across the breeding plot. For the third quarter sire seed is brought from the first quarter, and for the fourth, from the second, the sire seed being carried lengthwise of the breeding plot in these cases. It will also be observed that there is a definite order of planting for “even years” and another definite order for “odd years.” Thus, in the first quarter, the even-numbered rows are planted in ascending order with dam seed selected from rows MAIZE numbered : 2, 6, 10, 4, 8, 12, 2,6, 10, 4,8,12. The alternating even numbers are repeated in sets of three and six. The odd-numbered rows are planted with sire seed selected from rows numbered: 76, 80, 84, 78, 82; 86, 78, 82, 86, 76, 80, 84. This is the same order as for the dams except that the two sets of three are reversed in the second set of six. The only change required for odd-numbered years is to transpose the two sets of six in plant- ing the sire seed. Exactly the same system is used in each quarter of the breeding plot. Arranging seed ears for planting. By referring to the “Model example for an even year,” it will be seen that it becomes an easy mat- ter to follow the “guide system” in arranging seed ears for planting. Suppose, for example, that in 1905 the best six rows in the first quarter of the breeding plot are 4,8, 10, 14, 16, 20. Then for the dam seed for planting the first quarter in 1906 these numbers in ascending order are to be substi- tuted for the numbers 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, which are given in the “guide system.” Thus: For 2, substi- tute 4; for 4, substitute 8; for 6, substitute 10; for 8, substitute 14; for 10, substitute 16 ; for 12, substitute 20. Arranging these for planting the field rows, we have : Row Number Guide system Actual plan 2 2 4 4 6 10 6 10 16 8 4 8 10 8 14 12 12 20 14 2 4 16 6 10 18 10 16 20 4 8 22 8 14 24 12 20 If the best six rows in the fourth quarter of the 1905 breeding plot are 76, 80, 84, 86, 90, 92, then for the sire seed for planting the first quarter in 1906 these numbers are to be substituted in regular order for the numbers 76, 78, 80, 82, 84, 86, which are given in the “guide system.” Arranging these by threes as indicated in the “guide system,” we have the order for planting the odd-numbered rows in the first quarter: 76, 84, 90, 80, 86, 92, 80, 86, 92, 76, 84, 90. Thus we have both the dam and sire seed ears for the first quarter, arranged exactly as shown under the heading, “model example” in Table I. The seed ears are arranged for each quarter of the breeding plot in a similar way by following the “guide system” and substituting in reguiar ascending order the actual numbers of the best-yielding rows for the numbers given in the “ouide system” in Table I. With this selection of best rows, as given in the “model example,” we would take ‘the best four seed ears from row No. 4 (1905) and plant two as MAIZE 425 dam ears in rows 2 and 14 and the other two as sire ears in rows 51 and 69 (1906); we would take the four best seed ears from row No. 84 (1905) and plant two as dam ears in rows 78 and 90 and the other two as sire ears in rows 3 and 21 (1906). In arranging seed ears selected from the 1906 breeding plot for plant- ing the 1907 breeding plot, we are to follow the “guide system” for odd-numbered years, again returning to the system for even-num- bered years for 1908. Multiplying plot. Seed for a multiplying plot of ten acres or more should be taken only from the selected rows of the breeding plot, and may include all good seed corn which is not required for the breed- ing plot. This seed should be well mixed to- gether. The corn in the multiplying plot should be protected carefully from foreign pollen, and all inferior stalks may be detasseled, to elimi- nate their influence on neighboring plants. The exact yield of the multiplying plot should be deter- mined and registered. Fig. 648. A productive hill of corn. Commercial field. The seed for the commercial field should com- prise only the very best obtainable seed corn from the multiplying plot. The exact yield of the com- mercial field should always be determined and reg- istered. From the commercial field the finest ears may be selected and sold to the trade as registered seed corn. Description of individual ears. Register number.—As soon as any ear of a given variety and strain is selected to be planted ina breeding plot by a given breeder it is given a register number, which must, of course, represent that particular ear only and for all time. By using a certain system of numbering, we not only are able to designate the ear but can show at the same time the year of its breeding or the number of its generation, and the field row in which it is planted. This we do by starting the first year in the 100 series, numbering the ears to be planted in suc- cession from 101 to 148 and 151 to 198, and the second year starting the 200 series, running from 201 to 248 and 251 to 298, and so on, as far as may be necessary, starting each succeeding year with a higher hundred. 426 MAIZE MAIZE Breeder. feet z PLANTED AND Rows Vari Cony: REGISTER: Om BARS = Distance between hills__—— arlety HARVESTED IN SEASON OF 1905. Strain Number of hills in row-_—- Deseription of individual seed ears Performance record of field rows I 2 : & é 2/6 g a| |e ele ej Sco Ie e Sle ja | E Ble) ole | eo] 9° a4 | ao] ° & of ol ul wader 5 ; 2/8 a | a 2/8 & ™ P| 2/al/ale|4 Ol se | Es ols | wlel o| 8 3) d Se cee tel 8 4 : 4/38) «| 2@ ole] ae|o}] FB] 3 _ 2 slag] °’] 2 a S wy | ?|4]g Ele] o/o/ a] g a ot a eee [| sea] Te a a Sjul|/ il su/S}/3}ea)/a] 2] zea] 3 a B/G] Oo is wi S| 5) 2) 8) 28}e Hi Slo) eg] 28] 248] 2 o/e/a|/ 5/3/83] 2 $/4/4/ 4/2] e2) 8) 8) 8) a] 2/ 2] sf] 8 ele) s\ |e) 25| 2 _ ° e/Fl eld ele | Sl 8) 2/slale |e |s 2le/8/8/2le |é el|Aalzl/Ala|ma j|azjaleliPle)/a je ja Bpa polo; a) me | & Average Remarks : Average yield multiplying plot : (Year 1905) (Year 1906) Average yield commercial field : (Year 1905) (Year 1906), (Year 1907) Dam number.—The “dam number” is the “regis- ter number” of the parent ear and is useful in tracing the pedigree record from year to year back to the source. Annual ear number.—In order to designate the . two hundred or more ears selected from the field, each one is given an “annual ear number,” which runs in a series from one up to two hundred or more. This number is only temporary, to serve while working on the corn for the final selection of seed ears, and when the seed ears are selected to be planted, each is given a permanent “register number,” as explained under that heading. If desired, a record may be kept of certain phys- ical and chemical properties, as length, circum- ference and weight of ear and cob, per cent of grain, number of rows of kernels on the ear and the average number of kernels in the row, and per- centage of protein or oil if determined. Performance record of field rows. The field row or breeding row numbers should correspond, for the sake of convenience, with the register numbers of the ears planted. For example, ear Register No. 101 should be planted in Field Row No. 1. The percentage of stand and the yield per acre of each field row should be determined and recorded. On the same sheet with the complete year’s record of the breeding plot appear the records of the multiplying plot for the same year, and for the next year following, and also the records of the commercial field for the same year and for the next two years. If the record sheet is for the breeding plot for 1905, it is important finally to record on the same sheet the record of the multiplying plot for 1906 and of the commercial field for 1907, and for convenience and comparison it is well to record on the same sheet the yield of the multiply- ing plot for 1905, and the yields of the commercial field for 1905 and 1906. If a breeding plot were started in 1905, the breeder could have both a breeding plot and a multiplying plot in 1906, and a breeding plot, multiplying plot and commercial field in 1907 ; and from the 1907 crop on the com- mercial field he could sell seed corn with a regis- tered pedigree of three years, one year in the breeding plot, one year in the multipiying plot and one year in the commercial field. In 1910, he could sell seed corn from his commercial field with a MAIZE registered pedigree of six years, four years in the breeding plot (1905, 1906, 1907 and 1908), one year in the multiplying plot (1909), and one year in the commercial field (1910). Literature. Some of the literature on the varieties of maize and their classification may here be mentioned : E. Lewis Sturtevant, The Varieties of Maize, American Naturalist XVIII: 532 (1884); also Bul- letin No. 57, Office of Experiment Stations, Wash- ington, D. C., 1899 ; John W. Harshberger, Maize : A Botanical and Economic Study, Contributions from the Botanical Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, I, No. 2, pp. 75-202; Same, Fertile Crosses of Teosinte and Maize, Garden and Forest, IX: 522; Contributions Botanical Laboratory of Pennsylvania, II: 231-234; Herbert J. Webber, Xenia, or the Immediate Effect of Pollen on Maize, Bulletin No. 22, Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, Washington, D. C.; E. G. Mont- gomery, Tillering in the Corn Plant, Sciencenewser, XXIII : 625, April 20, 1906 ; Same, What is an Ear of Corn? Popular Science Monthly, January, 1906 ; W. W. Rowlee and M. W. Doherty, The Histology of the Embryo of Indian Corn, Bulletin, Torrey Bo- tanical Club, XXV: 311-315, June, 1898; Frederick Leroy Sargent, Corn Plants, 1899; L. H. Pammel, Grasses of Iowa, Bulletin No. 54, Iowa Experiment Station, January, 1901; Same, Comparative Anat- omy of the Corn Caryopsis, Iowa Academy of Sciences, 1897; Robert Combs, Histology of the Corn Leaf, Contributions Botanical Department, Iowa State College, No. 10; Rodney H. True, On the Development of the Caryopsis, Botanical Gazette, XVIII : 212, June, 1893; A. L. Winton, Anatomy of the Maize Cob, Report of the Connecticut Agri- cultural Experiment Station, 1900: 186-195; H. §. Reed, A Study of the Enzyme-Secreting Cells of Zea Mais and Phoenix dactylifera, Annals of Bot- any, LXX: 267-287, April, 1904; Ethel Sargant and Agnes Robertson, The Anatomy of the Scutel- lum of Zea Mais, Annals of Botany, January, 1905, pp. 115-123. For cultivation methods and varieties best suited to different localities, reference is made to state ex- periment station bulletins, which are too numerous to mention; for general discussions of corn and corn- culture, to The Cereals in America, Thomas F. Hunt, 1904; Bulletin No. 133 of the Department of Agri- culture of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, 1904; The A B C of Corn Culture, P. G. Holden, 1906; Farmers’ Bulletin No. 199, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, 1904; Indian Corn, Edward Enfield, 1866 ; The Book of Corn, Herbert Myrick, Orange Judd Company, New York City; for corn pests and remedies, to Economic Entomology, John B. Smith, 1896, and Bulletins Nos. 44 and 95 of the University of Illinois, 8S. A. Forbes ; for origin and history, to Origin of Cultivated Plants, De Can- dolle, 1886; History and Chemical Investigation of Maize, J. H. Salisbury, 1849. References on growing maize for the silo follow: Henry, Feeds and Feeding, published by the author, Madison, Wis.; Voorhees, Fertilizers, Macmillan MAPLE-SUGAR 427 Company, New York City ; King, Physics of Agri- culture, published by the author, Madison, Wis.; Woll, Book on Silage ; Shaw, Soiling Crops and the Silo, Orange Judd Company; Miles, Soiling, Ensilage and Silage ; Illinois Station, Bulletin No. 48 ; New York State Station, Bulletin No. 97; Ohio Station, Bulletin No. 5; Farmers’ Bulletin, United States Department of Agriculture, No. 32. Several other state experiment stations have discussed silage in bulletins and reports, and information will be found in reports of Farmers’ Institutes. The Agricultural Press is a very fruitful source of information. For popcorn: Hunt, Cereals in America, Orange Judd Company, New York City; Illinois Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 13. A few of the more important bulletins on corn- breeding follow: Connecticut Bulletin No. 152 (1906), The Improvement of Corn in Connecticut ; Illinois Bulletin No. 55 (1899), Improvement in the Chemical Composition of the Corn Kernel ; Illinois Bulletin No. 82 (1902), Methods of Corn-Breeding ; Illinois Bulletin No. 100 (1905), Directions for the Breeding of Corn, Including Methods for the Pre- vention of Inbreeding; Illinois Circular No. 101 (1906), Methods of Testing Variability in Corn; Indiana Bulletin No. 100 (1906), Corn Improve- ment ; Kansas Bulletin No. 107 (1902), Analyses of Corn, with Reference to Its Improvement ; Ohio Circular No. 53 (1906), Experiments with Corn; Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 133 (1904), The Improvement of Corn in Penn- sylvania. MAPLE-SUGAR AND MAPLE-SYRUP. Figs. 649-658. By J. L. Hills. The making of sugar from the sap of one or two species of maple trees constitutes a peculiarly American industry. It is commonly associated with the “customs” of New England and other northern states. Like every other farming industry, maple-sugar- making has changed greatly within a generation. The practices of the first half of the last century were in some respects hardly in advance of those which the Indians employed. To be sure hot stones were no longer dropped into the sap, nor was it concentrated by successive freezings ; but the rude bark vessels, the huge potash kettles, the unsightly slashes on the tree trunks were still used and the product was dark, strong and tangy. There was little or no attempt to grade the sugar or improve its quality, and cleanliness, in the modern accepta- tion of the term as applied to sugar-making, was unknown. This was not a very serious matter in those days, as maple-sugar did not then enter into commerce. It was a home-made, home-consumed commodity, and the cane-sugar of the tropics was rarely seen in the farm pantry in the maple re- gions. Beginning about fifty years ago, however, the status of the product began to change, in part owing to the lowered price of the cane- and beet- sugar. The maple became less of a necessity and more of a luxury; less was eaten at home and more 428 MAPLE-SUGAR sold on the market. There is more incentive to improve a money crop than one which the family uses, and hence the industry developed rapidly. Processes were made more economical and labor- saving and the products more toothsome and cleaner. But, oddly enough, while quality was en- hanced to the last degree, no larger crops were harvested. The situation was and is an anomalous one. The consuming population of 1907 is thrice that of 1850, its purchasing power much greater and its per capita expenditure for food larger than ever before. The demand ‘for maple products is many times the supply; a good grade brings re- munerative prices, the work is done at a time when other farm work is not pressing, the crop is peren- nial, the draft on the soil slight, the material used of little value, the cost of apparatus once obtained but slight; and yet the supply is short. The reasons for a diminishing supply in the face of an increased demand are two. One is avoidable, the other unavoidable. They are adulteration and the weather. Prior to the passage of the pure food law it was aptly and probably truly said that there was ten times as much maple-syrup made in Chicago as in Vermont. The Chicago brand is made of glucose or cane-sugar, perhaps flavored with a little of the lowest grade and strongest tasting maple and perhaps not. The weather, however, is an all-controlling and uncontrollable factor, in that it may favor a long-continued flow or cause only brief and irregular runs. A day may make or mar the success of a crop. If the right sort of weather comes at just such a time, provided the wrong kind of weather has not preceded it, an average crop or better may be gathered. But, if seasonal conditions do not favor, the product may be but a half or a fourth of a crop; and nothing can be done to remedy this condition. Nature of the maple grove. (Fig. 649.) There are several sorts of maples known to bot- anists, but only two are of importance as sugar- producers,—the sugar or rock maple (Acer saccha- rinum, Fig. 452) and the red maple (Acer rubrum), the former being the more common one in the East, MAPLE-SUGAR [Unfortunately, the specific name saccharinum has been revived recently by some botanists for the silver maple (A. dasycarpum) which is not a prom- inent sugar-producing species, thus restoring, to no purpose, a confusion of the earlier botanists.] The sugar maple is a stately forest tree, at home on the cool uplands and rocky hillsides of western New England, the Adirondack region in eastern New York, the Western Reserve of Ohio and along the Appalachian region as far south as the Caro- linas. In all these regions it is a commercial tree, either as a source of sugar, of timber, or of both. The red or swamp maple grows along stream bor- ders and on the lower lands, particularly if not well drained, and is more common west than east. The sugar-maker’s forest is variously called a grove, orchard, place, works and bush, the last being in many sections the colloquial term. The groves are of all sorts and sizes. The smail boy taps the roadside maple in the spring-time and hangs an empty tin pail on a rusty nail to catch the slowly dropping sap ; and the great Adirondack camp, with its railroad system winding among its 40,000 trees, does no more except ona larger scale. Some of the groves stand on level land, some on slopes, some crown ridges, some are of first-growth,—there are not many of these left,—and more are of second-growth trees. Some are nearly clear maple forests, while in others are mingled with the maples such trees as the birches, beech, basswood, spruce and hemlock. The ideal sugar grove contains the largest number of trees to a given area consistent with a full development of the top, a reserve of smaller growth, however, coming on to replace the failing or fallen maple monarchs. Its soil is well covered with a humus layer, a litter of leaves, grass- less and weedless. It is not the number of trees that is important, but the amount and vigor of the foliage; the spread of the tree rather than its trunk, for the leaves are the sugar factories and the sunlight their source of power. The chlorophyll or green coloring matter of the leaf under the influence of the sunlight welds the car- bonic acid gas of the air and the water of the sap into starch, which is stored throughout the tree, the next spring to pass as sugar in the sap to the buds for the building of the new leaf structure as well as for the making of the new wood. A small leaf area or one that is so crowded ina dense growth as to be but poorly exposed to the sunlight cannot lay up much starch, and lack of starch means lack of sugar. The thick humus layer on the forest floor is only second in importance to the foliage expanse, for it is the water reservoir of the forest. Indeed, so vitally essential is this soil cover of leaf-mold to the well-being of the industry that many sugar- makers think that the forest trees yield more sugar than do those in the open and exposed on every side. Careful experiments, however, indicate that the sap yields, other things being equal, bear a direct relation to the size and exposure of the tree-top. MAPLE-SUGAR Maple-sugar weather. Ideal sugar weather is met in the late winter or very early spring, when it begins to warm up, when the days are sunny and the nights still frosty. The gradual northern spring in which the ground yields up its frost but slowly is more likely to provoke the repeated sap-flows, which make a suc- cessful season, than the more frostless seasons of more southern latitudes, Whatever the real cause of sap-flow, temperature fluctuations from points below to those above the freezing point, slight though they may be, excite the gas tension in the wood-cells if they occur before the leaf-buds get well started, After that yearly episode in the life of the tree, little or no sap flows, whatever the vagaries of the thermometer, If at this time the tree-trunk is tapped with an auger, an inch or two in depth, preferably on the south side, and a sap-spout driven into the hole, the sap flows. Convenience and economy alike dictate tapping at breast height. The flow is erratic, often exasperatingly so. It may run for some time fairly continuously, but commonly the flow is broken up into several distinct periods, or “runs” as they are called, until the over-warm weather of advancing spring swells the leaf-buds and the “season” is over. Sap runs in the daytime, rarely at night, and to any extent only on good sap days. The sap. The sap as it first flows is crystal clear and faintly sweet, carrying not only sugar but also minute quantities of mineral matters, albumens and gums; as the season advances the flow lessens, the sap clouds up (owing to exterior contamination of the pail or tap), becomes slimy at times and the quality be- comes impaired. Hence “first run” sugar or syrup makes the best product. While highly variable, the sap averages 3 per cent of sugar, together with some other dissolved substances that are a nui- sance to the sugar-maker. The sap is all through the tree at this time, except in the dead heart-wood. It is in twig and trunk, root and branch, and wher- ever the tree in tapped the wound bleeds, if the weather serves. Gathering the sap. The collection of the sap is no small task. Roads or paths are broken out in the snow among the trees, along which men and teams travel in gathering the sap. There are several systems in use. The shoul- der yoke is common in the smaller bushes, but the gathering-tank or barrels on a bob-sled or stone- boat are more often used, sometimes in conjunction with the shoulder yoke. When topography favors and the size of the plant justifies it, the pipe-line system is used, a series of open troughs, or, some- times, galvanized iron pipes running through the various sections of the bush to the sugar-house or to large storage tanks. The most advanced type of gathering device is employed in a large Adiron- dack camp, tapping, doubtless, the largest number of trees under any one management, where a train MAPLE-SUGAR 429 of tank cars runs on a narrow-gage railway wind- ing among the trees, past storage-tank stations to which pipe lines lead from several sections of the forest. The evaporator. When the gathered sap arrives at the sugar- house it passes into the storage tank, from whence it flows into the evaporator. This, the most costly and elaborate implement of the sugar-maker’s art, is an outgrowth of the shallow iron pan which began to replace the old-fashioned iron kettle some . 650. Ill effect of too much and too deep tapping. Also, a covered sap pail; and current forms of sap spouts. fifty years ago. The original form was a single shallow pan about two and one-half feet wide by six to ten feet long, set on a fire-box of brick. The sap was concentrated to a thin syrup, which was poured out and the process repeated. By the use of this device a more rapid evaporation of the water was maintained, less wood was used and better goods made. The lack of continuity and the neces- sary interruptions of the process were an obvious disadvantage. Necessity evolved the continuous evaporator, into which a steady stream of cold sap enters, passes through a devious course, boiling furiously, and from which, periodically, the hot syrup is drawn. The evaporator sits over a roaring wood fire burning in a long brick stove or iron fire-box which the sugar-maker terms the “arch.” In some large plants steam evaporators are in use. [An evapora- tor is discussed in detail in the succeeding article.] As the product leaves the evaporator it is not, as a rule, in salable condition. It is usually safer to draw the syrup from the evaporator before it gets concentrated enough to sell. So it undergoes further boiling in a special deep pan until the tem- perature is about 219° or until it weighs eleven pounds to the gallon, when (after the separation of the “niter” or “sugar sand,”—an impure malate 430 MAPLE-SUGAR of lime—by filtration or sedimentation) it is sealed, usually hot, in tin cans. The sugaring process. Sugaring used to be conducted in the open, and it still is in the more southern maple regions. But in the North the sugar-house is always in evidence. It is commonly a small, rather rough shanty-like affair, large enough to house the evaporator, and perhaps the “sugaring-off” outfit, and to roof over the wood-supply. It is placed usually at the edge of the bush, at such a point as is most convenient for the delivery of the sap. - The “sugaring-off” process is an interesting one. The thin syrup from the evaporator is boiled to a much greater density in the concentrating pan used in syrup-making. Marketable syrup carries 60 to 65 per cent of sugar; marketable sugar, 80 to 90 per cent. The former boils at about 219°, the latter at 234° to 245°, or more. The boiling fluid foams and bubbles furiously over the quick fire and, now and then, is on the point of boiling over, when by a dash of a few drops of cream, skim-milk, water even at times, lard, a bit of salt pork,—anything to break the surface tension of the foam,—instantly it ceases and is gone. Care needs to be exercised here to prevent this loss as well as to obviate scorching. The fluid is adjudged done by the ther- mometer’s testimony, or by the way the stuff “hairs,” or “aprons,” or simply by the dictates of experience and judgment. The pan is then swung from the fire and the quiescent, brownish, viscid fluid stirred vig- orously until graining begins, when the semi-solid mass is poured into molds, tubs or boxes to harden. The output. The annual crop in this country approaches fifty millions pounds, valued at over four millions of dollars. Six states— Vermont, New York, Ohio, Michigan, Pennsylvania, New Hampshire—furnish over 90 per cent of the output. Much is made in Canada, but none south of Tennessee, west of the Missouri river, or in any European country. It is the product of limited areas of territorially a very small part of the world, and the foreigner who has seen or tasted it is rare indeed. Many car-loads, particularly of the last run goods, the dark and inferior sugar,—the blacker and stronger the better,—are picked up by sugar buy- ers and shipped, mostly west, to the mixers or blenders. Hundreds of tons of such material are used in the manufacture of chewing tobacco, a trade which is said to be eager for all the maple- sugar that it can get. Statistics are rather unreliable, but it is probably not far from the fact to say that half the total crop is made into syrup and half into sugar, the proportion of syrup to sugar rapidly increasing. Syrup properly put up and stored keeps well, but sugar keeps better. The former sells at retail at ninety cents to $1.50 a gallon, the latter at seven to twenty cents a pound, according to quality and quantity, time of year, size of crop, and other fac- tors. Early or first run sugar, light in color, fine in flavor, in small cakes, sells at fancy prices early in MAPLE-SUGAR the season ; but the main crop, good, bad and indit- ferent, is likely to bring a low price, which at times has been below the cost of production. The tobacco men and the-sophisticators sometimes pay high prices for the strong-tasting goods of more or less uncleanly antecedents; but except for these special purposes, speaking broadly, the light-hued goods of mild and delicate aroma are preferred to the darker ones of more decided flavor, and com- mand better prices. Centralization in maple-sugar-making. The latest step in the evolution of the maple- sugar industry is the inevitable one toward which all forms of human endeavor seem destined,—that of centralization. The making of the thin syrup at the individual plants still continues, but buyers contract for the entire supply to be shipped to some central point for grading, reworking, concentration and sale. These central plants are sometimes co- partnerships of private individuals, sometimes sup- ply houses for individual wholesale grocery firms, and sometimes associations of sugar-makers, such as the Vermont Sugar Makers’ Market at Randolph. The manifest advantages of such centralization are a greater uniformity of product and better control of sales. They doubtless afford a desirable sales market for many small makers; but the well- informed, well-equipped owner of a considerable sugar-bush can generally do better to complete and to sell his own products. Literature. W. 8. Clark, Circulation of Sap in Plants, Report Massachusetts Board of Agriculture, 21 (1873); Same, Observations on Phenomena of Plant-life, Report Massachusetts Board of Agriculture, 22 (1874) ; C.S8. Sargent, The Sylva of North America, Vol. II, (1890); W. W. Cooke and J. L. Hills, Maple-Sugar, Vermont Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 26 (1890) ; C. H. Jones, A. W. Edson and W. J. Morse, The Maple-Sap Flow, Vermont Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 103 (1904), from which the logs in Fig. 650 are adapted; J. L. Hills, The Maple-Sap Flow, Vermont Experiment Station, Bul- letin No. 105 (1904) (Popular Edition of 108) ; Wil- liam F. Fox and William F. Hubbard, The Maple- Sugar Industry, United States Department of Agri- culture, Bureau of Forestry, Bulletin No. 59 (1905); A. J. Cook, Maple Sugar and the Sugar Bush; Wiley, The Sugar Industry of the United States, Part IV, Bulletin No. 5, United States Department of Agriculture (1885). Maple-syrup-making from Ohio Experience. By W. I. Chamberlain. There is no better way of setting forth the principles involved and the methods employed in the making of maple-syrup and maple-sugar than by describing the practice in one of the foremost maple -sugar-producing sections in the country. The discussion that follows is based on sixty years of observation and personal experience, chiefly in northern Ohio, MAPLE-SUGAR The old ways and the new. The old way, still remembered, was to “box” the tree with an axe, cutting a deep “carf,” or a sort of pocket, boring up into it with a three- fourths-inch auger, putting in a long elder spout, catching the sap in a wooden sap-trough hewn out of a soft-wood half-log some sixteen inches in diameter, and boiling it in a huge iron kettle on a pole resting on two crotched posts. The boxing soon killed the trees, but trees were plentiful. Then came the improvement of hanging three large kettles, each’ on a long, strong pole hung like a gate or a well-sweep, so as to raise or lower the kettles or swing them from over the fire. The three kettles were swung into a row, two large logs were drawn up, one on each side for a sort of “arch,” and smaller wood was jammed and cris- zrossed around the kettles. Smoke, coals, ashes and dirt fell in, the sap scorched on the kettles, and the syrup was dark. The next improvement in boiling is shown in Fig. 651. Five large iron kettles were set in a crude stone arch with chimney and open mouth, and wood about ten feet long was thrust under the kettles. Such an arch fifteen feet long, and holding five large kettles, would boil into thin, dark syrup Gf eE y cri feed te M7 Se Old-fashioned ‘‘arch’’ and ‘‘kettles’’. Fig. 651. one to two barrels of sap per hour, according to the skill and diligence of the firing. The corru- gated evaporator, 4x16 feet, shown in Fig. 652, with good wood and good firing will evaporate five barrels per hour into the finest eleven-pound syrup ready for the market, with half the fuel. Forty to fifty gallons of sap make one eleven-pound gallon of syrup in Ohio. Details of the sugar-making processes. Spouts.—The forms of spouts used by writer, after trials of many sorts, are the conical (Fig. 653), made of heavy tin, and the flanged (Fig. 654). Spouts are on sale at hardware stores in the maple regions and are advertised in agricultural papers. The spout in Fig. 653 is cheaper in first cost, but the one in Fig. 654 is more durable and offers less obstruction to the flow of the sap. The writer uses the spout in Fig. 653 in a three-eighths-inch hole the first half or third of the MAPLE-SUGAR 431 season, then rims the holes with a one-half-inch curve-lip Cook bit and uses the spout in Fig. 654. The rimming freshens the drying hole and increases the flow of sap, and does not wound and injure the tree as boring a new hole; and the partly soured spout is removed. In Ohio, the tapping should be- NE oe * Fig. 652. A modern evaporator and iron arch. gin the first bright, warm day after February 15, and the season lasts sometimes until April 10, or as long as frosty nights or snow-storms are fol- lowed by warm days ; hence the need of freshening or rimming the holes and removing the partly soured spouts. The spout shown in Fig. 653 has now been made heavier and longer, so that it answers for seven-sixteenths and one-half inch re- tapping. Buckets——The buckets should be of “IX” tin, very slightly smaller at the bottom than at the top so as to “nest” into each other, in nests of twenty or more, for convenience in handling. They should hold twelve quarts each. Each bucket should have a three-fourths-inch hole punched through the tin close under its wire rim, to slip over the spout to hang the bucket firmly on and against the tree. The bucket should be covered tightly, to exclude rain, insects, dirt and the like, and to prevent the sap freezing on cold nights and souring on warm days. Covers.—The cheapest and best covers, all things considered, are home-made, of boards 12 x 12 inches square, planed on both sides and all edges, and painted. Home-grown lumber and winter work reduce the cash cost. By painting one side red and the other side white and reversing each cover as the sap is gathered from the bucket, mistakes and omissions in gathering are avoided and when two men are gathering much time is saved from useless travel. If a tree is missed, the (wrong) color of its bucket cover reveals the mistake; and two trips need never be taken to the same bucket, in doubt as to whether its sap has been taken. The writer knows of no one thing more ™ essential to the production of first-class syrup in the variable Ohio climate than covers, and the bi-colored covers are a great con- venience in gathering, washing buckets at the trees, and in other ways, Fig. 654. Flanged galvanized-iron spout. 432 MAPLE-SUGAR Gathering.—Gathering should begin each “sugar day” as soon as there is a quart or more of sap in each bucket. The sooner and the faster the sap is boiled after it leaves the tree, the better is the syrup. Gathering-tank and sled.—The tank is of gal- vanized iron, three feet in diameter and three feet deep, stands on end and holds four barrels. The sled, commonly known locally as a “stone-boat sled,” has heavy runners six inches wide, two cross- beams and two raves, and a flexible pole. The tank has a two-inch galvanized-iron tube, three feet long, attached by a piece of rubber hose to the bot- tom of one side. In gathering, its outer end is hooked up to the top of the tank to prevent leakage. In emptying, it is unhooked and dropped into the funnel-shaped receiver of the long three-inch tin conductor, and runs the sap into the store-troughs, shown in Fig. 655. The funnel-shaped receiver is shown in Fig. 656. The can and sled are drawn by a team among the trees in gathering. In emptying the sap, the man stands facing the bucket, holds the gathering-pail in his left hand, holds the bucket cover under his left arm, grasps the bucket rim with his right hand, revolves it on its spout as a pivot, empties it, re- turns the cover (reversed), carries and empties the sap into the near-by gathering-tank, and goes to the next bucket or tree. Neither the cover, the bucket, nor the pail should ever touch the ground, nor the bucket leave its spout. It saves much time and backache, and dirt in the sap. From the time the sap is lifted and poured into the gathering-tank human muscle does not handle it again. It runs down the slope (Fig. 655) through an automatic float-regulator and into and through the evaporator (Fig. 652), and runs as finished syrup from the chimney end of the evaporator. Fig. 656. The funnel-shaped receiver of the sap-conductor. Sugar camps are usually on rolling land, and there is no trouble but great advantage in locating the sugar-house on a slope. If the slope is slight, the two store-troughs may be placed end to end up the slope and connected by a tall siphon, and a rather long conductor used from the gathering-tank to the first store-trough. The essential feature is that the bottom of the last store-trough shall be a little higher than the top edge of the evaporator, inside MAPLE-SUGAR the sugar- house. The store-troughs should be wholly outside of the sugar-house, except the mere end plank of the lower one, lest the heat and steam inside slightly sour the sap and hurt the quality of the syrup. And the store-troughs should have covers, like the buckets, to protect from heat (some- times cold), and to keep out rain, insects, and the like. The writer prefers painted wooden store- troughs to galvanized iron ones, as wood is a non- conductor and excludes heat and cold, which would sour or freeze the sap. Evaporator.—The evaporator should be of heavy four-plate tin. Galvanized iron is rougher, does not solder so well, and, worst of all, from the action of the sap the galvanizing material, in boiling, is likely to give the syrup a sort of “vanilla” flavor, foreign to the real, delicate, natural maple flavor. After trying several sorts of pans and evapo- rators for sixty years, father and son, the kind the writer now uses is the kind shown in Fig. 652. It rests ona heavy sheet-iron “arch” or fur- nace, which is lined with fire-brick for the fire-box and a little back of it. The writer uses a regular brick “arch” on solid foundation, with tall brick chimney, and the fire-box lined with fire-brick. Such an arch and chimney on solid stone and grout foundation will last twenty-five years or more, and does not heat the sugar-house to discomfort on warm days as does the iron arch. Some of the advantages of this type of evapora- tor are the corrugations, the siphons, and the inter- changeable rear pans, shown indistinctly in the bottom of the pan in Fig. 652. The corrugations increase the surface exposed to the heat. The bot- tom of the pan is crimped by machinery, up obliquely about one and one-fourth inch, then horizontally one inch, then down one and one-fourth inch obliquely, then horizontally, and so on. This fully doubles the bottom surface exposed to the fire, and nearly but not quite doubles the boiling capacity on the prin- ciple of the tubular boiler. Siphons in an evaporator permit the operator to cut off and renew at will the flow of sap from one pan or section to the next. Fig. 657 shows the kind of siphon used. It is made of heavy tin, with a cup soldered under and one-fourth inch from the bottom of each “leg,” to permit the down- ‘ward pressure of the air to hold the siphon full when it is lifted from the sap and set on any level surface, and returned to the sap later. It was found that when the siphons, even with the return cups, stood with both ends in the violently boiling sap or syrup, the air from the bubbles would sometimes rise in the siphon, gradually fill the horizontal part and stop the flow. This endangered the burning of the sap in the further pans thus cut off from the sap-flow. So a tin compartment or “cup” was sol- dered firmly to the outside corner of each pan at the place of transfer. These cups connect with the sap by openings close to the bottoms of the two pans connected by each siphon. The cups rise higher than the sap ever rises in the pans, so as to prevent overflow. The sap or the syrup in the “cups” is always calm, not boiling, and the siphon connection is perfectly secure. To fill the siphon, MAPLE-SUGAR set both legs in sap enough to cover the return cups (6 and c, Fig. 657), open the small stop-cock shown at the top, and suck through the rubber tube above until the siphon is full; then shut the stop- cock and the flow begins toward the lower level. In sucking up boiling sap through the small rubber tube above the stop-cock, the mouth was sometimes burned. To overcome this, a small, oval, glass bulb (a, Fig. 657) was inserted, with a small rub- ber tube above and below attached to the stop- cock. When the sap rises to the bulb it may be seen, the stop-cock shut, #2 and no injury to the mouth results. STL ce ( Prey HPO Con To PO TON TO 1] a0) Hi . “ ‘ | . | : si) PL GT ld tt ni Fig. 657. A good siphon. Fig. 658. The heater. Heater (Fig. 658).—This is a deep tubular pan, with sap all around the tubes. It is set at the chimney end of the arch and the flames must all pass through the tubes. The idea is to utilize more of the heat. But it is hard to clean, the sap must be carried by a tube to the front end of the evap- orator, and altogether it gives so much trouble that it is less used now than formerly, most farmers preferring to utilize the heat by means of a longer evaporator. Interchangeable pans.—Two of these, each with two compartments, are shown at the chimney end of the evaporator (Fig. 652). The “niter” settles and hardens on the bottom of the rear section, or, at the most, the last two sections. When it reaches the eleven-pound syrup it is held only in suspension and slowly settles on the bottom of any pan where such syrup is boiling. There it burns or hardens on, retards the boiling and, if left on too long, gives the syrup a burnt or sort of caramel flavor and color. It is hard, and is removed with chisels, which injure the pan. This takes time, and the boiling must stop. But, if the fire is slackened a little, the siphons can be removed and in a moment two men can interchange the last two pans (four . sections). Then the boiling at once proceeds and the thinner, sappy syrup soon removes the sedi- ment. This interchangeable feature seems to be valuable for this reason. The rear pans are not corrugated, as flat bottoms are better for syrup, which boils with less fire, and they are more easily cleaned of their hardened sediment. Boiling —tThe cold sap enters immediately over the fire from the store-troughs, through an inch rubber hose or tube. Its rapidity of flow is exactly adjusted to any rate of boiling, no matter how variable, by an automatic float-reeulator, a little device that sits in the sap at the front corner of the evaporator and never fails to do its work well. The writer’s evaporator, 4x 16 feet, has two corrugated pans which are together ten feet long, instead of one, and there are three narrow syrup pans, six feet in all, each with three compartments, B 28 MAPLE-SUGAR 433 instead of two with two compartments each. The sap thus enters at one corner (right-hand corner in the writer’s), and is pushed slowly forward by the incoming sap under the force of gravity as it lowers toward the rear by evaporation. It passes thus, in the writer’s evaporator, back and forth through fifteen different compartments and four siphons until it is drawn out at the left-hand rear corner as finished syrup. The writer strains this syrup through flannel or felt to take out all the malate of lime still held in suspension, and then it is canned air-tight in self-sealing, gallon tin cans. Some persons think that it retains its peculiar fla- vor better if canned at boiling heat, but it does not seem so to the writer and hence he usually cans it cold. ; A saccharometer or a pair of scales tests the thickness of each gallon drawn off. If a full gallon weighs ten and one-half pounds when hot, it shrinks in cooling so that a full gallon when cold weighs eleven pounds. The experienced syrup-maker’s eye at once tells. When it “aprons off” from the edge of a dipper (empty except the drippings) in drops nearly an inch wide, it is ready to draw off for syrup. “Cleansing” the syrup.—A careful sugar-maker does not cleanse the syrup; he keeps the syrup clean from first to last, and there is not the least need of “cleansing” it with milk or eggs, as in the old times. The bucket covers, gathering-cask or can, covered store-troughs and straining as it enters them, exclude practically all dirt, and the skimming while boiling, and straining the syrup take out any that might remain. Color of the syrup.—The very best and most delicate flavored syrup is a very light amber color, as light- colored and clear as white clover honey. The writer gathers as soon as the sap is fairly out of the tree and boils it all rapidly before stopping for the night. All buckets are washed usually about once a week, and always as soon as the least white film of sourness begins to form on the bottom. Hot water is drawn around to the trees, and the buckets are washed and wiped. The spouts are pulled and scalded, or new and clean ones are used, and ‘the holes are rimmed every two or three weeks. This keeps the sap sweet and the syrup light-colored and delicate-flavored through the entire season. Sap soured so that it has even a slight filmy white- ness makes dark-colored, rank-flavored syrup, greatly inferior to the best in flavor and in price. By washing buckets and spouts and freshening the holes whenever they need it, it is possible to make fancy “first-run” syrup the entire season until the buds begin to swell. At this time the syrup, though often of very light color, has a “buddy,” sickish flavor, very different from the rank taste of the dark syrup made from souring sap. Then the season is over for making first-class syrup, although in Ohio there is sometimes another excellent run. Soft maples bud and spoil the sap much earlier a the hard maples, and are seldom tapped in io. Quality.—Only the very best syrup pays a good profit. Maple sweets can never compete in cheap- 184 MAPLE-SUGAR ness with the refined sugars and syrups made from sugar-cane and sugar-beets for simple sweetening a tite But for syrup as a table luxury there nothing to compare or compete with it. For a strictly fancy article, in the writer’s opinion, the price will increase year by year. because popula- tion and wealth increase and the maple-groves diminish, and are not being much replanted, though they might well be. Some twenty-five years ago the writer planted about two hundred young trees along the roadsides, and now they are nearly large MEADOWS AND PASTURES pour. It never becomes very hard and brittle, and dissolves quickly in the mouth with a most “deli- cious flavor. MEADOWS AND PASTURES. Figs. 659-675. [See, also, article on Grasses.] By S. Fraser. _ Meadow is land devoted to crops which are to be made into hay. The word is from the Anglo-Saxon moed = = meadow. Frequently land which is too low and wet to be used for other r SS Pee purposes is re- tained as mea- dow. Pasture is land de- voted to crops which are to be grazed. The word is de- rived through theold French from the Latin pastura. The plants most com- monly used for these pur- poses include the clovers and the true i anes grasses, and i elas pid Sig 2 : plants of many z pits eects other species, y EP rl tin eee MI Wp td Vab Es Vac frequently o, Wes BS ZA * a oe re cs ati Be eee os. faa ets ere weeds, and all ‘ Mites =. SO ae eS bees ee eu ios are generally Ms spoken of col- Fig. 659. The making of ay, where hay is cheap; it is a wasteful method. P enough to tap; and, with clean turf to the edge, - of the stone pike, they, make a beautiful boule- yard out of a common country road. . Closing up.—At the close of the season all vessels and utensils should be scalded, washed and wiped, and stored “in the dry,” the buckets not “nested,” so that they will not rust.. Then the large shed should be filled with fine wood for the next season’s boiling. Thus stored, old rails, limbs and partly rotten wood, unfit for sale, will do very well with a little sound wood. Such’ wood dried ten months under cover makes the most rapid boiling and the best quality of syrup. Utilizing the product—Nearly the entire Ohio crop is made into best syrup with apparatus much like that described above, and is-sold as a luxury costing the consumer $1 "to $1. 40. per, gallon. Per- haps one-tenth of the crop is“ made into “maple cream,” a delicious, almost white, soft, creamy candy, that sells at. twenty to thirty cents per pound. It is made by boiling best-grade syrup a little less than it is boiled to make the hard, coarse- grained cake sugar. While hot it is rapidly stirred till it comes to a thick, whitish, creamy condition and is poured into molds when as thick as it will lectively “grass” and the land as “grass-land.” Meadows and pastures may be permanent or temporary in duration. When permanent, the land is seldom or never plowed ; when temporary, grass is grown for one to four years, usually as part of a rotation of crops. The end in view, whether meadow or pasture, permanent or temporary, will materially aid in deciding the seeds which should be sown on grass- land. For example, in a meadow the aim is to have all the plants at their best at one time, viz., when they are to be cut for hay. In a pasture the aim is to secure plants which will give a uniform amount of feed throughout the season, from spring to fall ; thus far, the advice given to secure this is to sow a number of different species of plants which are at their best at different times, and which will survive climatic conditions. For temporary grass-land it is necessary to sow seeds of plants that are not costly, that arrive at maturity quickly and that give a good yield the following year. On the other hand, in the case of permanent grass-land, cost of seed and the time taken to reach maturity are secondary to duration and adaptability of the plants when established. as SIOUI][T ‘99ULISIP UT AopeoT-Aey {exer ATOAT[ap-oplg ‘HIOM MOPEO “AX IG = ary ae Foe CEE EATS j eS MEADOWS AND PASTURES Permanent and temporary grass-land. Land may usually be kept permanently in grass on (1) Hillsides subject to washing. (2) Upland at adistance from market, and where labor is scarce or high. (3) Lowland subject to flooding. (4) Rocky or stony land. (5) Swamp land. (6) Heavy clay soils that can be tilled only at considerable expense. Sometimes it is profitable on high-priced land which could readily be tilled if desired. Temporary grass-land is especially suited to sandy or light soils where grass and clovers will not hold for more than one or two years, and is of especial value in almost any rotation. Some of the advantages accruing from its use are: (1) Usually a larger yield of produce is secured per acre; and when leguminous crops are grown the crop-producing power of the soil is increased. (2) The introduction of grass crops into a rota- tion reduces the labor bill. (3) It furnishes an opportunity for improving the texture of the soil when the humus has been exhausted by several years of tillage, by adding humus from the mat of roots and stubble. Whether temporary or permanent grass-land should or should not be adopted on any particular farm depends entirely on the conditions, and must be decided by the farmer himself. If temporary grass-land is adopted, it may be accepted as a general rule for the grass-growing region of the New England and northern central states, that the clay and heavy soils may be left longer in grass, with profit, than the lighter soils. Whenever permanent grass-land, especially pasture, is the aim, it is well to remember the English adage, “To make a pasture will break a man, but to break a pasture will make a man.” Making per- manent pasture is slow work. Once the land is MEADOWS AND PASTURES 435 such that it is better to adopt a system of tempo- rary grass-land. A poor pasture is unprofitable, and yet a large proportion of the pastures of the eastern part of the United States are poor. This is due, largely, to lack of knowl- edge and gen- eral indiffer- ence. To grow good grass is the fine art of agri- culture, and no farm crop is grown on high- er-valued land. In Italy the best irrigated grass- land is valued as high as $3,000 per acre; and those parts of England most famous for their pastures and meadows are the most highly prized. The Eu- ropean farmer has given much more attention than the American to growing good grass. By ondin Mette Fig. 661. The old way. The present article reflects the English point of view as adapted to American conditions, for the writer’s first experience was gained in England. Valuing grass-land. The general method of estimating value is to consider the yield per acre, without any special reference to the feeding-value of the crop. In the case of hay grown for sale, this method may be the correct one, but it is not necessarily so in the case of a pasture. The true value of a pasture is based on the amount of “net available nu- at why tal = es : Vt 5 UE wi Po fines A SS "} a WES AS PSE intensive methods. seeded it should never be plowed, and wherever there is great difficulty in retaining a sod, intelli- gent care being given, it may be accepted as evi- dence that conditions, climatic or otherwise, are WON we ¥ a Clark, Higganum, Conn. The result of trients” which it produces per acre; or, in other words, the influence of the herbage on the animal that con- sumes it. By this method of valuing, the pasture which produces the most beef, mutton or milk, would be ranked as of the most value. The following are some of the factors that have a direct influence on the value : (1) The character and condition of the soil. Certain soils, owing to their peculiar properties, are emi- \ nently fitted for the production of . good quality grass. One of the most important of these properties is the ability to hold sufficient moisture. (2) The method of management. Manures and fertilizers influence the total yield and quality of the herbage and the time of growth. They may prolong the period of growth of a short- lived pasture. They tend to reduce the variation 436 MEADOWS AND PASTURES in yield due to favorable and unfavorable seasons. At Rothamsted, England, during a period of twenty years, the yields of hay from unfertilized grass- land varied from 4,368 pounds per acre in the most favorable season, to 892 pounds per acre in the least favorable one. On well-manured grass- land, alongside, fhe yields varied from 8,960 pounds to 4,480 pounds during the same period. Mismanaged land does proportionately worse in unfavorable years when produce is high. In other words, land in good condition gives more uniform yields and the good farmer is more independent of seasonal variations than the poor farmer. By intense cultivation and heavy fertilizing and seeding, Mr. George M. Clark, of Higganum, Con- necticut, reports enormous yields of hay (Fig. 660). He says: “Last year (1906) my timothy and red-top field contained eleven acres, and the alfalfa field three and one-half acres. The eleven-acre field produced in two crops eighty-one tons of well-dried hay, and the three-and-one-half-acre field produced twenty- one tons in four crops, making one hundred and two tons from the fourteen and one-half acres. The seven-eighths-acre piece is a part of the eleven-acre field, and produced its usual crop of over eight tons, in two crops, each year, or one hundred and forty-seven tons in seventeen years, at one seeding.” (8) The number and character of the plants per acre. Although it is not known how much empha- sis can be laid on these factors, it is conceivable that they are of some importance. It is certain that an.animal must not have to travel too far to secure its food if we would have it fatten, and that a certain number of plants must be maintained per acre for profit. As to the character of the plants necessary for a good pasture, there is little data. Investigations conducted in the United Kingdom, by Drs. Fream and Carruthers, for the Royal Agricultural Society of England, show that there is not necessarily any relationship betweeen the botanical composition of the herbage of a pasture and its feeding value. In some of the best pastures the cultivated grasses MEADOWS AND PASTURES might constitute as little as 11 per cent of the herbage or as much as 100 per cent; legumes might constitute 38 per cent or be absent ; miscel- laneous plants, so-called weeds, might be absent or constitute 89 per cent by weight of the total yield. Two pieces of grass-land may have the same grasses NAb meee Fig. 663. A recently advertised wagon-loader. The platform is run to the rear to receive the hay; then it is pulled to the front by means of the hand wheel, leaving the rear of the wagon rack to receive the remainder of the load, in the same proportion and yet the feeding value be very different. On the other hand, two pieces may have entirely different kinds of grasses and yet the feeding value be about the same. Individual plants of the same species vary to a remarkable degree in duration, yield and other characters, and it is readily conceivable that the variation in feeding value is as marked as it is in other characters. The selection and propagation of desirable individuals is now attracting the atten- tion of plant-breeders. Although we have over 1,000 species of grasses growing in this country, not more than a score are in general cultivation, and these are sown on vari- ous types of soils and under very dissimilar climatic conditions. The sowing of grass seed at all is mod- ern, not having been in common practice either here or in England two hundred years ago, pre- vious to which time land was allowed to seed itself as best it could. (4) The earliness and persistency of the herbage; its ability to carry stock throughout the Fig. 662. Loading hay by band. season. As already stated, a succession of grasses is generally advised for pas- ture. Taking the period of bloom as indicative of maturity, the order would be as follows, in New York: May (end) : Meadow foxtail, orchard- grass, Kentucky blue-grass. June : Meadow foxtail, orchard-grass, Kentucky blue-grass, tall oat-grass, red clover (some plants), white clo- ver, alsike clover (some plants), hard fescue. June (end): Meadow fescue, timothy, awnless brome, alsike and red clo- ver, Canada blue-grass. July : Red-top, Canada blue-grass. Noi all of the above grasses could be maintained on the same land for a long period of time. The following brief MEADOWS AND PASTURES notes are suggestive; all dates refer to New York conditions : Meadow foxtail thrives on damp, rich land, and on such furnishes feed from early May on. Its period of succulent growth and bloom extends well Z y 4 iy t Mt) bl a Voi a ag LA Use of hay sling in field stacking. = ia Zi, db Ny 7 a sy, i 2 iy ZED SE wey ZEU™ by Fig. 664. into July under such conditions, some individuals not blooming until the latter date. It is relished by all stock. ‘Meadow fescue is considered to be one of the best hay and pasture grasses. It is relished by all stock, but will not thrive unless the land is in good condition. It is suited to permanent grass-land only, since it takes two or three years to attain its highest productivity. . Both meadow foxtail and meadow fescue are little known to American farmers, but they are much prized in England and merit attention here. Orchard-grass is readily eaten by all stock during May and early June. It withstands drought well, but becomes coarse during July. If mown, the aftermath is readily eaten. ; Kentucky blue-grass is relished by most stock if grown on land in good condition; if spindly and poor, it is not readily grazed. If well grown, few grasses are better for permanent pasture. Tall oat-grass is not readily eaten by stock, except in small areas. Red and alsike clovers are readily grazed by all stock and are used for hay. They furnish feed throughout the season if there is sufficient moisture, but are not long-lived plants in the eastern United States. They are used for temporary grass-land. White clover is used entirely for pasture. _ Timothy is the great hay grass. It is the grass for one- to three-year leys in the eastern United States. Some plants are adapted to grazing, and opinions differ accordingly as to its value as a pasture grass. MEADOWS AND PASTURES 437 Awnless brome grass (Bromus inermis) is com- paratively new. Its place seems to be that of a pasture grass, where land is to be retained for a term of years as pasture. For permanent pasture its value is undetermined. Red-top is used for permanent and temporary grass-land, both as meadow and as pasture. It shows great power of adaptation and much varia- tion. Canada blue-grass is esteemed as a pasture grass in parts of New York and Canada. It is adapted to heavy clay soils, which have been badly eroded and will grow nothing better. Among other grasses of less importance are crested dog’s-tail, which is of little value as a pasture grass; perennial and Italian rye-grass, which, although useful in England, have not proved of general value here. Sweet-scented' vernal grass is of little or no value. Quack, although a valuable grass for pasture and meadow, is almost never sown, because of its weedy tendencies. (5) The quality, digestibility and palatability of the herbage and of the different grasses evidently vary widely, but there is still insufficient infor- mation. The grasses to sow. From the foregoing it is evident that in seeding grass-land the following points warrant considera- tion: (1) Choose grasses that yield heavily under the local climatic and soil conditions. This is best de- termined by growing the different grasses sepa- rately on plats and noting the results during a term of years. In the eastern states the following grasses do best on moist soils: red-top, fowl meadow-grass, meadow fescue, meadow foxtail, Italian rye-grass. 5 a Ray Fig. 665. Hay fork in use. For clays and heavy loams, alsike clover and timothy do well for hay, while Kentucky blue-grass, Canada blue-grass, white clover and a little meadow fescue should be added if the land is 438 needed for pasture. Awnless brome is also doing well where it has been tried, but its use is still in the experimental stage. On average good land, =y red clover, red-top, timothy and Kentucky blue- grass are probably the least fastidious, orchard- grass and meadow fescue being a little more ex- acting. (2) Choose grasses that animals like. If the plats be sown as suggested and ani- mals allowed to graze them, their choice On the Dunkirk clay loam soil at Cornell University, New York, dairy cows will be apparent. Ithaca, ranked the grasses in the follow- ing order: awnless brome, red and alsike clover, meadow fescue and timothy, orchard-grass, Kentucky blue-grass and red-top, the last mentioned grass being shunned wherever it occurred. On the Dunkirk clay in the Genesee val- ley, New York, fattening steers ate Canada blue-grass, Kentucky blue- grass, Danthonia spicata (which is rather prevalent), equally well, while red-top and timothy were left. Horses and sheep are more partial to orchard- grass than are cattle. Seeding grass-land. In seeding temporary grass-land, select seeds of plants which mature quickly ; it is f wasteful to sow seeds of Kentucky blue- grass, meadow fescue or meadow fox- tail, since it takes’ two or three years for these plants to attain full growth. Red and alsike clo- vers, timothy, red-top and or- chard-grass suggest themselves as being desirable for this purpose. For permanent grass-land there is a greater variety at our dis- posal. In addition to those already mentioned, alfalfa, meadow fes- cue, meadow foxtail, Kentucky blue-grass, hard fescue, Canada blue-grass’ and others may be used. For a meadow a few kinds of grasses are usually sown, and these are generally the twenty species. Whenever the herbage of grass-land is diversified, and comprises twenty to forty dif- ferent species of plants, the yield per acre MEADOWS AND PASTURES tall, strong-growing species, as timothy, red-top, tall fescue, alsike and red clo- ver. Almost invariably when maximum yields are secured, only one or two spe- cies are grown, it being much easier to furnish the ideal conditions for the best growth of one or two species than it is for SAM, SS %y h Z hy Z ) 2 Z t Z ZB } - g y y y Z g Z i y j f y i g % j i g Z Y Qe \ a ty a = é — ae SW y GY 4 j : % y y Z i 4 / i f f , t , LY, | Z Z Gib h f i \ ¥ ee , 4 ty t y ‘, Fig. 666. MEADOWS AND PASTURES cies of grasses to secure a continuous “bite” throughout the season, but also because conditions change; some of the grasses being slow in occupying the land, early-maturing species are sown with them to fill the land and to exclude weeds, thus ensuring larger yields. Some of the grasses should furnish abun- dance of leaves and but few stems, thus giving a close, dense turf; among such grasses are Kentucky blue-grass, hard " fescue and some strains of timothy. t Certain grasses are useful because of their stoloniferous habit of growth, which enables them bet- ter to withstand the treading of stock and to live and reproduce below ground. Such plants include Kentucky blue- grass, red - top, white clover and many kinds of timothy. Purchasing seed and sowing. Seeds of different species should be purchased separately and sam- ples taken for examination for purity and germinating power. [For advice on seed-testing, see page 140.] The true basis for pur- chasing and sowing seeds is not how many pounds per acre, but how many millions of viable seeds should be sown per acre. A pound of timothy seed may contain 1,300,000 seeds; a pound of red-top may contain 6,000,000 seeds; hence, to secure an equal number of plants per acre would require a much less weight of red-top than of timothy. The number of seeds which should be sown per acre depends on the soil, climate, the kind of grass and the object in view. The number of grass plants found on an acre of old meadow in Eng- land was over 78,000,000 when irrigated and about 18,000,000 when not irrigated. A common estimate is to sow 20,000,000 via- ble seeds per acre, which is about 450 per square foot. For tempo- rary grass-land, where one-third of the seeds are legumes, 8,000,- 000 to 10,000,000 seeds is ample in many places. On the Cornell Uni- versity farm when timothy and clover are sown to remain one year, it is cus- tomary to sow ten pounds of timothy and g ten pounds of red clover per acre, or about 18,000,000 timothy seeds and 2,250,000 clover seeds, a total of 15,250,000 per acre. The land should be well fitted. If weedy, two or three cleaning crops, as corn, potatoes and beans, should be taken and the land well manured for these crops. Fertilizers and is low. In seeding a permanent pasture, center trip hay sling lime may be applied and harrowed in before however, not only do we sow several spe- and locks. the seed is sown, if found to be desirable. MEADOWS AND PASTURES A fine, firm seed-bed is necessary, and the sub-sur- face must be compact to ensure the upward passage of moisture. This point will bear emphasis, many failures occuring from not having the seed-bed sufficiently compact. Fig. 667. Six-tine grapple fork with spear. Open. If sown in fall it is usually advisable to sow not later than September 1. Spring sowing should be done as early as the ground will permit. Clover is usually sown in spring when the snow is still on the ground. This isa good practice because it is found that clovers germinate best under the low and steady temperature which is then maintained. Kentucky blue- grass, however, germinates best when subjected to a temperature alternating be- tween 68° and 86° F.; hence, if it is sown in fall, on or near the surface, these conditions are secured. Thus each kind of grass has a certain temperature or range of temperatures which are best suited for its germination. Under ordinary circumstances and with tempo- rary seedage, the sowing of the grass with a grain crop is advisable because it economizes the use of the land. It is well to mow the grass early the first year, even if it is to be used asa pasture. This prevents the grasses going to seed and thus weak- ening themselves. It may not be advisable to seed with a grain crop when an expensive seed mixture is used in seeding permanently, when the land is very rich—the grain crop would lodge — nor when it is so poor in condition that it could not carry both crops. MEADOWS AND PASTURES 439 Number and weight of grass seeds and amount to sow. It is hardly possible to give the exact formule for seeding land to grass. The following notes are merely suggestive and may need modification to meet varying conditions. As already stated, various authorities have asserted that 10,000,000 to 20,- 000,000 viable grass and clover seeds should be sown per acre, the lesser quantity when the clovers constitute a large proportion of the seed mixture or the land is seeded for but one or two years, and the larger quantity for permanent grass-land. The following table has been adapted from “The Best Forage Plants,” by Stebler and Schroeter, and from it calculations may be made. The actual number of grains in a pound will frequently vary 20 per cent either way; for example, in recleaned fancy seed there are fewer grains to the pound, while in an uncleaned sample free from chaff, but containing many small seeds, the ZA ‘ number will be greater. The recleaned seed weighs heavier per bushel. The @@ : uncleaned seed may con- Yee 2 z tain a large proportion of chaff and in such case the number of seeds per pound of material may be very low. The numbers given are per pound of pure seed. The percentage of germination of average i samples of seed is fre- Yo 9 quently but half,andeven | ; h less than half, of that given in the table. The germination of the rye grasses given in the table is a little higher than ordinarily found in the United States, even with imported seed. Low germinating power may be due to lack of uniformity in ripening the seed; to part of the seed on a plant being mature before the remainder, frequently seen in meadow foxtail; or to poor methods of harvesting, as in Kentucky blue-grass. Y Fig. 668. Double harpoon fork, with twenty-five- inch tine. Closed. Number of grains Amount tosow per] @ooq percentage Weight per Weight of 10,000,000 athe Imone pound of /agre ifsowmalone.| “ot germination | Bnglisk bushel | eine, Sio as Pounds Pounds Pounds Awnless brome grass. . 137,000 80-50 75-90 13-14 72.99 Kentucky blue-grass . . 2,400,000 15-20 80-90 14-32 4.17 Orchard-grass : 579,000 20-35 80-95 12-23 17.25 Perennial rye-grass . . 836,800 25-40 95-98 18-30 29.7 Italian rye-grass 285,000 80-45 95-98 12-24 85.1 Meadow fescue . . 818,200 80-35 75-95 12-30 81.42 Sheep’s fescue ‘ 680,000 25-30 60-75 10-25 14.88 Tall oat-grass. .. .. 159,000 20-30 80-90 10-16 62.89 Meadow foxtail.... 907,000 20-25 60-90 6-14 11.02 Red-top ....... 6,030,000 8-16 90-95 12-40 1.65 Timothy. ...... 1,170,500 10-16 95-98 45-48 8.54 Alsike clover... .. 707,000 10-13 95-98 60-64 14.14 Red clover. ..... 279,000 10-16 95-98 60-64 35.8 White clover. .... 740,000 10-12 95-98 60-64 13.51 Alfalfa... wees 209,500 15-30 95-98 60-64 48.56 440 MEADOWS AND PASTURES Testing seed. In testing the seed for germination power and purity it is more satisfactory to weigh out a sample of the seed, separate the chaff and inert matter, weigh it, and then proceed to make a germination test of the remainder. For example, if a sample of awnless brome grass contain 10 per cent of dirt and chaff, and 75 per cent of the pure seeds are viable, the actual germination power of the sample is 67.5 per cent, or 75 x 90 100 = 67.5 Mixing seed. It is important that each kind of seed be pur- chased separately in order to permit an examina- tion for purity. When satisfied that the seeds are as desired, the different ones may be mixed for GP: ZL jag Fig. 669. Wide-mouth engine truck, swivel and reversible steel track carrier for hay fork. seeding. It is desirable that seeds which are of a similar size and character should be mixed and sown together; for example, it is much better to mix timothy seed with any clover which is being sown, provided that both are being sown at the same time, than to mix it with chaffy seeds, such as Kentucky blue-grass, meadow fescue or orchard- grass. If there are two compartments on the seed barrow, then clover and timothy should be mixed and sown in one, and the chaffy seeds, such as meadow fescue, Kentucky blue-grass, orchard-grass, rye-grass, should be sown in the other compart- ment. Awnless brome grass is better sown by itself, since it requires different treatment. It not only requires much larger holes in the seed drill or barrow, but it is necessary to cover it much better than most of the other grass seeds. In mixing, take the seed of which there is the greatest bulk and empty it on a tight floor, a good cement barn floor or something of a similar nature being desirable ; empty the next largest quantity on top, and so on, putting the seed of which there MEADOWS AND PASTURES is the least amount on the top of the pile; with scoop-shovels proceed to turn over the pile, putting it on a new base. A skilful man will give the shovel a twist by a mere turn of the wrist which will insure very good mixing of the different seeds. When the bulk of the pile has been made on the new site, the remaining seeds should be swept toward the new pile and the operation repeated. Four or five turnings will probably be necessary to secure a complete blending of the different seeds, and the process should be continued until a perfect mixture has been secured. . Examples of seed mixtures which would furnish 20,000,000 seeds, and the weight of same : For hay and fall pasture. Heavy land. Short duration. ‘Weight of pure, via- No. of ble seed. seeds Lbs. Timothy .....- 18,400,000 11.44 Alsike «sw « 6 as 8,300,000 4.66 White clover . . . - 3,300,000 4.46 20,000,000 20.56 For hay and pasture. Timothy 3 <8 & « 10,000,000 8.54 Kentucky blue-grass . 2,000,000 0.82 Orchard-grass. . . . 1,400,000 2.42 Alsike: 0.) sei 8,300,000 4.66 White clover . . . . 3,300,000 4,46 20,000,000 20.90 For hay and pasture. Timothy ...... 8,000,000 6.84 Kentucky blue-grass . 2,400,000 1.00 Orchard-grass. . . . 2,000,000 8.46 Meadow foxtail . . 1,000,000 1.10 AISIKE. <5 eee ee 8,300,000 4.66 White clover . . . . 3,300,000 4,46 20,000,000 21.52 For hay. Heavy loam. Red clover. .... 2,790,000° 10.00 Alsike. ...... _ 2,121,000 3.00 Timothy . 7,089,000 6.06 Red-top ...... 8,000,000 1.82 20,000,000 20.38 For pasture, for two years’ duration, the Ontario Agricultural College sows per acre: 7 lbs. red clover, 2 lbs. alsike clover, 4 lbs. timothy, 5 Ibs. orchard-grass. If wanted for hay, the orchard- grass is omitted. For permanent pasture the same authorities advise : 4 lbs. orchard-grass, 4 lbs. meadow fescue, 3 lbs. tall oat-grass, 2 lbs. timothy, 2 lbs. meadow foxtail, 5 Ibs. alfalfa, 2 Ibs. alsike clover, 2 lbs. white clover, making 24 Ibs. per acre in all. For wet land in New England for meadow, L. R. Jones, of Vermont, suggests, per acre, 10 lbs. timothy, 6 Ibs. alsike clover, 4 Ibs. recleaned red- top, 10 lbs. fowl meadow-grass, in chaff. Sow in midsummer without a nurse crop. For meadow in a shady place, the same authority suggests, per acre, 1 bus. orchard-grass, 6 lbs. tim- othy, 3 lbs. meadow fescue or Kentucky blue-grass, MEADOWS AND PASTURES 8 lbs. red clover, 2 Ibs. alsike clover, and 2 to 4 Ibs. of meadow foxtail if obtainable. For pasture in Vermont the same authority recommends, per acre, 8 lbs. timothy, 4 lbs. re- cleaned red-top, 7 lbs. Kentucky blue-grass, 2 lbs. orchard-grass, 2 lbs. meadow fescue, 3 lbs. red clover, 3 lbs. alsike clover, 4 lbs. white clover, and 1 or 2 lbs. meadow foxtail if obtainable. In western New York the writer is using, for sowing on old pastures, a mixture of 2 to 3 lbs. timothy, 2 lbs. red-top, 4 lbs. Kentucky blue-grass, 8 lbs. meadow fescue, 2 lbs. meadow foxtail, if good seed is obtainable, 2 to 3 Ibs. red clover, $ to 1 Ib. alsike clover per acre. On heavy clays, 2 lbs. Canada blue-grass might be included. North Carolina Experiment Station (Bulletin No. 168) used the following mixtures, per acre, for one crop of hay and then to be pastured for 2 or 3 years: 10 lbs. tall oat-grass, 5 lbs. orchard-grass, 1 1b. red-top, 2 lbs. Kentucky blue-grass, 74 lbs. red clover. Another mixture used was, per acre: 14 lbs. orchard-grass, 7% lbs. red-top, 7 lbs. Kentucky blue-grass, 5 Ibs. red clover, 24 lbs. white clover, 4 lb. alsike clover. Another year the following was used, per acre: 10% lbs. orchard-grass, 7 lbs. Ken- tucky blue-grass, 104 lbs. tall oat-grass, 54 Ibs. meadow foxtail, 7 lbs. Canada blue-grass, 34 lbs. red-top, ? lb. white clover, 4 Ibs. red clover. For southern states for hay sow 3 lbs. per acre of Bermuda-grass, good imported seed, at any time the ground is moist or likely to continue so for some time. This grass is generally started by planting pieces of sod or cuttings of the underground stems, owing to difficulty in securing good seed. Texas blue-grass (Poa arachnifera) is usually started from cuttings in the same way as Bermuda-grass, although seed is sometimes sown. Rescue-grass or Schrader’s brome grass is sown at the rate of one bushel per acre in August or September. One-half bushel of rescue-grass and a few pounds of bur- clover make a good hay crop. For pasture in Mississippi, Lloyd suggests carpet- grass and lespedeza for the sandy valleys; awnless brome grass, crab-grass and Mexican clover for the upland; and turf oats and hairy vetch for winter and early spring grazing. Orchard-grass is also a useful plant. For wet and seepy land sow red-top and alsike clover. For pasture in western Nebraska, Professor Lyon saggests, per acre, 4 to 6 lbs. orchard-grass, 6 to 10 Ibs. awnless brome grass, 8 to 14 lbs. meadow fescue, and a small amount of alfalfa, Kentucky blue-grass and white clover. The amount of meadow fescue may be increased in the southern part of the state and the brome grass in the northern part. For hay for two years and then pasture, alfalfa may be sown with awnless brome grass, meadow fescue or orchard-grass, sowing 20 to 25 Ibs. of alfalfa and 15 to 20 lbs. of the grass seed per acre. The alfalfa will occupy the land for the first year or two, after which the grasses come in. Machines for sowing grass seed. In northeastern United States it is customary to sow the timothy in the fall at the time the land is MEADOWS AND PASTURES 441 sown to wheat, an extra hopper being provided on the grain drill for the purpose. If clover is used on such land, it is generally sown in the spring either with a seed barrow, which frequently is made ten to fourteen feet wide and pushed by hand, or by means of one of the hand-seeders of the Cyclone or other type, which consists merely of a revolving disk which scatters the seed; or it may be sown by haud. In many cases it is desirable lightly to cover the seed ; the weeder with a seec- box attached is an admirable tocl for such work. This tool is mounted on two wheels, which furnish the drive for the seeder and enable the operator to ride. [See pictures of seeding tools, pages 133, 137.] Why grasses “run out.” The same plant cannot occupy the same piece of land for an indefinite period of time. Grasses, like other plants, live and die; they tend to run out or disappear. Farmers find it necessary to reseed more or less often if they wish to maintain the grass on the same land. There are several reasons why grasses run out: (1) The plant may live its normal life and then die. The duration of life of most grasses is not understood and little is known regarding the influ- ence of grazing or cutting on their lives. (2) When a plant dies the tendency is for some other plant to take its place; just as oaks may follow hemlock or pines, so weeds take the places of grasses unless prevented by the farmer. (8) The changes in the texture or condition of the soil influence the herbage. When land. is newly seeded certain grasses may thrive which will not do so when the soil becomes more compact. The treading of animals further compacts the soil and it is not so well “aérated.” The air space in the soil is partially maintained by the death of plants and decay of their roots. In the Genesee valley on Dunkirk clay soil, when it has been eroded, Canada blue-grass, oxeye daisies and white clover constitute the bulk of the herbage, but if grazed for twenty or thirty years, the land improves sufficiently so that Ken- tucky blue-grass begins to come in and in two or three decades more the herbage consists largely of Kentucky blue-grass, meadow fescue and white clover. (4) Climatic conditions are important. Late spring frosts kill early-growing or early-maturing grasses, as orchard-grass and meadow foxtail ; but if such are protected by manure, or even cut straw, they may survive similar conditions. Favorable spring weather may enable such grasses to develop unusually well, and crowd out later- growing species. Changeable autumn and winter weather, freezing and thawing, and even heavy rains are more in- jurious to some grasses than to others. On the heavy clay lands of New York the chief factor in determining the life of alsike, red clover and even timothy is the winter. In changeable winters many of the plants are heaved out and their places are later taken by oxeye daisies, live-for-ever and other weeds. 442 MEADOWS AND PASTURES Drought injures grass-land in several ways. It not only reduces the water content of the soil, because of which some grasses suffer more than others, but it causes the soil to bake and crack and 4 so injures the roots. Under such conditions, deep-rooted grasses, as tall oat-grass and awnless brome, may survive; and grasses having nar- row, bristle- like leaves, such as sheep’s fes- cue, tend to increase, while such grasses as red-top, which have flat leaves, will iose ground. Thus the changing seasons may be one of the prime causes for changes in the herbage of a pasture. (5) Injudicious management. Timothy may be ruined by too early cutting, time not having been given for food to be stored in its thickened stem, which would tide the plant over the summer droughts. Grazing too close has the same effect, especially if done late in the fall. Grasses may be pulled up by animals or the land may be poached by the stock if they are turned on when it is too wet. Certain grasses, such as timothy, are perennial by means of stolons. The stolons are formed about the same time the seed is developed. Anything which prevents the formation of the stolon causes the death of the plant and a bare spot in the pasture. Root digger or grass-hoe. Some- times used for destroying weeds. Fig. 670, Renovation of worn-out meadows and pastures. One of the best ways to renew grass-land or to maintain it in good condition is to fatten cattle or sheep on it, feeding the animals concentrated feeds and, in some cases, hay and forage in addition. Sheep are most highly esteemed, because they eat so many weeds and because their droppings are scattered uniformly over the land. In the case of cattle or horses, the droppings should be distributed every two or three months by running a chain harrow or a weeder over the land. The application of barnyard manure, lime or fertilizers is profitable in many cases. Barnyard manure has a more lasting influence than most fer- tilizers. To determine which is the most profitable fertilizer to use, a fertilizer test should be made and maintained for a term of years. Lime may be applied at the rate of 1,000 pounds per acre, once in every three to five years. In addition to the above, the pasture should be harrowed in the spring or fall as soon as it shows signs of becoming thin or sod-bound, the disk-harrow being an excellent tool for the purpose, although the spring-toothed or spike-toothed harrows may be used in some cases. The weeds should be mown either once or twice a year before they bloom, and liberal appli- cations of grass seed made every two or three years, in spring or fall after the harrowing. Under such management, not only may land that is now MEADOWS AND PASTURES good meadow or pasture be maintained as such, but much of the poor meadow and pastures of the country may be converted into good ones. Literature. Spillman, Farm Grasses of the United States, Orange Judd Company, New York City; Sutton, Permanent and Temporary Pastures, London ; Farmers’ Bulletins of the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., No. 111, the Farmer’s Interest in Good Seed, and No. 128, Red Clover Seed; Division of Agrostology, United States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 14, Economic Grasses; Fraser, Pastures and Meadows, Farmers’ Reading-Course, Bulletin No. 10, New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York ; Same, Pastures and Meadows, Report of the Bureau of Farmers’ Institutes of New York, 1903, pp. 246-295; Flint, Grasses and Forage Plants, J. H. Sanders Publishing Company, Chicago ; Shaw, Grasses and Clovers, etc., Northrup, King & Co., Minneapolis, 1895; Same, Clovers, Orange Judd Company, New York City; Wallace, Clover Cul- ture, Iowa Homestead, Des Moines, Iowa, 1892; Beal, The Grasses of North America, two vols., Henry Holt & Co., 1897; Fream, The Complete Grazier, 1893; Killebrew, Grasses and Forage Plants. In addition, there are very many excellent discussions in the publications of the national De- partment of Agriculture and of the various state and provincial experiment stations. [See references to literature under various articles on forage plants and under the article on Grasses.] Grasses and Clovers Used in Meadows and Pastures. By W. J. Spillman. The number of American grasses is well-nigh countless. It is not the purpose of this Cyclopedia to consider all of them. The best that can be done is to set forth the more important features of those that are of leading economic importance, and to suggest to the reader their uses and range of adaptation. The present article treats chiefly of the cultivated grasses and clovers. The succeeding article considers native meadows and pastures for the ranges. Place in the cropping system. With reference to the position occupied by the grasses in the cropping system, we may divide the United States more or less arbitrarily into six divisions. The first and most important of these divisions comprises in a general way those states in which timothy and clover and blue-grass are the principal constituents of arable grass-lands. This region lies north of a line from Virginia to Kansas, and east of a line from Kansas to eastern North Dakota. In the Appalachian region, and in the lime- stone soils of central Tennessee, are found southern extensions of the area, while New England, for the most part, should be considered separately. Out- lying areas are found more or less generally dis- tributed in the northern half of the Rocky moun- MEADOWS AND PASTURES tain states and the northern half of the Pacific coast states. In this region, which we may appro- priately call the timothy region, the type of rota- tion which prevails very generally on farms where rotation is practiced is corn, followed by small grain (usually wheat in the southern part and oats in the north), with timothy and clover sown with the small grain. On the best farms the grass is cut for hay one or two years and is sometimes pastured one or two years more before being broken up for corn. On poorly managed farms, which are by far the more numerous, the grass is left down for an indefinite number of years until weeds especially adapted to meadow lands creep in, rendering the hay of inferior quality and greatly reducing the yield. Because of this practice, the average yield of timothy and clover hay in this country is only about a ton and a quarter per acre, whereas it could easily be made two tons by a proper system of rotation, combined with the best use of farm manures. In New England we find a marked modification of the rotation type prevailing generally over the timothy region. On many of the best New England farms the small grain is omitted from this rotation, the grass seeds being sown directly in the corn at the last cultivation. This operation in New Eng- land is called “stocking” the land. On good New England dairy-farms it is customary each year to plow up about a third or a fourth of the grass- land which most needs renewing. This plowed land is then fertilized, planted to corn (sometimes peas and oats or other cereal crops), and then restocked with grass at the earliest opportunity. A different modification of the prevailing rota- tion of the timothy region is found in certain - parts of the Pacific Northwest, mainly in western Oregon, and, to some extent, in western Washing- ton. In that section, instead of following grass- lands by a cultivated crop, it is more usual to sow small grain in the spring, especially oats. This is followed the next year by a cultivated crop, after which fall grain is sown. Timothy is sown with this fall grain and clover added in the spring. The reason for this arrangement of crops is found in climatic conditions. Sod land cannot be broken up and sown to corn in the spring because of the absence of summer rains. It would be too dry during the summer. The sod, therefore, must be broken in the fall. Land being thus made available for eariy spring operations, it is the logical place to sow oats. Because of the absence of summer rains, the oat land cannot be prepared for wheat in the fall. On the other hand, it has been found that wheat can be sown after a cultivated crop in the fall, with excellent results. In those sections where alfalfa is the principal meadow and pasture crop, as it is in all irrigated sections of the West and is rapidly becoming so along the eastern edge of the Plains region, rota- tions, when they are used at all, are arranged with reference to this crop. The land is usually left in alfalfa for a period of three to five or more years. When first broken up it is devoted either to a culti- vated crop or a small-grain crop. This is usually MEADOWS AND PASTURES 448 followed by sugar-beets or potatoes (sugar-beets are not grown the first year after alfalfa because the large roots of the alfalfa interfere with their cultivation). The land is then again devoted to small grain, with which alfalfa is sown. There are numerous variations of this general type of rotation in the section in question. In the South rotation of crops is almost unknown. In a few instances it is beginning to be practiced. One of the best rotations in any part of the coun- try is widely adapted to conditions prevailing in the South. It consists of cotton, followed by corn, with which cowpeas are sown. This crop is followed by a winter crop of oats and a summer crop of cowpeas. This gives four crops in three years, leaving two blank spaces to be filled by cover-crops or green-manures, namely, between the cotton and the corn and between the cowpeas and the cotton. In this rotation permanent or semi-permanent grasses have no place. When live-stock-farming becomes general in the South, and Johnson-grass has spread over all the territory to which it is adapted, which it ultimately will do, there is a type of rotation including Johnson-grass which will be good. It closely resembles that just outlined and, in practice, may be identical with it, but with the Johnson-grass added. It will consist of cotton followed by corn and cowpeas, these by a winter crop of oats. After the oats are harvested, the Johnson-grass is allowed to come up, and furnishes two crops of hay the first year. The next year it furnishes three cuttings. If then it is used an- other year for pasture without disturbing the soil, its rootstocks come very near the surface and it can be broken up for cotton and got rid of almost as easily as Kentucky blue-grass in the North. In breaking up the sod for cotton, however, it is of the utmost importance not to plow over four inches deep, for if the rootstocks be buried deeper there is great difficulty in eradicating the grass. On farms where the first type of southern rotation is used there is always more or less permanent grass-land usually devoted to Bermuda. I. THe TrmotHy REGION As already intimated, the principal grass crop of the timothy region consists of a mixture of timo- thy (Phleum pratense), Fig. 586, and red clover (Trifolium pratense), Fig. 671. This crop usually follows wheat or oats and precedes corn. The mix- ture is left down by different farmers from one year to an indefinite length of time. In the shorter rotations on well-managed farms, two tons of hay per acre are usual and the very best farmers secure three and a half to four tons per acre. The longer the grass remains down under ordinary manage- ment the lower the yield. After three or four years the yield usually falls below one ton per acre and the hay consists largely of weeds. Timothy is usually sown in the fall with wheat or other fall-sown grain. It may be sown at the same time as the grain, from a special grass-seed compartment on the grain drill, in which case some farmers allow the timothy seed to fall in 444 MEADOWS AND PASTURES front of the grain hoes so that it will be covered by the drill; others allow it to fall behind the drill hoes, either covering the seed later by means of a light harrowing or brushing of the land or leaving it to be finally covered by rain. The quantity of timothy seed usually sown under such circumstances varies from four to twenty pounds Fig. 671. Red clover. per acre, although few farmers sow less than eight or more than sixteen pounds. One peck (eleven pounds) is perhaps about the average. The clover is added in thespring. There are two general methods of sowing the clover. In the east- ern two-thirds of the timothy belt and rather gen- erally in the western third, it is customary to sow the clover seed in late winter or early spring, usu- ally in February or early in March, either on light snow or at a time when the ground is lightly frozen and cracked “honey-comb” fashion, leaving the seed to be covered by natural processes. This method has been fairly satisfactory, though it is thought not to be as reliable as the following. In the western third of the timothy region the better class of farmers wait until the ground is in condi- tion to harrow before sowing clover. The seed is then sown and the ground harrowed. MEADOWS AND PASTURES The quantity of clover seed sown on timothy and wheat in the spring in this manner is, generally speaking, about the same (by weight) as the quantity of timothy seed sown in the fall. Some farmers sow more clover than timothy per acre; others sow less. The average quantity sown is prob- ably about twelve pounds per acre. This is six quarts of clover seed, while it would require a little more than eight quarts of timothy seed to weigh twelve pounds. Because of the prevalence of the idea that timo- thy must be sown in the fall with grain, less timo- thy is grown than formerly in some of the best agricultural sections of the West where wheat has been largely abandoned. It has been shown in recent years by the practice of some of the most successful farmers in the country that, except along the western edge of the timothy region, one of the most satisfactory practices is to sow timothy and clover together on well-prepared land in late summer (not early fall), though some farmers sow as late as the middle of September. This is considered late sowing by farmers who practice this method. When sown thus without a nurse- crop, a full crop of hay is produced the next year, while if sown as first above outlined, a crop of hay is not taken until the second summer. In the western edge of the timothy region this method has not been found to be entirely satisfactory. There is too much danger of severe drought in late summer. In that section a few progressive farmers have found that clover at least may be sown in corn at the last cultivation, and that a good stand can be assured by this method with perhaps more certainty than with any other method. In some in- stances in southwestern Missouri, the better class of farmers sow timothy alone in the early fall and add the clover in the spring after the land is in condition to harrow. This method has proved very satisfactory where it has been tried, furnishing a moderate crop of hay the first year. It is known that timothy may be added to a clover sod at any time by sowing the timothy in the early fall and harrowing it in. Likewise, clover may be added to a timothy sod at any time by sowing it fairly early in the spring and harrowing the sod. As already stated, timothy and clover are sown very generally in corn at the last cultivation in New England, with excellent results. In that section corn is grown mostly for silage. This leaves short corn stubble, which is harvested with the hay the first year; but since on good farms this hay is fed on the place, the corn stubble is not very objectionable, as it makes a convenient bed- ding when left in the feed-racks by the cattle. [See Clover.] Other meadow ingredients. Red-top. (Fig. 538.) In some parts of the timothy region red-top is frequently sown in the mixture. This is particularly true in New England, New York and Pennsylvania. Occasionally it re- places timothy entirely, for instance in a consider- able section of poorly drained prairie land in southern Illinois, where most of the red-top seed of MEADOWS AND PASTURES the country is grown. Generally speaking, how- ever, red-top is considered a weed, and its presenve in hay on the markets results in a lower grade for the hay. At the same time, it is more nutritious than timothy and is said to be especially desirable for horses when they can be taught to eat it readily. Red-top is especially valuable in low, moist to swampy places, and may be used on such areas in meadows and pastures. It will endure flooding for a considerable time. It is suggested, also, that it does best on acid soils. It is not adapted to quick rota- tions, as it does not become well established under two years. It has creeping stolons, and makes a good bottom grass. When used with bunch grasses it fills in the open spaces and makes a good sod. In the South it makes a fair growth through the winter, if the weather is not too severe, and in the spring grows rapidly. The quantity of red-top seed used in mixtures with other grasses varies widely, from perhaps one pound of recleaned seed to eighteen or twenty pounds. The recleaned seed is the most satisfactory, as less of it is required. It does well with timothy, orchard-grass and alsike clover. Twelve to fifteen pounds of recleaned seed are ordinarily sufficient for a good stand. It is also much used in lawn mixtures in the north Atlantic states. Ordinarily, the seed on the market contains a large amount of chaff, and in order to get the same result it re- quires three or four times as much of this as of recleaned seed. The weight of the market seed varies with its purity, but ten to twelve pounds per bushel is a fair average. The recleaned seed weighs about thirty-five pounds. The seeding is made in the spring generally, although it may be in the fall with timothy. Alsike clover (Fig. 335) is rather generally used in small quantity in the meadow mixture and its use is becoming more prevalent than formerly. This clover succeeds well on land where red clover formerly succeeded, but now fails. Heretofore about two pounds of alsike have been used in the mixture in place of four pounds of red clover, but in recent years the quantity of alsike has been in- creased. In middle Tennessee and in western Ore- gon, alsike is rapidly replacing red clover entirely, because of the prevalence of diseases to which red clover is subject and alsike is not. [See Clover.] Pastures in the timothy region. Timothy and clover meadows are more or less generally used for pasture purposes throughout the timothy region. The aftermath is very fre- quently pastured after hay is cut, and it is a com- mon practice to use the meadow exclusively for pasture after the first or second year. The only other pasture grass of great importance in this section is blue-grass (Figs. 549-551), more com- monly known in the southern parts of its territory as Kentucky blue-grass and in the northern parts as June-grass (Poa pratensis). In the quality of the forage it furnishes, blue-grass is hardly sur- passed by any other grass in this country. In yield, however, it is inferior to many other grasses. MEADOWS AND PASTURES 445 It furnishes most abundant feed from early spring to early summer and again in the fall after the heat of summer is past. In some sections blue- grass invades meadow lands and becomes well estab- lished by the time the clover begins to disappear, which is usually in two years. This is especially true on soils to which blue-grass is particularly partial. In other sections blue-grass is added to the meadow land at the time the clover is sown and becomes established within two or three years. Ordinarily this grass is very slow to start and in some sections farmers, particularly those whose principal business is the production of beef cattle, are loath to plow up a good blue-grass pasture because of the difficulty of starting it again. Blue- grass is usually sown in the spring. The quantity of seed varies greatly because of the difference in quality as it is found on the markets. Twenty-five pounds per acre of the best quality is sufficient for a good stand, although it would require seventy-five pounds of much of the seed on the market. Mixtures of other grasses than those here dis- cussed are so rarely met with in the timothy region that they cannot be considered within the space available for this article. A few other grasses, however, deserve brief mention. Position of other grasses and clovers in the timothy region. Orchard-grass (Fig. 544) is of importance in only a few sections which lie on the margin of the tim- othy region. An exception consists of two or three counties in Kentucky, below Cincinnati on the Ohio river, and one county opposite in Indiana. Most of the orchard-grass seed of the country is grown here. [Bulletin No. 100, Bureau of Plant Indus- try, entitled “Orchard Grass.”] In some parts of Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, northern Arkansas, southern Missouri and eastern Kansas, orchard-grass is grown considerably both for hay and for pasture. It is usually seeded in the spring on well-prepared land with or without clover. Twelve to twenty-five pounds of seed are used per acre, according to the quality of the seed and the condition of the seed-bed. With goed seed and a well-prepared bed twelve pounds makes a very satisfactory stand, especially for seed-growing. Orchard-grass has two serious faults. In the first place, it grows in bunches and makes a very rough sod. In the second place, it must be cut very promptly at blossoming time or within a few days thereafter, in order to make a good quality of hay. Brome grass (Bromus inermis). Figs. 557, 672. This grass will be more particularly mentioned in dealing with the Plains region. Because of its larger yield of forage and its excellent quality this grass deserves more attention, especially as a pasture grass, than it has formerly received in the north- oc" quarter of the United States. [See page Fowl meadow-grass (Poa triflora, Gelib.; P. sero- tina, Ehrh.). Fig 552. This is an important grass on wet lands in some parts of New England and is frequently recommended for wet lands through- out the timothy region, though it has made no 446 MEADOWS AND PASTURES headway except in New England. Very little of it is on the markets and little is known concerning the quality of the seed or the amount required for sowing. As is the case with most grasses which are not standards, and the seed of which occurs in the markets in small quantities, the seed is usually not of very good quality. Japanese millet (Panicum Crus-galli). Barnyard grass. (Fig. 526.) This grass has become somewhat Fig. 672. Brome grass (Bromus inermis). important in parts of New England. It may be sown for soiling and silage purposes at any time from late spring to midsummer. When cut at the proper stage, it is greatly relished by cattle. It is MEADOWS AND PASTURES very difficult to cure as a hay and is ordinarily used only for soiling or for silage. Barnyard grass prefers a rich, moist soil. The seed is lighter than that of most of the millets. It may be broadcasted, but drilling is preferable. One to three pecks to the acre is sufficient when sown for hay. It is deserving of more attention than it has received, for it yields heavily. It produces a large amount of seed. [See Miilet.] Meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis). Fig. 554. This grass has assumed importance in eastern Kansas, where it is known as English blue-grass. It is sown in spring at the rate of about twelve pounds of good seed per acre. The first year it furnishes considerable pasture. Thereafter it is used for pasture, for seed production or for hay. Elsewhere in this country meadow fescue is seldom met with, being found occa- sionally on the Pacific coast and rarely in other parts of the timothy region, especially along the southern border. Tall oat-grass (Arrhenatherum elatius). Fig. 585. This is found occasionally in Ten- nessee and on the northern Pacific coast, but is practically unknown elsewhere in this country. It requires about thirty pounds of seed per acre and the high price of the seed, usually twenty-five to thirty-five cents per pound, makes it almost prohibitive. It isa light yielder, ripens at the same time as orchard-grass, with which and red clover it may be sown. It makes a fair quality either of pasture or of hay, which, however, is not at first readily eaten by stock. Crimson clover (Trifolium incarna- tum.) Fig. 338. This winter annual has become established, in recent years, along the Atlantic seaboard, and is oc- » casionally met with in the middle South. On the north Atlantic coast, as far north as Freehold, New Jersey, it may be sown at any time from June to Octo- ber first. Ten to twenty pounds of seed per acre are used, usually the smaller amount. It is frequently sown in corn at the last cultivation; also after a crop of potatoes has been harvested. Its principal use is as a green-manure and cover-crop, but it is also valuable as winter pasture, a spring soiling crop, and, if cut before full bloom, as hay. If cut later, the barbed lobes of the calyx form “witch balls” in the stom- achs of animals, sometimes in such quantity as to cause the death of cattle and horses. The crop is difficult to grow except in a few localities where farmers have learned its peculiarities and the soil has become inoculated with its appropriate bac- terium. [See Clover.] Alfalfa. [See Pacific coast region, page 452.] Italian rye-grass (Lolium multiflorum), Fig. 560, is the leading hay grass of England and the conti- nent of Europe. It has never been popular in the United States except in mixtures for lawns, where its rapid, early growth soon gives a green coat to the soil, and as a hay and pasture grass in the MEADOWS AND PASTURES Pacific Northwest. In the latter section it is very frequently found in meadows and pastures. Al- though practically a biennial, it is very early, and the seed falls readily when mature, so that it reseeds itself freely. It is usually grown with clover in western Washington, and gives good yields of hay or silage. This grass is occasionally sown in the South, in which section it behaves as a winter annual. Most of the seed of this grass obtainable on our markets is the refuse of the European crop, and is very unreliable. If good seed could be had, fifteen or twenty pounds per acre would give a good stand. Of ordinary market seed, twice as much usually gives a poor stand. Perennial rye-grass (Lolium perenne), Fig. 561, does not differ essentially in its culture from Italian rye-grass. It grows best on stiff, wet soils, doing very well in marshy situations, where it will persist for several years. Sheep’s fescue (Festuca ovina). Fig. 555. This grass is not suited for hay, as it makes a too light growth, but it has value for pasture in the cooler and drier parts of the country. It does well on sandy soils. It may be seeded at the rate of three bushels per acre. Red fescue (Festuca rubra), Fig. 556, is occasion- ally cultivated for lawns or in pasture mixtures, and is adapted to shady places. It grows on dry sandy soils and sterile uplands, making a fine, close sod. When seeded alone it is used at the rate of two and one-half bushels per acre. In grass mixtures it is used in small quantities. The seed weighs fourteen pounds to the bushel. Rhode Island bent-grass (Agrostis canina), Fig. 539, is similar in habit of growth and adaptations to red-top, and much of what has been said regard- ing that grass applies to this. It is especially valu- able for lawns. Most of the seed is grown in Rhode Island and Connecticut. Canada blue-grass (Poa compressa). Fig. 547. This grass has value for pasture in the North, par- ticularly in the northeastern states, but is not a heavy yielder. It succeeds best on clay soils and is better adapted to sterile knolls and barren fields than any other cultivated grass. It also does well on sandy soils and withstands drought. It should be sown in mixtures with other grasses when used for hay or pasture. The seed is a common adulter- ant of Kentucky blue-grass seed. [See pages 148, 144.] The plants can be distinguished by the flat stem of the Canada blue-grass ; and the latter has a bluer color and does not grow so tall. Weeds in timothy and clover meadows. When short rotations are practiced, the meadow being left down only one or two years, there is seldom any trouble from weeds. When the grass is left down for longer periods certain weeds become very abundant. In New England, quack-grass (Ag- ropyron repens), Figs. 159, 564, white daisy (Chry- santhemum Leucanthemum), buttercup (Ranunculus bulbosus), and orange hawkweed (Hieracium auran- tiacum), Figs. 156, 157, are the most troublesome, quack-grass being worse than the other three com- bined. In the middle states, red-top (Agrostis alba), MEADOWS AND PASTURES 447 Fig. 538, creeps into the meadows and is considered a weed. Another weed known as white-weed (Lrig- eron Philadelphicus) is very prevalent in old mea- dows. Quack-grass is beginning to appear in that section and ultimately will probably be as preva- lent as it is in New England. On the Pacific coast west of the Cascade mountains, velvet-grass (Hol- cus lanatus), Fig. 541, is the most prevalent weed in meadow lands. It may be exterminated by cut- ting for hay before seed is formed, and disking the land repeatedly during the dry summer. This will exterminate the velvet-grass by the latter part of August, when any crop desired may be planted. Velvet-grass is used locally in parts of north- western United States for forage. It yields about a half ton of very light hay per acre, that is nutri- tious but not palatable. The seed matures early and shatters badly, and in addition is easily wind- borne, so that it is readily scattered. Quack-grass is a widely distributed and trouble- some weed in Europe and in southern Canada and the United States. Its extensively creeping rhizomes enable it to spread rapidly. It has some value as a forage, particularly in permanent mea- dows or pastures. It is both nutritious and pala- table. A permanent sod must be gone over with a disk-harrow occasionally to loosen the sod. It is most useful as a soil-binder because of its persistent rootstocks. Quack-grass may be eradicated (accord- ing to Beal) by plowing late in fall, or very early in spring, regardless of weather conditions, and then using a shovel-toothed cultivator every three days till the middle of June. All green leaves must be persistently kept down. The harrow must cut off the stems below the surface of the ground to be effec- tive. It is not worth while to plow deep or to rake out the rootstocks. The plant can be eradicated faster by thorough work in the spring growing season than later in dry weather. A cultivated crop should first be used on the land, and all of the grass that comes up persistently chopped out with a hoe. The only cure is entirely to rid the soil of the roots and seeds. II. THE COTTON-BELT Cowpeas. (Fig. 871.) The most important hay crop in the cotton-belt is cowpeas. When sown for hay they are usually sown alone after a crop of small grain. The yield is seldom less than a ton per acre and sometimes as much as three tons, or even more. Two tons, however, may be considered a good yield. The hay is most excellent, especially when the seed-pods are numerous and well filled. Cowpeas are somewhat difficult to cure for hay. A method more or less generally used is to bunch the hay on poles set in the ground and extending to a height of five or six feet. Two cross-pieces about four feet long are nailed to the poles about six inches from the ground. The hay is then piled on until it tops the stake. In this way cowpea hay may be cured in any kind of weather. Cowpea hay may be readily cured by the use of hay caps made of No. 10 ducking cut forty inches square, attach- ing a small weight to each corner. 448 MEADOWS AND PASTURES Cowpeas are frequently sown in corn in the South at the last cultivation, either broadcast or in drills, at the rate of two pecks of seed per acre in the latter case. Most of the cowpea seed of the country is gathered by hand from peas thus sown. In a few instances, after the corn is gathered the corn-stalks and cowpea vines are cut together for hay. More commonly the vines are left on the ground for their renovating effect. This crop is very frequently sown alone, to be plowed under in renovating worn-out lands. This is an excel- lent practice, although where stock is available it would be more profitable to harvest the crop, feed it, and return the resulting manure to the land. When a heavy crop of cowpeas is plowed under, it is usually wise to wait until the following spring before planting the land to another crop. [See Cowpea.] Satisfactory grasses are much needed for the South. Only two grasses have thus far been found that are generally adapted to the cotton-belt, and both of them are more or less objectionable because of their weedy nature. They are Johnson-grass and Bermuda. Johnson - grass (Andropogon Halepensis, Brot. Sorghum Halepense, Pers., Figs. 518 and 678). Known locally in South Carolina and parts of Georgia as Means’ grass. Johnson-grass was introduced into this country from Turkey about seventy years ago. It was hailed as a great hay grass for the South, and spread rapidly for a number of years before its weedy character was realized. It is probably the most productive hay grass in this country, and it is certainly one of the worst weeds. The weedy character is due to the remarkable development of its system of rootstocks, every joint in which is capable of producing a new plant. It is thus exceedingly difficult to eradicate when once established. When once started on a farm, it sooner or later spreads over the entire farm. It is distributed more or less generally throughout the cotton-belt. Northward its distribution is limited by cold. It does not spread into sections where the soil freezes to a depth of three or four inches in an ordinary winter. In recent years it is becoming established on irri- gated lands in the Southwest, where it is giving a great deal of trouble, particularly in vineyards, where it is difficult to fight. Johnson-grass will grow on almost any kind of soil, but it does best on rather heavy, moist land. It spreads ordinarily from the seed, but in cultivated land small bunches of the grass are spread more or less from the rootstocks, which are dragged about the field in tillage operations. In some sections it is unlawful to sow the seed of this grass. No very definite statement can be made concerning the quantity of seed required fora good stand. The seed weighs about forty-five pounds per bushel, and the quantity sown varies from a bushel to a bushel and a half per acre. Johnson-grass yields, in ordinary seasons, three full cuttings of hay. All kinds of stock prefer the hay to timothy, and it is somewhat more nutritious than the latter. Because of its rather laxative na- MEADOWS AND PASTURES ture, it is not well adapted to feeding livery horses that are liable to be driven to the limit of endur- ance immediately after a full feed. For ordinary work. horses and for cattle, the hay is entirely satisfactory. Like all of the sorghums, however, Fig. 673. Johnson-grass (Sorghum Halepense). By some, all the sorghums are included in the genus Andropogon. it is somewhat lacking in protein, and should be fed with other materials rich in that material. When it is desirable to utilize a stand of John- son-grass for the production of hay, it is necessary to plow the land every two or three years in order to keep the meadow productive. The best time to MEADOWS AND PASTURES plow for this purpose is just after the last crop of hay is harvested, or in spring before the growth has begun. The yield of Johnson-grass may be increased by sowing some winter legume, such as bur-clover or the common vetch, and pasturing the legume off during the late winter and early spring. The fact that livery stable men do not find John- son grass hay a satisfactory feed, and the fear of introducing Johnson-grass through the hay in sec- tions where it is not already established, greatly limit the market for this crop. There is a fair market in some sections where the grass is well established and in regions where the lumbering industry is important. Recent studies by the United States Department of Agriculture have resulted in discoveries that render the complete eradication of Johnson-grass comparatively easy. The underground stems live only one year. After passing through the winter, these stems have only one mission, and that is to throw up branches to the surface. These new branches, on reaching the surface, form crowns and produce new plants. About blossoming time these new plants send out a new growth of underground stems, which, if the top is left uncut, grow to great size and length, frequently penetrating the soil to adepth of four feet. But if the top is cut back promptly every time it heads out, these new rootstocks develop very late in the season, are very slender and remain very neer the surface. If the grass be cut close during « season, then by plowing just deep enough to turn up all the root- stock, say three to four inches deep, the grass can be eradicated about as easily as Kentucky blue- grass. The succeeding crop should be a cultivated one, such as corn or cotton. A little better culti- vation than usual will exterminate the pest when it is treated as here outlined. Bermuda-grass (Cynodon Dactylon), Fig. 540, is distributed throughout the cotton-belt, and through- out the Gulf coast region, where cotton is not im- portant. It ic decidedly difficult to eradicate and hence is rather generally considered a weed. It can be held in check by growing densely shading crops such as sorghum, millet, cowpeas, velvet beans and the like. By smoothing down the land and allowing a perfect sod to form, the grass may be killed by shallow plowing followed by thorough tillage in dry, hot weather in summer. In the northern part of its territory an old sod may easily be killed by shallow plowing in late fall or in the winter. The resulting exposure of the roots to cold effectually kills the grass. When grown for hay, Bermuda may be cut two or three times in a season. On good, fairly moist land it will yield two or two and one-half tons of hay per acre. In one instance, on James island, near Charleston, 8. C., where vetch volunteers in the fall on a Bermuda sod many years old and is allowed to die down in the spring, two crops of Bermuda hay yielding four tons per acre are cut. This field has been handled in the same way for twenty-five years, with excellent results. It is heavily fertilized every spring with phosphoric acid and potash. B20 MEADOWS AND PASTURES 449 Bermuda is the best pasture grass of the South. Its carrying capacity is perhaps greater than that of any other pasture grass in the country. In the early part of the season, while the grass is young and tender, it is highly palatable. In late summer it becomes more or less wiry unless carefully handled, and is not so satisfactory. Unlike John- son-grass, it will bear any amount of trampling, on the heavier class of soils at least, apparently without injury. On light, sandy soils it is rather easily driven out by other grasses, especially near the Gulf coast by carpet-grass (page 451). ! Bermuda pastures and meadows are usually started from small pieces of sod incorporated in the soil. The seed of this grass is rather unreliable and usually costs not less than seventy-five cents a pound. By giving the seed-bed special prepara- tion, fining it by means of the harrow as much as possible, and sowing the seed after the ground is thoroughly warmed, three or four pounds of seed will usually give a good stand, if it comes at all. A very good way to set land to Bermuda is to tramp into the ground while it is muddy small pieces of Bermuda sod. Another way is to drop pieces of sod two or three feet apart in every sec- ond or third furrow while the land is being plowed three or four inches deep. Still another very good practice is to put the land in good condition by plowing and harrowing, scatter pieces of sod broad- cast and then roll them into the land. Paspalum dilatatum. Water-grass. ‘Fig. 521.) This grass is found more or less widely scattered in-the cotton-belt, and by many is thought to be of considerable value for hay and pasture, though its value is really not well established. It has a long growing season, starting early in spring and remaining fresh and green till fall. It is hardy and will grow on a wide range of soils, but prefers moist situations. It stands pasturing. The seed has recently found a place on the. market. The seed is attacked by afungous disease, which renders most of it useless. It should be gathered either very early in the season or very late to avoid this fungous disease. Little is known concerning the quantity of seed required or the best method of seeding. [See page 451.] Cereals. The cereal grains are much grown for hay and for winter pasture in the South. Oats is by far the most important. They are all more or less valuable for both of the purposes mentioned. Crab-grass (Syntherisma sanguinalis). Fig. 520. This grass is abundant throughout the cotton-belt and beyond. It is very frequently cut for hay, which is of fair quality, and is much pastured. As the grass comes up volunteer on land which is cultivated in the early part of the season and left undisturbed in midsummer, it is a cheap source of feed. It furnishes an important part of the hay crop, but is seldom sold off the farm where it is produced. The yield is half a ton to a ton and a half per acre, the smaller yields being usual; three tons per acre may be secured under the best con- ditions. The seed is never sown, the growth being entirely volunteer. It reaches its best growth in moist lands.. The main difficulty is to cure the grass 450 MEADOWS AND PASTURES properly. When curing is well done, the forage is nutritious and palatable. Japan clover (Lespedeza striata). Fig. 593. This useful plant was first observed about 1850 at Charleston, §. C. Since that time it has spread throughout the cotton-belt and as far north as the Ohio and Missouri rivers. It is found rather gener- ally along roadsides and in waste ground. It fre- quently comes up in old deserted fields, in all of which situations it furnishes a considerable amount of valuable pasture. It is available for pasture from early summer till late in the fall. It seeds abundantly and when once established, although it is an annual, it is more or less permanent. The hay is said to be of excellent quality. [See Lespedeza.] Sorghum (Fig. 674) is very largely used in the South, in late summer, as a green feed for all kinds of stock. It is not infrequently sown thick and cut for hay. It is planted like either corn or. wheat. In the former case one-half a gallon to a gallon of seed is used; in the latter case, half a bushel to two bushels. [See Sorghwm.] ; St. Augustine grass (Stenotaphrum secundatum), Fig. 580, is adapted to a wide range of soils, but seldom succeeds except near the coast. It is propa- gated readily by root-cuttings or pieces of the sod. Roots are formed wherever the joints touch the ground, Texas blue-grass (Poa arachnifera), Fig. 546, is a native of Texas, but it is now grown somewhat widely in the southern states. It makes a good sod, which remains green the year round. It makes its principal growth during the winter, beginning in October and furnishing pasture until April or May. The seed is matured in April. In the summer months it makes little growth. This grass would undoubtedly be more generally grown if it were easier to propagate. It produces an abundance of seed but is difficult to start from seed. Cuttings of the rootstocks are used almost entirely. They should be set about twelve inches apart each way. The creeping rootstocks soon occupy the ground, It does best on a rich loam, MEADOWS AND PASTURES well prepared and having good drainage. Planting may be done either in fall or spring, September and October being preferable. If seed is used, it should be drilled in, in rows about twelve inches apart. sore (Bromus unioloides), Fig. 559, does best on arich loam. It should be seeded in August or September, at the rate of thirty to forty pounds per acre. Farther north, where the summers are not so warm, it may be seeded in the spring and be used for summer and fall pasture. When fall- sown in the South, it grows rapidly and may fur- nish pasture in December or January. The seed will mature in March or April. If the conditions are right, two cuttings may be had in a season, the first one in the spring. If the seed is allowed to mature in the spring, it will fall to the ground and remain dormant until fall. In this way a perma- nent stand may be secured, and the land may be plowed and used for a summer crop during the dormant period. III. THe GutF Coast REGION This is one of the most distinct agricultural regions in the United States. No distinct cropping systems are developed, although agriculture is more diversified in that section than in any other part of the South. Cotton is relatively of small impor- tance. Truck-growing perhaps stands first. Sugar- cane is important. Some phases of fruit-growing, especially in the southern part of the region, are prominent. More live-stock is found in the Gulf coast region than in any other southern territory. This is especially true of southern Texas and of central and southern Florida. In these sections, however, live-stock is not strictly farm animals but is run on ranges where the native grasses furnish more or less abundant feed. The section has four more or less valuable hay and pasture plants of identical habits. Three of these are found mainly in the eastern gulf region, the fourth almost wholly in the western. The three in the east are crab-grass, beggarweed (Desmodium tortuosum, also given as Meibomia tortuosa), and Mexican clover (Richardsonia scabra). These all come up volunteer on land that is cultivated in spring and left undisturbed insummer. Frequently two or three of them are found together. Colorado grass, which is found principally in south-central Texas, has the same habits. It is of no importance except on alluvial soils, where volunteer crops sometimes furnish two or three tons of hay per acre. The hay is hard to cure because of its rank growth, but is of excellent quality if cut before it is too ripe. Crab-grass has already been discussed (page 449). It is perhaps more important in the Gulf coast region than it is in the cotton-belt. One farmer in Florida makes a business of produc- ing seed of this grass. Beggarweed (Figs. 8305-307) is used mostly for pasture and as a cover-crop, though it is sometimes cut for hay and for silage. The silage is said to be of unusually fine quality for dairy cows. [See Beggarweed.] Mexican clover has gradually spread over the eastern half of the MEADOWS AND PASTURES Gulf coast region. It is grown only as a volunteer crop. Horses relish it green, but cows do not. All kinds of stock, however, eat the hay readily. In some localities it is an important addition to the forage resources. [See Mexican clover, page 309.] All of these crops produce feed that costs nothing but the harvesting, and in most cases the stock may do that. Velvet bean (Mucuna utilis). This crop is not much grown outside of Florida, but it is important there. It occupies the whole season, and is a very rank grower, the vines sometimes reaching sixty feet in length. It is difficult to handle as hay, but a good deal of hay is made from it, The hay is of good quality and the yield is large. If left in the field, the vines and immature pods after they are frosted are eaten with relish by all kinds of stock. When the ripe pods have softened by contact with the ground, the seeds are readily eaten by cattle and hogs. About a peck of seed is used per acre, and the price of seed is usually about a dollar a bushel. It is doubtful whether this crop would satisfactorily replace cowpeas north of Florida. [See Velvet bean.] Carpet-grass (Paspalum compressum). This grass is found from Florida to central Texas and north to Arkansas. The stems grow very close to the ground, sending up leaves two to six inches high. It is greatly relished by all kinds of stock, and its habit of lying flat and rooting at the joints enables it to bear closer cropping than any other good grass. On light sandy soils, when this grass is closely cropped it will drive out all others. It is not confined to sandy land, however, doing well on good upland loams. It is seldom cut for hay, but is one of the best pasture grasses in the country so far as quality is concerned. Its carrying capacity is hardly known because so little effort has been made to utilize it under farm conditions. Its seed is not on the market. The tall, bare stems are fre- quently cut and scattered where the seed is wanted. The seed could easily be gathered by hand or perhaps with a stripper similar to that used in harvesting blue-grass in the North. Paspalum dilatatum. This grass was referred to above (page 449). In one section of southwestern Georgia it has become known under the name Dallis grass, from the name of a progressive farmer who has made considerable use of it for hay and pasture. In eastern Australia it is by far the most important of the grasses. It is known there as pas- palum grass. It grows five or six feet high in Australia and is used mostly for pasture, remain- ing green the year round. It has been little tried in the Gulf coast region, but as it thrives in a cor- responding latitude in Australia, it would appear that it is worthy of trial in northern Florida. It is not well adapted to sandy lands, which may ac- count for its scarcity in the Gulf coast region. Japanese cane. A variety of sugar-cane known as Japanese cane is somewhat frequently grown for forage in northern Florida and along the Gulf coast as far west as Louisiana. The stalks are smaller and more numerous than those of ordinary sugar-cane and the plant remains green longer in MEADOWS AND PASTURES 451 winter. It produces enormous yields of good forage and is much appreciated by dairymen. It lasts sev- eral years longer from one seeding than does the ordinary sugar-cane. Cassava (Figs. 323, 324). An account of the forage crops of the Gulf coast region would not be complete without a mention of cassava. A few years ago this crop was exploited in that region and it became rather popular, although interest in it has waned greatly in recent years. In the Gulf coast region the roots are frequently used as feed for cattle and hogs, taking the place of corn, for which purpose they are valuable. It is difficult to secure a perfect stand of the crop. This may be done, however, by sprouting the stem-cuttings in coldframes before planting. An effort is now being made by the United States Department of Agricul- ture to propagate this crop from seed, with a fair degree of success. [See Cassava.] Three recent introductions. Guinea-grass (Panicum maximum), Fig. 523, the great forage plant of Cuba, is getting a foothold in Florida and along the Gulf coast to Texas. It does best on lands that are not wet, furnishes five or more cuttings a year and yields an immense quantity of excellent soiling material. It is best cut every four weeks, otherwise it becomes large and woody. It is very sensitive to cold, and if the ground freezes at all the roots are killed. It is used chiefly as a soiling crop. For the best results it must be planted in rows about five feet apart and cultivated. It produces seed at Biloxi, Mississippi, and volunteers freely from this seed. Little is known of its seed habits, as it is usually propa- gated from root-cuttings. It lasts several years from one setting. Para-grass (Panicum molle), Fig. 522, is a bad weed in wet lands in tropical countries. It first sends out long runners (twenty or more feet) with internodes two feet long. From the joints it takes root and sends up branches three or four feet high. It is decidedly a wet-land grass. Because of its vigorous growth it is difficult to eradicate, but yields remarkable quantities of hay or pasture. It is fairly well relished by stock. It is propagated by cuttings of the creeping stems, which live through the winter. It does not mature seed in this coun- try to any extent. The cuttings are best planted just before the rainy season, about six to twelve feet apart each way. It is not adapted to rigorous climates, and must not be cut too late in the fall. Time should be allowed after the last cutting to produce sufficient growth to protect the roots dur- ing the winter. It is a heavy grower, and may be cut every six weeks during the summer. The first cutting is made about June 1. It is grown ina few localities in Florida and in southern Texas. It has been known to carry three head of cattle per acre all summer and to keep them in good condition. Natal grass (Tricholena rosea) is a third recent introduction. It was introduced into Florida about 1890 by S. M. Tracy. It is well established there in the wild state in a few localities. It' seeds 452 MEADOWS AND PASTURES abundantly and is spreading. Very little is known of its forage value. It grows two to five feet high and may be worthy of more attention than it has received. In the Hawaiian islands it is a rather serious weed in the cane-fields. IV. Tue Piains REGION The eastern edge of the Plains region may be considered in two divisions, namely, the north and the south. In the north, brome grass (Bromus iner- mis, see page 445) is the most important perennial hay and pasture plant. It takes the place in that MEADOWS AND PASTURES Broom-corn millet. There are several varieties of broom-corn millet grown in the Dakotas. The seed is several times larger than that of the foxtail millets. It is sown after the manner of wheat, mostly for its seed, which is used as feed for all! kinds of stock. Sorghum. The several varieties of sorghum, both saccharine and non-saccharine, find their most important development as farm crops in the Plains region, especially from Nebraska southward. The ordinary sweet sorghums are grown largely for hay and for fodder. These crops are all resistant to: drought and are relished by all kinds of stock. In Kansas and southward kafir (Figs. 577, 578) is largely grown both for grain and fodder. A variety of sorghum closely related to kafir, known variously as milo, dwarf milo and yellow milo, is of special value in the Panhandle region of Texas. [See Kafir and Sorghum.] Alfalfa is the most important hay plant of this region. It will be noticed more par- ticularly below. In this region large quantities of wild prairie grasses are cut for hay. The hay is found on all the western markets, where it usually sells at about half the price of timothy hay. Fig 675. Native pasture. Pottain Ranch on south fork of Hum- Looking down stream. boldt river, Elko county, Nevada. section occupied by both timothy and blue-grass farther east. Itis usually sown in the spring, either with or without a grain crop, at the rate of about twenty pounds of seed per acre. Home-grown seed is much superior to the imported, largely because imported seed is the refuse from the European seed trade. The first year it yields large quantities of excellent hay. If cut for seed a good crop will pro- duce 500 to 700 pounds of seed per acre. Later the grass becomes sod-bound, and unless broken up, and rolled and harrowed into condition again, it no longer yields profitable crops of hay or seed. It is, however, a good pasture grass for a number of years. It is beginning to be grown in rotation in that section much as timothy is grown in the East. Millet is important in the same region. This is true both of the foxtail millets and of the broom- corn millets. Brome grass extends as far south as northern Kansas, but does not succeed south of central Kansas. The millets, especially the foxtail varieties, extend to central Texas. The eastern edge of the Plains region is the only section in which millets are of first importance. It will be noticed more later. [See Millet.] Foxtail millets. There are many varieties of this group, the most common being Common millet, or Hungarian-grass, and German millet. Common millet is grown most largely in the Northwest, Ger- man millet mostly in the South. Theseed of German millet is largely grown in one locality in central Tennessee. Hungarian-grass is grown more or less throughout the country, being frequently found in small areas on dairy-farms in the North, even in New England. VY. THE Rocky MountTAIN STATES In this section alfalfa is by far the most impor- tant hay and pasture plant. It is grown mostly on irrigated land in the mountain states and to the west. Timothy and clover, orchard-grass and the cereals, especially wheat and oats, occupy more or less important places in the economy of the farm in this section. In some of the mountain parks an excellent quality of wild hay is secured. In one of these, South Park, Colorado, a species of rush (Juncus Balticus) is extensively cut for hay, and this hay on the Denver market outranks timothy as a feed for horses. In northern Montana, in the Milk river valley, a wild grass, known locally as blue-stem (Agropyron occidentale), is grown ex- tensively for hay, and it is generally considered as superior to timothy for horses. This same grass prevails more or less generally in Colorado and te Dakotas, and, when present in considerable quan- tity in the native hay, adds greatly to its feeding value. It is especially adapted to wet lands and irrigated areas. It is nutritious and palatable, and relished by horses. Slender wheat-grass (Agropyron tenerum), which is a bunch grass, also does well on dry land and is very hardy against cold. It is a promising forage grass in the Dakotas and the Canadian Northwest, where it may be considered a standard grass. VI. PactFic Coast Alfalfa. In this section alfalfa outranks all ° other grasses and forage plants. It is almost the only hay crop grown on irrigated lands. We may MEADOWS AND PASTURES fairly state that aside from maize it is the most valuable forage plant known to man. Many fields are reported that have yielded satisfactory crops for a quarter of a century or more. It succeeds generally on irrigated soils throughout the West and on good non-irrigated prairie soils in the Plains region from the Dakotas to southern Texas. Farther east it is more choice of soils, being diffi- cult to grow except on rich alluvial soils or on upland soils heavily charged with lime. It is be- coming well established on alluvial lands along the Red river in Louisiana and Arkansas and along the Mississippi river as far north as southeastern Mis- souri. It may be grown readily on good prairie soils in Missouri, Iowa, southern Minnesota, south- ern Wisconsin and northern Illinois. In central New York it has long been established ona peculiar limestone soil. Perhaps one of the best alfalfa soils in the country is that found in what is known locally as the Cane Brake in Alabama and Missis- sippi, a narrow strip of prairie land heavily charged with lime, running across the central part of the state of Alabama and turning northward into northeastern Mississippi. In the localities men- _ tioned, this crop is not difficult to start, though in some sections inoculation with alfalfa bacteria is necessary when the crop is first introduced. When this crop is difficult to grow, it is well to sow the seed from the middle to the latter part of August in the North, from the middle of August to the middle of September in middle latitudes, and either in September or March for the South. The number of cuttings increases southward, being three ina season in the northern states, four in the latitude of southern Missouri, four to six in northern Louisi- ana, eight to nine along the Rio Grande river, and eight to eleven in southern California. Aside from its use for dairy and beef cattle, alfalfa is perhaps the best hog pasture in this country. The feeding value of the hay is such that brood sows can be wintered on it without other feed very satisfactorily. It is also an excellent pasture for horses and mules. Because of its tendency to cause bloat, cattle and sheep should not be pastured on alfalfa except with great caution. [For further information, see the article Alfalfa, page 192.] On non-irrigated lands the cereals, especially wheat, are grown for hay very largely on the Pacific coast. Wild oats (Fig. 548) are a bad weed in that section. It is customary to cut those sec- tions of wheat-fields for hay in which wild oats are most prevalent. Barley and oats are also used extensively in some localities for hay. In western Oregon and western Washington timothy and clover occupy much the same place that they do in the timothy region of the East, but in that section orchard-grass and Italian rye-grass, particularly the latter, are much more appreciated than they are in most other parts of the country. Meadow fescue is also frequently met with in western Oregon. Along the northern Pacific coast, espe- cially on sandy and peaty soils, velvet-grass is almost universal. It is generally regarded as a pest because of its low yield of hay and because stock will not eat it until starved to it. However, MEADOWS AND PASTURES 453 they can be made to acquire a taste for it, after which they will thrive on it. It yields about half a ton of hay per acre. Native Meadows and Pastures of the Plains and Ranges. Figs. 676, 677. By P. Beveridge Kennedy. The native or unsown meadows and pastures, existing on unbroken or wild land, extend over such a vast extent of country, with such varied charac- teristics of soil and climate, that only the larger phases of the subject can be treated in a discussion of this nature. Some of the leading species compris- ing the grazing flora may be mentioned. The native hay lands and grazing lands are not necessarily ten- anted by grasses and clovers alone, as we shall see. The Southwest. The greater part of Arizona, New Mexico and Texas is included in this region. Poplars and wil- lows are abundant along the rivers, while mesquit and creosote bush cover large stretches on the sandy and grav- elly mesas. The native meadows in the northern part consist largely of saccaton and salt- grass, which furnish forage of a poor quality. Farther south there is an open prairie coun- try. In some sections of New Mexico and Texas on the mesa lands, the grama-grasses fur- nish considerable summer: and winter pasturage. In the ex- treme southwest, in the Texas prairie section, the wheat- grasses, blue-stems, gramas, wild-rye, mesquit-grass, switch- grass, needle-grass and buffalo- grass furnish considerable native pasturage in seasons of good rains, The important grasses enter- ing into the composition of the native meadows and pastures are, the western wheat-grass (Agropyron), feather and bushy blue-stem (Andropogon), three grama-grasses (Bouteloua), Ari- zona millet (Chetochloa), wild- rye (Elymus), everlasting grass (Eriochloa), curly mesquit (Hila- « ria), wild timothy (Muhlenber- gia), white-top (Triodia), galleta or black grama (Hilaria), alkali saccaton (Panicum), needle- grass, (Aristida), buffalo-grass (Bulbilis), bunch drop-seed grass (Sporobolus), and saltgrass (Dis- tichlis). The following plants, other than grasses, are of great importance,on the ranges for forage: Mesquit beans (Prosopis, p. 308), screw- bean (Prosopis), lupines (Lupinus), milk - vetches Fig. 676. A Sage-brush. One of the Artemisias. 454 MEADOWS AND PASTURES (Astragalus), saltbushes, winterfat (Eurotia), plan- tains, alfilaria, Stolley vetch, tallow-weed (Actinella), tall tallow-weed (Amblyolepis), beggarweed, wild bean. Prickly pear and other cacti have been used for forage in this section by burning off the spines (page 226). ; The Great Plains region. The native grasses and forage plants of this region do not play such an important part in agriculture as formerly. There are still, however, immense tracts of open prairie from which large quantities of native hay are cut. In wet and swampy places, slough-grass (Spartina), if cut when WN i Fig. 677. young, furnishes a supply of coarse hay. Several blue-stems together with switch-grass (Panicum), side-oats grama (Bouteloua), and western wheat- grass, supply the bulk of the native hay. All of these are also valuable for pasturage, but the two chief pasture grasses are buffalo-grass and blue grama. Other grasses of importance are wild rye, wild timothy, reed canary-grass, and needle-grass (Stipa). Two native forage plants, other than grasses, which have come into prominence because of their forage value are the wild vetch (Hosackia; see the article on Vetch, page 658) and Beckwith’s clover (Trifolium Beckwithii). The former occurs more or less abundantly throughout the prairie region, while the latter is common in low meadows along the upper Sioux valley and other places in South Dakota. As elsewhere on the open ranges of the country, much harm has been done by over-stocking Mountain or bunch-grass pasture in the far west. MEADOWS AND PASTURES The Rocky.mountain region. The cultivated crops grown in this region are insignificant compared with the millions of cattle, sheep and horses that subsist on the summer moun- tain ranges and the winter desert feeding-grounds. The Red Desert of Wyoming alone is estimated to winter 300,000 to 500,000 sheep. In Wyoming some alfalfa is grown, but the bulk of the hay is made from the native grasses. The native meadows are composed chiefly of blue-grasses (Poa), wheat- grasses (Agropyron), brome-grasses (Bromus), rye-grasses (Elymus), blue-joint, needle-grass, hair- grass, mountain timothy (Phleum), mountain fox- tail (Alopecurus), sedges and rushes. In the foothills } i ii vii CARN Hf i Hi Wh IA \ i y ut Md st y Agu i \ | H i Mi Ne } i ps SNE i ah ij Bache bordering on the Great Plains region, blue grama is abundant and important. Sheep’s fescue and snow- grass (Festuca) are also important on the high mountain ridges. Two native species of clover, Rocky mountain and Beckwith’s, add greatly to the nutritive value of the meadow hay in some places. There are very many other plants, both annual and perennial, as well as a large variety of shrubs, which are of value from a forage standpoint,-but cannot be here enumerated. The Great Basin region. This region is bounded on the west by the Sierra Nevada mountains, extending northward to include parts of Oregon and Idaho, and southward to northern Arizona. Sagebrush and rabbit-brush (Chrysothamnus) are the prevailing plants, except where alkali is present, when the vegetation changes WONIpuos eutid ur [Is pue ‘ode savot + BAG-AJWOA JNoGV $yOqoY *q ‘T Aossojorg Aq UMop pre] ‘Aysaoaluy [[euIoH 4 ,,ednyseg ,s}oqoy,, Psjou oy} st sty, ‘omNysed yUoURUNIEG “JAK IgG & RS 5 [eee aaa MEADOWS AND PASTURES to iodine weed (Sueda), greasewood (Sarcobatus), saltgrass (Distichlis), and saltbushes, according to the percentage of injurious mineral salts in the soils. In the central part of Nevada, along the Humboldt river, there are immense tracts of wild native hay and pasture lands. The stock is allowed to roam in the hills during the summer and in the autumn is turned into the meadows after the hay is all stacked, when they feed among the tules (Typha) and other places inaccessible to the mower. The hay consists largely of wild wheat-grass (Elymus). It is sold at so much per day for range stock being fattened for market. In the desert regions there are numerous moun- tain valleys irrigated by the melting snow from the mountains. These produce an abundance of native hay and pasturage, comprised largely of blue-grasses, clovers, sedges and rushes. Giant rye-grass (Elymus), when young and green, is cut in considerable quantities and left in bunches where the cattle feed on it in winter when other forage becomes scarce. There are hundreds of other plants of considerable value that are browsed on through- out the year to a greater or less extent. Pacific slope region. In this region might be included the states of California, Oregon, Washington, Idaho and the ter- ritory of Alaska. It may be divided into the follow- ing geographical sections, each with its character- istic climate. (a) Pacific coast; (6) upper Pacific coast; (¢) interior valley of California; (d) the Inland Empire; and (¢) Alaska. (a) Pacific coast.—This section is characterized by low hills of usually poor soil, although in a few places the coast line has been eroded and has formed fertile flood plains. On these bottom lands one acre to a cow is usually sufficient, and stock is on pasture for nine months of the year. The native pasturage consists of oat-grass (Danthonia), red fescue, hair-grass (Deschampsia), blue-grass (Poa), and about ten wild clovers (Trifolium), while mixed with these to a greater or less extent are a number of introduced species, such as the perennial and Italian ray-grasses (Lolium), velvet-grass, soft chess, white clover, bur-clover (Medicago), black medic and alfilaria. : (b) Upper Pacific coast.—This section includes northern California and the western parts of Ore- gon and Washington. The pastures consist mainly of tufted hair-grass (Deschampsia), white-top, meadow barley-grass (Hordeum), oat-grass, prairie June-grass (Keleria), California fescue, reed- grass, slough-grass (Beckmannia), melic- grass (Melica), sheep’s fescue, blue-grasses and several needle-grasses (Stipa). Adding greatly to the nutri- tive value of the hay and pastures are about fif- teen species of native clovers. The mountain ranges also support an almost endless variety of plants of forage value, such as the vetches, wild lupines, sunflowers, wild carrots, Indian potato and many others. To the detriment of the native plants, three weedy brome-grasses, velvet-grass, small barley- grass and squirrel-tail grass have become natural- ized. Hogsare usuaily turned into the woods, where MEADOWS AND PASTURES 455 they find plenty to eat almost the entire year * round, feeding on acorns, nuts, manzanita berries, bulbs and tubers, together with grasses and clovers. (c) Interior valley of California.—This section includes two immense valleys, which form a huge basin in the central part of California. Locally the basin is divided into the San Joaquin and Sac- ramento valleys, named after the rivers which run through them. The flood waters of these rivers extend during the spring months over hundreds of square miles of land, making it worthless except for pasturage, and then only in the late summer months. As the waters recede, a strong dense growth of tules (Scirpus) is produced, which, to- gether with sedges, rushes and water-loving grasses, provides forage for large numbers of stock. (d) The Inland Empire or Columbia Basin.—This includes parts of eastern Washington, northeastern Oregon and northern Idaho. In the Palouse country of eastern Washington, wheat and wild oats are largely grown for hay. Those sections of the Em- pire having a rainfall of less than ten inches are devoted largely to grazing and the production of alfalfa by irrigation. Large areas have been over- stocked and the native meadows are being replaced by cultivated crops. Some of the grasses of special importance growing indigenously in the meadows and bottom lands are western and false wheat-grass, white-top, water foxtail, blue-joint (Calamagrostis), oat-grass, hair-grass (Deschampsia), saltgrass (Dis- tichlis), wild rye, meadow barley-grass, melic-grass, manna-grass and blue-grasses. On the dry hills in the ravines and among the sagebrush, the following are of considerable importance ; bunch wheat-grass (Agropyron), mountain rye-grass (Elymus), sheep’s fescue, needle-grasses (Stipa) and false oat-grass (Trisetum.) In addition to the above there are about ten native clovers, nearly all of which are very nutri- tious and well liked by stock. The sedges and rushes are. also extremely abundant and enter largely into the composition of all the native meadows and pastures. As in other regions devoted. to grazing, the vetches, milk-vetches, lupines, sun- flowers, saltbushes and wild peas play an important. part in the production of forage. (e) Alaska.—Only:a small part of this new terri- tory has been investigated from a forage stand- point. The chief literature describing the meadows and pastures is to be found in the annual report of the office of Experiment Stations for the year 1904, Bulletin No. 82 of the Bureau of Plant Industry, and the publications of the Alaska Experiment Station. The following extract from Bulletin No. 82 will give some idea as to the present conditions: “Live-stock husbandry in Alaska will have to de- pend primarily on the native forage plants, sup- plemented in time, perhaps, by such additional ones as experiments shall indicate may compete with the native plants, or which on cultivated land will yield heavily enough to be profitable.” Blue-top, beach rye, Kentucky blue-grass, silver- top, Siberian fescue, various sedges, Alaska lupine and fireweed are mentioned as being the best native forage plants. 456 MEDIC MEDIC. Medicago species. 678, 679. The one great medic is alfalfa. This plant, once thought to he adapted only to semi-arid regions, is now grown extensively in many parts of the humid East, where it is specially valuable to dairymen. In recent years, eastern dairymen have depended on nitrogenous by-products to balance home-grown rations, which consist largely of corn silage and timothy hay. Alfalfa is adapted to saving a part of this expenditure, as is shown by the following table based on analyses and digestion experiments of American Experiment Stations: Leguminose. Figs. COMPARISON OF Hays ON AN AVERAGE TONNAGE PER ACRE. * Digestibl Digestibl Vintner | Digestbie | Plgoetih per acre per acre Tons Pounds Pounds Alfalfa .. .. 2.3 2,461 506 Commonred clover 11 1,027 150 Timothy. ... 11 1,091 62 While alfalfa hay, on account of its bulky char- acter, can only be a partial substitute for concen- trates from grains or manufactured nitrogenous by-products, it may also on account of its produc- tiveness, where successfully grown, be a profitable substitute for other hay crops. Since it is perennial it reduces the labor and care for a given area of land to the minimum. The medics are plants of the genus Medicago, some fifty in number, some of which are grown for 2 forage. With the exception of alfalfa, which is Medicago sativa, the species are of very secondary agricultural value, and are practically unknown to the farming people of this coun- try. Medicago is closely allied to Trifolium (the clovers),from which it is distinguished chiefly by the twisted or coiled pods [see Fig. 274, in the Alfalfa arti- cle]. With the exception of one shrubby species, the medics are herbs, ; annual or perennial, mostly with , clover-like habit, rather small leaves of three leaflets, and flow- ers purple or yellow in small heads, short spikes or racemes. They are native in Europe, Africa and Asia. Several species have been tried at experiment stations and more or less recommended for special purposes. Seeds of some species are used as adulterants in other seeds [see page 141]. The best known medic (aside from alfalfa) in this country is the hop or black medic (Medicago lupulina, Fig. 678), which looks like a small-headed yellow-flowered creeping clover, It is now a weed in many parts of the MEDIC country, although not particularly troublesome. It is said to afford good forage and has been récom- mended for special places now and then, but it appears to be of little value as compared with several other plants that thrive under similar conditions. It isan an- nual wiry pubescent plant, lying close to the ground. Medicago media is the Sand lucern men- tioned on page 193. A medic that has recently received attention is Snail clover (Medicago turbinata, Fig. 679). It is native in south- western Spain, introduced into California as a winter forage plant. The seed starts as soon as the fall rains come, and the plant grows vigorously through the winter and spring. The heavy crop of seeds is ma- tured in early summer, after which the plant shrivels up. It volunteers from year to year, so that direct seeding is not necessary after the crop is es- tablished. The pods, which are large and smooth, lie on the ground after the plant has withered, and are easily gath- ered. If they are allowed to remain, the seeds will germi- nate the following fall. The plant gives promise as a for- age plant because of its heavy growth; and its heavy seed production and ready germi- nation may make it valuable as a cover-crop and green- manure. It thrives on moist land but is somewhat drought- c cee Fig. 679. resistant. It shows liability gpai co SS (Medicago to frost injury in some local- turbinata). ities. Bur-clover is a name applied to two medics, Medicago denticulata and M. maculata. The former is a weed on the Pacific coast, but furnishes much forage in dry summer pas- tures. The spotted clover, ¢ or southern bur-clover, M. maculata, is recom- mended for the South, par- ticularly for winter pas- ture in the sandy soils of the pine- woods regions. Various other medics are mentioned in experiment station and other litera- ture, but they are not of sufficient importance to warrant discussion here. The economically import- ant species in this country at present, aside from alfalfa, are M, denticulata and M. maculata, Fig. 678. Black or hop medic (Medicago tupulina). MEDICINAL PLANTS MEDICINAL, CONDIMENTAL AND ARO- MATIC PLANTS. Figs. 680-691. By R. H. True, and others. The growing of medicinal, condimental and aro- matic plants in the United States has at present hardly passed beyond the experimental or garden stage, the demand for articles of these classes be- ing in general met where possible by importation. Nearly all native drug products are now obtained from wild plants. The threatened disappearance of some of the most valuable has led the government and private experimenters to make efforts to put some of these kinds under cultivation, e. g., golden seal, ginseng, echinacea, Seneca snakeroot, Cas- cara sagrada and others. Drug-plant cultivation on a small scale has long been practiced in a few places by the Shakers and others. At present, be- ginnings. in this line have been made in several places. Ginseng to a total value of about a million dollars is grown in New York, Ohio, Kentucky, Missouri and other states in the eastern half of the country. Golden seal is grown sparingly over a similar area. In California, some success has been reached in growing insect flowers (Pyrethrum spe- cies) on a commercial scale. Botanical source. For medicinal, condimental and aromatic prod- ucts in America, many botanical families are drawn on. The orchid family furnishes vanilla pods; the crowfoot family provides chiefly medici- nal products, as aconite, gollen seal and larkspur ; the potato family is represented by drugs, as bella- donna, jimson weed, tobacco, and among the condi- ments by red pepper and paprika; the mint family furnishes a considerable number of products used in medicine and also as flavoring agents, such as sage (Fig. 680), marjoram, basil, peppermint, spear- mint, hyssop, ‘thyme, savory and pennyroyal. Cat- nip, belonging to this family, has a medicinal value only. The laurel family is especially rich in aro- matic principles, and hence forms the group from which many spices are obtained, notably allspice, sweetbay, cloves and cinnamon. Sassafras and camphor, products of this family, are of especial medicinal value. The parsnip family shares this tendency toward aromatic products which are fre- quently used for both purposes: caraway, anise, fennel, lovage and coriander. The mustard family is also usually characterized by products of an aro- matic or spicy nature, as mustard, white and black. The spurge family is characteristically the source of medicinal principles, usually purgative, as castor- bean and croton seed. The great group of the com- posites includes a variety of products, such as dandelion, tansy, wormwood, elecampane and camo- mile to represent the medicinal group, and tarragon to represent the condimental use. Parts of plants used. Nearly all parts of the plant are made use of in obtaining medicinal, condimental and aromatic sub- stances. The entire root is used in dandelion, burdock, belladonna, yellow dock, lovage, licorice MEDICINAL PLANTS A457 ipecac, valerian and Seneca snakeroot; the bark of the root only in some cases, as in sassafras and cotton-root bark. The entire herb, excluding larger stems, is used in a number of small plants, as lobelia, pennyroyal, thyme, peppermint, spearmint and catnip; the leaves in belladonna, henbane, stramonium and foxglove; the flowers only in camomiles; the unopened buds in cloves; the fruits complete, as in red peppers, chillies, allspice, caraway, coriander, anise, fennel, black pepper Fig. 680. Sage plant one year old (adapted from 1903 Year- book, United States Department of Agriculture). and vanilla pods; the seed freed from the seec vessel, as in mustard, poppy seed, castor-beans ar’ fenugreek. Time of harvesting medicinal, condimental and ar. matic products. In general, root products are usually collected at the close of the growing season, when the plant has filled the roots or rhizomes with reserve prod- ucts, thus giving them a full appearance which makes them more acceptable than the shrunken material collected in the growing season. Harly spring, before the reserve products have been used up, is also a good season to harvest. Some dealers assert that the shrunken roots of some sorts are preferable as containing a greater quantity of the active principle than fall-dug roots. Perennial roots are sometimes preferred at some special stage of growth; e. g., belladonna root gives the best yield of alkaloids when two to four years old; if too old it becomes woody and the alkaloidal content decreases. Marshmallow root is preferred when about two years old. Leaves and herbs are, as a rule, collected when the plant is in full flower. Many tests have shown that at that stage the desirable principles, whether alkaloids or volatile oils, are most abundant. In the case of biennials, the leaves of the two years are often not of equal value; e.g., foxglove leaves are taken the second year when the plant is in flower. Flowers are sometimes collected in the bud stage, as in insect flowers, or soon after the flower has well opened, as in camomile. Calendula flowers are harvested at this stage by pulling off the bright- colored ray flowers, which alone make up the drug. Fruits are frequently collected a little before they 458 MEDICINAL PLANTS are thoroughly ripe in order to secure a bright appearance in the crude article, as in conium, cori- ander, anise, fennel and American wormseed. Others are allowed to ripen thoroughly, as red peppers and chillies. Some fruits are collected and allowed to dry before the seeds obtained from them are oo as opium poppy, stramonium and castor- eans. Methods of preparation. Usually the products of medicinal, condimental and aromatic plants are not used when fresh, but have to be got into a condition permitting storage or shipment so that they may be used at a distance or at some later time. The homeopathic school of medicine makes it a strong point to use plant drugs in a fresh condition or preserved by immer- sion in alcohol. In general, the preservation of these products is brought about by simple drying. When dry many cf them retain their most impor- tant properties for use. The live roots are care- fully cleaned by washing, and if not too large for easy drying are merely spread out in some airy place. If too large, they are cut up, frequently into characteristic forms. Leaf products are dried in the shade with natural heat or over a gentle artificial heat, about 125° Fahr. In order to secure a bright green color, pains must be taken to keep the leaves from taking up moisture at any stage. When dry they should be stored out of strong light. Barks are usually “rossed” before drying, i. e., the dead outer corky parts are scraped off. In the case of some drugs, as cascara bark, a more or less prolonged period of storage is neces- sary before use. Flowers and fruits are best when dried as promptly as possible without raising the temperature to a point likely to drive off more of the volatile substances than is necessary. Nearly all drug and condiment products leave the hands of the growers in the form of the crude, dry prod- ucts, which are worked up by the manufacturers into the proper forms for use. Medicinal, condimental and aromatic plant impor- tation. The sources of our crude drugs and condiments are very widely separated, depending in large part on climatic conditions. Common drug plants belonging to the temperate zone, such as digitalis, burdock and caraway, are in very large part pro- duced in northern and central Europe, frequently in more or less localized regions. Caraway comes chiefly from Holland, in small quantities from Norway, east Prussia and southern Germany. Fennel is cultivated in Saxony, Galicia, Macedonia and Italy. Digitalis leaves and belladonna reach the market from northern Germany, Austria, Belgium, Holland and England. Peppermint oil is produced chiefly in Japan and the United States. Other plants demanding tropical conditions are obtained from regions in which their culture has been undertaken. Cinchona bark, from which quinine is obtained, came formerly from the slopes of the Andes. Cultivation of this plant in India, Java, and other parts of the Orient has succeeded in MEDICINAL PLANTS so far as to cause the practical disappearance of the wild barks of South America from the market. Ipecacuanha, likewise a native of northern South America, is apparently repeating this history. Black and white pepper are chiefly produced in southeastern Asia, coming on the market through Singapore and Penang. Cloves are in large part supplied by Zanzibar, where the crop constitutes one of the royal monopolies. Some products are derived from still more localized regions, as buchu leaves from the vicinity of Cape Town, South Africa, and aloes from South Africa, the island of Socotra in the Red sea, and the Barbadoes islands. Some are cultivated, as may be seen in numerous cases cited above, and some are wild products. Camphor until recently has been derived from an essentially wild tree growing in Japan, China and Formosa. The great depletion of the natural for- ests has led the Japanese government to make extensive plantings. Several African sorts of the red peppers of the market are collected by natives from the wild plants and brought long distances to market. The quantity of drugs and condimental products imported into the United States may be learned from the customs report, which shows a total of $16,414,868.37 for the twelve months ended June 80, 1906. DESCRIPTIVE NOTES It is not intended to present here a discussion of all the plants used for medicinal, condimental and aromatic purposes. A few of the more common and useful ones only are discussed in detail. Anise (Pimpinella Anisum, Linn.). Unmbellifere. (G. F. Klugh.) Anise is an annual herb, two to three feet high, with smooth, twice-pinnate leaves, small yellowish white flowers in large terminal umbels, followed by short, somewhat curved, ribbed fruits ordinarily seen in pairs fastened together along their straight sides, narrowed toward the upper end, with a pleas- ant aromatic odor and taste. Anise is widely cultivated for the aromatic fruits and the volatile oil distilled from them. Russia is the largest present source, with a considerable quantity grown in other European countries, especially on the Mediterranean sea. The plant has been grown in America only on a small scale, chiefly in gardens. Considerable heat seems to be required to mature the crop. The plant grows readily from seed drilled in a good loamy soil, at such distances as may be best fitted to the method of cultivation, whether by horse or by hand. Planting should be done in the early spring. The fruit matures in the fall. Since a bright, clean appearance is desired, the fruit is collected before fully ripe. It is threshed off, dried and stored. The peculiar sweetish, aromatic taste is due chiefly to the volatile oil located in the ribs of the fruit. The fruits are rarely used for flavoring, the oil obtained by distillation being preferred. The usual yield of oil is about 2.5 per cent. The material re- MEDICINAL PLANTS maining after distillation is used in some parts of Kurope as a stock-feed. One investigator in Siam reports that the leaves are grown there and dis- tilled instead of the fruit. Belladonna (Atropa Belladonna, Linn.). Solanacee. (G. F. Klugh.) Figs. 681, 682. A coarse, herbaceous plant, with a fleshy, peren- nial root system, a branching, spreading and often straggling stem, reaching a height of three to five feet, bearing ovate, entire, nearly smooth leaves, three to six inches long, and numerous bell-shaped, dull purple flowers that occur either singly or in pairs; the fruit is a purple, very juicy berry of a sweet and not unpleasant taste. All parts contain atropine or related alkaloids and are poisonous. The leaves and roots are used in medicine. Belladonna occurs wild in the United States occasionally, but is native in Europe and occurs Fig. 681. Leaves of belladonna (Atropa Belladonna). there abundantly both wild and under cultivation. The demand of the American drug market is in part satisfied from England, Germany and Austria, where the plant is cultivated or collected wild. Recently its cultivation in the United States on a commercial scale has been begun. It seems to thrive as far north as New Jersey and does well at Washington, D. C. Vermont seems to be too far north. It is probable that Virginia and the Caro- linas offer a favorable type of climatic conditions. The soil should be a rich garden loam, moder- ately light and sandy, since a heavy soil gives a poor return in plants, a light yield of leaves and , roots, and favors winter-killing of the roots in* severe winters. A complete fertilizer is recom- mended, containing phosphates, potash and nitro- gen. The plants may be started in the field or in seed-beds and grown in three-foot rows, about twelve or fifteen inches apart in the rows. The seed may be sown in the fall or early spring in the MEDICINAL PLANTS 459 field and barely covered with soil, germination tak- ing place in March, when conditions are most favor- able for the growth of young seedlings. One to four pounds of seed are needed to sow an acre. Fig. 682. Root of a two-year-old belladonna plant, two feet deep. Grown at Washington, D.C. Cultivation should be frequent and shallow to keep the soil in good tilth and free from weeds. The leaves are picked when the plants are in full bloom, dried carefully in the shade, and then kept in a dry place. One crop may be gathered the first year, and two or more the second and later years, if the stalks are cut after each picking of leaves. The roots are dug at the end of the second year, washed, cut into four- or five-inch lengths and dried. The yield that may be expected on good soil is about 500 pounds of dried leaves per picking and 1,500 pounds of dry root at the end of the second year per acre. Camphor (Camphora officinalis, Steud.). Lauracee. Fig. 6838. A large evergreen tree, native in Asia, having a wide-spreading top, a thick, much-branched stem, alternate, entire, evergreen, leathery leaves, broadly lanceolate to ovate insform, axillary clusters of small, yellowish flowers which are followed by small, blackish berries, in size and appearance not very unlike the fruit of the native small black cherry (Prunus serotina). The tree is cultivated in Florida, along the Gulf strip and as far north along the Atlantic coast as South Carolina. The tree yields the gum camphor of commerce, as well as camphor oil used in liniments and the like. These substances are present in varying quantity in all parts of the tree, being especially Fig. 683. Camphor leaves (Oamphora officinalis). abundant in the dead heart-wood of old trees. They are also present in the leaves and other parts. Ex- periments by the United States Department of Agriculture have shown that camphor gum of high 460 MEDICINAL PLANTS quality can be distilled from the leaves by steam, and further experiments are now in progress in the hope of utilizing this source or method for camphor products. Caraway (Carum Carwi, Linn.). Umbellifere. (G. F. Klugh.) Caraway is usually a perennial herb, having an enlarged, fleshy root; erect, slender, somewhat branching stem, reaching a height of two feet, bearing pinnately compound leaves, the segments of which are very narrow, almost filiform; the small white flowers form a flat-topped umbel; the fruits, the so-called “caraway,” are narrow, ribbed, pointed at the ends, and have the characteristic caraway flavor due to the volatile oils contained in them. It is a native of Europe but is widely introduced into the United States, occurring wild or in kitchen gardens. Attempts are being made to produce it commercially in the United States to supply the large demand now satisfied from abroad, chiefly from Holland and middle Russia. It grows well on heavy soils, but a moderately light soil gives larger yields and is supposed to give a grade containing more oil. The seed should be sown about the first of April in three-foot drills, at the rate of about eight pounds per acre, or in sufficient quantity to give a stand of plants about three inches or less apart. After the plants come up the soil should be cultivated shallow and weeds killed regularly until late summer the first year and early spring of the second year. Weeds left in the field at harvest time will contaminate the product when the seeds are harvested and reduce the value. The seeds ripen about the middle of June the second year, and may be cut with a mower, threshed out and cleaned. The seeds should be light brown if cut just after the first seeds are ripe and before the stalks are dead. Cutting at this time makes a good salable product and avoids waste by shatter- ing of the seeds. An acre should yield about 1,000 pounds of seed. On distillation with steam the fruits yield a pleasant volatile oil with the odor and taste of caraway. According to the geographical source and conditions of soil and climate, caraway fruits yield 3 to 6 per cent of their weight in oil. Catnip (Nepeta Cataria, Linn.). Labiate. Catmint. Fig. 684, A perennial-rooted herb having a branching, erect- or somewhat decumbent square-cornered stem, three to four feet high, bearing cordate or broadly ovate petiolate leaves with crenate mar- gins, softly woolly surfaces and veins sharply marked on the pale under side; the small nearly white flowers are collected in terminal spikes, flowering late in the summer or early fall. It is a frequent garden plant, and has also escaped over a wide area. Catnip is propagated by seeds or by root divi- sion. It likes a moderately rich garden loam, but does well on a variety of soils. The seed should be sown about the first of March, or as early as parsnip family, native to MEDICINAL PLANTS possible in the spring, in drills three feet apart, at the rate of one to two pounds per acre. After the plants are four or five inches in height, they should be thinned out to stand about eighteen inches apart in the rows. Shallow cultivation to keep the soil loose and conserve soil moisture will incidentally kill the weeds and produce a healthy growth. The plant will flower the first year in August or Sep- tember and in subsequent years in June. The flow- ering tops are used. They should be picked free from large stems and dried carefully in the shade to preserve their green color. The yield of tops per acre is about aR 2,000 pounds under good conditions. Fennel (Feniculum off- cinale, All.). Umbel- lifere. (G. F. Klugh.) Fennel is an herba- ceous perennial of the the Old World, grown for its aromatic fruit, and in India and Japan for its edible root. It is grown in central Europe and in the Mediterranean coun- tries as well as in Japan and India, and sparingly in the United States as a garden herb. The fleshy root-stem of fennel gives rise to stout, smooth, suc- culent stems reaching a height of three feet, which bear the dark green, finely dissected aromatic leaves and numerous very small yellow flowers in branching, umbel-like, terminal clusters; the fruits, ripened in late summer, are about one-third inch long, conspicuously ribbed and have the pleas- ant fragrance characteristic of plants containing anethol. Fennel does well on a moderately rich, well- drained loam or sandy loam, a heavy wet soil giving too much leaf and stem and too little fruit. It is sown in three-foot drills as soon in the spring as the ground is ready for garden planting, about five pounds of seed being used per acre. It is cultivated as an ordinary garden crop. The fruit ripens in the fall and is gathered at once in order to pre- serve a fresh, bright appearance. It is less desir- able for the market if allowed to turn dark. After it is dry it can be cleaned of the immature fruit, some of which is unavoidably collected, since all fruits do not mature simultaneously. The aromatic flavor is due to a volatile oil pres- ent in the ribs of the fruits. This oil is obtained by distillation with steam, a yield of 4 to 5 per cent being obtained. The fruit remaining after distilla- tion is used in some parts of Germany as a food for cattle. Catnip (Nepeta Cataria). Fig. 684. MEDICINAL PLANTS Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea, Linn.). Serophula- riacee. (G. F. Klugh.) Fig. 685. Foxglove is a tall biennial herb with fibrous root system, and in the second year a straight stem bearing a long, unbranched raceme of large, two- inch long, showy, bell-shaped to funnel-formed flowers, purplish with darker spots in the throat, or nearly white, and a luxuriant development of alternate, sessile, woolly leaves, with venation con- spicuous on the under side, crenate margins, largest toward the base of the stem, decreasing upwards to the base of the flower-bearing part of the stem. The dry seed-pods contain a multitude of minute seeds. The flowers open in the early summer of the second year. At the end of the first season’s growth a strong rosette of radical leaves is seen. Leaves of the second year’s growth form an important article in crude drug commerce. The demand of the United States is at present satisfied from Eng- lish, German and Austrian sources chiefly, where the plant is cultivated for the purpose or occurs wild. Since the seeds are very small, they require good conditions of germination to produce a good stand of plants if sown in the field, but they may be grown where they are to stand or in seed-beds and transplanted. The soil most adapted to the growth of foxglove is a good garden loam con- taining a liberal amount of sand and humus, but the plant will do well on heavier soils if transplanted. Good drainage is essential to keep the plants from damping off in hot weather and freezing out in winter. The rows should be three feet apart, the plants be- ing fifteen to eighteen inches apart in the rows. A garden drill may be used to sow the seed, two pounds being required per acre. If planted too deep the seed will re- main in the soil until turned up by subse- quent cultivation. Early spring, as soon as the soil can be worked, is the best time for planting. Frequent cultivation is desirable during the growing season of both first and second years until the plant flowers in June of the second year. The Fig. 685. Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea). MEDICINAL PLANTS 461 leaves around the bases of the flowering stalks are then picked and dried in the shade to preserve their green color. The yield of leaves from an acre of good soil well fertilized and cared for will be about five hundred or six hundred pounds. The relation of fertilizers to yield and content of active principle is an open question here as with other drugs. Fig. 686. Golden sea: (Hydrastis Oanadensis). Golden seal (Hydrustis Canadensis, Linn.). Ranun- culacee. (G. F. Klugh.) Fig. 686. . A low, perennial-rooted herb with a stout, strongly-rooted rhizome of a golden yellow color when broken, sending up a slender stem about a foot high, which bears one or two alternate, five- to seven-lobed leaves, the leaves with a short petiole, the upper sessile, and a large basal leaf of similar general outline ; the single, whitish, incon- spicuous flower is borne terminally above the upper leaf on a short peduncle; the fruit is somewhat pulpy when ripe and in general appearance is sug- gestive of a small red raspberry. This plant is a native of the rich woods of the Appalachian region, Ohio valley and northward to southern Wisconsin. It has long been used in medicine and in recent years to an increasing degree. As a result it has become relatively rare in commercial quantities and its cultivation has been made a subject of in- vestigation by the United States Department of Agriculture. The culture of golden seal is now widely practiced in small gardens. The soil should be loose and loamy, well supplied with humus and shaded to keep it moist and cool. Plastering laths nailed to 2x4-inch pieces at the 462 MEDICINAL PLANTS rate of four to the running foot give a proper de- gree of shade. These 2x 4-inch pieces run across others nailed to the tops of eight-foot posts set two feet in the ground. The soil may be worked up without making beds. The planting may be in rows twelve inches apart, the plants being set six inches apart in the rows. Beds about four feet wide, made of ten-inch boards, and filled with soil are easier to keep clean of weeds but are more expensive in the beginning. Plants may then be set eight inches apart each way. A mulch’ of leaves or similar material three inches deep spread on after planting furnishes humus and keeps down weeds. Two hun- dred pounds each of acid phosphate and kainit in addition to the mulch will supply the necessary fertilizer. Walks about a foot or a foot and a half wide made between the beds make it possible to weed the beds without tramping out the plants. The best method of propagation consists in divid- ing the root-crowns of old plants. These may be divided each year, doubling the number at each division, or, if desirable, more and smaller plants may be made according to the number of buds pro- duced, since a bud and a part of the rhizome is necessary to produce a new plant. The tops die in early fall and the roots may be divided and planted again while they are dormant. Small plants are formed on the fibrous roots of old plants and may be cared for separately or with the other part of the crop. Seeds are a practicable means of prop- agation, being stratified in sand till the following spring when they are planted in the seed-bed. Several years are required to grow the plants to marketable size. The plants from crown division should be dug while dormant about the third year after planting, the large roots sorted out, washed and dried for market, and the smaller ones planted again with those made from crown division for a ‘ new crop. The yield per acre is 2,000 pounds, or more, of dried root. Liquorice (Glycyr- rhiza glabra, Linn.). Legumi- nose. Fig. 687. A smooth, peren- nial - rooted plant, with herbaceous top, ._. bearing on the spar- ‘ingly branching stems alternate, once- pinnate, compound leaves of eight to fourteen paired leaf- Fig. 687. Liquorice plant (adapted from 1903 Yearbook, United States Department of Agri- culture). member ; leaflets en- tire, obtuse, oblong or elliptical; the small, numerous, papilionaceous, lilac- to violet-colored flowers borne in a rather loose, pedunculate spike. The underground parts are wide-spreading through the long, slender rhizomes which run out on all sides and constitute the chief part of the Spanish and smaller sorts of liquorice- lets and one terminal. MEDICINAL PLANTS root. The larger sort, the so-called Russian liquorice of southeastern Europe, consists of the larger, more irregular underground parts of the variety glan- dulifera, Reg. & Herd. The chief sources of liquorice at present are Asia Minor and the Caucasus, where the plant grows wild, and Spain, Italy and England, where it is cul- tivated. The plant can be grown from the seed, but usually is propagated by planting the younger parts of the rhizomes bearing the buds. The crop is harvested in the fall by digging, the cuttings then removed being placed perpendicularly in the ground in a deep, rich, loamy soil. The crop is harvested every third year. The fresh root is washed, dried and sold. At present the United States De- partment of Agriculture is experimenting with several commercial sorts in several of the warmer states. Aside from the medicinal use, liquorice is largely demanded in the tobacco industry. During the year ended June 30, 1905, the fol- lowing importations of liquorice products were made: Liquorice ex- tracts, etc. 751,646 pounds, valued at $90,- 508; root, 106,457,889 pounds, valued at $1,780,485. Lobelia (Lobelia inflata, Linn.) Lobeliacee. Indian Tobacco. (G. F. Klugh.) Fig. 688. A small, branching, hairy herb, six inches to two feet high, bearing ovate or elliptical, roundly toothed leaves, and a slender spike-like raceme of small pale blue flowers, and later much inflated bladdery capsules containing a large number of small brownish seeds. It is found wild on dry hillsides and in pastures from New England to Georgia. Both the green herb and the seed are collected for the crude drug market. Recently the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture has undertaken its cultivation. It likes a moist loam containing a fair percent- age of sand and humus. Owing to the smallness of the seed and young seedlings, conditions suitable for germination must be unusually good. The seeds cannot be buried at all, but germinate early in April if planted in late fall or early spring on the surface of the soil. Freedom from weeds and thorough cultivation are essential to its growth. One-half to one pound of seed should be sown to the acre, the rows being two feet apart, to facili- Lobelia (Lobelia inflata). Fig. 688. MEDICINAL PLANTS tate cultivation, and the plants left thick in the drill. The whole herb should be cut when in full flower and dried in the shade to preserve the green color. Good soil should yield about 1,000 or 1,200 pounds of dry herb per acre. Lovage (Levisticum officinale, Koch.). Umbellifere. (S. C. Hood.) An aromatic perennial of the Parsley family, characterized by a system of thickened, fleshy, aromatic roots, having the odor of celery, a tall smooth stem bearing twice or thrice divided leaves, segments wedge-shaped at base; yellowish flowers in umbels; seed three-ribbed and also aromatic. The large root is used both as a condiment and for medicinal purposes. Lovage is an old garden plant introduced from Europe, and is grown as a crop in certain parts of the West and in New England by the Shakers. It is easily propagated either by root division or by seeds, but since the seeds grow so readily it is probably cheaper to use them. Planting should be done in fall in light soil, in drills eighteen inches apart. Heavy fertilization with stable manure should not be used, since it causes the plant to pro- duce too much top. Cultivation consists in keep- ing the crop free from weeds. The plants will flower the second year and supply a large amount of seed, which also has a market value. The root should be gathered in the late fall and be well washed and cut into slices about one-half inch thick. These are then dried by heat at about 125° Fahr. When dry, they are ready for market. Opium Poppy (Papaver somniferum, Linn.). Papa- veracee. A tall, smooth, somewhat branching annual, of grayish green color, reaching a height of about five feet, bearing large, ovate leaves with irregu- larly cut margins and clasping base. The large, solitary flowers are borne at the ends of somewhat elongated stems. The flowers vary in color from pure white to a striking magenta or purplish color, petals usually with a spot of darker color at the base. The fruit capsules are roundish in outline, somewhat elongated, or sometimes oblate. Some forms bear valves near the top, which open at ma- turity and permit the seed to escape; in others the valves do not open. The capsules, when scored superficially, yield abundant milky juice ; in India, China, Persia and Turkey this is collected and dried to form opium, the crude gum from which the alkaloids morphine and codeine are separated. The white seeds are used under the name of “maw” seed in bird-seed, and as a source of a pleasant bland oil used for food purposes. The blue-seeded form is prized for culinary purposes in making the “Mohn Kuchen” of Germany and Austria, and in other forms of bakery. The oil is used for burning, in soap-making, and as a salad oil, either under its own or under some other name. Experiments being conducted by the United States Department of Agriculture have in view the cultivation of the poppy in the United States for the seed and for the alkaloids. Opium-making is not encouraged. MEDICINAL PLANTS 463 The commerce in products of the opium poppy for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1905, is as follows : Crude opium. . . 456,563.79 lbs. $913,770 Prepared for medici- nal purposes . . 723 Prepared for smok- ING os ees 144,997 Ibs. 1,816,096 Morphine and its salts ... .. . 21,290 oz. 41,734 S660 sue cz a Se 38,399.25 bu. 76,779 Poppy seed oil . . °3,491.45 gal. 1,892 Totalvalue. .......-. $2,350,994 Pennyroyal (Hedeoma pulegioides, Pers.). Labiate. (G. F. Klugh.) A low, annual, erect, branching herb, six to eighteen inches high, with hairy, angled stem, and hairy, oblong or ovate leaves bearing short petioles, margins obscurely and bluntly serrate, glandular, especially on underside ; flowers pale blue, crowded into loose terminal spikes. A native herb found wild in open woods along fences, usually in some- what shaded places. It grows ona variety of soils but is best in a garden soil where it makes an unusual growth. The seed should be sown in late fall in three-foot rows, at the rate of two pounds per acre. It should be cultivated as a garden crop and cut when in flower. The dried herb may be sold to drug deal- ers or the plants may be distilled, green or dry, with live steam for their volatile oil. The yield of dry herb per acre on good soil should be about two tons. Peppermint (Mentha piperita, Linn.). Labiate. American mint. Fig. 689. A perennial herb, usually one and one-half to three feet high, having a fibrous root system, many running rootstocks by means of which it is rapidly propagated, a thick growth of upright or ascend- ing, branching, square stems, opposite leaves with entire margin, acute apex, short petioles, punctate with pellucid oil-glands ; flowers purplish in loose, interrupted terminal spikes on the main stem and branches formed by the whorled clusters of flowers at the nodes. Characteristic when wild of wet places. Introduced from Europe. Mentha piperita, var. officinalis, Sole., the so- called ‘‘white mint,” is a smaller plant, having light green stems and foliage. It is grown chiefly in England. \ Mentha piperita, var. vulgaris, Sole., the so-called “black mint,” is like the species in stature, with large leaves, generally two to three inches long. Entire plant dark in color, due to the presence of a purplish pigment in leaves and stems. The va- rieties are of European origin, and although both have been introduced into the United States the white mint has not been grown extensively. The black mint is the most generally used. In America it has proved hardy and very productive. Peppermint-culture is practiced in England, Japan, Germany and some other countries on a small scale, but extensively in the United States. 464 MEDICINAL PLANTS Perhaps 2,000 pounds will cover the amount of English and German peppermint oil distilled yearly. These countries import most of their oil from the United States. Michigan, northern Indiana and Wayne county, New York, are the most important regions. The Japanese pep- permint oils are obtained % from a different botanical source, Mentha arvensis piper- ascens, Malinvaud,and Mentha arvensis glabrata, Holmes. Peppermint - culture is practiced in Michigan on black muck land, obtained by the draining of swamps and marshes, after it has been thoroughly subdued by previous cropping. After fall-plowing, the land to be used for peppermint is har- rowed in the early spring and provided with furrows about three feet apart, into which the slender roots are thrown so as to make an un- broken row of plants. The soil is drawn over the roots and made firm by treading. The young plants. are care- fully hoed during the first season to remove weeds which injure the crop, partly by contaminating the oil. By fall the peppermint runners so nearly cover the ground as to interfere with further use of the hoe. Horse cultivation may be made use of until fall, when the runners will practically cover the ground. In August or early September, when in full bloom, the herb is mowed usually with a scythe, dried until only enough moisture remains to pre- vent the falling of the leaves, and hauled to the distillery. The distilling apparatus consists essen- tially of a boiler from which live steam is obtained ; large circular wooden vats connected with the boiler, into which the herb is thrown for steam treatment ; a condenser, consisting of a tight tube surrounded by cold water, through which the va- pors from the wooden vats are conducted and cooled; and a receiver into which the condensed water and oil flow from the condenser. [See article on Oil-bearing Plants.] The oil is separated from the water and stored in tin or glass containers, and the exhausted “hay” is sold for fodder for stock or allowed to rot for fertilizer purposes. Peppermint oil, when frozen, separates into two parts,—a crystalline solid, menthol, and a clear oily residue having the taste and odor of peppermint. Menthol is present in an especially large proportion in Japanese oil. It is used in solution in combina- tion with other remedial agents in sprays and other forms of medication, and, being a local anzs- thetic and disinfectant, is molded into the form of pencils or cones or as loose crystals for inhala- tion or external use in headache, neuralgia ‘and similar troubles. The oil is used as a flavoring in Fig. 689. (Mentha piperita). Peppermint MEDICINAL PLANTS most varied kinds of products, such as candies, soaps and various drinks. The United States is a large exporter of peppermint oil. It has varied in price from seventy-five cents to three dollars and fifty cents per pound in the last ten years. Red Pepper (Capsicum species). Solanacee. (T. B. Young.) Figs. 690, 691; also Fig. 95. In the United States these plants, belonging to Capsicum annuum, Linn., and varieties, Capsicum frutescens, Linn., and varieties, and perhaps still other species, are annuals, although where they are not killed by frost the latter series of forms are perennials. C. annuum is a very variable member of the family Solanacee. It has a fibrous root system, a smooth, branching, herbaceous stem, one to three feet high, bearing entire, ovate or nearly elliptical, smooth, acuminately-pointed leaves and whitish flowers singly or in small groups at the nodes. The fruits vary widely in size, shape, color and pun- gency. / C. frutescens is a perennial shrub reaching, in warm climates, a height of several feet, with branched and spreading tops, sometimes decum- bent ; leaves broadly ovate, fruits most various in shape, size and color, but usually small and very pungent, borne on long peduncles. Paprika type. (Fig. 690.) A sweet red pepper, mild in pungency, grown especially in Hungary, coming into the world’s commerce through the port of Budapest chiefly. The plant resembles in general appearance the ordinary red pepper of the garden, the fruit varying from a narrow, truncated-conical form toa slender pointed form. It is grown toa limited extent in South Carolina, where it seems best suited to a rich, loamy soil. It has come on the market in small quantities from California. In the South, the seed should be sown in a well- prepared seed-bed by March 1, and covered very lightly. The plants should be ready for transplant- Fig. 690. Paprika peppers. Whole dried fruits as they appear when ready for market. (Yearbook, 1905.) ing to the field by the last of April. A rich, loamy soil suitable for garden purposes is desirable. It should be put in good tilth by April 1, when the plants are ready for the field. When necessary, any good combination of fertilizers may be used. A mixture of 8 per cent phosphoric acid, 4 per cent ammonia, and 4 per cent potash has been found beneficial. Stable manure is good. The plants are set in rows three to four feet apart, and twelve to eighteen inches apart in the rows. Cultivation is given as for other field crops. In July the pods begin to ripen. They are picked at about weekly intervals and dried in special dry- ing houses by low, artificial heat. They are sold in MEDICINAL PLANTS this condition or after the removal of the stems. The seeds may also be removed and sold separately. Cayenne type. A variety of types of small pep- pers from various geographical and botanical sources, characterized by a high degree of pun- gency, come on the market as cayenne pepper. The culture method depends on the geographic Fig. 691. Branch of Japan chilli pepper, showing the clustered arrangement of the fruit. (Yearbook. 1905.) source of the sorts used; some are from tropical and subtropical situations, others from temperate regions. Some forms resembling the Japanese chil- lies (Fig. 691) and Japanese capsicum of the market are grown on a small commercial scale in the southern and southeastern states. The methods of propagation and cultivation here are similar to those used in growing paprika peppers. These peppers are often perennials in a warm climate and produce during a long season, hence localities which offer these conditions are preferable. The so-called “bird peppers” belong to the general class of fruits used in producing the “cayenne” pepper of the market. Sassafras (Sassafras officinale, Nees.). Lawracee, Fig. 2256, Cyclopedia of American Horticul- ture. A tree of moderate size (fifty to ninety feet); bark rather finely checked longitudinally and ridged, dark grayish brown; twigs greenish yel- low ; leaves with moderately long petioles, smooth when mature, ovate in form, entire to three-cleft, with smooth margin; flowers greenish yellow, in clusters, appearing with the leaves ; buds and twigs mucilaginous ; bark spicy and aromatic, especially the bark of the root. The bark and wood of the root are distilled for the oil of sassafras used in perfuming soaps and for flavoring purposes. The bark of the root and the pith are used in medicine. The distillation has been practiced in the mountains of eastern United States. The bark and wood of the root, after being chopped up and split, are distilled by steam in an apparatus not differing in principle from the usual sorts of apparatus used for distilling volatile oils. [See general introduction.] Sassafras is a well known common tree, interesting in its habit and very marked characteristics of bark, branding and foliage. It is partial to sandy lands. B 30 MEDICINAL PLANTS 465 Seneca snake1oot (Polygala Senega, Linn.). Poly- galacee. (S. C. Hood.) A native herb with a rather thick, perennial, branching, light-colored root supporting a rather extensive crown, from which a large number of erect, unbranched stems are given off, bearing numerous, alternate, oblong or lanceolate-ovate, very short-petioled leaves. The stem terminates in a close spike of small white flowers, in general ap- pearance suggesting the papilionaceous type seen in the legumes. The plant is found in rocky woods of New England, to the plains of Manitoba, and northward and southward. It is much in demand for medicinal purposes both for domestic and for- eign use. In view of its commercial value and threatened scarcity, its cultivation is receiving attention from the United States Department of Agriculture and other experimenters. Since the commercial supply of Seneca snake- root has been derived wholly from wild root, the plant cannot as yet be called an agricultural crop. lts cultivation, although not difficult, has so far been confined to certain experimental gardens. The soil should be light and well drained, and should be made rich with leaf-mold well worked in; stable manure is not advisable. The plant is propagated from seed, which must be gathered in the early summer as soon as ripe. Care must be taken not to let the seeds dry. They should be mixed with moist sand, placed in earthen pots and buried two to three feet deep in the ground. They should be dug up the following spring and planted in the field in drills eighteen inches apart, and the seed covered very lightly. Seedlings should appear in two to three weeks. Cultivation consists simply in keeping clean of weeds. The first year the plants are not more than two to three inches high and are not matured for gathering for perhaps five. years. Plants will begin to seed when three years old. No winter covering is needed if the soil is well drained. Plants may be harvested in about four or five years from the seed. The native range of this plant is chiefly the northern half of the United States as far west as the Rocky mountains and northward throughout Canada. , Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare, Linn.). Composite. (G. F. Klugh.) Figs. 2468, 2464, Cyclopedia of American Horticulture. A common perennial-rooted herb of waste places, kitchen-gardens and waysides, sending up from a strong crown a clump of upright stems, one to three feet high, bearing smooth, dark green, pin- nately compound leaves made up of sharply toothed leaflets, the blade of the leaf running down from the petioles; yellow flowers, reaching a diameter of one-half inch, occur in terminal, branched, flat- topped clusters. It is a rank-smelling herb, used te dry condition in medicine. It contains a volatile oil. It likes a rather heavy soil, doing best on a clay loam, but after having become established on a heavy clay it makes a good growth. It may be propagated either from seeds or by dividing the 466 MEDICINAL PLANTS crowns in early spring. The plants are grown in the seed-bed or in the field, the seed being sown in March. The plants are set in three-foot rows, eighteen inches apart in the row; if seeds are used instead of plants, they are sown at the rate of two to four pounds per acre and thinned to eighteen inches when the plants are established. Seed sown in the field should be barely covered with soil. Cultivation is as for ordinary garden crops. The drisd flowering tops and leaves are used in medicine. An acre should yield about 2,000 pounds of tops. Thyme (Thymus vulgaris, Linn.). Labiate. (G. F. Klugh.) A low, shrub-like perennial, eight inches to one and one-half feet high, forming a dense clump of slender upright stems, bearing many small, sessile, ovate to oblong, entire, pale leaves with many oil- bearing glands; flowers small, lavender-colored, in short, spike-like terminal groups. It is a common plant of kitehen-gardens used for flavoring pur- poses. The herb is distilled for oil, from which the disinfectant “thymol” is obtained. It likes a mellow, loamy soil, and grows well from seed. Planting is done about the first of March in three-foot rows, at the rate of about one or two pounds per acre; the plants are left thick in the drill. The grower should cultivate thoroughly, and cut the plants at the end of the growing sea- son for distillation. An acre should yield five or six tons of green herb the first year, which will give about twenty pounds of oil. Plantings in Washing- ton, D. C., have been winter-killed after being cut down to the ground, while bushes left uncut lived over. Valerian (Valeriana officinalis, Linn.). Valerianacee. (S. C. Hood.) Fig. 2632, Cyclopedia of Ameri- can Horticulture. Valerian is a perennial herb with a stout, hori- zontal or ascending rootstock, bearing fibrous roots ; stem one and one-half to three feet high, somewhat branching above, with a few short hairs; lower stem-leaves pinnately divided or lobed into many lanceolate or oblong leaflets ; flowers small, closely crowded into terminal clusters, lilac or lavender in color, fragrant. It is a common ornamental known as “garden heliotrope.” The underground parts are dug, sliced and dried to form the valerian of the crude drug market. Valerian root has been grown in certain sections of New York and New England, and as this is the form known as English valerian the quality is very fine. The soil should be light and well dressed with stable manure. Soil not well drained or having much clay should be avoided, because the plant does not do well, and also because of the difficulty in cleaning roots grown on this soil. The land should be plowed in the fall, and very early in the spring should be harrowed until very fine. In some sections it is the custom to spade the soil by hand with a fork and pick out all lumps. The plant is propagated by root-divisions of the previous year. The plants are left in the ground MEDICINAL PLANTS until wanted, when they are dug and the divisions made. A good plant should give six to eight divi- sions. These divisions should be planted in rows two feet apart, and ten inches apart in the row. They should root at once and send up a rosette of leaves in two weeks. The crop must be well culti- vated throughout the entire summer and kept free from weeds. The roots are ready to be dug about October 1. The masses of roots are usually washed in running water to remove the soil. They are then cut so that drying will be even. The drying is done in a specially constructed kiln with artificial heat, usu- ally at 125° to 150° Fahr. When well dried the root may be packed in barrels for market. The yield should be about 2,000 pounds of dry root per acre. Wormseed, American (Chenopodium anthelminti- cum, Linn.). Chenopodiacee. (T. B. Young.) An annual, branching, unsightly weed character- istic of waste grounds, having a large fibrous root system (which under favorable conditions may live over winter in the South) and a stout, straggling, smooth stem, two to four feet high, bearing smooth leaves, various sinuately cut and lobed or almost entire, and long, dense, nearly leafless spikes of inconspicuous flowers, followed by small, shining black seeds enclosed in a green calyx. It occurs wild in eastern and southern United States. It has long been used in medicine for its anthelmintic properties, a quality due to the volatile oil which is distilled from the tops and fruits. Its cultivation has been practiced experimentally in South Carolina by the United States Department of Agriculture. The center of wormseed production in this country, of oil as well as seed, has been Westminster, Mary- land. Loamy soils are best suited to the plant, but it grows well on any type of soil, and develops an abundant crop of herbage and fruit in the fall. Fertilizers with a liberal amount of phosphates, nitrate, and organic nitrogen and potash, are the most satisfactory to the plant. The seeds are sown directly in the field in rows three to four feet apart. When the plants are up they are thinned out with a hoe to a distance of about eighteen inches. The cultivation is not un- like that given to other crops of a similar kind. A flat cultivation is best, as the crop has to be mowed. About July, before the seeds begin to turn brown- ish, the plants are cut with a mower and allowed to remain in the field a day to dry, and are then housed. Then the seeds are threshed, sieved clean and sacked, ready for market. A fair yield per acre of seeds is about 1,000 pounds. The plant yields on distillation 0.3 to 0.6 per cent of volatile oil, the fruits being the parts richest in oil. Wormseed oil is pale or yellowish and has a penetrating, disagreeable odor. It has the property of killing intestinal parasites. Literature. General: Wm. Dymock, C. J. H. Warden and David Hooper, Pharmacographia Indica, A History MEDICINAL PLANTS of the Principal Drugs of Vegetable Origin met with in British Inia, three vols, Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner & Co., London., 1890-1893; H. W. Felter and J. U. Lloyd, King’s American Dispensatory, third edition, two vols., The Ohio Valley Company, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1898 (numerous illustrations); F. A. Fliickiger and Daniel Hanbury, Pharmaco- graphia, A History of the Principal Drugs of Vege- table Origin, second edition, Macmillan & Co., London, 1879; H. A. Hare, Charles Caspari, Jr., and H. H. Rusby, The National Standard Dispen- satory, Containing the Natural History, Chemistry, Pharmacy, Actions and Uses of Medicines, Lea Bros. & Co., Philadelphia and New York, 1905 (numerous illustrations); Laurence Johnson, A Manual of the Medical Botany of North America, William Wood & Co., New York (illustrated); J. U. Lloyd and C. G. Lloyd, Drugs and Medicines of North’ America, Vol. I and part of Vol. IJ, Cin- cinnati, Ohio, 1884-1887 (illustrated); Charles F. Millspaugh, American Medicinal Plants: An Illus- trative and Descriptive Guide to the American Plants Used as Homeopathic Remedies, two vols., 1887 (many colored plates); Francis Peyre Porcher, Resources of the Southern Fields and Forests, Medical, Economical and Agricultural, Being also a Medical Botany of the Southern States, Walker, Evans & Cogswell, Charleston, 8. C., Revised edition, 1867; H.C. Wood, J. P. Remington and I. P. Sadtler, The Dispensatory of the United States of America, J. B. Lippincott, Philadelphia, 1907 (numerous illustrations). Bulletins of the United States Department of Agriculture: Alice Henkel, Weeds Used in Medicine, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 188 (1904); Peppermint, Bulletin No. 90, Part III (1905); Wild Medicinal Plants of the United States, Bulletin No. 89 (1906); Alice Henkel and G. F. Klugh, Golden Seal, Bulletin No. 51, Part VI (1905); W. W. Stockberger, The Drug Known as Pinkroot, Bulletin No. 100, Part V (1906); Rodney H. True, Cultivation of Drug Plants in the United States, Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture, 1903; Progress in Drug Plant Culti- vation, Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture, 1905. Special articles on various drug plants may be found in the files of the Pro- ceedings of the American Pharmaceutical Associa- tion, and the various pharmaceutical periodical publications. The agricultural aspect of the cul- ture of ginseng, golden seal, and others, is espe- cially noticed in a monthly publication called “Special Crops,” edited by C. M. Goodspeed, Skaneateles, N. Y. MELILOTUS (Melilotus alba.) Leguminose. (Sweet, Bokhara, Stone and Large White Clover, and White Melilot.) Fig. 692. By J. F. Duggar. Meiilotus is a genus of leguminous plants, usually biennial, occurring commonly as weeds. One form, Melilotus alba, is of value as a green-manure, forage and bee plant. Plants of the genus Melilotus are erect herbs with three-foliate leaves, dentate leaflets, and MELILOTUS 467 mostly white or yellow flowers in slender racemes. The most important species are M. alba, Desv., and MM. officinalis, Lam. Both are generally regarded as weeds except in the prairie region of Alabama and Mississippi, where the former serves a useful purpose for forage and for soil renovation. Melilo- tus macrostachys is promising by reason of its being less bitter than most other spe- cies. M. Indica, All., is an introduced weed in the. western part of the United States. Its yellow flowers are smaller than those of iM. officinalis. At the Arizona Experiment Station, M. Indica, lo- cally known as “sour clover,” proved to be a most satisfactory win- ter cover-crop for or- chards, seed sown in October affording an immense mass of green material to be plowed under in April. Brit- ton states that there are about twenty spe- cies of Melilotus, na- tives of Europe, Africa and Asia. A number of species have been tested at the Cali- fornia Experiment Station, some of them affording large yields of green material of untried feeding value. In Cali- fornia, VM. officinalis is a pest in grain-fields because it imparts its odor to threshed grain and to the flour made therefrom, which is very objectionable to bakers. The price of such “clover- scented” grain is reduced by buyers. Melilotus alba is an erect, branching plant, three to nine feet tall, bearing small white flowers in racemes. It is biennial, rarely blooming the first year. Like other members of the genus, it has a bitter taste and a characteristic pleasant odor when bruised. The chief need for improvement in the plant is to decrease this bitter principle. In gen- eral appearance this plant bears a close resem- blance to alfalfa, up to the time of the appearance of blooms, but the stems of the former are coarser and less leafy. This plant, is widely distributed over the United States and Canada, growing freely along roadsides, in vacant city lots, and in other waste places. It ~ is hardy, holding its own against weeds and even against Johnson-grass, with which it is sometimes sown. It is recognized as a weed throughout the Fig. 692. Sweet clover (Meli- lotus alba). 468 MELILOTUS greater part of its habitat and is especially liable to give trouble in alfalfa-fields in the first year or two after the first sowing of alfalfa. To prepare land that has been in melilotus for alfalfa, it should be devoted for at least one year to some hoed crop, preferably cotton, or the melilotus plants should be completely plowed under with a disk-plow before seed has formed. Large sharp plows are required to cut the tough roots of the sweet clover. Composition. The following analyses of Melilotus alba, show great variation in composition dependent on stage of maturity : MELILOTUS gating one and one-half to three tons per acre. The second year, growth from the old roots begins early in March, and the first cutting is made about May 1, and asecond and sometimes a third cutting is made the second year, the total yield aggregating two to five tons of hay. The crop is cut when it is about eighteen inches high. ° Uses. As a green-manure.— Through the loosening effect of its large and deeply penetrating roots and the decay of the roots and above-ground parts, sweet clover serves as a fertilizer for succeeding crops, often doubling the usual yield. Month | Mois ._| Ether | Nitro- seati oe ture | Protein extract extract Publication Hay, air-dry 7.43 | 13.87 | 3.32 | 45.08 | Massachusetts State Experiment Station, 10th Report Hay, air-dry oo aR 9.30 | 11.75 | 2.70 | 27.70 | Canada Experimental Farms, Report 1893 Hay, dry matter of . . | May 0.00 | 22.96 | 5.38 | 48.20 | Mississippi Experiment Station, Report 1895 Hay, dry matter of . . | June | 0.00 | 30.54 | 4.00 | 32.34 | Mississippi Experiment Station, Report 1895 Hay, dry matter of . . | June | 0.00 | 22.19 | 3.09 | 37.74 | Mississippi Experiment Station, Report 1895 Hay, dry matter of . . | June | 0.00 | 17.85 | 3.61 | 43.80 | Mississippi Experiment Station, Report 1895 Hay, dry matter of . . | June | 0.00 | 15.20] 1.77 | 36.56 | Mississippi Experiment Station, Report 1895 Hay, dry matter of . . | Aug. | 0.00 | 18.32 | 5.97 | 42.34 | Mississippi Experiment Station, Report 1895 Hay, dry matter of ... | Oct. 0.00 } 19.45 | 3.83 | 46.28 | Mississippi Experiment Station, Report 1895 The average of analyses made at the Mississippi Experiment Station show that the composition of the dry matter of the above-ground part of the plant is protein, 20.93 per cent ; fat, etc., 3.09 per cent ; nitrogen-free extract, 42.46 per cent; crude fiber, 25.21 per cent; ash, 8.87 per cent. At the Massachusetts State Experiment Station, the air- dry, above-ground part contained 7.43 per cent moisture, 1.95 per cent nitrogen, 1.882 per cent potash, 0.558 per cent phosphoric acid. Culture. Propagation.—Sweet clover does best on a shal- low, calcareous soil with a rotten limestone subsoil. It is never fertilized or manured. It is propagated from seed, two to eight pecks of unhulled seed per acre being sown on a well-prepared seed-bed. In the South the sowing is done in February or the early part of March, or by nature in August. The seed’ is frequently broadcasted among growing plants of small grain, and usually covered with a harrow. Place in the rotation.—The field is left for two years in melilotus, or, if very poor, for four years, reseeding occurring at the end of the second year if the crop is allowed to stand till seed is formed. The crop immediately preceding sweet clover is usually oats or cotton and the succeeding crop is usually corn, after which cotton, alfalfa and other crops may be grown. Harvesting.—When sown on land that is poor or poorly prepared, the growth of the first season is usually insufficient for mowing, and is unused or utilized, as pasture in late summer and fall. On rich or well-prepared calcareous land in the South, two cuttings are secured the first season, aggre- As a forage.— While chemical analysis shows that sweet clover hay is practically of the same composition as alfalfa, the former is decidedly in- ferior because of its want of palatability, its coarse- ness, and its tendency to shed its leaves in curing. ‘Melilotus hay is at first refused by live-stock, but in time it is eaten fairly well and sustains the animals in good condition. Likewise, in time ani- mals become accustomed to melilotus as a grazing plant, but continue to give preference to other forage plants. When used as a pasture plant for hogs, melilotus should be mowed occasionally, thus causing a new growth of tender shoots to be pro- duced. The forage value of melilotus is practically unrecognized in California and other parts of the West. Enemies. Sweet clover seldom suffers seriously from disease or insect injury. The leaves are occasionally attacked by leaf-spot. Literature. : In agricultural writings very little has appeared on the subject of melilotus, except brief notes and reports of chemical analyses, occurring chiefly in the reports of the Massachusetts State Experiment Station. Brief notes are found in Alabama (Cane- brake) Experiment Station Bulletins; Illinois Ex- periment Station, Bulletin No. 94; Mississippi Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 20; United States Department of Agriculture, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 18; Wilcox and Smith, Farmer’s Cyclopedia of Agriculture, Orange Judd Company ; Shaw, Forage Crops, and Soiling Crops and the Silo, Orange Judd Company. Foxtail millet (Chetochloa Italica) Plate XVII. MILLETS MILLETS. Figs. 693-702. By M. A. Carleton. . The millets are cultivated varie- \y ties of certain small-seeded cereal ' and forage grasses, which, in a strict sense, belong to the genus Panicum, \ or to closely allied genera. Because of \ a resemblance in the seed the name is also applied to other grasses of different genera in this country, while in Europe and Asia even the sorghums are classed as millets. The millets are among the most ancient of food grains. There is historical evidence of their cultivation in China since 2800 B.C. They are still of the greatest importance in oriental countries, both as food grains and forage plants. In India the annual acreage for all millets (including sorghums) is com- parable with that of wheat in the United States. The prosos predominate in India, while in Japan the foxtail millets are the most com- mon. In these countries and in China an enor- mous amount of seed is used annually for human food. For many years the proso millets have constituted one of the important crops of Russia, and at present the annual production, over eighty million bushels, is probably greater than in any other country. MILLETS 469 In this country millet is generally grown as a supplementary or catch-crop. It is also found to be valuable in certain kinds of rotations. It is profit- ably employed in the case of a failure of some other crop, such as corn, or may be substituted for jf corn where the latter crop is not adapted. Millet may often be grown in place of a summer fallow, giving extra returns without materially lessening | the chances for the following crop. It is also ex- | cellent for restoring to a good condition land that is foul with weeds. Groups and varieties of millet. Of the millets that are fairly well known in this country there are three principal groups : the fox- tail millets (Chetochloa Italica and var. Germanica), the barnyard millets (Panicum Crus-galli), and the prosos (Panicum miliaceum). Fig. 696. Aino millet. One-third natural size. Foxtail millets. (Figs. 693-698.) The seeds of these millets are closely compacted into a club head, varying much in size, and either cylindrical or tapering at one or both ends. Ac- cording to the most common classification, there are two principal sub-groups of the foxtail millets, Red Siberian Commonmillet. Aboutthree- millet. German About one- half natural size. Fig. 694. Fig. 695. Fig. 693. millet. fourths natural size. separated chiefly on the basis of the size of head, and which may be called the large or common millets, and the small or Hungarian millets. To the sub-group having the large heads belong the common (Fig. 694), the German (Fig. 695), the Aino (Fig. 696) and the Golden Wonder millets. The type of the second sub-group is the Hungarian millet (Fig. 698). In each of these sub-groups there is great variation in the length and color of the beards and color of the seed, and on the basis of these variations the further classification into varieties is made. The seed of both the German and common millets is yellow, but that of the former is slightly the * smaller, while the head of the German is much the larger. Both varieties are bearded, the beards often turning dark brown or purple in color. The Golden Wonder, a variety much advertised, has a head still larger than that of the German-and is almost beardless. The seed is small and yellow. Our common millet is not the common one in Europe, although what is known on that continent as California millet is this variety. 470 MILLETS MILLETS The name Japanese has often been applied toa to purple-brown, may possess strong beards or form of foxtail millet that is usually considered none, and there is much variation in habit of identical with the German. On careful study the growth of the entire plant. These variations make writer is forced to conclude that this is rather dis- the development of different varieties a compara- tinct and he has given it the name of Aino millet. The name Japanese is very confusing, as it is applied to various groups of millets. This variety is grown by the Ainos, a prehistoric race of Japan. The spikes are longer and more open in proportion to thickness than in the German millet. It is not well known in the United States, but may prove to be important. The Hungarian millet, or Mohar, is a _ small- headed millet, with large seeds, which vary in color from yellowish to purple- brown. In typical Hunga- rian millet there appears to be a large percentage of dark seed. The heads have dark brown or purple beards. This is the common foxtail millet of central and south- eastern Europe and is often called there German millet, but it is not theGerman millet of this country. This variety is very persistent after being once seeded, and in careless farming may become a weed. It is fairly drought-resistant, although asa result of many trials it does not appear to be so good in that respect as the common millet. The Early Harvest millet is of the common millet type. The New Siberian and the Korean millets are not yet sufficiently studied, but may be distinct varieties. Barnyard millets. (Fig. 699.) V tively easy matter. _ In the United States the barn- yard millets are used exclusively for forage, but in India the grain is commonly used as food for the people. In that country the varieties of two other closely allied species, Panicum colonum and Panicum frumentaceum, known as Shama and Samwa millets, are extensively grown for the grain, the latter species being the more important. Proso millets. (Figs. 700, 701.) These millets grow one and one-half to three and one-half feet high, or about the height of other millets, and bear a large open head or panicle. The resemblance of this panicle to that of broom-corn has suggested the name broom~-corn millets. In Russia, where this group of millets is given a promi- nent place in agriculture and where many distinct varieties have been developed, they are known by the collective name “proso,” a good name that should be used in this country to distinguish this group readily from other millets. Indeed, this name is already fairly well known, having come into use along with the introduction recently of a number of good varieties from Russia. There are three fairly distinct forms of the species Panicum mil- taceum, based on differences in the shape of the panicle, and, in accord- The barnyard millets are so called because of their develop- ment from the wild species,Pani- | Fig. 697. y ance with these, the cultivated va- cum Crus-gallt, which is known in | Ongiot tht commien: Fig. 698 rieties of this group may be divided this country as barnyard grass, grown is er Hungarian millet. into three sub-groups : (1) the pani- i i} mercial see ce- early one-thir 7: ; and is common throughout the iectica Finest: wacavel olbes cle prosos, having a very open, country (Fig. 525). The native erect panicle ; (2) the clump forms, grass is a coarse plant, with thick spreading stems having a panicle shaped particularly like that and broad leaves, but is exceedingly variable in all of broom-corn, and drooping; and (8) the com- characters. The heads vary in color from green pact prosos, having the panicle compacted almost MILLETS into the form of an actual head, similar to that of kafir. Each of these sub-groups is made up of a number of varieties, differing in the color of the plant, shape and hairiness of the leaves, color of seed and other features. Within each sub-group more importance is usually given to the color of the seed, but even this character varies considerably in the same variety. The seed is always considerably larger than in any other millets. The colors of seed generally recognized are white, yellow, red, brown, gray, and black. There is much variation in different varie- ties, also in the height of the plant, the time of maturity, and drought-resistance. The best varieties with respect to the last two qualities have been introduced only recently from Rus- sia. Until recent years little attention or study has been given to this group of millets in this country, and naturally no distinction of varieties has been recognized. The princi- “4,4 pal definitely-named varieties at present known to us are the Early Fortune, Mani- toba, Black Voronezh, Red Voronezh, Red Rus- sian, Tambov, Red Lump and Red Orenburg. Even some of these are very similar to each other, and may be identical. All but the first two have been imported from Russia since 1897. Several so-called varieties making up our stock known previous to this period, and imported largely from Germany, Austria-Hun- gary, China and Japan, may be distinct, but have not yet been thoroughly studied. During the last six years there has been a great revival in the cultivation of these mil- lets in this country, largely through the influ- ence of the introduction of new and better 1 / f er —\ Fig. 699. Japan barnyard millet. varieties by the United States Department of Agriculture. Pearl millet. (Fig. 702.) In addition to the above-described groups, which alone may be considered as the true millets, another grass, of the species Pennisetum spicatum, known best as pearl millet, has lately attracted much attention and should be mentioned here. Various other names have been applied to this plant, such as penicillaria, cat-tail millet, Egyptian millet, and Mand’s Wonder Forage Plant. It is an erect, succulent annual, growing to the height of six to fifteen feet, and bears its seeds in a compact, slen- der, cylindrical “head” or spike, six to fourteen inches long. There is at present much difference of opinion as to the usefulness and, therefore, the importance of this plant. It is certain that it yields an enormous amount of forage per acre, and may be cut two or three times during the season, on an MILLETS 471 average. It is very succulent when young, but rapidly becomes woody at time of heading, and, therefore, should be cut early for hay. On the other hand, because of its succulence it is difficult to cure for this use. It is apparently most useful for pasturing or soiling, and for the latter purpose should be cut very young. Adaptation and distribution of millets. The foxtail millets are of rather general adaptation as to climate. Of these, the Ger- man is the variety most largely grown in the South. All the varieties are employed in the Central, Middle and New England states, particularly for hay and soiling purposes. In the middle West the common millet is the , best for drought-resistance, though the y Hungarian is nearly as good. The prosos, to be really successful, are somewhat restricted in range because of the climate. They are extremely drought-resist- ant, but at the same time do not appear to be adapted to low > altitudes or southern lati- SS tudes. They give as best results in the northern Great \ Plains and at altitudes above 4,000 feet. ; The barnyard millets require much more moisture than those of the other ‘groups and are especially adapted to the Eastern and Central states and to cultivation by irrigation. Culture. Soil—All millets require a rich, mellow soil. As the roots do not go deep, there should be acon- centration of plant-food as near the surface as possible. For this reason they are rather exhaus- tive on the available food supply in the soil, and the effect frequently may be seen in the follow- ing crop. To concentrate the plant-food near the surface, it may be desirable in some districts to apply special manures to be determined by the nature of the soil in the particular locality. The foxtail millets and prosos, as a rule, should have a rather heavy clay loam that will hold moisture well, when grown in dry districts, and a lighter sandy loam if there is much rainfall. . Millet is often made a catch-crop after rye or some other early-maturing crop or when crops have been destroyed. In such cases, if in a humid district, it is well to plow immediately after har- vesting the other crop, and then the soil can be put in excellent condition for the millet. If in a dry district, the ground is better simply double- disked without plowing, after which it should be harrowed and the millet drilled; or if the soil has remained unplowed already for a long period it may be plowed after the double-disking. The first treatment produces a surface mulch of the stubble and weeds, which absorbs moisture and checks AT2 MILLETS evaporation ; if later it is plowed under, the under soil is thus put in a more compact condition and will not “dry out” easily. Summer fallow, or land plowed late the previous fall is, of course, already Fig. 700. Proso. Two-thirds natural size. likely to be in excellent condition for millet and needs only to be lightly disked and harrowed before drilling. Seeding.—As a rule, millets should be sown with a drill, particularly in the dry districts. When grown in humid areas, where the condition of the soil for resisting drought is not important, and especially if the crop is to be pastured, broadcast- ing may be better. A usual rate of seeding is two to three pecks per acre for the foxtail and proso millets, and one to two pecks for the barnyard millets. In very dry areas the rate may be con- siderably less. Millets are sown at about the same time that corn is planted, but the period may be extended to August 1. For soiling purposes, several crops may be planted at different dates. Millet is one of the best crops for immediate planting on new land or first “breaking.” Unless the sod is very stiff the crop can be sown soon after the former is turned over. Harvesting —This feature, of course, varies, depending on the purpose for which the crop is to be used. In this country the foxtail millets are used exclusively for forage, and, therefore, should MILLETS always be cut before the seed begins to ripen unless it is intended to sell the seed. For hay they should be cut even earlier, about the time most of the heads have appeared. The barnyard millets are also rarely used for the grain, and, for early hay or soiling, should be cut at about the blooming period. It is even more essential to cut the prosos in good time if intended *B4Q=s for forage, as ~ these millets are coarse and their forage. quality ; diminishes rapidly toward the time of maturity. Proso is largely used for the grain, and this use is ap- parently increasing. For such purpose the seed should be allowed to mature before cutting, but care should be taken that the crop does not stand until it is over-ripe, as in such case there will be much loss of seed by shat- tering. One is likely to be de- ceived in this matter if inexperi- enced. The seed itself must be examined. It may be ripe even though the general appearance of the crop would indicate that it is yet green. In all cases of harvesting for the seed, millet is best handled if cut and bound with a self-binder. The bundles should be placed two by two in narrow shocks. Even when intended for hay many of the millets can be cut with the binder in dry weather. Ordina- rily, however, harvesting for for- age is best done with the mower or self-rake, leaving the millet to cure dry in the swath or bunches, after which it is cured in cocks before stacking or housing. Uses and nutritive value. As before stated, the foxtail mil- lets are generally used for forage in this country. However, suffici- | ent attention is not being given, it seems, to soiling and the produc- tion of silage in the cultivation of these crops. Experience so far \ indicates that they are excellent | for these purposes. The chief care i to be taken is to feed sparingly Fig. 701. and in combination with other One of the prosos, foods because of the laxative ac- Sd as, White ‘ French( Panicum tion of these crops, when green, —mitiaceum). | i | i MILLETS on the digestive organs. If cut late, when the seeds are well formed, the feed has an injurious effect on the kidneys of the horse. The millets may also be of much value in pasturing, especially for sup- plementing exhausted pastures. Proso is not so good as the other millets for forage, though it is used considerably in this way. It is much more valuable for the seed. An in- creased amount of seed is being used for feeding to stock each year. Seed should be ground. In this way proso even acts as a substitute for corn where that crop will not succeed and the sorghums will not mature. These millets have been found so well adapted for hog-feeding that they are often called hog millets. They are also ex- cellent poultry food, and in North Da- kota are profitably fed to sheep. Because of the large percentage of protein the seed contains, proso should be well adapted for feeding to dairy cattle. In Kénig’s work on “The Chemistry of Human Food Materials,” the protein content of the common millets in the hulled form is given as 7.40 per cent; of the Hungarian millets, 12.46 per cent; of the proso millets, 10.51 per cent; and the barnyard millets, 9.14 per cent. It will be noted that the Hungarian millets and the prosos stand rather high in their percentage of protein, the amount being about the same as the average for ordinary wheat. It is highest in the Hungarian millet. Hungarian millet is not nearly so much grown as other millets in this country. Of the millets commonly grown in the United States, therefore, the proso group has the highest pro- tein content. Shepard, in Bulletin No. 69 of the South Dakota Agricultual Experiment Station, gives the protein basis, as follows: Barnyard millet, 9.69 per cent; Tambov millet, 14.28 per cent; Black Voronezh, 15.68 per cent. No analysis of the common mil- lets is given. Tambov and Black Vo- ronezh are prosos. It may be stated also that the Black Voronezh has so far proved to be much the best of the prosos in South Dakota. According to these analyses, the protein of ;roso in South Dakota runs very high. In Russia and Oriental regions the seed of these millets is one of the most common food grains not only for stock, but also for man, Fig. 702. Pearl millet (Pennisetum spicatum). One-fourth natural size. content of a few millets on the air-dry’ MILLETS 473 Enemies. : The millet crops are apparently fortunate in being less subject to attacks of insect and fungous pests than probably any other cereal crops. Al- though several fungi may be found on millet, the only one that does any considerable damage is the millet smut (Ustilago Crameri, Korn.), and it has been shown that this smut can be prevented by the ordinary formalin treatment. It seems to suc- cumb also to the hot-water treatment. [See report by W. Stuart in the annual report of the Indiana Experiment Station, 1901. See also Index.] Several insects occasionally attack millet, but ordinarily they are of little importance. At cer- tain periods and in certain districts the chinch-bug becomes a rather serious pest. In such cases the millet should not be planted in proximity to other grasses and should be grown in complete rotation with other crops. Literature. . Carleton R. Ball, Pearl Millet, Farmers’ Bulletin No. 168, Uni- : ted States Department of Agri- culture, 1903; M. A. Carleton, Russian Cereals Adapted for Cultivation in the United States, Bulle- tin No. 28, Division of Botany, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, pp. 27-30 and 40-41, 1900 ; E. C. Chilcott, Forage Plants for South Dakota, Bul- letin No. 51, South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station, 1897 ; E. C. Chilcott and James H. Shep- ard, Forage and Garden Crops in the James River Valley, Bulletin No. 59, South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station, 1898 ; E. C. Chilcott and D. A. Saunders, Millet, Bulletin No. 60, South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station, 1898; A. H. Church, Food Grains of India, 1886 ; A. A. Crozier, Millet, Bulletin No. 117, Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station, 1894 ; J. T. Duthie, The Fodder Grasses of Northern India, 1888; H. Garman, Bulletin No. 98, Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, 1902; A. 8. Hitchcock and J. M. Westgate, Forage Plants for Kansas, Bulletin No. 102, Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, 1901; Clarence B. Lane and E. B. Voorhees, Forage Crops, Bulletin No. 130, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion, 1898 ; Jos. B. Lindsey, Forage Crops, Bulletin No. 72, Hatch Experiment Station, Amherst, Mass.; Thomas Shaw, Forage Crops Other Than Grasses, 1900; D. A. Saunders, Drought-Resistant Forage Experiments at Highmore Substation, Bulletin No. 74, South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station, 1902; D. A. Saunders, Drought-Resistant Forage Experiments at Highmore, South Dakota, Bulletin No. 70, South Dakota Agricultural Experi- ment Station, 1901; D. A. Saunders, James H. Shepard and W. H. Knox, Native and Introduced Forage Plants, Bulletin No. 69, South Dakota Agri- cultural Experiment Station, 1901 ; James H. Shep- ard, Drought-Resisting Forage Plants at the Co- operative Range Experiment Station,.Highmore, South Dakota, Bulletin No. 66, South Dakota Ex- periment Station, 1900; W. J. Spillman, Farm Grasses of the United States, 1905 ; T. A. Williams, Millets, Reprint from United States Department of 474 MILLET Agriculture Yearbook, 1898 (also issued as Farm- ers’ Bulletin No. 101); James W. Wilson and H. G. Skinner, Millet for Fattening Swine, Bulletin No. 83, South Dakota Agriculture Experiment Sta- tion, 1904; also, Speltz and Millet for the Production of Baby Beef, Bulletin No. 97, 1906; W. Stuart, Formalin as a Preventive of Millet Smut; Annual Report Indiana Experiment Station, p. 25, 1901. MUSHROOMS and TRUFFLES. Figs. 703-718. By B. M. Duggar ; illustrations of mushrooms from photographs by G. F.-Atkinson. The native or wild mushrooms supply a source of food that we cannot afford to neglect, and it is the purpose of this article to call attention to them and to give advice as to their utilization. The term mushroom, as the term fruit, is of very broad application. It may be applied to any one of the several hundred fleshy fungi which may be found in a particular region. Unfortunately, there is a popular belief that a “mushroom” and a “toadstool” are two things which are very dis- tinct one from the other in some mysterious way, the one being edible and the other poisonous. This is practically synonymous with saying that those which have been found to be edible will be re- garded as mushrooms, and those which have been found’ to be inedible, or which are supposed to be inedible, will be termed toadstools. This leads to endless confusion, since no two laymen would agree as to what forms are edible and what are not. The best usage, therefore, sanctions the use of the term mushroom to include all the fleshy forms, and we may, therefore, with propriety speak of edible, inedible, or poisonous mushrooms. In a commer- cial sense, “the mushroom” refers to a particular species, Agaricus campestris (Figs. 8, 708), or to a group of species closely related to this one, several of which are cultivated as varieties of this form. The utility of mushrooms. Mushrooms are an important article of food in many parts of the world. They cannot in any MUSHROOMS Pound for pound of the fresh product, they are not rich enough in proteids or nitrogenous materials to replace meat, nor are they so rich in carbohy- drates as to replace such foodstuffs as rice and potatoes. Nevertheless, they are, from a chemical point of view, as valuable as many of our vege- tables, From a physiological point of view their value cannot be estimated. This is due to the fact that they belong to that class of foods which should be known as condimental foods. The part which they play, therefore, is analogous to that of many of our fruits, and sometimes more important because of the fact that they serve the purposes of relishes taken with other foods. In considering the economic pos- sibilities of mushrooms, the dis- tinction between wild and culti- vated mushrooms should be borne in mind. It is not possible to form an estimate of the total output of cultivated mushrooms, although it is a product which, to a very large extent, is grown for the market. Therefore, it would be wholly im- possible to estimate the consump- tion of wild mushrooms, for the latter constitute a product a relatively small part - of which is marketed. While A. campestris and its allies are the chief cultivated mushrooms, it should be said, however, that other species are cultivated, in a sense, in particular regions. Truffle-growing [see Truffle, following] is for all practical purposes an industry in sections of southern France. In Japan, the Shiitake (Collybia, Shiitake) is an article of commerce, and probably this same species is likewise grown in China. Extent of mushroom-culture. During the season of 1901, the estimated quan- tity of the cultivated mushroom product which passed through the Central Markets of Paris was nearly ten million pounds. The market of Paris is the chief market of the world for the cultivated mushroom, and much of the product finally sold in London and continental cities may be traced to Paris. Nevertheless, mushroom- growing is an industry in England and in other European coun- tries. In the United States the cultivated mush- room is a product of importance only in the neigh- borhood of some of the larger cities, and the best markets are unquestionably New York, Philadel- phia, Boston and Chicago. It is safe to say, how- ever, that markets of these and of many other cities could support a much larger quantity of the cultivated mushrooms than is sold during any sea- son. The price paid in this country may vary from twenty-five cents a pound to more than a dollar, and an average price would probably be about fifty cents per pound. This is nearly twice as much as is paid for cultivated mushrooms on the markets of Paris, and it is evidence of the fact that the sense, however, replace the staple articles of diet. .. mushroom is still a luxury. It is safe to say that MUSHROOMS although mushroom production has doubled in the United States within a period of five years, the markets could take twice the quantity now being received without very materially affecting the value of the product. Moreover, the demand for the cultivated mushroom is increas- ing very rapidly, and many of the smaller cities which now receive none of this prod- uct could dispose of it in small quantity. The cultivation of mushrooms is an horti- cultural operation, and is therefore not dis- cussed indetail in this place. For the benefit of prospective growers, however, it may be said that the market possibilities have not by any means been attained and that the price at present paid for the fresh product makes it a paying business where the condi- tions are favorable and where good care and the best cultural intelligence are brought to bear on the work. Wild mushrooms. The wild mushroom product, being depen- dent on the season, is very variable. In the United States the wild mushrooms which reach the market may, for all practical pur- poses, be said to consist only of A. campes- tris and its allies, and the food value of the vast number of other common edible forms is appre- ciated by an individual only here and there. In Europe, more than in any other country, perhaps, the wild mushroom is a sub-staple article of food. In many instances there are municipal or state regulations governing the species which may be legitimately sold. Gen- erally as many as six spe- cies are legitimately sold, and in extreme instances Fig. 705. MWiyr \ \. qe sy \ HMA ( ay hen Sn "Ih Bn Ne y \. ih is ST eas, srl DHRC ITT Nt is. Mio ! Hh hie, Pfam Ae } a a “a In ie ligase, "spun ‘NAW PM AMT, Og i Hy A , , i ie at G ae io i Ca ah Peau oS a) f {3 re Aran oth q | i Vv Fig. 704. Ooprinus comatus. An edible black-spored agaric. the list may run as high as forty species. From France to western Russia, or from Scandinavia to Italy, during the mush- room season, one may find one or more species of wild mushrooms on the market of both village and city. A knowledge of common forms is, therefore, well dissemi- nated. Nevertheless,even in those countries, mis- takes are made, and cases of poisoning, among the peasantry particularly, are from time to time re- ported. This is not sur- prising, however, when one finds that some of the more ignorant classes pay no attention what- soever to the possibility of poisoning except from one or two well-known species. MUSHROOMS 475 Writing in 1876, a French botanist reported the sale of more than seventy thousand pounds of wild mushrooms on the market of the small city of Nantes. In 1901, the sale of wild mushrooms in Wee Vice 33 i Le De \ 4 %s, ed 4s I uM fy ea , URE BAY NS Fh H V Yui Nea E11 (NN : Hi ey Mihi Wiis eh my a A Wb i iy RL /Z Bh iy 1) ted a MAA ys ( : a of Nee An edible black-spored agariec. Coprinus atramentarius. the vegetable markets of Munich amounted to about two million pounds, and this does not include the amount dried and sold out of season. Of the amount last mentioned, it is true, however, that about six species (or groups of related species) furnished practically nine-tenths of the total product. Some of the important species of this market will be referred to later. How to distinguish the mushrooms. It has been stated that there is no one mark by means of which an edible mushroom may be known from a poisonous species. In order to use the wild forms of the cultivated mushroom, or to cultivate the wild forms which may be of value, it is necessary to know something of the form and appearance of the important groups of these plants. Unfortunately, the child seldom grows up with such knowledge of these plants as it has attained in the case of the birds or snakes which it may also have seen in field or forest. The cultivated mushroom (Agaricus campestris) is perhaps best known, and its general appearance may therefore be described, before attempting to compare with it the wild edible species. The general umbrella form of the plant is famil- jar to all. In its different varieties the color may vary from almost white to deep brown or even sometimes to purplish brown, so far as the cap, or upper expanded part, is concerned. Moreover, the plant consists of a centrally placed stipe, or stem, three or more inches high, bearing the expanded cap. Toward the upper end of the stem, in the mature plant, there is attached a small ring, or annulus, and in the early stages this ring is in the form of a veil, that is, a structure connecting the edges of the cap, technically known as the pileus, 476 MUSHROOMS with the stem. This veil protects on the under side of the cap certain plate-like radial structures, which reach practically from the stem to the per- iphery of the cap. These plate-like structures are known as the gills, or lamelle, and in young speci- mens of this genus they are invariably some form of pink, but on the breaking away of the veil and exposure to the air they soon become brown and eventually brown-black. These characters enable one to distinguish this species with absolute cer- tainty from any injurious form. The umbrella shape, the annu- lus, and the gills S are common to many species and even to genera; but the umbrella shape coupled with the presence of an annulus (no other appendages being present on the stem) and with the pink gills becoming ’ brown-black, can- not be confused ‘with those of un- desirable forms. It should be borne in mind, however, that there are dif- ferences in the color of the varie- ties of this spe- cies. Again, there may be slight dif- ferences in the form of the annu- lus, in the shape of the stem, and other features. However greatly these varieties may differ one from another, there is a general resemblance which is constant. Agaricus campestris, as a wild plant, is usually found during the late summer and autumn, al- though in sections of the country where the win- ters are light and the spring of some length, they may appear in some quantity during June. This refers only to general conditions, for in special localities, as, for example, in California, the mush- room may occur in greatest abundance after the beginning of the winter rains, coming in abund- antly in early January. One should not be content to use merely this one group of mushrooms, but should gradually acquire a knowledge of other groups concerning which there can be no question of edibility and no possibility of mistake. As the interest increases, definite knowledge of species will be acquired, and one will find himself able to utilize a number of the more valuable species as readily as he may Fig._706. edible red-spored agaric. Volvaria bombycina. An ing the spring months. MUSHROOMS utilize the berries of the field or the game of the woods. Attention may therefore be called to a few groups of mushrooms to which the amateur might first give consideration, and also to a few forms which it is well at the outset entirely to avoid. ; For home consumption there is no group of fungi more easily secured than certain species of the Ink Caps, belonging to the genus Coprinus. The characters of the Ink Caps, in general, are the umbrella shape, a very slight indication of an annulus, gills becoming black, and, best of all, the gills, and sometimes the whole plant, becoming deliquescent with age, so that, as the plant matures, the gills break down from the edges of the pileus toward the center, and the whole plant may even- tually disappear in an inky mass. The two more common species of this group are, the one named Coprinus (C. comatus, Fig. 704), sometimes known as Shag Mane, a plant which attains a height of six to nine inches, with an oval or oblong pileus and shaggy surface, becoming gradually deliquescent. It is large and fleshy, with excellent flavor. It can be found in Jawns and meadows, and in grassy places anywhere, and is usually most frequent dur- The plants are more or less solitary, or in loose groups. The other species, which is important because of its size and flavor, is the true Ink Cap (Coprinus atramentarius, Fig. 705). As a rule, this species is found in similar situations as the above, but in closer tufts, and usually it is more frequent. The life of the plant above the surface of the ground is at most but a few days, when it also disappears in the manner of other members of this group. From what has been said, it is evideut that the Coprini are not to be used for market purposes. When found they should be immediately used. The flesh is not so firm as that of other species, there- fore care must be used in the preparation of these for food in order that they may be most appetizing. There are other brown or brown-black spored forms which are desirable, and so far as at pres- ent known, no species is poisonous. The more desirable forms, however, should be learned by gradual experience. Among the Agarics which have white spores, there is a genus which contains several highly poisonous species. The general characters of the group may be briefly indicated. The plant is umbrella-shaped. There is an annulus borne in the characteristic fashion near the upper end of the stem, and, in addition, there is an appendage of the stem, known as a volva, which is to be found at or near the base of the stem in the form of a definite ridge or sheath. In either case it is what remains about the stem of the universal veil which inclosed the young plant before it assumed its definite umbrella form. Sometimes the whole plant breaks through this sheath and no markings of the uni- versal veil are left on the cap. Again, to the sur- face of the cap the veil is adherent, and, as the cap expands, it may be broken up into scales or floccose patches. The gills are white in the poisonous spe- cies. The two species which every one should MUSHROOMS learn to know are the Fly Agaric (Amanita mus- caria, Fig. 245) and the Destroying Angel (A. phalloides, Fig. 246). In Europe, the Royal mush- room (Amanita Caesarea, Fig. 707) is regarded as one of the most delicious wild species. It was even regarded as the chief delicacy among the mush- rooms, aside from the truffles, in the times of the Romans. That is, it is this species, probably, which in Latin literature is referred to under the name “Boletus,” a term now unfortunately applied to a very different group of fungi, as subsequently mentioned. Closely related to the genus Amanita there are field mushrooms of the genus Lepiota, which resemble fairly closely the Destroying Angel in every way except in the absence of the universal veil, or volva, at the base. It might not be advis- able, however, at the outset to use even these. Another group of the Agarics to which the ama- teur may turn his attention with no fear of harm, is that which includes the oyster mushroom (Pleu- rotus ostreatus) and its allies. These fungi grow in the form of clusters of shelving plants, which may be found on old stumps and logs or on exposed roots where decay has set in. The clusters may attain a diameter of a foot or more, and an exami- nation of the individual plants which constitute the cluster will show that the stem is attached excentrically, or at one edge of the pileus, in some instances the stem being greatly reduced. The gills are white and white spores are produced. The surface of the pileus varies from white to yel- lowish with age, or it may even be grayish purple in different forms and species. In most species the gills are decurrent, coursing downward on the stem, gradually losing themselves in mere surface lines. These fungi are found abundantly in most regions of the United States from July to early winter. In the southern states they are not infre- quently found at any season so long as the moisture is sufficient. In the family of pore-bearing mushrooms the more widely distributed edible forms are found in the genus Boletus (Fig. 247). These species con- sist of fleshy plants of the characteristic umbrella shape. The stem is central, and frequently the whole plant is highly colored. In place of bearing gills on the lower surface of the pileus, the surface consists of a compact layer of vertically-placed small tubes or pores, and it is over the surface of these that the spores are borne. Boletus edulis, commonly known as the Edible Boletus (called in French, cépe, and in German, Steinpilz), is a common article of food throughout Europe, and it probably represents in this country a chief source of waste, so far as edible fungi are concerned, since it is very seldom used. An idea of the amount of this waste is suggested by the statement: that this species and two or three closely related forms were sold on the market of Munich in 1901 to the extent of about one million pounds, representing a value of nearly two hundred thousand dollars. Boletus edulis is a plant with a pileus usually red- brown on the upper surface, with a lower surface yellowish becoming greenish, slightly discoloring MUSHROOMS 477 when bruised, white flesh, and with a fleshy stem, yellowish buff in color. Among the Boleti there are several injurious species. General character- istics, by which they may be avoided, are a red color of the margins of the pores, the gills or flesh changing color markedly when exposed or injured, and an acrid or peppery taste. It is safe to say that among the peasantry of Europe, Boletus edulis is almost as common a food product as our well-known vegetables. From the time of its appearance in the early summer until the cold weather of autumn, it is sought every- where in the moist woods, and while highly prized in its fresh condition, it is also cut into pieces and dried for winter use. No small amount is canned and exported, the principal exported product being from France, and therefore bearing the name com- mercially of cépe. It would appear that it was this species that constituted, during the time of tho empire at Rome, the greater bulk of what were <2), iy KX 4 {i WS Fig. 707. Amanita Owsarea. An edible white-spored agaric. known as fungi suilli, not the most highly prized, but yet the fungi eaten by the multitudes. In the woods of north temperate regions through- out the world, and especially abundant in the moist, mountain regions, there are found delicate branched fungi, commorly known as Stag-horn mushrooms, Fairy Clubs and others. These species grow on the ground, frequently among the mosses, even in boggy regions. All of the species which are somewhat delicate or of sufficient size are edible and no mis- take can be made in appropriating them at will. The larger and more fleshy species are fortunately 478 MUSHROOMS rather common and of inviting color. They vary from light buff to golden yellow, and the delicate appearance of the plant is unmistakable. The spe- cies more commonly used are Clavaria formosa, C. aurea, and C. botrytes (Fig. 708). Somewhat like the preceding in general appear- MUSHROOMS moist and cool. It is a favorite food of insects, but since the latter are comparatively inactive during cool weather, that is the season when they are to be expected in greatest profusion. This puffball is at first white and later may become purplish brown, or white with a slight tint of brown. The flesh is firm and pure white even until full size is attained. The plant may attain a diam- eter of as much as five or six inches. With age it becomes spongy, and the plant differentiates into a mass of purple-brown threads and spores; this gradually wears away, leaving a purple-col- ored basal cup or beaker, which may be found in the pastures for months after the spores have blown away. The Giant Puffball (Calvatia gigantea) is also found in pastures, yy but it may appear in gardens and meadows as well. It has been found of a diameter of more than two feet, and can frequently be had sixteen to eighteen inches across. Thus far it has not been possible to cultivate any of these species of puffballs, but in recent years the use of these plants has become very much more general, perhaps because of the recognition of the very definite characters of the group. Even the smaller members of the puffballs may be used ance are a few toothed fungi, which grow on Edible. Fig. 708. Olavaria botrytes. decaying trunks or limbs. These plants belong to the genus Hydnum, and they are found only in wooded regions, usually in the presence of abundant moisture. The fungus body may consist of a very much branched structure, the branches ultimately terminating in teeth. The characteristic species are cream. white and they are of good texture. The best known forms are the Coral Hydnum, Z. coralloides, and the Satyr’s Beard, H. erinaceus. There are also two important members of this genus which have an irregular umbrella shape, the lower surface of the pileus in these cases being studded with teeth (Fig. 709). Both species are edible and of good flavor. They are frequently found in unusual abundance in mountain woods, in situations favorable for the Clavarias above men- tioned, in the late summer and early autumn. If there is one group of the fleshy fungi well known to all who have had opportunities to know the products of the pasture and meadow, this group is that of the puffballs. The puffballs are all edible, and many of the larger species are some of the most valuable of our fleshy fungi. If collected and used when the flesh is white, discarded always when old, or when the flesh has begun to change in color, no suspicious or injurious qualities can be assigned to this group. The larger species are sometimes very abundant, and a single plant may furnish a delicate accessory dish for a whole family. Among the valuable species several may be mentioned. Calvatia cyathiforme, the beaker- shaped puffball, is common in pastures throughout the United States. It is a plant of the early autumn, and is most abundant when the season is when the flesh is white and tender. An entirely different class of mushrooms, and one which indeed includes the truffles and terfas, is of further economic importance as furnishing, in practically all north temperate regions of the Fig. 709. Hydnum repandum. Edible. earth, some of the most highly prized of the mush- rooms, namely, the morels. There are several spe- cies of the morels, the chief one being Morchella esculenta (Fig. 710), the common morel (in German MUSHROOMS known as Morchel, and in French as Morille). In the United States this plant may pass under the name of “‘sponge mushroom,” this fittingly describ- ing the general appearance of the plant, for the morel is of a sponge-like color, and consists of a stem bearing a cap or head, which is thrown into folds or wrinkles, also suggesting very much the struc- ture of asponge. The plant is two to five inches in height and of very neat ap- pearance. It is found chiefly in open woods, though it may also extend into grassy places and orchards. Its season in the United States is from late April to early June, and in a particu- lar locality it may come and disappear within a single week. Itmust therefore be sought as the earliest edible mushroom. With the exception of the truffle, more- over, it is con- sidered by the French the greatest delicacy among mushrooms, and it commands on the markets of Paris a price several times that of the cultivated mushroom. — Fig. 710. Morchella esculenta. Edible. Truffles and other subterranean forms. Truffles are the fruit bodies, or sporophores, of subterranean fungi belonging to the family Tuber- acee, of the class Ascomycetes. There are only six or seven species which, because of size and quality, may be considered of economic importance. These are all classed in the genus Tuber, as are also many small species. The black or winter truffle (Tuber melanosporum, Fig. 711) is particularly abundant in France. It is preéminently, the truffle of commerce, and con- stitutes most of the best exported product. It is sometimes known as the Périgord truffle, and has made famous the markets of Périgord and Carpen- tras. This species has a wonderful aroma and flavor. Tuber estivum, the summer triffle, occurs also in southern France, but chiefly in parts of cen- tral France. The next important species is T. magnatum, a large species with alliaceous flavor, highly prized and abundant in Italy. Any of these MUSHROOMS 479 species may vary in size from plants smaller than hulled walnuts to those larger than an orange, in extreme cases. The majority of truffles are dark brown or black, with a peculiar warty surface, but T. magnatum is smooth and light, in color, some- what resembling a spherical yam. In the United States no truffles of economic importance have thus far been found. One or two small species have been found during a single season in Minnesota, and small forms are also known in California. It is thought that none of the larger edible species are native in this country. There seems to be no reason why truffle-growing may not succeed in parts of some of the southern states. The introduction experiments thus far have been of no consequence. Truffles are found in lime-containing clay soils, and are thought to be absent from all sandy soils. They are seldom found at great distances from the roots of certain trees, and it is thought that the mycelium is, in part at least, parasitic on living roots. TJ. melanosporum is more commonly found under oaks, particularly Quercus Ilex, the live-oak (Chéne vert) of southern Europe, Q. coccifera, a scrub live-oak of the Mediterranean garigues, and Q. sessiliflora. Properly speaking, truffles are exploited rather than cultivated ; nevertheless they are cultivated in the sense that many areas in which truffles did not grow are now yielding an abundance of this Fig. 711. The black truffle above (Tuber melanosporum, var. a.grosses verrwes). Terfa (Terfezia leonis) below. (From “La Truffa,”’ by Ad. Chatin, Paris.) fungus. Truffle production has been made possible in such areas by planting the necessary shelter trees, providing for proper soil drainage and shut- ing out predatory animals. Sometimes, moreover, 480 MUSHROOMS the soil from truffle regions has been spread on the land, thus securing a sowing of the spores. A double economic purpose has thus been accom- plished,—reforestation and the encouragement of truffle-growing. Terfa. Terfeziacee. Fig. 711. The terfas, or kamés, are fungi which in general appearance resemble the white truffle of southern Europe, but because of well-marked characters they are placed in another related family, the Ter- feziacee. They were among the earliest known edible fungi, and were greatly prized by the an- cient Greeks. At present the terfas are abundant in parts of Asiatic Turkey and Persia, particularly near Smyrna and Babylon, also in the Libyan Des- ert of northern Africa and in the semi-desertic regions of southern and southwestern Algeria. They are highly prized by the Arabs, and wher- ever they occur in quantity they constitute an important food product. These fungi are found, as a rule, under certain species of Cistacee, although they occur associated with the roots of other Fig. 712. Truffle hunting (above) with a dog in the garigues of southern France. Truffle hunting (below) with a pig in an ‘‘orchard’’ of oaks, southern France. MUSHROOMS plants. They are found more readily than truffles. They mature in the spring after the heavy rains, and as they develop rapidly, they break or raise the soil slightly, so that the locations may be Much reduced. Fig. 713. A broken tuckahoe. detected, although subterranean. They occur in lime- containing, sandy soils, mostly in the flood plains of small streams. The production of these fungi is very evidently dependent on sufficient winter rainfall, or inundations at some time in the winter months. Tuckahoe. (Indian Bread, Indian Loaf. Okeepe- nauk of the early Indians.) Fig. 713. The American tuckahoe is now considered to be inedible. It is unquestionably the sclerotial stage of some fungus, very probably of a pore-bearing mushroom (supposedly of a Polyporus). The form and size of this sclerotium is not unlike a coco- nut. The exterior is also rough and bark-like. The interior, however, when mature, is hard, white and friable. The tuckahoe has been found in various parts of the South and Southwest. It has received tentatively the name Pachyma. cocos. Among other pore-bearing mushrooms which may produce a somewhat similar sclerotial stage, one of the most interesting is Polyporus Mylitte. The sclerotium of this-fungus is known as “ Native Bread,” and is said to be eaten by the native in- habitants. P. Sapurema, found in Brazil, produces a sclerotium weighing many kilos. In Italy, P. tuberaster, produces a sclerotial mass of mycelium. This mass will produce the edible sporophores of the Polyporus until the stored-up nutriment is ex- hausted. The sclerotial mass is therefore sought in the open and brought in, so that none of the mushrooms may be lost as produced. No form of tuckahoe or allied structure is cultivated so far as can be ascertained. Literature on mushrooms. Atkinson, Mushrooms, Edible, Poisonous, etc., first edition, Andrus and Church, Ithaca, N. Y. (1901); second edition, Henry Holt & Co., New York City (1903); B. M. Duggar, The Principles of Mushroom-Growing and Mushroom Spawn Making, Bulletin No. 85, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture (1905); W. G. Farlow, Some Edible and Poisonous Fungi, Bulletin No. 15, Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology, United States Department of Agricul- ture (1898); Wm. Hamilton Gibson, Our Edible Toadstools and Mushrooms, and How to Distinguish Yellow Bellflower apple trees in fruit. Santa Cruz county, California Plate XVIII. NURSERIES Them, Harper & Bros., New York (1895); Nina L. Marshall, The Mushroom Book, Doubleday, Page & Co. (1901); Charles McIlvaine, One Thousand American Fungi, Bowen-Merrill Co., Indianapolis, Ind.; Charles H. Peck, Reports of New York State Botanist in the Reports of the New York State Museum of Natural History, 1879 to present. NURSERIES. The special development of nursery agriculture is recent. Nurseries were in existence in North America a hundred years and more ago, but they were isolated, relatively unimportant, and few in number. In 1900 there were 2,029 nursery farms (establishments in which nursery stock constitutes at least 40 per cent of the products) in the United States, comprising 165,780 acres; and in 1901 there were 1,561 acres devoted to nurseries in Canada. The nursery busines’ is understood in this country to be devoted to the raising for sale of woody plants and perennial herbs, and does not include the raising of florists’ plants and vege- tables, although an establishment or place in which any plant is reared for sale or transplanting is properly a nursery. Aside from the commercial nurseries, there are city park departments, ceme- teries, florist establishments and private estates that rear vast quantities of plants. The total value of the commercial nursery prod- ucts in the last census year (1899) in the United States was $10,086,186. The states returning a product of more than a half million dollars are: New York, 237 establishments, $1,703,354; Iowa, 104 establishments, $686,548; Illinois, 126 estab- lishments, $610,971; Ohio, 147 establishments, $538,534; California, 141 establishments, $533,038; Pennsylvania, 95 establishments, $515,010. The average size of the nursery farms was 81.7 acres, and the average value per acre of the land was $84. In Canada, by far the larger part of the nurseries are in the province of Ontario. From the other provinces the acreage is returned as follows: Quebec, 193; Manitoba, 90; British Columbia, 72; Nova Scotia, 87; New Brunswick, 35; Prince Edward Island, 17; The Territories, 20. As a type of farm organization and management, the nursery business has received no careful study in this country. It differs from all other forms of agriculture in many of its fundamental features, particularly in its business organization. A high- grade nursery presents perhaps the most perfect division into departments of any agricultural busi- ness; to illustrate this feature, a rather full dis- cussion of an organization for a $50,000 nursery business is presented in the following pages. Inasmuch as nursery farming is not the raising of a single crop, or even a single series of crops, and as the various nursery crops are treated in the Cyclopedia of American Horticulture, the crop- practice phases are not discussed here. The nursery business is characterized by the relatively small equipment in machinery, and the great outlay for labor. In 1899, the labor outlay in the nurseries enumerated in the census was considerably more B3l NURSERIES 483 than one-fifth of the total value of the products. On the other hand, the outlay for implements was only 5 per cent of the products, and for fertilizers it is surprisingly small, being only $139,512 as against $2,305,270 for labor. This low fertilizer cost is the result of the custom of growing trees on land that has not. been “treed,” especially fruit-stock, which must attain a certain size and appearance at a specified time. There has been much speculation as to the reason why trees do not succeed well after trees ; but this should be no more inexplicable than similar experience with other crops. Rotation is no doubt as necessary in nurseries as in other kinds of farming. No rotation systems have been worked out, however, and nursery production is to that de- gree not conducted on ascientific basis. Great atten- tion has been givento developing skill in propagating the plants and in tilling and handling the stock, but little is known of the underlying soil and fer- tility requirements. Experiments have demonstrated (see Roberts and Bailey, for example, in Cornell bul- letins) that the failure of trees to succeed trees with good results is not due to lack of plant-food alone. Although certain kinds of nursery farming may be classed with the intensive agricultural industries, as a whole the average returns per acre are not remarkably large for a special i dustry. The cen- sus shows the average value per acre of the prod- uct not fed to live-stock (comprising by far the greater part of the total product) to have been $60.84 for the whole United States, being about six times the acreage value for all crops. The average value from flower and plant farms, however, was. $431.83. The distribution of the property in nur- sery-farms is mostly in land and its improvements exclusive of buildings, this item being for the United States $6,841, in a total average valuation of $9,486 per farm. In buildings there were invested $2,101 to each farm, in implements $266, and in live-stock $228. Each nursery farm averaged $4,971 in the value of. its product. The American nursery grows such a different class of products from the Européan establishment that organization studies of the two are not com- parable. The American nurseries grow relatively large quantities of fruit trees, and these are not trained to special or individual forms. The busi- ness is conducted, for the most part, in a wholesale way, with a consequent small value for each piece in the product. As the country fills up and special tastes develop, and as new or untreed land is more difficult to secure, a new line of studies will need to be made of the economics of nursery agriculture. There is no'good separate literature on the nur- sery business, although there are books on nursery practice, as Bailey’s “Nursery - Book,” Fuller’s “Propagation of Plants,” and chapters in the lead- ing fruit books. The American Association of Nur- serymen publishes annual proceedings, and there are special journals. In Vol. I of this Cyclopedia (page 193) is a discussion of the capital required for establishing an up-to-date nursery. Following is advice on the equipment needed for an average nursery, by E. Albertson and W. C. Reed, of Indiana (comprising the remainder of this article): 482 NURSERIES As to the equipment, the wagons, harness, teams and tools used on a good, well-equipped farm for preparing the soil,—such as breaking plows, har- rows, rollers and crushers— are all needed in the nursery ; while for cultivating, the same tools as used on the farm for corn, potatoes and garden truck can be used to advantage. To these. may be added the small bar plows, some finer tooth culti- vators, and double cultivators with extra high arches. Drags or floats, both single and double, are needed to follow the cultivators to crush the clods VY wo aes Fig. 714. A peach-tree nursery. Oregon, and pack the soil, especially in dry weather, and hand weeders to use in place of hoes except in very hard ground or for heavy work. Pianting tools will also be needed. For small plants the dibble may be used to good advantage, but for the planting of most small stock the light spade is preferable. Machines are now made for opening up the ground and pressing back the dirt after the plant has been inserted, proving to be a great saving of expense and labor where large plantings are made, but they would hardly pay the small planter. Sheds will be needed and water barrels should be provided to keep on hand plenty of water for pud- dling everything before planting. If the nursery- man is to grow largely of seedlings, seed-sowing machines adapted to the seed to be planted should be provided. For large blocks of peach trees, a peach-seed planter should be had, the best of which costs about $125. One of the most important parts of the equip- ment is the spraying outfit, which should always be ready and often used from early spring till the latter part of summer. This should be adapted to the amount of service needed. Very small areas can be covered with the knapsack, while for a few acres the tank on a cart with a hand pump will be needed ; in large tracts, the power sprayers will be found to be more economical. The cost of these outfits will range from one to five hundred dollars. Pruning, grafting and budding knives must be provided, stakes for marking varieties, raffia or other material for tying buds, shears for cutting off stocks, grafting threads and wax and cali- pers for measuring the trees. Good, heavy digging NURSERIES spades will be needed. The equipment will not be complete without a power tree-digger and attach- ments for hitching at least ten horses. After preparations are made for planting, culti- vating and digging, the nurseryman must prepare to handle and care for the stock properly after it is dug, and for this there should be suitable packing, storage and work rooms. A work room for grafting, making cuttings, grading and counting seedlings and cions, will be needed. The room for storage of grafts, seedlings and cuttings for planting, should be separate from those used for storing and pack- ing trees; if possible, a separate building is pref- erable. The writers would advise that all buildings, whether called cellars or not, be made above ground and of only one story. The room for seedlings, cions and grafts should join the work room on the same level, both having dirt floors. The room for stor- age of trees should be separate from all others ; adjoining this should be the packing rooms, where the planters’ orders are sorted, and where all box and bale goods are pre- pared for shipment, bulk shipments being loaded directly into cars from the storage room. A switch into or alongside of this packing room will be a great convenience. All these rooms should be frost-proof, excepting the packing room, and if that is also frost-proof it will be of great advan- tage for grading, counting and tying stock taken up late, as this work can then be done when the stock could not be handled outdoors. These buildings may be constructed of any material most convenient and economical, but the principle of insulation must always be carefully considered. If the buildings are of brick, stone or concrete, this insulation may be secured by air- chambers in the walls and roof; if the buildings are of lumber, paper may be used for insulation, making three or four air-chambers, and protecting the paper outside and inside with lumber. This makes one of the cheapest and most satisfactory buildings, although the brick, stone or cement is more durable. Gravel roofs and good air spaces in the roofs may be recommended. To meet the requirements of the laws of many of - the states, a fumigating house or room must be built. This should be separate from other buildings and constructed according to approved plans, and may cost from fifty dollars up. Plenty of water should be at command at all times. If it cannot be had from city waterworks, private supplies should be installed, by engine or windmill, with sufficient tank capacity to insure a constant supply ; and this should be so distributed as to be accessible in every part of the buildings. Packing material, rye-straw and lumber for boxes vas nt NURSERIES must be supplied in liberal quantities. Moss, excel- sior, straw, and shavings are used for packing. The storage and work rooms may be built at a cost of $1,500 and upwards, depending on the volume of business contemplated. Small office room may be secured by cutting off part of the work room, or in a separate building, the expense being governed by circumstances. In addition to the above, provision has to be made for the nursery-stock or seed that is to be planted and grown. This will be governed entirely by the nature of the business contemplated, loca- tion and other factors, and must be considered separately for each individual case. One can very soon succeed in investing $5,000 or $10,000 in the nursery business, and then find that he has not very much of a nursery. Yet there are many large nurseries that were started on much less cash capi- tal than this, but which, with good judgment, en- ergy and grit, soon found the capital to enlarge and oe the business as circumstances war- ranted. Organization of a Commercial Nursery Business. By M. McDonald. The purpose of this article is to show the proper distribution of capital to equip, operate and main- tain a nursery to cover 200 acres of land, to be planted complete in three years, starting with a capital of $50,000. In the organization of a com- mercial nursery of such size, sufficient capital should be provided to plant 140 acres and operate the growing department for the first two years, or during its non-productive period, and also to erect suitable packing, storage and office buildings ; and, after the first year, to establish and operate a complete sales department. After organization has been effected and capital provided, if an incorporated company, the stock- holders meet and elect directors, who in turn elect officers whose business it is, with the advice of the directors, to arrange the permanent plans and business organization of the company. Usually, in case of a corporation, a general manager is ap- pointed, who may be one of the officers or directors or may be chosen from outside because of personal fitness for the work in hand. Again, the directors may act as an advisory board or executive com- mittee, resting the responsibility from the differ- ent departments directly on themselves, and direct- ing the affairs of the company without the assist- ance of a general manager; or, in case of an individual owner, he may himself assume the posi- tion of general manager and direct the work of the different departments, receiving the reports from the heads of each division. Whether it be general manager, advisory board, executive committee or individual owner on whom devolves the responsibility of the working organi- zation, such person, or persons, must be thoroughly conversant with the intricacies and have a practi- cal knowledge of all details of the nursery busi- ness in both field and office, so that he may econo- mize time and lessen cost without detracting from NURSERIES 483 the efficiency of the forces under him or lower the standard of quality of the article produced. The man on whom rests the responsibilty of the management of a commercial nursery should be a general in every sense of the word. It has been well said, “To the active participant, the commer- cial battles on the field of modern business are no less picturesque than the struggles for military supremacy. The powers of command, the routes of authority, the training and distribution of men in the field of action and the regulation of the forces, may not improperly be compared to those of an army.” The nursery farm now under consideration is presumed to have the entire acreage planted in three years. The seventy acres set aside for the first year’s planting should include a complete line of nursery products that will thrive in the section in which the nursery is located, containing fruit trees, seedlings to be budded or grafted later of all the varieties desired to be propagated, together with a full line of ornamental trees, shrubs, vines, roses, and the like. This first planting should be duplicated the second year, leaving sixty acres to be planted the third year to complete the two hun- dred. The reason why it is not necessary to plant so large an acreage the third year as the first and second, is because of the slower-growing kinds, especially in ornamental trees and shrubs, as these classes contain many kinds that are carried in stock for a number of years, while the fruit-tree stock is disposed of in two or three years. The surplus shown in the stock book at the end of the second year will indicate the classes and varieties left over after the first year’s sales, and will be the guide for the third year’s planting. The field men organization. Organization of the nursery forces should be effected at the very inception of the business, and a correct system of daily and weekly reports in- stalled, so that the cost of any given class of trees and plants may be arrived at by the management at any time. The highest standard of grade, thrift and health, produced at the least possible cost, should always be aimed at; this can be accom- plished only by a close check on labor employed at all times. Superintendent of nurseries.—Second in authority and reporting directly to the general manager should be the superintendent, who necessarily must have a practical knowledge of all the details con- nected with the growing department of a commer- cial nursery. He should be selected for his wide experience in the business, together with his ability to manage men and direct the forces in the field. Division foremen.— Under the superintendent are the field foremen, whose business is to take charge of and direct the men from day to day in the field work. In any well-regulated commercial nursery, there should be at least three foremen who are responsible for the amount and kind of work done in their departments. First would be the foreman in charge of the cultivating depart- 484 NURSERIES ment, which should include, in addition to plowing and cultivating, the care of horses, tools, and the like. Next would come the foreman of grafting, budding and the general work of growing and digging. In addition to these two, there should be a foreman in charge of spraying, which work is now acknowledged to be very important to the thrift and health of the trees and plants, as well as necessary in keeping the stock free from all insect pests and diseases. This, at the present time, is one of the most important points in con- nection with the nursery business, as it is impos- sible to ship nursery stock from one point to another unless it is free from pests and diseases. Daily report from field foremen to superintend- ent.—The system established should include daily reports from each of the field foremen to the superintendent, showing in detail the amount and kind of work each man performed during the day. The daily reports should be arranged to accommo- date the various kinds of work in which one man may be engaged during the day, although it might be changed every hour. These reports will be a guide to the foremen as to the value of individual men and help to form the basis for arriving at the cost of stock in any given block, enabling the man- agement to fix the price at which a tree can be sold and a profit made. Superintendent’s weekly report.—The foremen’s daily reports should form and be made a part of the superintendent’s weekly reports to the general manager, which should include a general review of the work done in the different departments and the nurseries generally, with recommendations for changes or new equipment required. General managers’ monthly report.—If a corpo- ration, the general manager may use the superin- tendent’s weekly reports, together with the fore- men’s daily reports, in a monthly report to the officers and directors of the company. Office organization. After planting the seedling stock the first year, the erection of suitable office buildings must be considered. These should be large and roomy, with a view to increased business from year to year, great care being given to proper lighting, heating and ventilation. Sales department.—In the organization of the office force, the sales department must be given first consideration, for on the management of this department will depend largely the success or failure of the entire structure. Whether the stock is to be sold by wholesale, retail, or by both methods, great care should be exercised in laying a founda- tion on which to build a sales structure to accom- modate daily balances between stocks and sales, and weekly reports from the salesmen, together with the weekly and monthly reports to the general manager. The retailing of nursery stock through the medium of traveling salesmen being the most generally in favor with nurserymen, these remarks will apply more particularly to that system, al- though the same principle will apply to any other system of selling. NURSERIES The sales manager.— The sales manager is the man on whom rests the responsibility of disposing of the products of the nursery farm. He should have a general and practical knowledge of the nursery business and be able to organize, manage and direct a selling force, which work, in itself, requires unusual skill, perseverance and tact. He should also have a personality that will gain the confidence of the salesmen working under him, and have sufficient aggressiveness to inspire the men to put forth their best energies in the advancement of the mutual interests of the nursery and of them- selves. The sales manager must also be able to install an accurate system of accounting or aggre- gating of stock sold and balance in surplus to be disposed of. The aim of the successful sales manager must always be to dispose of those kinds and varieties of trees, shrubs and plants that are grown in the nursery farm, and to avoid as much as possible the sale of varieties that are not produced in his own nursery, this can best be accomplished by keeping an accurate record of sales made from week to week. This, when checked against stock grown, will show remainder yet to be disposed of. The salesmen’s weekly reports, together with a general review of the work accomplished during the week, may form the basis of the sales manager’s report to the general manager, which report should in- clude condensed comparisons with corresponding periods in previous years, together with general information affecting the business. Accounting, delivering and collecting departments. —In addition to the sales department, the office force should be organized into accounting, deliv- ering and collecting departments, each of which will report periodically as desired by the general manager. The stock-buildings and organization. It is important and necessary, in establishing a commercial nursery, that suitable buildings be erected to store the stock during the operation of packing, and as a protection from the elements be- tween the time when the trees and plants are taken up and the time they are sent out to customers. These buildings should be arranged for receiving, storing, packing and shipping, and should be grouped conveniently so that the stock will pass from the receiving floor to the storage, billing and shipping departments with the least expense in handling. Special attention must be given the storage cellar to insure a low and uniform temper- ature as a protection to the stock from extremes of heat and cold, it being important that stock be held in a perfectly dormant condition for late spring shipments. . Superintendent of packing department. — The superintendent of this department fills a very im- portant part in the work of the nursery, and must be a man of experience and ability, quick to decide and os in his judgment of men and of nursery- stock. Packing-house foremen.— Under the superintend- ent and reporting to him there should be foremen NURSERIES over the different divisions of the packing houses, whose business it is to direct the men and keep an accurate account of the kind and amount of work performed by each during the day. Verbal reports from the foremen to the superintendent daily dur- ing oo busy season, will greatly facilitate the work, Distribution of the investment. The approximate distribution of capital in the nursery under consideration would be as follows: Capital stock .. ......4. $50,000 Annual rental for 200 acres of land at $6 per acre for two years. . $2,400 Horses, tools, etc. ....... 1,500 Cost of seedling stock, planting and cultivation of nursery-farm for two years ........ 25,000 Office equipment, management (in- cluding commission advanced on sales for one year). ..... 15,000 Packing and storage buildings. . 6,100 7 $50,000 OATS. Avena sativa, Linn. Graminee. Figs. 715- 721, also Fig. 542. By A. L. Stone. A grass grown for its grain, which is used both for human food and for stock, and also for its straw. It is the only species of the genus that is of great agricultural importance. Avena fatua, the wild oat (Fig. 548), from which the domestic oat may have sprung, is a serious pest in many parts of the world. The flowers of the oat are borne in a panicle which consists of a central rachis or flower-stem from which small branches extend in various direc- tions. The panicles are nine to twelve inches in length, and the branches are arranged in whorls at intervals-along the flower-stem. There are usu- ally three to five or more whorls, which bear sixty to eighty florets, or spikelets. (Fig. 715.) Each one of these spikelets is composed of two or more flowers, but it is seldom that more than two of them mature, and of these one grain is invari- ably larger than the other. In many varieties but a single grain reaches full size and the oats are called “single” oats; in others two grains mature, and the oats are called “twin” oats. The flower itself is placed in two outer, light, netted-veined glumes which enclose the flowering glume and palea. When there are two flowers on the pedicel, the flowering glume of the lower flower generally OATS 485 encloses that of the upper flower to a greater or less degree. Within the flowering glume and palea are the organs of reproduction. which consist of three filaments and anthers, ciosely set about an ovary bearing two feathery stigmas. These stig- mas surmount the ovary and spread out as the flower ex- pands. The filaments bearing the anthers grow very rapidly and push themselves outside the palea. The anthers are so arranged that the growth of the filaments changes their po- sition enough to subvert them and allow the pollen to fall on the stigmas. The flowers bloom in morning or afternoon. Fig. 715. Oat spikelet in bloom. Distribution and yield. The exact nativity of the oat plant is not posi- tively known, but the evidence would indicate it to be Tartary in western Asia, or possibly eastern Europe. No record of it has been found in the literature of China, India or other parts of southern Asia. Neither is it mentioned prominently in the early histories of Asia or the Holy Land. Certainly it has never been of such importance to the human race as wheat, corn or rye, all of which figured largely in the early nurture of the race. The great oat-producing regions of the world lie almost wholly within the north temperate zone and include Russia, Norway and Sweden, Germany, Canada and the north-central part of the United States. Large quantities of the grain of very good quality are grown in Australia and the neigh- boring islands, and more recently limited quantities have been grown in Africa and South America, but the great bulk of any season’s crop is produced in the first mentioned territory. Russia and its provinces, Poland and Northern Caucasia, produce the greatest quantity of oats of any country in Europe or America, or in fact the world. Of the more than two billion bushels pro- duced in Europe in 1904, Russia furnished 1,065,- 088,000 bushels. The oats grown there are high grade and many of the most valuable varieties now being grown in America are importations from Russia, largely from the southwestern provinces. The following tables from the 1904 Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture, giv- ing the yields of the various grains in the principal regions where each is grown, will give some idea of the comparative importance of the oat crop: YIELD OF OATS BY CONTINENTS. 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 North America... . 963,738,000 906,285,000 1,193,194,000. 991,508,000 1,097,4238,000 Europe... .... | 2,129,316,000 1,884,945,000 2,324,489,000 | 2,240,970,000 2,842,015,000 Asia... 4. . 40,905,000 28,439,000 43,511,000 71,694,000 54,948,000 Africa ia ee 6,750,000 } 6,750,000 10,479,000 7,500,000 8,116,000 Australasia ..... 25,293,000 82,110,000 25,613,000 29,979,000 33,677,000 Total ....../| 38,166,002,000 2,858,529 ,000 8,597,236 ,000 3,341,651,000 | 3,536,179,000 486 OATS OATS YIELD OF CoRN BY CONTINENTS. 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 North America... . 2,193,938,000 2,225,254,000 1,641,600,000 2,622,906,000 2,364,388,000 South America . . 81,185,000 66,647,000 118,418,000 98,078,000 162,711,000 Europe 405,990,000 465,102,000 562,194,000 424,090,000 492,957,000 Africa, ae «es « @ 33,207,000 27,350,000 82,350,000 82,350,000 32,350,000 Australasia ..... 9,780,000 10,025,000 10,168,000 1,847,000 5,615,000 Total .. 1. 2s 2,724,100,000 2,794,378,000 2,359,730,000 8,185,271,000 8,058,021,000 YIELD OF WHEAT BY CONTINENTS. 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 North America... . 588,360,000 850,698,000 777,194,000 733,786,000 640,827,000 South America . ... 120,546,000 87,417,000 75,984,000 118,876,000 140,598,000 Europe ..... 1,507,596,000 1,513,553,000 1,817,602,000 1,828,419,000 1,726,177,000 Asia: ¢4 si ee es 331,266,000 895,574,000 381,879,000. 478,515,000 519,505,000 Aftiea 2. 6 we wes 42,872,000 41,428,000 51,931,000 50,523,000 50,606,000 Australasia . 50,111,000 56,610,000 43,927,000 20,461,000 84,627,000 Total ...... 2,640,75 1,000 2,945,275,000 8,148,517,000 8,230,580,000 3,162,340,000 It will be seen that in the number of bushels oats exceeds both corn and wheat; but it is really less than either when the total number of pounds is considered. The average annual yield of oats for the world at large from 1900-1904, inclusive, has been 3,499,866,000 bushels. While the yield per acre is high, the value per acre is less than that of any other of our common grains. The average yield of oats per acre varies in the different oat-growing regions of the world, as will be seen by the following table, also taken from the 1904 Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture : AVERAGE YIELD oF OATS IN CERTAIN COUNTRIES, IN BUSHELS PER AcRE, 1894-1903. North America second. The production is increas- ing more rapidly in North America than in Europe, and as our agriculture becomes more intensive we will undoubtedly exceed the yields of Europe. Of the history of oats in the United States a writer in the International Encyclopedia says: “Oats have been cultivated in America ever since the advent of the first white settlers. They were sown with other cereals by Gosnold on the Eliza- beth islands in 1602; were introduced into Massa- chusetts bay, 1629, and their cultivation has since extended to every state in the Union.” While this statement is literally true and oats are raised in every state in the Union, the greater aaa a Gated bulk of the crop is Year States Russia canny Austria Hungary France Kingdom raised in the north- central states. (a) (b) (b) (b) 0) (a) (a) Eleven states now re ne a - oe eee oe aL produce four-fifths , ; : 26. 29, 7.5 : ; 1896 25.7 19.2 41.8 23.1 314 27.0 39.2 i et ee aa 1897 27.2 15.7 39.9 21.5 24.3 23.1 40.1 dall : New 1898 28.4 16.5 47.1 27.3 30.2 29.0 43.6 ANd. al! XCEL NeW 1899 30.2 23.6 48.0 30.2 33.3 27.8 41g York and Penn- 1900 29.6 19.5 48.0 25.2 28.1 25.7 41.2 sylvania are in 1901 25.8 14.0 44.5 25.6 28.1 23.5 40.6 the north - central 1902 34.5 21.8 50.2 27.6 34.0 29.2 45.9 group. These states 1908 28.4 17.7 51.3 28.4 34.4 31.6 44.2 in order of produc- Average .| 284 | 190 | 461 | 261 | 3803 | 272 | 420 tion in 1905 were Iowa, Illinois, Wis- a, Winchester bushels. While the yields here given are not strictly com- parable, part of them being given in Winchester bushels and part in bushels of thirty-two pounds, it is still evident that the yields are greater in Germany and the United Kingdom, with their moist climates and intensive farming methods, than in this country. Europe produces the greatest quan- tity of grain in proportion to the area covered, with b, Bushels of 32 pounds. consin, Minnesota, Nebraska, Indiana, New York, North Dakota, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Michigan. The average yield in 1905 was thirty-four bushels per acre. Of the great oat-producing states, Wisconsin leads in yield per acre with 39 bushels, and North Dakota is second with 38.9 bushels. Iowa showed an average of 35 bushels and Illinois 35.5 bushels per acre, the states with OATS the largest total yield not giving the largest yield per acre. The total acreage for the United States in 1905 was 28,046,746, with a production of 953,216,197- bushels, worth at farm values $277,047,537. Of the vast quantities of oats produced in the United States nearly all are used for home con- sumption. Oats to the amount of 41,369,415 bushels, worth $12,- 504,564, were exported in 1900, and 41,523 bushels, valued at $18,- 3860, were imported. Since that time the ex- ports have constantly decreased and the im- ports increased, so that in 1904 only 1,153,714 bushels, valued at $475,362, were ex- ported, while 170,882 bushels, valued at $57, 802, were imported. [Yearbookof the United States Department of Agriculture, 1904.] This increase is un- doubtedly due, as will be mentioned later, to the increasing popularity of oats as an arti- cle of human diet in the United States. The yields of oats in Canada for forty years have been as follows: 1871 the yield was 42,489,453 bushels; in 1881 it was 70,493,181 bushels ; in 1891 it was 83,428,- 202 bushels, and in 1901 it had risen to 151,497,407 bushels. The yield was distrib- uted approximately as follows in 1901: On- tario, more than 88,000,000 bushels; Que- bec, 33,500,000; Manitoba, 10,500,000 ; New Brunswick, nearly 5,000,000; Prince Edward Island, 4,500,000; Nova Scotia, 2,300,000; Brit- ish Columbia, 1,500,000; The Territories, 6,000,000 bushels. Classification. Oats may be divided into two great classes. These are spreading oats, and sided, mane or ban- ner oats. (1) In the spreading oats the branches of the panicle extend in all directions from the rachis. This class comprises the largest number and the most popular of the varieties of oats. (Figs. 716, 717, 718.) (2) In the second class, known as sided or “mane” oats, the branches all hang to one side of the rachis, thus producing the appearance Fig. 716. On the left, spread- ing oats; on the right, sided or mane oats. that has caused the name of “banner” oats occa-: sionally to be affixed to them. The terms “open” and “closed” panicles are sometimes applied to the two flower arrangements. (Fig. 716.) A third class, or hulless oats, while classed by themselves, may in fact belong to either of the preceding OATS 487 classes, although sometimes called by a distinct name, Avena nuda. The principal agricultural dif- ference is in the hull, which is so loosely attached as to be completely removed by the threshing process, leaving the grain only. There is also difference in the structure of the parts. Because of low yields and other considerations these oats have never become popular and are not extensively grown. At the Ohio Experiment Station, where seventy- one varieties of oats have been under experimenta- tion for several years, another classification has been made. There the different varieties have been divided into four groups. (1) In the first or “Wel- come” group are placed all varieties with spread- ing panicles, and having coarse straw and short, plump grains. (2) In the second or “ Wideawake” group are placed those varieties with spreading panicles which have long, slender kernels and Fig. 717. Good head of spreading oats. 488 OATS longer straw than the Welcome oats. These varieties take a little longer to mature than the preceding. (8) The “Seizure” or third group con- tains all the varieties of side oats, those having ; closed panicles. These take a still longer time to mature. (4) In the fourth or “mixed” group are placed all varieties about the classification of which there is any doubt. The varieties may be subdivided as to color into white, yellow, red, gray and black oats. The white and yellow oats are grown most largely in the North and are of the greatest economic importance. The red and gray varieties are grown in the South, largely for forage and pasture and may be either winter or spring oats. Black oats are grown in the North but are not con- M sidered to be so good as ij the white oats. Relative values of different types. The character of the soil and climatic condi- tions will largely deter- mine which of these varie- ties shall be grown in any given locality. Experiments show that in general there is no advantage in yield per acre of oats hav- ing the open panicle over those having the closed panicle. The latter varieties are hardier and are undoubtedly better yielders where the growing season is of sufficient length to allow them to Fig. 718. Poor head. Compare with Fig. 717 for a lesson in seed selection. Spreading oats. mature properly, but greater certainty of a crop’ is assured through a series of years when the open- panicled, earlier-maturing oats are grown. It has also been found that there is no particular difference in the yields of varieties having short, plump grains and those having long, slender = ; Fig. 719. Short, plump kernels. of the medium-early varieties of oats. Also illustrates ‘twin’ oats. grains, nor is there any appreciable difference in the weight per measured bushel. (Figs. 719, 720.) The Illinois Station conducted a five-year test with between thirty and sixty varieties, and came OATS to the conclusion that the long, slender kernels gave a higher percentage of grain to hull, while the Ohio Station with seventy varieties one year found that the short, plump grains gave the higher percentage of grain to hull. Varieties with the long, slender kernels take longer to mature and in a short season would not fill well. This would result in a larger percentage of hullg and a decrease in weight per measured bushel. The varieties with short, plump grains are early-maturing, and the grains will invariably be well filled, consequently the percentage of hulls will be less. However, in a season long enough to allow the later varieties properly to mature the grains would be well filled and the percentage of hull would be less, so that in general this percent- age will be affected more or less by the character and length of the growing season. Probably a majority of the varieties grown in the United States at the present time are those having short, plump grains. While the yields are not always greater,—in fact may in good seasons be less,—they have the advantage of ripening early enough to escape storms and rust, which often come on a little before harvesting time and tend to lessen the yields or in some cases utterly destroy the crop. The average percentage of grain to hull for American varieties is stated by Hunt in “The Cereals in America” to be 70 per cent. Variety to sow. In choosing a variety to sow, the end in view is to secure the highest possible yield of the best Fig. 720. Long, slender kernels found in the later-maturing varieties of oats. Also illustrates “‘single’’ oats. grade of grain. To do this a variety must be chosen that is suited to the local conditions. The shorter the season the earlier-maturing must be the variety. There are many well-tried varieties of oats, and with a little care success may be had in growing any of them. At the Ohio Station it was found that varieties of the Welcome group, with short, plump kernels and open panicle, gave the highest yields per acre and the heaviest weight per measured bushel. In a ten years’ trial the following were found to be the best varieties in the group, ranking in the order named: American Banner, Improved American, Colonel and Clydesdale. Of these, the American Banner has been recommended by ten experiment stations, which is more than can be said of any other variety. Other highly recommended varieties are the Swedish Select, White Bonanza, Lincoln and Siberian. In Wisconsin, the Swedish Select oats have averaged ten bushels more per OATS acre than other varieties grown in the same locali- ties, and have yielded as high as eighty-five bushels per acre in several instances. In Montana, the same oats have yielded over one hundred bushels per acre. These oats would be well suited to any oat-growing section of the United States. In a series of trials at the Ontario Experiment Station the Siberian proved to be the best of one hundred varieties, and on Canadian farms yielded an average of eighty or more bushels per acre. The yield of oats per acre is higher in Canada than in the United States, one hundred bushels or more per acre being not uncommon. The Sixty-Day oat is rapidly coming into favor in some regions because of its earliness. It matures six to twelve days earlier than the ordinary varie- ties. The straw is short and the kernel slender. Its early-maturing qualities make it valuable in sections where the oats are subject to rust, as it matures before the severe attacks of rust come on. Its short straw also prevents lodging to a large extent. The variety known as Kherson is practi- cally identical with Sixty-Day. New varieties in the United States are largely introductions from European countries. To this also is due the larger share of the improvement in the crop, though many fine varieties have been established by careful: breeding and selection. Oats for the South are discussed for this occasion by H. N. Starnes: “At the North there is a wide varietal range from which to choose, although throughout the south Atlantic and Gulf states the list of available profitable varieties shrinks to a lean half-dozen, or less. This does not mean that all of the northern standard varieties (with the exception of the few above referred to) cannot be grown at the South. In many localities, where climate, soil and special environment chance to be favorable they (or most of them) may be readily grown, some of them very successfully. Yet it may be safely asserted that but two varieties are so vastly superior to all others that they are now grown to the practical exclusion of the others. These varieties are Texas Red Rust-Proof, with its offspring Appler planted almost entirely in the fall, and the Burt for spring planting. “The two former are vigorous, robust and pro- ductive with a heavy head. The Burt is of value only because it will always grow tall enough to be cradled or reaped even on thin, poor land. Its head, however, is very light.: Yet even Burt, in common with all other spring oats, must eventually—and probably very soon—be abandoned, since the adop- tion at the South of the ‘open furrow’ method of seeding will render spring planting no longer neces- sary, and Appler will thus remain practically the only representation of the oat at the South.” Culture. Seed.—In general, the variety is not so impor- tant as the care and selection of the seed after the variety is established. Any variety suitable to the locality can be made to yield well with careful selection and grading of seed. Whatever the variety, it is important that the seed be of the OATS 489 highest grade. High-grade seed consists of plump, heavy grain, free from weed seeds and other foul materials and resistant to fungous diseases. The seed should be run through a good fanning mill to remove weed seeds and dirt, then through the mill again, so set that all light oats will be blown over. At the Ohio Experiment Station it was found that when the light oats were blown out in this way and sown, -they yielded 3.68 bushels of grain and 111 pounds of straw less-per acre than did the heavy grains secured at the same separation. The heavy grains also yielded 1.54 bushels more per acre than grain sown , just as it came from the threshing 9 machine. Zavitz, of the Ontario Agricultural College, conducted an eleven-year ex- periment to determine the effect of a constant selection and sowing of , s$ heavy-weight, plump grains in con- QQ trast to light-weight grain. He found that at the end of the eleven years the yield from the former was seventy- seven bushels, and from the latter fifty-eight bushels per acre. Professor Zavitz expressed his belief that the yield of oats could easily be increased 15 per cent by careful breeding and selection of the seed. The oat crop of the United States in 1905, in round numbers, was 950,000,000 bushels. An increase of 15 per cent would be 142,500,000 bushels. The average price for oats in 1905 was about twenty- seven cents. This would mean an addi- tion of $38,475,000 to the wealth of the farmers of the United States. The seed should be treated for the prevention of smut. In many fields the loss from smut amounts to 40 per cent or more of the crop. The treatment of the seed for smut is more important than farmers as a rule are willing to believe. In the year 1902, by close inspection of many fields in the state and with the codperation of graduates of the College of Agriculture, it was found that 17 per cent of the crop in Wisconsin was destroyed by smut. The yield of oats in Wisconsin that year was 95,000,000 bushels, which may be considered as only 80 per cent of a full crop. [See below under Diseases.] The seed should be tested as to its vitality or germinating power. A sim- ple form of seed-tester is shown in Fig. 721. Fig. 210 and described on page 141. Oat head Another tester is shown in Fig. 391. If Affected by the tester is placed where it will be exposed to ordinary room temperature, or 70° to 80° Fahr., a good germination of oats should be obtained in three days. Using one hundred seeds to begin with, the number that germinate will represent the percentage of germination, which should be 97 per cent, 490 OATS In cases in which the vitality is lower than that, it will be necessary to sow more seed per acre. There is no question that if care is used in selecting, cleaning and treating the seed, and in the preparation of the soil, oats should grow better in yield and quality from year to year. The ease with which seed can be procured and the lack of knowledge concerning the best methods induces many a farmer to change his seed when by care and industry he might himself produce seed as good as any he buys. In an effort to teach the young farmers the importance of good seed and the proper methods of selection and grading, many of the agricultural colleges have taken up the study of the grain by the use of score-cards. A thorough understanding and application of all the principles of the score- card will enable any one more intelligently to take ‘up the work of improving the oat crop. Preparation of the seed-bed.— Oats demand cool weather and abundance of moisture, so that the sooner they can be sown in the spring the better. The amount of water taken from the soil by oats exceeds that used by any other of our important crops. King, at the Wisconsin Experiment Sta- tion, found that oats removed from the soil 504 pounds of water to each pound of dry matter pro- duced. Of course a part of this moisture passes from the leaves of the plant through transpiration, and from the soil by evaporation, but the amount is very great and demonstrates the need of getting the grain into the soil as early in the season as possible, while the moisture is still available. In cases where the ground has been fall-plowed, the stirring of the soil should begin as early in the spring as it is possible for teams to get on the land. The value of early stirring to form a soil mulch and thus prevent the evaporation of mois- ture was well shown at the Wisconsin Station. Professor King used two plots, side by side, both of which were alike at the beginning. On one the hardened or packed crust was allowed to remain. On the other the stirring process was begun as soon as practicable and the soil mulch carefully preserved. It was found that the evaporation of moisture from the unstirred plot was enormous, amounting to 198 tons per acre in seven days or at the rate of thirty tons per day. Nothing could indicate more clearly the short-sightedness of a'lowing the land to lie with a packed surface be- cause a little extra time would be required to keep it in proper condition. The extra labor would be well repaid by the increase in crop due to the wise conservation of moisture and the destruction of weeds. While oats will do well after corn with only a surface disking, increased yields will undoubtedly be obtained when the ground is plowed, especially if the soil is naturally very compact. The seed-bed should be in good tilth. Although oats will produce well on poorer grades of soil than any other of the cereals, a careful preparation of the seed-bed will be amply repaid by increased production. The seed- bed should be compact, and on rather light soils rolling may be necessary. Should the soil be wet, OATS however, rolling is likely to pack it to the exclusion of proper amounts of oxygen, and even to the point where the young plants will be unable to reach the surface. In all cases rolling should be attended with caution; and a light dragging afterward to preserve the soil mulch is to be recommended. Fertilizers.—Oats do best on soils that are not too fertile, and the direct application of fertilizers is generally inadvisable, as it is liable to produce lodging of the grain and consequent loss. When oats are grown in a rotation following corn which has been manured, there is no need of manuring the oats, as enough plant-food will still be availa- ble after the corn crop has been removed. On soils too poor to raise good crops of oats, the applica- tion of barnyard manure at the rate of ten to twenty-five loads per acre, or of a standard com- mercial fertilizer, would put the soil in good condi- tion. A standard commercial fertilizer, according to Hunt, is “one that furnishes ten to twenty pounds each of ammonia and potash and thirty to sixty pounds of phosphoric acid. This can be obtained by applying 250 to 500 pounds of a com- mercial fertilizer containing 4 per cent of am- monia, 12 per cent of available phosphoric acid and 4 per cent of potash.” On soils, such as some of those in Iowa, Illinois and other states of the corn- belt, and in some of the eastern states, where con- tinuous cropping has lowered the fertility, it may be necessary to increase the percentage of nitro- gen in the fertilizer. Commercial fertilizers may best be applied with a fertilizer attachment to the grain drill and at the time of sowing the grain. All in all, oats need little fertilization. The Ohio Experiment Station (Circular 54) found that while the addition of a complete fertilizer to oats increased the yield, the increase failed to pay for the fertilizer in one case and barely paid expenses in another. It was found, however, that when phosphorus alone was used, a marked increase resulted and at a profit. The fertilizer applied will have to depend on the soil and is largely a matter of judgment. Depth of seeding.—The proper depth to sow the seed and the best method of sowing will depend much on the soil. Better results have been obtained by shallow sowing. The Illinois Experiment Station in a six years’ trial has found one inch to be the best depth at which to sow oats. This was corrobo- rated by the Ohio Experiment Station, where seed- ing at a depth of one inch gave a yield of 3.56 bushels more per acre than when the grain was sown two inches deep, and 7.73 bushels more than when sown three inches deep. All things taken into consideration, drilling is the best way of seed- ing when the seed-bed is properly prepared, because the depth of seeding can be made more precise and uniform. No especial advantage has been found in ordinary drilling over broadcasting. Large areas, however, are now drilled on old corn land by using disk drills. Broadcasting in this manner necessi- tates sowing slightly more seed per acre. It is well, in all cases, to follow the seeder with a harrow to aid in covering the seed in the case of broadcasting, and to level the soil in any case, as OATS well as to aid in preserving the best soil mulch. A common harrow or drag with teeth set at an angle of 45° makes a good tool for the purpose. Fate of seeding.—The rate per acre at which the seed should be sown will depend largely on the location and the preparation of the seed-bed. Oats stool abundantly and indications are that a major- ity of farmers sow too much seed per acre. Experi- ments at ten experiment stations have led to the recommendation of eight to sixteen pecks to the acre, with an average of ten pecks. When the seed is clean and well graded and the viability is high, ten pecks to the acre should be ample. In the corn-belt, where oats are sown on corn ground with only a surface disking, it is customary to sow four bushels of seed per acre; and in Scotland as high as seven and one-half bushels per acre are sown, Place in the rotation—Few crops fit into rota- tions in all parts of the country as well as do oats. In the West, where wheat is so largely grown, we find the following rotation: Corn, oats and wheat each one year, and clover and timothy two years. In the central states we have corn and oats, each one year, and clover and timothy two years. This rotation predominates also in the corn-belt, but is there liable to variation, such as corn two years, oats one year, clover one year or clover and timo- thy two years. On many farms in the corn-belt, a three-year rotation of corn, oats and clover is practiced, while some of the more shiftless farmers maintain a two-year rotation of corn and oats. This latter custom in time is certain to deplete the fertility of the land and should be condemned. Southern farmers use oats in the rotation with corn, cowpeas and cotton. These are combined in various ways, but the most common method is to sow cowpeas with corn the first year, putting the cowpeas between the rows of corn and harvesting them for the grain. Then fall-sown oats are re- moved in time the next summer to put on a crop of cowpeas which is cut for hay; this crop is followed by cotton one or two years, depending on soil conditions. Subsequent care.—-After the grain is up, nothing further need be done until harvest time in an ordi- nary season. When, however, moisture is very abundant and the soil fairly fertile it may be advisable to clip back the oats slightly to prevent lodging. This delays the ripening somewhat, but may obviate a heavy loss from lodging. The Iowa Experiment Station found (Bulletin No. 45) that cutting back to the third leaf from the ground when most of the plants had five leaves not only increased the yield eleven and one-half bushels per acre over that which was not clipped, but the grain remained erect after that which was not clipped was badly lodged. The cutting back delayed ripening four days, so that little risk was run in clipping Harvesting and threshing. The time to harvest oats is when the grain has just passed from the “milk” into what is called the hard “dough” stage, or a very little later. OATS 491 When cut at this stage and set in round shocks, covered with cap sheaves, the best quality of grain will be obtained. Weather conditions and the envi- ronment must always be taken into consideration, and if the season is unfavorable and weeds are abundant in the grain it may be more profitable to set the grain in long uncovered shocks, thus giving the bundles a better exposure to wind and sun. Circumstances and the judgment of the farmer must indicate the best treatment for the grain in the interval between cutting and stacking or threshing, as the case may be. Many of our farmers still hold to the old régime of stacking all the grain. Oats may be stacked a trifle greener than they may be threshed, as they will stand a pretty severe heating in the stack without injury. If stacked while in proper con- dition there is no question that grain will be of the very finest quality, other things considered. This method has the advantage that the oats can be taken care of at the proper time, and are not in danger of storms and other injurious influences. It is rapidly becoming the custom in many parts of the United States to thresh the oats from the field. If the weather is favorable so that the grain becomes thoroughly dried before threshing, this is undoubtedly the more economical method of hand- ling the crop, as it saves time and labor when both are at a premium on the farm. No especial loss in appearance or quality will be suffered unless storms occur during the time while the oats are standing in the shock. In this case there will be a change in color which, while not detrimental so far as feeding is concerned, will injure the market value of the grain. If the storms are severe and the bundles fail to dry out, the grain is liable also to start growing, which will injure it from every standpoint. There are drawbacks to this system of threshing. Often, to secure the services of machine and crew, the farmer must thresh before his grain is fully dry, or he has to wait too long. In one case, the grain will have to be stirred in the bin or it will heat. In the other, the shocks are exposed to the autumn storms, and the quality of the grain is impaired. Precaution should always be taken to see that the threshing machine is cleaned thoroughly, so that there may be no mixture of grain. Especially is this true when barley has been the last grain threshed, as we have not yet been able to find a machine which will make a close separation of oats from barley. Oats should yield on an average fifty to seventy bushels per acre in the northern states. In many of the southern states the yields are as low as ten bushels per acre. Enemies. Diseases.—The principal diseases which affect oats are rust and smut. The smuts of oats are of two forms,—the closed smut (Ustilago levis, Jens.), and the loose smut (Ustilago avene, Jens.). Both forms do serious damage when allowed to develop. The loose smut attacks the entire head of oats and turns it intospores. The closed smut offects 492 OATS only the kernels and is less apparent. Both forms can be completely prevented by either the formalde- hyde or the hot-water treatment. The formaldehyde treatment consists in submerging the seed grain for ten minutes in a solution made by using one pint of formaldehyde to thirty-six gallons of water. This amount of solution will treat forty bushels of oats, The hot-water treatment consists in submerging the seed in water at 133° Fahr. for ten minutes. [See under Barley.] In either case the seed may be put in baskets, gunny sacks or any vessel which will allow the water to penetrate readily. After removing from the solution or water, as the case may be, pour the grain on the threshing floor and allow it partially to dry. Then by opening the drill or seeder sufficiently to allow for the swelled condition of the grain, it may be sown at the usual rate. There are two kinds of rust [See Wheat] which attack the growing oats. One of these is the “crown” or “orange leaf” rust. It affects only the leaves of the plant. The other is known as the “black stem” rust, and this is the one which does serious damage to the growing grain. The rust spores obtain lodgment on the tender stems of the young plants, penetrate to the interior and there produce new spores in quantities so great as to burst the stem-walls and appear in black lines on the surface. It is often very difficult to distinguish between these two varieties of rust, for each has a red and a black stage. Neither in the red or black stage does the “orange leaf” rust do serious damage, nor does the red stage of the “black stem” rust. It is the later or black stage of the “black stem” rust that does especial harm by sapping the life from the stem and preventing the “filling” of the grains. The damage may extend only to a partial prevention of the filling, or a total failure of the crop may result. A very moist season furnishes the best condi- tion for the growth and development of the rust spores, and this is the reason why rust is more abundant in such seasons. It also explains why grain in low parts of the field is more seriously affected than is that on the more elevated parts of the same field. Only by growing varieties of oats which are rust-resistant or which mature so early that the grain fills before the devastating stage of the rust arrives can the loss from the rust be avoided. Varieties of oats are now obtainable which are practically rust-proof, having shown their power to produce well under the very worst rust conditions. Of the varieties of oats wnich mature early enough to escape serious damage by rust are the Sixty-Day oat previously mentioned, the Early Burt and the Kherson oats. While none of these is as satis- factory as some of the later varieties where the latter will mature, they will undoubtedly yield good crops every year. With the later-maturing varieties there will probably be an occasional failure to get a crop, due to attacks of rust. Insecis.—The oat plant is seldom attacked by insects to any appreciable degree except in occa- sional seasons when chinch-bugs, army-worms or OATS grasshoppers are abundant. The ravages of the grasshoppers are hard to avoid, but are of so infre- quent occurrence as to be a negligible quantity. Both the chinch-bug and the army-worm when once well established do much damage. They start at one side of the field and move across it, leaving devastation behind. A plowed strip of several feet in width, with a deep furrow into which the bugs or worms will fall, will often prevent their reach- ing a neighboring field. This may also be made more efficient by scattering tar, or some insect destroyer in the furrow, the perpendicular side of which should be toward the field to be protected. In extreme cases it would be well to burn one field to save the remainder. [See page 42.] The threshed oats are probably less subject to attacks of insects or worms than any other of our grains. This is due to the rather thick, smooth and close-fitting hulls, which seem to ward off all attacks. Uses. Until recent years oats have been used mostly as a food for animals, horses especially being very fond of them. Large quantities are also fed to sheep and cattle in conjunction with corn. It has been asserted than there is a stimulating principle in the oat which gives to an animal life and energy, such as is produced by no other cereal. Be that as it may, oats remain preéminent as a food for horses. In Scotland for many years, and more recently in other parts of the world, including the United States, oats have been used as an article of human food. Their great growth in popularity as a human food undoubtedly explains in a large degree the immense increase in production in the years 1880 to 1890, which, according to Hunt, was from four hundred to eight hundred millions of bushels, an increase of 100 per cent. Certainly none of the breakfast foods on the market today is more nourishing or palatable than properly prepared oat products. The best grade of oatmeal is made from single oats, with as small a percentage of hull as possible. The plumper and heavier the grain the better will the oatmeal manufacturer be suited, provided the hulls of the grain are thin. The manufacturer will undoubtedly be willing to pay an-increased price for oats of this sort, and there is here an oppor- tunity for the farmer who is properly situated, to make a financial gain by catering to the oatmeal trade. : Marketing and market grades. Other things being equal, the best time to market oats is at threshing time. Then the grain may be hauled directly to the market, which saves the extra handling caused by placing oats in the bin. The market price and the condition of the grain when threshed will determine, in a large measure, whether grain is to be sold at that time. The price received for the grain will depend on its condition and the use to which it is to be put. To command the best market price any grain must OATS be sound and sweet, free from weed seeds and foul material, and have a good color. Oats of poor color, whether from exposure to storms, molding in the bundle, or overheating in stack oc bin, will not command the best prices. Oats that have been overheated in the bin will be “bin-burned” and discolored. They will be injured not only from the marketing but from the feeding standpoint as well. When oats are badly discolored, elevator men often resort to treatment by sulfur to bleach the grain and improve the appearance. This leaves the grain in worse condition than before and is a reprehensible practice. In spite of the magnitude of the oat crop in the United States and the immense increase in produc- tion in the last few years, the exportation of the grain has steadily decreased and the importation increased. It is evident, therefore, that there will be a good market for years to come. It should be the aim of the farmers of the United States, by more scientific growing and care of the crop, not only to supply the home demand but to build up an export trade as well. Grades.— Every grain-raising state has its grain-inspection rules and regulations. These are very similar in all the states. The Illinois Grain and Warehouse Commission has adopted the follow- ing grades for oats: White oats, Nos. 1, 2,3 and 4. White clipped oats, Nos. 1, 2 and 3. Mixed oats, Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4. The rules for grading read as follows: “No. 1 white oats shall be white, sound, clean, and reasonably free from other grain. “No. 2 white oats shall be seven-eighths white, sweet, reasonably clean and reasonably free from other grains. “No. 3 white oats shall be seven-eighths white but not sufficiently sound and clean for No. 2. “No 4 white oats shall be seven-eighths white, damp, badly damaged, musty, or for some other cause unfit for No. 3.” For clipped white oats the same rules apply ex- cept that No. 1 must weigh thirty-six pounds, No. 2, thirty-four pounds, and No. 3, twenty-eight pounds to the measured bushel. The rules for mixed oats are the same as those for white oats, except that all need not be white. It is very seldom that a carload of oats will grade No. 1. Of the four grades, more of No. 8 are re- ceived in the market than of any other, and there are more of No. 4 than of No. 2. There is no rea- son, except lack of care on the part of the growers, why the major part of the oats shipped should not grade No. 2 at least. Sowing, harvesting and threshing at the proper times will cause many oats that now grade No. 4 to grade No. 2. The market prices generally range from three to five cents higher per bushel for No. 2 than for No. 4 white oats. Thus, a field of eighty acres, producing fifty bushels to the acre, would yield 8,000 bushels of oats. A difference of five cents a bushel would increase the value of the crop $400, an amount which would pay for the extra care and labor involved and leave a fair profit besides, OATS 493 Literature. M. A. Carleton, Improvement of the Oat Crop, Fourteenth Annual Report, Kansas State Board of Agriculture, pp. 32-42, published at Topeka, Kan- sas, 1904, by F. D. Coburn, Secretary; F. L. Sar- gent, Corn Plants: Their Uses and Ways of Life, Houghton, Mifflin & Co., New York (1899), pp. 42-72; Thomas Shaw, Grasses and Clovers, Field Roots, Forage and Fodder Plants, Northrup, Bros- lan, Goodwin Company, Minneapolis (1895), pp. 94-96 ; Morrow and Hunt, Soils and Crops of the Farm, Howard and Wilson Publishing Company, Chicago (1892) ; Edward Hackel, The True Grasses, translated from the German by F. Lamson Scribner and E. A. Southwick, Henry Holt & Co., New York (1890), pp. 121-125 ; Thomas F. Hunt, The Cereals in America, Orange Judd Company, New York (1904) pp. 280-331; Bulletin No. 2, Aberdeen and North of Scotland College of Agriculture, 1905, pp. 1-87; Ohio Experiment Station, Bulletins Nos. 101-138. The reader will need to keep in touch with current Experiment Station literature if he desires to keep abreast the times. The ‘‘Open Furrow’’ Method of Seeding Oats. Fig. 722. : By Hugh N. Starnes. The oat is yearly becoming more prominent as one of the staple crops for the.southern cotton-belt, its position being strongly emphasized by its en- trance as an indispensable factor into the system of “triennial crop rotation” (page 98). In the past, however, oat-culture in the South has been largely influenced and its greater increase checked by two discouraging obstacles: (1) Because of the almost inevitable drought in April and May, spring oats are not successful. On the poor, stiff, red-clay land usually allotted to them, aside from their predis- position to rust under such circumstances, the only variety reaching a height sufficient to cradle or reap is the “Burt,” an oat with a lengthy stem but a light head, and therefore unprofitable. “Texas Red Rust-proof,” the standard variety, is unfitted for sowing on poor land in the spring by reason of its shorter culm. (2) This necessitates fall-plant- ing; but it is usually impossible for the average farmer to seed down his fall oat plats in time for them to become sufficiently rooted to withstand the freezes of early winter, for his corn occupies the land that should go in oats and it must be gathered before the area is planted. The late seeding which this entails renders broadcast and hand-sown fall oats a most uncertain crop. A large percentage invariably succumbs to the cold. Difficulty has been experienced in the use of the seed drill. Unfortu- nately, the extremely long awns of the “Texas Red Rust-proof” oat, and of its improved progeny, the “Appler” oat, cause the seed to clog in the delivery tubes and to produce, in consequence, an irregular stand. The remedy. The practice of the “open furrow” method of seeding, however, has transformed the uncertainty 494 OATS of a fall-sown oat crop into a reasonable surety. It has been exploited in Georgia for some fifteen years, and although it made slow progress at first, now that its advantages are more fully realized it is being rapidly adopted by the public. Under this system grain may be seeded as late as the last week in November with the assurance of a good stand and of the crop passing the winter uninjured. Throughout the cotton-belt the loss from the “winter-killing” of hand-sown fall oats ranges from one crop in two to one in three, equivalent to an annual average loss of at least 40 per cent. With the “open furrow” method, an annual average loss of 4 per cent would seem to be an excessive estimate. Moreover, the yield is relatively greater, while its additional cost is comparatively moderate. Details of the “open furrow” method. The details of the process are as follows :—The corn land of the previous year is well broken and harrowed, preferably in the first or second week in October. The implement at first used for Fig. 722. ‘‘Open furrow’’ oat-growing. planting was a light, one-horse combination seeder and fertilizer distributer, seeding and at the same time fertilizing only one row at a time. It was provided with a six-inch “shovel” plow- point to open the furrow, into which were drilled seed and fertilizer together from separate hoppers and in any desired quantity. The covering was effected by means of a wheel at the rear of the implement. An “open furrow” machine, however, has recently been devised by which four rows at a time may be seeded in place of one if the oats are exceptionally well cleaned. The machine will doubtless be still further perfected and eventually supersede the original “single row” implement. The seeds on germination thus occupy the bottom of an open furrow some four inches deep, where the roots find anchorage in permanent moisture. The sides of the furrow are miniature “bluffs” which serve as windbreaks for the tender grain against the cold northwest winds, while the recur- ring frosts of winter successively sift the soil into the furrow, almost filling it by harvest time. The rows are run preferably east and west, but their direction is not of serious moment, since the prevailing cold winds of the cotton-belt are from the northwest, and would therefore cross OIL-BEARING PLANTS the rows diagonally, even when extending north and south. By harvest time, which is usually the first week in June or the last week in May, the grain has tillered to such an extent that the rows are barely traceable across the field. Although planting one or even four rows at a time appears to be rather slow work, it is really more expeditious than it seems, while the assurance of securing thereby an otherwise fortuitous crop should more than recon- cile the planter to the delay. me With the “open furrow” method liberal fertili- zation is advisable on planting and also an addi- tional top-dressing of nitrate of soda in early spring. Adaptation of the method. Besides oats the process is equally applicable to other small grains, and permits wheat to be sown successfully in the South as late as the middle of December. It also opens up great possibilities for the Northwest along the margin of the belt where fall-sown wheat gives way to spring-sowing. It is possible that the limit of fall-sown wheat may be pushed northward some fifty or seventy-five miles, perhaps one hundred. Literature. R. J. Redding, Bulletins Nos. 44 and 72, Georgia Experiment Station and Press Bulletin No. 45 of the same station. OIL-BEARING PLANTS. Figs. 723-726. By R. H. True. Under this heading are included two widely dif- ferent classes of plant products, which will demand separate treatment. The oils of one class are light, readily volatilized, usually marked by a more or less strongly developed odor, and taste frequently pleasant, and are obtained from the plant by the process of distillation with water vapors. The oils of the other class are heavy, thickly fluid at usual temperatures, relatively lacking in odor and taste, and are usually obtained by the forcing out of the oil under heavy pressure. Since these two classes of products are obtained from different sources by very different processes, and are made use of in different ways, it will be expedient to discuss them separately. PLANTS PRODUCING VOLATILE OILS Botanical source. The Labiatee (the mint family), the Umbellifere (the parsnip family), the Rosacee (the rose family), and the Composite (the sunflower family), are all rich in volatile oils and furnish a considerable part of the world’s supply. This class of products is also widely developed throughout the flower-pro- ducing section of the vegetable kingdom, and is found in the Verbenacee (the verbena family), in many of the evergreen trees, in the family which includes the orange and the lemon (Rutacee), and also in that which includes the wintergreen (Hricacee). OIL-BEARING PLANTS Place of production in the plant. Not only are volatile oils produced by many widely separated members of the vegetable king- dom, but they are contained in the most various parts of the plant. (1) In many cases they are de- veloped in hair-like structures which grow on the leaves and stems of plants, chiefly herbaceous, and give to the herbage of these plants the odor charac- teristic of them. Peppermint, spearmint, penny- royal, sage, catnip, lavender and marjoram belong to this class. (2) In many cases the oils are formed in internal glands or secreting structures and there developed and retained. Such accumulation is seen in the fruits (sometimes called seeds) of the Umbel- lifere, e. g., anise, caraway, coriander, fennel; in the fruit, rind and the foliage of the orange and lemon trees; in the leaves, bark and wood of the sassafras ; in the needles, bark and wood of many of the cone-bearing trees, as the fir balsam, long- leaved pine, white cedar and juniper. (8) In still other cases, the volatile product does not exist in the plant, but is formed by chemical changes fol- lowing preparatory treatment of the parts involved. In the case of those products in which the develop- ment of prussic acid is a characteristic result, the leaves or fruits yielding it must be crushed and thoroughly moistened so as to bring together those substances which by their action on each other cause the development of this acid. Usually a sub- stance belonging to the group of bodies known as enzymes acts on a substance belonging to the group of bodies known as glucosides. When water is present, this reaction results in the formation of prussic acid and also of other less important substances, This condition of things is encountered in obtain- ing the so-called oil of bitter almonds, whose chief sources are the kernels of almonds and apricots. Peach kernels contain similar substances and yield this oil also. The same general condition exists also in the green leaves and the bark of the black cherry, which yields this poisonous principle only after such a chemical change takes place. Similar in its general features is the situation in mustard seeds and horseradish, which owe their pungency to a volatile oil that is produced by a chemical change taking place between substances present in the seeds and root respectively. The volatile oil of wintergreen illustrates a similar method of formation. Thus it is clear that for the production of vola- tile oils many different parts of plants are used, and also that these are treated in very different ways. Method of obtaining volatile oils. The process of obtaining volatile oils consists especially in exposing the oil-containing herbage, seed, wood, or bark to the action of a current of live steam which is then condensed, yielding water and the oil. The most important parts of a dis- tilling apparatus are the following: (1) The boiler which yields the live steam; (2) the distilling chamber in which the substance to be distilled is packed and exposed to the live steam, which is OIL-BEARING PLANTS 495 usually admitted at the bottom ; (8) the condenser in which the pipes carrying the live steam laden with the vapors of the volatile oil are brought from an outlet near the top of the distilling cham- ber into an artificially cooled series of tubes from which the condensed steam and oil flow out into some proper receptacle. The oil, usually somewhat impure, floats generally as a superficial layer on the water, from whence it is skimmed or otherwise drawn off for storage or purification. [Fig. 1891, Cyclopedia of American Horticulture, shows a mint still in section; and there is a discussion of peppermints and spearmint, and a botanical account of the cultivated species of Mentha.] Volatile oil production in the United States. At the present time the growing and distillation of volatile oil-producing plants are practiced to a limited extent in several parts of the country. The most conspicuous example is peppermint, which is grown in southern and central Michigan, northern Indiana and in Wayne county, New York. Michigan is at present probably the most important pepper- mint oil region of the world. Japan produces a large quantity of an oil called commercially pepper- mint oil. England and Germany are smaller pro- ducers. Wormwood oil, formerly grown chiefly in France and other parts of Europe, is now grown largely in Michigan, Wisconsin and Nebraska, the United States furnishing a very considerable part of the world’s product. Spearmint oil is also pro- duced in small quantity. Spearmint supplies mate- rial for mint julep. ; Among the volatile oils produced in the United States, some are obtained from wild plants which are collected in the fields and forests for distilla- tion. Sassafras oil is distilled at scattered points in Pennsylvania, Virginia and other parts of the country occupied by the sassafras tree, even as far west as Missouri. Wintergreen oil is distilled in small quantities in Michigan, Connecticut and other regions where the wintergreen plant and the sweet birch (which yields the oil on distillation of the bark) are found abundantly. Perhaps the most im- portant single volatile oil is distilled from the resinous substances which exude from the wounded trunks of the turpentine-yielding pines. The resi- nous exudate on distillation yields the oil of tur- pentine of commerce. On the Pacific coast there is a sparing distillation of the leaves of the eucalyptus trees grown so frequently in that region. The ker- nels of California bitter almonds, and to a much larger extent the kernels of apricots, are also a commercial source of the so-called oil of bitter almonds. Volatile oil importation. In addition to the above home production, this country imports volatile oils and products derived from them to no small extent. In the following tables, the report of the National Customs author- ities for the year ended June 30, 1905, gives the sorts, values, and quantities of some of the most important kinds of products imported during the period indicated; 496 OIL-BEARING PLANTS IMPORTATION OF VOLATILE OILS INTO THE UNITED STATES DuRING THE YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1905. Kind Quantity Value Bitter almonds. . . .| 18,785 pounds $10,089 00 Anise seed ..... 39,112 pounds 40,949 00 Bergamot. ..... 64,549 pounds 132,114 00 Cajeput....... 22,082 pounds 8,309 00 Caraway ...... 28,269 pounds 19,464 00 Cassia and cinnamon .| 46,473 pounds 31,080 00 Camomile... ... 56 pounds 172 00 Citronella. . 2... 649,113 pounds 159,564 00 Fennel .. 2... 8,517 pounds 2,901 00 Jasmine ...... 817 pounds 6,797 00 Juniper. ...... 9,989 pounds 5,511 00 Lavender and spike . . | 129,832 pounds 175,383 00 Lemon ..... ..| 310,056 pounds 175,852 00 Limes ....... 5,415 pounds 3,060 00 Orange flowers. . . . 4,995 pounds 28,957 00 Orange... .... 92,077 pounds 143,555 00 Origanum...... 6,495 pounds 1,404 00 Peppermint ..... 16,184 pounds 18,733 00 Rosemary. ..... 33,050 pounds 16,398 00 Roses, Attar of 88,337 ounces 296,918 00 RVING a a tos Ads ap ce 54,607 pounds 39,839 00 Valerian .. 7... 13 pounds 26 00 All other essential oils and combinations. .| ...... 420,858 00 Totals acs a | ew owe $1,737,933 00 ImporTATION OF SEEDS FROM WHICH VOLATILE OILS ARE DISTILLED, DURING THE FISCAL YEAR ENDED JUNE 380, 1905. Kind Quantity Value Anise: 4% s a eo ais 830,494 pounds | $16,593 00 Caraway .... . . 2,275,158 pounds | 100,501 00 Coriander... ... 1,037,866 pounds 47,861 00 Fennel... ..... 125,858 pounds 5,808 12 Total sss as 3,769,376 pounds | $170,263 12 Uses of volatile oils. Volatile oils meet with a wide use in the making of perfumery, for which their pleasing odor and high degree of volatility render them especially valuable. They are used not only mixed in propor- tions designed to produce a given fragrance in the form of solutions seen in the usual commercial perfumeries, but they find their way into many other preparations in which pleasing odor is desired. Soaps alone make a striking illustration. As flavor- ing agents they play an important part in domestic economy. The “essences” of the kitchen, bakery and confectionary factory are in large part prepa- rations of such volatile oils as give the desired flavors to cakes, ice creams and candies. They are also used in various beverages, liquors and cordials. The French beverage, absinthe, is distinguished by the presence in it of oil of wormwood. These oils and their products are also used in the manu- facture of remedies. Menthol, a crystalline sub- stance obtained from peppermint oil by subjecting OIL-BEARING PLANTS it to a low temperature, occurs in many prepara- tions because of its antiseptic properties, and in the form of cones or pencils for use externally in headaches, neuralgia and the like. Eucalyptol, ob- tained from eucalyptus oil, and thymol, obtained chiefly from the oil of thyme, are likewise highly valued antiseptics and enter into many washes, sprays and other medicinal preparations. Some oils of the class here concerned are employed almost solely for medicinal purposes, such as oil of Ameri- can wormseed. Others havea limited use in various ways in the arts and sciences, e. g., oil of red cedar wood and of white cedar in microscopic work. Anise. [See Medicinal, Condimental and Aromatic Plants, page 458.] Bitter Almonds (Prunus Amygdalus, var. amara, DC.). Rosacee. The so-called oil of bitter almonds is obtained from the kernel of bitter almonds, apricots and peaches. The kernels are coarsely ground, submit- ted to great hydraulic pressure to remove the fatty oils present, and the remaining cake after finer grinding is macerated in several times its volume of water and left for twelve hours. The volatile oil does not exist ready formed in the seed, but is Fig. 723. Long-leaf pine (Pinus palustris). developed by the chemical action of bodies present in the kernel. Amygdalin, a‘ glucoside present, when acted on by emulsin, a splitting ferment also present in the kernel, splits up, in the presence of water, into grape-sugar, prussic acid and benzalde- OIL~BEARING PLANTS hyde. After a sufficient time has elapsed for the oil to form, distillation occurs. California is the chief American source of this very volatile and poisonous oil. Caraway. [See Medicinal, Condimental and Aro- matic Plants, page 460.] Long-leaf Pine (Pinus palustris, Mill.). Conifere. Fig. 728; also Fig. 55, Vol. I. American turpentine oil consists of the more volatile constituents of the resinous exudate ob- tained by wounding the trunk of the various species of pine, chiefly the long-leaf pine. The outer living wood is chopped away in such manner as to open a large area of young wood rich in turpentine. During the warm months this pitch exudes and runs down into a pot connected by a spout to the tree or into a “box” cut in the trunk itself, from which it is removed every month or fortnight. The pitch is then distilled, with the result that the more volatile part, the oil of turpentine, is separated from a heavy residue, the resin. This volatile oil is further purified by recti- fication. The southeastern states, from North Carolina to Florida, are the chief source of American turpen- tine oil. Wilmington, N. C., is the chief commer- cial center for this and related pine products, such as resin and tar. The turpentine supply is threat- ened in the United States by the destruction of the forests. Synthetic substitutes have not been secured. Spearmint (Mentha viridis, Linn., M. spicata, Linn.). Labiate. (Fig. 1892, Cyclopedia of American Horticulture.) A low perennial herb (one to three feet high) propagated by numerous running rootstocks, with ascending or reclining, somewhat hairy, square- cornered, green stems, bearing slightly hairy, aro- matic, sessile, veiny, oblong leaves, and the dense, narrow, terminal leafless spike of small lavender- colored flowers. This European plant has been widely distributed over the eastern part of the United States, where it occurs wild in damp fields and waste places. It has been grown in Europe for centuries on a small scale as a garden plant. It has been cultivated on acommercial scale at Mitcham, England, but chiefly in the United States in Michigan and in Lyons county, New York, where its culture is practiced with that of peppermint [see Peppermint, page 463]. The methods of cultivation and distillation are similar to those employed in the case of pepper- mint. The yield is about twenty pounds of oil per acre. The total American yearly output seems not to exceed about 12,000 pounds, which amount makes the American product the determining factor in the world’s market. An oil grouped with spearmint oil commercially was formerly produced on a small scale in Thuringia, Germany, but it has ceased to be a factor in the market. B 32 OIL-BEARING PLANTS 497 The oil is used as a flavoring agent in confec- tionery and cosmetics and toa less extent in medi- cine. Both the dried herb and the oil are official in the U. 8. Pharmacopeia. The dried herb meets with a limited demand from crude drug dealers. Sweet Birch (Betula lenta, Linn.). Fig. 724, A tree of medium size, reaching a height of seventy-five feet, having a close dark brown bark, Betulacee. Sweet birch (Betula lenta). Fig. 724. the inner lining of which is sweet and aromatic when chewed. The leaves are cordate, ovate, acu- minate at the apex, with finely serrated margins. The flowers are in long, slender catkins. A native tree of rich forests of eastern North America. The bark of the sweet birch (cherry birch or black birch) yields on maceration and distillation a volatile oil which is frequently known commer- cially as oil of wintergreen and has practically a like composition. The birch bark from young trunks and branches is removed usually in late summer, cut up into small pieces and macerated for twelve hours with enough water thoroughly to moisten the bark, and distilled with steam. The characteristic substance of the oil is methylsalicy- late, formed by the action of thé ferment gaulthe- rase (betulase) on the glucoside gaultherin. The yield is about .23 per cent. The oil of sweet birch and of wintergreen is used chiefly as a flavoring agent in candies and medicinal preparations. Vetiver. Andropogon squarrosus, Linn. (A. murica- tus, Retz. Vetiveria zizanioides, Nash.). Gram- inee. Vetivere, Cuscus, Khus-khus, Khuschus, Kuskus, Koosa. Vetiver is a perennial tufted grass, native in rich moist soils in the coast region of India and in Bengal, and also on the plains of the Punjab and Northwest provinces. It is ~rown for its roots, the 498 OIL-BEARING PLANTS filaments of which are used for making scented mats, screens, fans, ornamental baskets and various fancy articles, and are tied in bundles, weighing about two ounces each, which are used for scenting drawers. The latter is the Louisiana utilization of the plants. From the roots (called khas or khas- khas) is distilled a fragrant oil used in perfumery. Vetiver is closely related to citronella (Andropogon Nardus), from the leaves of which citronella oil is distilled. : Vetiver has been introduced into southern Lou- isiana and has become naturalized there, but it has not yet been grown commercially to any extent. ‘It seems to have been introduced here from the West Indies about seventy years ago. There are a few plants in every garden belonging to the native French population of the state. There is one large collection of plants at Shiloh, about sixty-four miles north of New Orleans, and another in St. Bernard parish. Dr. Le Monnier, who has the garden at Shiloh, has some 700 plants in nine rows, six feet apart, each plant or tuft consisting of a compact mass about a foot and a half in diameter, giving rise to long stems which in September become jointed canes, one-half inch in diameter, and as much as eight feet high. In September or October he burns the plants, and digs up the roots which have then sproduced great numbers of small roots or fila- ments about one thirty-second of an inch in diam- eter and running one to two feet long. These are chopped off close to the central mass, which can then be replanted. The filaments are thoroughly washed in cold water, and, after being dried slowly in a room at a temperature of about 120 degrees, are ready for market. The grass is propagated chiefly by transplanting the roots. When once established it forms dense, firmly rooted tufts, rather difficult to eradicate, but not spreading or increasing rapidly. It requires for its best development a rich moist soil of rather open texture. In Louisiana it is grown most eco- nomically on exceedingly sandy soil, the product from which shakes almost entirely clean. The period during which vetiver is in active sale in Louisiana is from November to April, after which the stock is mostly exhausted. The whole- sale dealers pay for it at forty to eighty cents per pound. The higher price obtains at the beginning of the season. The quantity of domestic product on the market is very small. Almost every constant user of it has one or more plants in her own gar- den. It has figured in a small way in the importa- tions from France since a very early date. [See Watt, Dictionary of Economic Plants of India, and Dodge, Catalog of Useful Fiber Plants of the World.] Wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens, Linn.). Eri- cacee. Fig. 725. A slender, creeping, almost woody perennial, with running stems near the surface of the ground and short erect branches, four to six inches high, bearing dark green, leathery, alternate leaves, three to six in number, and small, white, almost OIL-BEARING PLANTS egg-shaped axillary flowers, which are followed by round bright berries. It is a native of damp woods in the cooler parts of eastern North America. Wintergreen herb has been distilled on a small commercial scale for its volatile oil for nearly a century in New England, and for a less time in New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia and other mountain- ous states of the Hast, and as far west as Michigan, Fig. 725. Spring or creeping wintergreen (@Gaultheria procumbens). where the plant has been abundant. It seems, how- ever, never to have been cultivated for this purpose. It grows in woods from Canada to Georgia and westward to Michigan and Wisconsin. The leaves or herb are gathered in a fresh state, chopped up, and after moistening with water are left standing for about twenty-four hours to permit the develop- ment of the oil, as explained in the introductory paragraph on volatile oils (p. 495). It contains a glucoside, gaultherin, which, when acted on by the splitting ferment gaultherase in the presence of water, yields oil of wintergreen and grape- sugar. It is distilled with steam essentially as described in the general introduction. The usual yield is about .8 per cent. Wormseed, American. [See Medicinal, Condimental and Aromatic Plants, page 466.] Wormwood (Artemisia Absinthium, Linn.). Com- posite. (Fig. 2750, Cyclopedia of American Horticulture.) A perennial-rooted woody herb, two to four feet high, having stout, branching, erect or somewhat decumbent stems; twice or thrice pinnately divided leaves with narrow lobes, pale, finely hairy-woolly, especially beneath; hemispherical flowers in pani- cles; fruit with hairy pappus. A common escape in waste places or along woodsides. Wormwood and the oil derived from it by dis- tillation have been known to European medicine for OIL-BEARING PLANTS more than a century. It was introduced into the United States at an early date and has been culti- vated both in Europe and America on a commercial scale. Formerly France was the chief producer, but in the last fifteen or twenty years the United States has held first rank as regards quantity dis- tilled. The plant is grown chiefly in Michigan, New York, Nebraska and Wisconsin. Good ordi- nary farm land is chosen for wormwood, and when in good tilth in spring is planted to wormwood seed, usually in rows three feet or more apart for easy horse cultivation, the plants being thinned out in the row to a distance of eighteen inches to two feet apart. The plants grow rapidly and yield a considerable cutting the first year. By proper weeding a wormwood-field will last three to five years before it is plowed up and replanted. Some growers sow the seed broadcast in pasture land and harvest the wormwood, which is avoided by the stock. This secures manuring of the crop. The tops are cut for distillation in an advanced flowering stage and the distillation is carried out as in peppermint. The oil is dark greenish or bluish brown in color and of a heavy consistency. Wooden tubs that have been used in wormwood distillation are not fit for use in distilling other oils. The yield is about one-half per cent of the weight of the fresh herb. In Michigan, in 1902, 90 acres yielded 873 pounds of oil, an average of 9.7 pounds of oil per acre. Wormwood is the active principle in the French drink absinthe. In the form of this beverage and as an oil it is capable in overdoses of producing serious results resembling epileptic convulsions. The oil distilled in America is in part exported. PLANTS PRODUCING Fatty OILS. Many plants produce fatty oils in a very consid- erable quantity and store these, usually in seeds or fruits, as reserve food substance. They are used at the time of germination as a source of energy to support the young plant until it can maintain itself. These oils are bland, usually lacking in any very strong taste or odor when obtained in a pure condition, and lack the strong antiseptic properties which characterize the volatile oils. In their chemi- cal relationships, they are closely allied to the com- mon animal fats. In general they are all made up of a mixture containing the same principal sub- stances occurring in differing proportions. In oils having a low melting point, as olive oil, the pro- portion of olein, the constituent having a low melting point, is large; in firmer oils this sub- stance is present in smaller percentage, and the constituents having a higher melting point, such as stearin and palmitin, are present in large propor- tion. This is true in the case of most firm fats, such as cocoa butter, palm oil and the commoner animal fats. Thus some vegetable fats are fluid at ordinary temperatures while others are solid. Botanical source. Plants yielding fatty oils are widely distributed through the vegetable kingdom. Among those sorts OIL-BEARING PLANTS 499 produced on a considerable commercial scale in the United States, there are almost as many plant fami- lies represented as there are oils. A few examples will illustrate this : Cottonseed oil is obtained from the seed of the species of cotton, Gossypium, be- longing to the mallow family, Malvacee; peanut oil from the seed of Arachis hypogea, the peanut, a member of the pea family, Leguminose; corn oil from the seed of the common field corn, Zea Mays, of the Gramineae, or grass family ; linseed oil from the seed of Linum usitatissimum, the flax plant, of the flax family, Linacee ; rape-seed oil from Bras- sica Napus, a member of the mustard family, Cru- cifere; and castor-oil from the seed of Ricinus communis, a member of the Huphorbiacee, the spurge family. [Refer to the special articles on these crops in other parts of the Cyclopedia for further information.] Place of production in plant. As indicated in the above examples, the fatty oils are found in seeds or fruits, where they are stored in great abundance as reserve food products for the use of the seedling during germination. However, they are located in different parts of these structures. For example, in the seeds of the castor-bean, peanut, flax and cotton, the oil is stored in the germ, especially in the cotyledons. The source of corn oil is found in the germ of the corn grain, not in the storage tissue making up the great bulk of the grain. In the olive, the oil is stored in the fleshy pulp, of which the fruit in large part consists, and not in the hard seed which it encloses, therefore, not in the germ, as in the other cases. Method of obtaining fatty otis. In order to obtain the oils from the seeds and fruits in which they occur, it is necessary to break open the cells in which they are stored and force them out. This is ordinarily accomplished by the application of high pressure. In some cases, when not harmful to the oil, a moderate degree of heat is employed, rendering the oil. more thoroughly fluid, so that it will more readily run out. In some cases, the heat developed by the energy expended in securing a sufficiently high pressure is ample. When the oil is expensive, the oil residues remain- ing after pressure has been used are extracted by the use of solvents. The residue left after the expression of the oil is completed may be utilized, in most cases, either as a stock-food, as in the case of cottonseed meal and linseed cake, or as a fertilizer, of which cottonseed meal is an example. Commercial information and uses. The production of plant oils of this class (the fatty oils) in the United States on any considerable commercial scale is limited to a very small number of kinds: cottonseed, linseed, peanut, corn, castor and olive oils. The magnitude of the production of these oils or of the stock from which they are derived is difficult to determine with any degree of accuracy. 500 OIL-BEARING PLANTS Castor-oil (Ricinus communis, Linn.). Euphorbiacee. The cultivation of the castor-oil plant is cen- tered in Oklahoma, Kansas, Missouri and Illinois, in which states, according to the last United States Census, an annual crop of 100,000 to 150,000 bushels of seed is produced. The price is at present about one dollar per bushel. The impor- tation of seeds for the year ended June 30, 1905, was 337,767.86 bushels. This plant is cultivated chiefly in Egypt, Turkey in Asia, India and China. The oil from this seed is obtained by expression, as above stated, after which it is clarified by boiling with water to free it from mucilaginous and other objectionable substances or by leaving it standing in the sunlight to settle. The cake remaining after the removal of the oil is powerfully poisonous, as are also the whole seeds. Castor-oil is used in a number of ways. When cold pressed, it is used in medicine for its purgative properties; it is mixed with other substances to increase its mobility and used in making sticky fly- paper, according to report; it is valued in some circumstances as a lubricating oil because of its heaviness ; it is excellent as a dressing for leather and is used somewhat in making transparent as well as common soaps. This oil, like that from cottonseed and peanuts, is semi-drying in character. [See Castor-bean.] Colza (Brassica campestris, Linn.). Rosacew. [See, also, page 3807, and Rape.] Colza oil, strictly speaking, is obtained from the seed of Brassica campestris, the rutabaga, but the oil from.this plant is probably not distinguished in commerce from that of B. Napus and B. Rapa, the different sorts of rape. Colza is cultivated especially in France, Germany and Belgium, in part for the seed and the oil expressed from it. The seeds yield about 35 per cent of their dry weight of brownish yellow oil, which, although odorless when expressed, develops an unpleasant odor and taste on standing. The crude oil is used as a lubricant and in some regions for illuminating purposes, the refined oil being used, it is said, as an adulterant for olive and almond oils. The cake is a recognized stock- food. The importation of products listed as rape during the fiscal year ended July 1, 1905, was as follows: Rape seed, 3,029,948 pounds, valued at $78,344; rape-seed oil, 730,686 gallons, valued at $264,025. Neither rape nor colza is grown in the United States to any considerable extent as a source of oil, being used rather as green forage crops. The seeds of rape and colza, it is said, are used in bird-seed mixtures. [See page 307.] Corn oil (Zea Mays, Linn.). Graminee. Corn oil is obtained from the germ of the seed of corn. This part of the seed is practically free from starch, so that in the manufacture of glucose, in which the starchy structure only is of value, the germs are discarded. From this formerly refuse product, a useful oil is obtained in large quantities. The center of the corn oil industry is found in the upper Mississippi valley, where the OIL-BEARING PLANTS glucose and starch industries are centered. This is practically an American product and is exported in considerable quantities to Europe, especially to Belgium. In 1905, out of a total exportation of 71,372 barrels, valued at $873,579, Belgium re- ceived 51,468 barrels. The “cake” remaining after the removal of the oil is also an article of export. The oil belongs to the semi-drying oils and is used for the making of soap and as a lubricant. [See Maize.] Cottonseed. (Gossypium species.) Malvacee. The cottonseed crop, of course, is confined to the southern states. The states bordering on the Gulf as well as the Carolinas and Arkansas are important cotton producers. The crushing and storage of the seed is practiced not only in cities within the cotton-belt but also in centers most readily accessible, such as Cincinnati, Louisville and St. Louis, as well as in the larger commercial centers. The domestic crop of cottonseed may be stated as averaging 5,000,000 tons, of which about 60 per cent is crushed for oil. The average recent oil yield has been about 110,000,000 to 115,000,000 gallons per year. Crude cottonseed oil is purified by heating with caustic soda and by further treatment with fuller’s earth. The clear oil when cooled to 12° below zero, Centigrade, separates into a part used in making oleomargarine, and a clear oil which is used in large quantities as a salad oil and for mixing with olive oil. The impure residue removed by treat- ment with caustic soda is used by soap-makers. Cottonseed oil occurs very largely in various arti- cles used in cooking as substitutes for lard. [See Cotton.] In both cottonseed- and flaxseed-oil production, the United States ranks as an exporter except under special conditions, when the demand for flax seed may result in importation from Argentina and from British India. In the preparation of these oils, the residual “cake” is a valuable by-product, which is also an article of export as well as of home consumption. Flax (Linum usitatissimum, Linn.). Linacee. In the case of flax seed the crop of the country seems to lie betwe2n 20,000,000 and 28,000,000 bushels per annum, grown in large part in Min- nesota, North and South Dakota. There is a minor production in Iowa, Kansas, Missouri and Idaho. The important centers of the trade are at Chi- cago, Minneapolis and Duluth, where store-houses and crushers provide accommodations for the ship- per or for the manufacturer of linseed oil. The chief use of linseed oil is found in the making of paints. The desired pigments, finely ground, are mixed with the oil and applied to the surface to be covered. The oil is quickly acted on by the atmos- phere in such a way as to harden it, and is classed for this reason as a drying oil. Linseed oil is put on the market as raw oil or as boiled oil. The cake left after the expression of the oil is a valuable stock-feed, and, as such, forms an important article of commerce. [See Flaz.] OIL-BEARING PLANTS Niger (Guizotia oleifera,Cass.). Composite. Fig. 726. Niger seed is derived from an erect annual plant reaching a height of about three feet. It has opposite, lanceolate-oblong, serrated leaves, numer- ous bright yellow flowers one to one and one-half inches in diameter, borne on elongated stems. The seed is formed by the inconspicuous disc flowers. This plant, native of Abyssinia, is cultivated in Mysore, India, and to a lesser degree in Germany and the West Indies, principally for the pale yellow fatty oil expressed from the seed. The yield is about 35 to 40 per cent. The oil is used for illumination, and in making soap. The higher grades are also used for food purposes. It has a chracteristic pleasant aromatic odor. The seed is used also in bird-seed mixtures. It reaches the European mar- ket by way of London and Hamburg, but is not imported in the United States. Its experimental culture here has been recommended. We ct ar Fig. 726. Niger (@uizotia oleifera). Olive oil (Olea Europea, Linn.). Oleacee. Olive-growing in the United States is practically confined to California and Arizona. The total crop in 1899, according to the United States Census, was about 5,000,000 pounds. The fruit is in part used for pickling and in part for the production of olive oil. The oil is obtained by expressing. The demand for olive oil is large and is in part supplied from foreign sources, notably Italy and France. In 1904, the total importation was about 1,700,000 gallons. This oil does not readily become, rancid. The better grades of the oil are used as salad oil, the poorer for soap-making and in processes connected with the manufacture of tobacco. Peanut oil (Arachis hypogea, Linn.). Leguminose. Peanut-culture in the United States is found chiefly in the South, Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Florida and Tennessee being the largest producers in the order named. The OIL-BEARING PLANTS 501 total crop for the United States in 1899 was’ about 12,000,000 bushels, valued at sixty-one cents per bushel. In 1904, the United States imported pea- nuts, shelled and unshelled, to a value of about $148,000. The peanut crop has increased during the last decade to a remarkable degree, due doubt- less to the increased use. Aside from its use in a whole roasted condition, the fruit is the source of an oil which is expressed from it. Peanut cil when expressed cold is pale in color and may be used as a salad oil, although it becomes rancid more readily than olive oil. It is used as an adulterant for olive oil, also in making butterine. The lower grades are used in soap-making. Sar- dines are frequently preserved in peanut oil. The “cake” remaining after expression of the oil is used sometimes as a stock-feed. [See Peanut.] Sesame (Sesamum Indicum, Linn.). Pedaliacee, Sesame (bene or til) is an annual herbaceous plant growing two and one-half to seven feet tall. The leaves are variable, three to five inches long, oblong or lanceolate, the lower often three-lobed or three-parted ; the corolla is pale rose or white, one inch long, and tubular. The pods are about three inches long. Bene is planted in April or May, and is ready to harvest about six months later. It is sometimes planted between rows of cotton, and occasionally hoed to keep out weeds. It begins to flower when twelve inches high. As the stems elongate, new flowers appear, and we eventually find ripe capsules below, green ones in the middle, and flowers at the top. The flower-capsules burst and the seed shatters before the others are ripe. The seed may be gath- ered by shaking into a sheet when the pods are dry. The seeds are valued for their oil. The seeds yield about half their weight of oil-of-sesame, which is odorless and does not easily become rancid. The oil and seed are used in cooking and in medicine, in the making of confections, soap, and as an adulterant of olive oil. Sesame has been known from ancient times in India, Greece and Egypt, and is much more used in these countries and in Europe than in this country. It is said to have been brought to South Carolina by the early slaves. It now runs wild in parts of the extreme South, and is cultivated in small patches, chiefly by the negroes. During the fiscal year ended June 30, 1905, the importation of oil-of-sesame amounted to 1,394,- 975 pounds, valued at $91,314. Since the seeds are not itemized in the customs returns, the amount of seed imported is not ascertainable. Literature. Allen, Commercial Organic Analysis, London; Brannt, A Practical Treatise on Animal and Vege- table Fats and Oils, Philadelphia; Gill, Handbook of Oil Analysis, Philadelphia (1898); Lewkowitsch, Chemical Analysis of Fats, Oils and Waxes, New York (1898); Sadtler, A Handbook of Industrial Organic Chemistry, Philadelphia (1900); Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agricul- ture, Bulletin No. 77, Olive oil and Its Substitutes, 502 OIL-BEARING PLANTS L. M. Tolman and L. S. Munson; same, Bulletin No. 80, Part II, Rose Geranium Oil and Its Substi- tutes, Lyman F. Kebler; Hopkins, The Oil-Chem- ists’ Handbook, New York (1900); Andes, Vegeta- ble Fats and Oils (trans. by C. Salter), London (1897); Benedikt, Chemical Analysis of Oils, Fats, Waxes, and of the Commercial Products Derived Therefrom, London (1895); Dent, Fats and Oils (in Groves and Thorp, editors, Chemical Technology, Vol. I, 1895); Lewkowitsch, The Laboratory Com- panion to Fats and Oils Industries, London (1901); Wright, Animal and Vegetable Fixed Oils, Fats, Butters and Waxes, London (1908). ORNAMENTALS nately, there is no generic term for the growing of all ornamental plants, covering such phases as floriculture and the rearing of trees and shrubs for adornment and for shade. The extension of floriculture and allied occupa- tions is due, of course, to the rise in taste; but the rise of taste has been promoted and hastened by the increasing effectiveness of the plant-grow- ing business. The business is becoming more effect- ive because a much greater variety of plants is increasingly available, because of the perfecting of the glasshouse, of more expeditious and satis- factory means of transportation and handling, and Fig. 727. A flower and plant farm. ORNAMENTALS. While some farmers are growing crops to pro- vide their fellows with food, clothing and shelter, others are reciprocating by growing plants to or- nament the home and public places. The growth of the desire for beautiful plants has been very marked in the last half-century. Within that time commercial floriculture has arisen, together with a large part of nursery-farming. [See Nurseries.] The growing of ornamental plants, however, is a wider business than floriculture. The business of floriculture is included within it. Floriculture is properly the growing of flowers, including, of course, the rearing of the plants that are to pro- duce. the flowers. By custom, also, the term is ap- plied to the raising of many or most herbaceous ornamental plants and all greenhouse ornamentals, whether grown for foliage or habit. Unfortu- Rose Hill, New Rochelle, N. Y. because the increased demand has made it possible to make a more effective business organization. The business of floriculture may derive its rev- enue from (a) the selling of cut-flowers (as carna- tions, roses and violets); (0) the selling of pot- plants to the user (as begonias, palms and many greenhouse and window- garden plants); (c) the selling of nursery products, more or less whole- sale (as small plants of carnations, chrysanthe- mums, cannas); (d) the selling of seeds or bulbs. Flower-farming of one kind or anothey has now become one of the important agricultural indus- tries, comprising a total in the United States at the last census of 6,159 commercial farms or es- tablishments, with 42,662 acres, a total property valuation of $52,462,419, a total value of products of $18,505,881, and an average value of $431.83 per acre of products not fed to live-stock. Aside ORNAMENTALS from these establishments are many others, as nurseries and truck-farms, that grow and sell flow- ers as a secondary business. There are numberless private places giving much attention to ornamen- tals. The glass surface reported by florists (about one-third greater than the land surface on which the structures stand) was 68,030,666 square feet, in 6,070 establishments. More than half this glass was in the north Atlantic states, New York lead- ing with 10,690,777 square feet, and Pennsylvania second with 8,811,711 square feet. Floriculture is a concentrated and high-class business, notwithstanding the fact that many establishments are shiftless and profitless. The av- erage size of flower- and plant-farms in the census year was less than seven acres. On these farms, the value of land and its improvements was some $28,000,000, while the value of the buildings was above $22,500,000. The implements were rela- tively low, being only $1,366,887 worth. The amount expended for labor was more than $4,000,- 00, or about one-seventh the value of the land and between one-fourth and one-fifth the value of the salable product. The labor cost was about $100 per acre. The risks in floriculture are great because of the perishable nature of the products, the changes in taste, the expensiveness and unsubstantial char- acter of buildings, and the cost of heat and other maintenance. The difference between the whole- sale and retail prices is very marked. The busi- ness is now largely broken up into specialties, one establishment devoting itself mostly to carnations, another to violets or roses, and the like. Although the number of species of florists’ plants runs into thousands, the numbers that are commercially im- portant are relatively few, and, for these special- ties, societies of growers are usually organized. The cut-flower industry has made great headway in recent years, with roses, carnations and violets as the leading crops. In the growing of all these specialties, great perfection of manual and me- chanical skill has been developed. This skill is constantly becoming more rational and less rule- of-thumb. The workmanship is passing out of the hands of the old-time apprenticed gardener who was trained to grow a great variety of plants for personal or household use. The glasshouses have come to cover acres of land rather than square feet, and they are simple, direct and completely utilizable. The notions of greenhouse building that were current twenty-five years ago are now largely outgrown for commercial establishments (see Figs. 179 to 188). The utilizing of cool storage for some of the products has had great effect. The develop- ment of the city flower store, the delivery- wagon system, and the wholesale trade have changed the whole aspect of the business. The breeding of plants in one way and another has long been an important factor in flower-growing. The greater number of authentic historic plant hybrids are between greenhouse and other garden plants. The underlying problems of plant nutrition and of soil fertility and efficiency are yet little studied,. however, in their practical applications to PAPER PLANTS 503 the florists’ business. The florist makes his soil. He depends little on concentrated fertilizers, but greatly on manure, rotted sod and other humous ameliorators. The organization phases of floriculture have lit- tle relation to the farm management and crop management problems that are the proper theme of this Cyclopedia; the floricultural subjects and plants are discussed in many phases in the Cyclo- pedia of American Horticulture; therefore the sub- ject may not be further discussed here. The best literature will be found in the trade papers, and the reports of national societies. There are recent good books devoted to special plants, but none de- voted to the whole subject of commercial floricul- ture; in fact, the subject is scarcely homogeneous enough for conspectic treatment. The business of growing ornamental plants is increasing rapidly, and it will continue to increase because the desire for beautiful objects rises with the accumulation of means and the progress of civilization. Every observant person will have noticed that every year greater attention is paid to the care and adorn- ment of home grounds. This practice is beginning to extend far into the open country. PAPER-MAKING PLANTS. Figs. 728-781. By F. P. Veitch. The farmer is not called on to grow crops for the purpose of supplying the raw materials used for making paper. The cutting of timber and the sale of straw for this purpose have been incidental to other farm work, filling in the gaps between more profitable work. But conditions are chang- ing: the wild growths and the wastes -of other industries heretofore used are supplied at con- stantly increasing cost, and the time is now come when the farm may be called on to contribute more largely to these supplies, both with its waste materials and with its crops. Paper can be made from any fibrous vegetable material. The materials commonly used, how- ever, are not numerous, and are obtained from flax, cotton, hemp, esparto, manila, jute, woods, straws of cereals, Sunn hemp, rhea, China grass or ramie, New Zealand hemp, coconut fiber, adansonia, agave, and bark of the paper mulberry. Other ma- terials which are used to a certain extent, or for various reasons may be considered promising, are bamboo, sugar-cane and corn-stalks. There is also a long list of cultivated and wild grasses, rushes of all kinds, reeds, banana fiber, barks of trees, com- mon broom and heather, tobacco- and cotton-stalks; beet-pulp waste, peat, and many miscellaneous materials from which small quantities of paper have been made experimentally. The woods most used are spruce, poplar, hem- lock, cottonwood, balsam and pine. A number of others are now being employed in the manufacture of paper, possibly not in sufficient quantity to require individual mention, but enough to indicate that, as the necessity arises, many other woods will also be used for this purpose. Indeed, there is every reason to suppose that, with proper modifica- 504 PAPER PLANTS tions in methods of handling and treating, most of the woods will make paper. Fig. 728 shows a pulp mill with its accompanying log pond. Of the standard paper-making plants, cotton, flax, hemp, straws and woods are the only ones produced commercially in the United States. Sugar-cane, corn-stalks, cotton- and tobacco-stalks are produced in large quantities, and vigorous efforts are being made to produce paper from them on a commercial scale. The best paper-making materials — those that make paper of the highest quality and greatest value —are wastes, derived chiefly from the textile industries, whizh from their form or condition are of little value for any other purpose. Cotton, flax,: hemp, jute and ramie fiber come to the paper-maker in the form of rags or as waste, and as old bagging, canvas, rope cordage and oakum. The coarse fiber from the end of jute stalks is cut off, baled and sold to the paper-maker as “jute butts.” Waste paper, new and old, is an important material, which is used in making all grades of paper. Wood, esparto and PAPER PLANTS cent; hemp, cellulose 77 per cent; ramie, cellu- lose 76 per cent ; Sunn hemp, cellulose 80 per cent ; manila, cellulose 64 per cent ; bamboo, cellulose 50 per cent ; sugar-cane, cellulose 50 per cent ; straw, cellulose 46 per cent; esparto,' cellulose 48 per cent; adansonia, cellulose 49 per cent; (c) ligno- cellulose: New Zealand hemp,.cellulose 86 per cent ; jute, cellulose 64 per cent; pine, cellulose 57 per cent; poplar, cellulose 53 per cent. Classification of papers. With regard to the uses to which they are put, papers are divided into several classes : (1) Writing paper, embracing what are known as bond,-ledger, record, linen, bank note, ordinary writing and envelope papers. These are thoroughly sized papers, the best of which are made from rags, hemp and ramie fiber, while the poorer grades con- tain also a varying amount of wood pulp. (2) Printing paper, embracing book paper and newspaper. The best grades of the former are made from rags, while the poorer grades contain esparto, straw and wood (pa pe ele bamboo are the chief materials now used which are not the wastes of other industries. All plants are made up of certain definite chemi- cal constituents, among which are fats, tannins, lignin, pectose, coloring matters, sugar, starch and cellulose, and, when treated with certain chemicals, according to established methods, a more or less pure cellulose is obtained ; and it is on the amount, fibrous nature, softness and pliability of this cellu- lose that the paper-making value of the plant chiefly depends. Classification of materials. With regard to the quality and value of the paper produced, the chief materials may be classi- fied in four general groups: (1) Cellulose from cotton, flax, hemp and ramie; (2) cellulose from jute, manila and chemical wood ; (8) cellulose from esparto and straws; (4) ground wood. From the consideration of the nature and the percentage of cellulose in the materials they are classified as, (a) simple cellulose: cotton, containing 91 per cent of cellulose ; (6) pecto-cellulose : flax, cellulose 82 per pulp. Newspaper is al- most universally made from ground wood pulp which has not been sub- jected to any chemical treatment, with a small percentage of sulfite pulp. Some newspapers also contain straw. (8) Wrapping papers, embracing also paper bags and heavy envelopes. The best grades of these are made from jute, sisal and common rags; the poorer grades may be made in part or entirely from chemical wood pulp, straw, or ground wood. A particularly strong paper, known as “kraf brown,” standing between manila and jute papers and wrap- ping paper made from regular chemical wood pulp, is now made by under-cooking wood by the sulfate process and subsequently grinding the fiber in a special mill. (4) Blotting and tissue paper. The best grades of the former are loosely madé and free from load- ing; poorer grades contain chemical wood pulp and large quantities of clay. They are not sized. Tis- sue papers are very thin and should be made from strong fiber, such as hemp and cotton. (5) Cardboard and pasteboard are usually made of low-grade materials. Strawboard is manufac- tured from unbleached and imperfectly washed straw. Parchment paper is made of long-fibered material by dipping the finished sheet in sulfuric acid, washing with water, then with ammonia, and finally with water. Extent of the paper industry. The quantity, kind, and value of the raw ma- terials and the paper made therefrom in the United PAPER PLANTS States, in 1905, are given in the following table, from the report of the Bureau of the Census : PAPER AND Woop PULP. Materials used, by kind, quantity and cost; products, by kind, quantity and value; equipment. Materials used, total cost. . . . $111,251,478 Wood: Domestic— Cords we 4.60% ewe ae x 2,473,094 COSt: ee a Be $15,953,805 Canadian— Cords: ss so a: Rw Se 577,623 COS ig kegs? oct co SE ee Beles $4,847,066 Rags, including cotton and flax waste and sweepings : TONS. er aa. Seow he sey eS id a 294,552 COS, Se ies ahem ae ae ie! Sa $8,864,607 Old, or waste paper : Tons! ie eg est eats 588,543 Cost. v2 4 ewe wee $7,430,335 Manila stock, including jute, bagging, rope, waste, threads, etc.: TONS? a5 sake ow cs ge 107,029 COSt we @ a Sj Rokk $2,502,332 Straw ; TOUS: 4) °d. ave se A 804,585 COSt ee eer a, fo 5 a $1,502,886 Ground wood pulp, purchased : Tons; «4% 4 a % & eS 317,286 Costs ses Fe ees _« «$5,754,259 Soda wood fiber, purchased : MONS 28. so Ve ar sh ve Ook 120,978 Gost. 625 Gane 2 ah $5,047,105 Sulfite wood fiber, purchased : Tons! 36% Qe &e eS 433,160 GOSt «sys ae? een a ee 1S tase $16,567,122 Other chemical fiber, purchased: TONS os sk ss i Har enw 6,278 Cost: «6 ka BG. Sa es $264,678 Allother stock ....... $1,968,066 Chemicals and colors. .... $8,365,805 Sizing: RODS! 2a. cd 0h ey “ter Og; eS 52,171 Costs as say Sap sed ater O85 Ss $1,838,035 Clay : MOUS! soc