aT Tie aria ene ate St erent [ “ Ribena ‘ Race action Seas ) ae aa th i : ig See abe aga aia phad i ane bee aiddan “a seat ds ee ea Saat MES att ag eeieettcraactecne tits Hersch a eee eS fine bing, Beer bie ot (ga hha Wiis ceaetry ies is SS ivtiye! Seat bi foes ail eats adi ( tee ae LL = ie Fete Molde Wb to a 2 iii te : het ayy cae bad | Fuser s bea ae same Sie at reine Penis ca borer Pe ale ee Fewest Nae ‘| Be MeeeD Yi zeit) ep Pes vie UPR eth EOS Pir eo ert) 7 i a | Pare Py ne aay, rat fe ee feel Patient eee a it ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY NEw YorK STATE COLLEGES OF AGRICULTURE AND HOME ECONOMICS AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY Essa y Cornell University Library 5 and discussions on agricu a IS SSS 5 : 3 a ESSAYS AND DISCUSSIONS ON AGRICULTURE, Farmers’ Club LITTLE FALLS. EDITED BY THE SECRETARY OF THB CLUB. Published by Resolution of the Association. «LITTLE FALLS: D, AYER, PRINTER, HERKIMER COUNTY JOURNAL OFFICE, 1859, | L. PREFACE. Douaiass JERROLD wittily defines “a Conservative,” to be “a man who will not look at the New Moon, out of respect for that ancient insti- tution—the Old One.” The Farmer has been rather inclined to be somewhat of a Conservative in reference to anything pertaining to improvement in his profession. Habit, or custom, is that “ancient institution” for which he has had so much respect, that new modes of culture, and Books advocating an im- proved system of farming, have been reparded with suspicion, or set down as merely theoretical, anil hence, dismissed as impracticable. It is true, Agriculture is coming more and more to be regarded as a Science—a profession which requires knowledge, experience and fore- thought, to be made a source of profit. We are beginning to feel the ~necessity of producing larger crops of grass and grain—as well as of prac- “ticing a better treatment of stock, and a more skillful management of the Dairy ; yet, there is still a heafianey among the great mass of Farmers, in adopting new improvements, and new modes of culture, partly savtatiie from prejudice, and partly because they do not always see their way clearly, or feel able to enter upon that which is new, without first knowing the result, or coming in contact with persons who have done so success- fully. I believe the time is to come, when much of the cultivated land in Herkimer County will be thoroughly underdrained—not with stone— but with tile ; and that the sub-soil plow will be considered an indispen- sable implement of husbandry. But it will take time. Men must read, and think, and see, and become satisfied that money laid out in this way is a paying investment—then, instead of purchasing more land to supply deficiency in grass, or grain, the Farmer will rather seek to make it up by drainage, deep culture, and the compost heap. The following pages are presented to the Public, with the belief that they contain a fund of valuable information, not easily attainable in any other form. Indeed, those Essays relating to the Dairy, the raising and treatment of stock, &c., must prove to be of interest, coming, as they do, iv. from towns located in the central part of Herkimer County, where Dairy management has been successfully carried on for many years. These Essays, it would perhaps be proper to say, were not originally intended for publication in book form. They were written by persons engaged in the business of farming, and hence, may be deemed for the most part, the result of actual experience. This feature, it is believed, gives them greater yalue ; for it ig the kind of information most accepta- ble to the farmer, and, in fact, is of that character which must always serve as the basis of all real improvement. The Article on Butter-making, by A. B. Dickinson, and that on the Virgalieu Pear, by 8. H. Arysworru, do not properly belong to the work, but these papers were read at some of the meetings of the Club, and, be- ing matter of discussion, it was thought best to introduce them. The Discussions which follow the Essays, are taken from the reports furnished by the writer, for the Journat, and Courter Newspapers, and are Intended to express the substance of remarks made at the several meetings at which the Essays were read. Whether this matter adds any thing. to the value of the work, the public, of course, must judge. It was deemed advisable to publish them in connection with the Essays, in order to give the opinion of intelligent and successful Agriculturists, notes only in reference to the position advanced by the Essayists, but with re- gard to other topics relating to Agriculture, which chanced to come ‘up before the Club. The book embraces a variety of subjects on which every agriculturist must desire information, and if it should awaken an interest in the Farmer, and stimulate him to make his profession what it shoyld be—the noblest and best of all the callings designed by a beneficent Creator. for man to follow—if it shall have added anything to the great storehouse of facts in the way of improved culture—then the writer will be amply re- munerated for time and labor in preparing it for the press. X. A. WILLARD. AprLre Hitt Farm, Little Fails, N. Y., August, 1859. CONTENTS. gy Apples..... ae ong ‘ Ligle thule ws oheal dia Wcrasd andl aaueiad inte Beate nee: AM Agriculture .. ioe eee 2 3 Application We mlaaral forlilizere, Se en re re er eo re cee 163 Bee ita nea ite waves soatve eee ered okra MPAs ERE ais VE AI sae ee aera cawnelnek ons IBD BemyColhires Side LEAR oe RS eS aN KERR EP EE po Males Ree was Baws 107 Bree! of Cattle .. cies a Petacebdd at ematiees amas eaR anes Umeeeauesogte Geen: TTF Butter Making in the Cheara Tainy.. eres sapccien Baa have die ssteid eared g SRA SRP SNS a eka a erties 117 Butter Making.. CHGESE CAN Ree ois dese egies Athen deine d awn innate RASS Gales wines wads onaTS Nan Hea pease 141 Canada Thist]e.. oe sidan Me estar lala aa yes viewer oma Cole ens vaen Bx Carrots and Parsnips. ‘Garetibuckite nif earecifuierhe DB ecbiean Un elena ie eauntlene hema LO Catfota, Gost of Cultivating csc gsc gsc dite acces one dun amninn en aia oy Sieipatpinie ol bse nun a) nole lg Corn, Cost of Raising eae a dete ijubaas iets sade acta ise incase ade wg) Nihon ah aS Be acay seatavan gagn au eiekern cise 19 Corn scitltitesofts. icc oeis sas os erie ty eto adn wo PANERA ga wee ERG OnaD ed deswarne neds LAO Waltivultuccand)precereation,ot Dees HP Uebe iS toe Rec Ee ROAD See clove agg AD Cows, Improvement in 1... 1... cece cee eee cee e eee asda Sagal St fap nde nish hance war Wave Cherry Trees............ aihiaye ani ead ona nee-haeld debe. Sait wire ger veraenereease wie Cost of Draingis:s i. acs staan teen pans Sek BMKs HEAR eas) Eekuvetente sea PeaG Seka eee, HO Currante sss 2o3<2necsuee etc mtes aias aed Sears tees < wena dee sdalg ews emul eene sa es 108 Cheese Dairyingiics cass anes aay pagan ates andes (oes Ren Skee ERY Ge See Shee S BRS 113 Cattle, care Of... ...e cece cee cone teen eee cee init Cheese Dairy.. , Sa aaahens. pub sLate, pucondee MANGE a OT NG PREM STS Vee a Raa ae 117 Cheese niaking, Gheshite ayatert .. iach oucte arag dais dels Susser dies cieia OES RRS. Ais Blas SS MEAS (acess CHOPIN wes Shaawlostosmnadees-aiemap alee ray Sudsa-adrklitont ja ete eve VEAS Ea eos Reeds 157 DALE AEE tases sy sen Gaaig tava vin Uo anverdestlaverdusras @ab'a Dh aantalajaielalena aus uuyreigb ree adiane ede EA ace te ltraee OD DADA cc. :555 cdaee hare ase coo aed oe ee ae ee eee Ore 72 Deficiency of Electrical Action as a cause of Vegetable Disease ..... 1... cece cose cece eee 76 Extermination of Noxious Weeds .... 2... 0... seca cove eee cee cet tees cee ceee teens TRIG Bsa dacdidloa ected ts ict ies etc ay aee motores oe Failure of the Fruit Crop... 0... cc 0. seen cece ce eee cone enen soe ssiiap eu tie Oogles eee AOO Fertilization ......... ite Sie Bi rieie Wadioan du kar ke Malay heer deepearin wisinge elas, 245 82 Biagite, Hhetpelioneond preservation .. stele) UREA ROARS KG aw Bw es WRT eles & Daley. slats BE 39 Fruit growing in locality of Tittle Falls. 4 ese a de SY RASH OA p NEE GaSe RN Gees wares DO Fall Pliers ate nace hai Gon ts cee at aateaaaere 71 PON Cig fie «nieteetss aerate Guin wave debe walees SAN bS04 oa Ae Uw atiee ae ae ee eR Oy ae. 88 Pores Pree s.r sales. Scadey etib eed SIMS BADE SH ME aa Sh gee ee RS eee ee nea IEE vi. Growing: Onion gets for S000 25.244 5 snc ale woven babucainsis steer 010 sod ESlaue SES cleeee naueuls weep aapae Le A AUGIINO es oy8 crm he iene As SpeastaN alayaste saseite dlahee siaiOs Bol lcs casts DiSbesd ois a AS aad Daeae Seay Atala Aleses 30 GR ape Cala Tes oe. cesctecacdystavan emansrgabiaveacesbue-sosaing eimGuetavd an ctsuynce bins Wis eles epaee Dossaee anes 97,99 TODS. BSI esis vss siesta etecblaletn-gsooavSvcaed inva esl acelaaovun as Ne gab aan eatioe cage De ie ue ines AUS aed bb coadey GLO TGed; Crops cia saa: Siciaw Acton poli nawe aches enaedeieeslamsabetee Vn ais AERC sa 66g AR UREE ANN Marv tcaice 14° Horse, best Breed for Farm use, management, &C..... 0200s eee tees teen ete rete cee 120: ABAD CO RE ese sxe snacdesnc aban vans Ath Sesh sen ise ct everas fon ec croyav bg avon ayacie Suataviotstene au atele AenueeunieGrew ine aurctoniya 18 Waly, CUTS? Oh. sia deiacas adie aaica Mewes win esn insane Gavan Rad alan sine Aelia de enace dans neve OL Inducements for cultivating Fruit.......... A Tad Lintearhastausse Nelpeeunbvereoauaiae stata Improvements in Farming, and reasons a fer dhie ‘adoadiun. liaise At MNase adn axel wiavane ahve 145 Ts it profitable for Daleyaraa to raise their own Calves? .... 0... eee cece eee eee eee eee BIA Ts it profitable for Dairymen to keep Sheep? .... 0... cece cone cece cece cose ence cece cane BOF AON S WOR Lec hres d Sa caacazeand Raleds pelodas Guid Wi gyatehes mea od Ohne seaman we arabdea De eaiseomrraeeed (OD! FREE pire Mali SWB a ac Ssataa ocaned-ae sa Ran dahau wild ama coa ane nis Ana dun ud adnate sie Wate 158 Ritéhensand Markel Gardening ces weor anes ones cad ecanesnase leas ween wnaadsagwanea ge: 240 Mice GUNG WNG: TOME CCCS vane cawmacemurnainad wine tadane wires Wie Masters Mine aaikals sare parades saulaele 18 Moonlsri nu ence nce dais txiaac head cpevie nti mee Nina oe CORA aea a Hianaane Men gene ame Te TOD Materials: for Drains easy) cicieawdvis sralaavertitn ocacs devpvate bie SO aha Val epe new rans Guatede sere gee ee OD Making: Whey Butt@iicc name apne ames Whee oie need sean eaiaer coe naaesanireainr aes acces LS Milking... ; Lahine Maae AHIe deer Hake es Se weEE eek ie keane ens eee. 11D Menulsctots af Maple Sauer, Way ey tala dasa dN ietanes WeRVepalcnibens ae REY AM Iae wien omer 136 Ought Dairymen to raise their own Grain? .... ..ce cee cece cane tees vee nee cece vane ne 247 Preparation of Soil for Corm.... 6... cece eens cece cece sete nee eos ¢ aa aereee Waa docshabe 15 Planting and hoeing’ Gornisnax weiss wae e-auee alse weiss Wied PEs S AOS OEE EEE Roads wamedewes 16 Preservation of Manur@.... ccs. ccce eves sees secs canes DA GOA MRS PAGE SEO Reasnmecatonney pistes, OL Profits of the Virgalicu Pedticses ses 2c os we ce cess ae ey 4a HRN EA Hae Vie cele ne en nda Sane G , 222 PIABUGE cae acosace decse oe SO AA BOL EE SOR RS oo GR Ke Ge RSME A Hea ee Wa HE RET aes ee saul jaa OL PPOATE: wivsd aevic ineved cate oe SRG G a ils ved bg RS MENrOGN ARES Wie SES His ee aee bahicogatcss ane 43 Potatoe,. as ‘ SERS SSD TUS Ae AS OR ROA ee BENE RELA RS cad giedir cues -staenealy ea LOB Process of Menufienuntre Phewe. PRM Sa Bevel ees HEE SARA AE sear ended tomo wed ERTS Pear ullutetcases soci os aus 6 veces 8 SW ENG BGS Mey Me EEE Fae y dal eww ava oemaae 176 Plants, Cultivation Of... seas. p cvee cud sows awh Mp FOF TET a Kapp coms pe degen Guan rene OT vil, i Pork as'an article of Food .... 2... ccc. cece cece teen sees eee eaee isd bis Sebi Gaia wentele) 196 Poultry, their management &c.... 2... ee. . cece cece eee sees cate cere tees tenses cess 201 Pruning Pear Trees....... ere Sucuinsaaucrees srsiie se ists aalstese anne crime ae aie acer 226 Quarts of Milk for a pound of Butter... 0... 0.0. cee cece cece cece ceee sees seve veces. 158 Root Culture............ sha sites Orbs ahkk Gade Kee weed ao Sees SeNe woe Kee eds OD Retiovatinig Giasa), Bands cove ncusccnien bees ame aawe wenn ach aed aaa @amcaere ose s 167 Raising! Calvegi jin asise anat.aedavimaaid donseans tere areaeeen aed omtansde cee ey wie: 120 Shade Trees and their Cultivation..................5 Sneha ar aud dbide ta aie eidbactesoatetcdlgeemianer oO. Soft: Maples acvedas wansienmeacir oetorites eatin Seti aRine Rt taee ee eal osemcanencmaaanensan QT Strawberry‘... .. Sh aes) Aneta te eeaereT a ieerereeeS Nees enedPiacdueiseraachareamBavanmncnmane gue LO System nf Gloutestec:Cheeve Ma uivebecscdteiae ui cecacae ae Hyasal hyseeaicrsseaoanere 116 Soil best adapted for the growth of the Pear.... 1... ccc. cece cece cee rece cece cee e ene 224 Selection of Trees, and how to sie Seebavirnare fantecb uhlcdiataa lenicheuat vem sna re Spring Feed for Cows... ......0. 0000s resigriegauaaeay Oe Statement in reference to raising Giaia in aeieeclian ith Daiky Barniion. 2ieeseay 200 nate Sailnet Vand aso: asain hens tis ce teus, Has deen cee eae axe aren wane 78D) Vile) Drains xis. e-orre:atecssiwe oles omreccicetnies aisle, ngrarbiny Aes eal Siouel Gelaeoele eRe OL The best time ail manner of ening and cise ‘Grasses (hws we oodles em awe ek meee ears 59 Treatment of Farm Stock scx: sacc.o0e0 esas sear cons Goes saws shew oes Seih cies vase siee. O Trees, and their mode of obtaining nourishment .... 1... 0.2. 0.0. eee cee cere eee seen es BBL Utility of theyFarmer’s Club.... 1... 0... cose cece cee e cane cee e teen noes cee eet 237 Virgaliow. Pear’ sa; Sayieiaisies sais siinidecieininisisisiawaacaninn ag Mihm ng’ sa soca made atiumRaneaed Aden 221 White: : Dai sec sci bias olalaieslaisinis-oasdor seed aaaha pan Gingarneorn giemewanoann aad gues ee vais OD ROOT CULTURE. AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, AT THEIR MEETING MARCH 2ist, 1857. oe. Bw SF. A. WBwIiDLTA RD. The advantages of Root Culture are not geverally' understood in this County, or if understood not generally made availa- ble. Asa source of profit, the raising of Vegetables is admitted by experienced Ag- griculturists to be far ahead of anyother farm cultivation, whether considered in the light of exportation to our cities or for home consumption. From statistics, and from my own small experience, I think I may safely say that in this great grazing district, if every far- mer should grow annually from four to five acres of Roots, to be consumed on his farm by stock, the income of each farm would be increased from $200 to $500 net profit ; to say nothing of the increased fer- tility of the soil by such cultivation, which is of the highest importance. I do not propose to treat in this paper (which must necessarily be short), of all the roots which would be of profit for field cultivation; such an article would be long and wearisome. The few remarks therefore which shall be offered, will be devoted to the culture of the Carrot, the Parsnip and the Onion, as being vegetables that have been grown to but little extent in the field (in this country), their cultivation having been mostly confined to the garden. In England, the Turnip and Mangold Wurtzel are cultivated largely,and that cul- tivation has been the starting point for im- proved modes of culture,and a better system of Agriculture. The large quantities and excellence of their beef and mutton, and their fine fleeces of wool, are due to the growing of these vegetables; and their celebrated herds of Durhams, and South Downs, may almost be said to be these foots, provided with legs and animal vi- tality. A systematic rotation of crops— their moderate winters, combined with a judicious mode of feeding, make these roots of inestimable value, not only in im- proving the soil,but in making large returns of profit. I saw a statement from Mr, Johnson of this State the other day to this effect :—He wished to improve a piece of land and put itto Turnips. In the Fall, he purchased some two or three hundred sheep and fed them his roots. The cost of fatten- ing was less than $2.00 per head, and he sold the lot at $6.00 per head; thus not only getting pay for his crop and fertilizing the soil, but making $2.00 per head besides. As to the comparative value for fattening animals, the Carrot is to be preferred to all other roots. It is not only highly nutri- tious, but it contains large portions of pectic 10 acid, which has the power of gelatinizing the fluids on the stomach, thus rendering the contents more available and more easily digestible, and hence instead of large portions of starch, gluten, &c., being wasted in the excrement, they go to form flesh. It is preferred by stock to other roots, and furnishes a very large amount of nutritious food to the acre, compared with hay and oats. Boussingault estimates 10 pounds of hay to equal 25 lbs. of carrots or 6 Ibs. of oats. Now, two tons of hay to the acre would be a good crop: while 30 tons ef carrots may be grown on the same, which would make an amount of. nutritious food equal to 12 tons of the best hay or 500 bushels of oats. It is said by those who have experimen- ted in feeding horses with this root, that three bushels of carrots are equal to two of oats, which would make 666 bushels of oats as the equivalent; and it is especially recommended as food for the horse mixed with oats; the effect being a brighter eye, glossy coat, and more healthful ap- pearance ; and to animals predisposed, or troubled with the heaves, they have been found serviceable in allaying the disease. According to Hermbstat, the constituents of the Carrot and Parsnip are as follows : Carrot. Parsnip. Water___--. 80.0.2 22 19.4 Starch sfibre 9.0-_---- 6.9 Gum (Pectin) 1.75.-_-- 6.1 : Sugar----- - 18 saena 5.5 Fattening. Albumen... 1.1.-.--- 2.1-—Fleshing, Oil-------- 0.35, The Sugar Gum and Albumen are the fattening and fleshing qualities. The long root of the Carrot or Parsnip, penetrates the sub-soil and besides exerting a mechanical influence, draws its food from a deeper source, thus leaving the surface soil to accumulate the fertilizing ingredi- ents necessary for other crops. Hence by a proper rotation of crop:, these vege- tables serve to improve the soil, at the same time paying more largely than the grain crops which diminish its fertility. The Parsnip, in my opinion, can be raised with profit, as a food for hogs ; they devour the root with avidity in the raw state, and it is found to be equal, bushel for bushel, to corn in the ear, for feeding Store Pigs in the yard; and for fattening it is highly esteemed if boiled—hogs tak- ing on flesh rapidly, and the Pork being of good quality. One acre, then, of the Parsnips being equal as a food for hogs, to 900 bushels of corn in the ear, and as it is not injured materially by frost, it could in part profitably take the place of corn. In feeding to stock, it does not, like the Carrot, increase the quantity of milk, but is equally valuable for fattening ; it is not used however as a food for horses. But considered as an article of exporta- tion to our cities, I think even here, these roots would prove profitable. Carrots and Parsnips have been quoted the past season in the Tribune, at from $1.50 to $1.75 per barrel; and estimating the transportation of a barrel containing 2 1-2 bushels at 25 cts., and the barrel at 25 ets., there wo'd be a net profit of 50 cts. per bushel, or $500 the acre. Surely this would pay much more largely than cheese. There is a great demand for these roots in New York at the Livery Stables, as well as for con- sumption by foreigners. Prof. Mapes states that his crop is readily sold to the Livery men at Newark, and that he has not been able to supply the demand, But the question occurs, whether it would not be better for our Dairymen to raise large quantities of these roots,and let them take in part, the place of hay, through ll the winter ; and to be used largely iu the spring following with smaller quantities of grain; the advantages being, health of the animal, a greater yield of milk at al- most half the cost of hay, improvement of the soil, and the keeping of more ani- mals on the same farm. In the cultivation of these roots, the soil for the earrot should be, according to most writers, asandy loam. Prof. Mapes, however, recommends a soil rather heavier as better, and that the land should be thoroughly sub-soiled, and well pulverized. Some writers, as Boussingault, say the large white carrot, as well as the sugar beet, or mangold, thrive best on stiff soil, or good wheat Jand where there is con- siderable clay, if rch and well pulverized, But the long orange carrot, which is the best and most nutritious, does best on a rich loam or black muck. The land should be manured bountifully, with well-rotted mauure. Foreign writers recommend fresh manure ; but Agriculturists in this country say that fresh manure, newly applied, is deleterious to the plant. Two pounds of the seed is sufficient for an acre, and should be covered no more than half an inch deep; a deeper covering often prevents vegetation ; and for sowing, I find the Seed Planter of Emery & Co, admirably adapted for seed of this description. For field culture the drills should be at ieast 27 to 30 inches apart, so as to admit of cultiva- tion with the horse-hoe or cultivator. Radish seed is recommended to be sown with the seed, as it springs up sooner and marks the rows, and thus allows earlier cultivation. Hoe as soon as the plant can be seen, and repeat at least three times during the, season. During the Fall months the subsoil plow should be run occasionally threugh the rows: this loosens the soil and increases the value of the crop. The plants should be thinned out so as to stand in the rows frem 4 to 6 inches apart. According to Prof. Way, the Carrot contains of salt in the bulb 1.42, in the tops 11.25, so that as special manure, salt alone at the rate 200 or 300 pounds to the acre, sown broadcast, and harrowed in, if the ground is in good heart, will alone produce a good crop. The ash of the Carrot contains Potash and Soda 45 per cent., Lime 10 per cent., Sulphuric Acid 2.7 per cent., Phosphoric Acid 5.14. Thus Lime and Salt mixture composted with muck, or small quantities of Plaster, Bone dust and Wood ashes are recommended as a special manure. Prof. Mapes states that he has raised by applying special manure, 2,000 bushels to the acre, and that 2 Committee from the American Institute, visiting his farm, pro- nounced an acre of this root, of more value than ten of corn, or any ten acres of other crops usually grown. In Flanders, the Car- rot is sown in early Spring, on Winter grain, and gives a good crop after the grain is harvested. Why would not this plan succeed here, on rich soils where clover or grass seed has not been sown with the grain, as the growth of the root is mostly after harvest time ? The Onion may be grown on the same soil for years, because it throws off no ex- crementitious matter unfavorable to its growth. The constituents of the Onion, according to Fourcroy and Vauquelin, are Acrid vol- atile Oil; Unerystalizable Sugar ; Gum ; Vegetable Albumen; Woody Fibre; Acetic and Phosphoric Acids; Phosphate and Carbonate of Lime, and Water. 12 They owe their peculiar odor as well as their pungent and stimulating qualities to anacrid volatile oil,which contains Sulphur. The ground for raising this crop should be plowed in the Fall and subsoiled; for al- though the bulb grows mostly out of the ‘ground, its roots have been known to pen- etrate to the depth of 18 inches. Well rotted dung and hen manure is found fa- vorable and a good manure for this plant, and should be thoroughly incorporated with the soil. As a special manure, Guano composted with five bushels of bone dust, dissolved in sulphuric acid, and charcoal dust to divide the mass is recommended. Experienced gardeners prefer raising sets, and growing their onions from them the following year. Onions from sets, are always of larger size, and of regular shape, while those from seed vary in size and are not so early for the market, besides much more time and labor is occupied in their cultivation. The best plan for raising sets that has come under my observation, is that adopted by Prof. Mapes, and is as follows : “Place two boards 12 inches wide on the ground 4 inches apart, sow this four inches thickly with seed, and cover with soil lightly with a sieve, passing a light roller over the covered seed, then move one board across the other, and 4 inches from it, and proceed as before. The boards will leave alleys of 12 inches each, and the seed is so thickly sown that they cannot grow larger than a Pea, except near the edge; and these may be used for pickling. These sets do not get large enough to go to seed the following year, and you have onions of equal quality as those from the seed,large and more regular,and at less cost ‘of labor, weeding, &c. There are several kinds of onions, but the White is of finer flavor, is preferred in market, and is always saleable. The following is a statement of the profit on a piece of land 12 1-2 feet by 212 feet, sown by Mapes for sets. There were raised 30 bushels as follows : 12 bushels of sets for spring planting, at_--------- $3.00 $36.00 14 bush. pickling onions, at 1.75 24.50 4 “ large fe 6 1,00: 4.00 Being equal to $1,060.28 per acre. De- duct $100 for tillage,manure, weeding,&e., and there remains a net profit of $950,for one acre. The sizes for sets and pickling are always in great demand, and are rea- dily sold. *From the seed I believe 500 bushels are an ordinary crop per acre, and as they are usually sold at $1.00 per bushel—after de- ducting expenses for labor, d&c.,the returns are large, so large that it should induce a more general cultivation of this plant. Discussion—March 2Ist, 1857. Among the points of practical value brought out at this meeting, were the fol- lowing: Tue Carrot.—Mr. KEEp said it cost no more to cultivate an acre of Carrots than an acre of Corn. He raised them on old land that had been manured the year previous. Seed sown in drills with Km- ery & Co’s sed planter. He found the carrot a very profitable food for fattening animals when mixed with grain. Mr.Axrnotp thought the carrot should be cultivated here only to a limited extent—-he had found the cost of cultivating to be ten cents per bushel—had used no machines for sowing or weeding. Mr, Wixcox said—this root should be grown largely for home consumption—that a) it cou‘d profitably take the place of hay and grain in feeding animals—he had found the health of the animal much improved. by such feeding. It was suggested that Parsnips be sown and Hogs turned into the field in the Fall or Spring following, to feed on the plant. Confined in small patches of this kind they would thrive and fatten on the food at little cost. The plan of growing Onions as suggested in the essay, was thought to be much bet- ter than to raise from the seed. There was always considerable difficulty in get- ting Onions of large size from seed sown in the Spring. It was a good practice to make your beds and sow the seed in the Fall. Mr. Oyrston recommended the applica- tion of super phosphate as a fertilizer for the Onion. To the question—Can fruit trees that have been girdled by mice be preserved ? Mr. Heimer said that covering the part wounded with fresh bark and binding it on, would often preserve the tree. Mr, ArRnoxp saida number of his trees had been girdled a year ago—some of them lived without any application or treatment © and others died—he found on examination that those that lived had small portions of the bark adhering to the wood, although the outer bark was entirely eaten off.— When all the bark was eaten off the gir- dled part, there was no remedy. He had made an experiment by fitting in a piece of wood with the bark on,as recommended by Tuomas, but could not now tell the result. Mr, Reep had saved a tree when the bark was all eaten off the girdled part, by binding on fresh bark. Mr. Earon re- commended the use of scions placed round the tree and so as to enter the bark ubove and below the part wounded. HOED CROPS. ‘AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, AT ITS ,. THIRD MEETING, APRIL 4th, 1857. oo By i. B. ARNOZTD. r _—_——_>—____—- The great staple of Herkimer county is, and must for a considerable number of years at least, continue to be the products of the dairy. Small parcels of land may be otherwise occupied, but the principal use of the great body of farming lands in this vicinity,must be to supply materials to be converted into butter and cheese. Whatever else may be carried on upon the farm for income or profit, may be con- sidered as incidental to the main business. Among the more important of these inci- dentals, in the order of their profitableness, as I consider, may be reckoned : First, The Cultivation of Fruit, Second, Hoed Crops, Third, Raising Stock, Fourth, The Cereal and other Grains. The second in this series, of which I am desired to speak more particularly, embra- ces a great variety of plants, the chief of which are Corn, Potatoes and Beans, that grow well upon almost all our arable lands ; and Roots, Broom-corn and Hops, that are cultivated with much profit upon limited localities, First and foremost in the list of hoed crops, I place Indian Corn, both on account of the large extent of the land upon which it may be grown, as well as the liberal returns it yields for the amount of labor bestowed upon it, MODE OF CULTURE, Concerning the method of cultivating Indian Corn, it seems almost needless to speak, as every farmer raises more or less of it, and is supposed to be familiar with the modes which experiezice and observa- tion have established, and which are nearly uniform, and each believing himself posted on this subject at least, if upon no other, may look upon any discussion concerning it as a work of supererogation. But as there is some variation in the method of culture, perhaps a few remarks by way of indicating the preference of your Essayist may not be altogether out of place. APPLICATION OF FERTILIZERS. Though Corn will grow well upon almost all the cultivated land in this vicinity, its growth is greatly augmented by the use of fertilizers, to the influence of which it is extremely sensitive. The difference in yield upon a light and rich soil is comparatively greater than with almost anyother crop. It has been aptly remarked that “Corn will bear a great deal of manure and manure will bear a great deal of corn.” There is scarcely any 1 danger of making the soil too rich for corn. But what is the best method of applying manures to it? Shall we apply them directly to the seed? or shall we spread them upon the top of the ground, or shall we plow them under? It may be a matter of some practical importance to answer this query correctly. We may always look to Nature as our great instructor in the arts of Agriculture, and safely imitate her example. She really does the work herself. Our efforts at best, can only assist her in the performance of her work. Nature spreads her fertilizers upon the surface of the earth and places her seeds in the rich deposite that they may receive the greatest supply of food and warmth; and in general bestows her Tichest food and tenderest care upon the young, both of plants and animals. But she cultivates with a generous hand. It is her purpose to supply the whole vegetable kingdom with the means of growth; and if by exposing her manures upon the sur- face of the earth any portion of them evaporates and fails to be wholly applied where it is placed, there is nothing lost or wasted in her economy, for it is only re- ceived into her great reservoir of food for plants, the atmosphere, and is carried along and distributed to vegetation in other localities, until it is entirely consumed.— But our purposes are alittle more selfish. If we apply manures to plants, we want they should nourish those particular plants, and not the fields of our neighbors, or the vegetation of the world at large. How then can we best imitate the ex- ample of our great Instructor, and yet ac- complish our own selfish ends 3 The various earths are powerful absorb- ents of all the parts of manures that fly off by evaporation, as well as those that on dissolve and wash away. A light covering of earth will therefore be suflicient to te ceive the escaping gasses, and while it will enable us to comply essentially with the rule of nature, it will at the same time se- cure the local application we desire. The principle here involved indicates a general tule for the application of manures, and in accordance therewith, I would suggest that those who have manure that does not ferment rapidly, and the requisite time and labor to make the application, would do well to apply it directly to the hill; and those who have not the time and labor to bestow would do the next best thing by spreading it upon the surface and working it lightly under so as to make it most readily available to the roots of the young plants. If buried so deep as to remain constantly cold, its decomposition and ap- plication must always be slow, but if the soil is retentive it may not be eventually lost. PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. Though corn is a coarse grain and large plant, a fine tilth is absolutely necessary to its favorable growth, and a deep soil is necessary to protect it against wet and drought. The best method I have found of obtaining both these conditions, is to turn an ordinary furrow with the common plow and then follow it with a sub-soil plow, letting it run as deep as the strength of the team will bear, say ten inches be- low the bottom of the first plow, and letting it fall back into its place again without turning over, and then turning the next furrow with the common plow upon this, the same as if it had not been disturbed. By this method the surface soil is kept on the top of the ground, and the earth loosen- ed to the depth of fifteen or twenty inches. 16 This will be deep enongh to hold misture for a long drought and will afford a 1eady means of draining off any excess of wet. Tn the spring of 1852 I fitted a piece of ground in this way avd another without subsoiling. The summer following,it may be remembered was very dry, I watched the effects of the drought upon each and found that the piece that was subsoiled stood the drought about two weeks longer than the other and produced,as near as I could estimate, about ten bushels per acre more than it would have produced without subsoiling. If a subsoil plow is not used, then the next thing to it, is to turn a deep furrow with the surface plow. PLANTING. Corn that ripens earliest is the soundest. As soon therefore as is consistent with safety from frost the seed should be plan- ted and covered no deeper than is neces- sary to secure sufficient moisture to ensure growth. A diffierence of several days in the ripening of the crop may be made by planting light or deep; and for obvious reasons its starting may be hastened by pressing the earth firmly upon the corn so as to bring as much earth as’ possible in contact with it. HOEING. Hoeing should commence early and consist in keeping the top of the ground light and free from weeds; and in noth- ing else. The Ailling process I regard as entirely unnecessary if not injurious— When a kernel of corn is planted near the surface, the roots strike down to just the right depth to accommodate themselves to the influence of the air, light, heat and mosture, all the earth afterwards added above them of course makes them just so much too deep. If an inch or more is ad ded they will immediately begin to lan- guish in their growth, and become insuffi- cient to support the plant,and shortly new ones will be sent above them, while those below will cease their growth entirely and remain stationary or die. This is a common occurrence with oth- er plants. I have traced a similar opera- tion with wheat when buried too deep in the first place ; roots were sent out about the grain that seemed to answer for the present, but soon new ones would spring out near the surface and those below would to all appearances become wholly useless. ‘To make this change in the roots requires time, and in the case of hilling corn the ripening is retarded eight or ten days, but I have never discovered any material difference in the amount of the crop. For these reasons I prefer to keep the surface of the ground as nearly level as possible and for this purpose the culti- tor is most admirably adapted. HARVESTING, My preference in harvesting is, to cut up close to the ground as soon as the ears are well glazed and the leaves begin to change their color. The ears seem to ri- pen about as well upon the green stalks standing in the shock as when left uncut till they are dry. Cured thus the stalks are most excellent fodder, and for producing ‘nilk are not equalled by the best hay. PROFIT. The cost of cultivating an acre of corn varies from $15 to $20 per acre, and if properly harvested, the stalks and pump- kins that may be grown upon it,generally pay, that expense, making the corn pro- duced the profit of cultivation, which, in thé neighborhood where [ reside raises trom 40 to 60 bushels to the acre. Though such a yield is too small to enable us to compete in market with the Western States yet even with such returns I believe every farmer who has land that will produce it would do well to devote a large share of the Jabor that can be spared from the main business of the farm to the cultivation of corn, USES. It is one of the cheapest and most whole- some articles of human food. The large amount of carbon as well as nutrition it contains makes it a valuable food both for man and beast,especially in the cooler seas sons of the year. For fatting animals it has no superior, but from its hard flinty nature it needs for this purpose to be ground and cooked. As a spring feed for cows that are giving milk I am not aware of any grain that can equal it, so far as immediate profit in richness and quantity of milk and strength of animals ure concerned, I was about to speak of its capacity for preducing alcohol and its value for dis- tilation, but upon a second thought con- cluded as this wasone of its misuses it could not properly come under this head. * POTATOES. Yn the volcanic regions of the Andes op the mountain slopes, in a good soil composed chiefly of the alkaline products of decomposed lava, was the native home of the Potato. Originally small but hardy in its nature, ithas increased in size by cultivation, and been successfully intro- duced into almost évery climate habitable by rtiad, making fair returns from poor as well as rich grourids, and, im fact, has suo- céeded wader alnidst every kind éf treat- iT ~ ( ment, except being placed ina wet ail, until it was all at once nearly struck out of existence by disease. Though slowly recovering from destrue- tion by the rot, it is still an unsafe, and for marketing not a very profitable crop. In accordance with its native habits it succeeds best upon dry elevated ground. In its composition, as might be expected from the soil in which it originally grew, it is highly alkalic. Aside from the wa- ter and starch it contains, the bulk of the tubor is made up chiefly of potash, soda, lime and magnesia. It has been found that those varieties that contain the most starch are the most affected by the rot and that barnyard manure and whatever tends to increase the production of starch are unfavorable to a sound growth. Some of its special manures are ashes, salt and lime or plaster. MODE OF CULTIVATING, The ground may be prepared the same as for corn, and the potato planted as early in the spring as the condition of the ground will permit. The seed should be placed at the proper depth for the new potatoes, to grow, say two inches deep, and afterwards treated. with the hoe and cultivator precisely like corn; harvested as soon as the crop is fully grown and kept in a cool dry place. In recommending the flat culture for potatoes, I am aware that I am running counter to the common custom, but ex- perience as well as theory will sustain me. The same geveral reasons urged for the level culture of corn avail with equal foree in the case of the potato. Like corn it is most likelyto suffer from drought and is de- ‘layed in ripening by being killed. If any oné desires to see howsensitive the potato iv 18 with respect to its position in the ground, let him place an inch of earth about the vines after the young tubers have begun to set and he will find that those already started will make a feeble growth and a new set- ting will attempt to grow above them but being too late to be matured in the life time of the vines his crops will be a nu- merous yield of * small potatoes.” If potatoes must be hilled let it be done at the time of planting but never after- wards. The propensity for hilling may then be gratified without much injury. PROFIT AND USES. Before it becomes diseased, it was one of the most certain crcps the farmer could raise, and its yield so abundant that it was thought to pay well at ashilling per bush- el. But whether it will pay as an article of traffic, with its present diminutive yield and uncertainty of keeping, I am hardly prepared to give an opinion. As an arti- cle of human food, its use is so extensive as to be regarded as one of the necessities of life. In comparison with the cereal grains and animal food, it is oneof the very cheapest means of subsistenee,and by the great majority of consumers is regar- ded as one of the most healthful, but in this respect physiologists differ. It was formerly much raised for feeding domestic animals, and is still occasionally used as a spring feed for the cows of the dairyman, but not as I imagine with very great profit, Jt was shown at our last meeting, both by reference to science and experience that the carrot contains an acid that assists in dissolving the contents of the stomach and makes digestion more rapid and perfect than it otherwise would be. Potatoes especially when raw, play a part in the stomach exactly the reverse of the carrot. The gastic: juice, being an acid, when it comes in contact with the excessively alkaline properties of the nota: to is in part neutralized, and its effective force destroyed,retarding not only the de- composition of the potato itself but also the other contents of the stomach, making digestion more slow and less perfect than it would be if the potato was not presen% When boiled, as for culinary purposes, it is less objectionable, the decomposition being partly affected, and the alkalies es- caping, in part, into the water. In baking however, they are retained, and as soon as it beconras so cool as not to evaporate moisture rapidly, the potash that is set free, absorbs so much water as to make the potato appear wet and clammy. It may well be a question whether food so highly alkaline is perfectly healthful. BEANS, Beans grow well upon all dry soil; bet- ter to be sure on rich than on poor ones. They are less affected by manures than any of the hoed crops. They may be produced at an average cost of about $10 to the acre, yielding on an average of about 20 bushels, worth $1,50 per bushel making the profit $20 per acre. Excepting peas they are richer in nu- trition than any other grain we raise, and are, therefore, a very cheap and Valuable article of food, and were it not for a medi- cinal oil they contain they would be well adapted to the wants of the human stom- ach. Discussion--April 4th, 1857. Hivune or Cony.—Some of the mem- bers thought hilling was necessary in corn cultivation, in order tu have asecond sup- ply of lateral braces for the support of the 19 thatk. They were accustomed to hill slightly, making a flat hill, Mr. Arnoup said the second lateral braces thrown out weakened the plant—that the stalk would resist wind and stand firm by flat eultiva- tion—but that he had observed no per- weptible difference in the quantity of grain by either method. Others thought hill- ing unnecessary and detrimertsl to the plant—the labor was greater—the stalk was made tender and the new lateral roots weakened the plant, and the yield was less a4 a general rule. One member said manure should be covered at feast six or eight inches—that in light covering the gaseous portion pass- ed off inthe atmosphere, and were not absorbed by the soil. _Others argued that a covering of two inches of soil would absorb all the gases— and that the manure should be near the surface, in order to give immediate suste- nance to the roots of the young plant.— ‘To this it was replied that manure should be covered deeper than two inches—that manure near the roots of the young plant in dry seasons was deleterious—that as the plant grew the roots would be attract- ed towards the manure and find it—a re- cent experiment in England was mention- ed, where manure was placed ia the bot- tom of a barrel, and the barrel then filled with earth and sown to wheat—the crop was excellent—after the grain was har- vested, the barrel was broken up anda mass of wheat roots were found feeding upon the manure at the bottom of the bar- rel, A member said in using the refuse of a slaughter house, near the roots of young plants,he had destroyed the plants entirely. Tae Porato.—-One of the members said the general practice had been, in this county, to hill the potato—he had sup- posed it necessary. Mr. Arnotp said the same rule with regard to hilling corn ap- plied to the potato—-new tubers were thrown out and if the billing was late the probability was that there would bea good crop of small potatoes. A member said a neighbor had raised a fine crop of potatoes the past year by sowing the seed on meadow land, and covering with long manure, straw, &c.— and harrowing in—they received no after culture, Another member said many years ago he had raised a fine crop—by covering the seed with straw to the depth of several inches—at the time of harvest- ing the tops were just making their ap- pearance. It was said that potash entered largely into the composition of the potato, and that unleached, ashes was a good manure —but barn-yard manure, especially when unfermented, was a cause of rot. Mr. Heimer thought the tubers were not af- fected from this cause—for when the rot commenced the fermentation of the ma- nure bad ceased. A member had made an estimate of the cost of raising corn; he found it to be 70¢ per bush. without estimating ma- nure, Another said it cost him $17,50 per acre—and that the stalks it well saved would nearly pay the cost of cultivating. Mr. Reed said he had found the stalks worth about $10 per acre. Mr. Wilcox spoke of the advantages ot raising beans with corn. The Secretary was requested to read a statement from Mr. Witcox, published in the Transac- tions of the State Agricultural Society, in which it was shown that there was a very decided profit by such cultivation. SHADE TREES AND THEIR CULTURE. te AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, AT ITS FOURTH MEETING, APRIL 18th, 1857, 9 -___. BY 8. Ss. WW EXZETRAN. —___.—_____ The culture of fruit trees has been the subject of so many able minds, and has been presented to the public in so many ways, that Lsimply propose to express a few thoughts on Shade Trees—the kind, the time, the place and mode of transplant- ing. Of the variety of forest shade trees, the Sugar Maple is deservedly the favorite on account of its cleanliness, its early and abundant foliage, and its luxuriant growth —at the age of twenty-five or thirty years affording a partial supply of excellent su- gar. It bears transplanting better than any of our forest trees on account of the many fibrous roots near its trunk. Many persons are indifferent whether they trans- plant the sugar maple or soft maple, but the inferiority of the latter may be seen wherever it has been transplanted. It is a stiuted, sickly growth, with pale and seanty foliage. In short, it is not worth transplanting. The growth of the soft maple in its natural state, is limited to particular soils, while the sugar maple grows well in all parts of the county — Next to the sugar maple isthe Elm, of which there are several kinds, and either of which make a thrifty tree aud an agree- able shade—outstripping even the maple in ite rapid growth, and thrives well on dry or moist locations. Other forest trees particularly the White Ash and Basswood, give a pleasing variety, and do well after being properly transplanted. The Wal- nut is desirable on account of its dense foliage and its fine fruit, but having a tap root extending many feet dewn into the earth, it cannot be transplanted without too much injury to live. It must be grown from the seed. Fora quick growth and a temporary shade, the Sumac does well and with many itis as highly esteem- ed as the Mountain Ash or Alanthus.— The Weeping Willow is a favorite with many for its easy culture, ready growth, pleasant shade and pendant boughs. The Locust, although it has its enemy in the valley, thrives well on high ground, and is not only desirable for its pleasing foliage, but also for ifs durable timber, growing ina few years large enough for fence posts. Every farmer will do well to grow his own fence posts—cedar will soon be scarce and dear. I would noteneglect to say a kind. word.-for that tree which is cultivated so easily and presents such an oval head of dense foliage, the Horse Chesnut. But my object is more to call the attention of all to the ¢mportance of trans- planting,than to what they transplant—only z1 lo it, do it in seagon, do it well, and then take care of and protect them afterwards. Many trees that are well set out are lost by neglecting to protect them from cattle, and many are lost by that most provoking way of having some, thoughtless person hitch his horse to one and let him strip the bark off with his teeth by way of pas- time. The time for spring transplanting is as early in April asthe frost is out of the ground, and before the buds begin to swell, but not till the sap in the sugar maple has ceased to flow. Care should be taken that the fibrous roots are not injured—the more retained the less risk and more ready growth, and in setting out be sure that fine earth comes in contact with these fibrous roots, not forgetting to lessen the top at. least in proportion to the root, but the great difficulty is not in an ignorance of what ought to be done, or bow to do it, but in a neglect of doing it and doing it at a proper time. Every spring there are a score of trees set out just late enough to have them die during the first dry spell of weather, But the place for setting trees must en- gage our attention. This is not eonfined to the village, although so desirable there neither to a few around the pleasant yard of the farm house, although so desirable there. Why not extend that beautiful row of fine maples i in a long line by the side of the highway? Why not enliven that school house yard and play ground with the maple and elm and other trees, and not leave it exposed to the bleak storms of winter and the scorching rays of summer? Not even tbe house or its inmates protected by a lightning rod from: the swift bolt of heaven. Are our chil- dren of less value than our cattle, hay and poultry? Ihave seen many a barn and stable protected, but I never saw a school house with a lightning rod on it. This is a digression, but I hope in the right way. Let the trees be planted and they will soon tea partial protection. When roads run east and west, or nearly so, the trees should be set on the southerly side of the road, thereby avoiding too much shade falling on the adjoining field, and likewise afforde ing protection to the traveler in the heat of the day, and for the same reason on the westerly side of the highway when run- ning in a northerly course. ‘Some farmers have done well and their long rows of naples testify not only to their good taste, but their appreciation of real value. Ihave not now any farmer in this vicinity in my mind, who has done more in setting shade trees, than ANDREW Fink, Esq., of Manheim. Let us suppose that twenty-five years ago all the farmers had set maple trees by the road side one rod apart, with locust trees midway be- tween, what a value would have been ad- ded to our trifling exprese? That same value may be added by doing now what should have been done “ long ago.”— While our native forests are disappearing su rapidly, shall we not see to it that wa partially supply their place by transplant- ing trees ? Discussion—April 18th, 1857. The following are some of the topics discussed at this meeting. Sorr Marre.—-One of the members thought the Essayest did not do justice to this tree. The soft maple was one of the most beautiful of our forest trees—the rich and variegated color of its foliage in zm autuma—-its graceful branches, and its shade being fees dense than many other trees, render it a particular favorite. He thought it one of the most desirable trees for ornament, and hoped to see it more frequently bordering our streets-—that when transplanted with care, it thrived quite as well as the sugar maple. Another member said it grew quite as rapidly as the sugar maple, and though found on light soil, it adapted itself to al- most any soil. He could not tell the rel- ative value of its wood. The President said he had been inform- ed by those who had made the trial of soft maple for fence posts, that it was high- ly esteemed on account of its lasting qual- ities. He had experimented with it for that purpose—the posts, however, were set “only afew years since. He said the wood was valuable for manufacturing purposes; that he had always regard- ed it as a beautiful and ornamental tree, and worthy of a place in our lawns. The question was asked, can the Ches- nut be grown in this locality ? Mr. Perxins thought it could be grown here successfully. Ie had seen it trans- planted on soi] not unlike ours, where it grew rapidly and made a handsome tree. Judge Loomis made some very interest- ing remarks with regard to the circulation of sap in trees—throwing out valuabie suggestions for thought. It was asked, what is the cause of the flow of the sap at particular seasons of the year? Is the circulation greater near the surface or at the centre? When the ma- ple at this season of the year is tapped, does the sap ascend or descend, or both ? Is the economy of the tree similar to the human body! do., dio, A wember said it was now a well known fact, that the sap is not confined to the outer edge, but flows in the centre of the tree, which has been proved by forcing colored fluids into the wood, Dr. Brown gave a description of the Alanthus—said it threw off a poisonous effluvia, which was the cause of typhoid fever in some localities. A member had observed that the But- ternut was poisonous to fruit trees, especi- ally the Apple. - Another had observed the same effect from the Elm on the Plum, and especially the Grape. To the question, in taking up trees, what roots should oeceive the most care ¢ Was it important that particular attention should be directed to the “tap root?” In transplanting it was thought particular care should be taken to lop off with a sharp knife all roots mangled or diseased. To this, it was replied, that the smaller or fibrous roots were most important—the tap root could be cut off at any point most convenient—if their remained other rocts well provided with small fibers—but if these were wanting it would be difficult to make the tree live. Locust.—Dr. Brown had read that an application of sulphur introduced into the tree would preserve it from attacks of the borer—had tried it on the locust without effect—there was another remedy which he had tried and with success, it consisted in driving a nail into the tree, the oxydi- sing of the iron made the food unsavory or poisonous to the worm. A member who had also tried the ex- periment, believed this a remedy which if applied would soon rid our locusts from that pest. 23 Mr, Perurxe agreed with the last gen-| Mr. Perxtns asked if the moon exerted tleman, provided the nail was driven soas! the same influence on Pork in the barrel. to hit the antmal on the head. It was replied, Pork had been observed A member said he had a locust into|to shrink entirely away in the barrel, but which he had driven an iron staple, yet, it was when the appetite was on the sn- the tree died from the attacks of the borer. | -7e¢s¢- , Another member said that the moon exerted aw influence on tidea aad ow the | atmosphere and he had no doubt but that itsinfluence on vegetation was greater than we were aware. He mentioned the fuct Mr. Perxrys said, an the theory advo-| eated by some of the members, the staple was probably driven into the tree at the wrong time of the moon. A member wished to state another fact| well known to medical men, of Hemor- with regard to the Moon’s influence. Helrage being more severe and frequent at had observed (with scores of other farmers) | certain periods of the moon. that when hogs werekilled when the moon} A member said he had been reading a was on the decrease, the pork always| treatise on fruit trees,—the author stated shrunk in the pot—the opposite taking|that there was no remedy for the borer place when the moon was on the increase.| except it be to cut it out and destroy it. FERTILIZATION. AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, AT ITS FIF!H MEETING MAY Ist, 1857. re BY CHARLES OYSTON. OO The subject chosen for this day’s essay is one of the greatest importance,not only us it concerns those engaged directly in agricultural pursuits in this country, amounting to between two and three mil- lions, but to every man, woman and child inthe Union, And yet. it is a subject very imperfectly understood Ly the great majority of farmers, in consequence of the defective education they have received; owing, perhaps, to the prevalent opinion that a farmer needs but little e lucation to conduct the business of a farm, whereas, there is svarcely a business or professior that requires a more thorough acquaint- tance with all the natural sciences, espe- cially Geology,Meteorlogy,and Chemistry. The last science in particular, in fact, I cannot see how a man can bea successful farmer under varied circumstances without some knowledge of the laws of chemistry, Of so much importance is the science, not only to the age in which we live, but to generations yet unborn, that I must beg your indulgence while I select a case or two by way of illustration. History in- forms us that many parts of the old world once celebrated for their excessive fertility are now but barren wastes. The plains of vegetation, supporting vast flocks and herds; but their glory has departed, in fact they are no louger fertile, and yet the Jews were said to be good farmers.— Perhaps they were as far as their knowl- edge went, but the practice of consuming the bones and animal offal by fire and not returning the ashes to the soil, accounts at once fur the deterioration of the land. When the early colonies first settled in this country in that part which is now the State of Virginia,the soil was rich and produced large crops for many years, but by succes- sive cropping without returning to the soil the requisite fertilizers, many parts have become unproductive.. It is estimated» as much as 12,000 pounds of the essential ingredient (the alkalies) per acre, have been removed by repeated cropping.— And lastly our own State,as shown by the census returns of 1840,45 and 50 and 1855, show that we are retrograding in productiveness, and this view of the mat- ter, I am sorry to say, is strongly support- ed by the extra demand on my pocket for the last few years, and on the pockets of thousands of others. And how is it with Herkimer County # Has no deterioration in the quantity or Judea were onee rich with a luxuriant) quality of your crops been experienced ! a If not, then delay no longer in exhibiting your gratitude to bounteous Nature for the liberal favors thus far bestowed. Yes return as far as possible the requisite in- gredients to the land, that enter so largely into your most importaut staple produc- tion, cheese. And this brings me back to my subject. Fertilization embraces a variety of considerations ; it may be divi- ded into mechanical and chemical; the former consists in loosening and pulver- izing the soil so as to permit the roots to travel in search of suitable matter to build up the superstructure of the plant,as well as to admit the influence of the sun, air and moisture. The latter consists in supplying to the said roots the elements necessary to com- plete the entire development of the plant. Before proceeding further it may be necessary to state that the great bulk of all fertile soils consist of clay, sand and lime, in variable proportions, as well as varying in their mechanical condition as regards their particles being coarse or fine, if we add to a soil containing due propor- tions of the abeve named substance in a proper state of mechanical division and mixture,the elements which constitute the sum and substance of any plant, and then sow the seed of the said kind of plant in the soil, we may reasonably expect a reproduction of the plant provided the elements are in a fit state of com- bination with each other as to permit their ready assimulation by the roots of the plant. The substances that enter into the composition of the vegetable and ani- mal kingdom are distinguished by the terms organic and inorganic, The organic are four in number; carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. The principal inor- 5 ganic snbstances arc, suda, potash, lime, sand, sulphur, phosphorous iron and mag- nesia. The organie substances constitute 90 per cent. and in many kinds still more of all living plants. One of the most marked distinctions between the organic and inorganic is,that the former is always present in our atmosphere in a great abun- dance, whereas the latter is seldom found in the gaseous or acriform state. It will be well to bear this important fact in mind, as it ia the basis of the theory of Fertilization. If we take a given weight of wheat flour and convert it inte bread, and then continue the baking process suf- ficiently long,the bread will lose its white spongy appearance, and gradually assume a dark and finally a black appearance ; if we take it and weigh it we will find that it weighs much less than the flour from which it was made, notwithstanding con- siderable water has been added to the kneeding. The cause of this loss of weight is owing to three of the four organic ele- ments that constituted the great bulk ef the bread having escaped in the form of gas and vapor, the remaining organic ele- ment is carbon, but if we subject this car- bonaceous residue to a sufficiently high. heat, with free access of air, it will finally assume the gaseous state and disappear, proving clearly that all the organic ele- ments are capable of assuming a gaseous and invisible state. There will still re- main a small residue which no ordinary heat can dissipate, this is the ash or inor- ganic clements, containing a large propor- tion of phosphorous in combination with magnesia. If we take any other vegetable substance andsubmit it tosimilar treatment the result will be the same with the or- ganic element, but the inorganic elements will vary in both quantity and kind. If 2 ed we take cornstalks, potatoes, or turnips, their ashes will contain large quantities of potash. If we take a cubic foot of earth from a fertile soil and carefully analize it we can tell the amount of each inorganic sub- stance it contains, then if we ascertain the amount of inorganic elements and the kind contained in an acre of wheat grown on said soil, we shall be able to predict, with’ tolerable certainty,the ratio of decrease in the successive crops, and finally the pe- riod of unremunerating productiveness, assuming that none of the elements have been returned to the soil in the shape of fertilizers, and that the culture and sea- sons are uniform. I have said that the organic elements were always present in the atmosphere, and that some of those are capable of entering into the composi- tion of the growing plant to a consider- able extent, these are carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, the remaining element nitro- gen does not appear to do so to any ex- tent, therefore it is necessary that we should supply this element to the root in some shape or other, as well as all the in- organic elements. The question now arises where shall we get the inorganic elements to return to the soil, seeing that our crops that absorb them are sent toa distant market and sometimes to a foreign land. This question is not so easily an- swered, to the extent that I could wish it, nevertheless I will point out a method of supplying some of the most important inorganic substances that enters largely inte the composition of cheese. (I mean largely for an inorganic substance.)— That substance is the phosphate lime which constitutes a large proportion of all animal bones. I think there is little doubt 6 of obtaming any reasonable quantity in town, and cities at a moderate cost, they cap be prepared by grinding, ur what is still better by dissolving in weak sulphuric acid. Sulphur is another important element; it can be obtained in any quantity in plaster or gypsum. Plaster #s one of our most valuable inorganic fertilizers, its ac- lion is fourfold: it furnishes sulphur and lime, solidifies and retains ammonia and serres as a medium for conveying mois- ture to the plant in dry weather. Iron is another substance easily obtained either direct from the ore or from the refuse trimmings and filings of machine shops,— soda from common salt mixed with lime or in the shape of crude salseda. Potash is abundant in wood ashes, leaves, decay- ed wood, and in some rocks, from which our present supply first came. Magnesia trom magnesia limestone. There is still another source from which the inorganic substances can be obtained, and that is from the excrements of men and animals- The practice of returning the dung of an- imals mized with straw and refuse hay,in various stages of decomposition, has long been common,and much diversity of opin- ion exists as to what stage of decomposi- tion it ought toin be when applied. To return it to the soil in an unfermented state, is inconveinent on account of its lightness and bulk, as well as not being ina fit state to be assimilated by the plant,especially in dry weather. In fact it is like giving raw victuals to a weak stomach. On the other hand fermenta- tion causes a loss of that valuable com- pound, ammonia, but if the mass during fermentation was frequently sprinkled with plaster it would absorb and retain the am- monia for the use of the growing plant.— I therefore incline to tolerable fermenta- tion and plaster, especially for our short There is another method which can be practiced with profit to grass lands in particular,that is by applying it in the liquid form, by having a tank to catch the drainings from the cattle yard,a pump to pump it into ahogshead mounted on wheels with a sprinkler in the rear and faucet to regulate the supply. In this case all the fertilizing ingredients are in solution and in a proper state for assimila- tion by the plants. The other source from which highly fertilising material is ob- tained, is the vaults of privies. This per- haps may be considered an improper refer- ence, by the fastidious. But when we consider it in its twofold sense as affecting the salubrity of our atmosphere and the fertility of our land, false delicacy must give way. If plaster was frequently sprink- led in the vaults, most of the unpleasant odor would be absorbed; but instead of fertilizing the lands with it we allow it to fertilize the air with disease, and the doc- tor and sexton reap the harvest. The practice of burning roots, bush and'refuse wood in cleaning forest land, is injurious and wasteful. Could the same be con- verted into charcoal and either returned to the land or allowed to remain while the fertility decreased and then returned it would undoubtedly pay well. There is still another wasteful practice common amongst us, that is in allowing the bones of the animals we consume for food,to re- main strewn around our streets,giving our village more the appearance of a general golgotha than avillage surrounded by an intellectual and scientific body of farmers. These bones are allowed to remain from ‘seasons. one year to another, except an occasion- al clearing up when they are consigned along with rubbish and stones to fill up some yawning chasm or other, and are lost, iastead of being husbanded with the greatest care, as being one of the most valuable mauures dairymen can employ Ihave mentioned some of the most im- portant fertilizers, A word or two on their application in connection with the crops intended to be raised from them. It is well understood that plants differ materially in their ele- mentary composition as well as fertilizers, consequently it must be bad policy to ap- ply fertilizers to a crop whose elementary composition is very dissimilar. For in- stance, peas, beans and cabbage, contain considerabie nitrogen ; potatoes very little, but they contain cousiderable potash.— Now horse manure, guano, and animal substances, generally contain considerable nitrogen. Such manures are well suited to the first three named vegetables, but not to potatoes, while ashes and decayed leaves are well suited to potatoes, on ac- ecount of the large quantities of potash they contain; but not to the first three vegetables on account of their lacking ni- trogen. Now suppose we apply a manure abounding in ammonia, without the addi- tion of plaster to fix the ammonia, and then plant with potatoes, a large portion of the ammenia will escape and be lost as the potato needs but little of it; but had we planted it with some plant requiring much nitrogen, with a sufficient quantity of plaster to retain the ammonia for the use of the plant, and then followed with a crop of potatoes the next year when the carbonaceous matter was sufficiently de- composed to be easily assimilated by the 9 “a potato, we might reasonably expect much better returns. In support of this theory I would observe that potatoes oft do well even with imperfect culture, on recently cleared forest land, when a heavy growth of timber has been removed from it, and consequently large quantities of potash. Now as the potato requires large quanti- ties of potash for its perfect development, this statement may seem paradoxical, but when we consider the great depth to which the roots penetrate, seeking, absorbing, and transmitting to the remotest leaves a liberal share of potash, and the annual fall- ing of the leaves enriching the ground with the alkali as well as erganic matter, the riddle may said to be solved. Thus we see the importance of planting trees a recommended in the last essay, for in ad- dition to shade, sugar and timber, they are the agents which nature employs to collect from many feet beneath the sur- face one of the most important elements in the vegetablo kingdom. In fact it was well known that decayed leaves were suitable manure for potatoes, long befor science had pointed out the general ab- sence of nitrogen and large quantities of potash they contained. Having endeavored to show the importance of supplying to the soil, fertilizers that contain the element in sufficient abundance that enter into the composition of the crop intended to be grown, it may very properly be asked, how are we to know what are the princi- ‘pal elements in the majority of crops usually raised in this country, as also the proportion of said element in the fertili- zers generally employed or those that may be easily obtained. This question is of very great’ importance, so much so that I feel very much surprised that it has not 8 ere this received the special attention of that excellent institution, the Patent Office, the agricultural department of which has already done so much by its annual pub- lication and distribution of its Agricultural Reports. “As no collection of the analysis of the various important crops raised in this country has yet been made that Iam aware of, I would respectfully suggest that an appeal to the National Legislature by some collective body of Agriculturists be made, setting forth the imperious ne- cessity of some measures being taken, to supply this great help to the true progress of the country. If an analysis of our principal crops were made and arranged in tabular form, showing the amount and kind of elements contained in the roots, stems, leaves and seeds, as well. as the various kinds and proportions of the elements in the differ- ent kinds of fertilizers, and printed in a S suitable manner for framing and glazing, especially if ornamented with an appropri- ate emblematic border, and then distribu- ted through the country, I think the amount of good would be incalculable. I am well aware that the expense of such an under- taking may be considered objectionable, but when we recollect the sums that have been spent, and properly too, in exploring and preparing reliable charts to enable our navigators to traverse the ocean in safety, I think we need not blush at asking the same power to prepare a chart for the benefit of the millions of farmers, as well as for the still greater numbers that are dependant on the success of agriculture for theirdaily bread. It may also be urged that a great many copies would fall into the hands of those who would not understand their im- a @ Ss port and consequently receive no benefit from them. This I readily admit, but on the other hand there are thousands of in- telligent farmers who would be greatly benefitted; andI venture to say that there is not a member of this club who would not be willing to give what twice his quotia of the cost would be for a copy, assuming two or three millions of copies were printed Tf glazed and framed and hung up in a suit- able place in a farm house, it would truly be a chart whereby the farmer might steer, instead of being tossed about by the winds of ignorance as too many thousands are at the present day. It would likewise tend to familiarize the rising generation of farmers with the names of the elements that constitute the sum and substance of agricultural productions, and make him a truly dignified asgmuch as he is a truly useful member of society. Iam aware that the analysis of most kinds of Agricultural productions have been made, and that copies of such may be found. Many of these, however, have been made by foreign chemists, and there is some doubt about thezaccuracy as well as the productions operated on being the produce of different climates from ours as well as different soil. The talent to be employed in such an andertaking“oughtjto be of the first order. The machinery requisite for carrying out _such a project is found in the agricultural department of the Patent Office, which, with the sanction of Government and a moderate appropriation, might engage the services of the most learned professors in the country. I think it is probable that on a proper representation being made to the National Legislature of the importance of such a measure and the limited expense required to carry out the same, it would meet the goed will and hearty co-operation of all true patriots. I therefore submit the idea here advanced to the candid con- sideration of all those interested in the science and practice of agriculture. Discussion--May Ist, 1857. The discussion embraced the following principles, which were stated, viz: The organic matter of plants are the gasfes—Oxygen, Hydrogen and Nitrogen, and a solid, Carbon (or charcoal). The inorganic matter consists of Soda Lime, Potash, Magnesia, Sulphuric Acid, Phosphoric Acid, Chlorine, Silica, Oxide of Iron, and Oxide of Manganese. Animals, like plants, are composed of both organic and inorganie matter, and their bodies are obtained directly or indi- rectly from plants. Plants obtain their organic food, oxygen and hydrogen, from water; carbon from the atmosphere, Nitrogen from some com- pound containing nitrogen, as ammonia. The inorganic food is obtained from the soil, and can enter the plant only when dissolved in water. Potash, Lime and Soda, when pure, are soluble. Sulphuric acid is valuable as a fertilizer—its most available form is sulphate of lime—plaster, the chief use of which is to prevent the escape of ammonia. Ammonia is obtained from the atmosphere, and carried into the soil by rains, and is supplied to plants with profit in the form of animal manure. Carbonic acid is absorbed from the atmos- phere by leaves and decomposed in the green parts of plants, under the influence of light—carbon is retained and the ox- ygen passes off into the atmosphere. 3 A member said he believed the inorganic food to be the most important when refer- ence was liad to the kinds of manure to be applied ; that his opinion differed some- what from Liebig, but great minds some- times fell into error as well as small ones. Another member had been using con- siderable barn-yard manure carted from the village—it had not produced the re- sult desired and it was a question whether the cost of carting would not have been better employed in purchasing concentra- ted manures. Mr. Eaton said he had found the village manure carted on to his garden, to be one- third straw. Mr. WitLarp gave a receipt for making superphosphate : to 100 lbs. bones, 22 lbs. sulphuric acid (oil vitrol), add 13 pounds water—let the larger bones be dissolved first, then add the smaller pieces, add the water a short time after the acid has been applied to the bones. GUANO Mr. Arnotp had experimented with guano; one part guano was mixed with five parts loam, applied in the hill,covered with earth, and the corn dropped. The trial did not produce the desired result. Seed did not come up till August ; the crop was a failure ; said he should have mixed it with greater portions of loam; or used a less quantity. ‘It was asked, how are we to preserve our seed corn, when planted, from being des- troyed by mice? It was said that in some seasons corn was badly injured by mice— they harbored under the sod, especially in spring plowing. Mice were very abun- dant last fall, and were so now, and the probability was that our seed corn would be destroyed when planted, unless some rem- edy be employed. The question was not satisfactorily an- swered. Some proposed soaking the seed in copperas ; others soaking or scattering oats on the ground. TOP DRESSING FOR GRASS LANDS. Mr. Wittarp believed that unleached ashes, at the rate of six or seven bushels per acre,mixed with one-fourth their weight of plaster, would prove in many instanees a better application than plaster alone ;— that such application rooted out mosses and induced a vigorous growth of vege- tation. ' Mr, Eavon said ashes caused white clo- ver to spring up—hence such an applica- tion would be valuable for plaster lands— he believed the seed of this plant lay dor- mant in the soil, that certain manures acted as stimulants and induced its growth. He spoke of soil being thrown up from a well several feet from the surface which con- tained the seed of this plant, which on being exposed germinated, The President said land manured with horse-dung was unfavorable to potatoes— it caused them to rot—he had tested it by experiments on the same kind of soil, by manuring part of the field only. Mr. Aryotp in his experiments had ob- served the same. Mr. Heumer said potatoes raised on his soil had not rotted, and yet he had man- ured the land with that manure. Mr. Witxarp said a few years since Prof.Emmons made an analysis of the refuse at the Onondaga salt works usually known under the name of pan scale, showing that it contained chloride of sodium 73.37 per cent., chloride of lime 7.47, sulphate of lime 12.837—that there were many 31 thousand bushels heaped up near the vi- cinity of the salt works, and even had been used in Syracuse for grading streets —that it was said to be a valuable fertili-| zer and perhaps would pay us for transpor-. tation. Mr. Arwotp said the analysis showed it of value, and that it would pay for transportation. — Mr. Wuttman had understood that the farmers near Syracuse were buying it up, and applying it to their soil with beneficial results, and perhaps the demand for it there would make it too expensive for us. PRESERVATION OF MANURE. A member believed that cisterns could be built near the stable into which the liquid manure could be concentrated at little expense—he thought the liquid ma-| nure as valuable as the solid—he did not believe in expensive cellars for manure — Mr. Farrineton had built a barn at the cost of some $1.500—half that sum was expended in the cellar—a cheap shed erected at the side of the barn would be more economical, and he thought quite as efficient for saving the manure. Another member proposed to scoop out a cavity in the barn-yard where the soil contained clay, and in the spring remove a portion of the dirt that had absorbed the liquid manure. Mr. Wixcox thought the centre of the barnyard should be dug out and made low so asto receive the waste,and that straw and the manure heaped up there might be pro- tected by acheap covering—which would serve all the purposes of an expensive cel- lar. RENOVATING OLD MEADOWS. The President said old meadows might be renovated by passing over the same in the spring with a harrow, so as to scarify the surface. A member said the steel subsoil plow, Mapss’ invention, had been highly recom- mended as an excellent implement for ren- ovating old meadows—it was run through the meadow like a plow and its action was to lift up the soils lightly without disturbing the sod. PLASTER. It was said that the theory of Lresic was that plaster served not only to fix the ammonia in the soil but attracts ammenia from the atmosphere, and that the man sowing plaster robbed his neighbor who did not sow, where the fizlds were adjoin- ing. A member said he had seen a statement of an experiment something like the fol- lowing: a quantity of earth was evapora- ted to dryness, and its weight ascertained —it was then moistened and seed sown in it. After the crop had matured and was taken off, the earth was then evapo- rated to dryness and weighed again; no perceptible difference was observed in the weight, and yet nothing had been added but water. . Mr. Arnotp had seen a statement of an experiment where a quantity of earth was weighed in the same manner anda willow tree planted in it, after the tree had at- tained to the weight of 150 pounds it was taken up and reduced to ashes, and these added to the earth—it was then weighed and no perceptible difference was observed between the two weights—nothing but water had been added. FERTILIZATION. AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, AT ITS SIXTH MEETING MAY 15th, 1857. —____o<» - —____— wBwT CHARLES OVSTON. In continuing the subject of fertilization it will be necessary to revert to the clos- ing part of my last essay, wherein I point- ed out the necessity of every farmer be- ing provided with a table showing the el- ementary composition of the roots, stems, leaves, and seeds of crops, and likewise a similar table of the eompositioa of fer- tilizers, I will now proceed to show its importance and practical application.— Chemists have divided plants into three classes, on account of the predominance of certain inorganic substances they con- tain, viz: silica, potash and lime. Now suppose a farmer enters on a new farm and a total stranger to the soil, his first year’s operations must be of a somewhat experimental nature, but if he observes the growth of his crops and their final maturation, he will be able to ascertain, with sufficient accuracy for all practical purposes by their relative quantity of yield, whether there is a sufficient quantiy of the invigorating elements present in the soil for the full development of the plants he has raised on it. Supposing for instance, his clover crop has failed, and that the season has been propitious to the growth of that plant, by referring to his table he will see that clover ranks as a lime plant, and consequently an application of time in some form or other is indicated. On the other hand a similar failing of the wheat takes place with re- spect to the straw, a reference to his table will show him that straw contains eonsid- erable silicon, and that silicon must ba combined with potash before it can enter into the composition of the plant. But supposing that he had an abundance of straw, but a deficiency of grain, his table will tell him that grain requires the phos- phate of lime or magnesia for its perfect maturity. Again supposing he plants po- tatoes; gets alarge growth of vine but very little tubers, his table will show him that the vines of potatoes contain both silicon and lime, and that the tubers re- quire considerable potash to bring. them to perfection, consequently it will be ne- cessary to add potash in some form of other, and I know of nothing better than ashes to supply such deficiency. In support of the theory here advanced, I will relate an instance which I think is strongly corroborative. In 1852 I hada piece of garden ground unoccupied, after planting my other seeds I concluded to 33 plant it with potatoes. After much difficulty I ebtained a few worthless- looking potatoes about the size of marbles, and to all appearance possessed of no more vitality. I planted them, with but little expectation of ever seeing them again.— Judge then of my surprise when on dig- ging [ found an abundant crop of large -siged and excellent quality, Now as no effect however great or small can happen without a corresponding cause preceding it, it becomes a matter of im- portance that an effect so conspciuous should be traced to its cause, and I flatter myself I am in a condition to give a satis- factory explanation. The ground in ques- tion had had no manure for two or three years before, except hardwood sawdust and leached ashes, now the lime, silicon and potash contained in the ashes,and saw- dust are exactly the things that would be found as the inorganic elements in the table above referred to. I have no doubt but what the carbon of the sawdust con- tributed materially to the growth of the potatoes. I would therefore suggest to those living in the vicinity of sawmills, where abundance of sawdust can be ob- tained for nothing, to make trial of a few loads by drawing it and letting it lay while it is sufficiently mellowed—if lime was added it would improve it as well as hast- en its decomposition—together with ashes. I think it would form an excellent manure for this valuable esculent. As the appli- catior of strong manure of animal origin appears to be very injurious to the potato in its present state of health, I would rec- ommend a trial of those of purely vegeta- ble origin, combined with sufficient soda, salt, or pocash and lime. I have no doubt but that the thousands of tuns of sawdust wasted in this country, might be made very valuable if preperly treated and applied to the cultivation of the potato, I would adduce other proofs of the im- portance of supplying this important root with the ingredients that enter into its composition, but I trust I have said enough on the subject at present. I will now proceed to guano and try to point out some errors in its application. The important ingredients in guano are the carbonate of ammonia and the phos- phate of lime, the former a very volatile the latter a very fixed substance. In good specimens the ammonia is abundant ; now suppose in the month of May we plant corn and manure with guano in the hill, it will for as long asthe carbonate of ammonia lasts surround the seed with an atmosphere of carbonate of ammonia and consequently exclude the atmosphere, and as seed cannot germinate without the presence of oxygen in a free state, the seed will not grow so long as the strength remains. Thus we see that instead of the ammonia contributing to the growth of the plant it has actually retarded it, and the only benefit derived from the guano is from the phosphate and other salts. But had we first mixed the guano with a suffi- cient quantity of sulphate of lime or plas- ter, two new compounds of. great value would have b¢en obtained, both fixed and awaiting the time when the roots should penetrate and absorb them, The com- pounds would be the sulphate of ammonia and carbonate of lime, the result of double decomposition. A similar disappointment sometimes at- tends that much valued fertilizer, phos- phate of lime, or rather super-phosphate. 34 In applying it to corn, it must be remem- bered that it has a certain dignified func- tion to perform, and nota jack of all trades by no means; that function is the perfecting of the seed or kernel—it has but little to do with the building up of the stalk, that belongs to the silicate of the potash mainly. Inasmuch as the stalk must be formed before the ear can be per- fected, it there is not a sufficient quantity of silicate of potash for this purpose, it is plain that it is of little use to apply the super-phosphate of lime, .As the phos- phates are the principal inorganic sub- stances carried off in the great staple pro- duction of this county, cheese, I think it is necessary to call attention to the sub- ject, as I am satisfied by repeated inqui- ries that a general ignorance prevails on this subject. I find that the great major- ity believe that so long as they return to the land all the manure and some plaster, the land can never become exhausted.— This is a very grave error, and the sooner corrected the better, for the day is fast approaching when it will be less easy to obtain the phosphate of lime than at pres- ent, unless some new and unlooked for deposit should be found. I cannot consistently recommend the super-phosphate already prepared, on ac- count of. its cost as well as its liability to adulteration, To procure the bones and acid separately, and prepare it, is also ob- jectionable for the reason that the acid com- bines with the lime and consequently be- comes sulphate of lime or plaster, this would be paying about thirty dollars a ton, when we can obtjain it for four dollars al- ready ground. But the phosphate is needed and the day will probably come when we shall be glad to give thirty dollars a ton for plas- ter, for the sake of getting the phosphate along with it. Ithink however that bones may be prepared for fertilizing without the aid of acid, it is well known that bones consist of the phosphate and carbonate of lime, these substances appear to be held together by a compound of glue and oil, glue or gelaten is soluble in water, and. hot water would disintegrate the bone if it was not fcr the presence of the oil.— Party, however, dissolved bone in high pressure steam in a few minutes, but as a farmer can’t well afford high pressure steam he must have something else. I would therefore recommend a caustic alkali, an article which almost every farmer has more or less of in his ashes. To prepare caustic alkali, all that is necessary is to make an ordinary leach with plenty of quick lime in the bottom to absorb the carbonic acid that is in the ley and render it caustic.— If a sufficient quantity of this strong ley was put into a potash or other suitable kettle and then a quantity’of broken bones put in and a brisk heat kept up a while, the glue and oil would be decomposed, and if the bone was not acttially disinte- grated it would become so brittle as to be easily pulverised. This process would put the farmer to no cost beyond his fuel and time, and as it could be done in early spring it would not interfere with his or- dinary pursuits. I think if to this prepar- ation was added the ashes from whence the ley was obtained and a sufficient quan- tity of plaster to make it work comforta. bly, it would make an excellent fertilizer. But in case the farmer had not: sufficient alkali of his own making, it would be far better economy to buy it in the shape of potash, or salsoda, }than to buy acid, for 30 in no other compound could he obtain it so cheap, and its virtue as a fertalizer re- mains the same as before. By this pro- cess I do not contend that a fertilizer as energetic as the super-phosphate is obtain- ed, but what it lacks in energy it will make up in durability. Discussion—May 15th, 1857. It was said that plants take up water and other substances favorable to their growth, and discharge from their roots those substances that are not required for their growth—the ashes form one part to 100 of their dry weight. Charcoal forms about one-half of the dry weight of plants, and carbonic acid is of more importance to plants than any other single sort of food. Itis in all water not boiled. It enters the plant in two ways; through the roots in water and at the leaves which ab- sorb it, Ammonia cannot be taken up by leaves; it must enter the plant through the roots. The composition of the straw and grain is different. Phosphoric acid exists near the shell of grain where the protein and fatty matters exist also most largely. The starch matter in the interior is the least capable of giving strength. Mr. Wuitman enumerated fertilizers that could be obtained in this village, ex- clusive of animal excrement: Lime that had been used in the Paper Mills, refuse from the Slaughter Houses, hair and bits of hide from the Tannery, He thought the waste from the coloring vats, at the Woolen Factory, might be used. The most valuable waste of this Factory, how- ever, was thrown into the river. At one of the Factories he believed the wool tags and refuse of this description were not thrown into the river. Another member believed it was was- ted. He had obtained a few loads by re- questing it to be specially saved for him. Mr. Wittarp believed that spent tan bark could be used profitably as a manure, It was rich in carbonaceous matter; con- tained nitrogen and other organic matter, as well as phosphoric acid. It could be readily decomposed by composting it with the lime and salt mixture. He was asked to describe the process ; in what proportion should lime and salt be used ? Mr. Wittarp.—lIt is said to be the best way of using lime and salt in compost, to take three bushels lime and slake it with the brine made from one bushel salt. The bark might be composted with stable ma. nure, muck, d&e., in alternate layers, ap_ plying the lime and salt mixture to each layer. Mr. Arnotp.—One of the best results in manuring-that I have experienced, is from the use of Tan Bark and Hair, it was drawed on the land and plowed in, the first crop was very large, the second crop also, was large; afterwards the land was put down in grass—at harvest time my man estimated the grass cut on half an acre at two and a half tons, there were three large loads, the land now is very productive. Mr. Hetmer.—aAt one of our meetings it was stated that the land in this county was not capable of keeping the amount of stock it did a few years since. I think Judge Loomis estimated it at the rate o five cows less per 100 acres, Mr.FEETER,you are engaged largely in Dairying, will you please state how you have found it on your Farm # 36 Mr, Frerer.—I am not able to state precisely, because I have been adding more land to my farm. I have been en- gaged in Dairying some nine years, before that we raised grain, we think we can keep more stock on the same number of acres. Mr, Hetmzr.—In conversation with several Dairymen from Salisbury, they stated that they were not able to keep the number of cows they did some years since—they supposed that the free use of plaster had exhausted the land. I do not state this as my theory, but as ¢heirs. Mr. Wurrman hoped the humbug of Plaster exhausting land would have an end. He remembered when Plaster was first introduced into the county—about the year 1815—it was not then ground but was drawn on to the land and broken with a hammer, afterwards Mr. Incuam had erected a small mill for grinding plas- ter in this village—it was a very small mill and but little was ground, but it sup- plied this region with Plaster for many years—he had heard it stated that Phos- phates were being carried off to our cities in grain, cheese and stock, and were not returned to the soil, he would like to know if our land was deteriorating in this res- pect ? Mr. Rzxp believed he could keep as much stock on his farm now as formerly —he thought he could keep more—he used more manure—he thought the land richer than when grain was raised. It was asked what is the usual amount ef cheese per cow now made, and what was it ten or fifteen years ago. The reply to this question was, from 400 to 500 Ibs. per cow are now usually made. The President said 250 lbs. per cow formerly was considered a good yield ; that some farmers now produced 600 and 700 Ibs. per cow. A member thought the increased quan- tity of cheese was due to improved meth- ods of making cheese; that the quality of stock had not been improved. He es- timated the number of cows kept in his town, Fairfield, to be 700 less than the number a few years since, This estima- tion was based on personal inquiry. Another member asked the question, what would be a good top dressing for grain to prevent lodging? He understood the strength of the straw depended in a measure on the amount of silica taken up. There was usually enough silica or sand in soils for plants, but it was not always soluble in sufficient quantities. If an al- kali was applied, it would render this silica available. Mr. Oysron.—I would apply lime or ashes. Lime is an excellént application to land apart from this. Ashes, perhaps, would act more directly in rendering the silica soluble. It was said that Lime can be readily obtained in the village. Mr. Kanna has some thrce thousand bushels of slaked lime near his kiln, but it is a question whether it would be safe to use it without first having obtained an analysis. It may con- tain large portions of magnesia, which would made it positively injurious to the land. A member said—It isa question whether your soil and a portion of mine, which is the Frankfort or Utica slate, needs lime. I rather think our up-land has a sufficient’ supply. 37 Another member remarked—I doubt whether it would pay to haul leached ashes from this village, two miles, to apply as a manure. I have seen it stated by Agricultural writers, that 15 cents would buy fertilizing ingredients in a more avail- able form than is usually contained in 30 bushels leached ashes. It was replied—I do not believe it; they are used in large quantities on Long Island with beneficial results ; large quan- tities. are transported from this county ; this they would not do unless it paid. To this it was replied—They undoubt- edly produce some effect, Their action is due to the soluble silicate they contain, and a trace of phosphoric acid. I will give you an analysis of the ash of the oak un- leached and leached, showing their manu- rial value: In 1000 parts oak ashes, un- leached, contained Potash 84, Soda 56, Lime 750, Magnesia 45, Oxide of Iron 6, Sulphuric Acid 12, Phosphoric Acid 35. The same ashes leached contained Lime 548, Magnesia 6, Phosphoric Acid 8; so you see nearly all the fertilizing ingre- dients have been leached out, and the mass remaining is nearly all dirt. Mr. Arnot said it was questionable whether it was advisable to purchase ma- nure to apply on soil ‘composed of the Frankfort or Utica slate, that soil was al- most inexhaustible. He had known fields of this soil that had been plowed for fifty years, and they produced good crops new ; he-believed our barn-yard manure and sub- soil plowing, would generally prove effi- cient. Mr. Oysron thought all soils could be improved by a judicious application of ma- | nure. He thought the Farmer could manu- facture concentrated manure cheaper than to buy that in market, and get a better ar- ‘ticle. Mr. Hetmer.—I think we need an an- alysis of our soils: we can thea apply ma- nures with profit. Mr. ARnotp.—I do not think it neces- sary to go tothat expense. I think I can tell pretty correctly from the crop whatis wanting in the soil. Mr. Oysrox.—Every farmer should have the analysis of the different crops; by re- ferring te them and watching the produce of the soil, we could ‘tell pretty closely what ingredient was wanting. Mr, Witcox.—Can any one tell what the expense of an analysis would be, and how to proceed to ebtain it ? It was said that Agricultural Chemists advertise that they will make an analysis for from $5 to $10. Samples of soil for analysis is obtained thus: take a spadeful from various parts of the field, going to the depth to which it has been plowed, untii a wheel-barrow full has been obtained; mix this well together and send a small portion to the Chemist. Mr. Hetmer.—Thus you see the farmer is losing many times the value of the cost of an analysis by experimenting with his crops as data for obtaining the constituents of the soil. Mr. Witcox.—Can any one tell the comparative value of our farm manures ? Mr. WitLtarp.—63 parts of hog-ma- nure are equal to 100 parts of common farm-yard manure, or 18 1-2 of goat-ma- nure, equals the same. The comparative value of the urine of different animals in solid matter, organic and inorganic, may be represented thus : pig 74, cow 70, horse 38 60, sheep 40; horse manure has the; greatest power of absorbing moisture from the atmosphere. The President said he had received a letter of interest from Mr. Avery of Salis- bury, with reference to our Club; he would read it. Mr. Avery had learned from the Courier, of the meetings of the Club ; they were very interesting, and he looked upon it as a very laudable object, and one calculated to do a vast amount of good in ourcounty ; he heaptily regretted that he could not participate in the work, but time and ill-health. prevented him at present. The following is Mr. Avery’s method of cultivating the Potato as a preventative against the rot: ‘“*Take equal parts of Lime,Ashes and Plaster,what you can take up with a common sized table spoon is sufficient for a hill, drop this in a furrow and have it partially mix with earth before dropping the seed ; I have never seen any rotten ones when planted in this way, and I have experimented for a number of years in the same field with various kinds of barn- yard manure along side of those planted in this composition,” 1-3 of the crop not so treated on an average was rotten. Again says Mr. Avery, “I have some- times beat my neighbors in having early cucumbers ; I have done it in the follow- ing manner. Take an old barrel, without any head, settle this into the earth about one-third of its length, then fill it half full, or a little more, with small cobble stone, then fix a spout through the side of the barrel, having the end reach the centre over the stones, then fill up half of the remainder of the barrel with horse manure, then fill the barrel up full with good rich earth and plant the seed, every evening pour from one to two pails full of boiling hot water through the spout on the stones. It is not too late now to obtain cucumbers in this way about as early as they will be able to send them from Long Island here, A large tea spoonful of Guano is suffi- cient for two hills of corn. I do not pretend to know much about the moon, nor its influence on vegetation, but we know that it takes a year to form one grain of wood to the green tree. Now I should be happy to learn, through the Courier or by mail, what causes the dif- ferent layers or grains we find in the onion.” FRUITS, THEIR CULTURE AND PRESERVATION, a AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS! CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, AT ITS EIGHTH MEETING, MAY 29th, 1857. ns ByrT Ft. ww. ZI BUMMER. > The subject for our afternoon discussion fruits, their culture and preservation— is so extensive and varied in its character that it will only be possible for me, in the short space proper for an Essay, and the shorter time I have been able to devote to it, to glance at a few of the most impor- tant and most easily cultivated fruits suit- ed to our locality, Let it be understood that Ishall use the term fruits in its restricted or pomo- logical sense, in distinction from grains, roots, éc., or its more general sense. It is a fact full of significance that noth- ing really valuable is to be attained with- out labor, effort, culture, and there is per- haps nowhere a more striking exemplifi- eation of this fact, than is to be found in the cultivation of fruits. The types of all our various fruits are found natural pioductions of the Earth.— The pear, peach, cherry, &c., of, to-day may each be traced from the same kindsof fruits of centuries ago. Man originates or creates nothing. At his creation he was placed in the garden to dress and keep —or cultivate it, not to plant it. This had already been done for him. Here lies his province. The Creator has scattered abundantly over the surface of the Earth its various productions, and assigned to man their culture and im- provement. He might have given him these in the utmost state of perfection, capable of no improvement by the most careful stady and labor. But there would then have been no incentive nor necessity to labor ; and labor, look at it as we may, shan it as we will, is doubtless one of the great- est blessings that Infinite Wisdom has as- signed us, and he who labors most effect- ively for the well being of his race, comes nearest the fulfillment of the designs of his Creator. . I may be pardoned if I stop long enough here to express my sincere pity for those human drones to whom the ‘frowns of an outrageous misfortune” have denied the necessity to labor, °Tis meet that we should pity them. Perhaps, however, there are not within the range of our endeavor any greater in- ducements and encouragements to labor, to the man of cultivated taste, than in'the culture of fruits. Of these let us take the apple, as this stands by almost universal 40 consent first in importance for our portion of the Earth. Most of the valuable apples among us are seedling varieties raised from Europe- an importations. It would be interesting to trace them back through their various advancement fora few centuries to the wild crab of Evrope, (from which most of them have doubtless originated), had sci- entific skill preserved us specimens in each But as this is denied to us, we only know them from gradation of improvement. deseriptions left us, and from specimens of the crab apple perhaps scarcely improved for centuries, that the change has been very great. We are not to conclude, however, that because much has been done, there is nothing more to accomplish. We have not reached perfection, yet doubtless the fruit growers of our county may truthfully report progress. To be assured of this it will be only necessary to look back for a few years. The man who would plant an orchard to-day with the same varicties of apples that were to be found in what were even the best orchards twenty or twenty- five years ago, would be so far behind the age that we might almost fancy he was the realization of Irving’s imaginary Rip Van Winkle. I shall here only attempt to name a few varieties of those best sutted te our local- ity :—The Baldwin, Esopus, Spitzenberg Swaar, Rhode Island Greening, Roxbury Russet, Fall Pippin, Early Harvest, and Herkimer Middle Apple. The last named claims to be a seedling of our own county, and I am told by those better acquainted with it, that it is a valuable fruit... [ have left out of this list many that are choice kinds, and probably many that are well adapted to our locality, such as the New- town Pippin, Northern Spy, Porter, &e., as Ido not know that they have beet tested with us to auy considerable extent, and experience has shown that those vari- eties which are the most valuable in any given locality,may be comparatively worth- less when removed to only a short distance involving different soil and aspect. But there are so many valuable fruits which experience and patient trial have shown worthy of culture, that there need be but httle difficulty in making a selec- tion suited to any situation. It may be proper to remark here, that most of our fruit growers err greatly in raising apples for the market by attempting too many different kinds. Variety is desirable so far as may be needed for ones own use.— But he who would be most successful in cultivating this fruit for sale, should at- tempt but few kinds, and probably better but a single one, known to be valuable al- ways asa marketable fruit, and adapted to his locality. The.next important matter to the culti- vator, or perhaps more properly speaking, the first in importance, is the selection of a location for his trees, Soil and aspect are vital points to success. So far as I have been able to judge of the lands of our county, I regard the lime stone best adapted to the raising of this fruit. With this perhaps should be class- ed the shales or Utica slates which form the basis for a considerable portion of our northern lands. To these may be added what I would calla heavy loam or mixture of clay and gravel. Light sandy soils, heavy clays, or deep alluvial lands: are not well adapted to the culture of this fruit, nor of fruits generally. AT With regard to location, moderately elevated lands, sloping to the west or south west should be preferred, and where they ean be sheltered to some extent from the north and north-west, it would add to their value. But all situations shut out from a free circulation of air,steep worthern exposures, vallies, and low land along our river and streams, should be avoided. The transplanting of trees I shall pass over, simply saying that the method here- tofore too generally practiced of digging a hole in the earth, and plunging a tree into it much after the manner of setting a fence post, is not approved. He who cannot, or does not properly prepare his lands, should also omit the planting. The next consideration, but by no means the least important, is the care and man- agerentof trees. Iam led to conclude from my limited observation that this is gen- erally the point of failure with many who have attempted the culture of this fruit.— The practice generally has been after plant- ing the trees, and this often very imper- fectly done, to regard the work accomplish- ed; it being now only necessary to look for bounteous returns of fruit. There can- not be a greater error. Will it pay ? has become the all-absorb- ing question of our money-loving and money-getting age, and of course the would-be fruit grower shares it in common with others. To this we answer, that depends entire- ly upon the management of grounds and trees after being properly selected and planted. Ifa crop isto be gathered but once in two years and that a meagre one, it will not pay—and this has become so common as to be expected generally— and only every alternate year looked for and spoken of as the bearing year. But is this necessary? Tothis wemay answer’ decidedly no! The experience of many good fruit growers has demonstrated be- yond all cavil that itis not. With proper treatment abundant crops of fruit have: been gathered from the same trees, year’ vafter year with as much regularity and certainty as- almost any other crop, and this not from single trees, but from whole orchards of various kinds of fruits. The feason is obvious. A tree laden with fruit requires a great amount of nour- ishment from the soil. Every fibre and rootlet is stimulated to supply this demand. When the soil is sufficiently rich in those elements which the fruit requires, we find it well developed and mature in its season. On the contrary, when they are lacking, we find the fruit small and imperfect, and in most cases where even a fair crop has been gathered, the soil and vigor of the tree have been so far exhausted, that they require one year to recover the drain that has been made upon them. Now supply to the soil sufficient nutriment to perfect the fruit and give streagth and vigor to the: tree to develope the fruit buds for the suc- ceeding year, and you may reasonably expect an equally good supply of fruit, This is not mere theory, or rather it is theory demonstrated by practice. This leads us to the subject of fertilizers for fruit. To this the only general direc- tion that can be given is, the soil should be enriched by whatever elements are lack- ing for the perfection of the fruit, and a supply for the growth and vigor of the tree. Experience has shown that lime and potash are very essential, and barn-yard manores in which the ammonia has been fixed by the use of plaster are highly val- uable. 4 Generally speaking whatever enriches the soil for the growth of grains and vege- tables will also be adapred to fruits. An- other point of equal interest is the frequent working of the soil. For this purpose planting with corn and root crops is re- commended in preference to grains, Hea- vy crops of grain, such as rye for instance, are objectionable, and so are also grasses, and particularly clover. With these crops the earth becomes heavy and cold, while just the opposite is required, especially for young trees. With regard to pruning I have only space to say, avoid severe prun- ing. Generally it will only be necessary to remove branches that cross or interfere with each other, or unripened wood.— Trees, however, with too thick a top, should be pruned sufficiently to admit the sun and air freely, but this should be done while the branches are small, and all scars immediately covered with a coating of paint or shellac. The true theory of prun- ing is to begin with the tree so small that we can remove the buds with the fingers that we do not wish to grew, and in this manner we may develope such form of top as we wish, and rarely or never use a knife. Frequent washings of the trunk and large branches with soap is highly recom- mended, and the removal of all the rough loose bark. The next point that requires the atten- tien and care of the fruit grower, is the destruction and prevention of insects.— Those most formidable in our vicinity I believe are the caterpillar and the borer worm. The latter often very destructive to trees, may be prevented by putting a small quantity of wood ashes about the trunk of the trees, and washing with soap 2 or moderately strong alkalies,as this enethy nearly always attacks them just above the ground. The former is easily destroyed by removing the nest early before the worm has attained sufficient growth to move about the tree. They need close watching, however, from the time the leaves begin to expand until the middle of June, for their growth is so rapid that three or four days are sufficient to send them forth in swarms te every part of the tree. I have thus far treated only of the ap- ple, but all that has been said of the man- agement of the apple tree will apply equally well to the pear, which to a certain extent may now be considered the favorite fruit for our section of the country, and for a few years past has been a more valuable fruit for market. Greatly as the apple has been improved by culture, it has.not by any means kept pace with the improvement of the pear. The advance from the common choke pear to our present Bartletts, Virgalieus, Seckles, d&c., is so great as to almost make one doubt the possibility of their having been produced from it. But their history is so recent and well attested that there is no room for doubt. From the great success which has at- tended the growth of the pear in our coun- try, among the few who have given it any- thing like adequate attention, there is no reason to doubt but that our soil and cli- mate are both well adapted to its culture, and the prices obtained for some choice varieties are almost fabulous, reaching as high for choice kinds as fifteen dollars per barrel. But great as this is, it falls far behind prices obtained by some of our dis- tinguished fruit growers. I have seen it stated that Professor Mapes took last 43 season, for some varieties of Pears, twelve and a half cents each, and was not able to supply the demand at even that enormous price. Nor was this because the kinds were superior to those grown a.uong us,but because by the application of science and skill they were brought to a state of perfection mot yet attained among us, What we need is patient study, persevering energy, and care; and though we may not obtain these extreme prices, we shall dou’.t less be able to get remunerative ones. Among the most valuable pears for our locality, I would place the Bartlett, Flem- ish Beauty, Beurre Bosc, Beurre Diel, Louisa Bonne de Jersey, Glout Morceau, Winter Nellis. There are many other valuable kinds, such as the Virgalieu, Seckle, &c., very choice varieties ; but I am not able to learn that they thrive well here. The speci- mens I have seen of Seckle and Virgalieu particularly, were by no means favorable. This may be owing to our want of skill in the treatment, rather than climate. But they should be more thoroughly tested before venturing upon to any considerable extent. T designed to have noticed. the Grape, which I regard as one of our must valua- -ble fruits; but I have already exceeded the limits I assigned myself, and I. have not had time to apply the pruning process, which I should do in this case with a libe- ral hand, however sparingly I should use the knife among the trees. I must also omit the preservation of fruits for the same reason, and leave them to be taken up at another time by an abler hand. Discussion--May 29th, 1857, PEARS, Mr, Hetmer inquired of Mr. L. B. Ar- Noxp, the name of the Pear for which he obtained $15 per barrel. Mr. Arnotp said it had been known by name of the “Gray Virgalieu.’ It came from Rhode Island about sixty years ago, but that was not its true name,neither did he know its true name, Mr, Frerur thought he should have this season some of the same variety. Mr. Heuer said he had not had good success with the Virgalieu. They had not yielded well,—hke did not consider them profitable for his location. Mr. Arnoxp considered the White Vir- galieu as poor—almost worthless as a Pear to cultivate in his vicinity. Mr. Heimer thought perhaps the diffi- culty was in the soil, Mr. Wurran had observed that Pears grew remarkably well in the vicinity of Troy, where there was considerable clay in the soil. A member thought our soil lacked iron. In the vicinity ef Clinton, Oneida Co, where there were beds of iron ore, the Pear grew well. He had applied iron filings to his trees. The effect was less manifest upon the Virgalieu than upon the other trees—but he considered it a good and profitable application. Another had clay in his soil, but re- garded iron filings as a good application. Mr. WurtmMan inquired if the cinders from the blacksmith shops would not be good. It was thought not-——it required too long time to dissolve them. One member thought the soil and cli- mate of this locality well adapted to the 44 cultivation of Pears generally, The Flemish Beauty he did not raise—thought it too tender; while others mentioned the names of several individuals who had suc- ceeded well with it. APPLES. Several varieties of Apples are cultiva- ted in this vicinity—some much more ad_ vantageously than others, and the same variety yield much better on some partic- ular kinds ef soil. Mr. Bateman had raised the Herkimer Middle Apple with good success, »nd thought it a good apple—had cultivated it several years. It had a thin skin—ma- tured early, in September, and kept as well as fall fruit generally. A member said his experience disap- proved of it. He had also failed with the Yellow Belle Flower. He procured good scions but the fruit was poor. His scions came from Ohio Mr. Feerer inquired if any one culti- vated the Wine Apple? It was not regarded much. Mr. Freeter’s experience was against it —it was small, and he did not think it was worth cultivating. Mr. Arnoip thought the best apple for this locality was the Wagener. It was fit for use at harvesting and kept about as well asthe Roxbury till June. He ob- tained his from the original ae in Yates county. Mr. Frxzrer said the best apple 3 had for cultivation, was a sweet apple, resem- bling the Swaar in shape. Some considered the Newtown Pippin an excelient apple, but he thought it too apt to decay, in this locality. Mr. Bateman could not raise it. Mr. Reep was also unfortunate with this apple. It decayed on the trees. His soil was gravelly. He thought it would not decay on a-clay soil. Mr. Marke. inquired if they did not mature too fast on the gravel ? Mr. Reep thought ‘probably that was the reason. Mr. Heimer alluded to Mr. Pett, the great American fruit grower—his fruit was in all markets, and always obtained the highest price. His soil was clay and gravel. He cultivated his orchard land—raising nearly or quite as much from it as ether farmers obtained from their farming land, besides his fruit. Mr. Ferrer had good success with the Newtown Pippin and Golden Pippia— thought them an excellent apple, Mr. Market was not successful with the Spitzenburg—his soil was clay and sand—no lime stone. PEARS AND APPLES, One member thought Pears the most profitable fruit to raise. He had seen from one to ten barrels raised annually from each tree. They always brought a good price. Mr. Reep had. an apple tree which has borne from forty to fifty bushels every oth- er year for the last fifty years, INDUCEMENTS FOR CULTIVATING FRUIT. a AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, AT ITS NINTH MEETING, JUNE 12th, 1857. oS ee Senger BT me. BB. ARNOLD. ———_ Ata former meeting I classed the culti- ‘vation of fruit as the most profitable branch of agriculture,among those that are second to dairying as the principal business of the county. I will now endeavor to show some of the reasons for so classing it. As profit is the item to be now consid- ered, I will pass over, for the present, all considerations of choice luxuries, dietic uses, &c., and proceed at once to its value for producing izeome. The apple is the great staple among fruit growers at present, and is therefore first in order. Among the extensive and various ways in which apples are consumed,the least pro- fitable use to which they are applied is feeding them to stock. For this purpose they are variously estimated from no value ap to twenty-five cents a bushel. J.J. Tuomas, Author of the “ American Fruit Culturist,” estimates the value of sweet ap- ples as “fully equal to the best root crops” for feeding domestic animals. It is pretty - generally understood that apples both sweet and sour are valuable for feeding swine. They prefer a mixture of both, rather than either variety alone, at the rate of three ‘bushels sweet to one of sour. The opinion as to their influence upon other stock, es- Some suppose they increase the amount of milk, while others positively assert that they dry it up. Having in 1852 some old ungrafted trees come into my possession, so decayed from long neglect, that I des- paired of ever reviving them for grafting, I resolved before cutting them down, to test the disputed influence of apples upon dairy cows. In September of the next year I commenced feeding 9 bushels once a day to thirty six cows and continued at about that rate through the season. Con- sulting my record of milk for a week be- fore and a week after feeding, I found with no other varying circumstance than feed- ing the apples, the milk increased two and a half gallons per day, while the like rec- ord of curd as it came from the press show- ed an inerease of eleven pounds a day.— An improvement soon followed in the con- dition of the cows, and the conclusion ar- rived at was, that when cheese was worth ten cents a pound, apples were worth one shilling a bushel to feed to cows. I fed during the fall about 500 bushels, the trees upon which they grew occupying as near as I could estimate, 1 1-4 acres. The la- bor of feeding was fully equalled by the grass produced upon the ground they oc- pecially milch cows, is not so uniform.|cupied. The profit therefore was fifty dol- lars per acre. The fruit was the ordinary |el. Four hundred bushels will make 150 varieties of sweet and sour, mixed at ran™ dom, but as much as two bushels sour to one of sweet. Had this proportion been reversed, and had I divided the allowance and fed twice a day instead of once, I have no doubt the result would have been much better. But with their inferior fruit the old trees gave a better return than I could get from cultivating the ground, so I let them stand. Asa winter feed for both cattle and horses, I believe them to be worth still more. They improve the health and con- dition of the animals and give a glossy appearance to the coat, like that produced from feeding oil cake. The great length of time which cattle are kept from the ground and confined to dry food and close stables is not very conducive to good health but tends rather to contract debility, if not disease and to diminish the spirits and flesh. The use of apples or other green food with the dry counteracts this tenden- cy, and maintains the vigor and health and a uniform state of thesystem,so that the fol- lowing spring and summer are not called upon to restore what the Winter has lost. But, like grain, apples should be fed in small quantities, especially when sour. As many bushels of good apples may be grown upon a given space as poor ones, ~and the profits of course would be much greater. Fruit growers estimate the an- nual product of an acre of medium sized trees in full bearing and under good culti- vation, at 400 bushels. The ‘author to whom I have referred estimates the yearly cost of the Best cultivation, at $6 per acre and the interest of the ground at as much more, making $12 the whole cost of 400 bushels on the trees, or thiee cents a bush- barrels, which at $1,50 a barrel will amount to $225. But this is not all profit, there is to be deducted from this, first $12.00 “ Gathering & barreling 37.50 “150 barrels at 2s each 37.50 “ Carrying to thorough- _ The cost of fruit on the trees ry4 a a oe “ sh fare say 5 miles 18.00 $105.00 Leaving - - - $120.00 as the net profit cf an acre within five miles of the village. This amount seems a large profit for a single acre, but the es- timate is moderate and may be relied on as a safe average. More than twice this amount is often produced. I have seen Rhode Island Greenings and other pro- ductive varieties yield at the rate of 1000 bushels to the acre. But the profits from the growth of the pear exceeds this esti- mate by far. As a general thing the , gtowth of the tree is more uncertain ; more skill and care are required in its cultivation; its liabilities to destruction are greater, and a longer time is required to bring it into bearing than the apple tree. But there are some hardy varicties that may be cultivated in this vicinity with as much ease and certainty as the apple. The va- rieties | mentioned at the last meeting is one of them. The tree is thrifty and hardy, enduring the severity and changes of our climate aswell as the apple tree, and is even more productive, being a profuse and regular bearer. The fruit, medium in size, with a fine grained rich and melting flesh, has sold in the New York market for several years at from $5 to $15 a barrel, according to con- dition and quality. The difference be- tween the two figures would be a fair av- erage of the prices it has sold at for the last five years, But take as a basis for an estimate $6 for the net proceeds of sales, and though it produces much more abun- dantly than apples upon a given area of ground, call the amount per acre the same as for apples, and. you have the handsome sum of $900 asthe return for an acre of these trees. Single trees and small parcels of ground occupied with choice varieties often produce under the best cultivation at double this rate. If to the eye of any one who has been in the habit of raising second rate fruit and shaking it upon the ground, then throw- ing it into a barrel and hurrying it away to a thoroughfare in its bruised and mutila- ted condition, the above estimates would seem too large: let him divide them all by two and then tell me how he would obtain a better or even equal reward for his labor. I shall omit entirely to discuss the mer- its of the smaller fruits, though they gen- erally yield more valuable returns than apples and pears, because in the first place Tam not well qualified to do so, and be- cause farmers generally will not bestow the pains necessary to produce them. I have spoken particularly of a single variety of pears not because I consider it the best sample of that kind of fruit, but because I happen to be familiar with its rate of producing, and value from raising and dealing in the fruit. It is only one among the many valuable varieties that may be grown with the like results. There are others of larger size and richer flavor that sell for higher prices, but I know of none the trees of which are more hardy or productive. 47 Asan article of domestic economy fruit i8 coming into extensive use. People are beginning to learn that fruit as well as grain is nutritious. The quantity used for culinary purposes has probably doubled within a few years, and it may with ad- vantage be still further substituted in the place of the too stimulating and concen- trated diet of animal flesh, and to some extent the place of the cereal grains, Aside from its economical value I regard it as one of the choicest Juxuries. It is the misfortune of almost every luxury in which we indulge that it is both expensive and deleterious to health. But in ripe fruit, if taken at our regular meals, the God of Nature has supplied us with a nat- ural luxury, which is not only not perni- cious, but one of the most efficient means of promoting superior health, and so cheap as to be within the reach of all. It is said there are 1000 varieties of choice pears cultivated in the U.S., while those of apples are almost innumerable. Select- ing from those two kinds alone, every fare mer has it in his power to feast upon fruit almost the year round. Add to these the list of smaller fruits that may be grown here: berries, cherries, grapes and plums, and he may delight in a cheap and healthy luxury every day in the year. Then, why not,brother farmers, produce more fruit. Why not extend your list of luxuries and meaus of profit. There is not half enough raised to supply the in- habitants of the cities and larger villages with what they desire and what they need to promote health. They cannot afford to buy at current prices, for though cheap to us, it is dear to others. It costs four times as much to raise a barrel of potatoes asa barrel of apples, and yet the average price 48: of the latter is the higher. If good fruit could be sold at only a remunerative profit, immense quantities would be called for. There is not the least danger of overdoing the business, for stock will consume with profit any surplus you can create. I do not mean by what I have said above to urge that every farmer should plunge headlong into fruit-growing and abandon his other business, Circumstances, as the length of time and labor of raising trees, and the demands of the present hour must be regarded But what I do urge is that every farmer should as he has opportunity extend his list of fruit trees. Select the best kinds (it costs no more to raise good fruit than poor) and plant what you can and take care of what vou plant. If you Want trees to protect your buildings from the wind—fruit trees will answer as well as any. If you want trees for shade let them be fruit trees. If you desire trees to ornament your yard or dwelling, what is more neat, tasty and attractive than a well-trained selection of fruit trees,adorned at one season of the year with beautiful and fragrant flowers, at another with a rich profusion of delicious fruit, and at all times wearing a graceful appearance. For me there is something attractive in the cultivation of fruit. Always dealing with fine flavors and beautiful forms tends to cultivate a refined taste. Contributing to the delight and welfare of others by furnishing them a wholesome food and de- licious luxury, begets pleasant emotions. Agriculture in general is held in high es- timation by all good citizens, because it lies at the very basis of human support, and because it creates absolute value, im- poverishing no one, but makes the com- munity rich while it enriches the produ- cer. But with me there is a choice in de- partments. If the daily slaughter of ani- mals, ever though it be done for human support, begets in the slayer such a noto- rious disregard of suffering, and renders: his sympathies so obtuse, as to exclude’ Lim by the general consent of courts frown the list of jurors in criminal trials, may not he who raises those animals be some- what similarly affected? Do net one’s thoughts and reflections influence his mental and moral condition? and are not those thouglits and reflections determined in a measure by his occupation? As we approach the evening of life and look back upon the result of our labors, will it make no difference in our reflections whether we have shortened human life or prolonged it? whether we have augmented human happiness or decreased it? In short wheth- er we have furnished corn for the distiller or food and clothing to the hungry and naked ? whether we rejoice the communit# with which we are connected, in furnishing it with a delicious food and health-inspiring luxury,by the cultivation of fruit,or whether we curse that community with pain,disease and death, by producing some useless or vile product, like tobacco ? Whoever raises a bushel of grain or a basket of fruit, produces a positive value, that will benefit himself and others. Let him who can then plant bread fields, and when he plants a field let him planta tree beside it. It will require a trifling effort ; it will dono harm and may do much good, more perhaps than may be seen at present. Little did John B, Arnold suppose when 64 years ago he emigrated from Rhode Island to the woody hills of Fairfield, bringing with him a little sprout from a favorite pear tree and planting it in the leafy earth by his forest home, that he 49 should ever thereby do more than regale his palate occasionally in some weary hour, or perhaps-at some remote day ap pease the lips of bis then unborn children with a grateful repast. The tree lived and grew and brought forth the anticipated reward. ‘Phe hand that planted it has past away, but not so with its labors — The trees that have sprung from that parent stock are now numbered by huudreds, and those who annually partake of their rich fruit may be counted by thousands Let us each, then, plant one more tree and nourish it well, Though it may not bring results like the little sprout in the wildernesss, and though we may never live to gather its fruit, it may still gladden the hearts of our posterity and add to the sum total of human happiness. Discussion—June 12th, 1857. CULTIVATION AND PRESERVATION OF TREES. Mr. Wuirman said since the last meet- ing, Mr. Heimer had found many of his trees in a diseased condition; they were at- tacked with the borer worm—=some were ruined—that on making a close examina- tion, individual trees were found complete- ly girdled under the bark by this pest. Mr. Eaton—=I believe there is some- thing peculiar in the soil on the hill where Mr. Hrumer is located, that renders it lia- ble to attacks of thi. insect. I think trees on gravelly soils generally more liable to be attacked. Many years since I observed the soil (where Mr. Hetwer had his trees) contained large quantities of grub worms —for many years it was the resort of vil- lage boys to obtain bait for fish. I do} not know as these latter are of the same species as the borer, but they resemble it, I have found the borer in trees on my lot and in .reots of trees transplanted by Mr. Heber. It was said that the most effectual rem- edy is to examine your trees often and de> stroy the worm with the knife. Mr. Witcox said he had found the bo- rer in some choive varieties of pear trees, and has taken them out. A stranger present said, the borer did not usually attack the pear tree, they were more destructive to the apple and quince. Mr. Wuitcox—Some of my pear trees have been attacked with the blight; Icut off the portion diseased and sometimes re- moved the whole top cf the tree. Mr. Svetb—I have lost valuable trees from this cause, some of the trees I have cut off and re-grafted. Ido not under- stand the cause of the disease. I think it is because the trees do not grow vigor- ously; F have never observed it attack trees that grew thriftily. The pear blight it was said is caused by the sudden freezing of the sap, in the un- ripened wood. Mr. Arnotp—lI think the cause of the blight is not understood—the writers that L have consulted have not been able to point out the cause of the disease, A meniber said Mr. Downing’s theory is that while the sap vessels of the unri- pened wood are full, a sudden freezing takes place and poisons the sap—this pois- ofious fluid carried through the tree in the apring causes the disease. Mr. Wirttarp said he had a few pear trees girdled by mice the past winter—he introduced scions in the tree around the girdled part so as to connect the portions 50 above and below the girdled part and cov- ered with wax as lately recommended for preserving girdled trees—the trees were growing fiinely and had blossomed. Mr. Syett—lI tried.that experiment last year—the tree flowered, but it was a fuil- ure—the tree died. Mr. Wittarp—Did the scions grow! Mr. Syett—They did not. Mr Wittarp—In the trees that I have so treated the scions are growing. I may loose the trees; but I think not. Mr. Arnotp had known trees to leave out and flower that had been girdled—he had lost about 3000 the past winter, de- stroyed by mice. / Mr. Wittarp said one of his neighbors had been grafting successfully on a little different plan from the common method, he made a shoulder on the scion, cutting it say one half in two and pearing it on one side to a point, this was inserted be- tween the bark and wood of the stock and pushed down to the shoulder, the bark of the stock being previously slit—the whole then waxed in the usual manner. For grafting large limbs he thought it an ad- mirable method—several scions could be set on a stock. ; Mr. SrepHens of Frankfort, said he had grafted some large limbs in this way the past spring, the scions started finely. Mr. Arnoup said he had been using iron filings about his pear trees—on one tree he had not been able to get perfect fruit until he had made this application. He thought the Frankfort slate did not contain enough iron for the pear—the ex- periment had not been made long enough to give it a thorough test. Mr. Witcox has cultivated several va- rieties of the pear, the ground was kept M. Syext used well rotted manure about apple trees and worked it into the soil. Mr. Wrxarp used ashes about pear trees with success—the pear is a rank feeder of potash—ashes can therefore be used with advantage. FRUIT GROWN IN THIS LOCALITY. Mr. Arnotp had the Grey Virgalieu, and a seedling brought into the county by Joun B. Arnotp. This last had been pretty well disseminated throughout the county. He knew no name for it—it was a delicious pear, superior to the Virgalieu, Mr. Witcox said he had eaten of this pear—he thought it a very delicious fruit and worthy of general cultivation. He cultivated the Seckel, Winter Nellis, Flem- ish Beauty and other varieties, but his trees were mostly small. One of the members grew the Bartlett— he esteemed it one of the best if not the best, for this locality on account of its great productiveness, large size, and deli- cious flavor. His trees bore every year— he had bearing trees of the Seckel and Virgalieu—the Seckel was a great bearer and was of excellent flavor. Mr. Earon—Downing places the Seckel first among pears. It was said the only objection to the Seckel is its small size. Mr. Swett spoke of an apple tree of his that appeared healthy and was in vigorous growth, but did not bear. Mr. Wiutarp said that in a recent con- versation with Mr. Extison, he stated that in purchasing fruit for the N. ¥. market, he had observed that apples raised on lime- stone or clay soils were not so liable to decay as those raised on other soils, Mr. Snett—The Rhode Island Green- ing succeeds better on my soil (the Utica well worked about the trees. Slate) than the Spitzenburg. I have trees ol that bear every year, but I have taken particular care of them. Mr. Arwoxp said perfect fruit could not be expected without the tree was ina healthy condition and had proper nourish- ment for the perfection of its growth and fruit—that dead branches on a tree injured the fruit—the moisture of the diseased part was carried through the tree by the sap and was poisonous. Mr. Wittarp thought that the Wagner, Baldwin, Bellefleur and Swaar well suited to this locality. They had succeeded well on his soil. The Yellow Bellefleur he thought a very delicious apple—it was large size and kept until late in the Spring. Mr. Arwotp had fruit of the Bellefleur —the scions were brought from the West ; but the fruit was not of good flavor. It was thought perhaps that it might be the White Bellefleur, whice is an infe- rior kind though it resembles very much the yellow in appearance. Mr. Rezep—My soil is a gravelly loam. The Baldwin succeeds well with me—I think it one of the best for my seil. The Greening also does well. The president said he raised two kinds of Spitzenburgs, but they did not succeed as well as other varieties. The ‘fruit of this tree was often imperfect on his soil. CHERRY TREES. A member said a few years since his trees were affected with the disease known as Black Knot, and he had loped off the diseased limbs whenever the knots made their appearance—he had the tops of the trees grafted with the European varieties, they now were healthy and the grafts in bearing. Mr. Witcox cultivated the Black Tar- tarian which he esteemed highly; also the Yellow Spanish. DRAINAGE. —~— AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, AT ITS TENTH MEETING JUNE 26th, 1857, ———_—___.—___——- BwT A TOnN-ABO REED. — Drains in their various forms are, as is well known, channels for conveying away water. The first consideration that pre- sents itself, then, is in what soils are these channels necessary. They are obviously so in marshy, swampy grounds ; these can- not be managed at all without them.— But there is a class of springy wet soils sufficiently dry to walk upon or even to plow, which are frequently coasidered dry enough. The grass grown upon them is sour and scanty, and all attempts at vege- tation are imperfect; the soil is continually saturated with water; the air does not ob- tain free access ; various noxious acid com- pounds are formed in consequence, and plants live with difficulty. When now the drain is introduced, it draws the water gradually away from beneath, the air fol- Jows from above and comes in contact with the various noxious compounds that may have formed, it decomposes them, and they become in most cases fit for the nourishment of plants. But the soilsmade wet by springs form a small class eompar- ed to those made wet by retaining too much of the water that falls from above. Clays which are not drained keep the wa- ter so long on the surface that they run together and form a mortar which, when the rain has evaporated, becomes as hard as sun-burot brick, unworkable and unfit for the growth of plants. Some lands which are dry upon the surface have a clayey, hardpan or other retentive subsoil which stops the water from passing below this limit, air cannot circulate and the same stagnation ensues of which I have spoken. Perhaps the best mode of finding where drains are needed, is by means of test- holes. These should be dug about three feet deep at regular intervals over the fields, and carefully observed during the season. If it is found that water collects in them during moderately dry weather, or remains in them a length of time after rains then drains are required. The test- holes will forma basis from which to de- termine what portions of the fields require draining and where it is not needed.——~ And we now come to the important ques- tion, how shall it be done ? Where fields are troubled with springs and the soil is not tenacious of water, it is advisable to lay only such drains as are necessary to carry off the spring water, and its sources can be discovered by means On of test eles and the position of the ground. Clay soils and any surface soil whatever lying on an impervious subsoil, requires a uniform drainage throughout the field.— There is great difference of opinion among experienced drainers as to the proper dis- tance of the drains from each other on stiff soils. The extremes of opinion are 3 1-2 rods as the smallest distance and 5 as the greatest. Probably no man can tell how deep or far apart the drains ought to be, until he has made some on his own farm, and then experience alone will teach him. Asa general rule the stiffest soils require drains the least distance apart. There is not much danger of over draining. In draining swamps avd marshy ground the first thing to be done is to cut a deep ditch around the outside of the swamp, to cut off all the sreamns and springs from the adjoining highland, after which such drains may be dug as the piece may scem to re- quire. It is now considered best to run the drains straight down the slopes. They draw water from each side alike, drain more uniformly, discharges water faster, and the current usually suffices to wash away any small obstruction, Should they become quite stopped however, the great pressure will cause them to burst out and show where the mischief really is. In drains cut across the slopes the water is all drawn from one side—in soft places it is liable to leak out on the lower side, and where the descent is slight they may re- main choked a long time before the cause of evil is discovered. After having deter- mined upon the course of the drain, the next thing to be done is to dig the ditch. Where a good deal of draining is to be done machinery may be profitably em- ployed to fucilitate the work. Among the implements for this purpose Pratt’s Ditch Digger seems ithe most preferable. With this machiue, where the soil is free from stone, one man and a strong team can dig from seventy-five to one hundred rods a day. Ditches may also be dug quite fast by turning a middle or dead furrow with a common plow as deep as it can be made torun. After which a subsoil plow with a piece of plank about four feet long at- tached to the rear end of the mould board may beintroduced, and the subsoil thrown out unl the trench is nearly two feet deep, when the spade will soon complete the work. MATERIALS FUR DRAINS, Drains are constructed of various ma- terials. Those most worthy of notice per- haps are stone, brnsh and tile. A selec- tion from these will depend something up- ou which can be the best procured, or in other words the transportation necessary to get each, Where stone are very abun- dant, so that it becomes an objeet to dis- pose of them, they may be used to ad- vantage. Stone drains, to work well, must have considerable fall, must be made so that small animals, such as muskrats, woodchucks, é&c., cannot get into them, and they should be covered with a coat- ing of straw, shavings, or turf, and the earth rammed down hard, so that the wa- ter must come in at the side, for if it finds an entrance at the top, sand and small loose stones will be washed down and the drain eventually be stopped. Stone drains as constructed here do not last but a short time. Some are made by placing a row of stone on each side of the bottom cover- ed by a layer, one lying across both rows, at leaving an eye or open space in the mid- dle. Of the drains which I have con- structed in that way one discharged water about three years and then stopped. On examination the eye of the ditch was found to be filled up with sediment which worked in between the large stones.— Another constructed in the same manner down a steep hill, after working well about a year “caved in” by being underminded by the water. The soil was a loam and the throat of the ditch was covered with }’ large blocks of stone quarried for the pur- pose. For another the ditch was dug down to the slate rock fora bottom. The throat covered with large blocks of the same and all the crevices between the stone chincked in with pieces of broken stone. This drain had so far worked well. The late Professor Norton says of En- glish drains: ‘Stone drains if rightly constructed, are considered as efficient as any other. They are made both with and without an eye or open space. They are broken so that they shall pass through a ring two and a half inches in diameter.— The bottom of the drain should be about six inches across and from six to eight inches in depth of these small stones thrown in. Turfs cut thin rnd esrefully so as exactly to fit should be lain on the top overlapping each other and the earth rammed down hard. Brush makes a good drain. Where stones are not convenient and tile cannot be had without great transportation, brush can be used to good advantage. Those from the most durable kinds ef wood are the best, and the straightest should be se- lected. The ditch should be dug about one foot wide with perpendicular sides, and filled full of brush by commencing at tha upper end and laying in the brush with the large end down the hill, lapping the top ends of the second course on the mid- dle of the first laying. They should be tread down to about one-third of their bulk, then covered with a layer of inverted turf, and the earth thrown in. Brush drains have been taken up after laying thirty-three years, and found to be perfectly sound. TILE DRAINS, These in ordinary circumstances are the best. They are better because when properly lain they are more durable than any other drain, being so far as known imperishable. They are better again be- cause mice or other vermin cannot live in them or destroy them. They are better be- cause they drain more evenly than any- thing else. Finally, if the tile can be had at the fair price of manufacturing, say $12.00 per 1000, they are cheaper in their first cost than stone laying on the farm, because they are more quickly laid and the ditches so easily excavated, being very narrow. The trenches are open- ed the required depth, and where there are no stone to interfere with the ditch- ing, are made about three inches wide at the bottom for the small drains. For this purposealong handled spade is required. It should be fourteen inches long, made wedge-shaped, about three inches wide at the bottom. The ditch should be dug so that the bottom will have a uniform descent. If the soil at the bottom of the drain should be loose or soft, it will be necessary to lay down a narrow board on which to lay the tile. They are laid end to end simply and held in their places by means of small stones wedged in each 55 side of the joints, then covered with a layer of straw, shavings, spent tan bark, or inverted turf, and the earth well trod down. i It is an object of a good deal of impor- tance in laying drains to be sure and get a good outlet; without that much Jabor will be lost. It is also important to have the tiles large enough for the main drain. The ditches may be filled with a team and plow, or a scraper may be used by turning the team on the filled portion of the ditch. A still faster method is by means of a scraper made of two wide planks put together like a letter V, and drawn with the large or open end _for- ward. For this purpose the team should be attached to each other by means of a long double whipple-tree,and drawn length- wise of the ditch with it between them. COST OF DRAINS. This depends on a variety of circum- stances. The nature of the soil, the cost of labor and tiles and the distance they must be conveyed. No estimate which could be made would be of any advantage to the farmer, as the expense varies in every locality. However I will mention an es- timate given by Mr. Swan, of Seneca County, in a communication made to the State Agricultural Society by him. He laid down in one season about seventeen miles of tile drains: The average cost of tiles per rod, was... .$0.12 «we digging © 4... 0.125 laying tile and filling.. 0.03 $0.274 “ ce “ Whole cost per rod, PROFITS. In England, where underdraining is car- ried to great perfection, it is allowed that pay the whole cost in from two to five years, in the average about three years. Mr. Johnson, a distinguished Agricul- turalist of this State, who has been exten. sively engaged in draining for the last twenty years, makes the following asser- tion : “T firmly believe that with $400 or $500 I can take and draina farm every acre com- plete. With that $400 or $500 I could at least drain twenty acres very thoroughly, and from those twenty acres get two very heavy crops—the excess of which over what it would have been had I not drained it, would give me my money back again to go on and drain twenty acres more,which in turn would pay for the next field, and so on until the whole farm was drained.— The drainer is only loaning the money to the land for one or two years, after that he gets it returned and every two or three years afterwards during his lifetime it is again returned. Some farmers say that when they get a little spare cash they will go to draining, but there is no better way to get a little spare cash than to drain land.” The following are the principal advan. tages, agriculturally speaking, to the far- mer by the drainage of his land: 1. By preventing the water which falls from standing on or near the surface, he renders the soil dry enough to be worked at all times, economizing laber by allowing work to go on at all times without inter- ruption. 2. By admitting early plowing, crops may be sown early and anincreased amount reaped in consequence. 3. By making the soil of uniform dry- ness, crops will ripen more evenly and con- sequently the grain will be plumper and the extra profits arising from drainage wil] | of better quality. 56 4. By rendering the soil more porous of spongy it takes in water without flood- ing in time of rain, and gives it off gradu- ally in fime of dtouth, preventing the winter killing of grass and grain, ths in- jurious effects of drouth, the heaving of fence-posts and stone walls. 5. By preventing adhesion and assist- ing pulverization (one plowing on drained land being equal to three on utidraited), it allows the roots of plants to pass freely thro’ all parts of the suil, thereby increas: ing their amount of available food. 6. By giving the water a chance to pass freely through the suil, it facilitates the absorbtion of air, wanures and erfriching substances by the soil, prevents the heavy rains from ‘‘ washing off” the most valu- able portion of the soil, and diminishes the surface evaporation and consequent waste of valuable gaseous matters, 7. The soil is made warmer. Science teaches that evaporation is a cooling pro- cess and the theory is demonstrated in draining, which diminishes the evaporation and is found to raise the temperature of the soil from seven to ten degrees higher than on similar lands tot drained. 8. After many years the subsoil chan- ges to the nattire of soil to the depth of the water in the drains, and becomes fit to mix advantageously with the soil of the surface, supplying the principle that may have become extinct of continual crop- ping. In conclusion I will merely add, that no man I presume ever finished a job of draining that did not congratulate him- self on having done not only a most praise- worthy act, but made a most profitable improvement—both agreeable assurances, as it gives satisfaction to the mind while it aids in filling bis purse. What sight can be more offensive to an intelligent and judicious farmer, than to see swamp-holes of perhaps a few acres each, on some of his best lots, perhaps before his own door, affording a shelter for vermin that are seen’ to harbor there and destroy his poul- -try 4 and what more gratifying than to see ‘those same lots after those nuisances have been removed, so that the eye ¢an roam over, the wind biow upon theny, and the rain fertilize so as to clothe them in the richest: verdure, Discussion--June 26th; 1857: The points argued were, that under- draining Was notonly a preventive of drouth but also of an excess of thoisture. It reft- dered the texture of the soil better, and hastened the decomposition of organic matter, as well as putting the soil im con- dition to absorb larger quantities of at- mosplerie fertilizers. It enables us to get the fiill benefit of deep plowing, or .of sub-soiling,thereby preventing grasses froth ruoning out, or grain from being wintet- killed—also fitting the land for growing larger crops. Lands tnderdtained ¢an be worked sdoner in the Spring and after rains, and it prevents the formation of a hard crist or the surface. It would be advantageous and economical, to employ experienced hands, that whatever was done might be permanent and the drains so arranged as to produce the best result, Mr. Witcox said many years ago drain- ing was vot well understood. Farmers thought that drains could be made per- manent by digging a ditch and throwiig in cobble stones and then covering with cr earth—they served a good purpose fora few years, but soon filled up and became Worthless, Mr. Wa A. Feerer said fie had had Some experience in draining—had been laying drains on his farm for several years past—he preferred to set the first layer of stones upright, or nearly so, in the trenches, aad then fill in with cobble stones to four- teen inches of the gurface. These drains operated better than when a shoulder was laid and covered with flat. stone-— ey were not so liable to be choked up by ani- mals cr from other causes. Mr. Wurman said he had been drain- ing a portion of his land where the soil was cold and wet—this soil would not produce clover—it was over-ruu with weeds. Since the drain had been ctit clo- ver had sprang up—he had used stone from his meadow-sin the first layer the stones were set nearly upright so as to form a triangular space for the water to pass through and then cobblestonesthrown in. He had not led the drain directly down the descent but across, so ay to cut off the water from passing to the fleld be- low the drain—he wished to know whether his plan was a good one. . Mr. Arnocp thought the water would soak through the sides of the drain into the field below—he had seen instances of the kind. Mr. Reep agreed with Mr. Arnotp — where the land lay so much lower than the drain it would be difficult to prevent it soaking through the sides of the drain, unless the subsoil contained much clay. Mr. Wuirmay said he had given the drain a fall of one or two degrees—he thought the descent sufficient to carry off the water. Mr. Wit arp said he believed drains were not usually cut deep enough; when an outlet could be obtained it would be better to cut them five feet deep—a drain five feet deep will drain a space three times that of a drain three feet deep. Mr. Eaton said he had used tile in draining land near Albany—his land lay but a short distance from a tile manufac: tory and he procured imperfect tile at less than one-half the cost of perfect ones —they operated well—he believed it would be economical to lay the main drain with tile. Shorter drains leading into this might be laid with stome, where they were con- venient or when it was an objec. to re- move them from the land. Mr. Feerer said he had been using boards this spring in his drains—threa boards were nailed together in box form, and each length sharpenéd so as to be more easily joined together, like pump logs—the dr in operated quite as well as those made of stone. Mr. Witarp said if was a question whether it was not cheaper to use tile in drains rather than stone—the cost of dig- ging the trench was much less and when the drains were made they were perma- nent, Mr. WarrMan said it was an object with most of us to get rid of small cobble-stoue —he thought it better that they should be used in drains to get thém out of the way, Mr, Rep said draids made on his fara some years ago had choked up and become worthless——the ditches were three feet deep, stones were laid along the sides form- ing shoulders and these covered with slate flags. 58 Mr. Arnnotp—Was the Utica slate used? Ifso I should suppose it would crumble and eventually choke up the drains. Mr. Keep thought it was not the Utica slate—there was a slate quarry convenient to his farm-where he obtained flags for covering his drains—there were blocks of slate there, that had shown no perceptible change in his remembrance, he thought the cause of the drain’s choking was from water and earth passing down from the top of the drain—the drain had but little descent. Mr. Ferrer said his land had been much more productive since draining—he thought himself amply repaid for the ex- pense, &c. In one part of his farm he had constructed a long drain—shorter drains were let into this from each side. Wherever he found, in this field, a wet spot—he sunk a drain from it to the main drain. Mr. Reep said the expense of cutting trenches three feet deep, (when horses could be used to turn the earth back) was between forty and fifty cents per rod, this included getting stone, &c., &c. Mr. Witcoy’s estimate was about the same. A Member said he had been laying a few rods of stone drain on his farm this spring, the cost was seventy-five cents per rod but it was carried through slate where the pick had to be used pretty freely. Some one thought the head of the drain should be kept open to insure a better cir- culation of air, this point he said was par- ticularly insisted upon by Mr. Grezty, in his address last year at Ilion. Others thought it unnecessary; they be- lieved there would be a sufficient circula- tion of air through the outlet and that it would be difficult to keep the head of the drain open. It was said a box might be constructed of plank, set in the ground and rising two or three feet above the surface; it was believed thera would be an advantage in having a free circulation of air, and this could be better insured, by having both ends of the drain open. One member said he had had but little or no experience in draining, yet he be- lieved from all the information he could get on the subject, that all lands would pay to be underdrained, (except those of a gravelly subsoil that leached,) and that one of the best arguments as to the value of underdraining was that in England. a large sum from the public treasury was loaned to farmers for the purpose of under- draining the only security being the increas- ed of the land, and that private capitalists are loaning money in this way and consid- er it a good and safe investment. Another said he believed underdraining paid largely, he had found it so in his ex- perience, that in England the advantages are perhaps greater than here, from the fact of their having a climate that was | more damp. A member believed that underdraining would pay even on land considered dry : on a field recently subsoiled he had ob- served water oozing out at the end of the furrows during our wet weather, THE BEST TIME AND MANNER OF CUT- TING AND CURING GRASSES. AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, AT ITS ELEVENTH MEETING JULY 10th, 1857. ———_—_>—____—- BLT ASA wimoo=x=. — Mr. President and Gentlemen of the Farmers’ Club :—The subject of grasses, T feel assured, is one of absorbing interest to the Farmers of Herkimer County. In- deed, when I look around aud find herds of cattle grazing upon every hill-top and in every valley, and consider how large a portion of our community depend upon them for a livelihood, I feel assured that the cultivation of grasses and the prepara- tion of them for the food of stock, is of the first importance. ‘The grass crop is to the Herkimer County farmer, what the sugar and cotton crop is to the Planter, and a total failure of it would be more injurious, since the pursuit of our agriculturalists renders the cultiva- tion of the grasses a necessity, on account of home consumption. The kinds of grass cultivated to any ex- tent in this county are timothy, red clover, and red top. Timothy ranks first, on ac- count of its superior nutritive qualities and the slight waste in harvesting it. Next stands red clover, of which there are two kinds: the smaller species, which is but little cultivated, and is known in our mar- ket towns as Seneca County Clover. The larger kind is extensively grown here, and has been for many years—not only for pas- ture and hay, but for its seed, which was at one time the staple production in the Southern part of the County. It holdsa high place in market, and is known as Herkimer County Clover. The lowest in our estimation is the red top; yet it is the most profitable crop that can be raised upon a poor, wet soil; and here I will remark, that although it will grow without culti- vation, it is advisable for those who have a patch of that kind of soil, to raise enough of the red top seed to sow it, and thus realize the advantages of the cultiva- ted over the natural growth. It has one advaatage over the other grasses mentioned, it is a less rapid exhauster of the soil. It takes but three or four per cent. of potash from it, while clover takes considerably . more, and timothy as high as thirty. Be sides those enumerated, there are several other kinds which grow spontaneously with the cultivated grasses. ’ The princi- pal are June or spire grass and white clo- ver, The culture of grasses, though not em- braced in the subject, is so intimately con- nected with it, that you will pardon me for a few remarks in this place. The soil bU requires, in the culture of grasses, the best of preparation and also considerable depth, not only on account of the depth of the roots, but as a protection against heavy rains and severe drouths. Care should be taken that the seed fall near the surface, for in case it falls too far beneath it, ger- mination may be entirely prevented. Some sow, their seed upon the snow, others upon the groun! and then harrow it ia. In my experience I have found it best to fol- low the harrow in sowing, and when sown to harrow it ia, and then roll it. Rolling is always an advantage. When sown with winter grain, Septem- ber is probably the best time for timothy ; early spring for clover. But as therg is but little winter grain sown here, it fol- lows that the grasses are mestly sown in the Spring, For Spring sowing, the land |. should be well plowed the Fall previously, as freezing and thawing will mellow the soil, and it will be in condition for sowing | much earlier i in the Spring, which is quite a consideration. ‘There is at present, and always has been a great diversity of: opinion in regard to the proper time for cutting grasses. My experience leads me to recommend that timothy be cut when the blossom is fall- ing. This is early enough to preserve the juices, and late enough to get rid of the dust sometimes formed in timothy, which j8 injurious to horses. Clover should be cut when in full blossom. All grasses should, however, be cut earlier if inclined tolodge. Grasses cut thus early con- tain the greatest amount of nutriment, for, when allowed to stand much longer, a large portion of the nutritious substan- ces pass into the seed, and some probably go back to the. roots, leaving mostly a woody matter of greatly diminished value for feeding. There is besides an advantage in cut- ting early which is sometimes overlooked : it is that you cut the weeds when the seed is yet green, and so prevent their seeding. Another advantage is the second crop, which is very valuable—particularly so for young stock ; and when not mown, it is relied upon for late feed. Since the general use of mowing machines, there is but little excuse for delaying beyond the proper time the cutting of grass; and we have aright to expect better hay since their introduction. There are a variety of methods of cur- ing grasses, all of which must be more or less modified by the condition of the wea- ther, In favorable weather, the grass cut in the morning, should be cocked in the afternoon—allowing it three or four hours This will protect it from dew till morning,when the cocks should be opened, and as soon as sufficiently cured it should be housed. If there should be a prospect of immediate rain I would house it before entirely cured, rather than have it wet; but I would then be sure to mix with it a quantity of salt ; this would complete the curing in the barn. It is beneficial to. salt any hay when it is put away in the barn, but more is necessary when it has not been entirely cured ; in case of clover it is indispensable. From ten to twelve ibs. is sufficient for a ton of ‘hay. It would doubtless be well to put layers of straw also with imperfectly cured hay. The straw would absorb a part of the moisture from the hay, and become itself much better feed. This is practiced to a considerable extent in . urope, though not ef sun, much, I believe, in this country. OL According to the census of 1850, and this is the latest I have at hand, the quan- tity of hay made that year in this county was 95,500 tons. It must the present year be considerably above 100,000 tons. I had thought of making an estimate of the per centage of weeds, but I will leave it to each farmer to make his own estimate of this crop upon his farm, and the conse- quent loss he sustains by raising weeds instead of grass. It would be well, how- ever, to suggest the means of eradicating this great and growing evil. As a map soweth so shall he reap. Now be sure to sow pure grass seed. In order to be sure ef doing this, each farmer should raise his own seed. He should select a spot of grass that has but few weeds upon it; this he can weed.out so that he can get the pure seed. Sowing. such seed, together with early cutting, will de. much towards exterminating weeds. I hepe, and the thing is practicable, that the time will soon come when our meadows and pas- tures will contain nothing but what is proper food for stock. Discussion—July 10th, 1857. CURING OF HAY. Mr, Arwnorp said that he did not approve of salting hay, aa it had been found by analysis that salt was an ingre- dient in the composition of hay in quan- tities nearly sufficient for the use of stock in winter. But in grass when young and succulent, salt and other inorganic matters were scarcely discernible. In experiment- ing with his dairy for several years he had noticed that his cows would eat most salt in the early part of the scason when milk was in full flow and feed was fresh, but as the grass grew older and approached ma- turity they did not eat eo much and in winter wou:d scarcely eat it at all—had also noticed that if salt was net given them for several days in the early part of the season the milk grew poorer in quality: In the latter part of the season when grass was more mature, the quality of the milk was not affected so much by such treat- nent, and in winter not at all. Mr. Wicox—-I salted hay to con- siderable extent some years ago with good effect. Mr. Rexp said he had once salted a stock of clover hay, putting in about four quarts to the ton. The hay was put up somewhat green—-came out in March bright and moist in the coldest weather. It seemed as if it had been pickled. After feeding a lot of cows from it about two weeks or more, they became so weak they’ could scarcely get up, and shrunk in their milk. He moved the hay to another place and fed a different lot of cows with the same result, until one morning he found a cow dead in the stable, when he formed the conclusion that salting hay was a bad investment. Mr. Syz1t—I do not like clover hay, it is very difficult to cure it without losing its leaves and best portions. Mr. Warrman—Some farmers build tight bays and put in hay before it was quite dry, and then shut all up close— they think the hay is better for being kept from the air. Medicinal herbs were con- sidered more valuable when cured in the shade—could not see why grass would not be better if cured in a similar way. Mr. Arnop——Clover when properly cured makes the most nutritious hay. If put in a tight bay where the air could not 62 get access to it, it could not spoil. ‘The process of heating could not go on with- out plenty of air. Mr, Wutrmax—How dry should hay be? Is there no rule? Mr. Syevu.—After a little experience one can tell by the feeling. An old farm- er if he was blindfolded could tell in a moment by taking upa handful. In gen- eral it is dry enough when no juice can be wrung out of it. ' Mr. Ferrsr—I cure clover hay by ex- posing it to the sun one way, then cock it up and keep it‘cocked until fit to draw.— I turn tke cocks bottom side up once a day during the time. Mr. Reep said that clover should not be kept in cock a long time. Where much was made a large quantity would be under process of curing at once and it would be liable to heavy rains. From its coarse nature it would in case of rain get swelled and decrease in value by each wetting. The nutritious matters in hay are chiefly starch, sugar and gum, all of which are soluble and combine with the water. In evaporating the water these are carried off until at last there is not much left but woody fibre, and the hay is but little better than straw. Mr. Arnotp—I had rather have hay get heated than toodry. In heating there is a loss, but it makes the whole more di- gestible. Where hay got too dry in the sun the excessive evaporation seemed to take away its nutritive value. Stock do not relish it. Norze.—At the 11th meeting, the dis- cussion, owing to other business before the Club, was necessarily short. At the 12th and 13th meetings, there were no Hssays read before the Club, and the discussions were short and discursive. EXTERMINATION OF NOXIOUS WEEDS. AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, AT ITS FOURTEENTH MEETING, SEPTEMBER 4th, 1857. > BLT JOBRAnN MAREE LIX. ————_——_ Not accustomed to write for the press, or in any form for publication, I have no expectation of producing anything worthy to be presented to the public for its gram- matical correctness or elegance of compo- sition, but if my observations shall bring the talents of abler writers before the public on the subject select¥d, it may be highly beneficial tocommunity. The sub- ject is the EXTERMINATION OF NOXIOUS WEEDS. My few remarks will be mostly confined to about that class of weeds which has in- fested our country— THE CANADA THISTLE, The extermination of this pest of our plow fields, is an object of great impor- tance to farmers who are unfortunate to have them on their lands, and it is there- fore in a measure incumbent on them to communicate to each other whatever method they have taken for that purpose and particularly such as have had the de- sired effect. T have no expectation that this thistle is fo be totally and entirely eradicated and banished from the country, as it is a perennial] plant, and is to be found on the pied lands,at least in this vicinity. All that can be done with such, if near at hand, is. to cut them down and prevent their seed- ing. But being possessed of another man- ner of propagating themselves, more rure- ly and certainly, by their side or horizon- tal rvots, which the cutting off the top of the plant does not affect, they therefore must be permitted to remain in such places by a sort of compromise. They are to be prevent from scattering their seeds on our plow fields from which, I am confident, they may be expelled, and afterwards ea- sily kept out. Any further than this, I shall not attempt doing, or advise others to do. Some such enactment of the Legislature as has been recommended, would in my opinion be of use, such as obliging the owners of lands (at least such as are un- der improvement) to cut them at a proper time, imposing a penalty for neglect, and making it the duty of managers of Turn- pikes and Plank Roads, as well os Over- seers of Highways (which I believe are now required by law) to have this done, on the margin of their roads, would like- |wise have the effect of calling the public attention to the thing and spread the road side, in the woods, and in all unoccu-} alarm. 64 In articles of this sort intended to guard the operations of others, unless one goes somewhat into detail, the object is ina measure lost ; for those, if any there should be, who may be induced to adopt this me- thod recommended, will have a wish to]: know all the particulars of the process be- fore they commence. It is well known to all farmers as well as botanists, that the roots of no tree or plant, whether annual, biennial or peren- nial, can long survive, if prevented from vegetating and coming to the light of day. My theory was based on this principle : when they are confined to small patches, by using the corner of the hoe as often as they appear above ground, will destroy them in one season. After following this operation faithfully, by digging down to the main root in August or September, they will be found in a state of decay, be- ing of a blackish color. I ascribe the early season at which these were subdued, to their being allowed no breathing spell, and no omission being made through the season of operation of cutting them off as fast as they appeared, because by any neg- lect during the season, the previous time spent is in part lost. By allowing the plant a breathing spell in the sun and air, new life and vigor is communicated to the reot, which is the thing intended to be destroyed. As an evidence of this, in the season of, I think 1843, I killed the thistle by plowing a field of about four acres, which was literally covered with the Can- ada thistle, and consequently lost several of the previous crop;, I commenced early in the season, by plowing, being careful to have the plow cut every thistle, which could easily be done as there were no stone. [ plowed it twice before September, and in the month of September sowed the field with wheat and plowed it in, instead of harrowing the usual mode with us, which made four plowings during the season. The result was, an excellent crop of wheat and no thistles, and from that time to the present, no thistles have made their appearance. Although I succeeded in de- stroying the thistles on this field the first year, I should advise a practice I noticed by some writet, when killing them is the great object—to plant with corn two years in succession, (as this in other cases might be considered bad management )that should any thistle escape the first, they may be finished the second year, A few words about the Elder, which to some farms is a great pest. Where they are in plow fields, they are easily turned up with the plow. They generally grow along fences and ditch banks, and in such places out of the reach of the plow, they can be destroyed by whipping them down two or three times. If they are more than one year’s growth, wait till they begin to blossom, then take a pole and beat them down, yeung and old, as close as possible to the ground and repeat: the operation if they sprout much. If they are sprouts of one year’s growth, leave them till about the time older ones blossom, and then beat them down—being tender and full of sap they are easily beaten down and the most of them perish by discharging froin the wounds. A good method of destroying’ the pest of the farm, whether shrubs of other plants, may be thus explained. When the plant is in blossom, it contains the greatest vol- ume of unelaborated sap, and is in imme diate want of food to sustain its flowers dud fruit ¢ but before this sap can patel food it must be elaborated in the leaves, and if the leaves are at this time destroy: ed, this cannot take plate, and tlie plant dies for want of sustenance. The leaves sre at this time as essential to the plant, as Jungs dre to the animal; and although the plant may survive defoliation the first summer, it can seldom withstand a second or a third. The white daisy is one of our worst pests. I will not attempt to say much zbout it. I consider it about the most ob- stinate plant to subdue. Nothing but thorough plowing in my judgment, has any effect to destroy them ; and again you may look for a speedy return. I believe you will get rid of them about as soon to let them take their own way. I have known them to flourish exceedingly for few years, and then run out and almost en tirely disappear without an effort to de. stroy them. Johnswort I never have been troubled with ; but it is regarded by tiiavy farmers as more noxious than the Canada thistle. It frequently usurps whole fields, to the ex- clusion of all the valuable grasses. Ihave seen it stated that on spots entirely cov- ered with this weed, they spread gypsum at the rate of three bushels per acre, and that soon they were covered with a thick mat of white clover and other grasses, while Johnswort was running out. Discassion—Sept. 4th, 1857. The conversation at this meeting brought out many important facts based upon the subject under consideration. It seemed to be the prevailing opinion that the most troublesome weeds disappear after a lapse s 65 of time; running out, like other plants, or exhausting the soil of certain constituctits essential to their luxuriant growth. Thus the White Daisy, which some years ago in- fested certain fields, and were found bor- dering the road-side, had now disappeared from these localities, and no special means had been taken to eradicate theni. Ilighi manuring and luxuriant erops of clorer de- stroyed the Canada Thistle. The &ppli- cation of Peruvian guano is efficacious in rooting out or killing the White Daisy. In some instances cutting weeds ata particular period destroys them, it others the same provess of treatment has no good effect. Oue member said he had observed a curious fact in reference to the destruc- tion of Canada Thistles while hoeing corn. Thistles that were cut off in the early part of the day did not again spring up, while those cut in the after part of the day aud on thre day following, sprung up again and grew vigorously, The atmosphere was highly rarified, and was very oppressive during the early part of the day, but toward evening the weather changed.— He supposed that the air being light, and hence the accustomed pressure on the plant being removed, where it was wound- ed, caused it to bleed profusely, and it really bled to death-—for the ground im- mediately about the plant was saturated : while those cut after the weather had changed, were not sv affected. It was suggested that pure seed, espe: cially clover and timothy—free as possible from foul seeds, was a requisite to clean farms and crops—and that farmers in this section would do well to raise their own seed; selecting patches of grass entirely free from weeds. Theseed sold in market and generally used here by out farmers, was otten filled with foul seed ; many farms had been injured in this way. GARDENING. AN ESSAY READ BEFURE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, AT ITS FIFTEENTH MEETING, SEPTEMBER 18th, 1857. Bwa. Ww - BATON. _—_——_—___@—____—. The subject under consideration, is one within the scope of our discussions, with which the writer is most familiar, in a prac- tical sense ; and it is one worthy of a more thorough elucidation thanit is likely to receive in this paper. It is believed that the proper manage- ment of the Kitchen and Fruit Garden, is indispensible to a systematic and intelli- gent economy ; and that every farm and village homestead is deprived of its best and most beautiful appendage without this source of pleasure and profit. With the advance in value of landsin the older States of our Confederacy and the rapid increse of population ; the Gardner’s vocation in this country must ere long rank among the lucrative and well established pursuits of industry. Although the profits of this branch of culture do not now enter into the tables of the statistician to any ap- preciable extent, if you take from our cit- ies, villages and country, the products of family gardens,the aggregate loss of health- ful food will be immense—so great, that we shall not have wherewith to supply that loss. Yet, only a moiety is produced of what may be grown upon the area at pres- ent devoted to this branch—often without much additional labor. With regret be it said, that too many farmer’s gardens receive little or no care ; especially is this the case, after the half- worked soil has taken in its spring supply of seeds. The subsequent promiscuous growth of plants and weeds presents an unseemly feature to an eye that takes in all the accessories to thrift in husbandry. The same remark wili apply to many a vil- age garden, half tilled by those whose busi- ness engrosses every faculty of the mind, and by whom this sort of out door labor, |so well adapted to recuperate both physical and mental powers, is looked upon as the most unmitigated drudgery. If the work is performed at all, it must be turned over to a chance laborer, whose head may be as well fortified against the approach of a lucid thought, as is a ruta baga. Neither Farmer, Tradesman nor Professional man can reconcile this sortof management with his true interests, unless foul weeds are a profitable crop upon the whole farm, and a pleasing sight about our village homes, where every foot of soil costs enough to be computed by the bushel, in decimal cur- rency. Time will not permit other than general remarks upon this subject, confined main- \ly to the culture of vegtables and without 67 entering far into details in their treatment \e . . The first point deserving attention would seem to be: LOCALITY OF GROUNDS AND QUALITY OF SOIL- Tuthe choice of lands for a Fruit or Veg- etable garden, a southerly slope is prefer- red. If for fruit mainly, a southwesterly: exposure is believed to be best, on account of the bad effect of spring frost and the morning sun upon fruit trees. For vegeta- bles, a southeasterly aspect is believed to befavorble. A sandy loom works easiest, usually requires most manuring, and pro- duces early crops. If a sandy or gravelly soil is too porous, and loses by leaching, the liquified manures from which plants derive their organic food, a top-dressing of clay or of river mud, will obviate the evil, and give to the land sufficient body to retain fertil- izing properties. A good garden cannot be made upen wet or heavy clay lands, with- out draining. Reasons need not be pre- sented to convince you of this self-evident fact. It is not possible to make either a Fruit or Vegetable Garden what it ought to be, without a depth of friable and rich earth, of from one and a half to two feet—a greater depth will be still better. Alluvi- al lands are generally of sufficient depth, aswefind them spread by the hand of nature, teeming ¥ with a wealth of life-giving mould gleaned from hill side and mountain in the long centuries of time. Where they are dry enough, these alluvious soils are best suit- ed to’ the growth of vegetables. Fruit trees rarely { thrive upon them. ‘Trenching and enriching the soil to the requisite depth i is the true ‘process for gardening purposes upon ordinary lands. In this village, ma- ny of the. gardens are made by. depositing sand i upon 1 the bare rocks. Some of these gardens lose all their moisture in dry sea- sons, and the labors of the proprietor are sometimes wholly lost. Upon such, an ap- plication of a few loads of swamp muck- river mud, or clay, will, when intermixed with sand, make the soil of a suitable tena- city to withstand the effects of dry weath+ er and a parching summer sun. In other localities, village gardens have been made by filling in upon marshy, wet and cold lands : drainage is essential in those cases. After getting a good depth and quality of soil ; the next step is, PROPER TREATMENT OF THE SOIL. The spade is better than the plow, for many reasons. Shallow plowing will pro- duce a shallow crop ; while deep spading and heavy manuring, wiil almost certainly insure an abundance of garden products or of luxuriant weeds—whichever the gar- dener shall afterwards, suffer to grow. Well rotted stable manures are used by gardeners for most plants ; fine, fresh ma- nures, free from straw and course litter, are sometimes quite as good. Every thing of liquids or solids, that will contribute to the compost heap,ought to be saved and ap- plied. Night soil furnishes a powerful, and valuable auxiliary for special purposes. CULTIVATION OF PLANTS. Here is a broad field for both theory and practiced. To undertake to go through spe- cifically with the thousand and one products in the catalogue of the Kitchen and Fruit Garden, would invelve an amount of labor and require a fund of tacts,which I may not command, A few hints, based mainly upon, experience and observation, and without time to amplify or elaborate, are all that I can furnish. _ Vegetable gardens should ‘contain DO standard Fruit trees, except perhaps a few on the north bounds, Dwarf trees will not 68 \ shade enough to do great injury, if sparse- ly planted. Celery will grow nearly as well in shade as in sunlight. The vines of cucumbers are not much injured by the shade of trees; it is believed that they will bear for a longer period, partially shaded. Cabbages grow well upon rieh, dry soil under trees—they do better upon deep moist land open to the sun. Most vegetables require the light and warmth ofsunshine. Exeepting onions all garden crops ought to be planted in rotation to secure the greatest yield. Plants with conical or tap roots, require a mellow, per- - vious and rich earth. Tomatoes need sandy ground, with fine manure at their roots. Lima beans will not mature in this latitude, unless planted early, in warm and strong soil. Itis not well to begin planting until the ground is warm enough to cause quick germination. It is impor- tant to use none but fresh and genuine seeds ; if they are soaked in teped water before planting, time will be gained.— Radishes grow best in sand—they are void of nutritious properties, beget colics, indi- gestion, and doctor’s bills. Beans, Peas, Corn, Cabbage, Parsnips, Beets, Carrots: Tomatoes, Onions, Squashes and Salsify : are the most wholesome and remunerative garden product that enter into family con- sumption and essentially aid in providing food forman. A succession of green crops may be sown in one season, The writer has raised here, two crops of green peas and one of turnips upon the same land, in one season. The first crop of peas was taken off the 18th of June. Celery can exsily follow a crop of early peas ; so may turnips. Hotbeds are indispensible for early crops in our climate. ‘The subject of Fruit Culture has been discussed before you, and is now in able hands for further illustration. I shall not dwell upon it. The small fruits are enti- tled to the gardener’s care: but Current, Gooseberry, Blackberry and Raspberry bushes,will be voted a nuisance in the veg- etable garden, until the circumference of Female attire shall have sensibly and vis- ibly diminished,under the sway of fashion, Strawberries require more time and labor in their treatment, than I have been able to bestow upon them. In the cultivation of vegetables they are generally sown in drills. It is a common error to allow too many plants in the drill, after they have attained a strength of root. Sowing thickly is advisable, and thinning out, must not be neglected, if our work is . well done. Weeds are mournful things in a garden, They are a sort of ante mortem badge of mourning for the premature de- cease of nursling vegetables and fruits— We may well cherish an antipathy to weeds and wage a perpetual war against them, from the morning to the evening of a gardener’s life. Frequent stirring of the ground is need- ed to rapid growth ; being careful to shun such plants as onions, after they have put out horizontal roots which the hoe may injure. In planting and sowing, a dis- tinction is made between those crops which need most warmth and sun, and others growing so high as to shade a considerable portion of ground—such as tall growing corn and pole beans. A full exposure to sunlight is necessary for early crops; for Tomatoes, Melons, &c. A like distinction is applicable to the rearing of fruit trees; standards may occupy a position on the north, and dwarfs, with the small fruits, take southerly ground to avoid shade. These suggestions are presented with 3 consciousness that practice is the best in- 69 structor, and that the writer’s experience is limited to a few years, and to the com- mon products of the garden. Whoever shall thiok and work with a will, may im- prove upon them. It takes but little time to cultivte a small garden ; to those who have a partiality for it,their toil will be but 4a pastime and pleasure. In no other way ean wholesome vegetables be so easily pro- vided, as at one’s kitchen door, and gath- ered fresh from their place of growth. In this country, outside of city suburbs: our knowledge of practical gardening is very limited. It ought to be the nursery of Agricultural Science to the young, and the gladsome resort of careworn manhood. It furnishes a better field for instructing our sons in the beautiful processes of the vegetable kingdom,than model farms,main- tained by a munificent application of pub- lic funds, Our daughters may cultivate the rose in its queenly court of variegated flowers; its modest hues will be reflected in the healthy bloom of blythe maidenhood. Throughout the whole circuit of man’s devices for the enjoyment of mundane hap- piness, in no other way can so much of genuine taste,common sense and knowledge of physical science be displayed by those who possess wealth; as in the conformation, adornment and studious care of a well kept garden. Every touch by the hand of art meets a quick response from earth’s bound- Jess store of fruits, foliage and flowers-— springing forth to greet and gladden the eye wearied with the outer world. Our lands are comparatively cheap ; ev- ery man ought to cultivate his garden.— Youths who pass their time in idleness and in making the acquaintance of vice, may better qualify themselves for the rough journey of life,by the light task of garden work daily performed. Let us by precept and example, honor Labor—especially that branch of it from which flow health, plenty and the happy estate of independent Freemen. It is blest by the sanction of Deity and the approba- tion ofall good men. From _ productive Labor we derive all the necessaries and comforts of life ; its free arm upholds the whole fabric of social and material pros- perity, and the frame-work of our Repub- lican government. ‘Should that great body of Agricultural people with whom our sovereignty resides, cease to respect their calling and learn to despise work ; the consequence cannot butbe destructive to our national welfare. = Discussion--Sept. 18th, 1857. The following are all the facts of prac- tical value brought out in the discussion of this meeting : Exception was taken to a statement by the Essayist that gardens should have a south-easterly exposure. Why was not a south-western or southern exposure quite as good? In reply it was said thata south-eastern exposure was best because it received the earliest rays of the sun—was sheltered from westerly winds, and hence would be warmer. To this it was said that what warmth was gained in the morning was lost in the latter part of the day—that the reason given was not obvious. It was stated that Burst, one of the best authors on the subject of Gardening, rec- ommended a gentle inclination towards the east and south-east, and that the next preferable exposure was the south or south- west, Avoid the neighborhood of larg® e i and spreading trees as their roots will ex- haust the soil and their shade injure the crops. Others stated they had observed that plants grew more vigorously on ground that had a south-eastern exposure. In the discussion of fertilizers applica- ble to the garden, it was said that Burst reeommended the combined deposits of the horse, the cow and the pig, as the safest and best of all manures. These thrown into a heap to ferment, saturating with all the soapsuds and urine that can be collected, will form the best and most permanent, manure, not equalled by any or all the nostrums of the age. ‘That he had experimented with several of the new patent manures, but seldom to advantage. To the question “what will prevent in- sects from destroying cabbages?” it was said that tobacco had been found to be efficient. One member thought a small quantity placed near the root of the plant would be advisable. Frequent applica- tions of dust or dry earth had proved ser- 0 viceable. The use of Salt also was rec- ommended. Some members spoke of the use of salt as useful in causing cabbage to head. To be sown broadcast over the plants about the time of heading or by ap- plying a spoonful or so to each plant.— Salt was recommended to be sown on the garden plot in Fall in sufficient quantities to destroy weeds, d&c., it would be found beneficial to the soil and not injurious to the next year’s crop of. vegetables. Lime was suggested as a good application to the manure heap to destroy the vitality of grass seed. Objected to on the ground of decomposing the manure and rendering it worthless. Lime and salt mixture recom- mended as a better application for that purpose. The lime and salt mixture it was stated consisted in dissolving the salt in as much water as was sufficient and slaking the lime with it. It was said that the fermentatidn of manures destroys the vitality of grass seed. Others had known it to sprout from manures used in a hot bed. AGRICU LTURE. AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, AT JTS SIXTEENTH MEETING OCTOBER 16th, 1857. oo Ba 7 Db. AW EF. ee Memurrs oF THE CLus :— oration is rapid and the air is oppressive. Such a state of the atmosphere would be a good conductor of electricity, and the plant being robbed of its due share, would be unable to select stiitable food, it loses its energy, is utiable to discharge excremen- titious niatter at its roots, and this mingling with the sap, acts as a poison, and causes the disease. ‘ Supposing then the theory here ad- vanced to be the’ trie one, the conclusions which flow fron itare practical. I only mention those that most readily occur ;- 'they are as follows : That rank weeds or those of a rapid and vigorous growth, (like the Canada thistle), to be destroyed must be cut when the at- mosphere indicates a low tension of elec- tricity. That in the cultivation of the potato, regard sliould be had to. preserving as far av possible electrical equilibrium. The fields selected should be in an exposed sit- uation: so as to have the full benefit of winds—the ground should be thoroughly underdrained and subsoiled, which would ‘operate in preventing rapid evaporation and’ preserving a more even temperature ; and the manures used should be inorganic’ or mineral ; organic matiure'in its decom- position evolving too much: heat ; arid! Here the question suggests itself, whether soil that is magnetic, or that which contains a considerable trace of iron would not be preferable'for the potato,and again whether the red oxide of iron in small quantities, might not be employed beneficially and with profit, atthe time of planting. I have made no particular experiments in this direction, and yet I might state that in a field below my barn on which I culti- 82 vated potatoes for several years in success- -ion, the plants were almost entirely free from disease ; while those cultivated on other parts of my farm, were more or less affected, and in some seasons very badly. I suspect that the soil of this field is mag- ‘netic, or contains a considerable trace of iron, as I have frequently found it min- gled with stone, as well as in occasional speimens of surface ore. Tron is found in considerable quantities in some parts of the town of Salisbury, and potatoes raised in that region (when rot prevailed) have always been better than in the adjoining towns of Fairfield and Lit tle Falls. i find additional evidence in favor of this theory and ot the application of min- eral manure to the potato as « preventive of disease, in recent accounts from Eng- land. which you will see noticed in the October No. of the Horticulturist. They are to this effect : That “the rot” or murrain does not at- tack Potatoes grown in the neighborhood of the Swansea Copper Works—that land at Swansea in the vicinity of the Copper Works which was formerly considered al- . most worthless is now much valued for the raising of Potatoes and rents for $40 per acre. It was supposed that this free- dom from disease was due to the large quantity of sulphur in the copper smoke, and that sulphur was likely to prove a cure for the Potato disease. In the selection of seed, hardy varieties should of course be chosen ; but the time of planting I regard as unimportant, as no one can predict with certainty, atmospher- ical changes for the season, nor the chan- ges of electric currents, which are constant- ly taking place in the earth. Much of what I have here advanced is crude, perhaps speculative, but it may pos- ~ibly suggest the necessity of making more thorough meteorological’ observations, while experimenting, or noting the first appearance and progress of vegetable dis- ease, I would add here, that in the treatment of this subject, I have received material aid, and have therefore drawn freely (when- ever it seemed to me to be applicable) from Dr.’ Littell’s paper on “ Electrical fluctua- tions as a cause of human disease,” as well as from an abstract of a paper by Dr. Craig on the same subject; but I have seen no paper where the application of this theory to vegetable disease has been discussed. The Divine Author of nature, in his in- finite wisdom, has set laws for the govern- ment of all the works of His hand, and it is certainly more philosophical to ascribe the causation of diseases, whether animal or vegetable, to some fundamental princi- ple, or element, whose all-pervading na- ture is capable of producing these effects, than to people the invisible realm of thought with conjectures and theories, which have no foundation but in name. Discussion--October 16th, 1857. The subject of “Plum Culture” was discussed at this meeting. One member stated that he had not been able to obtain plums successfully. There were three enemies to contend against : the black knot, the curculio, and ‘he boys, the boys were placed last by way of climax. He saw individuals in the room who had been very successful i in cultivating plums—he would like to know their method in raising this fruit, and their 8 treatment ef trees affected with black knot. ‘One gentleman, who subsequently became a member, stated that he cut off the black - knot as soon as they made their appear- ance ; he believed this disease was caused by the sting of the curculio—he had ob- served limbs in the first stages of the dis- ease, and found them punctured, and these punctures were in appearance similar to those made by this insect in the fruit. He had found the insect in and about the dis- eased limb—and the larvee found there, al- so, was similar. He had made an experi- ment by cutting out the diseased portion, and winding around the wounded part a cloth—the wound had healed up hand- somely, aud the ‘tree was not disfigured. He had placed a plum that had been stung by this insect, under a glass vessel, and after a time several curculios were brought ‘out. He had made a number of experi- ments to destroy the insect—had tried the effect of syringing the trees with various ‘compositions, but with little or no benefit —he considered this pest a hard custom- er to deal with. They infested some trees more than others—they had not, as yet, troubled “ Coe’s Golden Drop.” Varieties of the European Cherry, it was stated, were free from the black knot but some thought it not worth while to raise this fruit, as the birds stripped the trees: Other members gave their experience in plum culture. The discussion on this subject having closed, Mr. Wittarp read an Essay on “The Cause of Vegetable Disease,” which, by a resolution of the Club, was reques- ted for publication. The subject of Veg- table Disease was then talked about until time for adjournment. oo OF POTATOES. Members, generally, stated that the yield this year was small and the tubers undeveloped ; the white varieties rotted more than the red—the early planted rot- ted quite as badly as the late—with some it was the dry, and with others the wet rot. One member said he did not know but that the theory advanced in Mr. Wiz- Larp’s Hssay would cover the whole ground of this class of diseases, but there seemed to be this objection ; if it was atttibutable to the cause assigned, why did grain es- cape? To this it was replied, that some plants could better resist disease than others—it was so with individuals—and that the potato was a plant of rapid and vigorous growth, and required a larger portion of the elements in question in or- der to draw its constituents from the soil, and grain was liable to disease. The yield was often small—the head did not fi out—the kernel was shriveled up and rust destroyed whole crops, and the ques- tion was asked to account for rust in grain. To the suggestion in the Eysay of using iron in small quantities at the time of planting, one member said that he had applied iron fillings with no success— But it might have been applied at the wrong time, or nut in sufficient quantity. It was admitted that the potato crop had always been better in parts of Salisbury - on soil which probably contained a consid- erable trace of iron, yet potatoes grown on land belonging to Naruan Haute, Fair- field, had rotted badly this season. Bog iron ore was found on some portions of Mr. Hatue’s land but perhaps it was not magnetic. No direct ‘experiment had been made in reference to this point, so as to give to a thorough test, 84 Another member said he agreed with{spriag as a preventive of mot, had been ‘the Essayist in his recommendation of se-|tri d, and with no. suecess. Lime, salt lecting ground for this plant which was|ashes, wool tags, and various other man- exposed or had the full benefit of winds|ures, had been tried, and yet the potato —he gave an instance of two fields nearjrotted. One member said he was satisfied each other that he abserved the present |the potato was not able to get nutrition ‘season. The one exposed gave a larger |from the soil ; he supposed the constitu- yield. A member stated that a neighborjents for this crop was exhausted from our cof his had, on the appearance of the dis-jlands by long cultivation. To this it was ease, loosened the vines ina portion of|said, that new lands that had never grown his potate field—on this the yield was/a potato before the present year, gave mo’ decidedly better. The recipe given last better potatoes than old lands. FENCING. = a AN ESSAY (READ BEFURE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, ON THE 13th OF NOVEMBER, 1857. _—_—_——_—_e____ BY s. Ss. WEITMAN., ——o When the country was new, the mate- vial for fenees abundant, and labor and teams scarce, trees were felled in such a manner as to secure the crops of the early settler from the depredations of his then limited stock. After this, he cut sizable trees into suitable lengths, and made a “Jog fence.” Next in order came the rail fence ; which, for many years, was the usual farm fence. During the last twen- ty-five or thirty years, farmers in the older ‘settlements have found it important to be more economical in material. First, by making fence of sawed stuff, using in. this way timber that could not be split into rails ; and by making half er whole wal] where there was an overplus of stone. But within the few past years, the sub- ject of fencing has been acquiring an in- creased interest, as timber has inereased in‘value, and many who are obliged to guard their crops and secure their stock, have given this subject much thought; and this thinking and contriving, together with practical experience, have produced different kinds of fence, with reference to expense, safety, durability and appearance. The.farmer, however, generally likes the appearance of the fence that is safe ' taste in their fences, made of whatever material as they do in arranging their buildings or garden. Two farmers may take the same kind of material, whether sawed or split, turf, stone or wire; and one with a trifle more labor, if even any at all, will make a neatly finished fence ; while the other will make one that looks so slov- enly that he himself cannot look at it with any satisfaction ; while the one who makes his a good, neat fence, always enjoys a pleasure in looking at it. Many make a mistake when making board fence,by nailing on the lower boards first, conforming to the unevenness of the ground. A better way is to assort the posts, and set the longest in the lowest places in the line of the fence. Then de- termine on the intended height of the fence |at proper points on the higher parts of the ground, making these points by tacking a small strip of board horizontally on the posts, at these points. Then range from point to point, marking the intermediate posts, for the upper edge of the uppermost boards, In this manner a preparation is made for nailing on the upper range of board, without mistake or guess work, although judgment must be used in deter- and durable ; yet many ‘show as much! mining on the points. When.the upper * 86 range of boards is nailed on, measure from the upper edge of the upper board _ down to the epper cdge of the second range, marking each gost as before, and so on till the lower range is nailed on. If in any low places the space is too large be- tween the lower boards and the ground, it can be easily filled with earth or stone, or by nailing on an extra board, withont det- riment to the appearance of the fence.— A ready way of nailing boards to posts for a common field fence, is to nail one end of the board on the right hand side of the post, and the other on the left hand side, setting the middle post on the mea- dow or grain side of the fence. As the most of our farm fences, within the bounds of this Club, are for the pur- pose of protecting crops from cattle and horses, and keeping them within certain bounds, it is only necessary to have ref- erence to such. Wood fences may be made of lighter material than is generally used, and still be as safe and durable.— The usual width of boards for a panel of fence, is abowt seven inches for the two upper. boards, and éight or ten inches for the two lower ones; making forty-four feet of beards per rod. By having the upper and lower boards six inches wide, and two boards between them, four inches wide, with six or seven iuches for spaces —averaging fifteen inches from the ground —we have a fence, four and a half feet: high, equal to twenty-seven and one-half feet of boards per rod; making a differ- ence of sixteen and one half feet per rod, or over thirty-seven per cent, and asa safe protection against farm stock, as the one first described. The general tendency of field fences, has been toward lightness of material, ranging from the heavy log fence of early settlements, to the light and almost invis- ible wire fence of the present day; pro- ving that it is not the large quantity of inaterial that makes a safe fence, but dn arrangement of material so that it answers a good purpose. We do not attempt to tence against the strength of cattle or hor- ses, but to arrange the fencing material in such a manner that it appears to them’ a real barrier; and for this purpose, a fence ought to be so high that cattle or horses cannot reach over to crop the grain or grass, on the oposite side of the fence, and so close that they cannot get their heads through for the same purpose ; for in either case, the fence is very liable to be misplaced or thrown down, altho” the animal that does it, is not unruly at the time, but will soon learn to be so—this be- ing avery successful way to imitate mis- chevous habits, Cattle avd horses are more shy ofa fence made of pickets, or some narrow boards arranged perpendicularly, than they are of an ordinary board fence of equal heighth. A light portable fence may be made of three sawed pieces, some ten or twelve feet long, and one-half by two inches, (two of them serving for horizontal fails, the other fora braca, extending diagonally between them,):and pickets one-half inch- fes wide, five-eighths of an inch thick, and four feet long, nailed at right angles to the rails, four and a half or five inches apart, extending eight inches above, the upper rail, but not below the lower one, nailing each picket that crosses the brace to it, . Shingle nails are sufficient, if the | rails are of firm wood. If a stronger: fence is desired, the pickets can be threes 87 fourths of an inch thick, and narrow strips|as the upper rail. This fence is cheap; or battens, nailed across the pickets to the rails, with nails of suitable size. The ma- King of this fence can be much facilitated, by making a platform of two plank fas- tened on saw benches, so as to receive the two rails and brace, and all the panels will be alike. A board two inches wide, fastened at the lower edge of the lower rail to place the lower end of the pickets against, and some pins or nails in this platform at proper distances, so as to guide the spaccs betwen the pickets, and the frame is complete for making any number of pauels. Being prepared with a plat- form, the materials on hand; the ends of the brace dressed off to the rails; three persons, whether men or boys—one to lay on the pickets and one at each side of the panel, to nail them—will make panels enough in one day, to reach the length of a short railroad. A piece of hoop iron, bent in the form of the rail and nailed to one end, at right angles to it, to receive the end of the rail of the next panel, will assist much in keeping the ends in place when put up. In preparing to put up this fence, take two small posts, or stakes, of suitable size and length, for each panel, blocks of wood or stone, to keep it from the ground and wire or marlin to fasten the panels to the stakes. If the ground will admit make a hole with a crowbar and drive your stakes (if necessary ) so that they will be about two feet from each end of the panel ; lay the blocks that are to keep it from the ground at the foot of the posts, place your panel and fasten it to the posts by passing the wire around the post. The lower rail may be fastened in its place by short stakes, a stone, or in the same way answers well for a temporary fence as’ it can be easily moved, and it may be piled and covered up for future use. The loop of hoop-iron should be fastened on witly a single rivet or nail, so that in moving or piling the fence,it can be turned length- wise of the rail, around the end of it, out of the way. Marlin may be used to ad- vantage instead of wire. A convenient portable fence was pate ented last June, by Charles Vandermark, of Oaks Corners, Ontario County—J. W. Briggs, general agent, West Macedon, Wayue County. fence, is in a simple and ingenious method of locking the ends together, so that it sustains itself firmly, without posts.— When made to stand in zig zag form, thus beiog particularly important on stiff clays, where posts are liable to be thrown out by the frost, and where it is desirable to remove it from the side of roads apt to drift, or on intervals that are overflowed in high water, as it can be readily taken down. The alvantage of this The cost of materials may be essentially reduced and yet retain the same manner of looking. Other plans for self-support- ing fences, are in use; but the Vander- mark fence claims the preference. Wire fence has been made to some ex- tent, and is thought by many who have put it up well, to be an excellent fence, especially when exposed to high winds, and by the side of highways; but many are still incredulous about a wire fence possessing all the merit that is claimed for it. This incredulity existed le:s than thir- ty years ago, relative to the cast iron plow. 88 A neat and durable fence is made by alternate layers of turf and stone, partic- ularly by the Welsh in the northern part of Oneida county. This fence will in time come in more general use, as the material is attainable in most parts of the country. Thorn fences huve been tried fn this country only on a limited scale. The cost, for the first few years, has preven- ted a more extended experiment. It is thought by some farmers that the common thorn would answer a good pur- pose for fence in the neighborhood of the Mohawk river, if it had proper care. Good fences are of the first importance, and cannot be easily over-estimated ; for what shall a man profit if he tills his fields and loses his crops? He that will not sow, has but a poor promise of a harvest and he who sows and refuses to put his fence in order, fares often no better. but rather worse. How often are ill-feelings engendered between neighbors, entirely on account of poor line fences ? The material for fence and the manner of making, are and ought to be governed by local circumstances. A stony farm having its walls or half walls : a wet farm its ditches ; while the man owning a ce- dar or black ash swamp, has his fence of ceder posts and rails,or of the productions of black-ash trees. While the man who has land formerly occupied with large pine trees, like a dentist on a large scale, extracts the stumps and makes rough but durable fences of them. But the man who has to purchase his material in whole or in part, will endeavor to economise. On sandy or loamy soil, but little diffi- culty is experienced in making them stand, when they are well set; but ot! stiff clays it is difficult to thee them from being displaced by frost, and a self-sup- A post made of wide plank, of proper length, sawed diagonally, so that the base will! Be about equal to one-third of its height, placed on a stone of suitable size, and fastened to'it by pieces of hoop iron from’ eight to’ twelve inches long, which can’ easily be done by drilling holes in the stone at points where the edges of the base of the post! rest upon the stone, and prepare the irons porting fence is desirable. by punching two or three holes in the upper part, rélling up the lower ends, lengthwise, so that they will enter the’ drill holes ; placing the ends thus pre- pared in the drill holes and placing: ar iron plug in the part of the iro, son that it will be pressed by the plug against the’ surface of the hole and nailing the uppet part of the iron to the edges of the post, so that the post cannot go over without the post goes with it. In locations where fence is exposed to high ‘winds, narrow boards are to be pre-" ferred. This post can be used on clay soil on half wall, and answers-well for’ barn or door-yard fence. If for picket ; fence the top of the post should be of sufficient width to receive the rail.— This idea of tastening the plank post to the stone, is not patented, and every one is welvome to what it is worth. The time of cuttiing titmber to have it last well or decay quick, has been much discussed, but without uniform decision, for the different kinds of timber. There are few stibjects of more importance.— The individual or society, that will by a series of experiments determine these points and give them to the community, 89 wilt be doing a large share of good. It is to be regretted that a subject of so much importance, is generally so little understood. This we know ; that bass- wood, hemlock, or hard wont; will some- times rot in two or three years; while in other cases this same kind of timber last for ten fifteen or twenty years, in similar situations. Timber cut between the first of April and the first of August will not last well. Some claim that tim- ber cut in the old moon in Febuary will be very durable; othérs, that timber cut about the time of full moon will be much more durable than when cut near the new moon. Yet a large and intelligent elass reject the idea that the moon has any in- fluence on timber or any other production of the earth. A series of experiments might settle the question, although several years would be required Some farmers might make their farms more convenient, by substituting gates for bars. The former may be more easily made and more conveniently opened and closed ; and when closed, safely secured, and when open, a clear space is made for farm stock or teams to pass. Bars are less secure, réquire more time, and are not as safe, unless the bars are entirely taken out. Much attention has been given to the improvement of farm gates ; but the swing gates still predominate. The bal- ance gate is cheap, and somewhan conve- nient, but generally, its appearance is not in its favor. , For further description of fences, gates, manner of hanging, fastening, &c., and of fence posts, members of the Club are re- ferred to motlels now before the Society. ——._ Discussion--Nov. 13th, 183%. “Fencing” was the subject before the Club for discussion at this meeting, a sub- ject of great importance to Farmers, and one which has for many years occupied the mind of Agriculturists, and must continue to do so for ages tocome. The old crooked’ (rail) fence unsightly,expensive and waste- ful, must soon give way for other struc- cures, more economical : for timber is be- coming more and more scat‘ce, and’ land’ more valuable; and to him who is about to erect a barrier for the purpose of turn- ing in stock or to'enclose a field, it isa question worthy of the highest considera~ tion, how he is to use’ the materials at his command, so as to have a cheap, sub- stantial, and effective fence. One of the members presented some ingenious models for a cheap and efficient fence, which he had used, and which so far, had proved satisfactory. He also’ presented models for farm gates; fence’ posts, made of plank, and the manner of attaching them to a stone foutidation. A member aaid, in constructing’ a long line of fence, at different periods—where the soil, posts and manner of building were precisely similar—he found that some of the posts were thrown out by frost, while others remained as permanent as when! first set. He was not able to account for it. He formerly placed the butt end of the post in the ground ; of late however, he had reversed the post, putting the top’ or small end in the ground in order that they should be mire lasting. It was asked, if the posts were sharpert- ed at the end setin the ground; it was thought that frost acting perpendicularly ‘would be more likely to throw ont a shar- pened post, by presenting a shoulder by 90 which the earth pressing against the sides could more readily act. Another member thought this would make no difference. that the earth when frozen, adhered to the post, and the whole mass is upraised to- gether. A member said he had set posts permanently, by digging down with a spade two feet, sharpening the post, and driving it down still farther a foot or more with a heavy maul. This was easily done when the ground was soft, and by having a light bench, on which to stand so asto besufficiently high to strike a heavy blow. A piece of stout plank was placed on the head of the post, so as to prevent splitting, &c. Another member said he had built fence in this way and the posts had remained permanent for years. One member gave a description of a movable fence made of boards that he had seen atthe State Fair this fall_— Each panel consisted of five boards, with together, and the boards arranged so that some of them projected beyond the rest at either end, This fence was to be put up like the crooked fence—that is, the two panels forming an angle—no posts were used——the projecting euds slipped past each other at the corners, and were fasten - ed by nailing on a narrow strip of board. When the fence was set up, it stood firm and was substantial—the fence could be easily taken down and moved, commen- cing at one end each panel slipped out readily. Wire fences were also talked about. Some members thought highly of them, while others thought them of not much value. Charring the ends of posts, also coating with tar or steeping in mineral solutions, were recommended as operating to pre- serve the timber for a great length of time, and amply paid for the extra trouble pieces running up and down to hold them | and expense. TREATMENT OF FARM STOCK. a AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, ON THE 27th OF NOVEMBER, 1857. oe —___—_—- BY JAMES VAN VALEENBURGE., —_——_>—___—_. As I have never before given my broth- er farmers an opportunity to criticise any production of mine, I will now give them afew plans of my own, together with some hints which I have received and profited by, from other writers, in regard to the Treatment of Farm Stock. You of course, are all aware that, at no period of the year do the wants of the four-footed tenants of your bara, sheep yard and hog-sty require greater dilli- gence and punctuality than the one we are just entering upon. Yards, sheds and stables, need to be put in such order as will warrant the greatest protection to the animals to be placed therein. Feed what and when you will, it is of no avail—ani- mals cannot be kept in good condition if exposed to the severities of the winter sea- son, True economy would dictate the comfort of stock ; for, to re-invigorate a system impoverished by harsh treatment, undoubtedly costs more than to keep it in readiness to supply the demands of nature, not to mention the tendencies to disease developed by lack of food, or want of pro- tection from storms and cold. The Horse, being above all animals the most valuable as well as the most service- able, should of course receive the first and: greatest attention. You are undoubted- sy, all of you, willing to admit that we too often see horses and colts standing backed up to a fence or tree, in order that they may be protected from the cold and bleak wind and storms of November, and some- times even in December, when at the same time the owner perhaps is not without a good barn or stable ; but on the other hand, is destitute of human feel- ings. We have frequently declared that considerations of economy as well as hu- manity, demand the shelter of domestic animals in inclement weather. Less Food is required to sustain in a thriving condi- tion, the sheltered animal. The vital heat must be kept up to a certain point—about one hundred degrees—and this is done by the food consumed which serves as fuel to sustain that temperature. Shelter tends to keep up animal heat, exposure decreas- es, or rather makes more food or fuel re- quisite to support it. An equable tem- perature is more healthy. The most healthy animal suffers if exposed. to a winter storm—it loses in health and con- dition. The moisture may rapidly evap- orate, but every drop of water thus passing off, takes with it a portion of the vital heat of the animal. Those who have not Oo ample shed and stable room for all their stock at this season of the year, should loose no time in providing the same; az a good stable is the first requirement in the winter care of horses. The choice of situation is an important item. A high and dry spot, one that will admit of drainage, is as necessary for this pur- pose as for the house of the farm. Stables should be dry. Damp stables are pro- ductive of as many evils as damp houses ; in fact, many of the most violent diseases to which the horse is subject, are often attributable to this one effect. The second necesity is, that the stable should be of good size. Not unfrequently horses are crowded into space so small as to be not only extremely uncomfortable for them, but detrimental to their health. Stables thus crowded undergo sudden and re- markable transitions of temperature, The air becomes so heated that the animals are almost constantly in perspiration ; and on being taken out to perform work, are immediately chilled, and colds, and coughs, socn produce their ultimate re- sults, Having provided comfortable quarters, the duty of supplying them with a sufficient quantity of good food, that at regular intervals, devolves upon the keeper. Various experiments have’ been tried for the purpose of ascertaining the kinds best adapted to the wants of the an- imal during the winter season. Persons differ as to the relative value of many ar- ticles, yet all agree that variety is an es- sential. Oats are not the only food that will fit a horse for labor or the road.— Roots are oftentimes much superior.— Carrots are probably the first in this class and are noted both for their action upon the internal organization and in an im- proved external appearance. A loose mellow ‘hide is observable in all animajs where this root forms a portion of their food. In this connection, I will give you some of my own experience in regard to feeding horses having the heaves. Last winter I commenced feeding my working team of horses (one of which was badly affected with this troublesome disease, so common among horses) with cornstalks, together with a little corn and cob meal. The result was, that no heaves could be discovered while this food was continued, which was until about midwinter, when I commenced feeding on hay, together with the same grain as before ; which gave sat- isfactory evidence in favor of the stalks, as the disease was soon again fully devel- oped after the animal had been fed on hay. I would therefore advise all those who have horses troubled with the heaves to feed them on corn stalks in the room of hay as Iam well satisfied from my own experience, that they will not only keep in better condition, but will be able to do. more work and travel with far greater ease. Another thing of vast importance and should not be overlooked, if we aim at doing aJl we can for our stock, is to water and feed regularly. The cleanliness of the horse is indispensible to the preser- vation of his health. Stables with every appliance for comfort ; food in abundance and of the first quality—if every other want be supplied—without the animal and his quarters are cleaned daily, and kept so, it is of noavail. In addition to enhancing external appearance, there is but little doubt that the friction caused in the pro- cess of cleaning, is promotive of the gen- eral well being of the animal. The hair of a well cleaned horse, is soft and oily ; 93 and, consequently, it better fits him to withstand the cold rains so frequently du- ring winter and early spring. The anoint- ing matter is conferred through the agen- ey of the skin, and this secretory process is doubtless aliemented by good grooming. Each department of the animal econo- my ought to receive its due portion of care and attention, and must be, if we expect the entire system to be benefited. Let carelessness infringe upon the wants in any one particular, and the detriment of it will be the result. Temperature, purity of the atmosphere, quantity and quality of food, in fact everything that will redound to the animal comfort, is worthy of the closest scrutiny on the part of the owners of horses. In the second place, the requirements of our cattle are no less numerous or important than those of the horse. They need to be equally well sheltered and provided for in respect to rains, colds and all the inclemencies of the weather at this period of the year, And each class will warrant a generous outlay at the hands of its owners. On the score of economy, if prompted by no higher motive, cattle should be sheltered. Good warm quarters will be found equal to about one-fourth of the food required to sustain the animal. Stock, to pass through the winter well, should come to the stable in good condition. I will be found “ up hill work” to rally wasting en- ergies, or even to keep in condition, du- ring winter months, animals that have been kept (judging from appearance) for grey hounds or for some other speedy pur- pose. Cattle of this variety may answer very well for those desiring to learn some- thing of anatomy ; but to endure the vi- Gissitudes of our cold, raw weather, give them a covering of fat and see that it is put on properly. There is nothing equal to it for the comfort and ease of the ani- mal, Another general principle in the winter care of stock is—a good condition of flesh ought to be sustained. The sys- tem should not be allowed to deteriorate during the months of stabling. The jui- ces must be kept up; and when grass re- turns, there should be no “ spring poor’ among your cattle. If there is, a long time is wasted in the operation of recruit- ing ; and, in addition, the expense of keep- ing is much increased. Cattle should be fed regularly. Many farmers feed lightly twice a day, under cover, and allow the animals to roam at will among the stacks to obtain the demands of nature; which to say the least, isa wasteful policy.— Good barns and stables could soon be con- structed with the value of hay thus de- stroyed; and, in condition, when this course is pursued, the strong animals tri- umph over the weak. One portion of the stock, will come out in the spring as though well cared for; the other, mere skeletons. On this account, there should be plenty of stable room, and cattle well fastened each in their own separate stalls, that they may receive an equal share of food and not play the grab game on each other. Keeping the stables clean, is a matter that should not be overlooked ; and if manure is an object, let the litter go with it. In the care of Milch Cows, cleanliness is an essential. Their quarters must have attention, aud be thoroughly gone over daily. Cows should not be crowded in stalls ; but each should have sufficient room to lie down. I think that three feet is the usual allowance, but if more could be spared it would be better , 94 Among the varieties of food most exten- sively used and esteemed, are carrots.— Tt is said that their action upon the lacteal organs is very satisfactory, and that they give to the butter an excellent flavor.— At any period during winter from stabling to turning out to grass, they can be used advantageously, and especially in new milch cows before giving them in spring a chance at green food. Most writers on this subject advise the cutting of food, whether it be of hay, straw, corn stalks or roots; but as I have had no experience in that mode of feed, I shall not attempt to advise it; but no doubt it may prove to be a saving. Ifyou wish to have your cows profitable—to “ give down liberally and freely,when you are “inclined to draw upon them,” they must have such food as will tend to the secretion of milk. Dry hay will not do this. They need to be fed well, and a variety must be given them in their “ bill of fare.” Good food, good bedding—and that dry—good water, and a sufficiency of it, to sum it all up—good care and attention must be given them ; and then if they refuse to yield a ready compliance, drive them tothe slaughter house as soon as possible, for it certainly costs no more to keep a good cow than a poor one, Among the various animals kept by far- mers, none are s0 illy constituted to endure exposure to the rigor of our winter, months, as sheep,at the same time no class seem to be so poorly cared for. The sheep, of all farm stock, is the most de- pendant upon man forits support. Al- though nature has given to the sheep cloth- ing exceeding that of any other animals of the farm, in order to adapt it to the va- rious circumstances in which it may be placed. Extremes of temperature, how- ever, are wholly unsuited to its perfection ; and furthermore, what ill treatment it may receive from the shepherd, amends will not be made by that power which has hitherto exerted an influence in its be- half. The first great want of sheep is that which I have previously advised for the benefit of Horses and cattle, protection from inclemencies of weather. Shelter is the prime necessity,and is the object to which the shepherd should devote especial attention. Confinement is not advisable, yet the opportunity for seeking refuge when it is most necsessary, ought to be given. Looking at the question in no oth- er light than that of economy it recom- mends itself for the following reasons.— First, it removes disease and promotes the general health of the flock. Second, it will increase and improve the quality of the fleece ; Third, its peculiar effects will be distinctly preceptible at yeaning time. These three propositions are based upon the idea that everything that can be done to promote the comfort of the animal, must redound to the healthiness of the sys- tem, and consequently, its productiveness and perfection. Water should be conve- nient of access, although the cravings of thirst may be quenched by the use of snow. It is a mistaken policy to confine them to this mode of obtaining the moisture unecessary to supply the amount needed in the process of digestion. Again, I say shelter comfortably ; feed regularly, and give supply equal to demand—in a word, sustain a healthy and perfect develop- ment of the animal system, and “in due season ye shall receive your reward.” Having given you a few ideas upon the various modes of treatment of farm stock, 95 perhaps it would not be amiss to say a few words with regard to the management of swine, although with the most of us, I presume the fattening season is about to close. In order to ensure success in this department of farm economy, something different from the long legged, slab-sided breed ought to be selected, unless the far- mer chooses for convenience, to have walk- ing cribs upon his oremises in which to deposit his corn. Two or three pigs of this description might allay any anxiety on that score, but for filling pork barrels| they are totally inadequate. For proper management of swine, a good warm, dry pen is among the. essentials; as regards food, they will eat anything and every- thing that is edible. Give them their meals at stated periods—not feed them one day and starve them the next, nor al- low them to run and squeal with an ear of corn in their mouths. We have read of those who followed the last named plan, but it was for the purpose to get a streak of lean and a streak of fat,” and one thing they got—the lean streak. Judgment ought to be used in this matter. A hog can squeal off apound or two of fat in a short time. Those having a taste for that kind of music, may indulge; but if I could have my choice, I think I should prefer some other variety. Give them no more food than they will readily eat from the trough; over feeding is almost as much of an error as too little. In the ear- ly stages of fattening, a variety of food is usually advised. Corn, Potatoes, ‘Pars- nips, Pumpkins, Carrots, Cabbages, Tur- nips, Apples, &c, will be fouud useful. ‘Where large numbers of swine are fed, a steaming apparatus will be found both convenient and economical. It prepares the food to be more readily acted upon by the digestive organs; Let the food be given slightly warm at the temperature of the body. Gold or frozen food must, from the nature of things, be attended by a loss of energy and vitality on the part of the animal to which it is fed. Their bed as well as board, is a matter of consideration. Plenty of straw should be given them, in winter especially It will pay better in the pig pen than to sell it in the mar- ket. Much more might be said in the man- agement of farm stock, but as I am fear- ful that I am occupying too much of your time and wearying your patience, I will close my remarks with the hope that the’ subject may be continued by some one of the Club, who is better able to give it ite’ just due. & Discussion--Nov. 27th, 1857. It was said that horses were kept in better condition as to health and endu- rance, by feeding carrots with their grain —that the roots should be previously washed and cut—a neglect of cleanliness might produce disease—one member had found his horses’ mouths encrusted with dirt after feeding with unwashed roots— he thought it injurious to feed them in this state to horses—it did not affect cows in this manner, and to them he was accus- tomed to feed the roots unwashed—in win- tering colts a little grain was necessary to be fed daily—hay alone was not suffi- cient to keep them in good condition. Some members preferred to feed milk in- stead of grain—and one menber had been very succesful feeding bran—he thought oats teo hearty and stimulating. Some Q ev diff rence of opinion was expressed with regard to stabling young colts, &c. Some preferred that they should be turned out during the day, while others thought they should be kept in a roomy stable but not fastened—the animals were not so liable to mishaps and seemed to thrive better— no more than two should be kept in one stable—if the stable was roomy they Would exercise enough for health. Underground stables fur cattle were dis- approved of—the animal was kept too warm and noxious gasses generated dis- ease. One member said a few years ago he had an underground stable where he stabled in winter nine cows—any person could re dily select these cows from his flock, ast hey stood shivering or pinched up, when out in the yard, Tn the wintering of calves other food besides hay should be given—small quan- tities of oats or roots would be found ser- viceable. Particular care should be taken of calves during the early part of the win- ter—it was difficult to save the calf after it began to run down. Im the constructioti of stable doors, it 6 wasa good plan to have the plank or which the animal stands with the fore feet alittle lower than those back of it, say an inch or so: this prevented the cow fall- ing on the knees when reaching for food Stanchions were thought to be the safest method for fastening the animal. One member said he had lately con- structed an underground stable with a ventillator on top of the building—on' opening a windsw, a current of ‘air was perceptible+-the stable so far was satisfac- tory. It was asked if there were any openings near the floor for the escape of carbonic acid gas—this gas being heavier than the air, would not be carried off—it was advisable to have openings near the floor for its estape, or it might prove in-' jurious to the health of the animal—saw- dust was recommended as an excellent lit- ter in the stable—it was a good absorbent of moisture, and added very materially to” the compost heap. The meeting was well attended, but the discussion was shorter than usual, on ac-’ count of other business before the club; GRAPE CULTURE. ‘ MEETING OF THE FARMER’S CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, DECEMBER 11, 1857, 4 a + Mn Hexaten, Essayist for the occasion, ‘had ‘designed to write ‘a paper on the Cul- ture of: Grapes and other. small ‘fruits, but fVhealth for the past two’ ‘weeks had pre- vented his doing so. He’; gave, however, the differcnt-methods of pruning the vine, dnd ‘its treatment and “culture generally. The Kinds he’ preferred ‘for this climate, were “Isabella, Concord, Diana, Northern Museadine and Sweetwater. To warm and settled’ lodations, the Catawba was also highly recommended, but, would not an- swer for’ general: culture,’ “Besides these, are several varieties, such as the Delaw are, Rebecca¥Child’s: Seedling, é¢:, which have been! greatly praised, but have not been sufficiently’ teeta noe to a of their merits, 7 : ’ The aifeitty of tg goo od fruit in this climate, is the corstant® care and at- tention’ the vines require: ‘during the’ sea-, son of their ‘greatest actty ivity, say from the first of June te 'the first of Aug gust. ‘During this period, especially ” they’ ate constantly throwing out new ‘shoots or] branches, and unless properly watched and prevented by pinching out all super- fluous branches, they soon: become a mat-: ~ ted and tangled mass of vines and leaves, ‘pruning, that the fruit does not mature before the approach of frosts. The: great object, therefore, in its culture, is to. so direct the growth of the vine, thata limited quantity of fruit shall receive-all the vigor possi- ble, and mature during the brief period of our .warm seasons. Various methods of iiditiag or pruning are followed by different persons. One is. to carry up from the root, two, four, or more leading canes, (according to the space'you wish the vine to occupy, and the age and vigor of the Toot), aud from these train out side branches or spurs, on which the fruit is to be grown upon alternate brauches, training out each year new branches which are to bear. fruit the next. |Tt must be always borne in mind that fruit is only grown on wood of the current year growing out of wood of the previous or last year. Another system of pruning, and one it: |that seems to work better with the hardy vines of our locality, i is to, train up each year as many leading canes asare needed for fruiting each successive year, .cutting out down to the root again, those.that have borne the fruit the current year, atthe Fall and taking up others again in and the vigor and strength are so divided, | their places for the next succeeding year. 98 | . With the attention needed during the season of active growth of the vine, it will afford abundant crops at a small out- lay. No garden, however small, should be without its vines. It was said that a good device for supporting the vine, was to build a frame with slats running across like a lad- der. This was fastened with hinges at the bottom to two posts and raised to an an- gle of 45 degrees, inclining to the south, the vines were set on the north side. .By this arrangement the vines received agreat- er amount of heat from the sun—they could be easily pruned from above and the fruit readily picked from below—and in winter the vines might be lowered to the ground and covered so as to be protected from cold—where the vines could be con- veniently protected in winter it was thought advisable to do so, even with the hardiest varieties, as it ensured-an earlier ripening ’ of the fruit. In the cultivation of Plums, it was said that the curculio and black-knot were so ‘prevalent as to make it very difficult to get fruit. One member had cultivated Plums successfully —he cut off the knots as soon as they appeared and wound paper about the denuded part. Another mem- ber said he had cut off the diseased limbs and kept cutting until finally the tree had been entirely cut away ; he had inoculated the tree with sulphur and with calomel, but to little purpose. The calomel was applied on the principle that it was des- tructive to insects or on whatever subject applied, It was asked whether calomel given internally tothe human subject,would destroy vermin. It was replied that it had that effect. It was said that one great fault in cultivating small fruit was, the crowding together too many trees, or plants, on the ground. Space was neces- sary. Too much fruit was also left on the tree or vine. To get it in perfection, one- balf or two-thirds of the fruit should be removed at an early period. One member said he saw Pears recently in New York City, each of which were as large as his two fists ; they were selling at fifty cents. a piece—he understood that the growers of these only allowed a dozen or so, each year, to grow on a tree. It was better to raise a few from a tree and sell them at a large price, than a great many at a small price. The New Rochelle, Blackberry, Black Raspberry and Antwerp Raspberry, were talked about. It was said that there was a species of Blackberry in our vicinity that was of a reddish color—some might call it white—it was sweeter and better than the common blackberry. One mem- ber had observed a Black Raspberry bush change to the red variety—it stood alone ; it was some three or four years in chang- ing—each year the fruit approximated more and more to the red, until at last it became of the common red variety. It was a great-study for him, and he could not account for it—he supposed its trans- form was owing to a change in its accus- tomed food. { 1 I | 1 | | GRAPE CULTURE. AN ESSAY READ BEFORE ‘THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, ON THE 25th OF DECEMBER, 1857. ——_e—______——— BY CHARLES OVvsToNn. SO ‘ I do not. believe there ever was a time when Grape culture was more needed in this section of the country, than at pres- ent. The rapid decline of several kinds of plums, as also the cherry, from the effects of the black knot: the continually in- creasing: attacks of the curculio, and the very poor success attending the. attempt to cultivate the improved or European cherry, all seem to point to a more exten- ded culture of the grape. Before pro. ceeding further, it ;may be proper to state what appears to me to be the two great objections to grape culture, The first i is, the great length, and severity of our win- ters ; the other i is, the great amount of at- tention the grape requires during the growing season. So much has been said and written on the grape, that it may seem to some as if nothing more useful remained to be said. But, if we take into consideration that nearly all that has been | said on the grape, had reference to a cli- mate somewhat different from ours, we shall at once see the necessity and utility of an essay based on experience and care- fal observation, ia our own immediate neighborhood. The great diversity of opinion respect- Ling the grape, may lead some to believe that it is not well understood. Some ad- vocate one kind of pruning, and some another. One recommends a deep, rich soil, another points to the light, sandy soil of Spain, to thethin calcarious soils of some parts of Italy, or to the elevated portions of Madeira, in all of which places the grape thrives well, and produces delicious fruit, even on lava formations, where it is almost impossible there can be much or- ganic food for plants. To reconcile these apparent. contradictions with regard to the nature and quality of soil proper for the grape, it will be well to remember that there is ever present in the atmosphere all of 95 per cent. of the same kinds of mat- ter as enter into the composition of the grape, whether it be the stem, leaf or the fruit, and that the leaves of all plants, the grape in Particular, are capable of absorb- ing this’ eriform food and converting it into the various solid and liquid com- pounds that constitute ‘the sum total of the vegetable world. Every’ leaf being fur- nished with innumerable little mouths con- stantly engaged in absorbing the invisible 100 and inodious gasses that are in the at- mosphere, and converting them into the most delicious and fragrant compounds. Now, the difference in the length of the sum-, mers in the countries above referred to and ours,isastwotoone. This gives the grape double the chance that it has in our chilly clime, to perfect its growth ‘through the azency of its leaves, and if the soil i is ‘of such a nature as to afford mechanical sup- port to the roots and furnish it with the. sinall per centage of mineral ingredients it needs, it may be considered equal to the richest soil pnited toashort summer. In- asmuch as we cannot supply the grapes with a long summer, we must do the other thing, thatis, we must supply it with rich soil—rich i in organic matter in a suitable state for absorbtion by the roots. .Nor is this sufficient; we must prepare the soil so that it will remain light and porous to ye mit the roots to travel in search of their food. ~The roets of the grape vine differ materially trom those of many other plants ; the young roots are thick and|- spongy, presenting a-larger absorbing sur- face than most other roots, *s may ‘be in- : ferred from the vigorous atewih of the vine. In addition to common manures, I would recommend bones, charcoals, tailor’s clipping of woolen cloth, leather chips, iron filings and turnings, action leached and| unleached, oyster and other shells, hard wood sawdust, aud chips. Many of these things decompose slawly, giving a steady supp'y of gaseous food, as well as keeping | ¥ the soil light. To allow the soil to re- main as light as possible, it should not be trodden more than necessary when wet;| and as wet soil is always heavier than ~~ jt will be proper to prevent the accumu- ation of water by good and efficient drain- cured t to strong posts. ing. The soil ought to be two feet deep if circumstances will permit; a deeper soil is not, objectionable, and a thinner soil may answer, if not too much exposed to the influences of drouth. Preparations for planting the grape ought to be made when the soil is tolerably dry, which will allow it to remain light and | porous. Having pointed out the principal fen- tures relating to the soil, the next thing is the position or situation in which the vine should be planted. “I have tried it on the east, south and west sides of my house, and find it to do well in all three positions. It is much more subject to be winter-killed on the east and south, than it is on the west, if the vine is unprotected this ‘is probably caused by ihe sun shining full on it during the early part of the day, after a severe frosty night, and injuring fts ca- pillary structure. ‘When planted to form an arbor in open ground, they ought to ran north and south, so that each side will receive its’ due share of } suo. If planted in the open ground’ with the intention of devoting the whole surface toa vineyard, it will perhaps be best to Plant them in rows from east ‘to west, the row from ten to fifteen ‘feet apart, and a ‘corresponding distance apart in the rows, The interme- diate spaces might be ; devoted to. hoed crops of dwarlish growth; for the first few years at ‘any ‘rate, if not permenantly. The vines ought to be planted diagonally with each other, and trained to strong wires, which should be from hine ‘to thirteen inch- es asunder, stretched ‘horizontally, and i 5e- The posts ought to be connected to each other by a timber jin the. form of a plate, ‘nailed on to the top of the posts to give them stability. The plate need not be more than two by three. 101 or four inches wide; ‘the front: corner-ought to be champered off The sitiiation ‘ought to be protected from stroug winds, as they are very injurious to the vine during early: summer, when the young shoots are very’ tender and easily broken off, the’ leaves: ‘being 4 very large, are liable to be injured if “exposed to strong winds. With respect to the height of the posts, it will depend on the distance of the rews and ‘the inclination of the ground. They ought not to be so high but that the ‘sua -will strike ‘the whole of one row ‘over the top' of the oné'next in front of it during inid-day. If the ground has an east and West, as well as a, south inclination, the dines. may be curved. instead of straight. The great object:to be attained ’ whatever the mode of planting is, is to secure as much light and air as possible, If planted with the intention of training up to the side of 'a buildiag, the wires ought to be three or four inches.from the side, whether | fas: its predecessor ;,and so on to the end brick, stone, or wood, and secured by proper iron fastenings... In all cases the ‘wire ought ‘to be, painted.,. If trained to an -hinged..,trellies, the’ trellies ought to contain, no more-wood. than is sufficient to give. it, stiffaess;:and wires, ought to be used for tying-the vines. -Dhose, who have not tried, wires, as well as wooden, slats, _will hardly ; helieve, the great advantages the wires posséss over slats, in the. facility of, tying, to say, ee of soa aS thé less shades they cast. The next’ thing in order i is sinks It cuttings are used, they ought-to be taken off in November, before severe frost, and |: ‘buried: six: of ‘eight’ inches deep in’ the ground, and covered with a little litter, to ~ protect. them from frost.’ About five eyes or buds is ‘enough. for’ one cutting; ‘put two-cutlings where each vine is intended to grow ; incline them at angles of forty- five degrees in ‘the rows; let one or two buds be above ground, and their- tops about a fuot apart. If they both grow, the roots of the one will run east and the other west, Remove one. Let the other remain | for a permanent vine, after it has grown a foot or so.': Pinch the ends off all the | shoots except the strongest one; protect carefully, and tie it toa stick. In the course of two or three weeks, side shoots ‘will push out from all or most of the joints, as well from those that have been stopped as the-one that was allowed to grow. These shoots are termed laterals. After they have grown a few inches,pinch off the ends of the ‘shoot, leaving but one leaf and aboul, an inch of stem.on each root, If the ground is.good and the season favorable, other shoots will .be produced from the axile of. the leaf of the lateral. This sublateral must be treated the same of the season. In November, take a sharp kniffe and prune off all the shoots, pretty close to ths-parent wood, except. the Jar- gest—prune this down to within three or ‘four inches of the fourth bud from the bot- ‘tom, aud the operation is done-for the sea- son, so dar as pruning goes. A day or so after the vine has.been pruned, cover every cut. with shellac varnish, to prevent it - bleeding onthe return of Spring ; as the a? top of the vine is but a few inches above the ground, it-may be covered with fine earth to protect it from frost. . The first thing’ to be done in the eaeonil year, is to remove. the covering. of earth ‘some time in April, when the frost is out of the ground, and await: the growth of the vine. After the buds have grown an 102 inch or so, select the two strongest, and rub all the rest off. Tie those two sticks, and shorten the laterals as directed the first year. In the month of November, prune down to withia four eyes or buds of the bottom of each cane or vine; shellac and cover with earth, leaves, or straw; allow it to remain till Spring. Remove the covering on the approach of Spring, and as soon as the shoots have attained the length of three or four inches, select from two to three of the best from each of the last year’s canes, and rub the rest off. Train these carefully, not forget- ting to stop or shorten the laterals as they appear, as far up the cane as eight or ten fect. In November of the third year, prune off all the laterals within the six- teenth of an inch of the main cane, as far up as from seven to ten feet, according to the strength of the different cane; and then cut off the top of the cane—touch all the cuts over with the shellac—lay down and cover for winter, and this will end the operation for the third year. At the approach of Spring of the fourth year, remove the covering; but do not tie up the canes while the buds are beginning to swell. . Now is the proper time for the exercise of taste, judgment and forethought in the training of the vine. If it is intended to train in the fan style, arrange the canes over the surface of the trellies at equal distances, to afford room for the fruit and for the canes which are to replace these next year. As most of the buds will show from two to three bunches of blossoms, to allow all these to remain, would be to tax the vine beyond its capability ; therefore, after having selected five or six bunches, at equal distances on each cane, and one shoot near the bottom, for the bearing cane for next year—which shoot should not be al- lowed to bear avy fruit but only wood for next year—rub all the rest off, unless it is intended to extend the vine upwards. If so, then take some shoots out near the top, according to the surface to be occu- pied. As the shoots containing the em- bryo bunches extend, pinch off the heads, or ends, of the shoots, about three leaves or joints above the uppermost bunch. This operation prevents the excess of wood, and appropriates the sap to the formation of fruit. Laterals will push from these fruit-bear- inz shoots ; they must be pinched off, af- ter the first or second leaf, the same as the laterals of the long canes, of this and the last year. If good judgment has been exercised in proportioning the number of fruiting and succession canes to the avail. able surface, and due vigilance in the shortening of the laterals, there will be no use in taking off a single leaf, to aid the ripening of the fruit. The right way is not to pull off the excess of leaves, but not to nllow an excess to exist at any time. Instead of hasteniug the ripening of the fruit by pulling off the leaves on the fruit- bearing branches, it generally makes it a week later, as well as injuring its flavor and size. After the fruit is gathered and the leaves have fallen, the vine is ready for pruning again. Cut off all the late- rals from the succession eanes as before directed, as high up as necessary, and cut off the end. Next, cut off all those canes that have borne fruit, a little above where the succession cane sprouted out, except those from which succession canes were taken for the purpose of extending the 103 same upwards. These may be left an- other year, and then replaced by others. The great object aimed at in this kind of pruning, is always to have on hand a good supply of long, well matured canes of this year’s growth, for next year’s fruit- ing. Let it be borne in mind, that grapes are always produced on wood of the same year’s growth ; and that the best fruit is always that which is borne on wood which springs from wood of the preceding year’s growth; hence the necessity of keeping up a supply of new wood. In almost all cases, some of tlte canes will be much stronger than others. Prune the str ng vines from one to four feet longer than the othors, according to their respective strength, and when they show fruit, allow the strong canes to bear most near the top, and thin out towards the bottom, so as to give their weaker neighbors a better chance. By this arrangement, the fruit and leaves will be more uniformly distri- buted over the trellis,which will add much to the appearance as well as to the well being of both fruit and wood. The system of pruning which I have been describing and advocating is what is known as the long cane and renewal— The opposite of this is the spur, or rather the short spur. The latter is the kind practised by the first exotic grape-prow- ers in England and this country. It is well adapted to mild climates and hot- house culture; but for out-of-door cul- ture, in this clime, it utterly fails. It ap- pears that the cold enters the pores of the cane or vine, and deranges the struc- ture so as to prevent the proper flow of sap. All other systems of pruning may be regarded as modifications and combi- nations of the “long cane” and “ short spurs. The vine may be trained in a great va- riety of ways, with similar success. It is not the training, so much as the pruning. Some advocate taking two canes out hori- zontally, right and left, during the third year, and in the fourth year, taking a sufficient number of canes up perpendicu- larly for fruiting the following year, and so replacing these by a set of succession canes taken up perpendicularly from the horizontal canes of the third year’s growth. I have no objections to this style of train- ing, for the system of pruning is the same as what I have been advocating. I have described the process of raising grape vines from cuttings; I donot mean how- ever, to recommend this in preference to using well rootedtplants in starting a vine- ty, when they can be obtained and relied on. Plants two years old, are perhaps the best in planting. Be careful to spread out the roots, and cover with fine earth, and prune and treat as directed fur cut- tings. : The next thing to be considered, is the kind of grapes proper for this climate ; the Isabella is undoubtedly the grape for this section: It is a vigorous grower, good bearer, free from disease, yields abund- ance of grapes of good quality when prop- erly manured, and is tolerably hardy, hav- ing withstood all our cold winters, except the last, without protection, though I have no doubt, it would have been much better if protected. When I speak of the Isabella, I mean the simon pure—not ev. ery thing that grows on a vine and pro- duces a blueish berry ; for there are sever- al kinds called Isabella’s that are not to be compared with it in point of flavor, size of berry, and beauty of bunches— therefore look out! 104 The Northern Muscadine, isa hardier grape than the Isabella; stands our win- ters better; a good bearer ; compact bun- ches sweet and musky, and much admired by. some ; ripens early ; requires gather- ing soon after ripening, as the berries drop off if allowed .to remain. It. deserves.a place in, every garden in this. climate, if for variety’s sake only. ‘ The Concord is the. next that claims our attention. '. Ht is.a new grape, and has not as yet had-2 thorough trial—this year, being the first time it has borne fruit in this part.. I have'no hesitation in recom- mending it. The bunches and berrres are of a good size, and well shaped. It stood | last winter unprotected, and came out un- injured. I think I may. safely say, it: is| the hardicet grape we have; and if I) werea going to plant a grape vine.in any situation where. it would be incon- venient to cover it or lay it down in win- ter I should: certainly try the Concor a such, for instance as covering’ a lofty ar- bor, or training it up against a building. It has remarkable firm wood, and ripens well, even such a cold wet summer as the | last, ‘The Concord, Muscadine, and. ‘Isabella, are large leaved vines, and require consid- | . erable room—much more than the Phil-| adelphia, (so called) which is asmall leav, | ed variety, and therefore may | be “allowed | almost double the canes in the samé, space, | It produces tolerably freely, smallish, bun- |-. ches, small seeds and mediocre flayor. It is tolerably - “hardy, and. as it will require but little room, it is entitled to a trial.—- I think its fruit would answer well: ey preserving. , The sweet Water-is the most aetciowsl out-door grape we have—scareely inferior led by it. to the exotic An. point of flavor. i Iti is not a rampant grower, but an excellent bearer --the crop of fruit sometimes exceeding i in weight the whole of the stem , leaves, roots and : branches taken together, . It is small leaved, of a delicate constitution, soft wood. ed, and requires careful covering in winter; I know, of no frujé in this clime that can be grown out, of doors, that j is equal i in. deli- cacy of. flavor: to. the Sweet [Water grape. It is said not, to belong lived; but this is no excuse for neglecting“it,as the cuttings root. freely, and therefore a. supply of young plants can always‘be,.had on hand without going to: the nursery. It bears when, very small. I have grown twelve nice bunches on,a vine that .was. but. four years old, and only four feet: high. This disposition to bearing. when quite small, adapts it/admirably to .certaia civutiens where a vine of larger growth would be inadmissable.. The spaces. between lar- ger vines on the side.of a building, or low garden fence, might be profitably. o¢cupi- It, requires. a southern . expo- sure. The Diana iis a:grape thab .is said to do well here, but I have had no op- portunity of judging—I therefore decline |speaking. of it... 1, of The Clinton does Bt do well. ‘here~-T cannot ‘recommend it, The Catawba, | which is the staple grape of the west, , does jnot amount to anything here ;, our suit! c yar leew mere aré far too short for it.’ “One very great’ drawback ou the ‘gripe Jin this climate is its’ tendency to: excés- sive bleeding. The full length of a well | matured ' cane will sometimes die from the effect of its I think the 1 reason why" vitles bleed more ‘“ in this climate, ‘than they. do in a ‘milder o one, is owing ‘to. the cold, of winter keeping the. sap so perfectly, dor- 105 mant, that there is tto flow, and conse- quently the pores do not get filled at the end of the cane with the thicker portions of sap; and when the warm weather comes, the sap rushes ont at the end of the cane. On the other hand, if the sip was to commence flowing slowly, the was tery portions would evaporate and depos- it the mucilaginous portion, which would act as a seal and prevent bleeding. To prevent bleeding is one of the highest im- portance in this climate, and I have found that by allowing the vines to remain a few hours or a day after prttning, so as to ullow the sap. to evaporate, and then ap- plying a solution of shellac in alcohol with,a small. brush, to effectually prevent it, The enly time when the grape suf- fers from bleeding is in the spring, before the leaves expand. After this there is no danger through the rest of the summer. With respect to the height a vine ought to be trained, know of no limit other than the convenience of training and pru- ning. I have raised good grapes one foot ftom the ground as well as twenty above it. One great thing in favor of the grape is, that it comes into general bear- ing sooner than almost any other fruit of its size. As an illustration, I would ob- serve that, four years ago last spring, I planted two very small one year old plants; they have borne three years, and last year their joint yield was five pecks uf grapes. The ground in which they grow is a tol- erable garden soil, had no preperation be- fore planting, excopt afew bones put to the roots. The vines aro trained to the side of the house, with a view of mode rating the effect of the sun, which they do to a considerable extent, thus serving a double purpose. It appears to me that the summer pru- ning might be performed in part by the female portion of the household in case they have the time to spare. Let no la- dy suppose that in co-operating with the Oreator in perfecting the manifest design of His will, by the cultivation of that plant which has ever been regarded as an emblem of beauty and holiness, that she is degrading herself the least. And I think oo man would believe that the fruit tasted less sweet ftom having been man- aged by the fairer portion of society — There are numbers of situations in this village where a vine might be grown with very little outlay, which would be both ornamental and useful. And there are numbers of similar situations in the coun- try, which might be occupied in a similar manner, giving to the farmer a variety in fritit, as well as scenery. How many blank barn-sides and sheds, do we see when travelling along the road, that al- most entreat their owners to cover them with a robe of verdure to shield them from the scorching sun. The leaves are not an injury to a frame building, as some have supposed, but they protect it. In conclusion, I think I may safely say, that the grape vine is more under the con- trol of the cultivator than any other fruit bearing plant. That it is more regular in fruiting than almost any other, and that the cultivation of it, when understood, is exceedingly interesting and gratifying. It may be proper to state, that the grape makes an excellent preserve, is a good substitute for the plum, and consid- ered quite healthy. I think I have occupied sufficient space for the present ; I will therefore defer the subject of small fruits, and comment upon them on some future occasion. 106 Discussion--Dec. 25, 1857. Mr. Oysron, with a cane of the Catawba grape of last season’s growth, illustrated two different methods of pruning the vine, and of stopping the growth of new shoots to concentrate the strength of the plant for the production of fruit. For a descrip- tion of the process practiced by him, see his Essay on another page. The Concord and Isabella varieties of the Grape were considered the best adapt- ed to this region. Both were hardy, pro- ductive, wholesome and of good flavor. The Sweet-Water was also recommended as a very excellent grape, and doing well here with careful culture. — A member stated that he had tried grape vines grown with a westerly expo- sure, and also asoutherly exposure: he found the westerly exposure to be the ' “Isafest. A considerable sum of money had: been paid in this village, during the past sickly season, for grapes for invalids,which might have been raised here with a little pains taking labor. The question was asked whether our native wild grapes could be ityproved by cultivation. It was thought that labor might better be expended it taising those known to bear good fruit. Mr. Fink had tried grafting upon the wild grape, without success. The great danger to be guarded against in pruning, was excessive “ bleed- ing.” It was believed that our short sea- sons for the growth and maturity of fruit increased the danger from this source; be- | cause the sap was elaborated and transmit- ted through grape vines in greater abun- dance and with more rapidity, than in milder temperatures of climate, SS eS eS a ff a 3 BERRY CULTURE. AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, ON THE 8th OF JANUARY, 1858. —>_____ BLT CHMARLES owsTon. oar + — The liberal supply of Strawberries ob- tained from our meadows has hitherto precluded the necessity of cultivating them in our gardens. Nevertheless, some have made an attempt at cultivating, and that with sufficient success to warrant a con- tinuation. A general opinion prevails, that the cultivated are inferior in flavor to the wild ones. My opinion is, that the cultivated, if of the right kind, are as much superior in flavor as they are in size, to any wild ones I ever tasted. I have tasted several of the cultivated that were inferior to the wild, but as nobody is obliged to cultivate the poor kinds to the exclusion of the good, there can be no good reason for preferring the wild, unless "as a matter of economy. . The Strawberry plant is divided into sexes, the male, female, aud hermaphro- dite. A knowledge of this fact is of the highest importance to any one undertaking its culture. A few years ago an individual inquired of me why his Strawberry plants bore no fruit—they were healthy, vigorous ‘and bore an abundance of fine large blos- soms, but no fruit. It is needless to say they were of the male kind. | Mr. Peabody, of Columbus, Georgia, in his correspondence to the Patent Office Report of 1853, recommends one row of the Early Scarlet, and seven rows of the | Hovey Seedling. The Early Scarlet is a hermaphrodite, which answers the purpose of the male in impregnating the Hovey Seedling. He says he has produced abundance of fruit for twelve years in succession from ‘the same plants, by preventing the runners from spreading by cutting off as soon as they appear, by which the food taken up by the roots is converted in a great mea- sure into fruit instead of being wasted in useless vines. He uses no manure except partially decomposed leaves. I think, however, something more stimulating in our climate is necessary. _, The Strawberry does well in a variety of ;,soils—-a moderate strong loam, and even a clay soil suit if not too much ex- posed to the sun by inclination. In start- ing a bed or plot, the plant may be planted in rows from 12 to 18 inches asunder, and from 6 to 9 inches in the row. They require to be kept free from weeds by hoeing and ‘preventing the runners from spreading as soon as they appear. The fall is a good time for planting. The sec- 108 ond year after planting they will fruit when in blossom, if the weather is dry they ought to be watered about sundown, with a watering pot, and continued while the fruit is set. Keep the surface free from weeds by repeated hoeings while the fruit is formed, at which time straw, grass, moss or fine shavings may be put between the rows to keep the fruit from the ground. To the fall take a four-tined fork and loosen the soil between the rows, but don’t turn it up, as this would injure the roots too much. Put on a dressing of cow manure and ashes, and the rain will do the test, until next spring, when they may be hoed and raked before the leaves expand too much. I would observe that while some kinds bear well from the same plants a great number of years, others require renewing at shorter periods. In the last number of the Patent Office Report, there is a splen- ‘did colored, full sized, representation of a new Strawberry by Mr. Peabody. It is hermaphrodite, and consequently needs neither of the other sex to assist. it in fruit- ing. It is represented as a vigorous grower, and said to produce fruit seven inehes in circumference. If this report is true, and if it will stand our climate, it will prove a great addition to our stock of small fraits With respect to the cultivation of the ‘Currant, I know of no words that so sforci- ‘bly expresses what ought to be done, as, that admirable motto attributed ito the ‘celebrated David Crocket:: “ Be-sure you are right, then go ahead.” Unless the cultivation of the Currant is rightly commenced, it is a hard matter to ‘keep the bush in shape. The first thing to'be done is to select good, long, well matured shoots of last years growth— Those grown on shoots or stems are to ve preferred to those that spring directly from the ground, as the former are apt to be shorter jointed, and have better developed buds. They should be taken off the branches in the fall, aad buried in the ground until spring; but if the winter is mild they will do equally well if taken off in the spring. The next thing to be done is to prepare the cuttings for planting Suppose the shoots in question to be from 12 to 18 inches long, which they ought to be to make handsome shaped bushes, take a sharp knife, cut off the upper end from 3 to six inches according te the strength of the shoot, then make a cleaa draw cut at the other end, immediately below the low- est bud, then commence at the bottom and cut out all the buds carefully except from 4to6 atthe top, which must be. left to form the head on the bush. _ The great object aimed at. in cutting out the buds of that part of the cutting which enters the ground, i is to prevent that eternal succoring which is sp uD- sighthy, unprofitable and positively in- jurious to beth plant and fruit, The cut- tings may be Jaid in a dry cellar a week -or 80 feefore planting. Sometime in April |when the ground is suitable for spading, umanure and dig a piece, then plant the \cuttings in rows about:a foot apart, and 's6 inches in the rows, let there be a space of from 6 to 7 inches betweea the lowest bud and the ground, if the Jength of the ‘Jcutting will permit. A moist coil is pre- ferable; if the season is dry, mulch. About 95 out of every 100 cuttings will root if properly done. jIn pleating, the soil.ought to be pressed down to the cuttiags with the foot, to give them firmness .and something to strike into. 109 In April, or in mild winter weather | perpendicular stalks in the interior. ven the young plants may be pruned.— “his consists in shortening in pretty close, say to 3 inches long, 3 or 4 of the strong- ‘st shoots, and cutting off all the rest.— They inav be either planted out or al- lowed to remain another year as circum- stances may require. In either case they will push from most of the eyes, and enough shoots ought to be selected to form a nice head—the rest may be rubbed off, and théy will require nothing more ex- cept keeping clean while winter or spring, when they will require pruning again.— Pruning this time differs from last years inasmuch ae the long shoots require shor- tening about one third more or less, ac- cording to their strength. This year al- most every bud will push iore or less ; those lower down will make very short wood, those near the top will make com- paratively long shoots. The short shoots, more properly called spurs, will be found to be full of fruit buds if properly exam- ined.’ After the leaves fall they must not be touched with the knife. The long ones at the upper part of the bush must be shortened to within two or three inch- es of last years wood, all except those re- quired to complete the form of the bush, by extending it upwards, which wiil re quire shortening from one third to one half, aad even more if the shoots are weak. This kind of pruning has a ten- dency to make stroug stalky bushes. The shorteuing causes the buds at the lower part of the bush to form prolific fruit spurs, ‘instead of dying out as they would if the tap was mnopruned, The proper shape of a well-pruned currant or goose- berry bush ought to approximate to the outline of a wine glass or goblet, with the addition af from .one to three nearly! Cur- rant bushes raised and pruned in accor- dance with these instructions, will make a stem from two to three inches in diame- ter in good ground. mental—the fruit is much larger and of They are orna- superior flavor—they can easily be hoed, cleaned and manured, as there are seldom any succors to contend with and are easily pruned. The Currant likes a tolerable dry soil. If the soil is wet and draining not con- venient, they may be planted very shal- low and the ground dug up to them. This ,| will cause each bush to occupy a litile mound. The distance at which the bushes ought to be apart in the open ground wili vary according to the soil. 5 or 6 feet may be taken asamedium When plaht- ed near fences they rarely get much culti- vation on the side next the fence, and are apt to suffer trom the attacks of the green fly. The green fly an] caterpillar are the currant’s greatest enemies. The latter may be got rid of by picking off, shaking off and killing, or any similar operation ; but the former are altogether too numer- ous to be got rid of by any manual opera- tion. Wemust therefore have recourse to strong soap suds or tobacco water. In manuring, potash ought not to be forgot- ten, as the annual pruning takes away considerable. As the same ground which supports a poor kind, would support equally well a good kind, it is very poor policy to retain the former when the later can be obtain- ed so easily aud so cheaply at most of our nurseries, As the currant is one of the perishable fruits, it may be thought inca- pable of being euitivated profitably on a large scale, but aince the introduction of air tight jars amd cans for preserving 110 fruit, 1 can see no reason why Herkimer County may not become as celebrated for the quantity and quality of its currants as it is for the suveriority and abundance of its Cheese, and I do not see any good reason why some improved process of dry- ing small fruit may not be invented or in- troduced that will retain the flavor and at the same time render it more portable. I do not think it is saying too much to say that very few people in this vicinity know what a good currant well cultivated is,there are I believe but very few of the iuproved varieties growing iu this section, I will therefore name those that in my Opinion are cntitled to notice. The red and white Dutch, ia point of flavor are not surpassed by any, especially the white. When well grown they are very fine and large, ranging from 10 to 24 full sized berries on a stem. The Grape Victoria and Cherry, are currants of more recent origin. They are all large, and de- serve aplacein every garden. In con- cluding my remarks on the currant I beg leave to say that I think the soil and cli- mate here well suited to the currant, The Gooseberry requires the same at- tention in preparing the cuttings, and in preparing the brushes as the currant.— What applies to one applies to the other also, with one exception, that is,the goose- berry is apt to mildew, the currant is not It seems to me a great pity that we do not avail ourselves of more of the good things that the Great Giver has so liberally given and placed within our reach, than we do, and I think the gooseberry is one of these rejected boons. It is a fine fruit, soon comes into bearing, long lived,and yields probably a greater weight of fruit year for year,than any other fruit bearing plant. It is good for pies when green; when ripe it makes an excellent preserve—that is certain kinds do, It is very pleasant to eat when fully ripe, being almost free from that acid that distin. guishes the currant ; but it requires plant- ing and cultivating before its good quali- ties are known and this is probably the reason why it is so much a stranger amongst us. Another reason is, it is disposed to mil- dew, as I have already observed, but some kinds much less so than others, and I be- lieve there are some entirely free from it under all circumstances, There is a gooseberry known as the Houghton Seed- ling, which is represented as an excellent bearer and free from mildew. Mr. C. E. Goodrich, of Utica, says the mildew may be entirely prevented by sprinkling warm ashes thickly over the foliage when the flowers first appear in the spring, and then again in six or eight days; he recommends a wire sieve for the purpose. Jt appears tome as if the gooseberry ought to be planted on ground inclining to the north, as it would correspond more nearly with the climate of England, where it is so ex- tensively and successively cultivated. To those wishing for the names of those kinds that do well in some parts of this country, I refer them to the Patent Office Report of 1853, page 323. “The remark that I made respecting the Strawberry applies to the Raspberry with regard to obtaining it without cultivation. To cultivate the Raspberry successfully requires less care and judgment than the currant, for the reason that it is only of a biennial existence, so that if a mistake is made one year it may'in a great’ measure be corrected the next. IE A pretty deep, tolerable rich; loose, and somewhat moist soil is considered appro- priate for the Raspberry. They miay be planted from 4 to 5 feet apart in the rows, and the rows the same distance apart— One er two plants may be put in each hole, according as they are scarce or abundant, the tops shortened a little, the ground kept clean, and the fruit gathered, what little there is, and this ends the first season. Atthe approach of spring the following year, the stalkes or canes that bore fruit may be broken or cut—as they are now dead—to ‘make room for new ones to grow, as also to afford more ligit and air to the fruit which is to grow this year onthe canes that sprung up from the ground last year. These said canes must be shortened, and some bend them one half one way and one half the other way, until they meet with their noighbors which are similarly bent, they are then tied together, so as to form a series of bows or arches. ‘The object of this is twofold. It tends to equalize the flow of the sap and to give room for the produc- tion of new canes, while at the same time the fruit-bearing canes are not crowded with the foliage of the succession canes. Some twist the canes of each stool or bush into a kind of plat and tie them at the ends, while others tie them together with or without a stake to support them. In all cases the ends require to be short- ened, and the very weak canes cut clean out from the bottom. The raspberry is great for producing suckers, in fact its existence depends on this propensity. During the second and third summers, the suckers that spring up a distance from the main root may be al- lowed to grow if wanted to extend the plantation, or to dispose of to others, if not they ought to be treated as weeds #3 soon asthey appear. After the 2nd or 3d year it iy not advisable to allow more than about six canes to grow from each stool or root. The test ought to be cut off close tothe ground after they have got high enough to enable the operator to decide which are the weakest. It must not be forgotten that the fruit-bearing wood of this year dies off afier having performed its destined end and conse- quently it must be removed before the re- turn of the following spring to make room for its stecessor.’’ With respect to the flavor of the cultivated compared with the wild, depends very much upon individual taste- There is oue thing, how- ever, by cultivating we can command a much greater variety. Another very im- portant feature in favor of the cultivated isit is almost entirely free from those Hindoo abominations that so often tenant the wild ones. The kinds recommended are the Fastolf, Franconia, Knevels, Gie ant, red and white Antwerp. There are several others that are considered equally good, the names of which will be found in the catalogues of most of our nursery men. I have said nothing about the cul- tivation of the wild black as yet. Itis a rather peculiar plant. When grown in a garden it will do well fortwo or three years, and after that it declines, even if liberally manuted. This is owing to the vast quantity of potash required for its existence. It is of an etitirely different nature from the red. It does not multi- ply by suckers as the red; but by the tops coming in contact with the ground and taking root, in this way it migrates in search of suitable food, while the pa- rent bush entirely dies off. In cultivating any or all of the fruits I 112 have here mentioned, a thorough stirring of the soil once a year is advisable, as well as manuring when convenient, as the pruning takes away considerable wood every year, and as all wood requires pot- ash for its fermentation, it will be neces- sary to apply this important ingredient in some form or other, in fact € think it is probable that when this alkali is in suffi- cient abundance it may have a tendency to improve the flavor of the fruit, by neu- tralizing the acidity. Discussion--January Sth. 1858. The subject before the club on this oc- casion was “ The culture of small fruits,” and Mr, Cartes Oysron opetied the dis- cussion by reading a paper on several kinds of Berries. In the discussion it was said : “ The culture of small fruits has receiv- ed little or no attention from agricultural- ists in this vicinity, though in other per- tions of the State it is occupying the at- tention of many as a source of wealth.— It is believed our soil is well adapted to the cultivation of many kinds of fruit which are justly esteemed great’ luxuries and can, with little labor, be made profita- ble to the farm or garden. “The Strawberry succeeded best on a light sandy soil—care should be taken to keep the vines from matting tegether or turning out runners, and to have a proper admixture of the sexes. One member said he had a bed of Hovey’s Seedlings which did not produce fruit—he examin- ed the flowers and found them all of one sex—he planted the Wild Strawberry among them. and the plants produced a bountiful supply of fruit. A member said he found no difficulty in cultivating the Strawberry on cliy land and where the soil was heavy-=he had known the wild strawberry to grow most laxuriantly on such soil. Of the Raspberry, the ‘Red Autwerp’ was considered the best and mest reliable and succeeded well in this locality—the fruit was free from those in- sects which infest the eommon or wild vatleties—it wad necessary to prune thor« oughly in order to get a liberal supply of good fruit—ashes were used with benefit about the plants. Of the Blackberry some members said they bad tried to cul- tivate the wild variety in their gardens, but with no success, and it was thought that it could not be domesticated with profit. ‘ The Laton” or ‘* New Rochelle” had been tried in this village, but so far had not proved productive. It was thought that Prunes vould not be cultivated suc- cessfully in this climate, or at least in this locality—it was too cold and the fruit was liable to be attacted by the cureulio.— One member said he had grafted them on plumb—=the scions were sent from the Patent Office—they did ncetgrow —he sup- posed perhaps the scions were defective. Plumb culture was also talked about, but no new matter was elicited beyond what has been before reported from the dis- cussions of former meetings. There was considerable business before the club in preparing and arranging papers and re-. ports. Much time was occupied in hear- Ing the report of Messrs. Wittarp, Wib- cox, ARNoLp and Eaton, the committee on constitution, which necessarily en- eroached upon the discussion and made it shorter than usual. The term of service of the Directors was drawn by ballot, with the following result : _A. Rezp and W. A. Farrer, office ex- pires January 8, 1859. 8. S. Wurman and A, Witcox, Jan. 8, 1860. Roswett D. Brown and I. G. Swett, Jan, 8, 1861, “1g ‘olfasmoy “ung peuoueN ‘gS "A OT} We ezud ysiy oy) popleMy ‘JOU-OUl-JOSI0T MOD ULOZ{ JOYS oY, —— SSS a a \ = SS = SSeS = = SSS ca -3 ¥ AER EY Short Horn Bull Albion. Winner of first prize.as the best yearling Bull, at the U.S. National Fair, Louisville, 1857. CHEESE DAIRYING. AN ESSAY READ BEFURE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, ON THE 22d OF JANUARY, 1858. —_——— BY ARP EASED Boo Mmrs. —_— Having subscribed my pame as a mem- ber of this Club, Iam bound to conform to its regulations and to contribute my Essay when called upon. In obedience to this duty, I shall offer some suggestions on the leading staple production of our county, as that which most nearly concerns our Agricultural interests. I can give you nothing from my own mauual experience ; but from having been for many years en- gaged in managing one or more dairy farms, by means of tenants, sharing in the product; and ‘from a taste for reading ag- ricultural. works, I believe I am not en- tirely destitute of the practical informa: tion necessary to the formation of a rea- sonable theory on this subject. The Cheese of Herkimer county has a reputation throughout the United States, and is known in the markets of Europe. This is creditable as well to our soil and climate, as to the industry and skill of the people engaged in the production of this our staple article. I think I may safely assume that at least three-fourths of the improved land, and an equal ratio of the rural industry and capital of the county, are devoted to the business of dairying; hence it may well be the leading ambition of the far- mers of Herkimer, to improve the quality and enhance the price of this our most important and productive brauch of in- dustry. Itis well worthy the care and at- tention of every dairyman to study the principles and laws upon which the pro- duction of the article in the best manner, and most perfect in quality, is dependent. These constitute the true theory which every one engaged in the production should endeavor to acquire. A careful observation of facts in every stage of the management of the dairy, and in all its branches, with a view to re- sults, by a large number of intelligent persons engaged and interested in the busi- ness, with free intercommunication, could hardly fail to produce valuable imiprove- ments, It would take but little time, compared with the ultimate benefit, for each farmer to keep a memorandum book, in which entries should be made from time to time, not only for experimental observations, but any fact which it may hereafter be desirable to know. For in- stance—the number of cows wintered, the quantity of hay by estimate, produc- ed, the quantity bought or sold, the time 114 of coming in of the cows, the condition of the stock at given dates, say 1st of April and 1st November, the time of the first cheese made, the weiglits of the cheese at. the sanie dates, the times of carrying away cheese andthe quantity and the price, the time of the commencement of haying and the time of finishing. These and a hundred other things, would form a book of much value for reference hereafter. This subject divides itself into two prin- cipal and fundamental branches, The ag- ricultural, embracing the quality and kind of soil, its treatment and manures, with the amount and kind of tillage, and the breed of cattle—their rearing, feeding, housing and care. Second, the mechani- cal branch, which comprises milking, and the process of manufacturing and curing the cheese and butter, and includes the implements used. To these may be added incidental products, such as pork, grain and other articles, to add to the other prof- itsof tbe establishment. It will be read- ily seen, that this subject comprehends an area altogether too extensive to be treat- edin detail, in an essay of the length adapted to a reading in this Association. I shall therefore only touch upon here and there an item, offering such thoughts and suggestions, and such improvements upon the practice of our farmers in general, as have occurred most prominently to my mind, in my observation and reading. RREED OF CATTLE. ! It is generally believed, among us, that the stock of cattle native to our section of the country, are superior for the dairy to any of the fancy breeds to which our ag- ricultural writers have for many years past devoted their principal praises. The short horned Durhams, with their small and crumplsd horns, their mottled colors, and broad, well formed carcasses, are bet- ter adapted to a grazing country where beef is the principal object, than to our system of farming ; so the Red Herefords with their white faces and heavy frames, and the trim built Devons, with their clear red color—with their slim and handsome horns, have each their excellent qualities adapted to the class of agriculture pur- sued in other tections—but neither of these are distinguished for their milking qualities, and I think I may safely assume as the general opinion of our farmers, that neither of them are as well adapted to the production of cheese, in proportion to the food they consume, as the native stock of promiscuous origin, of which our dairies in this country, are for the most part com- posed. There is however, a breed of cat- tle im England, distinguished above all others there, for the quantity and qual- ity of the milk they yield. Irefer to the Ayreshires: some of these cattle have been from time to time imported, and may be found, mixed or pure, in some sections of this State—more so in Jefferson Co, than in any other, so far as I have been informed. These have not however, the handsomest form, the large size, the strik- ing colors and fine handling which touch the fancy of gentlemen farmers, whore wealth and leisure are devoted to the business rather as a matter of taste, than tor profit. The merits of the Ayershires so far as I can gather, are rather of' the practical | character to fill a pail, than to make a picture to be engraved for a Cattle F Fan- . cier or a Fair. I have often wished that some of our wealthy cheese farmers would make the experiment of introduc: . 118 ing and reating- this breed of cattle, in Herkimer County. Jadging from the few samples of them which I have seen, {am inclined to believe that our native cows are largely indebted to this race| for their milking qualities; whether this be so or not, it is manifestly for our inter- est, to improve our stock in the particu- dar direction for our branch of agriculture. CARE OF CATTLE. All good farmers agree that cattle must be well cared for in the cold season, and kept in good condition in order to be productive in summer. The practice of stabling, to protect them from the severity of our winters, has become nearly univer- sal among us; but to have them put up in stables, is ouly one item,—they should be well fed, and made comfortable in their lodgings to insure their proper thrift. Improvements are every year being made, and among them I have noticed one lat- terly made by a few good farmers in their stables, which has strck me as highly ben- éficial, and worthy of general adoption. Ié consists in having tight floors, with the part upon which the cows stand, raised about three inches above the floor imme- diately behind them. The unclean prac- tice of compelling a herd of cows to lie in the filthy puddles of their own produc- tion, cannot be otherwise than deleterious to them, as well as unpleasant to those who are obliged to handle them. Where a sufficient quantity of grain is raised to afford straw enough to litter the cattle in their stalls, and keep them dry and com- fortable, such a platform bed is unneces- sary; but plenty of straw cannot be had, while our farmers are so exclusively devo- ted to grass, as they are now. The elevated part of the floor should have adescent of an inch er two from front to rear, About four feet and four inches is found to be the proper width from the stanchions, for the part elevated; this distance just brings the hind feet of the cattle upon the platform, when con- { fined in the usual manner, and gives them a dry floor to lie upon. itis of great advantage in a dairy to have all the cows come in about the same time; more care to produce this result ought to be taken, as well as to secure stock of the best qualities, by both the sire and the dam. The best and most ef- tigent mode is, to raise our own breeders and to be at the expense and care of keep- ing the bull iu the stable, or in asdparate pasture, and to take the same course that is adopted in breeding horses. PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE. + Although Herkimer County Cheese is widely known for its superior quality, yet it does not command the highest price ik market, and why? Because it is not made in the best manner. The best qualities of English cheese are imported, and bear a price considerably above that of ours, This may be in part owing to the fancy of cheese eaters, and prejudice in favor of an imported article ; but there is in reality, a great difference in flavor and quality. I cannot perhaps do better service here,than to give some extracts from the article on English Dairying, in the Patent Office Report of 1856. In these, our Dairymen may discover a reason why the best Eng- lish cheese sell at higher prices than the best of Herkimer County production. On reading them, it is quite apparent that the most prominent point of difference be- tween their system and ours, consists in 116 the greater cara and labor in their prac- tice, to extract all the whey, and make the cheese solid, without losing the cream. Let us profit by their experience, and al- though it may not be found advantageous to carry out to the full extent the English mode; yet we may by means of it, be taughifin what direction our deficiencies lie and where we will be most likely to make improvement, by care andattention. There is one tact however I think should be no- ticed in this connection. It is that the best English cheeses take more time to cure, or rather it is not considered mature, and ripe for market, until a much longer time has elapsed after its manufacture, than is deemed necessary here. Their cheeses are much smaller than those of our large dairies—they divide the curd, and make several in a day, so as to have them not too large to enable them to cure early- SYSTEM OF GLOUCESTERSHIRE. After describing the process until the whey is dipped or drained from the curd in the cheese tub, the writer proceeds : “A cheese cloth is spread across the mouth of the vat [cheese hoop]; the curd is then lifted up by the hands and laid upon the cloth, and pressed equally down: When all the curd has been placed in the vat, the ends of the cheese cloth are tucked up and folded inwards with as few creases as possible on the top, and covered with a circular board made ‘exactly to fit the inside of the vat; itis then put in the press for half an hour slightly pressed, «fer which the partially consolidated curd is taken out, cutin slices, and passed through the curd breaker, which reduces it to small crumbs, without squeezing out the fatty matter. The comminuted cnrd is again returned to the vat, which is then turned upside down, and the curd turned out upon the cloth. The vat is. now rinsed with whey and dried, and the curd, still in the cloth, placed in it. The ends of the cloth are then neatly and evenly folded over the top as befure,fand covered with the cheese board, or another cheese vat, if more than one chcese is. to be placed in the same press. The vat is allowed to remain two hours under the press, when it is again taken out, and the cheese, now ina fine and solid state, is pared at the upper edges if necessary ; thereafter, it is inverted and put in a clean dry cloth, and again pressed. There are usually two or three presses employed, each heavier than the other, and ordinarily, it takes four or five days for a cheese to go through these presses, beginning with the lightest and ending with the heaviest. Salting.—After the cheese has bean 21 hours in the press, it is ready for receiving the salt, but some apply salt in 12 hours; asa general rule, salt should not be ap- plied until the rind of the chesee is firm, and free from opening, as these openings never close completely after salting, however great pressure may be applied. The salting is effected by hand, the salt being rubbed over the whole surface.of the cheese as Jong as it continues to take it in, after which it is again wrapped.in a dry cloth, and placed under the press. In another. 24 hours, it is again salted as before, but this time it is put into a vat without a cloth, and pressed, in order that a smooth and even surface may be ob- tained. A third and final rubbing with salt, is given at the same interval, and the cheese being pressed as before, is then ready for being removed to the drying room. When cheeses are salted in this. 117 way, it takes a pound of salt to 32 of cheese. Drying.—“A dry room or loft is or should be, especially appropriated to the drying of cheeses. The cheeses, as they are removed from the press, are laid eftber upon shelves or racks, or on the floor, and are well wiped and turned every 12 hours, for 2 or 3 days. After this, they are only wiped and turned every 24 hours, and ina month after leaving the press, they are ready for being scraped and painted. The paint employed is either Indian red, or Spahish brown, or a mixture of both with small’bee,which is rubbed on with a woolen cloth, A good Gloucestershire cheese may be known by “a smooth, close, wax-like texture, a -very mild, rich flavor, not crambling when cut into thin slices, nor parting when toasted, with the oily matter they contain, but softening, without bur- ning.” The theory of this mode of salting, is shown in the following extract: “Tf the eurd is salted when ground before being put in the vat, the salt has the effect of giving a8kin to each of the particles of curd it comes in contact with, which prevents them from intimately uni- ting,and although the curd may be pressed together and become ‘good ‘chéese, yet it never becomes a close, smooth solid-mass like that which is salted after it is made, but is of a loose texture, and crumbles when cut ; and although it may be equally fat, yet, in toasting, the oi! melts out of it and the cheese ‘part burns.” BUTTER MAKING IN THE CHEESE DAIRY, About one fifteenth part of the milk is allowed to remain one meal or twelve hours, when itis skimmed, immediately before the making of the cheese commen- ces ; of which it forms a part, along with that newly brought in trom the cows, The cream taken from this small portion of milk, is shified oncea day from one vessel to another, to prevent a skin forming on its surface which is considered to injure the quality of the butter, and churned twice a week; the whey cream is also churned twice a week; but is allowed to stand 36 hours to rise, before being skimmed off. The quantity of whey but- ter averages weekly about a pound per cow, during the summer months. Mr. Morton gives 16 pounds of cream butter, and 25 pounds of whey butter, as the average annual produce per cow, on a large dairy farm in the vale of Berkly. “The cheese vat (houps)ire made of elm, turned out of the solid wood, and are of various sizes. For double Glouces- ters (5 cheeses to 100 pounds) 4 1-2 inch- es deep, 15 1-2 inches in diameter; and for “single Gloucesters,”(8 cheeses to the 100 pounds) 15 1-2 inches in diameter and 2 1-2 deep. CHESHIRE SYSTEM, “After the addition of the rennet, the tub is covered carefully up for one hour, by which time, under ordinary circumstan- ces; coagulation will begin; and, in fif. teen minutes more, will be compzieted. The curd is now broken, which for sixty pound-cheese, takes about twenty minutes; and is then. allowed to rest 15 minutes. to: separate from the whey. The whey on top is removed by press- ing down a flat bottomed pan gently on. the curd, and allowing it to fill. The whey is poured into the set pan (for whey butter) from the cheese tub. The curd, 118 so far freed from the whey, is again bro-|charge of the whey, tron skewers are ken up by the“breaker,” or very gently by the hand, and again allowed to settle separate. In about half an hour, the whey is bailed out; and as the curd gets more and more solid, it is drawn to one side of the tub. When this has been done, and the free whey all removed, a semi-cirevlar perfurated board, made to fit one-half of the tub, is placed upon the curd, and pressed down by 2 thirty-pound weight, which gently presses out the whey. This whey is poured through a sieve into the set pan, to detain the particles of curd floating nit. The weight is now removed and tha curd cut inZslices, six or eight inches square. The board anda weight double the last, are again applied. More whey is pressed out ; and when this has been repeated once or twice with heavier weights, according as the condition of the curd requires, the curd is ready for being put into the cheese vat. PRESSING. ' Before placing the curd into the first or large cheese vat, (a willow basket is sometimes used) the curd is cut into small- er square pieces than before, and is gently broken by the hand, in the act of putting it in; when put into the vat, which it should not quite fill, it is covered with "a close-fitting board, and placed under a light and continuous pressure ; when the whey ceases to drain from the sides of the vat, the curd is taken out and broken as before; it is now pus into the proper cheese vat, but before this a cheese cloth is placed in the vat. After it is in, the ends of the cloth are tucked up over it, and then covered with the “sinker,” or circular board, and placed under heavier pressure than before. To assist the dis- thrust through the vat holes (numerous holes of the size of a goose-quill bored through the sides of the hoop) into the cheese, and after a few minutes withdrawn, whén the whey follows. When the whey ceases to follow the skewers on being with- drawn, the vat is taken out; the curd still in it, is cut into sections, every two or three inches, with a dull-edged knife, and again pressed and skewered as before, for a quarter of an hour or twenty min- utes. After this the curd is taken entirely out of the vat, cut into large pieces, each of which is broken by the hand, then placed in a dry cloth in the vat, and cov- ered, pressed and skewered; and this is again repeated until the whey is nearly all extracted. These operations, from the time of co- agulation, consume about five or six hours, by which time the curd will be sufficiently dry for being salted. SALTING. The curd being now comparatively tree from whey, is taken out of the vat, cut into slices, and crumbled with the hands, or, what is better, by passing it through the curd mill; the salt, at the rate of a pound |to 46 of curd, is then intimately mixed with it ; the salted curd is again returned to the vat, in a dry cloth of finer texture than before, and in order that it may be pressed properly, it should more than fill the vat, A tin hoop is put around that part of the cheese which projects from the. vat, the lower edge being within the vat, and sinking along with it when under the press. The pressure is now considerably increased, and the skewering continued. In an hour, the cheese being completely formed, is taken out, its edges pared, the L19 patings put in ahole on the top scooped out for the purpose, inverted and put into the vat, adry cloth having been previously placed in it and again subjected to heawer pressure. Some time during the evening, the cheese is again turned, and receives a dry cloth, which terminates the day’s ope- tations. On the second day, it 1s turned twice or thrice, but the skewering is dis- continued. On the third, this trimming aad dry cloths are twice repeated, but the skewering is discontinued. This usually completes the process of making; but some continue the process for another day. External salting is more practiced in Ches- hire than salting the broken curd; but as the mode of doing so has already been detailed in the Gloucestershire system, it is unnecessary to introduce it again. MAKING OF WHEY BUITER. The whey is heated in « set pan to 180° F., and frequently stirred to prevent its burning; when it has reached this tem- perature, a little sour milk and “ thrust- ings,” (white whey) a pint of the former and two quarts of the latter, are thrown in, upon, which the cream immediately rises to the top and is skimmed off, and put in again to sour or clot. In a few hours after being placed in the jar, the thicker and more oily part of the cream rises to the top, and the thin wheyey mat- ter is drawn through a spigot from below. In three or four days, the cream is com- pletely clotted and ready for being churn- ed, which is effected in the usual way. There will be 90 gallons of whey from 100 gallons of milk, yielding from 10 to 12 gallons of cream, which when churned, will give from 3 1-2 to 4 lbs of butter— which is probably below the average. In addition to ‘the suggestion which will come to the minds,of our cheese fatm- ers from an examination of these extracts, I will make another—the necessity of thorough cleanliness and purity in every branch of the business. Milk is a sub- stance which takes flavor or taint with wonderful facility ; nothing is more com- mon than the taste or flavor of the stable in our early spring cheese and butter. It is no doubt, difficult to avoid this, where the cows have their sides and quarters covered with the products of the stable, as they mostly are, in the spring ; but as this can be prevented, so can the effect of it on the milk. MILKING. It is geuerally understood, that the strippings, or part last taken from the cow, contains more cream than the same quau- tity of the first part of the milking ; but if some experiments that I have seen re~ ported be correct, this difference is not halfappreciated. Ido not recollect where I saw this report, or I would give it ; but I am clear in my recollection that a large number of careful experiments showed that the strippings, that is the Jast half pint drawn from the cow, contain more butter, or cream, than twelve times that quantity taken from the first part of the same milking ; in some of these observa- tions, the proportion was considerably greater than that. Jn this connection, I will relate an instance of which I was lately informed, showing the difference between two neighboring darymen—one whose name was mentioned, had a large dairy and produced a cheese each day, | weighing as much as the cheese produced at the same time by his neighbor, from a number of cows equal, and half as many in addition. On being asked the reason, 1 he thotight it was made mostly by the milking==his cows were rnilked by the same person, at the sameregular hours, tind were carefully striped, until every drop the cow had was taken away ; bis heighbot was less regular in his time, and his cows were milked by hired heip pro- miscuously, and not carefully stripped. One gallon of milk, in early summer, will yield a pound of cheexes it takes about two anda halt gallons to a pound of butter. In the fall the milk is richer in both butter and cheese. RAISING CALVES. The practice of raising calves from the best cows, to supply the place of those annually turned off for age, as poor milk- ers is becoming more general, and should be universal, A large proportion of the cattle which are purchased by dealers wherever they can be bought cheapest, and brought here to supply our dairymen, prove to be unfit, many of them perma- neotly, still more for the first season. The loss from this cause, more than equals the extra expense of raising our own calves and improving our cwn breed. By pur- suing the system of raising for ourselves, and judiciously selecting from our best milkers with good forms, we might, in a few years, find ourselves possessed of the best milking cattle in the world. A the- ory obtains in some dairying districts in England, contrary to that which I have supposed to be true here. It is that the younger the cow, the richer the milk she yields. If this be true, the quality of the milk from heifers of our own raising would in some degree compensate for the great- er quantity afforded by cows of maturer age, when, by good luck, we get such in 9 “a 0 ‘Discussion---January 22d, 1858. Ifon. A. Loottts, tread an Essay on Dairying, which was listened to with marked attenion, for its suggestions as to the cure of cattle, the merits of various breeds of stock, and different processes of cheese making in England. A general discussion arose after the subject was opened by the Essayist. One member expressed doubts of the practiea- bility of the English process of cheeses making in this country ; because the time occupied in such manufacture, with the cooler and more humid atmosphere of England, would cause cheese to sour. and become injured in our warm and dry cli- mate. Another dairyman believed that subdivision of pasture lands into many fields not profitable—that not more than two separate pastures should be kept. It was the geverel opinion that pastures ought not to be very closely’ fed—cattle suffer in.the fall months, for want of feed after fields have been close-cropped and become very dry under our warm eum- mer sun, During the conversation upon thé mat- ner of making cheese in this county, Mr. Alanzo Reed presented a table of ob- servations by him, during ‘the past season. These memoranda were thought to be valuable to dairymen. The Corresponding Secretary stated to ‘the Club that he had contemplated the’ getting out of a circular tobe sent to dai- rymen of the county, with a view to col- lecting data for the use of the Club, with respect to process and results in lies and butter making. It was thereupon. Resolved, That a circular be issued, to induce a collection and report of statistics our spring purchases. in relation to Dairy Farming; and that 121 Messrs, Loomrs, A. Reep, Browy, Wis | stables, by inhaling gasses from excremen- ARD and ArnoLp, be a Committee to! titious matter, would give tainted milk.— devise a plan for effecting this object, to| Upon the subject of the proper construc- report at the next meeting of the Club. | tion of stables for cattle, it was Cleanliness’ of stables for cattle was| Resolved, That Messrs. Brown, Van considered necessary to health of animals} VarkenBure and James Ferrer, be and plenty of milk. Ventilation was also; appointed a Committee to conisder and essential. It was said that cows kept com-j report to the Club, the best plan of con- paratively free from the droppings of the | structing stables for cattle. ON THE PRODUCTION OF MILK. AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE. FALLS, ON THE 5th OF FEBRUARY, 1858. i Bw i. BB. ARNOLD. ——_—_>____—_ It is with feelings of extreme diffidenee that I undertake the task assigned me. After the subject has been handled by one asable and well read as the gentleman who has preceded me on this topic, it is decidedly embarrassing to take the second | chance. The proper. arrangement of la-} 4 li tf : pe Bai hoe Tias Ibacmstnyorted:and the ‘elinms ps | pression for milk in general, it is far from | being a correct expression for milk in every at the wrong end of the list, But the field is large, and though bis ample pen has swept over a wide area, there are some nooks and corners of minutiae, left un- touched ; into these it will be my province to enter. I will not attempt to go over the“whole ground, but will confine myself to the production of milk, and endeavor to illustrate some of the circumstances that vary its quantity and quality. The manufacture of butter and cheese I will leave for another occasion, and I hope for better hands. MILK, the basis of all dairy products, consists, as a general average, of Casein, or cheesy matter, ....44 per cent. Batter dacgawee os Seeer Yet 34 a Milk sugar, .... -2.. eee cere 4h “6 Saline matter, .... 2... .++-- $ “ je Wie eee eR eS Me ae ‘of lime, iron and magnesia. The casein differs but little in commposi- tiow from animal flesh, and the saline mat- ter is composed of soda, common salt, chloride of potassium, and the phosphates Milk sugar has the same composition of cane sugar. Though the above is a pretty correct ex- case. No two samples produced under different circumstances will be alike. It varies with every variation of the soil om whieh the cow is fed, with every ehange in the kind of food, with the changes of the season and the weather, with the age, treatment, condition of flesh and health, constitution and structure of different ani- mals, distance from the time of calving, state of pregnancy, time of day the milk is drawn from the cow, different parts of the same milking, by exercise and repose, and various other circumstances, If fed uniformly, the milk of the same cow is constantly varying in composition as well as quantity, from the time it com- mences till it ceases to flow. The first milk after calving consists of, (See John- son’s Agricultural Chemistry, page 355). 123 Casein yases eves cose seas a veal sper conty Utter ekeves save aes wanes’ 1-6 us MUCOUS): ccx-0 nice goed mradeds 3 us Watery sisccscccae acc +a. 803 ue For the first few days it changes very rapidly. The casein diminishes, the but- ter and water increase, milk sugar begins to form and saline matter to be secreted. The mucous disappears in afew milkings, and in about a week a sufficient amount of soda is present to hold the cheesy mat- ter in solution. Zt will then boil without eurdling, and is considered fit for use: The changes afterwards are more gradual until at last it ends in a mere watery solu- tion of salize matter. Of the changes through the season, some idea may be gathered from the following table of statistics for the season of 1853. The record from which it is taken was kept to correct errors at the commence- ment of my dairying. Though the amount. per cow is probably not far from the ave-| rage product of dairy cows in this vicinity, if is still quite too small, much less than skillful dairymen now produce. [For statistical table above referred to, see next column.] ae ToeoYvynar’e DN § O0 OD 3 B REBS5§5ESESEE F S Baa oOo 2 wag - § FoR ae} a so OY eS 6 248" 8§8e8e 85 wa Ww z 2 oo a et FO tee tle, oo eo, te MS PR so @ _ = B= a3 Oo s = 2 = Sop o of S98888880 FE esses z Pe “oe OA Ne, B ae EF Eo EP eek, 5 araD ~ bee pao BBEBERW CADE O-A ES o By 2. AaS pogeé qe Be ee a So a 9 SOOO rON SB BZORY ms = B82asasFe ob Ba S. Oees n oo oa SE be ora > DS oo ane jaar = eB yD Fe Ss jin ce — we & = 2 a om MSO YIOD shHS SO Do th BEESESIA ros 8 Mh Ss Ow om SOSA eo bo @ Be an Soe on oo rd a8 Sa 8 2g29@n8soo, 84 gee S 12 25 2 o oo | ean 2 ao fee a ee ee s——— LL me es a el eeseseane SP Be FL 8 m | BY SaaS BSe@eeP ote oe mR Ad oO 52a E's to g remasngae | SUCST ESE a Q BRAND OAM D oO BB Ss OaR7 AT Og Sn2o08 x ne edo 89 8 Se S nerese2en (TS AS RES. Bana Bao ee a O a] “ nae gS" 2 eo Bee OY ace ey “4 e Baawsora a HES Pe EAOR OO AOWANOG+s on or fl 9 aa g Bret B25 @ oo Sta es gq 2 ebarsaees BSS 5 Son 2 oe ao og + Pig G o eS $ ae 243 ew Pas OSs oa Hao be eH aslo ss ea a, Sossyc EB Moen ws Eee es ee Sa Fg Pl Mo & SSg0t Soe O02 EF 8 ow Coan a = A Geaeeeso OS oad aoun- Ss wim Org ot. om. by os = oH o Qn = a scfaseg SSREES” EE a g Fs ZznnnRn “ORE wo Sta I have made above, a general statement of the circumstances under which milk is found to vary. I will now endeavor to notice a little more fully some of them |that have a bearing upon this inquiry. I }will begin with that which I consider the most important—the difference in the qual- ity of cows. The difference in the pro- ducts of cows in different dairies, and of ten in the same dairy, is notoriously very great,even where the feed is abundant and similar. This difference in the capacity of cows to produce milk under the same circumstances, is of sufficient consequence to demand our earnest attention. I be- lieve, if examined carefully, it will be found the chief cause of difference in the profits of dairying. 124 To illustrate, let us suppose a case. It often happens that one cow will produce three times as much cheese as another,the cows being of equal weight and fed with the same kind of food, suppose one will produce 200 pounds in a season and the other 600 pounds. Instances of this dif- ference are not uncommon. Jt is evident the one giving the greater quantity of milk will require the greater amount of food. But the food and the milk will not be in the same ratio. To make this plain suppose it costs .$15, to supply each cow with food sufficient to support her body and maintain animal heat fora year; and for each 100 pounds of cheese, it costs $2,50 worth of food in addition. The first cow will require five dollars worth of feed extra to produce 200 lbs. of cheese, and the second one $15 to produce 600 lbs, Let us compare these items. Cost of keeping’ Lbs. Cheese. Cost per lb. Cow No. 1, $20, 200 10cts. “ «2. 30, 600 5+ But the feed that would support three cows like the first would only supply two like the second; and consequently where 30 cows like the first could be kept, of cows like the second there could only be kept twenty. But let us set two such dairies and their products side by’ side and see how they compare, remembering that the cost of keeping each dairy is the same. No. of cows 30 Cheese produced 6,000 Ibs. 80 12,000 « In the first dairy only one fourth of the food consumed is converted into cheese ; in the second one-half. Suppose cheese to sell at eight ceats per Ib., the larger dairy would work a constant loss to their owner,while the other would yield a hand- some profit, Imay not have hit upon oe “ “ “ the exact method to represent the annual cost of keeping. nor the extra food to pro- duce a hundred pounds of cheese , but the principle isnot thereby invalidated. It remains proportionately the same for every imaginable case. I think it is clear that the smaller dairy of good cows is more profitable than the larger one of poor cows, and it is equally evident to me that if money is to be made by dairying it must be made from good cows. I might here examine the merits, as milkers, of the different breeds of cattle among us, but I will leave that point to be discussed by members of the club. Yet I will remark in passing that what little experience and observation I have had, lead me to the conclusion that a cross be- tween the native and the Durham or De- von or between the Durham or Deyoy is, as a class either of them superior to the native, and also to the full bloods. The Ayershires are everywhere recommended, but with these I have no experience. But selecting a particular breed is of less prac- tical importance than selecting the best milkers from any and every breed. Skill to determine from external appearance the milking qualities of individual cows, is a necessary qualification of a good dairy- man, and is only to be thoroughly acquir- ed by practice and close observation. Gen- eral rules, however, derived from the ex- perience of others may be of some service. | Youatt is a very good authority on this point. It may not be out of place to quote. He says: The milch cow should have a long thin head with a brisk but placid eye—should be thin in the neck, narrow inthe breast and point of shoul- der, and altogether light in the fore-quar- ter, but wide in the loins, with little dew 125 Yap, and neither too full fluehed along the chine, nor showing in any part an_ incli- nation to put.on too much fat. The ud- der should especially be large, round and full, with milk veins protruding, yet thin skinned, but not hanging loose or tending far behind. The teat should also stand ‘square, all pointing out at equal distances and of the same size, and although not very large nor thick towards the udder, “yet long and tapering towards a point. A ow with a large head, a high back bone, small udder ,and teats, and drawn up in the belly, will, in all probability,be found abad milker.” ork. The little work of Guinon is alsoa very good guide in the selection of cows. A thorough persual of it will be worth the while of every dairyman. The connection between the external ‘appearance of a cow and her capacity for producing milk is evidently very impor- ‘tant and with me is interesting as well as profitable. I have perhaps already said as much on this point as you will care to hear ; but if you will bear with mea lit- tle‘longer I will describe as briefly as pos- sible the physiological connection between some particular organs of the cow and her amilk. Ist. The lungs. The larger the lungs the more oxygen there will be inhaled, ‘and the greater the amount of carbon ta- ‘ken from the ‘blood to form carbonic acid, and of coarse the less there will be left for the lacteals to select from. The car- bonaceous or buttery part of the milk will therefore be deficient. Large lungs will also increase the amount of vitality.* The work of assimilation then goes on more rapidly and uses up the material that would otherwise be converted into milk. Both of these circumstances will deterior- ate its quality. 2d. The liver. The products of that gland is chiefly carbonate of soda. The larger the liver the more bile there will be secreted, and again the more the blood will be robbed of carbon. The drain of carbon from the blood in the formation of bile is considerable and affects the fatten- ing of the animal as well as the quality of the milk. The size of these organs may be judged of by the development of that part of the body in which they are lovated. The lungs may be very accurately mea- sured by the size of the nostrils ; they be- ing the apertures through which the lungs are filled it is evident there must be an exact correspondence between them and the capacity of the lungs. 3d. The size of the stomach is a tol- erable guide to the quantity of milk. Whether in men or animals the size of the stomach is a very good index to what phy- siologists call the lymphatic temperament, that is, one in which the fluids abound. *This point was questioned by some mem- bers of the club. It was urged thatthe more vitality the more there would be secreted and the greater the perfection of the milk. A cer- tain amount of vitality is unquestionably neces- sary to the favorable secretion of milk, and to the glandular system generally. But a superior flow of vital influence induces energy and ac- tion, and thus an increased transformation of tissue and also of assimilation to renew the wasted parts. Such an organism may favor the production of muscle and growth generally, but not the production of fat or the secretion of rich milk, It is true tothe extent of my experience and observation that cows with the smallest lungs give the richest milk, and it is equally true that the richest milkers,when fed for beef fatten most readily, : 126 It will need no explanation to show that if the organization of one cow is such as to make her secrete more fluid than an- other, that differenca will appear in the quantity of her miik. Besides a large stomach this temperament is indicated bya mild disposition, a sluggish movement and aversion to action. 4th. But the greatest influence exerted by any single organ upon the milk, is that of the lacteal or milk secreting glands. All other circumstances being equal, the size of these organs will be the measure of their products. Connected with and located near the udder, when largely de- veloped they tend to give breadth to the hips and hind quarters of the animal. The size may also be judged of the extent and location of the surface upon which they ramify, which may be known by the peculiar influence exerted upon the hair and skin occasioning these marks around and above the udder called by Guinon “ escutcheons,” the propriety of studying which has already been suggested. It is a well-settled principle in physiology, that use gives size and strength. A constant and healthy exercise of the milk vessels must be éfficient in promoting their devel- opement, especially with young cows, I believe it is better on this account ‘that: heifers should commence milking at. two years old rather than at a later period. The body will aot attain its full size as soon but I believeit isa matter of more importance to cultivate the growth of the milk apparatus than to hasten the matu- rity of the bodys Though the original stimulus that: promotes the secretion of milk is dépendant on that peculiar state of the system induced by the production of the young and must eventually pass away with it, still that secretion may be increased and prolonged by artificial means. One requisite to this end: has been treated of by my predecessor, to wit: the frequent and entire removal of the milk from the udder. I agree with him that this is a matter of great conse- quenee, and I would urge further that it be done carefully, All pulling and jerk- ing of the bag has a tendency to make the cow tighten the muscle about. it and thus preventing its free and perfect dis- charge. Kind and gentle treatment. and regularity in milking are also necessary to prevent her from “holding up her milk.’ It is also necessary in lengthening ‘out the time of milking as well as in preserving the quantity to furnish a constant supply of feed. There should be no slacking uf. A falling off in the latter part of the sea- son especially can not afterwards be fully restored In the Transactions of 1856 A. L. Fish makes the following remark on this point: “If cows are allowed to shrink in their milk in July and August, and their feed then increased, after their being with calf, they will not come back again, but run to flesh.” Salt for milch cows becomes a neces- sary article of food. Without it the milk becomes scanty and imperfect.’ ‘Té ig es- sential first in affording the material for the manufacture of’ the gastric juice ; sec- ond it furnishes the soda necessary to hold the cheesey part of the milk in solution, and third, it is itself an element, of, milk. The greatest necessity for its use, is in spring, when cows are first turned te grass. In that season the feed abounds rather in juices than in saline matter and does not therefore furnish enough of the latter mar terial to perfect the formation of a large ‘ 127 quantity ofmilk. In the” latter part of the season when the mineral elements are more abundant in the grass, the quantity of salt the cows desire will be diminished. A few experiments in May and June showed that going without salt five days shrunk the milk from one to two per cent in quantity, and from five to seven per cent. in quality. Experiments later in the season make less difference. After foddering commences the difference was very slight from the abundance of salt for .a longer time. I suggest whether it would not also be advantageous to furnish the phosphates to the cows in the early part of the season. Water is necessary for cows both in winter and summer as their solid food. It forms more than four fifths of the bulk of their milk and is never supplied in suf- ficient quantity in their food even when it is the most succulent. They should never be long without it, for if not furnished when desired their milk suffers immedi- ately. Several times in the summer of 1853 my cows were compelled from drought to go from fifty to one hundred rods out of their way and down a steep hill to obtain drink. They had a good supply when there but they would only go when driven by thirst and then only once a day. Each time they were compelled to make this journey for their drink, their milk shrunk at once ten per cent.in quality besides some in quantity. The easier pure water is. of access the oftener will cows drink the greater will be the quantity aud more per- fect the quality oi their milk. CONDITION AS TO FLESH. A loss of flesh especially in the fall makes a sad inroad upon the butter and cheese the following season. Cows ard very “pt to loose flesh in the wirter unless they have extra care. Butifit commence departing in the fall the case is doubly difficult of protection ; and for every pound of flesh wasted in the fall er winter there will be taken from the milk of the next summer the material for at least a pound of cheese, Cows cunnot give rch milk while the substance of their food is em ployed in replacing their wasted flesh, Between the milk of cows in good condi- tion and those that were thin I have mark~ ed a difference of twenty per cent. in the quality while the difference in quantity varied but little. If there is any profit in dairying it must consist in converting as much feed as pos- sible into dairy products; and ke who fur nishes food, wholesome and abundant for the winter is doing so most. effectually, while he who allows his cows to fall away either in the fall or winter by stinting their food or exposing them to the cold will be sure the next season to find a cor- responding “falling away” from his pocket, The condition as to health has a mark- ed influence upon the quantity of milk. The milk of an wahealthy cow must of necessity be imperfect besides being tine- tured with her disease. Cows often get ailing in one respect or other during the long winters of our severe climate from which they do not recover until after they have been sometime in milk. This should be carefully guarded against asa matter of economy as well as for avoiding unhealthy milk. Green food such as apples or roots answer this pur- 128 pose admirably, But the necessity of supplyitig Wholesome food while the cows are it milk is still more urgent for obvi- ous reasons. The milk glands in their active state, serve not only to secrete milk» but also as an efficient means of casting foreign matters from the blood. This is not a fact peculiar to cows but is true gen- erally of all mamiferous animals, including our own species. The certainty with which the peculiar influence of every va- riety of meditime taken into the stomach of the nursing mother is imparted to her infant, is notorious. That the flavor of leeks and garlicks when eaten by cows ap- pears in the milkis equally notorious. In like manner every other impurity taken into the stomach, which is capable of be- ing carried into the circulating system is equally certain to be found in the milk, it matters not whether it be the strong odor of the leek or onion, the acidity of mow-burnt hay the bitter taste of the wild daisy, the taint of the stagnant pool, the aroma of vegetable oils, or even the pu- trescent matter of decaying vegetables ; all or either may be found mingled with the milk, and also’ in thie product of the other glands. The entire glandular system of the cow is very great in proportion to the size of her body, and by its action the system is speedily cleansed. But the principal part of the purification is done by the three largest glands. Her massive liver secretes a flood of bile, Ido not know precisely how much, but I know it is very great. Her lacteals secrete in the course of a year from 4000 to 10,000 pounds, and her kidneys in some instancs are said to discharge as many as 18,000 potnds in the same space of time. (Transactions of 1844; statement of R. L. Peli. Thése’ eviorthous products cafry alotig’ with them every species of objectionable matter and thus becomes an_ effeciual means of protecting health. From the peculiar nature of their products the milk glands do more than their proportion of this labor, The cow is thus able to maintain her health, where some other animals would not sttvive. Confined in her close’ and foul stable, breathing over and over again the fcetid odors of her own filth, where man would soon sicken and die, she lives on apparently unharmed, because these purifiers suck from her blood the effluvia as fast as it is absorbed. The process of decay and purification i neither corrected nor arrested by the ac. tion of the stomach, nor is the putrescent matter thereby prevented from entering into the general circulating systert. The late Dr. John Burdell, of New York (brother of the unfortunate Harvey Bur- dell) proved by repeated examinations under the microscope that the blood and milk of cows fed on brewers and distil- lers slops were full of particles of corrup- tion. The process of brewing and distilling is a rotting process, The vegetable casem of the grain in its passage through the distillery had become putresent and in that condition had been taken into the blood, mingling with and corrupting it and thence was sucked up by the lacteals and found floating in the milk. The acid- ity of fermentation was also carried along into the milk, changing its natural alka- line condition to that of acid. It was also found imperfect in some other res- pects. Those who will may use milk of ani- I tals thus fed (and their flesh too, if they please) but I trust I need not labor to sat- isfy the members of this club that it is unfit for homan use. But cows will live and thrive even on these half putrescent slops. They may also fatten for weeks upon onions and yet the beef in either ease may be excellent. It is only necessary to change the feed for a few days before slaughtering and not a vestige of the tu- trescent of the one nor the strong medi- cinal odor of the other will be perceived. Such is the facility with which their pow- erful glands purify their blood. It behooves every dairyman therefore, and indeed every one who keeps cows for their milk, to see to it that especially in the season of their milking, they are supplied with food that is free from every impurity which is capable of being ab- sorbed by the blood and milk vessels and which when absorbed would be injurious to human health. These facts should sat- isfy every dairyman to clear his fields not only of poisonous weeds but also from everything that might taint the milk, which, though not objectionable on ac- count of health, might still injure the sale of his dairy products. The air he would not breath himself should not be offered to his cow, and he should remember if she slake her thirst from the filthy pool, he will receive into 29 his own stomach a part of ils miasmatic matter or send it to market in his butter and cheese. SUMMARY. Ht would appear from the foregoing that the greatest quantity of milk of the best quality can be produced from a given quantity of feed or for a given cost. Ist. By selecting the best cows. 2d. By keeping no more cows than you can furnish with a constant and full sup- ply of wholesome food from the beginning of each year till the commencement of the next. 3d. By presenting their food in such a condition that they can fill themselves quickly and have plenty of time for repose and the laber of digestion. 4th. By furnishing an abundance of fresh water easy of access. 5th. By furnishing them with salt every day in the year, especially in the milking season. 6th. By milking regularly, quickly and carefully, 7th. By extracting the last drop of milk at every milking. 8th. By uniform, kind and gentle treat- ment. 9th, By avoiding every cause of excite- ment or anxiety. ON THE COMPARATIVE VALUE OF FOOD FOR PRODUCING BUTTER AND. CHEESE. e AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, ON THE 5th OF FEBRUARY, 1868, . _—_— OO F 1 P # te Be SM AL Wr GTARD, a This thought has often occurred to.me, and I presume to. many other Dairymen. ‘What are the best, and most economical means of producing Butter and Cheese ? The suggestions-I have to offor, I believe, are founded in reason, and are based (if. I have apprehended -aright) on the. views,. now, generally taken by physiological wri- ters, But if I have fallen into error,or the theory here advanced should clash , with | the experience of any person present, I desire to bé' set aright—the canvassing of opinions, and the pointing out error being one of the objects of the Club. Tsuppose the different varieties of g1 grasé- es, in perfection, and in their green state are the best food for the cow—that instinct | Hife and. energy of. the: animal. teaches her to select those that are most nutritious, or best adapted,to build up the animal structure, and keep it in repair.— But in this climate, our fields afford no vegetation for nearly, if not quite, one half the year ; and stock are to be fed from the barn and granary. During three months of this time, the cow is giving milk ; it therefore becomes a question of some im- portance, to know, what kinds of food are best ; or, in other words, what food will give the largest returns of butter & cheese and, at. the same time, keep the.animal. in. a strovg and healthy, condition—a condis . tion that when placed in pasture, her en-' ' ergy is not.exhausted, but all her, powers ready to turn her food to the best: acount, Hay alone, in the, imperfect. manner, in. which, it .is cured, it's. evident, is not, sufficient: to. meet these requirements, _, . In directing our-experinients; the. point, to be. decided is not , what.,food, wall pro-, duce the largest amount; of. milk ; for this, may be watery, and, neither rich. i in casein, OF. butter, but what foods will, give ‘the, _ | largest, amount of milk, of, the best: quality ;+-and again, to avoid those kinds of food,, which, stimulating 4 flow. of milk, ‘carry off with it, in curd and, butter, the very The. ree searches of modern Physiologists, , have’ demonstrated that the fibrin, the albumen, the oil, and those earthy salts that go to form the bone of animals are found in plants and vegetables, fandin their seeds’ 2 and grain, and that the animal appropri- ates the ready formed ; that the stomach is not a chemical jnboratary, for the man- ufacture of these constituents, but that — they are secreted from the food, and de- posited in the parts where they are re- bs oder hes eS ESN TE SSSI Sunshine and her Calf Essex. The property of B. & C. S, Lanves, Elizabethtown, N. J. zi = SS IWPAGE DHS 131 quired. A constant building up, and re- pairing of the body,is ever going on—each day a portion of the animal is passing away, in excrement, in perspiration, in res- piration, and in the milk which she gives, &e., &e., 3 and cach day nature endeavors to repair the loss. It is said that, in trom every three to five years, the whole body, in all its parts, is thrown off and renewed —thus, it becomes absolutely necessary, that the proper building material be sup- plied ; or the stucture becomes weak and worthless. It seems to me, that every intelligent feeder of stock, should understand, some- what, the digestive apparatus of the Cow —otherwise he might feed concentrated food at aloss, or perhaps injure the health of the animal, or misapprehend the tzeat- ment when sick, Sonte years ago I had a sick animal,and was told by an experienced Dairyman, that the sickness was probably caused “ by a loss cf curd,” and that one should be made up from those of other cows,and introduced into her mouth. Some addi- tional remedies also were advised, ali of which were followed, and the animal was soon in good health; but I have since questioned the sanitary effects of this mode of treatment. For the sake of illustration, I have made arough draft of the four stomach of the cow—and their operation, as I un- derstand them, is as follows: The food, with a very slight mastica- tion, passes Into the first stomach, or paunch, which is large and seems to be a kind of storehouse, or safe depository for at least one substantial meal; and where it undergoes but little change; from the paunch it passes into the second stomach, where it is formed into balls, and thrown by the cesophagus into the mouth, to be again chewed, when the animal is at rest; and this is whatis termed chewing the cud. After having been rendered fine by chewing, the foodis again swallowed ; but, “in consequence of its stimulating qualities being now altered, finds the val- vular folds at the lower end of the ceso- phagus closed, and shortened by contrac- tion, and is directed by the short canal, they thus form into the third, and thence into the fourth cavity of the stomach ; which is the true digesting stomach, and is the one which is active when the young are sucking.” From the fourth stomach, it passes into the intestines, mingled with fluid, the nutritious portions being sucked up by an infinite number of mouths, or lacteals, which are. connected with the blood vessels, whence, in the form of blood, it is distributed throughout the sys- tem. Itis evident, then, from the size and construction, of these stomachs, that aconsiderable portion of coarse food is necessary to fill their cavities, and excite their action ; and their action, too, also suggests that when mealis fed, it should be mingled with hay, or cut straw, so as to ensure a re-mastication ; otherwise, it might pass directly tothe third stomach, like foodin a finely divided state, similar to that produced by chewing. An excess of concentrated food, fails to excite the coats of the stomach to secrete their digestive fluid; and hence will tend to diminish,rather than increase the result which we desire togain. The starch, gum and sugar of plants, are used by the ani- malin respiration. These substances con- sist of carbon and water only, and the car- bon combining with oxygen, is breathed 132 r | out in the form of carbonic acid. Thus,| The saline matter, such as the phos- the air taken in—supposing it to be dry— consists in 100 parts volume, of 79.16 of nitrogen ; of oxygen 20.80 ; carbonic acid 0.04, the amount of carbonic acid being very small; but the air breathed outagain consists of nitrogen 79.16, oxygen 16.84, carbonic acid 4,00 to 8—the oxygen being diminished, and the carbonic acid very much increased. The cow, then, is the manufactory, complete in all its parts, for producing the raw material of Butter and Cheese, from plants—the lungs being the furnace which keeps the whole in motion. This must be fed with starch, gum and sugar ; but if the food given does not con- tain them in sufficient quantities, then the oil deposited in fat for lubricating the ma- chinery, or destined for producing butter, is drawn upon as fuel; and this failing,} the fibrin, albumen, casein, or the flesh itself of the animal, goes into the furnace, and the whole is soon burned out, and ceases to exist. Thus it is evident that when starch, gum and sugar, are deficient in food, our fac- tory is running at a loss, If, then, we divide the constituents of food into three classes, Ist, starch, gum and sugar, which the animal uses for respiration, for heat, &c., and which need not be considered here as entering materially into the pro- ducts of the dairy. 2d, the oil or fatty matter, which goes to lubricate, to fill up parts of the frame, for the produce of but- ter, and to enrich cheese. 3d, the gluten albumen, Jegumin, or vegetable casein, which goes to make up the flesh, muscle and fibre of the animal; and for the pro- duction of cheese, we have a classification sufficiently near to bear upon our experi- ments in feeding. phate of lime, soda, sulphur, salt, &e., which enter into the constituents of plants, and perform important functions, in the formation of bone, and other portions of the animal economy, may be omitted here, on the supposition that the food contains them in sufficient quantities, for the re- quirements of the animal, Now, it is evident if we could have a table, showing the relative proportion of these constituents, in different kinds og food, classified as above, we have data to guide us in our experiments and are not feeling our way in the dark—thus, if the wish is, to produce milk rich in butter, some food would be selected rich in oil; Indian corn, for instance, in 100 parts con- tains from 5 to 9 of fatty matter, being one of the richest grains in this respeety but it is not particularly rich in casein— hence, some other food would be selected to produce cheese. Vegetable casein is {precisely similar to the animal casein which constitutes the bulk of curd—and looking along the table, we find that beans in 100 parts contain 28 parts of legumin or cheesy matter—while their fatty mat- ter is but 2, and this perfectly agrees with experiments in England, the bean meal producing the largest amount of milk rich in casein. T have a table here by Professor John- son, in which the constituents of the dif- ferent kinds of food usually grow on our soil are classified and arranged, and it has been of material service, fn noting the ef- fect of spring feeding. Thus, in 1855 in feeding corn meal, wheaten bran, oats and peas ground together, and corn crushed in the ear, the oats and peas in every instance gave the best result in cheese—the corn 133 meal the ‘best butter—the bran, or shorts producing considerable milk, but not of so rich a quality. Explanation of Table. rg column represents parts Water in 100.of Food. Husk or Woody Fibre. 3a ee se “ Starch, Gum and Sugar. 4th “ . “Gluten, Albumen,Ligumin,&c oth “ “Fatty Matter, Hl 6th “ “ Saline -* qth * eg “relative nutritive effect, in]bs i. 2 3 4 5 6 7 « {16115 | 55110015 | 204} 2.0, 4 7.115115] 60[12 (2d 20; 5 116]20'501145 156.34] 7 Rye..-..-00.. 12110] 60/145 138 10| 5 Indian corn.. | 14[15 [50,120 ,59 | 1.5] 9 Buckwheat... | 16|25]50,145 [04 |15| 116} 10/40}280 {2 [30] 2 [13|8 [50/240 ]28 |28| 3 [75 [5 [1242.95 [08 [08] 22 ‘Tornips...... 85/8 |10}12_ 1! [09] 62 Carrots....... 185!3 }10}20 jO4 {Loy 2% Meadow Hay |14130!4017.1 [25 |5a10/ 10 _ Clover Hay..114;%5/40/93 (30 {9 | io wes rasa TE ss | alae {15 15 | 16 Oat do...... 112 145 18 ae 108 56: 80 Wi : 308 35: 52 “19: 50 130: i= 108 :5 :15to20_ Rye do..-..-. 112145338313 :0.5 :3 Indi’n corn do :12 :25..52 :3.0 117 34 To form 100 pounds of bone, an animal will usually thave incorporate with its own substance---,elatine 85 pounds; phosphate of lime 55 pounds; carbonate of ltme 4 pounds; hosphate of magnesia 3 Ibs; soda, potash and common salt 3 lbs. This might have been anticipated from the table, on the cheesey matter of peas is 24, and oats 14 1-2, while that of corn is but 12. The result from feeding carrots js much better than could be expected from the table; but this I suppose is due to their similarity to green food—to their pectic acid, which causes other food to be more thoroughly digested; and their ac tion in improving the health ot the animal. ‘We can see here also why oats, are so much the better food for the horse, than corn—because their constituents are in better proportion; they contain more water and husk, more glutin, elbumen, de.’ which pfomotes the growth of muscle’ with less fatty matter. Corn is a more |from this paper is simply these : concentrated food, and containing a lar- ger proportion of oil, is too heating, or in other words, administers too much fuel to the animal furnace, and should not be used Junless in cold weather, when the animal is doing heavy work, or when the increased quantity of oxygen taken in converts this surplus fuel into carbonie acid. The conclusion of the whole argument or inferences which I wish to be drawn The different grains usually fed to dairy cows Jin this county, are assumed to contain starch, gum, sugar and fatty matter in suf- ficient quantities to supply the demands of the animal for respiration, for heat, &c. and for the production of the finest Cheese, The sugar and fatty matters are of course important constituents of good milk and enter materially into cheese. But the ca- #9 |sein or cheesy matter of vegtables and milk being identical with fibrin or muscle of the animal, and being carried off in large quantities in milk, and by the natural waste of the body, grains rich in vegeta- ble casein would produce better results, because they replace the waste, dc., and tend to give the animal strength and nerve and hence the good milker fed with such grains would not be obliged to draw so much upon herself, or from the stores which she had accumulated during a sea- son of rest; for a strong animal, it is need- less to say, (other things being equal,) will yield more milk and of a better qual- ity, than aweak one. Theoretically, then, from the table peas, oats, rye, buckwheat and barley, would be better than corn.— Now does this agree with the experienced feeder? Another point to be considered is the relative cost of different grains, but having the nutritive value this could be easily determined. 134 Some cows give a very large quantity of milk and are valued, on that account as superior animals. I would not test a cow wholly by the quantity of milk given; the milk should be set apart, and the amount of butter and curd determined, that can be produced.per gallon of milk ; for water, at all times in this country, can be had cheaper from the earth than from the cow’s udder. Whey I have never fed to my cows, though I should judge, it could be quite as profitably fed to milch cows, as to hogs—it must contain a con- siderable trace of casein, and is rich in su- gar and oil. It makes:a very good food for calves, when milk is too expensive, and if pea or oat meal porridge, or soup, be added judiciously, they will thrive nearly as well as on milk—the vegetable casein of the pea and oat, taking the place of the curd extracted. I have seen it suggested that small quantities of bone meal, might be successfully fed to calves, mixed with their milk or whey—that it would tend to increase their strength, and form bone more rapidly; but I should not care to make the experiment, with any article, ex- cept that prepared under my own eye, for fear it might contain matter that was poisonous. The suggestions thrown out in this pa- per, with regard to food, have been made in reference to spring, fall and winter feed- ing. Whether grain, rich in vegetable casein, could be fed with profit during the grass season, is a question I am unable to solve—the grasses of pastures vary in rich- ness. Doubtless the same pasture varies in richness in different seasons, though to the eye there may be no perceptible differ- ence. In my own pastures taking the month of June, as the best season for grass and in comparing the amount of cheese made by the dairy during this month for the last two years, I find there is a consid- erable balance in favor of -1856—the lar- gest amount of cheese, firm, and well cooked, and asit came from the press, during the month of June in this year, was on June Ist, 1 1-4 pounds, per gallon of milk, the largest amount of similar cheese made during this month 1857, was on June 16th 1 1-6 pounds per gallon. I should judge that a good cow on rich pasture, and flush feed, should during the month of June give a fair quantity of milk daily, which should produce, at least, one pound of well cooked, and well pressed curd, for every gallon of her milk. In closing, I cannot but again refer to Carrots, and bear evidence to their great utility in winter and spring feeding; they give good flavor to the milk, increace its quantity and quality, impart a rich color- ing to butter and greatly improve the health of the animal. So faras my ex- perience goes, they are the cheapest food, apart from coarse fodder,that can be given to cows, and if a small amount of ground grain, be given daily with them, (as should of course be done to animals yielding milk for any length of time,) the result will prove satisfactory—more especially so, if reference is had to the cost of food. ‘ Discussion--Feb. 5,!1858. This Club held its regular meeting on the 5th inst., at the usual hour and place; the President not being present, 8.S. WuitTMaN was appointed temporary Chair- man. The Secretary—Mr. Witiarp —read minutes of last meeting, which were approved. The Constitution was read and 135 an invitation given to those who wished to join the Club. There was a good at- tendance of members at this meeting, and quite a number of persons who were not members were present to listen to the Essay and hear the discussion, some of whom signed the Constitution and became members, Mr. L. B. Arnon, Essayist for the oc- casion, being then called upon, vpened the discussion by reading a paper on the pro- duction of milk. The President, J. Marx- ELL, then took the Chair, and the Com- mittee on drafting circular to be issued for collecting statistics, being called to report, the Hon. A. Loomis, Chairman of said Committee, reported the same. This re" port was unanimously approved by the Club, and on motion of Wm. A. Frxrsr, it was resolved that 500 copies be printed. The Committee “on the best plan of constructing stables,” not being ready to report, it was put over until next meeting. The discussion was now taken up by mem- bers, It was asked, what grain is the best for dairy feeding? Mr, Wuittarp said he had prepared a paper, in which there were some suggestions bearing on this point which, by permission of the Club,he would now read. After the reading of this pa- per, it was said that oil entered largely into cheese, and it was a question wheth- er this was not asimportant a constituent as casein—casein alone would make a very poor cheese—something like the white oak variety. ‘To this it was replied that casein formed the bulk of curd—that casein was identical with the fibrine or muscle of the animal—and on the ground of health and strength of the animal, it should be supplied. The proportion of casein and butter was then given in 160 gallons of milk ; butter 3 1-8, casein 4 1-2 per cent, the balance being mostly fluid or -whey—that linseed or oil cake made a good food for cows—it was doubted wheth- er its use would produce the most cheese, on the ground thateil was not used to keep up the strength of the animal—the surplus oil would go to form fat, and some would be lost in excrement. It was said a good milker would not take on fat read- ily—then on that account, it was said.food rich in vegetable casein should be fed to keep the animal from running down or getting weak, A member of large experience was ask- ed what grains were best for dairy cows —said he had made no direct experiments he of course had a preference, but perhaps his opinion was made up partly from that of others ; he regarded barley as an ex- cellent food for milch cows. Rye he re- garded as very superior food, he never fed any grain that was better for the health of the animal. Another member regard- ed Indian meal as the best food—though no direct experiments had been made. An- other member said cooked potatoes had produced large returns of milk; he thought if it was profitable to cook food for one, it would be for 60 cows—-crushed corn cobs, or corn ground in the ear, were re- garded as a nuisance——there was no more nutriment in cob meal than in saw dust. One member said he had feed to buy—he could get shorts at $1 per hundred and corn meal at $1,50—which would be the most profit—the bran contained fibrine and oil of the wheat. It was said the value of shorts could not be told, because the sweepings of the mill and refuse were thrown in. No member had used cook- ed food for his dairy. ON THE MANUFACTURE OF CHEESE. AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, CN THE: 19th OF FEBRUARY, 1858." pn eee Caner eee Be =. A. WILLARD. Seana age ke Of the operations of the farm, no part is claimed to be better understood by the dairyman of Herkimer Co., than the man- ufacture of chcese—lIt is an art which re- quires judgment,skill, experience and care- ful manipulation, and all these } iw a great- er degree than the inexperienced are apt fo imagine. To such perfection has it been brought by some of our dariywomen that (to use the language of a former es- sayist,) “ the cheese of Herkimer Co., has a repttation throughout the United States, and is known in the markets of Europe. * ‘The principles on which the manufacture of good cheese depends, I suppose, are the same all the world over, though the process of making be widely different. Some considerable difference in the mode of manufacture as well as in the apparatus or implements used, exist even among ourselves; yet with dairymen who produce the best quality of cheese, certain points are agreed upon as es- sential—such as the proper solidification of the curd, the retaining in it, as far as possible, the buttery portions of the milk, the proper admixture of salt and the thorough separation and expulsion of the whey. Doubtless the kind and quality of the grasses in our pastures has much to do’ in giving richness and flavor, as well as in increasing the quantity of cheese ; but inf a paper so brief, this point cannot be’ discussed. It will bewell perhaps, here’ at the commmenceiment, to give some of the characteristics of a Herkimer County cheese, a cheese of the finest quality, thirty days old, as it lies on the table ready to be boxed for market, Itis of a rich golden color, with a firm smooth rindj it is of good proportion its circumference gently swelling out, giving it the appear- ance of plumpness, and completeness—=it is free from cracks, mould, or outward im- perfection. Under the hand it has that peculiarly soft, yet firm velvety texture which to the expert is always satisfactory, evidence of its quality. This cheese, since it came from the press, has never leaked whey, it has never huffed, even in hottest weather, and can, at such time, be safely sent to market. If you choose, bore in with your trier, and you will find it firm and solid with a mild pleasant flavor rich, buttery, and melting in the mouth— a cheese that will sell in market for the highest price. Such is the cheese the manufacture of which I am expected to 137 describe, as well as the means taken to secure the largest returns from a given quantity of milk. TI. know it is in bad taste for an essayist to occupy time and space in apologies, but among so many dairymen of large experience, in the heart of a dairy county, where men on all sides have built up for themselves a deser- vedly high reputation for superior cheese, that man must be bold indeed, who can enter upon the subject before us without some misgiving as to the criticisms that await him. But you, Gentlemen of the Club, have called for facts, you ask “what is your method of making cheese ? if it differs from ours, we will discuss its merits? or point out its defects.” I propose there- foré to offer nothing but what is drawn from my own practice and experience, trusting that it does not differ materially from that of your own—and lst; THE RENNET. The calf is killed when 4 days old, and previous to its slaughter, it has not tasted food for atleast 14 hours, It is kept this length of time without food, on the sup- position that hunger renders the gastric juice of the stomach active, or that the secretions ot the stomach have accumula- ted strength which would be lost if ex- pended on food—some contend that 36 and even.48 hours without food gives a rennet of the greatest strength, but it is questionable and on the ground of human- ity should not be practiced. The stomach is emptied of its contents, and with alittle salt is allowed to remain in an earthen dish for two days, when it is: thoroughly rubbed with salt and stretched on a hoop, or nearly filled with salt tied and hung in a dry room to be.used when a year or more old. Prof, Johnson argues that the “effica- cy of the rennet does not depend upon any thing originally contained in the stomach, but upon something derived from the ub stance of the stool itself.” “ By expo- sure to.the air,” he says, “the surface of the membrane has undergone such a de- gree of change or decomposition, as to enable it to induce the elements of the sugar to alter their mutual arrangement, and to unite together in such a way as to form lactic acid, and thus the action of the rennet atelved itself into a curdling of milk by the action of its own acid ;” and he reasons that after its use it may ba again salted and dried, and thus used sev- eral times. Acting on this hint, I kept the rennets used for an entire season in a jar, and after having exhausted their strength, they were salted and put on hoops; portions of these were used when one, two and three years old, the result in neither case proving satisfactory, — Hence the theory of the gastric juice and the practice of keeping the calf a reasona- ble time without food before its slaughter, seems to have some foundation. Mr. John- son’s theory is more humane, for in that case food given at any time could have no influence on the rennet’s strength. A stone jar holding six gallons is used for steeping the rennet, (a wooden vessel is objectionable on account of its liability of becoming tainted,) and here let me say, that rennet is peculiarly liable to become tainted, and requires close attention and thaqhant stirriog with salt. Tainted ren- net is the source of infinite mischief to the dairy,even when the taint is so slight as to be unsuspected, it produces ills well known tothe dairyman—buffing, rapid des composition, nauseous stenches, the breed - ing of mites, and often the entire loss of cheese. Six rennets are used ata time, 138 with salt in sufficient quantities so that when the jar is filled with water, there shall always be a residue of salt at the bottom, this is allowed to steep a week when it is ft for use and its strength de- termined; if good rentets are used, two gills of the liquid will be sufftcient for sixty gallons or more of milk. APPARATUS, T use the improved apparatus for making cheese, though for three years I practiced under the old method, with the tub and its accompanying implements—the advantages of the former are a great saving of labor, an increased quantity of cheese, the eurd is more evenly cooked, and the whole ope- ration more directly under your command. The improved apparatus consists of an oblong tin vat, placed in a wooden vat, with aspace of two inches between the two on the sides and bottom ; the rim of the tin vat extends over and closes this space at the top—the wooden vat rests on a round horizontal bar, so connected to the standard that the vat may be easily raised or lowered, and two movable strips of board, three inches wide, keep it level and in place; at one corner of the tin vat there is an arrangement by which a strainer of perforated tin may be slid down and the whey drawn off by the fun- nel which passes through the wooden vat; a tin dipper, an oblong curd cutter, also of tin, with spaces one inch square and held by four stout wires springing up at the cofners, and terminating in the han- dle, a brush broom for sweeping up curd, a thermometer, a graduated rule for mea- suring the quantity of milk, a dairy steam- er for heating, either with water or steam, a press and set of hoops; this completes the inventory. The space between the vats is used for cooling the evening's milk by pumpiag in water, as well as for heats ing the milk and cooking the curd—a por: tion of the water for cooling tke evening's milk having been drawn off through the: faucet, the steamer filled and fired, the pipe atranged for conducting steam be- tween the vats, the cream of the evening’s milk incorporated with the whole mass, and the number of gallons determined by the graduated rule, the operations of cheese-making commence. PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE. The whole mass of milk is raised gradu ally to a temperature of 88° or 90° accord- ing to the temperature of the atmosphere, and a sufficient quantity of rennet stirred in, to thoroughly curdle it in forty minutes, it is then covered with a cloth and left at rest ; any jarring or jostling having a tem dency to disturb coagulation. I have ex- perimented in setting milk at a higherand lowet temperature, but it was always at- tended with loss. Milk set at a low tem» perature affects materially the flavor of the cheese, it does not readily coagulate, the curd is soft, the whey seperates with. diff culty, and a portion is Hable to remain in the cheese, to sour and putrify;such a cheese will be porous, and however care- fally the curd is worked, the whey will be turbid and carry off both butter and casein. If the milk is too warm coagu- lation becomes too adhesive, and the oily parts of the milk being held in solution, escape with the whey,rendering the cheese tough and leathery. Rennet acts exclu- sively upon the casein of the milk and not upon the butter, the globules of which are embedded in the casein in the aet of sol- idification, and in this way are made to form curd. Heat hastens the ascent of 139, butter not only changing its relative posi- tion, but in a measure its nature. Hence we see that when any portion of the milk is heated up to a high temperature for the purpose of raising the whole mass of milk, the buttery portions of this part are dis- placed and changed into oil, and will not readily enter into the curd but will pass off with the whey ; and here is one source of loss which is suffered to go on daily and yearly by many dairymen. I shall presently speak of another loss of cheese in using the hands for breaking and working the curd—by careful trials I have found the loss from these causes to be frum ene to three pounds of cheese on every sixty gallons of milk. If the pro cess so far has been conducted aright, as regards heat, and the quantity of rennet used, the curd has a firm consistency but is not tough, aud on raising a portion with the finger, it readily splits apart. The whole mass is now cut into perpendicular columns, with the cutter, and allowed to stand ten minutes,when it is divided into still smaller parts, and after a few minutes if the whey, has formed rapidly, and the curd sinks, a gentle heat is begun to be applied to the whole mass; at this stage the temperature is determined by the thermometer that the heat may not be ap- plied too rapidly, and the whole mass is slowly and gently worked with the cutter that every portion may be equally affec- ted ; this is continued until it indicates a temperature of 100°, when the steam is turned off and no more heat applied. The time of scalding or cooking the curd varies with the temperature of the at- mosphere from one hour and a quarter to two hours. From the time that heat is first applied, to the time when the curd is sufficiently cooked, at least one hour should have intervened ; too long as well as too short a process being attended with loss. The tin cutter is used instead of the hands in breaking and working the curd, because it divides the mass more evenly and ia smaller parts, because it is not so liable to bruise the curd and press out the oily particles, because it more per- fectly facilitates the separation of whey, because the curd being in a finely divided state, and being kept in motion does not clog together, and is scalded evenly ; and because by trial it is found to waste less curd in working. ‘The particles of curd at this stage of the process, are nos much larger than wheat kernels, and if on tak- ing up a handful and closing the hand upon it with a slight pressure, it is found to be elastic and readily falls to pieces on opening the hand, the cooking process has been earried far enough. Judgment and experience are bere requisite to determine the. proper amount of scalding ; a little less ora trifle more, being an injury to the cheese. When the curd is nearly cooked enough the perforated tin strainer is run down at the corners of the vat, the cork withdrawn and the whey passes rapidly off to the whey tubs. The narrow strip of board under the end of the vat is now ta- ken out and the vat canted up, the curd is drawn to the upper end and stirred to keep the whole mass loose, and to facili- tate a more thorough drainage of whey. Water or cooling whey thrown upon the curd has a tendency to impoverish the cheese, Neither is used, for if the ope- rations have been managed rightly, the curd will now indicate a temperature of about 88°, which is not too warm to re- ceive the salt. Curd that is too cool does not absorb galt so readily, nor does the 140 salt actso thoroughly to cleanse and pu- rify it of whey and the traces of rennet. | oneinch. Finally the cheese is taken from the press to the curing room and its One pound of fine salt is used for forty | weight determined and compared with pounds of cheese, and is worked evenly into the whole mass. If it is desired to ripen the cheese early, or for ‘‘hay made cheese” that is less rich in butter, a small- er quantity is used. The curd is ndw dipped fromthe vat to the haop,the crumbs swept up with the brush and added and the whole put to press. In abont three hours the cheese is turned and bandaged. and remains in press until next morning. The bandages are made with drawing cords in the edges and to fit the cheese, aud when put in place and the cords drawn up snugly it will allow it to spread about the number of gallons of milk used for its manufacture. It is then oiled with hot whey butter, and thereafter turned, rubbed, and greased once in twenty four hours. The whey butter is extracted from the cream of the whey by boiling Such is briefly the process of mannfacturing firm, rich, and delicately flavored cheese, There are some points which J should have wished to have discussed at farther length, but as the essays for to day were limited by you to one sheet, foolscap, brev- ity becomes not only a virtne but necessity, or simmering it over “ a slow fire.” ON THE CURING OF CHEESE. AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, ON TH. 19th OF FEBRUARY, 1858. —_———__s BwTr ADLON Zo REED. ———__ In discussing the mode or manner of euring Cheese,I cannot speak trom long or varied experience in their management, My attention was not given to the subject par- ticularly, until the past season, which was of a peculiar character, being noted for excessive, long coutinued wet weather, of. ten accompanied by intense heat ; and for days, and sometimes weeks, without sun- shine to dispel the fogs and miasmatic va- pors teeming from the soil,or perfect plants, in their full development. Grass grown in such seasons is watery and immature, and we would infer that cheese made from milk produced from such feed would differ somewhat from that of other seasons, in composition when ta- ken from the press, and in its action while curing and exposed to such violent and extreme change of temperature. What thoughts and deductions I may present from observations in 1857, cannot perhaps be taken as authority in other and differ- ent seasons, but may suggest and elicit from dairymen present, opinions tested by longer experience. The principle of decomposition is inhe- rent in all cheese. It is put in force by the decomposing power of rennet, and de- pends for its action on the presence of two agents—heat and moisture, To control these agencies so as to hold in check this tendency to decay, while the cheese shall grow mellow and ripen in per- fection its best qualities, isin my opinion, the art of curing cheese. By the term heat, as here used, is meant the temperature in which the cheese is kept. By the term moisture, is meant the water in composition with the cheese. This is all or nearly all in the form of whey, and cannot be all expressed. The amount of this and other ingredients in several kinds of cheese, is shown by the following table taken from Norton’s works. In 100 lbs, Water. Casein. Butter. Ash. No. 1..... «043.82 45,64 5,98 5,18 No. 2.......38,46 25,87 31,86 3,81 No. 1 represents a skim milk cheese, and No. 2 arich Ayershire cheese. It will surprise most persons to know that cheese contains from 1-2 to 1-3 its weight in water, and that in eating very rich cheese fully 1-3 of what they eat is but- ter. The casein of cheese, like all other bodies containing much nitrogen, is ex- ceedingly liable to decomposition. Whey 142 contains about 4 or 5 per cent. of milk This, when in the cheese, is de- eomposed into acid by the action of the -and if it be in much quantity or sugar, casein ; exposed to much heat, the whole naass is| soon ina state of decomposition. By comparing the successive stages in the de- composition of organic matter, with the successive conditions presented by cheese, when under the influence of heat and moisture, we find that the processes are analagous, and that the qualities devel- oped under those circumstances are those of which the most complaint is made in the markets. For instance; when a cheese contains considerable whey and is kept in a warm place, it acquires a slight- ly sour taste produced by the change of the whey sugar to an acid, as before men- tioned. During this time gas is generated, forming small cavities in the cheese, ma- king it porous. If there be much heat the cheese becomes swollen or huffed by the pressure of the accumulating gases within: when these are let out through an aperture, they have a rauk offensive smell, which is caused by the action of the acid whey on the buttery particles of the cheese, producing rancidity in those par- ticles. If the cheese be kept a certain time, it becomes smart, having a pungent sharp taste like vinegar or any substance in the acetic stage, and from that it goes into the putrefactive stage, tastes and smells strong, and finally spoils, An in- crease of salt will keep the article from becoming putrefactive, but will not pre- vent its souring and becoming sharp. A dry texture of material and a low temperature in the curing room are ne- cessary to prevent decomposition. Leav- ing the first requisite to care of the man- ufacturer, we will turn our attention to the construction of cheese rooms, which will secure a low temperature. Mr. A. L. Fish, of Litchfield, in his Ussay on Cheese Making recommends for this purpose,“a tight,spacious studded-and plastered lower room, with Northern ex- posure, where heat may be increased and air dried by heat and ventilation, or cooled and dampened if required, by air from an underground or adjoining room where ice may be kept.” And I will add that a uniform low temperature may be pre- served in any room by filling the ceilings of the sides, top (and Floor if an upper room) with some substances which are non-conductors of heat—such as saw-dust, tan-bark, &c. The windows should be on the North sides to prevent the sun from penetrating. Ventilators should be put in to let out the effluvia that is constantly given off from all cheese,thus preventing the odor of defective cheese (if there hap- pens to be such) from impregnating those that are sound, and also furnishing an abundance of pure air, which is necessary in order that the chemical changes made in curing may be perfect, With such conditions, cheese will cure slow; be sol- id yet malleable, like butter, of aol, mild flavor and shrink very little in curing. ‘I believe that an average saving of at least 4 or 5 per cent. of shrinkage could be saved by the use of suitable rooms, to prove which I refer you to ‘the table of temperature and shrinkage presented four weeks ago. The improvement in quality would make astill greater increase in value. The superiority of English cheese is due in my opinion, more to the uniform low temperature in which it is cured than to their mode of manufacture. 143 a The precise temperature in which aJ|leave the stomach exposed to view and cheese should be kept in order to develope its best qualities has not yet been ascer- tained. It is highly important that it should be known, and every dairyman should experiment with a view to its de- termination. As aids to such investiga- tions, I suggest that the cheese room be furnished with a thermometer, a slate and pencil, a cheese trier, a small marking brush with ink can, and a convenience for weighing. On the slate gould easily be recorded daily the temperature of the room, the weight of each cheese if de- sired, its qualities when cured, and any other circumstances or peculairities ; and when full, the contents of the slate could be posted in a reyister kept for the pur- pote. Let the date of making each cheese be marked on the bandage with eommon ink, before it is greased, and a ready reference can be had from that to the schedule, atall times. Every per- son would be amply paid for the time giv- en to the subject—not only by the satis- faction of knowing just what kind of ar- ticle he was producing and all the facts in relation thereto, but he would soon have the gratification of knowing how to pro- duce a better article, thereby benefiting both producer and consumer. Discussion, Februiary 19th, 1858, There was some coasiderable discussion on “ whether the virtue of the rennet de- pended on the secretions of gastric juice or other acid, or upon Johnson’s theory of the gradual decomposition of the stom- ach.” One member said that the action of the stomach was still somewhat shroud- ed in mystery—he referred to the case of the soldier who was wounded so as to on which observations were taken for a considerable length of time. Another member had tried gastric juice for curd- ling mill, 16 took a larger quantity of the fluid than of steeped rennet. It was thought that the juice might have been diluted with other fluid to meet the re- quirements of the aviinal, and was not as strong as that secreted in the coats of the stomach. The members generally argu- ed that the rennet was stronger if the calf remained some considerable time without food before slaughter. One member said freezing and thawing the rennet increasetl the strength, and that it should be left a few days without salt. With regard to age giving the rennet strength, one mem- ber thought the acid or gastric juice might act somewhat like yeast, imparting its properties to the membrane, &c. In this: discussion it was not claimed that either theory was the true one, but the discus- sioa was carried on to elicit facts from the experience of members. Sulphuric acid, muriatic acid, and vinegar had been used for curdling milk—the coagulation was not even, some parts were soft and others solid. One member said that experiments had proved that acids produced more curd than rennet, but that the objection to their use was,greater expense, and the dif: ficulty of washing out the traces of acid inthe curd. The wire cutter was objected to because it left the curd with rough edges and produced small particles of soft curd while passing off with the whey. That curd should be scalded with all the whey and then drawn off from the bottom, that the small floating particles would The loss by dip- ping the whey through a strainer, alone then adhere to the rest. 144 twas two per cent. These points and the | worked by a s¢rew; all practical and wor: loss by heating and scalding at different! thy of being tried. The Secretary, Mr. temperatures as well as other sources of | Willard, read editorial remarks from a re- loss, were discussed at length and satis-; cent New York paper, in which it was factorily explained and verified by actual | stated that the great bulk of butter brought experiments, Mr. Arnold showed a draw-|into that market was poor and that the ing of a plan for a dairy tub and heater, ; difference between that and a good article also an apparatus for cutting the curd to be | was fourteen cents per Ib. IMPROVEMENTS IN FARMING, AND REA- SONS FOR THEIR ADOPTION. AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, ON THE 26th OF FEBRUARY, 1858. —-__—__—__—__ By GEBOoORGEH FE. waRiIneac, dr. —_——_> Mr. Present, anv LapiEs anp Gev- TLEMEN :—There are two sorts of embar- assment which confront aspeakeron rising to address an audience. The first is to know what to say; the second, to know what not to say. I find myself a victim to the latter. _ Fo compress within the limits of a sin- gle lecture, anything like an adequate re- view of those improvements in farming which might with advantage be adopted, js indeed an impossibility, and the most that I can hope to do is to present to your notice a few of the more important topics connected with my subject. That there is need for improvements in farming seems to me evident from a re- view of the past history of agriculture in this country. Only about two hundred years ago the Pilgrim Fathers landed in Massachusetts. They found a soil which, though hard and little inviting to the cul- tivator, was rich and productive of good crops. This soil they’ cultivated, as they, and their fathers, had cultivated the: soil of the Mother Country, paying little heed to the permanence of its fertility. In time, their crops indicated a falling off of the fertility of the soil, and the younger farmers turned their steps to the “inex- haustible” lands of the Connecticut River Valley. Some of these were occasionally wateredby the overflow of the river, but those not so watered were found not to be inexhaustible, and the tide of emigra- tion passed, by slow degrees, to the Mo- hawk and Genesee Valleys. Here a paradise was found; a soil whose rich- ness was surely permanent. These hardy sons of toil had found a land flowing with milk and honey, such as their rock-trained leyes had never hoped to see. Here could they and their children, and their chil- dren’s children, enjoy an undiminishing fertility, and, of the fatness of the land lay by comfort and wealth for their de- clining years. They had been preceded by the Dutch who had touched bottom on the lands of Eastern New York, and who had the same high hopes in their emigra- tion. Notwithstanding their experience in their former homes, notwithstanding the failure of their father’s soils, in spite of 146 the positive teachings of the past, they seem to have gathered little wisdom from experience, and to have paid little regard to anything, beyond the mere details of the manual labor of farming. They were hard working, honest, steady, and pru dent, (in penty-wise economy at least), but they were not thoughtful, competent, practical farmers. The richer soils of Central and Western New York received very much the same treatment that had been given to the soils of New England, and with the same sad result. With regard to the productive- ness of the soil of the Mohawk Valiey now,as compared with what it was from fifty to one hundred years ago, I leave you to decide from your own knowledge of the matter. In the Genesee Valley, fifty years ago, the land was said to be the Tichest in the world, producing average crops of from thirty-five to forty-five bush- els of wheat per acre. Its present aver- age produetion is considerably less than twenty bushels per acre. Those farmers who have emigrated to Ohio and to the States west of it, have added another illustration to my proposi- tion, for in all of the older settled parts of these States, where there are no natu- ral means for restoring to the soil that which is removed in its crops, the yield of wheat and of corn is perceptibly dimin- ished, This universal occurrence of the same results, wherever our lands have been cul- tivated for a long time, points directly to one fact, which is, that there has been, in the previous agriculture of our country, a great lack of skill,or a great lack of knowl- edge in matters appertaining to cultivation, The only other supposition that can be de- vised to account for this result is, that it is necessary, in the nature of things, that the soil should be permanently injured by performing the very function for which it was intended, and this is entirely prepos- terous, inasmuch as in a state of nature (that is where the products of the soil are used by animals living upon it, and re- turning to it their excrement, and finally their bodies, and thus restoring to the soil in a form suited to the wants of the fature growth all that it had produced,) the soil never does become of less value, but, on the contrary, becomes better with every change of crop, if not ia the quan- tity at least in the quality of its produc- tions. I shall now assume that there has been such a want of knowledge and of skill, and proceed to state wherein, in my opinion, it lies, and why and how it is to be overcome. It seems to me that the foundation of the difficulty lies in the want of a proper education of farmers in matters connected with their bnsiness. As a class, the farm- ers of America are sound thinking, hon- est, industrious men, and quite intelligent on general topics, but they are not, and never have been, intelligent on those top- ics most nearly connected with their own business. Do not misunderstand me, and suppose, that I would underestimate the untiring physical industry of the farmer; for this I have a profound respect, but I would place far above it that intelligence which alone can rightly guide it. What we want is, that the farmer should cease to consider his occupation as one of routine only, wherein he has to perform certain traditional operations, with a tra- ditional belief that certain results will be likely to follow, make made to realize 147 that in all that he does he is but the agent who is charged with the duty of directing the operation of nature’s laws, and that in proportion as he guides them aright, in just that proportion will the results of his labor be satisfactory. There are many of these laws which only need to be under- stood to be made use of with great ad- vantage. A few years ago, in the pin factories of Birmingham in England, the pins of the whole world were made by hand. The workman took his bit of wire ia his pin- cers and by slowly turning it on a grind- stone slowly brought it to a point; then taking it by the other end, twisting a bit of wire around,and hammering itfirston this side and then on that, and on the top to rivet it on, he formed a head ; 3 and, after tedious operation, he produced an uncouth looking affair that the poorest sewing-wo- man in New York would consider unfit for use. If you will go to Birmingham in Connecticut, and visit Howe’s pin fac- tory, wou will note a change. You enter a large room which i is alive with the hum of machinery, and with the “flip” of leather belts; in a double row through the entire length of the room stand the pin machines. Over each is suspended a coil of wire which is drawn down, inch by inch ; sixteen iron hands seize, each in its turn, a bit of the wire, and, revolving rapidly on its axis, presents it first to grind-stones, and then to emery wheels, until the point is made and polished ; then another hand takes it by the other end and presents it to the hammer, which by a'single blow gives it a solid and hand- some head. It is then dropped into a hopper, from which it is delivered in the proper position to be pushed, by a single motion of the hand, into the paper where it naturally takes its proper place. In this way, each machine makes two pins in a second, of a uniform character, and all of the best quality, far cheaper and better than those made by the old hand making process. This is but one instance out of a hundred of the application of the laws of mechanics to the manufacture of arti- cles which were, but a short time since, made badly and expensively by hand. You may think that it is not fair to compare the maker of pins to the maker of potatoes, but the difference is only one of degree. There may be a less pal- pable improvement in the case of the lat- ter, but, when we examine, in detail, the process by which he must attain his ends, we cannot fail to see that very many parts of his operations could be vastly improved by an understanding of the machinery with wkich he works. The farmer is not a mere day laborer, who, by bodily exertion alone, is to attain the best results which are possible to him, he is (if I rightly understand his business) an intelligent, responsible being. He is as much a manufacturer as is he who makes plows, or weaves cloth. He owns store- houses in which he keeps his raw mate- tials, his workshops are supplied with the the most delicate machinery, and, with these, he makes his fabrics. Whether there be much or little, of good quality, or of bad quality, depends on the manner in which he manages his stock and the working of it. It is true that he may have such a fine lot of material, and such . perfect apparatus, that, without giving much thought to the matter, he will for a time turn out a large quantity of the best wares, but, unless well attended to, his 148 machinery will get out of repair, or run sluggishly for want of oil, his material will get badly damaged, and his whole business will become unsatisfactory and unprofitable. He will have too much of the warp and too little of the woof, and his affairs will be generally in a condition to afford but an imperfect return for his labor. The stock of material which the far- mer employs in the manufactured of his crops, consists of those substances which, wher subjected to the action of the vital forces of the plant, are formed into its tis- sues, or its juices. They are not difficult to examine. Their number is limited, and their characteristics are well understood, so that the farmer has no arduous task to ‘perform in making an acquaintance with them. The proper means of proceeding is to analyze vegetable matter, and thus learn its composition, and the character- istics of its parts, We will take wood as a type of all vegetable substances, and subject it to a rude analysis. If we burna cord of wood in a stove, we observe that its quantity is very much reduced, and that that which remains after the burning is very dif- ferent from the wood itself, so much so that itfis difficult to believe that it had ever formed a part of its tissues; it has been supposed by many to have existed only as an impurity in the sap of the tree, which had been drawn up in mechanical sus- pension with the water taken from the soil; this, however, is not the case, it has formed an indispensible part of the fabric, and we will preserve it for future exami- nation, while we look after that which has been dissipated by the fire. This is, of course, not destroyed, but is only sent into | trogen. the atmosphere, in the form of an invisi- ble gas. If the burning had taken place in a confined atmosphere we should have been able, by chemical tests, to detect its presence, and to study its composition. We should have found it to consist almost entirely of four different gases known as carbonic acid, oxygen, hydrogen, and ni- If the air had all been expelled from the confined space, and the burning caused by applied heat, instead of by com- bustion, we should have obtained carbon (or chargoal ) in its solid state. It is only the union of this with the oxygen of the atmosphere that causes it to assume the form of carbonic acid, which is a gas, and mingles with the air. In these four sub- stances we have nearly all of the com- bustible constituents of the wood which we have burned, as well as of all forms of vegetable matter which can be burned. Wood, starch, sugar, gum, wax, etc., are almost entirely composed of three of these substances, carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen , : while a few other important constituents of plants, such as the muscle forming por- tion of wheat and other grains, are formed mainly of these three substances, and the remaining gas, nitrogen, which, although it does not enter largely into the composi - tion of any vegetable product, is of the utmost importance, as without it none of these essential ingredients of the plant can be formed, and, without the ability to form these, none of our cultivated plants will grow. When we come to. examine the growth of plants we shall see the manner in which they take up these at- mospheric elements of their structures,and in how far the care and vigilance of the farmer is able to accelerate their assimi- lation, 149 To return to the ashes of the wood, which were left after burning ; we find,on chemical examination, (which I must ask you to accept as demonstrated, it being of itself a theme for many hours talking.) that it consists mainly of nine different sorts of matter, known as lime, potash, soda, magnesia, oxyde of ron, silica, chlo- rine, phosphorie acid, and sulphuric acid. These matters were all taken up directly from the soil, by the roots of the tree} which produced our wood, and, in the soil as well as in the tree, they bore cer-| tain chemical relations to each other, which | it is necessary for the farmer to under- stand before he can rightly know how to treat them so as to obtain the best results from their use. Itis also necessary that they should be present in the soil in cer- tain proportions, before that soil ean pro duce such plants as we wish to raise. To explain more clearly my meaning, I will recall a few instances which illustrate some of the effects of these matters in the plant, and the necessity for their being present in the soil in just proportions. Silica, which is the base of sand and flint, enters the plant, in solution in the water which forms its sap, and takes its place in the woody portions, to which it gives,in a considerable degree, their solidity, hard- ness, and strength. In the straw of cereal plants it forms nearly the whole of the glassy coating, which enables it to main- tain its erect position, and to support its load of grain. In the formation of sugar, woody fiber, etc., in the growing plant, potash is needed to induce the production of these substances which, like tartaric acid, citric acid, etc., form an essential step in the transmutation of carbonic acid and first taken up into that which they finally assume. In the soil their chemical rela- tions are no less marked. Silica, as has just been stated, enters the plant, in solu- tion in the water which goes to form its sap, but, before it can be thus dissolved, it must he united with potash, soda, or some other alkali, this combination be- ing necessary to render it a soluble. Tn order that we may see the relation which the atmospheric, and earthy por- tions of vegetable matter bear to each other, let us suppose a young plant to be growing, in a soil which contains a jurt proportion of these minerals which we have seen to form the ashes of plants, and to have its leaves extended in an atmosphere which contains the various gases which we have seen to result from the burning of our cord of wood, Its reots will ab- sorb ‘water which contains, in solution, these soluble mineral matters which it may find within its reach, and ammonia (containing nitrogen) which has been ab- sorbed by the soil from the atmosphere, or from the water of rains, or which has been formed by the decomposition of or- ganic matter contained in the soil. The water itself is composed ot hydrogen and oxygen, two substances which form the combustible part of all plants. The water also introduced into the plant more or less of carbonic acid, but, as the discussion of a mooted question is foreign to our pur- pose, we will suppose that but a small por- tion of that which it requires enters the plant in this way; and that the leaves which are stretching out their millions of mouths are drinking in the carbonic acid of the air floating past them, thus supply- ing with this element of its growth, We water, from the form in which they are have now introduced into the plant all of 150 those substances from which it derives its sustenance, and it would be curious could we watch the varied workings of its chemi- cal changes, and see what a merry dance this little plant leads the newly assembled company, and how it quietly settles them down in their snug quarters, transforming them by their companionship from a vague and crude condition, into one of usefulness and beauty. But our examination of the processes by which the farmer manufactures his wares must needs be left thus brief, and we must hasten to the examination of other evi- ’ dences of the necessity for the adoption of the improvements of modern times, in the prosecution of our thrift giving, health giving, pleasure giving avocation. We have seen that the plant re. ceives all of those parts of its nutriment, over which we can exercise any control, through the medium of its roots, from the soil, and that it is to the soil that we must direct our energies. Our policy in the matter is to improve the soil in the fol- lowing particulars :— 1. We must add to it all those ingre- dients which are taken away by the growth of plants, which are not either contained in very large quantities in the soil, or sup” plied by exteraal natural processes. 2. We must so arrange the physical condi- tion of the soil, that it may perform its functions in the best possible manner, by removing excess of water, rendering it ca- pable of absorbing the largest possible quantity of fertilizing matter from the at- mosphere, and so separating its particles that the roots of plants may travel easily in all directions, and that the air may cir- culate freely within it. The first of these objects is accomplished by the application of manure, which may be divided into two classes, those of an organic origin, and those of a mineral origin. The most prominent among organic manures are the excrements of animals. These have been resorted to by the people of all ages,as the chief source from which to obtain re- newed fertility of the soil. They consist of those portions of the food of animals which have not fully digested, and of those portions of their bodies which are re- moved to give place to new deposits of assimilated food. They contain,in a greater or less degree, ammonia, and all of the mineral constituents of plants, except silica, the ammonia being intrinsically their most valuable portion. Very much of the value of these manures depends on the time elapsing between their evacuation by the animal and their application to the soil. If exposed, as is the almost universal cus- tom, to the action of the weather, and to unguardad fermentation, they, in time, lose nearly all their ammonia, and have a very large part of their mineral ingredients, which are set free by the decay of the tis- sues of which they formed a part, (as they would be by burning, whichis only a more’ rapid decay), washed out by rains. The ammonia, thus evaporated, is lost to the farm producing it, and becomes a portion of the common stock of this material ex- isting in the atmosphere, while the mine- ral ingredients, which are leached out, are either washed into the soil below, where they are practically lost, or are carried into streams of water and find their way into. the sea, or are otherwise irrecoverably re- moved. = One improvement in farming, the argu- ments for the adoption of which are, per- haps, more palpable than those in favor of anyother,is to build sheds for the protection 151 of manure, or to adopt some other plan by which it may undergo its needed fer- mentation, without danger of the loss of its most valuable paris, Organic manure, from abroad, is often used, and always with advantage, but the first duty of the farmer should be to protect that which al- ready exists on his farm. The second class of manures are those of a mineral character, such as ashes, phosphate phate of lime (obtained chiefly from the bones of animals) salt, lime, plaster, etc., these are all of great value, and are, one or more of them, needed in a very large majority of cases, to put the land ina con- dition to produce satisfactory crops, and, in all cases, to restore so much of the va- rious mineral constituents of plants as are removed in manure wasted, and in pro- duce sold. This restoration may be made every year or every ten years, as may be most convenient, or as may be deemed expedient, but made it must be, or sooner or later, the strongest soil must succomb, and will be sure to evince, in its reduced productiveness, the result of a short-sighted policy. It is no argument (even if it were often true, which it is not) that such or such a soil has in a valuable form as much of the ingredients of plants as will supply the crops of a hundred years. A hun- dred years is a very short time, when we look at our subject from a proper point of view. Our-farms do not belong to our- selyes, who ere long must pass away, but to the great human family, which will last as long as the world endures. We are only tenants for life, and we are al- lowed our possession for no such purpose as that we may be enabled to impoverish those estates, which are to support men’s lives a thousand generations hence; it is rather our duty to derive from our land as much benefit ag is possible for outselves, while we give to the soil as much value as possible for those who are to come after ts, Let it be the pride of ourselves. and the hereditary pride of our families after us, that the sweat of our brow has fallen on no land which has been made wotse for our having worked upon it, and that at least one portion of the world bas been made better by our having lived init. In- deed this task is not a difficult one, for such prospective philanthropy costs noth» ing, inasmuch as we shall “find our ae- count” in pursuing just such a course of cultivation as will leave our Jand in the best condition for future use. With reference to the physieal condition of the soil, the most important improve- ment is one which the experience of ages has suggested, and which modern prac« tice has systematized, and made teachable, It is an improvement on which depends more benefit to the world at large than on the application of steam, or on any- thing else short of the discovery of a new world, an improvement which, of itself would, if generally applied, more than double the farming value of all the land in the United States. I allude to under- draining, or the removal, by covered drains, of all that water which naturally remains in the soil, until removed by evapo- ration from its surface. The processes of the art are simple, and easily understood, and, in its details, it may be practiced by any farmer. We have no time now to discuss those details, or to dwell more specifically on the subject, than to say that, generally, drains made with tiles (or hollow bricks) laid four feet deep and forty. feet apart, following the line of the steep- 152 est descent of the land, will produce the best and most economical results, Underdraining is entirely distinct from the surface draining which has been largely and universal'y practiced to re- move water from the surface of low lying lands, and it emphatically disproves the genetal theory that land is always dry enough for farming purposes when you can drive a team over it without their miring; by showing, at times, its most marked effects on solid clays, which, from their inclination, are never very wet at the surface, and which have no means of dis- charging their excess of water below, that is on that which is called ‘ good strong land, but a little cold.” This phrase, by the way, expresses the exact truth. This land is “good” and “strong” when pro- perly drained, but when undrained, it is * cold,” simply because it is wet, and we might as well expect so keep warm our- selves with wet clothes, on a windy day as to expect the soil to keep warm under the evaporation of the oozings of a stiff clay, with no subteranean outlet for its accumulated water. Such soils, from draining alone, will often become of the best quality, and will, uniformly, produce the best crops, while always before, the season has been either too wet, or too dry, or too short; for them to mature a full crop. Such asoilasIhave just described may be thrown up into ridges, or water- furrowed, or shallow drained until dooms- day without being much improved, while simple deep draining will give it an ex- cellent quality. These assertions are corroborated by the following quotation from the pen of the late Mr. Gisborne, who was one of the best agricultural writers in England: “TI have had the opportunity of watching, for more than three years, the operation of four feet drains, nine yards apart on forty acres of the stiffest clay which I ever saw in any county, absolute clay to the surface, without any covering of soil. This drain- ing was not done by me, nor does the land belong to me. I could wish any agriculturist who doubts the efficacy of deep drains in clay soils, to see this land and to converse with its present owner, who gome years ago, before it was drained, abandoned its cultivation in despair. I doubt whether any water has either re- mained on or run off its surface since it was drasinect.” As regards the construction of drains I would say that, while stoue is pretty good, as long as it remains unobstructed, it is never so good, so durabie, nor often so cheap as the pipe-tile which are now so largely used. These, if properly laid, at sufficient depths, with a sufficient and never decreasing fall, are absolutely indes- tructible by any of the circumstances which are likely to surround them in the soil. The advantages of underdraining may be briefly stated as follows : 1. It entirely prevents drouth. 2. It furnishes an increased supply of atmospheric fertilizers. 8. It warms the lower portion of the soil. 4, It hastens the decomposition of roots and other organic matter. 5. It accelerates the disintegration of the mineral matters in the soil. 6. It causes a more even distribution of nutritious matters among those parts of the soil which are traversed by roots. 153 7. It improves the mechanical texture of the soil. 8. It causes the poisonous excremen- titious matter of plants to be carried out of the reach of their roots. 9. It prevents grasses from running out. 10. It enables us to deepen the surface soil, by removing excess of water. 11. It renders soils earlier in the Spring. 12. It prevents the throwing out of grain in Winter. 13. It allows us to work sooner after rains, 14. It keeps off the effects of cold wea- ther longer in the Fall. 15. It prevents the formatien of acetic, and other organic acids, which induce the growth of sorrel and other weeds. 16. It hastens the decay of vegetable matter and the finer comminution of earthly parts of the soil. 17. It prevents, in a great measure, the evaporation of water from the surface, and the consequent removal of heat from the soil, 18. It admits fresh quantities of water from rains, etc., which are always more or less imbued with the fertilizing gases of the atmosphere, to be deposited among the absorbant parts of the soil, and given up to the necessities of plants. 19. It prevents the formation of so hard a crust on the surface of the soil as is customary on heavy lands. 20. It prevents in a great measure the washing away of the surface of the soil. Did our time suffice we might discuss fully the reasons for all of the advantages of draining, but for our present purpose (which is only to call attention to the means of improvement) it will be enough to discuss one or two of them. Thorough draining prevents drouth, be- cause it renders the soil more porous, and thus affords greater facilities for the ad- mission of air. There is always the same amount of water in and about the surface ef the earth. In Winter there is more in the soil than in Summer, while in Summer, that which has been dried out of the soil,ex- ists in the atmosphere in the form of vae por. This vapor is water held in a gaseous form by heat; when it comes in contact with substanees sufficiently cooler than itself it gives up its heat, thus losing the braces which keeps it distended, contracts and becomes liquid water. We see this in many common instan- ces, forexample, if we breathe ona knife blade, the cold steel abstracts the heat trom the moisture of the breath, which settles on the blade in drops. A cold pitcher standing in a draft of air, in sum- mer, becomes covered with water which it, in this manner, obtains from the air; a cabbage, which at night is quite cold, cen- denses water to the amount of a gill or more. In the same manner the soil, whose lower particles, being shaded by those above them, are considerably cooler than the atmosphere circulating among them, receives a very large amount of water. This process is sufficiently active to sup- ply all of the water which is required by a luxuriant crop. The loss of heat by the soil, in consequence of the evaporation of its water from the surface, is one of the greatest drawbacks to the cultivation of wet lande 154 When water becomes a vapor it takes up 1723 times as much heat as it contained in the liquid form. ‘his excess of heat is obtained partly from the sun’s rays, or from the air, but in very great part from surrounding substances. In the evaporation of water from the surface of a field, a very large amount of heat is ta- ken from the soil, and it is thus rendered colder, and, of course, less able to produce a rapid growth. In the same manner might the other advantages of this mode of improving agricultural land be proven, did our limit- ed time suffice for their discussion. Supposing our soil to be free from ex- cessive moisture, our uext duty is to loosen its particles for the still mors free admis- sion of air, and for the easier penetration of the roots of plants. This is t> be done, of course, by the various operations known as plowing, subsoil plowing, cultivating, hoeing, etc.; and of these, subsoil plowing should especially engage our attention. It is the easiest means for rendering friable the lower soil, and is exceedingly benefi- cial in its effects, more or less so in pro- portion to the completeness with which the water has been removed from the lower soil. It increases nearly every ef- fect of draining, and lays the foundation for a lasting improvement of the soil, by the decay of roots in the subsoil, and the consequent supply of organic matter which it thus receives; the final result being that the subsoil becomes of equal quality with that at the surface, and there will exist, proportionally, the same relation between its improved and its original con. dition, as exists between a garden soil, two feet deep, and the soil of an ordinary field. T have now touched generally upon a few of the more important improvemerts which are open to almost universal adop- tion, and I only regret, that neither my time por my ability has allowed me to so demonstrate their advantages as to at all secure the adoption of any one of them. Let it be hoped, however, that the sug- gestions of my remarks will, at least, lead to a reflection which may result in a fur- ther investigation of the matter. Let us now, for a moment, turn our at- tention to a much more general application of our subject. Thus far we have con- sidered, mainly, the feasibility of applying these improvements to our own acres, and for our individual benefit. Let us not for- get that, as members of a body politic, we have duties and interests which suggest a general dissemination of facts, with regard to that which shall lead farmers, from one end of the land to the other, to endeavor to improve their systems of culture. The sentiment of our whole agricultu- ral population, considered as a mass, should be raised to a higher standard, and should be made to compass the improve- ment of our national agriculture, not alone that our fields may become more profita- ble to those who cultivate them, nor that our farmers may attain higher degree of personal thrift, but that a universal prosperity, and a universal habit of work- ing with a knowledge of the reasons for that which is done,may take the place of our present half-shiftlessness, and of the half stupid way in which we generally man- age our farms. The dissemination of knowledge among farmers is now much more easy than it was fifty years ago, since the railroad and telegraph have brought all classes into such intimate correspon- dence. | The ordinary farmer, as he exists amon 155 us, and, indeed, as he is to be found inall|be enveloped in an American flag, and parts of the civilized world—though there are very many exceptions to the rule—is a plodding, disinterested worker at a trade for which he has noattachment. Though the means by which he performs his la- bors are different, the spirit with which he goes about it is the same as that of the farmer of antiquity. Though a good member of modern se- ciety,, and often a strong thinking poli- ticlan, as a farmer he is old as Adam, and generation after generation he wends his weary way along, this year walking in the footsteps of the last without change, and without desire for change. The click of the telegraph and the rumbling of the rail-car have addled his brain, and he has adopted the very bad habit of minding other people’s business. Has he ears to hear? They are given to the great speeches of great men, catch- ing greedily and holding contentedly the copper compliments which are sparingly thrown to him, and keeping them too close before his eyes to see the golden fa- vors which are bestowed on more sprightly and more sightly beasts, or perhaps he lis- tens to wars, or rumors of wars, in lands afar off; he is deaf to the trumpet tones which proclaim to him the better lot which awaits his better efforts. Has he eyes to see? They are intent on gazing on his own name over the door of a warehouse, or on his own likeness on a bank note; he is blind as Sampson to*the fair view of his own farm, and to the gol- den grain which is rustling over his own fields, Has he an ambition? It is to lose his own noble individuality, and to become a spotted little peeping turtle of politics. Has he an idea of patriotism? It is to in the smoke of gunpowder; he forgets that green fields, and lucious fruits, and beautiful flowers, are the surroundings which best conduce to his glorification, and patriotic usefulness. He looks eagerly about him for that independence and success which lie di- rectly before him, and which can be at- tained only by keeping an eye single to his purpose, and by a disregard of the many dazzling inducements to waver. He has lost his moral courage, and his saddened life anticipates no good from the honest pursuit of his honest vocation. He needs the aid of all our encouragement to recall him to a realization of the glory of his proper career. As true charity begins at home; so all valuable teaching is predicated on exam- ple, and there is no way in which you, who constitute a thriving Farmers’ Club, can exert a genial and good influence in the world, so well as to show by your own lives, and your own practice as farmers, that the prosecution of farming has that within itself which tends to lead man to the attainment of his highest earthly con- dition ; that the influences of a free and healthy life, and a noble occupation, can yield, to a man capable of reflection, the highest physical, and intellectual enjoy- ment that the world affords. The smiling fields and bracing air ; The waving grain, so rich and fair ; The lowing herd across the lea,; The grassy bank and shading tree ; May well arouse the dormant mind To pleasures of a noble kind. But ke who sees, beyond them all, How, quick to follow nature’s call, Each atom, each constituent part, Controlled by an Almighty art, Is guided, with unerring skill, To register its Maker’s will, Looks—e’en though he turn the sod— “ Through Nature, up to Nature’s God.” ON BUTTER MAKING. AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, ON THE 5th OF MARCH, 1858. i? BY Rosw wD. RBROWDN. i It is quite unfortunate for me, and I think for all concerned, that I have been forced into an attempt at writing an Essay; and I assure you all that I made use of every argument I was master of,to prevent it; and declined finally, upon the broad ground that I felt myself entirely unequal to the task, But says the appointing power (and one or two other voices, ) “it is avery easy matter to write an Essay ! And it is well understood there is no back- ing down from the duties assigned to any member of this Association. And we will not ask of you anything more than an out- line ot the subject—the filling up we will endeavor to have well done by way of discussion.” I consented finally to make a trial, upon the farther condition as I understood it, that they become responsi- ble to the remaining members of the Club for all that this article may fall short of what it purports to be, viz: An Essay on Burrer Maxine. In taking up this subject,] shall only re- gard it as connected with the manufacture of cheese and give a few hints as to loss or gain in making both butter and cheese from the same milk. Cream raised on milk standing in a dry atmosphere—the temperature indicated by a thermometer standing at about 50 or 55 © cannot, in my opinion, be mixed with milk and converted into curd without seri- ous loss. It should therefore be made in- to butter, and I think I may safely raise the temperature as high as 60, and place it under the same rule; but above this, there is no necessity on the score of profit of making butter and cheese from the same milk. Good butter may be made from cream raised in a temperature as high as 700, but it must be lowered to 56 or 58 before being churned. Cream raised in a low temperature ‘should be brought up to 60 or 62°, when it is churned. As it regards profit, I would say : churn all the sweet cream on hand in the morn- ing before making cheese ; the butter will be good, and the buttermilk when incor- porated with the milk, will produce good curd inmuch greater proportions than new milk. I recommend what is known as the Thermometer churn,as producing as great a quantity,.as good quality as others, and it is more convenient than any other with which I am acquainted. The butter when churned,should be separated from the but- 157 termilk and salted immediately with about onelpound of salt to fourteen of butter, thor- oughly mixed. In from 6 to 10 hours it should be again worked,but just sufficient to separate it completely from the brine; and packed securely from the air by plac- ing a cloth over it in the crock or tub. Cov- er the cloth with salt half an inch thick.— Butter is often over-worked,which destroys the grain and renders it salvey or greasy, and injures the appearance and flavor very much, I willalso state that butter in warm weather should be rinsed in the churn with cold water before salting, to assist in separating it more perfectly from the milk. With these remarks, I will close this arti- cle—(I dare not call it an Essay)—sup- posing I have said as much as you can patiently hear from me upon this subject. Discussion--March 5, 1858. The reason why so much Butter was poor and some become frowy, it was said, was because the butter-milk was not work- ed out—the more foreign matter of this kind that could be expelled without ren- dering the butter salvy, the better article we should get. Much depended on the state of the cream, and the temperature of the atmosphere—at certain seasons it was impossible to make butter of the finest quality, without a milk room and conve- niencies for regulating the temperature. May and September were thought to be the months most favorable for producing the best quality of butter—though good butter could be produced at any time if dairy rooms were constructed so that their temperature could be regulated. The thermometer churn was recommended as avery superior implement. One ounce of fine salt was thought sufficient for a pound of butter, (others thought this in- sufficient.) In coul weather it was advi- sable to heat the milk over water to, say 150°—milk so treated would throw up all its cream in three hours. One member thought the milk should stand a few hours before being heated—another member heated it soon after it came from the cow. A member said that he had observed that milk closely covered, or confined, before it had parted with its animal heat, soon became putrid and unfit for use. Milk suddenly cooled to 55° would throw up but a very thin coat of cream, Mem- bers generally thought it was unprofitable to work the cream into the cheese in cold weather—that when the cream was thick it would not easily mingle with the milk, and the larger portion would pass off with the whey. In warm weather it was bet- ter that all the cream should be used in the cheese. The butter worker was talked about. Some members thought it an admirable contrivance for working butter—others did not regard it with favor, Norz.—The following items in rela- tion to milk, we clip from the papers of October, 1858, and are deemed not out of place in connection with the subject of Dairying —[Eb. Cuurnine.—The churning occupies about half an hour. By increasing the temperature of the cream,it could be done in one-half the time, but the quality of the butter would be much reduced. In Winter to facilitate the rising of the cream the earthern paus for holding the milk are rinsed in hot water before use, and warm water is applied around them, not to heat the milk, but for a time to main- tain its original temperature. 158 | Revation or Mitx-room to Burrer Propuction.— The Homestead, in speak- ing of one of the old Connecticut home- steads of Norwich, says : ““ Mr. Coit keeps but two cows,but they are of the best kind. In the best of the season, they furnish four quarts of milk daily for use, and make nineteen pounds of butter a week. The milk-room has something to do with the yield of butter, and possibly there is something in the dairy management that we had not time to in- quire inte. We think an improved style of milk-room would be quite as likely to increase the yield of butter as an improved breed of cows. If only an additional pound aweek from each cow could be secured in the way, it would be a matter worth looking into by our farmers, and would greatly increase the yield of butter in the State.” Think of it, farmers, in every State. An additional pound of butter a week to each cow. What would be the aggregate ? Can anybody tell? Can anybody think of the vast amount, and that it would be all clear profit ? And it is just as easy as it is todo right instead of wrong. Quarts or Mirk For A Potnp oF Burrer.—The same article,as above,states that, as the average of many trials in En- gland, it is found that one pound of butter requires from fourteen to sixteen quarts of milk, that is about one ounce from a quart varying with the feed and the season. Foop—lIts Errect on Mitx.—It is nec- essary fora full flow of milk to maintain a continual supply of albuminous ‘food, while in the later period of fattening such kinds of food are superfluous, and only tend to enrich the manure heap. There is one leading feature in his practice, to which the utmost importance is attached by Mr. Horsefail—the maintainance of the condition of his cows giving a large yield of milk. He refers also to the ef- fect of clover upon the supply of milk as known to all dairymen, the dry material of which is nearly as rich in albumen, as beans, and the inference is drawn that “ albumenous matter is the most essential element in the food of the miich cow,and that any deficiency in the supply of this will be attended with loss of condition,and a consequent diminution in the quality of her milk.” He is of the opinion that “ you can increase the proportion of but- ter in milk, more than that of casein or other solid parts.” Rape cake seems more efficient for’ this purpose than linseed cake, the oily matter in tke seed more nearly resembling that in butter than that of flaxseed. He also says: “It seems worthy of remaak that a cow can yield a far greater weight of butter than she can store up in solid fat. Numerous instances occur where a cow gives off two pounds of butter per day, founteen pounds . par week, while half that qnantity will prob- ably scarcely be laid on in fat.” These “ English notions” are worthy of American attention. Kerpine Mitx Sweet.—In a review of “management of dairy stock” in The Homestead, it is stated that Mr. Horsefall found out, and profited by, the following fact : “Tn sending milk to market, though it left the dairy perfectly sweet, it was often found curdled on delivery to customers. To remedy this the cans were eovered with thick cotton cloth, and this was wet with salt water. In this way the difficulty was entirely obviated.” MANUFACTURE OF MAPLE SUGAR. AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, ON THE: igth OF MARCH, 1858. er Bw FToZN MAR BREIL IE. Every sugar boiler knows how to make maple sugar; but every one does not know, or does not feel willing to take the trouble, to make good maple sugar and molasses. The difference in quality results from the difference in the process by which it is manutactured and refined. The art of making good sugar and molass- es consists in freeing it from all impuri- ties which will materially affect its flavor and appearance. The first care should be to preserve the trees. Cutting away all the other timber, and leaving the maple standing in primi- tive woods, 7obs them of their protection, and they are very liable to be prostrated by the wind ; but trees growing in open situations adept their forms to withstand the wind. Henee, those which are term- ed second growth, ought to be carefully preserved, as such also are considering best, and yield the greatest flow of sap— which, we think, we know by experience, as ours are about seven-eighths of second growth, and one of original forest trees. Trees are often destroyed in a few years by injudicious tapping ; but we believe the old and miserable mode of tapping with an axe is entirely abandoned. A gouge or chisel and mallet are by some thought best, and least iujurious to the trees. We’ think a good three-fourth augur is best as the wound then soon closes and little or no injury is inflicted on the tree. In boring, the slope upwards should be so much so, that the sap will run freely in frosty weath- et, and not by a slow motion be likely to freeze in the mouth of the orifice. The holes should not be bored over an inch deep in young trees, and not more than about two in old oves. The spout, made so large, as to not penetrate more than one-fourth of an inch after being driven in tight, as the farther it enters the hole the more the runningsap is obstucted. To constitute good sap weather, it must freeze at night and thaw in the day; a westerly wind is most favorable, The next object is to preserve the sap clean and to do thisit is necessary to have clean vessels for its reception. Tinis be- ginning to be somewhat used and must we think, be preferable to anything else. The common patent pail is less expensive, and with proper care can be kept sweet and clean and will last several years, but they want tobe scalded out in hot water after the sugar season is over in the spring be- = 160 fore they are stowed away, and again when they are brought out at the commence- ment, of the next sugar season before using them. We frequently have rain in the latter part of the sugar season, when the buckets are likely to become impure ; when we tie a swab on the end of a stick or take a small broom brush, with which we brush out the bottom of the bucket with rain water, then turn it suddenly bottom up- ward, let it remain and drain thoroughly, and your bucket is clean and ready for a new flow of sap. We have seen it recommended, to put into.each half barrel of sap, a spoonful of slaked lime, which causes the impurities to rise better when boiling, which should be carefully skimmed off. We have no doubt of the correctness of this statement, though we have never tried it. We think there is not much need of any such process where the sap is kept clean, and there is no difficulty in that, so long as the ground is covered with snow ; but after the snow is gone the leaves and dirt are likely to be whirled into the buckets by the high winds in the spring of the year, which not only discolors the syrup made from the sap, but also injures the peculiar fine flavor of the maple. To ob- viate this, we strain the sap, when it is gathered through a good strainer, ora cloth, spread over the top of the cask, which is attended with very little trouble. In all cases use the skimmer freely while the boiling process is going on from sap to a syrup. Different methods have heretofore been given by individuals, to whom premi- ums have been awarded for the best man- ufactured maple sugar ; we subjoin one furnished by §. Tinker, of Richland, Os- wego Co., to whoni was awarded the pre- mium of the County Society of that county. His method is thus: His sap is boiled in a potash and cauldron kettle to thick syrup, strain it when worm, let it stand twenty- four hours to settle, then pour it off, heav- ing back all that is impure ; then he goes on with the clarifying process which does not materially differ from ours. Boiling the sap in potash or cauldron kettles, is an improvement on the old mode of boiling in five-pail kettles, hung up over an open fire with coals and ashes, and all manner of dirt constantly dropping in, which cannot possibly be avoided. But we object to a polash or cauldron kettle, for, unless watched close while boil- ing the sap or syrup is apt to boil over when you have to keep it down by repeat- edly throwing in a bit of pork or the likey which soou injures the fine flavor. Another objection : When it rises to the surface and lowers,more or less adheres to the upper hot rim of the kettle, and immediately burns on. The next time it rises that burned part soaks loose, and of course mingles with the mass, which must materially injure the color and flavor, as every one knows burnt sugar is used in coloringwhiskeyto make it sell for brandy. A few words about our own mode and we close. Weuse for boiling down the sap a sheet iron pan about nine inches deep, holding about three barrels; which is set on a wall abouttwo inches on the two long sides and frout end, with a good chimney of sufficient hight to give it good draught. Thus, nothing from the fire can drop into the boiling sap, the fire only coming to the bottom of the boiler, you cannot burn the sides as you would every other kind of kettle,and it needs no watch- 164 ing. The surface being so large you can- not get fire enough under it to drive it up. We think it is the most expedient way of boiling down sap, as well as the most economical as regards fuel. We place a eask that contains the sap high enough to conduct the sap from it into the boiler, and havé a constant stream running into the boiler which is regulated according to the evaporation while boiling, keeping the boiler as full as will’ permit. When we wish to syrup down, we stop sap from running in, and boil down to a syrup not quite as thick as we want for molasses, when .we dip it out into syrup pails (pre- viously putting out the fire) carry it home (with a good yoke made for that purpose) when it is immediately strained into tin pans and remains undisturbed twenty-four hours. It.is.then poured off carefully not allawizg any of the: seliment to go in when it is placed on the stove in a brass or copper kettle over a good steady fire made of good hard woed. We clarify with milk—about one quart to five gallons of syrup—which is stirred in as soon as it is put on the fire and before it gets hot. The impurities will rise before boiling, which should be closely watched,and skim- med. off, before boiling, as it will all mix in together as soon as it commences boil- ing. Keep as hot fire under it as it will allow; use the skimmer as fast as any scum. arises, and keep it well skimmed.— Ifit is designed for molasses when you think it thick enough, take out some in a common table spoon, and set it in as cold a place as may be to cool off fast—as you aan’t well judge its consistency until cold —as soon as it is of sufficient thickness for molasses take it off turn it into tin pans,let it remain at least twenty-four hours ; then dip it off carefully with a small dipper, until you come to the sediment—care to to be taken not to stir up,any of the: sedi- ment. It cannot be rurnep off as in stir- ring the pan and turning it up, it disturbs the bottom and more or less of the sedi- ment will mix.into the molasses. To make good molasses to keep well, you want the early part of the season as it is impossible to make good molasses:and to keep pure and good, after the weather becomes warm and the buds start. But you may make sugar in the latter part of the season; but it is not as essential to make the best into sugar as molasses, as sugar will keep after it is made any how, even if not of the purest of the sap; We never have practised draining our sugar; we always cake it. After it is boiled sufficiently. hard, it is taken: from the fire, and stirred until just cold enough to mould well, when it is dipped out into whatever vessels you wish to vake itin.. It is es- sential to stir itto bring every part of it to the air in order to make it grain. If allowed to cook without stirring it will re- main more like candy and.will not be of so: light color. You can make very nice su- gar by taking the early sap boiling it a little harder than is required for moulding. into cakes and stirring until it becomes: quite dry, It will cramble fine and be of’ light color; but to boil it hard enough to stir dry, we think. it looses in measure a. portion of its flavor and sweetness. Discussion--March 19, 1858. It was said that in order to get the fla vor of the Maplein perfection, the sap hould be boiled down rapidly, as soon as: 162 possible after it comes from the tree. Sap standing but a few hours undergoes a change which is more or less injurious to fine flavor. An argument arose as to the best form of apparatus for boiling sap— some contending that the rapidity of boil- ing down was not only due to alarge surface exposed to the heat, but also to a Taage surface exposed to the air. Others -co tended that the top of the apparatus, or pan, might be partly covered, and evap- ‘oration would go on quite asrapidly. One member said he had thought of construct- ing a pipe passing through the flue of the chimney into the boiling pan, for conduct- ing the cold sap—as it passed through the pipe gradually, it would be’heated so as ‘not to reduce that in the pan below boiling heat. It was said that with apan and furnace properly constructed, half a cord of wood would be sufficient fuel for mak- ng 100 pounds of sugar. Several methods were given for purify- ing the syrup and sugar. The use of lime, burnt bones, milk, &c, was described.— One member-said that one great advantage of making your own sugar was, that you got a pure aaticle the brown sugar of the shops was oftimes very impure he had re- cently been examining a specimen of st. gar under a microscope; it was filled with mites these magnified, were most disgust- ing objects. Another member suid he had been much interested in looking at vinegar under a powerful glass—the ani- mals in it, magnified, had the appearance of enormous serpents—and when the vin- egar was subjected to ‘heat, they writhed and cast themselves about in agony, biting themselves, nnd from their wounds you could see the blood flow. The discussion ot this meeting was in- teresting, and brought out much valuable information, ON THE APPLICATION OF MINERAL FERTILIZERS. AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, ON THE 2d OF APRIL, 1858. Br eg BYyYT CHA RIES OYSTON. The two principal mineral fertilizers in this section ef country are lime, and the sulphate of lime, or, as it is generally called, plaster. , Plaster has been used for a considerable length of time in this country, and has undoubtedly paid well, but lime I believe is not very extensively used at present, its application undoubtedly requires a greater amount of chemical knowledge than what is required for plaster. Lime is a substance too well known to need any description ; I will simply observe that it is an oxide of a metal, or what we would call in common parlance, a rust of a metal. Quick lime when first slackened is very acrid or caustic, being what is called an alkalic it combines with nearly all the acids, forming compounds entirely differ- ent in their nature from lime. A know- ledge of these compounds and their pro- perties is very important, If quick-lime be brought in contact with most kinds of organic matter and moisture,it has a strong tendency to decompose the matter— Whether it converts them into acids and then combines with them I am unable to say ; I am inclined to think that this is the case, and probably this is one of the ways in which it enters into the composi- tion of plants. If brought in contact with certain salts, such as saleratus, salsoda, carbonate of ammonia, and some others, it combines with the acids of these salts and sets their alkalies, or bases, free. A familiar illustration of this is found in making a leach: the lime which we put at the bottom absorbs the carbonic acid from the potash or ley and renders it very sharp and caustic. Now as almost all kinds of animal, and agreat many of vegetable substances, when in a state of decomposition, evolve large quantities of ammonia and carbonic acid, these two substances unite and form carbonate of ammonia, a substance of great value to the vegetable kingdom ; but if we add lime to the carbonate of ammonia, it will combine with the car- bonic acid, and this ammonia will be driven off and lost, hence we see thatit is worse than useless to add lime to manure when in a state of fermentation, as it wo’d expel the ammonia, which is one of its 164 most valuable ingredients, It would be equally bad to put the manure on the land and then add the lime, for the same dete- riorating effects would take place. The proper time, then, to apply lime to land is when it contains a quantity of inert organ- ic matter in too slow a state of decompo- sition to furnish food for the growing crop. The English farmers generally apply their lime to their Summer fallows in the mid- dle of the Summer and harrow it in; this gives it time to act on and decompose the ligneous matter, or the roots of the pre- ceding crops,and also to absorb carbonic acid from the atmosphere and convert it inte carbonate of lime,in which state it will not injure the manure,which is usually put onin September or October Where land is surcharged with organic matter to a de- gree to be injurious to plants, the applica- tion of lime will have a tendency to correct it. Lime is sometimes used for destroying moss in meadows, in this case it decom- poses the moss in preference to the grass, because the moss is an imperfectly organ- ized substance. By so doing it furnishes food for plants that are higher in the scale of organization, such as Clover and other valuable grasses, It appears te me that late in the Fall is the best time to apply lime to destroy moss for then the vital powers are the feeblest and the least able to resist the chemical action of the lime,| and as cold water dissolves more lime than hot, we should have a more concen- trated solution than if applied in warmer weather. In composting peat, or muck, and all substances that contain little nitro- gen, lime is an important auxiliary, as it hastens the decomposition and prepares them for the formation of new compounds from which the growing crop may select what it wants. For be it understood that it is not the quantity of organic matter which a soil contains, but the quality or condition of the matter that renders it fertile. Itis quite possible that some land may contain large quantities of lime in the firm of a carbonate and still be bene- fitted by a dressing of quick lime, for carbonate of lime has but a very feeble action on organic matter. Old mortar from buildings when pulverized and ap- plied to land, has sometimes produced very excellent effects, more in fact than could have been expected from the lime if applied directly to the soil, Why this is so I am not prepared to say, nevertheless, I think it is probably owing to a portion of sand being mixed with a hot solution of new slack lime, and being converted into a silicate ef lime. If this is the true theory of its action, which may be easily determined by experiment, it will be easy to prepare any quantity ata very small cost, a3 we have abundance of the mate- rial in our own county. Nothing more would be necessary than to slack the lime in shallow pits, add a sufficient supply of water, and mix in sand or siliceous earth while it was hot, Having given you my ideas of lime, I will proceed to sulphate of lime, commonly called plaster. Plaster is a compound of lime and sulphuric aeid,or oil of vitriol,as it is sometimes called. It does not exhi- bit the properties of either of the two sub- stances which it contains, and may there- fore be considered a neutral salt. It is more soluble than lime, requiring about 500 parts for its solution, while lime re- quires nearly 800 parts. As it requires considerable water for its solution it ought to be put on grass land early in spring, 165 ‘so thatit may undergo solution and be ‘ready for the plants when they commence ‘growing, as also to absorb any ammonia that may be evolved from the decaying ‘vegetable matter. I have said that lime should never be applied to fermenting manure, because it expels the ammonia, but plaster should, for the very reason that ‘it retains the ammonia. If horse-manure, ‘in particular, was frequently sprinkled with plaster, instead of letting it ferment and burn up as it were, and leave nothing but a mass of comparatively insoluble car- bon, it would probably quadruple its value, including the cost of the plaster. The manner in which plaster operates to pro- ‘duce this beneficial effect is owing to the attraction between the sulphuric acid of the plaster ‘and the ammonia being greater than it is between the sulphuric acid and its base, or lime, it therefore leaves the lime and combines with the ammonia, forming sulphate of ammonia, while at the same time the carbonic acid being liberated by the decomposition of the car- bonate of ammonia, with a commendable abhorence of a state of single blessed- ness, it combines with the lime or base of the plaster and forms the carbonate of lime. ‘Thus we have two new compounds, the result of double decomposition ; com- pounds entirely different from those from whence they were formed, the first being very soluble, requiring only two er three parts of water for its solution, while the latter is almost insoluble in water, unless aided by free carbonic acid of gas. By applying plaster to ammonia, we have as it were clipped its wings and prevented it from flying away, but we have not tied its feet—-though we have prevented it from being spirited away by every passing ¢ | breeze, we have not done anything te pre- vent it being carried off by water, nor is it proper that we should, for its easy solu- bility is one of its most valuable qualities, as it enables the plant to appropriate it to its own use. At the same time, however, this great sociability may prove a loss if drenchings from the roof of stable or barn, asis too often the case, In all cases where plaster is not put on the manure before it is put on the field the plaster should be immediately applied before the ammonia has time to escape. Discussion--Aprtl 2, 1858. Tn the discussion which followed, it ap- peared that Lime had not been used to any great extent in this region as a fer- tilizer. One member had applied Lime a few years since about fruit trees—the trees were old and not in good bearing— it brought the trees into good bearing, and the application was considered sat- isfactory. About a quarter of a load of slacked Lime was used for four trees. Lime should not be used at the same time with manure. It decomposes it and sets free the ammonia. Plaster can be used beneficially about the stable, and with manure, because it has the contrary ef: fect, fixing the ammonia. This point was demonstrated by Mr. Oyston in a chemi- cal experiment before the Club on the salts of ammonia. One member had spoiled a compost heap by applying Lime tothe mass. An- other member said, some few years since, there was a large quantity of manure car- ted out and deposited in a heap near the outskirts of the village. Lime was thrown upon it, and the ammonia was driven off 166 so rapidly as to come very near expellnig the inhabitants in this neighborhood, One member said a neighbor of his had used lime for some years on light sandy soil; he did not use it on heavy lands, Some thought there was no great benefit in using it on any slate land. It was said that it acted chemically on the soil, ren- dering heavy adhesive clays more friable and less liable to be injuriously acted up- on by the sun. One member had been using lime on his Orchard at the rate of about 100 bushels to the acre—the soil was the Utica Slate. It was said Mr. Pell used lime exten- sively on his orchard lands, and with ben_ eficial results. The lime used by him “was shell lime. A member said he thought it would be profitable for our farmers to get the leached ashes at Mr. Richmond’s Soap Factory, they contained a consider- able quantity of bones. He believed these ashes contained also a considerable trace of Potash. Another member said he had been much interested in a bone crushing machine. His hogs had got at a heap of bones and were devouring the small ones, he took ahammer and broke up the lar- ger bones when they crushed and devoured them also. He was asked if this was a “bona fide” experiment. Some one said that the hogs’ teeth in this experiment must have suffered and would require the services of a Dentist. It was replied that the two legged specimen of this animal now occupied the field and would necessa- rily exclude the four legged species. The benefits arising from the use of Plaster, was almost uviversally acknowl- edged. One member said he had often applied it to corn, and could never see any advantage from its use. Others have re- ceived marked benefits from its application to this crop. A member asked why cat- tle were so much more fond of grass grown, on plastured grounds than on that not so treated. One member said that Plaster not only arrested and fixed the ammonia but stimulated nature to do her best. He supposed the grass was more fully devel- oped and would be richer and of better flavor, on the same principle that a highly cultivated fruit tree produces better fruit than those that are neglected. It was said that guano as a fertilizer has no equal, that one of the greatest results from its use on record, was where the experi- menter had applied it to his Cucumber plants, just as they were peeping out of the ground ; he could see the vines grow, and they grew so rapidly, that before he could get out of the field they tucked a cucumber in his pocket. Mr. Smith, of Utica, brought in a model of a new Corn Planter, and explained its use. It is to be used by hand, and pushed forward like a wheel-barrow ; it is a novel invention, light, and is claimed to work well, and plant so as to allow the corn to be cultivated both ways. RENOVATING OF GRASS LANDS. AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, ON THE 16th OF APRIL, 1858. BYT ADTONBO REED. a ee In the wide range of husbandry, there is no subject of more real practical im- portance to the Agriculturist, than the one selected for discussion to-day. Grass is the natural covering of a large portion of the earth’s surface; it forms the food of cattle and other animals, and indirectly gives sustenance to nearly the whole ani- mal creation. In fact, we have the divine authority that ‘all flesh is grass !”— Among the many species of grasses, are| some adapted to every soil and climate ; each differing from the other in composi- tion, in properties, and habits of growth. We find the wild pastures of nature cov- ered with plants so adapted to the capa- cities of the soil, that for many years and even centuries, they have grown luxuri- antly, with no perceptible decline in vig- or, though fed upon by herds of animals and swept of organic deposits by frequent ‘fires. ; Reflecting minds who would become -successful in the art of producing and keeping up abundant crops of grass, have an example of renovation in these natu- ral pastures, worthy of their careful con- sideration. When cultivated lands are laid down to grass they undergo many changes. The grass from the seed sown, makes an abundant crop for several sea- sons; but after three or four years the produce diminishes, the plants die. out, leaving blank spaces which are slowly filled up by natural grasses suited to the soil, whose seeds have long lain dormant in the earth, or been brought thither by the winds. The pasture now improves and will often yield large returns for many years; but will eventually begin to dimin ish. This is in consequence of the soil becoming exhausted of those substances necessary to the growth of plants, and less nutritive species therefore takes their place. The soil in the meantime has become loose and friable, of a darker color, with an increase of organic matter and valua- ble mineral matters, at the expense of the soil below. The roots diffuse themselves through the soil, bringing up from the subsoil val- uable matter; these decay, and the sur- face becomes a mixture of soil and de- cayed roots, forming a rich vegetable mould. The rains have free passage through the openings made by the decay- ing roots. These wash and carry the fine 168 earthy particles downwards, leaving satface more vegetable and making the subsoil more hard ‘and compact than be- fore. Now, as we have seen that in the wild grass lands, the natural grasses suited to the soil continue to grow and thrive luxu-| riantly for centuries; and that in cultiva- ted fields, when the natural grasses come in they decline in fertility aterm of years; we inquire, why this d:fference ? In the one case, the growing plants are fed upon by animals, and the surplus de- stroyed by fires. In the ash left, is nearly all the inorganic materials taken from the soil by the crop thus destroyed, and each year, what is taken from the soil, is thus again returned. matter formed principally of oxygen, carbon, ui- trogen and hydrogen; all present in the air and sucked in by the leaves—the lungs of the plant—passes again into the atmos- phere whence it came. In the other case, the inorganic part of plants goes from the soil in the form of hay, grain and fruit, or converted into beef, pork, milk or other, products, is sent to distant mar- kets and never returns. With this yearly loss, the soil after a time becomes exhaust- ed of those substances necessary to the growth of valuable grasses, and this want in the soil of the necessary ingredients of crops, is the probable cause why such “run out,” or fail to grow. The organic The great problem to be solved, is, whether, if we make up this deficiency of inorganic materials in the soil, it will again produce abundant crops. If it be deci- ded that it will, then the Farmer who would renovate his worn out lands, must ‘now: Ist. The composition of his soils and the | whether they contain the necessary ingre- dients of crops in suitable and available proportions. 2d. The composition of erops and the kind and quantity of materials necessary for each, 3d. The composition of snineral fer- tilizers, so that the exact quantity of any substances lacking in the soil can be ad- ded. Whatever way the problem of special fertilizers may be solved, it is essential in all cases, that kinds of grasses be sown that are adapted to the soil and climate, and that a variety of kinds be sown, There is no grass that is best for all pur- poses and for all seasons. Smvenarr, our best authority on this subject, says: “A certain supply of the most nutritious herbage will in vain be looked for from any one species of grass, and can only be found when nature has provided it ina combination cf many.’? Of the kinds known to succeed: in this locality, are the clover—red and. white, timothy, red top and blue, or June grass as itis sometimes called. There are un: doubtedly many other species which will be found valuable after experiment and trial. In seeding, about the follo wing pro- portions are recommended: Timothy 1 peck to 10 quarts; of red and white-clo- ver, each one quart; and of red top and blue grass, sufficient to make half a bushel for one acre. The land should be plowed for one’or two seasons, grain crops put in to get it in good tilth, and the grass seed sown after the last harrowing of the last. grain crop,and covered by passing a heavy roller over the ground. Where it is not conve- nient to plow and cultivate a field for, one or two years, if the soil be naturally dry 169 and dves not heave in winter, the seed mav be sown with no plowing in the latter part of summer or first of the fall, and the ground well barrowed with a light This will sometimes ef- fect an improvement, but is uncertain. Heavy top-dressings of well rotted stable mavure applied late in fall, or early in spring, will often exert a most surprising effect ; making the field yield large crops. Plaster exerts probably the greatest influ- ence on clovers, of any fertilizer. In ad- dition to its faculty of absorbihg ammo- nia from the air, itsingredients (sulphuric acid and lime) enters largely into the composition gf the clovers. An analysis of clover and grasses, shows that the clo- vers have about four times as much lime, twenty-six times as much phosphoric acid, more soda and sulphuric acid, and nearly twice as much potash as the grass. From the great quantity of lime and phosphoric acid present in clover, we would infer that dissolved bones would be valuable. Ashes, salt, lime, sulphur, &c., are all necessary in the composition of grasses, and are recommended as fertili- zers, sharp barrow. Discussion--April 16, 1858. At the close of the essay, the question was asked, if White Clover seed was sown to any extent in the county? The mem- bers generally had not seeded with it; this grass was natural to our soil, and springs up spontaneously—the use of plas- = land, and in forwarding its growth. It was supposed that the seeds lay in the earth, and under favorable circumstances germinated, Thus it was said on the prai- ries of the West, where camp fires had been made, the White Clover made its ap- pearance, though not usually found among the prairie grasses. One member suppos- ed that nature always acted on the prin- ciple of rotation of crops—that when timber was cut off, and a second growth allowed to spring up on the land, this timber would be of a different kind from the first growth. In seeding with Timo- thy, one member kad found eight quarts of seed sufficient for an acre; others had used ten quarts timothy and two quarts of clover seed. One member advocated the plan of passing a roller over the ground after seeding—objected to as making the ground too compact. A member said he had had good success in seeding by mix- ing his seed with the grain and harrow- ing over twice—objected to as covering the seed too deeply and therefore much of it is liable not to germinate. One member used a machine for: sowing, he ‘regarded it a great improvement over hand sowing, A member said he was | obliged to leave, but before doing so he would, by permission, read a statement in reference to raising potatoes and how to avoid the rot. The plan consisted of introducing a pea into the potato at the time of planting—the freedom from dis_ ease was supposed to be du: to the nitro- gen contained in the pea. The yield both of peas and potatoes was good—it was ter acted favorably in bringing it into the! easily tried and said to be reliable. CULTURE OF INDIAN CORN. AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, ON THE 16th OF APRIL, 1858. oa ByTY WwiamarIA mM A. FEEBETER. ?Tis with extreme diffidence that I un- dertake the task assigned me. | did not know that it was my lot to write, until I was looking over the paper on Sabbath last. But,as I am a membor of this Club, I shall endeavor in a measure, to abide by its rules and regulations. As I do not feel myself competent tu do justice to the subject chosen for to-day, I shall confine myself to a part of it, and leave the rest for a more able pen to describe. All sec- tions of our country seem adapted to the growth and culture of Indian Corn.— Hence it is receiving increased attention all over the older States, and on the west- ern prairies, being now the great crop of the nation, both for home consumption and export. Asan article of human food, and in the fattening of beef and pork, it fills a place which no other product can take as profitable to the American Agriculturist. The failure of the Corn crop from blight and disease or, insects is not as common as other crops. As a general rule, the yield per acre is in proportion to the attention given to the preparation of the soil—sea- sons do not have all that influence, even if wet and cold, that they have on other grains, Let it only be long enough with- out frost for the Corn to mature, and we shall find many good crops. I think a well drained loam is the most natural for Corn, if it,is rich and well tilled. If the land be deep and rich, it will make very little difference, in my estimation, whether itis muck, sand or clay; though a mixture of the three is most favorable to the corn crop, as well as to many others. A dry or a well draived soil is of the first impor- tance for a good crop of Indian corn. If the soil is cold and sour, it will not pay forthe labor it requires. If we want to raise a good crop, weshould get the best implements for use that can be had. I should say for one, that good tools are by far the cheapest in the end. The work isdone with much more ease by both man and beast. The next step is to have men that know how to use them We plough our land in the fail for corn, generally ; we have more time to do it then. Our springs are cold and wet and it gets late before we can get land ready for corn. For this reason I think fall ploughing the best in our part of the coun- try. We let our land lay until they run out or in other words until the June grass take the upper hand. Where land has Le laid still for ten or fifteen years it is bet- ter to turn it over in the fallso that the frost may pulverize the soil. Since the seasonof planting is at hand, the first thing is to ascertain whether our seed corn is good. Thousands of dollars were lost Jast year by using bad seed, In preparing my ground in the spring] take a good share harrow and harrow the same way itis plowed ; then I take the cultivator and go the same way. The next time over, if it is necessary, I put the cultivator ahead and go diagonally across the piece so thatit shall not turn the sods back. The harrow then leaves it ready gor marking out for planting. This mark- ing I do by taking a four inch hardwood stick about seven feet long, and morticing holes in it three feet three inches apart, and insert pegs three inches wide and a foot long. For thills I use two round sticks. I mark both ways and drop the Corn in the crosses or intersections, I always plant my Corn dry, believing it is more sure to come up. I know a great many soak their Corn in tar and saltpetre, and roll it in plaster, but think it more liable to fail im either wet or dry weather. T put from four to seven kernels in a hill, and as many pumpkin seeds as are wanted. Ihave one hand to drop and another to cover with a hoe—covering an inch and a half—keeping close watch that no corn is left out of the ground, for if the crows find any, they are very troublesome. I string my yarn about the field before the corn comes up. Discussion--April 16, 1858. The reading of the Essay concluded, some remarks were made relative to the preparation of land for sowing grain, Some members had been accustomed td: sow grain directly on* the plowed ground and then followed with the harrow. One member said last year part of a field was: sown in this way aud part harrowed be- fore sowing—in this last the grain came up and stood thicker and was better.- Auother member said he always prepar- ed the ground by harrowing it thoroughly and doing all that was necessary to be done before sowing—it was then sowed and harrowed once over in order to cover the seed—he thought seed’ was usually cov- ered too deep—experiments had shown him that seed covered too deep threw out roots near the surface and the plants were later and did not grow so vigorously. Some advocated rolling lands with a heavy: roller after sowing. Objected to on the ground of rendering the earth too com- pact. Some advocated the plan of pas- sing over the field with a wide stone-boat, its action was to grind the lumps of earthy in pieces, while if the roller was used they. would be pressed down into the loose. earth. One member said that before go- ing farther with the discussion hé would: suggest that the corresponeing Sec’y, Mr. Eaton, now read communications to the Club, so that the matter might be discuss- ed. A letter was read from Mr. T1nLine-- uast, of Norway, on the potato disease, and suggesting that observations be made the coming season in reference to the de- cay of the potatoe on different kinds of soil. These communications to the Club by persons from different parts of the couuty are considered valuable and are highly appreciated by members of the Club. They embody the experiences of observing men in different localities and the agricultural interest of the county is 172 promoted by these communications being made public. There was some discussion in reference to the potato disease, the ad- vantages resulting from a change of seed, and it was said that the flat culture was objectionable for this crop. At a former meeting some observations were made showing that potato peelings would, if planted, give a good erop of potatoes and that the tuber planted whole was suppos- ed to act in producing rot. A member said that in using large potatoes for prop- agating grape cuttings he had peeled the potato and cut out the eyes, and he was rather surprised to find that the tuber in this state when put in the earth produced a crop of potatoes. In corn planting some considerable discussion arose as to the proper depth to which the seed should be planted. Some advocated two inches, others one-half an inch of earth covering as sufficient. It was generally admitted that the earth should be firmly pressed about the seed. A member said he had observed the benefits arising from this plan many years ago. His father and he were planting corn together, it was the custom of his father to pat the hill with the hoe and as he passed along to step on it also, he remonstrated with the old gen- tleman on this course as unnecessary and injurious, but not being able to convinee his father, he determined to plant his own rows without pressing the earth on the seed. The result was that the seed plan- ted by his father came up sooner, grew more vigorously, and kept ahead through the whole season. In reference to saving seed, it was shown that the corn and cob should be thorougbly dried before frost— frost acting on the damp seed killed the germ—this has been the cause of so much poor seed—the loss in the county last sea. son from poor seed was very large. A good way of saving seed was to go through the field and select the ears from prolific stalks, braid them up and hang them in your kitchen until thoroughly dry, when they may be removed to a dry place, and will then bear any degree of cold without injury. The plan of break- ing off suckers at the second hoeing or at any time was objected to by several mem- bers as positively injurious, and which had been verified by numerous experi- ments. Use discretion in reference to the number of seeds in a hill, but don’t mar or wound the plant. The,’majority of members were opposed to steeping the seed in any composition before planting —it would do if weather was moist, but asa general rule it would be better to put in the seed dry and use your fertili- zers on the plant. One member had got the best result by steeping seed in sweet whey. Another member had never had better corn than when the seed had been steeped.in water mingled with heg ma- nure. A member had steeped seed in copperas and salt-petre—it came up a week sooner than seed planted dry in the same field— the most of it came entirely out of the ground, but this latter phenomenon was due to the influence of erows—a good way to prevent crows from pulling corn is to hang rags dipped in sulphur and grease on sticks through the field—itis the quick- est, least expensive and most effective means of protecting your corn. ON BUTTER MAKING. A LETTER READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, ON THE 80th OF APRIL, 1858. FRopm aA. B. DICKINSON. > —____- I will endeavor to give the general out- lines,the essential leading principles, with- out attempting to give all the exact de- tails, as it would be a much easier task to teach a man to make a watch, than how to make the first quality of butter; as it is the most sensitive, it is the most liable to injury, of all the eatables extracted from the vegetable kingdom. The first important thing for making butter, is the cow. Without stopping to give a full description for selecting, she must give good rich milk, as first quality of butter cannot be made from poor pale milk, as pale milk lacks the essential quality of good butter. , The idea of coloring butter with any- thing after it is made,is as absurd as would be painting rye-bread to make it white, with the expectation of changing its fla- vor. Butter is so sensitive, it partakes of everything that can affect it, that it comes in contact with; as onions, car rots, parsnips, turnips, fish or anything else that would make it unpalatable, ei- ther in the butter or the milk churning. Not only so, but the butter partakes of everything the cow eats or drinks; and the longer it stands after being made, the more perceptible will the unpalatable things on which she fed make themselves manifest. By this it will be seen that the most important thing for first quality but- ter, is the food for the cow. Neither from roots of any sort or kind, nor grain of any description, can first quality but- ter be extracted. It must be from some- thing that imparts a sweeter and finer flavor, and from nothing that grows in this country that I know except timothy, white clover, blue grass, red-top and foul meadow can first quality of butter be made, that will stand the test so as to re- main sweet until the next Winter or Spring after it is made ; and each of these grasses must have been sowed or seeded down sufficiently long and so well cared for as to have a sod thick enough te make it produce a solid grass, to make it a per- fect dairy pasture, though many other grasses will make good butter for imme- diate use, but not tokeep. The cow, too, must be well wintered, however good she may have been to make good butter, be- cause if poor, her milk will also be poor and white, and of course the butter ditto, Your correspondent says, ‘‘If you had seen, as I have done, the farmers’ wives 174 and daughters with tears in their eyes, when told that the product of their sum- mer’s labor, as shown in their butter, was a poor article,” &c. For none of these things are the dairy women in the least responsible, and uo one else but the dairy man, or provider of the cows’ food ; yet in this, as many, very many instances, the wrong persons are held accountable for things over which they have no control. The manufacturing is an essential part of the business. Yet the neglect of any of the above requirements is fatal for a first rate dairy for winter use. The cow must be looked after as soon as she comesin, and milked sufficiently after to prevent her bag from becoming feverish and caking, as one milking from a feverish cow would spoil a whole churn- ing, and that would spoil a whole firkin in which it was packed, though it might not be perceptible for immediate use, and none but the skilful butter-maker would perceive it in the churning of the butter. Such milk froths aud foams, and when it does this, as well as from other causes, it is always safest to sell it for immediate use, or pack it separately in a firkin to sell for what it will bring. The churn should be as nearly straight up and down as possible, as the dash should stir all the milk every stroke it makes,so that the butter in the churn should all come at the same time. If the milk is too cold, the only safe way to warm it is to place a pail of milk ina large boiler of warm water, to bring it to the exact tempera- ture, which is about 55° to 60°,—a few degrees warmer in cold than warm weath- er. Ags soon as the butter has come and gathered, take it immediately from the churnin its warm state, and putitin a N large wooden bowl, which is the best ves- sel for.the purpose; then put it in cold soft water; then commence pulling the butter over with the ladle in so gentle and careful a manner as not to affect the grain, for as sure as that is injured at the washing or working, the butter becomes oily and can never be reclaimed. Every particle of milk must be washed out, and then season with the best of Liverpool salt. Set the bowl away until the next day, and when sufficiently cool, work the mass thoroughly, but not so as to affect the grain, and on the third day pack it away, if it has assumed the right color, Examine it well before packing, and be sure there is no milky water runs from it, for as sure as itis packed with the least drop in the butter, you will hear from if the next March or April. The sooner you dispose of unwashed butter the better, as a little milk would not harm it much for immediate use. If your spring or well is hard water, I would advise saving ice from rivers or streams, though the water is hard, as the lime never congeals with the ice. Save rain water, and then with ice you will have soft water sufficiently cool to wash your butter, withuut which no man nor wo- man can get the milk out without injuring the grain, so that the injurious effects of the lime-water will not exhibit itself in six mopths, Soft water is as indispensi~ ble to wash butter as fine linen. From all this I do not wish to be understood that washing butter is positively neces- sary if itis to be used within a few weeks. 17 Discussion+--April 30, 1858. The subject chosen for the day was Pear culture. But the essayistMr. Loomis not being prepared, it was suggested that the subject be put over, and some other question be taken up. The Secretary said if there was no ob- jection he would read a letter from the New York Tribune, from the Hon. A. B. Dickinson, on “Butter Making. It would perhaps afford suggestions on some points,which it would be profitable to dis- cuss, This Letter having been read, a member said he saw no reason why we could not make as good butter here as elsewhere. The fault lay in the tanu- facturing—little or no care was taken to make a good article. The great staple of the county was cheese, and the minds of the farmers were directed to improve- ment in its manufacture. If the same pains were taken to make as good an ar- ticle of butter, as of cheese, Herkimer County butter would be quite as celebra- ted in marketas that made in Orange County. Some members thought our water here was so tiactured with white lime as to prevent us from making the very Jinest quality of butter. Whenever a local- ity was distinguished as making a very superior article—-an article that would keep a year or more and retain its flavor, it would be found that the springs in that locality furnished soft water. Lime is an active agent in decomposing vegetable and animal matter. It was a question which it was hoped would re- ceive further attention, whether the lime in the food and water given to our ani- mals might act unfavorably in producing the best butter. 5 One member said he washed butter in spring water, when he was satisfied by ex- periments that the lime it contained spoiled the butter. In reference to the feeding of routs, he was satisfied that the carrots fed in winter and spring before grass, produced milk from which a better quality of but- ter could be extracted than any other food at this season of the year. But the best quality of butter is obtained when the an- imals are feeding on grass. Another member said in attending fairs in different parts of the State,,he had been struck with the marked diffe- rence in the character and quality of but- ter, made in hard and soft water districts. The article manufactured in the latter was invariably the best. Other members had also observed this fact, and different local- ities were named in proof; as some parts of Orange and Westchester Counties and also some parts of our western coun+ ties. A member said his attention had been particularly called to this point. His wife’s family resided in a locality noted for the superior quality of butter. The water there was soft. Herein this county his wife had not been able to make the same quality of butter. Some one remarked perhaps her mother made the butter at home. It was replied, no, it was made by the same person and in the same manner as here, but the flavor of that made at her father’s was more delicate, and was deci- dedly a superior article, Some one here remarked that perhaps butter eaten during courtship or the honey- moon might have a particularly delicate flavor. The like of which would not be so perceptible at a later period after mar- riage 176 Discussion---May 28, 1858. There was a good attendance of Farm- ers and citizens at the Club Roums on Friday, the 28th ult. J. Markell, Presi- dent, in the chair. The subject before the Association was “The culture of pears and best varieties for this locality,” the Hon. A. Loomis being the Essayist. Mr. Loomis gave an oral Essay of con siderable length, which evinced a thorough appreciation of the subject—practical ex- perience in the culture and treatment of this fruit, as well as a knowledge of the choice varieties and tho-e best fitted to this locality—his address was wholly ex- temporaneous; but our report of it bas been submitted to his revision and has been somewhat extended, though still much coudensed and imperfect, After apologizing for departing from the usual practice of a written Essay, he remarked : My experience in the culture of pears is limited to a small garden. What little knowledge I have is more practical and experimental than theoretic or learned from books. My soil was originally of a coarse gravelly character, filled with boul- ders, and so-opeu and porous that water: running in a continued stream from a) pensto-k would be all lost in the soil within atew feet circumference. It was, how- ever, enriched by maaure, the stones were temoved to the depth of about a foot, and part of it was fenced off and tilled as a gaiden, and the remainder in sod for a lawn. My first five or six pear trees came from the old farm of Mr. Jared Griffing, [then of the nortbern part of this town], This was about twenty-five years ago; I only knew they were pear trees, having no knowledge then of the varieties of that fruit; four or five years later I bought a few more from Buell’s Nursery at Albany, leaving the selection to him; like many others, for some years I was not very at- tentive to my trees, and suffered the labels designating their names to be lost; some of them were injured by the depredations of mice on the bark and by worms—some were barked by a calf from my Durham cow which I undertook to raise about my house plat. As my trees matured and began to bear fruit, I found myself seek- ing for the lost names and studying Down- ing’s Fruit Book and comparing forms, {and observing stems and blossom ends, the color, form of the fruit, to distinguish and find out whatI had. By aegrees I ascertained the names of most of them; I tried my band at budding and grafting, taking my lessons from Downing and the Cultivator, procured my scions from Albany and elsewhere, and inserted them in the limbs of some of my trees. I have continued this practice from year to year, more or less, to the present period, as my trees were developed and exhibited the flavor and character of the fruit. As my space and number of trees was limited, I could not afford to have each tree top devoted to a single kind of fruit, and so occasionally, as I heard some kind praised which I did not possess, I would procure » few buds or scions and start them in the limbs of some of my less favored trees, the fruit of which had not proved satisfactory. I never cut off large limbs nor removed too great a proportion of the buds in any season. The result was, that my.grafts and buds did not make a very rapid growth, but I kept down the sprouts which are so apt to shoot out where a limb is cut, and by this means 177 secured a fine growth, and at the same time the trees were kept healthy and not destroyed by the dead wood which ensues from the removal of large branches, and produces an unhealthy tree, which perishes prematurely. Qne observation I made, which I will mention for the benefit of those who have been disappointed in the flavor of pears, the first product of the young trees they have cherished towards maturity. For two or three seasons of their first bearing, the fruit of many of my trees appeared flat and insipid in fla vor, and it was not until after two or three years bearing that I began to discover their delicious flavor. I have seen the same remark in the work of some author on pears, or I should else have distrusted myself, and have supposed that [ had picked my fruit too eorly or too late. I am persuaded from my observation, that our climate, and generally our soil in this section of the country, are well adapted for pears. A gravelly, warm, dry soil is, I believe, universally conceded to be fa- vorable to the production and perfection of this fruit. There is more ignorance in relation to the culture, the variety’ and quality of pears among our farmers and country people; than in relation te any other fruit of such valuable qualities and delicious| flavor. For myself, I had occasionally tasted a Seckel or some other good pear, but had no idea thet we could in our cli- mate so easily raise.a fruit so fair and fine and delicious as the improved pears, with which ] have become acquainted almost wholly through the production of my. own little group of trees, planted and grafted by my own hands. Within three or four years I was one day conversing with a worthy old farmer who lived and recently died about five miles froin here, and who had tureed bis attention somewhat to fruit raising, and especially to pears, and he was describing to me one kind he had raised for which he did uot know the name. It wasa gol- den russet when ripe, and as to its flavor, he said he defied any one to take a fair mouthful and eat it, without having the juice run out at both corners of his mouth. I have been often reminded of this sum- mary of excellence when enjoying the de- licious, sprightly and juicy qualities of some fixe specimens of my own raising. I cannot undertake now to give a cata- logue and describe the qualities of the several kinds of the great number of fins pears which modern culture has produced. To those who desire this, I must refer to the numerous works on fruit culture now published, an 1 to the periodicals on Hor- ticulture and Agriculture. A very small number only of them have come under my own observation. I will mention a few only, and those with which my own rgarden or those of my neighbors, has }inade me acquainted. The Bartlet is régarded among the first ; it is hardy, a great bearer, and the fruit of delicious flavor. Downing speaks of this pear as one of the most popular of all the Its size, beauty and excellence, entitle it io this estimation, apart from the fact that it bears very early, regularly and abundantly. It suits our climate, ripening better here than in Eng- land. The tree grows upright, with thrifty yellowish brown shoots aud narrow folded leaves, Fruit of large size, irregu- larly pyr'midal; skin thin and smouth, summer varieties. clear, yellow, with soft blush on the sunuy 178 side, Flesh white and exceedingly fine grained and buttery, it is full of juice, sweet, with a highly perfumed flavor, ri- pens last of August to middle and last of September. The Virgalieu or White Doyenne. This is the best known and has been considered the most valuable pear, taking all in all, of any raised in this State. Its superior flavor, fine form and size, together with the vigor and bearing qualities of the tree, have rendered it a general favorite. Of late years, however, a blight has struck the fruit, selecting this from all others, and rendering them small, crabbed, black and cracked. This has continued so long that most cultivators have given it up- The disease has, however, not been uni- versal and everywhere, but appears to have been on the increase. My own virga- lieus have been affected scarcely at all un- til this year, when a considerable part of them have:been injured. Napoteoy.—This had proved an ex- cellent pear, aud I regard as one of the best. Itis not ranked as high in the books as it deserved to be. Downing says the tree is hardy and thrifty and bears abundant cryps even while very young, and that its fruit is exceedingly juicy, melting, and agreeable in flavor; fruit pretty large, obtuse, pyriform. Should be ripened in the house, and will be fit for use in September, and may be kept foF weeks, It is more acid than most pears Bleeker Meadow was next spoken of by the Essayist. It is a small round pear; ri- pens in November,and lasts into December; is spicy ,high-flavored, hard, brittle, and an abundant bearer. It is either not adapted well to my soil, or not a very desirable va- riety. Some of the fruit wilt and are useless, A pear called the Gardner was esteemed a good fruit—it was of medium size and shaped like the Washington, with a clear red cheek, very sweet and handsome in appearance, of good quality but not first rate; unless picked early it rots at the core; ripens in September; it is not known, at least by this name, in the books, T procured the grafts from a man who had some of the pears for sale in the street, but I am sorry to say I do not now remember who he was, though I re- member his kindness in conforming to my request to bring me some grafts the next Spring. The Seckel had not proved as excellent in my culture as represented in the books in other sections ; its quality has not proved with me so superior to all others as to be regarded the very highest; its size was generally smaller with me than represented by Downing and others. Thomas speaks of this pear as the richest and highest fla- vored pear known, and is regarded as the standard of excellence among pears. It is quite small, obovate, skin brownish green, becoming rich yellowish brown with a deep red cheek. The tree is of slow growth. Louise Bonne de Jersey has proved with me not first rate in flavor. It is, however, an excellent pear, large in size, an abun- dant and uniform bearer ; its form is long ; color deep green with a deep red cheek, and on the whole a very valuable pear to cultivate; it ripene at mid autumn. THomas speaks of it as a rich, juicy, buttery-melting pear, its flavor being faintly sub-acid and is eminently valuable for its large fair fruit, free growth and great productiveness, 179 Bevurre Digt.—As to this variety, the Essayist remarked, that he was not sure that he had the right name for it, He has since ascertained, that what he had taken for Beurre Diel from the graft sent to him, was in fact Gansel's Bergumot. This pear he regarded as the very best of his culture; ripens with the Virgalieu in September and October; is nearly ap- ple-shaped, though not uniform or of equal size; palish green in color; rather rough skin; slightly acid, rich, juicy and deli- gious ; a moderate but constant bearer. Beurre Bosc.--The Essayist spoke of the fruit of this variety as one of the most beau- tiful in appearance of all the pears he had ever seen, the fruit hung singly on the tree and he might say it had the appear- ance of being hung with jewels; its fla- vor was of the very best—it had succeeded well with him—the only objection that could be brought against it was that the trees were perhaps a little tender. Down- Ine gives this pear unqualified praise. It bears singly and not in clusters, looking as if thinned in the tree, whence it is al- ways of fine size, it has a rich, delicious and slightly perfumed flavor and ripens in September to October. Vicar or WINKFIELD was not esteemed as of first quality—one of the members thought Tuomas ranked it among the best pears, but on réfering to the book, it was not so conceded. It is, however, val- uable as a late pear of large size; a con- stant bearer, and fair quality. Fiemisu Beauty—Is a great favorite with most of those who know it, but was not regarded by the Essayist as of first quality in flavor; isa large and beauti- ful fruit, and its disposition to bear great crops, together with its really excellent flavor, renders it one of the most desirable pears to cultivate. I have several other kinds which have not borne enough to enable me to speak of them with knowledge. Almost all pears require to be picked before they are prop- erly ripe for eating, and ripened in the house. Winter pearsshould, however, be suffered to remain on the trees until there is danger of frost so severe as to injure them. Mr. Witcox spoke of the Winter Nellis and Oswego, as very excellent pears and well suited to this locality. One member spoke of the Autumn Bergamot. as one of the most. delicious pears with which he was acquainted and highly recommended itfor this section. It was said that pear treas should not be trimmed much, if the upright limbs were shooting up too high, pinching out the ends would arrest their growth. Ashes were used with profit about the trees. It was suggested. that young apple trees planted about dwarf pears and grafted into the body of the tree would give strength and vigor to the tree and preserve its life for a greater length of time. A member said he had not been able to get good fruit from some of his trees, he recently asked Mr. Pett, the great American Fruitist, what he should do to his trees to get perfect fruit. Mr. PELL recommended scraping the trees to the roots, cut out limbs that cross each other and wash the trees with soft soap— and apply as a manure ashes, bone-dust, soot, and composted manure—cover the whole mass over with soil and place on the-top, one bushel of quick lime, after this composition had been composted, ap- ply about the tree and there would be no 180 difficulty in getting perfeet fruit. A mem- ber said he gathered up the fine and well rotted manure in his barn yard and heaped up around the tree in the fall, and spread it about the tree in the spring, working it into the soil; the heaping it around the tree in the fall was a protection against mice. An objection to the Beurie Diel was stated by some members to be, that the fruit dropped off before it was ripe, and was worthless ; this was one of the pears where the truit must ripen on the tree. —__-o + Discussion--June ll, 1858. There was no Essay or other communi- cation before the Association, and mem- bers proceeded at once to the subject un- der consideration, It was said that perhaps no part of ani- mated nature presented a more interesting field for study and observation, than the Bee; the habits of this insect had occu- pied the attention of mankind from the earliest ages, and had ever been a source of wonder and admiration to naturalists ; much had been discovered in relation to it, but much yet remained in mystery and would still remain so. Bees.in their sex presented an anomaly. The queen is the female, the drones are males, and the workers are neuters. There was perfect order and regularity in their work, and: they understood the advartage of a proper division of labor ; there seemed to be three great classes of laborers: the wax-workers,those that gathered the honey and the nursing bees. It was said that the queen was impregnated on the wing— that the old queen issued out with and took charge of the young swarm—that the young queens were then liberated from their cells and the strongest took charge of the old swarm, the other queens being destroyed. It was said that the number of bees that an ordinary queen annually produces is about 25.000 or 30,000 bees, The period of their developement from the eggs is from 16 to 20 days; of drones the period is 24 days. The cells for de- positing the eggs for producing the royal family are distinct. Some suppose that the difference between the queen and the worker is due to the food given to the larvee, and that a queen can be produced from eggs not deposited in the royal cells. Jt was said that the only substan- ces gathered by bees were honey and pol- len. The pollen is carried to the hive on the legs of the bee and is designed as food for the larvae; the wax was supposed to be made from honey. In gathering pol- len the different colors were always kept separate; bees gather honey from the same kind of flowers in one excursion, that is, if a bee commences gathering honey from the clover blossom it continues gathering from that kind until it returns to the hive. Wher a swatm of bees issue trom a hive they go laden with honey. It was thought the want of success in managing bees was often attributable to putting the swarms in too large boxes or hives. The proper size of the hive was (a cube) about one foot clear in inside in each direction; this would be applicable to all swarms, large or small; boxes could be put on top, when necessary, for them to fill with honey; the hive should be smooth on the inside, and made with good joints, so as to Jeave no place for the har- boring of millers; ia émall hives bees could better defend themselves against the 181 attack of their grent enemy, and in cool weather economize heat. It was said that bees became attached to the person attending them—that if they are looked to often and their hive cleaned out regularly of refuse, &e., they regard the person taking care of them as a pro- tector and ate not so apt to sting, and that when swarming they expect a bome to be provided for them, and will only look one out for themselves as a last re- sort. It was said that bees should not be placed near any spot where there were of- fensive odots; grass and weeds should not be allowed ‘o grow about the hives, A gravelly walk in front of the bee house was recommended ; pans containing stones in which water could be placed daily, was also recommended to be placed near the hives; the bees would be found to use it. Salt was also recommended to be placed near the hives. Some thought that salt was as necessary to bees as to animals.— To be successful in managing becs they should receive close attention; the hives should be frequently raised and the boards swept off; in warm weather the hives should be raised a quarter of an inch or so and blocks put under the corners so as to ad- mit fresh air—it saved the beesan im- mense labor of ventilating the hives while at work, part of their force being detailed for that purpose. The Secretary read the following from the N. Y. Tribwne : ““ New Food for Bees.” a “ The fact has been discovered in France | that bees will feed upon oil cake (soaked in water) that is made in the manufacture, of oil from the Sesamerm Orientals,! known here as the bene plant, so that they can be much easier wintered ; and it is said the inerease of stocks is wonderfel in comparison with those not thus fed. “The Flore des Serres, from which we borrow this, assures us that the results have been astonishing, not only in a large increase of honey comb, but in enabling the bee to multiply beyond belief: nearly ten times the quantity being bred in con- sequence of the facility ‘atfurded of ob- taining abundant and, as it would seem, excellent nourishment from this unexpect- The experiment could be tried in this country by apiarians planting, the bene seed, and bruising and soaking the seed of the crop and feeding it to swarms after the natural food fails.” It was said the same result as above could be obtained. by having rye ground and fed to the bees. The grain should be ground but not bolted or separatrd into |flowr ; it could be placed in.pans near the hives; bees took it up rapidly and. used. it for feeding the larve. Tobacco was given as an antidote for the sting of the bee; it was perfectly reli- able and would relieve the pain ina few minutes. Take the tobacco and moisten itin the hand and then apply it to the wound and rubit in. The principle of its action way that tobacco being the most active poison destroyed that of the bee, just as vaccination destroyed th virus of small pox. One member spoke of bees being very scarce in California and readily brought $100 per swarm. ed source. Discussion---June 25, 1858. The subject chosen for discussion at this meeting was, ‘‘ Forrest Trees—their | preservation, and best time of cutting tim- ber for durability.” It was the opinion 182 of most members, that the best time for cutlibg timber is when the foliage has reached perfection and the growth of the current year is complete—say in August or September. supply of sap is then exhausted and the fiber most free from moisture which en- genders decay. One of the club stated that sap of trees—the maple fur instance —undergoes continual change during the season, and the food which supplies growth and n-urishment is finally consumed ; that if timber.is cut while sap is being elaborated, insects accumulate under the bark and the wood next to the bark rots from the presence of a rapidly decompo- sing fluid. It was said that monthly chan- It was argued that the ges were preceptible—or rather semi- monthly changes—in the condition of tim- ber with reference to the presence of the vital fluid; that at one time timber would cut easily, chip freely and appeared filled with moisture, and that in two week’s time the same sort of timber became tough, dryer, and cut with much more Jabor— These periodical changes in the consisten- cy of living trees, were a:tributed to the influences of the moon upon vegetable life. Several members expressed doubts about the effect of the moon’s changes upon timber, and the conversation took a lunar direction, considerably above forrest trees. It was affirmed that, inasmuch as tidal changes were wrought by the queen of night, and hot weather invariably fol- lowed a full moon low down in the hori- zon, trees might be ashade or two within the moon’s sphere of sublunary achieve- ments. The conversation was entertain- ing, and new ideas were advanced in re- spect of laws and influences existing be- tween the earth, sun and moon. Discussion--July 9th, 1958,' Friday, duly 9th, Was au ittensely hot day and but few members were present at the Club Rooms. The President being absent, Roswett D. Brown was appointed Chairman, and the subject of Forest Trees and best time of cutting for the preserva- tion of timber, was discussed at considera- ble length. It was stated that it was an impression amopg many farmers that the best time for cutting timber was in June; this impression had doubtless become gene- ral from observations made in reference to the lasting quality of rails got out at this season. In June the bark peeled readily and of course timber would last long- er if the bark was stripped off. But the best time for cutting timber for durability was in the latter part of August—the sap had then elaborated or was being elaborated into wood—there was less moisture in the tree. On being cut and exposed to a dry- ing atmosphere,the sap about being formed jnto wood became hardened and filled up the pores which afterward rendered it less liable to absorb moisture. When lumber was cut at a season of the year when the sap was thin and not in a state to form wood, the timber would be porous and in a condition to take up moisture, which be- ing held in these cavities rapidly generated decay. This would be found to be the true theory in reference to the durability of timber—fill the pores of the wood with substances that will exclude moisture, and the timber will be durable. In reference to the reason which caused bark to peel so readily at certain seesons of the year, it was said to be owing to the new wood which was in the act of forming between the bark and old wood—it was in a soft gummy state, and the bark could not ad- 183 here closely to the wood. As soon as the new formation had assumed a woody con- sistency, the bark ceased to be easily re- moved. Some members took the ground that the action of heat operated somewhat to produce the effect. Considerable discussion was entered into in reference to the flow of sap’ in trees, some arguing that substances taken up at the roots and not wanted in the develope- ment of the tree were thrown off through the leaves: and bark, while others staied that the law which governed the flow of sap’ in trees was analogous to that which governed the vital forces of the human body. That plants and trees took up a variety of substances through the roots, and the tree after having used what was necessary for its developement and sus- tenance, discharged at its roots those sub- stances that were unfavorable to its growth —+that doubtless a portion of this excre- mentitious matter might pass off through the leaves and bark in a manner similar to that in which the insensible perspiration carried off impurities from the human body, yet the greater part of these sub- stances were discharged at the roots, This was one of the reasons why a rotation of clops was necessary: some plants throw off so much excrementitious matter at the roots as to render (after a time), the soil unhealthy for this class of plants, and it acted as a positive injury to the plant, but all plants were not alike in this respect. Some could be grown for years on the same soil without being materially affected. It was replied that the causes which acted unfavorably to growing the same plant on soil without rotation was, that the constitu- ents of the plant had become exhausted from the earth; by applying them in proper proportion the plant could be grown suc- cessfully. It was admitted that certain constituents of the plant became exhausted ronx the soil, but that the food of the plant was not selected from the earth at the roots—the spongioles took up a great variety of matter, arid as it passed through the tree in a fluid state such only was se- lected as was needed—if there was a su- perabundance of inorganic matter that must return to the earth. The laws which governed the flow of sap in trees were im- perfectly understood. The ascending sap is carried to the tops of the highest trees, and is forced to the remotest leaves and branches, The descending course of the elaborated sap is no effect of simple grav- ity: because if a ligature be thrown around a pendent branch an enlargement forms between the ligature and the free extremity of the branch. A question was asked by one of the members of the Club as to the best manner of piling cord wood for seasoning—whether the bark should be placed upor down? There was a dif- ference of opinion expressed by members of the Club. Mr. Brown remarked that he had dealt largely in wood for many years, and had often made experiments for the purpose of testing this point. His ex- perience had uniformly been in fayor of piling with the bark up. As to the best time of cutting timber Boussineavtt remarks, that “ The preva- lent opinion among foresters, with regard to the proper season for felling, is that it should be done when the sap is in the state of greatest repose, or when it is present in least quantity in the trees.” Duxamet concluded from numerous ex- periments that there was actually as much sap in trees in winter as in summer, and 184 that the spring and summer were the | quested for publication. The Club ther sons most favorable to the speedy drying! passed a resolution to: adjourn for six of the timber. The influence of the moon | weeks. on “timber cutting” was- not alluded to| Subject chosen for next discussion was at this discussion. “The Horse; best breed for farm use. training and keeping.” Roswetn- D.. Brown, Hssayist.. Mr. Ransom read an Essay on the Po- tato disease, which, on. resolution,,was re- THE POTATO. AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, ON THE 9th OF JULY, 1858. > Bw ANDREW RANSOM. ‘The canse of the infection or rot in the Potato has called forth from the pen of ample and scientific men many essays in support of their particular theories as to what has caused the Potato rot. And while some ‘have advocated that it was an atmospheric disease, producing a fun- gus like effect, others have attributed it to the result of long cultivation and that it had run out or degenerated. That it is the effect of a fungus formation is errone- ous. Dr. Emmons, after a full investiga- tion, came to the conclusion that it was a gangrene that manifested in animal bodies,and that it was not afungus. Iam of the opinion that Dr. Emmons was correct as to the state of the disease of the potato after it, had become diseased ; but while seeking to assign the primary cause of the disease or malady in the potato to the atmosphere, many of those who have written on this subject, have taken the secondary for the primary cause of the disease, and have sought after and drawn conclusions for- eign to it, After a careful examination 1 attribute the true cause of the disease as now manifested in the potato te something different from the atmosphere, viz: to a fly or bug. infection quite analagous to| That the atmosphere has a direct influ- ence upon the decomposition of vegetable ‘bodies is a fact long since demonstrated both by scientific and practical experi- ments; and that certain constituents formed from the various gases are neces- sary to constitute a healthy growth of veg- etable substance, is a truth which no one who understands their nature would un- dertake for a moment to refute. That great changes take place in the atmos- phere as to temperature and humidity in certain localities, and that these different degrees of humidity and drouths have sucha general effect upon the vegetable kingdom, that the most casual observer becomes acquainted by the general effect of good or evil upon the vegetable sub- stance thereby affected. But let us ex- amine the principles and theory of the at- mosphere being the primary cause of the disease and see if it will stand the test of investigation. Those writers who ascribe it to the in- fluence ot the atmosphere maintain that from the fact of the potato being more infected on the low than upon the high lands; that it necessarily follows that the faimosphere is the ‘primary cause of the infection. Likewise from the fact that 186 during warm and moist weather the dis- ease manifests itself more extensively than in dry and cool weather, they have been led to arrive at conclusions.which will not apply to the character of the disease, as it developes itself in this vicinity. Now the disease first makes its appear-. ance on the top ef the vine, where the. ‘vind has a more free circulation, and| where the moisture remains for a-shorter, period than at the bottom of the stalk, and upon a single stem of one stalk, while the rest of the stalk has mot as yet shown any symptoms-of decay. Now would the atmosphere be so partial in its action up- on the vine as to select one portion of a stem among many of the same tender qualities to destroy it, or would an atmos- pheric influence act upon all portions of the vines having equal tenderness with like effect? Again, that portion of the vine affected wiltsin an hour or two above & certain point, while below that point for a certain period it remains green. acertain point, or would the stalk have a gradual decay below? ‘he latter would undoubtedly be the result. Having lost my crop of potatoes last; season, I determined to spare no little’ pains this season to discover the primary: cause of the disease, I planted my po- tatoes quite early, and after they were up. T examined them daily until the 29th day: of June, before I discovered any symp- toms of the disease. I then discovered that a stem on the extreme top of one of the stalks had wilted, indicating that the disease had begun to attack the vines as heretofore. The next day, June 30th many of the potato vines began to wilt If it was the effect of the atmosphere, would there be a transverse line ‘of infection to: 'in the same way. JI then gave thema close examination and found preying -up- on them a fly or bug about the size ofa buckwheat kernel, of a greyish color,with small yellowish spots on his wing, of quick motion, very shy, and when approached it darts rapidly under the Jeaf or stem of avine. By close examination, I found it operating wpon the young and tender por- ‘tion of the small stems, and extracting the juice in the same manner ‘that the mosquitoe extracts the blood of animals. The stalks wilt in a short time above the injury and dies. Its depredation is upon the young and tender stem, and not upon the hardened portion of the vine; hence we find that but few blows come into maturity, as the insect attacks the tender stem of the blow, which turns.a pale yel- low and fallsoff. This insect, like all others, is found operating mostly during the early part of the day, when the least air is stirring, and in warm and moist weather it attacks the vine with greatet activity, seeking its food. Upon inspec- | ting it you will find its body of g greenigh color, which is the jpice of the vine of tthe potato which it has been extracting, | Hence from the fact of its feeding upon the vines.of the potato.in moist and: warm weather, has been the reason why writera upon this subject have generally ascribed it to the atmosphere, understanding full well as they .do, that.such a state of. the weather is most favorable to the decom- position of vegetable substance. But who among them has made an analysis of the atmosphere and found it to contain one principle more or less than centuries have ‘long since elicited? or what writer who ,{may have labored to predicate the cause of the disease to the low planting, has wmade‘known ‘by a chemical-process, that the same properties are not now possessed by a healthy potato as those did shen the disease was not known, and when hill and valley alike-rewarded the husbandman an abundant crop for his toil, and when the good matron of those days, when the des- ponding ‘husband viewed with downcast eye his blighted corn, consoled him with the,saying, that “Tf everything else failed we would have potatoes, and would not .starve?” The natural laws of vegetable life to-day are the same as they were then, ‘The vegetables inhale common air and ex- dale oxygen,:and retain the carbon. But tthe insect tribe change and new varieties make their appearance hitherto to us un- ‘known. Every vegetable has its enemy. ‘The Plum and Cherry tree have their en- emy ip the shape of an insect that causes the: black wart; the Wheat has the aveevil; the Apple tree has the borer, and ‘the Potato has.its bug, and we might just ,as well attribute the .decay of the Fium ptree by the wart to the atmosphere, as to ,attribute the primary causeof the disease :in the Potato to the same atmospheric in- fluence. :But how does the bug affect the Potato? and why cause them to rot? and why does the potato become affected in low and.moist land more than upon chilly and sandy soils, and in warm and moist weather than in dry? I answer: An dry weather the part injured dries up, and the infection does not descend the wine to the tuber of the Potato, and like- wise when the soil is dry, if the infected \vine.should allow it to descend to the tu- :ber, there being ‘insufficient moisture to _aid the decomposition, it does not reach the Potato, but what moisture may have .been originated by the decomposition of * 187 the stalk istaken up by the dry soil, and arrest the disease; consequently dry and sandy soils are less liable to yield rotten potatoes than others; and upon up land there is generally more wind to sweep .them from the field, and they seek shelter from the stormy blast in the quiet vale be- Jow. ‘When moist and warm weather succeeds their attack, the part infected by the iusect begins to decompose, and come munieating the infection to the part be-- low the .vines, descends the stalk, aidedi by moist and alluvial soil, enters the tu- ber, and is cgmmunicated to the Potato, causing them to rot. Another reason why the bug attacks and destroys the Potato more on low and moist alluvial soils, and where manure has been freely applied, is attributed to the rapid growth of the stalk, thereby renderingit tender and juicy; and the rapid growth of vegetation is more subject to early decomposition than the hard grown on the poorer soil; and conse- quently will be more liable to be diseased from the attack. I have made applica- tions of lime, ashes, flour of sulphur, and snuff, but without enygood effect. Ifthe bug should disappear in a few days and the vines were cut off below the infected part, it might prevent the rot, but if left until it descends the vine it will do no good. Small yards or gardens. might ba protected by covering them in season, be- fore the bug had made its appearance, with a fine open piece of cloth of the na- ture of cheese bandage. Perhaps this bug might be destroyed by a torch light ‘in the night, ina warm evening, and drawing a rope over the tops of the pota- toes. Various methods should be resorted to to stop ils ravages. And he who ob- tains the information how to stay its dep- * 188 vedatory invasion upot the rights of man, should unfold the discovery so that it may zeach every cultivator of the soil through that inestimable benefactor, the public Press, that every table in the Unien, may be supplied, in their original goodness, abundantly with one of the most useful | jexhausted, after which they were ony |managed. esculent roots known. a ooo Discussion---Aug. 20, 1858. There was a pretty iy fate attendance of members at the Club room on Friday, the 20th inst., President Market in the chair. The Essayist, Mr. Brown, not being pres- ent, it was proposed that the subject for discussion before the club, viz:—‘* The Horse—best breed for farm use, train_ ing and keeping,” be put over until next meeting. Previous to this proposi- tion, which was acquiesced in by mem- bers, allusion was made to Mr. Rargy’s system of horse-taming, and the great benefit that would flow from its being made public, and by following its sugges- tions in the training and management of horses. The principles on which Mr. Rargy’s theory is formed, that is, kindness, pa- tience, indomitable perseverence, and the operator’s possessing neither fear nor an- ger, it was admitted were doubtless the true principles, and on which operations should be conducted. Some members thought that some of ‘the, means used by Mr. R. to sub- due the: horse, were somewhat harsh and perhaps not advisable. Reference was had to choking the animal as being one of the first things in his process of tam- ing. Others thought it was no harsher than to. use the whip, as was commonly practised, ‘and that a vicious or bad tem- pered horse required it; and in illustration the theory of a noted horse breaker was described ,where the herse was thoroughly subdued by the use of the whip—the op- erator put the animals into a barn or in an inclosed space, and drove them round plying the whip until the animals became One of the members spoke of “ Black Pete,” as a noted horse tamer, who prac~ ticed successfully his art some forty years ago in this county, and referred to his sys- tem, an account of which was lately pub- lished in the Albany Evening Journal.— Another member quoted a remark made by Mr. Rarey, that “unless a man havea good disposition, he need not attempt horse taming.” Other points were also urged, but as there was a disposition to postpone the discussion of ‘the subject, un- til Mr. Brown should read his Essay, the question “as to the best time of cutting timber,” was resumed, Many of the arguments used at the last two meetings, in reference to this subject, were repeated, and will be found in the reports of those meetings. Members gen- erally agreed with the conclusion formed at the last meeting, that the best.time for cutting timber for durability was when the sap was in the greatest repose. -Some thought the latter part of August or first of September was the most favorable time, while others advocated an earlier period, & adduced the fact that with some trees in August and September, the sap was active and the tree was putting forth a vigorous growth. It was said’ that the flow of sap was different in different trees ; that doubtless what would be the best time ‘for cutting one kind of timber would not 189 apply to another kind, and facts were sub- sequently brought to light that went to show the correctness of this position. A member spoke of Beech cut in the’ spring and sawed for plain stocks, and the lumber then put up in a dry and airy place, yet it turned out to be worth- less—worm-eaten and powdery. Others had noticed that the lumber from beech cut in the Fall of the year and saved in the same way, proved to be sound and durable, while that again cut in December became powdery and worthless. An instance was mentioned where beech cut in the winter and laid away to sea- sou, and with the bark stripped off, soon became worm eaten and decayed, while hickory cut at the same time and layed up to season with the bark left on, proved to be'sound, hard and durable. These and similar facts mentioned,went to show that the durability of timber was rather owing to the peculiar condition of the sap in the tree when felled, than to the particular season of the year. . Some discussion took lace relative to grubs found in trees—one member maintaining that he had found them imbeded in pine timber, and sur- rounded on all sides by the solid wood, while others maintained that there must be an orifice from the outside of the tree leading to the gruab—that all animal life ceased to exist the moment’ the air was was excluded. Instances were adduced to the contrary, where animals had been found imbeded in solid rock ; and one was particularly noticed, where a snake had been found imbeded in the heart of a tree, and which on being liberated was active. Some one here remarked, that it must have been a heartless tree to thus grasp to its bosom a poor reptile. Mr. Warman proposed that the members of the club make a series of experiments in cutting different kinds of timber at certain sea- sons of the year, with the view of testing its durability, and on resolution, Messrs. Wuirtman, Syett and Arnotp, were ap- pointed a-committee to report a plas’ of conducting experiments. In reference to peeling bark from the evergreen, the’ fact was established that trees in the forest, at certain seasons of the year, would peel freely, while those on the edges or in clear-- ings would not. It was also stated that’ lumber from the white oak, maple,hickory and beech; was more liable to be worm eaten and become powdery, than those from other kinds of wood. Some curious facts were also brought to light in reference to the timber in build- ings where the air had been excluded from it—these timbers had wholly decayed on the inside, leaving nothing but a thin shell on the outside, which on being broken, allowed the contents to run out as freely as if it were so much Indian meal. | In building, care should be taken to have a free circulation of air about the timbers, or they would dry rot. THE HORSE-BEST BREED FOR FARM USE—MANAGEMENT, &C. AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE ALIS, ON THE 24th OF SEPTEMBER, 1858. ee eg The subject I am about to open before the Club for discussion at this' meeting, is one of great interest with a large portion of community. But few of us,I think,are aware, without stopping to. make the esti- Aforse, this noblest of our four-footed friends and servants. upon which I feel fully competent to raise some questions, though I should fail to settle any. Then, as first in order and importance, I will. consider’ propogating or breeding ‘this interesting animal. The true theory upon this bratich of our sub- ject, I assume to be understood and car- ried into practice by comparitively few who are engaged: in this business, upon the ground, that such'a very great variety of opinions and theories are practiced. upon, and that a still greater number practice without any theory or opinion whatever. For instance, many engage in this enterprise with no further considera- tions than to use the means to produce a colt, no matter what or from what source it is obtained. They use worthless, fee- ble mares, with delicate;constitutions, small and weak digestive organs, perhaps. with heaves, ringbones, bog or blood spavins, and many other constitntional defects, (As I regard all the above mentioned difficul- | ties ay a general rule). And tne result is mate; how much we depend upon the a loss to the operator, and the cause of so , great a-proportion of inferior horsess It is also a subject] To breed horses successfully, both sire: ‘and dam should be superior animals; and. ‘with all this advantage to start with, J |will guarantee the: production of third and fourth rate horses to be fully: equal to the demand. In noticing those best adapted to Farm- er’s use, I dare. not take the ‘responsibility ‘of selecting any one breed as decidedly. ‘superior to all others. There are two classes of horses well adapted to the use of Farmers, and every one occupying 150 acres or over, require both. A. short- legged, compact horse, 15 1-2 or 16 hands high, weighing from eleven to twelve hundred pounds, is about the thing to perform the heavy work ona farm or move great loads over our roads. To turn a furrow 8 inches deep and 12 wide, or to break up the subsoil eight Morgan Horse Paul Clifferd. Winner of the first premium in his class at the National Fair at Springfield, Mass,, 1854. 191 inches below the bottom of this furrow, fequires a pair of horses of no less capa- city than those described above. Such horses should be allowed to perform most of their labor on a walk, and never be driven faster than a moderate trot. To perform labor of light draught that requires rapid motion, as horse 15 hands, weighing nine or ten hundred, is best cal- culated—such as can drive ten or twelve miles an hour without being over-taxed. This class of horses are very desirable and often necessary, for the use of Farmers who use more than one team; and E think may be obtained by breeding from Ethan Allen, Jr, or Young Flying Cloud, both of which animals deserve the admiration and patronage of good horse breeders. I have been relieved the necessity of writing out many. items connected with this subject, by a publisled account (in the N. Y. Weekly Tribune of the 31st of July last), of Professor Rarey’s system of horse-taming, to which I refer you—such as haltering,. gentling or taming, as he has it, bitting, saddling, harnessing, hitch- ing up and driving. I will now proceed and close with a few remarks upon general management, Farm- ers generally expect their horses to take care of themselves during the season of running to ‘pasture, and they probably would do it well if they were allowed con- tinual freedom, but they are often required to perform severe labor during a long, hot summers day, and turned out in the even- ing, hot and weary from over-exertion, and forced to stand or lie out under the fall- ing dew, or perhaps acold drenching rain, or allowed to go to. the spring or brook to satisfy his extreme thirst; either of which is sufficient to ruin a horse forever, and the owner cannot imagine when or how his horse was injured. Horses running to pasture should not be required to perform more than one half the labor that might reasonably be expected of them if kept in a stable and properly t#ken care of; and should never be turned out when heated up and tired, especially at night or even- ing. To follow the above suggestions will save many from committing the greatest error practiced in the management of hor. ses in summer. In stable management many more items fare to be taken into account. First, a ‘tight, warm and dry stable is necessary. |All the stalls occupied by horses should ibe thoroughly cleaned every day, and twice in twenty-four hours. Hf the horse is allowed to stand in his stall; he should be provided with plenty of straw or other litter to lie on, and be cleaned every day; should never be suffered to stand over night with lis legs or ancles dirty or wete I do not advise the use of blankets in warm, Farmer’s stables, except for a short time when the horse comes in wet or warm. With this course the horse is less liable to contract cold if not very care- fully managed when outside the stable. To preserve health and a good condition in horses, they should be fed regularly and with proper food. From ten to twelve pounds of good hay and twelve quarts of ‘oats per day is good feed for a horse to perform ordinary work, and increase the quantity of oats if you require more ex- ercise. Buta much cheaper method and one that answers Farmers’ horses quite as well, is to feed plenty of good straw finely cut, and wet in winter with hot water and in warm weather with cold, and mixed with as much meal and shorts, or shipping, 192 or any other good provender, as you may wish to feed, and five or six pounds of hay per day. This is thought to be too much trouble by most Farmers, but it is now adopted and practiced in many Liveries where fifteen or twenty horses are kept. Pie Discussion--Oct. 29, 1858. The whole afternoon was occupied by Mr. Coox in giving the peculiarity of soil, climate, mode of agriculture, &c., in Mis- souri. From specimens of soil and subsoil exhibited by him, it appears that nothing better could be desired for the production of every kind of agricultural product, The specimen of subsoil exhibited was ta- ken from four feet below the surface, and was in its general character similar to the surface soil, and evidently possessed els- mentsof fertility sufficient toproduce alarge erop of any of our staple products. One peculiarity of the soil is its retentiveness and absorbtion of moisture, which enables the cultivator to get a good return for his labors in a very dry season. The character of the country in Benton county, Mo., is rolling Prairie, interspersed with patches of wood lands. Streams are abundant, but not to that extent as in Her- kimer county. The face of the country resembles, in its undulating surface, im- mense waves of the ocean. There are no mountains or steep hills, but gentler declivities, or waves, a mile or less in length, in each direction from their sum- mits. There is a great variety of tim- ber—Hickory Oak, Maple, Butternut, &c. The Cotton Wood grows very rapidly, springing up from the seed it will be large enough in four years growth to make four cuts of rails of four to a cut. Coal is found in abundance in this part of the covered with earth with the foot. State, cropping out from eight to fifteen feet from the surface. The veins are from eight inches to sever feet thick, and, the dip is in a south-westerly direction. Un- improved lands lying in the vicinity of Railroads, are worth from $2.50 to $10 per acre. Improved land in the same re- lative position as to market, from $7 to $25 per acre. The climate was represented to be mild and delightful—during the winter there is scarcely any snow, and unlike many other portions of the south and south-west, thera is no portion of the year that may be de- signated as the rainy season. Cattle turned into the blue grass fields are enabled to pro- cure their living during the whole year, the only care required is that salt and water be supplied. Those animals which are de- signed for the shambles are fattened on Corn. The average produce of Corn per acre, is seventy-five bushels, on fields that are properly cultivated. The mode of rais- ing this crop is as follows: the sod is turned as thin as possible, a man passes along and makes a place for the seed by chopping the sod with an axe or stabbing with a stick furnished with an irom point, The Cora is dropped in these places and All the after culture is performed with the plow or cultivator. Timothy and Clover, when introduced, grow without apy more trou- ble than here, but these grasses are not considered superior to the native blue grass, which is very productive and long lived. From the 12th of May to the 12th of August is the best time for breaking the sod. Turned at this season it rapidly decays. If broke at other seasons of the year, the sod rots slowly, and perhaps will not rot at all. The Swine of the country 198 resembles the Wild Hogs of the South and West, and are fattened with great dif- ficulty. The cattle are from Texas, Mexico, and the North. Very little attention is given to the production of milk. The calf is allowed to run with its mother, and the consequence is, that the animal soon dries up and generally gives but little milk, though they were capable of being good milkers if properly cared for fro the first. Mr. Cook’s experience in reference to this matter had taught him, that the milking qualities of the cow was very much due to her early education. He had cows that were excellent milkers, but he had trained them after the usual manner ds practiced in this county. He had not been able to make a good cow from those ani- tnals that had been accustomed to have their calves run with them. Of the Mex- ican cattle, it was not unusual to see ani- raals with horns eight or nine feet long and eight feet apart. Some one remarked that one of these horns would make a powder flask that would hold enough of the éxplosive material to carry on a long campaign. Qthers thought the animal was doubtless troubled with the “ horn ail.” Mr. Cook's ‘description of Southern life was very interesting, and his account of the soil, climate and character of the different‘ regions where he had sojourned, was attractive. He gave the Club much valuable information. Discussion---Nov. 26, 1858. At the opening of the meeting Mr. Wil- cox exhibitedsome very large and fine look- ing ears of. yellow corn obtained for seed frcm New Jersey,a hybrid,judging from ap- pearance, of northern and southern corn. The grains were very sound and lustfous, but it was thought too large a variety to mature well in this latitude. It would undoubtedly be valuable to cultivate for green fodder, In this connection the stalks of the King Phillip were recom- mended for both green and dry feed. They appeat to be sweeter and cattle like them better than other stalks. It was said that when cut early and well eured cattle would consume the entire stalks, even to the large butts. It was also regarded as a productive variety, but unfortunately was ten or twelve days later than the corn commonly cultivated in this locality. The stalks of the common sweet corn were also recommended, on account of their sweetness, the abundance of their leaves, and their remaining greet until killed with frost. Mr. Markel spoke of a sample of late pears, show at the Fair by Mr. Feeter, the large and beautiful appearance of which had attracted the attention of seve- ral members of the Club. The name was, and is still, unknown. From its hard texture and tasteless flesh, it was supposed to be of little value; he had been presen- ted with one of the sample, which he had carefully preserved for maturing; it hav- ing in appearance become fully ripe, it was tried a few days since and found to be a delicious fruit. The circumstance was mentioned not only to recommend it as worthy of cultivation, but to show the importance of a proper in-door ripening to determine the quality of pears. Mr. Arnold said he had recently learned the precise origin of the pear grown in this county, and especially in Fairfield, under the name of Virgalieu. It origina- ted from seeds collected in Rhode Island 194 by Mrs. John B. Arnold, and brought by her to the town of Fairfield, and planted there by her own hand about seventy years ago. It resembles the Grey Virgalieu in general appearance, and hence has been supposed to be identical with it; but it, lacks the cinnamon russet, and is larger, finer grained, and more juicy and deli- cious than the genuine Grey Virgalieu. Two other valuable varieties sprung from the same collection of seeds. Different members gave their experience and opinions upon the grape culture. The earliest varieties were recommended for this vicinity, and the warmest exposures as the best places for planting them—the -south and east side of buildings and high walls and fences were preferable. Grapes require a great amount of warmth to ripen them, and hence it is all-important to pro- tect them from the cooling influence of the westerly winds. With these preeautions, and due atten- tion to pruning and underdraining, it was thought grapes might be successfully grown on the uplands of. the county, especially on the black slate soils. A description at some length was given of the manner of preparing the ground and training the vines, as practiced by two experiéncedGerman viners located in one of the western counties of this State. Upon one side of a lot containing one acre of loamy ground, a ditch was dug three feet deep, and a row of drain tile placed in it; a foot of surface earth was taken from the field side of the ditch and placed upon the. tile; a coat of manure was then spread on, and another foot of earth from the same side of the ditch placed on it; an- other coat of manure was spread on, and another foot of earth placed on as be- fore, In this way the first ditch was filled and a second one made by the side of it of equal depth, which was filled in the same way as the first, and so on tilf the whole field was spaded over and three feet of the soil completely inverted. A row of tile was laid once in eighteen feet, The whole cost of manuring and spading was $100 per acre. Roots were then planted four feet apart each way, and a stake stuck at each root, and asingle vine or cane allowed to grow the first year, which in the Fall was cut back to within three eyes or buds of the ground. The second year the two strengest canes that sprung from these eyes thus left were al- lowed to grow, and the weaker one to bear a little fruit; this one was again eut back to within three eyes of the ground. The third year the remaining cane was tied to the stake about eighteen inches or two feet from the ground, and the part of the cane above the fastening was taken down and coiled round the stake, like a hoop, and the top end fastened. Thus bent it had the appearance of a hoop two or three |feet in diameter,lying horizontally eighteen inches or two feet from the ground, and in this condition was allowed to fruit, which it did abundantly. While this was in bearing, two more canes were trained up the stake for bearing the next year. In the Fall the cane that was bent down and coiled about the stake was cut back within three eyes of the ground. The fourth year the two canes left are taken down and coiled aboutythe stake as before, and after bearing a single crop are cut back in the Fall, and two new ones in the mean time are trained up for the next year. Thus two canes to the hill are in bearing each year, and two more are 195 springing up to take their places. The | and delicious, and several days earlier than bending of the canes interrupts the flow. the same kinds grown here. The grapes of sap, and by causing it to accumulate were mostly converted into wine, and the tends to increase the formation of fruit) profits estimated at a very high figure buds, while the low training secures the jak proprietors asserted that an acre thus greatest amount of heat, and thus tends? cultivated would yield a larger profit than to develope and perfect the fruit. The| » hundred acres of good farming lands vines were very productive, yielding about | well tilled. a peck to the hill, and the frnitwery large] PORK, AS AN ARTICLE OF FOOD. AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, ON THE 24th OF DECEMBER, 1858. BwyT Gu. BE. AnwaxD: I do not expect, gentlemen, that many, if any of you, will assent to a//I may say in this paper. I take the broad ground that pork, generally, is not a wholesome article of human food; that to raise a healthy hog of mature age is next to im- possible. So long accustomed to high feeding in close and filthy pens, disease has become implanted in the very nature of the ani- mal. In the young, it is not so apparent, but as they approach the age for slaugh- tering, the evidences of disease are very common, This may seem rather a bold position to take in the face and eyes of the many consumers and dovers of pork, and perhaps asa matter of prudence, it may be proper to back it up with a little authority. Youatt ison hand, and pretty well confirms my statement in the seventh, eighth and ninth chapters of his work on the hog, in which he speaks of the follow- ing diseases as of common occurrence among domesticated swine—apoplexy, in- flamation, and other diseases of the brain; palsy, tetanus, or lock-jaw ; strangles, or quinsy ; diseases of the heart; inflamma- tion of the lungs; pleuro-pneumonia ; sey- eral kinds of epidemics, intestinal worms; colic; diarrhea; protrusion of the recs tum, or piles. He regards the following as Jess frequent: Bronchitis and worms in the bronchial tubes; diseases of the liver; garget of the maw; inflammation of the inside and outside coating of the in- testines; diseases of the spleen; inflamation of the peritoneum; gravel; rabies, or hy- drophobia ; leprosy ; erysipelas } parasitic vermine; measles; nasal catarrh; mange, or a peculiar cutaneous disease resembling the scad in sheep, and the 2ch in the hu- man; desquamation or scaling off of the skin in patches; not to mention others that occasionally afflict the porcine race. All kinds of domestic animals are more or less diseased, but none so much so as the hog. The most common marks of dis- ease are of that class that indicate scrof- ula in the human race, and may well be supposed to have some connection there- with, The originof the term scrofula corroborates this idea (a derivative of a Latin word scrofa, a hog.) It isa fortu- nate circumstance for swine growers, that this species of animal matures early and puts on fat and flesh rapidly, for if it re- quired as long a time to mature as the horse or ox, it would die of epidemies, or Berkshires. 197 some of the many diseases that attack it, Nature made the hog ashealthy as any other animal. All his maladies come of domestication. When he roams at large and selects his haunts in accordance with his natural instincts, he is as free from dis- ease as any other animal, and lives, it is said, thirty or forty years, Wherever in his freedom he falls in with an abundance of wholesome and nutritious food, as in the South Sea Islands, where he feasts upon rich roots and herbage and_ bread fruit, his flesh is altogether a different thing from that made from unwholesome food in his foul enclosure. Its is there said to be sweet and delicious in the, ex- treme, and his fat equal to the finest but- ter. Perhaps nothing, in this particular lo- cality, has done so much to augment the hereditary diseases of swine, as the use of whey as an exclusive feed ; not that there is anything essentially bad in itselfin whey or that it would not, if properly used, pro- duce meat as free from disease, as the constitution of the animal will allow. But whey alone dees not, in its most favorable condition,contain the elements necessary to growth and health. Comparing the an- alysis of cheese given by Norton, with the analysis of milk quoted by Johnston, we have in 100 parts of sweet whey : Cass8ilyaiapcis'ceensts os -1,004 Buttes ere nee Sasa 1,376 Milk Sugar,..-.--------- 5,300 Saline matter,._.--_------- 168 Water,---.---.-------- 92,152 These scanty proportions of mineral and nitrogenous matter, unfit it for nour- ishing the bones and muscles, especially of the young and growing animal. Nor is the excess of sugar, and water well | adapted to promote general health.. More than two-thirds of the solid matter it con tains is sugar. Young pigs cannot live upon it for any contdensul length of time. If fed with nothing bat sweet. whey, they soon faulter and die. But very little whey, however, is fed im thie condition. Under the influence of, the air, the heat of Summer, and the infec- tion given by rennet, it changes rapidly. In the place of milk sugar, there appears Firstly,-..-- - Lactic Acid. Secondly__--Alcohol.’ Thirdly, +- ‘Acetic Acid, or Vinegar. The butter and sugar are. the fat- forming elements. The first sourness that ov- curs in the whey does not injure either of these for being converted into fat, nor does itin any way change the cheesy matter itcontains. The buttery particles remain in the shape of cream, scarcely altered at all,and the sugar that is chang- ed into lactic acid, iseven better for the change ; for the first effort of the stomach to digest milk sugar, is to convert it into lactic acid. The presence of the gastric juice will produce this change, whether in the stomach or out of it, More sour whey, therefore, can be digested ina giv en time, than sweet ; because one step in the process of digestion is already pers formed. A second advantage is, it abates'the ill effects of the excess af sugar. So far as the immediate effects are concerned, there is much less danger in feeding sour whey freely than sweet. But the remote effects are, nevertheless, bad. The very greedy stomachs of swine will almost invariably take in more than they can digest, caus- ing the stomach and bowels to be kept 198 constantly over-loaded with acid, which becomes a prolific source of disease. If whey is permitted to stand long where it is warm,and especially where the rays of the sun fall upon it, alcohol is formed in considerable quantities. This change is less favorable than the preceed- ing one. All the sugar that is converted into ‘blcohol is entirely lost. Alcohol is not appropriated by the animal economy. It enters and leaves the system in pre- cisely the same condition. It has no bet- ter effect upon this animal with four feet than upon his kinsman with two. It is known to coagulate the pepsin in the gastric juice, injuring its strength and dis- turbing digestion. Its well known effect in irritating and congesting the stomachi aud bowels in the human race,postmortem examination sbows to be precisely the same in the swine. So, too, with its iv- toxicating effects, I have — several times seen swine so beastly drunk that they could neither walk nor stand. But to the credit of the porker be it said, he never takes the intoxicating draught Rota choice. He loathes it,and will only drink it'in from necessity, with the scanty por- tions of nutriment that remain unaltered in the whey. The presence of alcohol may be known by its influence upon the cream. It com- bines chemically with, or “ cuts” all oily substances... As the alcohol forms, the cream diminishes, and frequently entirely disappears, being “ cut” by the alcohol. Theeheesy matter is curdled aud falls to the bottom in a powdered state, The next change, that of alcohol into vinegar, may be known by the ropy ap- pearance of the whey. The cream that was taken up by the alcohol will be set free, and appear in an oily state, and the curd that was deposited in the bottom of the vessel, will, when the vinegar is strong enough, be dissolved and disappear. In none of these conditions can whey,of itself, produce healthy meat ; for if sweet, the excess of sugar sickens the animal and étidangers life. When sott, if fed: in such quantity that the saline matter will nourish the bones, and the cheesy matter’ the nruscles, the hogs must be so surfeited’ with acid asto bring on disease. If fed in its third or fourth stage, when it con- tains alcohol or vinegar, the case: is still worse. Hogs may become accustomed to whey either sweet or sour. But very little,how- fever, is fed while sweet, because it is not generally considered safe to feed it in that ‘situation. 'sourness, but by far the greatest portion is More is fed in the first state of ‘not fed untilit contains alcohol. In this ‘condition, it is not much different fron the refuse of breweries and distilleries: Al- ‘cohol being a common ingredient in thent all,their influence upon health is very sim- ilar. To obtain the best results, if health be regarded, is to connect a run of pasture with the pen; at all events, the hogs should have a plot of ground sufficiently large to absorb their filth, and afford an opportunity for eating the alkaline earth, which they will do, to correct’ the excess of acidity. Some solid and flesh-forming’ food should always be given. Grass is the cheapest and best. The next cheap- est is shorts or bran. It makes a very good substitute, and supplies the deficien- cies of whey. Its elements are— Nitrogenized or flesh-forming matter,19,3 Oil, 4,7 ee meee ee ee eee meee eee ee 199 Husk, with a little starch,-._------55,6 Saline matter,.------------------ 7,3 Waterccca-aecc Suc eeesee -..--138,1 This will afford material for the sup- port of the frame, and for distending the stomach, while the whey will furnish the fat. Livery variety of food produces effects peculiar to itself, Corn makes firm fat and flesh, with a strong odor, a scrofulous taint, and ulcerated livers. From being drenched with fiuid, the pork from whey is soft and flabby, and the fat little more than an emulsion of lard and water. In the process of cooking, the fluid escapes and the bulk very much diminishes—a circumstance that is sometimes very er- roneously attributed to the moon. Tho diseases that whey-fed swine are more particularly liable, to, are inflamma” tion, congestion, and ulceration of the in- ner and middle coats of the intestines, es- pecially the small intestines, while the out- er coat is raised in blisters ; swollen and ulcerated livers, rheumatism, swollen and ealloused joints,dicerrhea, piles, tumers in different parts of the body, diseases of the heart, apoplexy,inflammation and conges- tion of the brain. Young pigs frequently die very suddenly from derangement of the stomach and brain. Few swine, ‘fed exclusively on aaliegsaie cape without one or more of those mala- dies ; but who ever heard of ones being rejected on that account, if he only had his throat, regularly cut before he died ? But not every ailment is chargeable to whey. Some originate from close con- finement, others from the filthiness of the pen, and others may be hereditary. My brother Dairymen, who are in the habit of consuming and marketing such meat, may not thank me for making these remarks, but I insist that the welfare of :|the community is concerned,and that both producers and ecnsumers ought to be more regardful of the healthfulness of so impor- tant astaple as pork. The facts need a ‘more scrutinizing attention, and I shall be ‘satisfied if my plain statements shall pro voke investigation. —————_e—_—_—_ Discussion--Dee. 24, 1858. In the discussion which followed, it seems from the appearance of members that the use of pork as food produces Rheumatism, and developes Scrofula,. Salt Rheum, and other diseases of this character. It was stated that the Jews as a nation, were free from Scrofulous taint and the inference was drawn,that it was ow- ing to their abstaning from the flesh of swine, One member stated that ten days use of pork brought on Rheumatism,which was only allayed by its discontinuance. The effect produced by eating smoked meat, acted first as a tonic, but its use for a considerable length of time was debili- tating, and served to weaken the diges- tive organs, and this became a fruitful source of disease. The different breeds of swine were pret- .|[ty thoroughly canvassed, and members were generally agreed as to their experi- ence in reference tothe merits of the Snow Ball species. These hogs, it was stated, were not deserving the high reputation in which they were generally held by the public. Their meat was coarse, and of poor qual- ity ; they were large eaters, and did not readily fatten. One member thought an essential point in a good hog was, that it should be able to furnish a thick lean ham 200 —the Snow Ball did not do it. He had a small white hog, a cross on the Suffolk, which was greatly preferred. They fat- tened easily, and their meat was thick and of fine quality. Six of this breed kill- ed last fall and dressed, weighed 2540 pounds. Another member preferred the Berkshire. He had recently fattened the Snow Ball and Berkshire together, and marked the difference in the two breeds —they were about the same size, the Berk- shire ate much less food and took on flesh more rapidly, and when killed and dress- ed weighed 315 pounds, the hams weigh- ing 56 pounds, the pork was thick and of fine quality. The carcass of the Snow Ball weighed about the same number of pounds, but the hams as well as the pork, were thin and every way inferior to the other. Another member gave his experi- ence in fattening Pigs. He commenced fattening a pig at six weeks old, and kept it seven months, when it was killed and dressed—the weight was 263 pounds, and the cost was $5 per hundred weight. Its food was vrincipally Indian meal—a por- tion of the food was cooked. In fatter- ing hogs he thought it advisable to have a spot, large or small, where they could get at the ground. Another member spoke of a May pig killed in the fall, which weighed 240 pounds. A question here came up whether large or small framed: hogs were most profitable, and whether pig pork could not be furnished at.less ex- pense to the producer than from animals a year or more old. The inference seem- ed to be that the smaller animal was to be preferred. Pig pork could doubtless be produced cheaper when grain was to be fed, but some members: tho’t there would be difficulty in obtaining pigs. A member here stated that he had observed one fact in his expeience, which was, that animals that were allowed to run in a yard were good breeders—those confined in the pens were the reverse. A member had experimented with cook- ed and raw meal in fattening Pigs—that fed on cooked food was killed when 6 1-2 months old, and’ weighed 239 Ibs—that fed with raw meal was about the same age when slaughtered, and weighed 233° Ibs. Sour milk was also fed to both, but the meal was not allowed to sour. A: pre- ference was given to feediwg with raw over cooked meal, as making the most pork from sazae amount of meal fed, @ ex- perience of others corresponded with above. Some advocated the oceasional feeding of corn in the ear, on the ground that it exercised the muscles, d&c., and was con- ducive to the health of the animal. Tt was said that a hog would fatten much sooner on shelled corn than on corn in the ear, and that it paid largely to have the food ground into meal. Remarks were made in relation to fat- tening calves—some contending that @ calf. would fatten quicker if allowed to suck the cow, and others advocating that the animal should be fed. Convenient troughs and fixtures for feeding swine were de- scribed. It was recommended, that the floor of the pen where the trough stande ‘be Jowest, and that there be an opening near the trough for the discharge of fifth. This ensured adry and clean space in the back part of the pen. In feeding swine, some advocated regu- larity as to time and quantity in feeding, and others, the food should be kept be- fore them always, POULTRY: THEIR MANAGEMENT, &C. AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB UF LITTLE FALLS, ON THE 7th OF JANUARY, 1859. BY 2EN AS GREEN. In discussing the subject now before us, I do not presume to be able to do it that justice that itsimportance demands, For in proportion to the comforts and conveniences—luxuries even that they yield, no living thing that the farmer or householder keeps, gives more satisfaction or pays better for the outlay when prop- erly accomodated, than Poultry. To the eye, they are objects of beauty. their domestic habits are studies of inter- est, and their whole lives are a pleasant subject of observation. They may occa- sionally annoy us from some untoward cause—but I insist that no residence is complete without them. By examining the statistics of the a- mount of poultry consumed in the City of New York alone during the year, we then discover its importance. It is estimated —and that from reliable dates—that du- ring the months of November and De- cember last, the enormous amount of three thousand tons were delivered in that City. That during the last week in December, there was delivered six hundred tons, or one million two hundred thousand lbs., which, at an average of nine cents per Ib., would produce the snug sum of one hundred and eight thousand dollars—and that for one week alone! We, therefore, say that the poultry trade, is one of very great importance and well worthy our at- tention. What I have to say upon the subject, will be confined to the barn-door fowl, and leave the turkey, goose and other varieties to some one more competent to do them justice. Believing that very much of our suc- cess will depend upon the breed we select —this will be the first question to settle in our minds. During the past few years, a fearful epidemic swept over the land, denominated the “hen fever,” and in its progress visited almost every town and hamlet in our country—people ran wild with the idea that they could produce birds of mammoth size—cocks that would, when dressed, weigh ten or fifteea lbs.— and that with as little care and expense as those of three or four lbs. And enor- mous prices were paid for them—often as large an amount was paid for a pair of the Shanghai, or Brahmapooter, as would have purchased a cow. But this humbug has passed,and men’s minds have generally settled down,and the fact is con- 202 ceded that those monsters are not the most: profitable for common and every-day use. I believe that all the large Asiatic fowls are of one general breed, although hav- ing difterent cognomens, yet they have the following characteristics: In com-. mon, that of large size; late maturity ; thinly feathered ; rather unfitted in con- stitution to withstand our cold climate, and without extra care are unfit for com- mon use. They are great eaters, and in- veterate sitters. They comprise speci- mens of the best and the very worst of the kind. I have seen them large, grand and beautiful in size, figure and color, ex- hibiting, in fact, the beau-ideal of a ma- jestic fowl; and again I have seen them as devoid of beauty as a sand-hill crane, and scarcely more useful to run about the premises—a perfect nuisance any where. They have been crossed with our com- mon fowls, thereby producing, what their admirers have called, ‘‘ breeds,” but they are, in reality, mongrels, and of doubtful utility. Next to the Asiatic in size, but holding no parallel otherwise, is the En- glish Dorking, considered by many the most perfectly formed and best fleshed fowl] known: but it is said that from a long course of breeding in Southern Bri- tain, they are not robust enough to with- stand our harsh extremes of climate. No bird of the farm yield so savory or well- meated a bone, or better egg, or more of them—yet they require extra care and at- tention ; but properly cared for, well pay for the trouble, they are beautiful in plu- mage. Another variety, the Creole, or Bolton Grays; a small compact fowl, very pro- lific—it is said they will lay two years continuously without desiring to set, but | for this I will not vouch. There is another interesting family of the chicken department—especially, if there be children in the house—I mean the Bantam; they love the companion- ship of children, aud will follow them all over the house; if permitted they will make their nests in the cradle, rocking- chair, in your hat, even if left right side up, and cackle as triumphantly as the provdest matron of the barn-yard; and the little Bantam cock will strut and flap his wings and crow about once a minute all day long. I have tried several diffe- rent breeeds, the Shanghai, Brahmapooters, &c., but’ come to the conclusion that they will not pay; and latterly, I have kepta variety, that I take to be a cross of the Dorking, and Black Spanish. They are of medium size, hardy and good layers. I believe the true course in raising fowls, is to keep none more than one and a half years. To kill all the old hens in the fall, and winter none but chickens of the last spring. Changing the cocks every year; by having chickens come out in April or May, the pullets will commence laying in October, and produce sufficient eggs in the fall to nearly pay for the rear- ing, By pursuing this course, my fowls are healthy,and I have never lost a chiek- en by the “gaps,” while some of my |neighbors have lost nearly the whole. For food, I give the chickens corn meal, sour curd, &c.; keep the hen con- fined, and suffer the chickens to ramble about the garden, and find them very useful in destroying bugs and insects, I endeavor to have two litters to leave the nests at the same time, and then haye one mother take charge of the two 203 families, while the other must go back to laying. . I keep my fowls confined during the summer, letting them out a short time every evening; this gives them an oppor- tunity to obtain gravel and grass, which they must have to be healthy; keeping ‘fresh water constantly in their yard, and ‘lime always convenient. From my expe- Tience it will require about thirty-six quarts of corn to keep a fowl a year, and on an average they will produce from ‘twelve to fifteen doz. eggs; the number of -eggs will depend, in a’ measure, upon the number of chickens reared, but in that ease, the chickens will counterbalance ‘the ‘loss:in eggs. The last spring, I wheeled ‘from the canal, a lot of sand and muck, which was filled with muscle shells, and I noticed that whenever the fowls were let out of their yard, they would invariably make their way as soon as possible to where these shells were deposited, -and swallow them ravenously, although lime -was in their yard; this was the case the whole season. . And new, Mr. Chairman, can we make the raising of poultry profitable—will it pay? I think it will if properly conduc- ted. If neglected, and suffered to. roam at large over the premises, destroying the crops, scratching the seed: in the garden, and compelled to seek their.own lodging places, in the apple trees, in the barn and out-buildings—defiling the farming tools, the carriage, the harness, and everything on which they, rest—then I say they are a perfect nuisance—but give them: proper accomodations and they will amply pay the trouble and: expense—besides the luxury of a new laid egg, or a- broiled chicken of our own production. 1, I love to see a beautiful flock of chick- ens about the premises. I love to hear the shrill clarion cry of the cock as he heralds the morning. And in collecting these thoughts together, I have gone back in memory to the time when a boy, I searched every nook and corner of the barn, at the old homestead, and how ela- ted I felt in carrying my hat well filled with eggs to my dear old mother. <<» —____. Discussion---Jan. 7, 1859. There was a good attendance of mem- bers at the Club room, on Friday, the 7th inst., Roswell D. Brown in the Chair. The subject before the association was, “Poultry, its management, best breeds for proffit,”” &c., and Zenas Green opened the discussion by reading a well-consid- ered paper, embodying his experience and observation in refference thereto. The numberof Fowls that could be kept to- gether at most profit, it was stated, was from 25 to 40. A larger number if they were allowed to run together, yielded in proportion, a considerably less number of eggs. If it was desirable to keep a large number, it was better to separate them into flocks, in order to get, not only the best returns, but to secure a higher degree of health. ‘Corn was the cheapest and best food for hens, and should, at all times, be within their reach—36 quarts of corn, if fed in this manner, was found to be amply sufficient to keep a hen for the year. The experience of some members went to show that a smaller quantity was enough—though the amount of food would vary somewhat for different breeds. A member stated that the average num- ber of eggs which a flock of 25 or 30 hens would produce during the year, if 204 properly managed, was from 12 to 15 dozen per fowl. Another statement was made, that the crested Black Poland hen would produce 300 eggs during the year. The general opinion of members was, that the fancy breeds were not profitable —they consumed a larger amount of food, and were notas good layers. Some preferred a cross between the Black Span- ish and Dorking ; others, the Poland, or Dorking ; and others yet, a cross of the Dorking with the commonhen. A mem- ber suggested that gypsum should be accessible to fowls, because it contained sulphur, which was an ingredient of the egg. With regard to the food most profitable for hens, the general impression seemed to be in favor of corn—but there was considerable difference of opinion in reference to the economy of a change of food; some believing it unprofitable to feed differeut kinds of grain, and others contending to the contrary. A suggestion was made, that peas could be fed with profit—from the fact that they contained a larger amount of those properties which entered into the constituents of the egg; and the experience of one member, went to show that this kind of food increased the number of eggs. It was advantage- ous to feed occasionally fresh meat, and bones broken in small pieces, The bones of fat beeves, it was said, if occasionally fed in this manner, were worth as much as their weight in corn. In order to get the best returns from thens, they should be kept in a warm house in winter, and when basements could be easily constructed, they would be found to pay: A member estimated the clear profit of a flock of hens, numbering 30, to be 75 cts. per head; others estimated it con- siderably higher. It was notso profitable to raise chickens, as to keep the hens lay- ing. It was more profitable to keep hens confined ina yard, than to let them run at large. Hens that run at large. were a nuisance; they committed depredations on crops in the garden, and hiding their nests, a considerable portion of their eggs were lost;but if confined within proper lim- its,and with good management,they, would be found to bea source of profit., The recent account of Poultry management at Paris, was adverted to, in which one indi- vidual realized an income of $175,000 per anoum from 100,000 hens. Their prin- ciple food was horse flesh, and they con- sumed some 22 horses daily—old, or worn out horses, and such as were accidentally injured, were purchased for the purpose, and the whole managed systematically. When hens are confined to a yard, they can be let out daily, just beforesun down, and are then so intent on seeking for gravel, grubs and insects, that they will do no damage to crops, or to the garden. The practice of feeding bens corn in the cob, was not considered economical. Mr, Snell, presented the following re- ceipt for curing hams and pork : “RECEIPT FOR CURING HAMS. To one hundred lbs. of ham, add 6 ozs. of saltpeter, 5 lbs. of salt, 1 qt. of molasses. Add more molasses if preferred; make brine strong enough to bear a potato leave in brine 8 weeks, before smoking —smoke with green maple, or hickory and corn-cobs. After smoking, you may put them in the same brine, if the brine is good, and kéep them as long’ as you 205 choose. If you have any doubt about the | it hang after it is dressed, until the animal brine being good, you may make fresh | heat is out of it—at least the animal heat brine with salt and molasses, to bear a po-!should be out before you salt; and it tato, and add, if you make fresh brine, | should be as clear from blood as_ possible, 2 ozs. of saltpeter, to 100 Ibs. of ham. then give it plenty of good salt, and keep SALTING PORK. he brine over it, and tkere is no danger In the first place, it is necessary to let | of spoiling if youdo not eat it.” FAILURE OF THE FRUIT CROP. ~ AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS; ON. THE 2ist OF JANUARY, 1859. > BwyT TF. WW. ELE OUMER-. <> In the investigation of subjects in the natural world, long continued and careful- ly repeated observations are necessary to prevent erroneous conclusions, It is not very difficult to adopt or frame theories to account for the results we witness, but afar greater difficulty presents itself in bending the theories to facts, or what is perhaps more common, endeavoring to} warp the facts to the theories. In questions of this character all that ean be learned of value must be by care- ful observations, and experiments frequent- ly repeated. Holding these views in which I presume |- we shall all agree. I have endeavored since this subject was proposed to gather the results of the experience of as many different fruit growers in this vicinity as I have been able to meet, believing I could do a better service in this manner than in any other. Ihave also opened a corres- pondence with a number of intelligent fruit-growers in different parts of the State and some in other States, with the view of comparing their observations with those obtained in our own immediate vicinity. Thave given most attention to the failure of the apple crop, not only on account of ‘its greater importance, but because of its: more general cultivation we shall be more: likely to gather facts from: the greater number of observes, and: because also the same causes toa greater or less extenti may be supposed to affect kindred fruits, The years 1856 and 1857 were marked ‘by the failure of the apple crop in: dis- ‘tinct localities in various parts of the country, while in other places and’ fre- quently not remote, the crop: was a‘full ‘everage one. But the year 1858 will be: especially remembered: for the failure of the crop generally. No locality so-far as -I am aware bearing even an average yield while in a very large portion. of the coun try there was scarcely any fruit, and the little grown so imperfect as to be nearly worthless. I have satisfied myself from: the inves- tigations I have made, that we are not to’ look for the failure in any single cause, but rather in the concurrence of a vari- ety of causes. It seems to have been generally believed that throughout this State and the more north western States—and perhaps a part of New England—the severity of the preceding winters was the main cause of 207 fruit failure for the seasons of 1856 and 1857. There was doubtless some ground for this opinion, for in the States of Mich- igan and Wisconsin—and especially the latter—vast numbers of the trees, in some cases uearly entire orchards, were unquestionably destroyed by the severe frosts of the winter of 1856-57. This was also true of a part of our own State, and that, too, perhaps the finest fruit growing section of the State; stretching westward and southward from Syracuse, embracing the region of the Genesee Val- ley, and a portion of the table lands be- tween this valley and Lake Erie, The peach trees were very, generally injured great numbers completely killed, and a large share of the young apple and pear trees was also destroyed. But, notwithstanding the severe frosts of the precediag winter, the Spring of 1857 was, so far as I know or have been able to learn, remarkable for the breadth and fullness of the blossoming of fruit trees, exceeded, I think, only by the last season for many years. This would seem to indicate that the buds at least had not been greatly, injured, if injured at all, by the frosts. To corroborate this view, it may be stated that our last winter was not a severe one, that is,it was not marked. by any severe frosts, yet we had less fruit) than in either of the preceding seasons, T think, ‘therefore, we are not to regard ce as the main cause. It should not be disguised, however, that some of our best fruit’ growers seem inclined to regard this as probably the main, if not the sole cause. J- J. Thomas, whose observa- tions and opinions are certainly entitled to much weight, writes :—“ Although I have by no means neglected observations,I have not yet arrived at any satisfactory solu- tion, and I have nothing to offer that will be of value, unlessit be the vague conjec- ture, that the unprecedentedly severe win- ters have so enfeebled the trees, that they have not vigor left to mature a good crop until after bearing @ few light crops they shall have recovered.” A Mr. McElroy, of Albany, who has given much attention to fruit culture for many years, gives it as his opinion that the main cause of failure is to be attributed to a kind of insect that stings the young fruit—much in the same that the curculio stings the plum. I be- lieve it to be undoubtedly true, that in this vicinity a much larger quantity of fruit was destroyed by worms the past sea- son than usual; in some cases I know, from my own observation, that upon trees tolerably well filled with fruit, you could scarcely find a ferfect apple. Pears seemed to‘suffer much less in this respect, and some kinds of apples less than others. By conversation with fruit § growers in this county, I find other opinions prevail. By some the failure is attributed to frosts, while the trees are in blossom, or just as the fruit is setting. But a more common opinion is that we are to look for the prin- cipal cause to the cold east winds and rains at that period, when the blossoms are falling or lave fallen, and’ the young fruit is just swelling into form. This | opinion seems strengthened ‘by the fact that during the past two seasons the fruit commenced falling when not larger than peas,and continued to fall until half gtown, or what was more commonly the case, until there was none left to fall. It is further stated as an evidence of the truth of this position, that single trees, or orch- ards sheltered from east storms by buil- dings or woodlands, have borne fruit which other trees or orchards, new, but not thus 208 protected, have failed. It is stated asa fact, and I find it confirmed by nearly all with whom I have conversed, that the flow of sap in the maple is checked or en- tirely suspended by cold east winds or storms in the Spring of the year, and it is perhaps a fair inference that other trees are similarly affected. If the circulation of the sap is checked or ceases just at that critical period when the fruit is forming, should we not expect serious injury ? and may we not find here the solution of what seems to be so general an opinion of at least one of the causes of the failure ? I advance this rather as « hypothesis than a matured conviction, but ask for it the attention and investigation of all who are interested in this subject. I do not flatter myself that I have indi- cated all the causes that have produced the failyre; perhaps it may hereafter ap- pear that none of these can be regarded as the main cause, but they are all I am able to present. I shall only add what seem to me the remedies as far as we may be able to apply them. 1st. To prevent injury by frosts, a deep soil, thoroughly drained. The wood will be thus more likely to mature, and the roots by running deeper less exposed to frosts. 2d. To pre- vent injury from insects and worms: Keep the trees well washed with a solution of sal-soda, or coated with soft soap, and the tops and branches free from worms. 3d. To avoid injury from cold east storms; Plant, where it can be done, in locations sheltered as much as possible from the east winds. Discussion--Jan. 2Ist, 1859. The Club met at the usual hour and place, Wm. M. Dorrin the Chair. “ Caus- es of the failure of the fruit crop for the past three seasons” was the subject under deliberation, and J. W. Helmer read an interesting paper presenting his views and giving suggestions as to the best manner of cultivating trees so as to get good re- turns of fruit. Mr. Helmer prefaced his Essay, by say- ing that he had written to several distin- guished fruit cultivators, asking their opin- ion on the question under consideration, but the answers received contained no solution of the matter. Mr, Thomas, in- deed, had made a suggestion as to the cauce of failure in the fruit crop, but the opinion was not advanced ag a settled con- viction as to the true cause, In the discus- sion it was said that an orchard near New- ville bad borne fruit plentifully for many years. It was located on a northern ex- posure; the soil was dry and loamy ; the trees were protected frcm easterly winds, It seemed to be the impression among some of the members, that cold easterly winds about the time fruit was forming had and unfavorable influence, and was the principal reason of tailure in the crop. Others attributed it to the cold winters, which injured the vitality of the tree requiring all its force during the fol- lowing season to regain its powers, In proof of the first proposition, an orchard was instanced which had a southern expo- sure, and protected on the east and west by forest trees; it yielded fruit abundantly until the timber land was cleared, since then the orchard has ceased to be produc- tive. - Another cause of the failure of fruit, 209 was thought to be a warm clear sun,strik- ing the trees after severe frost, and a mem- ber stated that he hada young orchard standing ona knoll where the morning’s sun could not strike it; the trees were fruitful, while those exposed to early rays of the sun produced no fruit. In refe- rence to the effects of the east winds, al- lusion was had to the words of the Bible where it spoke of the blasting effects of the easterly winds. The blasting of corn was frequently mentioned in the sacred writings as attributable to the east winds, and to show that it had an important in- fluence over vegetation, the fact was mentioned that the sap of the maple tapped in the Spring of the year was checked when there were east winds, and often ceased to flow entirely at such times, though one member stated that in his su- gar bush he had a larger run of sap du- ring easterly winds than at any other time. In favor of the morning’s sun pro- ving injurious after cold weather, a mem- ber stated that last season his grape vines that hada southern exposure, did not bear,while those which had an eastern ex- posure yielded plentifully. There was some discussion here on the flow of blood from wounds; some contending that the blood flowed faster when the atmosphere was light, and others to the contrary, There was some difference of opinion expressed in reference to the portion of the tree where the sap flowed, but it was pretty generally conceded that the sap circulated near the center of the tree. Trees grow from the outside, but corn from theinside. A wound on a tree never rises any higher, but on a corn stalk it moves up. In tropical climates, it was said that trees grow from the inside like corn stalks. It was stated that Mr. Barry’s opinion was that the cold weather so affected the tree that the fruit buds were not perfect, and some of the members who last season had examined their trees, found the fruit buds imperfect. Several instances were mentioned where trees were bearing fruit that blossomed in July, anda member said one of his trees last season, blossomed when the fruit on it was as large as hen’s eggs. Instances of trees reviving after the leaves had fallen off in summer, were mentioned. MATERIAL FOR FARM BUILDING. AN ESSAY BEAD BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, ON THE 4th OF FEBRUARY, 1859. BY 2ENAS GREEN. io Had I been present at our last meeting when the subject was adopted, and I been requested to give my views thereon, I would have asked the Club to have amend- ed the question so as to make it read thus, “ The best material for the. Construction of Farm Buildings.” As I am not an architect nor builder by. profession I do not| feel competent to give, instructions as to plans &c.,ia that branch. and as the ques- tion now stands it would seem to jnclude plans and the internal arrangement of buildings, to this I lay no claim. our fathers took possession of these hills and valleys around us they were covered with the primeval forests, they first felled the trees upon a spot sufficiently large on which to erect their Log Cabin,into which they removed their families and their household gods, They then commenced the laborious toil of hewing down the for- ests around them, and by dint of years of laborious toil the forests have disappeared and we, their children, are reaping the rewards of their labor, toil and privations, In our cold climate itis very necessary that our buildings should be a protection against the inclemency of winter and be cool during the heat of summer, and we When| want a material out of which to construct them, that is economical and durable. A wood building soon shows the effect of. time and the elements and is not sufficient ly warm with the thermometer at 20 deg. below zero, and as timber and Jumber be- came scarce, it is quite expensive. Brick and stone buildings’ are very. much warmer and more durable but with increased ante The want of amaterial, for building so cheap that all may have it, so plenty that the Supply will never fail,. and so ‘durable that it, will, last. for ages, has long been sought after, and. scientific minds have investigated, and _experiment- ed. The idea that God in his goodness and wisdom had provided for all our wants, that upon our western prairies where tim: ber and stone wer» searce, he had furnish- ed other material out of which to build houses for man, led one mind to the re- flection that their gravel had been deposi- ted in abundance, that limestone forma. tions could be found jin the bluffs, and could not these two material be so united as t. form a composition thal would sup- ply the great need? He experimented, and so sanguine was he in his discovery that he secured a contract to build a 211 school house of this material; he com menced the building amidst the sneers of the neighbors, and when it was nearly completed, a great storm of rain fell, and it being” exposed, the walls were all wash- ed down. His unbelieving neighbors wrote upon its ruin “Goodrich’s Folly.”— But not.discouraged, he took the same material and rebuilt the walls and after completing them, in answer to his scoffing oppanents, he wrote upon it, “ Goodrich’s Success,’? and it was,a success. He had, as we believe discovered, just what was needed—just the material of which to build the cottage o1 the palace—the ma- terial every where to be found, inexhausti- ble in quantity, and so cheap that the most humble may construct his house and embellish it. As indestructible as granite and as beautiful.as marble. - You will observe by what I have stat- edI do not claim avy ‘credit, as the dis- coverer of this new building material, but having had some experience in its applica- |, tion and being satisfied. of its great utility and cheapness, I wish to urge upon all who contemplate building ithe importance .of examining the matter. And in order to do ‘this more: effectually I will give you my experience, Three years, ago I was proposing: to build a _ dwelling house and J was anxious as far as my means would, permit, to construct a house that would be desirable. While thinking over the matter, I obtained, one of Fowler’ 8 “Homes for All” in which he describes the process of erecting dwellings of lime and gravel. | It took may. fancy ¢ and. I, was satisfied of its practicability. Ye et ‘it was an experiment and I could find | no, one that, had seen it tried and. almost all with whom T conversed, upon the subject had doubts and fears. I ‘set Ue however determined to test its practica- bility and prepared my materials. I pro- cured twenty-five bbls. of hydraulic cement or water lime for the cellar walls. I made a mortar bed of one-fourth inch boards nailed to scantling at the ends and centre, and nailed boards at the .ides and ends securing the eorners well with band iron. This mortar bed was eight by twelve feet I was now prepared for operations and the first business was digging the cellar, >| the sides ot which were left as nearly per- pendicular as possitle. After taking out about three feet of the surface we came to a bed of clean gravel just what we want- ed tor the walls. The cellar being dug, I then placed svantling perpendicularly, sixteen inches from the earth left in dig- ging the cellar, staylathing from one to the other, likewise staylathing them to stakes driven into the ground, which kept them perpendicular, I then used spruce flooring ten inches wide to place inside the scantling for the box in which to shoy- el the mortar. Three lengths of boards reached the length of the building, A support was placed at each end, and in the centre of each board. I now placed my mortar-bed near the centre, of the. cellar, into which I put eight half bbls.. of gravel, that being, the measure used ; to which was added two measures of ce- ment. This was intimately shoveled to- gether, while dry, I then added water and mixed it well—the more the better ; ; it was then shoveled into the box or mould as soon as possible, before having time to While the mortar was being shovel- ed in, I embedded in the mortar all the cobble stones I coyld, being careful. not to have them protrude against the board.— In this manner I continued. all around the 212 building. I bad two setts of boards, and after going around I then commenced the second course. I could, with ‘wo men to mix and shovel the mortar would be suffi- ciently dry to move the lower boards. In this manner I built the cellar walls. After coming to the surface of the ground, I placed scantling ou the outside, in the same manner as on the inside, te support the outside boards, and carried the walls up about seven feet. I had my cellar window-frames made as wide as the wall was thick, and they were placed as we built up. I now leveled the walls and on the top placed a board on which to place the floor timbers and joists. After ‘he timber aad joists were placed, I bored an auger-hole in each one into which a short pin was driven, which served as an anchor in the walls. I now placed my mortar- bed on the floor timbers and commenced with quick lire instead of cement. The outside boards were now moved three inch- es back or inward, making the wall twelve inches, and leaving a beveled base or pro- jection,at the top of the floor timbers. The proportion of the material was now chang- ed, and we mixed eighteen measures of gravel to two measures of stone or un- slacked lime. The lime was then well shoveled together, and shoveled into the boxes as betore,embedding all the stone possible. I found that by moving my studs out and in, two inches on each side of the wall and slipping in a block of that thickness between the scantling and boards I could, by knocking out these blocks, re- move my boards with much less trouble. The door and window trames were placed as we built up the wall, being as wide as the wall was thick, that is, twelve inches —nailing the boards to them to keep them in place. The first story was nine feet between joints, and the upper por- tion six feet to the plate, the roof was carried two feet over the walls. I would here state, that in building walls of this material, they must be protected from rains during their erection ; that if rain is suffered to fall on the top of the walls be- fore they become sett, they will be very iikely to fall; but in that case the same material can be used. The house that I built was thirty-six by twenty-two feet, and the walls, including digging the cel- lar, cost two hundred dollars. A brick wall of the same dimensions would require about seventy thousand brick, and any person can calculate the difference in the expense. The walls have now stood the test of three winters and they are still perfect and I believe they will stand ages. The building is warm in winter and cool in Summer. We have but once discovered ice in any portion of the house and that was when the themometer indi- cated 28 deg. below zero. There has been no frost in the cellar, although the windows were left with no protection ex- cept glass. My house is perfectly rat and mouse-proof with not a hiding place for them to harbor in. Iconsider this mater- ial just as suitable for all other farm build- ings as for dwellings; it makes a fire- proof smoke house,and as neat as tho’made of granite, and any person of the least mechanical genius can put them up, I did not employ 2 mason a single day in putting up my walls, I have,gentlemen given you what little experience I have had in building what engineers call con- crete walls, and I believe the time will come when they will be built all over our country, when the people will be satisfied of their practibility and durability. 213 Discussion---Feb. 4, 1859. Mr. Zenas Green read a very inter- esting Essay on “The best plan of con- structing farm buildings,” and after the reading of this paper, a short discussion took place in reference to the building material recommended by Mr. G.—Lime, gravel and sand, it was said, combined so as to make a durable material for the walls of buildings, and is very much cheaper, if conveniently obtained, than wood, stone, or brick. It made a warm dry house.— The outside may be plastered and painted so as to give it the appearance of costly material. Some members thought that water lime could not be used where it came to the frost, but those who had ex- perimented with it, stated that it was not sensibly affected by frost. In reference to the gravel used in the cement above allu- ded to, it was desirable that it should be as free from dirt as possible; the purer the materials in this respect, the more per- manent the wall. With regard to plas- tering walls, it was said the longer the wall was left to dry—or rather the more slowly it dried—the harder and better would it be; and one member stated the difference between our walls and those in England: Our walls were, for the most .part, hastily constructed, and were, there- fore, not very durable. In England he had seen plastered walls so hard as to re- resist cast iron nails, and in order to drive them in it was necessary first to make an opening with steel implements. Another member said he had seen cement made of lime, gravel, and sand, so hard that cobble stones, mingled with it, would break be- fore the cement which surrounded them. The discussion, at this meeting, was quite short, owing to a quantity of seeds from the Patent Office, before the Club, which. were to be arranged and distributed. Many of the seeds were of varieties not common here. Mr. Wilcox presented winter Pears, and the Swaar Apple, the latter’ of fine: flavor. IS IT PROFITABLE RAISE THEIR FOR DAIRYMEN TO OWN CALVES. AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, ON THE 18th OF FEBRUARY, 1859. 2 BY RoswvEDUMm DW. a This, I believe, is not the exact lar. guage in which this subject was given out, nor do I recollect precisely what that is; but I think it involves ideas relative to all kinds of Farmers, and all sorts of stock» which is quite too comprehensive for my time or ability. The subject, as now indicated by the} heading, in my opinion, has two nearly equal sides, so that either, undet va- ried circumstances, might be entitled to the ascendancy. Dairymen owning large farms (200 acres or over,) with a stock of good cows to start with, (the bull selected with particu- lar regard to milking qualities, and raise those only from the best milkers of the herd,) may supply themselves to decided advantage. The expense of rearing heif- ers until they come in, at two years old, according to my estimate, is about $35,00 each, on the average. This amount, with good economy in the outlay, will produce heifers well worth their cost, and prove a good guarantee against loss to the owner by running farrow when three years old, as they often do with ordinary keeping. This expense being a prominent point in this subject, I will give my estimate in items : Calf, four days old, - - , $1,25 Next two months, June Ist, .- 4,50 Next five do Nov. Ist, - 8,75 do do Apr.1st, - 8,00 . Amounting in one yeat to - 17,50 SECOND YEAR, yl First seven months, - ~ 6,00 Next five months, - 11,50 At the end of two years, - $35,00 This amount for a two year old heifer is enough to frighten most men off the idea of raising cows; but I fancy I have not advocated the affirmative of this question upon any false theory, either do- mestic or foreign, but from my own ex- perience in raising cows, which I will here notice. In March, 1839, I purchased a full blood Short Horn Durham Ball, of Mr. Christian Sharer, of this town, for $60,00, and invited my neighbors to improve their stock, by introducing the Durham blood, at the very low price of fifty cents per cow. But few availed themselves of the opportunity, saying they believed the little 215 Dutch cows to be much the best milkers. The next Spring I raised twenty heifer calves of half blood Durham stock ; and the following Spring I saved fifteen heif- ers and one bull of the same blood. The cows were selected from a lot of seventy of good native stock. In 1848, or 1849, from forty-two cows, including thirty-two of the heifers spoken of, I made 22,000 lbs. cheese and 800 lbs- of butter, which is fully equal to 570 Ibs. cheese per cow, with not to exceed one bushel of feed per head, in addition to hay and grass. I have raised some quarter and one-eighth blood Durham, by breeding in and in from bulls of my own raising, and find they fall far short in their capacity for yielding milk, when compared with the half bloods above spoken of. T have not time to enter upon the nega- tive side of this question, but expect to hear it thoroughly sifted in the discussion. I shall also feel myself much benefitted in hearing the erroneous ideas advanced in this Essay, pointed out and corrected. - —_— Discussion---Feb. 18, 1859. Roswell D. Brown opened the discus- sion by reading a well considered paper “on the advantages of Dairymen raising stock for Dairy purposes.” In the discus- sion which followed, there seemed to be a variety of opinion in reference to the profit to Dairymen of raising their cows.— On a large farm, where there were open spaces in woodlands, or where there was patches of pasture lands disconnected from the main pasture, it was, perhaps, advantageous to raise young stock—the Dairymen would be morecertain of ob- taining a first-class cow. It was difficult— almost impossible, in the opinion of some —to obtain superior animals at any rea- sonable price by purchase. The cows brought into market, were generally culls; aud the best of them only se-ond-class an- imals. The only certainty of obtaining a good flock of cows, was to raise them under your own inspection, from cows noted for their excellence. Again, it was said, that cn small farms where the land was laid out for a dairy, it was not profit- able to raise young stock: the quantity of grass consumed by young animals could be better employed in keeping cows ; and one member here remarked that he had observed that the most successful Dairymen did not generally raise young stock. Dairymen at the present time, it was said. were more in favor of raising their own cows than formerly. One reason was, that cows had advanced in price very much within the last few years ; aud an- other—perhaps the more important one— was the difficulty of getting first class an~ imals. It was thought that cows could be bought in Otsego Co. of superior milk- ing qualities at less cost than animals of like qualities could be raised’ here, The price was set down at less than $50.— Mr. Brown’s estimate of the cost of rais:ng heifers up to two years, was considered a fair estimate. A heifer at two years,some thought,would no more than pay her keep- ing. Others estimated the quantity of cheese made from a first-rate animal of this age at 400 pounds; others yet stated the relative quantity when compared witha 5 year old animal, to be 3-5ths. Mr. Brown said that out of 35 half blood Durhams raised by him, only three had been turn- 216 ed off as bad milkers; the others prove? to be su erior, and he had kept then until they were completely worn out; th: last. one was turned off a year ago, was 18 years of age, and yielded, he presum- ed, during the last season he kept he some 500 weight of cheese. The quan- tity of hay estimated to keep'a cow du- ring the season of foddering, was stated to be 20 pounds per day. ‘There was some little difference expressed in reference tothe cost of keeping goud a dairy of vows.— In a dairy of 40 cows, Mr. Brown esti- mated the average cost—or rather loss one year with another—to be 3 cows per year; others estimated the loss to be about ten per cent per xnnum. There was some dis- cussion in reference to the best breeds for beef: scme contending that the Durhams were the best, others that the Devons took preference. A member stated that a Durham at three years old made better beef than # Devon at the same age; but thata Devon at six years, at which time he had arrived at maturity, made beef superior to the Durham—and in illustration of the rela- tive quality of the two,a member stated thai at Paris, to test the matter, the flesh of both animals was set before epicures, and the preference was given to that of the Devon. The superior milking quali- ties of Mr. Fish’s cows were alluded to, By a systematic manner of breeding, he had improved their milking qualities until the average quantity of cheese yielded per cow amounted, for the season, to 834 pounds ; and this quantity was produced by no extra feed. He was now crossing his breed of cows with the Ayreshire, for the purpose of improving their constitu- tion, His flock yielded, during the best season, 16 quarts of milk per cow twice aday. The pravtice with some dairymen | of cutting off the animal’s tail, was dep- recated. Mr. Dickinson’s points of a good cow, were mentioned as follows: He re- gards the native cow as the best for milk. The best fashioned cow for milk, is the best for beef also. They must have small horns, straight backs, wide on the hips, } their thighs small, round ribs which start from the back-bone almost square, with a thin yellow hide, with coarse hair and light neck. A cow of this description never fails in quantity or quality of milk if properly cared for, unless she has been in some way injured. Much other inter- esting matter was brought out at this meeting. IMPROVEMENT IN COWS. AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, ON THE 4th OF MARCH, 1859. — BYyT ATLONZO REED. ——_e—____——. It is an easy matter to theorize and talk of improvement, ‘but to work out an im- provement in a practical way is often diffi- cult. {t is most especially so, when at- tempted on the many iatricate and various operations, incident to the subject under consideration to-day. In these are inelu- ded the choice of animals or breeds—the science of breeding, the treatment of the young animalduring its stage of growth. ‘The ant of feeding, to develope the milk-} . cow of any other breed.” ing qualities, and influence the quality of the milk ; the forming of babits—of gen- tleness, of giving down milk rapidly ; of the length of time in milk, and many oth- er things of importance. I ean do little some of these heads, and leave the sub- ject to others of more experience. There is a difference of opinion among dairymen, ais to which is the best breeds for dairy purposes. The short horns or Durhams, have probably been disseminated in this country more than any other. 't is ad- mitted of these, that they give large quantities of milk, approach perfection in form, and with good keeping, come early to maturity and attain large size. It is also claimed that they require extraordi- nary feed, and the most careful attendance instances. to keep up their character and condition -and that no animals sooner degenerate under neglect and poor keeping, The Ayreshires have not been largely in- troduced in this country. In England they are considered the best dairy cows. All dairy farmers, who have had any ex- perience on this point, agree in stating that “an Ayreshire cow generally givesa larger returo of milk for the food consumed,than In size and symmetry, they are inferior to the Short Horns, but are hardier and will thrive on less fertile soils and with less attention. |The Devons are hardy and fine for work jand beef; more than make a few suggestions upon} knowledged inferior to several other breeds, but for the dairy must be ac- The milk is good and yields more than the average proportion of cream and bat- ter, butthe quantity is deficient. It is claimed by many, that front a sé- lection of the best native cows, a herd cain be raised as good or better for dairy pur- poses, than from any of the improved breeds. ‘his bas been’ done in several The celebrated Cream Pot breed of cattle, originated by Cul. Jacques, were bred from two native cows, remark- able for richness and quabtity of milk. 218 These were crossed with a full blooded Dirham, in order to get more size and symmetry, and retain if possible, the de- sirable property of affording a large yicld of rich milk. The success of his effort, was such, that the milk from some of his cows, produced at the rate of one pound of butter from each gallon of milk, and many of his cows produced at the rate of twenty-one pounds of butter per week, on. grass feed only. The records of farge yields from cows, show as extraordinary results from native, | as from full blood stock. Nearly every farmer has in his herd of cows, some animals which are superior to the rest of the dairy, in the quantity or quality of milk they produce. The dif. ference, especially of profit, between such animals and ordinary or inferior ones, js perhaps more than most farmers are aware of. To illustrate this in a practical way, I will give some statistics of the yield and profit of the five best, also of the five poorest cows, in my dairy in the season of 1857. They were obtajned by meas- uring and recording the amount of each cow’s milk, on the first day of each month during the season, and are approximately correct : 5 Best Cows Cr. By average of 554 gallonsof milk each, wh ch realized 1m butter and chevse,* 114 cente per gallon....-.--.-----2.- $63 71 To 23 tonsof bay @ $8, per ton,........-$20 00 * 30 weeks pantur ge @ 2s, per wevk... 7 50 “2 cwl ground teed ip Spring @ 123 p.r Duudred, 0.2... cee eee e wee e wen eves 3 00 “10 ,er cent. iuterest on cust of cow, Bay $45 OO pivias cavaesiueieeoessewss oe 450 35 00 $28 71 Balance in favor of CoW.....cse-sceee fi 6 Puores! Cows Dr. To cost of keeping one ) eur as above,... 335 Ov Cr. By an average of 243 ga'luns milk exch : which us above ai 114 cents per gallon, Balance against COW--..+--..00eeeenee $7 06 * This is the average amount realized per gallon for 27 95 the entire season. Any arithmetician can estimate from the above data, the relative value of such cows for dairy purposes. It is needless to add that cows of the latter class, were not kept more than one season. All Dai- tymen who buy their cows, get more or less poor milkers—for it requires long practice and judgment, to become an adept in the selection of cows. In raising stock, no calves should be selected except from known choice cows, and even those do not always prove good unless the sire be of a good milking fam- jily. The mark of Geurnon called the es- cutcheon or milk-mirror is a valuable aid in the selection of calves. By it the dai- ryman can judge whether the calf will eventually prove to be a good milker or uot. To obtain the most perfeet devel- opment in the young animal, it is neces- sary that it should be well kept--that it should suffér no negligence, severity or hard fare. Checks and reverses always injure the constitution, Calves often get poor and are much stunted io their growth, by being kept at pasture until late in the fall, when grass is usually very short. - It is better economy to give a little ex- tra feed at this time, than to be obliged to raise the animal from low condition in cold weather. In order to stimulate the milking qualities of young stock, it is recommended that they be kept on dairy food. I quote from “ Flint on Dairy Far- ming,” a few passages to show the influence of the nutrition of cows on the milk they produce: “ Milk may be regarded asa material for the manufactuie of butter or of cheese, and according to the purposes for which the milk is intended to be em- ployed, whether for the manufacture of butter or the production of cheese, the 219 cow should be differently fed. Butter contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and no pitrogen. Cheese, on the contrary, is rich in nitrogen. Food, which contains much fatty matter, or substances which in the animal are readily. converted into fat, will tend to increase the proportion of cream jin milk. On the other hand, the propor- tion of casein or cheesy matter in milk is increased by the use of highly nitrogenized food. Those, therefore, who desire much cream, or who produce milk for the man- ufacture of butter, select food likely to in- crease the proportion of butter in the milk. On the, other hand, where the principal! object is the produotion of mile ih ms ticle, written by S. H. Ainsworth, on the {cultivation of the Virgalieu Pear. curd—that ‘is, where cheese is the object of the Farmer,.clover, peas, bean-meal and other plants.which abound in legumine—a witrogenized, organic compound, almost with casein, or the substance whiek forms the curd af milk—will be seleeted. And so the quality, as well as the quantity, of the butter in the milk, depend on the kind of the animal.” The experiments of Mr. Horsfall,in England, recorded in detail in the above mentioned work, show the em- inent success obtained by a judicious and scientific course of feeding. , I had lately the pleasure of seeing and examining the herd of Mr. A. L. Fish, spoken of at the last meeting of the Club. I could but admire their gentleness and quiet disposition, Nearly all of the herd, including cows, heifers, and other young stock, could be examined, and handled in the yard without the least exhibition of fear or uneasiness on the part of the ani- mal, Mr. Fish said it was owing partly to the breed, but more to the care and pains taken with them, that he had found it far easier to break heifers before being in milk than afterwards. No blows or harsh treatment to young stock were allowed on his place. I will add that in general, cows should be treat- ed with constant gentleness, never struck or spoken harshly to, but cared and ca- ressed, and in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred they will grow up gentle and quiet. ——_—__>—___—_- Discussion--March 4, 1858. The Secretary read an interesting ar- (This article will be found commencing on the 221st page.) Mr. A. Reed, of Dan- Beat a i ....{ube, then read his Hssa “ Improve- identical in properties and composition | “ , 5 Peay ane SE peve ment of Dairy Cows.” {n the discussion whieh followed, allusion was made to ex- periments in feeding, which had recently been made in England—good results had of food consumed, and the general health’ followed the feeding of bean and pea meal—the quantity of milk. it was said, was increased from two to three quarts per day. Mr. Fish’s cows were again spoken of. They were full blooded Durhams, of a greyish color, and a dozen or more could be picked from the flock—each of whieh would yield, during the best season, a bushel of milk per day. In reference to feeding cows during summer with whey and shorts, the general impression seemed to be among members, that it injured the cow, and was not advisable if the animal had plenty of feed. Some members thought that the feeding of whey did not increase the quantity of milk—the cow ate less grass. Those who had fed with 220 whey, had discontinued its use, not regard- ing it as profitable, Some considerable discussion took place concerning a disease, which of late years had become more or less prevalent in dairies, and which resulted in cows losing their calves. Dairies were mentioned which had been completely broken up from this cause; and the present spring, several dairymen were instanced who had lost the use of several cows from the cause above alluded to. Some of the members regar- ded the disease as epidemic, and recom- mended a free use of tar about the heads of the flock, as well as about the stable— Plaster, sprinkled freely about the stable, was also advisable. When an animal had thus lost her calf, she should be separated immediately from the herd; in order that the others should not be affected, from sympathy. Others regarded the disease to be caused by something in the hay.— Lobelia was mentioned as an herb that would be likely to produce these results; and that it was found of late years in meadows to a considerable extent. You- att was referred to: his opinion is that it in the hay. Some members spoke of the white daisy as being not much detriment to a farmer—that it made feed in the spring of the year equal to that from clo- ver. One member said he had noticed that such opinions were prevalent among those whose farms were overrun with the daisy, and were forced to use it for their stock. Manuring highly would destroy the daisy—farms and patches of land were mentioned where the daisy had dis- appeared in this way. Some advocated the idea that the daisy, as well as the Canada thistle, would run out of their own account in a few years, on the same principle that different plants follow each other in rotation, One member said, in illustration of this principle, that he had attempted to grow plum trees on ground where plum trees had died, but with no success; and another member spoke of dirt, carted from one old Hawthorn hedge, which would not grow the cuttings of the Hawthorn. In speaking of the relative cost of keeping a good and a poor cow, it was said the good milker consumed mord food ; and in this connection, one mem- is an epidemic disease and more liable to | ber stated that the best milkers were gen- attack cows kept on low marshy lands, | erally animals with small bones. where the water was impure. Members,| Some members advocated the idea that generally, were not able to account for the |the Devone digested their food more per disease, but the general impression seern- | fectly than the natives, and hence were edto be that it was caused by something | much more easily kept, THE VIRGALIEU PEAR. A PAPER READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, ON THE 4th OF MARCH, 1859. oO By Ss. EX. AINSWORTEZ. ee Eps. Rurat:—I have thought that an article setting forth the productiveness, profits, vigor, health, time it takes to bring the tree into bearing, and general cultiva- tion of the Virgalieu or White Doyenne Pear, would be interesting if not profita- ble to many readers of your widely cir- culated journal, and accordingly send you the following for publication. I have di- vided the subject iato eleven parts, and endeavored to treat each part by itself as far as possible, for the purpose of making the whole subject the more clear and dis- tinct. This pear is of foreign origin, a native of France. All things considered, it is undoubtedly the best pear grown in West- ern New York, and probably in America, There are other varieties that are equal to it in some particulars, but none as a whole. 1st. It isa Regular and Prolific Bearer. The village of Canandaigua contains more large trees of this variety than any other place in Western New York.— There are many trees there from 9 to 15 inches in diameter, from 40 to 50 feet high, and from 50 to 70 years old, that have not failed ot a single crop since they came into bearing. Iam told by many gentlemen that they have borne every year for 40 to 50 years, from 5 to’ 26 busly- els per tree. The buds stand the coldest winters unharmed, and are never #njured by the frost in the Spring. Years wher the apple crop has been entirely cut off by frosts, the trees of this tariety have been loaded with large and golden fruit that would tempt a king, and which have tempted too many boys to the lose of the growers. It is the most certaiy crop of fruit raised in this part of the State— These facts show a good crop to be just ag certain every year as is the arrival of spring, summer and autumn. 2d. Its Profits, A number of gentlemen in Canandai- gua have kindly given me the liberty to use their names in connection with the following facts pertaining to the number of bushels of this pear to the tree, price, &c., which can be relied upon with the utmost confidence and certainty. One of the most prolific trees of this variety stands on the old homestead of the late Judge Howell, on Main st., and was planted by his own hand near 60 years ago. It is now about 3 1-2 feet round its trunk, and from 40 to 50 feet high. Thos. R. Hewell, Esq., son of the Judge, and 222 who has seen the frosts of nearly half a century, says this tree has borne from his earliest remembrance every year, and cer- tainly has not failed of a good crop for 40 years—that it has averaged 20 bushels a year for the last 20 years, This crop has been sold for $2 a busbel on the tree gen- erally. He thinks it will be safe to esti- mate the profits of this tree at $40 a year for the last 20 years. In this estimate he called the price but $2 a bushel. The price paid there was.generally $3 a bush- el, Jast year, which would make this crop worth $60. Mr. Howell has a number of small trees on his place, 25 years of age, each of which bears from 5 to 6 bushels a year, of beautiful and superb fruit,worth $3 per bushel—$1d to $18 per tree. Judge Taylor has three large’ trees about the age and size of those mentioned above. The yield from these three trees in 1854 was 11 bushels of selected fruit, four of which he sold for $56, and the other séven for $70—making the crop $126, from three trees, equal to $42 a tree. He says the weather was so dry that a part of the fruit dropped off in August—that the yield was not as good as it had been years before, and that he has never failed of a goop crop. Judge T, has a number of other trees, grafted a few years go, just coming into bearing, which produced 7 or 8 barrels more. He says his pear trees will pay the rent of 50 acres of land yearly, There are three threes on the old At- water place, now owned by Marshall Fin- ley—two of them about the size and age of the above, the other small. Mr. Finley says he has always sold the crop on the trees—price from $50 to $60 a year. They bear regularly every year. The small tree bears about 3 bushels, the Jar- gest from 15 to 18 bushels, and the other from 10 to 14 bushels. The profits of these three trees at $3 per bushel, would be from $84 to $105 annually, He says he was offered $100 a tree for them, but refused to take it. , One gentleman sold his crop of thirty barrels year before last, in the city of New York, for $15 a barrel—equal ‘to $450. This fauit, as I understand it, was from a young orchard of seven or more years from planting, containing some hundreds of trees. It vielded about 50 barrels last year, as] am informed. If this is correet, and they sold as high as the year before, they brought the snug little sum of $750 —as much as 20 acres of wheat would bring last year. ‘The above are but a few facts selected from many of like nature, to show the anount of pears produced by a tree, and the price for which they were sold. I can say farther, without fear of contradic- tion, that these will not vary much from the average of all the trees in Canandai- gua,taking age and size into consideration, An aere of large trees like those described, would average at least 13 bushels each— equal to 1,800 bushels. At the Canan- daigua price, $3 a bushel, the crop would bring $3,900. At the New York price, $15 a barrel, (three bushels to the barrel) they would bring the snug fortune of $6,- 500, enough to buy a good farm. We have no such orchards to my knowledge in America, at this time, to compare this estimate with ; but waking the Canandai- gua trees as a whole, for a sample, they will warrant the above estimate. 3d. Time required, under good Culture, to bring this varwty into General Bearing. Two year old trees (from the bud) that are healthy and thrifty, and planted upon 223: the right soil for the pear, rightly trimmed and cared for, will commence bearing the third year after transplanting, and will produce from one to twelve pears each, and annually increase rapidly in number, By the seventh year they will average at least one peck of splendid years to each tree—making the yield per acre (of 160 trees) of 40 bushels—equal to $120 at the present price. I have some trees that were sct four years ago. They commenc- ed bearing in 1853. Year before last they bore from one to twelve pears each. One of my neighbors planted an orchard of 300 trees three years ago this spring. Some of the trees bore the following sum- mer. This explodes the idea so geuer- ally entertained that it takes from 15 to 20 years to fruit the pear from bud—how- ever true it may be with seedlings culti- vated in the old way by farmers on the borders of their gardens. Many other varieties bear equally young, among which are the Madelaine, Bloodgood, Bartlett, Seckel, Winter Nellis, &c. Trees 12 years from transplanting will average at least one bushel per tree, (and this is a low estimate). Where 160 trees are set upon an acre,the crop will be worth at $3 per bushel, the clever sum of $480. T estimate that the whole yield from the time of transplanting to the 12th year, would be at least 8 1-2 bushels to a tree <~equal to'560 bushels to the aere, which at $3 a’ bushel, will give $1,680 for the whole crop for 12 years, or an average: ‘of $140 per year. Trees 16 years from the setting’ will ayerage 3 bushels per tree, or 480 bushels per acre, worth $1 440. At 20 years from planting they will produce 6 bushels to a tree—equal to 960 bushels to the acre—worth at the present price, the snug’ little fortune of $2,880. This variety re- tailed in some of our principal cities last fall, for from 2 to 6 cents each, It sells in the London market for 25 cents a pear, or at the rate of $50' per bushel of: 200° pears. Should any one think the above esti- mate too high, I shall’ not be troubled in the least to show them trees of the above ages that produce yearly twice the quan- tity of fruit specified. 4th. The Pear Culture will not be over done. Some may object to going inte the cul. ture of the Pear on a large scale, on the ground of the over supply of the market, and the consequent diminution of the price toa few shillings a bushel. It seems to me that a little reflection and calculation upon this subject will be sufficient to set- tle the matter. There are now about 24,- 000,000 inhabitants in the United States ”/—all lovers of good fruit, Will it not be safe to say that if this, the best of pears, is placed within the reach of our citizens generally, that at least one- -third of the whole population would eat or use one pear each per, day, from the time it commenced to ripen till gone? If 80, this would make a market for at least 8,- 000,000 of pears a day. Say it takes 200 pears of this variety to make a ‘bushel. We then have a daily market for 40,000 bushels in the United States alone. ‘This variety comes into use about the first of October, and with but little trouble’ may be kept till the first of January, or about 90 days. At 40,000 bushels a day, it will require no les than 3,600,000 bush- els to supply the market. They can ‘be shipped to all parts o of North and” ‘South 224 America, to Europe, and in short, to most parts of the globe—all of which might double this demand. Say in round num- bers that 8,000,000 of bushels might be sold annually. It is admitted that there is but a small portion of the United States in which this pear can be grown to perfection. It is said to succeed best in Western New York. But let that be as it may. It will take no less than 8,000,000 trees twelve years from transplanting te grow these pears— or 50,000 acres of land at 160 trees per acre. I think the inhabitants will increase in number, and the consequent demand for the pear, much faster than the supply. Such has been the case for years back, and it appears likely to continue for years tocome. But suppose the price is re- duced to $1 a bushel, then the profit to the acre of twelve year old trees is no less than $160,—at sixteen years, $480, and at twenty years, $960. At fifty cents, or perhaps even at twenty-five cents a bush- el, it will be as profitable as the apple, taking into account the certainty of the crop. But it is certainthat this, the best of all fruits when in its highest perfection, never will come down to either of these prices, until good pears and the best of apples cannot be given away. 5th. Fire Blight, the only objection to Extensive Culture, In certain sections of the country, the fire blight is urged by many against the culture of the pear even for family use. It is true that pear trees are cut down by this disease, more or less, yearly in diffe- rent parts of our land. Some varieties are much more subject to it than others, This variety is a good, upright grower, and ripens its wood well—seems to be hardy and very free from all disease, par- ticularly the blight, in this vicinity. Ifa loss of row and then a tree isurged as the reason why it will not be safe to go into its culture extensively, then I ask why not make the same objection to the cul- ture of the apple or peach, on the ground of the borer ?—as there are probably five trees lost by the borer to one of this va- riety by the blight. But suppose we do loose now and then a tree of this variety by the blight; it will be but little com- pared with the loss of the apple and peach by the borer and frost. After all is said that can well be against the culture of the pear, it must be admitted when compared with growing other fruits, to be by far the most certain and profitable. 6th. Soil best adapted to the Growth of the Pear. The kind of land suited to the highest culture of the Pear can only be correctly ascertained by long and constant obser- vation, Observation shows that the pear tree grows and bears fair crops upon nearly all soils, but lives longest, flourishes best, and bears the most prolific crops where alumina predominates—where the top soil is either clayey loam or vegetable mould mixed with clay subsoil, where clay greatly preponderates. The pear tree as well as the fruit grows 10 its greatest per- fection in and about the beautiful village of Canandaigua. Trees that were planted there when the town was first settled are now 60 or 70 feet high, and 15 to 18 in- ches in diameter, sound, healthy and thrifty, and bid fair to continue so for years to come. These trees consist of both natural and grafted fruit. The white Doyene was -grafted considerably at an 228 early day, as many of the trees now indi- cate, some of which are from 40 to 50 feet high, and one foot in diameter, and which bear prolific crops of the firfest fruit grown in América. Other varieties flourish equally well here. The soil in and about this village is clayey loam, with a stiff clay subsoil, ‘There are many trees inthis town, Lima nod Avon equally large and thrifty, that were planted by the first settlers, and which bear prolific crops yearly. The land that bore these old settlers, is the same as above described. There are a great number of trees along the St. Clair river that were planted by the early French settlers, which are prodigious in size, healthy and fruitful. Soil clayey. Simi- lar facts might be extended to any length to establish this position. "th, How to Prepare the Land yor planting. Prepare the ground asa good farmer would to raise a great cropof corn. Say, by spreading twenty-five loads of manure per acre, and from four to six loads of leached ashes—then plow and _ sub-soil sixteen inches deep, and your ground is ready for the trees. 8th. Selection of Trees. Success depends much upon the selec- tion of trees. They should be thrifty, healthy and stalky, and be taken up with -as'much root as possible, as they will add much to the growth of the tree the first year. Trees two years old from the bud, that have made a good growth, are of the best age to transplant. Indifferent or stunted trees should never be planted for an orchard, however cheaply they may be obtained. Better pay fifty cents for a good tree than take a poor one for noth- ing. A good thrifty tree will pay for it- self four times over before a stunted,root- less one will come into bearing. Again, trees should be selected, that branch low —say from 1 1-2 to 3 feet above the ground. See reason under head of Prun- ing. 9th. How to Transplant. ‘When the land is prepared as above, the holes for receiving the trees need not be dug more than 15 or 18 inches across; or just large enough to receive the roots, and 16 inches deep. The general ten- dency of the roots is downwards into the clay. They branch but little horizontally hence it requires but a small hole to re- ceive them. All bruised roots should be cut smooth and the limbs shortened in to correspond with the amount of the roots, so as to give an equilibrium between the two. Care should be taken at this time also, to give the tree its future shape by cutting off those limbs that will not be required to form a judicious top,and shortening others to give the top its proper form, This done, place the tree in the hole. Now much care is necessary—first, not to set it too deep, and, second, to see that the dirt is well filled in among the roots. It should not be set deeper than it was in the nursery. Shallow set trees always do better than deep set ones. The reason is that the roots of all trees require air, light and heat to flourish. They root by na- ture just right in this particular; hence they should not be set deeper than before. After this is well looked to, se that the dirt is well filled in among the rvots and moderately pressed down, but not hard. It requires no water in planting trees at the proper time, either spring or fall._— Planting trees in mortar made of clay soil is always unwise. Reason—it becomes | 226 baked and as hard and as dry as brick-bat, and the result is the tree withers and dies in mid summer. Thousands of trees are lost every year from this cause alone.— Thousands are also lost from setting in ‘small holes, dug in sword ground, in door yards, corners of gardens, &c. Those that plant trees in this way have and may ex- pect to lose them through all time. When the soil becomes hard and packed, it pre- vents the circulation of air, light, and heat, and vapor in the air—all necessary to its growth, The true policy is to leave the earth light and porous as possible when setting the tree, and keep it in the same condition after by hoeing and culti- vating deep and often. When this is well done, but very few trees will be lost by dry weather. When the ground is in good condition, no manure is necessary in transplanting. All that is required is to select good :top soil and fill with that as above. Better put the manure on top of the ground after the tree is planted. No crop should be allowed to grow within four feet of the tree at any time after planting. Low crops are best for an orchard. 10th. Number of Trees to the Acre. The number of trees that may be eco- nomically set to the acre, always depends upon the size, shape and habits of the va- riety. The Virgalieu is an upright, com- pact grower, and generally covers but lit- tle space. Hence the trees may be set. comparatively close together without ever interfering with each other. I am setting nay trees one rod apart each way, and think from the habit of the tree that they will do well at that distance. This gives 160 to the acre, 11th Pruning. In trimming this variety for standard orchard culture, three things should be considered. The tree should be always so trimmed as to commence ¢he ‘top from 2 1-2 to 4 feet above the ground. Those limbs and branches should be left at this height that give an open round head, and after those that cross each other and tend much to the centre of the top to give it its perfect shape, are the ones to cut out, It requires some thinking and planning to give the top of each tree its proper shape in the commencement, as the top of all trees vary more or less in their natural formation in the nursery. Hence the ne- cessity of making the most out of each natural top. Asa general thing, however, the same general form may be giveu to all the trees in the orchard. When this is well done three important points are gain- ed. First—The tree will commence bear- ing from two to four yeurs sooner than it would if trimmed six or eight feet higher before the top is formed. Second—The fruit is much easier picked. Third—The fruit is less liable to be blown off by high winds. West Bloomfield, Ontario .co., N, Y. SPRING FEED FOR COWS. AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, ON THE Ist OF APRIL, 1859. BY fF. &. sSsN EU. —— Asthe produets of the cow in butter cand cheese has become the main staple in this section of our farming community, it is therefore of the utmost importance that her wants should be duly considered, for there is no part of a farmer’s investments that yield a more speedy return in profits than the extra care of his dairy will at this most critical season of the year. In order to be well prepared for this impor- tant duty he should carefully select his. best hay, cutting some as early as it can be safely and successfully cured, storing ‘where it is accessible in time of need.— As the milk drawn naturally requires an extra amount of feed, for convenience and economy every dairy should be supplied with two or more yards, in order to sepa- rate the cows that are in milk, that they may be stabled by themselves, giving them the choicest keeping, (while others wil] do well on coarse feed.) Regularity in feeding should be observed. Jn addition to ‘all the hay they will con- ‘sume they should have a daily allowance ef buckwheat ‘bran or shorts, mixed in about equal parts in weight, of meal of any kind of grain that is most convenient, oats, barley, rye or corn, three or four Ibs. scalded is sufficient. High feeding on grain should not be resorted to unless the scarcity of hay leaves no alternative. T have often heard it remarked that corn meal has a tendency to dry up wilk, an opinion I have reason to doubt, having oc- casion to fata cow that prematurely lost her calf last December, feeding her more meal in a given time than any beef I ever fed, milking once a day, yielding from six to eight quarts of milk, with very little increase of fat. Frequent salting, with an occasional change of feed, potatoes, carrots, roots of any kind, anything that will tempt the appetite and produce thrift will be speed- ily remunerated. Carrots are unquestionably good but their slow growth in starting, allowing weeds to spring up in advance of them, the time required in a busy season of the year to weed a puny plant, hoeing, gath- ering ard housing them, renders it ex- 228 tremely difficult to raise them with success and profit for anything more than an occa- sional change of feed. The duty devolving upon me of writing an essay, if soit may be called, compels me to draw my conclusions from observa- tion ; not having the ability to test the chemical properties of the different kinds of feed—and I trust will be considered a sufficient apology for all omissions and er- rors. Discussion---April 1, 1859. The Essay of Mr. Snell called out a Spirited discussion as to the benefit of rais- jng carrots for winter and spring feeding. Mr. Snell did not think it was profitable to raise large quantities of carrots—the labor of cultivating and housing the carrot was very considerable—and though a small quantity of carrots could be fed occasion- ally to stock in the winter and spring with benefit, as a change of food, yet there were other kinds of food, that could be produ- ced at Jess cost and labor, that would per- haps prove quite as serviceable, if designed to be fed in any considerable quantity— good hay was considered the cheapest food. The labor of cultivating an acre of carrots was estimated by Mr. S., to be greater than ‘the cultivation of 10 aeres of corn. He had raised small patches of carrots where -the yield was at the rate of 1400 inyahieds to the acre. An estimate was here made by one of the members, of the value of an acre of carrots at this yield—at two shillings per bushel the crop would be worth $350—at three shillings, over $500, and evenif the cost of producing amounted to $200, the profit would be very large, It was said the yield, alluded to above, was rouch larger than could be expected under ordinary circumstances, Others thought carrots and other roots also, ware of great service to stock when fed in win- ter and spring, they approximated near to green food and promoted the health of animals which was of the utmost impor- tance to Dairymen. A member said his attention had been called to this fact many years ago, from noticing the effect it had on animals fed with roots in his father’s dairy, when turned out to grass these animals were in better heart and yielded more milk during the entire summer. Mr. Snell spoke of his experience in raising corn fodder from corn sown broad- cast—he had estimated the quantity that could be produced to the acre by carefully measuring off one yard square in his field and weighing the crop in a green state and also after it had been thoroughly dried, The fodder weighed in its green state from the square yard 28 1-2 pounds, or at the rate of 68 tons and eight hundredths per acre. After the same had been thoroughly dried the weight was 4 pounds or 9 1-2 tons to the acre—the curing was perform- ed under cover and was more thorough than would be practicable with a large quantity in the field—he did not consider the fodder equal to the best quality of green hay—grass that was cut early and cured well. Other members thought corn fodder very superior, and that when fed, either in its dry or green state, induced a large flow of milk, One member estimated the in- creased flow of milk from feeding cut corn fodder at 20 per cent, over that from hay, A discussion here arose in reference to 229 the dffect of high feeding with grain to cows which had calved, but had not been turned out.to grass. One member conten- ded that feeding high and increasing the quantity of milk, had the effect of producing a larger yield of milk after the animal was.turned out to grass. The the- ory was, that the quantity of milk a cow would give was the result somewhat of her education in this respect. If from the time hat the cow calves she is fed so that ‘the secretions of milk are large, the habit ‘becomes established, and when turned out ito grass will continue. If the secretions of milk are small before being turned out to grass the cow has a-tendency to secrete asmall quantity, This theory, in the opin- ‘ion of members, was not true as far as their -own practice and observation had exten- -ded. Tndeed the fact had become some- what notorious among dairymen that cows ‘which had been fed high before being turned to grass yielded less milk when they came to grass than those which had been fed only moderately—in reality, such cows had a tendency to produce a legs quantity of milk on grass than on hay and grain. Ii was well known-too, that cows taken from the village to the country al-| most always gave less milk. The President gave a history of his ex- periments in high feeding in spring. The dairy was fed daily with about four quarts of scalded meal to each cow—it was fed dn a mash and about filled a common pail. The cows gave a quantity of milk with this food fully equal to the quantity usually given in the spring when feeding on grass. When they were turned out to grass the! quantity was not increased and the cows. did not do as well as in seasons when not) fed so high. The experience of other inembers werg of the same character. Mr. Browm said he had often noticed that horses which were in high condition when put in pasture in June, for some time lost flesh, while those in ordinary condition steadily gained and improved. It was though? perhaps that when the quantity of milk had been increased by feeding the cows roots, the effeet would be different than when fed with grain, The feed used by Mr. Markel, int the experiment above alluded to, was barley and oats, ground togetner. Mr. Arnold read a table prepared from statistics in Flint’s work, giving the theo- retical value of food, as compared with the experimental value. From the exper- iments made in feeding, which were seven’ in number, it would seem that the hay, ats ten dollars per ton, was the eheapest food. Hay, it was said, might be the cheapest food to carry stock through, but yet not the most profitable for the Dairyman—a mixed food was desirable. And again, to animals giving milk for any length of time, hay alone could not be consumed in sufficient quantities to keep up the waste of flesh, d&c. Some concentrated foodi would be found necessary in order to keep the animal in a condition to yield the Jar- gest returns of milk when put to pasture. Oil cake was referred to as an excellent food for stock. One member thought the oil meal, furnished at Ingham’s Mills seve- ral years ago, was of much better quality than that tobe had there at the present time. With regard to teeding oil cake, Mr. Brown said he had known horses to be injured by it. One horse in particular, was completely ruined—its hoofs came off. 230 In reference to raising carrots, Mr. Wil- cox said, the best crop of Carrots he ever saw was raised on slaty soil. The land had been worked for several years previous] Mr. Snell spoke of an animal that had and was thought to be pretty well worn. lost her calf, to which he bad'fed cornmeal The Carrots were of good size and the} for the purpose of fattening—the meal in- yield large. duced a flow of milk. His experience: In speaking of Corn meal asa spring | went to show that Corn meal used: as 4 feed for cows, a member stated that from|spring feed did not havea tendency to the experience of others which had come | check the flow of milk, as was imagined: under his observation, he was led to think | by some, but the contrary. a it a better food than he had formerly regarded it, TREES, AND THEIR MODE OF OBTAIN- ING NOURISHMENT. AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, ON THE’ 15th OF APRIL, 1859. Byv =. A, WIDDARD. ee re Two distinct classes of substances en- gage the attention of the practical Farmer in the prosecution of his art. The living plant which he produces, or has under his charge, and the dead soil on which it grows, Since the formation of this Club, several questions have been discussed here refer- ritig more or less to trees--their growth--the flow of sap—the changes which it under- goes in its elaboration, and its final con- version into wood. Theories sometimes look plausible on paper, but when carried into the field and reduced to practice are utterly worthless. But there are certain laws regulating the growth of plants which the successful cultivator is caretul to ob- serve, knowing that a disregard of their conditions results in loss. Some years since,an experienced Grafter came into my Orchard to set scions. I desired him to graft only one-third of the top of each tree, leaving the remaining portion to be operated upon at successive seasons, that the life and thriftiness of the tree might be ensured. Objections were offered, and it was said no injury would result from grafting the whole top at one time, and in order to note the difference, if any, resulting from such course, a few trees had a large portion of their tops re- moved and were then grafted. These’ trees have never recovered from their se- vere pruning—-they are dying out and will soon be worthless, Younger trees, perhaps, might have recovered, but I would not care to again make the experi- mnent on tops of any considerable size. In pruning fruit trees with a view to their improvement, it is evident enough that the dead and diseased branches may be lopped off with benefit, but in going further than this it is always well before cutting to be able to give a reason why such and such a limb should be removed. ‘Trees, it must be remembered, breathe as well as_per- sons, and cutting away the living branches and foliage is removing a portion of their lungs. Of the numberless varieties of vegeta- ble growth, there is nothing, perhaps, for which man feels a kind of friendship and attachment akin to humanity stronger than for trees—old trees planted and cared for 232 by members of your family who have long|and forms an arch through which High. since gone down to the grave, but who have left behind a living link to connect us with the past—trees bearing the names of individuals who first propagated a par- ticular kind of fruit, and preferred its fla- vor above other varieties. In old orchards, one often comes across trees of this character producing an ex- cellent quality of natural fruit. Such trees have a history about them which it is sometimes pleasant to hear as we sit in Summer under their shade and eat of the falling fruit. In my own orchard there are trees named by members of my family more than forty years ago, and often, in passing or while plucking their fruit, I fall into a dream of childhood, picturing vividly the presence of those whose names they bear, or fancy- ing the tree itself a representative which in its mute way copverses of ‘long ago,” And I find this feeling is common to most of us. We have certain trees which we more or less personify. A friend who re- cently paid a visit of some days to Mr.Em- merson, says the most instructive lessons of philosophy he ever heard were in con- nection with, or concerning the trees scat- tered over his premises, Each one had a history as impressive—as full of inter- est, as if it were human. “Heaven wills these simple things should give Lessons to teach us how to live.” And if we look aright, there is “Not a plant, a leaf, a flower, but contains A folio volume, we may read, and read, And read again, and still find something new ; Something to please, something to instruct Even in the noisome weed.” In Pertshire there js a Yew Tree called the Fortingal, which is supposed to have existed from the commencement of the Christian era. The trunk is a mere shell Jand funerals pass. In Windsor Forest is an oak bearing the inscription—“ Here Pope sung.” Of the Cedars of Lebanon, which La- martine visited in 1812, he thus writes :— “They are the most renowned of natural monuments; the Arabs highly venerate them, and say that they understand the seasons, spreading or contracting their boughs as the snow is about to fall or to melt—they could not otherwise sustain the immense weight of snow which would , collect upon their massy foliage.” Southey thus refers to this fact in his Thalaba: “Their broad round spreading branches when they felt The snow, rose upward in a point to heaven.” In all ages trees have been objects of regard and veneration, “The ancient Druids performed their mystic rites in for- ests. The oaks of Mamre, near Hebron were made the objects of pilgrimage from the time of Abraham to that of Constan- tine. The Syrians personified their god Rimmon under the figure of a pomegran- ate, and palms are still held sacred in the Romish church.” We are told that the Cedars of Lebanon were held in such es- teem, that one of the most dreaded threats of Sennacherib was, that he would level them with the ground. Buckhardt informs us, that Date trees often constitute the dowry of an Eastern bride. The Beach and Willow are connected with the names of Gray and Johnson, and there are few persons who possess so little imagination as not to have personified more than once in his life a tree whose branches have long since been recorded as a corrector of evil doing—the Birch, Thus far I have digressed somewhat from the subject I had proposed to trea’ 233 viz —The structure of trees and the man- ner in which their nourishment is ob- tained. Aud here a thought occurs which may as well be disposed of iv this place. It is in reference to the practical advantage or profit in filling up with young trees the spaces made vacant in old orchards from trees decaying or dying out. Iam unable to say for what length of time an Apple tree may be grown on good soil, but I know that nature dictates a ro- tation in crops and that soils ultimately become sick of certain kinds of trees and utterly refuse for a time to grow them. they are thrown off and succeeded by others of a different -variety. This has been particularly noticed with regard to forest trees. Fruit trees that produce largely must sooner exhaust the soil of those constitu- ents necessary for their growth and crops, and when in an old orchard trees begin to die out without any apparent cause, it is pretty good evidence that the land desires a change—that a particular application of food is demanded by the tree for its nour- ishment and support. It is well known to you, that organic substances, when subjected to fire, burn away, while the inorganic are generally fixed and do not so burn away. The quantity of ash left by a ton of oat straw, is sometimes as much as 200 lbs. ; of the grain of oats, about 80; of hay, 180; while that of oak wood is only four or five pounds. In fertile soils, there ex- ists from three to ten per cent, of vegeta- ble or other matter of organic origin. It will be seen, then, that a large amount of organic and inorganic matter is usually taken annually from our orchard lands in addition to that which goes to make up the erop of fruit, and that used for the growth and waste of the tree. The water,too,absorbedfrom the soil and thrown off by plants during their growth, is very considerable. Lawe’s experiment shows that the clover on an acre that would af- ford two tons of hay, absorbs from the soil and gives off from the leaves, 430 tons of water in 101 days, or 8600 pounds per day. ‘This fact alone would indicate that we ought not to expect a large crop of fruit where orchard lands are made to produce clover. To my mind, taking in consideration the usual manner in which our orchard lands are cultivated, it is a wonder that the trees hold out as long as they do. Without thorough and systematic cul- tivation, it would seem to be time and money thrown away, in endeavoring to grow trees upon soil which refuses suste- nance to the old crop. Would it not be safer to fill up these spaces alluded to with the Pear, Plum, Cherry, or trees of another kind from those which have died out. Aceording to Duhamel, the following characters indicate incipient decay or de- cline of vigor in trees. ist. A tree, the top of which forms one uniform rounded mass, is not strong; a vigorous tree always throws out certain branches which surpass the others in lux- uriance of growth. 2d. When a tree comes into leaf pre- maturely in the Spring, and particularly | when the leaves turn, and fall prematurely in the Autumn, it isa certain sign of weak- ness, 3d. When several of the top or leading branches of a tree die, even at the mere 234 extremities, the wood in the centre is be- ginning to undergo alteration. 4, When the bark quits the trunk, or becomes cracked here and there, we may be satisfied that the tree is far gone inter- nally. pave t 5. Mosses, lichens, and funguses grow- ing upon the bark, and red or black spots appearing upon it, always lead to a sus" -h picion of change in the wood. 6. When the sap is observed to flow from crevices in the bark, the death of the tree is at hand. As far as my observation extends, these characteristics of devay hold good, and in regard to growing young trees on spa- ces where old trees have died out, I can only repeat what was stated ata former meeting of the Club: thatI had several times tried to grow Plum trees where old trees of this kind had dicd out, and though great pains were taken in preparing the ground, setting the trees, and in some in- stances using well rotted manure mould, and chip dirt, &c., about them, yet they have never thrived, and have always soon- er or later died. What I am about to state, in reference to the structure of trees and their mode of uourishment, is no mere theory of my own, nor will it embrace anything particu- larly new, being principles laid down and recognized by the highest authority in the scientific world. The roots of trees are usually longer than the branches, that the tree may be firmly supported, and in number are in proportion to the size of the top. The main roots throw out arms which are di- vided and subdivided until small fibres are formed. The tip ends of these fibres are spongy,and constitute what are termed the | spongioles, whose office it is to absorb moisture from the earth for the support aod nourishment of the tree. The trunk or body of the tree consists of three parts —the pith in the centre—the wood sur- rounding the pith, and the bark at the circumference which surrounds the whole, The leaf usually consists of two parts, the stalk and the expanded blade, The pith extends from the roots to the extremity of the branches, and around this pith is a thin Jayer of air vessels which communicate with the air vessels As the tree grows, the wood is arranged in a circle around the pith, and is formed of fibres and tubes. The ascending sap passes from the roots to the leaves through the sap wood. At the leaves it is much lessened in quantity by evaporation, and is also changed in quality by being rendered thicker. Thus altered, it descends by the bark, and a portion of it passes into the medulary rays, radiating from the pith to the bark, and along the medulary rays until it reaches the oldest circles. Here it remains, filling up the pores and form- ing the heart wood. The outer circles which are not clogged up are termed the sap wood, and it isin this part only that the sap rises. in the interior of the leaves. The heart wood was once sap wood, and a portion of the sap wood is annually being changed into heart wood. The of- fice of the heart wood seems to be to strengthen the tree—it may be removed from the tree without destroying life. But if the sap wood be cut through, the tree dies, because the sap cannot ascend, and if the bark be cut through, the tree dies, because the sap cannot descend. The re- maining portion of the descending sap 230 continues outward to the roots where it is partially thrown off into the earth. A familiar method of showing that the sap descends by the bark, is to wrap a cord tightly around # pendant branch—the de- scent of the sap is arrested, and the limb increases in size above or towards its free extremity, while the part below the string will remain of the same size. The sap as it ascends the trunk is thin and watery, nearly tasteless—in the leaves it is digested and converted into nourish- ment fit for the support of the tree. That the sap may be digested, it is re- quisite that it should be exposed to the action of the sun’s light, and the leaves on_the branches are so arranged that the light fails on every one. The transparent skin or cuticle which covers the leaf is pierced with a vast num- ber of small holes, which open into the air cavities between the cells of the pulp. These are termed the breathing pores or stomates, and are more numerous in the under than the upper surface. Their num- ber is very great. On every square inch of the under sur- face of the Hydranga, there are 160.000. cn chat of the vine, 13.000. The common sorrel leaf has 20.000 on every square inch of its under surface, and 11.000 on the upper. These stomates are so small as to be invisible without the aid of a mi- croscope. The leaves, then, may be considered the lungs and stomach of the tree, performing the same service to the latter that these organs do in animals. In the day time they are constantly drinking in carbonic acid from the air, retaining the carbon and throwing off oxygen; and when we consider that woody fibre is mainly com- posed of carbon and water, and that water is present in the leaf,it will be readily seen that the material is at hand for the formation of wood. Woody fibre con- sis s of carbon and water chemically com- bined thus, 50 pounds carbon and 50 water making 100 pounds of woody fibre. Other su stances are also formed from these materials. Humie acid, cane sugar, starch, gum and vinegar may be represen- ted by carbon and water only. Thus, 50 lbs. carbon with 37 1-2 water make.87 1-2 of humic acid ; 50 lbs. carbon with 72 1-2 water make 122 1-2 cane sugar, starch or gum ; 50 Ibs, carbon with 56 water, make 106 of vinegar. Whichever of these present in the interior of the plant, the ele- ments are at hand out of which any of the others may be formed and rendered substances are available for use. We can understand, tov, why the sap flowing in Spring from the maple is dif- ferent in quality as soon as the buds of the tree begin tostart : the sugar is being con_ verted into woody fiber for the immediate use of the leaves and growing branches. The leaves, then, perform important services, and we can readily see how seri- ously it must affect the tree. by removing large branches or any considerable por- tion of its top. In closing, it would be proper to say that, in the brief elucidation of the subr ject here given, I have mada free use of Martindale’s work on the Analysis of Soils, as well as other writers of acknowl- -dged authority. I could have desired to have treated the matter farther, but I find my article al- ready extended beyond proper limits. 236 Discussion---April 15, 1859. In the discussion which followed, a question came up with regard to the sap | It was admitted th: t the sap ascended, but how was it proved that it descended? It was said that the experiment of tying a cord about a branch flowing both ways. was sufficient evidence of the fact—the accumulation of sap above the cord being converted into woody fibre, increased that part, while that below remained of the same size—and again the ascent of mois- ture being constant from the spongeoles to the leaves, the accumulation there would be more than could be disposed of. Tt was a well known fact, that plants dis- charged at their roots excrementitious matter, or those substances unfavorable to their growth—/Aese matters must be car- ried to the roots by means of the sap. One member thought that the sap in spring remained nearly at rest, and that it was held there by capillary attraction— that tapping the tree merely emptied the tubes of their contents. It was replied, that the quantity of sap taken from a tree showed that there must be considerable action—for it was not rea- sonable to suppose this quantity was sta- tionery about the point tapped. Mr. Whitman said that in a number of maple logs which he had recently cut and hauled up at his house, he had observed end than at the other, but be really was unable to say at which end. , Other members stated that in drawing ‘logs to the mill, they had observed that the sap flowed in about equal quantities from either end. In reference to the quantity of sap which could be drawn from a tree during the entire season, there was much differ- ence of opinion. Some members thought the average quantity from sugar orchards to be five pails per tree. Others more— and one member thought that a larger quantity might be drawn during the en- tire season, than could occupy the cells in the body of the tree at any one time. With regard to filling up spaces in old orchards, several members believed it bad policy to plant trees of the same kind as the old trees which had died out. Those who had tried to grow apple trees in spots where old ones had died out, had not suc- ceeded in making the trees live or thrive for any considerable length of time. One member said there were a good many useless theories about farming— withregard to the flow of sap in trees, he believed the sap flowed perpendicularly in the trees, but never in a horizontal di- rection—this he thought was evident from the manner in which timber seasons—the argument that a stick split in two seasoned quicker than when left whole, was not an | apparent demonstration to members of the that the sap flowed more freely from one | position taken. UTILITY OF THE FARMER'S CLUB. A PAPER READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, ON THE 29TH OF APRIL, 1859. BYyT Ss. Ss. To glance at the benefits that have al- ready resulted from the Farmers’ Club of Little Falls is all that I can expect to do at this time. This association was formed in the spring of 1857, through the influence of a few who felt something of the importance of such an enterprise. Some predicted for it a short existence; but it has now become one of the prom- inent institutions of the county, embrac- ing members in Little Falls,Fairfieid,Man- heim and Danube. Since the formation of the Club, fifty- five meetings have been held, and with but few exceptions—on account of storms or during haying and harvesting—well attended, not only by members of the Club, but by others who have dropped in to hear the essays and discussions. Among these several ladies have taken a decided interest. The question is often asked, “do you admit spectators ?” we readily say yes,and cordially invite all who feel an interest in any discussion before the Club, to walk in. At most of the meetings essays have been read embracing subjects of interest to the Farmer, Gardener and Fruit-grower. These discussions and essays have been regularly published in both the papers printed in this village, and in this way have received a large circulation,and been perused by hundr.ils of intelligent read- ers, and they in turn have criticised and re-discussed the same subjects throughout the whole range of this circulation, Some have turned up their noses in a kind of philosophic disgust at ideas advanced, or suggestions presented. Others have found much to approve. Many hints and que- ties have been thrown out that have led to improvements in different departments of the farmer’s calling. Many who are well advanced in agricultural science have encouraged us by letters and otherwisey highly complimentary to the efforts of the Club. Thus « ‘le we derive a decid- ed benefit for ourselves by our discussions we do not confine these advantages to ourselves, but gratuitously present them to the public, and for this we are remind- ed of the interest taken in this department by the editors of our papers in this place, and their readiness to publish our essays, notices and reports. As to the direct benefits growing out of the efforts no one can tell. We shall nev- er know how many have improved their fruit orchards by planting a large variety of apples and pears, or grapes and other small fruit, or how many have been in- diced to transplant forest trees in their yards, around the school houses,and along the highway. Ifow many barns and sta- bles, have been made more convenient aud comfortable, or how many have been reminded to raise a larger amount of veg- etables for their stock, to open drains on wet land,and underdrain in diferent ways or to improve their stock of horses, cows, swine, and poultry, or how many have gained some new ideas about managing the dairy, in mapy particulars, planting and securiug crops—destroying noxious weeds, or in making maple sugar—in cut- ting tinber at a proper time to secure its greatest strength and durability, or how many have been led to reflect upon the importance of securing alarger amount of manure for the farm, and many other im- portant subjects that have been before this society. Ours is not a secret society, confining its benefit to ourselves—we do not cover up our light, if we chance to get a little, but place on paper candle-sticks, one we call the Herkimer County Jourwat, the other the Mouawk Courrer, and they are the circulating kind, not confined to any one table—a kind of extenszon candle- stick, I think I need not say any thing about the Fair last fall, for that speaks for itself in distinct tones easily under- stood. Another advantage that is derived, is the detection of humbugs, for this kind of bugs has increased at a rapi | rate with- in afew years, and by its assuming so many shades and shapes, it is difficult to detectit by ordinary means. Mr. Fitch in his long list of descriptions of insectol- ogy has failed to tell us iny tim about this every day visitor. The coldest weath- er which puts most bugs to sleep, has no 38 effect on this ; our large cities especially, by some means, are remarkably produc- tive at all seasons. Objections are made by some that in- dividuals sacrifice too much in trying ex- periments. This may be true so far as regards the experiments, yet it may be of great advantage to him and the commun- ity, for by experiments we make improve- ments. Without experiments we remain the veriest Hunkers—for there are agri- cultural hunkers as well as political or medical. The man that insisted on carty- ing lis salt in one end of the bag and a stone in the other to balance it when ou horseback, because his father did so, was an early, but a fine specimen of a hunker, and the breed has not entirely run out and no hopes of improvement. Some seem to have objection to join- ing the Club, fearing that by so doing. they virtually acknowledge that there are some things about farming that they do not uaderstand perfectly, but this being a kind of mutual instruction society we can learn much without exposing our ig- norance, if we are cautious. The farmer of much experience and observation, can’ instruct without assuming to be a_teach- er, and in this way we help each other. Another advantage arises from our be- Ing put in more direct communication. with kindred societies. And again we are benefitted by exchanges of seeds, cut- tings, de. Sa ges Se Discussion---April 29, 1859. The President organized the Club at 2, P. M., on Friday, the 29th inst. There were but few members present. S. S. Whitman read a very good Essay on the advantages to be derived from Agricultu- 239 ral Associations, and the benefits which have resulted from this Club. Previous to taking up the subject, set apart to be discussed at this meeting, viz.: “Shall the Club hold a Fair during the present year ?” there was a rambling talk about stock, Alluston was made to a recent im- portation into this couutry of the Here- ford breed. Members stated that cows of this breed were very inferior for dairy purposes; their forms are symmeirical,but they do not come to maturity early, and are not only unprofitable for milk, but for fattening. A member mentioned a flock of some sixty head which did not afford sufficient butter and cheese for the family use of theowner. It was said that within the past two years dairymen of the coun~ ty were paying more attention to improve- ment of stock than formerly—several persons had introduced the Ayreshire blood into their flocks, and a very fine specimen of the breed,a male, had been recently brought into the town of Russia—it cost some $300. This breed was considered as perhaps the most desireble for the dai- ryman. The Galloway breed was spoken of; they were preferred by some, because being without horns there was less liability: of animals being injured—they were re- garded as tolerably good milkers. A dai- ry was spoken of where the animals were all of this breed. The amount of cheese made per cow was equal to the average of dairies in that neighborhood. The ob- jections offered were, that the Galloway was a great fighter, and was apt to be mis- chievous, thrusting her head into the fence and throwing it down. In connection with raising stock, for dai- ry purposes, a member stated that the ani- mal’s first calf usually made a superior cow,—in his own flock, he had never known it to fail. Others spoke of this as an old Dutch rule: “ Raise a heifer’s calf, if ” you want a good cow. KITCHEN AND MARKET GARDENING. a A PAPER READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, ON THE 13TH OF MAY, 1859. BwT JAMES WATT -_ -—— VALEEN BURG Ex. i? Among the various branches of Agri- culture, none are so well calculated tu supply the many wants of the human fam- ily, ot to afford a more pleasing and profi- table pastime, than that of gardening. From a garden properly located and well managed,with the right kinds of soil, manures, &c., there may be cbtaiued a gréatet variety of food and luxuries, than from any other one source of branch of business, all of which are conductive to buth health and happiness, Gardening may be conducted in vari ous ways ; if properly conducted, it will afford pleasure and profit, but otherwise you will be better without it. There are sone, living near large villages or cities on from two to five acres of land, who follow it extensively, for the purpose of marketing their produce, and no doubt fiud it profitable, provided they have the necessary stock of patience to endure the many perplexities they are sure to meet, in marketing their produce to one hun- dred and one different classes of people. It is very often the case, that when one customer steps up to the vegetable cart and buys freely, and at the same time considers your prices yerv low and wond- ers how you can produce them so cheap ; ‘a dozen or more otber individuals stand ready to banter for two hours ou the price of a threepenuy head of cabbage or a peck of potatoes, follow your cart thryugh town and finally purchase at the price first ask- ed them. But as this must be expectod in almost every branch of trade, we must necessarily bear with it all, and make the best of it. Others cultivate a garden merely for diversion, or perhaps to promote health, and are often rewarded far beyond their expectations, by gaining the object sought and at the same time supplying themselves with such luxuries as ‘not only add to the comfort and happiness of themselves, but also add to the health of their families, Lastly and worst of all, is that class of gardeners who will select a good piece of ground, manure it well, and take great pains in selecting a choice variety of seeds, sow them in good time and shape, and after all this being done, deed it over to an army of noxious weeds, and allow thenr to take full possession. Such gardeners are too common, and will compare well with “a cow that gives a, good puil of mill, and then kicks it over.” 2 T contend that-no farmer having a fimn- ily should put less than one acre of his farm in a garden, even if he does not intend to market any of its productions. He needs it all,as I will hereaftes endeavor to show In the first place he wili very naturally locate it as near his house as possible,and by so doing will save himself or some of his family the unnecessary steps (during a hurrying time) of going halfa mile, or to the further-most part of the farm after a mess of early potafoes, green corn or peas, from the field. ‘Secondly : A garden is or ought to be an experimental farm, in which to test all new varieties of grain, roots. dc., and as every progressive farmer bas more or less of this to do yearly, his garden should be large enough for the purpose, instead ofsowing and planting the same in one corner of the fields, to be either destroyed by the stock, or iffterfered with by other crops. Thirdly : It gives a better opportunity for changing crops, or rather for a rota- tion of crops, which is very necessary with most kinds of vegetables. As to laying out grounds, forming beds, &ec., it is a matter of taste,and may be left to the gardener himself ; the form being amatter of trifling importance, in the production of useful vegetables, It mat- ters not whether the ground be laid out in beds of four or ten feet in width, pro- vided it be well worked, and the garden kept neat and free from weeds. As regards the early vegetables for mar- keting purposes, such as require forcing beds in order to mature them at any great length of time previousto their natural season of growth, I have found in my own experience that they pay a smaller 41 profit in this market, in proportion to the amount of labor required,than those grown in open beds, duriug their natural season- Ist There are but very few individuals who seem to appreciate them well enough to encourage the gardener, or to ensure him success, 2d. They can be obtained from the open gardens from the Hastern and West- ern and Southern markets, at a much less expense than the cost to us to produce them by means of forcing, beds in this clinate. Yet Ido not wish it to be un- derstood that I am notin favor of hot beds for forcing plants ; on the contrary.1 find them almost indispensible for certain kinds of vegetables that are not fully adapted to our climate, and therefore re- quire some artificial meaus to perfect their growth, and hasten their ripening pre- vious to our early autumn frosts. Among these are Tomatoes, Cauliflower, Celery, Melons, Egg-plants, and others, a majori- ty of which are natives of a warmer cli- mate than that of ours. They therefore require forcing by means of hot beds,and the market gardener will find it necessary to produce them as early as poszible,even if he sacrifices time and money, by so do- ing. He will establish a class of custem- ers for his later produce, which will pay the greater profit—such as green corn, young potatoes, peas, asparagus, cabbage, beans, beets, cucumbers, lettuce, onions, parsvips, peppers, raddishes, pie-plants, salisify, or vegetable ovster. squashes,turn- ips, &e. ; all of which may be grown in the open garden, during the season that nature has designated for them, and_ will find a ready market at remunerative pri- ces. As to the method of cultivating various 242 kinds of vegetables, I have lad but little experience in comparison to that of many others, members of the Club, and would therefore rather not occupy further time and space with this article, to impart the little knowledge I possess, in this highly valuable branch of agricultural. In the way of discussion, I hope opinions will be free- ly given by those of our members who have a knowledge of the business far su- perior to that of my own. Discussion--May 13, 1859. In order to secure an early crop of potatoes, the seed should be sprouted in March. This was accomplished by put- ting the potatoes in « warm place. The practice of some members had been to place the seed in barrels near the kitchen stove, or in an upper room that was kept warm by means ofa pipe passing through it; others recommended a hot-bed; the potatoes being placed on coarse matting or twigs, woven together, so as to be ea- sily removed without injury to the sprouts. Another plan recommended, was to make a hot-bed in the field, designed for plant- ing, by hauling out a few loads of horse- manure, and depositing the seed, mingled with sand and straw, and covering, so as to retain the heat. One member had suc ceeded, the present spring, in forcing the plants by putting horse-manure in the hill and covering with earth and manure.— Potatoes planted in this way were now up, while those not so treated—which were planted at the same time—were not above ground. With regard to early varieties, besides Junes, the Kidneys, and a kind designated as “ Nigger-toes,” were recom- mended. These lasi,one member thought, were the Black Kidneys. They werespo- ken of as being much earlier than the Junes, and were produced sooner in this locality last season than potatoes brought from the eastern markets. The only ob- jection was their color, though it was said there was @ prejudice against them, aris- ing from their names ; some persons fan- cying “they were rank.” As a source of profit, early potatoes and green corn were considered. the two best articles for this market. One member said his earliest potatoes, furnished about the Sth of July, brought $2 per bushel, but were not so profitable as those furnished at the latter part of the month for $1 per bushel. Asparagus was talked of. The Presi- dent said a gardener of his acquintance, near New York, regarded his strawberry and asparagus as the most profitable of all his crops. The strawberries gave the best returns. Many persons were not successful in cul- tivating asparagus, and ingured the plant by cutting it above ground. The bed for this plant should be carefully prepared by removing the earth to the depth of 3 feet or more and paving with ‘stones, oyster- shells, and bones, &c.; then fill up with well rotted manure and rich mould, and set out the roots. The plant ought not to be cut the first year. Salt should be used liberally. After the bed is once pre- pared, the cultivation iseasy. Salt is used so freely that no weeds spring up. In the fall, manure may be carted and spread over the bed. It is a very delicious vegetable, and is the earliest that can be raised in this climate. ARE BIRDS INJURIOUS TO FARMERS ? AN ESSAY READ BEFURE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, ON THE 27th OF MAY, 1859. agg BY ZBENAS GREEN. Se The farmer in producing his crops of grain, fruits and vegetables, hasmany en- emies to contend with. The ground lies under a primeval curse, and is much more likely to produce briers and thorns, than crops of grain ; and after by patient toil he has subdued these, he has still ene- mies in the worm and insect, that not un- frequently blast all his ardent hopes, and leave him no reward for his laborious toil. And by many it is contended that ia ad- dition to the enemies already mentioned, the birds of our country are another pest, and come in to swell the number of his foes, and lay him under contribution for their support and sustenance. The crow itis contended, should be exterminated, and laws have been enacted by grave leg- islators, setting a price upon his head ; he is charged as being a thief, and the ex- pression has passed into a proverb: “ he will steal like a crow.” The black bird pulls our corn in the spring, and destroys it in the fall. The Robin comes in for his share of denunciation, for the depredation he commits upon our cherry trees or our strawberry beds; he is a good judge of fruit—has a correct taste, and | does appreciate goods things. Even the little yellow-bird is denounced for the share he takes in destroying our wheat and oth- er small grain. Now we think there is another side to this question—that injus- tice has been done these mute defendants, —that it would be wise to examine this matter, and perhaps we should shange our minds, and come to a different conclusion, —that could they be permitted to make their defence, and prove to the farmer, how they aid him in destroying the in- sects and worms, that without their timely assistence would entirely destroy and blast his hopes. We think a different opinion would prevail—that the birds instead of being an injury and pest to the farmer, are among his greatest blessings—that they were designed by a kind Providence in addition to the pleasure they give us by their music and plumage, to aid in destroy- ing enemies, that without their assistance, could not be reached. Could that thief of acrow be allowed to plead his cause, he would petition for his life, and show you conclusively that for every hill of corn he had pulled in all his life, he had destroy- ed ten thousand bugs, worms and the larva of insects that would have, but fer his aid, rendered your fields barren and worthless, —that he has a perfect dread of snares and nets, and that if you have no corn for him to pull, you have only to stretch twine over your fields for a short time after plant- 244 ing, and he will gnarantee not to trouble them, but instead do yon all the good he can, by being your scavinger in winter, and your insect destroyer in summer. The Robin that has sometimes annoyed you by ocdasionally appropriating a cherry or choice strawberry, has all the spring been destroying the insects that prey upon your frait, and every morning he has wel- comed you with asong worth more than all the fruit he ever ate; his exclusive food in the spring, is insects and worms, and only during the months of August and Septem- ber, does he indulge in any other, or but very sparingly. That beautiful little yellow bird, you may have seen apparently destroying the heads of wheat as they were coming to maturity, was instead making himself a meal of the weevil, that head of wheat contained. A farmer at Binghamton to satisfy his neighbors that the yellow bird ate the wheat, killed one, and upon open- ing its crop, they found two hnndred wee- vils and but four grains of wheat, and in those four grains the weevil had burrowed. No estimate can be made of the im- mense number of insects destroyed by the swallow, the ground sparrow, the blue bird, the wren and the pheba; these are con- stantly engaged in rendering the farmer service. It is said that in newly settled portions of the country, that crops are not as liable to be injured by the ravages of insects, as in older sections, and it is sup- posed it is on account of the greater num- bers of birds. IT remember when a boy, my father sent me into the orchard armed with a gun, to shoot the woodpeckers he had noticed pecking the bodies of the apple trees, sup- posing they were injuring them; now those woodpeckers were in search of worms that were boring those trees, and shontd have been protected, and encouraged to remain in the orchard ; and I contend that all our birds are doing us incalculably more good than hurt, to say nothing of the pleasure they afford us by their songs.— Who thathas ever heard that gush of glad- some music, that will greet any one that will go out at early dawn any pleasant morning at this season of the year, but will exclaim, “spare the birds!” God has made them of service to the farmer; he has given them forms of beauty, and dress- ed them in colors that no art can imi- tate, and taught them to make music for us, to cheer and gladden our hearts. We say again, spare the birds; we plead for them; we ask that the robin be permitted to build her nest and rear her young near our dwellings unmolested,—ihat the blue bird, the wren and pheba, have each a co- sy nook or hole in some safe place about the out-buildings, and the swallow be al- lowed to oveupy the eaves of the barn un- harmed; aud in conclusion we ask that the crow be no longer considered an out- law. Discussion--May 27, 1859. The impression seemed to prevail in the Club that birds were beneficial rather than injurious to the farmer. Even the hawk and crow were of service, and more than compensated for their occasional depreda- tions on the cornfield and poultry yard. A member spoke of the scarcity of wood- peckers throughout the country—from some cause they had disappeared, and were now rarely seen in this vicinity. It 245 was to be regretted, for they were inde- fatigable workers, and were almost worth thei’ weight in gold to the fruit cultucist. They examined minutely every tree in an orchard; Jooking over the trunk and branches for grubs and insects ; feriting out the borer, and piercing him with his long, bearded’ tongue, which was peculi- arly fitted to destroy this pest of our fruit trees. The decline of old orchards was thought to bein part owing to the svarcity of wood-peckers ; and especially the great prevalence (of late years) of the borers, which was causing so much destruction among our young trees, was attributed to the absence of these useful birds. The crow, to be sure, was an unpleasant bird —would steal corn, and had not oue bit of * music in his soul.” Yet be was dili- gentin his examinations of our fields, in searching out grubs, aud worms, and insects that were distructive to vegetation ; and, therefore, his work on the farm was worth vastly more than his occasional dep- redations would amount to, The cornfield could be protected from any ravages of this much-abused bird by stringing the field with twine ; or perhaps what was better and easier, by hanging on stakes strips of cotton cloth smeared with grease and sulphur. The labor performed by birds, and the benefit of having them about one’s premises, were not generally appreciated by farmers ; and were they to be suddenly exterminated or driven from the country, their loss would be a positive calamity to the whole farming community. A closer observation of the habits of birds was recommended—it would, perhaps, lead to their preservation. No farmer, who studied his own interests, would al- low them to be slaughtered on his premi- ses. They were his cheapest help—work- ing without pay, and daily holding vocal concerts; “adiission free, aud uo half price for children.” Mr. Bacon, of Mid- dletown, Conn., one of the manufacturers of Ketchum’s improved mowing machine, was present, and explained to the Club the advantages whichthe macliiue, as now The draft was claimea to be much less than that of other mowers, and the performance of work unsurpassed. The two horse ma- chine was furnished for $80, one horse, $75. The merits of different machines were spoken of by members,and the whole matter of mowers pretty generally dis- cussed. Quite a spirited discussion sprung up towards the close of the meeting in re- lation to the utility of oxen for farm work, as compared with horses. A goood pair of oxen would perform almost as much work on the farm asa pair of horses, The time employed in taking care of hor ses—the expense of shoeing and harness —was an important item. The grain necessary to keep one horse in good work. ing condition, would be ample to keep a pair of oxen in good flesh, They consume less hay, and when old could be turned to beef ata profit. Some of the members thought that not so much land could be plowed with oxen as with horses, especially. in warm weather. The ox could not en- dure heat like the horse, and would give out if put to hard labor in the warmest days of summer, It was replied that it was true the ox could not endure heat like the horse, yet he would be able to per- forma reasonable amount of labor in warm weather if properly fed and cared for. He should be kept always in high condition. There were but few farmers in the county who knew the capacity of a good yoke of oxen, They were not prop- made, possessed over other mowers. 246 erly trained or fed; they were thought to be a poor substitute for horges, and were generally badly used in every respect.— In the Eastern States farmers better ap- preciate the ox. 1'n some localities nearly all the team work is performed by oxen; and it was suggested that farmers would find it a source of profit to more generally use them here, though it was doubted whether the prejudice that existed against them could be overcome. In reference to planting corn and manuring in the hill, a member said on soils which did not leach, he considered it bad policy to manure in the hill, unless the land was rich, or had been previously manured broad cast.— Simply manuring in the hill on poor soil, gave the plant, on the start, a vigorous growth, which subsequently the land was not capable of sustaining in the same ra- tio throughout the season. Another mem- ber thought it a bad plan to scatter ma- nure lightly over a large surface,—better manure heavily as far as it will go. By this means two good crops may be taken from the land; and then, when it is put down to grass, it will yield largely for several: years, OUGHT DAIRYMEN TO RAISE THEIR OWN GRAIN ? -AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMER'S CLUB, OF LITTLE FALLS, ON THE 10TH OF JUNE, 1859, > BY i B. ARNOLD. ——_—___—_. It is generally believed that grain-grow- ing, as a system of farming, is less profit- able in Herkimer county than dairying. But that remark will not apply everywhere. In general, the proceeds of a good grain district exceed those of a good dairy dis- trict. The profits of dairy farming will probably also fall below those of a mixed husbandry. This statement may not re- ceive the ready assent of every dairyman. Those who have obtained a competence, or been long in the habit of gaining a livelihood by dairying, are apt to be of opinion that money cannot be made as wellin any other way, while those who have done the same things by grain-grow- ing are equally tenacious of opinions in favor of their own system of farming. It is only by a comparison of their products that we can form a just conclusion. By an appeal to census returns, it appears that in Chautauque county—which may be taken as a good type of a mixed cul- ture—the aggregate value of agricultural ' products, for each improved acre, exceeds that of Herkimer by ten per cent.; and in Livingston county, a good grain dis- trict, it exceeds that of Herkimer by more than twenty per cent. Excepting the outlay for stock, the cost of cultivation in each of these counties is very near alike, A mixed system of farm- ing, wherever it can be pursued, employs labor to the best advantage, because it dis- tributes its burthens more equally through the year; and this is believed to be one reason why dairy farms should be devoted, in part, to the different kinds of grain. Until the number of cows in one dairy becomes so large that their milk cannot be all manufactured at once, the larger the dairy the greater the profit per cow, because the manipulations in manufactur- ing a large cheese differ but little from those in making a small one. There is also an economy of team and tools, as well ag in other kinds of labor. Land in grass, it is considered, is managed more easily than when devoted to grain. Hence, dairymen often conclude that it is more profitable to purchase their needful grain, and to occupy every acre of their farms with pasture or meadow. If these were the only facts that were to be taken into the account, the conclusion would be cor- rect. Land lying in grass year after year will not produce in the fullest abundance. The grass of Herkimer is vast and ex- 248 cellent; but it cannot be produced forever on the same ground with undiminished yield. The soil becomes exhausted of the available material that is particularly called for in the growth of grass, and as it becomes scarce the grassruns out. The grasses are like the cereal grains: they belong to the same great family of plants, and like them, they require a rotation of crops. They are not generally plants of long duration. Most of the clover we cultivate, (not properly a grass,) lasts but two years. Timothy—the favorite of the dairyman, and great staple of the mead- ow—protracts its life according to circum- stances. It soon dies with a lack of ex- cess of moisture; and if the onion-like bulb at its base is not sufficiently devel- oped, it fails to endure the frosts of our hard winters. June-grass, or spear-grass, as it is sometimes called, (poa pratensis,) which is most likely to follow in the place of decaying timothy, is more tenacious of life—enduring drought and frost remark- ably. But this, after a time, gets turf- bound, and produces scantily. Red Top is a hardy grass, that remains well in moist ground; but like all other grasses and clovers, it yields at last and runs out. The use of the harrow and _soil-lifter, and the application of top-dressings, may prolong the yield, but cannot prevent a final decay. The plow, with a change of crop, is the only alternative. The question now arises, what should constitute that change? I have said that the grasses and cereals belong to the same ‘great family of plants, (gramine) and this circumstance of relationship will sug- . gast at once the propriety of selecting, as far as possible, some other kind of erops to rotate with grass. Chemistry confirms what might be at once inferred, that the . mineral elements of the grains and grasses are essentially the same. Both the seeds and stalks in each have a composition re- markably similar. The important decis- ion between them consists in the fact that the nutritions compounds—which are mainly centered in the seeds of the cereals —are largely retained in the stems and leaves of the grasses ; and hence their su- perior value as food for stock, Corn, potatoes, the various root-crops, beans, peas, and buckwheat, belong to dif- ferent families of planis, and differ in their composition, as well asin their nature. They draw their support, to some extent, from material that the grasses reject ;. and thus, while they are growing, allow time for a store of food for the grasses to accu- mulate in the soil. One of the most prof- itable crops to alternate with grass is corn. It infringes but little upon the amount of fodder the ground is capable of produc- ing. Meadow land, which in good con- dition will yield two tons of hay to the acre, will yield in stalks an equivalent for one and a-half tons of hay, and at a pro- portionate rate for richer and poorer land, But to do this the stalks must be early cut up atthe ground, & well taken care of. There is another reason why dairymen should raise their own grain. Their pas- tures and meadows are steadily filling up with daisies and other foul weeds, which require cultivating to destroy. The yel- low daisy is easily killed by plowing. The white may be choked out of the meadow by thorough manuring, and smothered in the field by sowing buck- | wheat. “The loss to the farmer by having his grass grounds filled with daisies and other weeds, is no small item, Cattle will, to be sure, eat daisies when they are crowded to it, but they afford bul a scanty nutri- ment—yielding only about three-fifths as much nourishment as grass, while their acid and bitter taste injures the fine fla- vor of his dairy products. Besides these reasons, there is a feeling of heartfelt satisfaction and independence in being able to supply one’s own wants from his own premises. The vicissitudes 249 of trade and the markets may run high or low without disturbing the equanimity of the farmer who supports himself. He is neither unduly elevated in the one case, nor depressed in the other; but moves on in the even “tenor of his ways,’ and en- joys a quietude and independence, which heaven has deereed as essential to human happiness. STATEMENT IN REFERENCE TO RAISING GRAIN IN CONNECTION WITH DAIRY FARMING. AN ESSAY READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, ON THE 10th OF JUNE, 1859. Oo BLY =X. A. WIDTLGARD. ———_+—____ Some considerable differenee in opinion exists among the dairymen of this county with regard to the profit ofraising grain in connection with dairy farming. Many he- lieve it more advantageous to keep their farms in grass—even at a moderate yield —than to break up pastures or meadows. Hence, they prefer purchasing what grain they may need for their stock and for fam- ily use. The manure is carted on to mead- ows in fall or spring, and when it becomes absolutely necessary to plough the land and re-ssed, a greater or less number of acres are broken up, and several crops ta- ken off before re-seeding—often two er three crops of corn or oats are taken from the land in succession ; the yield per acre, of course, must necessarily be small. The reasons adduced for this course are the expense of seed—the uncertainty of its taking well—the labor of clearing away stones, and preparing the ground for mea- dow, and the greater profits of cheese making. Good hay fed on the farm, where it is cut,can not be estimated at less ing in market for a less price. There is another class who believe that all the nec- essary grain for dairy and family use can be raised profitably by the dairyman— that on farms under the most skillful cul- tivation there will always be a few acres that need to be broken up, and that when these patches are judiciously selected and managed, grain crops may be made to pay quite as largely as cheese. The great variety of soil in the county— the difference in its adaptation to particu- lar kinds of grain, and the various ways of managing crops, it would appear, must aecessarily result in conclusions quite di- verse. Yet, somehow the impression seems generally to prevail among dairy- men throughout the county, that if is not profitable to raise much grain; and hence, for some years past large quantities of feed for dairy use have been annually im- ported into the county by produce deal- ers and sold to dairymen. As far as my own experience is concerned, I have found the raising of grain not only a source of than $10 per ton.; it must always be worth ; profit in itself, but by breaking up the that to the farmer—even when hay jssell-|land at intervals and re-seeding, I have 25 been enabled to get satisfactory returns in the yield of grass. Meadow lands, that do not yield two tons of hay per acre, are not paying well, where land is worth more than $40 per acre. Two tons of hay per acre should be regarded as the minimum. Of late years, my plan has been to break up, annually, what could be well manured and cultivated—say from five to eight acres. The manure is hauled on the sward in early spring—spread broadcast, and ploughed under to the depth of eight inches or more, and the first crop taken off in corn, Land thus treated has yielded, on an average, from 70 to 90 bushels of shelled corn to the acre. By referring to my books, I find the crop in 1856, raised on eight acres—after fattening four hogs —supplying for family use, and furnishing extra spring feed—in connection with carrots—for 23 cows, was sold for $400. The same year eight acres—from which more than 560 bushels of corn had been taken the previous year—yielded as fol- lows: 1 acre of wheat..............30 bushels, 1 do peas...............20 do, 6 do oats..............2 10 do. In 1857 my corn crop averaged, when put in the crib, at the rate of 80 bushels per acre. — In 1852 a trifle less than two acres of land yielded 180 bushels of shelled corn. I find corn, peas, and barley the most profitable grain crops. In 1851 the barley grown on five acres, which the year be- fore had produced corn at the rate of 75 bushels per acre, was 250 bushels, or 50 bushels to the acre. Two crops only are taken from the soil; it is then re-seeded. The yield of grass on the lands alluded to above has been very large. Oats are 1 not a profitable crop on’ my land—onee only have I been able to get 50 bushels to the acre. Some yearsI have not been able to get 25 bushels per acre, and other years the crop did not more than pay for harvesting and threshing. ” The average expense and value of my corn crop may be represented as follows: Plowing and ma emu name acre i a Planting .. Cultivating twice. o 00 PLO CIN G ies scat. ern stecniey sare adress 5 00 Hauling manure................ 6 00 Cutting and shocking up......... 1 50 Gathering and cribbing seine aaa 5 50 Shelling 70 bushels.............. 1 40 Int. on land at $100 per acre..... 7 00 34 40 By 70 bushels corn at 6s........ eveee B52 50 “* fodder. . ts aye ae - 600 “ soft corn. 2 00 $60 50 Profit $26,10 per acre., _ Corn is put at 6s. per bushel, though its value in market often ranges higher. The cost of hauling manure should not be wholly charged to the corn crop, as the influence of the manure extends to other crops. My average yield of spring wheat has been 22 bushels tothe acre. Theexpense and value of the crop may be represented as, follows : Cost of fitting land per acre..... $3 00 Two bushels seed at $1.......... 2 00 Sowing and harrowing.......... 2 00 Harvesting ne csiss sa ew esse ae ions 4 00 Threshing 22 bushels at 5c....... 110 Int: on land 92 sja:ssswzneaieroeamnsien 7 00 $19 10 By 22 bushels at a ee ee ee $22 00 “straw. 2 00 $24 00 Profit, $4 90 per acre. The barley crop may also be represen- ted as follows : 23 Cost of filting land.............$3 00 Two bushels seed at 63.........-. 1 50 Sowing, &c,. 2 00 Harvesting and. storing. ET: Threshing 50 bushels at Bh. Tnt. on land By,50 bushels at 75c...........---4- “ straw Profit, $24 50 per acre The oat crop—admitting that 30 bush- els is an average yield throughout the country—would stand as follows : Cost of fitting land, harvesting, &c., same as wheat $9 00 Two bushels seed at 4s........... 1 00 Threshing 30 bushels at 3c. . 9u Int. on land.. ‘cn “7 00 17 90 By 30 bushels oats at 4s............-- “ straw Profit, $1 10 per acre. Good land, which has been heavily man- ured, and from which two crops only have been taken, and then re-seeded, should -yield—when in grass after the first sea- son—-at the rate of 2 1-2 or 3 tons of hay per acre, and keep to this point for several years. The hay crop, as compared with the foregoing grain crops, may be seen by the following : Cost of cutting and piting 3 tons i: oe = te 00 hay.. Inst. on jand.. .7 00 00 By 3 tons hay at $10 per ton. . $30 00 Profit, $17 per acre. Of course the ultimate object of the dai- ryman must be to so manage his Jand that it shall yield large crops of grass, and it would appear that he can accomplish this end better by thoroughly cultivating and enriching annually—say from 5 to 10 acres for every 100—thus raising his own erain, than by wasting much of his ma- nure on meadow lands, or in attempting to cultivate too much land at a time, Small patches of land—highly manured and cultivated—usually produce more than land of twice the area with poor til- lage. Ido not manurecornin the hill. Land that has been plowed the deepest has yielded most. Patches that have been subsoiled have always paid largely for the time and expense of subsoiling. A ma- chine is used for planting—it allows of cultivating with horse-hoe and cultivator but one way. The seed preferred is the Canada White Flint, and is planted so as to leave spaces 3 feet by 2 1-2; the flat culture is followed. In no year has the average yield of my corn crop been less-than 60 bushels per acre. The corn is accurately measured when put into the crib, and the number of bushels noted in a book, and also when taken from the crib for market. The shrinkage has been usually about one bushel for every 20, When kept late and thoroughly dried, the shrinkage has amounted to considerable more. My spring wheat has sometimes suf- fered from the attacks of the weevil. I have never sown winter wheat, though it . is believed by many to be a profitable crop on the black slate lands of the coun- ty. In the above estimatesI have taken the average yield of grain one year with another. The value of the straw and corn-stalks is perhaps put too low.— Coarse ieed, when well saved and fed to stock on the farm, is doubtless of much more value, and is generally estimated too low. The land is Utica slate, and is found cropping out here and there over the whole farm. 258 Discussion--June 10, 1859. The impression séemed to prevail among those present, that Dairymen could vrofitably raise their own grain. A vast deal of land in the county needs breaking up. The average yield of the Hay crop was estimated to be not more tkan a ton, or at most a ton and a quarter, per acre ; some thought it would fall below a ton per acre, rather than above. The Presi- dent estimated the average yield of Hay in his locality and through Snell’s Bush, to be about two tons per acre—perhaps a little less than that. Much of the soil in that locality, it is well known, is the Utica Slate, the best grass land in the county. The Utica Slate, it was stated, was capable of producing fcur and five tons of hay per acre. Meadows on the Utica Slate would last from twelve to fifteen years, and pro- duce heavy crops of grass. One peculiar- ity in this soil is, that it is not affected by drouth or wet, like other lands. Members mentioned patches of this kind of land that had been kept under the plough and without manure, for 20, 80, and 40 years, always yielding good crops, The cause of the small yield of hay, was the neglect of Dairymen to break up and re-seed. Some members thought the fertility of the Utica Slate was owing to its being charged with an alkaline principle—others that its oily consistency was due to organ- ic matter. In reference to raising corn, one member said the best results were obtained by manuring the sward and ploughing lightly with surface plough fol- lowed by deep subsoiling. Manuring in the hill did not pay for extra time and trouble—the roots of corn soon find the manure, when it is ploughed under, and feed upon it. Bones were spoken of asa good manure for corn,and one member suggested the plan of ploughing deeply and dropping bones, broken or unbroken, in the furrow—almost every farmer ltad a considerable quantity of bones lying about his premises that are doing no ser- Farmers of arkimer county rarely apply them as manure. A question was asked in reference to applying plaster to corn; should it be thrown «about the roots of the plant, or directly on it? It was stated that Liebig: had asserted thai clover assimilated plas- ter thrown upon it, decomposing it and using the sulphur. Doubtless corn plants had, in a measure, the same power—it was preferable to throw it on the plants. A member stated that a neighbor had last year a large yield of corn by manure ing in the hill with hen manure. Another member had lost his crop by its applica- tion. It was suggested that he had used too large a quantity. . In speaking of the value of corn stalks as fodder, one member estimated the quan- tity usually grown on an acre, to be equab to one and a half tons of Lay—he liked them asa fved for horses. vice. Horses affected: with the heaves were not troubled with the complaint when fed on corn stalks. Speaking of the Heaves, a member said he was advised sometime during the winter to feed less hay to his horses as a prevents ive and cure of this disease. He had re- duced the quantity of hay fed to about eight pounds per day for each horse, and found his horses do well on it—their coats improved, and the animals appeared to be healthier than when fed ona larger quan- tity. Horses would eat more hay than they could perfectly digest—the coats of the stomach become irritated, and heaves were induecd, IS IT PROFITABLE FOR DAIRYMEN TO KEEP SHEEP? A PAPER READ BEFORE THE FARMERS’ CLUB OF LITTLE FALLS, ON THE 24TH OF JUNE, 1859. - BT ADDON BO REED. ae eee ee In endeavoring to throw some light ‘upon this question, I have hastily thrown together a few facts and observations such ‘as I couldfglean from a short experience, and from other sources at band. When T assumed the charge of the farm on which I now reside, there was a smal] flock of |. sheep on the place. During previous years, more or less sheep had been kept, and I had become familiar with their man- agement and production, . of one year, I turned them off to the butcher, and have kept none since, At that time my reasons for not keeping them were: Ist. That the feed consumed by sheep would result in more profit if converted into butter and cheese. 2d. That fences where no sheep were kept could be made higher from the ground, more open, and consequently at less ex- pense. 3d. They require the most care in Spring, when it could not conveniently be given—the dairy at that time demand- ing the whole attention of the dairyman. The proceeds of sheep, as compared with dairy farming, may be estimated about as follows. Supposing the average product of one cow, in butter and diese, be $40, ls years past. After a trial keep—for an equal length of time—I0 sheep of the small, fine-wooled, Saxony breed, or 7 of. the middle-wooled, South-- Downs, or 5 of the large, long-wooled Leicester’s : 10 Saxony Sheep: Cr, by about 25 Ibs. wool each at 52 jets. OP UD: 28 phe ewe aw ey Micon "$18 00 “7 lambs-turned off say Au- gust Ist, at 14s. each,............. 12 25 . $25 25 Making a balance in favor of cow, of.. 14 75 $40 00 7 South Downs : Cr. by 4 lbs wool each at about 40 cts. Pers eras sie have agian ag avons’ $11 20 ‘« by 7 lambs, at $3,00 each......... 21 00 $32 20 Making the balance in favor of cow of 7 80 $40 00 5 Leicesters : Gr by about 6 lbs. wool each, at 37 cts. $11 10 ‘« 6 lambs, at say $4,00 each 24 00 Making balance in favor of cow Ae ‘ . The prices put down in the above esti- mates, are the average of the market for Tn order to show the and that the food consumed by her would | improvement i in. the profits-of sheep hus- Se Se a LEAN = rouse Res Sis OE, ut ee Chevoit. ‘ Society’s transactions for 1854, Mr. G. W. ; 255 Yandry in the few past years, I have sal ‘puted the prices of wool for 15 years in three terms of 5 years each. Averaged from reports of June Ist, in each year: rom 1844 to 1849, com. to 14 native, 3Mc,, Sax’ny 43.cts +e 1849 te 1854 “ Tf oe 32c. te 45 eg ts 1854 if 18 9 a of tS 33e, “ 5 oe Thave not the data by which the ad- vance on mutton can be computed; but it is probably much greater than on wool. In the New York State Agricultural Coffin, of Armenia, Dutches county, to whom was awarded the 2d premium of $30, for good farm management, makes the following statement in reference to sheep: ““T have fifty sheep: thirty full-blood South Downs, and twenty Cotswold’s, My Cotswold yield 6 Ibs. per fleece, and South Downs 3 Ibs. 14 ozs. Sold wool, altogether last year at 41 cts. South Down wool is worth from 2 to 4 cts. per Ib. more than long wool generally. I seldom have an ewe that does not produce one lamb certain, and sometimes three. * * * South Downs ate most pro- ductive—endure cold and storms better. I rear 45 per cent more lambs than I have old sheep. Seldom loose one. * * * I sold one full-blood South Down lamb, 60 days old, to a butcher for $5,00—no extra bid. Sold 11 buck lambs for $90. Wethers bring from $8 to $12 per head at two years old for market. Long wools bring more than South Down for mutton, but it costs more to fatten them. Feed hay twice a day in racks, and grain to each flock at noon. Must keep condition up—| it will not do to allow any stock to fall, away in flesh. I have shelter for all.” Mr. Coffin doubtless means that the long-wools bring more than the South Downs: because they are larger, and not that they are worth more per pound,— South Downs are the best mutton sheep, so far as quality is concerned. It will be noticed in the above extract, that Mr. Coffin’s sheep are well housed, and grain fed during the foddering season. When thus cared for they undoubtedly pay good profits. The South Downs do not need this extra attention. The flock that I kept were of this breed. They had an open shed for shelter in winter; were never fed grain, yet were always in good condition ; they would shear an average of 4 lbs. of wool each ; would raise about as many lambs as there were old sheep, which sold, when three or four months old, in this market, for $3,00 each. In making a selection from the breeds before mentioned, reference must be had to the climate and keeping. In their wild state, the different races are found in lo- calities adapted to the requirements of their nature. ‘“ We find the heavy and clumsy, long-wooled varieties, consuming the fat pastures of the plain and valleys ; the hardy Downs upon the slopes of the hills, while the chevoit and black-faced sheep delight in the heather of the north mountains and higklands of old Scotia,” where— “The mountains, from their solitary pines, Bun down in bleating pastures to the sea ” Youatt states, ‘That pasture has a far greater influence than climate upon the fineness of the fleece. The staple of the wool—like every other part of the sheep —must increase in length or in bulk when the animal has a superabundance of nu- triment; and, on the other hand, the se- lcretion which forms the wool must de- crease like every other, when sufiicient nutriment is not afforded.” The long-wooled varieties,among which are the Cotswold, Leicester, Lincoln, and New Oxfordshire, would require, in this climate, extra care in feed and shelter. Every one intending to keep sheep would 256° decide for-himself whether to undertake this forcing system or not. «\ flock of sheep—in addition to a dai- ry.of cows—will add much tothe amount of Jabor on a furm, Ina dairy, whether large or small, the same round of opera- tions have to. be daily performed, and a few cows,.more.or less, will make very little difference in the amount of labor. The addition of a flock of sheep and the withdrawal of a few cows, adds- to the number of duties, without any percepti- ble diminution of any. A small flock of, sheep may yield a profit to the farmer in several ways which cannot be set down and figured up. They do this: By the consumption of food refused by otber an- imals in summer; turning waste vegeta- tion to use, and giving rough and bushy places a smooth appearance; by adding a most excellent meat to the farmei’s “bill of fare.” This point is worthy*of particular attention. By adding a pleasing feature to the sce- nery about his: home—the sporting of| lambs on the hillsides—the plain dotted with specks of fleecy beauty—the pleas- ure of feeding and making them comfort- able in the inclemencies of winter, which they repay by looks of dumb gratitude— the thoughts suggested of savory dinners, and warm clothing for winter’s cold, give the farmer a sort of genial, comfortable feeling, which it is well to encourage. Discussion---June 24, 1859, The Essay was listened. to with marked attention, as “Sheep Husbandry,” in connection with “Dairy Farming,” is not practiced to any considerable extent in the county. The impression seemed to prevail among members that keeping sheep « on good dairy lands in connection with cows, was not so profitable as dairy farm - ing to their exclusion, Sheep, it was said, preferred the short and tender grass, and pastures would be kept down shorter than they would if their place was sup- plied with cows. Sheep, to be sure, would eat grass left by other stock, but they by. no means confine themselves to this kind of food. If they ate only what other animals left or rejected as unpalata- ble, a few sheep could be kept on every dairy farm with profit, but such was not the fact. Those parts of the pasture kept short by other stock, would be fed off still closer by sheep. It was said that sheep were fond of Daisies, both white and yellow, and wuld exterminate those noxious weeds from pastures. It was suggested that fields overrun with these weeds should be stocked with.sheep. Mr, Van Valkenburgh said he had found sheep beneficial in destroying the Canada this- tle. By sprinkling salt on parts of his pas- ture lands overgrown with this weed, it had been completely subdued and exter- minated. He regarded Sheep Husband- ry profitable. ‘The breed preferred was a cross between the South Down and Lei- cestershire. The wool was thicker and longer, some animals yielding 7 pounds of wool of.an excellent quality yearly. The The shape and size of the animal was im- proved by crossing, Mr. Arnold said that the Microscope had recently shown the wool grown on such animals to be -de- formed. The threads were very uneven,. and hence it was inferred that the wool was of inferior quality. Some members seemed to think that Sheep Husbandry could be made quite 207 as profitable as Dairying—the expense of managing sheep was less than, that of cows, There was not so much liability of loss in depreciation of stock, or in buying poor animals. The principal argument advanced to show that keeping sheep ,in connection with Dairy farming was not so profitable, was, that a cer- tain routine of operations had to be gone through with a dairy, and that few cows more or less made no material differ- ance in the labor. Whereas, if a certain number of sheep took the place of a part of the cows, the labor on the farm was very much increased without increasing the profits. In reference to purchasing good cows to fill up and replace animals turned off, some members thought there was but little difficulty in getting superior animals, if the dairymen chose to look for cows in the right direction, and were willing to pay for a good animal. It was not advisable to go West to buy cows for dairy purposes. The Hastern cows were generally the best, and for $50 to $60 per head one could have the choice in selecting from flocks. Sheep, it was said, furnished an. excel- lent food for the table. Mutton or Lamb was regarded as a more healthy food than Pork, Veal or Beef. Young Veal was an unhealthy and dangerous article of diet.— Veal of any age was not healthy food. Some objections were raised. to keeping sheep on account of their liability to be destroyed by dogs. It was said that bells attached to a few sheep ina flock would prevent attacks from dogs. A member stated tbat there had been sheep on the commons, near this village, for years, and there had been no losses from dogs. With regard to enriching land, Sheep Husband- ry was considered equal, if not superior, to dairy farming. Mr. Whitman said he had made ar- rangements to get all -the refuse at the tannery, such as hair, the fleshings of hides,spent hen manure,d&ec.,and asked how it should be applied to his lands, and whether it was considered valuable man- ure. One member said he had made an application of hair to grass lands at the rate of five loads to the acre, and the ground had yielded largely for twelve years. When applied to corn he had seen no appreciable benefit. The effects of refuse hair from the tannery on grass lands would be felt for from seven to ten years. All the refuse spoken of was con- sidered valuable as fertilizers. There was considerable rambling talk on various top- ics near the close of the meeting. To the question “how nuch Buckwheat should be sown per acre?” it was said from four quarts to two bushels. 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