de elahacmtetspaietetaietersteheteseyepalatane hated wteterssotelslaiuleletelnietriete Pic bi OIA Tao atl rtp Sr reetrin Lt ¥ 1 riers arp roy Arse t > Hide Lali teeta si Parke ona New Pork Htate College of Agriculture At Cornell Aniversity Bthaca, N. P. Librarp Cornell University Library QK 495.G74F8 Mini s; an illustrated guide wi THE BOOK OF GRASSES SALT-MARSH COCKSPUR GRASS (Echinochloa Walieri) THE BOOK OF GRASSES AN ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO THE COMMON GRASSES, .AND THE MOST COMMON OF THE RUSHES AND SEDGES BY MARY EVANS FRANCIS ILLUSTRATED BY H. H. KNIGHT, ARTHUR G. ELDREDGE AND SARAH FRANCIS DORRANCE GaRDEN CITY New York DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY Igi2 Copyright, 1912, by DousLepay, PAGE & ComMPANY All rights reserved, including that of translation into Foreign Languages, including the Scandinavian TO S. E. F. D "0 babbled of green fields.” PREFACE Tue little that has been written about our common grasses has dealt chiefly with their economic value, and has been published for the agriculturist, to whom that value is paramount. Or, it has, on the other hand, been too technical to be of service to the casual student of our wild flowers who has had comparatively little aid, aside from scientific and agricultural works, in recognizing the different species of this vast family. In preparing the following pages I have intended that the descriptions, though accurate, should not obscure the beauty of the grasses with a mass of technical terms, but should be so simple that the wayfaring man who enjoys the verdure of our waysides might become more intimately acquainted with the most common plants. An important aid in recognizing the grasses will be found in the illustrations, which, made from the living plants, present not only the most noticeable characteristics of growth, but also deline- ations of the parts of the flowers. The technical descriptions, which follow the general de- scriptions, are the results of careful observations and measurements of many specimens. The descriptions include the common grasses and the most common of the rushes and sedges found from Canada southward to Virginia, and from the Atlantic coast westward to the Missis- sippi River. The greater number of species given are found throughout the United States. I wish to acknowledge indebtedness to the following valuable works: “The True Grasses,” by Eduard Hackle; ‘American Grasses,” by Dr. Lamson Scribner; ‘Grasses of North America for Farmers and Students,” by William J. Beal; and “Descriptive Catalogue of Grasses of the United States,” by Dr. Geo. Vasey. Mary Evans FRANCIS. vii LIST OF CONTENTS Preface. Of Grasses The Most Important Randy of the Veseuibie Ringdom Stem, Leaf, and Flower ‘ A Calendar of the Common Grasses Grasses Arranged According to Locations Key to the Grasses : : Illustrated Descriptions of the Grasses The Sedge Family Rushes ‘ Index to English (anes Index to Latin Names PAGE Vil 11 17 27 33 39 49 259 329 341 349 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Coloured Plates Salt-marsh Cockspur Grass (Echinochloa Walteri) . Frontispiece PAGE Foxtail Grasses (Setaria) . . ~~ « 82 Indian Rice, or Wild Rice (Zinnia nuatiea an z palustris) 87 Red-top (Agrostis alba) . . . Sum Us) gee. ets 117 Snake Grass (Eragrostis jecacechiay at HS ee Whose. estes 7S Orchard Grass (Dactylis glomerata) . . . . . ... . 189 Fringed Brome-grass (Bromus ciliatus) . . . . 1. 1 . 223 Brome-grass (B. altissimus) . . 2 1. 1. 1 ee eee 225 Brome-grass (B. incanus) ee dl. ON Ber eh ths Se ee ODT Slender Wild Rye (Elymus striatus) woke Be Ae geen ge Raa Wool Grass (Scirpus cyperinus) . . 2. 1. 1. we ee 255 Great Bulrush (S. validus) . . . a ates He Pe ek 7 Yellow Nut-grass (Cyperus pecans e Be wow a 2 261 Bristle-spiked Cyperus (C. strigosus) . . . . . . . . 263 Chair-maker’s Rush (Scirpus americanus) . . . . . . 281 Fox Sedge (Carex vulpinoidea) . . . 1. 1 ww eo 305 Stem, leaf, and flower po enbaeid Oot ee ee Ret Seo Spikes; «. co &@-@ @ 3 3 26 So ao wok wae eS 1G Panicles . . . . Wis GS Bae aie ae a 620 Grass flowers and their parte Se ce ah ge Se got cae ey) OUT Gama Grass (Tripsacum dactyloides) . . . . . . . . 50 Beard-grass (Andropogon scoparius) . . . . . «. . . 50 Broom Sedge on sandy soil (A. virginicus) . . . . «51 Forked Beard-grass (A. furcatus) . 1. 2. 2 1 1. we 53 Indian Grass (Sorghastrum nutans) . . . . . . . . 56 Large Crab-grass (Digitaria sanguinalis) . . . . . . 57 Large Crab-grass (D. sanguinalis) . . . . . . ee 59 Slender Paspalum (Paspalum setaceum).... .. . 60 Old Witch-grass (Panicum capillare) . . . .... 62 xl The Book of Grasses Old Witch-grass (P. capillare) Bitter Panic-grass (P. amarum) Cockspur Grass (Echinochloa crusgalli) Salt-marsh Cockspur Grass (E. Walter?) Scribner’s Panic-grass (Panicum Scribnerianum) Hispid Panic-grass (P. clandestinum) Cockspur Grass (Echinochloa crusgallt) Long Panic-grass (Panicum agrostoides) The Deserted Garden . Yellow Foxtail (Setaria glauca) Green Foxtail (S. viridis) Bur-grass (Cenchrus carolinianus) Indian Rice (Zizania palustris) Indian Rice by the border of a stream Rice Cut-grass (Leersia oryzoides) Rice Cut-grass (L. oryzoides) White-grass (L. virginica) Reed Canary-grass (Phalaris qeuminaiea) Reed Canary-grass (P. arundinacea) Sweet Vernal-grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum) Vanilla Grass (Hierochloé odorata) ; White-grained Mountain Rice ae asperifolia) Black Oat-grass (Stipa avenacea) Slender Aristida (Aristida gracilis) Purplish Aristida (A. purpurascens) Sea-beach Aristida (A. tuberculosa) Meadow Muhlenbergia (Mublenbergia me Ncmia) Long-awned Hair-grass (M. capillaris) Long-awned Wood-grass (Brachyelytrum oe Long-awned Wood-grass (B. erectum) Timothy (Phleum pratense) : Meadow Foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis) Sheathed Rush-grass (Sporobolus taginaeflorus) Gauze-grass (S. uniflorus) é aug Red-top (Agrostis alba) : Rough Hair-grass (A. hbyemalis) ; Blue-joint Grass (Calamagrostis Ginadensis). Nuttall’s Reed-grass (C. cinnoides) Blue-joint Grass (C. canadensis) in Renwick Marsh . Blue-joint Grass (C. canadensis) Xii List of Illustrations Marram Grass (Ammopbila arenaria) Marram Grass (A. arenaria) in drifting sand Wood Reed-grass (Cinna arundinacea) Silvery Hair-grass (Aira eee Velvet Grass (Holcus lanatus) Marsh Oats (Sphenopholis palustris) . Meadow Sphenopholis (S. pallens) . Wavy Hair-grass (Deschampsia flexuosa) Wavy Hair-grass (D. as Cultivated Oats Cultivated Wheat Cultivated Rye Meadow Oat-grass (Awtonainetwit. latins) Wild Oat-grass (Danthonia spicata) : Creek Sedge in bloom on the marsh (Spartina aan var. pilosa) . : Blossoming spikes of ‘Creek Sedge (S. ae, var pilosa) Salt Reed-grass by the marsh (S. cynosuroides) . Salt Reed-grass (S. cynosuroides) a Fox-grass, rank in growth (S. patens) Fox-grass covering the marsh (S. patens) Fox-grass growing through sand (S. gece Fox-grass (S. patens) oh ‘ Fox-grass (S. patens) Creek Sedge (S. glabra, var. fos) Bermuda Grass (Cynodon Dactylon) Tall Grama (Bouteloua curtipendula) Wire-grass (Eleusine indica) . : Salt-meadow Leptochloa (Leptochloa fasticulanis). Salt-meadow Leptochloa (L. fascicularis) Reed (Phragmites communis) Sand-grass (Triplasis purpurea) Sand-grass (T. purpurea) , Tufted Eragrostis (Eragrostis Bie Strong-scented Eragrostis (E. EES Purple Eragrostis (E. pectinacea) Narrow Melic-grass (Melica mutica) . Purple Oat (M. striata) Broad-leaved Spike-grass (nial laifoliay Marsh Spike-grass (Distichlis spicata) Xill PAGE 127 129 131 132 133 135 135 137 139 140 141 141 142 143 145 147 149 151 153 155 157 159 161 161 163 164 165 166 167 169 171 173 177 179 180 182 182 183 184 The Book of Grasses Marsh Spike-grass (D. spicata) . Lady’s Hair (Briza media) Field of grasses Orchard Grass (Dacw: eneeaiay Crested Dog’s-tail (Cynosurus cristatus) Low Spear-grass (Poa annua) 2 Kentucky Blue-grass (P. pratensis) False Red-top (P. iriflora) 5 Canada Blue-grass (P. compressa) . False Red-top (P. triflora) Wood Spear-grass (P. sylvestris). Densely flowered Manna-grass (Glyceria shined) : Rattlesnake Grass (G. canadensis) Nerved Manna-grass (G. nervata) Tall Manna-grass (G. grandis) Pale Manna-grass (G. pallida) Nerved Manna-grass (G. nervata) . : Floating Manna-grass (G. septentrionalis) Goose-grass (Puccinellia maritima) Goose-grass (P. maritima) Spreading Spear-grass (P. didans) Slender Fescue (Festuca octoflora) . Red Fescue (F. rubra) Meadow Fescue (F. elatior) . Meadow Fescue (F. elatior) . Fringed Brome-grass (Bromus cilichas) Downy Brome-grass (B. tectorum) Chess (B. secalinus) Ray-grass (Lolium perenne) Ray-grass (L. perenne) Couch-grass (Agropyron heey Couch-grass (A. repens) Squirrel-tail Grass (Hordeum lanin Cultivated Barley : Terrell-grass (Elymus sireinicus) : Nodding Wild Rye (E. canadensis) Terrell-grass (E. virginicus) Bottle-brush Grass (Hystrix pana Bottle-brush Grass (H. patula) Cyperus (Cyperus hystricinus) X1V 194 PAGE 185 188 191 193 196 197 198 199 201 203 207 207 208 209 209 211 213 214 215 215 217 218 219 221 222 229 230 231 233 235 237 239 240 241 245 249 249 251 265 List of Illustrations Cyperus (C. diandrus) . Bristle-spiked Cyperus (C. iis Slender Cyperus (C. filiculmis) . Pond Sedge (Dulichium arundinaceum) . Slender Spike-rush (Eleocharis tenuis) Large Spike-rush (EF. palustris) Slender Spike-rush (EF. tenuis) Spike-rush (E. obtusa) Matted Spike-rush (E. SL ernddiay. Sand-mat (Stenophyllus capillaris) . Slender Fimbristylis (Fimbristylis Prant. Great Bulrush (Scirpus validus) Salt-marsh Bulrush (S. robustus) Wool-grass (S. cyperinus) Meadow Bulrush (S. atrovirens) Wool-grass and Bulrushes growing in marsh Cayuga Marsh . . River Bulrush (S. fits Meadow Bulrush (S. atrovirens) Salt-marsh Bulrush( S. robustus) Salt-marsh Bulrush (S. robustus) : Salt-marsh Bulrush (S. robustus) by the ede of the eee Virginian Cotton-grass (EF. virginicum) oe White Beaked-rush (Rynchospora alba) Slender Cotton-grass (Eriophorum gracile) Virginian Cotton-grass (E. virginicum) Clustered Beaked-rush (R. glomerata) Low Nut-rush (Scleria verticillata) Scales, seeds, and perigynia of sedges belonging to the Bente Carex : Tufted Sedge (Cares ay Pennsylvania Sedge (C. Kontepieaatea) Bladder Sedge, (C. intumescens) Hop Sedge (C. lupulina) . Fringed Sedge (C. crinita) . . Little Prickly Sedge (C. Sc bOHECS) Slender Sedge (C. gracillima) Sedges (C. lurida, C. cristata, C. miata Hop Sedge (C. lurida, var. gracilis) Hop Sedge (C. Pseudo-Cyperus) XV PAGE 267 269 270 271 271 273 275 275 277 279 279 283 283 284 284 285 287 289 201 203 205 207 209 209 301 301 303 303 304 304 307 308 309 309 310 310 311 313 315 The Book of Grasses Hop Sedge (C. retrosa) Hop Sedge (C. lupuliformis) Fringed Sedge (C. crinita) Fox Sedge (C. vulpinoidea) Fescue Sedge (C. festucacea) Yard Rush (Juncus tenuis) Small-headed Rush (/. brachyee shall) ; Bog Rush (J. effusus) . : Sharp-fruited Rush (J. acuminatiis) Grass-leaved Rush (J. marginatus) Yard Rush (J. tenuis) Toad Rush (J. bufonius) . : Sharp-fruited Rush (/. ainaas, Bog Rush (J. effusus) . : Knotted Rush (J. nodosus) Jointed Rush (J. articulatus) Black Grass (J. Geradt) Common Wood-rush (Luzula campestris) XVi PAGE 317 319 319 321 321 325 327 330 330 330 331 332 333 335 337 337 335 333 OF GRASSES OF GRASSES FRoM spring until late autumn grasses bloom by every way- side, and in field and meadow form the green carpet of the earth. Widely distributed throughout all countries, and abundant even in far-away prehistoric days, they still remain the most important family of the vegetable kingdom, and — of all common plants the most common —the least commonly known. Yet from the moment when the first violet lifts its blossom to the sunlight until in autumn the witchhazel’s delicate flowers are seen above fast- falling leaves, there is never a day when grasses are not in bloom, and never a week in summer when a score of different species may not be gathered. In richness and variety of colouring, above their undertone of green, the blossoms and wind-blown anthers of the grasses rival in beauty the flowers that the wayfaring man collects. The grace of swaying stem and drooping leaf, the delicacy of tiny flowers tinged in rose and purple, and the infinite variety shown in form and colouring are lost upon those who are intent on seeking flowers that the forests make rare. Grasses there are, stout and higher than one’s head, and grasses so slender that their dying stems among wayside weeds are like threads of gold; grasses whose panicles of bloom are more than half a yard in length, and of a colour which only a midsummer sun can burn into August fields; grasses so stiff that winter's snow leaves them unbroken, and grasses so tiny that their highest flower is raised but a few inches from the soil. Nearly one thousand species are found in the United States, nor is the study of these plants so difficult as it is thought to be. When accuracy in determining the individual species is desired, a small microscope and a few needles for dissecting the blossoms are all that is necessary. Even without these aids an intimate ac- quaintance with the grasses may be gained by observing only their most obvious characteristics of growth, and the various forms of flowering heads. Notice closely the grasses in a low meadow of early summer: the dense growth of green, hastily characterized as 3 The Book of Grasses “grass,” may contain many different species of this vast family, species which at a second glance are seen to have each theif own distinguishing features. Like charity the study of grasses may begin at home, and, like charity also, this most fascinating of nature studies may be carried far afield, for the grasses, most numerous of all flowering plants, we have always with us. Tree-like in the tropics the Bamboos, largest of the grass family, lift their blossoms one hundred feet and more toward the sky; in cold countries moss-like grasses cringe and cling to the frozen ground, and through the temperate regions of the globe grasses grow in luxuriance of form and colouring and supply a background of green against which the world of trees and rivers, of brooks and ledges, is placed on colours ever chang- ing, and ever perfect. Nature is continually busy reclaiming the unsightly places abandoned by man, covering with a garment of green the hillsides torn by rain, and carpeting with her “matted miracles of grass”’ the humble waysides. The traditional spirit of the seasons is symbolized by outdoor colouring: cool, pale tints of early spring, rose-colour of June, warm tones of August fields, and a glory of purple and gold when the summer is past and the harvest ending. In all this continuity of change, which keeps the face of Nature so new in its world-old familiarity, the grasses bear their part, and as the violet and wild geranium of spring give place to midsummer hardhack, which in turn is pushed aside by goldenrod and asters, so the passing months bring fresh grasses into bloom and mark the calendar of the year by the flowering of these common plants. It still is true, however, that “The world misprizes the too-freely offered And rates the earth and sky but carelessly.” The dandelion is less honoured than the arbutus, yet even the dandelion receives greater honour than do the early grasses, which aid in changing earth’s wintry shroud to living green. Grasses yield us the earliest intimations of spring, as a faint flush of green, in harmony with the soft colours of April woods, tinges the brown hillsides before snows have ceased. The first grasses are more delicately coloured than are those of midsummer when the sun burns red and purple into the tiny flowers. The green spikelets 4 Of Grasses of many spring grasses depend for colour upon their lightly poised anthers of lavender and gold. Sweet Vernal-grass, Orchard Grass, and June Grass, so characteristic of spring, are succeeded by spreading panicles of Hair-grass, bayonet-like spikes of Timothy, and the richly coloured Red-top whose blossoms burn with mid- summer’s warmth. September has still new grasses to offer, and in this month the Beard-grasses are conspicuous, as their stiff stems at last attain a growth that will enable them to withstand snow and frost. In many localities from fifty to one hundred dif- ferent grasses may be gathered, and, although, unlike the lilies, they do not flaunt their colours garishly, yet in rose and lavender, in purple and an infinite scale of green they rest and charm the eye with their beauty from April to October, when frosts bring to them new hues of brown and yellow in which they clothe the earth until green blades again push through spring turf. Our waysides are the accepted gardens of many plants which, having followed the path of mankind through the New World, take the highways of civilization for their own, and find abundant means for transportation as seed is fastened on passers-by, or carried by the wind along smooth pathways. Few are the grasses that cannot be found in these wayside gardens as the roads wind through fertile country, from uplands to rich meadows, or pass sandy shores, where in a variety of soils the different grasses bloom and add a mass of verdure to the border of the way. Throughout the season these common gardens of the wayside hold a constantly changing procession of grasses; a procession which begins with Low Spear-grass and Sweet Vernal-grass in April, and ends in October with the Dropseed-grasses and the Beard-grasses, al- though even in winter the species that remain standing may still be recognized. Rarer flowers must be sought in deep woods and in hidden places in the swamps, but the cosmopolitan grasses are fitted to take up the struggle for existence wherever the seed chances to fall. Dean Herbert rightly says that “plants do not grow where they like best but where other plants will let them.” By way- sides we may see this struggle in its intensity as a dozen species strive for the same plot of ground and grow in tangles that in- clude low cinquefoil and tall briars. The strife is always most intense between individuals of the same species, and here the grasses grow in profusion, occupying each inch of space, pushing 5 The Book of Grasses out into deserted country roads, and spreading far and wide by means as interesting as ever the more noted flowering plants employ. Bur-grass, with its thorny seed-burs, catches on passing ob- jects and thus secures free portage to new fields; Terrell-grass by thick, corky scales floats its seed upon the streams near which it grows; Beach Grass defies the sand to bury it and is found at the tops of the highest sand-dunes, with whose rise it has kept pace, the long roots of the grass penetrating to the base of the dune; and Couch-grass, sending sharp-pointed rootstocks rapidly through the soil, is a veritable “land-grabber.”’ Where the purslane and poppy produce a multitude of seeds from every flower, each blossom of the grass ripens but one, yet so richly stored is this with nutriment, and frequently so well protected against germination under unfavourable conditions, that the one seed may be worth many of those less perfectly equipped, since, in the process of evolution, diminution in the number of seeds is accompanied by an increase in the effectiveness of those that remain. The twisted awns of certain grasses—e. g., Sweet Vernal- grass and Wild Oat — show one of the most interesting mechan- isms seen in the vegetable world. These awns, or bristle-like appendages of the grass flower, are extremely sensitive to atmos- pheric changes, and by their peculiar structure aid in burying the seed beneath the surface of the soil. In Sweet Vernal-grass the scale, to which the ripened seed adheres, bears a brown awn, bent and twisted near its middle, and beset with minute, upward- pointing hairs on its basal part. Such awns are strongly hygro- scopic and during cold or dry weather remain tightly twisted, thus holding the seed where it chances to be. Under the influence of moisture the awn untwists and by its rotation drives the fallen seed slowly but surely beneath the soil. Although dry weather may follow, causing the awn to become twisted again, the upward- pointing hairs catch on particles of earth or grass and, holding the seed down, prevent it from being drawn up. Thus it lies ready for the next shower when the awn pushes the seed farther into the earth. This peculiarity of structure is easily observed without the aid of the microscope. If a few of the ripened seeds be laid upon the moistened palm of the hand they will immediately begin to move, as if alive, and the rotating of the awn may be plainly seen. 6 Of Grasses Interesting experiments have been made whereby it has been seen that in sand, alternately wet and dried, the awns of certain grasses will bury the seed several inches beneath the surface. Each locality shows characteristic grasses, and as in a short walk we pass from low meadows to dry hillsides we find new species to excite fresh interest. On sea beaches we look for the long, gray-green leaves of Marram Grass, or Beach Grass, for spreading clumps of Sea-beach Panic-grass, for the dark, wiry stems of Fox- grass, and for rigid-leaved grasses of hot sands. Salt marshes show dense jungles of reed-like grasses, Creek Sedge, Salt Reed- grass, and the tall Reed. Dry hillsides are covered in spring by Wild Oat-grass and Wavy Hair-grass, where later Purple Finger- grass, Sheathed Rush-grass, and stiff Beard-grasses will bloom. In dry fields we look for the low growth of the smaller Panic- grasses, for the slender, one-sided spikes of Field Paspalum, and for wide-spreading panicles of Purple Eragrostis. Borders of woodlands offer Poverty Grass, Black Oat-grass, and Muhlen- bergias, while in deep woods we search for shade-loving grasses, the tall, slender Bottle-brush Grass, the lower Mountain Rice, and the Nodding Fescue. Marshy meadows are full of interest to the student of grasses: Reed Canary-grass with broad, blue-green leaves borders narrow brooks, and nearby the Blue-joint Grass, slender and stiff, rises bearing narrow, deeply coloured panicles; graceful Manna Grasses fill the marshes of early summer, and later the rough leaves and stems of Rice Cut-grass form tangled masses in low grounds. By river-borders grows the great Gama Grass whose leaves are so broad as to resemble those of our cul- tivated corn, and in wet soil, also, is found the tall Indian Rice on which the reed-bird feeds. A country dooryard of an acre may show more than a dozen different grasses, while in the garden near half a score of other species invade the cultivated land as weeds. A large collection of grasses, preserved either as herbarium specimens or in the more artistic impression prints made upon photographic paper, may be gathered in a short time, and dif- ferences perhaps little noticed by the casual observer will seem marked indeed to the student who at the close of a summer’s study will deem it as unpardonable to mistake one of our common grasses for another as to mistake an elm for an oak. Corn, wheat, oats, the day of the first cultivation of these cereal grains long antedates history, and how seldom is it realized 7 The Book of Grasses that they are grasses. Vergil and Columella wrote long ago of the care of meadows and fields. Indeed the word cereal stands as an article of faith in the goddess Ceres, who searched with torches for the grain carried off by winter frost, and on finding the seed raised it to its flower once more. Bertha was the Ceres of German mythology, and winds and rains affecting crops were believed to be under her control. Corn-spirits there were which were sym- bolized under the forms of wolves and goat-legged creatures, similar to classic satyrs. To the older peasantry of Germany and Russia these corn-spirits still haunt and protect the fields which show the “Grass-wolf” or ‘‘ Corn-wolf”’ to be abroad when the wind, as it passes, bends the grass and the ripening grain. The last sheaf of rye is occasionally left afield as shelter for the “ Roggen- wolf,” or “Rye-wolf,” and it is not long since the Iceland farmer guarded the grass around his fields lest the mischievous elves, hiding among the grasses, and ever waiting to harm him, should invade his cultivated land. In old herbals the word grass, gres, gyrs meant any green plant of small size, and though we have restricted the meaning of the word it still is carelessly applied to a multitude of sedges and rushes which in manner of growth and form of flower differ markedly from the true grasses. To the casual observer the grasses are but “grass,” and to few is their diversity, their beauty, and their value apparent. We are blind to the infinite variety shown by Nature in these common plants, of which we often know scarcely more than do the cattle that feed upon them; yet on no other family of flowering plants does the beauty of the green earth and its adaptation as a home for man so largely depend. UTILITY OF GRASSES THE MOST IMPORTANT FAMILY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM “And he gave it for his opinion, that whoever could make two ears of corn, or two blades of grass, to grow upon a spot of ground where only one grew before, would deserve better of mankind, and do more essential service to his country, than the whole race of politicians put together.”’— Gulliver's Travels. CAN one imagine the world grassless — a barren waste? The shifting soil, exposed to the elemental workers, wind and water, could offer no sure abiding place for man, since, lacking a tenacious network of grass roots firmly binding the soil, the road of to-day might be obliterated to-morrow, and the loftiest building gradually buried beneath wind-blown sand. As soil-binders the grasses performed a leading part in the important task of rendering the globe habitable to the human race, and still sending their roots far and wide through the surface of the ground the grasses form a turf which holds in check the de- structive forces of wind and rain, and gives secure anchorage not only to the lower growth of plants but also to trees and shrubs. Grasses were abundantly developed in prehistoric days, as numerous remains of grass-like leaves attest, and since the earliest tribes chipped rude implements for cultivating the soil, or for their use in war, the grasses have exceeded in importance to man- kind any other family of the vegetable kingdom. The green herbage of meadow and pasture is the chief food of domesticated animals, and in this country the value of hay alone exceeds that of any other crop except corn, which, be it remem- bered, is itself a grass. Even the salt marshes yield their hay, and in New England pastures, where rocks seem as numerous as grass blades, sheep crop the wiry grasses of dry hillsides. A noted grass-garden was owned in Woburn a century ago by the Duke of Bedford, and in this garden George Sinclair carried on valuable researches of which he wrote in his “Hortus Gramineus Woburnensis.”” Tirelessly were the experiments made, in cultiva- II The Book of Grasses ting the grasses, in drying them, in dissolving their soluble parts, in evaporating the solution, and finally in submitting the residuum to chemical analysis. : Grass stems contain a large amount of silica, and in such seed as that of the species known as “ Job’s Tears” the hardness due to a silica deposit nearly equals that of agate. Minute particles of silica in the outer cell walls serve in keeping grass stems firm and erect, and if we carefully burn the vegetable matter from one of these stems a perfect skeleton of the structure is left. It is said that wheat straw, without the addition of other material, may be _ melted into colourless glass, and that barley melts into glass of topaz yellow. The varied form and texture of the grasses adapt them to many uses, and even the common grasses of our northeastern states have been made into ropes, mats, paper, baskets, and many fine- plaited articles. Fragrant fans of dark-coloured fibres are made in India from the aromatic rootstocks of a grass, and the entire plant is woven into screens which, when dampened and placed in a current of air, perfume the breeze. Lemon Grass and Ginger Grass, natives of tropical Asia, yield oils strongly scented, as their names imply, and the rootstock of a grass in South America is sometimes used as a substitute for soap. A few grasses have been used medicinally, and have been cultivated for medicinal purposes. But it is as food for man, and for the domesticated animals on which he is most dependent, that the grasses have attained their highest importance, and it is on them largely that the great human family is fed to-day. The world has seemed to draw a line between the grasses of the fields and those plants that produce well-filled heads of cereals, and has ceased to regard the latter as grasses. Yet the useful grains — corn, wheat, rye, barley, rice, and oats — belong to one family, and are but grasses that have been brought by man to a superior degree of excellence. Rice and wheat have been cul- tivated from time immemorial, and although a century ago wheat was wheat, yet to-day new strains have been developed which grow where in older days the grain could not have been raised. Indian corn originated in tropical America, and is one of the few cereals whose native condition is known. It had attained a wide distribution when this country was discovered, and the grain must have been in use in very ancient times. Early explorers 12 Utility of Grasses found the Indians cultivating corn with primitive implements — hoes made of a sharpened stone or the shoulder blade of a moose ——and even then the seeds were described as “somewhat bigger than small peason,” while later the Pilgrims could boast the cultiva- tion of varieties of which “the graine be big.”” Botanically, corn is one of the most interesting of the grasses and is very unlike those found in daily walks through the country. The stamens of corn are in ornamental spikes which terminate the stems, while below, on spikes which are borne in the axils of the leaves, are the fertile flowers. These are densely crowded on a thickened rachis, commonly known as the corn-cob, and are covered with husks which are the sheaths of abortive leaves and which have the leaf- blades more or less developed. The flowering scales and palets are found in the chaff covering the cob, and the silken “tassels”’ at the summit of each ear are elongated pistils. Aerial roots, thrown from the lower nodes, serve as prop-roots, supporting the stem, and imitating in a small way the growth of a few other tropical plants. Sugar Cane is also a grass that has been brought from the wilderness and has been made to pay the toll of usefulness which man would fain exact of all vegetation. In warmer countries the great Bamboos, which are but grasses of a larger growth, are utilized as shelter, clothing, and food. Of these giant grasses houses are built which may be entirely furnished with articles made of Bamboo, and the household, wearing jackets and hats made of the same material, may gather tender shoots of the plant for use as a vegetable. A small section of the stem forms a cup, and a larger section a pail; paper and ropes are manufac- tured from the plant; umbrellas and exquisite boxes are made of the split internodes, and intricate appliances for spinning are fashioned entirely of Bamboo. And these are but a few of the uses that the several species of these grasses serve. Indeed, a complete list of articles made of Bamboo would be a catalogue far too long for insertion in these pages. Impenetrable “canebreaks” of the South are formed of two grasses similar to the Bamboos, though smaller in growth. The stout, jointed stems of the more southern species (the Large Cane), are used for fishing rods and are made into canes and pipes. As thatching the stems form a strong and serviceable shelter, and when split are woven into baskets and mats. The Small Cane 13 The Book of Grasses (Arundindria técta) grows as far north as Maryland, and by streams and river banks forms evergreen thickets from three to twelve feet in height. A reed of southern Europe and Palestine belongs to a closely related genus, and from this grass the heroes of Homer are said to have made their arrows and with it to have thatched the tent of Achilles. Pan-pipes, such as Orpheus might have used in charming the Dryads from their leafy shelters, were also made from the smooth stems of this reed. Of all flowering plants the grasses are the most widely distrib- uted, and innumerable are the ways in which they have served mankind since, in the story of Eden, the earth brought forth these common plants as the first of its flowers. 14 STEM, LEAF, AND FLOWER STEM, LEAF, AND FLOWER Roots — Many grasses spread in all directions by strong run- ners, or rootstocks, as they are called, which are, in reality, underground stems. These runners differ from the true, fibrous roots in consisting of a succession of joints from which upright stems arise, and from which true roots penetrate the soil and anchor the rootstock as it stretches far from the parent plant. Such grasses rapidly take possession of the ground, and as the rootstocks, interlacing in endless network, are thickened with a large amount of nourishing material, these grasses are enabled to endure drouth and unfavourable seasons. Rootstocks of the more vigorous grasses grow many feet in a season, and the thorny, needle-like points of the growing ends often penetrate tubers and roots. Grasses that develop only fibrous roots grow more frequently in tufts and bunches. Of these grasses the Bitter Panic-grass and the common Orchard Grass are examples. Perennial grasses are more numerous than annual grasses and may usually be recognized by the presence of sterile shoots growing from the lowest joint of the stem. The greater number of perennial grasses bloom earlier than do the annual grasses, though some perennials are late in flowering, as, for example, the Beard-grasses and the Muhlen- bergias. Stems.— Grass stems are divided by joints into internodes (the space between the base of one sheath and that of the next), the point from which each sheath rises being called a node. Although nearly all grasses, with the exception of Indian Corn, Sugar Cane, Gama Grass, and the Beard-grasses, possess hollow stems, which are always closed at the nodes, the rootstocks are usually solid, and the internodes of the young stems are also solid, becoming hollow by the separation of their original pith cells, which cease to grow. The nodes remain solid and, being darker in colour, appear as bands encircling the stems. Nodes perform an interesting and important function in rais- ing stems that have been bent down. Internodes play little or 17 The Book of Grasses no part in such service, but if one notices grasses that have been beaten to earth by heavy showers, it will be seen that the lower nodes have lengthened on the side turned earthward, and that the stems are thereby bent upward at sharp angles. Sheaths.— The broad, basal portion of each grass leaf is known as the sheath, and, encir- cling the stem, is an important b protection to the growing inter- ay @ node. Each sheath is usually ae split, or open, on the side oppo- ; ee site the leaf, and the edges of the inflotescey sheath overlap or partly encircle the stem a second time. In suc- cessive internodes these edges lap alter- nately to right and left, and the rolling of young leaves also alternates in like man- ner. Ina few grasses —e. g., Kentucky - Blue-grass and Orchard Grass — the sheaths are perfectly closed at first and are split only as the inflorescence forces its way up. Ligule— At the summit of the sheath is usually a thin membrane, the ligule, which closely embraces the stem and appears as an additional upward growth of the sheath or a continuation of its delicate lining. In each species the ligule is constant in form, some- times consisting of but a tiny ring or frequently appearing as a fringe of hairs. Leaves.— Grass leaves are borne alternately on opposite sides of the stem, in what is tech- nically called the two-ranked growth. The leaves of a few tropical grasses ap- proach in form those of other families of plants, and in certain species a true petiole is inserted between sheath and blade, but in temperate regions grass leaves vary only in width and length and are always “ grass-like,”’ show- Ss ie ing long, parallel veins . Roorstock eee Stem, Leaf, and Flower The leaves of many grasses are twisted (to the right in some species, to the left in others), as twining plants twist with or against the sun. It is said that the leaf blade in a few grasses is sensitive, and slowly folds together when briskly rubbed. In dry weather and in dry soil it will be noticed that the leaves of certain grasses are rolled tightly, becoming involute, as it is called. As the cells on the upper surface of the leaf lose their moisture and contract under a burning sun the edges of the leaf curl inward until the stronger cuticle of the lower surface is outer- most, and thus an added protection is given against an excessive loss of moisture. The response to the external stimuli of heat and cold, of light and darkness, in the vegetable world is exquis- itely delicate. In the growth of plants, in their “sleep” at night, and in their many so-called “adaptations” to varying conditions, the student may read the life of Nature in an ever open book. INFLORESCENCE A Spike is formed when the spikelets are apparently sessile on the main axis —e. g., Couch-grass. A Panicle is formed when the spikelets are on secondary or further-divided branches — e. g., Orchard Grass and Old Witch- grass. The Rachis is that part of the stem on which the spikelets or spikelet-bearing branches are borne. Ay sv ete gare 1m gent SPIKES: "} FORWS The small flowers of the grasses bear little resemblance, at first glance, to the distantly related lilies; yet if some of the lilies that bloom in spikes were to crowd their flowers more and more, and were to reduce their petals to mere scales, such plants would be well 19 The Book of Grasses on the way toward a grass-like appearance. The three stamens of many grasses suggest the characteristic, three-parted form of the true lilies, while the flower- ing scale and palet of each grass blossom are a reminder of the lily calyx, the two green keels of the palet suggesting that two divisions of the calyx have been merged in one. Our wind-fertilized flowers are represen- ted chiefly by the grasses and sedges, and by early blooming trees and shrubs. Such flowers are small and produce no nectar. They have little fragrance, and their chief colouring frequently appears in the large an- thers which are so hung on hair-like filaments as to shake out pollen grains on every breeze. Spikelets— The flowers of grasses are borne in spikelets which vary in size and which are composed of one, several, or many flowers. The short stem, on which the flowers of a spikelet are placed, is known as the rachilla; this is sometimes prolonged, and, under the microscope, may be seen as a tiny thread lying outside the uppermost flower. Spikelets are arranged in spikes or panicles. In bloom the lower flow- ers of the spikelets bloom before the others, as the spikelets bloom from below upward, but in panicles the uppermost spikelets are the first to open, since the flowering-heads bloom downward, and often the upper branches of a panicle are widely spread with open flowers while the lower branches remain erect and closely appressed to the stem. 3 Z, / t Wyo f \ y V4 \i a tt i W We YW th V7 te WY Ine W NY ~—y_. l WY 1 WY \ vi IN x A S\N N (Spikevike mieles fl is} Scales.— Instead of flowering-leaves of sepals and petals the grasses show bracts, called scales, or glumes, surrounding each flower. The two lower scales of each spikelet are usually empty, and in the axil of each succeeding scale (except sometimes the 20 Stem, Leaf, and Flower “WES Tw Pecticels a Pein We Outer(enyity) NZ Rachilla outen/eales Skenq | fempty) ‘ Several flowered spckelet I flowered shikelet uppermost) a flower is borne. Scales which enclose a flower are termed flowering scales. These exhibit many interesting peculiarities in their structure, often bearing a bristle-like appendage, called an awn, which is considered by botanists to be a stégmas Modified leaf-blade. Such awns are straight, bent, tiie) or twisted, and either terminate the scales, when anther they are known as terminal awns, or are borne on ——___._ the backs of the scales, when the awns are said to Scale forms be dorsal; that part of the scale below the awn representing the sheath of a leaf, while the portion () of the scale above the awn corresponds to the ligule. A flowering scale is said to be keeled obtuse acute when it is flattened and folded so that its two { () edges are brought near together and the mid-vein is prominent as a ridge on the back of the scale. When the veins of a scale are conspicuous the scale is said to be three-nerved, five-nerved, seven- nerved, or nine-nerved, according to the number of prominent veins. Palet.— Opposite the flowering scale, and with toothed it enclosing the flower, is an awnless scale, called the palet, usually thin in texture, and two-nerved, showing two green keels. The palet may be minute or lacking, as in certain of the Bent- grasses, or it may exceed the flowering scale in length, as in Sharp-scaled Manna-grass. keeled 3-nerwed terminal dorsal Lodicules— At the base of the flower, within A’ . ata "its scales, are usually two (rarely three) minute, B thin, and translucent scales, termed lodicules. These will rarely be noticed save at the time of flowering, when, for a short time, they are swollen with sap, and, by pressing the flowering scale and palet apart, cause the opening of the blossom. Lodicules soon wither, and in some grasses are 21 The Book of Grasses lacking; in such the spikelets remain closed and the stamens and pistils protrude from the summit of each blossom. Stamens and Pistils. — The majority of our grasses bear perfect flowers, consisting of stamens and pistils, although some species are monoecious, as are Gama Grass and Indian Corn, which bear stamens and pistils in separate flowers on the same plant, and a few grasses are dicecious, as is Salt- grass, whose stamen-bearing and pistil-bearing flowers are on separate plants. There are one to six (usually three) stamens whose very slender filaments bear two-celled anthers. These are lightly attached near their middle to the apex of the filament, and, trembling in the wind, easily discharge the smooth, round pollen cells. The stamens elongate rapidly and exhibit the most rapid rate of growth known in flowering plants. Although many of the pollen cells must fail of their mission and be carried by the wind to fall fruit- lessly upon leaves and stones, Nature provides a vast quantity of pollen to ensure the fertilization of sufficient seed. It has been estimated that a single anther of Rye contains no less than twenty thousand pollen cells. The greater number of spring grasses have larger anthers than those of midsummer, but brilliant colours, ranging from pale yellow to orange and crimson, and from lavender to deep purple, appear in the anthers at all seasons. The one-celled, one-seeded ovary bears one to three (usually two) styles whose feathery stigmas often show conspicuous colour. Seeds.— Grass seeds are richly stored with nutriment and have great vitality; they are also well adapted to wide distribution. Scales adhering to the seeds buoy them so that they are easily carried by the wind or along the surface of running water. The seeds of a few grasses are sticky when wet and adhere to passing objects. Ripened panicles of Purple Eragrostis, of Old Witch- grass, and of certain other grasses are driven as tumble-weeds across the fields and scatter their seeds along the way. The awns of many grasses are rough, catching on passers-by and travelling long distances. In high mountains, where the ripening of seed is uncertain, entire spikelets are sometimes transformed into leafy shoots, provided at the base with rudimentary roots, which, as the spikelets fall, take root and grow. The methods which the grasses have developed to ensure to new generations trans- 22 Stem, Leaf, and Flower portation to new fields are many, and to them may fitly be applied the comment of Darwin on cross-fertilization devices: “They transcend in an incomparable degree the contrivances and adaptations which the most fertile imagination of the most imaginative man could suggest with unlimited time at his disposal.” 23 THE COMMON GRASSES A CALENDAR OF THE COMMON GRASSES ACCORDING TO THEIR SEASONS OF MOST ABUNDANT BLOSSOMING AprRiL 15th to June sth: Low Spear-grass (Poa annua) . Sweet Vernal-grass (Anthoxanthum ddevating White-grained Mountain Rice (Oryzopsis asperifolia) Slender Mountain Rice (O. pungens) 3 Downy Brome-grass (Bromus tectorum) Meadow Foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis) . Orchard Grass (Dactylis glomerata) ; Meadow Oat-grass (Arrhenatherum elatius) . Black Oat-grass (Stipa avenacea) . Kentucky Blue-grass (Poa pratensis) Canada Blue-grass (P. compressa) Early Bunch-grass (Sphenopbolis ‘Obtiésaia) Meadow Sphenopholis (S. pallens) Slender Sphenopholis (S. nitida) Velvet Grass (Holcus lanatus) . Silvery Hair-grass (Aira cursepiyieay Wild Oat-grass (Danthonia spicata) Narrow Melic-grass (Melica mutica) . June 15th to July 2oth: Reed Canary-grass (Phalaris arundinacea) Vanilla Grass (Hierochloé odorata) Long-awned Wood-grass (Brachyelytrum ae) Brown Bent-grass (Agrostis canina) . Rough Hair-grass (A. byemalis) : Black-grained Mountain Rice (Oryzopsis racemase Sheep’s Fescue (Festuca ovina) Slender Fescue (F. octoflora) ; Nerved Manna-grass (Glyceria nervata) 27 195 94 99 99 222 112 188 142 — 100 195 1907 134 134 134 133 132 143 181 90 97 108 115 115 99 217 217 206 The Book of Grasses Rattlesnake Grass (G. canadensis) Sharp-scaled Manna-grass (G. acutiflora) Tall Manna-grass (G. grandis) Floating Manna-grass (G. sepioniienal® Densely flowered Manna-grass (G. obtusa) Wavy Hair-grass (Deschampsia flexuosa) Tufted Hair-grass (D. caespitosa) . Red Fescue (Festuca rubra) Nodding Fescue (F. nutans) Meadow Fescue (F. elatior) Scribner’s Panic-grass (Panicum Sabie) Starved Panic-grass (P. depauperatum) Round-fruited Panic-grass (P. sphaerocarpon) Hispid Panic-grass (P. clandestinum) : Blue-joint Grass (Calamagrostis canadensis) . Nuttall’s Reed-grass (C. cinnoides) Squirrel-tail Grass (Hordeum jubatum) Timothy (Phleum pratense) Marsh Foxtail (Alopecurus feuicnlates’ ha Marsh Oats (Sphenopholis palustris) . Bottle-brush Grass (Hystrix patula) Bermuda Grass (Cynodon Dactylon) Fringed Brome-grass (Bromus ae Chess (B. secalinus) : Smooth Brome-grass (B. is Quaking Grass (Briza media) . Fowl Meadow-grass (Poa triflora) Red-top (Agrostis alba) . Thin-grass (A. perennans) . Wire-grass (Eleusine indica) : Marsh Spike-grass (Distichlis spicata) Couch-grass (Agropyron repens) Fox-grass (Spartina patens) ! Gama Grass (Tripsacum dactyloides) . Goose-grass (Puccinellia maritima) Spreading Spear-grass (P. distans) Tall Grama (Bouteloua curtipendula) . Purple Oat (Melica striata) Terrell-grass (Elymus virginicus) Slender Wild Rye (E. striatus) 28 206 206 206 206 206 136 136 217 217 217 71 71 71 71 121 121 238 Ill 112 134 248 163 229 229 230 187 198 115 115 165 184 232 144 49 214 214 164 181 247 247 The Common Grasses Nodding Wild Rye (E. canadensis) Ray-grass (Lolium perenne) July 20th to October tst: Gauze-grass (Sporobolus uniflorus) . Bur-grass (Cenchrus carolinianus) . Rice Cut-grass (Leersia oryzoides) White-grass (L. virginica) Slender Paspalum (Paspalum selaceltnny Field Paspalum ((P. laeve) : Large Crab-grass (Digitaria Aoeninala) Small Crab-grass (D. bumifusa) Slender Finger-grass (D. filiformis) Indian Rice (Zizania palustris) Yellow Foxtail (Setaria glauca) Green Foxtail (S. viridis) : Cockspur Grass (Echinochloa crusgalli) Old Witch-grass (Panicum capillare) . Tall Smooth Panic-grass (P. virgatum) . Sea-beach Panic-grass (P. amaroides) Large-fruited Panic-grass (P. latifolium) Spreading Panic-grass (P. dichotomiflorum) . Wood Reed-grass (Cinna arundinacea) Slender Wood Reed-grass (C. latifolia) Tall Red-top (Tridens flavus) . : Sand-grass (Triplasis purpurea) Marram Grass (Ammophbila arenaria) Salt-meadow Leptochloa (Leptochloa eselanis) Lace-grass (Eragrostis capillaris) Purple Eragrostis (FE. pectinacea) . Strong-scented Eragrostis (E. mepusticlyay.. Creeping Eragrostis (E. bypnoides) ‘ Broad-leaved Spike-grass (Uniola latifolia) . Slender Spike-grass (U. laxa) . ; Meadow Muhlenbergia (Muhblenbergia meena) Rock Muhlenbergia (M. sobolifera) Wood Muhlenbergia (M. sylvatica) Nimble Will (M. Schreberi) Long-awned Hair-grass (M. canilians Long-leaved Rush-grass (Sporobolus asper) . 29 247 231 113 78 89 89 60 60 56 56 56 83 77 77 62 71 71 71 71 71 128 128 170 171 127 166 172 172 172 172 183 — 183 105 105 105 105 105 113 The Book of Grasses Sheathed Rush-grass (S. vaginaeflorus) Small Rush-grass (S. neglectus) Sand Dropseed (S. cryptandrus) Northern Dropseed (S. heterolepis) Cord-grass (Spartina Michauxiana) Salt Reed-grass (S. cynosuroides) . Creek Sedge (S. glabra) Poverty Grass (Aristida Pleicna) Slender Aristida (A. gracilis) . Purplish Aristida (A. purpurascens) Sea-beach Aristida (A. tuberculosa) Little Blue-stem (Andropogon scoparius) . Broom Sedge (A. virginicus) ; Bushy Beard-grass (A. glomeratus) Forked Beard-grass (A. furcatus) . Indian Grass (Sorgbastrum nutans) Reed (Phragmites communis) 30 113 113 113 113 144 144 144 101 101 101 101 53 53 53 53 55 169 ACCORDING TO LOCATIONS A LIST OF GRASSES ARRANGED ACCORDING TO LOCATIONS (In each division the grasses are given in their order of flowering.) Grasses found in cultivated land: Low Spear-grass (Poa annua) . Downy Brome-grass (Bromus ilove)’ . Squirrel-tail Grass (Hordeum jubatum) Chess (Bromus secalinus) Smooth Brome-grass (B. prenied Wire-grass (Eleusine indica) Couch-grass (Agropyron repens) Large Crab-grass (Digitaria sanguinalis) Small Crab-grass (D. humifusa) Yellow Foxtail (Setaria glauca) Green Foxtail (S. viridis) : Cockspur Grass (Echinochloa sraupatls Old Witch-grass (Panicum capillare) . Meadow Muhlenbergia (Mublenbergia nen ane Grasses found in fields and meadows: Low Spear-grass (Poa annua) . Sweet Vernal-grass (Anthoxanthum phone Meadow Foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis) . Orchard Grass (Dactylis glomerata) : Meadow Oat-grass (Arrbenatherum elatius) . Kentucky Blue-grass (Poa pratensis) Canada Blue-grass (P. compressa) Velvet Grass (Holcus lanatus) . Brown Bent-grass (Agrostis canina) Sheep’s Fescue (Festuca ovina) Meadow Fescue (F. elatior) Timothy (Phleum .pratense) 33 195 94 112 188 142 195 197 133 115 217 217 III The Book of Grasses Red-top (Agrostis alba) . Couch-grass (Agropyron repens) Ray-grass (Lolium perenne) Grasses found on sands and salt marshes: Marsh Spike-grass (Distichlis spicata) Fox-grass (Spartina patens) : Goose-grass (Puccinellia maritima) Spreading Spear-grass (P. distans) : Tall Smooth Panic-grass (Panicum virgatum) Sea-beach Panic-grass (P. amaroides) Sand-grass (Triplasis purpurea) Marram Grass (Ammopbila arenaria) Salt-meadow Leptochloa (Leptochloa fase eulas) Salt Reed-grass (Spartina cynosuroides) . Creek Sedge (S. glabra) Sea-beach Aristida (Aristida fepealioeas Grasses found in woodlands: White-grained Mountain Rice (Oryzopsis asperifolia) . Slender Sphenopholis (Sphenopholis nitida) . Black Oat-grass (Stipa avenacea) “ Long-awned Wood-grass (Brachyelytrum pene. Black-grained Mountain Rice (Oryzopsis racemosa) Nodding Fescue (Festuca nutans) . Bottle-brush Grass (Hystrix patula) Fringed Brome-grass (Bromus ciliatus) Purple Oat (Melica striata) Wood Reed-grass (Cinna tnandinaben) Slender Wood Reed-grass (C. latifolia) . . Rock Muhlenbergia (Mublenbergia ee Wood Muhlenbergia (M. sylvatica) Grasses found in dry soil: Slender Mountain Rice (Oryzopsis pungens) Downy Brome-grass (Bromus tectorum) Early Bunch-grass (Sphenopbholis obtusata) Silvery Hair-grass (Aira caryopbyllea) Common Wild Oat-grass (Danthonia spicata) Rough Hair-grass (Agrostis hyemalis) 34 115 232 231 144 214 214 71 71 171 127 166 144 144 101 99 134 100 108 99 217 248 229 181 128 128 105 105 99 222 134 132 143 115 According to Locations Slender Fescue (Festuca octoflora) Wavy Hair-grass (Deschampsia flexuosa) Red Fescue (Festuca rubra) ok: Scribner’s Panic-grass (Panicum Squaw, Starved Panic-grass (P. depauperatum) Round-fruited Panic-grass (P. sphaerocarpon) Squirrel-tail Grass (Hordeum jubatum) Bermuda Grass (Cynodon Dactylon) Quaking Grass (Briza media) . : Tall Grama (Bouteloua curtipendula) . Bur-grass (Cenchrus carolinianus) . Slender Paspalum (Paspalum setaceum) . Field Paspalum (P. laeve) . Slender Finger-grass (Digitaria Aiformis) Tall Red-top (Tridens flavus) . 3 Lace-grass (Eragrostis capillaris) Purple Eragrostis (E. pectinacea) . Strong-scented Eragrostis (E. maiestaebyay . Slender Spike-grass (Uniola laxa) Nimble Will (A/ublenbergia Schreberi) Long-awned Hair-grass (M. capillaris) Long-leaved Rush-grass (Sporobolus asper) . Sheathed Rush-grass (S. vaginaeflorus) Small Rush-grass (S. neglectus) Sand Dropseed (S. cryptandrus) Northern Dropseed (S. heterolepis) Poverty Grass (Aristida dichotoma) Slender Aristida (A. gracilis) . Purplish Aristida (A. purpurascens) Little Blue-stem (Andropogon scoparius) Broom Sedge (A. virginicus) ee Forked Beard-grass (A. furcatus) Indian Grass (Sorghastrum nutans) Grasses found in moist soil: Meadow Sphenopholis (Sphenopholis pallens) Reed Canary-grass (Phalaris arundinacea) Vanilla Grass (Hterochloé odorata) Rough Hair-grass (Agrostis hyemalis) Nerved Manna-grass (Glyceria nervata) 35 217 136 217 71 71 71 238 163 187 164 78 60 60 56 170 172 172 172 183 105 105 113 113 113 113 113 101 101 101 53 53 53 55 134 90 97 115 206 The Book of Grasses Rattlesnake Grass (G. canadensis) Sharp-scaled Manna-grass (G. acutiflora) Tall Manna-grass (G. grandis) . : Floating Manna-grass (G. eepinirionaho). Densely flowered Manna-grass (G. obtusa) Tufted Hair-grass (Deschampsia caespitosa) . Hispid Panic-grass (Panicum clandestinum) . Blue-joint Grass (Calamagrostis canadensis) . Nuttall’s Reed-grass (C. cinnoides) Marsh Foxtail (Alopecurus geniculatus) Marsh Oats (Sphenopholis palustris) . Fowl Meadow-grass (Poa triflora) Thin-grass (Agrostis perennans) : Gama Grass. (Tripsacum dactyloides) . Terrell Grass (Elymus virginicus) . Slender Wild Rye (E. striatus) Nodding Wild Rye (EF. canadensis) Gauze-grass (Sporobolus uniflorus) Rice Cut-grass (Leersia oryzoides) White-grass (L. virginica) Indian Rice (Zizania palustris) Large-fruited Panic-grass (Panicum latfolinw) : Spreading Panic-grass (P. dichotomiflorum) . Creeping Eragrostis (Eragrostis bypnoides) Broad-leaved Spike-grass (Uniola latifolia) . Meadow Muhlenbergia (Mublenbergia mexicana) Cord-grass (Spartina Michauxiana) Bushy Beard-grass (Andropogon glomeratus) Reed (Phragmites communis) 36 206 206 206 KEY TO THE GRASSES KEY TO THE GRASSES IN THE illustrated description of the grasses the species follow one another in the order given in modern botanical works, such arrangement being based on the characteristics of spikelet and flower. Technical descriptions are given of the more common species of a genus. The general descriptions include other species and note their chief characteristics. The key, being intended for use in the field, is based on the characteristic form of the flowering-head. Somewhat arbitrarily the terms used in describing the form of the infloresence have been restricted to spike and panicle, omitting the word raceme and, instead, using the term spike to include any flowering-head in which the spikelets have the appearance of being placed directly on the main axis of inflorescence. Thus, the apparent form of the flowering-head is noted and that of Timothy is given as a spike, since it has that appearance, although it is, in fact, a spike-like panicle; the spike-like racemes of Bur-grass, Gama Grass, and others are given as spikes. The generic and specific names are those given in Gray’s “New Manual of Botany” (Seventh Edition). In the key and the technical description in the following pages the measurements are in feet, inches, and lines. The symbol ’ is used after figures to indicate inches, and the symbol ” is used to indicate lines. A line is the twelfth part of an inch, hence 3’” equal one quarter of an inch, 8’’ equal two thirds of an inch, etc. ARTIFICIAL KEY Based on the more noticeable characteristics of the inflores- cence: Inflorescence consisting of spikes or spike-like panicles — I. Inflorescence consisting of short panicles, one to four inches in length — II. 39 The Book of Grasses Inflorescence consisting of longer panicles, size variable, usually more than four inches in length — III. ].— INFLORESCENCE CONSISTING OF SPIKES OR SPIKE-LIKE PANICLES. PAGE Spikes solitary or several, 4’-9’ long; upper spikelets staminate; lower spikelets pistillate, deeply embedded in the rachis. Gama Grass . . 49 Spikes numerous, 1’-2’ long, slender, loosely flowered, very hairy, terminal and along the stem. Beard Grass . . 55 Broom Sedge . . 54 Spikes 2-5, 2’-5’ long, hairy, spreading from the summit of a tall stem. A grass of late summer. Forked Beard-grass 55 Spikes solitary or several, 2’-4’ long, narrow, 1-sided; spikelets small, roundish and seed-like. Slender Paspalum . 61 Field Paspalum . 61 Spikes 2 to many, 2’-8’ long, narrow, I-sided, spreading from sum- mit of stem or nearly erect; spikelets oblong, in 2’s or 3’s. Large Crab-grass . 60 Small Crab-grass . 59 Slender Finger-grass 59 Spikes 3-5, 3’-2’ long, 1-sided, spreading from summit of stem. Bermuda Grass. 163 Spikes 2 to many, 1’-5’ long, 1-sided, alternate. Cord-grass . . . 162 Salt Reed-grass . 162 Fox-grass . . . 162 Creek Sedge . . 162 Spikes 2-8, thick, 1’-3’ long, spreading from summit of stem; spike- lets several- flowered. Wire-grass .. 165 Spike cylindrical, 1’-4’ long, densely flowered, clothed in short yellow or green bristles. Yellow Foxtail . 78 Green Foxtail . . 77 Spike cylindrical, 1’-7’ long, densely flowered, harsh; empty scales awn-pointed. Timothy . . 112 Spike cylindrical, 1’-3’ long, densely flowered, soft; empty scales not awned, flowering scales short-awned. Meadow Foxtail . 113 Marsh Foxtail . . 113 Spike cylindrical, 2’-4’ long, densely flowered, clothed in long, slender awns. Squirrel-tail Grass 240 Spike 1’ 2 long, composed of 6-20 spiny burs. Bur-grass . . 83 Spike 3’-9’ long, narrow; spikelets several-flowered, alternate, placed with the edge turned toward the rachis. Ray-grass .. 232 Spike 2’-8’ long, narrow; spikelets several-flowered, alternate, placed with the flat side turned toward the rachis. Couch-grass. . 238 Bearded Wheat-grass 237 Purple Wheat-grass 238 40 Key to the Grasses Spike 3’-10’ long, coarse; spikelets several-flowered, in 2’s or 3’s on alternate notches of the rachis; empty scales conspicuous. Terrell Grass. Slender Wild Rye Nodding Wild Rye Spike 3’-7’ long; spikelets 2-4-flowered, usually in pairs; empty scales minute or awn-like, flowering scales long-awned. Bottle-brush Grass : Spike-like panicle 1’-4’ long; spikelets 1-flowered, narrow; scales 5; 3d and 4th scales short-awned. Sweet Vernal-grass Spike- like panicle 2’-18’ long; spikelets 1-flowered, narrow; flower- ing scale bearing 3 awns. Poverty Grass Slender Aristida. Purplish Aristida Spike-like panicle 5’-12’ long, cylindrical, densely flowered; spike- lets long and narrow; scales not awned. A grass of sands and sea beaches. Marram Grass . Spike-like panicle 8’-15’ long, composed of numerous, short, spread- ing or downward- “pointing spikes. Tall Grama Spike-like panicle 4’-12’ long; spikelets short, several-flowered; empty scales minute. Slender Spike-grass . Spike-like panicle 1’-23’ long; spikelets many-flowered. Staminate and pistillate flowers on separate plants. Marsh Spike-grass Spike-like panicle 2’-4’ long, rough; spikelets of two forms in numer- ous clusters. Dog’s-tail Grass [].— iNFLORESCENCE CONSISTING OF SHORT PANICLES, ONE TO FOUR INCHES IN LENGTH. Panicle pyramidal; spikelets roundish, only 1 fertile flower in each spikelet; scales 4. Scribner’s Panic-grass Starved Panic-grass Round-fruited Panic-grass Panicle pyramidal; spikelets 3-flowered; scales 5. Vanilla Grass Panicle pyramidal; spikelets 2-flowered, small; scales 4. Silvery Hair-grass . .. Panicle pyramidal, often 1-sided; spikelets 3-6-flowered, small; flowering scales with short hairs at the base. Low Spear-grass Canada Blue-grass : Panicle not many-flowered; spikelets loosely 2-5-flowered; flower- ing scales hairy on nerves, minutely awned. Sand-grass 4l PAGE 248 247 247 250 102 105 105 128 164 183 187 195 74 71 71 98 132 205 197 The Book of Grasses Panicle not many-flowered; spikelets 4-10-flowered, bearing short, spreading awns. Wild Oat-grass . Flattened Oat-grass Silky Oat-grass : Panicle narrow, not many-flowered; spikelets 1-flowered, broad; scales 3; flowering scales slightly downy. Slender Mountain Rice. . White-grained Mountain Rice i Panicle narrow, contracted; spikelets 1-flowered, small; scales 3. Leaves very narrow. Grasses of late summer. Sheathed Rush-grass Small Rush-grass Panicle narrow; spikelets 3-5-flowered; flowering scales short- awned. Leaves thread-like. Sheep’s Fescue . . I] ].— INFLORESCENCE CONSISTING OF LONGER PANICLES, SIZE VARI- ABLE, USUALLY MORE THAN FOUR INCHES IN LENGTH. Division A. Spikelets 1-flowered: Panicle 3’-10’ long, narrow, contracted; spikelets small, not awned. Long-leaved Rush-grass Northern Dropseed Panicle 4’-9’ long, narrow; spikelets broad; flowering scale dark, bearing a terminal, straight awn 8-12” long. Black-grained Mountain Rice bd Panicle 2’-6’ long, slender, few-flowered; spikelets narrow, 5’’-6” long; flowering scale bearing a straight, terminal awn 9’’-12” long. Long-awned Wood-grass . Panicle 2’-8’ long, narrow; spikelets small. Leafy, wiry-stemmed grasses of late summer. Rock Muhlenbergia Meadow Muhlenbergia . Wood Muhlenbergia Nimble Will . B43 Panicle 4’-8’ long, many-flowered; numerous white hairs at base of flowering scale. Blue-joint Grass Nuttall’s Reed-grass Panicle 4’-12’ long, oblong, many-flowered; spikelets yellowish brown, hairy, awned. A tall grass of late summer. Indian Grass Panicle 12-24’ long; upper portion composed of long-awned, erect, pistillate flowers; lower portion composed of awnless staminate flowers borne on spreading branches. Indian Rice Panicle 3’-8’ long, pyramidal, contracted after flowering; spikelets crowded; scales 5, but 3d and 4th scales reduced to hairy rudiments. Reed Canary-grass Panicle 5’-8’ long, branches slender; spikelets few, narrow; flower- ing scale dark, long-awned. Leaves thread-like. Black Oat-grass 42 PAGE 144 144 144 99 100 115 114 217 114 115 100 106 107 106 106 122 122 56 89 94 10! Key to the Grasses Panicle 5’-8’ long, branches slender; spikelets few, narrow; flower- ing scale bearing 3 spreading awns. Sea-beach Aristida ’ Panicle 3’-10’ long; spikelets flat; scales 2. Leaves very rough. Grasses of wet grounds. White-grass Rice Cut-grass : Panicle 5’-15’ long, many-flowered; scales 3; stamen 1. Tall, leafy grasses of woods and swamps. Wood Reed-grass be tes Slender Wood Reed-grass . Panicle pyramidal; scales 4, lowest scale small; flowering scale white, porcelain- like, shining. Several species of Panic-grasses . Panicle 2’-10’ long, pyramidal, open; spikelets small, about 1” long. Palet one third as long as flowering scale. Red-top Palet minute or wanting. Brown Bent- -grass Thin-grass Panicle 3’-10’ long, pyramidal, open; spikelets small. Panicle many-ilowered, base enclosed in upper sheath. Sand Dropseed Panicle very delicate. Gauze-grass . . Panicle 6’-24’ long, pyramidal; branches hair-like, long and widely spreading; spikelets small. Rough Hair-grass Panicle 6’-18’ long; branches hair-like, widely spreading; spikelets small on hair-like pedicels; flowering scale bearing a straight, terminal awn 3’’-9” long. Long-awned Hair-grass . Division B. Spikelets more than 1-flowered. Panicle 2’-8’ long, narrow, yellowish; spikelets 2-flowered; scales 4; flowering scale of upper flower bearing a bent and twisted awn. Marsh Oats Panicle 4’-10’ long, narrow; spikelets 2-flowered; scales 4; lower flower staminate, its scale bearing a dorsal awn, upper flower perfect and awnless. Meadow Oat-grass Panicle 1’-6’ long, narrow; spikelets 6-12-flowered; flowering scales short-awned. Slender Fescue Panicle 2’-8’ long, contracted; spikelets 2-3-flowered; 1st scale nar- row, acute, 2nd scale much broader, obtuse. Grasses of early summer. Early Bunch-grass fn oe, Meadow Sphenopholis Slender Sphenopholis ‘ Panicle 2’-12’ long; spikelets 3-10-flowered, 23-6” long. Panicle narrow and contracted after flowering. Meadow Fescue Panicle slender, nodding, branches few. Nodding Fescue Panicle erect, short, branches spreading. Red Fescue 43 PAGE 105 90 90 131 131 61 120 116 116 115 115 120 108 135 143 221 135 136 135 222 218 221 The Book of Grasses Panicle 3’-10’ long, branches few; spikelets one to several-flowered, few, about 4’’-5’’ long, nodding on slender pedicels. Narrow Melic-grass Panicle 2’-8’ long; spikelets 3-10-flowered; flowering scales not distinctly nerved. Grasses of salt marshes and sea beaches. Goose-grass . Spreading Spear-grass ‘ Panicle 3-5’ long; spikelets 3-6-flowered, few, purple, 8’’-12”’ long; flowering scale bearing a dorsal awn. Purple Oat Panicle 3’-9’ long, branches few, coarse; spikelets 3- -5-flowered, densely clustered. Grass of early summer. Orchard Grass Panicle 2’-8’ long, heavy; spikelets large, flattened, 8-35- flowered. Grass unpleasantly scented. Strong-scented Eragrostis Panicle 134’-5’ long, branches hair-like; spikelets 5-12-flowered, few, heart-shaped, inflated, on drooping pedicels. Quaking Grass Panicle 4’-12’ long, base usually enclosed in upper sheath; spikelets 5-10-flowered, sessile on the branches, narrow, erect, 3’’-5”’ long. A grass of salt marshes. Salt Meadow Leptochloa Panicle 2’-12' long, pyramidal, open; spikelets 3-5-flowered, small, flattened; flowering scales webby at base. Kentucky Blue-grass . Fowl Meadow-grass Panicle 3’-15’ long; spikelets 3-12-flowered; flowering scales dis- tinctly nerved. Grasses of wet grounds. Panicle open, nodding; spikelets inflated. Rattlesnake Grass Panicle contracted, densely flowered. Densely flowered Manna-grass Panicle pyramidal, open. Nerved Manna-grass Tall Manna-grass Panicle branches few; spikelets long and narrow. Floating Manna- -grass Sharp-scaled Manna-grass . Panicle 6’-18’ long, branches long and spreading; spikelets 4-8- flowered, about 4” long, purple, shining. Tall Red-top Panicle 5’-12’ long, branches slender, drooping; spikelets many- flowered, broad, 9’’-15”" long. Broad-leaved Spike-grass Panicle 2’-10’ long; spikelets long, many-flowered, drooping from slender pedicels; flowering scales awned. Fringed Brome-grass Downy Brome-grass Chess 44 PAGE 182 217 217 182 194 180 188 169 205 205 213 213 214 206 214 208 171 184 230 230 229 Key to the Grasses Panicle 2’-20' long, pyramidal, open, branches spreading; spikelets - 2-15-flowered, 1’’-4” long, flattened. Lace-grass Tufted Eragrostis Purple Eragrostis Panicle 2’-9’ long, pyramidal, open, branches slender; spikelets 2- flowered; scales thin and shining; flowering scales toothed, short-awned. Leaves narrow and involute. Wavy Hair-grass Tufted Hair-grass Panicle 6’-15’ long, pyramidal, many-flowered, very plumose in maturity; spikelets 3-7-flowered. Tall, reed-like grass of wet soil. Reed 45 PAGE 179 179 181 139 136 170 ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTIONS OF THE GRASSES “Where thou with grass, and rivers, and the breeze, And the bright face of day, thy dalliance hadst.” GAMA GRASS Tue day when this grass is first seen, and is recognized as a member of the same family whose smaller species are commonly trodden under foot, is a day unforgotten by the nature-lover. With stems more than shoulder-high, with leaves so large as to _ resemble Indian Corn, and with thick spikes of oddly formed blossoms, the Gama Grass, as it grows in low meadows and along streams, is one of the largest and most remarkable grasses of the Eastern States. The coarse, branching stems rise from stout rootstocks and, unlike those of the majority of grasses, are solid, being filled with pith. The blossoming spikes are peculiar in form; the stamens and pistils are in separate flowers, and in midsummer long, orange- coloured anthers clothe the upper portion of each spike, while for a short time feathery stigmas of dark purple hang from the pistil- late flowers below. These fertile flowers are deeply embedded in boat-shaped cavities which are closed by hard and shining scales, and as the upper portion of the spike soon falls, the thick basal part is left,and easily breaks into short joints each containing a seed. Although smooth and shining, these seed-capsules lack the symmetry of form and the agate-like surface which char- acterizes the fruit of “ Job’s Tears,” a closely related species which is occasionally cultivated as an ornamental grass and whose seeds are sometimes used for rosaries. TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION Gama Grass. Tripsacum dactyloides L. Plant perennial, from stout rootstocks. Siem 3-8 ft. tall, solid, stout, erect, branching. Leaves 1 ft. long or more, 6-18” wide. Spikes 2-4, 4'-9' long at summit of main stem, solitary spikes on the branches. Spikelets of two forms; upper part of spike composed of 2-flowered, staminate spikelets about 4” long, outer scales obtuse; 1-flowered pistillate spikelets below deeply imbedded in the rachis, outer scale of pistillate spikelets hard and shining, enclosing the 49 50 CHARACTERISTIC TUFTS OF BROOM SEDGE (Andro poyon virginicus) on sandy soil in early summer, before the blossoming stems have srawn Illustrated Descriptions of the Grasses W recess in which the flower is embedded. Stamens 3, anthers o =" orange colour, large. " Stigmas purple, long. MP Moist soil, swamps, and borders of streams. June to September. Rhode Island to Florida, Texas, Mis- i souri, and Kansas. BEARD-GRASS, BROOM SEDGE,. FORKED BEARD-GRASS, AND BUSHY BEARD-GRASS When the royal purple and gold of asters and goldenrod paint the \ waysides, and mark the turning to- ward harvest of the tide of midsum- mer, the Beard-grasses also appear as the vanguard of autumn and show the advanc- ing season as surely as do the more brilliant flowers. In every state, from coast to coast, these grasses grow, characteristic of dry, sandy soils, and easy of recognition. The species are looked upon with little favour in the East, but in Western pastures, on prairies and ranges, the Blue-stems, as these plants are locally called, yield a valued her- bage. Tufts of Beard-grass, the most common of the genus in Eastern States, are fre- quently seen by waysides, in sandy fields, and near the borders of dry woods. This " grass, sometimes known as Indian Grass or Little Blue-stem, is late in starting and the ae eS I 3 leaves, often tinged with red and bronze, are seldom noticeable until June. In July Forked Beard-grass the slender, rigidly erect stems appear, Andropogon furcatus — syally bluish purple in colour and at last fringed with small solitary spikes of hairy blossoms which hang to the winds their orange and terra-cotta anthers and purple 53 ia The Book of Grasses stigmas. Not until September, however, is the plant in its greatest beauty, as the spikelets at maturity change to tiny silvery plumes adorning the ripened and richly coloured stems. In similar locations, though less common in the North, is the Broom Sedge (Andropégon virginicus), which may be distinguished by an examination of the spikes; those of this species being borne in pairs or, several together. In the South this grass is much stouter, and on mountainsides and in lowlands it covers the fields with its rank growth. Aside from its value to the farmer in early summer, Broom Sedge, as its name indicates, finds later a more humble use in the household. Great hand- fuls of the stout stems are tied together, and when the hairy spikelets are beaten out, and the slender tips cut off, a service- able, brush-like broom is ready for immediate use on hearth and floor. Stiff, brown groups of Beard-grass and Broom Sedge remain standing through all the winter months, and are as easily recog- nized in March as they were in the preceding summer. Brilliant colours are rare when Nature is clothed in the dull brown of faded leaves, but these grasses, beneath their neutral tones, hold a colour more striking than in summer. On a wintry day strip from the stem one of the dry sheaths. The inner surface glistens with colour varying from pale yellow to copper colour and bright orange-red, while in a closely related species of the South (John- son Grass, Sérghum halepénse) the long sheaths are lined with glowing crimson. Forked Beard-grass blooms by fences and hedges in early autumn. The tall stems, rich in colouring, are surmounted by short, spreading spikes of reddish brown or purple, and by this finger-like inflorescence the grass is easily recognized. Bushy Beard-grass (Andropogon glomerdtus) is found in damp soil from New York southward. It is rarely more than three feet tall, and as the branches which bear the spikes are elongated the stems are crowned with dense, terminal panicles of hairy blossoms. Aromatic perfumes are prepared from certain foreign grasses of this genus. Citronella oil is distilled from a species of Hindostan, and the roots of another are woven into the “ Vessaries,” or fan- screens, which, when dampened and hung in a current of air, be- fore door or window, perfume and cool the house. 54 Illustrated Descriptions of the Grasses Beard Grass. Little Blue-stem. Andropdgon scoparius Michx. Perennial, usually tufted. Stem 1-4 ft. tall, solid, slender, erect. Ligule less than 1” long. Leaves 4-10’ long, 1’’-3"" wide. Spikes numerous, 1’-2’ long, loosely flowered, solitary, terminal and along the stem. Spikelets in pairs on a hairy rachis, hairs dull white, conspicuous; 1 spikelet of each pair sessile, perfect, 1-flowered, about 3"’ long, bearing a twisted, bent awn 5’’-7” long; the other spikelet of the pair sterile, borne on a hairy pedicel and reduced to an awn- pointed scale. Stamens 1-3, anthers terra-cotta or yellow. Dry soil. July to October. New Brunswick to Alberta, south to Florida, Texas, and southern Cali- fornia. Forked Beard-grass. Big Blue-stem. Andropogon fur- catus Muhl. Perennial. Stem 3-6 ft. tall, stout, erect. Ligule 1’ long or less. Leaves 6’-16’ long, 2''-6" wide, roughish. Spikes 2-5, purplish, 2’-5’ long, rather thick and rigid, spreading from summit of culm and lateral branches. Spikelets in pairs on hairy rachis, hairs short; 1 spikelet of each pair sessile, perfect, 1-flowered, 4-5" long, bearing a loosely twisted, bent awn 5’’-8” long; the other spikelet staminate, awnless, consisting of 4 scales. Stamens 3, anthers yellow, orange, or brownish. Dry or moist soil. August to September. Maine and Ontario to the Rocky Mountains, south to Florida and Texas. INDIAN GRASS Indian Grass can hardly be passed unnoticed by the wayfaring man, even though he knows little of the herbage of the fields. Tall stems, leaves a foot in length, and panicles painted in colours of autumn are too striking to be ignored, although they are “nothing but grass.” Blooming in late summer, when the earlier grasses have faded, the long, hairy panicles of Indian Grass are not uncommon in dry fields and in dry places by the waysides. The stems and leaves are often deeply coloured, while the fertile spikelets are brilliant in chestnut-tinted scales and yellow anthers. The soft, densely flowered panicles are rather narrow, and the perfect spikelets are awned, but the sterile spikelets are so reduced and altered that they resemble tiny plumes. 55 The Book of Grasses - 7 NS ESES “SSS Rea S33 \ See MAL ASF Sorghastrum nutans Indian Grass. nutans (L.) Nash. Stem 3-8 ft. tall, erect. long. wide. Panicle 4'-12’ long, dense, branches erect or slightly spreading. Spike- lets 1-flowered, in pairs or 3’s: 1 spikelet of each group sessile and perfect; sterile spikelets reduced to hairy pedicels; perfect spikelets 3-4" long, hairy, shining chestnut brown; scales 4; flowering scale bearing a twisted awn 5’’-10” long. Stamens 3, anthers yellow. Dry soil, fields, waysides, and borders of woods. August to October. Ontario to Manitoba, south to Florida, Texas, and Arizona. Sorghastrum Ligule 1/’-2/ Leaves 6’-18’ long, 2’’-8” LARGE CRAB-GRASS, SMALL CRAB-GRASS, AND PURPLE FINGER-GRASS The two Crab-grasses, large and small, are among the many weeds that have obtained a foot- hold in America by smuggling their seeds through the port of entry with those of more important plants. Many of the most com- mon weeds — how many can hardly be known — are those that have emigrated with the white man and have tirelessly followed his footsteps through the New World. Such unwelcome foreign- ers usually take the highways of civilization for their own, and remaining near waysides and in cultivated lands keep the agricul- turist forever busy “plucking up the naughty weeds.” 56 LARGE CRAB-GRASS (Digitaria sanguinalis) Three quarters natural size Illustrated Descriptions of the Grasses Large Crab-grass is a weed only when it R is out of place, as it so v \ frequently is in ’ this country. In ™& \ \ some localities the “\ % \ stems yield a valued ‘“Q % \ pasturage, and in south- AQ western Europe this grassis Ww & i cultivated for its seeds, which * \ 17 are used in porridge. WV " Small Crab-grass (Digitaria eee Me ri and Large Crab-grass bloom in midsummer [J i and later and are very similar in appearance, Nf : differing chiefly in size and in the number of K/ spikes. Small Crab-grass is usually less common, and the second scale of each spikelet is much longer than is the second e scale of the larger species. In many a dooryard and near many a garden Large ( \ Crab-grass is the most noticeable growth of iH August and September, when the dark i green stems spread over the ground and lift lL —s their narrow, deeply coloured spikes which, ca from the summits of the stems, spread widely, like the rays of an umbel, or like the open fingers of a hand. Near the Large Crab-grass we often notice the contrast of great spreading panicles of Old Witch-grass q h| (Pénicum capillére) which raises its blos- soming-heads like shower-fountains of green, () and soon rigidly extends the slender y branches until the panicles are sometimes f, two feet across. We Purple Finger-grass, or Slender Finger- grass, (Digitaria filiformis) is a native 7 a species and therefore is not so often found Large Crab-grass near dwelling houses. It is an exceedingly Diserat aiaeanaies delicate grass in stem, leaf, and inflorescence, the filiform spikes carrying out the slender character of the plant by remaining 59 SF The Book of Grasses nearly erect instead of spreading from the stem. This grass is often so slender as to be little noticed, but in early autumn we may frequently find it blooming in sandy fields and by dry roadsides where the Wild Oat-grass still retains dry and faded panicles of springtime. The glistening stems of Purple Finger-grass are often beautifully tinged in rose and purple, colours which, though not looked for among the grasses, are theirs during many months of the year. Large Crab-grass. Digitdria sanguindlis (L.) Scop. Annual. Naturalized from Europe. Stem 1-3 ft. in length, much branched, erect or spread- ing and rooting at lower joints. Sheaths rather loose, smooth or hairy. Ligule short. Leaves 2’-10’ long, 2-6” wide, often hairy, rough on edges. Spikes 4-15, often deep reddish purple, 2’-7' long, narrow, 1-sided, spreading from summit of stem. Spikelets 1-flowered, lanceolate, acute, 1-14” long, in pairs or 3’s on one side of the flat rachis. Scales 4; lowest scale minute; 2nd scale about half as long as spikelet. Stamens 3, anthers small. Stigmas lavender. Cultivated grounds and waste places. July to September. Throughout North America, except in the extreme north. SLENDER PASPALUM AND FIELD PASPALUM Paspalums are characteristic grasses of the Southern States, and in warm countries take the place of the abundant Fescues and Bent- grasses of Northern fields. There are many species, some tall and stout, and others low and spreading, rooting at the joints and car- peting the ground with a dense growth. Two species only are common in the North, and these, the Slender Paspalum and the Field Paspalum, are low-growing grasses which do 60 Slender Paspalum Paspalum setaceum Illustrated Descriptions of the Grasses not bloom until midsummer and later. The plump flowers are borne in very narrow, one-sided spikes which even before bloom- ing seem beaded with ripened seed. Walk through a dry field in late July, and oe the earlier grasses have matured and faded green spikes of Slender Paspalum are seen just peeping from their enclosing sheaths. The terminal spike is borne on a slender stem which at length rises many inches above the short upper leaf, while later, other spikes on shorter stems usually protrude from the same sheath. The blossoms of this species are slightly smaller than are those of the Field Pas- palum (Péspalum laéve) which blooms at the same season in moister locations. The two species are distinguished not alone by the more hairy leaves of Slender Paspalum, but also by the fact that the Field Paspalum bears two to five spikes where the other species commonly bears but one. Slender Paspalum. Péspalum selaceum Michx. Perennial. Stem 1-2 ft. tall, slender, erect or spreading. Ligule short. Leaves and sheaths hairy, leaves 3’-7’ long, 1’’-3” wide, flat. Spike 2'-4’ long, t-sided, very slender, Saale solitary on a long peduncle, additional solitary spikes on shorter peduncles from the sheaths of upper leaves; spikelets 1-flowered, green, about }” long, round on outer surface, flat on inner surface. Scales 3. Stamens 3. Dry fields. July to September. Massachusetts to Nebraska, south to Florida and Texas. THE PANIC-GRASSES Panic-grasses are bewildering in their profusion and their variety. No other genus of the grass family offers such a number of species in the Eastern States. Abundant by waysides, in old fields, and on river banks, Panic-grasses are equally common on sandy soils near the coast. Diverse in form, low species, often less than a foot in height, are like miniature bushes; slender ones are lost amid the surrounding taller growth; broad-leaved Panic- grasses, shoulder-high, form dense green thickets by our roadsides; stout species, burned by a hot sun to purple and copper colour, grow in clumps on the beaches, and with long rootstocks bind the wind-blown sands; and a more delicate Panic-grass bearing great flowering-heads of long, hair-like branches is a common tumble- weed in many states. In some species the pyramidal flowering- 61 The Book of Grasses heads seem loaded with cereal-like grain, so large are the blossoms; in others the flowers are few and far apart; while still others bear small blossoms, abundant and crowded. It is a comparatively easy matter to refer each Panic-grass to the genus Panicum; the ' spikelets with their shining, porcelain-like flowering scales are so characteristic of the genus that they form an easily distinguished feature, but even with the microscope it is often difficult to determine those of the several species that closely resemble one another. Cockspur Grass, formerly included in this genus, which it closely resembles, save in its awn-pointed scales, is common in cultivated lands, where its coarse, erect panicles blossom soon after midsummer. The plant varies greatly, sometimes cloth- ing the flowering-heads in long awns, and again ap- pearing practically awnless. In rich soil the plants are often six feet tall, but in low grounds near thickets and brooks this grass sometimes blooms when it is less than six inches in height. Old 62 "niga tt OLD WITCH-GRASS (Panicum capillare). One third natural size BITTER PANIC-GRASS (Panicum amarum). A beach grass growing on sandy shores from Virginia southward COCKSPUR GRASS (Echinochloa crusgalli). One third natural size. Awn-bearing plants of this very variable species resemble Lo aan t a0 .te its