Uy, ty \i ee << AK @ QOKS7 PS6 THE JOHN - CRAIG LIBRARY COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE NEW YORK ETATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, DEPARTMENT CF HORTICULTURE, CORNELL UNIVERSITY, i THAEGA, NYS ini DATE DUE UNIVERSITY EXTENSION SERIES EDITED By J. E. SYMES, M.A. Principal of University College, Nottingham. AGRICULTURAL BOTANY 4 yy ASH GAniversity Extension Series, Unner the above title Messrs MeTHuEN are publishing a series of books on Historical, Literary, and Scientific subjects. The University Extension Move- ment has shown the possibility of treating History, Literature, and Science in a | way that is at once popular and scholarly. The writers in this series aim at a similar combination. Each volume will be complete in itself,.and the subjects will be treated by competent writers in a broad and philosophic spirit. . Crown 8vo. The following Volumes are ready :— THE INDUSTRIAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND. H. ve B. Giesins, M.A. Second Edition Revised. With Maps and Plans. as. 6d. A HISTORY OF POLITICAL ECONOMY IN ENGLAND: from Adam Smith to Arnold Toynbee. L. L. Price, M.A. as. 6d. PROBLEMS OF POVERTY. An Inquiry into the Industrial Conditions ofthe Poor. J. A. Hopson, M.A. as. 6d. “* The object of this volume is to collect, arrange, and examine some of the leading facts and forces in modern industrial life which have a direct bearing upon Poverty, and to set in the light they afford some of the suggested palliatives and remedies.” —Extract from Author's Preface. VICTORIAN POETS. Amy Suarp, Newnham College, Cambridge. 2s. 6d. Chapters on Browning, Tennyson, Swinburne, Mrs Browning, A. H. Clough, Matthew Arnold, Rossetti, Wu. Morris, and others. PSYCHOLOGY. F.S. Grancer, M.A. as. 6d. THE EVOLUTION OF PLANT LIFE: Lower Forms. An Introduction to the Study of Cryptogamic Botany. G. Massze. 2s. 6d. “ The ain of the present book is to briefly indicate in a broad sense the most prominent features, structural and physiological, that characterise plant life, as manifested at the present day.”—Extract from Author's Preface. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. J: E. Symes, M.A., Principal of University College, Nottingham. With Map of France. a2s..6d. AIR AND WATER. Professor V. B. Lewes, M.A. Illustrated. as. 6d. ENGLISH SOCIAL REFORMERS. H. ve B. Gissins, M.A. 2s. 6d. Contents;—I. Langlandand Ball. II. More. II{f. Wesley and Wilber- force. IV. The Factory Reformers. V. Kingsley. VI. Carlyle and Ruskin. ENGLISH TRADE AND FINANCE IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. W.A.S. Hewins, B.A. 2s. 6d. AGRICULTURAL BOTANY. Prof. M.C. Porrer, M.A. Illustrated. 3s. 6d. THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE AND HEALTH. By C. W. Kimmins, Downing College, Cambridge. Illustrated. Crown 8vo. 2s. 6d. THE MECHANICS OF DAILY LIFE. V. P. Seuus, M.A. Illustrated. as. 6d. ELECTRICAL SCIENCE. Grorce J. Burcu, B.A. Illustrated. 3s. GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES. A Short History of Medizeval It from 1250-1409. Oscar Brownine. 2s. 6d. 2 oe BRITISH COMMERCE AND COLONIES: from Elizabeth t i H. ve B. Grssins, M.A. 2s. 6d. @ Wistorin, MEHOS SLAG H. N. Dickson, F.R.S.E., F.R. Met. Soc. Illustrated. as. 6d. THE SEER OF FIRE. M. M. Parrison Muir, M.A. Illustrated. as. 6d. ASTRONOMY. R.A. Grecory. Illustrated. as. 6d. METHUEN & CO., Bury STREET, W.C. AN ELEMENTARY TEXT-BOOK OF AGRICULTURAL BOTANY BY M. C. POTTER M.A. F.LS. Professor of Botany in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne ; Consulting Botanist to the Newcastle Farmers Club WITH 99 ILLUSTRATIONS Methuen & Co. BURY STREET, LONDON, W.C. 1893 S @ QK47 PSE 08 7 PREFACE es, 4 In attempting to give an account of the various problems of the life of a Plant in an elementary text book, the most simple and natural method appears to be to treat each member of the plant in turn, considering it concurrently in relation to its special functions. This plan formed the basis of a series of Extension Lectures, on Plant Life, which I delivered in Newcastle in 1890, and proved so successful a scheme that it has been adopted as the foundation of the present work. This little book, in its special application to Agri- culture, is intended for the use of Agricultural Students, -but at the same time it forms an elementary text-book on General Botany which will be found suitable for those commencing the study of Botany. In any text-book on Agricultural Botany a great part must necessarily be devoted to the consideration of the prin- ciples of Vegetable Physiology, and these can only be thoroughly grasped after a knowledge of the structure of the plant has been obtained. It has therefore been found necessary to explain the nature and properties of plant cells, and their functions in different parts of the plant, together with other considerations which to some might appear to have no direct bearing upon our subject. Yet every problem of Plant Physiology is of importance in Agriculture, though in an elementary treatise only certain of them can b vi PREFACE be considered which relate more especially to the cultiva- tion of plants. Without a knowledge of the constituents of a plant’s food, the part each one plays in the develop- ment of the plant, and the manner in which they are severally taken possession of, there is no guide for the application of manures and their analysis remains un- intelligible. The questions of Food and Disease have been treated, not so fully as might be done, yet we hope in sufficient detail to give the principles which underlie successful manuring and the combating of disease—each of these questions would require a volume in itself without even then being exhaustively treated. My aim in these few pages has been to lay a foundation which may serve to guide the future operations in the Field, and form a basis for intelligent trial and experiment. In these days of competition and struggle for existence every little tells, and the farmer who, understanding, can apply his knowledge, is more likely to succeed, than one who labours without the advantage of this knowledge. It has been my endeavour to use as few technical terms as possible. Botany is often considered a science of names, and is frequently presented to the beginner in anything but an inviting form. The use of some technical terms is unavoidable to ensure perfect accuracy, but scientific knowledge is often expressed in needlessly technical language, which conveys little or no meaning to the ordinary student. It has been my aim to write as simply as possible. In preparing this work reference has been made to the standard text-books on Botany, by Sachs, De Bary and Vines, and to the original writings of many authors, notably Woronin, Sir J. B. Lawes and Dr Gilbert, Marshall PREFACE vii Ward, and Frank. For the tables on the Determination of Grasses, and the definitions of many genera, I am indebted to Mr W. R. Hayward and Messrs Bell & Sons for per- mission to make use of the Botanist’s Pocket Book. I have also to express my thanks to the various authors and publishers who have allowed me to use the illustrations ; to Messrs Albert for figures 34, 35, 94, and 97; and to Messrs Hunter for the blocks of the grass “seeds” which they have kindly lent. M. C. P. NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE, March 1893. CONTENTS —_+— CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY Animals and Plants—Struggle for Existence — Protection— Annuals—Biennials—Perennials—Division of labour— Members and Organs CHAPTER II. THE CELL The Plant Cell—Protoplasm, its properties and composition— Nucleus—Cell-wall—Tissues—Stages in the life of a cell —Shapes of cells and their functions—Epidermis—Ground Tissue — Fibro-vascular Tissue — Vessels — Vacuole and cell-sap—Plasmolysis—Cell Contents, plastids, reserve material, waste products 7 , s . CHAPTER III. THE ROOT The Root—Structure—Soil and Drainage—Root hairs—Absorp- tion of food from soil—Root pressure—Growth in length —Penetration into the ground—Circumnutation—Geo- tropism — Root branching — Increase in thickness — Various functions—Storage of reserve material—Modifica- tions produced by cultivation F PAGE 1-7 » 27-43 x CONTENTS CHAPTER IV. THE LEAF Definition of a Leaf—The Blade, Stalk, Sheath—Structure— Venation—Stoma, mechanism of Stoma—Transpiration, amount transpired, circumstances which influence tran- PAGE spiration—Manufacture of Starch and of Nitrogenous substances—Transference of manufactured products » 44-61 CHAPTER V. THE STEM Bean stem—Structure—Growth in length, and thickness—Grass stem—Potato, formation of starch in Potato — Various modifications—Ascent of water—Mechanics of stem . 62-81 CHAPTER VI. THE FLOWER Definition of a Flower—Calyx, its form and functions—Corolla, its form and functions—Stamen, filament, anther, pollen —Pistil, ovary, style, stigma—Ovule, nucellus, integu- ments, micropyle, embryo-sac, oosphere — Fertilisation —Cross and self-fertilisation—Insect fertilisation— Flower of Cabbage and Pea—Wind fertilisation . . 82-97 CHAPTER VII. ‘i FRUIT AND SEED Development of Embryo — Seed — Reserve Materials — En- dospermous and exendospermous seeds — Germination, conditions of germination—Ferments—Fruit—Means of distribution of fruit and seed ; é ; 98-111 CHAPTER VIII. FOOD What is Food—Constituents of food—Carbon—Hydrogen— Oxygen—WNitrogen, sources of nitrogen, nitrification— CONTENTS xi Sulphur —Phosphorus —Iron — Potassium—Calcium and om Magnesium — Silicon — Chlorine — Water cultures — Absorption of Food—Rotation of Crops é 112-131 CHAPTER IX, REPRODUCTION Methods of Reproduction—Hybridization—Vegetative reproduc- tion— Runners—Stolon— Sucker — Tuber — Layering — Cuttings —Budding—Grafting . é ‘i 132-141 CHAPTER X. DISEASES Health and Disease—Parasites and Saprophytes—Fungi, repro- duction—-Finger and Toe—Potato Disease—Rust of Wheat--Ergot—Smut . 5 7 ‘i 142-168 CHAPTER XI. GRASSES Root system—Stem—Laying—Tillering—Leaf, sheath, blade, ligule— Inflorescence—Spikelet — Flower — Fruit — Seed —Determination of Grasses 2 . - 169-196 CHAPTER XII. LEGUMINOS Mimoseze — Czesalpinese — Papilionaceze — Various Leguminous Plants—Leguminose and Nitrogen—Green Manuring 197-212 CHAPTER XIII. CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. : ‘ : 213-238 AGRICULTURAL BOTANY. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. Tue world of living organisms which everywhere surrounds us is naturally divided into two great kingdoms—the Animal and the Vegetable. The distinction between the more important groups of these two kingdoms is, at first sight, very considerable, and in the higher forms of each undoubtedly the divergence is wide, but if we consider the lower forms of life with which we are not familiar except when examined under the microscope, it is evident that Nature has not drawn any sharp line of demarcation, for there are several organisms of simple structure which the Botanist claims as plants and the Zoologist as belonging to the Animal kingdom, so difficult is it sometimes to determine the place to which some of these organisms should be assigned. Animals and Plants, then, have many characteristics in common; they require sufficient supplies of food, they require to be kept at certain temperatures; extremes in either case causing a cessation of some of the vital actions, or even death, and further, in all the important cases, they require supplies of A 2 AGRICULTURAL BOTANY. oxygen, which are generally taken from the air. Their aims, therefore, are necessarily identical in many particulars, and each organism, whether animal or vegetable, will pursue a similar course of conduct, using different means to attain the same end. The endeavour of each will be 1st. To secure its own food, and to protect itself from very numerous enemies. 2nd. To reproduce its kind, and then to protect its off- spring, or furnish them with the means of self- protection. To supply them with a sufficient store for the development of their various parts until such time as they are strong enough or able to provide their own nourishment, and to take care of themselves. It is mainly in the manner of absorbing food and in the nature of the substances which compose this food, that these two kingdoms are separated from each other. The plant, if supplied with the various elements required for its structure in the form of mineral matter, can perform all its various functions and can build up its own structure; though it must be borne in mind that this mineral matter must first be made soluble before it can be converted to the uses of the plant. The animal, on the other hand, requires that all its food should be presented to it in the organic form, that is to say, an animal can only thrive when its food is composed of either animal or vegetable matter ; and hence there are many animals which live entirely on other animals, and others which can. subsist only when fed on plants. Thus a little thought will show the intimate relations existing between the two kingdoms, and how completely dependent the animal is upon the plant, for without plants there could be no animal existence. INTRODUCTORY. 3 The same chemical elements are employed in building up the structure of both animals and plants. If only one of these elements be absent starvation will result, even though all the others are available in abundance. From what has been written above, it is evident that between the animal and plant world war is perpetually being waged; the plant, on the one hand, striving to protect itself from destruction, while the animal uses every en- deavour to secure its food. Weapons of very various kinds are employed by the plant, while the animal, also, has many special contrivances to help it in this struggle. Further, the plant has not only to defend itself from various animals, but in many countries the climatic conditions are at certain seasons of the year hostile to vegetation, and special adapta- tions for protection are required under these conditions. As examples of the means of protection against animals, we may cite the thorns with which so many plants are armed, and which are specially developed to serve as weapons of defence. Familiar examples of protective thorns are afforded by the common Thistles, Whin, etc., but they are much more prevalent and formidable in desert countries where vegetation is scarce and animals are often very hard pressed for food, so that if the plants were undefended they would at once be destroyed. Many plants have an un- pleasant taste, and not a few are poisonous, in order to prevent their being devoured by various animals. It is especially the young and growing parts of a plant which are tender, and require protection from extremes of climate such as are experienced in the Tropics or the Arctic zones. But even in our own climate vegetation lies dormant during the winter months, and the leaves which are to expand in the next spring are covered up with 4 AGRICULTURAL BOTANY. numerous specially formed protecting leaves, constituting the structures familiarly known as buds, and also many contrivances are employed to protect the expanding leaves in the spring from cold and in the summer from heat. The duration of life in plants varies very much. Some are able to collect in one year sufficient stores of nutriment for their own use, and to place a sufficient store in each seed that the embryo may develop into a new plant. These plants, known as Annuads, live for a season, and die after ripening seed, to be succeeded by the next generation in the following year; they comprise many familiar weeds, Poppies, Charlock, Fumitory, etc. Other plants—--Bzennia/s—divide their period of life into two years, the first of which is taken up with their own de- velopment, and the accumulation of nourishment, to be ex- pended during the second year in the production of flowers and seed. The nutritive matter to be expended during the second year, known as reserve material, is stored up in various parts of the plant often very specially adapted for this purpose. Others again, termed Perennials, live many years, during which they alternately accumulate and expend stores of reserve material in the same manner. Each plant is an individual which requires light, warmth, air, and food. Part of its food it derives from the air, the remainder from the earth. Plants, therefore, which live close together must always be contending with each other, and enter into very fierce competition to secure these necessities from either source. Their roots penetrate into the ground and ramify in all directions, each seeking its own food supplies from the soil, whilst the leaves are ever striving with one another to secure a sufficiency of light INTRODUCTORY. 5 and air. So fierce is this struggle between plants in the wild state, that they have gradually become very highly specialised, and have evolved the various forms most peculiarly adapted to overcome their various enemies, and to secure their requirements under the particular conditions in which they live. But with cultivated plants, which have supplies of food given to them, the case is very different, and competition is to some extent reduced, especially under good cultivation, in which they are planted at such distances from each other that the competition is minimised, and weeds are not allowed to grow, which would otherwise deprive the soil of food substances intended for the crop. In order to properly supply the plant with food, and to exercise a judicious selection of the most suitable cultiva- tion for a particular soil, and therefore to obtain the best results from the cultivation of plants, a knowledge of all the various problems connected with plant life is necessary. With this aim in view the farmer should study the questions, How plants feed, What substances constitute their food, and How this food should be presented to them in order to ensure perfect health and immunity from disease. We have spoken of the war between animals and plants and the means employed by plants to defend themselves, and also of the competition between plants growing very close together ; but far more destructive to plant life are the unseen foes which on all sides attack them and cause disease. These unseen foes may be either minute animals, insect pests, which work such terrible destruction, or may be members of a group of plants known as Fungi, for example, moulds and mildew. The fungus, in the manner of obtaining its food, resembles an animal in so far as it can only live on organic matter, which may be either living 6 AGRICULTURAL BOTANY. or dead: thus some fungi prey on living plants and cause often very serious diseases and heavy losses. Cultivated plants are specially liable to these attacks, when their health and consequent resisting power is in any way impaired by unfavourable seasons or bad cultivation. The principle of the division of labour is well recognised in all branches of the arts and manufactures, but it is no- where more strongly applied than in the animal and vegetable kingdoms. The various problems of plant economy necessitate that special parts of the plant should be set apart for the performance of very definite functions, and should be highly specialised for this purpose. This will be found not only in the external form, but also in the minute internal structure of each portion, which is so organised that its special work may be performed with the least possible expenditure of energy or waste of material. A plant, laying aside all idea of the functions of its various parts, is usually said to consist of three members— the Root, the Stem, and the Leaf; under ordinary conditions each of these has its own work to do, but under special circumstances they may be altered and modified to serve some other purpose, so that they bear hardly any resem- blance to the typical form. Branches may be altered into thorns as in the Sloe (Prunus spinosa), or modified into tubers as in the Potato, or Artichoke; leaves also may become thorns as in the Barberry (Berberis vulgaris) ; they may serve as the storehouse in which certain plants (e.g., the Onion and Hyacinth) store up reserve material to be used in the following spring, or they may take part in the forma- tion of the flower and aid in the process of reproduction ; the root, again, may be utilised as the storehouse, familiar examples being presented in the Carrot and Parsnip. INTRODUCTORY. 7 Regarding the plant from another point of view, but without considering the manner in which its various parts are derived from the three typical members, it is made up of a number of organs each of which has some function to perform for which it is specially adapted. Seen in this light, roots are organs of attachment, and for absorbing food ; stems are supports and conducting channels; leaves are manufactories ; tubers and bulbs are storehouses ; and thorns are weapons, etc., etc. But in the succeeding chapters we shall trace the life of the plant in detail, considering the structure, functions, and modifications of each member. With these few considera- tions we have endeavoured to indicate merely the general conditions of plant life, to give an idea of the investigations required for the proper understanding of the various needs and requirements of plants. The student must recognise the value of enquiry and the necessity of scientific knowledge brought to bear upon plant cultivation, in order to produce better growth and development ; for it is only when experience is based upon exact scientific knowledge that it has its full value, and the true nature of every success or failure can be understood. CHAPTER II. THE CELL. Ir a very thin section be cut from any part of one of the higher plants (for example, the stem of a Bean-plant) and magnified, it will be found not to bea solid structure, but to present a honey-combed appearance (see fig. 2). It is seen to be made up of a large number of small cavities of very different sizes, and shapes, some of which may be empty, while others are filled with various contents. To these cavities the name cell was given when they were first discovered, hence the derivation of the word ; and the supporting framework was called the cell-wall. It was formerly thought that the cell-wall was the living part, but later researches have revealed the fact that it is a semifluid substance found closely adhering to the cell-wall in which life resides, and that the cell-wall is merely a framework made by this substance to support and protect it. This living substance is termed frofoplasm. By a plant cell we now mean a small mass of protoplasm, which may or may not have surrounded itself by a supporting cell-wall. This unicellular condition is found in several of the lower forms of vegetable life, but in only a few instances is the protoplasm exposed to the surrounding medium. In the. higher forms, which are made up of a countless number of cells, the protoplasm always supports itself by a cell-wall. We must now examine a cell more minutely, and will THE CELL. 9 take for example the illustration shown in fig. 1, which is that of a living mature plant cell. On the outside is ea KE 2 ON waa, 2 WILL A Fig. 1 (from Vines after Hanstein). A, a typical living cell; B, a portion of cell-wall, and layer of proto- plasm in contact with it more highly magnified ; 1, 2, the common cell- wall of two adjacent cells; 3, ectoplasm ; 4, granular endoplasm with chlorophyll corpuscles. The arrows indcate the direction of currents in the protoplasm. seen the cell-wall, with here and there its junction with neighbouring cells, and this encloses the protoplasm which 10 AGRICULTURAL BOTANY. is found as a thin layer in close contact with the cell-wall. This layer of protoplasm is divided into two portions, an outer one firm and clear, immediately inside the cell-wall, and an inner one which is granular and somewhat fluid: these are known respectively as the ectoplasm and the endoplasm. The space inside the layer of protoplasm, in contact with the cell-wall, contains a watery fluid known as ce//-sap, and is traversed by numerous strands of proto- plasm which divide it up into a number of smaller cavities, known as sap-cavities, or vacuoles. In the centre of the cell is an ovoid body, the nucleus, which these strands of protoplasm connect with the peripheral layer, and hold it in position. The Protoplasm being the seat of all vital force, is there- fore the essential part of every living cell, and without it there could be no life. It is a semifluid or gelatinous substance, white in colour, and of a granular appearance, and it has been found to possess all the functional activities which we regard as the characteristics of life. We must now consider the properties and composition of protoplasm. A careful examination of a living cell will show that protoplasm is ever in motion (arrows in fig. 1), the peripheral layer is constantly moving round and round the cell, and the strands of protoplasm which connect the nucleus-with the peripheral layer are also constantly moving to and from the nucleus. This motion originates in the protoplasm itself, and it is therefore said to be automatic. It is only when subject to the right degree of temperature that protoplasm exhibits this activity—too great a degree of heat or cold paralyses it and stops the motion, and if these adverse conditions are continued, death ensues. Proto- plasm is thus influenced by external conditions, and is said to be zrritable, THE CELL. II Oxygen, which forms about one fourth of the atmosphere, is indispensable to vegetable life, and it is found that the protoplasm of every living cell is constantly absorbing oxygen, some of which combines with its carbon, and is given off as a colourless gas known as carbonic acid. The energy set free during this process, which is termed respira- tion, is used by the plant to perform its various functions. Respiration in the plant is not confined to one particular part, or to one group of cells, but every plant cell respires in a greater or less degree, and every plant cell must have within its reach a supply of oxygen in order to obtain its necessary amount of energy. Experiments have proved that in the absence of oxygen the activity of protoplasm ceases, and death follows, if it is deprived of this source of food for too long a period. Protoplasm is, therefore, respiratory. Protoplasm is capable of absorbing into itself its various food substances, it is therefore receptive. Further, it has the power of changing these substances into others which are more directly useful to it, and the waste products from this manufacture are expelled or got rid of by various means. This process of chemical change is described as metabolism, and may be considered under two heads; the first, constructive, in which complex organic substances are built up from inorganic ones, and converted into protoplasm; the second, destructive, in which proto- plasm is broken up, some of the products being useful for constructive metabolism, others being merely waste. It is found that in special regions of the plant there are cells which are capable of division to form new cells. The protoplasm of these cells divides, and forms a cell-wall across the original cell, and the cells so formed, after a 12 AGRICULTURAL BOTANY. period of growth, may again divide. Reproduction, again, is thus one of the properties of protoplasm. At the present time the exact chemical composition of protoplasm has not been determined. Living protoplasm is always in a state of change, due to its properties of re- spiring and absorbing its food substances into itself where they undergo chemical change, and for these reasons it is exceedingly difficult to obtain protoplasm in sufficient quantities in a pure state for analysis. But although no chemical formula can be assigned to protoplasm, yet it is always found to be made up of the five elements, Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Sulphur. In order, then, that a plant may produce new cells these five elements must be available. Nucleus.—There is reason to believe that in every living plant cell a nucleus is present. The nucleus is an ovoid body embedded in protoplasm, and it may either be sus- pended in the centre of the cell or lie in the peripheral layer of protoplasm. In very young cells of the higher plants the nucleus (fig. 1) is a prominent feature, and in mature cells it is easily seen, but in many of the lower forms the presence of the nucleus can only be ascertained by the use of special reagents, and so for a long time it was thought to be absent in these cells. Now, however, the most recent researches point to its universal presence in all plant cells. The exact chemical composition of the nucleus, like that of the protoplasm, is at present not determined, but it appears to be composed of the same five elements which enter into the composition of protoplasm, but with the addition of Phosphorus. The universal presence of a nucleus seems to point to THE CELL. 13 its being of some importance in the cell, but its exact functions are at present unknown. The Cell-Wall.—We have seen that the protoplasm for the purposes of support and protection surrounds itself by a cell-wall, which may be either hard and rigid, or soft and flexible as in many low forms living in water. This cell- wall has a definite chemical composition, being made up of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen, which are combined to- gether and form a substance known as cellulose, with the chemical formula C;H,,O;. The cell-wall is a product of the protoplasm itself, and is formed by the conversion of protoplasm into cellulose. This takes place in the outer- most layer of protoplasm in contact with the cell-wall, and the increase in thickness of the latter is caused by the deposition of successive layers of cellulose. The simplest forms of plants consist of only one cell, and the cell-wall therefore surrounds the protoplasm, but in the higher forms the protoplasm is divided up into very small masses by thin partitions of cell-wall, and these thin parti- tions must be regarded as common to the cells on either side of them. The cells are in connection one with another through minute pores in the dividing cell-wall, and the pro- toplasm, passing through these, is thus continuous throughout the whole plant, and we may therefore regard the plant asa mass of protoplasm chambered up into an infinite number of small compartments. The cells which build up a plant have, when young, the power of growing, but this power is limited, so that when the maximum size has been attained further growth does not take place, and the plant, as a whole, increases in size by the formation of new cells. The new cells are formed by the division of older cells, 14 AGRICULTURAL BOTANY. that is, the nucleus divides into two nuclei and between these a cell-wall is formed ; the mother cells thus divide into two daughter cells, and after a time these may divide again, or else grow to the full size and form part of the permanent structure of the plant. It is obvious that cells which have ceased to grow and those which are still in an active condition of growth must each be confined to definite parts of a plant. The regions of cell-division occur at the apex of the stem and root and at the growing portion of a leaf for the growth in length, and also a special zone of dividing cells encloses the stem or root when it has the power of increasing in thickness. The life of a cell may be conveniently divided into three stages—(1) the stage when it is first formed; (2) the growing stage; and (3) the adult stage. (1) The early stage when the cell has just been formed by the division of its mother cell, is very different from the mature condition, and it is then characterised by its thin cell- walls and by being completely full of protoplasm (fig. 9 m w), in which is embedded a large nucleus. It now begins to grow, and after a time may divide into two cells or may pass over into the second stage. (2) In this stage the size and capacity of the cell are materially increased. When a cell is so full of water that its walls are distended it is said to be turgid, and the turgidity of the cell is a necessary condition of growth. When the cell is turgid its volume is increased and the cell-wall becomes stretched. As the cell-wall stretches a fresh layer of cellulose is deposited upon it, and as it continues to extend successive layers of cellulose are again deposited upon the inner surface. It is in this manner that the cell-walls grow in length and the capacity of the cell becomes larger. THE CELL. 15 The volume of the protoplasm does not increase equally with that of the cell, and hence, after a time, numerous cavities are formed in it which become filled with a watery fluid known as cell-sap. As the cell increases in size these cavities also increase and coalesce to form several larger sap-cavities, in which case the nucleus becomes suspended at the centre of the cell by strands of protoplasm reaching from it to the protoplasm which adheres to the cell-wall (fig. 1); or the centre of the protoplasm may be occupied by one large sap-cavity and the nucleus lie embedded in the peripheral protoplasm. (3) In the second stage the cell assumes its final shape and gradually reaches its full development ; it then enters upon the third or mature stage and becomes a component part of the plant, and takes its part in the performance of the various functions which are allotted to it. The cell now ceases to grow, and therefore the cell-wall, being no longer stretched, it is possible for it now to increase considerably in thickness. When the cell-wall becomes much thickened the deposition of cellulose does not take place evenly over the whole surface, but small areas are left here and there which remain unthickened and are known as f7¢s. Pits in the cell-wall are extremely common; they occur on each side of the common wall separating two cells, and it is through minute perforations at the bottom of these pits that the protoplasm of one cell is continuous with that on the other side of the dividing cell-wall. In many of the mature cells which are found to be empty the protoplasm has all been expended in increasing the thickness of the cell-wall, and the cell, having lost its protoplasm, is therefore dead. Cells in this condition are, however, of great use in the plant economy, as they serve to 16 AGRICULTURAL BOTANY. give strength to the plant and also act as channels through which water may be conducted. The shape of a cell and the thickness of its walls depends on the particular function which it has to perform. In the very simple forms of plants, which consist of only one cell, it follows that all the various processes and work must be carried on in this cell, but in the multicellular plants there is a division of labour and special cells are set apart for special functions, some for nutrition, others for protection and support. We thus find that the cells assume very different shapes, but these are reducible to two types— (1) those which are approximately as long as broad, cubical or ovoid, and whose diameters are about equal (figs. 1 and 30); and (2) those which are longer than broad and have pointed ends (figs. 17 and 3, a). The former are those which retain the living protoplasm and in which the various vital processes are carried on, and are termed parenchymatous cells; while the latter have generally very thick cell-walls and are specially adapted to build up those parts of a plant which are used as the supporting frame-work, these are termed pvosenchymatous or mechanical cells. In studying the anatomy of plants it is usual to find cells which are exactly alike grouped together, and investigation has shown that such cells have a common function. These masses of cells are known as tissues, and by a tissue we mean a group of cells which have a common origin, a common law of growth, and a common function. The advantage derived from unity of cells for the purposes of nutrition and support is easily seen; in the case of support it is obvious that greater strength is derived from the union of a number of supporting cells. THE CELL. 17 It is usual to consider a plant as made up of three tissues though these, again, may be subdivided—viz., the epidermal, the ground, and the fibro-vascular tissues. The Epidermis is the name given to those cells which entirely surround the plant, and from their position form a protective sheath covering the more tender cells which they enclose. This tissue is in most cases only one layer of cells in thickness, the outermost wall of each cell is often very much thickened, and for further protection the outer- most layer of cellulose (in the parts exposed to the air) is transformed into a substance known as cutin, which forms a kind of waterproof covering to the whole plant. The cells of the epidermis fit very closely together, and the only spaces formed between them are guarded by specially constructed cells. These guard cells are known as stoma, and will be further considered under the leaf. In annual plants the epidermis persists, throughout the entire life of the plant, but in perennial plants its cells never have the power of dividing, and the epidermis is therefore torn or burst off and replaced by cells specially formed inside it, whose cell-walls are altered into a substance known as suberin and which forms cork or bark. Many plants are found to be hairy, some covered with long silky hairs while others have short and stiff hairs; these hairs are formed by single cells of the epidermis becoming elongated and projecting beyond the surface of the plant. Hairs are therefore defined as outgrowths of single epidermal cells. The hairs formed on stem and leaf serve in various ways to protect the plant, while those formed on the root (fig. 4) serve to abstract various food-substances from the soil. Ground Tissue.—Those cells which are enclosed by the epidermis upon which they abut, and in which are placed B 18 AGRICULTURAL BOTANY. the fibro-vascular bundles, are known as the ground tissue. This tissue is composed of parenchyma and prosenchyma. The cells of the parenchyma do not fit very closely to- gether, but numerous spaces occur which are sometimes small, at other times relatively large, and these are known as intercellular spaces (figs. 30, 7 and 11). From what has been already said it will be understood that the spaces are not formed simultaneously with the cells themselves, but that they are developed later during the growth of the cell, by the common wall of certain cells dividing and the two portions separating from each other. The intercellular spaces contain air, and being in connec- tion with each other afford a channel whereby the various gases can circulate inside the plant. The cells near the exterior of the plant very often contain the green colour bodies, chlorophyll corpuscles, and these cells play a very important part in the nutrition of the plant. Parenchymatous cells are frequently used for the storage of reserve material, and also for the transport of certain manufactured products to different parts of the plant. In trees the requisite amount of support is given by the woody portion of the fibro-vascular bundles, but in succulent and herbaceous plants this wood is generally not sufficiently developed for this purpose, and prosenchymatous cells are formed in the ground tissue which have their cell-walls thickened to help in giving mechanical support to the plant. These strengthening cells are found sometimes in connection with the fibro-vascular bundles, at other times close to the epidermis. Mechanical cells in connection with the fibro- vascular bundles are especially developed in the group of plants known as monocotyledons (Grasses, Lilies, Sedges, Rushes . . .) (fig. 17), and form a strong sheath surrounding THE CELL. 19 and protecting the fibro-vascular bundles. The cell-wall is thickened evenly, with the exception of small pits left in the cell-wall. “Mechanical cells close to the.epidermis have sometimes the cell-wall evenly thickened, sometimes it is only at the corners of the cells that the thickening is developed. Cells in this position require that their cell-walls should Fig. 2. Transverse section of corner of a Bean ke (Vicia faba) ; e, the epidermis ; cx, the cuticle ; co, the cortex ; #7, medullary ray: Z, pith ; / fibrovascular bundle ; 4, bast ; 4f, bast fibres; the shaded portion between the cambium and the bast fibres repre- sents the bast vessels and parenchyma; c, cambium; w, wood; s, strengthening cells at the corner; sf, stoma. be capable of stretching or of compression, that the plant may be bent without injury, and so the thickened cell- wall is elastic, and the thickening at the angles of the cells aids in giving additional strength to withstand pressure in any direction. Fibro-vascular Bundles.—In fig. 2, of a transverse 20 AGRICULTURAL BOTANY. section of a Bean-stem, numerous groups of cells are seen very different in appearance to the cells of the ground tissue in which they are embedded. These are the fibro- vascular bundles, and it is easily seen that they may be divided into two portions, one nearer the centre known as the wood, or zylem, which is darker by reason of the thickness of the cell-walls, and conspicuous’ by the larger openings of many of the vessels; and another portion known as the bast, or phloem, immediately exterior to the wood, having an internal portion abutting on the wood with white, thin walls—the soft bast—-and an external portion with hard, thick walls—the hard bast. The fibro-vascular bundles are strands of conducting tissue traversing the whole plant. In the leaf they form a net-work known popularly as the veins, which are con- tinuous through the leaf-stalk with those of the stem. In the stem they are also connected together, and form a net- work with large meshes, and these are again continued into the root. Wood.—The various elements which constitute the woody portion of a fibro-vascular bundle may conveni- ently be classified under three heads—vessels, fibres, parenchyma. Although, in the first case, the walls of these various elements were made of cellulose, yet, when mature, the cellulose becomes converted into another substance known as lignin. Vessels are formed from a number of cells in connection with each other, being transformed into a tube by the parti- tion walls becoming absorbed. The diameter of the vessels is often very much larger than that of the other elements of the wood, and their walls must be specially thickened to prevent them being crushed in and the cavity of the vessel THE CELL. 2r obliterated. The simplest form of thickening is found in the primary wood, that is, the wood vessels which are first formed; these may be either spiral vessels, where the thickening is arranged in a spiral manner, or annular vessels, where the thickening occurs in rings. In the walls of the other vessels small spaces remain unthickened, often arranged in a pattern (fig. 15), so that these vessels are known as pitted or dotted ducts; or bars of thickening may be placed on the walls, and these are then known as reticulate vessels. Vessels are used for conveying water from the roots through the stem up to the leaves. The Fibres are long cells with pointed ends which dove- tail into each other, and serve to give greater strength to the structure. The Parenchyma cells of the wood are living cells, and retain their protoplasm, and at certain seasons they may be used as receptacles in which reserve material may be stored up. The vessels and fibres lose their protoplasm, and so the parenchyma is the only living part of the wood. It is by means of the wood that the various substances absorbed from the soil by the roots are passed to the leaves, and the soft bast forms a channel whereby those substances containing nitrogen are conveyed to parts of the plant where they are required. Bast.—The elements of the bast, like those of the wood, may again be divided into vessels, fibres, and parenchyma. The Fives are known as hard bast, and form a protection to the soft bast (sieve tubes and parenchyma); they are formed from very long cells whose ends fit into each other in the same manner as the fibres in the wood: they form the most exterior part of the bundle. The Vesse/s have thin walls, and are characterised by the 23 AGRICULTURAL BOTANY. partition walls not being absorbed, but perforated by a number of very fine pores through which the contents of one sieve tube may pass into the next one. These per- forated plates are known as sieves ; they may occur on the sides of the vessels as well as at the ends, and these vessels are therefore known as sieve-tubes (fig. 16). The Bast Parenchyma is thin-walled, and fits in between the sieve-tubes. Vacuole and Cell-Sap..—The spaces in the protoplasm which are termed sap-cavities, or vacuoles, contain a watery fluid known as cell-sap. This contains various substances which are collectively known as cell contents, some of which are in solution in the cell-sap while others are present as solid bodies. The chief substances which are dissolved in the cell-sap are organic acids, sugar, colouring matters, various inorganic salts as chlorides, nitrates, and sulphates, and various compounds of nitrogen, though it rarely occurs that they are all found in one cell. Some of these are waste products, while others are about to be transformed into useful products. The cell-sap permeates the pro- toplasm and cell-wall. The cell-wall and protoplasm readily allow water to pass through them to and from the cavity of the cell, but the protoplasm offers a resistance to the escape of the soluble cell contents, and it is these which, by attracting water, give rise to turgidity. If the density of the solution of cell-sap in two adjoining cells is not equal it will tend to equalise, and water will pass from one to the other. The more the soluble cell contents the greater is this force of attraction, hence, in a tissue of cells, a current will flow in the direction of greater concentration. The various organic acids are the chief factors in the cell-sap which maintain and increase the volume of the cell. THE CELL. 23 Plasmolysis.—Artificially, the turgidity of a cell may be diminished, or even destroyed, by placing it in solutions stronger than the cell-sap. Thus, for example, if a moder- ately thin section containing living cells be cut from a plant—a Beet-root will be found very convenient on account of its coloured cell-sap—and placed in a solution of salt- petre or common salt of about 5 per cent., this, being stronger than the cell-sap, will withdraw water from the cell, and the cell will lose its turgidity. As a consequence, the tension of the cell-walls is relaxed, and therefore the volume of the cell is diminished; the sap-cavities lose water, and the peripheral protoplasm is torn from the cell- wall, and if the surrounding solution is sufficiently strong— about 10 per cent.—it will eventually be separated from the cell-wall, and become contracted into a rounded mass. In this condition the cell is said to be Plasmolysed: the cell-sap has become more concentrated, the peripheral pro- toplasm having retained all the soluble contents, and allowed only water to pass through it and escape. (This is well seen in the Beet-root cells by the deepened colour of the cell-sap.) The cell is, however, not dead, but if placed in pure water the protoplasm and cell-wall will again expand and assume their healthy condition. The cause of this is exactly the same as that which brought about the Plas- molysis, namely, the concentration of the cell-sap being now greater than the surrounding water, the latter is there- fore absorbed, the sap-cavities increase in volume, and the cell resumes its former turgidity. If the protoplasm be killed, the cell-sap readily passes through the peripheral protoplasm and escapes. It must not, however, be supposed that only water is 24 AGRICULTURAL BOTANY. capable of passing from cell to cell; various substances, such as solutions of sugar, etc., may pass from one cell to another, but their passage is regulated by the peripheral protoplasm, for many solutions are able to pass through the cell-wall which cannot pass through the peripheral protoplasm. Cell Contents.—Various substances are found in the cell which may conveniently be classed under the head of cell contents. Of these it will be sufficient to consider the following :— 1. Plastids, or small bodies having substantially the same properties as protoplasm, are found embedded in it in certain cells. They are formed in the very early stages of the cell and may exist under three conditions. (a.) Chlorophyll corpuscles, or chloroplastids, small green ovoid bodies embedded in the protoplasm of those cells which are exposed to light. They are specially formed portions of the protoplasm, each consisting of a protoplasmic frame-work, in the meshes of which the green colour is contained. Although these bodies are exceedingly small yet they are so numerous that the green colour of plants is due to their presence. Their function will be considered under the leaf. (b.) Colour bodies, or chromoplastids, small bodies of similar nature, but red or yellow in colour. The red and yellow colour of flowers or fruits and the autumnal tints are due to these bodies ; in the latter case they are formed from disintegrated chlorophyll corpuscles. (Blue and purple colours are due to colouring matters dissolved in the cell-sap.) (¢.) Starch - forming corpuscles, or Jleucoplastids, small white bodies which may be regarded as colourless chloro- THE CELL. 25 phyll corpuscles. They are formed in cells not exposed to light, and are concerned in the formation of starch in these parts. 2. Reserve materials, or substances manufactured at any time in excess of present requirements are stored up in the cells for future use. These are divided into two groups according as they are to be used to form new cell-wall, or protoplasm. The former are therefore non-nitrogenous, and the latter nitrogenous, The principal non- nitrogenous reserve materials are— (a.) Starch. This occurs in many cells as_ small grains (fig. 3); cells of the Potato (fig. 19) and of the Pea (fig. 30) are very rich in starch grains. (.) Sugar is found dissolved in the cell- sap of the Beet-root, \ Fig. 3 (x 540.—From Strasburger). Mangold wurzel, etc. Starch grains from tuber of Potato. A, a simple (¢.) Lnulin occurs grain, showing line of stratification and hilum at ¢; C and D, compound grains. in the tubers of the Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus). It is always in solution, but can be precipitated by alcohol in the form of sphere-crystals. The nitrogenous reserve materials are principally found in seeds. These are small ovoid bodies known as aleurone grains and may be confined to certain cells S (les Saab 1 ash (ESN 26 AGRICULTURAL BOTANY. (wheat, fig. 34) or contained in the same cells as the starch (pea, fig. 30). 3. Waste products. (a.) Crystals of various forms are often found in cells (fig. 11). They are, for the most part, formed of calcium carbonate (chalk), or calcium oxalate ; these crystals assume either an octagonal or prismatic shape and may be formed in cells specially devoted to this purpose. Long needle shaped crystals, pointed at each end, known as raphides, occur in many plants. They are found to be of service to young seedlings in preserving them from being eaten by slugs. (6.) Tannin is found in solution in various cells, especially those which may be cast off (z.e., bark). It is a waste product. CHAPTER III. ROOT. Ir a seed be planted under favourable conditions—which will be fully considered in Chapter VII.—it germinates ; that is, the young root emerges from the seed and commences to penetrate the ground, and after a short interval the stem bearing the leaves also emerges and pro- ceeds to grow upwards. By the term “root” we generally understand that part of a plant which grows downwards into the soil and has the main purposes of anchoring the plant and of absorbing its food-substances from the soil. Although this is generally true, we must not consider as roots all subterranean parts of a plant, nor even refuse to regard certain zerial parts as roots. In many plants the stem is always underground and similarly roots are formed which never. penetrate the ground. We shall, however, consider simply those roots which penetrate the soil, and it will be necessary to examine the structure of the root before considering its functions and actions with regard to the soil. Structure.—In beginning a study of the root, its struc- ture is best examined by means of cross sections, which should be cut accurately transverse to its axis, and so thin that they are transparent and the walls of the various cells can be seen under the microscope. We will now first consider such a transverse section of a young root not far 28 AGRICULTURAL BOTANY. from its growing point. Such a section is represented in fig. 4. The Root, it is noticed, is circular in outline, and made \ X Fig. 4 (after Vines). Transverse section of the root of Cress (Lepidium sativum): a, the unicellular root hairs; 4, the piliferous layer; c, the ground tissue; d, the fibro-vascular tissue ; e, the bundle sheath ; 4 the wood-vessels. The pericycle is the circle of cells immediately inside the bundle sheath. \ up of a large number of cells, among which we very easily distinguish the three tissue systems ;—in the centre the ROOT. 29 Fibro-vascular tissue, surrounding this the Ground tissue, and on the outside a layer of cells which is described as the Filiferous layer. This corresponds to the epidermis of other parts of the plant, and is the layer which gives rise to the root-hairs. The Fibro-vascular bundles are composed of two parts,-— the wood and the bast. The Wood-vessels (conspicuous by their thick walls) are seen as a number of circles forming a row in the centre (fig. 4) of which the central one has the largest diameter, whilst those on each side of it gradually diminish in size. The smaller vessels at either end are the spiral vessels, and are those which are first formed, the formation of vessels proceeding inwards. Succeeding these are larger pitted or dotted ducts which in the particular case under consideration unite in the centre. Sometimes, when there are many groups of spiral vessels, the pitted ducts do not extend very far towards the centre, which is then occupied by pith cells. The Bast is seen as a group of cells situated above and below the row of wood-vessels, the more external being the bast fibres and immediately inside these the bast vessels or sieve tubes and parenchyma. The number of strands of bast always equals that of the wood, and they regularly alternate with each other at equal distances from the centre. A careful examination of the figure shows that there are two well-defined circles of cells surrounding the central fibro-vascular cylinder—the more internal of these abuts upon the spiral wood-vessels and the bast fibres, and is known as the pervicycle. The external one is known as the bundle sheath. ts cell walls have often peculiar thickenings ; sometimes it is the internal and radial walls which are thickened, at other times the radial walls parallel and per- 30 AGRICULTURAL BOTANY. pendicular to the axis of growth have tooth-like thickenings which fit into each other. The bundle sheath is the most internal layer of the ground-tissue. The Ground-tissue forms the great mass of the root, and extends as far as the piliferous layer; it is composed chiefly of parenchymatous cells which have intercellular spaces between them—often very large. The Piliferous layer surrounds the ground-tissue and forms the most external layer of cells; many of its cells grow out into long tubes known as root-hairs. The structure of all roots in their young sondiion « is essentially the same, though there are great variations in detail, and they may be greatly modified as growth proceeds. In the example we have described, the wood and bast at first consist each of only two strands, but comparatively speaking few roots have so low a number as this, and in many instances the number of strands is very large. The pericycle too in some roots consists of more than one layer of cells. Soil.—Part of the food which a plant requires is obtained from the soil in which its roots grow, and part from the air which surrounds its stem and leaves. Before considering the manner in which the food substances are obtained from the soil, it will first be necessary to discuss its char- acter and composition. Soil, as we know, is not a solid mass but is made up of infinitely small particles, and these being of very varying sizes and of irregular shapes do not fit closely together, but have numerous spaces between them, which are occupied by water or air. In a perfectly dry soil, these cavities contain only air, and the earth is then capable of absorbing a large amount of moisture in the same manner as a sponge. ROOT, 31 Suppose we take some dry earth in a flower-pot and water it, we find that a certain amount of water is absorbed and retained by the soil, but if more water be added it drains away. In this condition each particle of soil, how- ever minute, is surrounded by a thin film of water, but the larger cavities between the various particles are not filled with water, but contain air. If, however, the conditions are such that no water can drain away, the air is expelled from the soil, and it becomes completely saturated with water. Soil may therefore exist under three conditions— firstly, in a completely dry state, containing no water ; secondly, when each particle is coated by a thin film of water and the spaces between many of the particles are filled with air; and thirdly, when all the air has been forced out of it and the interstices are filled with water alone. Root-hairs.—It is by means of root-hairs that plants obtain a great deal of nourishment from the soil. The long and delicate tubes known as root-hairs are merely cells which have elongated and forced their way between the particles of soil. The root-hair differs only from an ordinary living plant cell in its greater length, having its cell wall, protoplasm, nucleus, and sap-cavities (vacuoles). Its special function is to absorb the thin film of water surrounding the particles of soil into its own interior, and with this film of water to absorb also any substances which may be dissolved in it. In order that the protoplasm may carry on this function, it must, as we have seen, be supplied with oxygen. We thus understand how it is that too much water in the soil is injurious to vegetable life. Heavy rains and bad drainage prevent the excess of water escaping from the soil, expel the air from it, and the root-hairs are 32 AGRICULTURAL BOTANY. therefore deprived of oxygen; their protoplasm becomes dormant and cannot perform its function of absorbing water, and after a time it dies unless more favourable conditions are restored. Again, too little water in the soil deprives the root-hairs of their turg- idity and similarly under these circum- stances their protoplasm is devitalized and cannot perform its function. The root-hairs in forcing a way through the soil become very closely attached and adhere to the particles of soil, and in this state absorb the film of water surrounding and adhering to them (fig. 5). This water is passed from the root-hair to the cell of the ground-tissue next to it, and from this cell to the one next inside it, and so on until it arrives at the wood-vessels, and thus all the water collected by the root- hairs is forced along these vessels to the base of the stem. So great is the activity of the root-hairs that they force the water up the stem and cause the phenomenon of Rootpressure. Root-pressure can be very easily de- er monstrated (fig. 6). ez Sees roorhair of 4» Small healthy stem, such as that of Pe tle ore Bean or Sunflower, is cut off near the soil closely adhering ground and replaced by a glass tube (s¢) fastened to the stump, so that no leak- age can occur. This is readily effected by means of a piece of indiarubber tubing (4). After a short time the water from the roots rises slowly in the glass-tube, sometimes ROOT. 33 to a considerable height. To avoid the action of negative pressure (page 55) the stem should be severed under water. Bya suitable arrange- Gx) ment of the apparatus, "@4%=) the amount of water collected by the roots may be measured, and some idea of this amount may be gath- ered from the fact that a large Sunflower has been found to exude nearly two pints of water in thirteen days, the exudation being very copious during the first few days and afterwards gradually diminishing. The exudation of water from cut woody stems (Bleeding) which * occurs so frequently in Fig. 7 (after Sachs., : spring, is caused by the Fig. 6 (aft er Detmer). P 6» ‘ y Seedlings of Sinapis Apparatus for demon- “sap” being forced up- a/éa (white mustard). strating root - pressure. A, after removal from 2, piece of india-rubber wards from the roots. Miesol Math ts periicles ing; st, glass tube. ae still adhering to the root- tubing: sfglass tube. His is not confined to hairs ; Bs after. their re moval washing. trees and shrubs, and ry E may often be observed in herbaceous plants. So close is the contact between a root-hair and the soil, that when a plant is pulled up (provided that the root-hairs are not broken off) some soil is pulled up with it. This is well shown in fig. 7, in which 4 is a seedling of White c 34 AGRICULTURAL BOTANY. Mustard grown in fine sand, and pulled up with the sand adhering to it by means of the root-hairs ; B represents the same plant when the sand has been carefully removed by washing in water. It is seen in this young condition that, with the exception of the end of the root, the root-hairs cover the whole surface, and are exceedingly numerous. If, how- ever, an older root is carefully pulled up and examined, it is then seen that the root-hairs are not present over the entire surface of the root, but that only a small zone a little removed from the various growing points is covered with root-hairs. The older parts of the root are seen to be devoid of hairs (fig. 8) as well as the growing points. Actual observation shows that the distance between the root-hairs and the tip of the root remains nearly always the same in roots of the same plant, and that as the root grows in length, new root-hairs are continually being produced just in front of those already commencing to develop, and these in their turn are gradually removed further and further from the apex. The growth in length of the root-hair is limited, and consequently when all the food substances within its reach have been absorbed, its function of feeding the plant comes to an end, its protoplasm is withdrawn into the root, and it dies. The existence of a root-hair is therefore transitory, and this explains why the older parts of the root are devoid of hairs. Growth in length.—We have already seen that each cell has three stages of life, and that during the second of these it grows until it has attained its mature size. It is by the simultaneous growth of a number of cells in this condition, that growth in length takes place. In order to determine the particular region where elonga- 35 ‘WAaY} OF PEydEIe [10s Puy sateYy-joor YIM suoisiod zaBunok “a { paystiad savy SAtey-1004 ay} a1aYM 3OO1 Jo suo}I0d rapjo ‘a { padopsaap JA Jou are sayey-JOOI oy} YOIYA uodn-sj0OI Jo sarUfaryXe ‘yf yeay Isay Oy} ‘g SuleIB ay) ‘S -Pjo YjUOW e noge Jay AA Jo BuT[paag : ‘(syovg 4apfo) 3 Big aie 36 AGRICULTURAL BOTANY. tion in the root occurs, a very simple experiment may be made. Ifa young root be marked with lines (say of Indian Fig 9 (from Frank, after Sachs). Median longitudinal section through the apex of a root of Zea mazs (Indian corn). mw, cell dividing to form the cells of the root ; mc, cells dividing to form root cap; c, older cells of the root cap about to be discarded ; e, »,_/, #, the cells which will re- spestvely form the piliferous layer, the ground trssue, the fibro-vascular tissue, and the Aith. ROOT. 37 ink) one-eighth of an inch apart and left for a short time to grow, in a few days it will become apparent where the increase in length is taking place, because at that point the marks will have become further apart, indicating the amount of growth. By observing a root marked in this manner, it will be seen that growth in length takes place in a very limited zone. At the tip no increase in length takes place, for here new cells are continually being formed; but at a little distance further from the tip growth proceeds very vigorously, and a_ little further removed from this again, growth in length altogether ceases. Growth in length then takes place very near the apex. To make this more clear a thin longitudinal section through the actual apex of a root (fig. 9) should be examined. The cells which will form the piliferous layer (fig. 9, e), ground-tissue (7), and fibro-vascular tissue (/) are seen clearly marked out from each other, at the apex (mw) the cells are seen to be dividing, and tracing the cells upwards they are seen gradually to elongate (showing the zone of growth in length) until they commence to BiB, baler Peaadl, pass over into their permanent condition. | Apex of root of Zea At fon the left hand side, a wood-vessel a aas ote aa is being formed. ey The apex of the root, it will be noticed, is covered by a conical mass of cells closely packed together at the centre, but becoming more separated at the edge; they form a structure known as the oot-cap (figs. 9 and 10 ¢), which 38 AGRICULTURAL BOTANY. originates from a group of dividing cells (fig. 9 mc) imme- diately covering the apex of the root. These cells by their continued division form the root-cap to protect the apex of the root as it is forced through the soil. The root-cap is continually being renewed, by the dividing cells forming new ones to replace those which are destroyed or worn away in its passage through the soil. Circumnutation.—The root has been shown by Darwin to possess the power of “ Circumnutation,” that is to say, the extreme end continually endeavours to move in a small circle, and is thus able to find the path of least resistance. The tip of a root never grows in a perfectly straight line, but it continually moves first to one side and then to the other, and by adopting this device the root selects the softer and more moist places in the soil, avoids the stones, and is enabled more easily to effect an entrance into very hard soils. Geotropism.—The root, which first emerges from the seed, grows vertically downwards towards the centre of the earth, and it is a point of considerable interest to investigate the causes by which the root is guided in this direction. A seed when planted is acted on by two forces, one the attraction to the centre of the earth known as “ Gravity,” and the other the centrifugal force caused by the rotation of the earth and acting directly away from the centre. The former is much greater than the latter. The young root therefore is acted on by these two forces and its direction of growth coincides with that of the prevailing force. It would seem then that this force determines the direction of the root, and in order to prove whether this is the case or not, Andrew Knight devised an experiment which has since become familiar under the name of “ Knight’s Wheel.” ROOT. 39 This is merely a small wheel made to rotate in the hori- zontal plane with a number of seeds attached to its circumference. If these seeds are kept for a few days under the conditions favourable to germination (see Chapter VII.), which may generally be done by covering them with a bell-jar, it will be found that all the roots on germination instead of growing vertically downwards commence to grow in a direction nearly horizontal, turning away from the centre of the wheel. In order to understand this we must consider briefly the forces which act on the seeds revolving on a Knight’s Wheel. These are again two, namely gravity acting vertically downwards, and the centrifugal force caused by the rotation of the wheel acting horizontally away from its centre. The resultant of these forces plainly acts in a direction inclined to the horizontal, and away from the centre of the wheel. As it is in this direction that the roots of these seeds grow, it is clearly demonstrated that the direction which the roots assume is determined by the resultant of the forces acting upon them. The root is therefore said to be zrrdtable, and by this is meant that it responds to external conditions. If the seeds which are placed on Knight’s Wheel have already germinated, a very pretty experiment can be made by fixing the seedlings with their roots pointing towards the centre of the wheel, that is in exactly the opposite direction to that in which they would naturally grow. In a few hours it will be found that the tips of the roots have turned to point in exactly the opposite direction. It is also very interesting to note that the region where this reversal takes place is just behind the tip or where the cells have not yet become permanent,- showing that 4o AGRICULTURAL BOTANY. only growing cells are able to respond to the stimulus of irritation. Root Branching.—The root which emerges from the seed and grows straight down is known as the /ap or primary root. Numerous branches are borne upon it, which again in their turn branch and re-branch until a very complex root system is developed. These are termed lateral or secondary roots, and are developed in obedience to two main laws. According to the first law, the younger roots are developed nearer the apex than those which are older, and so between any two roots another one younger than either is never produced. This arrangement is known as acropetal. The second law determines the particular cells from which they are produced. In considering the structure of the root, we have seen that the primary wood- vessels touch a zone of cells known as the pericycle. It is from the pericycle cells, which are opposite to the primary wood, that the lateral roots are developed. ‘These cells divide to form a root-cap and the cells which, when mature, will become the three tissue systems. The young root then commences to bore its way through the bundle sheath, cortex and piliferous layer of its parent root, and finally emerges asa lateral root. Roots formed in this manner are said to be endogenous. From the manner of their origin it follows that the lateral roots are arranged one above the other. The Cress root (fig. 4) can have only two rows of lateral roots, since it has only two groups of primary wood or protoxylem. The Broad-bean has four groups of protoxylem, and consequently the lateral roots are arranged in four rows. The lateral roots do not grow straight down, but are ROOT. 41 always inclined to the vertical, spreading out in all directions. Increase in thickness.—In many roots the diameter is the same throughout their entire length excepting only the growing point ; others are conical, gradually diminishing in diameter towards the growing point, exaggerated examples being found in carrot, parsnip, &c. The former kind have no power of increasing their diameter after it has once been attained ; while in the latter a special zone of cells remains capable of division and the diameter of the root increases. This zone of dividing cells is called the cambium.: it is formed by the division of the cells between the primary wood and bast, and the power of division proceeds on either side from these groups until a ring of dividing cells is formed, which passes on the outside of the primary wood and on the inside of the bast. The cambium thus forms a sinuous line in transverse section. Each of the cells of the cambium on division forms two cells. One of these, after growing to the original. size, again divides; while the other becomes, according to its position in the root, an element of wood, bast, or parenchyma. The bast formed by the cambium is placed immediately inside the primary bast; while the secondary wood is not placed in connection with the primary wood but internal to the bast, so that the cambium cells internal to the bast form both wood and bast, the wood on their internal and bast on their external surface. Outside the primary wood parenchyma is formed. The cambium, which, when first differentiated, is a sinu- ous line, soon becomes circular, and thus by the activity of the cambium the diameter of the vascular cylinder increases. 42 AGRICULTURAL BOTANY. The cells of the piliferous layer and ground-tissue in the root have not the power of dividing, and are therefore destroyed by this increase of the vascular cylinder; but in order to replace them the cells of the pericycle divide and form a dividing ring of cells, which form parenchymatous cells on both outside and inside, those on the outside becoming bark. Various Functions. —Hitherto we have considered only one of the functions of the root, namely the manner in which it absorbs food from the soil, but in addition to this, the roots are the great anchors which hold plants firmly in their places, and enable them to resist the very consider- able force of the wind. They may also serve as a storehouse of reserve material. It is by the roots penetrating the ground and branching. in all directions that plants are able to maintain their stems in an upright position. In plants whose height is not more than a few feet, little modification in the root is required for this purpose, but in tall trees which are exposed to high winds and are consequently liable to be blown down, the roots form large buttresses with the stem which support it on all sides. Good examples of these “ Buttress-roots” are seen at the bases of such trees as the Oak, Ash, Beech, etc. Storage of Reserve Material.—The root in many cases forms an excellent repository for the various reserve materials which are manufactured by plants for use on a future occasion. This is especially the case among herbaceous biennial, or perennial plants, which live in countries where either warm and cold, or else wet and dry seasons alternate with each other, and whose stem dies down during the period unfavourable to growth. In these ROOT. 43 plants the leaves manufacture, during the period ad- vantageous to plant life, more material than is required for immediate use. This excess of material is in many instances stored up in the roots, and forms the reserve fund from which stem and leaves are constructed in the next spring. An obvious advantage is gained ,by using the root as the storehouse, since it is hidden in the ground and cannot in hard winters be dug up by animals at the time when food is scarcest. The root’ being in so many cases the plant’s storehouse, contains a large amount of material which is of great value as food: this explains why roots have been cultivated for this purpose from the earliest times, and why so much trouble has been expended on their perfection. The char- acteristics of an edible root, or of any portion of a plant which is eatable, are a large amount of thin-walled nutri- tive tissue and a small proportion of thick-walled tissue. The latter—wood-vessels and mechanical cells—is neces- sary to the life of the plant, and cannot be entirely dis- pensed with, but the former may be very largely increased by cultivation. The art of cultivation, then, is to produce the maximum amount of thin-walled tissue and the minimum of thick-walled tissue. This is well exemplified in the Carrot and Parsnip, &c. Wild Carrots and Parsnips are common in many parts of this country, and an examination of their roots shows that they are very much smaller than our garden varieties, and are made up of cells with thick and very hard cell-walls. The change from this condition to that of an ordinary well-grown Carrot or Parsnip, which is nearly entirely composed of thin-walled tissue, has been brought about gradually by cultivation through many years. CHAPTER IV. THE LEAF. Tue leaf of a plant is an object with which everyone is familiar, and yet to give a good definition of a leaf is difficult. In treating of the leaf we may consider it from two points of view—first, that of its form; and second, that of its function. According to the first idea, a leaf is a flattened expansion differing from the stem on which it is borne, its shape being directly adapted to secure the greatest amount of light and air; according to the. second idea, it may be described as an organ of manufacture and assimilation. Generally a leaf has three separate parts, the d/ade, the stalk, and the sheath. The Stalk or petiole supports the blade, and maintains it in the most advantageous position, and at its lower ex- tremity it widens out in many cases to form the sheath. This is merely an expansion of the stalk clasping the stem, and is often produced into foliar expansions known as s¢ipules. The Blade, as the most important part of the leaf, should now be considered, and its structure examined. This is best done by taking thin sections cut perpendicular to its plane. Such a section is represented in fig. 11, in which the leaf is seen to be built up of the three tissues, epidermis, ground-tissue, and fibro-vascular tissue. THE LEAF. 45 The Epidermis consists of a single layer of cells which covers the entire leaf, and so is found as the exterior layer on both upper and lower surfaces. The cells of the epidermis fit very closely together, in section they are rectangular (fig. 11), but in surface view (fig. 12) their shape, though very irregular, is in accordance with the general outline of the leaf, for example in the leaves of the Grasses, they are much longer than broad (fig. 12, ower Fig. 11 (yrom Strasburger). Transverse section through leaf of Fagus sylvatica (Beech); ef, ef’, epidermis of upper surface of leaf; ef”, epidermis of lower surface with a stoma (s2); A/, pali- sade layer; sf’, s4”, spongy parenchyma, with large intercellular spaces; 4, cells containing crystals; 2’, a cell containing a cluster-crystal. A fibro-vascular bundle is seen between the cells 4, Jig.), being extended in the direction of the leaf. Here and there, especially on the lower surface, when the leaf projects horizontally, are small openings guarded by specially con- structed cells known as stoma (fig. 11, s¢). Many of the cells are produced to form hairs,—these may be either unicellular or multicellular, and are often formed in con- nection with the stoma. The rough appearance of many 46 AGRICULTURAL BOTANY. leaves (Prickly comfrey), and the velvetyness of others, is PU pea ath ‘ Sarinth | cu) sitar e UB Oy Sac Fig. 12 (after Frank and Tshirsch). Distribution of stoma on the leaves of Beta vulgaris (Beet), upper figure, and Avena sativa (Oat), lower _ figure. In the latter the stoma are arranged in parallel rows. #—, epidermal cells covering the fibro-vascular bundles in which stoma are not developed. due to their pre- sence. Com- paratively speak- ing, few leaves are devoid of hairs. The epidermal cells contain pro- toplasm but have no chlorophyll (page 24), ex cept in the guard cells of the stoma ; the outermost wall of the epi- dermal cells is often very much thickened, and the very extreme layer chemically changed into a substance known as cudin, so that the entire leaf is enclosed in an envelope known as the cuticle. The cuticle extends over the hairs and into the openings of the stoma. “The Ground- tissue of the leaf, often called the mesophyll, is composed THE LEAF. 47 of parenchymatous cells, and is divided into two distinct layers of cells, forming two tissues, the palisade tissue and the spongy parenchyma (fig. 11). Those cells in con- tact with the upper surface are in shape longer than broad, they fit very closely together and have their long axes perpendicular to the upper epidermis of the leaf, from their general appearance, having their longer axes parallel to each other and in close contact, the name “palisade” has been given to them. These cells contain a large number of chlorophyll corpuscles,—some of them contain crystals, some may be formed into glands containing various oils, and some become very large, branched and thick-walled, and thus serve as mechanical supports. Quite different in appearance are the cells between the palisade and the lower epidermis ; they are characterised by their irregular shape, and by the large intercellular spaces between them, and are therefore known as the “spongy” tissue of the leaf. The intercellular spaces are in con- nection with each other throughout the leaf, and are especially large where they are bounded by the epidermal cells. These larger spaces form air-chambers which communicate with the outer air by means of the stoma and thus allow the interchange of various gases in the inter- cellular spaces with those of the atmosphere. This can easily be demonstrated by placing the blade of a leaf in the mouth and the cut end of its stalk under water,—upon blowing, bubbles of air will be seen to emerge from the end of the stalk. The Fibro-vascular bundles are situated about the middle of the leaf, between the palisade and spongy tissues. Each bundle consists of wood and bast, with the wood nearer the upper surface. 48 AGRICULTURAL BOTANY. The wood is composed of spiral or annular ‘racheides, these are wood cells which differ from the vessels in having the partition walls perforated but not entirely absorbed. The elements which compose the bast are similar to those which compose the bast of either stem or root. The ground-tissue cells which immediately surround the bundles are devoid of chlorophyll, and are known as the bundle sheath; these cells play an important part, as the channel through which the non-nitrogenous substances are conveyed away from the leaf. Venation.—The fibro-vascular bundles of a leaf branch and join with each other forming a network which is popularly known as the Veins (fig. 13). The forms of venation may conveniently be divided into two groups, the parallel venation and the reticulate or net venation. In the latter, which is the commoner type for the plants of this country, a prominent fibro-vascular bundle, known as the mid-rib, enters the leaf from the stalk dividing the leaf into two halves. From this numerous lateral branches arise and these again branch and rebranch, and finally anastomose, to forma kind of net. The meshes of this net are very small and into these again branches of the bundles extend and end blindly. Sometimes more than one bundle enters from the leaf-stalk, but the veins are in communication with each other in the same manner. In leaves like the Grasses, many bundles very close to- gether enter the leaf and continue parallel to each other to its extremity, with here and there a fine bundle running across the leaf, connecting neighbouring bundles. Always therefore the blade of a leaf is divided into very small areas by the fibro-vascular bundles. Very good illustrations of the branching of the fibro-vascular bundles can be TD a TNT PNT} aT] HT CY a ‘ CW RODD DD INDD) mary LOA 1] My ag CE NSS sta iM Lip ) SAM Xo . JAMES HUNTER, Chester, Who originated and introduced the system of selling GRASS, CLOVER, and all other FARM SEEDS of Guaranteed Purity, Genuineness, and Percentage of Germination, is now offering these Seeds on very advantageous terms to buyers, and invites comparison of his prices and guaranteed percentages of germination with those of other houses. PRICES FOR 1893. Guarantesd percentage of} Price per lb. germination. & OB Cocksfoot . . | go to 95 o 8$too 10 Meadow Fescue + + 95 5, 98 o 8% ,,,0 10 Tall Fescue | 8c ,, 90 oat 2 3 Catstail or Timothy 1 92 ,, 98 Oo 4 5,0: 6 Meadow Foxtail | FS aq BO o ok. I Tt Hard Fescue ‘ é | 85 ,, 90 a 6 . @ 9 Perennial Rye Grass ‘ ) 85 a, OC 0 3 5,0 3s Italian Rye Grass . » } 80 45 90 o 34,0 4% Red Clover 96 5, 98 GD 32° 6 Perennial Red Clover i, BG -4— OE Odrl i 2 White or Dutch Clover, ' go ,, 96 Ero » = 3 Alsike Clover 1 08 45 8 431. 4 5 2 Trefoil or Yellow Clover. ; F | 95 ,, 98 o 44,0 6 The Purity, Genuineness, and Percentage of Germination of All Seeds are guaranteed. For full particulars see Price List, sent free on application. All Seeds are supplied separately, and are offered and sold subject to the analysis of the Consulting Botanist to the Royal Agricultural Society of Lngland. REDUCED PRICES FOR LARGE QUANTITIES. Five per Cent. Discount for Cash. SEEDS DELIVERED CARRIAGE FREE. Treatise on Permanent Pasture Grasses, and the Adulteration of their Seeds, and Price List of Agricultural Seeds for 1893, free on application. A LIST OF NEW BOOKS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS OF METHUEN AND COMPANY PUBLISHERS ¢ LONDON 16 BURY STREET W.C, CONTENTS PAGE FORTHCOMING BOOKS, .« POETRY, . é 2 i & . 6 HISTORY AND BIOGRAPHY, * . ‘s é 8 GENERAL LITERATURE, 10 WORKS BY S. BARING GOULD, . 11 FICTION, 13 NOVEL SERIES, - 15 BOOKS FOR BOYS AND GIRLS, 16 LEADERS OF RELIGION, 18 UNIVERSITY EXTENSION SERIES, i. 19 SOCIAL QUESTIONS OF TO-DAY, 20 MAY 1893 May 1893. Messrs. METHUEN’S ANNOUNCEMENTS Gladstone. THE SPEECHES AND PUBLIC ADDRESSES OF THE RT. HON. W. E. GLADSTONE, M.P. With Notes. Edited by A. W. Hutton, M.A. (Librarian of the Gladstone Library), and H. J. Coen, M.A. With Portraits. 8v0. Vol. IX. 12s. 6a. Messrs. METHUEN beg to announce that they are about to issue, in ten volumes 8vo, an authorised collection of Mr. Gladstone’s Speeches, the work being under- taken with his sanction and under his superintendence. Notes and Introductions will be added. In view of the interest in the Home Rule Question, it is proposed to issue Vols. 1X. and X., which will include the speeches of the last seven or eight years, in- mediately, and then to proceed with the earlier volumes. Volume X. is already published. Henley & Whibley. A BOOK OF ENGLISH PROSE. Collected by W. E. HENLEY and CHARLES WHIBLEY. Crowz 8v0. [Octover. Also small limited editions on Dutch and Japanese paper. 21s. and 425. met. A companion book to Mr. Henley’s well-known Lyra Heroica. It is believed that no such collection of splendid prose has ever been brought within the compass of one volume. Each piece, whether containing a character-sketch or incident, is complete in itself, The book will be finely printed and bound. Henley. ENGLISH LYRICS. Selected and Edited by W. E. HENLEY. In Two Editions: A limited issue on hand-made paper. Large crown 8vo. 10s. 6d. net. A small issue on finest large Japanese paper. Demy 8vo. 42s. net. The announcement of this important collection of English Lyrics will excite wide interest. It will be finely printed by Messrs. Constable & Co., and issued in limited editions. Cheyne. FOUNDERS OF OLD TESTAMENT CRITICISM: Biographical, Descriptive, and Critical Studies. By T. K. CHEynkg, D.D., Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture at Oxford. Large crown 8vo, 7s. 6d. (2eaay. This important book is a historical sketch of O.T. Criticism in the form of biographi- cal studies from the days of Eichhorn to those of Driver and Robertson Smith, It is the only book of its kind in English, MEssRs. METIIUEN’s LIST 3 Prior. CAMBRIDGE SERMONS, Edited by C. H. Prior, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Pembroke College. Crown 8v0. 6s. (October. A volume of sermons preached before the University of Cambridge by various preachers, including the Archbishop of Canterbury and Bishop Westcott. Collingwood. JOHN RUSKIN: His Life and Work. By. W. G. CoLLinGwoop, M.A., late Scholar of University College, Oxford, Author of the ‘Art Teaching of John Ruskin,’ Editor of Mr. Ruskin’s Poems. 2 vols. 8v0. 325. [Ready. Also a limited edition on hand-made paper, with the Illustrations on India paper. £3, 35. met. [Ad sold. Also a small edition on Japanese paper. £5, 55. met. [AU sold. This important work is written by Mr. Collingwood, who has been for some years Mr. Ruskin’s private secretary, and who has had unique advantages in obtaining materials for this book from Mr. Ruskin himself and from his friends. It con- tains a large amount of new matter, and of letters which have never been pub- lished, and is, in fact, as near as is possible at present, a full and authoritative biography of Mr. Ruskin. The book contains numerous portraits of Mr. Ruskin, including a coloured one from a water-colour portrait by himself, and also 13 sketches, never before published, by Mr. Ruskin and Mr. Arthur Severn. A bibliography is added. The First Edition having been at once exhausted, a Second is now ready. ‘No more magnificent volumes have been published for a long time than ‘‘ The Life and Work of John Ruskin.” In binding, paper, printing, and illustrations they will satisfy the most fastidious. They will be prized not only by the band of devotees who look up to Mr. Ruskin as the teacher of the age, but by the many whom no eccentricities can blind to his genius. . . ..—Z izes. “It is just because there are so many books about Mr. Ruskin that these extra ones are needed. They survey all the ai: and supersede most of them, and they give us the great writer asa whole. . . . He has given us everything needful—a biography, a systematic account of his writings, anda bibliography. ... This most lovingly written and most profoundly interesting book.’—Daily News. ‘ The record is one which is well worth telling ; the more soas Mr. Collingwood knows more about his subject than the rest of the world... . His two volumes are fitted with elaborate indices and tables, pat will one day be of immense use to the students of Ruskin’s work, . . . It is a book which will be very widely and de- servedly read.’—St. James's Gazette. ‘To a large number of ells these volumes will be more pre-eminently the book of the year than any other that has been, or is likely to be, published... . It is long since we have had a biography with such varied delights of substance and of form. Such a book is a pleasure for the day, and a joy for ever.'-—Daily Chronicle. ‘It is not likely that much will pedene to be added to this record of his career which has come from the pen of Mr. W. G. Collingwood. Mr. Ruskin could not well have been more fortunate in his biographer. ’— Globe. ‘A noble monument of a noble subject. One of the most beautiful books about one of the noblest lives of our century. The volumes are exceedingly handsome, and the illustrations very beautiful.’—G/asgow Herald. ‘It is indeed an excellent biography of Ruskin.’—Scotsman. 4 MEssRSs. METHUEN’S LIsT John Beever. PRACTICAL FLY-FISHING, Founded on Nature, by JOHN BEEVER, late of the Thwaite House, Coniston. A New Edition, with a Memoir of the Author by W. G. COLLINGWOOD, M.A., Author of ‘The Life and Work of John Ruskin,’ etc. Also additional Notes and a chapter on Char-Fishing, by A. and A. R. SEVERN. With a specially designed title-page. Crown 8vo. 35. 6d. [Ready. Also a small edition on large paper. 0s. 6a. net. A little book on Fly-Fishing by an old friend of Mr. Ruskin. It has been out of print for some time, and being still much in request, is now issued with a Memoir of the Author by W. G. Collingwood. Hosken. VERSES BY THE WAY. By J. D. HOSKEN. Printed on laid paper, and bound in buckram, gilt top. 55. Also a small edition on large Dutch hand-made paper. Price 12s. 6d. met, [ October. A Volume of Lyrics and Sonnets by J. D. Hosken, the Postman Poet, of Helston, Cornwall, whose interesting career is now more or less well known to the literary public. Q, the Author of ‘The Splendid Spur,’ etc., will write a critical and biographical introduction. Oscar Browning. GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES: A Short History of Medizval Italy, a.D. 1250-1409. By Oscar BROWNING, Fellow and Tutor of King’s College, Cambridge. Crown 8vo. 55. Oliphant. THOMAS CHALMERS: A Biography. By Mrs. OLIPHANT. With Portrait. Crow 800. Buckram, 5s. (Ready. A Life of the celebrated Scottish divine from the capable and sympathetic pen of Mrs. Oliphant, which will be welcome to a large circle of readers, It is issued uniform with Mr, Lock’s ‘ Life of John Keble.’ Anthony Hope. A CHANGE OF AIR: A Novel. By AnTHoNY Hope, Author of ‘Mr. Witt’s Widow,’ etc. 1 vol. Crown 8vo. 65. [Ready. A bright story by Mr. Hope, who has, the 4¢heneum says, ‘a decided outlook and individuality of his own.’ Baring Gould. MRS. CURGENVEN OF CURGENVEN, By 5S. Barinc GouLp, Author of ‘Mehalah,’ ‘Old Country Life,’ etc. Crown 8vo. 3 vols, 315. 6d. [Reau’y. A powerful and characteristic story of Devon life by the author of ‘Mehalah.’ Benson, DODO: A DETAIL OF THE DAY. By E. F, BENSON. Crown 8vo. 2vo0ls. 215, [Ready A story of society by a new writer, full of interest and power, which will attract considerable notice. MEssrs. METHUEN’S LIST 5 Parker. MRS. FALCHION. By GILBERT PARKER, Author of ‘Pierre and His People.’ 2 vols. Crown 8vo, 215. [Ready. A new story by a writer whose previous work, ‘ Pierre and his People,’ was received ; with unanimous favour, and placed him at once in the front rank. ‘ There is strength and genius in Mr. Parker's style.’—Daily Telegraph. His style of portraiture is always effectively picturesque, and. sometimes finely imaginative—the fine art which is only achieved by the combination of perfect , ,vision and beautifully adequate rendering.’—Daily Chronicle. He has the right stuff in him. He has the story-teller’s gift.—S#, James's Gazette. Pearce, JACO TRELOAR. By J. H. Pearce, Author of ‘Esther Pentreath.’? 2 vols. Crown 8vo, 215. [Ready. A tragic story of Cornish life by a writer of remarkable power, whose first novel has been highly praised by Mr. Gladstone. a Norris. HIS GRACE. By W. E. Norris, Author of ‘ Mademoiselle de Mersac,’ ‘The Rogue,’ etc, Third and Cheaper Edition. Cvowz 8v0. 6s. [October. An edition in one volume of a novel which in its two volume form quickly ran through two editions. Pryce. TIME AND THE WOMAN. By RICHARD PRYCE, Author of ‘ Miss Maxwell’s Affections,’ ‘The Quiet Mrs, Fleming,’ etc. New and Cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo. 65. [ October. Mr. Pryce’s work recalls the style of Octave Feuillet, by its clearness, conciseness, its literary reserve.'—A theneum. Dickenson. A VICAR’S WIFE. By EvELYN DICKENSON. Cheap Edition. Crown 8vo. 35. 6d. [Ready. Prowse. THE POISON OF ASPS. By R. ORTON PROWSE. Cheap Edition. Crown 8vo. 35. 6d. [Ready. Taylor. THE KING’S FAVOURITE. By Una Tavtor. Cheaper Edition. vol. Crown 8vo. 6s. [ Ready. A cheap edition of a novel whose style and beauty of thought attracted much attention. Baring Gould. THE STORY OF KING OLAF. By S. BARING GOULD, author of ‘Mehalah,’ etc. Illustrated. Crown 8v0. 6s. [ October. A stirring story of Norway, written for boys by the author of ‘In the Roar of the Sea.’ Cuthell. TWO CHILDREN AND CHING. By Mrs. CUTHELL, Illustrated. Crowz 8vo. 6s. [ October. Another story, with a dog hero, by the author of the very popular ‘ Only a Guard- Room Dog.’ Blake. TODDLEBEN’S HERO. By M. BLAKE, author of ‘The Siege of Norwich Castle.’ With over 30 Illustrations. Crown 8v0. 55. [October. A story of military life for children. 6 MEssrs. METHUEN’S LIST Crown 8vo, Picture Boards. A DOUBLE KNOT. By G. MANVILLE FENN. A REVEREND GENTLEMAN. By J. MACLAREN COBBAN. MR. BUTLER’S WARD. By MABEL ROBINSON. NEW TWO-SHILLING EDITIONS 2| UNIVERSITY EXTENSION SERIES ELECTRICAL SCIENCE. By GEORGE J. BURCH. With numerous Illustrations. 39. THE CHEMISTRY OF FIRE. By M. M. PATTISON MUIR. 2s. 6d. AGRICULTURAL BOTANY. By M.C. POTTER. Copiously Illustrated. Crown 8vo. 35. 6d. SOCIAL QUESTIONS OF TO-DAY Crown 8vo, 25. 6d. WOMEN’S WORK. By Lapy DILKE, MIss BULLEY, and Miss ABRAHAM, BACK TO THE LAND. By Haro._p E. Moors, F.S.1., Author of ‘Hints on Land Improvement, ‘ Agricultural Co- operation,’ etc. JQew and Wecent Books Poetry Rudyard Kipling BARRACK-ROOM BALLADS; And Other Verses. By Rupyarp KIPLING. Stxth Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. A Special Presentation Edition, bound in white buckram, with extra gilt ornament. 7s. 6d. ‘Mr. Kipling’s verse is strong, vivid, full of character. . . . Unmistakable genius rings in every line.’—TZvses. ‘The disreputable lingo of Cockayne is henceforth justified before the world ; fora man of genius has taken it in hand, and has shown, beyond all cavilling, that in its way it also is a medium for literature. You are grateful, and you say to yourself, half in envy and half in admiration: ‘‘ Here is a ook ; here, or one is a Dutchman, is one of the books of the year.” ’—Vational Observer. MEssRS. METHUEN’S LIST 7 ‘“ Barrack-Room Ballads" contains some of the best work that Mr. Kipling has ever done, which is saying a good deal. ‘‘ Fuzzy-Wuzzy,” ‘‘Gunga Din,” and “Tommy,” are, in our opinion, altogether superior to anything of the kind that English literature has hitherto produced.'—A theneunz. ‘These ballads are as wonderful in their descriptive power as they are vigorous in their dramatic force. There are few ballads in the English language more stirring than ‘‘The Ballad of East and West,” worthy to stand by the Border ballads of Scott.’—Spectator. ‘The ballads teem with imagination, they palpitate with emotion. We read them with laughter and tears; the metres throb in our pulses, the cunningly ordered words tingle with life ; and if this be not poetry, what is?’—Pal/ Mall Gazette. Henley. LYRA HEROICA: An Anthology selected from the best English Verse of the 16th, 17th, 18th, and roth Centuries. By WILLIAM ERNEST HENLEY, Author of ‘A Book of Verse,’ ‘ Views and Reviews,’ etc. Crown 8v0. Stamped gilt buckram, gilt top, edges uncut, 65. ‘Mr. Henley has brought to the task of selection an instinct alike for poetry and for chivalry which seems to us quite wonderfully, and even unerringly, right.’— Guardian. Tomson. A SUMMER NIGHT, AND OTHER POEMS. By GRAHAM R. Tomson, With Frontispiece by A. Tomson. cap. 8v0. 35. 6a. Also an edition on handmade paper, limited to 50 copies. Large crown 8v0. 105. 6d. net. ‘Mrs. Tomson holds perhaps the very highest rank among poetesses of English birth. This selection will help her reputation.’—Black and White. Ibsen. BRAND. A Drama by HENRIK IBSEN. Translated by WILLIAM WILSON. Crown 8vo. 55. ‘The greatest world-poem of the nineteenth century next to ‘‘Faust.” ‘‘ Brand” will have an astonishing interest for Englishmen. It is in the same set with “ Agamemnon,” with ‘‘ Lear,” with the literature that we now instinctively regard as high and holy.’—Daily Chronicle. “Q.” GREEN BAYS: Verses and Parodies. By “Q.,” Author of ‘Dead Man’s Rock’ etc. Second Edition. Feap. 8vo. 35. 6d. ‘The verses display a rare and versatile gift of parody, great command of metre, and a very pretty turn of humour.’—7zmes. “A. G.” VERSES TO ORDER. By “A. G.” Crown 8vo, cloth extra, gilt top. 25. 6d. net. A small volume of verse by a writer whose initials are well known to Oxford men. ‘A capital specimen of light academic poetry. These verses are very bright and engaging, easy and sufficiently witty.’—S¢. James's Gazette, 8 MEssrs. METHUEN’S LIST Langbridge. A CRACKED FIDDLE. Being Selections from the Poems of FREDERIC LANGBRIDGE. With Portrait. Crown 8v0. 55. Langbridge. BALLADS OF THE BRAVE: Poems of Chivalry, Enterprise, Courage, and Constancy, from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Edited, with Notes, by Rev. F. LANGBRIDGE. Crown 8v0. Buckram 3s. 6d. School Edition, 2s. 6d. ~‘ A very happy conception happily carried out. These “Ballads of the Brave” are intended to suit the real tastes of boys, and will suit the taste of the great majority.’ —Spectator. ‘The book is full of splendid things.’—Wovid. History and Biography Gladstone. THE SPEECHES AND PUBLIC ADDRESSES OF THE RT. HON. W. E. GLADSTONE, M.P. With Notes and Introductions. Edited by A. W. Hutron, M.A. (Librarian of the Gladstone Library), and H. J. Conen, M.A. With Portraits. 8vo. Vol. X. 125, 6d. Russell THE LIFE OF ADMIRAL LORD COLLING- WOOD. By W. CLarkK RussELL, Author of ‘The Wreck of the Grosvenor.’ With Illustrations by F. BRaNnGwyn. 8v0. 155. ‘A really good book.’—Saturday Review. ‘A most excellent and wholesome book, which we should like to see in the hands of every boy in the country."—S?. Jazzes's Gazette. Clark. THE COLLEGES OF OXFORD: Their History and their Traditions. By Members of the University. Edited by A. CriarK, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Lincoln College. 8v0. 125. 6c. “Whether the reader approaches the book as a patriotic member of a college, as an antiquary, or as a student of the organic growth of college foundation, it will amply reward his attention.’—7 mes. ‘A delightful book, learned and lively.'"—Academy. ‘A work which will certainly be appealed to for many years as the standard book on the Colleges of Oxford.’—A theneum. Hulton, RIXAE OXONIENSES: An Account of the Battles of the Nations, The Struggle between Town and Gown, etc. By S. F, Hutton, M.A. Crown 8va. 55. MEssRS. METHUEN’S LIST 9 James. CURIOSITIES OF CHRISTIAN HISTORY PRIOR TO THE REFORMATION. By Croaxe JAMES, Author of ‘ Curiosities of Law and Lawyers.’ Crown 8vo. 75. 6d. Perrens. THE HISTORY OF FLORENCE FROM THE TIME OF THE MEDICIS TO THE FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. By F. T. PeRReNs. Translated by HANNAH Lyncu. In three volumes. Vol, 7. 8vo. 125. 6d. This is a translation from the French of the best history of Florence in existence. This volume covers a period of profound interest—political and literary—and is written with great vivacity. ‘This is a standard book by an honest and intelligent historian, who has deserved well of his countrymen, and of all who are interested in Italian history.’—Man- chester Guardian. Kaufmann. CHARLES KINGSLEY. By M. Kaurmanny, M.A. Crown 8v0. 55. A biography of Kingsley, especially dealing with his achievements in social reform. ‘The author has certainly gone about his work with conscientiousness and industry.’— Sheffield Daily Telegraph. Lock, THE LIFE OF JOHN KEBLE. By WALTER Lock, M.A., Fellow of Magdalen, Subwarden of Keble, Oxford. With Portrait. Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo. Buckram, 5s. ‘This modest, but thorough, careful, and appreciative biography goes very far to supply what has been wanted. It is high but well-deserved praise to say that the tone and tenor of the memoir are thoroughly in harmony with the character and disposition of Keble himself. . . . All Churchmen must be indebted to Mr. Lock for this admirable memoir, which enables us to know a good and great churchman better than before ; and the memoir, which to be appreciated must be carefully read, makes one think Mr. Keble a better and greater man than ever.'—Guardian. Hutton. CARDINAL MANNING: A Biography. By A. W. Hutton, M.A. With Portrait. Crown 8v0. 6s. Cheap Edition, 2s. 6d. Wells. THE TEACHING OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS. A Lecture delivered at the University Extension Meeting in Oxford, Aug. 6th, 1892. By J. WELLS, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Wadham College, and Editor of ‘ Oxford and Oxford Life.’ Crown 8v0. 6d. Pollard. THE JESUITS IN POLAND. By A. F. POLLARD, B.A. Oxford Prize Essays—The Lothian Prize Essay 1892. Crown 8v0o. 25. 6d. net. Clifford. THE DESCENT Rew TTE COMPTON (BARONESS FERRERS DE CHARTLEY):~ By her Great-Granddaughter, ISABELLA G. C, CLIFFORD. Small 4to. 10s, bd. net. A2 10 MEssRS. METHUEN’S LIST General Literature Bowden. THE IMITATION OF BUDDHA: Being Quota- tions from Buddhist Literature for each Day in the Year. Compiled by E. M. BowDEN. With Preface by Sir EDWIN ARNOLD. Second Edition. 16mo. 2s, 6d. Ditchfield. OUR ENGLISH VILLAGES: Their Story and their Antiquities. By P. H. DITCHFIELD, M.A., F.R.H.S., Rector of Barkham, Berks. ost 8vo. 2s. 6d. Illustrated. ‘An extremely amusing and interesting little book, which should find a place in every parochial library.’—Guardian. Ditchfield. OLD ENGLISH SPORTS. By P. H. DITCH- FIELD, M.A. Crown 8vo. 25. 6d. Illustrated. ‘A charming account of old English Sports.'— Morning Post. Burne. PARSON AND PEASANT: Chapters of their Natural History. By J. B. Burner, M.A., Rector of Wasing. Crown 8vo. 55. ‘Parson and Peasant” is a book not only to be interested in, but to learn something from—a book which may prove a help to many a clergyman, and broaden the hearts and ripen the charity of laymen.’—Derby Mercury. 3 Massee. A MONOGRAPH OF THE MYXOGASTRES. By GEORGE MASSEE. With 12 Coloured Plates. Royal 8vo. 18s. net. This is the only work in English on this important group. It contains 12 Coloured Plates, produced in the finest style of chromo-lithography. ‘Supplies a want acutely felt. Its merits are of a high order, and it is one of the most important contributions to systematic natural science which have lately appeared.’—Westminster Review. ‘A work much in advance of any book in the language treating of this group of organisms. It is indispensable to every student of the Mxyogastres. The coloured plates deserve high praise for their accuracy and execution.’—Vature. Cunningham. THE PATH TOWARDS KNOWLEDGE: Essays on Questions of the Day. By W. CunnincHam, D.D., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, Professor of Economics at King’s College, London. Crown 8vo. 45. 6d. Essays on Marriage and Population, Socialism, Money, Education, Positivism, etc. Bushill, PROFIT SHARING AND THE LABOUR QUES- TION. By T. W. BusuILt, a Profit Sharing Employer. With an Introduction by SEDLEY TaYLor, Author of ‘ Profit Sharing between Capital and Labour.’ Crown 8vo. 25. 6d. MESSRS. METHUEN’S LIST Il Anderson Graham. NATURE IN BOOKS: Studies in Literary Biography. By P. ANDERSON GRAHAM. Crvowz 8vo. 6s. The chapters are entitled: I. ‘The Magic of the Fields ' (Jefferies). II. ‘Art and Nature’ (Tennyson). III. ‘The Doctrine of Idleness’ (Thoreau). IV. ‘The Romance of Life’ (Scott). V. ‘The Poetry of Toil’ (Burns). VI. ‘The Divinity of Nature’ (Wordsworth). Wells. OXFORD AND OXFORD LIFE. By Members of the University. Edited by J. WELLS, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Wadham College. Crown 8v0. 35. 6d. This work contains an account of life at Oxford—intellectual, social, and religious— a careful estimate of necessary expenses, a review of recent changes, a statement of the present position of the University, and chapters on Women’s Education, aids to study, and University Extension. “We congratulate Mr. Wells on the production of a readable and intelligent account of Oxford as it is at the present time, written by persons who are, with hardly an exception, possessed of a close acquaintance with the system and life of the University.’—A theneunt, Driver. SERMONS ON SUBJECTS CONNECTED WITH THE OLD TESTAMENT. ByS. R. Driver, D.D., Canon of Christ Church, Regius Professor of Hebrew in the University of Oxford. Crown 8v0. 6s. An important volume of sermons on Old Testament Criticism preached before the University by the author of ‘An Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament.’ ‘A welcome volume to the author’s famous ‘ Introduction.” No man can read these discourses without feeling that Dr. Driver is fully alive to the deeper teaching of the Old Testament.’—Guardian. WORKS BY S. Baring Gould. Author of ‘ Mehalah,’ etc. OLD COUNTRY LIFE. With Sixty-seven Illustrations by W. ParKINSON, F. D. BeDForD, and F. Masgy. Large Crown 8v0, cloth super extra, top edge gilt, 10s. 6d. Fourth and Cheaper Edition, 6s. [Ready. © Old Country Life,” as healthy wholesome reading, full of breezy life and move- ment, full of quaint stories vigorously told, will not be excelled by any book to be published throughout the year. Sound, hearty, and English to the core.'— ‘World. 12 Messrs. METHUEN’S LIST HISTORIC ODDITIES AND STRANGE EVENTS. Third Edition, Crown 8vo0. 6s. A collection of exciting and entertaining chapters. The whole volume is delightful reading.’—Times. FREAKS OF FANATICISM. (First published as Historic Oddities, Second Series.) Zhivd Edition. Crown 8vo. 65. ‘Mr. Baring Gould has a keen eye for colour and effect, and the subjects he has chosen give ample scope to his descriptive and analytic faculties. A perfectly fascinating book.'—Scottish Leader. SONGS OF THE WEST: Traditional Ballads and Songs of the West of England, with their Traditional Melodies. Collected by S. BarinG GouLp, M.A., and H. FLEETWOOD SHEPPARD, M.A. Arranged for Voice and Piano. In 4 Parts (containing 25 Songs each), Parts J, 11, L1/., 35. each. Part IV., 5s. Ln one Vol., roan, 15s. ‘A rich and varied collection of humour, pathos, grace, and poetic fancy.'—Saturday Review. YORKSHIRE ODDITIES AND STRANGE EVENTS. Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. SURVIVALS AND SUPERSTITIONS. With Illustrations. By S. BARING GOULD. Crown 8vo. 75. 6d. A book on such subjects as Foundations, Gables, Holes, Gallows, Raising the Hat, Old Ballads, etc. etc. It traces in a most interesting manner their origin and history. “We have read Mr. Baring Gould’s book from beginning to end. It is full of quaint and various information, and there is not a dull page in it.'—Wotes and Queries. THE TRAGEDY OF THE CAESARS: The Emperors of the Julian and Claudian Lines. With numerous Illus- trations from Busts, Gems, Cameos, etc. By S. BARING GouLD, Author of ‘Mehalah,’ etc. 2 vols. Royal 8vo. 30s. This book is the only one in English which deals with the personal history of the Caesars, and Mr. Baring Gould has found a subject which, for picturesque detail and sombre interest, is not rivalled by any work of fiction. The volumes are copiously illustrated. ‘ A most splendid and fascinating book on a subject of undying interest. The great feature of the book is the use the author has made of the existing portraits of the Caesars, and the admirable critical subtlety he has exhibited in dealing with this line of research. It is brilliantly written, and the illustrations are supplied on a scale of profuse magnificence.’—Dazly Chronicle. ‘The volumes will in no sense disappoint the general reader. Indeed, in their way, there is nothing in any sense so good in English. ... Mr. Baring Gould has most diligently read his authorities and presented his narrative in such a way as not to make one dull page.’—A ¢heneum. MEssrs. METHUEN’S LIST 13 JACQUETTA, and other Stories. Crown 8vo. 35. 6d. New Edition. Crown 8vo. ARMINELL: A Social Romance. 35. 6a. 'To say that a book is by the author of ‘ Mehalah" is to imply that it contains 2 story cast on strong lines, containing dramatic possibilities, vivid and sympathetic descriptions of Nature, and a wealth of ingenious imagery. All these expecta- tions are justified by ‘‘ Arminell.” '—Speaker. URITH: A Story of Dartmoor. Third Edition. Crown 8vo. 35.64. ‘The author is at his best.'— 7zmes. ‘He has nearly reached the high water-mark of ‘‘ Mehalah.” '"—National Observer. MARGERY OF QUETHER, and other Stories. Crown 8vo. 35. 6d, IN THE ROAR OF THE SEA: A Tale of the Cornish Coast. New Edition. 6s. Fiction IN TENT AND BUNGALOW: Author of ‘Indian Idylls.’ By the Author of ‘Indian Stories of Indian Sport and Society. Idylls.? Crown 8v0. 35. 6d. Fenn, A DOUBLE KNOT. By G. MANVILLE FENN, Author of ‘The Vicar’s People,’ etc. Crown 8vo. 35. 6d. Pryce. THE QUIET MRS. FLEMING. By RICHARD PRYCE, Author of ‘Miss Maxwell’s Affections,’ etc. Crown 8vo. 35. 6d. Picture Boards, 2s. Pryce. TIME AND THE WOMAN. ‘By RICHARD PRYCE, Author of ‘Miss Maxwell’s Affections,’? ‘The Quiet Mrs. Fleming,’ etc. Newand Cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. Mr. Pryce’s work recalls the style of Octave Feuillet, by its clearness, conciseness, its literary reserve.—A thene@um. Gray. ELSA. ANovel. By E. M‘QUEEN GRAY. Crown 8vo. 65. ‘A charming novel. The characters are not only powerful sketches, but minutely and carefully finished portraits.’—Guardian, By E, M‘QUEEN Gray. MY STEWARDSHIP. Gray. 35. 6d. Crown 8v0. 14 MESSRS. METHUEN’S LIST Cobban. A REVEREND GENTLEMAN. By J. MACLAREN Cossan, Author of ‘ Master of his Fate,’ etc. Crown 8v0. 25. 6d. Picture boards, 25. ‘The best work Mr. Cobban has yet achieved. The Rev. W. Merrydew is a brilliant creation.’—National Observer. ‘One of the subtlest studies of character outside Meredith.’—Star Lyall. DERRICK VAUGHAN, NOVELIST. By EDNA LYALL, Author of ‘Donovan.’ Crown 8vo. 31st Thousand. 35. 6d. 3 paper, Is. Lynn Linton, THE TRUE HISTORY OF JOSHUA DAVID- SON, Christian and Communist. By E. Lynn Linton. Eleventh and Cheaper Edition. ost 8vo. Is. Grey. THE STORY OF CHRIS. By ROWLAND GREY, Author of ‘Lindenblumen,’ etc. Crown 8vo. 55. Dicker. A CAVALIER’S LADYE. By CONSTANCE DICKER. With Illustrations, Crown 8vo. 35. 6d. Author of ‘Vera. THE DANCE OF THE HOURS. By the Author of ‘ Vera,’ ‘Blue Roses,’ etc. Crown 8vo. 6s. ‘A musician’s dream, pathetically broken off at the hour of its realisation, is vividly represented in this book. ... Well written and possessing many elements of interest. The success of ‘‘ The Dance of the Hours” may be safely predicted.’— Morning Post, Norris. A Deplorable Affair. By W. E. Norris, Author of ‘His Grace.’ Crown 8vo. 35. 6d. ‘What with its interesting story, its graceful manner, and its perpetual good humour, the book is as enjoyable as any that has come from its author’s pen.’— Scotsman. Dickinson. A VICAR’S WIFE. By EveELyN DICKINSON. Crown 8v0. 35. 6d. Prowse. THE POISON OF ASPS. By R. ORTON PROWSE. Crown 8v0. 35. 6d. Parker. PIERRE AND HIS PEOPLE. By GILBERT PARKER. Cvown 8vo. Buckram. 65. ‘Stories happily conceived and finely executed. There is strength and genius in Mr. Parker's style.’—Daily Telegraph. MEssrRS. METHUEN’S LIST 15 Marriott Watson. DIOGENES OF LONDON and other Sketches. By H. B. Marriorr Watson, Author of ‘The Web of the Spider.’ Crown 8v0. Buckram. 65. ‘Mr. Watson’s merits are unmistakable and irresistible.’—Star, ‘A clever book and an interesting one.’—Sz. James’s Gazette. Clark Russell. MY DANISH SWEETHEART. By W. CLARK RussELi, Author of ‘The Wreck of the Grosvenor,’ ‘ A Marriage at Sea,’ etc. With 6 Illustrations by W. H. OVEREND. Crown 8vo. 6s. ‘ The book is one of the author's best and breeziest.’—Scotsman. Bliss) A MODERN ROMANCE. By LAuRENCE BLISS. Crown 8v0. Buckram. 35. 6d. Paper. 25. 6d. ‘Shows much promise. . . . Excellent of dialogue.’—A thenaenm. Novel Series Messrs. METHUEN will issue from time to time a Series 3 | 6 of copyright Novels, by well-known Authors, handsomely bound, at the above popular price of three shillings and six- pence. The first volumes (ready) are :— 1. THE PLAN OF CAMPAIGN. By F. MABEL ROBINSON. 2. JACQUETTA. By S. BARING GOULD, Author of ‘ Mehalah,’ etc. 3. MY LAND OF BEULAH. By Mrs. LEITH ADAMS (Mrs. De Courcy Laffan). 4. ELV’S CHILDREN. By G. MANVILLE FENN. 5. ARMINELL: A Social Romance. By S. BARING GOULD, Author of ‘ Mehalah,’ etc. 6. DERRICK VAUGHAN, NOVELIST. With Portrait of Author. By Epna Lyati, Author of ‘Donovan,’ etc. Also paper, Is. 7. DISENCHANTMENT. By F. MaBEL ROBINSON. 8 DISARMED. By M. BETHAM EDWARDS. 9. JACK’S FATHER. By W. E. Norris. 10. MARGERY OF QUETHER. By S. BARING GOULD. 11, A LOST ILLUSION. By LESLIE KEITH. 16 Messrs. METHUEN’S LIST 12, A MARRIAGE AT SEA, By W. CLARK RUSSELL. 13. MR. BUTLER’S WARD. By F. MABEL ROBINSON. 14. URITH. By S. BARING GOULD. 15. HOVENDEN, V.C. By F. MABEL ROBINSON. Other Volumes will be announced in due course. NEW TWO-SHILLING EDITIONS 2 Crown 8v0, Ornamental Boards. ARMINELL. By the Author of ‘ Mehalah.’ ELI’S CHILDREN. By G. MANVILLE FENN. DISENCHANTMENT. By F. MaBEL ROBINSON. THE PLAN OF CAMPAIGN. By F. MABEL ROBINSON. JACQUETTA. By the Author of ‘ Mehalah.’ Picture Boards. THE QUIET MRS. FLEMING. By RICHARD PRYCE. JACK’S FATHER. By W.E. Norris. MR. BUTLER’S WARD. By MABEL ROBINSON. A REVEREND GENTLEMEN. By J. MACLAREN COBBAN. Books for Boys and Girls Cuthell. ONLY A GUARD-ROOM DOG. By Mrs. CUTHELL. With 16 Illustrations by W. PaRKINSON. Sguare Crown 8vo. 6s. ‘This is a charming story. Tangle was but a little mongrel Sky terrier, but he had a big heart in his little body, and played a hero’s part more than once. The book can be warmly recommended.’—Standard. Collingwood. THE DOCTOR OF THEJULIET. By Harry CoLLiInGwoop, Author of ‘The Pirate Island,’ etc. Illustrated by GORDON BROWNE. Crown 8vo, 65. ‘“The Doctor of the Juliet,” well illustrated by Gordon Browne, is one of Harry Collingwood’s best efforts.’—Morning Post. Messrs. METHUEN’s LIsT r2 Walford, A PINCH OF EXPERIENCE. By L. B. WAL- FORD, Author of ‘Mr. Smith.’ With Illustrations by GorDON BROWNE. Crown 8vo0. 6s. ‘The clever authoress steers clear of namby-pamby, and invests her moral with a fresh and striking dress. There is terseness and vivacity of style, and the illustra- tions are admirable.'—A nti-Jacobin. Molesworth, THE RED GRANGE. By Mrs. MOLESWORTH, Author of ‘Carrots.’ With Illustrations by GoRDON BROWNE. Crown 8v0. 6s. ‘A volume in which girls will delight, and beautifully illustrated.’—PalZ Mall Gazette. Clark Russell. MASTER ROCKAFELLAR’S VOYAGE. By W. CLARK RUSSELL, Author of ‘ The Wreck of the Grosvenor,’ etc. Illustrated by GORDON BROWNE. Crown 8vo. 35. 6d. ‘Mr. Clark Russell’s story of ‘‘ Master Rockafellar's Voyage” will be among the favourites of the Christmas books. There isa rattle and “‘ go” all through it, and its illustrations are charming in themselves, and very much above the average in the way in which they are produced.'"—Guardian. Author of ‘Mdle. Mori’? THE SECRET OF MADAME DE Monluc. By the Author of ‘The Atelier du Lys,’ ‘Mdle. Mori.’ Crown 8vo. 55. ‘An exquisite literary cameo.’— World. Manville Fenn. SYD BELTON: Or, The Boy who would not go to Sea, By G. MANVILLE FENN, Author of ‘In the King’s Name,’ etc. Illustrated by GORDON BROWNE. Crown 8v0. 35. 6d. ‘Who among the young story-reading public will not rejoice at the sight of the old combination, so often proved admirable~a story by Manville Fenn, illustrated by Gordon Browne? The story, too, is one of the good old sort, full of life and vigour, breeziness and fun.’—/Journal of Education. Parr. DUMPS. By Mrs, Parr, Author of ‘Adam and Eve,’ ‘Dorothy Fox,’ etc. Illustrated by W. PARKINSON. Crown 8vo. 35. 6d, ‘ * One of the prettiest stories which even this clever writer has given the world for a long time.'— World. Meade. OUT OF THE FASHION. By L. T. MEaApE, Author of ‘A Girl of the People,’ etc. With 6 Illustrations by W. PaGet. Crown 8vo. 65. ‘One of those charmingly-written social tales, which this writer knows so well how, to write, i is delightful reading, and is well illustrated by W. Paget.'—Glasgow Herald. 18 Messrs. Metuuen’s List Meade. A GIRL OF THE PEOPLE. By L. T. MEADE, Author of ‘Scamp and I,’ etc. Illustrated by R. BARNES. Crown 8x0. 35. 6d. ‘An excellent story. Vivid portraiture of character, and broad and wholesome lessons about life.’— Spectator. ‘One of Mrs. Meade’s most fascinating books.’—Dazly Mews. Meade. HEPSY GIPSY. By L. T. MEADE. Illustrated by EVERARD HopkKIns. Crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. ‘Mrs, Meade has not often done better work than this.'—Spectator. Meade. THE HONOURABLE MISS: A Tale of a Country Town. By L. T. Meapg, Author of ‘Scamp and I,’ ‘ A Girl of the People,’ etc. With Illustrations by EVERARD Hopkins. Crown 8v0, 35. 6d. Adams. MY LAND OF BEULAH. By Mrs. LEITH ADAMS. With a Frontispiece by GORDON BROWNE. Crow 8vo, 3s. 6d. Leaders of Religion Edited by H. C. BEECHING, M.A. With Portrait, crown 8vo, 25. 6d. A series of short biographies, free from party bias, of the most prominent leaders of religious life and thought. a 6 The following are ready— CARDINAL NEWMAN. By R. H. Hutton. ‘Few who read this book will fail to be struck by the wonderful insight it displays into the nature of the Cardinal’s genius and the spirit of his life.’—WuLFRID Warp, in the Tad/et. ‘Full of knowledge, excellent in method, and intelligent in criticism. We regard it as wholly admirable.’—Academy. JOHN WESLEY. By J. H. Overton, M.A. ‘It is well done: the story is clearly told, proportion is duly observed, and there is no lack either of discrimination or of sympathy.'—Aanchester Guardian. BISHOP WILBERFORCE. By G. W. DANIEL, M.A. CHARLES SIMEON. By H.C. G. Moutg, M.A. CARDINAL MANNING. By A. W. Hutron, M.A. Other volumes will be announced in due course, Messrs. Metuuen’s List 19 University Extension Series A series of books on historical, literary, and scientific subjects, suitable for extension students and home reading circles. Each volume will be complete in itself, and the subjects will be treated by competent writers in a broad and philosophic spirit. Edited by J. E. SYMES, M.A., Principal of University College, Nottingham. 6 Crown 8v0. 25. 6d. 2 The following volumes are ready :— THE INDUSTRIAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND. By H. DE B. G1BBins, M.A., late Scholar of Wadham College, Oxon., Cobden Prizeman. Second Edition. With Maps and Plans. [Ready. A compact and clear story of our industrial development. A study of this concise but luminous book cannot fail to give the reader a clear insight into the principal phenomena of our industrial history. The editor and publishers are to be congra- tulated on this first volume of their venture, and we shall look with expectant interest for the succeeding volumes of the series.’— University Extension Journal. A HISTORY OF ENGLISH POLITICAL ECONOMY. By L. L. Price, M.A., Fellow of Oriel College, Oxon. PROBLEMS OF POVERTY: An Inquiry into the Industrial Conditions of the Poor. By J. A. Hosson, M.A. VICTORIAN POETS. By A. SHARP. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. By J. E. SyMEs, M.A. PSYCHOLOGY. By F. S. GRANGER, M.A., Lecturer in Philo- sophy at University College, Nottingham. THE EVOLUTION OF PLANT LIFE: Lower Forms. By G. MassEgz, Kew Gardens. With Illustrations. AIR AND WATER. Professor V. B. LEwWEs, M.A. Illustrated. THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE AND HEALTH. By C. W. KimMins, M.A. Camb. _ Illustrated. THE MECHANICS OF DAILY LIFE. By V. P. SELLS, M.A. Illustrated. ENGLISH SOCIAL REFORMERS. H. DE B. GIBBINS, M.A. ENGLISH TRADE AND FINANCE IN THE SEVEN- TEENTH CENTURY. By W., A. S. Hewins, B.A. 20 Messrs. Metuven’s List Social Questions of To-day Edited by H. pz B. GIBBINS, M.A. Crown 8v0. 25. 6d. a, 6 A series of volumes upon those topics of social, economic, and industrial interest that are at the present moment fore- most in the public mind. Each volume of the series will be written by an author who is an acknowledged authority upon the subject with which he deals. The following Volumes of the Series are ready :— TRADE UNIONISM—NEW AND OLD. By G. HOWELL, M.P., Author of ‘ The Conflicts of Capital and Labour.’ THE CO-OPERATIVE MOVEMENT TO-DAY. By G. J. Hotyoake, Author of ‘ The History of Co-operation.’ MUTUAL THRIFT. By Rev. J. FROME WILKINSON, M.A., Author of ‘ The Friendly Society Movement.’ PROBLEMS OF POVERTY: An Inquiry into the Industrial Conditions of the Poor. By J. A. Hopson, M.A. THE COMMERCE OF NATIONS. By C. F. BASTABLE, M.A., Professor of Economics at Trinity College, Dublin. THE ALIEN INVASION. By W. H. WILKINS, B.A., Secretary to the Society for Preventing the Immigration of Destitute Aliens. THE RURAL EXODUS. By P. ANDERSON GRAHAM. LAND NATIONALIZATION. By Harotp Cox, B.A. A SHORTER WORKING DAY. By H. DE B. GIBBINS and R. A. HADFIELD, of the Hecla Works, Sheffield. BACK TO THE LAND, being an inquiry as to the possible conditions under which those now unemployed can be provided with rural work, with practical suggestions as to the means by which a larger number of persons than at present can be maintained from the land. By Haro.p E. Moors, F.S.I., Author of ‘Hints on Land Improvements,’ AAA AX \“