nn i eae VIP eae Yao ay ee DE ae Sa e Dasa Ea eae REE eee ters OS — a SSS THE GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. BLACK GROUSE (MALE AND FEMALE). THE GAME BIRDS AND WILD poe THE BRITISH ISLANDS BEING A Handbook for the flaturalist and Sportsman BY CHARLES DIXON -, AUTHOR OF “RURAL BIRD-LIFE,” ‘‘EVOLUTION WITHOUT NATURAL SELECTION,” ‘‘OUR RARER BIRDS,” ‘ANNALS OF BIRD-LIFE,” “‘STRAY FEATHERS FROM MANY BIRDS,” ‘IDLE HOURS WITH NATURE,” ‘‘THE BIRDS OF OUR RAMBLES,” ‘‘THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS.” ILLUSTRATED BY A, T. ELWES LONDON: CHAPMAN AND HALL, LTD. 1893. [All rights reserved,] ge E 4038 CHARLES DICKENS AND EVANS, CRYSTAL PALACE PRESS. PREEACE, Every naturalist may not be a sportsman, but there are certainly very few sportsmen that are not, or do not eventually become, ardent naturalists. The habits and economy of birds are specially the naturalist’s own province; but then, on the other hand, no sportsman worthy of the name is indifferent to the life-history of the birds and beasts that are the object of his chase. A man who would be a successful sportsman must be familiar with the ways of the creatures that furnish his sport; not only so, the constant chase of bird and beast, in nine cases out of ten, creates a desire for knowledge, and a wish to know something more of their economy. The present volume has been written with the object of furnishing the naturalist and sportsman with concise yet fairly complete, and I hope accurate, information respecting the Game Birds and Wild Fowl of the British Islands, and their allied races and species in other parts of the world. I have sought to bring this information up to date, not only by including several species new to our avi-fauna, but by dealing with these birds from an evolutionary point of view, and according to modern ideas on and recent discoveries in that particular branch of natural know- ledge which is embraced by Darwinian Ornithology. Hence it has been my constant care to discard insular and narrow study, which only too often leads to pedantry and error, and to treat the birds incorporated in the following pages on broad, evolu- tionary lines, and from a more cosmopolitan point of view. The inevitable result of such treatment has been the recognition of local races, subspecies, or climatic varieties, into which many of vi PREFACE. our British Game Birds and Wild Fowl have been separated by the endless segregating process of Evolution, working as surely at the present day as it has undoubtedly worked in past ages, and will continue to work in ages yet to come. Of course, in a work of the present nature, I have had to rely much upon the labours of other naturalists; but in every case where such has been necessary I have sought the highest, the latest, and the most trustworthy authorities for the infor- mation required ; whilst my own more than twenty years’ expe- rience in the study of Ornithology, both from the scientist’s and the field-naturalist’s point of view, has been of incalculable service in assisting me to separate the sound wheat of reliable knowledge from the unstable chaff of ignorance and error. The last twenty years have been eventful ones for Ornithology, fraught with discoveries and pregnant with importance, not only respect- ing the economy of British species, but with the past history of all birds, much light having been thrown on their affinities and origin. The classification of birds is still in a most unsatisfactory state, although the great and ever-increasing attention that the subject is receiving must ultimately result in some uniformity of opinion. At present no two recognised authorities agree in their estimation of the taxonomic value of respective characters.. Among the latest systems elaborated may be mentioned those of Dr. Sclater, Professor Newton, the late Mr. Forbes, the late Professor Garrod, Dr. Reichenow, Professor Coues, Dr. Stejneger, Mr. Seebohm, and last, and perhaps most important of all, the great work of Professor Fiirbringer. I have had an opportunity of studying each of these important Avian classifications, and it is quite needless to remark the wide, nay almost hopeless and bewildering divergence of opinion expressed by their talented authors and compilers. Until some sort of uniformity of opinion is arrived at, the arrangement of species in a work like the present appears to me to be a matter of little importance ; for the classification of yesterday that you may adopt to-day is out of date and antiquated to-morrow. The whole subject of classifica- tion, at present, is in a violent state of eruption; one would think that scientists had “lost their heads.” Fortunately the scope of the present volume calls for no elaborate classification, and the PREFACE. vii species dealt with are units of fairly well-defined groups, about which, as groups, systematists are on the whole pretty well agreed. The number of species and races of Game Birds and Wild Fowl which may fairly claim to be included in the British Avi-fauna is 127. The majority of these do not breed within our limits, but are either regular winter visitors, or abnormal migrants, of varying degrees of rarity, to the United King- dom. The British and foreign geographical area of each of these has been traced, and the various allied forms noted, with their distribution and distinguishing characteristics. The habits, notes, food, nest, and eggs have been described as fully as space allowed, or as completely as our knowledge extends ; whilst the diagnostic characters of each will enable the naturalist or sportsman readily to identify the various British species, and are in my opinion infinitely preferable to long, tedious, detailed descriptions of plumage. Little need be said of the sport that our British Game Birds and Wild Fowl yield, or of the healthy invigorating recreation derived from the pursuit of that sport. Field and covert shoot- ing is not without its excitements and delights, even in these degenerate days of breech-loaders and battues; but, to my mind, the cream of all gun sport is skimmed by the wildfowler and the shore-shooter. There is a charm about the chase of Wild Fowl which no covert-shooting can excel or equal; for the incom- parable skill demanded in punting up to the flocks of wary Ducks and Geese, in stalking the shy Waders on the muds and marshes, or in “getting on” to the fleeting Fowl with deadly effect as they pass like arrows over your cold and lonely ambush during flight time, is very different from that required for the work of even a warm corner in some highly preserved cover. Then there is the charm of uncertain expectancy which is the shore-shooter’s and wildfowler’s own—the delicious feeling of never knowing what the next shot may be, as fen and marsh are traversed. Away from the mere pleasure of killing, which, alas, seems inherent in male human nature, there is the greater pleasure of watching the ways of the wary Fowl, of studying their habits and economy. Sportsmen have it in their power to render viil PREFACE. incalculable service to Natural History, if they are only put in the way of making observations. No better proof of this is furnished than that of the army of Indian sportsmen, who, encouraged and directed by that great ornithologist and sports- man, Allan Hume, have done so much for the Ornithology of our Eastern Empire, and set an example to sportsmen at home which might be followed with inestimable profit to British Or- nithology. By their aid the magnificent and unrivalled collec- tion of Indian birds was formed, which now, thanks to the noble generosity of Mr. Hume, forms a part of our National Collection at South Kensington. Should the present volume be the means of creating a taste for observation among those sportsmen who have hitherto been neglectful of the scientific side of their pursuit, to the advantage of Natural History, or prove of some help to the naturalist in his studies of this important and interesting group of birds, the labour involved in writing it will ever be recalled with pleasure. I desire also to place on record my great appreciation of the work of my contemporaries, and my sincere thanks for the profit of their experience ; also to acknowledge my gratitude to many friends for valued information. My thanks are specially due to my old friend Mr. F. H. Waterhouse, the courteous Librarian to the Zoological Society of London, whose bibliographical assistance, from time to time, has been invaluable. CHARLES DIXON. January, 1893. CON TE NES. Order COLUMBIFORMES. Family COLUMBID or PIGEONS Genus COLUMBA or TRUE PIGEONS Columba palumbus.—Ring Dove 5 zenas.—Stock Dove . 4 livia.—Rock Dove Genus TURTUR or TURTLE DOVES Turtur auritus.—Turtle Dove . » orientalis——Eastern Turtle Dove Order GALLIFORMES. Family PTEROCLIDZ or SAND GROUSE. Genus SYRRHAPTES or SAND GROUSE Syrrhaptes paradoxus.—Pallas’s Sand Grouse Order GALLIFORMES., Family PHASIANID/: or GAME BIRDS Genus LAGoPUS or MOOR GROUSE Lagopus mutus.—Ptarmigan PY scoticus.—Red Grouse Genus TETRAO or WOOD GROUSE Tetrao urogallus.—Capercaillie » tetrix.—Black Grouse Genus PHASIANUS or TRUE PHEASANTS Phasianus colchicus.—Pheasant PAGE 17 18 19 22 23 24 27 31 32 37 41 x CONTENTS. Genus PERDIX or TRUE PARTRIDGES Perdix cinerea.—Partridge Genus CAcCABIS or ROCK PARTRIDGES Caccabis rufa.—Red-legged Partridge Genus COTURNIX or QUAILS Coturnix communis.—Quail Order RALLIFORMES. Family RALLIDZ or RAILS Genus CREX or CRAKES Crex pratensis ——Corn Crake . »» porzana.—Spotted Crake », bailloni. ~Baillon’s Crake » parva.—Little Crake Genus RALLUS or TYPICAL RAILS Rallus aquaticus.—Water Rail Genus GALLINULA or TRUE WATERHENS Gallinula chloropus.—Waterhen Genus FULICA or COoTS Fulica atra.—Common Coot Order GRUIFORMES. Family GRUID or CRANES. Genus GRUS or CRANES Grus communis.—Common Crane . » virgo.—Demoiselle Crane Order CHARADRIIFORMES, Family OTIDID or BUSTARDS Genus OTIS or BUSTARDS Otis tarda.—Great Bustard » tetrax.—Little Bustard »» macqueeni.—Macqueen’s Bustard . TAGE 47 48 51 52 55 56 59 6o 61 65 68 71 74 75 78 79 83 84 88 89 go 94 98 99 100 103 106 CONTENTS. Order CHARADRIIFORMES. Family CHARADRIIDA, or PLOVERS, SAND- PIPERS, and SNIPES Subfamily CHARADRIIN/ or PLOVERS Genus GEDICNEMUS or STONE CURLEWS CEdicnemus crepitans.—Common Stone Curlew Genus AZGIALITIS or RINGED PLOVERS /Egialitis minor.— Little Ringed Plover . 5 hiaticula major.—Greater Ringed Plover 5 hiaticula.—Ringed Plover 5 vocifera.—Killdeer Plover Genus AZGIALOPHILUS or SAND PLOVERS . £gialophilus cantianus.—Kentish Sand Plover 05 asiaticus.—Caspian Sand Plover Genus CHARADRIUS or TYPICAL PLOVERS and DOTTERELS. Charadrius haemeine ee Ks pluvialis.— Golden Plover 5 fulvus.—Asiatic Golden Plover 53 fulvus americanus.—American Golden Plover. 3 helveticus.—Gray Plover Genus VANELLUS or LAPWINGS . Vanellus cristatus.—Lapwing . 3 gregarius.—Sociable Lapwing . Genus CURSORIUS or COURSERS . Cursorius gallicus.—Cream-coloured ewes Genus GLAREOLA or PRATINCOLES Glareola pratincola——Common Pyratincole Subfamily TOTANINA or SEMI WEB-FOOTED SANDPIPERS and their ALLIES. Genus HIMANTOPUS or STILTS Himantopus melanopterus.—Common Stilt xi PAGE 109 III 112 113 116 117 120 124 127 129 130 133 134 135 138 142 145 147 150 151 155 157 158 161 162 165 166 167 xii CONTENTS. PAGE Genus RECURVIROSTRA or AVOCETS . ‘ . .71 Recurvirostra avocetta.—Common Avocet a AZZ Genus HAMATOPUS or OYSTERCATCHERS . : . 176 Heematopus ostralegus.—Common Oystercatcher . 177 Genus NUMENIUS or CURLEWS . ‘ ‘ : . 181 Numenius arquatus.—Common Curlew . . 182 5 phzopus.—Common Whimbrel_. 186 5 borealis.—Eskimo Whimbrel . Igo Genus PHALAROPUS or PHALAROPES 5 A . 193 Phalaropus fulicarius.—Gray Phalarope . A - 194 “3 hyperboreus.—Red-necked Phalarope . 198 Genus TOTANUS or HARD-BILLED SANDPIPERS 201 Totanus bartrami.—Bartram’s Sandpiper 202 a pugnax.—Ruff . : é 205 5 hypoleucus.— Common Sandpiper . 208 as macularius.—Spotted Sandpiper 212 ” ochropus.—Green Sandpiper 215 9 solitarius.—Solitary Sandpiper . 218 3 glareola.—Wood Sandpiper 220 4 flavipes.—Yellow-legged Sandpiper 223 5 calidris—Common Redshank 225 ss fuscus.— Dusky Redshank 228 . glottis.—Greenshank. 231 re (stagnatilis.—Marsh Sandpiper) 234 Genus LIMOSA or GODWITS . g 335 Limosa rufa.—Bar-tailed Godwit . 236 » melanura.—Black-tailed Godwit 240 Genus EREUNETES or SNIPE-BILLED SANDPIPERS . 244 Ereunetes griseus.—Red-breasted Snipe 245 Subfamily SCOLOPACIN/Z or CLEFT - FOOTED SANDPIPERS and their ALLIES . : . 248 Genus STREPSILAS or TURNSTONES. 249 Strepsilas interpres.—Turnstone 250 CONTENTS. xiii Genus TRINGA or CLEFT-FOOTED SANDPIPERS 353 Tringa canutus.—Knot . . é . 254 » subarquata.— Curlew Sandpinae 3 . 259 » alpina.—Dunlin . ‘ : : . 262 » fuscicolliss—Bonaparte’s Sandpiper . 266 » maritima—Purple Sandpiper. ; . 268 » platyrhyncha.—Broad-billed Sandpiper . 272 i acuminata pectoralis—American Pectoral Sandpiper ’ : ‘ : « OAS, » acuminata.—Siberian Pectoral Sandpiper . xv x minuta.—Little Stint . 5 ‘ : = 278 ss subminuta minutilla.—American Stint « 282 35 temmincki.—Temminck’s Stint . 285 » arenaria.—Sanderling : : . 288 » rufescens.—Buff-breasted Sandpiper . 292 Genus SCOLOPAX or SNIPES and WOODCOCKS . 295 Scolopax rusticolan—Woodcock . : 296 i major.—Great Snipe 3 302 5 gallinago.—Common Snipe » 305 45 gallinula—-Jack Snipe. » 310 Order ANSERIFORMES. Family ANATID, or SWANS, GEESE, and DUCKS . 314 Subfamily CYGNIN or SWANS. : 3 j ee RS Genus CYGNUS or SWANS. ; i . 316 Cygnus musicus.—Hooper Swan “, SIF. » bewickii—Bewick’s Swan . : . 320 » olor.—Mute Swan : a BI3 Subfamily ANSERIN4Z or GEESE . ‘ : . 326 Genus ANSER or TYPICAL GEESE . , : ‘ i 2327. Anser hyperboreus.—Lesser Snow Goose. 328 » segetum.—Bean Goose. a ‘ 331 5, brachyrhynchus.—Pink-footed oe 3 91333 » cinereus.—Gray Lag Goose . : » 335 » albifrons.—White-fronted Goose . : 339 albifrons minutus. — Lesser White- Peea Goose : a ; . : 5 » 342 xiv CONTENTS. PAGE Genus BERNICLA or BRENT GEESE : . 344 Bernicla brenta.—Brent Goose ; . : - 345 9 brenta glaucogaster.— White-bellied Brent Goose . ‘ ; : : 348 s leucopsis.—Bernacle Goose 350 55 ruficollis.—Red-breasted Goose ‘ vo 3353, Subfamily ANATIN4 or SHELDRAKES and NON- DIVING DUCKS . 356 Genus TADORNA or SHELDRAKES. ; 357 Tadorna cornuta.—Common Sheldrake 358 i casarca.—Ruddy Sheldrake 362 Genus ANAS or NON-DIVING DUCKS . : 367 Anas strepera.—Gadwall . 368 » acuta.—Pintail Duck. 372 » penelope.—Wigeon 3 ; 376 » americana.—American Wigeon 380 » crecca.—Commion Teal . 382 , carolinensis.—American Teal ; 386 » circila.—Garganey . 388 », discors.—Blue-winged Teal 391 » clypeata.—Shoveller 393 » boschas.—Mallard . : 397 Subfamily FULIGULINA, or DIVING” DUCKS, EIDERS, and MERGANSERS ‘ 401 Genus FULIGULA or DIVING Ducks 402 Fuligula rufina.—Red-crested Pochard 403 “3 nyroca,— White-eyed Pochard 406 5 ferina.—Pochard 410 a marila.—Scaup ‘ : 413 re cristata.—Tufted Duck 416 ‘4 albeola.—Buffel-headed Duck . 419 os clangula.—Golden-eye 421 $5 histrionica.—Harlequin Duck 425 _ glacialis.—Long-tailed Duck 428 3 nigra.—Common Scoter : 431 CONTENTS. xv PAGE Fuligula fusca.—Velvet Scoter 3 . 434 5) perspicillata.— Surf Scoter 437 Genus SOMATERIA or EIDERS : , 440 Somateria stelleri—Steller’s Eider . 441 3 mollissima.—Common Eider 443 5 spectabilis.—King Eider 447 Genus MERGUS or MERGANSERS . 4 ‘ 450 Mergus merganser.—Goosander . . 451 » serrator.—Red-breasted Merganser 455 » cucullatus.—Hooded Merganser » 459 » albellus.—Smew. f ‘ . 462 ADDENDA. Pace 275—An example of the Siberian Pectoral Sandpiper (Tringa acuminata) was shot at Yarmouth on August 29th, 1892, and exhibited at a meeting of the Norfolk and Norwich Natural- ists’ Society by Mr. Southwell on September 27th. (Conf. Fied, October ist, 1892, p. 537.) PacE 163—As an example of G/areola orientalis has recently been obtained in Japan, the range of this species must be in- creased accordingly. (Conf. Stejneger, 707s, 1892, p. 463.) The Pratincole (Glareola dacotig) recently discovered in the Canary Islands appears to be a good species, but as I have not yet had the pleasure of examining specimens I am not prepared to express an opinion on its affinities. The Latin diagnosis is vague. (Conf. /é7s, 1889, p. 504.) PacGE 362—The large number of Ruddy Sheldrakes obtained or observed in our islands during the present year is very remark- able, but occurred too late for me to give details. Pace 407—East Palearctic examples of uligula nyroca have been described by Radde as distinct under the name of Fuligula baeri. (Conf. Seebohm, B. of Japan, p. 254.) LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Black Grouse (male and female) Frontispiece Capercaillie, Ptarmigan, Red Grouse ‘ _ page 32 Eastern Turtle Dove, Baillon’s Crake, Demoiselle Crane, Pallas’s Sand Grouse : j as 94 Golden Plover, Gray Plover, Caspian Sand Plover, Ringed Plover . » 139 Macqueen’s Bustard, Common Pyratincole, Black- winged Stilt, Sociable Lapwing . 5-167 Redshank, Common Curlew, Bar-tailed Godwit » 182 Buff-breasted Sandpiper, Spotted Sandpiper (summer and winter plumage), Red-breasted Snipe . i «| 23 Sanderling, Knot, Common Snipe : ee 21 King Eider, Lesser Snow Goose, White-bellied Brent Goose » 328 Gray Lag Goose, Bernacle Goose, White-fronted Goose . s » = 351 Mallard, Teal, Pintail Duck iy! 2393 Pochard, Common Eider, Goosander » 411 Blue-winged Teal, American Wigeon, Surf Scoter, Smew, Tufted Duck . 437 THE GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. Order COLUMBIFORMES. Family COLUMBID or PIGEONS. Tue Pigeons are a well-defined and important group of birds, closely allied to the Game Birds (through the Sand Grouse) and the Plovers. Their sternum contains two notches on each side of the posterior margin, the interior pair being small, the exterior pair wide and deep. In the modification of their cranial bones they are schizognathous ; nasals schizorhinal. In their pterylosis, myology, and digestive organs they show considerable affinity with the Plovers and the Game Birds. The external characteristics of the Pigeons are: first, their Plover-like bill, covered at the base with soft skin, and in which the nostrils are placed ; second, the small hind toe; third, their dense, compact plumage. Primaries ten in number; rectrices variable in this respect. Moult double; young born blind, but clothed with thin yellow down. Number about 350 species; cosmopolitan, except in the Arctic regions ; most abundant in Australian region. 7 B Genus COLUMBA or TRUE PIGEONS. _Type COLUMBA INAS. Columba of Linnzus (1766).—The birds comprising the present genus are characterised by their prevailing slate-gray plumage, glossed chiefly on the head, neck, and breast with metallic hues. The wings are long, broad, and rather pointed ; the tail is composed of twelve feathers, nearly even. The tarsus is short, scutellated in front, reticulated behind, and feathered on the upper portion. The bill is moderately stout, straight at the base and compressed. Three toes in front, cleft to the base, one toe behind, This genus is composed of about thirty species which are con- fined tothe Eastern Hemisphere, being inhabitants of the Palearctic, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions. Three species are resident in the British Islands. The true Pigeons are dwellers on rock-bound coasts, inland precipices, and in groves and forests. They are birds of sustained and rapid flight, and progress on the ground by running and walk- ing. Their notes are full and soft, but possess little sweetness or variety. They subsist chiefly on grain and vegetable substances. Their nests are slight platforms of twigs, placed on rocks or trees, and their eggs, never more than two, are white or creamy white, and oval. These birds pair for life, and are remarkably prolific. Their flesh is highly and justly esteemed for the table. Family COLUMBIDA. Genus CoLumBa, RING DOVE. COLUMBA PALUMBUS—Zznneus. Geographical Distribution.—Bvitzsh- Resident through- out the wooded districts of the British Islands ; most abundant in well-cultivated localities. To the Outer Hebrides and to St. Kilda itis only known as an occasional visitor. Range steadily increasing with the planting of trees. Foreign Western Palearctic region. From Scandinavia east to the Ural Mountains and Caucasus. Resident except in extreme north, where it breeds as far north as lat. 64° in the west and lat. 60° in the extreme east. Breeds locally throughout the basin of the Mediterranean, but is here best known as a migrant during winter. Azores and Faroes only accidentally. Allied Forms.— Columba casiotis, an inhabitant of Persia, Turkestan, and Afghanistan as far east as Gilgit, on the frontiers of Cashmere. Differs from the Ring Dove in having the light patches on the neck buff instead of white. Time during which the Ring Dove may be taken.— August 1st to March 1st; otherwise by authority of owner or occupier of land.* Habits.—The Ring Dove is certainly the best known of its tribe in our islands, and one that is almost everywhere on the increase. It is a resident, and frequents the woodland districts, parks, shrub- beries, and the open fields. It is more or less gregarious through- out the year, and though one of the shyest of birds, soon becomes ° trustful and tame in districts where it is not molested, as witness * It should here be remarked that in Lincolnshire, Huntingdonshire, the liberty of Peterborough, and the Isle of Ely, the close season (Wild Birds Protection Act) is from March 15th to August 31st (both inclusive). B2 4 THE GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL the extraordinary confidence of the Ring Doves that of late years especially have taken to frequenting some of the London parks. The flight of the Ring Dove is rapid and powerful, and the white patches on the wings and on the neck are very conspicuous as the bird hurries along. The Ring Dove isa silent bird during winter, but early in spring it regains its note, which is continued more or less freely into the following September, and less frequently in October. This note is a loud, full coo-700-coo, most frequently repeated when the bird is in the act of paying court to its mate. In autumn vast flights of this bird congregate in chosen localities, migrants from Scandinavia, which fraternise with our indigenous birds, and frequent the open fields during the day, seeking the fir plantations at dusk to roost, where their homeward flight oft affords good sport to the gunner. The Ring Dove drinks frequently, and is very fond of resorting to salt water. It is a most voracious feeder, and in some districts commits great havoc on the crops of beans and grain, and the tender shoots of clover. During spring and summer it feeds largely on shoots of herbage, mollusks, and seeds, and as the autumn advances grain of all kinds, peas, acorns, beech-mast, fruits, berries, and even nuts are devoured. In winter it has been known to feed on the tender shoots of turnips, and even pieces of the turnips themselves. At this season it will also frequent those places in the game coverts where maize is spread for the Pheasants; and here good ‘sport may often be obtained by lying in wait for the gluttonous pilferers. This species does not frequent the coast anything near so much as the Stock Dove. Nidification.—From what I have observed I am of the opinion that the Ring Dove pairs for life, and yearly nests in the same locality if not disturbed. This species is an early and a prolonged breeder, commencing in March or April and continuing to rear brood after brood until the autumn. The nest is placed in a great variety of situations, both in evergreen and in deciduous trees (the latter often before they are in leaf), and in bushes and amongst ivy on cliffs or tree-trunks. Woods, plantations, odd trees in the hedgerows or in the open fields are selected without choice of situation, and the nest is placed at varying heights. The nest is merely a few dead twigs arranged basket-like in a OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 5 flat and almost shapeless mass. The eggs are normally two, but exceptionally one or three in number, oval in form, and pure and spotless white. They are on an average 1°6 inch in length by 1°25 inch in breadth. They are sometimes laid one on each successive day, but often a day is missed between each. Incuba- tion lasts from seventeen to twenty days. Both parents assist in the task, and in ministering to the wants of the young. It should be remarked that in all the species of this family the excreta of the young are never removed, and, caking together, soon form a firm platform with the twigs on which the heavy nestlings rest secure. The young are brought to maturity by being fed with half-digested food regurgitated from the crop of the old birds. The Ring Dove has been known to breed in confinement, and also to hybridise with the domestic Pigeon. Diagnostic Characters.—[Adult] Columba, with a con- spicuous white bar on the wings, and white patches on the sides of the neck. [Young] with a white wing bar; neck patches, absent. Length, 16 to 17 inches. It might here be remarked that the irides of this bird, as is the case with many other species, change in colour with age. Thus in the young bird they are very dark, nearly black, whilst in the adult they are brilliant yellow. Family COLUMBID. Genus CoLUMBA. STOCK DOVE. COLUMBA ANAS—Srisson. Geographical Distribution —B7itisi. Resident through- out England and Wales both inland and near the coast, but more locally distributed than the Ring Dove. Very rare and acci- dental in Ireland and Scotland. Range steadily increasing. Foreign: West Palearctic region. From Scandinavia east to the Ural Mountains, the Caucasus, and Asia Minor. A summer visitor only to the northern portions of its range, which extends in the west up to lat. 62° and in the east up to lat. 57°. Breeds throughout Central and Southern Europe and North-west Africa. Rare in Palestine, and doubtfully recorded from Egypt. Allied Forms.—Coluwmba eversmanni, an inhabitant of Central Asia, Differs from the Stock Dove in having a pale rump, vinous crown, and black base to the bill; slightly smaller. Represented on the North Atlantic African islands by several allied but quite distinct species. Time during which the Stock Dove may be taken.— August 1st to March 1st; otherwise by authority of owner or occupier of land. Habits. — Although so common and widely distributed throughout the year, the Stock Dove is much less known to sportsmen and naturalists than the preceding species. It is also widely confused with the Rock Dove, in spite of the fact that the two species are very different in appearance. Although this species may be met with frequently on the coast (in Tor Bay it is the only Pigeon of the cliffs, but practically deserts these places during winter), and even in quarries and on moors and downs, it is most abundant in wooded districts, especially where the timber GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. 7 is aged and hollow. To many sportsmen it is known by the name of “ Rockier.” It is a shy and wary bird, and rarely allows a near approach unless it considers itself unseen; and will then often remain in trees or on the cliffs until it is well within gun- shot. Its flight is rapid and impetuous, the bird having wonder- ful command over itself, and it is able to dart and twist in and out of the branches, defying all but the quickest shots to bring it down. Like the Ring Dove it frequents the fields and more open country to feed and to dust itself; but when alarmed it hurries to the nearest cover, and always repairs to its accustomed roosting- place in thick plantations or on the ivy-clad cliffs at the approach of dusk. It may frequently be seen running along the horizontal limbs of trees, especially during the pairing season. The note of this bird, persistently kept up all the spring and summer, is much harsher than that of the Ring Dove, and may be aptly expressed as a grunting coo-oo-up. At all times of the year the Stock Dove is socially inclined, and in autumn becomes gregarious, the flocks then assuming large size. Many of these birds are migrants from Scandinavia. All through the autumn and winter these flocks frequent the stubbles and fields of newly- sown grain, flying at nightfall to the woods and coppices where they roost. Ring Doves very often mingle with them. The food of this species largely consists of grain during the time that fare is available; but seeds of weeds, clover, and grasses are often eaten. This bird is also partial to acorns and ‘“ mast,” and even consumes blackberries. Peas and beans are favourite fare, and in severe weather, when snow is about, it will eat shoots of grain and clover and the leaves and sprouts of turnips. Although it frequents the ocean cliffs, it is rarely seen on the beach below, except to drink the salt water, of which it is particularly fond ; but searches for its sustenance on the fields near by, or often flies to some distance where favourite fare chances to be plentiful. This bird in some districts is looked upon as a pest by agricul- turists, owing to its depredations among the grain and green crops, yet its good offices in ridding these self-same fields of weeds is some recompense for its pilferings. Nidification—The Stock Dove pairs for life, and returns yearly to breed in some favourite spot in spite even of much dis- 8 GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. turbance. What is also remarkable is its sociability, even gregariousness, during this period, numbers of nests often being placed quite close together. This may in some measure be because suitable sites are rare elsewhere. Like its congeners it begins to breed early, and is remarkably prolific, continuing to rear brood after brood from March or April onwards to September and October. I have shot young Stock Doves not many days out of the nest, with filaments of down clinging to the head, in November. The nest is placed in a variety of situations, yet always well concealed. A covered site of some kind is always preferred. Holes in trees, the deserted nests of Magpies and Crows, the old dreys of squirrels, or amongst ivy on trees and cliffs, or even in holes of the latter, or in church steeples, are all favourite places ; whilst in more exposed districts it habitually frequents rabbit - burrows for the purpose. I have known it nest several yards up a fissure in the ironstone cliffs of a quarry. The nest is slight, and in many instances is dispensed with altogether. A few twigs or roots carelessly interlaced, or a handful of straws, is the sole provision ever made. The two eggs (three have been said to have been found, but never in my own experience) are creamy white in colour, oval in form, and measure on an average 14 inch in length by 1-2 inch in breadth. Incubation lasts from seventeen to eighteen days, and both birds assist in the task ; as they also do in rearing the young. These are brought to maturity in a similar manner to those of the pre- ceding species, and are deserted as soon as they can leave the nest. Diagnostic Characters.— Columba, with a rudimentary wing bar, no white patches on the sides of the neck, the rump uniform in colour with the back, and the axillaries and under wing coverts grey. Length, 13 inches. Family COLUMBID. Genus CoLUMBA. ROCK DOVE. COLUMBA LIVIA—Brisson. Geographical Distribution.—Z7itish : Throughout the rocky coasts of the British Islands, extending to St. Kilda. Colonies of white-rrumped Doves occur in many inland districts on rocks and the sides of quarries, and are unquestionably tame or domestic Doves which have become feral. Foreign: Pale- arctic region. Wild birds apparently confined to coasts ; inland colonies descendants of tame birds. Resident on Faroes, but only one breeding place is known in Scandinavia, in the Stavanger Fjord. Breeds in the Pyrenees and in the Sierra Nevada. All Atlantic islands, including St. Helena. Rock-bound coasts of Mediterranean, Black and Red Seas, and mountain-chains adjacent. Intricately intermingled with tame birds is found from Egypt, Nubia, and Abyssinia, through Asia Minor and Persia, Beloochistan, Cashmere, and the Altai, across South Siberia to North China and Japan. Allied Forms.— Columba intermedia, an inhabitant of India and Ceylon. Differs from the Rock Dove in having the rump dark. C. vrupestris, an inhabitant of the eastern Palearctic region, from Turkestan to North China, and from the Altai to the Himalayas. Differs from the Rock Dove in having a broad sub- terminal white band across the tail. All these Doves interbreed wherever their range impinges. Time during which the Rock Dove may be taken.— August 1st to March 1st; otherwise by authority of owner or occupier of land. Habits.—The Rock Dove, the original stock from which the endless varieties of domestic Pigeon have descended, is a 10 THE GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL resident in the British Islands, nor is there much evidence to prove that its numbers are increased in autumn by migrants. Indeed, our information is decidedly negative in this respect, for the Rock Doves in the Faroes and in Scandinavia are said to be resident. The Rock Dove is closely associated with the sea, and dwells on the ocean cliffs and the country in their immediate vicinity all through the year. There are many inland colonies of “Rock” Doves, Doves with the rump white and the wings barred, but these unquestionably are descendants of tame Pigeons which have become feral. The true wild Rock Dove is only found on the coast and the country near at hand. This pretty species is readily identified as it dashes from the cliffs, by its white rump. It is ever shy and alert, although loth to take wing so long as it thinks itself unseen. Its flight is rapid and powerful, performed by quick beats of the wings, the bird often going for long distances to feed. I was assured by the natives of St. Kilda that the Rock Doves breeding on those rock-bound isles visited the Hebrides, some seventy miles away, daily for food. All through the year the Rock Dove is gregarious, and during autumn especially gathers into flocks at the feeding grounds. I have often seen very large flocks of this species in the fields near Flamborough and on the farms at North Berwick. This bird has a great antipathy to trees, never alights in them, and when disturbed from the pastures and stubbles either hurries off to the cliffs at once, or takes a more or less extended flight to another part of the fields. Upon the ground it runs about in true Pigeon style, with quick, short steps and bobbing motion of the head. Tt is ever on the alert, stopping from time to time to scan the surrounding ground, and rarely admitting of a close approach. These birds often fly in a very regular manner to and from the caves where they roost, and good sport may be obtained by waiting their return, or by visiting (usually in a boat) the cliffs they frequent. It requires all a man’s resource to bring down a Rock Dove going at full speed from the caves, as he rolls about in a dancing boat! The note of the Rock Dove is a soft and full coo-roo-coo, variously modulated when the bird is under sexual excitement. This note commences very early in spring, a week or so before the actual nesting season, and is continued into the OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. II autumn, The food of this species consists largely of grain; but seeds of many kinds of weeds, the buds and shoots of herbage, and the roots of the couch-grass are also eaten. The bird is said also to eat great quantities of small land shells. It drinks freely and often, and is fond of sea water. It has been said even to alight on the surface of a river to drink, but I for one doubt the statement. Nidification.—Like its two congeners the Rock Dove is an early breeder, a few pairs commencing to do so in March, but nesting does not become general before April and May. It is also wonderfully prolific, and goes on rearing brood after brood until the following October. The nest is always placed on the rocks, either in clefts and fissures of the cliffs or in caves, those being preferred which are always inaccessible to man save by the use of a boat. In the latter situations the nest is placed in the clefts and crannies of the rugged roof, or on ledges and prominences of the walls. Numbers of birds breed in company, the size of the colony depending to a great extent on the suitability and resources of the site chosen. The nest is slight enough, a few bits of grass or seaweed, a few roots or twigs, or dry stems of weeds; whilst even green grass has been known to be used. The eggs are two in number, oval in form, and pure white in colour. They measure on an average 1°4 inch in length by 1°2 inch in breadth. These birds pair for life, use the same nesting places year after year, and both parents assist in the duties of incubation—which lasts from sixteen to eighteen days — and in the care of the young. These are brought to maturity in a similar manner to their congeners, and are deserted as soon as they leave the nest. Diagnostic Characters.— Columba, with two well-defined black wing bars, a pure white rump, and white axillaries and under wing coverts. Length, 11 to 12 inches. Genus TURTUR or TURTLE DOVES. Type TURTUR AURITUS. Turtur of Selby (1835).—The birds comprising the present genus are characterised by their prevailing brown and non- metallic plumage, by their more or less conspicuous black collar, comparatively small size, and slender, graceful form. The wings are long and rather pointed; the tail is composed of twelve feathers, and is graduated. The tarsus is shorter than the middle toe, and scutellated in front. The bill is slender; nostrils basal, and covered with two soft, tumid, bare substances. Three toes in front, cleft to the base, one behind. This genus is composed of about twenty-five species, which are confined to the Eastern Hemisphere, being inhabitants of the southern Palearctic, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions, and the Austro-Malayan division of the Australian region. Two species are British, one a regular summer migrant, the other a rare straggler. The Turtle Doves are dwellers in woodland districts, They are birds of sustained and powerful flight, and progress on the ground by walking or running. Their notes are full and soft, but with little pretension to variety or sweetness. They subsist chiefly on grain and vegetable substances. ‘Their nests are slight platforms of twigs, placed in trees and bushes, and their eggs, never more than two in number, are creamy white, and oval. These birds pair for life. Family COLUMBID. Genus TurTurR. TURTLE DOVE. TURTUR AURITUS—Gyray. Geographical Distribution. — Zritish: Generally dis- tributed during summer throughout England and Wales, but becomes rarer in Wales, the extreme south-west of England, and north of the Humber. Only occurs as a straggler on migration in Scotland, although it passes the Shetlands regularly on passage. Not been observed in the Outer Hebrides, and only breeds locally in Ireland. oreign: West Palearctic region during summer. Throughout suitable districts in Scandinavia and Russia south of lat. 60°, eastwards to Turkestan, the Altai and Northern Cashmere, southwards through Afghanistan, Persia, and Asia Minor, westwards to Central and Southern Europe. It passes through Palestine and North Africa on migration, many remaining behind in spring to breed. To the Canaries it is a common summer visitor, but is rare in Madeira. Its winter quarters are in Central Africa. Allied Forms.—7Zurtur isabellinus, a summer migrant to North-east Africa. Differs from the Turtle Dove in having the head buffish brown instead of gray, and in being slightly smaller (length of wing 6 instead of 7 inches, as in Turtle Dove). T. ferrago, inhabiting South-western Turkestan and India. Differs from the Turtle Dove in having the light patches on the neck bluish gray instead of white, and the breast not so pink. It is also a larger bird. TZ: orientalis, inhabiting India, South- east Siberia, China, and Japan. Differs from the Turtle Dove in having the under tail coverts and the light tips of the tail feathers slate-gray instead of white. These two latter birds appear only to be subspecifically distinct, intermediate forms occurring in 14 THE GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL India, where the geographical area of each impinges. JT. ferrago is not known, however, to cross with the Turtle Dove in Turkestan, where the range of the two species meets. Time during which the Turtle Dove may be taken.— August rst to March rst; otherwise by authority of owner or occupier of land. Habits—The Turtle Dove is a summer migrant. Its usual date of appearance is the first week in May, a period which marks its entry into Europe at Gibraltar in greatest abundance ; but individuals are occasionally seen during the latter part of April. Its return journey is taken in September, although odd birds are met with from time to time at much later dates. The haunts of this species are in woods and plantations, and parks and fields which are well timbered, or in the vicinity of trees. It is a shy and retiring bird, far more often heard than seen; although when I was in Algeria, on the borders of the Great Desert, in the oasis of Biskra, I found it a most tame and confiding species. Here they frequented the tops of the date palms, hiding amongst the foliage, where they roosted at night. I also observed that they were very regular in visiting the Oued to drink, going in the early morning to quench their thirst and to bathe. Whilst perched in a tree the Turtle Dove will often allow a near approach, but it keeps so quiet that it is almost impossible to detect its whereabouts until it dashes out with almost a whirr, and in erratic flight dodges between the branches and trunks, and soon conceals itself again amongst the foliage. As may readily be inferred, a bird of such extended migrations is a good flyer, and passes rapidly through the air. It is often seen on the ground in the open fields where it goes to feed, and here it runs to and fro with Pigeon-like gait, yet always alert and ready to dash off to the trees the moment danger threatens. The bird’s arrival in our English woods is soon persistently proclaimed by its note. This is a gentle, soft, and rich coo-r-r- coo-r-r-r, each coo more or less gutturally prolonged, as if the bird laboured under no small effort to produce it. The male bird, as usual, calls the most, and is particularly noisy during the season of courtship. This note is maintained all through the summer, but it begins to wane in August and by the time of the bird’s departure OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 15 for the South is practically suspended. The food of the Turtle Dove is composed of grain of all kinds, the seeds of a great variety of weeds, tender shoots of herbage, fruit, and even snails and insects. In autumn it becomes more or less gregarious again, and in flocks frequents the stubbles, clover-fields, and turnips. It frequently goes long distances to feed on favourite pastures, and is much attached to its roosting place. Nidification.—I am of opinion that the Turtle Dove pairs for life; and even in Algeria, before the northern flight was taken, I saw them sitting in pairs on the palm-tops. Soon after its arrival in England the nesting season commences, and the first eggs are generally laid late in May, in more backward seasons the first week in June. The nest is as a rule made much nearer to the ground than that of the Ring Dove; and trees are not so often used as tall bushes. Sometimes a thick hedge is selected ; whilst white- thorns, hollies, and laurels are often chosen. It is a flat basket- like structure made of a few slender dead twigs, through which the eggs are often visible from below. The eggs are two in num- ber, oval, and creamy white in colour. They are on an average 1°2 inch in length by ‘gt inch in breadth. Incubation lasts about sixteen days, and both parents assist in the task, as well as in tending the young. Sometimes two broods are reared in the summer, but this is exceptional; and late broods of this species may often be attributed to the fact that the first nest had been robbed. JI have not observed much social tendency during the breeding season in this species. Diagnostic Characters.— Zurtur, with black tipped with pale lavender (nearly white), patches on the side of the neck, and with the under tail coverts and tips of the rectrices white. In young birds the neck patch is absent, and the feathers are edged with brown. Length, 11 to 12 inches, Family COLUMBID. Genus TURTUR. EASTERN TURTLE DOVE. TURTUR ORIENTALIS—(Latham). Geographical Distribution —Av7itish: A single example of this species has been obtained in the British Islands in York- shire. On the 23rd of October, 1889, an example in the plumage of the first autumn (without the pied patches on the neck) was shot at a small stream running from Oliver’s Mount, near Scar- borough. The specimen was exhibited ata meeting of the Zoo- logical Society of London. See Proc. Zool. Soc. 1890, p. 361. Foreign: The Eastern Turtle Dove is almost as great a stranger in Continental Europe, but it has been twice recorded (in im- mature plumage) from Northern Scandinavia. It inhabits India, South-east Siberia, China, and Japan. Allied Forms.—See remarks on the allied forms of the Turtle Dove. Time during which the Eastern Turtle Dove may be taken.—August 1st to March 1st; otherwise by authority of owner or occupier of land. Habits.—In its habits and economy the Eastern Turtle Dove does not differ very much from its European ally. Diagnostic Characters.—Zurtur, with the under tail coverts and the pale tips to the rectrices slate-gray. Length, 12 inches. Order GALLIFORMES. Family PTEROCLID or SAND GROUSE. Tue Sand Grouse are a remarkably isolated group of birds, many of their affinities being with the Game Birds, whilst others, especially those of an osteological character, are with the Pigeons. Some systematists, as, for instance, Sclater and Stjeneger, elevate them to the rank of a separate order; others, as Reichenow and Fiirbringer, regard their characters of only sufficient importance to rank as a sub-order. Some naturalists include them in the great natural order of the Columbiformes ; others, with as much propriety, include them with the equally distinctive group of Galliformes. The Sand Grouse are one of the few ancient sur- viving links in the now broken chain of Avian descent; and it is impossible, in the state of our present knowledge, to say to which existing group of birds they are most closely allied. Their double-spotted egg (having underlying as well as surface markings) and precocious nestling is the casting vote in favour of placing them with the Galliformes. Their sternum contains two notches on each side of the posterior margin. In the modification of their cranial bones they are schizognathous ; nasals schizorhinal; oil-gland nude; hallux small and some- times absent; moult single, in autumn, Young hatched covered with down, and able to run almost at once. The number of species and their distribution are the same as those of the genus. Genus SYRRHAPTES or SAND GROUSE. Type SYRRHAPTES PARADOXUS. Syrrhaptes of Illiger (1811)—The birds comprising the present genus form an important link with the Game Birds and the Pigeons, and with the Game Birds and the Plovers, The wings are very long and pointed ; the tail is cuneate, and the two central rectrices are frequently much longer than the rest. The tarsus is very short, and clothed with feathers often to the toes. The bill is small and short, decurved from the base to the tip ; nostrils basal and almost hidden by feathers, Three toes in front ; hind toe small, and in some species absent ; soles of feet rugose. This genus is composed of about sixteen species which are confined to the Eastern Hemisphere, being inhabitants of the southern Palzearctic, and the Ethiopian and Oriental regions. One species is a nomadic visitor to the British Islands. The Sand Grouse are dwellers on salt plains and deserts. They are birds of sustained and powerful flight, and progress on the ground by running and walking with short, quick steps. Their notes are said to be rather melodious. They subsist chiefly on grain seeds and vegetable substances, Their nests are mere depressions in the ground, and their eggs, usually three in number, are double-spotted, and oval in form. Pairing habits unknown. Family PTEROCLIDZ. Genus SYRRHAPTES. PALLAS’S SAND GROUSE. SYRRHAPTES PARADOXUS—(Pallas). Geographical Distribution.—Zritish: Appears at long and uncertain intervals and in very irregular numbers. First noticed as a British bird in 1859, examples occurring in Norfolk, Kent, and North Wales. Again occurred in 1863, when numbers found their way to almost every county of Great Britain, and to the north-west of Ireland, to the Scilly Islands, the Shetlands, and the Faroes. Again occurred in 1872, a flock visiting Northumberland, and a smaller party the south of Scotland; and again in May (Norfolk), and October (Co. Kildare, Ireland), 1876. Last great visitation in 1888. Many attempts to breed have been made, some apparently successful. Foreign : Just as irregular and uncertain in its visits to Europe as to our islands. Has been observed in Poland, Denmark, Holland, Scandinavia, Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Austria, Turkey, Russia, etc. The habitat of this species is Central Asia, breeding in North- east Turkestan, Mongolia, and Dauria, wintering in West Turke- stan and the Kirghiz Steppes, and occasionally in North China. Allied Forms.—None, very closely related, with the exception of Syrrhaptes thibetanus, an inhabitant of the table-lands of Tibet, a larger species. Time during which Pallas’s Sand Grouse may be taken.—The close time (three years) provided for this species by special Act of Parliament has now ceased. Not being a scheduled species, it may be legally shot from August rst to March 1st; otherwise by authority of owner or occupier of land. Habits.—The details concerning the habits of Pallas’s Sand Grouse are very meagre, and no British naturalist, so far as I am aware, has yet studied them in the far-away Eastern home of this Cc 2 20 THE GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL singularly interesting species. What little we do know has mostly been obtained by the Russian naturalists and travellers. This Sand Grouse appears to be more or less a migratory species, a nomadic migrant, being driven from the vast steppes where it spends the summer by excessive cold and snow. They are apparently early birds of passage, for Radde states that they arrived at their breeding grounds before the end of March, during very cold weather, the thermometer reaching nearly thirty degrees below zero at night. A month later they were nesting. All through the year this bird appears to be more or less gregarious, and to breed in colonies which are scattered here and there over the vast plains. In summer they appear to be very fond of basking in the sun in cavities scratched out of the sand, where they lie on their side and dust themselves. Their flight is described as exceedingly rapid, their quickly-beating long wings. making a whirring sound as they go. Upon rising they utter what is described as a melodious chuckle ; but this note is often heard as they stand upon the ground. Their short legs make them walk and run somewhat clumsily, with little steps, and the body swaying from side to side. The food of this bird is com- posed of seeds and the tender shoots of plants growing on the steppes. After feeding they repair very regularly to certain chosen spots to drink, salt lakes or wells, but fresh water is said to be taken by preference. They are remarkably wary, and when once flushed, never appear to alight again until they have care- fully scrutinised the selected spot by describing a circle over it. They are said to drink quickly, and to fly for very long distances. to the water, especially in the morning. In autumn this bird appears to become even more gregarious, and it then forms into. vast flocks, which lead a more or less nomadic kind of life until the following spring, apparently going but short distances from their summer quarters, unless driven away by snowstorms. During winter flocks of Sand Grouse occasionally reach Northern China, and here, according to Swinhoe, the natives take them in clap nets baited with small beans. Nidification.—Whether this bird pairs for life or not is diffi- cult to say, but being so very Pigeon-like in its affinities it may possibly do so. It is an early breeder, and the eggs are said by OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 21 Radde to be laid in April; that naturalist, in fact, took nests in April and saw the chicks by the middle of May. The nest is nothing but a little hollow in the sand, with a few bits of grass or weed arranged round the margin. Even this slight addition is often dispensed with. The eggs are usually three, but sometimes four in number, very oval and Pigeon-like in shape, but olive or brownish buff in ground colour, profusely spotted with dark brown and underlying markings of gray. They are, on an average, 1°7 inch in length by 1°1 inch in breadth. The female sits lightly and soon flies from her nest if threatened by danger, leaving the eggs to the concealment afforded by their protective colour. The hot sun also assists largely in incubation, and as soon as it is sufficiently high above the horizon to dispense its genial warmth, the nests are said to be left, and the parent birds to go off in pairs to feed and drink. Incubation lasts a month, and the young, as soon as they are hatched, are able to run and forage a good deal for themselves. Two broods are said to be reared in the year. Diagnostic Characters.—Syzrapies, with the legs and toes feathered to the claws, with no hind toe, and with the first primary and the two central rectrices finely pointed. The latter charac- ter not so pronounced in the female or young. Length, 15 to 20 inches. Order GALLIFORMES. Family PHASIANID or GAME BIRDS. Tue Game Birds are a large and important group, but ill-defined on what we may term the boundaries of the family. The most simple way of showing their probable affinities is to place them in the centre of a circle round which must be grouped in varying proximity the Pigeons, the Sand Grouse, the Plovers, the Auks, the Gulls, the Cuckoos, the Bustards, and the Rails. Their sternum contains two notches on each side of the posterior margin, which are so deeply cleft as to resemble abnormally developed ribs. In the modification of their cranial bones they are schizognathous; nasals holorhinal. In their pterylosis they are highly specialised; but their myology shows affinities with the Plovers, and in their digestive organs they show much affinity with the Rails. No other known order of birds exhibit more diversity in their external characters ; the great variety and brilliancy of the wattles, combs, and excrescences which adorn the head, the development of spur, the magnificent colours of their plumage, and the wonder- ful modification of the tail feathers and coverts, are all of excep- tional interest. The bill is always comparatively short and stout, curved, and wide at the base. The hind toe is small and elevated ; the other toes are connected at the base by a mem- brane. Primaries ten in number; wings rounded; rectrices variable in number. One complete moult in autumn; some species have a partial moult in spring; others change their feathers more or less completely several times during the year. Young hatched covered with down and able to run and feed almost directly they break from the shell. Begin to develop quills soon after they are born, and are able to fly in the juvenile or chick stage of their existence, their wing feathers being changed from GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. 23 time to time, so that by the time they are fully grown they have had three, four, or even five sets of quills. Number about 300 species ; cosmopolitan, with the exception of the Australian region. The Phasianide is divisible into seven fairly well-defined subfamilies, viz.: the Tetraoninze or Grouse; the Perdicinz or Old World Partridges; the Odontophorinze or New World Partridges ; the Numidine or Guinea Fowls; the Pavoninz or Peacocks and allied forms; the Phasianinze or Pheasants and allied forms; and the Meleagrinz or Turkeys. Three of these subfamilies are represented in the British Islands. Subfamily TETRAONINA. Genus LAGOPUS or MOOR GROUSE. Type LAGOPUS ALBUS. Lagopus of Brisson (1760).—The birds comprising the present genus are characterised by their feathered tarsi and toes. The wings are remarkably rounded and short ; the tail is com- posed of sixteen feathers, generally nearly even. The Dill is very short; nostrils basal, shielded by an arched membrane, and almost concealed by feathers. Space above the eye naked. Three toes in front, one behind very short, and only just reaching the ground ; spurs absent. This genus is composed of about half-a-dozen species, which are confined to the Northern Hemisphere, being inhabitants of the Paleearctic and Nearctic regions. Two species are resident in the British Islands. The Moor Grouse are dwellers on moors, tundras, and moun- tains. They are birds of rapid flight, which, however, is seldom long sustained, and on the ground they progress by running and walking. Their notes are loud and unmusical. They subsist chiefly on fruits, berries, seeds, grains, shoots of herbage, and insects. Their nests are rudely made, placed on the ground, and their eggs are numerous and single-spotted. These birds pair annually. Their flesh is highly esteemed for the table. 26 GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. digestion ; and according to Macgillivray, the bird eats its fill of food and then goes off to some quiet nook to digest it. Early in autumn, sometimes at the end of July or the beginning of August, the Ptarmigan begins to pack, especially if the season is stormy and unsettled, but during very mild and genial weather this operation is somewhat delayed. These flocks keep to the lower summits, and during winter birds are scarcer on the highest tops and said to be smaller in size. Rough, stormy weather frequently drives them to lower ground. Although subject to the same disease as the Red Grouse, this is never so virulent, the sterner conditions of existence probably doing much to stamp out its tendency to spread and recur. Nidification The Ptarmigan is monogamous and _ pairs early in the year, although the eggs are not laid before the beginning or even the end of May, according to the state of the season. The nest is little more than a hollow in the ground, sometimes beneath the shelter of a bush or beside a rock boulder, sparsely lined with twigs of heather, and perhaps a little dead mountain grass and a few bilberry leaves. The eggs are from eight to twelve in number, buffish white or buff in ground colour, spotted and blotched with rich liver brown. They are, on an average, 1°7 inch in length by i'r inch in breadth. The hen-bird sits closely, often allowing herself to be nearly trodden upon before rising. The young chicks run soon after they are hatched, and are very well able to take care of themselves, scattering and hiding amongst the stones and vegetation the moment danger threatens, or the more watchful mother sounds the note of warning. The hen alone appears to incubate the eggs, sitting about three weeks for the purpose. Only one brood is reared each season. Diagnostic Characters.—Zagopus, with the primaries white with dark shafts, with the wing less than 8 inches ,in length. Length, 15 inches. Family PHASIANID. Genus Lacopvs. Subfamily Zzrraowivx, RED GROUSE. LAGOPUS SCOTICUS—(Brisson). Geographical Distribution.—Zri#s2- Confined to the British Islands, where it inhabits the wild moorland districts throughout Great Britain and Ireland, except those counties of England that lie south and east of a line drawn from Bristol to Hull. Although inhabiting the Hebrides and the Orkneys, it is absent from the Shetlands. foreign: No extra-British dis- tribution. Allied Forms.—Zagopus albus, Continental representative, an inhabitant of the tundras above the pine region in the willow and birch zones of Arctic Europe, Asia, and America. Differs from the Red Grouse in having a white winter dress, and in having the primaries and secondaries white at all seasons. Time during which the Red Grouse may be taken.— August 12th to December roth. Habits.—British sportsmen may well pride themselves on the exclusive possession of such a thorough Game Bird and true sport-furnishing species as the Red Grouse, or Moor Fowl. It is one of the most sedentary of Game Birds, and never wanders from its native heath except under very exceptional circumstances. The great haunts of the Red Grouse are the vast expanses of heath-clothed waste that stretch in almost one unbroken line from Wales to the Orkneys and Shetlands. This district is wild and romantic enough, and the great diversity of its physical aspect counteracts the impression of monotonousness that the sameness of the vegetation which clothes them is apt to inspire. Hills and dales, vast plateaux, swamps, lakes, and streams, ridges and peaks break the surface of the moors, and patches of coarse grass, dense 28 THE GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL fields of rushes and sedges, of bracken and gorse, and clumps of broom and mountain ground fruits relieve the monotony of the otherwise interminable stretches of heath and ling. Here, all the year round, the Red Grouse is the one dominant bird, cherished and protected everywhere with the greatest solicitude for the unrivalled sport it yields) The Red Grouse is a thorough ground bird, although it may occasionally be seen sitting in the stunted willow, birch, and thorn trees, and is very fond of perching on boulders or on the rough “dry” walls that divide the moors from the highways and upland pastures. In spite of the bird’s abundance it does not make itself very conspicuous, and the in- experienced observer may wander over miles of moor without seeing many Grouse. They skulk in the heather, and generally prefer to run out of harm’s way instead of taking wing. They are wary enough, too, and are ever on the look-out for approaching danger, craning their heads high above the cover, and looking warily about in all directions. When flushed, however, they will be found to fly well and with great speed, although seldom rising very high. Like the Ptarmigan they often skim on stiff arched wings for a long distance over a ridge or bank, and if much disturbed will prolong their flight across a wide valley, or along the hillsides for a mile or more. At all times of the year the Red Grouse is socially inclined, and in autumn becomes to a great extent gregarious; “ packing” towards the end of August, when it becomes more wary and wild. Previous to stormy weather these packs are found on the highest ground; but when the change arrives they seek the sheltered hillsides. During severe snowstorms the Red Grouse will burrow into the snowdrifts for shelter. The note of the Red Grouse is very loud and very characteristic, most frequently heard as the bird rises startled from the heather. It may best be expressed as a loud, clear go-bac go-bac bac-bac-bac. Its crow, heard during the pairing season, and especially in the early morning, is slightly modified into a loud and clear cok-ok-ok. The cry of the female is little more than a low croak, The food of the Red Grouse is chiefly composed of the green tender tops of the ling (Ca//una) and the heather (Z7ica); but various ground fruits are eagerly devoured in autumn (the birds’ droppings at this season staining OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 29 the rocks dark purple) as well as the seeds of weeds; whilst during harvest and severe weather the birds will visit oat stubbles and even stack-yards at some distance from their usual haunts. I have known Red Grouse to be taken in the streets of Sheffield during severe winters, and great numbers to be shot on farms and near dwelling-houses several miles from the moorlands. Little need be said concerning Grouse-shooting. The sport yielded by driven Grouse is certainly not equalled by any other winged game; and the man who can satisfactorily account for his cartridges after an hour or so’s shooting from the “ butts” at birds that thunder by like sky-rockets need not be afraid to boast of his prowess. Enormous bags are sometimes made both over dogs and at the butts. The Red Grouse is singularly subject to what may well be termed a mysterious disease, seeing that its causes and nature are most imperfectly understood. Space forbids its discussion here ; but I might just remark that in the opinion of an old gamekeeper friend of mine this disease is very closely connected with the moulting of the birds. I offer this merely as a hint to investigators. On the other hand, over- stocking of moors, both with birds and with sheep, causes a short food supply, and brings the Grouse low in condition, and less likely to withstand incipient disease. Several attempts have been made to introduce the Red Grouse in some of the eastern and southern counties—at Sandringham, Holt, and other places. It is said that of fourteen brace turned out at Sandringham in 1878, enough remained to produce three broods in 1881. The small extent of moorland in these places seems fatal to the success of the efforts. Nidification—The Red Grouse is monogamous, and pairs early in the spring. At this period the cock-birds stand on some bit of rising ground and crow defiance to their rivals and invita- tion to the hens, sometimes accompanying this call by jumping into the air or flapping their wings. Once paired, however, there is no evidence to show that the cock ever mates with more than one hen. The nest is slight enough, always on the ground, either among the ling and heath, under the shelter of a boulder, or even amongst grass and rushes. Sometimes it is made in most frequented places, a yard or so from the highway or footpath ; 30 GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. whilst favourite nesting grounds are near the patches of burnt heather—burnt for the purpose of furnishing a supply of young shoots for the Grouse—where doubtless the abundance of food influences the choice, It is merely a hollow scratched out in the peaty soil and strewn with a few bits of withered ling, heath, dry grass, or dead leaves. The Red Grouse is rather an early breeder, birds on sheltered low ground going to nest early in April, but those inhabiting higher and more exposed districts are several weeks later. The state of the season also considerably affects the time of laying ; and sometimes a late fall of snow will overtake the brooding or laying birds and cause great mischief. The eggs, too, vary considerably in number in various years. If wet and cold, the clutches vary from five to nine eggs; if warm and dry, twelve or fifteen are frequently found. They are creamy white in ground colour, very thickly spotted and blotched with rich reddish brown, in some cases almost crimson-brown. The colouring matter is easily rubbed from newly-laid eggs, and during wet weather the feet of the sitting bird spoil much of their beauty. They are, on an average, 1°38 inch in length by 1'25 inch in breadth. The Red Grouse is a close sitter, and will remain brooding until almost trodden upon. The female performs the entire duties of incubation, which lasts twenty-four days ; but when the young are hatched both parents assist in tending them. The young broods are generally led by their parents to the wettest parts of the moors, doubtless for the sake of some particular kind of food. Only one brood is reared in the season, but if the first clutch of eggs be destroyed it is usually replaced by another of smaller number. Diagnostic Characters.—Zagopus, with the primaries uni- form dark brown. Length, 14 to 16 inches, Genus TETRAO or WOOD GROUSE. Type TETRAO UROGALLUS. Tetrao of Linnzus (1766).—The birds comprising the present genus are characterised by their feathered tarsi and bare toes. The wings are rounded and short ; the tail is composed of eighteen feathers, and varies considerably in shape. The bill is short and stout, and arched from the base to the tip; nostrils basal, shielded by an arched membrane, and almost concealed by feathers. Space above the eye naked. ‘Three toes in front, one behind, the latter short ; edges pectinated ; spurs absent. This genus is composed of about a dozen species which are confined to the Northern Hemisphere, being inhabitants of the Palearctic and Nearctic regions. Two species are resident in the British Islands. The Wood Grouse are dwellers in forests and on the broken ground near them. They are birds of rapid if somewhat laboured flight, and on the ground they progress by running and walking. Their notes are loud and, in the males, considerably varied. They subsist chiefly on the buds and leaves of conifers, also on fruit, berries, grain, seeds, and insects. Their nests are rudely made, placed on the ground, and their eggs are numerous and single-spotted. These birds are polygamous, and the female takes sole charge of the eggs and young. Their flesh is highly esteemed for the table. Family PHASIANIDA. Genus TETRAO. Subfamily Ze7raonviv ez. CAPERCAILLIE. TETRAO UROGALLUS—Linneus. Geographical Distribution.—377#s%- Bones of this species testify to its former residence in the north of England, such having been found in the caves of Teesdale and amongst the Roman remains at Settle, in West Yorkshire. During the latter half of the last century it was exterminated from Scotland and Ireland, Pennant stating that a few were to be found about Thomastown, in Tipperary, about the year 1760, and mentions an example obtained north of Inverness ; so that it would seem that the bird became extinct in Scotland and Ireland simultaneously. Its successful reintroduction into Scotland from Sweden com- menced in 1837-38, by Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton, although an attempt had been made some ten years previously at Mar Lodge. From Taymouth, in Perthshire, the centre of its restoration, it has spread during the past fifty years over the greater part of the county Forfarshire, as well as southwards to Stirlingshire. The extension of its range appears now only to be a matter of time. Foreign: Western Palzearctic region. Inhabits the pine forests of Europe and Asia; in Scandinavia as far north as lat. 70°; in Russia and Siberia as far north as lat. 67°. Its eastern limit appears to be the valley of the Yenesay up to Lake Baikal. Returning westwards it is found in South Siberia, in the Altai Mountains, and in North-eastern Turkestan up to an elevation of 10,000 feet. It appears not to inhabit the Caucasus and Southern Russia, but is a dweller in the pine forests of the Carpathians, the Italian slopes of the Alps, the Spanish slopes of the Pyrenees, and throughout the Cantabrian ranges. It is still I. CAPERCAILLIE. 2. PTARMIGAN. 3. RED GROUSE. GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. 33 found, but in apparently decreasing numbers, in Poland and in Northern and Central Germany. Allied Forms.—7Z¢étrao uwrogailoides, an inhabitant of East Siberia, ranging from the valley of the Venesay, through Mantchooria, southwards into Northern China. Differs from the Capercaillie in having the head and neck metallic purple and green, more white on the wing- and upper tail-coverts, but with no white on the tail itself, and in having a longer and more graduated tail. The Capercaillie described by Taczanowsky from Kamtschatka as Z. kamdéschaticus is said to be intermediate in colour and size. Time during which the Capercaillie may be taken.— August 2oth to December roth. Habits.—This magnificent Grouse is one of the rarest and most local of those birds which are classed under the head of Game. Its haunts are chiefly in the forests of spruce fir and larch, although it frequently wanders from these localities into birch and oak woods, and on to the bare expanses of moor, or the open parts of the forest where the broken ground is strewed with bracken and with various kinds of ground fruit. It is most partial to the big pine woods, more especially those that are broken up into swampy ground in places, and where small lakes occur. In these wild districts where the Capercaillie is present it is often very conspicuous, as the massive creature sits poised on some topmost point of a pine-tree, his huge form showing out clearly against the sky. Here it is wary enough, and seldom allows a near approach, although when sitting amongst the lower branches, where it considers itself well concealed, the observer is often allowed to walk quite closely past it. The Capercaillie is far more of a tree bird during winter than in summer ; but it always prefers to roost in a tree, and to retire to a tree to sit and digest its meal. It is everywhere a resident, although it is given much to wandering up and down the country- side in an aimless sort of way, females and young males especially so. The flight of the Capercaillie is powerful enough, yet the bird seldom flies far, unless it be to cross over a valley from one wood to another ; nor is it very loud and whirring, except when he rises almost at your feet, or dashes unexpectedly from the ' D 34 THE GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL branches where he has been watching you intently. The food of the Capercaillie in summer consists of the leaves and buds of various plants and trees, such as the alder, birch, and hazel, the leaves of the fir and larch, and less frequently of the spruce. To this fare is added all the various ground fruits that flourish in or near the haunts of the bird, as well as acorns ; insects, especially ants and their eggs, and beetles, are also sought for, as are also worms. In winter the needles of the pine-trees are almost the exclusive fare. At all times of the year the male feeds more on these spines or needles than the female, who spends more of her time on the ground. Consequently the flesh of the latter is more palat- able than that of the male, whose carcase is frequently too strongly flavoured with turpentine or resin to be pleasant to the taste. Grain is never eaten in great quantities. It is said that during severe weather this bird will bury itself in a snowdrift for shelter. The statements that the Capercaillie is detrimental to the presence of Black Game and Pheasants by its pugnacity and habit of appropriating their nests, do not appear to be borne out by evidence carefully collected for the purpose of ascertaining their truth. That it may do considerable damage to small forests where it may chance to be abundant, is by no means improbable —the crop of one bird shot in November containing the extra- ordinary number of two hundred and sixty-six shoots and buds, besides a large handful of leaves, of the Scotch fir! For further information on this important subject, as well as the full par- ticulars concerning the reintroduction of this species into Scotland, I must refer my readers to Mr. J. A. Harvie-Brown’s exhaustive treatise entitled Zhe Capercatllie in Scotland, a book that should be on the shelves of every sportsman and naturalist. Nidification.—The Capercaillie becomes most interesting, perhaps, to the naturalist in the breeding season. It is a poly- gamous species, and like most of such birds, indulges in various grotesque and interesting habits during that period. This portion of their economy has been most carefully studied and described by Lloyd, and from his important work on Scandinavian Game Birds the following particulars have been obtained. Pairing com- mences in April and continues through May. The male chooses OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 35 some point of vantage in his haunts, generally a pine-tree in the more open part of the forest, or a huge piece of rock with a level surface. Here he takes his stand in the morning just before sun- rise, and again in the evening directly after sunset, and from his perch on a bare or dead branch of the tree, or the summit of -the rock, he puffs out his plumage, and with extended neck, drooping wings, and erected tail spread out to the fullest extent, he begins to utter his “spel,” or love music. .This consists of three very distinct notes, pellep, Rlickop, and hede, the first and last several times repeated. These antics and notes occupy a period of several minutes, and are often repeated at once, during which time the bird works himself up to such a pitch of amorous excitement as to be utterly oblivious of impending danger. The natives take advantage of this, and by advancing during each “spel” or ecstasy, creep up within gunshot. The females respond to this curious exhibition by uttering a harsh croak, advancing to attract his attention, until he finally descends from his perch and pairs with each in turn. These “Jlaking places” are frequented every spring with great regularity by numerous cocks and still more numerous hens, and are usually all in the same neighbourhood of their haunts. Much fighting takes place, the young and weaker birds being driven out, and not allowed to “spel” or “ play.” The love notes are often uttered so loudly as to cause the tree on which the bird is sitting sensibly to vibrate to the touch, and may be heard for a long distance through the silent forest. A second “spel” is said to take place towards the end of September, or early in October. The female takes all charge of the eggs and young. She makes a scanty nest amongst the bilberry wires and heather in a clearing of the forest, merely a hollow scraped out, and lined with a few dry leaves or scraps of grass. The eggs are from eight to twelve in number, the smaller clutches being the produce of the younger hens. The eggs are brownish buff in ground colour, thickly spotted with reddish brown, and a few larger markings of the same colour. They measure on an average 2°2 inches in length by 1°6 inch in breadth. Only one brood is reared in the year, and incubation lasts from twenty-six to twenty-eight days. D2 36 GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. Diagnostic Characters. — Ze/rac, with the tail nearly square, and the wing more than 12 inches in length. Approxi- mate length, 26 inches. Hybrids are pretty frequent in a wild state between the Black Cock and the female Capercaillie, the latter being much given to wandering from their usual haunts and pairing with Black Game during these peregrinations. Family PHASIANIDZ. Genus TETRAO. Subfamily Zz7raonmw. BLACK GROUSE. TETRAO TETRIX—JZinneus. Geographical Distribution.— British: Formerly widely distributed throughout Great Britain, but exterminated in many localities, in some of which, however, it has been reintroduced. Resident locally in all counties south of the Thames, perhaps with the exception of Kent. Locally distributed in Wales, the Midlands, and in the vicinity of Sandringham, in Norfolk ; thence in every county north of Nottingham up to the Border. It is more widely and generally distributed throughout Scotland, including some of the Inner Hebrides; but has not succeeded in establishing itself on the Orkneys or Shetland. Not indigenous in Ireland. Foreign: Palearctic region, Inhabits the pine and birch forests of Europe and Asia: in Scandinavia as far north as lat. 694°; in Russia, and Siberia as far east as the Yenesay, as far north as lat. 68°, but in the valley of the Lena not beyond lat, 63°. East of the latter valley in North Siberia it does not appear to be found, but in the south of that country it ranges eastwards into the Amoor valley to the Ussuri and Mantchooria. Returning westwards, it is an inhabitant of South Siberia and North-eastern Turkestan, onwards throughout Central Europe as far south as the Alps and the Northern Apennines. It is said to occur in the Eastern Pyrenees. Allied Forms.—Zetrao mlokosiewiczi, an inhabitant of the Caucasus. Differs from the Black Grouse in having no white in the plumage, in being somewhat smaller, and in having a very different shaped tail. The female of this species is grayer than the female Black Grouse, and the vermiculations on the plumage are not so Coarse. 38 THE GAME BIRDS AND IWILD FOWL Time during which the Black Grouse may be taken.— August 2oth to December roth ; except in Somerset, Devon, and New Forest, where it is from September 1st to December roth. Habits.—The Black Grouse is a bird of the trees, but not quite so much of a forest species as the Capercaillie. It loves wild, broken country on the border of the moors, birch and fir plantations, and the romantic hollows below the level plateaux of heath and ling, where the ground is clothed with bracken and bramble, strewn with rocks, and traversed by dancing streams which sometimes widen out into expanses of rush-grown bog and cotton-grass. In our southern counties favourite haunts of this bird are the wild commons and small isolated tracts of moorland, where pine woods are in close proximity, and plenty of under- wood and trees are to be found. The Black Grouse is extremely partial to districts where water abounds, either swampy ground, or pools and streams. It is a skulking, shy, and wary bird, seldom being seen until it is flushed, either from the ground or the trees; and even when feeding on the bare hillsides, which it often does, some distance from the plantations, it is ever on the alert, and runs and conceals itself the moment it is alarmed. I have seen Black Cocks take refuge in clumps of rushes growing on the hillside, running from one tuft to another until the plantation was reached. The flight of the Black Grouse is powerful and rapid, but the bulk of the bird seems to lend it a laboured character. The Black Cock, except during the moulting season in July and August, spends much of his time in the trees, and always prefers to roost in a tree, but the Gray Hen is more of a ground bird. I have often remarked the partiality of this species for tall bracken in autumn; and at that season it also wanders from the covers to the stubbles. During long-continued snowstorms it sometimes burrows into the drifts for shelter. The food of the adult Black Grouse is almost exclusively vegetable. In summer the seeds of rushes and the tender tops and leaves of ling and heath and other plants are its favourite fare ; in autumn, grain and wild fruits and berries are partaken of; whilst in winter, willow twigs, birch catkins, alder buds, and leaves of the ling and heath are eaten, Black Game, like Red Grouse, always seem bewildered and stupid during misty weather, and then often OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 39 allow a much nearer approach as they sit on the half-leafless trees. I might also remark for the benefit of any sportsman unaware of the circumstance, that while Red Grouse always endeavour to fly down wind, Black Game seek to fly up wind. The formation of the tail may have some influence on this. When much shot at Black Game generally mount up high into the air, and fly right away to some distant cover. This species also appears to have an antipathy against flying uphill, and when flushed on a slope usually passes to a lower level. Nidification—In the matter of its reproduction the Black Grouse very closely resembles the Capercaillie. It is poly- gamous, and the Black Cocks perform much the same peculiar antics during the pairing season to charm the Gray Hens, as we have already described in the preceding chapter. Certain meeting or “laking” places are chosen in its haunts to which numbers of males resort early in April, and here battles are of frequent occurrence for the females which are attracted by the love notes, or “spel,” and charmed by the grotesque attitudes assumed by the Cocks. The “spel” or song consists of two very distinct notes, one a kind of co, the other a Aéss, both so loudly uttered that they may be heard for a mile or more across the silent wilderness. During the progress of the ‘‘lek” the females creep up to the place with drooping wings, uttering a low note and apparently watching the proceedings with great interest, waiting to pair with the most successful males. Asecond “spel” is said to take place in autumn, and during this period the cocks keep in companies by themselves. The female takes all charge of the domestic arrangements. About the first week in May the Gray Hen goes to nest. This is always placed on the ground, under a clump of dead bracken or matted bramble and fern, or amongst heather or ling, rushes or bilberry wires. It is merely a hollow into which is scraped a few bits of dry grass, broken fern- fronds or dead leaves of the bilberry, and fallen pine-needles. The eggs, from six to ten in number, are brownish buff, spotted and blotched with reddish brown of various shades of intensity. They measure on an average 2‘o inches in length by 1°4 inch in breadth. Occasionally a single nest will contain as many as sixteen eggs—the produce of two hens who sit together amicably 40 GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. enough and bring up the numerous progeny in company. This usually occurs in localities where Black Game are thick upon the ground. The Gray Hen is a close sitter, and her plumage is remarkably inconspicuous amongst the dead fern and under- growth. Incubation lasts about twenty-six days. Only one brood is reared in the season. The young are reared with difficulty, wet seasons being especially fatal to them; and many nests are washed away by being made too near the bank of some mountain stream, which rapidly becomes a torrent and overflows its banks during long-continued rain. Diagnostic Characters.— Z¢/rao, with the tail lyre-shaped [male], and the wing 11 inches in length or less. Length, 22 inches [male], 15 inches [female]. Black Cock hybridises with the female Red Grouse occasionally, and has been known to interbreed with Willow Grouse, Hazel Grouse, and Pheasant. Subfamily PHASIANINZ. Genus PHASIANUS or TRUE PHEASANTS. Type PHASIANUS COLCHICUS. Phasianus of Linnzus (1766).—The birds comprising the present genus are characterised by the absence of any occipital crest, and by their long wedge-shaped and graduated tail. The wings are short and rounded ; the tail is composed of eighteen feathers. The tarsus is moderately long, and armed in the male with a conical sharp spur. The bill is of medium length, the upper mandible convex, the tip bent downwards ; nostrils basal, and shielded by a membrane. Three toes in front, one behind ; hind toe articulated upon the tarsus. This genus is composed of some thirteen species, which are confined to the Eastern Hemisphere, being inhabitants of the south-eastern Palearctic region and the northern Oriental region. One species is resident in the British Islands. The True Pheasants are dwellers in woodland districts, where plenty of cover affords them shelter. They are birds of rapid flight, and progress on the ground by running and walking, Their notes are harsh and discordant. They subsist chiefly on grain, seeds, fruits, berries, tender shoots, insects, larve, and worms. ‘Their nests are slight, and made upon the ground, and their eggs are numerous, unspotted brown or green. They are polygamous. Their flesh is highly esteemed for the table. Family PHASIANID. Genus PHASIANUS. Subfamily Prasraniné. PHEASANT. PHASIANUS COLCHICUS—Zinnaus. Geographical Distribution.—Zritish: Probably intro- duced into the British Islands by the Romans, Resident throughout all parts of the country where it is preserved, even in some of the wildest parts of the Outer Hebrides, the presence of cover being all that is required in addition to artificial feeding during severe weather. Zvreign: Although introduced into most parts of Europe (with the exception of Spain and Portugal), the true habitat of this species is in Western Asia, in the western basin of the Caspian Sea, and the southern and eastern basins of the Black Sea It isa resident in the valleys of the Caucasus up to 3,000 feet above sea-level, and inhabits the country along the Caspian, from the Volga in the north to Asterabad on the southern shore ; it lives in the northern districts of Asia Minor, south to Ephesus, and is a resident on the island of Corsica. Allied Forms.—The various species and races which are most closely allied to the Pheasant of Western Asia and Europe (the typical English species) are by no means clearly defined, and it is probable that further research may prove that several of these forms are only the result of interbreeding. A table showing their geographical distribution and points of distinction is inserted at the end of the present chapter. Time during which the Pheasant may be taken.— October 1st to February rst. Habits.—The almost uninterrupted interbreeding which has been going on between the Ring-necked Pheasant from China and the typical Pheasant from Colchis for the past ninety years has so far contaminated the original stock that few, if any, pure- GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. 43 bred birds are to be found in the British Islands. In very few localities in this country does the Pheasant exist in anything approaching a thoroughly wild state. Wherever it is fostered and protected by man, suitable cover being provided, its natural enemies kept in check, and a certain amount of food being supplied during severe weather, there the Pheasant flourishes and multiplies apace. The habits, therefore, of such a semi-domesti- cated bird need not be dwelt upon at any great length. As pre- viously remarked, cover is one of the Pheasant’s chief requirements. The Pheasant is not only a ground bird but a shy one, and is seldom seen far from cover of some kind. It thrives best in places where the woods contain plenty of undergrowth, and where there is plenty of feeding accommodation in the shape of fields near by. It is ever shy and wary, and although often seen in the open hurries off to the nearest cover the moment danger threatens, or crouches close to the ground amongst the friendly herbage until the cause of its alarm has passed. It is capable of running with marvellous speed amongst the herbage and under- growth, and when flushed rises with a startling whirr, and with rapidly beating wings mounts above the underwood and threads its way among the trees to safer quarters. Asa rule the flight of the Pheasant is not very prolonged, but sometimes the bird will go for several miles before alighting. Like other Game Birds, it is fond of dusting its plumage, and not only drinks often but is fond of bathing, so that water is one of the essentials of a good pheasantry. In spite of the fact that this bird spends most of its time on the ground it prefers to roost in trees, except occasionally in summer when it sleeps on the ground; evergreens being favourite situations, especially in winter. It is most active early in the morning and towards sunset, when it leaves the covers and wanders out into the open in quest of food. This is com- posed of a great variety of substances. Grain of all kinds per- haps forms its staple support, but to this must be added many kinds of seeds and berries, acorns, beech-mast, and tender shoots of various kinds. It also feeds largely on worms and insects, especially ants and their larvee, and also consumes great numbers of grubs and wireworms. In most preserves a great deal of maize and other food is scattered in the woods, either on the 44 THE GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL bare ground under certain trees, or on the drives, or on plat- forms of branches raised several feet from the earth in the woods. Patches of buckwheat and beans are also sown close to the covers in many places for the sole benefit of the Pheasants, the thick growth affording concealment as well as food. The note of the male Pheasant is a short harsh crow, sounding something like cor-r-k. The bird becomes most noisy at nightfall just before re- tiring to rest, and each successive crow is followed by a flapping of the wings. Nidification.—Semi-domestication appears to have so far affected the morals of the Pheasant that it has caused it to depart from its usual monogamous instincts and to adopt the looser ethics of polygamy, just as the domesticated descendants of the Wild Duck have done. In its native wilds the Pheasant appears to be strictly monogamous, but in this country the male bird almost invariably associates himself with several females (as many as his prowess or his charms can keep or attract), and upon them devolves all care of the eggs and young. Instances, however, are on record where Cock Pheasants in our islands have been known to assist, not only in the duties of incubation, but in attending to the brood. The Pheasant does not appear to have been polygamous long enough to have certain recognised pairing stations or “‘laking” places, but towards the end of March the cock-birds begin to crow and fight for the females, each collecting and maintaining a harem varying in size with his prowess. The hens go to nest in April and May. The inherent timidity or shyness of this species causes it to breed in seclusion, and the great nesting grounds are well in the cover of plantations and woods, although many odd birds nest wide amongst growing crops, or in the hedge bottoms. Sometimes the nest is placed by strange caprice in an old squirrel’s drey, or on the top of a stack ; and I have known it in the centre of a tuft of rushes within a couple of yards of a much-frequented footpath. Each female makes a scanty nest, under the arched shelter of brambles, or dead bracken, or very often beneath heaps of cut brushwood which has been left upon the ground all winter. It is little more than a hollow, in which a few bits of dry bracken or dead leaves and scraps of grass are collected. The eggs are usually from OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 45 eight to twelve in number; sometimes as many as twenty are found ; and I have known of an instance in which a single hen has brought off twenty-six chicks from as many eggs! They vary from brown through olive-brown to bluish green in colour, and are unspotted. The late Mr. Seebohm, Jun., and myself took a clutch some years ago in Northumberland of the normal colour, amongst which was one of a delicate greenish blue. They measure on an average 1°8 inch in length by 1°4 inch in breadth. Incubation lasts, on an average, twenty-four days. The Pheasant only rears one brood in the year; but if the first clutch is un- fortunate, other eggs are laid, as hens have been known to sit as late as September. When leaving her nest for a short time to feed, the hen carefully covers her eggs with leaves, and invariably flies from her home when she quits it voluntarily, returning in the same manner. The young are seldom fully grown before the end of July. Diagnostic Characters.— Phasianus, with no white collar, and with reddish brown wing coverts, and purplish red rump (typical colchicus). Length: male, 30 to 36 inches, including tail ; female, about 24 inches, including tail.* The Pheasant has been known to hybridise with the Black Grouse, and the Guinea Fowl. Old females sometimes assume the plumage of the male. Males subject to considerable variation in colour, ranging from pure white through every intermediate stage to the normal colour. Males moult June and July ; females July and August. * The two central rectrices of the cock Pheasant vary considerably in length according to age, old birds being often met with in which these feathers measure upwards of 24 inches, 46 GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. PHASIANUS COLCHICUS AND ALLIES. SPECIES OR Race. GEOGRAPHICAL AREA. Points oF Distinction (Mates). Phasianus elegans, Phasianus versicolor . Phasianus torquatus . Phasianus torquatus, var. decollatus . Phasianus torquatus, var. viangalil . Phasianus torquatus, var, formosanus Phasianus mongolicus Phasianus mongolicus, var. shawi . . Phasianus mongolicus, var, insignis. . . Phasianus colchicus , South-westernChina, Central and Southern islands of Japan, China (including Tsu- sima or the ‘* Twin Islands” in the Strait of Corea), South Siberia, Mon- golia and Thibet East of E, long. 90°. (Typical form con- fined toS.E. Siberia, E. Mongolia, and B Chima) a « S.E, Thibet and w. China. . N.E. Thibet . Formosa . . » Mongolia West of E. long.go*. Turkestan. (Typical form con- fined to N. W, Mon- golia, and E, Rus- sian Turkestan), Chinese Turkestan . South Russian Tur- kestan. . . Western Turkestan and Europe . Similar to P. versicolor, but flanks golden brown barred with black. Underparts unspotted metallic green. Prevailing colour of rump anl upper tail coverts green; wing coverts gray; white eyestripe and white ring round neck. No white eyestripe, and no ring round neck. Centre of back and shoulders unspotted; only traces of white collar at back of neck. Pack and flanks buffish white instead of brownish buff. Wing coverts white; rump \ and upper tail coverts red- dish instead of green. extending round the neck, (res broad white ring nearly broken in front. No white ring round neck, and no green reflections on upper tail coverts. Upper tail coverts with scarcely a trace of green reflection; white neck-ring very narrow; green tips to feathers of underparts very broadly defined. Most readily distinguished by itsreddish brown wing coverts. Subfamily PERDICINA. Genus PERDIX or TRUE PARTRIDGES. Type PERDIX CINEREA. Perdix of Brisson (1760).—The birds comprising the present genus are characterised by their bare tarsi, scutellated in front, re- ticulated behind, by their short rectrices (sixteen in number), and rounded wings. The bill is short and stout, the upper mandible curved from the base to the tip; nostrils basal, shielded by an arched membrane or scale, and bare of feathers. Three toes (long) in front, one behind, small and elevated ; spurs rudimentary. This genus is composed of about half-a-dozen species and varieties, which are confined to the Eastern Hemisphere, being inhabitants of the Palearctic region. One species is resident in the British Islands. The True Partridges are dwellers in open country, cultivated districts, grain lands, and prairies. They are birds of rapid but seldom long-sustained flight, and sedentary in their habits. Their notes are shrill and unmusical. They subsist on grain, seeds, fruits, shoots of herbage, insects and larva. Their nests are rudely made, placed upon the ground, often under the shelter of bushes, and their eggs are numerous, whitish or buffish olive in colour, unspotted in all known instances. These birds, so far as is known, are monogamous. Their flesh is highly esteemed for the table. Family PHASIANIDA. Genus PERDIX. Subfamily Pzrorcinz, PARTRIDGE. PERDIX CINEREA—S7risson. Geographical Distribution.—A77#ish - Resident through- out the agricultural districts of the British Islands wherever it is preserved. Absent from the Outer Hebrides, but now introduced into the Orkneys. foreign: West Palearctic region. Local in Scandinavia up to lat. 66°; West Russia, north to lat. 60°; East Russia, north to lat. 58°; West Siberia, north to lat. 57°, in which locality it is a migrant, wintering in North Turkestan. Southwards its range extends into Central Asia, North Persia, and the Caucasus ; whilst westwards into Europe it may be met with in North Turkey and Austria, the lowlands of Italy, North Spain, France, Germany, Holland, and Denmark. Allied Forms.—ferdix cinerea, var. robusta, an inhabitant of the Altai Mountains. Differs from the Common Partridge in being grayer in colour, and larger. P. darbata, an inhabitant of East Russian Turkestan, South-east Siberia, East Mongolia, North-east Thibet, and North China. Differs from the Common Partridge in having the horseshoe-shaped mark on the breast black instead of chestnut, and the feathers on the throat elongated ; it is also a smaller bird. Time during which the Partridge may be taken. — September 1st to February rst. Ireland: September 2oth to January roth. Habits.—The great strongholds of the Partridge are the well cultivated districts, where the fields are not too large, the hedges dense and affording cover during the breeding season, and where grain is grown in abundance. It may be aptly described as a bird of the farm-lands, although it is by no means rare in many moorland districts, and in some counties is fairly GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. 49 plentiful on commons and rougher ground. It shows no par- tiality for wooded districts, and is so thoroughly a ground bird that the known instances of its perching in trees are remarkably few. The Partridge lives upon the ground, and at all times shows more or less reluctance to fly. Should danger threaten, it prefers to squat close to the earth or to run with great quickness to the shelter of standing crops or thick hedges, where its move- ments are so rapid as to enable it to elude pursuit with ease. When flushed, however, it not only rises quickly and suddenly, but flies well and with no small speed, its rounded wings as they rapidly beat the air making a loud whirring noise. Sometimes the bird holds its wings stiff and arched and skims along fora short distance before alighting. The Partridge obtains its food on the ground, and is most active in search of it during morning and early evening. During the hottest part of the day it is fond of lying close in cover, and frequently resorts to some bare spot in the fields to dust its plumage and to bask in the sun. Its food consists of shoots and leaves of herbage, insects and their larvee, snails, grain and seeds, and various wild fruits. From the time the broods are grown until they are thinned down by the sportsman, the Partridge lives in coveys of varying size, which feed and sleep in company. At night each covey has a particular resort to which the birds retire to rest, usually sleeping in a circle on the ground, each with its head turned outwards so that approaching danger is readily detected. The note of the Partridge, which is uttered by both sexes, is a peculiarly shrill 4i7-r-rrrick, most frequently uttered towards evening and in the pairing season. In districts where the birds are not very persistently chased by the sportsman the Partridge shows gregarious tendencies during autumn and winter, several coveys joining into a flock. During severe weather the Partridge will visit the rick-yards, and is occasionally met with in most unusyal localities, tempted thither by food. When fired at this bird has been known to fly out to sea for a considerable distance, returning to land in a very exhausted condition. Nidification.—The Partridge is one of the earliest birds to separate into pairs, but although it does so often in February, its nest is seldom found until a couple of months later. It is E 50 GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. a monogamous species, and may even very probably pair for life, although the old cocks are often very pugnacious and fight freely with the younger birds. The Partridge goes to nest in England about the beginning of May, but in Scotland it is nearly a month later. The female makes a scanty nest ina dry hedge bottom or a ditch, amongst growing corn or clover, or dense herbage on rougher ground, often in places most exposed, and in some instances in very curious situations. For instance, I have known it bring off a brood from the top of a bean-stack. The nest is simply a hollow scratched out in the ground and lined with a few bits of withered herbage. The eggs vary, according to the age of the hen, from ten to fifteen or twenty in number, although occasionally much larger clutches are found which may be the produce of several females. A nest containing thirty-three eggs is on record, twenty-three of which hatched safely, and the chicks got away with their parents. The eggs are uniform pale olive-brown, exactly similar to those of the Pheasant ; white and pale green varieties are sometimes met with. They measure on an average 1°4 inch in length by 1°15 inch in breadth. Although the male Partridge keeps close and constant watch over his mate and nest, the female incubates the eggs, which usually take from twenty-one to twenty-four days to hatch. As soon as the brood are out both parents tend them, and are most solicitous for their safety, and boldly defend them from predaceous creatures. The female is a close sitter, and covers her eggs when leaving her nest voluntarily. Only one brood is reared in the year, and I am of opinion that if the first clutch of eggs is destroyed no others are laid that season. If the birds continue to call into June and July, it is a bad omen, and a sure sign that the nests have been unfortunate. Diagnostic Characters.—/erdix, with the horse-shoe mark on the belly dark chestnut, and with the wing averaging 6 inches in length. Length, 12 to 13 inches. Has been known to hybridise with the Red-legged Partridge. Subject to considerable local variation (especially in young), and it is said that in some districts the tendency to develope a white instead of a chestnut horse-shoe on the belly is increasing. Genus CACCABIS or ROCK PARTRIDGES. Type CACCABIS RUFA. Caccabis of Kaup (1829).—The birds comprising the present genus are characterised by their nearly uniform upper plumage, conspicuous gorget, and barred flanks. The wings are rounded and short, the tail is short, and composed of fourteen feathers. The tarsus is scutellated in front, reticulated behind, and armed with tubercles or spurs. The bill is short and stout, the upper mandible arched from the base to the tip; nostrils basal, shielded with an oblong, horny scale, but bare of feathers. Three toes in front ; one behind, small and elevated. This genus is composed of about half-a-dozen species, which are confined to the Eastern Hemisphere, being inhabitants of the southern Palearctic region, and extreme northern portions of the Oriental region. One species has been introduced into the British Islands, where it is a local resident. The Rock Partridges are dwellers in bare and mountainous country, scrub-covered hillsides and thickets. They are birds of rapid but never long-sustained flight, and on the ground run and walk with great ease. Their notes are loud and harsh. They subsist chiefly on grain, seeds, fruit, berries, shoots of herbage, and insects. Their nests are rude, and made on the ground ; their eggs are numerous, and more or less spotted. Their flesh is of comparatively inferior quality. Family PHASIANID. Genus CaccaBis. Subfamily Pzrpiciv Zz. RED-LEGGED PARTRIDGE. CACCABIS RUFA—(Linna@us). Geographical Distribution —Zritsh- Introduced into England in 1770 by the then Marquis of Hertford and Lord Rendlesham, who turned out chicks in Suffolk. Chiefly dis- tributed over the eastern counties of England: Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Kent, and Sussex; only occasionally elsewhere. Attempts have been made to introduce this bird into Scotland and Ireland, but with small success, climatic conditions probably being the principal cause of failure. foreign: South-west Europe. Most commonly distributed in South and Central France, Portugal, Spain, the Balearic Islands, Corsica, Elba, North and Central Italy, Switzerland, and Savoy. It becomes much more local and rare in Northern France, Belgium, and the districts lying round its usual habitat. It has been introduced into Madeira and the Azores. Allied Forms.—Caccadis petrosa, an inhabitant of North- west Africa, the Canaries, Gibraltar, and Sardinia, Differs from the Red-legged Partridge in having the nape and collar brown. C. saxatilis, with vars. chukar and magna, range from the Alps to North China. Differ from the Red-legged Partridge in being larger and paler, and in having the throat and lores buff (chukar) ; neck-band double ; throat buff, but lores black (magza). Time during which the Red-legged Partridge may be taken.—September 1st to February 1st. Habits.—In many of its habits this handsome Partridge differs considerably from the preceding species. It is much more arboreal in its tastes, and shows a decided preference for rougher ground, such as commons, the open treeless parts of woods, and strips of heathy land covered with gorse, and rush, and bramble. GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. 53 Nevertheless, it is met with commonly enough on the fields in haunts affected by its British ally, but it is always even more skulking, and ever tries to run and hide amongst the cover rather than use its wings. Another peculiarity sure to be impressed upon the observer is the bird’s habit of frequently perching in trees, on corn-stacks, or on hedges and fences; whilst during snowstorms it often quits the open fields entirely, and seeks shelter amongst bushes and brushwood. It is a shy and wary bird, ever on the look-out for danger, craning out its neck and peering in all directions at the least alarm, and continuing to do so as it runs quickly towards the cover. It flies well and strongly, with rapidly beating wings which make a loud whirring noise, whilst on the ground it is capable of running with amazing speed. The note of the Red-legged Partridge is a shrill treble crth-zk-zh, which is said to be common to both sexes. Its food is not known to differ in any important respect from that of the Common Partridge, and its habits from the time the broods are reared, onwards through the autumn, are very similar. It lives in coveys, which sometimes join into flocks, but which soon scatter when alarmed, each bird making off to some refuge. In con- sequence of this peculiarity, the Red-legged Partridge affords poor sport. It will not lie close in the cover until flushed by the gunner, but is ever on the run; so that driving is absolutely necessary to obtain a decent bag. Nidification.—The Red-legged Partridge pairs early in April, sometimes towards the end of March, and during this period it becomes rather pugnacious, and combats are of frequent occurrence between the cock-birds. The female goes to nest rather earlier than the Common Partridge, the eggs usually being laid towards the end of April, or early in May. The nest is slovenly and slight, placed amongst the dense herbage of a hedge bottom or a dry ditch, or amongst growing grain, clover, or mowing grass. Sometimes it is placed amongst the thatch of a stack, or even in the side, and not unfrequently in a very exposed situation by the side of a footpath or highway. It is merely a hollow into which a few bits of dry herbage and leaves are scraped. Here the hen lays from twelve to eighteen eggs, pale brownish yellow in ground colour, spotted and speckled 54 GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. with dark brown. They measure on an average 1°6 inch in length by 1*2 inch in breadth. Very often the hen lays at irregular intervals. Incubation, which is performed by the female, lasts about twenty-four days. As soon as the brood is hatched, the male assists his mate in bringing up the chicks. Eggs of the Pheasant and the Common Partridge are occasionally found in the nest of this species. I have known instances where the Red-legged Partridge has destroyed an entire brood of the Common Partridge; and in spite of oft-repeated statements to the contrary, I am firmly of opinion that the two birds are better apart. I would not advise the introduction or the encouragement of the Red-legged Partridge in any district where the Common Partridge is already flourishing. There may be, however, many wild districts unsuitable to the latter species where the former might be established with advantage. Only one brood is reared in the year. Diagnostic Characters.—Caccadis, with the gorget and lores black, the throat white, and the feathers of the upper breast brown, spotted with black. Length, 13 to 14 inches. Genus COTURNIX or QUAILS. Type COTURNIX COMMUNIS. Coturnix of Bonnaterre (1790),—The birds comprising the present genus are characterised by their long pointed wings and extremely short rectrices. All of the species are birds of small size. The tarsus is scutellated in front, reticulated posteriorly, and in the majority of species spurless. The bill is short and stout, the upper mandible curved from base to tip; nostrils basal, and semi-closed by a horny membrane. Three toes in front ; one behind, short and elevated. This genus is composed of about twenty species which are confined to the Eastern Hemisphere, being inhabitants of all the great zoological regions with the exception of Arctic latitudes. One species is a partial resident in the British Islands. The Quails are ground birds, and dwellers in open country, cultivated districts, grain lands, and plains. They are birds of prolonged and rapid flight, and progress on the ground by running and walking. Their notes are shrill and not exactly unmusical. They subsist on grain, seeds, shoots of herbage, and insects. Their nests are rude structures placed on the ground, and their eggs are numerous and spotted. They are both poly- gamous and monogamous. Their flesh is highly esteemed for the table. Family PHASIANIDA. Genus CoTuRNIX. Subfamily PerDicivz, QUAIL. COTURNIX COMMUNIS—Sonunateerre. Geographical Distribution.—Britisz. Summer visitor to most parts of the British Islands, extending to the Outer Hebrides, the Orkneys and Shetlands, but appears to be nowhere common. A few winter in the south of England and in Ireland, in which country the bird is said to be slowly becoming extinct. /oreign: Palzearctic region, from Atlantic to Pacific. The Quail is a summer visitor to Europe south of lat. 64°. It occurs throughout North Africa, Palestine, and Asia Minor, but in the basin of the Mediterranean is chiefly known on passage, although a few remain to breed and a few remain to winter in that district ; whilst in the Azores and the Canaries it is a resident. The majority of the West Palearctic birds winter in South Africa, from Damara Land and the Transvaal southwards to the Cape Colony. Eastwards the Quail visits Persia, Afghanis- tan, Turkestan (where a few remain to winter), Siberia, and the north island of Japan in summer, wintering throughout India, Burma, and China, south to the tropic of Cancer. Allied Forms.—The East Palearctic Quails, owing to their slightly smaller size, have been regarded by some naturalists as distinct ; but the differences are not sufficiently worthy of even subspecific rank. Time during which the Quail may be taken.—Septem- ber zoth to January roth (Ireland); elsewhere, August 1st to March ist. Habits.—The Quail is a late bird of passage to the British Islands, arriving in May amongst the last of our summer visitors. The passage of this species from Africa across the Mediterranean GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. 57 into Europe is most interesting, and tens of thousands are caught for food each migration period. The return migration is under- taken during September and October. In some localities this species is said to migrate by night during spring, but by day during autumn; whether this is the general order of passage remains to be seen. During its sojourn with us the Quail is one of our most skulking birds, far more often heard than seen, but it is a persistent caller, and its very characteristic note of c/ik-a-lik soon proclaims its whereabouts. It is much attached to certain haunts, and appears to return to them each season. Its favourite haunts in this country are the grain and grass fields, and rough hummocky pasture lands. Here it keeps close amongst the growing herbage, rarely using its wings, spending most of its time in the cover, and running with great quickness from the way of impending danger. When flushed it flies quickly, but at no great height, with rapidly beating wings, and always seems intent on dropping into the herbage at the first favourable spot. Some- times it may be seen to skim on motionless wings for a con- siderable distance over a hedge or a bare bit of ground, just before alighting. It is nevertheless fond of frequenting bare spots in the fields, where it can dust its plumage and bask in the sun. During the hottest part of the day it does not move much, being most active in early morning and towards evening. The food of the Quail consists largely of grain and such small seeds as those of the plantain and chickweed; insects and small snails are also eaten by the bird in some abundance. The Quail is for the most part solitary in its habits until the time of migration arrives, although the broods and their parents keep close company. The birds that are stationary in our islands never seem to pack, or to fraternise with other species. Nidification.—In localities where there is an excess of hens the Quail is decidedly polygamous, but in others where the sexes are about equally dispersed the male only pairs with one female, and assists her in bringing up the brood. During the pairing season the Quail is most pugnacious, each cock beating off all intruders from his own particular haunt; and about this period the merry note of the male sounds incessantly and defiantly from the cover. The female is late in going to nest, the eggs seldom 58 GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. being laid before June. The nest is scanty, a mere hollow amongst the corn or clover, or the rough grass of the weedy pastures, into which a few bits of dry grass and leaves are scraped, In districts where the cocks run with several hens, the nests are often placed not many yards apart. The eggs vary a good deal in number. I have known nests contain twenty eggs, but from eight to twelve is the usual clutch. They are buffish white or yellowish olive in ground colour, boldly blotched and spotted with various shades of brown, ranging from very pale olive to nearly black. They measure on an average 11 inch in length by ‘gi inch in breadth. The hen bird alone incubates the eggs, which are hatched in about twenty-one days. The young are soon able to run after their parents and forage largely for them- selves. It is said that the Quail sometimes rears two broods or bevies in the season, but this must be under very exceptional circumstances ; my experience is that if the first nests are taken no other attempts are made. Diagnostic Characters.— Co/uruix, with the general colour of the plumage buff, and the chin and throat nearly black in the male, buff in the female. Length, 7 inches. Order RALLIFORMES. Family RALLIDA! or RAILS. Tue Rails, although an extensive and moderately well-deter- mined group, have exercised the utmost ingenuity of systematists and anatomists in associating them with allied groups. The result has varied with the relative importance of each character employed. Some authorities raise them to the rank of an Order, allied to the Hemipodes, the Cranes, and the Bustards; others remove them from the Cranes, and place them with the Stone Curlews, the Game Birds, and the Cuckoos; others yet again ally them most closely with the Cranes. Their sternum contains only one notch on each side of the posterior margin. In the modification of their cranial bones they are schizognathous ; nasals holorhinal. In their pterylosis, myology, and digestive organs they are probably most closely related to the Cranes and Bustards. The external characteristics of the Rails are their long slender feet, slightly elevated hind toe, short tarsus, and com- paratively short, thick beak. Primaries ten in number; wings rounded ; rectrices twelve in number, and short. Moult variable ; in some species only once in autumn, in others in spring and autumn. In the single-moulted species, nuptial plumage assumed by abrasion and increased brilliancy. Young hatched covered with down, and able to run and swim soon after they leave the shell. Number nearly 200 species. Cosmopolitan, except in the Arctic regions. The Rallide is divisible into two fairly well-defined sub- families, viz.: the Ralline, of which the Rails are typical, and the Gallinuline, of which the Gallinules or Waterhens, Coots, etc., are typical. Both subfamilies are represented in the British Islands: Subfamily RALLINZ. Genus CREX or CRAKES. Type CREX PRATENSIS. Crex of Bechstein (1803).—The birds comprising the “present genus are characterised by their short, thick bill, shorter than the head, and by having the forehead covered with feathers to the base of the culmen. The wings are moderately long, but rather rounded ; the tail is short. The tarsus is comparatively short, the lower part of the tibia devoid of feathers. The bill is short and compressed ; nostrils linear and oblong. Three toes in front, one behind, the former long and slender; claws curved and sharp. This genus is composed of about twenty-five species, which are confined to the Eastern Hemisphere, being inhabitants of all the great zoological regions with the exception of Arctic latitudes. Four species are either resident in or visitors to the British Islands. The Crakes are dwellers amongst the dense and humid vegetation of swamps and marshes; but some species are more terrestrial than others. They are birds of somewhat slow and laboured flight, and on the ground progress by running and walking. Their notes are shrill and harsh. They subsist chiefly on insects, seeds, and tender shoots. Their nests are large, and made of aquatic vegetation, and their eggs are numerous and double-spotted. They are monogamous. The flesh of some species is highly esteemed. Family RALLID/. Genus CreEx, Subfamily Razz z. CORN CRAKE. CREX PRATENSIS—Bechstein. Geographical Distribution.—47ii7sh- Generally distributed during summer throughout the British Islands, extending even to the Outer Hebrides, the Orkneys and Shetland, and the Channel Islands. It is an occasional visitor to St. Kilda. Numbers vary considerably locally. Foreign: West Palzearctic region, summer ; Ethiopian region, winter. Occasional summer visitor to Faroes. Breeds in Scandinavia as far north as Arctic Circle, and has been obtained even three degrees higher. In West Russia it does not appear to range north of Archangel (lat. 64° 32’ N.); in East Russia not beyond lat. 60°. Eastwards it is common in the Altai Mountains, and in the valley of the Yenesay ranges as far north as lat. 5934°. Its eastern limit appears to be the valley of the Lena. Although of only accidental occurrence in North-west India, it is common in Afghanistan, and has been found in North Persia. It is a common visitor to Russian Turkestan and the Caucasus ; is said to be resident in Palestine and Asia Minor ; is only known on passage in Egypt, but is resident in Algeria. It also breeds throughout Central Europe and Southern Europe, with the exception of the Spanish peninsula, Southern Italy, and Greece, where it is only known on passage. It winters in Africa as far south as Natal, and is occasionally found at that season in the Transvaal and Cape Colony. The Corn Crake is a great wanderer, and is an accidental visitor to the Canaries, Madeira, and the Azores, and even to the Bermudas, the east coast of the United States, Greenland, and it is said, New Zealand! Allied Forms.—None very closely related. 62 THE GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL Time during which the Corn Crake may be taken.— August 1st to March rst; otherwise by authority of owner or occupier of land. Habits.—The migrations of the Land Rail, or Corn Crake, both in spring and autumn, extend over a remarkable length of time. The bird begins its entry into Europe as early as February, and continues to arrive through March and April until nearly the end of May. It arrives in the south of our islands towards the end of April, but in the northern districts it is a week or so later. Its return migration in autumn begins in August and September, and lasts over October. The haunts of the Corn Crake are hay meadows and grain fields, both dry and swampy localities being frequented, the bird showing little or no partiality in this respect. Soon after its arrival, it wanders about a good deal, and then frequently visits less suitable places, or remains in them from necessity until the cover in its more usual haunts is sufficiently dense. No bird is more skulking in its habits, or more loth to take wing. It always prefers to hide in the dense cover and to remain motionless until the danger has passed, or to run with wonderful speed to a safe nook. The arrival of the Corn Crake is very soon proclaimed by the bird’s rasping cry, which sounds from the meadows most persistently, especially during night. This loud, harsh note, which I consider is confined to the male, may be easily imitated by drawing a knife-blade smartly across the teeth of a stout comb. It is usually uttered twice, one after the other, then a pause, and then again repeated. I have known this species call as it flew from one field to another, evidently under sexual excitement, and eager either to meet a female or a rival. The note ceases in August, and for the remainder of its stay the Corn Crake is a silent bird. Soon after arrival this bird wanders about from farm to farm, especially at night, and seems to be exploring all the country-side in quest of a suitable haunt. When once this choice is made, however, the bird rarely wanders more than a field or so from home until it departs south in autumn. The Corn Crake lives upon the ground, keeping close to the herbage, and only venturing into the open when all is quiet. It is flushed with the greatest difficulty, rarely indeed a second time, and flies in a slow, laboured manner, with legs held OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 63 drooping down. I have known this bird, when lured by a call, to fly from the grass and perch for a few moments on the top of a hedge. In the late summer, when the grass is cut for hay, and the clover crops have been cleared off, the Corn Crake frequently hides itself amongst the standing corn, or in the turnip-fields. It may then often be watched upon the bare pastures, where it strays to feed, running from the cover through the hedge on to the grass. Here it walks about in true Rail style, ever and anon raising its head and looking warily around. At the least alarm it tuns back into the hedge, where it skulks until all is quiet again, and then comes out once more. I have known this species to feign death in an astonishingly realistic manner, The food of this species is composed of worms, snails, and insects, especially small beetles, the tender shoots and ends of herbage, and various small seeds. It feeds the most in the early morning, or at dusk, and during the night—a period, by the way, which is also selected for its migrations. Nidification.—The Corn Crake pairs soon after its arrival ; until this event takes place it is a remarkably restless species, but as soon as mating has taken place it becomes much more sedentary. The eggs are laid according to latitude and the state of the season, either the end of May or during the first half of June. The somewhat elaborate and neatly formed nest is placed on the ground, usually amongst the mowing grass, less frequently in growing corn. It is made externally of dry grass and withered leaves, and neatly lined with fine grass, often much of it nearly green. Although this species, so far as is known, is strictly mono- gamous, and not at all gregarious, I have known a couple of nests within a few yards of each other ; whilst it is no uncommon thing to find several nests in the same field. The eggs are from eight to twelve in number, and range from pale buff through cream-white to very pale blue in ground colour, sparingly spotted and blotched with reddish brown and violet-gray. inga, with the bill very flat and wide, and more than a fourth of the length of the wing, and with little or no white on the secondaries and upper tail coverts. Length, 6% inches. Family CHARADRIIDA. Genus TRINGA. Subfamily Scozoracinz, AMERICAN PECTORAL SANDPIPER. TRINGA ACUMINATA PECTORALIS—ingu, with the rump and upper tail coverts blackish, with little or no white on the secondaries, and with the central rectrices 25 inch longer than the next, and ‘35 inch longer than the outermost. Length, 8% inches. For other characters see notes on allied forms above. Family CHARADRIID. Genus TRINGA. Subfamily Scozopacivz. LITTLE STINT. TRINGA MINUTA—Zeisler. Geographical Distribution. — Briish- Fairly common visitor on spring and autumn migration, most abundant during the latter period. Principally found on the eastern coast of England, rarer on the south coast, and still less frequent on the east coast of Scotland as far north as the Shetlands. Unknown on the west coast of Scotland, and rare on the west coast of England, chiefly affecting Lancashire and the Solway district. Visits Ireland sparingly every autumn, most frequently on the north- east and eastern coasts. Passes the Channel Islands on migra- tion. foreign: Western Palearctic region; Ethiopian region, and Indian subregion of Oriental region in winter. Breeds locally on the Arctic tundras of Europe and Asia from the North Cape in the west to the Taimyr peninsula in the east, including Nova Zembla and Waigatz Island. Has been found breeding at Kistrand in Northern Norway, the Kola peninsula in Lapland, the delta of the Petchora in Russia, the Yalmal penin- sula, the valley of the Yenesay, and the Taimyr peninsula in the Siberian province of Yeniseisk. Passes the coasts of Europe, the valleys of the Kama and the Volga, Western Siberia, and Turkestan on migration, and winters sparingly in the basin of the Mediterranean, throughout Africa (including the valley of the Nile and the Central Lakes), Persia, India, Ceylon, and Burma. Allied Forms.—Z7inga minuta riuficollis, an inhabitant of Eastern Siberia, from the valley of the Lena to the Tchuski Land, passing the Baikal region, China, and Japan on migration, and GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. 279 wintering in the Malay Archipelago and Australia. The Eastern form of the Little Stint, only subspecifically distinct and completely intergrading with its Western representative. Typical examples in breeding plumage differ from the Little Stint in having the underparts, from the chin to the breast inclusive, unspotted chest- nut, and the two central tail feathers uniform brownish black. In the Little Stint the chin and throat are white, and the breast is streaked with chestnut. The two forms are, however, indis- tinguishable in winter plumage. Z. subminuta and T. subminuta minutilla, treated of in the next chapter. Time during which the Little Stint may be taken.— August rst to March rst. Habits. — British naturalists and sportsmen only have the opportunity of meeting with the Little Stint during the period of its autumn and spring migrations along our coasts. In autumn it begins to arrive in August, but the majority appear in September and remain until October before passing on still further to the south. It is a late bird of passage in spring with us, not arriving before May in any numbers, lingering with us often until the middle of June, then starting north for the Arctic tundras, where it breeds. During its sojourn on the British coasts it chiefly frequents the low shores where mud-flats abound, and broad reaches of sand supply it with haunts where food is ever plenti- ful. It also frequents salt marshes, and is pretty partial to the wide estuaries of East Anglia. Here it is frequently to be met with in the company of Dunlins and other little birds of the, shore. It usually migrates in flocks of varying size which, when alarmed, perform various graceful evolutions in the air before settling again. Even during the breeding season the Little Stint is a remarkably social bird, and small parties collect round the shores of the moorland pools to feed. The immature non-breeding birds appear to keep in large flocks in the summer quarters throughout their stay ; and whilst the females are busy incubating, the adult males often form into considerable bands. When on the coasts of our islands its habits are very similar to those of the Dunlin. Like that bird it is almost constantly in motion, running hither and thither about the mud and sand in a restless manner, and even wading through the shallows, but it appears never to swim 280 THE GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL or dive. The food of this Stint consists of insects and their larvze, crustaceans, worms, and various small marine creatures ; whilst in the Arctic regions the bird may also eat ground fruits and small seeds. Its note at the nesting place is a rather shrill whit, but in autumn and winter it utters a chirping cry. This species probably has a trill during the pairing season; but as Messrs. Seebohm and Harvie-Brown did not reach the breeding grounds of the Little Stint until after this event was over they probably did not hear it. Nidification.—Von Middendorff was the first naturalist to discover the breeding grounds of the Little Stint. Nearly fifty years ago he met with it nesting on the Taimyr peninsula, at the eastern limit of its known range. In 1875 Messrs. Seebohm and Harvie-Brown discovered nesting places of this Stint at the delta of the Petchora, and their interesting accounts of the breeding of this bird in Europe were the first made known to British orni- thologists. Since their discoveries, other breeding places have been found in various parts of Arctic Europe, extending as far west as the Porsanger fjord in Northern Norway. At the mouth of the Petchora the breeding grounds of the Little Stint were situated on a comparatively dry and gently sloping part of the tundra close to the inland sea, at the mouth of the great river. Here the tundra was thickly studded with tussocks of grass, and the swampy ground was almost concealed by cotton-grass. These grass tufts were covered with green moss, and smaller patches of reindeer moss, the whole almost hidden with a thick growth of cloud-berry and carices, dwarf shrubs, and sundry Arctic flowers, Several of the nests discovered were quite close together. Other nests were found on more sandy ground, full of small pools, and covered with short grass and plants. The nest of the Little Stint is merely a slight hollow in the ground, lined with a few dead leaves of the cloud-berry, and other scraps of vegetable refuse. The eggs are four in number, and vary in ground colour from pale greenish gray to pale brown, spotted and blotched with rich reddish brown, and with underlying markings of paler brown and gray. Most of the spots and blotches are on the larger end of the egg, as is usual in those of all Waders. They are pyriform, and measure on an average 1'1 inch in length by °8 inch in breadth. OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 281 They are laid towards the end of June, or early in July. Incuba- tion appears to be performed by the female, and only one brood is reared in the year. The female alone appears to frequent the nest, and when this is approached she makes little demonstration and is remarkably quiet. Messrs. Seebohm and Harvie-Brown state that the tameness of the hen bird was sometimes most extraordinary. The former gentleman states that at one nest the female ap- proached within eighteen inches of his hand as he sat beside the eggs, and when his hand was stretched towards her she quietly retreated a couple of feet ; but the moment he left the vicinity of her home she changed her tactics at once, and began fluttering along the ground with quivering wings and outspread tail as if dying. After having a glove thrown at her and being fired at, she concluded that men were not to be trusted, and she finally flew away. It is sad to read that after all she returned, faithful to her beloved eggs, and fell a martyr to science ! Diagnostic Characters. — Z:nga, with the wing under 4 inches in length, the bill broadest at the base, and the legs and feet black. Length, 6 inches. Family CHARADRIID. Genus TRINGa. Subfamily Scozoraciv#z. AMERICAN STINT. TRINGA SUBMINUTA MINUTILLA— Vresdlot. Geographical Distribution.—27it/sh- Very rare straggler on autumn migration, but doubtless frequently overlooked. The claim of this species to rank as “ British” rests on the following occurrences. England: Cornwall (1 example), October, 1853 ; Devonshire (1 example), September, 1869. foreign: Northern Nearctic region; Neotropical region in winter. Breeds in the Arctic regions of America from Alaska to Labrador and New- foundland, south to Nova Scotia. Passes the United States, from California in the west to the Bermudas in the east, on migration, a few wintering in the Southern States, but the majority in Mexico, the West Indies, Central America, the Galapagos, and the north of South America. Allied Forms.—7Z?inga subminuta, an inhabitant of Eastern Siberia, south of the Arctic Circle, from the valley of the Lena to the coasts of the Sea of Okhotsk and Behring Island. Passes through the Baikal region, the valley of the Amoor, and the coasts of China and Japan on migration, and winters in the Malay Archipelago, India, Ceylon, and Burma. The Old World repre- sentative of the American Stint, only subspecifically distinct, and completely intergrading with its New World ally. Typical examples differ from the American Stint in having a larger foot (length of middle toe and claw, ‘85 to ‘95 inch, instead of °8 to ‘85 inch). Z. minuta and Z. minuta ruficollis treated of in the preceding chapter. Time during which the American Stint may be taken. —August 1st to March rst. GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. 283 Habits.—The American Stint is as well-known and abundant in the United States during its seasons of migration, as the Little Stint is in Western Europe. Unlike that bird, however, it appears to migrate across inland districts as well as along the coast line. They begin to arrive in the Southern States in April, slowly travel on to New England early in May, reach North Carolina towards the end of the latter month, but do not appear on the Arctic tundras where they breed until early June, when the snow is melted, and the “barren” grounds no longer deserve the name but teem with life. Notwithstanding the fact that many follow an inland course, the favourite haunts, both on passage and in winter, are the mud-flats of the low-lying coasts. Here in the wide marshes behind the actual beach, amongst the creeks and mud-fringed streams, the American Stint may be watched in flocks of varying size tripping about the slimy soil, picking here and probing there in quest of their food. The return migration commences with the immature non-breeding birds towards the middle of July; in August many of the young appear, but the great flights arrive during September. When in flocks the American Stint is rather a silent bird, but when flushed solitary or in little parties, it usually utters a sharp wAdf as it hurries away. It is very tame when on the coast. Flocks of this bird when flushed often perform various graceful evolutions in concert before alighting again. Like all its congeners it is a restless, active little bird, ever tripping about in quest of food, and very frequently associates with other small Waders. The food of the American Stint consists of insects and their larve, small worms, crustaceans, and mollusks, seeds, and various ground fruits. Some of this food is sought on the weed-covered rocks at low water, or even on masses of drifting seaweed. Nidification.— Eggs of the American Stint may be found towards the end of June or early in July. Its breeding grounds are on the Arctic tundras, sometimes near the coast, more fre- quently a short distance inland on the margins of the lakes and pools, The nest is merely a slight hollow in the ground, lined with a little withered grass and dead leaves, and is often made under the shelter of a bush or a stone. The eggs are four in number, pale buff in ground colour, spotted and blotched with 284 GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. reddish brown, and with underlying markings of paler brown and gray. They very closely resemble those of the preceding species. They are pyriform in shape, and measure on an average 1’o inch in length by ‘8 inch in breadth. The female is very tame and trustful at the nest, but sometimes seeks to lure an intruder away by feigning lameness. Only one brood is reared in the year, and as soon as the young can fly they begin to draw southwards. Diagnostic Characters.—7Z7izga, with the outer rectrices gray, the legs and feet pale brown, and the wing less than 4 inches long. Length, 534 to 6 inches. Family CHARADRIID. Genus TRINGA. Subfamily Scozoracinz. TEMMINCK’S STINT. TRINGA TEMMINCKI—Zeisler, Geographical Distribution.—A7tish- Rare but regular visitor on spring and autumn migration; most frequent on the east and south coasts of England from the Humber to the Scilly Isles, especially in Norfolk. North of the Humber it is rare, and has only once been recorded from Scotland. Very rare on the west coast of England; only one example recorded from Ireland, and this in January, the sole known instance of this species being found in our islands during winter. Occasionally wanders inland: Middlesex, Cambridgeshire, Notts, and Lancashire. Foreign : Northern Palzarctic region; Oriental region in winter. Breeds on the tundras above the limits of forest growth, from Scandinavia in North-western Europe to the Tchuski Land in North-eastern Asia, and in suitable localities on river banks as far south as lat. 65° on the White Sea and Bothnian Gulf, and lat. 55° on the coasts of the Okhotsk Sea. It has been said to breed on the lofty Siberian Mountains, but on unsatisfactory evidence. It passes the European coasts, along internal fly-lines both of Europe and Asia, and the coasts of China, on migration, and winters in the basin of the Mediterranean, Northern Africa, and both eastern and western coasts, as far south as lat. 10°, India, Ceylon, Burma, South China, and the Malay Archipelago. Allied Forms.—None nearer than the Stints already dealt with, and with which it is only distantly related. Time during which Temminck’s Stint may be taken. —August 1st to March 1st. 286 THE GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL Habits.—The British Islands are evidently situated on the extreme outer fringe of the spring and autumn migrations of Temminck’s Stint. This is probably because the bird’s line of flight is more inland, not so maritime as that of the Little Stint, and taken down the great river valleys, which extend almost due north and south between the tundras where it breeds, and the countries where it winters. The few individuals that do stray so far to the westward as our coasts usually make their appearance in May and September, and the great majority of the birds reach their Arctic haunts during the last week of May in Europe and the first week of June in Siberia. It is much more addicted to inland lakes and rivers than the coast, and always prefers a muddy shore to a sandy one. During passage and in its winter quarters Temminck’s Stint is generally met with in flocks, but occasionally in scattered pairs or alone, and odd birds are frequently met with in the gatherings of other Waders. Its habits and movements on the mud-flats do not differ in any important respect from those of its congeners. Its flight is rapid, and the small bunches of birds frequently gyrate in the air after being disturbed from their feeding places, each movement being performed with such precision that a com- mon impulse seems to control the entire number of individuals. The food of Temminck’s Stint is composed principally of insects and their larve, worms, and various small marine animals; particles of vegetable matter have been noticed in the stomach of this bird. Its call-note is a shrill pvr, very different from the whet of the Little Stint. Nidification. — The breeding season of Temminck’s Stint is in June. Wolley was the first naturalist to furnish detailed information of the nest and eggs of this species, which he found breeding sparingly in the marshes to the north of the Bothnian Gulf. Although several nests may be found quite close together it is said that Temminck’s Stint is not gregarious at the breeding grounds, keeping in pairs during that period. During the pairing season this Stint frequently perches on the small trees in its haunts, or stands on a post or fence, vibrating its wings, and trilling lustily. This trill, however, is generally uttered whilst the bird is wheeling round and round, or hovering OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 287 and floating in the air, although it is sometimes heard as the bird runs along the ground with uplifted wings. The nest is usually made near water, often on low islands at the delta of a river which are clothed with willows and long grass. It is merely a hollow amongst the sedge, rushes, or grass, scantily lined with dry grass and withered leaves. The eggs are four in number, ranging from pale buff to pale olive in ground colour, spotted and blotched with reddish brown and dark brown, and with underlying markings of paler brown and gray. On some eggs a few dark, nearly black streaks occur. They are pyriform in shape, and measure on an average 1°t inch in length by ‘85 inch in breadth. When its breeding grounds are invaded Temminck’s Stint becomes exceedingly demonstrative and noisy, and often betrays the whereabouts of its nest by careering wildly about above it. When the nest is actually discovered it becomes much quieter, and its actions closely resemble those of the Little Stint under similar conditions. Incubation seems always to be performed by the male, and it is he that is so excited and alarmed when the nest is threatened by danger. Only one brood is reared in the year, and as soon as the young are able to fly the breeding grounds begin to be deserted. Diagnostic Characters.— Z7inga, with the outer rectrices pure white. Length, 6 inches, Family CHARADRIID-©. Genus TRINGa. Subfamily Scozoracine. SANDERLING. TRINGA ARENARIA—JZznneus. Geographical Distribution.— British - Common visitor on spring and autumn migration, most abundant during the latter, a few remaining behind in the fall to winter, especially in the mild climate of the south. Visits all the islands as well as the main- land coasts, including the Orkneys and Shetlands, the Hebrides and the Channel Islands. Occasionally occurs some distance inland, especially near large sheets of water. Forezgn: Circum- polar region in summer, Palzeartic and Nearctic regions chiefly on passage ; Ethiopian, Oriental, and Neotropical regions in winter. Probably breeds in suitable localities on all the shores of the Arctic Ocean, although its known breeding grounds are remark- ably few. In the Old World its eggs appear only to have been taken in Iceland (lat. 65°), although it is to be met with during summer on the Golaievskai Islands in the Petchora Gulf, the Waigats, Nova Zembla, the delta of the Yenesay, the Taimyr peninsula, and the Liakoff Islands. In the New World portion of the Circumpolar region its eggs have been taken on the Anderson River (lat. 68°), on the Parry Isles (lat. 78°), in Grinnell Land (lat. 8234°), and in Greenland on the west coast near Smith Sound (lat. 79°), and Godthaab (nestlings) (lat. 63°), on the east coast Sabine Island (lat. 7414°). It is also a common bird during summer in Alaska. It passes the coasts of Europe, Asia, and America, as well as along many internal routes, on migra- tion, and winters in the basin of the Mediterranean, on the coasts of Africa, and the Mekran coast, but becomes rare in GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOIVL. 289 India, Ceylon, and Burma. Further east it is a winter visitor to China, Japan, and the Malay Archipelago, and is found during that season on all the coasts of South America, the Galapagos, the West Indies, and the Bermudas. Allied Forms.—None of sufficient propinquity to demand notice. Time during which the Sanderling may be taken.— August rst to March rst. Habits.—A few Sanderlings, probably individuals that have not been breeding, appear on the British coasts at the end of July, but the majority of birds arrive during August and the early days of September. By the middle of the latter month many have passed on towards the south; by the end of October comparatively few are left, and some of these linger with us throughout the winter. The return migration of the Sanderling commences on our coasts in April, and lasts into May and early June. It is said to be one of the first migrants to arrive in the Arctic regions, even reaching such high latitudes as the extreme north of Siberia by the 4th of June, and Grinnell Land, upwards of eight degrees further north, one day later. That the Sanderling migrates by night there can be little doubt, for I have repeatedly become aware of its arrival in the Wash in autumn by taking as many as half-a-dozen birds from a single flight net as soon as the tide had ebbed, and before sunrise. I do not think they fly very high whilst on passage, for these birds must have struck the net at the half-ebb, when only a part of it was exposed above water. The Sanderling is a gentle, trustful little creature, not only fond of the sandy reaches, but the mud-flats and shores of the creeks and streams in salt marshes, and in the estuaries of rivers. Whilst on passage and in its winter quarters the Sanderling gathers into flocks of varying size, but many pairs frequent the coast by themselves, or attach themselves to parties of other small Waders. I have especially remarked the partiality of this little bird for the company of Ringed Plovers. Here in Devonshire most large bunches of that Plover contain a few Sander- lings during the period of the latter bird’s migrations. Its actions on the sand are very similar to those of the Ringed Plover. It does not appear to run in such fits and starts, but steadily searches U 290 THE GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL the ground after the manner of a Dunlin ora Stint. In many localities I have repeatedly observed that during high water the Sanderling skulks on the higher shingle, returning to the actual beach as soon as the sands begin to be exposed. Here it follows the receding tide, running about the edge of the waves as they break on shore, and occasionally wading through the shallow water. The white breast of the Sanderling makes it a very con- spicuous bird on the dark sands, and the effect produced of a scattered flock all standing head towards the observer is very pretty. It isa remarkably tame little creature upon its first arrival, but becomes more wary later. The food of this species consists of crustaceans, sand-worms, and various insects, as well as of great quantities of minute shells. In summer the Sanderling is much more insectivorous, and also feeds on the buds of the Arctic saxifrages. The note of this Wader is a sharp, shrill zz? ; whether it utters a trill or any other cry at the breeding grounds observers who have had ample opportunities of noticing omit to inform us. Nidification.—Only meagre details concerning the breeding habits of the Sanderling are on record. MacFarlane appears to have been the first naturalist to take the nest of this bird, killing a female from her eggs on the tundras near the Arctic Ocean in North-west America, on the 29th of June, 1863. This nest was merely a hollow scantily lined with dry grass and leaves. Thirteen years afterwards, almost to the very day (24th June), Captain Feilden found a nest of the Sanderling, close to Cape Union in Grinnell Land, on the shores of the Arctic Ocean at the very northern limit of known animal life. This nest was made on a ridge of gravel several hundred feet above sea-level, and was merely a slight hollow in the centre of a bent-down willow plant, lined with a few dead leaves and withered catkins. By the 8th of August he observed the young able to fly, yet still in company with their parents. The eggs of the Sanderling are four in number, buffish olive in ground colour, densely mottled and spotted with pale olive-brown, and with underlying markings of ink-gray. They measure on an average 14 inch in length by 1’o inch in breadth. Both parents assist in the task of incubation, and only one brood is reared in the season. It is rather an unusual OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 291 circumstance in this group of birds for the adults to migrate south as soon as their young, and before completing their autumn moult ; but this the Sanderling does, and I have repeatedly shot adults in breeding dress the first week in August. Diagnostic Characters.—Z7inga, with no hind toe, and the legs and feet black. Length, 8 inches. Family CHARADRIID/. Genus TRINGA. Subfamily Scozoraciv#. BUFF-BREASTED SANDPIPER. TRINGA RUFESCENS— Vecdiot. Geographical Distribution. — @77tish- Rare straggler chiefly on autumn Passage, as is usually the case with abnormal migrants from the New World. The claim of this species to rank as “British” rests on the following recorded occurrences. England : Cambridgeshire (1 example); Norfolk (4 examples) ; Sussex (x example); Cornwall and Scilly Isles (4 examples) ; Lundy Isle (1 example) ; Lancashire (1 example), May, 1829; Cumberland (1 example). Scotland: Caithness (1 very doubt- ful example). Ireland: Co. Dublin (1 example); Antrim (2 examples). All occurred in autumn with the exception of the Lancashire example, the date of which is open to some doubt. Foreign : Northern Nearctic region, and probably extreme north- east of Palearctic region ; northern Neotropical region in winter. Breeds in the Arctic regions of America, from Alaska probably to Baffin Bay, although it is unrecorded from Greenland. West- wards it appears to range to the Siberian coasts of Behring Strait, and has been obtained on the southern shore of the Okhotsk Sea. Passes the United States, and occasionally the Bermudas on migration, and winters in Mexico, the West Indies, and the northern portion of South America. A single example has been obtained on Heligoland in May, a date, by the way, which tends to confirm that of the Lancashire example. Allied Forms.—None of sufficient propinquity to require notice. Time during which the Buff-breasted Sandpiper may be taken.—August 1st to March rst. GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. 293 Habits.—The Buff-breasted Sandpiper is a Sandpiper that eschews the sands. It is not a coast bird, and prefers the prairies to the mud-flats, and the wide grassy wastes to the shore. Its migrations to and from its breeding grounds are consequently chiefly taken across inland districts, but small parties occasionally frequent the shore. It passes across the prairies of the United States in spring, and arrives at its Arctic breeding grounds during the first week in June, and the return migration commences in August and lasts through the autumn. In many of its habits it resembles Bartram’s Sandpiper, and like that species it is fond of frequenting the waggon tracks and bare spots on the plains, where it runs about in quest of food. It is said to be a very tame bird, seldom flying far after being fired at. Its flight is rapid and straightforward. The note of the Buff-breasted Sandpiper is described by Dr. Heermann as a low, oft-repeated ¢weez. The food of this species consists principally of insects, especially coleoptera, for which the bird searches amongst the droppings of animals, and the herbage of its haunts. Worms, and when on the shore crustaceans and mollusks are also eaten; and during summer various ground fruits and berries. During migration the Buff-breasted Sandpiper is more or less gregarious, but whether these flocks continue through the winter appears to be unknown. Nidification.—But little has been recorded of the habits of the Buff-breasted Sandpiper during the breeding season. Mac- Farlane found this bird breeding in abundance in the Anderson River district in the north-west of America, and obtained a re- markably fine series of eggs; but unfortunately he neglected his splendid opportunities of observing and recording details of the nesting habits of this and many other Waders, and the few facts he has furnished only bring out in stronger contrast his unpardon- able neglect. He informs us that the nest is always on the ground, and scarcely distinguishable from that of the Golden Plover (Charadrius virginicus). His series of eggs was obtained between the 26th of June and the gth of July. The Buff-breasted Sandpiper was also met with breeding at Point Barrow, in Alaska, by Mr. Murdoch. He states that it frequented the dry portions of the tundra, and that the nest was a shallow depression lined with a little moss. The eggs are four in number, and vary in 294 GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. ground colour from pale to rich buff, sometimes tinged with olive, handsomely blotched and spotted with rich reddish brown and blackish brown, and with numerous underlying markings of ink- gray. They measure on an average 1°45 inch in length by 1’o inch in breadth. The parent birds are said to be very tame at the nest, only flying away for a little distance when flushed from the eggs. But one brood is reared in the season, and the southern flight commences shortly after the young can fly. Diagnostic Characters.—7Z7mga, with the under surface of the wings buff, mottled with black ahd white, and the tail graduated. Length, 7 to 8 inches. Genus SCOLOPAX or SNIPES and WOODCOCKS. Type SCOLOPAX RUSTICOLA. Scolopax of Linnzus (1766).—The birds comprising the present genus are characterised by having the bill twice as long as the tarsus, and the toes cleft to the base. The wings are long, and generally pointed ; the tail is rounded, and the number of feathers varies considerably. The tarsus is scutellated anteriorly and posteriorly ; the feathering of the tibia is also subject to some variation. The bill is long and straight, swollen laterally, and softened towards the tip, rugose; nostrils lateral, basal, covered by a membrane. Three toes in front, one behind small and elevated. Summer and winter plumage nearly alike. This genus is composed of twenty-seven species and subspecies, and is cosmopolitan in its distribution. Four species are British, two of which breed in, and two are visitors on migration to, our islands. The Snipes are dwellers in marshes and woodland swamps. They are birds of rapid, powerful, and well-sustained if somewhat erratic flight, and run and walk with ease. They are more or less nocturnal in their habits. Their notes are loud, some of them not unmusical. They subsist on worms, insects and larve, etc. They make slight nests on the ground, and their pyriform eggs are four in number and spotted. They are monogamous. They are almost solitary, never gregarious, save perhaps during migration or courtship. Their flesh is highly esteemed for the table. Family CHARADRIID. Genus SCOLOPAX. Subfamily ScozoPacin Zz, WOODCOCK. SCOLOPAX RUSTICOLA—Zzuneus, Geographical Distribution.—27iész - Local resident, but most abundant during winter, and on spring and autumn migration, especially the latter. Breeds sparingly throughout the British Islands (including the Shetlands), except perhaps on the Orkneys and Hebrides and other similar districts where suitable cover is wanting. It has, however, been recorded as having bred on the Long Island. /oreign: Palearctic region ; Oriental region in winter. Breeds in the forest districts of Scandinavia as far north as the Arctic Circle, in West Russia up to about lat. 65°, and in East Russia and Siberia not much beyond lat. 60°. Southwards it breeds as low as the Azores, the Canaries, and Madeira, and at considerable elevations in the Alps, the Car- pathians, the Balkans, and the Caucasus. Its southern breeding range in Asia reaches the Himalayas at an elevation of ten thousand feet, the mountains of the Baikal district, Mongolia, and the mountains of Japan. In the southern portion of its breeding area it is probably a resident, but the birds breeding in the north pass southwards to the basin of the Mediterranean, Persia, India (occasionally straying to Ceylon), Burma, and China for the cold season. It has occurred on the Faroes, and is an accidental wanderer to the Azores, Newfoundland, New Jersey, and Virginia. Allied Forms.—Scolopax minor, an inhabitant of North America from about lat. 50° in the north to Texas in the south, and as far west as the Rocky Mountains. Resident in the south, but migratory in the north of this area. Distinguished by its GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. 297 attenuated first three primaries, and nearly uniform buff under- parts. .S. rochusseni, an inhabitant of the Moluccas, distinguished by its unbarred breast and primaries marked with rudimentary bars; and S. sa¢urafa, an inhabitant, so far as is known, of Java and New Guinea, much smaller than the Common Wood- cock, and with the primaries barred on the outer webs only. These are all the true Woodcocks at present known to science. Time during which the Woodcock may be taken.— August 1st to March 1st (to March 15th in Essex). Hahbits.—Speaking from a naturalist’s point of view, and with a full knowledge of the habits of birds during the moulting season, I should say emphatically that the Woodcocks breeding in the British Islands are stationary, that is, in the sense of not crossing the seas. I am glad to say that this opinion is confirmed by several intelligent gamekeepers, on whose grounds the bird breeds in fair numbers every season. After the breeding season is over, the Woodcock is a most skulking bird until its moult is completed ; in this respect it resembles the Snipe. Not only so, but many of these resident Woodcocks are actually breeding even before the return migration of this species in spring, when the birds that breed further north pass our islands on their way thither. The migrations of the Woodcock are both marked and regular. The bird may be traced leaving its winter quarters in the Mediterranean basin at Gibraltar in the west during the latter half of February, and in Asia Minor in the east during the former half of March. We find it in the British Islands on its way north in March, and it reaches Scandinavia by the end of that month or early in April. The return migration in autumn, which is much more pronounced and noticeable than the vernal one, begins early in October, and continues with varying intensity through the month into the first half of November. Asia Minor is reached towards the end of October, but in the west of the Mediterranean the birds are about a fortnight later. The Woodcock almost invariably migrates by night, up wind, and at a considerable elevation. This species is seldom or never caught in the flight nets, because it continues its lofty course until over dry land, and then drops almost perpendicularly into the cover below. I have met with great numbers of tired-out Woodcocks 298 THE GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL n the early morning before actual sunrise on the shores of the Wash, skulking in the hedge-bottoms amongst the drifts of autumn leaves, or on the sea banks amongst the long dry grass. Here they generally remain, if not much disturbed, until the evening, and then, under the cover of darkness, continue their flight inland to their favourite and more suitable winter haunts. Many migrating Woodcocks come to grief at the lighthouses, attracted by the glare of the lanterns. The Woodcock very often arrives on our coasts, especially in autumn, in considerable numbers, or “rushes,” but the bird, notwithstanding, is eminently a solitary one, even on passage, and these unusual arrivals are caused by a prolonged spell of unfavourable weather detaining them on Continental Europe, and causing them to accumulate whilst waiting for a favourable passage. As soon as this is presented all start off, eager to get to their journey’s end, and consequently arrive simultaneously on our coasts, but as soon as they reach land they separate and each bird, or at most a pair, retire to their own particular haunts. Even in districts where the Woodcock is common during winter no gregarious tendencies are ever observed, and the birds are flushed with rare exceptions one after the other from certain favoured spots. Its habits are quite as solitary as those of the Snipes, and like those birds it is ever changing its ground, sometimes for no apparent cause. Woodcock-shooting is a sport that should never be put off till to-morrow ; if plenty of birds chance to be in the covers they should be looked after at once, for very often, if a night is allowed them, they have taken their departure. The favourite haunts of the Woodcock are plantations of young trees and spinneys, with plenty of long grass and under- growth, and the borders of woods, where similar cover abounds, especially hollies, under which the bird loves to skulk during the day. Its feeding grounds are marshes, swamps, and the boggy banks of streams, even turnip-fields, and these are often at some considerable distance from the haunts it frequents during the day- time. The Woodcock feeds principally at night, and it retires to its favourite pastures with great regularity about dusk, following a certain track to and from them ; when its feeding places are close by, it always prefers to walk down to them. Even whilst feeding OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 299 it is ever a shy and cautious bird, and I have heard dozens of men whose daily lives have been spent in the woods and other haunts of this species, remark, when questioned on the subject, that they had never seen a Woodcock feeding or running about in a purely voluntary manner. The occasions on which I have seen Woodcocks stirring of their own free will could easily be counted on the fingers of one hand. I have seen odd birds during a bright moonlight night whilst sitting near the swamps, certainly not watching for them, wandering about probing the mud with their long beaks, and looking very big and round and plump in the uncertain light, and disappearing like phantoms, as it were, into the very ground the moment they were alarmed. I remember one of these occasions was in the depth of winter, and all the country-side was deep in snow, except the little swamp in question. The food of the Woodcock consists principally of earth-worms and grubs, but beetles and other insects are eaten, and vegetable fragments have been found in the bird’s stomach. It has also been known to eat shellfish. Its flight is quick, but somewhat laboured, the bird carrying its long bill depressed. Sometimes when flushed the Woodcock hurries off at first in a very erratic manner, dipping and gliding or turning and twisting from side to side; and it is surprising how deftly the bird will thread its way between the tree-trunks and network of branches. It makes a very distinct whirr with its wings as it rises, and at the same time occasionally utters a croaking sound, which I will not attempt to syllable, although some naturalists have done so with that of skaych. The Woodcock has been known to perch in trees. Nidification.—As previously inferred, the breeding season of the Woodcock is an early one. Even in the north of Scotland its eggs have been taken on the gth of March; a week earlier still in the north of England. The majority of the eggs are laid during April. The Snipes are birds remarkable for their peculiar flight, and for the singular sounds they produce during the love or pairing season. The Woodcock, although somewhat aberrant, is not wanting in this curious performance. With the approach of the pairing season the habits of the male undergo considerable change. From being one of the shyest and most skulking of 300 THE GAME BIRDS AND IVILD FOWL birds he suddenly changes, for a certain time each day, into a bold and obtrusive one. For a quarter of an hour in the early morning and again at night the male birds fly slowly to and fro along certain routes, usually a “drive” or an open glade in the woods or along the borders of the plantations and spinneys, uttering two peculiar notes, sometimes in succession, at others only one of them. One of these notes is a harsh, guttural ~-7-7-7-2, the other a cry between a whistle and a hiss, impossible to express on paper. Whilst “ roding,” as it is termed, should rival males meet each other a chase and a combat very often occurs, incited more probably by invasion of haunt rather than the favour of the female. The nest is made in a dry secluded corner of the wood or spinney, where plenty of cover is to be found in the form of last year’s withered bracken, tall dry grass, brambles, and drifts of fallen leaves. It is merely a hollow in the ground, rather thickly lined with dry grass and withered leaves, and is usually sheltered more or less with surrounding vegetation, but sometimes in a bare spot at the foot of atree. The lining materials are occasionally increased whilst incubation is in progress. The eggs of the Woodcock are four in number, and vary in ground colour from very pale yellowish brown to buffish brown, rather sparingly spotted and blotched with reddish brown, and with underlying markings of gray. They measure on an average 1°7 Inch in length by 1°35 inch in breadth. Incubation lasts about three weeks. The Woodcock is a close sitter, and usually remains upon the eggs until the last moment ; rarely, if ever, are both parents seen near the nest together. Whether the eggs are ever covered when they are left voluntarily I cannot say, but I strongly suspect that such will prove to be the case, Although this species is solitary enough during the breeding season, as at most other times, several nests may frequently be found within a small area, especially in districts where suitable sites are not very common. Only one brood is usually reared in the year, but instances are on record where fresh eggs have been found in July and August. St. John states that this species is double-brooded in Scotland, and this is also the experience of Hume in India. There can be no question that the female Woodcock very often removes her brood from place to place, carrying them one at a OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 301 time between her legs, and pressed close to the body with her bill. It has even been stated that where the favourite feeding grounds are some distance from the nesting place, the chicks are carried to them at night and brought back to the woods at dawn. The flesh of the Woodcock is not excelled by that of any other bird. Diagnostic Characters.—Scologax, with silvery tips to the under surface of the rectrices, with the breast barred, and with the primaries marked with rudimentary bars on both webs. Length, 13 to 14 inches. The Woodcock is subject to consider- able variation in size, weight, and plumage. Average weight, 11 to 12 oz.; more rarely 14 to 16 oz.; an example is on record weighing 27 oz. Indian individuals are said by Hume to be constantly smaller and lighter than British ones. Birds with the ground colour of the plumage white or yellow, are not very uncommon. Family CHARADRIID, Genus SCOLOPAX. Subfamily Scozopacin#£. GREAT SNIPE. SCOLOPAX MAJOR—Gmelin. Geographical Distribution. — &ritsz. Rare straggler chiefly on autumn migration, and most frequently observed in the eastern and southern counties. Very rare in Scotland, perhaps not more than a dozen authentic instances, two of which were in May—a fact which more likely proves the bird occasionally to winter with us than to wander here in spring. In Ireland it is of even rarer occurrence still, probably not more than three examples having been recorded. orezgn: Western Palzearctic region ; Ethiopian region in winter. Breeds more or less frequently in Holland, Denmark, North Germany, Poland, throughout Scandi- navia, and Russia south to about lat. 50°, and north to the coast. In West Siberia it is found as far north as lat. 6734° in the valley of the Obb, but only to lat. 664° in the valley of the Yenesay, which appears to be the eastern limit of its range. Passes the remainder of Europe (east of the Rhone valley), the Caucasus, and Persia, on migration, a few wintering in the basin of the Mediterranean, but the majority passing on to South Africa for the cold season. Allied Forms.—Sco/opax megaéa, an inhabitant in summer of South-east Siberia and the north island of Japan, passing China on migration, and wintering in the Malay Archipelago, Distin- guished from the Great Snipe by having twenty tail feathers instead of sixteen, the outermost being narrow and banded with brown, instead of being broad and pure white for at least the terminal half. S. awstraédis, an inhabitant of Japan in summer, passing the coast cf China and the Philippine Islands on migra- GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. 303 tion, and wintering in Australia and Tasmania. Distinguished from the Great Snipe by having eighteen tail feathers, only the two outermost being narrow, and by having the wing six inches or over in length. S. @guatorialis, an inhabitant of Africa south of the Great Desert. Distinguished from all other birds of this genus by its having the ground colour of the four outer tail feathers on each side white, and the median wing coverts narrowly tipped with buff. Time during which the Great Snipe may be taken. —August rst to March rst. Habits.—Although the Great Snipe is but accidental in its visits to our islands, its migrations (undertaken at night) in Conti- nental Europe and in Asia are very marked and regular. It crosses the Mediterranean during March and April—a month earlier in the east than the west (which is an exceptional Passage)—and arrives at its breeding grounds in Norway and Sweden from the middle to the end of May. Mr. Seebohm found that it was one of the latest birds to arrive in the latitude of the Arctic Circle, not doing so in the Petchora valley until the 3rd of June, and eight days later still in the Yenesay valley in Siberia. The haunts of the Great Snipe are in swamps, especially those where patches of bare mud or sand occur; and the marshy margins of rivers and lakes, where tall rank grass, sedges, and other aquatic vegetation furnish plenty of cover. Its habits are very similar to those of its con- geners. It delights to skulk amongst the herbage, remaining buried under the grass and sedge until almost trodden upon before it rises. Its flight, however, is neither so erratic nor so rapid as that of the Common Snipe, and the tail is much more expanded ; the bird makes a considerable whirr as it rises. Like that bird, however, it feeds principally at dusk or by the light of the moon, then wandering from its favourite cover on to the more open parts of its haunts, where it struts about in a timorous kind of way in search of food, at the least alarm hiding amongst or behind the nearest tuft of vegetation. Its food consists princi- pally of worms, but insects and their larvze, as well as slugs, are also eaten. Whilst in quest of food the Great Snipe often wanders into districts which it does not usually frequent—turnip- fields, and grass lands, and dry commons. Seldom more than a 304 GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. pair of these birds are flushed in one particular spot during autumn and winter, but on migration and in the pairing season much more gregarious tendencies are developed. Nidification.—In the pairing season parties of male birds appear often to collect and go through various strange antics on the ground and in the air. Mr. Seebohm, who has had excep- tional opportunities of observing this species at its nesting grounds, relates how he has often watched them at a distance of from fifteen to twenty yards, whilst concealed among willow bushes, “stretch out their necks, throw back the head almost upside down, and open and shut their beaks rapidly, uttering a curious noise like that produced by running the finger along the edge ofa comb.” Sometimes these notes were uttered just after the bird had taken a short flight, or spread its wings and tail. As many as six birds were counted in the air together, during this singular tournament, in another locality. The nest of the Great Snipe is either made amongst the long coarse grass which the bird frequents, or in the centre of a tussock of rush or sedge. It is merely a shallow depression lined with dry grass and some- times a little moss. The eggs are four in number, and vary in ground colour from olive and grayish buff to brownish buff, handsomely and heavily spotted and blotched with rich dark brown and pale brown, and with numerous and large underlying markings of violet-brown and gray. Most of the blotches are obliquely distributed, and on some eggs many streaks are to be seen. They are pyriform, and measure on an average 1°8 inch in length by 1°25 inch in breadth, The eggs are laid at the end of May in some localities, nearly a month later (middle to end of June) in others. Incubation lasts from seventeen to eighteen days. Only one brood is reared in the year. Diagnostic Characters.— Sco/ogax, with the major portion of the four outer rectrices on each side white, and with broad white tips to the median wing coverts. Length, 1034 to 1134 inches. Family CHARADRIID&. Genus SCOLOPAX. Subfamily ScozoPacin.£. COMMON SNIPE. SCOLOPAX GALLINAGO—Zinneus. Geographical Distribution.—277tsh - Common resident, breeding wherever suitable localities occur; most numerous in Scotland, and especially so in Ireland. More abundant in winter than in summer, its numbers being largely increased during the cold season by arrivals from higher latitudes. /vreign: Pale- arctic region; Oriental region, and northern confines of Ethiopian region in winter. Breeds throughout Northern and Central Europe (including Iceland and the Faroes) north to the Arctic Ocean, and south to the Alps, and South Russia. Eastwards it breeds throughout Siberia, south of lat. 70°, southwards to the lofty heights of Turkestan and South-east Mongolia. The northern birds pass the intermediate country on migration, and winter in the basin of the Mediterranean and North Africa (south to about lat. r0° on both east and west, and including the Azores, Madeira, and the Canaries); in Persia, India, Ceylon, Burma, China, Formosa, and the Philippine Islands. Once recorded from the Malay peninsula, and is said to have visited South Greenland. Allied Forms.— Scolopax gallinago wilsont, northern Nearctic region in summer ; southern Nearctic, and extreme north of Neo- tropical regions, in winter. Breeds throughout North America from the Atlantic to the Pacific, as far north as the Arctic Circle, and as far south as the northern United States to about lat. 40°. Winters in the Bermudas, Mexico, Central America, the West Indies, and the northern limits of South America. The New World representative of the Common Snipe, only subspecifically distinct, and completely intergrading with its Old World repre- x 306 THE GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL sentative. Typical examples are distinguished from the Common Snipe by having sixteen tail feathers instead of fourteen, by having the axillaries barred with brown instead of pure white, and the breast marked with transverse bars instead of longitudinal streaks. The outer tail feathers are crossed by five dark bars instead of three, and the bill is appreciably shorter, varying from 2°3 to 2°7 inches instead of from 2°5 to 3:0 inches. Intermediate forms are said to be common in India, and birds possessing some of the characteristics of the American form are often met with in England and elsewhere, but hitherto no Snipe combining all the characters of the New World race has been detected in the Eastern hemi- sphere. The S. sadcni? of Vigors, rarely met with outside the British Islands, is now universally admitted to be nothing but a melanistic variety of the Common Snipe, with no specific value. Time during which the Common Snipe may be taken.—August 1st to March 1st (to March rsth in Essex). Habits.—Like many other birds that may be found in the British Islands throughout the year, the Common Snipe is migratory elsewhere, even in such countries as Denmark and Germany. It is, however, an early migrant, reaching its summer quarters in Central Europe by the middle or towards the end of March. Finland is reached by the end of April; Lapland not until the end of May; whilst further north and east it is at least a week later still, Hume states that in India this species leaves the plains towards the end of March, but in the north they linger a month or six weeks longer, which is a fair corresponding date with that of their arrival in Siberia. The return journey com- mences in Europe about the middle of August, and continues for at least two months. In India they are later, the earliest arriving at the end of August, but the greater number in September, and in the south in October. Oates states that in Burma they do not arrive until December. In our islands the Common Snipe is cer- tainly a solitary bird, but in India Hume distinctly states that it is eminently gregarious, and arrives and departs “ex masse.” By this, however, he does not appear to infer that the birds when flushed rise in flocks, although three or four will rise from the same spot where they had evidently been feeding in company. In our islands no matter how thick Snipe may be on the ground, they OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 307 are almost invariably put up a yard or so apart; and this is Hume’s experience in India, where it should be remarked the Common Snipe is probably more abundant in winter than in any other known locality. The Snipe is nocturnal in many of its habits ; it migrates at night; becomes most active at dusk, and obtains the greater part of its food between sunset and sunrise. In its skulking habits it does not differ from its congeners. No birds are more retiring, or more persistently hide themselves away, and unless flushed they are rarely seen on the wing except in the breeding season. ‘The usual haunt of the Snipe is never far away from marshy ground, either in a swamp or a bog, but never on the mud-flats or bare sands. Cover is imperative ; rough herbage such as sedges, rushes, and coarse grass, being the usual vegeta- tion amongst which the bird delights to hide. From this cover it strays to the bare spots in the marshes, the banks of the sluggish streams, and the margins of the pools where the ground is soft, to feed. Hume states that in India during winter, the Common Snipe may be found in every swamp and marsh, on the banks of .rivers, ponds, and lakes, wherever the foreshore is mud, protected by short grass, rushes, or reeds. Here their favourite vegetation, and amongst which they are sure to be found if in the locality at all, is the round-stemmed rush (Scirpus carinatus). Snipe never rest much in swamps covered with water ; they may and do feed in such localities, but rarely or never squat in them ; they invariably skulk in a comparatively dry spot where their under plumage is free from contact with water. Hume remarks that many Snipe often rest at midday on large floating masses of water-weed, the birds keeping close until the boat pushes against the patch of vegetation, which may be as much as half a mile from land. The flight of the Common Snipe, just after the bird rises, is very rapid and uncertain, full of sudden unexpected twists and turns which baffle the best of shots, but it soon becomes steadier, and is rarely far prolonged. The Common Snipe occasionally perches in a tree, and has been known to utter its peculiar pair- ing notes whilst sitting on the topmost spike of a bare larch seventy feet from the ground. The Common Snipe, except during the breeding season, is a very silent bird, but sometimes as it rises it utters a long-drawn guttural note as impossible to X 2 308 THE GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL express on paper as that of the Woodcock. The pairing notes will be described later. The food of the Common Snipe consists of worms, grubs, aquatic insects and their larvze, and small water- snails. Much of this food is obtained whilst the bird probes the soft mud with its extremely sensitive bill, which is full of small thread-like nerves connected with the brain, This complicated nervous plexus renders the bill of the Common Snipe so sensitive that the bird is enabled to feel its prey when buried deep and out of sight in the soft mud. Much difference of opinion has been expressed respecting the best method of shooting Snipe, some sportsmen preferring to work their ground “off the wind” or down wind; whilst others are equally attached to working against the wind. Both methods are to be recommended accord- ing to circumstances, but light charges and a gun held straight rarely fail to answer for Snipe, however worked. A hundred couple a day have been known to fall to a single gun in India. Nidification.—In the British Islands the breeding season of the Snipe commences towards the end of March, and fresh eggs may be obtained through April and May. In more northern latitudes the eggs, of course, are laid much later. During the pairing season especially, and less frequently even up to the time the young are hatched, the male Snipe spends a good deal of his time in the air. All the old love of skulking in the marshes seems relinquished for the time being, and high in air the bird careers about uttering his love notes, and making the sound popularly known as ‘‘ drumming” or “bleating.” These flights may be witnessed at all hours of the day, but are most persistently and frequently indulged in towards evening. The bird rises to a considerable height, often uttering his note of ¢chih-tchak, tchik- tchak, ox tyih-tyuk, tytk-tyuk, as he goes. Then when at the zenith of his course he suddenly descends with great velocity on vibrating wings and outspread tail making the drumming noise. Sometimes this descent is continued until the ground is reached, but more often the bird stays its course at varying heights, the drumming ceases, and he flies off in another direction uttering his monotonous ¢hzk-tchak as he goes. Much difference of opinion has been expressed concerning the “drumming” of the Snipe. Some writers assert that the sound is a vocal one, others OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 309 maintain that the vibration of the wings is responsible for its production ; whilst others yet again hold that it is caused by the tush of air through the outspread tail. The vocal organs must be dismissed, because the Snipe has been heard to utter its love notes whilst drumming, although this is exceptional. I am in- clined to adopt Colonel Legge’s explanation, based as it was on much careful observation and experiment, which he minutely described to me some years ago, and that is, the drumming is produced by the combined action of the wings and tail. He informed me (as he also published in his magnificent work on the Birds of Ceylon) that the vibrations of sound were exactly coincident with the beats of the wings, and that the air-waves are driven by the powerful wing-beats through the expanded and rigid tail feathers. The nest of the Common Snipe is usually placed in the centre or under the side of a tuft or tussock of coarse grass and rush in the swamps. It is merely a slight depression lined with dry grass and bits of dead aquatic herbage. The eggs are four in number, and vary from buff of different shades to olive of different shades in ground colour, heavily and handsomely blotched and spotted with rich dark brown, occasion- ally streaked with blackish brown, and with numerous large underlying markings of pale brown and gray. They are pyriform, and measure on an average 1°6 inch in length by 1°1 inch in breadth. Incubation, principally performed by the female, lasts from sixteen to twenty days. But one brood is reared in the year. Diagnostic Characters.— Scolopax, with fourteen rectrices, with dark streaks (not bars) on the breast, and with the axillaries white, more or less marked with dark gray. Length, 1014 inches. Albinos and fawn-coloured varieties are not uncommonly met with, especially in India. Family CHARADRIID.#. Genus SCOLOPAX. Subfamily Scozoraciné. JACK SNIPE. SCOLOPAX GALLINULA—JZinneus. Geographical Distribution.—2A7it:s2 - Common winter visitor locally distributed throughout the British Islands, in- cluding the Orkneys, the Shetlands, and the Hebrides. Owing to the fact of odd birds having been met with in early summer, it has been surmised that the Jack Snipe may occasionally breed within our limits, but there is no decided evidence whatever that such is ever the case. foreign. Northern Palearctic region ; southern Palzearctic region and Oriental region in winter. Breeds locally above the limits of forest growth, on the Dovrefjeld and the tundras of Lapland, and in Western Russia as far south as St. Petersburg. In Asia it appears to breed as far north as about lat. 70°, and probably as far south as lat. 60°, Passes Europe, south of the above limits, on migration, and winters in the basin of the Mediterranean, in North Africa as far south as the Great Desert, and is said to penetrate down the Nile valley to Abyssinia. The birds breeding in Asia are known to pass South-west Siberia, Turkestan, and less frequently Japan on migration; and probably cross other central districts, though as yet undetected, and winter in Persia, Afghanistan, India, Ceylon, and Burma. Allied Forms.—None of sufficient propinquity to call for notice. Time during which the Jack Snipe may be taken.— August rst to March 1st (to March 15th in Essex). Habits.—A few Jack Snipes make their appearance in our islands during the latter half of September, but the great bulk of birds arrive in October and the beginning of November. The GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. 311 return migration begins in March and continues into April. Birds which breed in the highest Arctic limits of the European range of this species do not appear to pass our islands at all; those that winter with us breed in Scandinavia most probably ; those that pass later in spring through Central Europe nest in Northern Russia. Jack Snipes arrive in India as a rule at the end of September or early in October, and leave later than the Common Snipe, in April and May. Middendorff noted their arrival in North Siberia on the 8th of June. The Jack Snipe frequents almost precisely the same kind of haunts as its larger ally, but it is frequently found in much smaller bogs. A few square yards of marshy ground, provided there is cover and a snug corner in which to nestle, will content a Jack Snipe; and haunts that are tenanted one year are invariably filled the next, either by the same bird, if it is fortunate enough to escape the sportsman, or by another individual that in some strange manner only known to themselves becomes aware that the eligible haunt is vacant. Jack Snipes migrate at night, obtain much of their food by night, and change their ground—say when frozen out during continued frosts—at the same time. It is always a mystery to me how these birds can spot a tiny bog in the darkness when newly arrived in this country; the sense that guides them must be one totally unknown to man. The Jack Snipe at all times is a very solitary species, but whether it migrates in company is entirely unknown to me. If the birds do journey together (and Hume seems to infer that they do) they must separate at once; and though many may be flushed from one bog, each seems con- cerned with its own affairs. It is a skulking bird enough, and usually remains squatting close in the herbage, often behind a tuft, until nearly trodden under foot. When put up it flies at first in a very unsteady manner, but after going some distance the flight becomes:steadier, and the bird pitches again almost directly. It may be flushed time after time in this manner, as it is one of the easiest birds to mark down. Much has been said about the difficulty of shooting Jack Snipe; but if the gunner can only control himself, and wait until the critical moment, when the zigzag flight is changed into a steadier course, and which usually happens when the bird is just about a nice distance from the gun, 312 THE GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL a moderate marksman should rarely miss. The Jack Snipe whilst with us is remarkably silent, and never, so far as my experience goes, utters a sound as it rises, nor is the whirr of its wings very perceptible. As Hume very aptly remarks, the favourite haunt of a Jack Snipe is a corner; the bird loves a cosy nook in which to nestle, a sheltered secluded spot where the cover is ample and where there is just enough bog to ensure a comfort- able living. In such a retreat a Jack Snipe will remain the entire winter through—unless it is shot, of course. The food of this species consists of worms, insects and their larva, shells and crustaceans, and a considerable amount of vegetable substances, such as small seeds, bits of green weed, club-moss, and grass. In the manner of its search for food the Jack Snipe resembles its congeners. During the heat of the day this Snipe keeps very close and sleeps; but it has been shot in the absolute act of feeding rather late in the morning and long before sunset. The flesh of the Jack Snipe is excellent, and even in very severe weather, when Common Snipe have been woefully out of condi- tion, I have remarked that Jack Snipe continue to remain as plump and fat as ever. Nidification.—It is rather remarkable that so little has been recorded of the breeding habits of the Jack Snipe. Every writer has to depend upon the information gathered by Wolley, and this in a great measure is meagre and vague. It would be interesting to hear the accounts of other naturalists. The Jack Snipe begins to breed towards the end of June. Wolley found the first nest on the 17th of that month, and four others on the 18th. From his account we are left in ignorance as to whether the male bird drums like the Common Snipe during the nesting season ; indeed, the facts appear to be against it. He describes the bird careering about the air’over the marshes of Muonioniska, uttering a sound like the distant canter of a horse over a hard road. This evidently refers to the ote, which is compared by Naumann to the clicking of the death-watch beetle, and undoubtedly not to drumming or bleating. He found the nests placed in dry spots amongst the sedge and grass close to the borders of the more open swamps. They were mere hollows lined with a little dry grass, equisetum, and dead withered leaves OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 313 of the dwarf birch. The eggs are four in number, ranging from buff to olive in ground colour, blotched and spotted, and some- times streaked with rich blackish brown, and with underlying markings of pale brown and gray. They are pyriform, very large for the size of the bird (a clutch weighs nearly as much as the hen herself), and measure on an average 1°5 inch in length by 1‘o inch in breadth. The female is a close sitter, and remains brooding over her eggs until the last moment; Wolley was allowed to approach one nest within six inches before the parent rose, Only one brood is reared in the year, so far as is known. Diagnostic Characters.—Sco/opax, with the mantle glossed with purple, and the inner webs of the scapulars with metallic green ; rectrices twelve in number. Length, 734 inches. Order ANSERIFORMES. Family ANATIDAZ or SWANS, GEESE, DUCKS, and MERGANSERS. Tue Ducks and their allies are an extensive and very clearly defined group of birds. They are perhaps most nearly allied to the Herons by way of the Flamingoes, and to the Rails by way of the Screamers. They are also more or less closely allied to the Raptores and the Pelicans. Their sternum contains only one notch on each side of the posterior margin. In the modification of their cranial bones they are desmognathous. In their pterylosis they are characteristic and well defined ; whilst in their myology and digestive organs they are perhaps most closely allied to the Grebes (Podicipediformes) and the Herons (Pelargiformes). The most important external characteristics of the Ducks and their allies are their peculiar laminated bill, short legs, webbed feet, and dense compact plumage. Primaries ten in number; rectrices variable in this respect, Moult single in autumn. In the Ducks the males moult their small feathers twice in twelve months ; the Geese, Swans, and Sheldrakes have only one moult. Quills moulted so rapidly as to incapacitate the bird for flight. Young hatched covered with down, and able to run and swim almost immediately. Progress of young to maturity : (Geese), do not differ very remarkably from their parents in colour except in those species where the adults are characterised by violent con- trasts of colour; (Ducks), in first plumage very closely resemble the old female, and acquire nearly adult plumage after their first autumn moult; (Swans), in first plumage are grayish brown, a plumage which they carry until their second autumn, when the adult white attire is assumed. Number about 160 species or less; almost cosmopolitan, but rare in species in the tropics, except during the period of the northern winter. Family ANATIDA. Subfamily CYGNINA or SWANS. The species forming this large family fall very naturally into four fairly well-defined subfamilies. The birds included in the present subfamily are distinguished from their allies by having the lores (space between the eye and the bill) bare of feathers. Their reticulated tarsus further distinguishes them from the Ducks, whilst the shortness of that member (not so long as the middle toe) is a point of distinction from the Geese. Sexes nearly alike in colour. One moult in autumn. This subfamily is composed of seven species, probably all referable to one genus. Palearctic, Nearctic, Neotropical, and Australian regions. Genus CYGNUS or SWANS. Type CYGNUS MUSICUS. Cygnus of Bechstein (1803).—The birds comprising the present genus are characterised by having the lores devoid of feathers, the tarsi reticulated, and shorter than the middle toe. The wings are long, but rather rounded, secondaries long and broad, the first four primaries being of nearly equal length; the tail is short and rounded. The bill is moderately long, and of equal breadth, higher than wide at the base, depressed at the tip ; nostrils oblong, lateral and central. The neck is long and slender. Three toes in front webbed, hind toe small. This genus is composed of seven species, which are confined to the Palzearctic and Nearctic regions, and the southern portions of the Australian (S. Australia) and Neotropical regions ; more widely distributed in winter than in summer. Three species are British, but only one is resident, and breeds in our islands in a semi-domesticated state. The Swans are dwellers on lakes and inland waters in summer ; more maritime in winter. They are birds of very powerful and sustained flight, and swim and walk with ease. Their notes are loud and trumpet-like. They subsist chiefly on vegetable sub- stances, insects, and mollusks. They make large and bulky nests on the ground, and their eggs are oval, three to eight in number, dull white and unspotted. They are monogamous, and probably pair for life. More or less social and gregarious, especially in winter. Their flesh was formerly held in high repute for the table. Family ANATID. Genus CyGNus. Subfamily Crew, HOOPER SWAN. CYGNUS MUSICUS—Bechstein. Geographical Distribution.— British - On the authority of Low, this species is said to have bred in the Orkneys upwards of a hundred years ago. It is now only a winter visitor, passing the Shetlands on migration, and is found more or less commonly round the Scotch coasts, including St. Kilda, the Orkneys, and the Hebrides. To England it is not so common a visitor, its numbers being influenced by the severity of the weather, but it occurs in most suitable districts from Northumberland to Devon- shire, inland as well as on and off the coasts, Slapton Lee, in South Devon, being one of the many favourite resorts. The same remarks apply to Ireland, although this species is never seen in such enormous quantities as its smaller ally, Bewick’s Swan. Foreign: Northern Palzearctic region ; southern Palearctic region in winter. Accidental straggler to Greenland, visits the Faroes on migration, but breeds commonly in Iceland. Breeds throughout Arctic Europe and Asia, in the former not below the Arctic Circle in Norway, but four degrees further south in Sweden, Finland, and North Russia. In Asia it does not appear to nest commonly below the Arctic Circle, and ranges above that limit eastwards to Behring Strait. In Europe it wanders south during winter to the basin of the Mediterranean, Black and Caspian Seas, as far as the lakes of Algeria, Lower Egypt, and Palestine. The Asiatic birds pass South Siberia and Mongolia on migration, and spend the cold season in Japan and on the coasts of China as far south as Shanghai. It is said to have wandered abnormally to Nepal. 318 THE GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL Allied Forms.—None nearer than Cygnus bewicki, a British species treated fully in the following chapter. Time during which the Hooper Swan may be taken. —August 1st to March rst. Habits. — The Hooper migrates to and from its Arctic haunts in flocks of varying size, and sometimes in pairs, not only at night but during the day, as may easily be learned from its loud notes uttered during flight. It begins to leave its winter quarters in the south in spring, and reaches the Arctic regions about the middle of May, just as the ice on the great rivers is about to break up, and the snow to melt from the grounds where it breeds. At first only a few pairs make their appearance, but soon the migration is in full swing, and continues until the early days of June. The migration south in autumn commences soon after the moult is completed ; in fact, whilst it is in progress the birds begin to wander down the great rivers towards their winter quarters, which are reached in October and November. Migrating flocks of this species usually assume the form of a wedge, and fly at an immense elevation. The flight is rapid enough when the bird gets fairly under weigh, and the swish, swish of the long wings beating regularly can be heard for long distances ; the head and neck are stretched out in a straight line. The Hooper spends much of its time on the water, searching round the banks and in the shallows for food. It is nothing near so graceful in its movements as the Mute Swan, and the neck is never so beautifully curved, being almost always held up straight, except when the bird is feeding. Like most big birds it is excessively wary and shy, and during its sojourn in our islands is very careful to keep well in the centre of the pool or lake, or at some distance from shore, when not actually feeding. When disturbed from the water it rises with apparent difficulty, and the long wings beat the surface for some distance as the bird attempts to reach the air. The Hooper feeds a good deal whilst on dry land, and is very fond of swimming round the banks of a deep pool, from time to time plunging the head and neck under water to explore the mud and the roots of the herbage growing at the bottom. The food of this species is principally of a vegetable nature— herbs, grasses, weeds, flowers, and seeds, roots, stems, buds, and OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 319 leaves—but water insects and mollusks are also eaten. The note of the Hooper once heard can never be forgotten or confused with that of any other British species. It is a short, loud, clear, far-sounding trumpet-blast, uttered several times in succession, and when mellowed by distance sounds far from unpleasant, but at close quarters is ear-splitting and discordant. Nothing in bird life to my mind sounds so inspiring as the distant yet clear calls of migrating Swans, one to the other, as they cross the night sky. Nidification—The chief breeding grounds of the Hooper are beyond the Arctic Circle on the islands in the deltas of the great rivers that flow into the northern seas, or near the big lakes of the tundras, or the creeks that run some distance inland from the parent stream. The birds pair for life. The nest is usually placed on an island well covered with willow-trees and other dense scrub, or at others amongst the tall rank grass and reeds that fringe the pool. It is a huge pile of coarse grass, sedge, and other herbage built upon the ground, and probably carried to such a height in anticipation of any sudden rise in the water near by. As incubation proceeds it often increases in bulk, the birds adding materials from time totime. In Northern Russia from two to four eggs formed a clutch; in Iceland five is frequently found; and old females are said occasionally to lay as many as seven. The eggs are laid towards the end of May in some districts, a fortnight later in others. They are creamy white in colour, rough in texture, and nearly oval in shape. They measure on an average 4°5 inches in length by 2°8 inches in breadth. Incubation lasts from five to six weeks, and according to Dr. Palmén the young mature slowly. Only one brood is reared in the year. Diagnostic Characters.—Cygzzs, with the tail short and rounded, and with the lores and the basal portion of the bill extending below the nostrils yellow, remainder black. Length, 60 inches, Family ANATIDA. Genus CYGNUS. Subfamily Crewz.z, BEWICK’S SWAN. CYGNUS BEWICKI— Varrell. Geographical Distribution.—277tsh - Winter visitor to the coasts and many inland waters of the British Islands. Most abundant on the wild broken coast of the west of Scotland, and the lakes and western coasts of Ireland. It is, however, fairly well known as a frequent winter visitor on the east coast of Scotland and the coasts of England. foreign: Northern and eastern Palearctic region; southern Palzearctic region in winter. But little is known of the breeding grounds of this species, and until the visit of Messrs. Seebohm and Harvie-Brown to the valley of the Petchora in the summer of 1875, the eggs were absolutely unknown to science. Breeds on the tundras above the limit of forest growth, on the eastern shores of the White Sea, probably on the islands of Kolguev and Nova Zembla, and in the deltas of the Petchora, Obb, Yenesay, and Lena; on the Liakoff Islands and the tundras of North-eastern Siberia, possibly to Behring Strait. It is only an accidental visitor to Norway and Finland, and the coasts of the Baltic, Denmark, Holland, and France; one example is recorded from Nepal. Passes the great river valleys from the Kama and the Volga eastwards, down those of the Obb, the Yenesay, and the Lena, and crosses Turkestan and Mongolia on migration, and winters in the basin of the Caspian, and on the coasts of Japan and China as far south as Shanghai. Allied Forms.—None nearer than Cygnus musicus, a British species, treated fully in the preceding chapter. Time during which Bewick’s Swan may be taken. —-August 1st to March 1st. GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. 321 Habits.—Bewick’s Swan resembles the Hooper very closely in its habits, It is a bird of regular passage to and from the Arctic regions, arriving at its breeding grounds just as winter is about to give way to the short, hot northern summer, and the ice on the great rivers is breaking up, towards the end of May. It is a gregarious bird on passage, and journeys in herds of vary- ing size which usually assume a wedge-shaped formation as they fly. It migrates by day as well as by night, and like its larger ally is a very noisy bird on passage, the individuals of the party calling to each other at intervals. This note is neither so loud nor so harsh as that of the Hooper, and is aptly described by Sir Ralph Payne-Gallwey as omg, short but musical. Both at its summer quarters and whilst in our islands during winter Bewick’s Swan is a remarkably shy and cautious bird, difficult to approach either on the sea or on an inland lake. During winter it is a very gregarious species, sometimes congregating on certain favoured waters in flocks, hundreds or even thousands strong. Its food is obtained in a very similar manner to the Hooper, and consists of the roots, stems, buds, flowers, seeds, and leaves of herbs and aquatic plants, and of grass, insects and their larva, and worms. The bird, perhaps, feeds more whilst on land than the Hooper, and is more fond of enclosed waters than the open sea. Its flight is just as rapid and powerful, the long wings beat regularly with a loud noise, and the bird’s neck is outstretched. Nidification. —Very little is known of the breeding habits of Bewick’s Swan, and although its eggs have been obtained, no naturalist has yet been fortunate enough to see them zz sitw or to examine the nest. Messrs. Seebohm and Harvie-Brown, when in the valley of the Petchora in 1875, had eggs of this bird brought to them by a Russian fisherman, which were obtained. on the island of Pyonin in the delta of that river. Other eggs were brought to the former gentleman during his visit to the valley of the Yenesay two years afterwards, which had been obtained from an island, and on the mainland of the delta of that river. The nest is said by the natives to resemble that of the Hooper, and to be built in a similar situation. The number of eggs in a clutch is not known with certainty, but more than three have not yet been found in one nest. They are smaller than those of the Hooper, whiter on Y 322 GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. an average, and not so glossy. They measure on an average 4'0 inches in length by 2°6 inches in breadth. Diagnostic Characters.—Cygus, with the tail short and rounded, and with the lores and the basal portion of the bill, but not extending below the nostrils, yellow, remainder black. Length, 50 inches. Family ANATID. Genus CyGNus. Subfamily Crevivz, MUTE SWAN. CYGNUS OLOR—( Gmelin). Geographical Distribution.—2&7:tsk: Whether the pre- sent species was introduced into the British Islands (as some writers affirm it was by Richard I. from Cyprus) or not is a ques- tion somewhat difficult to decide. It is rather remarkable that such an explanation should ever have been put forward, for there is nothing extraordinary in a bird which, in a wild state, is a regular summer visitor to Denmark and North Germany, extending its migrations to our islands. Its exceeding beauty and gracefulness probably led very early in the history of our civilisation to its do- mestication, which has finally brought it to its present condition of a semi-wild resident species. It is to be met with more or less abundantly throughout the United Kingdom, wherever man affords it protection, some of the Swanneries being very ancient andextensive. Foreign: Western Palearctic region; occasionally in the extreme north-west of the Oriental region during winter. Breeds in South Sweden (but only an accidental visitor to Norway), Denmark, Germany west of the Rhine, Central and South Russia, the valley of the Danube, Transylvania and Greece, Turkestan and Mongolia. It occasionally wanders into Dauria, and to North- west India during the cold season. In the basin of the Mediter- ranean, and throughout most of Europe south of the above limits, it is best known as a winter visitor, and during that season it is also found in the southern districts of the Caspian. Allied Forms.—None of sufficient propinquity to demand notice. In 1838 Yarrell described a Swan under the name of Cygnus immutabilis (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1838, p. 19). It was said ¥ 2 324 THE GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL to differ from the Mute Swan in having the tubercle at the base of the upper mandible smaller, the legs lead colour instead of black. A further specific distinction was that the young birds had a paler bill, and the plumage of the upper parts pure, unsullied white. Although this bird received the trivial name of “ Polish” Swan it appears to have been confined to the British Islands, with the exception of a single example captured on the Haarlem Lake in Holland during December, 1840. The alleged charac- ters of the “adult” appear only to depend on age—the older the bird the larger the frontal tubercle, and the darker the legs, As regards the white plumage of the young it appears to be nothing but an exceptional albinism, the result probably of semi-domesti- cation, and from a similar cause as that which has originated white Ducks and poultry. Time during which the Mute Swan may be taken.— August rst to March rst. Habits.—The Mute Swan is too well known ina domesticated state to require any description of its habits in our islands. There can be little doubt that a few really wild birds visit the British Islands from time to time in winter, but it is utterly impossible to identify them, as domesticated birds often wander about a good deal from one sheet of water to another where they are allowed to live unpinioned. In the northern portions of its range the Mute Swan is a regular bird of passage, appearing in its summer quarters in March, and leaving them with its brood in October. Like its congeners, it migrates in flocks of varying size, by day and by night, in the same wedge-shaped formations. Its haunts in summer are large lakes, especially those that con- tain islands with plenty of low cover, amongst which it can make its nest safe from enemies. During winter wild Mute Swans frequent the coast as much as their congeners do; and in India they haunt the tanks and lakes, but are rare visitors. The flight of this bird is powerful and rapid, and the noise of the mighty wings may be heard a long distance, especially across water ona calm, still day. Although tame and confiding enough with us in a semi-domesticated state, when wild it is excessively shy and wary, rarely admitting of a close approach. When fired at, however, instances are on record where the flock has returned OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 325 again and again, flying over their fallen companions, and showing the greatest reluctance to quit the place. The Mute Swan is a much more graceful bird in the water than either of its two preceding congeners, and its neck is often curved into beautiful lines. It feeds, however, in much the same manner, both whilst on land and swimming in the water. This food consists of aquatic plants and grass, insects and their larvze, mollusks, and frogs. The bird is also said to eat fish spawn, and I have known it devour small fish. In a state of domestication the Mute Swan, as its name implies, is a very silent bird, only making a low hissing noise, especially when excited or angry, but wild individuals are said to utter a loud, trumpet-like cry similar to the note of the Hooper. Nidification.—The breeding season of wild Mute Swans commences in May. Both tame and wild birds appear to pair for life, and to return each season to a favourite nesting place, although they usually make a new nest every year, but in some cases repair the old one. This is usually made on the ground on an island in a dense thicket, or amongst tall grass and other aquatic vegetation, and is a huge pile of dead grass, rushes, reeds, and any other rubbish the birds can collect in the neighbourhood. As incubation advances the nest is increased in bulk, especially when in a district subject to sudden inunda- tion. Many nests are said to be built together in some localities. The eggs are from five to eight in number, old birds laying from eight to twelve. They are greenish white or very pale green, rough in texture, and with little or no gloss. They measure on an average 4'5 inches in length by 3°0 inches in breadth. Incu- bation, performed by the female, lasts from five to six weeks. Only one brood is reared in the year. Diagnostic Characters.—Cygnus, with the tail wedge- shaped and long, and with the lores and frontal tubercle black. Length, 60 inches. Family ANATIDA. Subfamily ANSERINZ or GEESE. The birds included in the present subfamily are distinguished from their allies by having the lores covered with feathers and the tarsus reticulated all round. They are further distinguished from the Swans by their longer tarsus (longer than the middle toe) and much shorter neck ; whilst from the Ducks their short, robust, subconical (and in many cases higher than broad at the base) bill is an additional distinction. Sexes nearly alike in colour. One moult in autumn. This subfamily is composed of about forty species, referable to several genera. Nearly cosmopolitan ; most widely dispersed in winter. Genus ANSER or TYPICAL GEESE. Type ANSER CINEREUS. Anser of Bechstein (1803).—As Bechstein was the first naturalist properly to define the Geese, he has far more claim to the genus than Brisson, whose ANSER is a confused and be- wildered mass of distantly related species. The birds comprising the present genus are characterised by having the lores feathered and the tarsus reticulated. The wings are long and ample, but not acutely pointed ; the tail is short and rounded, and said to contain sixteen feathers. The bill is nearly as long as the head, and has a strongly defined unguis at the tip; the inner edge of the mandibles is crooked and the lamellz are conspicuous ; nostrils lateral. Neck much shorter than in Cycnus. Three toes in front webbed, one behind small and elevated. This genus is composed of about twenty species which are distributed throughout the colder and temperate regions of the world; more cosmopolitan in winter than in summer. Six species and subspecies are British, but only one of these breeds within our islands. The typical Geese are dwellers on moors and marshes and more or less cultivated plains, but in winter they become more maritime. They are birds of rapid if somewhat laboured flight, swim well, and walk with equal facility. Their notes are loud and unmusical. They subsist chiefly on vegetable substances. They make bulky nests upon the ground, and their eggs are numerous and creamy white in colour. They are monogamous, and probably pair for life, the male assisting the female in family duties. They are gregarious in winter, and more or less social even in the breeding season. Their flesh is palatable. Family ANATID. Genus ANSER. Subfamily Awszrrmz. LESSER SNOW GOOSE. ANSER HYPERBOREUS—Palas. Geographical Distribution.—Zvitish- Very rare straggler to Ireland on autumn migration, and has once been observed in England. The claim of this species to rank as “ British” rests on the following occurrences. Ireland: Lake Tacumshane, south coast of County Wexford (2 immature examples purchased in Leadenhall Market, 1 example shot at same time and place not preserved), November, 1871 ; Termoncarra, Co. Mayo (flock of seven seen, one of which was shot, and another trapped), October, 1877. The two examples said to have been captured in Ireland, and afterwards placed in Lord Derby’s menagerie at Knowsley, and which subsequently were sold by auction to Castang, the bird and animal dealer of London, have too dubious a pedigree to share the honour of positive evidence. England: Coast of Cumberland (1 adult example, “identified but not obtained”), August, 1884. Foreign Northern Nearctic region; more southerly in winter. Breeds, so far as is known, in the Arctic regions of North-west America; winters as far south as California in the west, and the valley of the Mississippi in the east, and is said to visit Japan at that season. Owing to the two races of this species being confused, it is difficult to trace the geographical area of the smaller form in any more detail with accuracy. Allied Forms.—Azser hyferboreus nivalis, only known to breed in Hudson Bay Territory, but is probably circumpolar, as it has occurred on migration in various localities throughout the Palearctic region, especially in Japan and China. Winters in the United States south to Texas, and is an occasional visitor to aad I. KING EIDER. 2. LESSER SNOW GOOSE. 3. WHITE-BELLIED BRENT GOOSE. GAME’ BIRDS AND IVILD FOWL. 329 Greenland and the Bermudas. The large form of the Snow Goose, only subspecifically distinct. Typical examples measure from 17 to 18°5 inches in length of wing, instead of from 15 to 175 inches, and in length of bill from 2°38 to 2°65 inches, instead of from 1°95 to 2°28 inches, Also 4. cwrulescens and l, rossi. Time during which the Lesser Snow Goose may be taken,— August 1st to March tst. Habits.—But little has been recorded of the habits of the Lesser Snow Goose. It is a migratory bird, breeding on the tundras or barren grounds above the limit of forest growth, reaching its summer quarters towards the end of May, and re- turning to its winter haunts in September and October. Audubon proves his careful observation of this species by remarking accurately enough that the young birds are the first to appear in the south at least a fortnight before their parents, the latter being delayed at their breeding grounds until the moult is completed. During winter the Lesser Snow Goose appears seldom to stray far from large sheets of water, but visits inland localities as well as the coast. The food of this species consists largely of grass and rushes, but ground fruits and berries are also eaten, as well as insects and small mollusks. During winter this Snow Goose becomes gregarious, and not only flocks with the larger race, but with other kindred species. The note of this species is nowhere clearly described to my knowledge. Nidification.—The Lesser Snow Goose breeds on the tundras on the banks of the northern lakes, or on small islands in the Arctic Ocean not far from the mainland. Again MacFarlane, with his splendid opportunities, only records the barest details of the nesting habits of this interesting bird. He says that the nests were mere hollows in the sandy ground, warmly lined with down. The eggs are generally five in number, dull white in colour. They measure on an average 3°4 inches in length by 2:2 inches in breadth. The young can fly by the middle of August, and about a month later begin their southern journey, slowly progressing as the food supply begins to fail. Only one brood is reared in the year. Diagnostic Characters.—Avzser, with the primaries black, and the remainder of the plumage white. Length, 23 inches. Family ANATID:. Genus ANSER. Subfamily AwszrivZ. BEAN GOOSE. ANSER SEGETUM—(Gmelin). Geographical Distribution.—27/#isk - Common visitor on spring and autumn migration, most abundant during the latter, but great numbers remain to winter in our islands. Not known to breed in any part of the British area. Widely dispersed on the mainland of Scotland and some of the adjoining islands, but only a straggler to the Orkney and Shetland Islands, and on the Outer Hebrides it appears to be quite unknown. In England it is most frequent on the southern and western coasts south of Lancashire, becoming rarer on the east; whilst in Ireland it appears to be generally distributed and abundant, but less common on the southern coast than the White-fronted Goose. Foreign: Northern, and at high elevations, central Paleearctic region; southern Palearctic region in winter. Accidental in Iceland. Breeds in Scandinavia north of lat. 64°, in North Russia as low as Archangel, in the delta of the Petchora, on Nova Zembla, in the valley of the Yenesay above forest growth, and southwards on the mountains of the Baikal district, eastwards to the Stanavoi Mountains, and the Arctic tundras of Eastern Siberia northwards to the coast. Passes Europe south of the limits already given to winter on both shores of the Mediterranean (with the exception of North-east Africa); but in mild winters many remain on the coasts of Denmark and France, and more rarely those of Spain, whilst it has been known accidentally to wander as far south as Madeira. Vast numbers also winter in the south of Russia and in the basin of the Caspian. Further east it passes South-west GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. 331 Siberia, Mongolia, and the valley of the Amoor on migration, and winters in North-east Turkestan, China, and Japan. Allied Forms.—Axser segetum serrirvostris, the Eastern form of the Bean Goose; only subspecifically distinct, the two races completely intergrading. As we have already noticed, in treating of the entire range of both forms, it is an inhabitant of Eastern Siberia from the Baikal district to the Pacific. Typical examples differ from the Bean Goose in being larger, especially the bill and feet (length of bill from frontal feathers to tip 3°4 to 2°4 inches, instead of from 2°5 inches to 1°7 inch), The head and neck are buffish brown instead of brownish gray; but it is possible this character is derived from the Eastern race interbreeding with A. cygnoides, a bird with the back of the neck dark brown, and with the bill black, and the legs and feet flesh-coloured. A. brachyrhynchus, a fairly distinct island race, a British species, and dealt with in the following chapter. Time during which the Bean Goose may be taken.— August rst to March rst. Habits.—Great numbers of Bean Geese simply pass along our coasts in autumn for more southern haunts, and repass them on their way north again in spring; still many remain with us throughout the winter. This species, like most of its congeners, begins to arrive in its northern haunts with the first signs of departing winter. Small parties reach the neighbourhood of the Arctic Circle, both in Europe and Asia, during the second half of May, but these are often compelled to retire some distance south again owing toa late frost. When once the great rivers break through their bonds of ice, and the south wind brings summer to the Arctic regions, the Bean Geese arrive in full force, flock after flock pouring in from the south, following in the wake of the open water. As soon as the young are half-grown, and the short summer begins to wane, these Geese again unite into flocks to complete their moult, and then in early autumn the grand flight south commences. In our islands the Bean Goose lives in flocks of varying size, which wander about a good deal according to the state of the weather and the supply of food. Some of these gatherings are very large, and at all times difficult to approach, although they are certainly less wary at night. The 332 GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. Bean Goose usually frequents the sea and the coast during the night, coming inland to stubbles and fields of newly sown grain in the day to feed. During long-continued frost they keep more to the coast, but in rough, stormy weather they are more partial to remaining in inland districts, from which, however, they soon depart at the first signs of recurring frost. The flight of this Goose is rapid and strong, and when passing from place to place a wedge-shaped formation is usually assumed. Its note whilst staying in our islands is the familiar gag-gag variously modulated. Bean Geese when feeding on the inland fields usually post sentinels here and there to give timely warning of the approach of danger. Upon the water the Bean Goose swims well and buoyantly, but it rises with apparent labour with a great flapping of wings until well in the air. The food of this species consists of grass, the tender shoots of grain, and the roots of various plants. In autumn the bird picks up a great quantity of grain of all kinds from the stubbles, and also frequents the newly sown fields at that season and in spring to dig up the seed-corn, as well as beans. Much of this food is sought at dawn. Nidification— The breeding grounds of this bird are situated on the northern tundras beyond or near the limits of forest growth, in the vicinity of lakes and pools. The nest is made early in June, and is usually placed amongst the tall rank grass and sedge of an islet in the lake, or on a hillock on the bank. It is merely a slight hollow lined with dry grass and other vegetable refuse, and with down from the old bird’s body. The eggs are three or four in number, creamy white in colour, and rather rough in texture. They measure on an average 3°2 inches in length by 2'15 inches in breadth. Only one brood is reared in the year. Diagnostic Characters.— N Family ANATIDZ. Subfamily ANATINZ or SHELDRAKES and NON-DIVING DUCKS. The birds included in the present subfamily are distinguished from their allies by having the tarsus scutellated in front, and only a narrow membrane attached to the hind toe. None of the species contained in this group ever dive for their food, which they search for on land or in shallow water, only submerging the fore half of the body whilst probing and sifting the mud and weeds for prey. In the Sheldrakes the sexes are nearly alike in colour, but in the Ducks there is usually considerable sexual difference in this respect. The Sheldrakes moult once in autumn, but the Non-diving Ducks have one complete moult in autumn, and the males of many species moult their small feathers twice— once in early summer, and once in autumn. This subfamily is composed of about seventy species, divisible into several fairly well-defined genera. Practically cosmopolitan, but most widely dispersed during the northern winter. Genus TADORNA or SHELDRAKES. Type TADORNA CORNUTA. Tadorna of Fleming (1822).—The birds comprising the present genus are characterised by their white carpal region of the wing, which is also swollen into a hard feathered pro- tuberance; by their rather long tarsus (nearly as long as the middle toe and claw), and by their prevailing and usually strongly contrasted colours of black, white, and chestnut. The wings are long and ample, the second primary the longest. The bill is higher than broad at the base, the unguis decurved and hooked ; nostrils oval, sub-basal. Three toes in front webbed; hind toe small. Sexes very similar in colour. This genus is composed of six species, breeding in the tem- perate portions of the Palzarctic and Ethiopian region, and in the Australian region ; Oriental region chiefly in winter. Two species are British, one of which is a common resident in, the other an accidental visitor to, our islands. The Sheldrakes are dwellers on sea coasts, and on salt lakes and marshes. They are birds of rather slow and laboured flight, progressing by slow, regular beats of the wings, like Swans. They also swim and walk with ease. Their notes are harsh and unmusical. They subsist on both animal and vegetable sub- stances. They breed in holes of trees, in rocks, or in the ground, and their eggs are numerous and creamy white. They are mono- gamous, pair probably for life, and the male bird shares the duty of tending the eggs and young. They are more or less gregarious and sociable, especially during winter. Family ANATIDA:. Genus TaDORNa. Subfamily Awarivez. COMMON SHELDRAKE. TADORNA CORNUTA—(S. G. Gmelin). Geographical Distribution.— 27:#sh- Resident and widely dispersed throughout the British Islands. Breeds in all suitable places on the east and west coasts of England, but is very much more local in the south during the breeding season. Breeds in many localities on the east of Scotland, notably in the Forth, and the same remarks apply to the west, including the Hebrides. Breeds sparingly and locally round the Irish coasts, but is most abundant during winter, as it also is on the eastern coast line of Great Britain. Foreign : North-western and southern Palearctic region ; northern Oriental region in winter. Breeds throughout Europe in all suitable localities, but in the basin of the Mediter- ranean, where it nests sparingly on both shores, it is best known as a winter visitor, whilst in the north it does not extend beyond lat. 69% in Norway, lat. 60° in the Baltic, and lat. 56° in the Urals. In Asia it does not appear to breed north of lat. 52° in the west, and the valley of the Amoor in the east. The birds breeding in the northern portions of this range, including Turkestan and Mongolia, are migratory, but in the basin of the Black and Caspian Seas they are resident, as they also appear to be in Japan, To the coasts of China, and to India, as far south as the Tropic of Cancer, it is a winter visitor. A single example has been recorded from the Faroes. Allied Forms.—None of sufficient propinquity to call for notice. Time during which the Common Sheldrake may be taken.—August 1st to March rst. GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. 359 Hahbits.—The Sheldrake is a thorough bird of the coast, and only under exceptional circumstances frequents inland waters, and only then when they are salt. Although it is a resident with us in all the colder portions of its range, it is a bird of passage, drawing south in October, and retiring north again in March. Its numbers are consequently increased in our islands during winter. In India it arrives later in autumn, during the latter half of November, and appears to linger longer in spring, till nearly the middle of April, probably because at its breeding grounds in Mongolia and South Siberia the summer is much later than in Europe. The Sheldrake prefers sandy coasts to mud-flats, and low beaches and dunes are its favourite resorts. It is ever a shy and wary bird, difficult to approach, and usually takes alarm before any other Wild Fowl that may by chance be in its vicinity. At all times the Sheldrake is a rather sociable bird, but never appears to congregate into very large flocks, being usually met with in small parties or scattered pairs. It changes its ground a good deal according to season, and in winter visits many parts of the coast where it is entirely absent in the breeding season, The flight of the Sheldrake is regular and straightforward, not per- formed with rapid beats like that of the typical Ducks, but with slow and measured strokes, which lend the bird’s movements a laboured appearance, more apparent than real. The flight is seldom taken very high, usually close to the water, and is often considerably prolonged ; but when on migration, the bird rises much higher. The food of this species consists of grass, and the stems and leaves of various plants growing in or near the water ; of insects, crustaceans, worms, mollusks, and small fish. The young, in their downy stage of existence, feed almost exclusively on sand-hoppers, which they are very expert at catching, even shortly after they are hatched. None of this food is obtained by diving, but whilst the bird is wandering about the shore, paddling in the shallows, or swimming in water just deep enough to allow it to reach the bottom when the fore part of the body is sub- merged, and the hind quarters are held almost perpendicular. The Sheldrake swims well and lightly, and on land walks more elegantly than the typical Ducks. It seldom wanders far from the water, but occasionally visits the pastures close to its haunts, 360 THE GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL and wanders to the turf amongst the dunes. As soon as the young are reared, the broods and their parents frequently go out to sea, only coming on shore to feed, but not always to sleep. The call-note of the Sheldrake is a harsh quack ; in the pairing season an oft-repeated, tremulous whistling or chirping note is uttered, and when the young are abroad a hoarse £orr or hurr is heard. Hume states that, when surprised, both sexes utter a whistle of alarm. Nidification.—The breeding grounds of the Sheldrake are near the sea, either on the sandy coasts of the mainland or on low islands. In our islands the birds gather at their breeding places in March, but the eggs are usually laid during May; in other localities they are a little earlier or later according to cir- cumstances. The Sheldrake pairs for life; at all seasons the duck and drake may be observed in company, and in many cases the old nesting site is tenanted yearly. This Duck cannot be termed gregarious in the breeding season, and although many pairs may nest within a small reach of the coast, each appears to keep apart from the rest. The nest is usually placed at the end of a burrow, especially a rabbit hole ; sometimes it is under rocks, and has been known in a very dense furze thicket. The Sheldrake may occasionally dig its own burrow, and it is then said to be nearly circular, but I do not think that such is often the case, at least in our islands. The nest is a simple one, and consists of a httle dry grass and an abundant lining of down from the bird. The eggs are from six to twelve in number, but larger clutches are on record, and in cases where they have been judiciously removed, as many as thirty have been taken from a single nest. They are creamy white in colour, smooth in texture, very brittle, and possess considerable gloss. They measure on an average 2°7 inches in length by 1°9 inch in breadth. Down lavender-gray. Incubation is performed by both male and female (but the latter sits the most), and lasts about a month. The nest is very difficult to find unless the birds are watched at morning and evening when the sitting bird is relieved by its mate. The male is seldom seen near the nest, and both birds are remarkably cautious when leaving or approaching it. Only one brood is OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 301 reared in the year, and as soon as the young are hatched they are taken by their parents to the beach. Diagnostic Characters. — Zadorna, with the head and neck green (brown in young or first plumage), below which is a broad white collar, Length, 25 inches. Family ANATIDA. Genus TaDoRNA. Subfamily AwarivZ. RUDDY SHELDRAKE. TADORNA CASARCA—(Linneus), Geographical Distribution.—Azitish : Very rare straggler on autumn migration and in winter ; but many of the records of the occurrence of this species in the United Kingdom unques- tionably relate to birds escaped from the semi-captivity in which the Ruddy Sheldrake is commonly found in our islands. As such I should feel disposed to class all the occurrences in summer. Among the most trustworthy instances may be mentioned the following. England: Dorset (1 example), winter, 1776; Suffolk (1 example), January, 1834 ; Kent (1 example, shot from a party of four), September, 1884. Scotland: Orkneys (1 example), October, 1831. Ireland: Co. Kerry (1 example), August, 1869; Shannon River (2 examples), summer, 1886. Others are reported to have been either seen or taken in Suffolk, Yorkshire, the “south of England,” Caithness, Forfarshire, Waterford, and Wicklow. Foreign: Southern Palearctic region ; Oriental region in winter. Resident in the basins of the Mediterranean and Black Seas, but not known to breed in Europe north of the Spanish peninsula, the valley of the Danube, and South Russia; whilst to the lakes and waters of North Africa it is principally a winter visitor. To Sweden, the Baltic, West Russia, Germany, Denmark, and France, it is, as to our islands, only an accidental visitor. In Europe the Ruddy Sheldrake is mostly a resident species, but in Asia it is migratory, and there can be little doubt that the accidental wanderers to the extreme west of Europe are from this district. In Asia it breeds throughout Persia, Turkestan, and South Siberia, as far north as GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. 363 ¢ Lake Baikal and the valley of the Amoor. It apparently breeds in Japan, and is a regular summer visitor to Mongolia, but to China, Burma, and India it is only known as a migrant in autumn and winter. Allied Forms.—None of sufficient propinquity to call for notice. Time during which the Ruddy Sheldrake may be taken.—August rst to March tst. Habits.—The range of the Ruddy Sheldrake in Europe does not extend sufficiently far north to render the bird a migratory one, but in Asia, where the climate is much colder in winter, and where the limits of its distribution extend slightly higher, this Duck is a bird of regular passage. Hume states that it winters in India in countless myriads. It begins to arrive in Cashmere and on the southern slopes of the Himalayas at the end of September, which agrees with the date of its departure from South Siberia about the middle of September. By the end of October it is generally dispersed over Northern India, and during November it reaches the southern districts. It leaves the south towards the end of March, the north a little later, and reaches its breeding grounds in Siberia again towards the end of April. The Ruddy Sheldrake migrates in enormous flocks, but these soon separate, and distribute themselves in scattered pairs throughout the country. In spring it again unites into flocks, and is then more frequently seen on lakes than at any other time of its stay in India. These gatherings disperse at the breeding grounds, The Ruddy Sheldrake is a fresh-water Duck, and a shore bird rather than a water one, spending most of its time on or near the bank. In India its favourite haunts are the broad rivers where sandbanks break the stream into numerous channels, but the bird occasionally visits fields and flooded grounds at some distance from its usual retreats. It not only swims well, but often dives when wounded, and on the ground walks with a rather graceful, sedate step in a very erect manner. The flight of this species is easy and quick when once the bird is fairly on the wing, but it rises in a laboured manner and with apparent difficulty. The wings are flapped slowly rather than beaten rapidly. The food of the Ruddy Sheldrake consists of both 304 THE GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL animal and vegetable substances, the former, according to Hume, predominating. Of the vegetable element may be mentioned grass and sprouting corn, especially when growing near the edge of the water, water weeds of various kinds, and seeds ; of animal substances, insects, the fry of fish, shrimps, small frogs, and all kinds of land and fresh-water snails, It has been said that this Sheldrake occasionally feeds on carrion in India, and consorts with Vultures; the evidence is certainly very conclusive. The usual note is a rather loud and monotonous sare ; but the alarm note is described by Pallas as resembling the syllables d-oung, rendered by the Turks as au-gou¢. According to Jerdon there is a superstition in India among the natives that “the souls of erring lovers, who have loved not wisely but too well, pass into the forms of these Ducks, condemned thenceforth to pass the night, the season of their transgressions, apart, on opposite banks of some stream, each ever praying the other for permission to rejoin them, and each ever compelled sternly to refuse. ‘Chakwa, shall I come?’ ‘Vo, Chakwi!’ ‘Chakwi, shall I come?’ ‘Vo, Chakwa!’” “This story,” Hume continues, “ how- ever, I fear belongs to a more poetical age than the present, and I myself have never met with a native in Upper India who knew of it except from Europeans. Perhaps, too, the world is more virtuous, or celestial vigilance less keen, for certain it is that in these degenerate days, except in the case of very narrow rivers like the Hindon in Meerut, alike by day and night, Chakwa and Chakwi ave to be found both on the same side of the water.” In India the Ruddy Sheldrake, or Brahminy Duck, as it is otherwise called, is nowhere held in reverence ; but in Burma it is the sacred and national bird of the natives ; the Llamas of Mongolia also consider it an object of religious respect. The Ruddy Sheldrake is a remarkably wary bird, rarely allowing any one to approach it within gunshot, and owing to its restless, noisy habits, it is much disliked by the sportsman. Hume writes: “Not only do they carefully provide for their own safety, but they seem positively to take a malicious pleasure in spoiling all sport. You are working down on a lump of Fowl—a few minutes more and you will be within range. Suddenly the loud call of the Brahminy sounds, and rising out of a hollow in the sand where they have been OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 365 squatting, you see a pair waddling to the water’s edge. Again and again the pair call and answer (side by side as they are, one would think that save out of sheer spite they need not shout at each other thus), then with a rapid chuckle off they go, their wings clattering as they rise like a train on an iron culvert, and with them of course go all the Fowl. Further on are a lot of Geese ; you work towards them—vain hope. The ruddy wide- awakes have alighted near these now, and duly put them up before you are within a hundred yards, and sometimes a pair will thus persecute you for a couple of miles, before they finally turn up-stream to return to their proper beat.” The flesh of this Duck is hard and dry, with a rank and fishy flavour, but is rendered palatable if the bird be skinned before it is cooked. Nidification.—The Ruddy Sheldrake, like the preceding species, pairs for life, and the male and female are said to be tenderly attached to each other, and rarely stray far apart even during winter. At the breeding grounds in Mongolia, however, Prjevalsky states that the males often fight not only with them- selves but with other species. This Sheldrake is an early breeder, beginning to lay in Persia early in May and in Dauria by the middle of that month. In Europe it is earlier still, and begins laying towards the end of April. The nest is made in various situations, but almost always in a covered site. Sometimes it is made in holes in cliffs, at others in holes and clefts in the ground, even in the middle of a corn-field ; whilst holes in trees and logs, and the deserted nests of birds of prey, are also selected. Prie- valsky states that it is sometimes made in the fireplaces of houses in deserted Mongol villages ; whilst it has been found amongst a colony of Griffon Vultures and near nests of the Raven, the Black Kite, the Egyptian Vulture, and other cliff-haunting birds. It is often made at considerable distances from water, but more fre- quently in rocks that overhang a stream or lake. But little nest is made, although the eggs usually rest amongst a soft bed of down plucked from the parent’s body. The eggs are from eight to sixteen in number, more frequently the former than the latter. They are creamy white in colour, smooth in texture, and very fragile. They measure on an average 2°7 inches in length by 18 inch in breadth. Colour of down undescribed. It is said 366 GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOIVL. that the male takes no part in incubating the eggs, but I doubt this. In the case of the young he is just as assiduous as the female. Incubation in this species lasts thirty days. The young are carried from the nest to the nearest water by their parents, but in what manner is apparently unknown, some writers asserting in the beak, others on the back, others yet again in the feet, Only one brood is reared in the year. Diagnostic Characters.— Zadorna, with the general body colour rufous buff, and the wing coverts white. Length, 25 inches. Males in breeding plumage have a narrow black ring round the neck. Genus ANAS or NON-DIVING DUCKS. Type ANAS BOSCHAS. Anas of Brisson (1760).—The birds comprising the present genus are characterised by having the tarsus shorter than in the preceding genus, the tail graduated, and the absence of a white carpal region. The wings are long and pointed. The bill is broad, often widening towards the tip. Three toes in front webbed ; hind toe small and unlobed. Sexes different in colour. This genus contains about sixty species and subspecies, and is almost cosmopolitan. Ten species are British, some of which breed in, and others are only visitors to, our islands. The Non-diving Ducks are dwellers near inland waters and in fens and marshes in summer, but during their seasons of passage and in winter they are more maritime. They are birds of rapid if somewhat laboured flight, swim well, rarely if ever dive, and walk awkwardly with a waddling gait. Their notes are loud and unmusical. They subsist on both vegetable and animal sub- stances, being practically omnivorous. They make somewhat bulky nests, lined with down, upon the ground, or in holes of trees. Their eggs are numerous, and range from buff to pale greenish in colour, unspotted and smooth. They are mono- gamous, and probably pair for life; the male taking no part in the rearing of the young. They are more or less gregarious, except in the breeding season. Their flesh is esteemed for the table. Family ANATIDA. Genus ANAS, Subfamily 4warivz. GADWALL. ANAS STREPERA—Zinneus. Geographical Distribution.— 87:7ish : Comparatively rare and local winter visitor to the British Islands, although many apparently pass our coasts on migration, especially in spring. Is found in small numbers in the Orkneys and Shetlands, thence down both the east and west coasts of Scotland, including many of the Hebrides. Becomes less common in England, where it occurs most frequently in the east. Fairly frequent visitor to Ireland, where it appears to be much overlooked. Breeds locally in Nor- folk, originally only a pair of pinioned birds, but now their descendants together with apparently thoroughly wild birds which have been tempted to lag behind their companions in spring. A fresh-water species, and frequenting inland pools as well as those inthe vicinity of the sea. Forezgn - Circumpolar: Palzarc- tic and Nearctic regions; Oriental region in winter. Breeds locally in Iceland. Not known to breed in Norway, but does so in the south of Sweden, and more sparingly in North Germany and the Baltic Provinces. Eastwards it ranges across Russia and Siberia to the Stanavoi Mountains, south of about lat. 60°, from east to west. In Europe it certainly breeds as far south as Spain, the valley of the Danube, the Crimea, and the Volga and Ural deltas in South Russia; whilst eastwards it breeds in Northern Turkestan, South-west Siberia, the Baikal district, and probably the valley of the Amoor. A few European birds winter in Holland, Belgium, France, and the Spanish peninsula,. but the majority do so in the basin of the Mediterranean, extending into the African continent as far south as the Great. GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. 369 Desert, and the Nile valley to Nubia. In Asia it is known to pass Mongolia on migration, and to winter throughout India, which appears to be its grand head-quarters in Asia during the cold season, although it then visits Northern Burma, China, and Japan, but in smaller numbers. In the Nearctic region it breeds in the Northern United States, and beyond as far north as about lat. 50° to Vancouver Island in the west, to Winnipeg in the central por- tion, and to Nova Scotia (lat. 45°) in the east. It winters in the Southern United States and Mexico. Allied Forms.— Although the geographical area of the Gadwall appears to be discontinuous, it is not known that New World examples differ in any way from those of the Old World, which is a most interesting and remarkable fact. The Gadwall has no very near ally, certainly none of sufficient propinquity to call for notice in the present work. Time during which the Gadwall may be taken.— August 1st to March 1st; otherwise by authority of owner or occupier of land. Habits.—In spite of the fact that the Gadwall nowhere breeds in the Arctic regions proper, it is a migratory bird. In Europe its periods of passage are about the same as in India. It, arrives at its breeding grounds early in April, and departs in September and October for its winter quarters. Its migrations are undertaken at night, and during flight the birds keep calling to each other, pro- bably to keep their ranks together. The Gadwall is not a coast or salt-water Duck, but prefers inland fresh waters. When once these are assured locality and extent seem of only minor import- ance, for mighty rivers are frequented just the same as small brooks, huge lakes equally as small pools and ponds, whilst tangled swamps with little open water in them are resorted to. As a rule the larger and more open the sheet of water the bigger the flock of birds, only small parties frequenting the smaller lakes and streams. For the most part the Gadwall is a night feeder, dozing during the day and retiring inland to feed at dusk. If much harassed the flocks seldom rest close inshore, but take up their position in the centre of the lake well out of harm’s way ; but sometimes the birds are fond of skulking close amongst the dense vegetation. Occasionally the Gadwall may be seen feeding 2B 370 THE GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL during the day, paddling about in the shallows and searching the bottom of the water, with the fore part of the body entirely under the surface and the hind-quarters bolt upright. It swims well and buoyantly, and rises from the water with a single bound at a rather acute angle, continuing for several yards before hurrying away on a horizontal course. Its flight is rapid and straight- forward, and the long, pointed wings make a peculiar whistling sound as they are beaten rapidly through the air. The note of the Gadwall very closely resembles the well-known guwack of the Mallard, but is uttered oftener and is weaker and sharper in tone. It is a much more noisy bird than the Mallard, and whilst feeding in localities where it is not disturbed keeps up a shrill, feeble, and perpetual chatter. The present species is very sociable, and fraternises with all kinds of Water Fowl, even with Geese. It swims well and lightly, and walks on land in a rather graceful manner, sometimes running about the marshy land in quest of insects. It dives easily when wounded, but never does so whilst feeding. The food of the Gadwall consists of the seeds, leaves, and buds of rushes and other aquatic plants, wild and cultivated rice, insects and their larvee, worms, frogs, and small fish, Hume states that small butterflies and moths are caught by this Duck. The flesh of this Duck as a rule is very good, especially in India as long as the rice lasts, but it is of poor flavour if the bird has been feeding much on an animal diet. Nidification.—The Gadwall usually begins to breed in May, and the eggs are laid towards the end of that month or early in June, both in the Old World and the New World. The nest is usually well concealed amongst the vegetation on the banks of the water, but occasionally it has been met with some distance from the pool or stream. A tussock of sedge is a favourite situation, and the nest is sometimes surrounded by shallow water. It: is merely a hollow in the ground strewn with dry grass and bits of dead vegetation, and warmly lined with down from the body of the female. The eggs are from six to thirteen in number, ten being an average clutch. They are buffish white or cream colour with a faint greenish tinge, very smooth in texture and somewhat glossy, and measure on an average 2'1 inches in length by 1°5 inch in breadth. Down neutral gray, with scarcely per- OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 371 ceptible white tips. Incubation, performed by the female, lasts, according to Naumann, from twenty-one to twenty-two days. Only one brood is reared in the year, and the ducklings are conveyed to the water soon after they are hatched. Diagnostic Characters.—(Nuptial Plumage), dvas, with the alar speculum white. Length, 20 to 21 inches, ie Family ANATIDA. Genus ANAS, Subfamily Avarimvz. PINTAIL DUCK. ANAS ACUTA—Lineus. Geographical Distribution. — British: Fairly common winter visitor, but breeds sparingly in Scotland and Ireland. Passes the Shetlands on migration, but winters in the Orkneys, and has occurred in every county of Scotland, but becomes rarer in the west, especially in the Hebrides. It is also far from uncommon on the west coast of England, but becomes more plentiful on the east and especially the south coasts. Rare in the north of Ireland, but south from Galway and Meath it is a regular winter visitor. Eggs of this species have been obtained by Mr. Harvie-Brown on Hysgeir, off the south coast of Skye, and I have every reason to believe that the bird breeds sparingly in the Firth of Forth. The late Mr. Hancock states that it formerly bred in the now drained Prestwick Car, in Northumberland. In Ireland, according to Sir R. Payne-Gallwey, several pairs breed at the Duck preserves at Abbeyleix, in Queen’s County, and he has observed females with their broods on Loughs Mask and Corrib, in Co. Galway. It may also breed im some parts of Connemara. A fresh-water species, and often frequents inland pools as well as the coast. Foreign. Circum- polar: Palearctic and Nearctic regions; Oriental and extreme north of Neotropical regions in winter. Breeds throughout the Arctic regions of Europe, Asia, and America up to about lat. 70°. In Europe it breeds much less abundantly south of lat. 60°, although it does so sparingly in North Germany, and Russia as far south as the Caucasus ; whilst in Siberia it is said to breed as low as lat. 50°, which, with the exception of the south-west, is practi- I. MALLARD. 2. TEAL. 3. PINTAIL DUCK, GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. 373 cally the whole of that country south of lat. 70°. Passes down the coasts of Europeand along the great river valleys to winter in the basin of the Mediterranean, Black, and Caspian Seas. It also passes Turkestan and Mongolia on migration, and winters in Persia, India, Ceylon, Burma, China, Borneo, and Japan. In the New World it winters in all the Southern States, and in Mexico and Central America as far south as Panama. Allied Forms.—None of sufficient propinquity to demand notice. Time during which the Pintail Duck may be taken.— August 1st to March xst; otherwise by authority of owner or occupier of land. Habits.—The Pintail Duck appears everywhere to be a migratory bird. It arrives at its summer quarters early in spring, as soon as it can be sure of finding open water, and in like manner lingers in them late in autumn. In its more southern breeding area it arrives about the middle of March, and leaves in October and November, but in the Arctic regions it makes its appearance towards the end of May, when the ice on the great northern rivers is just breaking up. Vast quantities of this Duck were observed in the valley of the Petchora by Messrs. Seebohm and Harvie-Brown, hundreds of thousands crowding the narrow belt of open water on each side of the ice in the river, and filling the air like swarms of bees. The Pintail is equally gregarious at its winter quarters, congregating in thousands in favourite locali- ties, and it has been remarked that in India some of these large gatherings are composed entirely of males. Although this Duck breeds near fresh water, in winter and on passage it frequents the sea coast a good deal, as well as large inland sheets of water. In India Hume states that its favourite haunts are sheets of compara- tively open water studded here and there with patches of long- leaved water plant (Sag7//aria), which grows to a height of several inches above the surface, amongst which the bird can hide and sleep in safety. The flight of the Pintail is very rapid, and the wings make a peculiar swishing sound as they beat the air. It is always a shy and wary bird, and almost invariably flies right away to other haunts after being fired at once or twice. As they usually sit close when on the water a punt gun often thins their ranks 374 THE GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL considerably, even at long range. The Pintail swims well and looks remarkably graceful in the water, but it is not known to dive much when wounded; on the ground they walk freely, usually with long neck outstretched and tail raised. Pintail feed at night principally, and towards sunset may be observed in the shallows, with the fore half of their bodies entirely submerged and their long tails bent downwards parallel to the water. One or two birds of the flock are generally on the look-out for approaching danger whilst their comrades are so searching for food. Sometimes stubbles and grass-fields are resorted to for the purpose of feeding, and mud-flats, as soon as they are left bare, or nearly so, are frequented. The food of the Pintail consists of grass and the leaves and shoots of aquatic plants, insects of all kinds, worms, and land and water shells, especially the small and fragile species; grain and wild rice are also eaten in great quantities. Hume states that next to the Mallard the Pintail is the best Duck for the table in India, but the same remarks do not always apply to its flesh when killed in this country. The Pintail is not a very noisy bird, and during the day rarely utters a sound, except a very low chattering, which may be heard amongst a flock whilst feeding. When alarmed they utter a soft guack much less strident than that of the Mallard, but audible for a long distance. The call-note is described by Naumann as a low 4ah, and during the love season the drake utters a deep uh, preceded by a hiss and followed by a low grating note. Nidification.—According to latitude, and consequent state of the season, the eggs of the Pintail are laid early in May or early in June. The breeding grounds of this species are situated on the Arctic tundras near water of some description, or, in lower latitudes, on the margin of lakes and ponds, or in swamps and marshes. The nest is usually made on a dry bit of ground amongst shrubs or coarse vegetation, and is composed of dead grass, withered sedges and rushes, and dry leaves, lined warmly with down mingled with a few curly feathers from the flanks of the female bird. The eggs are from six to ten in number, pale buffish green in colour, smooth in texture, but with little gloss. ‘They measure on an average 2°15 inches in length by 1°5 inch in breadth. Down sooty brown distinctly tipped OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 375 with white, but not so conspicuously as that of the Wigeon. Only one brood is reared in the year. Incubation lasts from twenty-three to twenty-seven days. Diagnostic Characters.—(Nuptial plumage), Aas, with the upper breast white (adult male); with the tail feathers brown obliquely barred with white (adult female). Length, 24 to 28 inches. Family ANATIDA. Genus ANas. Subfamily 4wa7iv Zz, WIGEON. ANAS PENELOPE—Zinacus, Geographical Distribution. — &r/tisk: Common winter visitor to the British Islands, frequenting inland swamps and waters as well as the coast. Many pass our coast lines on passage to still more southern haunts, and return along them in spring, so that the bird is most abundant generally in autumn. Frequents all parts of the United Kingdom suited to its requirements. A few remain behind to breed in Scotland, and frequent for this purpose Ross, Sutherland, Caithness, Cromarty, and the Orkneys and Shetlands. The nest does not yet appear to have been met with in the Hebrides. In Ireland it is said to have nested in Antrim, Armagh, Tyrone, and Mayo Counties, but recent informa- tion is wanting. Although supposed to have bred in Norfolk, there is no actual proof of the fact. Foreign: Paleearctic region, more southerly in winter; Oriental region, and extreme western and eastern confines of Nearctic region in winter. Breeds throughout Arctic Europe, and Asia south of the Arctic Circle. Under ordinary circumstances its southern breeding range is lat, 60° ; south of which it is only known to nest in exceptional conditions. These conditions appear to exist in France, Germany, Denmark, Bohemia, and the valley of the Danube in Europe, and in the Baikal basin in Asia, in all of which localities it is known to breed. It is said to breed in the Faroes, and certainly does so in Iceland ; and is an accidental visitor to Greenland, and to the Atlantic coasts of North America; whilst on the eastern limits of its range it occasionally wanders across Behring Strait, where it has from time to time been found on the Pacific coast from Alaska to Cali- GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. 377 fornia. It passes through Central Europe on migration, and winters on the coasts of Holland, Belgium, France, and Spain, and throughout the basins of the Mediterranean, Black, and Caspian Seas, ranging as far south as Abyssinia in the east and Madeira in the west of the African Continent. The Asiatic birds pass through Turkestan and Mongolia on migration, and winter in India, Burma, Borneo, China, and Japan. Allied Forms.—Azas americana, the New World representa- tive of the Wigeon, a “ British” species, and dealt with fully in the following chapter. Time during which the Wigeon may be taken.—August rst to March rst (to March rsth in Essex). Habits.—The autumn migration of the Wigeon comniences in the British Islands towards the end of September, and birds continue to arrive upon our coasts through October and the first half of November. The return migration begins in March, and lasts until the end of April. The Wigeon arrives at its Arctic haunts just as the ice is breaking up and winter is making way for summer. In the valley of the Petchora this Duck arrived simul- taneously with the break-up of the ice, on the nineteenth of May, but further east in the valley of the Yenesay it was much later, not appearing until the 6th of June, at which date the general summer thaw had commenced. Hume states that the Wigeon seldom arrives in India before the end of October, and leaves again in March and April. Whilst on migration, and in its winter quarters, the Wigeon is a very gregarious bird, and even in the breeding season is remarkably social, and consorts with various other Ducks that frequent the same districts for nesting purposes. Whilst in the British Islands the Wigeon is principally a coast bird, frequenting bays, lochs, and estuaries, and occasionally visiting large sheets of fresh water in the vicinity of the sea. In India, however, this Duck is found on inland waters, but even here is most abundant on the coast, choosing by preference estuaries and creeks where the water is brackish. It is also very erratic in its choice of a haunt, being absent from some districts and present in others during different years. The flight of the Wigeon is swift and powerful, but not very loud, and often the bird will glide down from a con- siderable height to the water on arched and motionless wings, 378 THE GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL beating them rapidly just as it drops on the surface as if to break the force of the contact. It also swims well, andis very adept at diving when pursued if wounded. This species is also seen a good deal on land, walking about the turfy banks of the water. They are rather shy and wary birds, evidently gifted with great powers of scent and hearing, and approached most successfully up wind. The note of the Wigeon is very characteristic, and not easily confused with that of any other British Duck. I describe it as a wild and loud mee-ow or wee-ow; other writers as méz-ydo or w/cé-yoi. My experience is certainly different from that of Naumann, who states that this species utters a cry like that of the Shoveller as it rises. A note sounding like 4r-r is said also to be occasionally uttered. The food of this species consists of grass, buds, leaves, and shoots of various aquatic plants, grass wrack, insects, shrimps, and mollusks. The bird feeds by day in some districts, by night in others, and both by night and day in localities where it is much harassed. In India, Hume states that the Wigeon is more of a grass-eater than any other Duck. The flesh of this bird varies a great deal in quality, depending on the food which has been lately eaten. British individuals are considered to be more palatable than those shot in India. Nidification.—The principal breeding grounds of the Wigeon are the wild districts, partly scrubby forest, partly swamp, studded with lakes and pools and intersected with rivers and streams—the border land, in fact, between the bare tundra and the limit of the growth of trees. The nests are made in May and June, according to locality, and are usually well concealed near the waterside, but sometimes a considerable distance from it, either among the long coarse grass and other vegetation or beneath the shelter of a bush. They are placed on the ground and made of dry grass and dead aquatic vegetation, rather deep, and warmly lined with down and a few feathers. ‘The eggs are from six to ten or even, in rare instances, twelve in number, and are creamy white in colour, sometimes buffish white. They measure on an average 2°2 inches in length by 15 inch in breadth. Down sooty brown with distinct white tips. According to Naumann, incubation lasts from twenty-four to twenty-five days. When leaving the nest the female carefully covers the eggs with down. Only one OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 379 brood is reared in the year, and the young are deserted as soon as they are able to fly. Diagnostic Characters.—(Nuptial plumage), 4zas, with the back and flanks vermiculated with black on a white ground, and the median wing coverts white (adult male) ; grayish brown above, buffish white below, alar speculum grayish brown, bill small and blue, tipped with black (adult female). Length, 18 to 20 inches. Family ANATIDZ. Genus Anas, Subfamily Awariv. AMERICAN WIGEON. ANAS AMERICANA—Gwmeln. Geographical Distribution.—Bvitisz: Very rare and acci- dental visitor; its claim to rank as a “British” species being supported by most unsatisfactory evidence. It is with no small amount of hesitation that I have included this species in the present work, and my chief reason in doing so is to stimulate the interest of British sportsmen, and to put them on the gud vive in case examples chance to visit our islands. That this bird does so from time to time is far from improbable ; but until we have more positive proof than that forthcoming, every careful student must feel dubious of its claim to rank as an accidental wanderer to our shores. The evidence is as follows: Leadenhall Market (1 example, which may have been captured on the Continent and consigned with other fowl to London), winter of 1837-38; Coast of Essex (1 example, not confirmed by any recognised authority), January, 1864; Devonshire (1 example, not confirmed by any recognised authority), April, 1870. Scotland: Banffshire (1 ex- ample, not preserved, and entirely unauthenticated), January, 1841. Ireland: Strangford Lough, Co. Down (1 example, not preserved, and recorded by Thompson on hearsay evidence), February, 1844 (Coz. Thompson, B. of Zreland, iii. p. 112). One example is said to have occurred in France; and Mr. Howard Saunders records a specimen as being in a collection of birds at St. Michael’s, in the Azores. This, together with the fact that the bird wanders to the Bermudas and is rarely or never kept in captivity in our islands, is confirmatory evidence of its accidental occurrence in them. foreign: Nearctic region, more southerly GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. 381 in winter ; northern limits of Neotropical region in winter. Breeds in the Arctic regions of America from Alaska to the Hudson Bay basin, as far north as lat. 70°, and probably as far south as Winnipeg. Passes the Northern States, both inland and along the coast, on migration, and winters in the Southern States, Mexico, the West Indies, and Central America. Allied Forms.—Azas penelope, the Old World representative of the American Wigeon, a British species, and dealt with fully in the preceding chapter. Time during which the American Wigeon may be taken.— August rst to March 1st. Habits.—The habits of the American Wigeon are not known to differ in any very important particular from those of its Palearctic congener. In the Southern United States, where it is extremely common during winter, it is known to sportsmen by the name of ‘“Bald-Pate.” Like its Old World ally, it is said to frequent inland localities as well as the coast, and visits rice-fields and rivers. Its note is described as a low whistle, but probably it has others which resemble those of the Common Wigeon. Its food is composed of vegetable and animal substances, notably the succulent weed vadlisnerta, and rice. The flesh of this bird is said to be excellent. Nidification.—The nest of the American Wigeon is placed on the earth amongst trees and bushes in swampy districts, but always on a dry bit of ground, and is made of dry grass, leaves, and other vegetable refuse, and lined with plenty of down and a few feathers plucked from the breast or flanks of the female. The eggs are from six to twelve in number, creamy white in colour, and measure on an average 2‘2 inches in length by 1°5 inch in breadth. Down apparently the same as that of the Common Wigeon. Only one brood is reared in the year. Diagnostic Characters.—(Nuptial plumage), Avas, with the back and flanks vermiculated with black on a claret-coloured ground, with the axillaries nearly uniform white, slightly mottled at the tip, and with a green stripe on the side of the head reach- ing from the eye to the neck (adult male) ; with a rich black alar speculum and nearly white axillaries (adult female). Length, 19 to 20 inches. Family ANATIDA. Genus ANas. Subfamily 4varivz, COMMON TEAL. ANAS CRECCA—Zinneus. Geographical Distribution.—877sh: Common resident, and breeds in all suitable localities throughout the British Islands, but becomes more abundant in the northern districts. The residents are largely increased in number during autumn, not only by birds passing our islands on passage, but by individuals that remain all the winter. Frequents the coasts during winter as well as inland swamps and waters. Foreign: Palearctic region, more southerly in winter; Oriental region in winter. Summer visitor to and breeds in Iceland. Breeds throughout Arctic Europe and Asia as far north as Jat. 70°, but south of the Arctic Circle (lat. 664°) it becomes more local and rare. South of that limit, however, it breeds in the Azores and Madeira, very sparingly in South Europe, but more freely in Holland, Denmark, Germany, and Southern Scandinavia. During winter it is gene- rally distributed throughout the more temperate and southern portions of Europe, and Northern Africa, as far south as the Canaries in the west, and Abyssinia in the east. It also winters in considerable numbers in the basins of the Black and Caspian Seas. The Asiatic birds pass through Turkestan, Mongolia, and the Amoor valley on migration (a few remaining to breed), and winter in Persia, India, Ceylon, Burma, China, and Japan. This Teal has been known to stray across Behring Strait into Alaska, where it has been captured in June; whilst on the east of America it occasionally visits Greenland, and the eastern coasts between Labrador and North Carolina. Allied Forms.— 4s carolinensis, the Nearctic representa- GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. 383 tive of the Common Teal, a “British” species, and dealt with fully in the following chapter. 4. g/ocitans, an inhabitant of Eastern Siberia, wintering in Japan, China, and East India. Distinguished from the Common Teal by the absence of chest- nut on the head. Time during which the Common Teal may be taken.— August rst to March ist. Habits.—Although a great many Teal are practically resident in the British Islands, this Duck is by far the most common and widely dispersed in winter, when its numbers are increased by migratory individuals from more northern and colder latitudes. With us this Duck begins to arrive in September, and continues to do so through the following month. In India, where it is one of the commonest Ducks during the cold season, they begin to appear in September in the north, but the heaviest flights arrive during October, whilst further south they are not observed until the north-east monsoon in November. They leave most parts of India about the end of April, although a few are seen even in May. In the valley of the Petchora, Teal arrived on the 18th of June with the general smash-up of the ice on the river and the melting of the snow; in the Yenesay district its arrival was also coincident with the thaw. The Teal is much more partial to reed-fringed pools and small lakes than to the mud-banks and estuaries of the coast. In India, Hume remarks that they may be met with anywhere, on fresh water, of course, either on the village pond, in the marshy corner of a broad, on large lakes, or on sluggish rivers and dancing upland streams. The Teal is by no means a shy bird, yet it is very fond of skulking amongst the tall aquatic vegetation, remaining close until flushed by dogs or men. It is a gregarious bird, especially just previous to and on migration. In India bunches of from ten to thirty are most frequent, but much larger gatherings are on record, especially during Flight. As a rule the smaller the pond or lake, the fewer in number the birds will be. The flight of the Teal is rapid, and the bird has considerable command over itself in the air, often escaping the swoop of a Falcon with a sudden dip or twist. This Duck has also a way of dropping suddenly into cover again soon after being flushed. It swims 384 THE GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL well and lightly, but never dives unless wounded, and even then makes but poor attempts to do so. The Teal is most frequently seen on the water, but occasionally it walks about the banks with a waddling gait, and may be often observed standing on one leg with its head drawn in, or even buried beneath the scapulars, The Teal is both a day and night feeder where left unmolested, but in districts where it is much disturbed it varies its time, and obtains most of its sustenance at night. Under these circumstances, especially if the flock be fairly large, the birds spend the day on some large sheet of water, and retire at night to the marshes and small ponds to feed, They usually change their quarters towards sunset, and as they follow certain routes backwards and forwards, afford fairly good sport on flight. The Teal obtains most of its food, either whilst floating in the shallows, from time to time turning upside down in true orthodox Duck fashion, or when paddling round the weedy margin of the water. This food consists of grass, and seeds, shoots, roots, and leaves of aquatic plants; grain, rice, insects and their larve, small mollusks, and worms. The usual alarm note of the Teal is a rather weak but shrill gvack, but the call-note, which may be heard incessantly as the pair of birds swim to and fro, is a harsh Rail-like crrick. The flesh of the Teal is excellent for the table. In India great numbers of these birds are kept in confinement and fattened for food, especially by the Anglo-Indians whom a hard fate condemns to residence in the sultry Plains during the hot season. Nidification. The breeding season of the Teal in the British Islands commences early in May, but is a month or more later in higher latitudes. In the Arctic regions this Duck makes its nest in similar localities to those selected by the Wigeon ; but with us itis usually placed amongst the dense vegetation, brambles, sedge, heather, or coarse grass, growing by the waterside, but occasionally some distance from it. It is made on the ground, of dry grass, leaves, broken sedge, and reeds, and warmly lined with down from the female. The eggs are from eight to ten in number, in rare instances up to fifteen, and vary from creamy white to buffish white, sometimes with a faint greenish cast, They measure on an average 1°7 inch in length by 1°3 inch in OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS, 385 breadth. Down small and uniform dark brown without any white tips. Incubation, performed by the female, lasts from twenty-one to twenty-two days. Only one brood is reared in the year, but if the first clutch of eggs be taken others will be laid. The old Teals are much attached to each other, and I should say undoubtedly pair for life. The male Teal assumes a brown moulting dress like allied species. Diagnostic Characters.—(Nuptial plumage), 4was, with the mantle vermiculated, with a green band on the sides of the neck, reaching to the eye, with the head chestnut, and with the breast white spotted with black (adult male); with the alar speculum black, and the wing under seven inches long (adult female). Length, 13 to 16 inches. Family ANATIDA. Genus ANAS, Subfamily Awarivez. AMERICAN TEAL. ANAS CAROLINENSIS—Gmelrn. Geographical Distribution.—&rivish. Very rare abnormal visitor to the British Islands. The claim of this species to rank as “British” rests on the following recorded occurrences. England: Hampshire (1 example of doubtful authenticity), about 1838 ; Yorkshire (1 example), November, 1851; Devonshire (1 example, the most satisfactory of the three), November, 1879. Foreign - Nearctic region, more southerly in winter ; extreme northern limit of Neotropical region in winter. Breeds in the Arctic regions of America, from the Aleutian Islands and Alaska in the west to Greenland in the east. Passes the Northern States and Southern Canada on spring and autumn passage, but in these localities a few remain to breed and a few remain to winter ; it also visits the Bermudas occasionally in autumn, It winters in the Southern States, Mexico, the West Indies, and Central America. Allied Forms.—Avas crecca, the Palearctic representative of the American Teal, a British species, dealt with fully in the preceding chapter. Time during which the American Teal may be taken.— August 1st to March 1st. Habits.—The American Teal is not known to differ in its habits in any important respect from the Common Teal. It is migratory in the higher and colder latitudes, sedentary in warmer districts, as the Old World Teal is with us. The haunts it fre- quents are very similar, both in summer and winter. Its flesh is highly esteemed for the table. Nidification.—The breeding habits of the American Teal, GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. 387 the situation and materials of the nest, the period of incubation, the number of eggs are all similar in every important respect to those of the Palearctic species. The eggs are the same creamy white colour, and measure on an average 1°8 inch in length by 1°3 inch in breadth. Down undescribed, but probably precisely similar to that of the Common Teal, seeing that the females of the two species are entirely alike in colour. Diagnostic Characters.—(Nuptial plumage), 4zas, with the mantle vermiculated, with a green band on the sides of the neck reaching to the eye, with the head chestnut, and with a broad white crescent on each side of the breast (adult male) ; similar in every external character to the female of the Common Teal (adult female). Length, 14 to 15 inches. Family ANATID. Genus Anas. Subfamily Awarivz, GARGANEY. ANAS CIRCIA—JLZzinneus. Geographical Distribution.—Avitish - Rare and exceed- ingly local visitor on spring and autumn migration, a few remaining behind in spring to breed in suitable localities. Rarer in Scotland than in England, only accidental in the Orkneys and Shetland, and entirely unknown in the Outer Hebrides. Breeds regularly, and it is said in increasing numbers, in Norfolk, less commonly in Suffolk, and perhaps in a few of the southern English counties It used formerly to breed in Cambridgeshire and Huntingdonshire, and in Prestwick Car in Northumberland, but the reclamation of its favourite haunts has driven it to seek nesting places elsewhere. Said by Sir R. Payne-Gallwey to be the rarest of the ordinary Ducks and practically confined to the southern portion, where it has been met with very early in spring and even in winter. Foreign: Southern Palearctic region; Oriental region in winter. Rare visitor to the Faroes and Iceland, and only known to have occurred twice in Norway. Breeds in Denmark, Sweden, the Baltic Provinces, Finland, and North-western Russia as far as Archangel. Breeds throughout Central and Southern Europe (although rare in Portugal), the Caucasus, and, eastwards, through Turkestan, and the extreme south of Siberia, probably to the valley of the Amoor. It winters in the basin of the Mediterranean, Black, and Caspian Seas, extending southwards as far as Egypt and Arabia. The Asiatic birds appear to winter in India, Burma, and China (a few lingering to breed in these countries), many parts of the Malay Archipelago, and in Japan. Allied Forms.—Avas discors, one of the two representative GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOIVL. 389 American species, which having occurred in our islands forms the subject of the following chapter. 4. cyanoptera, the second representative species of the New World. An inhabitant of Western America from the Columbia River to Chili, Buenos Ayres, and the Falkland Islands; of only accidental occurrence in the Eastern States. Distinguished from the Garganey by having the under tail coverts black, and by the uniform chestnut head and neck. Time during which the Garganey may be taken.— August rst to March 1st; otherwise by authority of owner or occupier of land. Habits.—The aversion of the Garganey to cold is marked very decidedly in several ways. In the first place, its geographical area nowhere extends into an Arctic climate; and, secondly, its migrations are performed much earlier in autumn and later in spring than those of most if not all other Palzearctic Ducks. These remarks apply as much to the individuals breeding in Europe as to those breeding in Asia, where the climate is much more severe than with us. The Garganey leaves the northern limits of its range in Europe long before winter, and in India it is the earliest Duck to arrive in autumn, large flights appearing towards the end of August, slowly reaching the southern districts in October and November. It lingers in India until the end of April or early May, beginning to leave the southern portions of that country in March. The Garganey is decidedly a fresh-water species with us, but in its winter quarters in India and other places it is more maritime, frequenting creeks and estuaries as well as inland waters. Whilst on passage, and in its winter haunts, the Garganey is gregarious, forming into flocks of from a dozen to a hundred individuals, which as they invariably keep well together, afford most effective shots for the swivel gun. In India the Garganey affects by choice the rather large broads and swamps where plenty of aquatic herbage grows, shunning bare lakes, rivers, and small ponds. It is neither a very wild nor a very wary species, and approached more easily in a punt than most other Ducks. It rises quickly from the water and its flight is rapid and strong, but almost silent, although when large flocks of birds pass directly overhead a very distinct swéshing sound is produced. When flushed 390 GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. from dry ground, however, its first movements are rather clumsy and laboured. It not only swims lightly, sitting well out of the water, but dives readily when wounded. The food of the Garganey is chiefly of a vegetable nature inland, but on the coast an animal diet is more usual. It consists of the buds, leaves, shoots, seeds, and roots of various aquatic plants, and in India of rice, both wild and cultivated ; insects and their larve, frogs, worms, mollusks, and crustaceans. The Garganey is for the most part a night feeder, and at such times it has been known to visit rice-fields in such numbers as to destroy acres of the crop in a few hours. The call-note of the Garganey is a harsh guack, and is common to both sexes; but during the breeding season the drake makes a harsh Rail-like evvick. It is not a garrulous bird when in flocks. The flesh of this Duck is not very palatable, even when the bird has been obtained under the most favourable conditions as to diet. Nidification.—The Garganey is a rather late breeder for a southern species, and its eggs are seldom laid before the end of April or the first half of May. The nest is placed in a great variety of situations, very often in places similar to those selected by the Teal, It is as often as not some distance from water, and has been found in open forests and amongst growing corn. Usually it is built on the ground amongst tall, thick grass or sedge, or in low heath. The nest is made of dry grass, dead rushes, leaves, and other vegetable refuse, warmly lined with down. The eggs are from eight to fourteen in number, and vary from cream-white to buffish white in colour. They measure on an average 1°8 inch in length by 1°35 inch in breadth. Down tufts small and brown with long white tips. Incubation, performed by the female, is said by Naumann to last from twenty-one to twenty- two days. Only one brood is reared in the year, and the female takes the entire charge. Diagnostic Characters.—(Nuptial plumage), Azas, with the mantle unvermiculated, with the wing coverts blue, and with the under tail coverts white spotted with dark brown (adult male) ; with no metallic alar speculum, and the wing about 7 inches long (adult female). Length, 15 to 16 inches. Family ANATIDA. Genus ANAS. Subfamily Awa ri.. BLUE-WINGED TEAL. ANAS DISCORS— Zinneus. Geographical Distribution —Zritish- Anotlier dubious species which I include in this volume with considerable hesita- tion. Its claim to rank as “ British ” rests on a single occurrence, and even about this there has been considerable confusion. The late Mr. Gray in his “ Birds of the West of Scotland,” states that the example in question was killed in January, 1863; but Mr. Gibson, in recording the same specimen in the (Vaturalist for 1858, avers that it was obtained ‘a few weeks ago” in that year. The latter date appears to be the correct one. This example, a male, was obtained in Dumfriesshire by a Mr. Shaw. It passed through the hands of a local bird-stuffer into the collection of Sir William Jardine, and is now in the Edinburgh Museum. Other alleged occurrences have been recorded, but in eyery case identi- fication has been found to be wrong. Joreign: Central and southern Nearctic region, more southerly in winter; extreme northern limits of Neotropical region in winter. Breeds from the Atlantic to the Pacific, south of lat. 60°, but becomes more local west of the Rocky Mountains. Southwards its breeding range extends to Florida and Mexico as far as the northern tropic. The northern birds pass south in autumn, crossing the Bermudas as well as the mainland, and winter in Mexico, the West Indies, and the northern portions of Central America. Allied Forms.—Avas circia, a British species, and dealt with fully in the preceding chapter. A. cyanoptera, an inhabitant of the Nearctic region. Distinguished from the Blue-winged Teal by its uniform chestnut head and neck. 392 GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. Time during which the Blue-winged Teal may be taken.—August rst to March rst; otherwise by authority of owner or occupier of land. Habits.—The habits of the Blue-winged Teal are not known to differ in any important respect from those of allied species already described. Nidification.—In its nidification the Blue-winged Teal re- sembles its congeners; the nest, site, number of eggs, are all similar in every respect. The eggs are creamy white in colour, and measure on an average 1’9 inch in length by 1°3 inch in breadth. Down apparently undescribed. Diagnostic Characters.—(Nuptial plumage), Avas, with the under tail coverts black, with a white crescent between the eye and the bill, and with the shoulders or wing coverts blue (adult male) ; with a green speculum, and dull blue shoulders (adult female). Length, 16 inches. Family ANATIDA. Genus ANAS. Subfamily Aware, SHOVELLER. ANAS C LYPEATA—Linneus. Geographical Distribution. — 2rztish: Fairly common winter visitor to the British Islands, but practically resident in many localities, and is found both inland and on the coast. Becomes rarer in Wales and in the southern and western districts of England, and the west of Scotland, being very rare in the Outer Hebrides and on the Orkneys, and appears never to have visited the Shetlands. Its recorded breeding places are as follows. England : Shires of Dorset, Kent, Hertford, Cambridge, Norfolk, Lincoln, Nottingham, Huntingdon, Stafford, York, Durham, Northumberland, and Cumberland. Wales: no reliable data. Scotland: Kirkcudbright, East Lothian, Dumbarton, Argyle, Elgin, Ross, and Sutherland, and the island of Tiree, one of the Hebrides. Ireland: Queen’s County, Galway (Lough Derg on the Shannon), Co. Dublin, Co. Antrim. During winter also the Shoveller is much more frequent in the south of Ireland than the north. Foreign: Circumpolar, northern Nearctic and Pale- arctic regions, more southerly in winter; Oriental and extreme northern limits of Neotropical regions in winter. Breeds through- out the subarctic regions of Europe, Asia, and America, from about the latitude of the Arctic Circle south to lat. 50°. Below this latitude it becomes more local, and not so abundant during the breeding season, although it nests in small numbers in the west Palearctic region as far as the African shores of the Medi- terranean, and in the east Palzarctic region as far south as Turkestan and Mongolia; whilst in the Nearctic region it breeds very sparingly in the north of the United States. Its winter 394 THE GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL quarters in Europe are the basin of the Mediterranean and North Africa as far south as the Great Desert, and Abyssinia; in Asia are Persia, India, Ceylon, China, and Japan; in America are the Southern States, the West Indies, Mexico, and Central America south to Panama. Allied Forms.—None of sufficient propinquity to call for notice. Representative species occur as follows: Axas platalea, Neotropical region ; 4. capensis, Ethiopian region ; 4. rhynchotts, A. variegata, Australian region. Time during which the Shoveller may be taken.— August 1st to March rst. Habits.—The migration of the Shoveller to our islands from more Arctic latitudes commences in September and continues through October to November. The return journey commences in April and lasts well into May, and in some countries continues right through the latter month into June. It was first noticed in the valley of the Petchora, near the Arctic Circle, by Messrs. Harvie-Brown and Seebohm on the roth of June; and by the latter gentleman one day earlier in the valley of the Yenesay, in the same latitude. These dates are late even for the Arctic regions, and the species was probably overlooked upon its first arrival. It arrives at its winter quarters in India towards the end of October and the beginning of November, and leaves during April and May. Its migrations are almost invariably performed during night, and the bird does not appear to congregate in very large parties for the purpose. Although the Shoveller occasionally visits the low-lying coasts, it is a thorough fresh- water species, and loves to frequent lakes and large sheets of water, ponds and slow-running rivers. In our islands it is cer- tainly a shy, suspicious bird, keeping well out in the centre of the water if human intruders be lurking about; but in India it is one of the tamest of Ducks. Hume states that in the North- West Provinces it may be met with in pairs on almost every village pond, even those of the filthiest description, little more than cesspools, being frequented until scarcely a drop of liquid filth remains as the hot season approaches. Here on these ponds it is often as tame as the domestic Ducks, and when OF THE BRITISH ISLANDS. 395 approached merely waddles into the water and swims out from shore, seldom rising until fired at, and then if missed usually returning after a circle or two in the air. The Shoveller is not very gregarious, and even when a flock is congregated on some certain favoured pool the birds are usually scattered about in pairs or in very small groups. This Duck almost constantly keeps to shallow water close inshore, only swimming further out when alarmed, and may usually be seen dabbling about in the mud, or with head and neck under the surface seeking for food. The peculiar habit of a pair of birds feeding whilst swimming round in circles with their heads in the centre is graphically described from personal observation by Professor Newton. Sometimes they may be seen standing on the bank preening their plumage, or dozing with their head twisted round and nearly buried in the dorsal plumage. This species walks in the usual waddling manner, but the body is carried rather erect, and sometimes the bird runs rather quickly. It swims fairly well, but rarely dives, and only when wounded. From the nature of the locality in which most of its food is obtained, the very shallow water, the Shoveller rarely turns upside down to feed; it has no need to do so. The Shoveller very often associates with other Ducks, but owing to its partiality for small muddy pools it is most frequently seen by itself. The flight of this species when once the bird is fairly launched is rapid and powerful, but it rises heavily and slowly from the water. The food of the Shoveller consists of grass, grain, shoots, buds, leaves, and roots of aquatic herbage, insects of all kinds and their larve, mollusks, frogs, small fish, in fact anything and everything edible. As Hume justly remarks, in some localities it would be difficult to say what this bird will zo eat. Much of its food is obtained in the shallow water as it moves its broad spatulated bill from side to side, sifting every likely and unlikely bit of mud. It is both a day and night feeder, but obtains most of its food after dusk, leaving in many cases the haunts it has frequented during the day and flying for some considerable distance to places where its staple fare is abundant. The call-note of the Shoveller is a harsh guack; a lower guttural note is uttered during flight. It is 396 GAME BIRDS AND WILD FOWL. a remarkably silent bird, always apparently too intent on feeding to ¢alk. Its flesh is of very variable quality, depending a good deal on the diet of the bird. Nidification —The Shoveller is a rather late breeder, and even in our islands its eggs are not Jaid until the middle of May or later, whilst in more northern latitudes they are not laid before June or even early in July. The breeding grounds of the Shoveller are situated amongst lakes and swamps where plenty of aquatic vegetation grows on the banks, and where shallow water or sluggish streams choked with weed furnish plenty of feeding places. The nest is generally made on a bit of dry ground amongst the tall grass and sedge or heath, and is simply a hollow into which a little dry grass, sedge, and a few dead leaves are collected, and warmly lined with down and feathers plucked from the female. The eggs are from seven to fourteen in number, nine or ten being an average clutch. They are pale buffish white with a faint tinge of olive-green, fine in texture, and with some little gloss. They measure on an average 2'0 inches in length by 1°5 inch in breadth. Down tufts moderate in size, neutral dark gray with pale centres and very conspicuous white tips. Incu- bation, almost invariably performed by the female, lasts, according to Naumann, twenty-one to twenty-three days, but Tiedemann gives twenty-eight days as the period. The male Shoveller has been found sitting on the eggs in at least one well-authenticated instance. The young are usually able to fly a month after they are hatched, but until then they are assiduously tended by the female. Only one brood is reared in the year, but, as is often the case, if the first eggs are taken others are laid. Diagnostic Characters.—