~(is j) /Of. ~o.·,-goj9,s BISON • FM 1-80 ., . D E P A R T M E N T 0 F T H E A R M Y F I E L D M A N U A L ' ~ LOCKWOOD MEMORIAL UBRARY ~ERIAL OBSERVER • TRAINING HEADQUARTERS, DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY APRIL 1965 T AGO 10473A • • • .~: 1 .· .1 •• .,. ' . *FM 1-80 -oJ "ol . !:.~ ; FIELD MANUAL } . I ,. ~ .~ HEADQUARTERS ..': ~i DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY No. 1-80 WASHINGTON, D.C., . 30 April1965 • ... •. ~ ... .. ., AERIAL OBSERVER TRAINING• Paragraphs Page CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1-3 3 2. BASIC PRINCIPLES Section I. 4-6 4 General ------------------------------------------------------------------- II. Observation methods and missions ------------------------------------------7-9 5 III. Army aircraft used for aerial observation ------------------------------------10-12 6 CHAPTER 3. AERIAL OBSERVATION PLANNING AND OPERATIONS Section I. General -------------------------------------------------------------------13,14 11 II. Aerial observation mission request and assignment procedures ------------------15-18 12 III. Mission planning and duties of the aviator-observer team ----------------------19-28 14 CHAPTER 4. AERIAL OBSERVER TECHNIQUES -------------------------------------29-34 18 • 5. AERIAL OBSERVER TRAINING GUIDE Section I. 35-39 28 General ------------------------------------------------------------------- II. Selection criteria --------------------------------------~--------------------40,41 28 III. Planning ------------------------------------------------------------------42-45 28 IV. Program of Instruction -----------------------------------------------------46-48 30 APPENDIX I. REFERENCES ----------------------------------------------------------32 II. INSTRUCTORS' AIDS -----------------------------------------------------33 INDEX 66 *This manual supersedes FM 1-80, 21 February 1962. AGO 10473A • • • CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1. Purpose This manual provides guidance to commanders, staffs, aviators, and observers concerned with the planning and conduct of aerial observation missions and the training of aerial observers. 2. Scope • a. This manual describes the planning and conduct of aerial observation missions and the aerial observer techniques and training procedures necessary to qualify selected personnel to observe from Army aircraft. Discussion is focused on direct observation methods. b. The information contained herein is applicable to n uclear and nonnuclear war. c. Users of this manual are encouraged to submit recommended changes or comments to improve the manual. Comments should be keyed to a specific page, paragraph, and line of the text in which a change is recommended. Reason should be provided for each comment to insure understanding and complete evaluation. Comments should be forwarded to the Commandant, United States Army Aviation School, Fort Rucker, Ala. 36362. 3. Objectives and Missions of Aerial Observation a. The objective of aerial observation is to provide timely information to the supported commander through missions performed by Army aviation employing aerial observers. b. Aerial observation is employed in ( 1) Aerial surveillance. (2) Aerial reconnaissance. (3) Special missions. • AGO 10473A • CHAPTER 2 BASIC PRINCIPLES Section I. 4. Tactical Application of Aerial Observation a. Army aviation is employed by the commander to supplement hi~ ground observation means and to improve the observation capabilities over his area of influence and interest_ Observation employing both aerial and ground means provides the commander a more complete coverage of his area of influence and· interest. b. Aerial observation is only one of the several types of support that may be furnished by organic and supporting aviation. When the quantity of aviation support available is insufficient to accomplish all aviation missions, the commander may establish aviation support priorities. This may result in a reduction of the number of aerial observation missions. 5. Capabilities Aerial observation is a primary capability of Army aviation. Properly employed, it increases the combat effectiveness of the supported ground unit by ct. Providing greater observation coverage and, therefore, greater security within the commander's area of influence and interest. b. A voiding the obstacles and other restrictions normally encountered in ground observation and reconnaissance. c. Accelerating the accumulation, reporting, and dissemination of information. 6. Limitations Factors that limit tt>e employment of Army aircraft and affect the accuracy and completeness of the information obtained by aviatorobserver teams are- GENERAL ct. W eatheT. Weather conditions which produce poor visibility may affect accuracy and completeness of information or prevent its collection by direct observation methods. Use of indirect observation methods, such as side looking airborne radar and infrared devices, can lessen the effect of this limitation, provided the aircraft can be operated along the desired flight path. b. AiT Def enses. Enemy air defense systems may deny access to certain areas. Flak suppression programs and local air superiority may reduce the effectiveness of enemy air defenses and facilitate the accomplishment of essential observation missions. c. Loss of S ecTecy. Increased aerial activity over a specific area may indicate to the enemy the intentions of the ground commander. Proper employment of counterintelligence measures and careful cover and deception planning of observation missions will lessen the effect of this limitation. d. T errcdn. The primary terrain limitation involves those areas having dense vegetation such as jungles, and areas having terrain obstacles such as high hills or mountains which mask or restrict direct observation. Natural restrictions may have similar effects on the various indirect observation methods. e. Night nnd Reduced Visibi!.ity. The hours of darkness and periods of reduced visibility caused by smoke, haze, fog, dust, etc., may reduce the effecti1eness of visual observation. Since indirect observation methods are affected less by these limitations, they may be used more extensively than direct methods during these periods of reduced visibility and at night. AGO 10473A Section II. OBSERVATION METHODS AND MISSIONS • 7. Methods The two methods used to conduct aerial observation are a. Direct observation, which is visual observation, f r equently aided by the use of binoculars, telescopes, and mechanical ranging devices. b. Indirect observation, which is observation employing radar, infrared, photographic, and other electronic means. 8. Missions Aerial observation m1sswns include aerial surveillance, aerial reconnaissance, and special aerial observation missions. Both direct and indirect observation methods are used to conduct these missions. a. A e1·ial Su1·ve illance. Aerial surveillance is the systematic observation of air, surface, or subsurface areas by visual, electronic, photographic, or other means for intelligence purposes. Aerial surveillance missions provide the supported commander with current information by keeping a systematic watch over a well defined area for the purpose of detecting, identifying, locating, and reporting any information of military value. Surveillance of enemy-held areas normally extends from the forward edge of the battle area (FEBA) to the limit of the observation means available to the commander. Factors influencing the size of surveillance areas are aircraft and aviator-observer team availability, conditions of visibility and terrain, natural or manmade concealment, enemy air defense capabilities (both aircraft and ground weapons) , and the aircraft radii of action. b. A e1·ial R econnaissance . Aerial reconnaissance is a mission undertaken to obtain, by visual observation or other detection methods, information about the activities and resources of an enemy or potential enemy, or to secure data concerning the meteorological, hydrographic, or geographic characteristics of a particular area. These missions are normally flown to gather specific information of military value. Areas to be reconnoitered must be thoroughly searched and boundaries assigned. F actors in- AGO 1047 3A fluencing the size of areas to be searched are the same as those given in a above, with the additional consideration of time available and the nature of the information desired. The types of reconnaissance missions are discussed below. ( 1) A rea sear ch re connaissanc e is a mission conducted to obtain specific information about an area. This type of reconnaissance is suited to sparsely populated areas or open country and is conducted at specific intervals for a specified period of time. Search areas vary in size from relatively small areas to areas of several hundred square miles. The size of the area depends upon the number and capability of aircraft used, type of terrain, and information sought. (2) Specific sear ch reconnaissanc e is the observation of a point or a limited number of points to gather specific information. It is suited to densely populated areas and may supplement area search reconnaissance missions. Normally, this type mission is not flown on a regular schedule. ( 3) Route 1·econnaissance is the careful survey of an air, surface, or subsurface route for military purposes. A route may be a road, several roads, railroads, waterways, airspace, or other lines of communication. c. Special M·issions. Special missions are those observation missions not included in the aerial surveillance or reconnaissance category. They include (1) Colu mn control. Aerial column control is used to ( a) Provide security and control of surface or airmobile columns by visual and radio contact. (b) Support foot, motorized, mechanized, or airmobile patrols to enable rapid movement over unfamiliar and unmapped terrain. ( c ) Minimize the danger of surprise by the enemy. (d) Detect obstacles that may affect the the main force, e.g., a long range accomplishment of the mission. patrol out of contact with higher head (2) Aerial radiological survey . Radiologi quarters. cal survey is a mission flown to survey (5) A rt'illery and topographical survey. an area for the presence and intensity See FM 1-100. of radiological contamination. For de(6) OthP1· m'issions. This group includestailed information on the conduct of other observation missions as approan aerial radiological survey, see priate which may assist the comparagraphs 56 through 64, FM 3-12. mander in the accomplishment of his (3) Camouflage inspection. Camouflage in overall mission. spection is aerial observation of friendly units to determine the condi 9. Artillery Adjustment tion and effectiveness of camouflage. (4) Contact reconnaissance. Contact reThe adjustment of artillery, mortar, and connaissance is an aerial observation naval gunfire and target acquistion are inherent mission undertaken to locate friendly in all aerial observation missions. For detailed units that are isolated or cut off from explanation, see part three, FM 6-40. Section Ill. ARMY AIRCRAFT USED FOR AERIAL OBSERVATION engine which is derated to 200 horse 10. General power. The OH-13S currently beingAlthough all Army aircraft may perform purchased is very similar to the OHaerial observation missions, those best suited 13H. The major difference is the for such missions are illustrated and discussed addition of a turbo-supercharger to •in this section. the engine. The derated horsepower of the OH-13S engine is 220. It can 11. Helicopters be transported by rail, water, military a. Obse1·vation. Observation helicopters are aircraft, or truck. the Army's primary observation aircraft. (2) OH-2.3D (observation). The OH-23D Presently the OH-13 and OH-23 helicopters (fig. 2), manufactured by Hiller Air(figs. 1 and 2) are the observation helicopters craft Corporation, is a three-placein use. They have only a visual or direct obserhelicopter with a single main rotor vation capability. and antitorque tail rotor. Designed for (1) OH-13H (obse1·vati on). The OH-13H operations in confined areas of the (fig. 1), manufactured by Bell Helicombat zone, it can carry two passencopter Company, is a standard obgers, two litter patients, or 400 pounds servation helicopter. Designed for of cargo. The OH-23D is a multipuroperations in confined areas of the pose helicopter designed for training,combat zone, it can carry one passencommand and control, wire laying,ger, two litter patients, or 400 pounds aeromedical evacuation, observation,of cargo. It has a speed from 0 to 87 radiological survey, armed reconnaisnautical miles per hour. The OH-13H sance and security, topographic suris a multipurpose helicopter de vey, and light resupply missions. It is signed for training, command and powered by a 250-horsepower engine control, wire laying, aeromedical and can be transported by rail, water, evacuation, observation, radiological military aircraft, or truck . survey, armed reconnaissance and b. Utility. The utility helicopter has a multisecurity, topographic survey, and purpose capability. It may be employed for oblight resupply missions. It is powered servation missions that require a range, speed, • by a 250-shaft horsepower Lycoming or lift capablity greater than that of the obser- AGO 10473A • • Figure 1. OH-18H (observation). vation helicopter. The UH-1A, B, or D, manufactured by Bell Helicopter Company, is a compact design helicopter which features a low silhouette. This helicopter is powered by a single gas turbine Lycoming engine. The UH-1A can carry one crewman and six passengers; one crewman, two litters, and a medical attendant; or one crewman and a payload of 2,000 pounds. The UH-1B can carry one crewman and eight passengers; one crewman, three litters, and a medical attendant; or one crewman and a payload of 2,578 pounds. The UH-1D (fig. 3) can carry 1 crewman and 12 passengers; 1 crewman, 6 litters, and medical attendant; or 1 crewman and a payload of 2,289 pounds. These helicopters are capable of operating from unpre- AGO 10473A pared landing areas and under all weather conditions. Cargo and equipment not feasible to load inside can be transported externally. The UH-1 can be equipped with various armament systems to perform the mission of aerial suppressive fire. 12. Airplanes a. Light observat'ion. The light observation airplane has a visual (dirEct) and photographic observation capability. The 0-1A (fig. 4), manufactured by Cessna Aircraft Company, is a two-place, all-metal, high-wing, airplane designed to operate from short, unimproved, or slightly improved airfields in the combat zone. • Figure 2. OH-23D (observation). • Figu·re 3. UH-1D (utility). AGO 10473A • Figu?·e 4. 0-1A (observation). F igw·e 5. OV-1 (medium observation). AGO 10473A It is capable of carrying an external load of 250 pounds of cargo under each wing, plus 200 pounds of cargo or one observer internally. It has a cruising speed of approximately 87 knots. The 0-lA is powered by a 213-horsepower Continental six-cylinder, horizontally-opposed, air-cooled engine. It is a multipurpose airplane used primarily for observation, as a primary and advanced trainer, and for instrument training (TO-lD). Some secondary capabilities of the 0-lA include battlefield illumination, wire laying, radiological survey, message drop and pickup, and radio relay. b. M ed'ium Obs erva t'ion. The medium observation airplane has an all-weather visual, photographic, radar (B model only) and infrared (C model only) observation capability. The OV-1 (fig. 5), manufactured by Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation, is a two-place, twin-engine, turboprop airplane. The OV-1 is powered by two Lycoming T-53-L--3 (960 shp) • or two T-53-L--7 (1100 shp) turboprop engines, which turn three-bladed Hamilton standard hydromatic propellers. This airplane is a tricycle-geared, mid-winged, tri-tail type with engine nacelles mounted on top of the wings. This twin-turbine airplane gives the Army an entirely new capability for carrying a variety of cameras and electronic sensors. It is designed to operate from small, unimproved fields for purposes of visual, photographic, and electromagnetic surveillance and target acquisition. Specifically, this aircraft is capable of being used for visual observation, day and night pho tcgraphy, electronic surveillance, and escort. It provides the field commander with timely target information, aerial fire direction, and post strike damage assessment. • A GO J047 3A • ,---- • CHAPTER 3 AERIAL OBSERVATION PLANNING AND OPERATIONS Section I. 13. Concept of Employment Aerial observation missions will be flown mainly in support of infantry, armored, or artillery units. The specific mission to be flown (surveillance, reconnaissance, or special) will vary with the intelligence requirements. During a single mission or flight, the aviator-observer team may be called upon to change from one mission to another or to perform more than one type of mission. For example, an aviatorobserver team on a surveillance mission may be diverted t o confirm a suspected target, thus changing t he mission to one of reconnaissance ; or the aviator-observer team on a reconnaissance mission may be told to perform a radiological survey, which changes the mission to special. 14. Command and Staff Responsibilities for Aerial Observation a. Intelligen ce Officer-. G2 (S2 ) . The G2(S2) performs the staff functions and responsibilities prescr ibed in chapter 3, FM 101-5 and chapter 2, TC 101-2. b. G2 (S2 } A ir. The G2(S2) Air is responsible for t he overall planning and coordination of the aerial observation effort within his command. Specific functions are prescribed in chapter 2, TC 101-2. c. Commanding Officen, Suppo r t ed Gr ound Fo r ces. Commanders of supported ground forces are responsible for furnishing qualified personnel for aerial observers. Through coordination with supporting aviation units, the ground force commander may arrange for the training of personnel as 8.erial observers. d. Army A viat ion Staff Officer·. The Army AGO 10473A GENERAL aviation staff officer performs the staff responsibilities prescribed in chapter 3, FM 101-5 and chapter 2, TC 101-2. In units not authorized an aviation staff officer, the senior officer of supporting aviation elements performs limited aviation staff duties. e. Commanding Officer, A rmy A viation Uni t. The commanding officer of an aviation unit is responsible for the employment of available organic means in the execution of aviation missions assigned to his command and for the training of aerial observers. The senior officer of a supporting aviation element has the responsibility of providing limited aviation staff support to the supported unit. f. Op er·ati on s Offi cer, Army A v iation Unit. The operations officer of the aviation unit is responsible to the unit commander for supervising the aviation unit operations section and the processing, assigning, and planning of specific flight missions. g. A v iato1'-0b se?·veT T eams. A viator-observer teams performing aerial observation must be capable of providing timely response to the requirements of the combat intelligence system and complete and accurate information in the degree of detail requested. A via tor-observer teams must (1) Have a thorough understanding of the mission. (2) Plan the mission. ( 3) Supervise preparation of the equipment. ( 4) Prepare and file the flight plan for the mission. ( 5) Execute the mission. ( 6) Prepare mission data for debriefing. 11 Section II. AERIAL OBSERVATION MISSION REQUEST AND ASSIGNMENT PROCEDURES • 15. General 17. Mission Assignment Procedures Aerial observation mission requirements may originate at any level of command. According to the time available, they are classified as either preplanned or immedictte mission requirements. a. Preplanned. Preplanned mission requirements are anticipated observation requirements. Unit standing operating procedures (SOP) will establish the cutoff time for the submission of preplanned mission requirements. b. Immediat e. Immediate mission requirements are unforeseen observation requirements. Normally, a portion of the observation air effort is allocated to meet immediate observation requirements as they arise. 16. Mission Request Procedures All aerial observation _mission requests are processed through intelligence channels . Any intelligence communications method, i.e., radio wire, courier, etc., may be used for requesting preplanned missions so long as the request arrives at the action headquarters prior to the cutoff time established by SOP. All intermediate headquarters will take the necessary action to approve, disapprove, or modify requested preplanned missions. Immediate mission requests are transmitted over the division air request net from subordinate elements to the division G2 Air at the division tactical operations center (DTOC) or over the field army air request net from subordinate commands to the field army G2 Air at the field army tactical operation center (FATOC). These requests go directly to the DTOC or the FATOC, bypassing either the brigade or the corps. The brigade and corps will monitor the respective nets, and may a. Remain silent, thereby approving the requested mission. b. Enter the net to disapprove the requested mission. c. Enter the net to modify the requested mission. The G2(S2) Air has overall staff responsibility for planning and coordinating the aerial observation effort of the command. Upon receiving an aerial observation request, the G2(S2) Air will, in the name of the commander, approve, disapprove, modify if necessary, and/ or assign the mission to an aviation element for execution. For approved missions, the G2(S2) Air will determine the type of mission (reconnaissance, surveillance or special) to be flown and the method of observation, direct or indirect, to be used to conduct the mission. For indirect observation missions, the G2(S2) Air will determine the type sensor to be used (photographic, radar, infrared, etc.). Preplanned missions will be assigned to units in the aerial surveillance and reconnaissance plan. For discussion of the aerial surveillance and reconnaissance plan, see paragraphs 46 through 48 and appendix V, FM 30-20. Immediate missions will be assigned to units thtough normal command channels using any rapid means of communications available. Aviation dements having only an aerial observation capability, such as the aerial surveillance and target acquisition units, will normally be authorized direct coordination and liaison with the G2(S2) Air, who will normally assign missions directly to the unit. 18. Briefings To insure a thorough understanding of assigned missions, the aviator-observer team will receive general and preflight briefings. a. A general briefing is given daily to all aviator-observer teams. Pertinent information relative to tactical operations for the next 24 hours is presented. This briefing aids in reducing the amount of information that must be presented at the preflight briefing. b. The preflight briefing, which is conducted in conj unction with the assignment of the mission, includes all information relative to the conduct of the mission. The G2(S2) Air (or his representative) or an intelligence repre- AGO 10473A sentative of the supported unit conducts the c. The general and preflight briefings may be intelligence portion of the briefing. The flight conducted using the format of a 5-paragraph operations officer conducts that portion of the operations order. A sample "Guide for Aviation briefing pertaining to aviation matters. Briefing" is shown in figure 6. A GUIDE TO AVIATION BRIEFING 1. SITUATION a. Enemy forces: Terrain, identification, location, activity, strength. b. Friendly forces: Requirements of next higher unit; location and planned actions of adjacent units; location and planned actions of supported unit; fire support available; missions and routes of other aircraft; attachments and detachments. c. Weather forecast. 2. MISSION 3. EXECUTION a. Plan of operation. b. Specific duties of subordinate elements. (1) Flight plan: Routes, formation, checkpoints, zones. (2) Loading plan. ( 3) Landing plan. c. Location of friendly airfields and alternate fields. d. Coordinating instructions. (1) Air traffic control. (2) Artillery support: Reference lines, preplanned fire, registrations, concentrations, and barrages. (3) Ground units at objective (methods of contact, recognition). ( 4) Other (specific coordination for specific mission). e. Pickup point for downed crews and passengers. f. Reporting. 4. ADMINISTRATIVE AND LOGISTICS a. POL requirements. b. Maintenance. c. Special equipment. d. Evacuation. e. Rations. f. Relief. 5. COMMAND AND SIGNAL a. Command. ( 1) Chain of command. (2) Location of the commander. b. Signal. (1) Air-ground signals. (2) SOL (a) Frequencies and call signs. (b) Codes-authentication, map, and operational. Figu1·e 6. Guide for aviation briefing. AGO 10473A • Section Ill. M ISSION PLANNING AND DUTIES OF THE AVIATOR-OBSERVER TEAM 19. General a. Strongpoints and observation posts canbe expected in any area where the terrain offers After receiving an aerial observation mission a decisive advantage to the holder. assignment and the general and preflight briefings, the aviator-observer team plans the b. Artillery positions are normally located in mission. This is the preflight planning phase, defilade. and consists of four steps. c. Assembly areas are usually in wooded a. Map and aerial photograph selection. areas or other areas offering cover and conceal b. Terrain evaluation. ment. c. Flight planning. d. Supply installations have accessible road d. Crew coordination. nets and, when possible, are out of range of friendly artillery. 20. Map and Aerial Photograph Selection e. Roadblocks can be expected at narrowOnly those maps and photographs necessary points along the routes of advance where by for the conduct of the mission should be pass is difficult or impossible.selected and carried by the aviator-observer f. Command posts are normally located nearteam. These should be the most current availgood road nets, in defilade, and in areas conable and of a scale that will facilitate navigataining good natural cover and concealment. tion by the aviator and accurate locating and Presence of vehicles, troop shelters, and a conrecording of information by the observer. For centration of communications antennas usuallynavigation, medium scale maps (1 :100,000) indicates the location of a command installawill assist the aviator in flying from the tacti tion. cal landing area to the mission a r ea. Forobservation, tactical scale maps (1 :50,000) will 22. Flight Planning aid the observer in accurately identifying andlocating prominent terrain feabres by coordiIn flight planning, the aviator-observer teamnates. The scale of an aerial photograph should conducts a detailed map and aerial photographnot be smaller ~han 1:20,000 and, depending study (para 20) ; selects primary and alternateupon the detail desired, may be as large as flight routes, altitudes, and checkpoints; mem1:5,000. orizes prominent terrain features; and prepares notes or a checklist as necessary to assist 21. Terrain Evaluation in accurate orientation and location. In addiPreliminary analys is of the terrain to be tion, the following factors must be considered:covered is made from-(1) maps and photos; (2) past experience of the aviator and observer a. Type Miss ion. The flight path must coinand their knowledge of the situation and the cide with the assigned task, i.e., if the mission enemy; ( 3) viewpoints of other personnel with is an area search reconnaissance, the flight experience in the area; and (4) recorded inplan must permit the observer to view and formation from previous mission s. Areas search the entire designated area at frequent known to contain enemy positions or activities intervals to insure immediate detection and are marked on the map or photo. Key terrain location of enemy activities and complete coverfeatures, woods, and defilade areas are marked age of the assigned mission area. for close observation as possible locations for b. Time Allocated. T he briefing officer specienemy strongpoints, artillery positions, assemfies the time allocated for each mission or thebly areas, command posts, supply dumps, etc. time that the mission information is required.Guiding factors in determining probable locaThis time element may be necessary to insuretions of enemy positions or activities in the maximum aircraft utilization and aviation s upareas of infl uence and interest include t h e fo lport and/ or to insure that collected intelligencelowing: information is disseminated while still valid. 14 AGO 10473A • The time element may require that the aviator fly the shortest flight path, giving the observer only a one-pass opportunity to observe preselected areas. c. Methods of Report-ing. Radio is the primary means for reporting information as it is obtained. Frequencies, call signs, codes, reporting times, and authentication procedures must be verified prior to the flight. In the event of radio failure, alternate means may be used such as message drops or landing and contacting personnel of friendly units. A debriefing (para 27) will be conducted upon completion of all missions. d. Flight Routes. The flight route is the flight path from the tactical landing area to, through, and over the forward friendly positions. To avoid the hazards of friendly mortar and artillery fires, nuclear weapons, and air defenses, coordination must be established between the aviator-observer teams and aviation operations sections, flight coordination centers (FCC), or flight operations centers (FOC). The flight routes must be planned to insure complete coverage of the mission area with minimum exposure of the aviator-observer team to flight hazards and enemy countermeasures. e. Altitude. Most missions will be flown at a minimum altitude (nap-of-the-earth) to take advantage of the terrain as protection against enemy air defense weapons and aircraft. For missions requiring higher altitudes (such as an aerial photography mission requiring a ~ertain scale photograph), aircraft will be flown to the mission area at a minimum altitude, then climbed rapidly to the mission altitude to conduct the mission. Upon completing the mission, the aircraft will descend to a minimum altitude for return to the tactical landing area. f. Di1·ection of Obs e1-vcdion. The aviatorobserver team must consider the approach for an observational pass to insure that the enemy, sun, shadows, terrain features, etc., do not hinder the observer's opportunity to detect the enemy. 23. Crew Coordination Crew coordination consists of an intercrew briefing, preparation of checklists, and a thorough equipment check. This equipment AGO 10473A check includes the aircraft preflight inspection and check, and inspection of any other equipment that may be necessary for the mission, i.e., maps, cameras, sensory devices, binoculars, flares, etc. 24. Duties of the Aviator-Observer Team In addition to the preflight planning, the aviator-observer team must fly the mission and detect, identify, estimate the size, and determine the location, disposition, and activities of targets. As required by the mission, the team must rapidly record or report all significant observations while the aircraft is operating at varying attitudes, groundspeeds, and altitudes. Emphasis is placed on speed, accuracy, and completeness of information. a. Det ection. Targets must be detected under conditions of excellent concealment and great dispersion, to include temporary or highly mobile targets. b. Identification. Targets must be accurately identified and promptly reported to permit valid assessment of the situation and application of appropriate countermeasures. c. St1·ength Estimation. Accurate reports of strength or size provide additional information about the capabilities and composition of enemy forces. Targets should be reported by actual count or estimated number. Dispersion on the battlefield will result in an increased number of target groups; however, the elevated position of the aerial observer will enhance his capability to estimate the strength of these target groups. d. Tc~1·get Location. Exact locations of targets are essential, particularly if the target is to be engaged by unobserved fire. Targets to be attacked by unobserved fires must be located within close range of each other. e. Disposition and Acti,uity. Accurate and complete reports on target disposition and activity provide guidance in determining enemy composition and capabilities and locations of highly mobile targets. 25. Recording To provide commanders with accurate information, a systematic method of recording in formation observed during the flight must be cal information during the conduct of the used. When recording on a map or photograph, mission, the aviator-observer team must be able an abbreviated term may be used to identify to make spot reports to the requesting unit by the observed target (table II). The notation may means of radio (the primary means), message be made directly on the map or photograph • drop, or prearranged signals . When circumat the location where the target or activity stances permit, the aviator will land at or near was observed. Portable recording instruments, the requesting unit to report pertinent informasuch as tape recorders, may be used by the tion. If a spot report is not required while theobserver to record observed information. aircraft is in the air, the debriefing officer forwards a mission report through intelligence 26. Reporting channels to units concerned. Although a spot To provide commanders and staffs with criti-report may not be required, the aviator- MISSION NO. 3 DATE/TIME !1./tJ btJo~t"/ MAP/PHOTO ..tJ~~-/:~..r~~o --- ( OBSERVER e!fA&&M+: ORGANIZATION 3 £$. :ZtJ f?:!-anv ,{fov TYPE MISSION ~a.~1»'!-nCL.ol TYPE AIRCRAFT __;0;..:/7"...:..__________ TARGET MAP/PHOTO TARGET TIME OF ITEM NO. IDENTIFICATION LOCATION DESCRIPTION OBSERVATION REMARKS /. /lP~ SI,G1o ~,9j?~ 0 ?J~ ,(}~c~ IU-~te~t /?n'"h: ~ . I ? . Jl/1. t1...&..-. .z. /lr fit , ~ J2.o,?o 0,/lt/(.-~(1'1.~ 09.11 (¥.~)~ ~~a ~1'-I.A-w. F igure 7. Sample debriefing format. AGO 1047 3A • • observer team must constantly evaluate observed information, and report any information that may be of immediate value. 27. Debr iefing For maximum information, the same individual should conduct both the preflight briefing and the debriefing of the aviator-observer team. Information is consolidated into two categories -mission and general information. a. Mission . On debriefing, the aviator-observer team is asked questions covering all aspects of the mission assigned in the preflight briefing. b. Geneml. Any additional information obtained which was not an assigned mission task, but is of val ue (such as areas of enemy small arms fire) or any changes in tactical maps and weather data is general information. 28. Debriefing Form Figure 7 shows a sample debriefing format to aid the aviator-observer team in compiling mission data and to shorten the time spent in debriefing. This format may be modified as the situation requires. AGO 10473A 17 • CHAPTER 4 AERIAL OBSERVER TECHNIQUES 29. General During missions involving direct observation, the observer is primarily concerned with detection, identification, location, and reporting. Since the observer may be hampered by maneuvers used to reduce aircraft vulnerability (evasive maneuvers), he must devote maximum ability and effort to visually observe the terrain in the time available. Observation techniques will vary with the mission and the physical environment. a. Det ection. Detection requires determination that an object or activity exists . Factors influencing the detection capability are terrain, light, altitude, airspeed (length of time the target is viewed), and visibility, as well as the deception practiced by the enemy. b. Identification. Major factors in identifying a target are description, strength, and disposition. The observer must be able to classify targets as either friendly or enemy and to discriminate among the types of targets observed. c. Lo cation . The exact location of detected and identified targets is the ultimate objective of aerial observer missions. Depending upon the nature of the target, the observer may locate the center of mass and/ or the boundaries of the entire area encompassed. d. R eport ing. For reporting procedures, see paragraph 26. 30. Direct Observation Techniques There are four areas in which observation techniques may be directly applied: visual sea1·ch, tcu·get r ecognition, geographi cal orientation, and targ et location. 31 . Visual Search a. Gen eral. Visual search is the systematic visual coverage of a given area. This method of search is directly applicable to all Army observation aircraft. It takes advantage of the inherent capability of human vision to detect fine detail. A relatively small portion of the human eye is capable of resolving a fine detail. From an aircraft in flight, this portion will cover a pattern on the ground varying in size in relation to the distance the ground area is from the human eye. Figure 8 shows that, from an al titude of 200 feet, an area on the ground located 30 meters from the aircraft appears to be elliptical in shape, with a long axis of 6 meters; 500 meters from the aircraft, this ellipse has a long axis of 252 meters. (1) From the standpoint of effective aerial • observation, visual search is the hardest part of the observer's task. First, the observer may go through the motions of sea r ching for a target without knowing that he is not completely or systematically covering the ground; and second, the observer is placed in a situation which taxes the limits of human observation. (2) The purpose of visual search is to detect targets. The targets of interest are often the fleeting and transient types, ranging in size from a foot soldier with a handheld weapon to the largest tactical missile and launcher. Within the limits of tactical deployment, these targets may be located anywhere in the search area. b. Capab ilitie s and L imitations of V isual Obse?·vation. (1) A 1·ea coverag e. Of particular concern to the aerial observer is this question: How much of a designated area am I expected to sem·ch in order to p1·ovide adequ ate visual coverage ? The answer AGO 1047aA • ~,____ t ', -----1 200FT '\. ---- f ' --- -'\ f ----- ~E3T~~ I ~~--------500 METERS -----1 SIDE VIEW 252 METf;RS TOP VIEW ---OBSERVER'S LINE OF SIGHT --'GROUND Figm·e 8. Visual sea1·ch g1·ound pattents. depends upon several facto rs, the most important of which are the (a) Observation altitude. (b) Speed of the observation aircraft. (c) Terrain conditions. (d) Limitations of the human eye. (2) Obse1·vation altitude. (a) The higher the altitude at which the aircraft operates, the greater is the amount of terrain available to the observer for inspection. The AGO 10473A distance that can be seen from an aircraft increases as altitude increases. For example, at an altitude of 250 feet, the horizon line for an observer is found to be at a distance of about 19 miles. At 500 feet, or double the altitude, the horizon line is extended to a distance of about 29 miles. The observer is not expected to sight even the largest targets of interest at these extreme distances. (b) Senrch distance may refer to either tance covered at low altitude in slant range or ground distance. In visual search is approximately one figure 9, "A" is a point on the grid square. However, this figure is ground track of the aircraft; "B" is dependent upon the condition of the the position of the aircraft at that terrain over which the search is • moment, or the air point; "C" indimade. cates the target. Then "BC" is (3) Speed of th e obse1· vation ai·rcnt[t. slant range or search distance to the (a) The speed of visual observation air target, and "AC" is ground distance craft is expected to range from 0 or search distance to the target from knots per hour to approximately the aircraft ground track. Slant 300 knots per hour. The upper range varies with altitude because limits of this range will not be it is the observer's line of sight; useful in human aerial observation, ground distance does not. It is the but will be used instead to reduce ground distance which is used to the vulnerability of the observation locate a target on the map. When aircraft. For example, at an alti considering the detectability of tartude of 200 feet or below, and flying gets, it is the slant range which at 100 knots per hour, the aircraft determines whether the target is is traveling over approximately 50 capable of being seen, not the meters of terrain every second. ground distance to the target. At This means that the observer has altitudes above 2,000 feet, and for available for inspection, every sec targets located near the ground ond, a strip of terrain 50 meters by track, altitude and slant range tend 1,000 meters. to become equivalent. At low alti (b) Aircraft speed, so far as it contudes, below 200 feet, and for tarcerns the observer, is the rate at gets located approximately 500 which the terrain passes by the airmeters from the ground track, slant craft. If aircraft speed is held conrange and ground distance tend to stant and the altitude is increased,become equivalent. While more ter • the apparent rate of movement of rain can be seen at high altitudes, the ground object is decreased. a better visual coverage of the area Conversely as the altitude of the adjacent to the ground track of the aircraft is decreased, the apparentaircraft is possible at low altitudes. movement of the ground object inAs a rule of thumb, the ground dis-creases. 8 ..............___;;:: -..........---~ ,. ----... __ ~--------------------------------~c A Figu1'e 9. Diagmm of sea1·ch distance. AGO 104731\ • • FigltTe 10. Motion p erspective in the visual field look·ing to the ?'ight. • (c) Figure 10 illustrates schematically the apparent rate of ground movement at an optimal observation altitude. The direction of the aircraft is from right to left and, therefore, ground objects would appear to move toward the right as shown by the arrows. The arrows, by their varying length, indicate the apparent rate of movement for objects located at different distances from the aircraft ground track. Objects near the flight path move at a faster rate than objects out toward the horizon. As the line of sight falls on either side of a line drawn perpendicular to the flight path, the observation distance, or slant range, increases and apparent movement decreases as indicated by the arrow length. The length of these arrows when expressed numerically is called angular 1:elotity, which is the number of degrees of arc through which a ground object moves per unit of time. It combines into a single expression the relationship between slant range and aircraft speed. (4) T errain conditions. (a) The amount of terrain that can be covered effectively in visual search is largely dependent on the type of terrain. For example, searching over dense jungle growth does not AGO 1047aA permit the degree of visual contact with the terrain that is afforded over barren wastes such as the arctic or desert regions. Consequently, the amount of search area covered would be greatly reduced. (b) The types of terrain which permit targets to be sighted more easily are roads; open, sandy areas; or fields. Because they are easier to cover visually, aerial observers often concentrate their attention upon open areas. However, it is possible to sight down through tree stands and through the adjacent low-lying shrubs and bushes. From the air, targets are rarely seen slihouetted against the sky; they do not normally stand out from their background. Military targets with their OD paint provide poor conb·ast for visibility. (c) Terrain conditions often mask the target in such a way that it is exposed to aerial view for only a very brief period. This is particularly true in hilly or mountainous regions. Basically, when the terrain is mountainous or hilly or covered with moderate to sparse vegetation, the aerial observer can effectively cover an area of about one-half grid square from the ground track of the aircraft. In open terrain, his search depth can be extended to one grid square. CRYSTALLINE • LENS OP TI C IRIS Figure 11. The hwman eye, showing the small a1·ea of foveal vision. (5) Limitations of the human eye. (a) As a sensing mechanism, the human eye (fig. 11) has certain limitations. When light from a distant object enters the cornea, it passes through the pupil, the opening iris, and is focused on a light sensitive surface, the retina. Embedded in the retina are light-receiving cells, described as rods and cones, which are activated by the light rays to send impulses along their nerve attachments through the optic nerve to the visual centers in the brain. (b) The rods and cones differ in their functions. The rods are sensitive to very faint light, and are most effective during the hours of darkness for the detection of small light sources. But the rods are exclusively a light-dark sense as they do not respond to the different wave lengths of light by which we distinguish differences of color, nor do they contribute much to the accurate identification of form. These facts would not be important to visual search if it were not for the manner in which the rods and cones are distributed throughout the retina. Only cones are present in the foveal area, and the number of cones per unit of area decreases rapidly from the foveal toward the periphery of the retina. Each cone in the foveal transmits its impulse along a single nerve fiber. In the peripheral region, several may transmit along a single fiber. This accounts for the fact that the foveal area is that portion of the retina used in resolving fine detail in an image. The foveal region covers a circular area of about llj::! millimeters in diameter. A one-cent piece held 81!:.! inches from the eye would just about cover the foveal area. The foveal area is that portion of the retina by which the observer senses small differences in terrain configuration that signify the target. (c) Figure 12 illustrates the amount of coverage by foveal vision at different ground distances from the flight path when the aircraft is at an altitude of 200 feet. At a ground distance of 30 meters from the air- AGO 10473A • craft ground track, the area covthe general configuration of the 0-1 ered is slightly elliptical with a long and will vary with the model of the axis of 6 meters. That is, if the aircraft. The observation work sector aircraft were stationary, all objects is 90° forward of the line placed per within this 6-meter length would be pendicular to the line of flight. Forty seen in clearest detail. Objects located outside of this area would appear slightly blurred; the farther out from this area an object is located, the more blurred it would appear. c. Visu al Search T echniques and P1·ocedures. (1) Sectors. Visual search is conducted from only one side of the aircraft at a time, with the aerial observer confining his search activity to a limited portion of his entire field of observation. This limited area is called the observation work sector and includes the orientation and search sectors. Figure 13 depicts the observation work sector from an 0-1 aircraft. The nonobservational areas result from • 252 X 4 2 75 X 2 1 24 X 12 6X5 • 5 • AREA COVERED {METERS) five degrees forward of the perpendicular line is the search sector. The remaining 45° of the arc is the orien t,ation sector. (a) Orientation sector. The orientation sector is the forward portion of the observation work sector and is primarily used by the observer to locate terrain features ,for inflight orientation. By preplanning the use of prominent terrain features in preflight planning for the mission, the observer will spend a minimum amount of time in the orientation sector. (b) Search secto1·. The search sector is the rearward portion of the observation work sector in which the 500 250 125 30 GROUND (METERS) Figw·e 12. Ground a1·ea covered by fov eal vision. AGO 10473A 23 LINE OF FLIGHT ~------1000 M ET ERS -------.. REAR AREA • TO ASSIST IN ORIENTATION, THE OBSERVER MAY USE ANY TERRAIN FEATUR E REGARDLESS OF ITS DISTANCE FROM THE GROUND TR ACK OF THE AIR CRA FT. Figut·e 13. Observation work sector. aerial observer systematically scans the terrain. It is on this sector that his attention centers during visual search. (2) P1·ocedu1·es . (a) Below an altitude of 500 feet, the observer's line of sight is directed toward the horizon ; above 500 feet, the line of sight is directed downward. Over most terrain, the aerial observer systematically (fig. 14) 1. Looks out toward the horizon approximately 1,000 meters and searches in toward the aircraft (Step A) . 2 . Looks out to one-half the distance ( 500 meters) toward the horizon and searches in toward the aircraft (Step B). 3 . Looks out to one-fourth the distance (250 meters) toward the horizon and searches in toward t he aircraft (Step C). 4. Repeats the above process. Note. The rapidity with w hich th e above steps are repeated is dependent upon the speed of the aircraft. (b) During this procedure the observer must use head movement to avoid fixating a sighted target. When a ta rget is located in the search sector, the observer should record the information as quickly as possible by using his map and recording device, if available, and then continue his systematic search. d. Inst?·uctor s' A ids (app. II) . Section II, appendix II, contains practical guides for the presentation of visual search instruction and • the preparation of training aids. A GO 1047 3A • • N O NOBS ERVATI ONAL AREA Figure 14. SeaTch techniques (OH). 32. Target Recognition trainees have had varying amounts of experience; therefore, it cannot be as a. Accurate and complete reports are essensumed that any (all ) students know tial to the successful completion of an aerial obwhat a particular piece of equipment servation mission. In order to develop the skills looks like. of target recognition, certain points should be understood. (2) Effects of distance. As eye-to-target (1) Prior experience. Aerial observer distance increases, certain character- AGO 10473A istics of equipment change. Observers may recognize a piece of equipment by different characteristics, and these characteristics change as the range changes. Training must include slides of equipment from near the far limits of the search sector or the limits of vision if closer. Table I shows approximate maximum detection distances. (3) V egetation. Vegetation is referred to as clutter. Any target environment (background and near foreground) which varies in color or texture (trees, bushes, grass) or partly masks some of the target characteristics will affect the observer's ability to recognize a target. Table I. Maximum Detection Ranges Slant Ground Range Distance• Target (meters) (meters) Gun, machine, 7.62-mm 91 76 Launcher, rocket, 3.5-inch ________ 152 145 Mortar, 81-mm ----------------183 177 Gun, machine, cal. 50 ----------213 213 Personnel ----------------------274 274 Mortar, 4.2-inch ----------------305 302 Rifle, recoilless, 106-mm _________ 305 302 Howitzer, 105-mm, towed ________ _ 610 608 Truck, utility, 1,4 -ton 4x4 ________ 610 608 Howitzer, 155-mm, towed 915 913 Truck, cargo, %,-ton, 4x4 ________ 915 913 Howitzer, self-propelled, full-tracked, 155-mm __________ 915 913 Truck, cargo, 2%-ton, 6x6 ______ _ 915 913 Tank, combat, full track, 90-mm gun, M-48 --------------------915 913 • Assumed mean altitude of 150 feet. (4) Uniqu eness of equipment. All military targets are unique by type. Although an M-48 tank and an M-47 tank are both medium tanks by class designation, they are unique by type; therefore, if an accurate description of a piece of equipment is required, the aerial observer must be trained to that piece of equipment. The unit which has the largest color slide coverage of items of E:quipment will be the most capable of adequately training aerial observers for the intelligence system requirement. Supplemental training on foreign equipment would prepare the observer for a mobilization situation. (5) Speed of 1·ecogndion. Because of the short available viewing time in lowlevel flight, the aerial observer must be trained to instantaneously respond upon sighting a target. He should have abbreviated identifying terms for all types of targets available at his command (table II). These abbreviated terms are quickly recorded and will aid in rapid identification. To prevent the observer from locking on sighted targets or looking to the rear of the search sector, he must rapidly and positively identify targets. Upon sighting targets involving numbers of items, the observer will report by actual count, when possible, or by estimate when numbers are large. b. The accurate identification of sighted targets assists intelligence agencies in the association of items of equipment with specific types of enemy units. For example, if an indirect fire weapon is reported by an aerial observer as a mortar, the fact that this mortar was not reported by caliber restricts the use of this info r mation for intelligence purposes. Had the weapon been identified as a 4.2, then intelligence personnel could have associated the information with the presence of a heavy mortar unit. c. Section III, appendix II, contains practical guides for the presentation of target recognit ion instruction and the preparation of train ing aids. 33. Geographical Orientation a. Geographical orientation, which takes place in the orientation sector (fig. 13), is the ability of the observer to know his position relative to any geographic reference, to include maps, charts, aerial photos, or preselected terrain features. The aerial observer must be able to orient the terrain view to his map. To facilitate this, the observer orients his map so that AGO 10473A • • North is at the top of the map. This procedure avoids excessive "head in cockpit" time and per mits better use of search time. Table II. Military Items orient himself in relation to that terrain feature, and locate the target with reference to the surrounding terrain. As training progresses, he should be able to shift from a geographical reference point(s) directly to the target. c. Section IV, appendix II, contains practical guides for the presentation of geographical orientation instruction and the preparation of training aids. 34. Ta rget Locati on a. Target location is the transposition of a sighted target on the ground to a geographical representation of the terrain, such as a map or chart. The observer must be able to record the boundary limits of the sighted target as rapidly as possible. Procedures which may be used by the aerial observer to report and record information include (1) Assigning reference numbers to targets as sighted, and reporting information by verbal means such as radio or recording devices. (2) Reporting desired information on sighted targets, such as (a) Relative speed and direction of movement. (b) Degree of cover or concealment. (c) Relative position with respect to the target and surrounding terrain. b. Target location training combines all previous training, in addition to training in target location. The observer must now ( 1) See and recognize a target (Search and Recognition Training). (2) Orient the sighted target with the surrounding terrain (Geographical Orientation). (3) Locate that target on a map or chart carried by the observer (Target Location Training). c. Section V, appendix II, contains practical guides for the presentation of target location instruction and the preparation of training aids. • N omenclature Personnel -------------------------Truck, utility, 1,4-ton, 4x4 ___________ Truck, cargo, %-ton, 4x4 ___________ Truck, cargo, 2,1h -ton, 6x6 __________ Truck, cargo, 5-ton, 6x6 ____________ Truck, commercial, P h -ton, 4x2 _____ Carrier, light weapon, infantry, %-ton, 4x4, M-274 _______________ Trailer, 1,4-ton, 2-wheel _____________ Trailer, %-ton, 2-wheel ____________ _ Gun, machine, 7.62-mm _____________ Gun, machine, cal. 50, Browning ___ _ Mortar, 4.2-inch ------------------Mortar, 81-mm --------------------Launcher, rocket, 3.5-inch __________ Howitzer, 105-mm ----------------Howitzer, 155-mm ----------------Howitzer, self-propelled, full track, 105-mm _______________ Howitzer, self-propell ed, full track, 155-mm ______________ _ Launcher, rocket, multiple, 4.5-inch __ Rifle, I'ecoilless, 106-mm -----------Carrier, personnel, full-track, armored, M-59__________ _________ Truck tractor, semi-trailer, M-15 ___ Tank, combat, full track, 90-mm gun, M-47 --------------Tank, combat, full track, 90-mm gun, M-48 ---------------Tent, 2-man ----------------------- Abbreviated Name Troops 1,4 % 2% 5 ton Ph Mule 1,4 Trail % Trail 7.62 50 4.2 81 3.5 105 155 105 SP 155 SP 4.5 106 M-59 M-15 M-47 M-48 Pup tent b. Geographical orientation training is valuable in correcting the two major orientation problems: unor-ientation, which occurs when the aerial observer has no geographical reference by which to determine his relative position and direction; and disorientntion, which occurs when the aerial observer is confused as to geographical reference with respect to his relative position or direction. In this training, the observer must learn to recognize a terrain feature, AGO 10473A 27 CHAPTER 5 AERIAL OBSERVER TRAINING GUIDE Section I. 35. Purpose This chapter is a guide for commanders in establishing and conducting a visual aerial observer training course. 36. Responsib ility Commanding officers of Army aviation units are directly responsible for the conduct, efficiency, and results of aerial observer training within their parent organizations, which includes the training of observers from brigades, combat commands, battalions, and squadrons. 37. Authority a. AR 40-501 prescribes the physical requirements for observer training. b . AR 600-106 authorizes flight status for observers. GENERAL 38. Training Objective The objective of observer training is to quali fy selected personnel from the supported ground units as aerial observers. 39. Scope Aerial observer training will be designed to meet the needs of each bl'anch of service con cerned and will be of adequate length to fulfill the observation requirements. a . AR 95-51 outlines the scope and mmlmum number of hours required for the observer • training course. b. Appendix II provides a practical guide for the presentation of basic skills instruction and the preparation of training aids. Section II. SELECTION CRITERIA 40. Trainees \Vhen sel~cting personnel to be trained as observers, the following should be considered : a. Physical profile. b. Diversified experience in basic branch. c. Desire to fly. d. Previous flying exper ience. 41 . Instructors Qualifications to be considered in selecting Section Ill. 42. General I n planning an observer training course, Army aviation unit commanders, operations officers, and instructors must consider the instructors to cond uct observer training are that the individual a. Is airplane and helicopter qualified. b. Is qualified in one of the branches closely related to aerial observation (armor, infant ry, or artillery) . c. Has other related specialized training, such as that required for combat intelligence, aerial photography, communications, or airground operations. PLANNING a. Specific training objectives. b. Training variables. c. Methods of instruction. AGO 10473 A • d. Program of instruction. e. Equipment availability. 43 . Specific Tra ining Objectives The training course must prepare the individual to e~. Detect, identify, locate, and report friendly and enemy personnel and equipment, and combat area activity. b. Use special equipment (photographic, electronic, and CBR). c. Adjust the fire of indirect fire weapons from the air. d. Plan surveillance, reconnaissance, and special observation missions (using maps and aerial photos), to include the flight paths, altitudes, checkpoints, etc. e. Analyze terrain conditions and report changes in terrain which do not appear on maps. f. Report information to appropriate agencies clearly, concisely, anrl accurately. g . Understand the pilot techniques of level flight and of landing the aircraft. 44. Training Variables In any training situation, a number of variables affect the methods of training used, time allotted for training, and the program of mstruction. These variables include the a. Training mission. b. Training status of the individual and the unit. c. Personnel situation. d. Time available for training. e. Training areas and facilities. f. Weather and climatic conditions. g. Status of equipment. h. Special subjects to be stressed. 45. Methods of Instruction To insure maximum effectiveness and uniformity of instruction, the commander must determine the best methods for utilizing in- AGO 10473A structors, presenting subject material, and conducting the training course. Specific training methods are given in FM 21-5. a. It is desirable to use the same instructors throughout the course (during the individual and team phases of training). b. Subject material should be presented in conferences, demonstrations, or practical exercises. Lectures should be avoided. The maximum number of field exercises should be included to give the student practical application of his classroom training. c. The training course is divided into two phases-individual and team. (1) Individual. Individual training encompasses the necessary hours of ground and flight subjects to prepare the individual to work as a member of the aviato·r-observer team. (2) Team. Team training establishes the aviator-observer team and qualifies the individual as an observer. d. Classroom training should be designed to teach effective aerial observation techniques and procedures for actual flight, with emphasis on speed, accuracy, and completeness. (1) Flight training is scheduled immediately after visual search, recognition, geographical orientation, and target location training to better associate classroom instruction with practical application. (2) Flight training should begin with a brief orientation for the students, as a group, stressing the capabilities of the aircraft to withstand normal, marginal, and emergency operational or technical situations. This should be followed immediately with a demonstration at the airfield depicting normal landings and takeoffs, simulated short field landings and maximum performance takeoffs, simulated takeoffs over barriers, power-off landings simulating marginal and emergency situations, and low altitude 360 ° and 720 ° steep turns demonstrating the stability and controllability of the air craft. The students should be encour(4) Upon completion of the introductory • aged to ask questions while observing ground training, an average student the demonstration. requires a minimum of 15 training (3) After the orientation and demonstraflights before he may be considered to tion, the student aerial observers have marginal training as an aerial should be given an orientation ride observer. Normally, 25 training flights not to exceed 30 minutes. The aircraft are required to qualify a student as used should be of the same type as an effective aerial observer. Therefore, the 20 flying hours included in those to be used later on in the trainthe aerial observer program of in ing program. The aviators conductstruction given in AR 95-51 can best ing these rides should be the instrucbe utilized as follows: (1) one 30tors for the course and must insure minute orientation ride; (2) five 30that this ride does not include any minute training flights (at the beginviolent maneuvers. The best flight ning of the flying portion of the altitude is 1,000 feet, and over an area course); (3) seven 1-hour trainingreadily recognizable by the student. flights; and ( 4) the remaining 10 The student should be encouraged to hours used for training flights of discuss his impressions of various varied duration but not to exceed 2 sightings. hours at any one time. Section IV. PROGRAM OF INSTRUCTION 46. General ,i. Briefing and debriefing. a. This contains recommended k. Use of binoculars, photographic section a equip ment (familiarization). POI for conducting observer training in the armored, mechanized, infantry, and airborne 1. Preflight planning. divisions, and armored cavalry regiments. This m. Visual search techniques. • program is designed to produce observers n. Recognition training. capable of rapidly and effectively accomplish o. Identification of foreign material and tacing any division observation requirement. Howtical installations. ever, the commander must continually evaluate p. Damage assessment. the training course and modify the POI to meet q. Geographical orientation. his particular mission and unit requirements. ?'. Target location. b . Subjects to be taught in t he individual and s. Radiological survey. team phases of training are given below. t. Aerial photography. u. Adjustment of fire. 47. Individual Training a. Principles of aerial surveillance. 48. Team Training b. Principles of combat intelligence. For maximum effectiveness, team training c. Duties of the aerial observer. should be integrated in field exercises that in d. Familiarization with aircraft, safety declude aviation units. vices (safety belts, shoulder harnesses, para a. Principles of Intellig enc e. chutes), and emergency procedures. (1) Briefing and debriefing. e. Elementary air navigation. f. Elementary meteorology. (2) Maintenance of situation map. g. Communications: equipment, operation, b. Nav'igcttion. and proper radio voice procedure. (1) Flight planning, low level navigation. h. Map and aerial photograph reading. t. Recording and reporting information. (2) Actual flight, low level navigation. 30 AGO 10473 A • (2) Conduct of radiological survey (actual c. Ae1·ial Surveillance . flight). (1) Preflight planning, visual surveillance mission. f. Adjustment of Fire (actual adjustment of (2) Conduct of a visual surveillance mismortar and artillery fires). sion. d. A eria l R econnaissance . (1) Preflight planning, area search, specific search, and route reconnaissance missions. (2) Conduct of area search, specific search, and route reconnaissance missions. e. Special Obs erva tion Missions. (1) Preflight planning, radiological survey missions. g. A eTial Cam ents. (1) Practical exercise, spot photos (actual flight). (2) Practical exercise, strip and mosaic photos. h. Field ExeTcise (actual flight-2 days) . (1) Participate with ground troops. (2) Operate day and night. (3) Perform at least one of each type mission . AGO 10473A • AR 40-501 AR 95-51 AR 320-5 AR 320-50 AR 350-1 AR 600-106 FM 1-5 FM 1-100 FM 3-12 FM 5-20 FM 5-34 FM 5-36 FM 6-40 FM 6-135 FM 7-20 FM 7-100 FM 11-40 FM 17-1 FM 17-95 FM 17-100 FM 21-5 FM 21-6 FM 21-26 FM 21-30 FM 30-5 FM 30-20 FM 57-35 FM 57-100 FM 61-100 FM 100-5 FM 101-5 TM 1-250 TM 1-260 TC 101-2 DA Pam 108-1 DA Pam 310-series • APPENDIX I REFERENCES Standards of Medical Fitness. Aerial Observer Training. Dictionary of United States Army Terms. Authorized Abbreviations and Brevity Codes. Army Training. Aeronautical Designations and Flying Status for Army Personnel. Army Aviation; Organization and Employment. Army Aviation. Operational Aspects of Radiological Defense. Camouflage, Basic Principles and Field Camouflage. Engineer Field Data. Route Reconnaissance and Classification. Field Artillery Cannon Gunnery. Adjustment of Artillery Fire by the Combat Soldier. Infantry, Airborne Infantry, and Mechanized Infantry Battalions. Infantry Division. Signal Corps Pictorial Operations. • Armor Operations. The Armored Cavalry Regiment. The Armored Division and Combat Command. Military Training Management. Techniques of Military Instruction. Map Reading. Military Symbols. Combat Intelligence. Aerial Surveillance-Reconnaissance, Field Army. Airmobile Operations. The Airborne Division. The Division. Field Service Regulations-Operations. Staff Officers' Field Manual; Staff Organization and Procedure. Principles of Fixed Wing Flight. Principles of Rotary Wing F light. Tactical Operations Centers. Index of Army Motion Pictures, Filmstrips, Slides, Tapes, and Phono Recordings. Military Publications Indexes. AGO 10473A • APPENDIX II INSTRUCTORS' AIDS Section I. INTRODUCTION 1. General 2. Training Aids The information conta ined in this appendix The training aids included in this appendix is intended primarily for use by aerial observer are examples of training aids which will add to course instructors. It covers the practical as the effectiveness of the aerial observer course pects of presentation of instruction and the presentation. Local requirements and produc preparation of training aids pertaining to vis ual search training, recognition training, geotion capability will govern the type and num graphical orientation, and target location. ber of training aids available for use. Section II. VISUAL SEARCH TRAINING • head movement and has noted the location 3. Guide for Presentation of Visual er of the work sectors in relation to the aircraft, Search Training the instructor may release him. He then repeats a. Gen eml. Classroom instruction should be this procedure for each student in the class. clo ely integrated with practical exercises. The aircraft should be of that type predominantly b. In/light Tnstnwtion Requi1·em ents. Re used by the unit in aerial observer missions. quirements for inflight instruction include-Prior to the student's arrival, the aircraft is ( 1) Aviator training. parked in a level flight attitude. (For the 0-1 (2) Controlled terrain. the brakes are locked, the aircraft chocked, and (3) Observation aircraft. a sawhorse placed under the tail jack point.) (4) Recording materials (air-to-groundStrips of engineer tape (approximately 25 radio or notebook). meters) are nailed to the ground to delineate the search orientation sectors. If small-scale ( 5) Ground targets. models of military equipment are available, c. AviatoT T1·ain·ing. these are placed in the search sector for real(1) The primary role of the aviator is thatism. Upon arrival at the aircraft, the student of an assistant instructor; merely flyoccupies the observer's seat and all safety items ing the observer over a training course(parachute, helmet, restraining harness, etc.) is not sufficient. All aviators must be are fitted and secured. The instructor takes a standardized on theposition near the observer to one si de of the ob(a) Exact flight path. servational work sector. (b) Instructional methods and proceThe observer practices head and eye movedures. ment, searching in the prescribed manner. The (c) Method of critique. instructor should insure that the student ac • tually moves his head while practicing. When (2) It is the responsibility of the instructor to insure that the aviators are allsatisfied that the student has utilized the prop- AGO 10473A flying the same flight path and that the eye loses contact with the terrain, is noteairspeed and altitude are similar. Pretaking by the observer while in flight. testing the aviators is required to in g. Ground T(i1'gets. The primary purpose of sure accuracy of flight. • the observer's visual search mission is to allow d. Cont1·olled T errain. Controlled terrain is ground area over which the aerial observer school has control with only those target objects required for training placed therein. It is necessary for the instructor to be able to determine whether or not the student sighted a particular target. If the terrain is uncontrolled, the critique following flight is unsatisfactory in that it is difficult to determine whether or not the student was correct in his sightings and whether or not he performed visual search properly. e. Observation Aircraft. Current types of observation aircraft used by the aerial observer in actual operation should be employed. f. Recording Mat e'rial. Any activity which requires the aerial observer to move his eyes away from the terrain will reduce his performance level. The best method is to use an inflight recorder; however, these may not be readily available. An air-to-ground radio may be used with assistant instructor transcribing the observer's response. The least desirable method, because him to practice what he has learned in classroom instruction. Large targets such as 5-ton trucks, 2%-ton trucks, or other military equipment of this category are most desirable. Placing small items such as 4.2-inch mortars or 30cal. machineguns will not enhance training at this time. The positioning of these items is contingent upon the terrain being used. (See diagrams of visual search area, figs. 15 and 16.) h. Infiight Tmining. Four steps to be considered in inflight training are preparation, demonstration, inflight practice, and critique. (1) P1·epamtion. All previous visual search training material plus the actual preparation of the aerial observer for the mission is included in the preparation phase. The student must be secured in the aircraft, instructed as to the direction in which to search, and briefed on any instructions that the aviator may give him while in flight. • Figure 15. Type targ et course for visual search training. AGO 10473A • • • (2) Demonstmtion. Mainly this demonstration should include extremely lowlevel flying (50 feet and below). While en route to the training area, the aviator demonstrates the change in the apparent movement of ground objects whenever the aircraft's speed/ altitude varies. (3) Jnflight pmctice. Prior to entry on the training course, the aviator alerts the observer that in (x) seconds he will be in the training area; he again tells him the direction in which to look. The aviator then stabilizes his observation altitude at 50 feet or below (depending on terrain) and tells the observer when he is over the starting point of the course. After flying the course, he tells the observer that the flight course has ended. The aircraft is then flown back to the starting point and the avi ator tells the observer that he will refly the course and point out the targets to him. (4) Critique. While reflying the course, the aviator points out all targets to the observer. Four problems will be of primary interest: (a) Pro blem 1: Observer did not report enough of the distant targets. Possible Caus e: Observer is not scanning out far enough. (b) P1·oblem 2 : Observer did not report enough of the near targets. Possible Caus e: Observer is not scanning in close enough. (c) Problem 3: Observer had few reports when compared to actual target display. Possible Caus e: Observer did not scan rapidly enough . Figure 16. Type target cou1·se for visual search training. AGO 10473A • AGO 10473A --~ • (d) P1·oblem 4: Observer reports only n. T eTrain Boa1·d (fig. 17) . The board disone target when two were in line, play should be drawn with the dimensions of one near and one f ar. depth to show the angle covered by foveal vision Possible Cause: Observer is "lock(5 ° ). When this angle is used, the terrain area ing" his eyes on a single target too covered greatly increases as the range in long. To aid in correcting this, a 5-inch mirror attached to a rubber suction cup may be placed inside the aircraft in a position which will allow the aviator to monitor the observer's head movement while in flight. If the aviator notes that head movement is not ocurring during flight, he should remind the observer to move his head. (5) DebTiefing. Upon completion of the flight, the observer should be debriefed by the classroom instructor to ascertain any visual search problems encountered while in flight and to give corrections. 4. Guide fo r Development of Training Material • Materials to be used include a terrain board, vugraph slides, and blackboard or charts. creases. Movable strings threaded through a hole in the drawn observer's eye (in cockpit of depicted aircraft) allows the instructor to move the strings from a near location to a far location, thereby indicating that foveal area coverage changes with distance. b. Vugmph Slides and J5-rnm Slides. All illustrations shown in the visual training portion of chapter 4 plus those shown in this section of the appendix may be made into vugraph slides or 35-mm slides and used to enhance the instruction of aerial observers. c. Blackbo(ud or Cha1·t.s. In drawing the search sector, such as in figure 13, metallic strips may be used to delineate the work areas, thereby allowing variations in the forward limits of the orientation sector to change, dependent on the type aircraft used. Search patterns may also be drawn showing visual search techniques (fig. 14). Section II. RECOGNITION TRAINING 5. Guide for Presentation or Recognition Trahting a. Class1·oom Tntining. (1) M ethod of p1·esentati on. A variety of slides will be shown the students in the classroom. The projectionist will show a slide for 5 seconds. Individuals in the classes are instructed to ve?·bnlly respond first, then write their answers on their worksheets. A sample worksheet is shown in figure 18. Motivation may be accomplished by calling on certain individuals to describe why they called it what they sive manner. The initial stage places the observer near a single target and without surrounding clutter; the sequence gradually progresses until maximum viewing distance and maximum clutter are shown. Figures 19 through 25 illustrate the type slides to be used in this presentation. b. lnfiight Pmctice. (1) The following guidance used in visual search training is also applicable for inflight target recognition practice. (n) Aviator training. did. Testing procedures may be im (b) Controlled terrain (a type course is plemented by merely deleting the shown in fig. 26). verbal response. A method of abbrevi • (c) Recording procedures. ated reporting is listed in table II. (2) S equence of p1·es entation. The slides (d) Aviator procedures. are presented in a systematic, progres-(e) Critique. AGO 10473A 37 to target, cl utter, single and multiple (2) Additional requirements for inflight practice are ground and target con-target presentations, and types of tar ditions. Where possible, the equip-gets. Prior selection of target placement placed on the target course ment areas is important in order to • should cover all conditions discus~.ed offer varying conditions to the aerial in the classroom, to incl ude d istance observer. NAME____________RANK SERIAL NO.____ ORGANIZATION ____________________ DATE ____ SESSION NO. R-·--- SLIDE SLIDE TARGETS(S) TARGET(S) NO. NO. 16 2 17 3 18 4 19 5 20 6 21 7 22 8 23 9 24 10 25 26 11 12 27 13 28 29 14 15 30 F igure 18. Recognition training worksheet. AGO 10473A • Figure 19. Recognition training slide: 5-ton ca1·go t1·uck, condition SR, C,. • Figm·e 20. Recognition t1·aining slide: 5-ton cargo t1·uck, condition SR2 C2 • 6. Guide for Development of Training Material Materials and equipment used are an observation helicopter, 35-mm camera and color film, and military equipment (target objects such as M-48 tank, %-ton truck, etc.). a. Training Mater-ial. The 35-mm color slides, when shown in the classroom, provide inflight views of military items of equipment. The slides should show all items that the observer AGO 10473A must be trained to recognize under varying conditions of distance and natural concealment. The observer must be able to recognize targets at all distances within the capability of the human eye (table I), and to recognize targets when they are partially obscured by surrounding vegetation. A method for doing this is to establish at least three categories for both the distance to the target and the amount of surrounding vegetation. For this purpose the dis • FigU?·e 21. Recognition t1·aining slide : 5-ton cargo truck, condition SR9C2• • F igU?·e 22. R ecogni tion t1·ainin g slide : 5-ton ca1·go tntck, condition SR2 C9 • tance to the target will be defined as slant mnge (SR) and will vary from near distances (SR1 ) through medium distances (SRJ to far distances (SRa). The surrounding vegetation will be defined as clutter. Clutter will vary from parade ground vegetation (Cd through light brush or trees (CJ to heavier obscuring vegetation (Ca). (1) Slant. mnge (SR). The slant range is the distance from the eye (camera) to a particular object being viewed (photographed). Slant range considered herein will be translated into the ratio of the major axis of a piece of equipment to the total lateral area of a 35-mm slide. (As altitude decreases toward zero, the slant range gradually becomes ground distance.) (a) Slant runge 1 (SR,). Slides illustrating SR1 should be taken from a distance which results in the major axis of the target being not less than one-fourth the width of the slide In terms of details, all the major and most of the minor details which contribute to the uniqueness of the item are apparent. (b) Slant mnge 2 (SRJ. Slides illustrating SR~ should be taken from a AGO 10473A • Figure 23. R ecognition training slide: 2 M-59's, 1 M-48, low difficulty level. Figu1·e 24. Recognition t1·aining slide : 2 M-48's, 1 M-59, m edium difficulty lev el. distance which. results in the major axis of the target being approximately Yt o to 1,4. the width of the slide. All of the major details which contribute to the uniqueness of the target are clear at these distances, but the minor details are not as obvious as at SR1. (c) Slant r-ange 3 (SR3 ). Slides illustrating SR:1 should be taken from a distance which results in the major A GO 10473A axis of the target being less than one-tenth the width of the slide. At these distances, all of the minor and some of the major details of the items appear indistinct. (2) Clutter . Clutter is defined as vegetation and the property of the terrain, to include color and texture of the area surrounding the target. (u ) Clutter 1 (C1) . The items in slides illustrating cl should be photo • Figure 25. Recognition t1·aining slide : 2 M-48's, 2 M-59's, high difficulty level . Figur e 26. Type ta1·get cou1·se fo?' graphed against a relatively homogeneous background, such as a parade ground, so that the item is in full view and dominates the slide. (b) Clutt-er 2 (C~ ). These targets should be photographed near distinctive ..· • target recognition training. terrain features, vegetation, or shadows. In the case of small weapons, semi-tactical positions (i.e., machinegun emplacements) are employed. The items are placed in such a manner that they are AGO 10473A • either separated from or adjacent slides used in recognition training should be to the background features, but in taken from an altitude of 50 to 200 feet above no case is more than one-third of the altitude of the target. The photographer, the item obscured by such features. when looking through the viewfinder, should (c) Clutte-r .'3 (CJ. Items in slides illususe the guidelines established in slant range, trating C:t should be photographed above. All slides are taken in color, and the against backgrounds which contain orientation of the target to the camera (e.g., more irregularities than those of end view, side view, and variations thereof) is the c~ slides. The items are placed unsystematically varied. This permits a com so that, in terms of color and conplete coverage of a target item from all views. figuration, advantage can be taken of natural camouflage. The actual c. Total R equiTem ent. Approximately 340 amount of concealment offered by usable slides are required: 160 of single tar this camouflage results in not more gets (SR,C, through SR,Ca) and 180 of multi than two-thirds of the item being ple targets (2 to 6 items, low through high covered; generally, one-half or less difficulty) . of the item is concealed. In no case, however, is the item separated from d. Film Cntalogu'ing. After slides are selected, the background features. they should be catalogued and numbered in b. Pictorial Method of Development. The sequence in this manner: Period 1 Slides 1-40 (SR,Ct) Single items Period 2 Slides 41-100 (SR~C~) Single items Period 3 Slides 101-160 (low difficulty level) Multiple items • Period 4 Slides 161-240 (SR:~ C:{ ) Single items Period 5 Slides 241-300 (medium difficulty level) Multiple items Period 6 Slides 301-340 (high difficulty level) Multiple items Note. A slide key, listing slide number(s) and target(s), should be made a portion of the narrative for projectionist and instructor refer ence. e. Multipl e TnTget Combinations . It is necesAdministrative Caution: When developing a sary to modify the categories of slant range film library, caution should be taken to insure and clutter when developing multiple targets. that the level of difficulty does not exceed the The slant range and clutter values for a l!J.-ton observer's ability. This may occur when a truck are not the same as for a 5-ton truck. vehicle is Shown in the woods, making theWhen these two items are placed together in difficulty level of the picture exceed the ob a multiple target situation, the instructor will server's capability of discriminating the object. have to categorize the slide based on his opinion as to whether its difficulty level is low, medium, All targets should fall within the .average maxi or high. mum detection ranges given in table I. AGO 10473A • Figu1·e 27. Geographical o1·ientation slide jor grid 9-D, map F; photographed from tso• at 2,000 feet. AGO 10473A • • Figure 28. Geographical orientation slide for grid 3-D, map F; photographed from 180° at 1,100 feet. Figure 29. Geographical orientation slide for grid 3-D, map F; photographed from 180° at 200 feet. AGO 10473A • Figu1·e 30. Geographical o?·ientation slide fo?· grid 3-D, map F; photog1·aphed from 360• at 2,000 feet. AGO 10473A • Figure 91. Geog1·aphical orientation slide /01· g1·id 9-D, map F; photog?·aphed j?·om 960° at 1,100 feet. Section IV. GEOGRAPHICAL ORIENTATION 7 . Guide for Presentation of Geographical Orientation Training cc Class1·oom Tmining. (1) M ethod of presentation. The aerial observer receiving geographical orientation training is shown colored slides of various terrain features. The photographs are taken from three altitudes above the level of the terrain feature and from eight different directions (figs. 27-35 ). These varied views should give the observer a good idea of how the appearance of a terrain feature can change relative to the angle and height from which is is seen. To give the observer optim um practice in geographical orientation, pre- AGO 1047 3A 47 Figure 32. Geographical o?·ientation slide for g?·id 3-D, map F; photog?·aphed f?·om 360° at 200 feet. sentation of slides should be varied at first flight over the course, the aviator may rerandom by altitude and height. place the grease pencil with one of a different color to enable the observer to correct his in (2) S equence of p1·esentation. Progressive accuracies. The remainder of the flight then be levels of difficulty, contingent upon comes the critique. geographical terrain features avail able in the unit area, must be deter c. C1·itique. mined by the instructor (para. 8b). (1) The observer is flown back over the (3) Maps. The maps used in training are course at an altitude of 200 to 500 feet folded and inserted in an acetate and the terrain features (which are • binder (fig. 36). In order to reuse the randomly numbered) are pointed out folders, the acetate is marked with by stating, "Number comingUMT grid crosses in four corners. The up on the left, number comtop margin is labeled A, B, C, etc., and ing up on the righ t," etc. With a difthe left margin is marked 1, 2, 3, etc., ferent colored pencil, the observer maydownward, all of which are in grid then re-mark his flight course. square increments. The initial orienta (2) Upon returning to the airfield, thetion is given the student by stating, aerial observer should be critiqued on "Look in grid square (A3, B6, his flight course and a comparisonetc.) for the (terrain feamade on the variance in colored ar ture)." rows (which should trace the flight b. lnflight Tmining. Prior to flight, the aerial course) on his map and the master observer is given a map (fig. 37) and two grease flight diagram. pencils, and then is briefed on h is job require Note. Figure 37 is a master flight dia ment, including the method to be used in mark gram. The student's map will show terrain ing his map. Upon arrival over the grid square features without a flight path. designated, the aviator insures that altitude is stabilized at 50 to 100 feet (depending on ter 8. Guide for Development of rain and airspeed) and alerts the observer that Training Material he is over a specified area. He then flies the pre scribed flight course without giving any further Materials used are an observation helicopter, assistance to the observer. Upon completing the 35-mm camera and color film, tactical maps AGO 10473A 4 8 • • Figm·e 33. Geogmphical 01·ientati on slide for grid 3-D, map F; photographed j'1·om scale 1:25,000 or 1:50,000, and compass rose (fig. 38). a. D esc1·i1Jtion of Geogmphical Or ientation Features. Geographical orientation features which should be used for training will vary from one area to another. The unit should use features which will best represent actual or anticipated operational area requirements. b. S election Facto1·s. Terrain features se 3 15 ° at 2,000 f eet. (1) Unique11 ess of identity. This means that a feature, such as a road junction, is so laid out that it is not readily confused with a feature of the same sort in the near vicinity. (2) P e1·rnanPnt or serniperrnanent ob.iects (natuTCtl or rnanrnade ). A house on a road would be a poor selection because of the lack of permanency. A • lected for use in training should meet the folbridge over a river may be destroyed; lowing qualifications: however, the road approaches and AGO 104 7M 49 • • Figw·e 34. Geogr·aphical or·ientati on slide for· gr-id 3-D, map F; photogr·aphed fr·om bridge abutments would indicate that the bridge was once there. Use terrain features which will not markedly change by enemy action or time. (3) The t11.wsorne 1'1.tle . This rule states that a single feature is not sufficient for ready-identification of that feature when compared to a map or chart. A river may be a terrain feature, but it is a poor selection unless it is associated with a bridge, a roadway curve, 315 • at 1,100 f eet. a r a ilroad, or a community. The rule holds true for a road junction, which should be accompanied by a group of buildings (possibly indicated by foundations or rubble), a creek, or a railroad. For orientation training, always associate a second feature with the primary feature to be used. c. Method of Developm ent. Four steps are required for the development of film material. These are- A GO 10473A • (1) Detailed map study. For selection of the training slides should be based onterrain features to use. (1) Picture quality. Poor quality photographs should be discarded. (2) Aerial inspection. To be performed on each location to verify map accuracy. (2) Va1·iations of altitude and compc~ss (3) ?replanning. Upon fin a l selection of the terrain features, the aviator and photographer, along with the instructor, preselect the specific points over which the photographs will be taken and mark them on a map for inftight use. • ( 4) Photog1·aphy. The simplest method is to fly the highest altitude (2,000 feet actual) over the preselected points, then repeat at 1,000 feet and again at 100 to 200 feet (35-mm camera, normal focal length, color film). The photograph should be taken on the following headings from the target: 0° north, and euch succeeding 45 ° increment around the compass. Each compass heading will be repeated (except where not feasible due to masking effects of terrain) at each altitude. Range will be varied to complete the required number of slides (e below). d. Film Librar y. Selection for inclusion of headings. When compiled into a training series, random selection of headings and altitudes should occur for all terrain locations. One example of random selection is as follows: PhotographedSlide No. from, Altitude 1 180° 2,000 ft. 2 225 200 3 000 1,000 4 270 200 etc. etc. etc. (3) The ma1J used in flight (c(1) c~bove) . This will be of value in retaking and supplementing photographs of a par ticular terrain feature. e. Film, R equirem en t. Approximately 20 ~ !ides per location are desirable. A total of 280 slides are required, any portion of which may be used as a test. The first training period will consist of two terrain features; the second through fourth periods will consist of four terrain features. Each feature will consist of 10 slides at 100 to 200 feet and 5 each from 1,000 Figm·e 35. Geog1·aphical orientation slide for g1'id 9-D, map F; photographed /To m 315• at 200 f eet. AGO 1047 3A • Figure 36. Map F, u sed in geogt·aphical orientation tt·aining. to 2,000 feet, all of which should give varied compass coverage of the terrain feature. Examples of pictures are shown in figures 27 through 35. f. Map Folders. The map folder (fig. 36) is constructed by placing a piece of acetate over a stiff backing and then taping on three sides. The grid numbering and lettering system is printed on the top and side. Four grid align ment crosses are superimposed on the acetate to enable quick alignment of the map inserted. Subsequent maps needed are prefolded to fit the folder and are numbered. The student, on request, will insert the map needed for subsequent training sessions. g. Wor ksheet. A sample geographical orientation training worksheet is shown in figure 39. A GO 10473A • • Figure 87. Type com·se fo~· geog~·aphical o~·ienation t~·aining, ta~·get a~·ea C. 270° 180° Figm·e 38. Compass rose. AGO 10473A Section V. TARGET LOCATION 9. Guide for Presentation of Target Location Training a. Classroom Training. (1) The aerial observers are shown two colored slides in sequence for each target location. The first slide is a geo- NAME=-------------RANK ORGANIZATION graphical orientation feature which is • of the same type shown in his pre ceding training except that altitude for target location is held constant at 100 to 200 feet. The second picture showing the target viewed is 90° to the right or left of the flight path to __SERIAL NO.____ _ SESSION NO. 0 -__ SLIDE DEGREES NO. ...... ................. 2 ························ 3 ························ 4 ······················· 5 ······················· 6 ................. ...... 7 ························ 8 ........................ 9 ........................ 10 ....... ....... ......... 11 ······················· 12 ······················· 13 ........................ 14 DATE _____ SLIDE SLIDE DEGREES DEGREES NO. NO. 15 29 16 30 17 31 18 32 19 33 • 20 34 21 35 22 36 23 37 24 38 25 39 .......................... 26 40 27 28 Figu1·e 39. Geogmphical o?·ientation training wo1·ksheet. 54 AGO 10473A • FigU?·e 40. Initia l orientation slide, map 4; gr·id 4-B, viewed fr·om 090• . • Figur·e 41. Targe t locatio the geographical orientation feature. Both slides are taken over the same ground point and at the same altitude. In all cases a large vehicle, such as a 5-ton truck, should be used as the target to be located. Figures 40 through 51 illustrate the type slides to be used . (2) Classroom procedures are a combina slide looking left. quired for target location. The steps are as follows: (a) Tell the students what grid square of the map (fig. 52) to look in. (b) Project the geographical orientation slide on the screen and have the ob • tion of those in geographical orientaservers identify the direction from tion and the additional procedures re-which it is viewed. AGO 10473A • l<'igw·e 42 . Initial o1·ientation slide, map 4, g1·Ut 4-B, viewea [1·om 097J~. Figur e 1;3. Ta1·get location slide, g1·id 4-B, looking left. (c) Have an observer respond with direction. (d) State that the terrain feature shown is directly ahead of the aircraft's position and the aircraft is flying toward it. This would be a view that the aviator of an 0-1 or the aviator and observer in an observation helic0pter might see. (e) Direct their attention right or left from the flight path (whichever di rection is correct for the location slide) . (f) Project the target location slide. (g) Have the observer circle on the answer sheet (fig. 53) the grid location of the target. (h) Critique by giving the correct answer on t he grid board (fig. 54) . AGO 10473A • • Fig1we 44. Initial 01·ientation slide, map 4, gTid 4-B, viewed /1·om 135• . • F igu1·e 45. Ta1·get location slide looking 1·ight. b. Accumcy. The instructor must insure that the location given in the critique is extremely accurate because the goal for training is to enable the aerial observer in flight to position a target on his map within a 50 meter radius. For multiple targets, the 50 meter radius should be the center of mass of the group. c. Grid Board (fig. 54). The instructor uses the grid board to assist in critiquing the stu- AGO 1047 3A dents. The board should be sufficiently large so that all students may readily identify the subsquares. The board is divided into 16 squares, t simplify the job of locating the targets. Le.tters or numbers may be assigned the squares so that student response will be directed to an area 250 meters square. Target location is further defined by having the observer explain where the target is in the square (e.g., upper left corner, upper middle, etc.). Using this pro • Figure 46. Initial orientation slide, rnap 4, gt·id 4-B, viewed /?'O'»t 135•. Figure 47. Ta1·get location slide looking 1·ight. cedure, the accuracy of the response can be nar(d) A via tor procedures. rowed to 50 meters. (e) Critique. d. lnfiight Pra ctice . (2) Additional requirements for inflight (1) The following guidance is applicable practice are ground and target condito target location infiight practice: tions. Target conditions for target lo cation training should be similar to (a) Aviator training. target recognition training. To enable (b) Controlled terrain. the instructor to evaluate the student's (c) Recording procedures. progress, all targets used in target AGO 10473A • • Figure 48. Initial orientation slide, map 4, grid 4-B, viewed from 090°. Figure 49. Target location slide, grid 4-B, looking left. location training must be engineersurveyed into location. A survey error of 10 meters in actual ground location is allowed. Type target courses are shown in figures 55 and 56. (3) Prior to flight, the observer is handed an acetate-covered map (or strip map) showing the flight path and the initial point. He is then briefed by the in- AGO 10473A structor on his mission which is to "search for, identify, and locate all targets within the area prescribed." He is handed two grease pencils and told to circle the target locations on his map. Inflight procedures discussed for other phases of aerial observer training apply for target location training. FiguTe 50. Initial oTientation slide, map 4, g1·id 4-B, viewed from 090°. • FiguTe 51. Target location slide looking left. e. CTitiqu P. One method for inflight critique is to request the observer to pass to the aviator the grease pencils after completing the target location flight. The observer is then handed an acetate overlay which shows the surveyed locations of the targets by a dot (center of target mass), a circle surrounding the dot, and the target number. The course is then reflown so that the observer can see where errors occurred. 1 0. Guide for Development of Training Material Materials and equipment used are an observation helicopter, 35-mm camera and color film, 5-ton truck (or other large vehicle). and tactic:al map of local airfield. a. Selectio n Factors. Terrain selection criteria established for geographical orientation AGO 10473A • Figu1· e 52. Map 4 jo1· ta1·get location t1·aining. (para. 8b) apply to target location, except that geographical heading is not considered. After selecting a point over which to photograph the geographical orientation feature, verify its suitability by looking 90 ° right or left of the inbound flight path to the geographical feature. In the areas right or left of the flight path, there must be a suitably clear location in which to position the target (e.g., 5-ton truck). If a good target site does not exist, continue to shift the proposed photographic point until the geographical orientation feature and target location area are compatible. The target does not appear on the geographical orient,ation slide. (1) Detailed mctp study. For selection of terrain features to include sufficiently clear areas in which to position the target. (2) A erial inspection. Of each location, to ascertain the accuracy of the map and the suitability of the area. (3) PTeplanning. Upon final selection of the terrain features and positions, the aviator, the photographer, and the instructor preselect the specific points over which the photographs will be taken and mark them on a map for b. M ethod of Development of F ilm Material. • inflight use. Four steps are required for the development of the film material. These are-(4) Photography. A method by which the AGO 10473A 6 1 NAME fl~1 ~of RANK ;2./.Ct SERIAL NO. 0-G9805 ORGANIZATION ;2 ~ /.9t& 1 ;).Qi/. SESSION NO. L· _ _,_f__ DATE ____ • I I I I I I I I I -+-+-+1 I 0 I -+-+-..+-1 I 0 1 -+-+-+ -+-+-+ 1 I I 1 I I -+-+-+ -+-+-+ 1. 1 I I I J 5. 1 I I I I I I I ; ; t--+-+\)+-t--+ -+-+- 1 I I 1 I 01 f---j--+-+-r--+-+-+ 1 I I 1 I I r--+-+-+--+-+-+ 1 I I 1 I I 2. 6. _l I I I I I I -+-+-+-1 I o I t--+-+-+ -+-+-+1 I I -+--t-+ 1 I I 1 I I t--+-+-+ -+-+-+ 3. 1 I I I 7. 1 I I I I : --+-+CJ +- I I i -+-+-+- 1 I I 1 I I -+-+-+ -+-+--t 1 I I 1 I I -+-+-+ -+-+-+- 4. 1 I I I I 8. 1 I 1 Figure 53. Location training wot·ksheet (filled in). AGO 10473A I I • 1 : 2 3 : 4 I ---+--t--+-- 5 l 6 I 7 l 8 ---+--t--+-- 13 I 14 I 15: 16 • I I I Figure 54. Grid board used for critique in target location training. Figure 55. Type target course for target location training (engineer surveyed locations), target area A-1. • AGO 10473A ( I • -~ '?}_. I :\ ( 34 35 36 •\ I J7 I·/ --I I l ' ' 0".' _', I I £,/ !., . I _1,' ):: .. ~I \ . -61 I. , ··ocy /::" (' Figure 56. Type target course for targ et location training (engineer surveyed locations), target area B-1. • photographs may be taken is as folreflown over the same precise point lows: at the same altitude where the second picture is taken of the target. (cL) Position the target in the target lo Range to the target may vary from cation area. 100 to 900 meters (table I). (b) Fly 45° to the geographical orienta c. F i lm Li braTy S election. Selection of slides tion feature so that your flight path for training should be based on will take you directly over the pho tographic point. If weather condi(1) P·ictuTe quali ty. Poor quality photo tions and safety warrant, the heligraphs should be discarded. copter is brought to zero airspeed (2) Suitability of the photographs to fulfill while the picture is taken of the the ta r get location re quirem ent. More geographical feature, and a pedal than one picture may be taken usingturn made so the photographer may the same geographical orientation featake the second picture 90 ° to the ture and the same inbound flight path,first. This procedure insures that by shifting the target to another site both pictures are taken over the away from the first. The map mensame ground point. If weather or tioned in b (3) above will be of assistsafety does not permit zero airance in retaking or supplementing anyspeed at 100 to 200 feet, the heliof the photographs of a particularcopter may be flown at a safe slow target location. airspeed over the photographic point. The aircraft should then be d. Map fold er. The map folder used in tar- AGO 1047 3A • get location training is the same as that used with a scale of 50 meters may be used by the in geographical orientation training. instructor to show the correct answer on the grid board. The board may be constructed out e. Grid Board (fig. 54). The grid board used in classroom training is a duplicate of the box of metal sheeting with a small magnet on the shown on the target location answer sheet (fig. circle or of acetate-covered poster board with 57). For most classroom training this board t he circle backed by tape for adhesion to the should be 2 feet square. A small movable circle acetate. NAME______________RANK__SERIAl NO.____ ORGANIZATION_____________________ _ SESSION NO. l---- DATE _____ I I I I I 1---t-+-t--- I I I --~--+--t 1 I I 1--+-+-+-- I I I ---t-+--t- l. 1 I I 1--t--+-+1 1 1 I j I 5 . 1 I I --+-+-+-! : : I II I ; I I I I 1--+-+-+-1--+-+ -+ -- I I I 1 I I 1---t-+-+-1--+--t-+ 1 I I 1 I I t--+-+-+--1--+-+-+- 1 I I 2. 1 ! : 6. I I I I I I I I I I I I 1--t--+ -+--1--+--+-+- I I I 1 1 I --t-+-+----+ --+--+- 1 I I I I I t--+-+-+--+-+-+- 1 I I 3, : : i 7. I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1---t--t--t-1----t---t--t1 I I I I I 1--t---t--t--1--+-+-+- 1 I I 1 I I 1--+-+-+--1--+--t-+ 1 I I 4 . l : : 8. i I I FigU?·e 57. Location training worksheet . •AGO 1047 3A INDEX • Page 6 4 11 4 5 5 3 11 4 6 20 5 7 6 6 11 11 15 11 12 6 4 33 26, 33 5 11 11 6 15 17 17 25 18 27 13 26 22 33 14 22 11 11 26,33 Observation, aerial. (See Aerial observation.) Page 33 13 6 18,18 12 33 29 30 11 4 14,33 12 12 17 4 14 5 16 12 •5 5 18 21 7 19 6 23 11 26,33 23 14 12 30 6 25,33 5 6 5 15,33 16 5 19 23 24 Aerial observation: Aircraft ------------------ Capabilities -----------------Employment, concept ________ Limitations ----------------]dethods -------------------]dissions ------------------Objective ------------------Responsibilities, command and staff --------------------- Tactical application _________ Aircraft, observation ________ ____ Speed ---------------------- Airplanes, observation ___________ Area search reconnaissance ______ Artillery adjustment ____________ Artillery and topographical survey Aviation staff officer, responsi bilities ----------------------Aviator-observer teams: Capabilities and responsi bilities ------------------Duties --------------------Employment ---------------- Briefing ------------------------Camouflage inspection ___________ Capabilities of aerial observation _ Classroom training -------------Clutter ------------------------ Column control ---------------- Commanding officers, responsibility: Aviation unit ---------------Supported ground forces _____ Contact reconnaissance __________ Crew coordination --------------- Debriefing ---------------------- Format -------------------Detection distances -------------Detection of targets ------------Disorientation ------------------ Equipment: Check Uniqueness ---------------- Eye, limitations -----------------Film --------------------------- Flight, planning ---------------Foveal vision ------------------- G2(S2): Air officer Intelligence officer __________ Geographical orientation _________ Paragraph 10-12 5 13 6 7 8 3 14 4 10-12 31b(3) 12 8b(1) 9 8c(5) 14d 14g 24-26 13 18 8c(3) 5 App II 32a(3), Appii 8c(1) 14e 14c 8c(4) 23 27 28 32a(2) 29a 33b 23 32a(4) 31b(5) Appii 22 31b(5) 14b 14a 33, App II Grid board Guide to aviation briefing ________ Helicopters --------------------- Identification of targets __ _______ Immediate missions ------------Inflight training ---------------Instruction: ]dethods ------------------Program ------------------Intelligence officer, responsibilities ----------------------- Limitations of aerial observation _ ]daps ------------------------- ]dissions, aerial: Assignment procedures __ ____ Briefing -------------------Debriefing ------------------ Factors affecting ____________ Preflight planning _________ _ Reconnaissance ------------Reporting ------------------ Request procedures _________ Special --------------------Surveillance ---------------Techniques ---------------- ]dotion perspective ____________ Airplanes ------------------Altitude --------------------Helicopters -----------------VVork sector ---------------- Operations officer, aviation unit __ Orientation: Geographical ---------------Sector --------------------- Preflight planning -------------Preplanned missions ------------Program of instruction _________ _ Radiological survey -------------Recognition training _____________ Reconnaissance missions, aerial __ Contact -------------------Route ---------------------Recording material -------------Reporting, mission -------------Route reconnaissance ------------ Search: Distances -----------------Sector --------------------Techniques ----------------- Paragraph Appii 18c 11 29b, 32b 15 App II 45 46-48 14a 6 20, App II 17 18 27 6 19-23 8b 26 16 Be Sa 29-34 31b(3)(c) 12 31b(2) 11 31c(1) 14/ 33, App II 31c(1)(a) 19-23 15 46-48 8c(2) 32, App II 8b 8c(4) 8b(3) 25, App II 26 8b(3) 31b(2) 31c(1)(b) 31c(2) AGO 10473A • Paragraph Page Paragraph Page Slant range -------------------App II 33 Guides --------------------35-48 28 Special aerial observation mis-Individual -----------------47 30 sions ------------------------S c 5 Instructors' aids ------------App II 33 Specific search reconnaissance __ _ 8b(2) 5 Methods of instruction ______ 45 29 Surveillance missions, aerial ____ _ Sa 5 Objectives -----------------38,43 28,29 Planning -------------------42-45 28Tables: Program of instruction _____ _ 46-48 30Maximum detection ranges Recognition ---------------32, App II 25,33 (table I) -----------------26 Responsibility --------------36 28Military items (table II) ____ 27 Selection of instructors _____ _ 41 28 Target: Selection of trainees ________ 40 28 Detection -----------------24a 15 Target location -------------App II 33 Identification --------------24b 15 Team ----------------------48 30 Location -------------------24d, 29c, 15, 18, Variables -----------------44 29 34, App II 27,33 Visual search ---------------31, App II 18, 33 Recognition ----------------32 25 Strength estimation _________ 24c 15 Unorientation -----------------33b 27 Terrain: Visual observation: Conditions -----------------31b(4) 21 Altitude -------------------31b(2) 19Controlled -----------------Appll 33 21 14 Capabilities and limitations __ 31b 18 Evaluation ---------------- Limitations ----------------6d 4 Visual search -------------------31, App II 18, 33 Selection -------------------Appll 33 Training: Weather, limitations on aerial Geographical orientation ____ 33, App II 26, 33 observation -------------------6a 4 • AGO 10473A By Order of the Secretary of the Army: HAROLD K. JOHNSON, General, United States Army, • Official: Chief of Staff. J. C. LAMBERT, M ajor General, United States Army, The Adjutant General. Distribution: Active Anny: DCSPER (2) ACSI (10) DCSLOG (2) DCSOPS (2) ACSFOR (2) CORC (2) COA (1) CINFO (1) TIG (1) TJAG (1) TPMG (1) TSG (1) CNGE (2) USACDCAVNA (5) USAAVNTED (2) USCONARC (5) USACDC (2) USAMC (2) ARADCOM (10) ARADCOM Rgn (5) OS Maj Comd (2) LOGCOMD (1) MDW (2) Armies ( f Corps (::S) Div (2) Div Arty (1) Ede (1) Regt/ Gp/ Eg (1) En (1) except Avn En (2) Avn Co (2) Avn Det (2) Er Svc Sch (5) USAINTC (10) USAAVNHRU (2) Units OI'g under fol TOE: 5-36 (2) 5-52 (2) 5-306 (2) 5-327 (2) 6-302 (2) 6-401 (2) 6-416 (2) 6-426 (2) 6-436 (2) 6-466 (2) 6-517 (2) 6-576 (2) 6-616 (2) 7-42 (2) 8-137 (2) 8-500 (AA-AE) (2) 11-17 (2) 11-96 (2) 17-42 (2) 17-52 (2) 17-56 (2) 17-58 (2) 17-108 (2) 30-6 (2) 37-42 (2) 44-2 (2) 44-12 (2) 55-52 (2) 55-56 (2) 55-58 (2) 55-89 (2) 55-456 (2) 55-457 (2) 55-458 (2) 55-468 (2) NG: State AG (3); units-sa me as active Army except allowance is one copy to each unit. USAR: Units-same as active Army. For explanation of abbreviations used, see AR 320-50. '{:{ U.S. Government Printing Office: 1965-770-113/ 10473A