0 n ~ 0 I:JJ m XI i ..& -> \ c c I:JJ § e i ..& ",c::o c: 's cr c;~ CHRONOLOGY OF CONFLICT IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 1960 -Mid-1984 DDB-2600-4331-84 Information Cutoff Date: 2 August 1984 This is a Department of Defense Intelligence Document prepared under an interagency agreement for the Directorate for Research, Defense Intelligence Agency. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Introduction 1 Definitions of Conflicts 3 Country Listing ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4 Angola 5 Benin 12 14 Botswana -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Burundi 16 18 Cameroon ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Cape Verde --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------20 Central African Republic-------------------------------------------------------------------------------21 23 Chad -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 28 Comoros ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Congo 29 Djibouti 31 Equatorial Guinea 32 Ethiopia 33 Gabon '39 Gambia 40 Ghana 41 Guinea ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 43 Guinea-Bissau 45 Ivory Coast --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------47 Kenya 48 Lesotho ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 50 Liberia 53 Madagascar ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------54 i i i Page 56 Malawi ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Mali ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------57 Mauritius 58 Mozambique ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------59 Namibia 66 Niger -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------70 Nigeria -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------71 74 Rwanda ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Sao Tome and Principe ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------75 Senegal 76 Seychelles 78 Sierra Leone -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------79 Somalia 81 South Africa ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------85 Sudan ------------------~------------------------------------------------------------------------------93 Swaziland ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------98 Tanzania 99 Togo 102 Uganda 103 Upper Volta (Burkina Faso) 108 Zaire --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------110 Zambia 114 Zimbabwe -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------118 iv Page Date Listing -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------125 1960 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------126 1960-63 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------126 1961 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------127 1962 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------127 1962-63 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------127 1963 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------128 1963-64 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------129 1963-67 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------129 1964 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------129 1964-65 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------130 1965 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------131 1966 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------131 1966-67 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------133 1967 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------133 1968 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------134 1968-69 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------135 1969 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------135 1970 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------136 1970-71 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------137 1971 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------137 1972 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------138 1972-73 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------139 1972-74 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------140 1973 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------140 1974 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------141 1974-75 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------142 1975 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------143 1976 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------144 1976-77 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------146 1976-78 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------146 v Page 1977 146 1977-78 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------148 1978 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------148 1979 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------149 1980 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------154 1981 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------159 1982 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------165 1983 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------171 1984 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------181 Appendix -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------187 1960-64 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------188 1965-69 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------192 1970-74 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------196 1975 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------200 1976 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------204 1977 208 1978 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------212 1979 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------216 1980 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------220 1981 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------224 1982 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------228 1983 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------232 1984 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------236 vi INTRODUCTION Since 1960, the date in which many African nations won their independence, conflict in sub-Saharan Africa has occurred frequently. The growing pangs of these fledgling states often have been manifested in political upheavals, sometimes accompanied by violence. This chronology documents the various kinds of conflict which have occurred in Africa since 1960, attempts to classify them according to type, and briefly describes them. The nations of North Africa (Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco) are excluded from consideration, as are the Western Sahara and Mauritania. The definitions of conflicts were derived from general dictionary definitions which were then coordinated with the DB-80 Glossary of Commonly Used Military Terms compiled by Bobby L. Speegle. The categories of armed conflict include only instances in which an action involving the military forces of one or more countries occurs or by an organized group whose actions are aimed against a government. Police actions are rarely included unless the military becomes involved. Conflict events are recorded by year from 1960 to 1979, and then by month from 1980 through June 1984. In the cases of Uganda and Zambia, in which numerous conflict events occurred during 1979, events are recorded by month beginning in 1979. In instances where a conflict occurs over a period of years, one event within the larger conflict appears under the general definition category. Conflict events which are more significant than others are printed in bold type. The chronology is divided into two sections. The first section is a country listing in which the conflict events are recorded chronologically under each country heading. Also included in this section is a brief introduction for each country which describes the causes and kinds of conflicts which have occurred or are presently occurring in that country, as well as any groups or individuals which are involved. The second section is a date listing where the conflicts and the country in which they occurred are recorded by year. The cross reference column in the country listing facilitates the identification of conflicts involving more than one country. In the case where the insurgency of one country involves a second country, the type of conflict is also described in the latter as an insurgency. In instances where a geographic name has been changed within the time frame of the chronology, the original name is used with its modern-day counterpart in parentheses up until the date of its change. The appendix is a matrix which contains the number of conflict events in each conflict category for each country. From 1960 through 1974, the appendix is organized in 5-year groupings--1960-64, 1965-69, and 1970-1974; beginning with 1975, the appendix continues with annual groupings. An event which occurs in more than one country is counted in each involved country, and an event which occurs over a number of years is counted in each year. Because this report is restricted to unclassified information, there are occasional gaps in the data, notably in the numbers of troops or guerrillas involved in any given conflict. The following periodicals were systematically researched: Africa Confidential for the years 1981 through June 1984, Africa Research Bulletin for 1 the years 1979 through June 1984, and Africa News for the years 1983 through June 1984. Much background material was extracted from the Europa publication, Africa South of the Sahara, 1982-83, ~nd London's Institute for the Study of Conflict series, Annual of Power and Conflict for the years 1971 through 1982. 2 DEFINITIONS OF CONFLICTS Border Incident: An armed confrontation between the military forces of two countries across the border or between the military forces of one country and civilians in a neighboring country in which there are no specific objectives. Border War or Dispute: Two or more countries fighting against one another across borders between their countries for territorial or other objectives. Civil War: A prolonged and widespread military confrontation involving organized military forces, usually originating as an insurgency, between opposing groups of forces and citizens of the same country, with the goal of replacing the constituted government. Coup d'etat: Events in which the existing civilian or military regime is suddenly and illegally displaced for one week or longer by the action of a relatively small elite group in which the military, security and/or pol ice forces of the state played a role, and which involves no fundamental changes in the socioeconomic situation. Foreign Military Intervention: Significant military aid in the form of personnel at the request of one of the groupsinvolved in hostilities. Insurgency: An organized movement aimed at the overthrow of a government or the secession of a region of a country through the use of subversion and armed conflict. Military Invasion: The movement of military forces across a national boundary in order to achieve a strategicobjective. Mutiny: An uprising or armed resistance by members of the military against higher military authorities and/or the government. Rebellion: An uprising or armed resistance by a popular movement against the established government or between ethnic and/or tribal groups, one of which is the basis of the formally constituted government. Unsuccessful Coup: Involves some action by the military and/or police which is unsuccessful (or successful for no longer than a week). Such an action may be the arrest of government personnel or the takeover of the government by force. 3 ("") 0 c: z -l ;;tl -< r ..... Vl -l ..... z "' ANGOLA Independence: November 1975 Conflict in Angola has centered around the prolonged military confrontation between the ruling Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), and South African military occupation in the south. The conflict between the MPLA and UNITA can be traced back to the formation in the 1950s and 1960s of three rival opposition groups to Portuguese rule: the MPLA under Agostinho Neto, UNITA under Jonas Savimbi, and the National Front of Angolan Liberation (FNLA) under Holden Roberto. All three movements became involved in an active military struggle against Portuguese rule. Fighting between the MPLA and the FNLA began in 1961 when a bloody uprising by the FNLA in the north resulted in a massive repression by the Portuguese colonial government which nearly destroyed the MPLA. The FNLA used this as an opportunity, with Zairean support, to further decimate MPLA ranks. In 1964 newly independent Zambia provided the MPLA with a rear base, bringing the organization back to life. By 1966 the MPLA's struggle for liberation began, and it soon gained popular support. The Portuguese army coup of April 1974 brought an end to colonial rule in Angola and the introduction of a tripartite transitional government composed of all three movements. But the FNLA and UNITA soon engaged in armed confrontation with the MPLA, and following independence in November 1975, a systematic escalation of the conflict occurred, sparked by the arriva 1 of Cuban troops in support of the now-ru 1ing MPLA government and heavily armed South African units coming in from Namibia in support of FNLA and UNITA resistance. MPLA troops soon flushed FNLA rebels out of their stronghold in the north, greatly reducing the organization's potency. Since then, UNITA has been the primary group in the military confrontation. A sessionist movement in Cabinda, the Front for the Liberation of Cabinda Enclave (FLEC), has also been in conflict with the MPLA. South African armed forces first invaded southern Angola in the mid-1970s in support of UNITA and FNLA opposition to the MPLA government, but more recently they have engaged in numerous incursions and occupations during search and destroy operations against established base camps in southern Angola. February 1984 ceasefire and South Africa's implemented at the present. South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) guerrillas who have South Africa also provides military support to UNITA rebels. The agreement to withdraw its forces from southern Angola are being CROSS R'EFERENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION 1960 Rebellion Portuguese armed forces 'fire on a crowd demonstrating in Catete against Neto's imprisonment and kill or arrest all inhabitants of Neto's home village of Bengo and of neighboring Icolo. 5 ANGOLA 1961 1961 1962 Namibia 1966 1968-69 1971 1974 1975 Rebellion Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Rebellion Insurgency Insurgency Cotton workers strike in northcentra1 Ma 1age district in opposition to the system of compulsory cotton growing. Portuguese leader Salazar dispatches troops and bombers from Portugal. An FNLA-led Kongo peasant insurrection in the north results in a Portuguese massive aerial bombardment and the deaths of thousands of whites and blacks. MPLA guerrillas attack the House of Military Detention,the Civil Prison, and the City Police Station in Luanda; Portuguese paratroopers repulse the attack,forcing the MPLA into exile. The MPLA, based in Zambia, opens hostilities in eastern Angola, also striking into Cabinda. Heavy fighting begins between MPLA and FNLA guerrillas. SWAPO launches its armed struggle, attacking two Portuguese tradingstores in Angola on the way to Namibia. Large numbers of MPLA rebels begin operating from Zaire and Zambia. Clashes between MPLA and UNITA guerrillasbreak out; UNITA begins cooperating with SWAPO to offset supply problems in return for shelter in Zaire and guides for penetration into Caprivi. Sporadic fighting between MPLA guerrillas and Portuguese troops occurs in the countryside. Race riots in Luanda are repressed by Portuguesetroops. Supporters of rival liberation groups clash;the army is increasingly involved in peacekeeping operations between the groups. The transitional government set up by Portugal collapses as fierce fighting breaks out between the MPLA, FNLA, and UNITA. Fighting between the MPLA, FNLA and UNITA continues. The FNLA gains control in the north. MPLA gains 6 ANGOLA 1975 Foreign Military Intervention Insurgency Namibia 1975 Military Invasion South InsurgencyAfrica 1976 Insurgency Foreign Military Intervention 1977 Insurgency control of Luanda with heavy reinforcements of Soviet equipment as Angola becomes independent. Savimbi formally declares war on the MPLA and fighting resumes. A Cuban troop buildup begins with the installation of the MPLA government. FLEC starts fighting on the border of Angola and Zaire, but is quickly defeated by Cuban troops. South Africa moves heavily armed forces into southern Angola, penetrating 440 miles with UNITA and FNLA troops up the coast. UNITA takes control of the hydroelectric dam at Matala and captures Benguela and nearby towns. Cuban troops are reinforced, stopping the UNITA advance. Soviet troops arrive in Luanda with tank crews and fighter pilots. The FNLA is driven out of Caxito. The MPLA recaptures FNLA holdings in the north, then drives south, capturingUNITA strongholds on the coast. SWAPO camps open in Angola. South African troops cross the Namibian border into Angola in hot pursuit of guerri n as. After the killing of severa1 South African soldiers in Namibia, South African forces retaliate byraiding two SWAPO camps in Angola. The MPLA captures a number of cities from the FNLA and UNITA despite the efforts of South African forces to halt MPLA and Cuban advances in the south. FNLA and UNITA guerrillas return to bush warfare. South Africa announces that all troops will be withdrawn from Angola. A Cuban-backed MPLA drive cuts UNITA links with Namibia. FLEC activity increases in Cabinda. UNITA guerrillas blow up the Benguela railroad bridgeand raid settlements and villages. 7 ANGOLA Namibia South Africa Zambia Sao Tome and Principe Namibia South Africa Zimbabwe South Africa Namibia South Africa 1978 1978 1979 1979 1980 May June August Military Invasion Foreign Military Intervention Military Invasion Insurgency Military Invasion Military Invasion Insurgency Military Invasion 8 Hundreds of Namibian refugees are massacred by South African troops in the SWAPO base town of Cassinga and :nany others are taken to Mariental in Namibia during Operation Reindeer. SWAPO and Zambian forces respond by shelling the Caprivian capital and garrison of Kat irna Mu 1i 1o. In response to a request from Sao Tome and Principe, Angola sends a large number of troops to the islands to provide security against a threatened invasion by exiled opponents of the regime. South African troops and aircraft raid SWAPO guerrilla bases in Angola. South African security forces attack the southern An go 1an town of N' Gi va by air. UNITA scores major successes in an offensive against MPLA forces in area along the southeast, gaining the border with Namibia. control of a large Rhodesian African PAngola. forces eople's launch an airstrike on Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) a Zimbabwe camp in In Operation Sceptic, South African forces raid twice across the Namibian border and occupy the area around N'Giva in southern Cunene Province for 3 weeks. UNITA guerrillas attack and set fire to the large oil installations at Lobito port. South African troops based in Namibia launch a major incursion into southern Angola against SWAPO guerrillas. ANGOLA Namibia South Africa South Africa Namibia South Africa Zambia South Africa South Africa 1981 March-June July-September November 1982 February March Apri 1 April October November Military Invasion Military Invasion Military Invasion Insurgency Military Invasion Insurgency Military Invasion The South African Air Force hits a major SWAPO orientation camp near Lubango, about 125 miles north of the Namibian border as South African aggression increases with a large number of military actions. South African forces launch Operation Protea in CuandoCubango Province, driving 200 miles into Angola. South African aircraft reportedly destroy all Angolan radar and antiaircraft sites within a 95 mile strip north of the Namibian border. South African forces launch Operation Daisy, a 3-week raid 150 miles inside Angola, destroying a SWAPO regional headquarters and military command post. The main oil refinery in Luanda is attacked, allegedly by South African seaborne commandos. UNITA guerrillas harass villagers in western Zambia, claiming the territory as their own. South African forces strike deep into the southern Angolan province of Cunene, bombing the Chi demba region. UNITA guerrillas sabotage the Benguela Rail road on an average of one action per day all along the 1 ine and escalate attacks nearer to Luanda. Fifteen Red Cross workers are kidnaped in Cunene Province along with a number of others from the Huambo District. FNLA activities recommence in the Uige and Zaire regions. South African marines make a seaborne raid north of Namibe and blow up two bridges on a vital rail link to Angola's interior. 9 ANGOLA December JanuaryMarch Apri 1 AugustSeptember November Insurgency Insurgency Foreign Military Intervention Insurgency Insurgency Foreign Military Intervention Insurgency 10 During a 4-day Christmas offensive, UNITA extends its operations for the first time to the north, controllingthe area around Huambo. UNITA guerrillas kidnap 86 Czech and Portuguese workers at the hydroelectric project in Benguela Province. Cuba airlifts another several thousand troops to Angolato participate in a counteroffensive aimed at retaking towns and -villages-in souther-n Angola-occupied by-SouthAfrican forces for more than a year. A large UNITA commando group captures the vital Benguela railroad junction of Munhango, killing, capturing, or causing to flee the 436-man garrison as UNITA activities expand into the northern and northwestern provinces. UNITA guerrillas launch an 11-day assault on Cangambain southeastern Angola, taking the town-and raid Calulo in the north, capturing 22 foreign workers as part of an offensive which has taken UNITA guerrillas to within 160 kilometers of Luanda. Extra Cuban troops are dispatched to bolster the Dondo garrison. MPLA forces recapture Calulo. UNITA guerrillas shoot down an Angolan airliner, killing 126 people. A new UNITA offensive begins to take control of the northeastern province of Luanda. UNITA claims to have captured 5 British and 12 Portuguese citizens in eastern Angola. UNITA guerrillas capture Cazombo, one of two garrisons in the region still in government hands. Government forces liberate the Mussende area in Cuanza Sul Province following a clash with UNITA guerrillas, effectively destroying UNITA's second strategic front. ANGOLA Namibia December Military Invasion South Africa 1984 FebruaryInsurgency March Apri 1 Insurgency May Insurgency June Insurgency In Operation Askari, the South African Air Force bombs SWAPO's alleged headquarters and South African troops launch an attack on SWAPO bases in Angola. South Africa agrees to a 1-month military disengagement from southern Angola which ultimately extends into the new year. UNITA abducts 77 British, Portuguese and Filipino workers from a diamond mine in Luanda Norte Provi nee and four Bulgarian and ten Portuguese technicians in Novo Redondo. A bomb planted in a building housing Soviet and Cuban technicians in Huambo is blamed on UNITA. UNITA releases 89 hostages, continuing to hold 37 others. UNITA releases 16 Britons and a Portuguese woman held captive for several months. UNITA guerrillas attack government troops in Quibala in central Angola and claim to have captured 11 foreigners. A new government offensive against UNITA is launched from the Luena area, sweeping south toward Lumbala and east toward Cazombo, the aim of which is to take back some of the small towns captured by UNITA in the previous year. UNITA releases 20 Czech hostages who had been held for 15 months. 11 ANGOLA BENIN Independence: August 1960 Since independence to the takeover of power by Mathieu Kerekou in 1972, Benin (called Dahomey until December 1975) has been dominated by chronic political instability caused by jockeying for leadership between northern and southern elites. The major figures in this struggle were Sourou-Migan Apithy and Justin Ahomadegbe in the south and Hubert Maga in the north. Internal military intervention in 1963 introduced another figure, Colonel Christophe Soglo. In 1970, after elections sponsored by the military showed equal support for ~1aga, Apithy, and Ahomadegbe, the military decided to introduce an experimental three-man "Presidential Committee" in which each of the leaders would serve for 2 years. Kerekou's takeover in 1972 brought an end to the experiment and power jostling, and introduced a Socialist oriented government. Conflict during Kerekou's uninterrupted rule to the present has been restricted to a few unsuccessful plots to overthrow his regime. CROSS ~ENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION 1963 Coup d'etat Colonel Christophe Soglo ousts President Hubert Maga, installing a new coalition government headed by SourouMigan Apithy and Justin Ahomadegbe. Niger 1963-64 Unsuccessful Coup President Diori of Niger tries to help Hubert Maga Border Dispute regain power. A dispute over Lere Island in the Niger River results in a break in relations and the closure of their cooonon border. 1964 Rebellion Northern rioting in protest of the coalition government and Maga's dismissal results in many deaths. 1965 Coup d'etat Apithy is forced to resign. General Christophe Soglo takes over the government. 1967 Coup d'etat Young army officers stage a coup against President Soglo, installing a new regime headed by Major Maurice Kouandete and Lieutenant Colonel Alphonse Alley. 1972 Coup d'etat A coup brings Major Mathieu Kerekou to power, ending the experimental three-man Presidential Committee. 12 BENIN 1975 Unsuccessful Coup Conflict between the paracommandos of dismissed Captain Aikpe and the gendarmerie results in Aikpe's execution and the reorganization of the military. 1977 Unsuccessful Coup A group of mercenaries led by Bob Denard tries to overthrow the Kerekou Government with an unsuccessful armed assault on the capital. 13 BENIN BOTSWANA Independence: September 1966 Conflict in Botswana has been infrequent and caused by external insurgencies, first in neighboring Rhodesia during the independence struggle, and more recently Zimbabwe African People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) as the result of the pursuit by rebels across the border. Zimbabwean security forces of CROSS RUERENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION Zimbabwe 1976 Military Invasion Rhodesian security forces pursuing ZIPRA guerrillas attack a police barracks near Francistown. Zimbabwe 1978 Military Invasion A number of Botswana soldiers are killed and several others injured by Rhodesian troops pursuing ZIPRA guerrillas into Botswana territory. South 1979 Border Incident South African police and suspected ANC guerrillas clash Africa near the border in South Africa. The guerrillas flee to Botswana, leading to So•Jth African threats of hot pursuit raids. Zimbabwe 1979 Military Invasion A Rhodesian commando group abducts 14 ZAPU officials in Botswana and blows up Kasangula ferry, the country's only link to the north. 1982 overSouth December Border Incident Botswana shoots down a private South African plane Africa northwest Botswana. 1983 Zimbabwe OctoberBorder Incident Zimbabwean troops and Botswana army troops clash four November Military Invasion kilometers inside Botswana's territory when Zimbabwean troops retaliate for the actions of gangs of bandits 14 BOTSWANA from Botswana. A unit of the Zimbabwe National Army (ZNA) crosses into Botswana, attacking the village of Maitengwe. A battle breaks out when they encounter troops of the Botswana Defence Force before they are airlifted to safety. 1984 Zimbabwe February Border Incident A clash results between the Botswana Defence Force and in the death of one member of the ZNA. the ZNA 15 BOTSWANA BURUNDI Independence: July 1962 Conflict in Burundi is rooted in historical ethnic struggles between the elite Tutsi minority and the majority Hutu which erupted into the brutal and arbitrary extermination of hundreds of thousands of Hutus in 1972. Although the Bagaza government, bitter ethnic rivalries persist. which took power in 1976, has appointed a number of Hutus to high positions, CROSS REFERENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION 1965 Unsuccessful Coup Premier Leopold Biha is wounded by Hutu politicians. Defense Secretary Michael Micombero is givendictatorial powers. 1966 Coup d'etat Colonel Michel Micombero overthrows the monarchy of King Ntare V and declares himself President of the new republic. Rwanda 1966 Border Incident Tutsi raiders make regular armed incursions into Rwanda. 'Zaire 1972 Unsuccessful Coup Hundreds of Hutu troops are massacred following an Foreign Military Intervention abortive Hutu-sponsored coup attempt with the help of Zairean troops requested by Micombero. 1972 Rebellion Tensions between the minority Tutsi elite and the majority Hutus worsens, exploding into the massacre of hundreds of thousands of Hutus. Tanzania 1972-73 Rebellion Burundian forces carry out several large raids into Military Invasion Tanzanian territory against thousands of Hutus fleeinginto Tanzania. 1976 Coup d'etat Colonel Jean-Baptiste Bagaza overthrows the Micombero regime. BURUNDI 16 1981 Zaire August Border Dispute Burundi and Zaire move troops to their common border near Lake Tanganyika after Burundi moves a border post to a new position on the disputed Little Rusizi branch of the Rusizi River Delta. 17 BURUNDI CAMEROON Independence: January 1960 Aside from the guerrilla activities of the Union of the Cameroon Peoples (UPC) in the early 1960s, Cameroon has been free of severe internal political upheaval. The peaceful transition of power from Ahmadou Ahidjo to Paul Biya in 1982 has been marred by the April 1984 unsuccessful attempt by northern elements in the Presidential Guard, loyal to Ahidjo, to unseat Biya. CROSS RE"FFRENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION 1960-63 Rebellion Terrorists of the banned UPC begin violent attacks in Foreign Military Intervention Douala and Yaounde. French troops are called in to help put down the rebellion as unrest spreads throughout the country. Nigeria 1970 Border Dispute Violence breaks out between Cameroonian and Nigerian border authorities and nationals of both countries illegally crossing from one country to another along the ill-defined swampy border area. 1979 Rebellion Serious clashes break out in the north at Dolle over the cancellation of a brutally, resulting population. school in a project. massacre The of army the reacts local 1981 Nigeria May Border Dispute Five Nigerian soldiers are killed in a Cameroonian border guards as the result of dispute over potential oil-rich territory. clash with an on-going 1983 Nigeria December Border Dispute Nigeria claims that Cameroonian gendarmes crossed the border into Nigeria and harassed citizens, destroying their property, in the area where violence had occurred in 1981. 18 CAMEROON April Unsuccessful Coup Northern members of the Presidential Guard, loyal to former President Ahidjo, seize the radio station and airport, and surround the presidential palace. Troops loyal to the Biya regime overcome the revolt. 19 CAMEROON CAPE VERDE Independence: July 1975 The African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC), which changed its name to the African Party for the Independence of Cape Verde (PAICV) in January 1981 following the November 1980 coupd'etat in Guinea-Bissau, has been headed by President Aristides Pereira since independence from Portugal in 1975. Despite severe economic problems caused by a severe drought in the late 1970s, the Pereira regime has remained stable and the country has suffered no significant conflict. 20 CAPE VERDE CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC Independence: August 1960 Under the regime of Jean-Bedel Bokassa, little open political opposition was evident in the country. But toward the end of Bokassa's regime, after he declared the end of the Republic and the beginning of the Central African Empire in late 1976, opposition movements began to form in the face of economic deterioration. These included the Central African Movement for National Liberation led by former Prime Minister Ange Patasse, and the Oubanguian Patriotic Front led by exiled nationalist Abel Goumba who at independence had formed the opposition party, Movement for the Evolution of Central Africa (MEDAC). In 1979, the opposition groups formed a common front against the Bokassa regime, paving the way to the French-backed takeover of power by former President David Dacko who restored the country to a Republic. As the result of weak popular support and the loss of French backing, Dacko's regime was soon taken over by the military under General Andre Kolingba. CROSS TimENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION 1960 Foreign Military Intervention A French military garrison provides the country's only defense forces, supporting the Dacko regime against the more radical Abel Goumba, head of MEDAC. 1966 Coup d'etat Colonel ~c~. Jean-Bedel Bokassa seizes power from David Zaire 1979 Rebellion Foreign Military Intervention Student riots erupt in Bangui over the imposition of special uniforms. At Bokassa's request, Zaire sends in troops to suppress the riots. Bokassa's imperial guards are accused of stabbing and beating to death schoolchildren who had been part of the uniform protest. 1979 Coup d'etat Foreign Military Intervention Emperor Bokassa is overthrown with the troops. David Dacko is installed as the the regime. aid new of French leader of 21 CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC July Insurgency September Coup d•etat March Unsuccessful Coup The Central African Movement for National Liberation claims responsibility for a grenade attack in a Banguicinema frequented by French troops. Antiregimeviolence breaks out. from three opposition parties,resulting in the declaration of a state of emergency. President Dacko is overthrown by General Andre Ko 1i ngba. Ange Patasse masterminds a plot, supported byopposition elements in the armed forces, to overthrow the Kolingba regime, but is thwarted in the attempt. 22 CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC CHAD Independence: August 1960 The civil war in Chad has been in progress almost since independence. It emerged out of the animosity between the predominantly Muslim north, which had traditionally dominated the area, and the Christian and animist south, which was favored in the colonial period. When southerners took over Chad at the time of independence from France, northern dissatisfaction soon led to rebellion. The 20-plus years of war have produced a complicated series of alliances and foreign military interventions which have shifted with the constantly changing situation in the country. The establishment of a one-party system under President Ngarta Tombalbaye in 1962, generally accepted in the south, aroused opposition in the north and led to the formation of the National Liberation Front of Chad (FROLINAT) which has received support from Libya over the years with interruptions caused by the refusal of FROLINAT leaders to back Libya's annexation of the Aozou strip in the extreme north. FROLINAT was first led by Hissein Habre, but internal divisions led to his replacement by Goukouni Oueddei, forming the roots of the present conflict between the supporters of the two men. In the capital, the Tombalbaye regime was overthrown by a group of young officers, bringing to power General Felix Malloum who had French support. Despite Libyan support, FROLINAT was defeated in 1977 by the French-backed government forces, an event which destroyed reconciliation. In the meantime, Habre had formed the Armed Forces of the North (FAN), promptly supplied by France (which preferred Habre to Mallourn) with modern weapons. FAN was supposed to be joined with the Chad National Army in 1978 with Habre's appointment as Malloum's Prime Minister and the formation of a new government, but this arrangment soon broke down as Habre's FAN troops defeated those of Malloum. The March 1979 Kano (Nigeria) agreements formed a coalition Transitional Government of National Unity (GUNT) with Goukouni Oueddei as President and Hissein Habre as Minister of Defense. Although GUNT had full French support, conflict between Goukouni and Habre prevented it from governing effectively. By early 1980, fighting had broken out between the forces of the two men, and Goukouni called on Libyan troops for assistance. Habre was defeated and driven into exile. Libyan troops remained in Chad until Goukouni asked them to leave in mid-1981 following a serious battle in the north between GUNT forces and rebels under Ahmat Acyl, a former Goukouni supporter. Habre's FAN immediately stepped up their offensive, beginning a new series of fierce battles with GUNT forces. By mid-1982, FAN had defeated the GUNT troops, captured N'Djamena, and forced Goukouni into exile in Libya. The civil war exploded once again in June 1983 when Goukouni entered into northern Chad. Fighting between the two sides brought military intervention from France and Zaire as well as Libya, a situation which persists to the present. 23 CHAD CROSS REITRENCE Sudan DATE 1963 1965 1965 Sudan 1966 1968 1968 1973 1974 1975 TYPE OF CONFLICT Rebellion Civil War Foreign Military Intervention Rebellion Civil War Military Invasion Mutiny Civil War Foreign Military Intervention Civil War Military Invasion Civil War Coup d•etat Foreign Military Intervention DESCRIPTION Violence breaks out in N'Djamena following a northern conspiracy against the one-party system. FROLINAT forms in the north in opposition to the southern Tombalbaye government. The Sudanese Government offers the rebels sanctuary and equipment. The Moubi, stirred by the northern FROLINAT Muslims, attack Chad security forces in the southern province of Guera. The Toubou also become involved. Repression by government troops is harsh. FROLINAT rebels conduct large-scale raids from Sudan,causing President Tombalbaye to close the border and to order his army to fire on any Sudanese aircraft over Chad. Chadian troops conduct incursions into Sudan. Toubou guards in the northern Tibesti region revolt in Aozou. FROLINAT rebels raid from the Birao and Ndele regionsof the Central African Republic. At the request of the Tombalbaye government, French troops arrive and intervene. FROLINAT rebels in central and southeast Chad launch three small attacks throughout the year. Libya moves its forces into the Aozou strip in the extreme north. FROLINAT rebels kidnap two French scientists, holding one for 33 months and the other for 17 months. President Tombalbaye is killed by a junta led byGeneral Felix Malloum who seizes power with French help. 24 CHAD Nigeria 1977 1979 1980 January March May- June October-December Unsuccessful Coup Civil War Civil War Foreign Military Intervention Military Invasion Civil War Civil War Civil War Foreign Military Intervention Civil War Foreign Military Intervention A group of armed men 1aunch an unsuccessfu 1 attack on the presidential palace. A general offensive is mounted in the north by FROLINAT forces which capture Fada and Faya-Largeau. The Malloum government collapses as Habre•s FAN forces defeat the Chad National Army with the aid of FROLINAT rebels. Nigerian troops arrive in N1 Djamena to police a ceasefi re agreement between the north and south, but are soon ordered out of the country by the new government which claims they refuse to obey orders. Heavy fighting breaks out in N•Djamena between Goukouni•s GUNT forces and members of the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Chad. Libya launches an offensive in the north from the Aozou strip against GUNT forces. Skirmishes occur between the Libyan forces and Goukouni•s forces at Faya-Largeau. Serious clashes break out between factional forces in the eastern Ouaddai district, triggering a new alliance between Goukouni•s forces and another faction. Fighting breaks out as various armed factions compete for control of N1 Djamena. Habre• s FAN and two other factions join together to fight for power in N1 Djamena. Fighting expands to outside of the capital. Libyan troops are involved in the fighting, attacking Habre•s forces with mortar and artillery fire. At Goukouni•s request, Libya sends in several thousand troops to fight against Habre•s FAN forces. The latter are soon pushed out of the capital and flee to Cameroon. Libyan troops occupy the capital. 25 CHAD Nigeria Nigeria 1981 February April November-December 1982 January June 1983 April June July August Border Dispute Civil War Foreign Military Intervention Civil War Civil War Civil War Border Dispute Civil War Civil War Foreign Military Intervention Nigeria reinforces troops near the Lake Chad region because of fighting between villagers on the border over the claim of islands in the lake. Fighting breaks out between Goukouni•s forces and those of Ahmat Acyl in Abeche in the north. Libyan troopsintervene, causing numerous casualties. FAN forces take control of Abeche, Biltine, and Oum Hadjer, opening the road to N1 Djamena. Fierce fightingbreaks out in eastern Chad near the border with Sudan between FAN forces and those of Ahmat Acyl. Faya-Largeau is taken by FAN forces, placing a quarterof the country under their control. Habre•s FAN launch a military blitz, defeating the GUNT forces and capturing N1 Djamena. Goukouni goes into exile in Libya. Fighting breaks out between Chadian and Nigeriansoldiers near Lake Chad. Chadian patrols attack Nigerian troops on Kinsara Island. Goukouni • s GUNT forces enter northern Chad from Libyaand capture Faya-Largeau. Heavy fighting breaks out between FAN and GUNT forces in the north. Habre appeals to France for assistance. A commando battalion with air support arrives from Zaire in support of the Habre regime. Government forces recapture the stronghold of Oum Cha louba, 200 miles southeast Faya-Largeau. French marine para 26 CHAD 1984 January Civil War Foreign Military Intervention February Civil War troopers begin to arrive in N1 Djamena along with aircraft and military flown in from Bouar in the Central African Republic. Rebel forces shoot down a French Jaguar fighter plane, killing the pilot following a series of French air strikes prompted by a Libyan-backed raid through French lines near Ziguei. French forces retaliate by pushing 62 miles northward to the 16th parallel. A serious clash between forces occurs near Oum forces are defeated. government Chalouba in t roops which and the GUNT GUNT 27 CHAD COMOROS Independence: July 1975 Since declaring independence from France, the Comoran Government has suffered from financial crises, externally supported coups, and a succession of natural calamities. Nonetheless, the regime of Ahmed Abdallah has been marred by relatively little conflict. CROSS REFERENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION 1975 Coup d'etat Ahmed Abdallah is ousted by Ali Soilih with the help of the mercenary, Bob Denard. 1978 Coup d'etat Ahmed Abdallah is reinstalled as head of state with the help of killed. Bob Denard and his mercenaries; Soilih is 1981 February Mutiny The army mutinies on the island of Grande Comore, but the mutiny is crushed by loyal Presidential Guard units. 1983 March Unsuccessful Coup Three Australian mercenaries hired by John Pilgrim, a British mercenary who was allegedly hired by Prince Said Ali Kemal, former Ambassador to France and now living in Paris, are charged with plotting to overthrow the Abdallah regime. 28 COMOROS CONGO Independence: August 1960 Since independence, the Congo has been rocked by a succession of coups caused by disagreements over political orientation coupled with tensions between the north and the south. The ruling Congolese Workers' Party (PCT) under Colonel Denis Sassou-Nguesso originated in the National Revolutionary Movement (MNR) which declared itself for Marxism-Leninism and which was fostered by the assassinated former President Marien Ngouabi (1968-1977) of whom Sassou-Nguesso was a follower. Since Sassou-Nguesso's rise to power in 1979, there has been no major conflict in the Congo. CROSS REFERENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION 1963 Rebellion Mass demonstrations incited by the trade unions are held in Brazzaville to protest government plans for the creation of a one-party system. A general strike is called in Brazzaville, Pointe-Noire, and Loubomo. 1966 Mutiny Paratroops and militia mutiny in response to missal of paratroop commander Captain Marien arresting Chief of General Staff Major David and other officers. the disNgouabi, Moutsaka 1968 Coup d'etat Rebellion President Massamba-Debat orders the dissolution of the MNR, sparking off riots which force his resignation. Ngouabi seizes power and replaces the MNR with the PCT. Zaire 1969 Border Incident The Congolese Government claims that commandos from Zaire made an armed incursion into Brazzaville with the intention of overthrowing the Congolese regime. 1970 Unsuccessful Coup An invasion gendarmerie subsequently militia." plot supported is defeated. dissolved and by The replaced members of the gendarmarie is by a "people's 1973 Unsuccessful Coup 29 Ange Diawara, dismissed as Vice-President in the first few months of the Ngouabi regime, is allegedly behind a major plot to overthrow Ngouabi. A widespread purgeand a restructuring of the military follow. CONGO 1977 Coup d•etat President Ngouabi is assassinated; former President Massamba-Debat is blamed and executed. A group ofNgouabi•s colleagues under Colonel JoachimYhombi-Opango take power. 1979 Coup d•etat Yhombi-Opango is overthrown by radical junior officersdeclaring themselves for 11 Marxism-Leninism; 11 Colonel Sassou-Nguesso takes power. 30 CONGO oJmMl Independence: June 1977 One source of conflict in Djibouti has been the country's geographic position next to Somalia and Ethiopia, for it is directly related to the rivalry between the two major ethnic groups--the Afars, who are also found in Interethnic bitterness worsened with the 1966 expulsion of thousands Ethiopia, and the Issas, a clan of Somalis. of Issas and other Somalis from the territory, and was further aggravated with the outcomes of elections in 1967 Violent agitation resulted, led by the official opposition party, the Issa-led and 1968 which favored the Afars. African Popular League for Independence (LPAI) and the banned Front for the Liberat~on-of the Somali Coast (FLCS). The French responded in 1977 with the granting of independence and the formation of a coalition government under LPAI leader Hassan Gouled who has been President ever since. CROSS DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION REFERENCE Somali residents stage a mass demonstration which es 1966 Rebe 11 ion calates into a violent confrontation with French security forces, resulting in the forcible expulsion of thousands of Somalis. school bus full of children, The FLCS attacks a Somalia 1976 Insurgency unconditional independence for Djibouti. Border Incident demanding Troops from Somalia French snipers end the incident. across the exchange fire with the French troops from border. Armed clashes occur between the LPAI and supporters of 1976 Insurgency Ali Aref, head of the territory's administration. DJIBOUTI 31 EQUATORIAL GUINEA Independence: October 1968 In August 1979, a coup toppled the government of Equatorial Guinea, terminating the 11-yeardictatorial rule of Macias Nguema whose regime was characterized by genocide, religious repression, hostility to neighboring states, and economic collapse. coup with the security assistance of Spain, President Teodoro Obiang Nguema has the country's former colonial power. remained in power since the 1979 CROSS REFERENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION 1969 Unsuccessful Coup Foreign Minister Atanasio Ndong is killed while trying to overthrow the government of Francisco Macias Nguema. Gabon 1972 Border Dispute Minor armed clashes occur between Equatorial Guinea and Gabon as the resu 1t of competing c1aims over sever a 1 uninhabited islands in oil prospecting areas. 1979 Coup d'etat The government of Francisco Macias Nguema is toppled by Foreign Military Intervention Co 1one 1 Teodoro Obyang Nguema, the President's nephew.Moroccan soldiers fly in at the request of the new government to help guard the Presidential Palace. Also at the request of the new government, Spain sends military advisers to the country. 1981 April Unsuccessful Coup An attempt to unseat President Nguema is made by members of the Presidential Guard which includes Moroccan troops. The attempt is foiled by securityforces in Malabo after fighting in which a number of people are killed. 1983 May Unsuccessful Coup A large number of the military are arrested after trying to assassinate President Nguema. 32 EQUATORIAL GUINEA ETHIOPIA Independence: Never colonized. The complexity of the conflict in Ethiopia is the result of the country•s political system which has always been strongly centralized and dominated by Christian Amharic rule, its heterogeneous population and geographic position. Tracking the numerous insurgencies and internal opposition movements which have emerged through the years is further complicated by their diverse and sometimes varying sources of support. Another major dimension of conflict in Ethiopia comes from Somalia•s claims to the Ogaden region. In 1977-78, the dispute over this territory exploded into full-fledged warfare in which the Soviet Union and Cuba became heavily involved on the Ethiopian side, ensuring an Ethiopian victory. Most insurgency movements in the country have grown primarily out of opposition to Amharic rule, first under Emperor Haile Selassie and then under the ruling Provisional Military Administrative Council (PMAC) headed by Mengistu Haile Mariam. Some of these movements have sought regional autonomy, while those in Eritrea are fighting for independence. Since 1978, having crushed most other opposition, the PMAC has concentrated military actions against the insurgencies in Eritrea and Tigray. In Eritrea, the Eritrean People•s Liberation Front (EPLF), which split from the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) in 1970, emerged as the dominant insurgent group in the province after defeating the ELF in a military conflict lasting from 1972 to 1974. Another smaller group is the Eritrean Liberation Front-Popular Liberation Forces (ELF-PLF) which split from the EPLF in 1976. The Tigray People•s Liberation Front (TPLF), fighting for autonomy of Tigray Province, is opposed to the Mengistu regime and recently has become one of its greatest threats, especially because of military and strategic cooperation between the TPLF and the EPLF. Other groups fighting for regional autonomy are the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF), the Afar Liberation Front (ALF), and the Ethiopian People•s Democratic Movement (EPDM). However, none of these groups have caused significant military conflict. One opposition group that has caused significant conflict is the Somali-backed Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF) in the Ogaden. (See Somalia for details on the WSLF.) Two government opposition groups emerged in the mid-1970s. The Ethiopian People•s Revolutionary Party (EPRP) began its armed struggle in 1975, but was almost destroyed by 1978 following the PMAC's 11 red terror.. campaign against the organization. The Ethiopian Democratic Union (EDU) gained some temporary successes in the northwest in 1977, but soon lost its strength. In 1981, the remaining leaders of the two groups formed the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Ethiopia (DFLE) which has periodically caused significant conflict. At the present time, the conflicts in Eritrea and Tigray are still very active, and the conflict in the Ogaden continues. CROSS ~ENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION Unsuccessful Coup The Imperial Household Guard tries unsuccessfully to overthrow Emperor Haile Selassie. 1960 }.) ETHIOPIA Somalia Somalia 1961 1963-64 Sudan Sudan Sudan 1964-55 1967 1969 Sudan 1970-71 1971 1972-74 1974 Border War Border War Military Invasion Insurgency Military Invasion Insurgency Foreign Military Intervention Insurgency Foreign Military Intervention Insurgency Insurgency Foreign Military Intervention Insurgency Mutiny ~1ilitary units of Ethiopia and Somalia meet in combat on the border in the Ogaden. Somali nomads conduct raids into eastern Ethiopia, causing the dispute over the Ogaden to flare up. Somalia's military forces launch an attack into Ethiopia. Ethiopian troops make incursions into Sudan to attack ELF camps. The first large-scale offensive is launched against the Eritrean rebe 1 s by government forces. ELF bases in Sudan are closed and relocated to Aden. Numeiri 's rise to power in Sudan results in the reinstatement of military aid and base camps to the ELF rebels. The ELF launches a ne1.,r series of attacks on Ethiopian Airlines planes, mines roads, ambushes police and army units, and General in Asmara. briefly kidnaps the US Consul The government un 1 eashes the Armed Forces in Eritrea. battles, the government forces Second Division After months are withdrawn. of of its fierce The ELF is expelled from Sudan. The ELF expands its activities into urban areas and incidents of violence multiply. Rivalry between the ELF and EPLF erupts into a military conflict l;>etween the two groups. The EPLF emerges as the dominant group. Junior officers in Asmara (Eritrea Province) mutiny. The revolt spreads to the capital and Harar, and among all divisions of the army, the airborne unit, and the air force. The government resigns as a 4-day genera 1 strike begins. 34 ETHIOPIA 1974 Coup d'etat Emperor Haile Selassie is overthrown and the PMAC isestablished. 1974 Insurgency A battle between government forces and Eritrean guer rillas of all groups erupts in which Asmara, the capital of Eritrea, is assaulted. 1974 Border War Bloody border skirmishes between Ethiopia and Somalia break out. 1975 Insurgency The ELF and EPLF launch a joint massive attack against army positions in and around Asmara. Government forces repulse the attack, but the countryside is controlled by guerrillas. PMAC forces attack Afar warriors in the eastern lowlands. Afar warriors damage the key bridge on the Assab road. The ELF and EPLF resume attacks on Asmara. Other dissident groups begin to fight in Wollo and Afar Provinces. Government troops react brutally, driving more of the local populations to join the insurgent movements. 1976 Unsuccessful Coup Divisions within the PMAC lead to an abortive coup after which nine leaders are executed. 1976 Insurgency A British journalist is kidnaped by the TPLF and is re leased shortly thereafter. 1976-77 Border War WSLF guerrillas and Somali troops attack Ethiopian forces in the Ogaden. 1976-78 Insurgency The EPRP engages in sporadic b 1 oody encounters,assassinations and counterassassinations. The PMAC responds with mass murders. Clashes between PMAC forces and EPRP rebe 1 s in Addis Ababa result in many deaths and arrests. Eritrean guerrillas of the EPLF, ELF and ELF-PLF seize control of 95 percent of Eritrea. Ethiopian and Somali troops engage in full-scale war1977-78 Border War Foreign Military Intervention fare in the Ogaden. Soviet and Cuban troops fight with Ethiopian troops. Ethiopian forces drive Somali forcesfrom the Ogaden. 35 ETHIOPIA 1973 Insurgency PMAC forces take the offensive in tl"itrea, recapturingall but Nakfa in the northcentral hill country. 1979 Insurgency TPLF guerrillas capture four towns and block the main road to Addis Ababa during a sudden series of advances. Fighting between WSLF guerrillas and Ethiopian troopsintensifies in the Ogaden. 1980 Somalia March Insurgency Border War Fighting breaks out between Ethiopian troops and WSLF guerrillas in the Ogaden. Ethiopia launches air raids into Somalia. Somalia ~1ayJune Border War Large-scale fighting breaks out once again in the Ogaden between Ethiopian and Somali troops. EthiopianMiG fighter planes bomb the border area of Dolo in Somalia which is heavily populated by refugees from Eritrea. Somalia September Border War Six Somali units launch a two-pronged incursion into Ethiopia's Bale Province. Ethiopian air and groundforces continue to attack Somalia's Dolo district. 1981 January-December Insurgency TPLF activity extends from hit and run raids along the main roads in Tigray into the neighboring southern regions of Gondar and Wallo. Somalia June Border War Ethiopian troops towns in Somalia. launch a series of air raids against 1982 January Insurgency EPLF guerrillas launch a mortar attack on the airfield at Keren and the airport at Asmara. The TPLF a steady series of attacks on main roads through Tigray into Eritrea. launches leading 36 ETHIOPIA Somalia Kenya Somalia JanuaryMarch FebruaryMay July August December 1983 February-April Summer July August-September Insurgency Irrsurgem:y Fereign Military Border War Border Incident Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Border Wctr Insurgency Intervention The OLF engages in antigovernment activities. The EDU component of the DFLE becomes active in Wollega Province, forcing the government to commit several battalions to the province. PMAC troops launch the Red Star military operation in Eritrea with Soviet military support. PMAC forces fail to advance beyond four miles of EPLF-held Nakfa. Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF) guerrillas and Ethiopian troops attack the Somali border towns of Balambale and Goldogob. Ethiopian troops initiate new fighting in regions along the border with Somalia which Somali forces repulse. Ethiopian militiamen raid Kenyan encampments in Mandera, killing 29 people and taking camels and cattle. The Tigray insurgency escalates and TPLF guerrillas gain control of most of the countryside, leaving only the major towns in government hands. PMAC forces launch a large-scale offensive in Tigray to break communications between the TPLF and EPLF. TPLF guerrillas capture eight famine relief workers. The newly formed EPDM in Wollo begins to fight with TPLF support. A series of TPLF operations take place to the southeast of Tigray, deep in northern Wollo Province. Ethiopia launches a series of attacks along the Somali border which are repulsed by Somali troops. The TPLF captures 11 Swiss relief workers, releasing them soon afterwards. A new PMAC mobilization against the TPLF begins in the Wollo region. ETHIOPIA 37 October Insurgency 1984 Somalia January Insurgency Border War January-Insurgency March May Insurgency WSLF guerrillas launch a raid on the Jigjiga central prison, escalating conflict in the Ogaden. WSLF guerrillas attack two trains on the Addis Ababa and Djibouti lines. The Ethiopian Air Force bombs various targets in northwest Somalia in reprisal. Fighting between EPLF guerrillas and PMAC forces intensifies in the northern corner of Eritrea. The EPLF, during 3 days of fighting with PMAC forces on the 60-mile Alghena front, overruns all government positions, scoring the largest victory yet. EPLF guerri 11 as attack the air base at Asmara, destroying aircraft and several buildings including a munitions depot and a gasoline depot. 38 ETHIOPIA GABON Independence: August 1960 The only significant conflict in Gabon was caused by friction between President Leon M'Ba, who served from independence until his death in 1967, and Jean Hilaire Aubame, who headed the Gabonese branch of the Party of African Regrouping (PRA) led by Leopold Senghor of Senegal. Aubame's temporary seizure of the government in 1964 after losing his foreign affairs portfolio was quickly squelched by French military intervention, an action resulting from defense agreements which France and Gabon had signed in 1960. The transfer of power to Omar Bongo in 1967 was peaceful, and the Bongo regime has been free of serious conflict up to the present. CROSS REFERENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION 1964 Unsuccessful Coup A military coup deposes President Leon M'Ba and sets up Foreign Military Intervention a Revolutionary Committee under the leadership of Aubame. At M'Ba's request, French troops intervene militarily to restore him to power. Equa tori a 1 1972 Border Dispute Minor armed clashes occur between troops of EquatorialGuinea Guinea and Gabon as the result of competing claims over several uninhabited islands in oil prospecting areas. I Zaire 1979 Foreign Military Intervention Gabonese troops, part of the African intervention force in Shaba Province, Zaire during the 1978 uprising,leave Zaire. 39 GABON GAMBIA Independence: Apri 1 1967 Gambia had a reputation for a stable and tolerant government under President Dawda Jawara until disaffection in the Field Forces in 1980, spurred by leftist government opponent Kukoi Samba Sanyang, expanded into an 8-day insurrection in the capital which was quelled with Senegalese military intervention. Many deaths were reported. This event resulted in the confederation of Gambia and Senegal in February 1982. Previously, Gambia had been reluctant to join Senegal, but it was in need of continued Senegalese military protection, a situation which persists to the present. Today, Gambia and Senegal remain confederated, although each country has retained its sovereignty. Economic and other mergers have yet to be consolidated. CROSS REFERENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION 1980 Senegal October Foreign Military Intervention Senegalese troops are deployed with Gambian Field Forces amid in Banjul for rumors of a maneuvers coup plot from within the Field Forces allegedly inspired by Libya. 1981 Senegal JulyAugust Unsuccessful Coup Foreign Military Intervention President Dawda Jawara is temporarily deposed leftist coup led by a group including disaffected Force members under the 1eadershi p of Kukoi by a Field Samba Sanyang, an opponent of the Jawara regime. Two thousand Senegalese troops come to Jawara's aid and crush the coup, restoring Jawara to power. Libya is accused of inspiring the attempt, though evidence does not support the accusation. 40 GAMBIA GHANA Independence: March 1957 In the past 18 years, beginning with the ouster of Kwame Nkrumah's civilian regime in 1966 by the military, Ghana has undergone numerous power changeovers characterized by the failure of its civilian governments. Political instability has been caused primarily by the gradual deterioration of the economy. The failure of the civil ian Progress Party under Kofi Busia, brought into power in October 1969 under elections sponsored by the military National Liberation Council regime, can be traced to the inability of its leaders to institute sound measures for economic recovery and social reform. The civilian regime was overthrown by the military in 1972, and the Supreme Military Council under Lieutenant-Colonel Ignatius Kutu Acheampong began a serious program of economic reform which failed. Acheampong's increasing loss of support led to his ouster by Lieutenant-General Frederick Akuffo who reluctantly made plans for a move back to civilian rule. The 1979 coup by Flight-Lieutenant Jerry Rawlings which ended the Supreme Military Council regime was almost immediately followed by the Rawlings' sponsored elections which brought the civilian regime of Hilla Limann to power, but this regime was also unable to pull Ghana out of its economic morass, and it was overthrown by Jerry Rawlings in late 1981. Although Rawlings remains as Head of State, there have been incidents indicating unrest in the military. CROSS RUERENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT Upper Volta 1963 1966 Military Invasion Coup d'etat 1972 Coup d'etat 1978 Coup d'etat 1979 Coup d'etat DESCRIPTION Ghanaian forces occupy a 50-mile strip of 1and controlled by Upper Volta. President Kwame Nkrumah is ousted in a coup launched by the army and police. The army establishes the National Liberation Council under the Chairmanship of General Joseph Ankrah. A section of the army under Colonel Ignatius Kutu Acheampong seizes power from President Busia. A National Redemption Council is organized. Acheampong is ousted in a palace coup led by his Chief of Defence Staff, Lieutenant-General Frederick Akuffo. A coup is attempted by a group of Air Force officers led by Jerry Rawlings but is initially unsuccessful. A short time later, a military uprising frees Rawlings from prison and installs him as head of state. 41 GHANA 1981 December Coup d•etat Rawlings deposes the Hilla Limann government. 1982 February Mutiny Several clashes occur between army officers and Rebellion enlisted men, most notably in Takoradi. Clashes alsobreak out between civilians and army units, notably inKumasi, because of the unruly conduct of sections of the armed forces. November Unsuccessful Coup Members of the military attempt to overthrow theRawlings regime, but are crushed by loyal troops. 1983 June Unsuccessful Coup A group of soldiers led by Sergeant Malik, who had escaped to Togo after the November 1982 attempt, attacksthree prisons in Accra and Nsawam, releasing a largenumber of military intelligence and other servicemenwho had been detained following previous attempts.They also attack the Ghana Broadcasting Corporationbefore they are repelled. 42 GHANA GUINEA Independence: October 1958 From independence until his death in 1984, Sekou Toure remained as Guinea's head of state. Sekou Toure headed a regime which ruth 1ess ly suppressed all opposition and drove 1 arge numbers of Guineans into exi1 e. Although plagued by conspiracies and assassination attempts, the government remained basically unscathed. However, shortly following interim government. Sekou Toure's death, a coup led by a group of junior army officers overthrew the CROSS REFERENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION Guinea 1968 Military Invasion Portuguese troops launch raids on African Party for theBissau Insurgency Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC)Senegal guerrillas, based in Senegal and Guinea, fighting for the independence of Guinea-Bissau. 1969 Rebellion Unrest breaks out in the national army as some members p 1 ot to separate the Labe region from the rest of the country. 1970 Unsuccessful Coup A large group of exiled Guinean opponents to the Sekou Foreign Military Intervention Toure regime 1ed by Portuguese officers 1and off of Conakry and destroy a presidenti a 1 residence and other buildings before being repelled by government troops, unleashing a reign of terror. Sierra 1971 Foreign Military Intervention Guinean troops are flown to Sierra Leone following a Leone mutiny in Sierra Leone's military and remain in the country for 2 years. 1977 Rebellion Riots begun in Conakry by market women protesting police abuse of power spread to many towns. Three governors are killed. 43 GUINEA 1980 Guinea-June Border Dispute A long-standing offshore territori a 1 dispute with Bissau Guinea flares up; Guinea-Bissau sends troops to the border. 1983 Sierra November Border Dispute Guinea sends troops into Sierra Leone's southern border Leone region as a result of a border dispute. 1984 April Coup d'etat Junior army officers seize power from interim President Louis Lansana Beavogui after the death of Sekou Toure. Colonel Lansana Conte emerges as Head of State. 44 GUINEA GUINEA-BISSAU Independence: September 1974 The war of independence waged by the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC)under the leadership of Arnilcar Cabral against the Portuguese colonizers lasted from 1963 to 1974. The conflict involved a number of external actors, including neighboring Guinea and Senegal which harbored and provided basesfor the PAIGC guerrillas, as well as many Soviet bloc countries, China, and Algeria which provided instructors either in Guinea and Senegal to train PAIGC recruits or in their own countries to where recruits were sent. Toward the end of the war, the Soviet Union provided the guerrillas with relatively sophisticated weapons systems.The end of the war and the onset of independence brought peace to the country. However, in 1980 a coup occurred which brought former guerrilla commander Joao Bernardo Vieira to power. CROSS REFERENCE DATE 1963 Guinea 1968 Senegal 1971 1973 Senegal 1974 TYPE OF CONFLICT Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Foreign Military Insurgency Insurgency Intervention DESCRIPTION The PAIGC begins an armed struggle to overthrow Portuguese colonial rule. PAIGC guerrillas begin to inflict considerable damage on Portuguese troops which respond by 1 aunchi ng raids on PAIGC guerrillas based in Senegal and Guinea. Heavy fighting breaks out between the army. The guerrillas mount PAIGC guerrillas and a direct offensive against Bissau. guerrillas. A small number of Cubans join the PAIGC guerrillas, operating from Senegal and Guinea, obtain ground-to-air missiles, shaking the confidence of the Portuguese troops. PAIGC guerrillas shoot down Portuguese jet fighter planes and launch a long-range weapon bombardment from Senegal and Guinea. A Portuguese commando unit destroys the guerrilla base of Kumbabori in Senegal. 45 GUINEA-BISSAU 1980 Guinea June Border Dispute A long-standing offshore territorial dispute with Guinea flares up; Guinea-Bissau sends troops to the border. November Coup d'etat President Luis Cabral is replaced with a "Council of the Revolution" headed by Joao Bernardo "Nino" Vieira. 1984 Senegal January Border Dispute As the result of a dispute over an offshore oil drilling site, both Senegal and Guinea-Bissau send in warships off Cape Skiring, and a large number of Senegalese soldiers move into the Casamance region. 46 GUINEA-BISSAU IVORY COAST Independence: August 1960 The Ivory Coast, under the leadership of President Felix Houphouet-Boigny since independence, has experienced little significant conflict. Sporadic political unrest has emerged in the form of coup plots which have been aborted early in their planning and antigovernment uprisings led by regional ethnic groups. REFERENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION 1969 Insurgency A secessionist movement in the southeast led by Agni militants is subdued by army units. 1970 Rebe 11 ion An antigovernment uprising by Bete tribesmen is put down by the army and police. Zaire 1979 Foreign Military Intervention Troops from the Ivory Coast, part of the African intervention force in Zaire's Shaba Province during the 1978 uprising, leave Zaire. 47 IVORY COAST KENYA Independence: December 1963 Conflict in the early 1960s centered around the struggle of Kikuyu peasants in the central highlands, organized into the Land and Freedom Army (LFA), to regain the land expropriated from them by the British colonial government. The Kikuyu had originally organized the LFA in the early 1950s when the bloody "Mau Mau" uprising against the British settlers resulted in an LFA defeat. LFA remnants, reviving their struggle in the early years of Jomo Kenyatta's coalition government, returned to the forests and began military operations anew, demanding p1ots of 1and from the government. The rebe 11 ion was soon sque 1ched after independence by po 1ice in the Meru district who killed a number of LFA leaders and guerrillas. Another conflict was brewing in the northeast region which, because it is inhabited primarily by ethnic Somali, was claimed by Somalia. Although Kenyan armed forces launched a campaign against the Somali raiders between 1963 and 1967 which resulted in thousands of deaths, Somali elements have carried out intermittent attacks since then. The most serious threat to civil ian rule in Kenya occurred in 1982 with an attempted coup d'etat by the Air Force against the government of Daniel Arap Moi who had come to power after Kenyatta's death in 1978. CROSS REFERENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION 1963 Rebellion Members of the LFA demand plots of land from the coalition government headed by Jomo Kenyatta. Kenyatta' s refusal results in new military actions in the forests during which the police in Meru district launch a campaign to liquidate the LFA. Somalia 1963-67 Border Dispute Soma1i raiders ambush a Kenyan po1ice patro1, setting Foreign Military Intervention off terrorism in the northern frontier district. The British supply Kenya with weapons and officers. 1964 Mutiny A mutiny by elements of the army is suppressed with Foreign Military Intervention British aid. 1980 Somalia November Border Incident Somali raiders murder six people in Kenya's North-East Province near the border between the two countries. A series of attacks leads to a military alert. 48 KENYA Somalia Ethiopia Somalia Uganda 1982 May August August 1984 February February-June MarchJune Border Incident Border Incident Unsuccessful Coup Rebellion Rebellion Rebellion Somali raiders kill three Kenyan officials during an ambush in North-East Province. Ethiopian i'~andera, cattle. militiamen killing 29 raid people Kenyan and ta encampments king camels in and Members of Kenya's military attempt to overthrow the Moi government, but are thwarted by loyal army commanders and troops. Kenyan soldiers and police officers are called into Wajir in North-East Province to settle a confrontation between rival Somali clans, killing several hundred people. Units of the Kenyan army, supported by the General Service Unit, police and anti-stock theft units, move into southern Pokot in response to tribal tensions, taking punitive actions in an effort to collect illegally-held arms. The army encounters resistance at Kapchok and Kodich and use helicopters to attack homes and herds. The Kenyan and Ugandan armies combine forces to combat "ngorokos" (bandits) in their border areas. Kenyan troops arrive at Amudat, a Pokot area inside Uganda. Many young men of the Kenyan Pokot region, who had fled to the Ugandan Pokot region, are attacked by Kenyan gunships. 49 KENYA LESOTHO Independence: October 1966 Although Lesotho is a monarchy nominally headed by King Moshoeshoe II, the country's leadership is in thehands of Prime Minister Leabua Jonathan. Conflict in Lesotho is rooted primarily in the struggle for powerbetween Chief Jonathan, head of the Basutoland National Party (BNP) and Prime Minister since independence, and Ntsu Mokhehle, founder of the exiled Basutoland Congress Party (BCP) and leader of the BCP's military wing, theLesotho Liberation Army (LLA). The general elections of January 1970 resulted in a victory for the BCP, but ChiefJonathan launched a coup d'etat, .seizing power with the help of the elite Police Mobile Unit which crushed theresulting armed opposition by BCP supporters in various parts of the country. When Mokhehle's followers launched a series of attacks in 1974, Jonathan reacted with great severity, forcing Mokhehle and six other leading BCPleaders into exile in South Africa where the LLA was formed. Since that time, the LLA, harbored by South Africa,has launched sporadic armed attacks on targets in Lesotho, but it has not succeeded in causing a significant threat to Jonathan. Another source of conflict has been the presence in Lesotho of African National Congress(ANC) of South Africa members which has resulted in cross-border attacks by South African forces. CROSS RE'f"ERE NC E DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION 1970 Coup d'etat Chief Leabua Jonathan seizes power after being defeated in elections by the BCP led by Ntsu Mokhehle. A number of attempts at armed opposition to Jonathan are crushed by the elite Police Mobile Unit. 1974 Insurgency The BCP launches a series of assaults on five policestations. Hundreds of BCP members are arrested or killed, forcing their leaders into exile. 1979 Insurgency LLA guerrillas explode a bomb in the main post office of Maseru. Another bomb damages electrical transformers near the South African border. A new wave of violence breaks out as the LLA explodes a bomb at a police postin the northern district of Buthe which results in violent clashes between the paramilitary police and BCP supporters, and the transformation of the paramilitarypolice force into a full fledged army. LLA guerrillasincrease their sabotage efforts throughout the country,bombing bridges, electrical installations, and stores as well as diesel storage tanks. 50 LESOTHO South Africa South Africa South Africa South Africa South Africa 1980 June 1981 July September October 1982 May July August December 1983 February Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Military Invasion Military Invasion Insurgency LLA guerri 11 as 1aunch a series of attacks from South Africa. LLA guerri 11 as attack a fue 1 depot outs ide of Maseru with mortar fire from across the South African border. LLA guerrillas launch a number of bomb attacks on property owned by Minister of Agriculture Peete Peete. LLA guerrillas attack a paramilitary police barracks outside of Maseru with mortar fire from across the South African border. LLA guerrillas ambush a vehicle carrying Peete Peete who escapes unharmed. LLA guerrillas attack the residence of Chief Leabua Jonathan, but are driven off by police guards. An LLA guerrilla kills Koeyama Chakela, a prominent opposition politician. LLA guerrillas assassinate Jobo Rampeta, Minister of Works. South Africa launches a raid on alleged ANC guerrilla houses in Maseru, killing 43 people. Lesotho accuses South Africa of dropping two bombs from a helicopter on a fuel depot in Maseru, destroying it and setting fire to a steel factory. The LLA claims responsibility. 51 LESOTHO South March Insurgency Africa June Insurgency August Insurgency September Insurgency LLA attacks increase from South Africa following a partial South African blockade on border crossings into Lesotho. Several LLA guerrillas are killed by Lesotho•s paramilitary security force at Kolonyama near the South African border, reportedly during an LLA mission to assassinate Chief Jonathan. A powerfu 1 car bomb exp 1 odes in the center of Maseru shortly after Jonathan•s motorcade passes through. The LLA bombs a post office, an airport warehouse, and the home of a cabinet minister. LLA guerrillas also launch an attack with armored vehicles, mortars, and bazookas. 52 LESOTHO LIBERIA Independence: 1847 Liberia was founded in 1822 as a settlement for freed black American slaves, and from its independence in 1847 until 1980 it was dominated by the descendants of these settlers, known as Americo-Liberians. In the 1960s and 1970s the indigenous African population grew increasingly dissatisfied with its exclusion from political and economic power, but no open conflict occurred. The events which culminated in the overthrow and death of President William Tolbert in 1980 were precipitated by economic difficulties and the repression which followed protests about an increase in the price of rice, but underlying these immediatecai.ises was popular discontent with Master Sergeant Samuel K. Doe, formed the People•s RedemptionLiberia•s political system. The coup leader, Council (PRC) which remains in power, although elections have been promised for early 1986. CROSS DESCRIPTION REFERENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT 1979 Rebellion Rioting breaks out in Monrovia as a result of announced rice price increases. Police open fire, killing a large number of demonstrators. 1980 Apri 1 Coup d•etat A group of enlisted men, led by Master Sergeant Doe and Sergeant Weh Syen, launch a coup in which President William Tolbert is assassinated. 1981 June Unsuccessful Coup Five members of the PRC, including Weh unsuccessful in attempting to overthrow the and are subsequently executed. Syen, are Doe regime 53 LIBERIA MADAGASCAR Independence: June 1960 Ethnic tensions between the Merina peoples of the central highlands and cotier (coastal) groups have been a major cause of conflict in Madagascar. Since independence, cotier elites made steady progress in dominating the political and military establishments. The first regime under cotier Philibert Tsiranana caused little Merina antagonism until the early 1970s when Tsiranana•s policy of reliance on French technocrats to block Merina politi cal influence began to spread discontent. Rioting broke out in the Toliary region led by Monja jaona, a leftist nationalist who headed the National Movement for Independence (MONIMA}. The harshness of Tsiranana•s repressionof the riot lost him a great deal of support and ultimately led to violence in 1972 in Antananarivo and Tsiranana•s voll.!nt~ passing of power to General Gabriel Ramanantsoa, the Merina Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces. ~ ~- Cotier elements in the military soon became fearful of what they viewed as a large number of Merina promotions and finally, in 1974, a mutiny broke out among a group of cotier officers. The refusal of other cotierelements in the military to arrest the offenders impelled Ramanantsoa to hand his powers over to Merina Richard Ratsimandrava, but the new government lasted only 6 days when Ratsimandrava was assassinated, bringing into powerDidier Ratsiraka who had the support of cotier factions. In 1976, Ratsiraka formed the Vanguard of the Malagasy Revolution (AREMA) which rapidly consolidated power. Opposition to the Ratsiraka regime came from radical forces --students and the unemployed--who had become impatient with the regime and who 1978 in which the armed forces intervened. Economic and social unrest has been that time, but Ratsiraka•s regime is politically strong and relatively stable. staged a violent demonstration in the cause of several riots since CROSS REFERENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION 1971 Rebellion Monja Joana leads a riot in the Toliary region to protest the Tsiranana regime. The riot is crushed bymembers of the gendarmerie. 1972 Rebellion J ~\)-~\)__~ Student riots erupt in Antananarivo. Tsiranana calls --~~~) in the head of the army, General Gabriel Ramanantsoa, ~;._d to restore order and assume power. A Merina dialect is~t\~ adopted as the national language which causes riots in Toamasina. Government troops respond, crushing the riots. 1972 Rebellion A peasant rebellion inspired by MONIMA breaks out in the south. 54 MADAGASCAR 1974 Mutiny Cotier officers at a camp near Antananarivo mutiny; the military's refusal to arrest the plotters results in the handing over of power to Richard Ratsimandrava. 1975 Coup d'etat President Ratsimandrava is assassinated. Didier Ratsiraka is chosen as his successor. Students in Antananarivo initiate demonstrations1978 Rebellion against academic reform which become violent when unemployed youths and criminal elements join in. The Armed Forces intervene. 1981 February Rebellion Fear of unemployment sparks off violent riots in Antananarivo which are repressed by the Armed Forces. 1982 the northern March Rebellion Violent social unrest breaks out in Antsiranana Province due to the grave economic crisis and student unrest. general strike and demonstrations occur in December Rebellion A Antananarivo at Monja Jaona's instigation. MADAGASCAR 55 MALAWI Independence: July 1964 Malawi, under the leadership of Dr. Hastings Kamuzu Banda since independence, has one of the most conservative political regimes in Africa and is the only African country to have diplomatic relations with South Africa. Aside from an incident in 1965 in which radical government opponent H.B.M. Chipembere led a brief armed challengeagainst government forces, and a coup attempt in 1967, there has been no significant conflict. Banda has been successful in maintaining stability by creating an authoritarian regime which tolerates no political opposition,and by ruthlessly suppressing the slightest indication of disloyalty within the ruling elite. Recently, conflict in neighboring Mozambique has impacted on Malawi•s import and export rail route to the Mozambican port of Nacala which has been seriously disabled by guerrillas of the Mozambique National Resistance Movement (RENAMO). CROSS REFERENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION 1965 Unsuccessful Coup Government opponent Chipembere leads a raid on-Fort Johnston. The attack is rebuffed by loyal armed forces at the Liwonde ferry, forcing Chipembere into exile. 1967 Unsuccessful Coup A small armed band of exiles led by former Minister of Home Affairs Yatuta Chisiza attempts to overthrow the Banda regime. Chisiza and several others are killed byloyal forces. 1984 Mozambique MayInsurgency RENAMO guerrillas in Mozambique step up their attacks June on the railroad linking Nacala port to Malawi, damagingthe line in the Nampula area and causing an almost complete halt in rail traffic to and from Malawi. 56 MALAWI MALI Independence: September 1960 Little conflict has occurred in Mali since independence. The most serious event was the overthrow of the Modibo Keita government in November 1968. Keita's Socialist policies under difficult economic conditions had met with considerable political opposition and resistance by different sectors of the population. The new regimeunder General Moussa Traore, troubled by internal disputes and wide spread unrest among those who retained 1 oya lty to the former regime, sought to appease its opponents by setting up the Democratic Union of the Malian People(UDPM) in 1976, fashioned after Keita's principle of democratic centralism. The 1979 presidential and legislativeelections set off a protest movement among students which culminated in the arrest and death in detention of a student leader. Since that time, economic difficulties have dominated the political environment. CROSS REFERENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION 1964 Rebellion An incipient riot by northern nomads resisting new economic policies is crushed by military forces. 1968 Coup d•etat Modibo Keita is overthrown in an army coup which brings Traore to power. Upper 1974-75 Border Dispute Malian troops occupy several villages in northeastern Volta Upper Volta, claiming the area. 1980 March Rebellion Student leader Abdou Camara dies in custody after his arrest for refusing to affiliate to the UDPM, sparking off student riots. The military suppresses the riots, killing several young people. 57 MALI MAURITIUS Independence: March 1968 The government of Prime Minister Seewoosagur Ramgoolam, which came to power peacefully at independence from Great Britain, was opposed by the left-wing Mauritian Militant Movement U~MM), organized by Paul Berenger. The elections of June 1982 gave power to the coalition government of the MMM and the Mauritian Socialist Party (PSM) led by MMM party president Anerood Jugnauth, but bitter quarre1s, notably between Jugnauth, Berenger and PSM leader Harish Boodhoo, have caused serious rifts in the coalition government. Nonetheless, there has been no significant violence or military conflict. 58 MAURITIUS MOZAMBIQUE Independence: June 1975 Conflict in Mozambique has occurred in two major periods. The first period encompasses the years between 1964 and 1975 during which time the Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO) fought a guerrilla war for independence from Portuguese colonial rule. FRELIMO's first president was Eduardo Mondlane, followed in 1969(after Mondlane•s assassination) by Samora Machel. FRELIMO's military struggle began in 1964 in the northern provinces close to Tanzania. The Portuguese regime reacted with a scorched-earth policy along the Tanzanianborder in 1965, beginning a forced resettlement program in an attempt to isolate FRELIMO guerrillas. By 1970,this policy had been implemented in Cabo Delgado, Niassa, and Tete Provinces. The insurgency had also forced thePortuguese Government to increase the number of Portuguese troops in Mozambique to 70,000 in the early 1970s,upgrade the air force, and build major highways for access to the north from the southern capital, Lourenco Marques (renamed Maputo after independence). Despite these efforts, FRELIMO, armed with sophisticated weaponry provided by China and the Soviet Union, moved further toward the south. With the Portuguese revolution of April 1974, FRELIMO's struggle was all but over; independence occurred inJune 1975 under the Marxist leadership of Samora Machel. The second period of conflict grew out of Mozambique'ssupport for the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) in its struggle against the Rhodesian Government of IanSmith. This support resulted in Rhodesian military raids on the bases of ZANU's military component, the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA) on Mozambican territory. By the mid-1970s, these raids had expanded intoretaliatory attacks aimed at disrupting Mozambique's economy and creating popular discontent. The Rhodesiansecurity police also organized the Mozambique National Resistance Movement (RENAMO) to achieve these goals. Zimbabwe• s independence in 1980 resulted in the transfer of RENAMO' s base of operations to South Africa which armed and provided logistical support to RENAMO. By 1981, RENAMO was posing a serious threat toMozambique's infrastructure, and by the beginning of 1984, it had engaged in kidnapings of foreign technicians andfrequent attacks on rail lines to Zimbabwe and Malawi as well as on important fuel lines linking landlockedZimbabwe to Beira port. The Mozambican Government has responded to the RENAMO threat by reorganizing its armedforces, welcoming Soviet military support, and soliciting more military support from the West, most notably fromPortuga1. In March 1984, the Mozambican Government, desperately seeking an end to economic destruction, signed the Nkomati Agreement with South Africa in which both countries agreed to cease supporting each others• insurgencies. The result of the agreement has yet to be seen. 59 MOZAMBIQUE CROSS REFERENCE Tanzania Zambia Zimbabwe DATE 1964-55 1968 1970 1971 1972-73 1974 1974 TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION Insurgency FRELIMO begins to launch military raids from bases in Tanzania into Cabo Delgado Province. The colonial regime responds by dispatching heavily armed troops and secret police agents to this area. Insurgency FRELIMO gains control of 20 to 25 percent of the country, opening a third front in Tete Prov i nee in the northwest, infiltrating from Zambian bases. Insurgency In the Gordian Knot campaign, thousands of Portuguese troops, including elite paratroop battalions under air cover, swoop down on FRELIMO liberated zones in the Makonde highlands and northeastern Niassa, but they are soon involved in a protracted and costly engagement which is ultimately unsuccessful. FRELIMO and ZANLA guerrillas join forces in Tete Province. Insurgency FRELIMO activities are concentrated in the northern provinces of Cabo Delgado and Niassa. Portugueseforces launch a new offensive along the border of Mozambique and Tanzania. Insurgency FRELIMO moves out of the Tete area, penetrating further south to the Umtali-Beira Railroad. By the end of the year, FRELIMO advances to within 400 miles of the capital. Insurgency FRELIMO guerrillas launch a mortar attack on the railway center of Inhaminga and derail trains on the Umtali-Beira Railroad. They also succeed in inflictinglosses on several Portuguese aircraft. A new guerrillafront is opened in Zambezia Province. Rebe 11 ion Following the announcement of impending independence in June 1975, white right-wing elements seize control of the main radio station in Maputo and the airport. 60 MOZAMBIQUE Zimbabwe Zimbabwe Tanzania Zimbabwe Zimbabwe Zimbabwe Zimbabwe 1974 1975 1976 1976 1977 1978 1979 Border War Mutiny Border War Military Invasion Foreign Military Intervention Rebellion Insurgency Border War Military Invasion Border War Border War Military Invasion Rioting breaks out between white and black residents in the area. Portuguese troops are called in to restore calm. The FRELIMO interim government opens the 750-mile border with Rhodesia to ZANLA guerrillas. Soldiers from the Machava barracks in Maputo battle to take over the power station, radio stations, and the town hall. The capital is paralyzed until FRELIMO forces put down the mutiny. FRELIMO soldiers join ZANLA guerrillas in bombarding Rhodesian border towns, particularly Umtali. Rhodesian forces launch strikes at guerrilla bases in many locations in Mozambique. Tanzanian troops quartered in Chimoio help Mozambican forces defend against the Rhodesian raids. Tanzanian troops also crush an uprising in the north among the Makonde people protesting resettlement on communal farms. The Rhodesian Special Branch organizes the anti-FRELIMO RENAMO, recruiting Portuguese settlers and mercenaries and former members of the elite special forces of the colonial army exiled in Rhodesia. Rhodesian forces attack ZANLA camps at Chimoio and Tembwe. Rhodesian forces blow up the strategic railroad bridge on the Beira-Moatize line, destroy agricultural projects in the Manica highlands, and attack the Limpopo Valley agro-industrial complex. Rhodesian commandos raid the Beira oil depot in retaliation for a ZANLA attack from Mozambique on an oil depot in Salisbury (Harare). Rhodesian fighter planes and ground troops launch a series of raids on guerrilla bases in central Tete Province. Rhodesian forces also 61 MOZAMBIQUE South Africa Tanzania South Africa 1979 1980 MayJune December 1981 January April-December Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Foreign Military Intervention Military Invasion Insurgency launch a large-scale operation directed at Mozambican forces primarily in Aldeia de Barragem and the military camps around it. RENAMO guerrillas, with South African military and logistical support, engage in sabotage raids and attacks on government forces, including raids on railroad lines and army bases. Guerrillas kill five senior Soviet officers during a c 1 ash in the north and capture the central town of Macossa. RENAMO guerrillas blow up a power station in Beira and other strategic installations in Manica and Sofala Provinces. Government forces attack the RENAMO main base in the Sitatongo Mountains close to Zimbabwe. RENAMO guerrillas dynamite power pylons 500 miles south of the Cabora Bassa dam on the Zambezi River. Tanzanian troops are sent in to help Mozambican forces fight against RENAMO. South African commandos attack ANC headquarters in Maputo, killing 12 ANC members and one Portuguesetechnician. In a series of actions, RENAMO rebels attack the garrison town of Espungabera and the Cabora Bassa hydroelectric plant, destroy a section of the electric line on the Beira-Umtali corridor, engage governmentforces in heavy fighting in central Mozambique, damage two major bridges in Sofala Province, blow up the Beira pipeline and railroad bridge over the Pungwe River between Mozambique and Zimbabwe, and expand back into Manica and Sofala Provinces with a new front in northern Inhambane Province. Government forces overrun the main RENAMO base of Garagua in Manica Province. 62 MOZAMBIQUE 1982 damage the fuel pipeline linking Zimbabwe May Insurgency RENAMO guerrillas Foreign fo\il itary Intervention Zimbabwe with Beira port. Government forces launch an Tanzania in an attempt to clear offensive against RENAMO bases the main road and rail link to Zimbabwe with the help of Zimbabwean and Tanzanian troops. series of actions, RENAMO guerrillas attack the JulyInsurgency In a Maputo to Zimbabwe railroad line, attack a train aboutOctober 50 miles north of Beira on the line linking Malawi and Bei ra port, damage an oil pipeline between Bei ra and Zimbabwe, blowing up four pylons, sweep east across Zambezia Province, capturing a six-man Bulgarian technical team, kidnap five foreign missionaries from their mission in lnhambane Province, attack a pumping station in Maforga, kidnaping three Portuguese technicians and their families, and attack the rail route linking Beira port, Malawi, and Tete Province repeatedly. Government forces destroy seven RENAMO bases. Zimbabwean troops are sent into Mozambique to guard the Zimbabwe NovemberInsurgency pumping station. The RENAMO offensiveDecember Foreign Military Intervention Maforga collapses as government forces capture the main RENAMO base in Zambezia Province, freeing six Bulgarian hostages. RENAMO guerrillas blow up the railroad two mi 1es west of Ma forga. RENAMO releases the Portuguese hostages captured in October. South African commandos are accused of sabotaging and South December Military Invasion destroying fuel tanks at Beira oil depot. Africa A new RENAMO offensive begins as several hundred guer December Insurgency rillas cross into Mozambique from South Africa •s Kruger National Park. A series of battles take place between RENAMO guerrillas and government forces. MOZAMBIQUE 63 1983 Zimbabwe JanuaryInsurgency RENAMO guerrillas attack traffic on the main road northTanzania February Foreign Military Intervention of Maputo, destroy part of the country's most importantstate farm, and ambush vehicles close to the main roadand railroad line linking Zimbabwe to Beira port,killing several people. Government forces launch an offensive which cuts down on RENAMO attacks. Severalhundred Zimbabwean and Tanzanian troops, as well asmilitary advisers from Eastern Europe, provide militarytraining and aid to Mozambican forces. South May Military Invasion South African fighter jets strafe a Maputo residential Africa area in retaliation for a bomb blast in Pretoria.Several people are killed and injured. August-Insurgency RENAMO guerrillas kidnap 24 Soviet mining technicians December and kill 2 others at the Morrua mine in ZambeziaProvince. Government forces launch a counteroffensive against RENAMO strongholds in Zambezia and InhambaneProvinces, freeing three Portuguese nationals andcapturing a large number of guerrillas. RENAMO intensifies its armed offensive, attacking transportation,agriculture, and mining projects. Eight Soviet geologists are released by RENAMO. South October Military Invasion South African forces raid ANC offices in Maputo, injur Africa ing several people. 1984 January Insurgency RENAMO releases 12 Soviet geologists, leaving only 2 as hostages. March-Insurgency A number of RENAMO guerrillas surrender to governmentMay authorities after the signing of the Nkomati Agreementwith South Africa. RENAMO guerrillas attack five 64 MOZAMBIQUE civilian trucks in Tete Province, killing a largenumber of people and attack a passenger bus on the road from Marracuene to Maputo, killing and wounding several people. Swaziland May Insurgency A Swazi freight train is attacked in Mozambique.Neither the ANC nor RENAMO claims responsibility. Malawi MayInsurgency RENAMO guerrillas step up their attacks on the railroad June linking Nacala port to Malawi, damaging the line in the Nampula area and causing an almost complete halt in rail traffic to and from Malawi. 65 MOZAMBIQUE NAMIBIA Independence: Still under South African administration Conflict in Namibia, formerly called South West Africa, is the result of the continuing South African admin· istration of the country despite decolonization efforts by the international community since World War II. ThE South West African People's Organization (SWAPO) launched an armed struggle for liberation in 1966 under the leadership of Sam Nujoma. Some guerrillas were trained in Tanzania and Zambia while others were sent to China, Algeria, Cuba, North Korea, the Soviet Union and Egypt. Their first military actions were initiated from Ovamboland in the north into which heavily armed bands of guerrillas had infiltrated from Angola. SWAPO has steadily gained strength through the years. Because the organization was permitted to establish bases in southern Angola when that country achieved independence in 1975, South African troops based in Namibia began chasing guerrillas into Angola where fierce battles have ensued. These South African invasions and occupations of southern Angola, which intensified in the early 1980s, have increasingly brought the Namibian situation to international attention. The February 1984 ceasefire in which South Africa agreed to withdraw its military forces from southern Angola, is presently being implemented, but SWAPO President Nujoma has declared the intention of his organization to continue the armed struggle for independence. CROSS iiTTIRENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION Angola 1966 Insurgency SWAPO launches its armed struggle. Skirmishes between SWAPO guerrillas guerrilla camps and in police occur Ongulumbashe. when police attack SWAPO guerrillas attack a settlement of the Department of Bantu Affairs at Oshikango, deliberately aiming at civilians and non military property. 1971 Insurgency SWAPO guerrillas blow up two police vehicles in the Caprivi Strip. 1973 Insurgency SWAPO guerrillas atttack the Kamenga base in the Capri vi Strip, sabotaging arms at Katima Mul ilo air field. They also shoot down an Alouette helicopter. Angola South Africa 1975 Insurgency Military Invasion SWAPO camps open in Angola. South African troops cross the border into Angola a number of times in hot pursuit of guerrillas. After the killing of several South African soldiers in Namibia, South African forces retaliate by raiding two SWAPO camps in Angola. 66 NAMIBIA Angola South Africa Zambia South Africa Zambia Angola South Africa South Africa Zambia 1978 1978 1979 1979 1980 February Apri 1 Insurgency Military Invasion Insurgency Military Invasion Insurgency Military Invasion Insurgency Military Invasion Insurgency Insurgency Hundreds of Namibian refugees are killed by South African troops in the SWAPO base town of Cassinga in Angola and many others are taken to Mariental in Namibia during Operation Reindeer. SWAPO and Zambian forces respond by shelling the Caprivian capital and garrison of Katima Mulilo. South African troops skirmish with SWAPO guerrillas in western Zambia. SWAPO guerrillas attack two South African military bases in eastern Ovambo. A clash occurs in the north between SWAPO guerrillas and South African troops. SWAPO abducts seven children and their teacher from a school in Ovambo, taking them into Angola. South African troops and aircraft raid SWAPO guerrilla bases in Angola. South African troops attack SWAPO camps in Zambia near the Angolan border. Clashes are reported in Western Province between Zambian troops and South African troops raiding SWAPO camps. South African antiguerrilla pol ice commando units are sent to the north to stop a SWAPO offensive in the white farming area. SWAPO guerri 11 as attack the power 1i ne twice between Ruacana hydroelectric station on the Angolan border and Windhoek, blacking out the country. SWAPO guerrillas attack South African forces and farms on the eastern flank of the Etosha game reserve, inflicting record casualties. 67 NAMIBIA An go 1a South August Insurgency South African troops based in Namibia launch a majorAfrica Military Invasion incursion into southern Angola against SWAPO guerrillas. November Insurgency A landmine placed by SWAPO guerrillas in easternOvamboland kills seven people, including former DTAPresident Pastor Cornelius Ndjoba. 1981 Angola March-Insurgency South The South African air force hits a major SWAPO orienta June Military Invasion Africa tion camp near Lubango in Angola, about 125 miles north of the Namibian border. South Africa September Insurgency South African forces attack Sesheke in western ZambiaZambia Military Invasion during a search-and-destroy operation against SWAPOcamps. Angola South November Insurgency South African forces launch Operation Daisy, a 3-week Africa Military Invasion raid 150 miles inside Angola, destroying a SWAPOregional headquarters and military command post. 1982 November Insurgency A landmine placed by SWAPO guerrillas in Ovamboland kills seven people. 1983 February Insurgency SWAPO launches a large offensive as guerrillas pene trate as far south as the Tsumeb-Grootfontein "triangle of death." July Insurgency A four pound bornb, planted by SWAPO guerrillas,explodes in the center of Windhoek, timed to coincidewith the scheduled announcement by the South Africanadministration of contraversial new plans for theterritory. 68 NAMIBIA An go 1a December Insurgency In Operation Askari, the South African Air Force bombsSouth Africa Military Invasion SWAPO •s a11 eged headquarters in Angola and South African troops launch an attack on SWAPO bases in Angola. South Africa agrees to a 1-month military disengagement from southern Angola which ultimatelyextends into the new year. 1984 South February Insurgency SWAPO guerrillas infiltrate northern Namibia from basesAfrica in Angola as South African forces disengage. Insurgentattacks increase. May Insurgency SWAPO guerrillas attack the town of Oshakati in the north with mortars, causing slight damage. 69 NAMIBIA NIGER Independence: August 1960 Since the April 1974 coup in which Army Chief of Staff Lieutenant-Colonel Seyni Kountche took power from the corrupt Hamani Diori regime, Niger has experienced little conflict. The fairly stable economy and Kountche's introduction of civilians into high government positions have contributed to the regime's acquisition of legitimacy. A source of worry .is the civil war in neighboring Chad and Libya's role in the conflict. Kountche has responded by bringing in French military advisers to reinforce the country's armed forces. CROSS REFERENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION Benin 1963-64 Border Dispute President Diori tries to help Benin's Hubert Maga regain power. A dispute in the Niger River results in a break a closure of their common border. former President over Lere Island in relations and 1964 Rebellion Guerrilla actions near the Nigerian on the left-wing nationalist Nigerian (Sawaba). border are blamed Democratic Union 1974 Coup d'etat Army Chief of Staff Lieutenant-Colonel overthrows the regime of Hamani Diori. Seyni Kountche 1983 October Unsuccessful Coup A group of officers and the Kountche regime. civilians atte mpts to overthrow 70 NIGER NIGERIA Independence: October 1960 The most significant conflict in Nigeria was the Biafran civil war. British indirect rule over 6 decades which reinforced the regional isolation of various ethnic groups by independence had left the country divided into three regions, each dominated by an ethnic group--the Hausa-Fulani in the north, the Yoruba in the southwest, and the Ibo in the southeast--which set the stage for years of power jockeying. The 1966 mutiny of young Ibo officers provided the opportunity for a power takeover by Ibo General Aguiyi-Ironsi who, by leaning toward rigid governmentcentralization, sparked off secessionist agititation in the Hausa-Fulani north and the eventual seizure of powerby a group of military officers led by Yakubu Gowon in 1966. In 1967, the east seceded from Nigeria, declaring itself the Republic of Biafra, an action which resulted in a 2~ year-long civil war which was won by government forces. In the years following the civil war, the Gowon regime failed to dissolve political tensions or to achieve its declared economic and political objectives. The additional postponement of a return to civil ian rule was the final straw; the Gowon regime was overthrown in July1975 in a bloodless coup which brought General Murtala Ramat Muhammad to power. Despite the new regime's growing popularity, internal problems within the armed forces culminated in an attempted coup and Murtala Muhammad's assassination in February 1976. His successor, Lieutenant-General Olusegun Obasanjo, continued Murtala Muhammad's programs until the civilian government of Shehu Shagari was elected in October 1979. The corruption of the Shagari regime and growing economic deterioration led to the December 1983 militarycoup which brought Major General Muhammadu Buhari to power. Another source of conflict has been recurring violent and bloody rioting in several northern cities caused by members of the radical and fanatical Muslim Maitatsine sect, formed by religious leader Mohammadu Marwa, in which the armed forces have been forced to intervene. CROSS RE'FIRENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION 1966 Coup d'etat A group of Ibo army majors kills the Prime Minister, the regional leaders, and senior army officers from the North and West. The surviving leaders of the army step in to establish a military regime under Major-General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi. 1966 Rebellion Fighting breaks out between Ibo and northern troops at Coup d'etat the Abeokuta garrison and spreads to other locations. Ironsi and the military governor of the West are killed along with several other Ibo army officers. Northern 71 NIGERIA 1967 Civil War Foreign Military Intervention Cameroon 1970 1970 Civil War Border Dispute 1975 1976 Coup d'etat Unsuccessful Coup Chad 1979 Foreign Military Intervention 1980 December Rebellion 72 troops threaten to secede and break up the country. Gowan seizes control of the government. Fighting breaks out in the North again; thousands of Ibo civilians are killed. The East, under Lieutenant-Colonel Chukwuemaka Odurnegwu Ojukwu, secedes, declaring the East the independent state of Biafra. Fighting breaks out between Biafran secessionists in the East and government troops. Egyptians pilot Soviet fighter planes which bomb Biafra. European mercenaries fight on bothsides. Government forces secure a victory over the Biafran secessionists, bringing an end to the civil war. Violence breaks out between Cameroonian and Nigerian border authorities and nationals of both countries illegally crossing from one country to another a 1 ong the ill-defined swampy border area. The Gowan regime is ousted in Murtala Ramat Muhammad. a bloodless coup by Lieutenan1\-Colonel Bukar Dimka assassinates Murtala Muhammad in an unsuccessful~ attempt to take power. Olusegun O~asanjo becomes head of state. Nigerian troops are sent to Chad to pol ice a ceasefire agreement, but are soon ordered out of the country by Chad's new government. Rioting breaks out in the northern city of Kana by Maitatsine sect members; several thousand are killed. When the police are overpowered, the army and air force become involved. NIGERIA 1981 Chad February Cameroon May 1982 October 1983 Chad April Cameroon December December 1984 March Border Dispute Border Dispute Rebellion Border Dispute Border Dispute Coup d'etat Rebellion Nigeria reinforces troops near the Lake Chad region because of fighting between villagers on the border of Chad and Nigeria over ownership of islands in the lake. Five Nigerian soldiers are killed in a clash with Cameroonian border guards as the result of an on-going dispute over potential oil-rich territory. Communal tensions led by members of the Maitatsine sect erupt into riots in northern Borno state which spread to Kano and Kaduna. Fighting breaks out between Nigerian and Chadian soldiers near Lake Chad on the border. Chadian patrols attack Nigerian troops on Kinsara Island. Nigeria claims that Cameroonian gendarmes crossed the border into Nigeria and harassed citizens, destroying their property, in the area where violence had occurred in 1981. The Shagari regime is overthrown by a military coup led by Muhammadu Buhari. Rioting by Maitatsine sect members breaks out in the northeastern city of Vola. Troops are called in and they bombard the rioters' enclave as they fight back with relatively sophisticated weapons. 73 NIGERIA RWANDA. Independence: July 1962 Regional and ethnic conflicts caused the 1973 coup in which Juvenal Habyarimana, a northerner, seized powerfrom Gregoire Kayibanda, leader of the Party for the Emancipation of the Hutu People (Parmehutu) which was monopolized by Gitarama elements from the central region. Habyarimana quickly sought a way to eradicate ethnic tensions by forming the National Revolutionary Movement for Development (MRND) party in 1975 which included representatives of military and civilian sectors, but this move did little to dispel the tension. Nonetheless, the Habyarimana regime has been successful in retaining a certain amount of democracy in the government. CROSS RE"F'ERENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION Burundi 1966 Border Incident Tutsi raiders from Burundi make regular armed incursions into Rwanda. 1973 Coup d•etat Habyarimana seizes power from Gregoire Kayibanda. 74 RWANDA SAO TOME AND PRINCIPE Independence: July 1975 In spite of several alleged plots against the government since independence, the regime of Manuel Pinto da Costa is in firm and basically uncontested control. CROSS DESCRIPTION R'EITRENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT Angola sends a large number of troops to the islands in Angola 1978 Foreign Military Intervention the da Costa regime whichresponse to a request fromwas threatened by exiled opponents of the regime. 75 SAO TOME AND PRINCIPE SENEGAL Independence: June 1960 Early opposition to the regime of Leopold Senghor in 1963 erupted into rioting following disputed elections, but this conflict was quickly suppressed by the military. Senegal became a one-party state, returning to mu1tipartyism only in the 1970s. The country remained politica11y stable and moderate under Senghor who was president unti1 he retired in December 1980, bringing Prime Minister Abdou Diouf to power. Conflict in recent years has emerged in the Casamance region where separatist leaders are demand_ing independenc~ from Senegal, a situation which has so far been successfu11y contro11ed by government forces. Senegal's special relationship with Gambia led to Gambian President Jawara's request for Senegalese military intervention in 1981 following a coup attempt, and to the continuing presence of Senegalese troops in Gambia. The two states formed a confederation in 1982 (see Gambia). CROSS RUERENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION 1963 Rebellion Rioting erupts in Dakar after the elections, but it is suppressed by government troops who kill a lar-ge number of people. Guinea GuineaBissau 1968 Military Invasion Insurgency Portuguese troops Independence of guerri11as, based launch raids on African Party for the Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) in Senegal and Guinea, fighting for the independence of Guinea-Bissau. Guinea 1974 Military Invasion A Portuguese commando unit destroys the African Party Bissau Insurgency for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) guerrilla base of Kumbabori in Senegal. Zaire 1979 Foreign Military Intervention Senegalese force in troops, Zaire's part Shaba of the African intervention Pro vi nee during the 1978 uprising, leave Zaire. 76 SENEGAL 1980 Gambia October Foreign Military Intervention 1981 Gambia July Foreign Military Intervention August 1982 December Rebellion 1983 December Rebellion 1984 Guinea January Border Dispute Bissau 7l Senegalese troops are deployed in Banjul, Gambia for maneuvers with Gambian field forces amid rumors of a coup plot from within the field forces. Two thousand Senegalese troops are sent to Gambian President Dawda Jawara's aid when he is temporarily deposed by a leftist coup, crushing the attempt. The leftist rebels in Gambia seize 29 hostages, demanding the withdrawa1 of Senega1ese troops from Gambia. The Senegalese troops surround the rebel stronghold in a Banjul suburb, freeing all the hostages. A demonstration is staged by secessionists in Ziguinchor, capital of the Casamance region in which separatist leaders demand independence from Senegal.Government forces react brutally. Tensions in lower Casamance erupt as members of the principal ethnic groups in the region begin an uprising. Government forces suppress the riot, killinghundreds of people. As the result of a dispute over an offshore drilling site, both Senegal and Guinea-Bissau send in warshipsoff Cape Skiring, and a large number of Senegalese soldiers move into the Casamance region. SENEGAL SEYCHELLES Independence: June 1976 Ideological and political conflict between James Mancham, the first president of the Seychelles, and Albert Rene, the present leader, dates back to the pre-independence period under British rule. In June 1977, a year following the election of the Mancham Government, Rene, in collaboration with Tanzanian President Nyerere, engineered the coup which overthrew Mancham. A coup attempt in November 1981 by a group of South African-backed mercenaries was successfully squelched, as was a mutiny in August 1982 in which loyal government forces prevailed. Behind the scenes, Tanzanian military personnel continue an unobtrus_ive presence, alert and ready_ to intervene in a major crisis. CROSS REFEi'5:ENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION Tanzania 1977 Coup d'etat Foreign Military Intervention The Mancham Seychellois regime is guerrillas overthrown by who form the Tanzanian-tra i ned core of the new People's Militia. Albert Rene is sworn in as President. Tanzanian troops move onto the island following the coup. 1979 Rebellion Widespread opposition youth service leads Vic tori a. to a to proposed compulsory national violent demonstrations in 1981 November Unsuccessful Coup A group of South African-based mercenaries on a scheduled flight land in Victoria, but after their detection by customs officers, a fierce fight ensues during which several are captured. 1982 August Mutiny A group of soldiers seize the radio station on Mahe is land and take hostages, demanding the resignation of some government members. Loya1 forces crush the mutiny. 78 SEYCHELLES SIERRA LEONE Independence: April 1961 The government of Albert t4argai, who succeeded deceased Prime Minister Sir Milton Margai in 1964, was opposed by a number of opposition groups united under Siaka Stevens, leader of the All-People's Congress (APC), which resented the Margai government's attention to what they perceived as reactionary sectional interests. The March 1967 election gave the APC a majority vote, but immediately following the APC victory, Brigadier David lansana, a Margai supporter, seized power. Two days later, he himself was overthrown by his own officers who formed a National Reformation Council (NRC) under the chairmanship of Colonel A.T. Juxon-Smith. When the NRC failed to fulfill its promise of relinquishing power to a civilian government, a group of private soldiers mutinied in April 1968 and restored Stevens and the APC to power. Stevens has remained in power despite a number of attempted come to the a coups id of and assassination attempts. the Stevens government in the In past. 1981, a mutual defense pact was signed with Guinea which had CROSS REFERENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION 1967 Coup d'etat Brigadier David lansana, a Margai supporter, seizes power to prevent Siaka Stevens, whose APC party won the election, from taking power. 1967 Coup d'etat Two days following Lansana's coup, his own officers seize power. Juxon-Smith becomes head of the NRC. 1968 Mutiny A group of enlisted soldiers mutiny, arresting the Coup d'etat officers and restoring civilian rule under the APC with Stevens as Prime Minister. Guinea 1971 Unsuccessful Coup Army Commander Brigadier John Bangura leads an upr1s1ng Foreign Military Intervention which is suppressed by loyal elements of the military. Guinean troops are flown in to support the government, remaining in the country for 2 years. 1983 October Rebellion Violence breaks out in the Pujehun district between the Temne and Limba peoples. Army troops move into the region to suppress the violence. 79 SIERRA LEONE Guinea November Border Dispute Guinea sends troops into Sierra Leone's southern border region as a result of a border dispute. ~ 80 SIERRA LEONE SOMALIA Independence: July 1960 A persistent source of conflict for Somalia has been the territorial dispute with Ethiopia over the Ogaden in eastern Ethiopia into which Somali nomads have historically come to seek grazing land for their cattle. At the time of Somali independence, armed clashes broke out in the area as Ethiopian troops and Somali clansmen harrassed each other, the latter receiving support from and sanctuary in Somalia. The 1969 coup which overthrew the government of Abdirashid Ali Shermarke and brought the Socialist government of Mohamed Siad Barre, heading a Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC), into power, was enthusiastically supported by the Soviet Union which increased significantly its military support, including advisers, to the Somali armed forces which had been receiving Soviet aid since 1963. · In 1974, tensions in the Ogaden erupted into skirmishes between Ethiopian and Somali troops, fanned by the drilling for oil in the region. In 1977, when it became clear that the Soviet Union intended to give massive military support to Ethiopia in the wake of the American departure, Somalia expelled all Soviet personnel as full scale war broke out in the Ogaden. The Soviet-and Cuban-supported Ethiopian troops soon defeated Somali forces. This defeat, along with economic and social difficulties, reduced the popularity of the Barre regime. The struggle for the Ogaden has since been undertaken by the guerrilla Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF) which formed in 1977 and which is supported by the Somali Government. By the early 1980s, fighting between Ethiopian troops and WSLF guerrillas had expanded into Somali territory, the Ethiopian objective being to topple the Barre (SNM) and government. Two antigovernment the Somali Salvation Democratic Ethiopian-supported guerrilla movements, the Somali National Movement Front (SDSF), both formed in 1981, have emerged and are active in the northern border areas. CROSS R'EFERENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION Ethiopia 1961 Border War Ethiopian and Somali military units clash on the border in the Ogaden. Ethiopia 1963-64 Border War Somali nomads conduct raids into the Ogaden, followed by an attack by Somali forces. Ethiopian troops, with air force strikes inside Somali territory, defeat Somali troops. Kenya 1963-67 Border Dispute Somali raiders ambush a Kenyan pol ice patrol, setting Foreign Military Intervention off terrorism in the northern Kenyan frontier district. The British supply weapons as well as officers to Kenyan forces. 81 SOMALIA 1969 1973 Ethiopia 1974 Djibouti 1976 Ethiopia 1976-77 Ethiopia 1977-78 1978 1980 Ethiopia March Ethiopia May- June Ethiopia September Kenya November Coup d •etat Rebellion Border War Border Incident Border Wa_r_- Border War Unsuccessful Coup Border War Border War Border War Border Incident Siad Barre topples the civilian government headed byAbdirashid Ali Shermarke who is assassinated. Residents of the northern town of Burao riot after the imposition of direct taxation. The army intervenes, killing several people. Many others flee to Ethiopia. Bloody border skirmishes between Ethiopian and Somali troops break out. Somali troops exchange fire with French troops in Djibouti from across the border. WSL( gue~rillas and Somali troops attack Ethiopianforces in the Ogaden. Full-scale war breaks out in the Ogaden between Ethiopian and Somali military forces. Ethiopian forces drive Somali forces from the Ogaden. A group of Majertain army officers attemptsoverthrow the Barre regime. The survivors of attempt later form the core of the SDSF. to the Ethiopia launches air raids into Somalia. Large-scale fighting breaks out in the Ogaden.Ethiopian MiG fighter planes bomb the border area of Dolo, heavily populated by refugees from Eritrea. Six Somali military units launched a two-prongedincursion into Ethiopia's Bale Province. Ethiopian air and ground forces continue attacks on Soma1 i a ' s Dolo district. Somali raiders murder six people in Kenya's North-East Provi nee near the border between the two countries. A series of attacks leads to a military alert in Kenya. 82 SOMALIA Ethiopia Ethiopia Ethiopia 1981 June 1982 February April July 1983 January February July November Border War Mutiny Rebellion Insurgency Border War Insurgency Insurgency Border War Insurgency Ethiopia launches a series of air raids against towns in Somalia near the border. Army elements mutiny in the north after several days of fighting following the January execution of several senior officers accused of collaborating with guerrilla groups. Violent clashes break out in Hargeisa in the north between supporters of the SNM and security forces. SDSF guerrillas and Ethiopian troops attack the Somali border towns of Balambale and Goldogob. Ethiopian troops initiate new fighting in regions along the border. A commando group of the SNM attacks Mandera prison 38 miles east of the regional capital of Hargeisa in Guban Province, freeing 780 prisoners. Somali forces respond by searching and bombing the area. A Somali regular army battalion attacks SNM guerrillas and the Issaq who support them in the north in an unsuccessful attempt to reopen the border between Somalia and Ethiopia along the eastern Ogadeen region. SNM guerrillas attack government troops in Durosi near the Ethiopian border in the first joint military operation with SDSF guerrillas. Somali forces repulse a series of Ethiopian attacks along the border. Government troops launch a new offensive against bases of the SDSF in Hiiraan Province. The SDSF succeeds in repulsing the offensive. 83 SOMALIA 1984 Ethiopia January Border War '~SLF guerrillas attack two trains on the Addis AbabaDjibouti Railroad. The Ethiopian air force bombs various targets in northwest Somalia in retaliation. SOMALIA 84 SOUTH AFRICA Independence: Union of South Africa in 1910 Conflict in South Africa derives from the desire of the white minority which rules the country to remain in power and the desire of the black majority to gain political power. Protection of white rule involves the South African Government not only in domestic repression, but also in cross-border conflict with neighboring states. The two main organizations fighting for majority rule are the African National Congress (ANC) and the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC), both banned in South Africa since 1960 following the Sharpeville uprising against the system of racial discrimination known as apartheid. After the Sharpeville uprising, the ANC and PAC turned to armed resistance in the struggle against apartheid. However, ANC efforts were largely negligible until the late 1970s when small groups of guerrillas, most of whom infiltrated the country from South Africa's northern neighbors, began to make intermittent attacks aimed mostly at police stations. ANC attacks increased in sophistication in the 1980s as guerrillas chose more strategic targets, such as electrical distribution substations and, in a spectacular attack in which heavy security was infiltrated, the Koeberg nuclear power plant. In the past year, the ANC has been responsible for a number of bombings including one in central Pretoria. Despite these successes, ANC activity is sporadic and relatively disorganized. Dependent upon external sources for support and bases of action, ANC members have suffered huge setbacks as one neighboring country after another has rejected their presence because of South African reprisals. The March 1984 Nkomati Agreement between Mozambique and South Africa which forced ANC activists out of Mozambique was a significant blow to the organization. Yet several large actions have taken place since then, including a rocket attack on a Mobil Oil refinery in Durban in May. The most serious threat to white rule occurred in June 1976 when a protest by schoolchildren in Soweto which was brutally repressed by the police and the army spread to Natal and the Cape, involving Indian and colored youths as well as Africans. Another large area of conflict for South Africa is Namibia. For details of South Africa's military role in Namibia and its occupation of southern Angola, see sections on Angola and Namibia. Also see the section on Mozambique for South Africa's military invasions. CROSS REFERENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION 1960 Rebellion Police kill and injure a large number of Africans when they open fire on a crowd in Sharpeville protesting the compulsory carrying of pass books. The ANC and PAC are blamed fGr instigating the demonstration. 85 SOUTH AFRICA Angola Namibia Angola Namibia Zambia Zambia Namibia Angola Namibia 1960 1975 1976 1978 1978 1979 1979 Rebe 11 ion Military Invasion Insurgency Rebellion Insurgency Military Invasion Military Invasion Insurgency Insurgency Military Invasion Insurgency A popu 1 ar movement in Pondo 1and headed by the Mountain Committee, aimed against the imposition of Bantu authorities, establishes large control over most of the region. The revolt is stamped out by government troops. SWAPO camps open in Angola. South African troops cross the border into An go 1 a a number of times from Namibia in hot pursuit of guerrillas. After the killing of several South African soldiers in Namibia, South African forces retaliate by raiding two SWAPO camps in Ango 1 a. Riots begun by high school students break out in Soweto in which hundreds are killed. Special paramilitarysquads are brought in as demonstrations spread and strikes begin. Hundreds of Namibian refugees are massacred by South African troops in the SWAPO base town of Cassinga,Angola and many others are taken to Mariental in Namibia during Operation Reindeer. SWAPO and Zambian forces respond by shelling the Caprivian capital and garrison of Katima Mulilo. South African troops skirmish with SWAPO guerrillas in western Zambia. ANC guerrillas attack two police stations in Soweto. SWAPO guerrillas attack two South African militarybases in eastern Ovambo in Namibia. A clash occurs in northern Namibia between SWAPO guerrillas and South African troops. South African troops and aircraft raid SWAPO guerrilla bases in Angola. South African security forces attack the southern Angolan town of N'Giva by air. 86 SOUTH AFRICA African police and suspected ANC guerrillas Botswana 1979 Border Incident South The clash near the border of Botswana in South Africa. Insurgency guerrillas flee to Botswana, leading to South African threats of hot pursuit raids. Mozambique National Resistance Movement (RENAMO) guer Mozambique 1979 Insurgency rillas, with South African military and logistical support, engage in sabotage raids and attacks on Mozambican Government forces. South African troops attack SWAPO camps in Zambia near Zambia 1979 Military Invasion Clashes are reported in Zambia•s Namibia Insurgency the Angolan border. Western Province between Zambian troops and South African troops raiding SWAPO camps. Clashes are reported in Zambia•s Western Province Zambia October Military Invasion between Zambian forces and South African troops raidingInsurgency SWAPO camps. 1980 January Insurgency ANC guerrillas hold 15 white hostages in a bank siege in Pretoria. Police storm the building, killing the guerrillas. February Insurgency ANC guerrillas open a third front on the northern Natal border. ANC guerrillas attack a police station in Johannesburg. April Insurgency South Africa withdraws two battalions from Zambia•s Zambia April Military Invasion Western Province. Angola May-Military Invasion In operation Sceptic, South African forces raid twice June across the Namibian border into Angola and a South African military force of several thousand occupies the area around N1 Giva in southern Cunene Province for 3 weeks. Student unrest breaks out in the Transkei. Riot policeJune Rebellion are flown into Cape Town, killing and injuring a large number of demonstrators. SOUTH AFRICA 87 Lesotho Angola Namibia Mozambique Angola Namibia June June August November 1981 January March June April May Insurgency Insurgency Military Invasion Insurgency Rebe 11 ion Military Invasion Insurgency Military Invasion Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency ANC guerrillas attack fuel storage tanks at two Sasol oil-from-coal plants, penetrating heavy security. Lesotho Liberation Army guerrillas launch a series of attacks on Lesotho from South Africa. South African troops based in Namibia launch a majorincursion into southern Angola against SWAPO guerrillas. Rioting breaks out in the black townships of Port Elizabeth following a boycott of black students. Police open fire on the crowd. South African commandos attack ANC headquarters in Maputo, killing 12 ANC members and one Portuguese technician. The South African Air Force hits a major SWAPO orientation camp near Lubango, An go 1a, about 125 mi 1es north of the Namibian border as South African aggression increases with a large number of military actions. ANC guerrillas attack the distribution electric substation south of Durban, destroying the station and disrupting electrical service to hundreds of factories and homes in Durban. ANC guerri 11 as 1aunch a number of attacks and sabotage attempts. Five railroad lines are blown up, one in Soweto and the others on the Nata1 coast. A policestation near East London is attacked, power lines in the Orange Free State are cut, and a bomb destroys an army recruiting office in Durban. 88 SOUTH AFRICA Lesotho Angola Zambia Namibia Lesotho Angola Namibia July July July- September August September September October November December Insurgency Insurgency Military Invasion Insurgency Insurgency Military Invasion Insurgency Insurgency Military Invasion Insurgency Insurgency Lesotho Liberation Army guerrillas attack a fuel depot outside of Lesotho's capital with mortar fire from across the South African border. ANC guerrillas attack the Arnot power station in eastern Transvaal and an electric subpower station southeast of Pretoria. South African forces launch Operation Protea in CuandoCubango Province, driving 200 miles into Angola. South African aircraft reportedly destroy all Angolan radar and antiaircraft sites within a 95 mile strip north of the Namibian border. ANC guerrillas launch a rocket attack on the Voortrekkerhoogte military base outside of Pretoria, but inflict little damage. Guerrillas also explode two bombs in East London and Port Elizabeth. ANC guerrillas attack a police station in Mabopane, 20 miles northwest of Pretoria, killing four people. South African forces attack Sesheke in western Zambia during a search-and-destroy operation against SWAPO camps. Lesotho Liberation Army guerrillas attack a paramilitary police barracks outside of Lesotho's capital with mortar fire from across the South African border. South African forces 1aunch Operation Daisy, a 3-week raid 150 miles inside Angola, destroying a SWAPO regiona 1 headquarters and mi 1itary command post. The main oil refinery in Luanda is attacked, allegedly by South African seaborne commandos. ANC guerrillas attack the Wonderboom police station in Pretoria, killing one black policeman and wounding four others. 89 SOUTH AFRICA Angola Zimbabwe Angola Botswana 1982 March Apri 1 May June May June August August November December December Military Invasion Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Military Invasion Military Invasion Insurgency Border Incident South African forces strike deep into the southern Angolan province of Cunene, bombing the Chidemba region. The ANC launches a series of major bomb attacks on installations and government buildings. The ANC is blamed for a bomb which explodes in an elevator in a building in Cape Town housing the President • s Counc i 1. One person is k i 11 ed. No one is killed when a locomotive pulling a passenger train in eastern Transvaal denotates a bomb. ANC member Ruth First is killed by a parcel bomb in her office in Maputo, Mozambique. South Africa is blamed for the attack. Zimbabwean forces k i 11 three white South African Defence Force soldiers about ten miles from the Mozambican border. Zimbabwean Prime Minister claims that they, along with a group which escaped, were preparing operations against strategic targets in Zimbabwe. South African marines make a seaborne raid north of Namibe, Angola, and blow up two bridges on a vital rail link to Angola•s interior. The ANC claims responsibility for four explosions which rip through the Koeberg nuclear power plant outside Capetown, damaging one of two reactors. Securitypolice arrest the leader and eight other members of the extreme right-wing Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging after uncovering illegal arms caches around the country. Botswana shoots down a private South African plane over northwest Botswana. 90 SOUTH AFRICA Lesotho Mozambique Lesotho Lesotho Mozambique December December 1983 January February February March May May June June Military Invasion Military Invasion Insurgency Insurgency Military Invasion Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Military Invasion Insurgency Rebellion Insurgency South Africa launches a raid on alleged ANC guerrillahouses in Maseru, killing 43 people. South African commandos are accused of sabotaging and destroying fuel tanks at Beira oil depot in Mozambique. A bomb planted by the ANC explodes in the offices of the Community Council in the black township of New Brighten in Port Elizabeth, killing one person. Other attacks take place in the Supreme Court in Pietermaritzburg in Natal and on a railroad line in Bloemfontein. The ANC is blamed for a bomb explosion in a pass office in Bloemfontein, injuring a large number of blacks. Lesotho accuses South Africa of dropping two bombs from a helicopter on a fuel depot in Maseru, Lesotho, destroying it and setting fire to a steel factory. The Lesotho Liberation Army claims responsibility. Lesotho Liberation Army attacks increase in Lesotho from South blockade on Africa following a partial South border crossings into Lesotho. African The ANC claims responsibility for a bomb in central Pretoria which kills 19 people. South African fighter jets strafe a Maputo residential area in Mozambique in retaliation for an ANC bomb blast in Pretoria. Several people are killed and injured. On the anniversary of the Soweto riots, stone throwingblacks in Soweto damage a large number of buses, policevehicles and private cars. Police use force to break up the demonstration. Two bombs planted by the ANC explode, causing extensive damage to government offices in Roodepoort near Johannesburg. 91 SOUTH AFRICA October Insurgency ANC guerrillas blow up six fuel storage tanks in the northern Transvaal town of Warmbaths. African forces raid ANC offices in t>laputo, Mozambique October Military Invasion South Insurgency injuring several people. Angola December Military Invasion In Operation Askari, the South African Air Force bombs Namibia Insurgency SWAPO's alleged headquarters in Angola and South African troops launch an attack on SWAPO bases in An go 1a. South Africa agrees to a 1-month mi 1itary disengage1nent from southern Angola which ultimately extends into the new year. 1984 Namibia February Insurgency SWAPO guerrillas infiltrate northern Namibia from bases in Angola as South African forces disengage. Insurgent attacks increase. killing three and April Insurgency Two car bombs explode in Durban, injuring 22. The ANC is blamed for the attack. ANC guerrillas pour into Swaziland fr01n r1ozambique, re Swaziland April Border Incident sulting in armed clashes between S\1obil Oil May Insurgency The ANC launches Corporation refinery in Durban, killing several people. Another explosion occurs in central Durban at the Trust Bank Center. 92 SOUTH AFRICA SUDAN Independence: January 1956 The years between independence and the coming to power of the regime of Gaafar Mohammed Numeiri in May 1969 were characterized by political upheaval under three regimes plagued by regional and ethnic problems which theyinherited from the British colonial regime, and the country's unstable economy based on cotton. Numeiri began his rule by following radical policies under his program of "Sudanese Socialism," which until 1977 excluded the leaders of traditional parties and their rightwing supporters. The latter organized a National Front dedicated to overthrowing Numeiri. In an unsuccessful coup attempt in July 1976, the National Front launched an invasion from Libya with Libyan aid. In 1977, under pressure from the United States and Saudi Arabia, a national reconciliation brought an end to the opposition and rightwing exclusion from the government. Libya's involvement in the civil war in Chad beginning in the early 1980s and Sudan's role in sheltering rebels from Chad caused conflict between Libya and Sudan which escalated into military confrontations, the latest of which was the Libyan bombing in March 1984 in Omdurman. The conflict in southern Sudan has grown out of the secessionist movement led by the Anyanya guerrillaorganization. The movement erupted into a long civil war from 1955 to 1972 which culminated in the 1972 Addis Ababa agreement establishing an autonomous regional government in the south. In 1983, a new series of rebellions and attacks began with President Numeiri's dissolution of the regional government and imposition of Islamic law in the country. The group responsible for the new outbreak of violence is the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA),sometimes referred to as Anyanya II, whose goal is to overthrow Numeiri and install a people's democratic Socialist government. In July 1983, the Southern the kidnaping of five foreign aid workers. Sudan Liberation Front (SSLF) become involved in conflict with CROSS ~ENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION 1964 Coup d'etat The regime of General Ibrahim Abboud is overthrown by a civilian coup. A transitional government takes powerunder Sirr al-Khatim al-Khalifa. Ethiopia 1964-65 Military Invasion Ethiopian troops make incursions into Sudan to attack Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) camps. 1965 Insurgency Anyanya guerrillas are active in Juba and Wau in the south. Government troops are called in and kill a large number of southerners. 93 SUDAN Chad Chad Ethiopia Ethiopia Ethiopia 1965 Foreign Military Intervention The Sudanese Government offers sanctuary and equipmentto National Liberation Front of Chad (FROLINAT) rebels opposing the southern Tombalbaye government in Chad. 1966 Military Invasion Guerrillas of Chad•s National Liberation Front of Chad Civil War (FROLINAT) conduct large-scale raids in Chad from Sudan, causing Chadian President Tombalbaye to close the border and to order his army to fire on any Sudanese aircraft over Chad. Chadian troops conduct incursions into Sudan. 1967 Foreign Military Intervention Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) bases in Sudan areclosed. 1969 Coup d•etat Numeiri seizes power from Muhammad Ahmad Mahgoub. 1969 Foreign Military Intervention Numeiri •s rise to power results in the reinstatements of military aid and base camps to Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) rebels. 1970 Unsuccessful Coup Several thousand followers of former Prime Minister Sadiq el-Mahdi, the leader of the Ansar religious and political movement, make an unsuccessful attempt on Numeiri•s life. They are all subsequently killed by government troops on Aba Island. 1971 Unsuccessful Coup The Communist Party, led by Major Hashim al-Ata, takespower for 3 days after which Numeiri regains the leadership. 1971 Foreign Military Intervention The Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) is expelled fromSudan. 1976 Unsuccessful Coup The exiled opposition National Front invades Sudan fromLibya in an unsuccessful attempt to topple the Numeiriregime. 1981 January Military Invasion Libyan troops pursue rebels from Chad into Sudan. 94 SUDAN January October 1982 Uganda Apri 1 1983 JanuaryMay February March March Rebellion Military Invasion Military Invasion Insurgency MutinyInsurgency Foreign Military Intervention Mutiny Insurgency Insurgency Dissidents protesting the appointment of a non-Darfuri governor demonstrate in the capital of the Darfur region, El Fasher. Government troops are called in. Libyan air force planes make almost daily raids against Sudan from Chad in reprisal for Sudan•s sheltering of refugees from Chad. Ugandan government forces make an incursion into Sudan in hot pursuit of Ugandan National Resistance Army guerrillas. Dozens of soldiers belonging to the All-Southern 105th batta1ion in the garrison at Bor refuse to be moved to northern posts, firing on northern troops who had arrived to replace them. Southern troops desert by the dozens from major southern garrisons at Bor, Akobo, Aweil, Kappeta, Bentiu, and Rumbek to join the newly formed SPLA. Libyan troops begin a massive buildup along the Sudanese border. A 1 arge number of Egyptian mi 1 i tary advisers are stationed at Flamingo Bay in Port Sudan and at the border town of Kassala as integration of the military forces of Sudan and Egypt begins. Soldiers at the Raga military post in Bahr el Ghazal Province flee with their weapons after refusing to be transferred north. A number of soldiers based at Wangkay 100 miles west of Bentiu flee after killing their northern commanding officer. Northern troops are moved into the region. Government troops are ambushed by SPLA guerri 11 as in Upper Nile Province, leaving a number of government soldiers dead. Government troops arriving in Bentiu 95 SUDAN Uganda March May June August September Military Invasion Insurgency Mutiny Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency November Insurgency December 1984 January Insurgency Insurgency from Khartoum are also ambushed. SPLA guerrillas attack a police station at Warop in the Tonj area, and another in Ganyliel in the Rumbek district (Lakes Province), capturing weapons. Ugandan government forces cross the border into Sudan at Karua in pursuit of National Resistance Army (NRA) guerrillas. Troops in southern Sudan rebel, some defecting to the SPLA. Government troops crush the rebellion. The SSLF abducts five foreign national park in the south. aid workers in Barna SSLF guerrillas attack a village in the north of Juba, stealing thousands of cattle. A SPLA unit is ambushed by government forces in Bahr el Ghazal. Government forces attack another guerrillaunit moving from the Barna area near Ethiopia toward the interior of Upper Nile Province. SPLA guerrillas attack the outskirts of Aweil. SPLA guerrillas kidnap 29 foreign workers, demanding the cessation of work on the Jonglei Canal and Chevron oil operations, repeal of the Muslim penal code, and release of political prisoners. Government troops free the hostages. Intense fighting between government troops and SPLA guerrillas erupts in Sabat Province near the Ethiopian border. A military confrontation breaks out between two factions of the SPLA. SPLA guerrillas capture the town of Akobo close to the Ethiopian border. 96 SUDAN Uganda January Military Invasion February Insurgency March Foreign Military Intervention Ojiga in Moroto district is pillaged and four women abducted during a series of raids by Ugandan troops into southern Sudan. SPLA guerrillas attack a Nile riverboat at Wath Kei, killing hundreds of people. SPLA guerrillas attack and burn the French Compagnie de Construction Internationale headquarters 12 miles from Malakal, taking six hostages, some of whom are re 1 eased soon afterward. Three foreign workers at Chevron's southern Sudan base camp are killed by SPLA guerrillas who launch an offensive development work. in the south aimed at halting Five bombs explode near the broadcasting station at Omdurman, allegedly the work of Libya. Egyptian air defense troops arrive in Sudan after the attack. \ 97 SUDAN SWAZILAND Independence: September 1968 Until the death of King Sobhuza II in August 1982, Swaziland was free of serious conflict. But the period since has been marked by fear and suspicion due to a brutal and fratricidal battle within the ranks of the Swazi ruling house between modernist and traditionalist factions. Another area of conflict has arisen since the signingof nonaggression pacts with South Africa by Mozambique in March 1984 and by Swaziland in February 1982--the latter not announced until March 1984--which has resulted in the expulsion from Mozambique of African National Congress(ANC) guerrillas, many of whom have flooded into Swaziland, causing armed clashes between Swazi forces and the guerrillas and the arrest by the Swaziland Government of many ANC members. CROSS REFERENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION 1963 Rebellion Swazi workers stage a general ~trike which is broken up by a battalion of British troops. 1984 South April Border Incident ANC guerrillas pour into Swaziland from Mozambique, reAfrica Insurgency sulting in armed clashes between Swazi forces and guerrillas in Mbabane and Manzini. Mozambique ~1ay Insurgency A Swazi freight train is attacked in Mozambique. Neither the ANC nor RENAMO claims responsibility. 98 SWAZILAND TANZANIA Independence: December 1961 Tanzania was formed by the union in April 1964 of Tanganyika and Zanzibar of which the latter had achieved independence from the British in 1963. Up until this time, Zanzibar had experienced turmoil as a result of the power struggle between the Arab community and the African population. In January 1964, an armed uprising erupted in which the Arab government was overthrown by Ugandan-born "Field Marshal" Okello. Several thousand Arabs were killed and another several thousand went into exile. Okello was overthrown shortly thereafter by a radical group of Arabs and Africans who resumed previous links with mainland Tanganyika. The union between the mainland and Zanzibar has not detracted from Zanzibar's considerable political independence. S i nee independence, Tanzania has been governed by Ju 1 ius Nyerere. There has been no significant internal conflict, but Tanzania, which opposed the Amin regime in neighboring Uganda, played a major role in overthrowing the regime and reinstating Milton Obote in power. The last of the Tanzanian forces in Uganda did not return home until June 1981. For further details on Tanzania's role in Uganda, see the entry under Uganda. CROSS REFERENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION 1964 Mutiny The tiny Tanganyikan army mutinies and deposes its Foreign Military Intervention British officers, but the mutineers are quickly disarmed by British marines. 1964 Coup d'etat A bloody coup on the independent island of Zanzibar deposes of the Arab-ruled government. "Field Marshal" Okello takes power. Mozambique 1964-65 Insurgency Mozambique's Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO) begins to launch military raids from bases in Tanzania into Cabo Delgado Province. Uganda 1972 Military Invasion Several hundred armed followers of Obote invade Uganda from Tanzania, but are soon routed by forces loyal to Amin. Uganda retaliates by bombing Tanzanian border villages. Burundi 1972-73 Military Invasion Burundian forces carry out several large raids into Tanzanian territory against thousands of Hutus fleeing into Tanzania. 99 TANZANIA Zimbabwe 1975 Mozambique 1976 Seychelles 1977 Uganda 1978 1979 Uganda JanuaryFebruary Uganda MarchApri 1 Uganda MayJune Uganda July 1980 Mozambique December Foreign Military Intervention Foreign Military Intervention Foreign Military Intervention Military Invasion Military Invasion Military Invasion Foreign Military Intervention Military Invasion Military Invasion Foreign Military Intervention Tanzania opens training facilities to Zimbabwe African National liberation Army (ZANlA) guerrillas. A battalion of Tanzanian troops is sent to Mozambique to help defend it from attacks by Rhodesian forces. Tanzanian troops also crush an uprising in northern Mozambique among the Makonde people. Tanzanian troops move into the Seychelles following the Tanzani an-backed coup which overthrew the Mancham regime. Ugandan troops invade Tanzanian territory, annexing 725 square miles west of lake Victoria. Tanzanian troops counterattack, forcing the retreat of the Ugandan troops. Tanzanian forces, along with over a thousand Ugandan exiles belonging to the Uganda National Liberation Front (UNLF), invade Uganda. Libyan and PLO troops arrive in Uganda to help in the fight against Tanzania. Libyan troops organize antitank defense and artillery around Kampala, Uganda to protect the Amin regime. Libyan Air Force bombers launch unsuccessful crossborder bombing attacks, missing the targets. Tanzanian troops launch new offensives, capturing Entebbe and Kampala as the Amin regime collapses in Uganda. Tanzanian officers lead Ugandan armed forces in taking the West Nile District from Amin supporters. Some Tanzanian forces begin to vacate Uganda. Tanzanian troops are sent to Mozambique to help Mozambican forces fi9ht against the Mozambique National Resistance Movement (RENAMO). 100 TANZANIA 1981 Uganda June Military Invasion 1982 Mozambique May Foreign Military Intervention 1983 Mozambique January Foreign Military Intervention February The last Tanzanian troops withdraw from Uganda. Mozambican Government forces launch an offensive against Mozambique National Reistance Movement (RENAMO) guerrilla bases in an attempt to clear the main road and rail link to Zimbabwe with the help of Tanzanian troops. Tanzanian troops provide military training and aid to Mozambican forces in the battle against the Mozambique National Resistance Movement (RENAMO). 101 TANZANIA TOGO Independence: April 1960 Togo's first post-independence government headed by Sylvanus Olympia faced considerable opposition, notablyfrom exiled former Prime Minister Nicolas Grunitzky. In January 1963, when a military coup led by Etienne Eyademaresulted in Olympia's assassination, Grunitzky returned to Togo at Eyadema's invitation to lead a civilian government. Increasing rifts between the military and the government resulted in the January 1967 military coup whichbrought Eyadema to power. Despite a number of plots against his regime and violent demonstrations by industrial workers in 1977, Eyadema has remained in power to the present. CROSSRIT'ERENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION 1963 Coup d'etat Sylvanus Olympia is assassinated in a coup led bySergeant Etienne Eyadema who sets up a civilian government under Nicolas Grunitzky. 1967 Coup d'etat Eyadema overthrows the civilian government, taking overthe presidency. 1977 Rebellion Violent demonstrations by industrial workers are brokenup by the army. Zaire 1979 Foreign Military Intervention Togolese troops, part of the African intervention forcein Zaire's Shaba Province during the 1978 uprising, 1eave Zaire. 102 TOGO UGANDA Independence: October 1962 Conflict in the early years of independence revolved around the role of the Ganda people in the new state. At the time of independence, Buganda, as one of Uganda's four kingdoms, formed an alliance with Milton Obote's Uganda's People's Congress (UPC) with Obote as Prime Minister and the Kabaka, King of Buganda, as President. The alliance collapsed in February 1966 when Obote dec 1a red himself President. The regu 1ar army, responding to a Ganda uprising in Buganda, stormed the Kabaka's palace; Buganda was divided into four districts, and the four kingdoms were abolished. Obote was overthrown in January 1971 by a military coup led by General Idi Amin. Amin's first year of rule was characterized by terror as he purged the army and police forces of Obote supporters and engaged in massive violations of human rights in a campaign to rid Uganda of its prominent citizens whom Amin feared and disliked. Another wave of killings began in late 1972, triggered by an attempted coup by Obote supporters exiled in Tanzania. In October 1978, Amin attacked Tanzania, causing Tanzania to invade Uganda. Tanzanian forces, accompanied by Ugandan exile forces, overthrew Amin in 1979. The occupying Tanzanian army was greeted in Uganda with wide popular support, and the Tanzanian Government aided the various groups exiled under the Amin regime to form a new government. The Uganda National Liberation Front (UNLF) was the result and Yusufu Lule was chosen as president. His almost immediate replacement by Godfrey Binaisa and the confusion within the new government triggeredrebellion and anarchy in the country. In May 1980, Binaisa was overthrown by Obote supporters in the government who held elections in December which returned Obote to power. However, Obote's political opponents, claiming that the elections were rigged,continue to oppose Obote, some using armed force. Three insurgency groups had arisen by 1980--the United National Recovery Force (UNRF), composed of elements loyal to Amin, in West Nile Province; the Uganda Freedom Movement (UFM) led by a minister in the former Lule government operating in and around Kampala; and the National Resistance Army (NRA) also operating in and around Kampala. CROSS R'EffRENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION 1966 Rebellion Tension between the Ganda and the government eruptsinto violence as government troops storm the Kabaka's palace. 1971 Coup d'etat Idi Amin overthrows the Obote regime. 103 UGANDA Tanzania Tanzania Tanzania Tanzania Tanzania 1972 1976 1977 1978 1979 JanuaryFebruary MarchApril MayJune Unsuccessful Coup Military Invasion Military Invasion Unsuccessful Coup Military Invasion Military Invasion Military Invasion Foreign Military Intervention Military Invasion Several hundred armed followers of Obote invade Uganda from Tanzania, but are soon routed by forces 1 oya 1 to Amin. Uganda retaliates by bombing Tanzanian border villages. An Israeli commando team raids Entebbe airport after the capture by Palestinian terrorists of an Air France plane which is being held in Uganda. One passenger is murdered by Ugandan forces. Members of the air force attempt to assassinate Amin. Ugandan troops invade Tanzanian territory, annexing 725 square miles west of Lake Victoria. Tanzanian troops counterattack, forcing the retreat of the Ugandan troops. Tanzanian forces, along with over a thousand Ugandan exiles belonging to the UNLF, invade Uganda. Libyan and PLO troops arrive in Uganda to help in the fight against Tanzania. Libyan troops organize antitank defenses and artillery around Kampala to protect the Amin regime. Libyan Air Force bombers launch unsuccessful crossborder bombing attacks, missing the targets. Tanzanian troops launch new offensives, capturing Kampala and the Amin regime collapses. A provisional government is formed, headed by Executive Council Chairman Yusufu Lule. Government forces led by Tanzanian officers take West Nile district from Amin supporters. 104 UGANDA Tanzania Tanzania June July 1980 May August October 1981 February March June June Rebellion Military Invasion Coup d•etat Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency MutinyMilitary Invasion Insurgency After the replacement of Lule by Godfrey Binaisa, thousands of people riot in Kampala, demanding the reinstatement of Lule. Government troops open fire, triggering a new series of demonstrations. The first contingent of Tanzanian forces leaves Uganda. A group of army officers led by a supporter of former President Obote takes power from Binaisa. Violence breaks out again in Kampala as Amin supporters in military uniforms start a wave of shootings and looting. Former Amin soldiers, organized into the UNRF, invade Arua in West Nile Province, destroying 50 percent of the town. UFM guerrillas attack several suburban police stations and steal guns and ammunition. Members of the underground Movement for the Struggle for Political Rights (MOSPOR), formed from the Uganda People•s Movement and former soldiers of the national army, attack the Kabamba Army Training School and government convoys in the Kampala outskirts, leaving Kampala without electricity. Hundreds of government troops plunder the town of Arua, causing thousands to flee. The violence follows the withdrawal from Uganda of the remaining Tanzanian troops. UNRF guerrillas invade the Umbachi mission on the outskirts of Arua, massacring civilians and taking control of everything north of Arua. UGANDA 105 December 1982 February Sudan April December 1983 January February Sudan March May October Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Military Invasion Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Military Invasion Insurgency Mutiny Government forces 1aunch a big offensive aimed at ousting UNRF guerrillas from the West Nile District. Government forces and NRA guerri 11 as engage in fierce fighting in Kampala's western suburbs around the Malire army barracks. Government forces make an incursion into Sudan in hot pursuit of NRA guerrillas. Government forces defeat a large force of NRA guerrillas, placing most of the West Nile district under government control. Government forces launch a major offensive against NRA guerrillas in West Nile Province. NRA guerrillas step up activities in and around Kampala, killing a number of people. NRA guerrillas begin a series of offensives aimed at government garrisons. Government forces cross the border at Karua into Sudan in pursuit of NRA guerrillas. NRA guerrillas open fire on a rally of the ruling Uganda People's Congress, killing a number of people. A refugee camp at Kikyusa, 40 miles north of Kampala,is attacked and hundreds of refugees are killed. The government claims that NRA guerrillas are responsible,but other reports put the b1ame on government troopswho undertook a reprisal for support in the camp of the NRA. Army soldiers rampage through townships around Entebbe on the eve of the 21st anniversary of independence. 106 UGANDA 1984 January Sudan January Zaire January January-March February Kenya MarchJune Insurgency Military Invasion Military Invasion Rebellion Insurgency Rebellion NRA guerrillas kidnap 11 International Red Cross workers in Mpigi district, soon freeing 9 of them. Ojiga in Sudan•s Moroto district is pillaged and four women abducted during a series of raids by Ugandan troops into southern Sudan. Ugandan armed forces cross into Zaire at Gombe and kidnap 13 men. Karamojong warriors begin a series of raids in Teso, Lango, and Achol i to the west and Sebei to the south. Ugandan army and militia attack Matany and Kangole in central Karamoja and villages around Namalu. Acholi and Langi militia mass for an attack on Jie in northern Karamoj a. NRA guerrillas attack the army and police barracks in the town of Masindi, 140 miles north of Kampala, stea1i ng weapons and ammunition. They are soon repulsed by government troops which launch search-and destroy operations in the area. The Kenyan and Ugandan armies combine forces to combat "ngorokos" (bandits) in their border areas. Kenyan ·troops arrive at Amudat, a Pokot area inside Uganda. Many young men of the Kenyan Pokot region, who had fled to the Ugandan Pokot region, are attacked by Kenyan gunships. 107 UGANDA UPPER VOLTA (BURKINA FASO) Independence: August 1960 Since independence, political power in Upper Volta has alternated between civilian and military regimes. The first civil ian government under Maurice Yameogo was plagued by a deteriorating economic situation and was in January 1966 by a military coup under Sangoule Lamizana. Although a nominal civilian government was overthrown formed in 1970, real power remained with the army which dissolved the civilian Assembly in January 1974 because of conflicts between the Prime Minister and Lamizana. The long-promised civilian elections were finally held in May 1976 with Lamizana as president until November 1980 when he was overthrown in a bloodless military coup led by Colonel Saye Zerbo. Zerbo was overthrown himself in a military coup in November 1982 led by Jean-Baptiste Ouedraogo. under whom Captain Thomas Sankara was appointed Prime Minister. In a bizarre series of events, an attempt was made with the backing of the French Government in May 1983 to bring about the downfall of the radical left-wing Sankara. However, the attempt thwarted, Sankara overthrew Ouedraogo in August. At present, the Sankara regime is consolidating power, has changed the name of the country, and is backed by three Marxist-oriented poli~ical groups. CROSS REFERENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION Ghana 1963 Military Invasion Ghanaian forces occupy a 50-mi 1 e strip of land controlled by Upper Volta. 1966 Coup d'etat In a military coup, Lieutenant-Colonel Sangoule Lami zana overthrows the c i vi 1ian government of Maurice Yameogo. Mali 1974-75 Border Dispute Malian troops occupy several villages in northeastern Upper Volta, claiming the area. 1980 November Coup d'etat Saye Zerbo seizes power from Lamizana. 1982 November Coup d'etat A group of noncommissioned officers and soldiers overthrow the Zerbo regime. Jean-Baptiste Ouedraogo heads the military junta. 108 UPPER VOLTA 1983 May Rebellion The arrest of Sankara and Major Jean-Baptiste Linganiby the Ouedraogo government, supported by the French Government, sets off a revolt by pro-Sankara commandos based in Po near Ghana. They take comp 1ete contro1 of the town, including the police and customs posts. August Coup d•etat Sankara overthrows the Ouedraogo government. 109 UPPER VOLTA ZAIRE Independence: June 1960 Zaire's early days of independence were characterized by chaos caused primarily by the speed of decolonization by Belgium which left Patrice Lumumba's central government disorganized and impotent. One week after indeby Congolese junior pendence, the Force Publique, still commanded by Belgian officers, was shaken by a mutiny led officers, followed soon after by the declaration of independence of Katanga (later called Shaba Province) from the rest of the country by secessionist leader Moise Tshombe. Belgian troops responded to the mutiny, fanning out throughout the country and provoking rebellions and widespread pillage. In response to Lumumba 's request for military assistance to repel the Belgian invasion, a UN force entered the country. By this time, the country had been fractured into four separate parts with Mobutu leading the national government in Leopoldville (later called Kinshasa). Lumumba was assassinated in 1961, and by early 1963, the UN force had succeeded in uniting the country into one state. The withdrawal of the UN military force from the country in 1964 and the coming to power of the unpopular Tshombe sparked off new unrest which grew into a revolutionary upheaval spreading from Kwilu and Kivu Provinces to the northern and eastern regions of the country. Tshombe, with the help of a junior officer of the Force Publique, Colonel Joseph-Desire t~obutu (later called Mobutu Sese Seko), launched a massive expedition force assisted by mercenaries and Belgian paratroopers, chasing the rebels out of Stanleyville (later called Kisangani). In November 1965, Mobutu seized power, quickly consolidating his regime under a repressive and corrupt system which has survived to the present. In the period between 1965 and 1977, there were several instances of regime, but in March 1977, the remnants of rebellion from various sources and a number of plots against the Mobutu Tshombe's Katangan army, who had taken refuge in Angola and organized themselves into the National Front for the Liberation of the Congo (FNLC), crossed into Shaba where they had wide popular support. Mobutu, whose anny was unable to suppress the revolt, appealed for help, which came from Morocco and France, ending the crisis. But army for another revolt which repression in Shaba increased resentment of the Mobutu regime, leaving the province ripe occurred in May 1978 when FNLC rebels crossed into Shaba, troops intervened immediately, ending the second crisis. rebuild the Zairean armed forces, a situation which has occupying the town of Kolwezi. French Belgian and French military personnel endured to the present along with the and Belgian remained to more recent participation, beginning in May 1982, of Israel. CROSS REFERENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION Mutiny Congolese junior officers in the Force Publique revolt Foreign Military Intervention against Belgian officers and attack Belgian nationals. Belgium sends in troops to repress the revolt. Lumumba 1960 110 ZAIRE A -< ~"\\"" ¢' vJ ~-/\r\-~~ 1961 Rebellion Foreign Military Intervention 1962 Rebellion Foreign Military Intervention 1962-63 Rebellion Foreign Military Intervention 1964 Rebellion Foreign Military Intervention 1965 Coup d'etat 1967 Rebellion Congo 1969 Border Incident 1969 Rebellion 1971 Rebellion requests UN military assistance and with the arrival of the UN force, Belgium withdraws its troops. UN forces undertake two unsuccessful military operations in Katanga (Shaba) Province to reunite it with the rest of the country. The secessionist regime of Antoine Gizenga in Stanleyvi11e (Kisangani) is overthrown by the army and UN forces. UN forces undertake several military actions to overcome the secessionists in Katanga Province, finally succeeding in overthrowing Tshombe. As the UN force withdraws, antigovernment revolt breaks out in Kwilu and Kivu Provinces, soon spreading to the northern and eastern regions of the country. Tshombe and Mobutu respond with a massive expedition force which defeats the rebellion in Stanleyville (Kisangani) with the help of Belgian airborne troops. Mobutu seizes control of the government. Former Katangan gendarmes and mercenaries revolt against the regime, but are overcome by government forces. The Congolese Government claims that commandos from Zaire made an armed incursion into Brazzaville with the intention of overthrowing the Congolese Government. Students at the university in Kinshasa, opposed to the Mobutu Government, clash with the army. Several students are killed. Students parade in memory of the victims of the 1969 clash. The army intervenes and the university is closed. 111 ZAIRE Burundi Central African Republic Togo Senegal Ivory Coast Gabon Foreign Military Intervention1972 1977 Insurgency Foreign Military lntervention 1978 Insurgency Foreign Military Intervention 1978 Rebellion 1979 Rebellion 1979 Foreign Military Intervention Foreign Military Intervention1979 At the request of the Burundi Govermnent, Za i rean troops backed by jet fighters help put down an uprising by Hutu troops. FNLC rebels cross ·over the border from Angola and invade Shaba Province. f~oroccan and French troops, responding to Mobutu's appeals for help, aid government forces in suppressing the rebels. FNLC rebels mount another invasion of Shaba Province, occupying Kolwezi. French legionnaires, acting with the Zairean army, retake Kolwezi and Belgian paratroopers drop in the area. An antigovernment revolt breaks out near Idiofa in Bandundu by vi 11 agers. Government forces intervene, brutally killing many and executing 14 chiefs accused of being the ringleaders of the revolt. Govermnent forces are called into Lubondoi in eastern Kasai because of the refusal of residents to pay a new tax. The ensuing violence results in a massive reprisal by the armed forces in which hundreds of youths are allegedly massacred. At the Central African Republic's request, Zaire sends troops to that country to help suppress student riots in Bangui. Togo lese, Senegalese, Gabonese, and Ivory Coast troops, part of the African intervention force in Shaba Province during the 1978 uprising, leave Lubumbashi along with Moroccan troops. 112 ZAIRE 1979 Unsuccessful Coup A group of military personnel attempts to take over the airport in Kinshasa, leading to the closing down of allborders. 1981 Burundi August Border Dispute Burundi and Zaire move troops to their common bordernear Lake Tanganyika after Burundi moves a border postto a new position on the disputed Little Rusizi branchof the Rusizi River Delta. 1982 Zambia February Border Incident Border skirmishes break out in which Zairean soldiershijack a Zambian bus and its passengers near Sakaniaand capture and imprison several Zambian policemen.Zambian and Zairean border guards exchange fire. 1983 Zambia October Border Incident Zambian troops are deployed along the border with Zaireto combat bandits who are frequently Zairean soldiers. 1984 Uganda January Military Invasion Ugandan armed forces cross into Zaire at Gombe andkidnap 13 men. March Insurgency Two government opposition groups based in Belgium, theLumumba National Congolese Movement and the ZaireanSocialist Party, claim responsibility for the bombings in Kinshasa of the Voice of Zaire complex and the mainpost office in which two people are killed. Zambia June Border Incident A small Zambian patrol crosses the border into Zaire,firing on Zairean smugglers and gendarmes who returnthe fire. 113 ZAIRE ZAMBIA Independence: October 1964 Throughout the years of independence, internally initiated conflict in Zambia, under the rule of its charismatic President Kenneth Kaunda, has been rare. Kaunda's commitment to armed national liberation movements is the primary cause of externally initiated conflict. The struggles in neighboring Zimbabwe and Namibia have had the greatest impact on Zambia's security. Kaunda, who supported an end to the Rhodesian regime, opened Zambia's borders to the Zimbabwean African National Union (ZANU) along with its military component, the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA) and the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU), resulting in frequent Rhodesian attacks on Zambian-based camps of ZAPU's military component, the Zimbabwe African People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) in the late 1970s, the most serious occurring in 1978 in the outskirts of the capital, Lusaka, and in 1979 in Lusaka itself in which ZAPU homes and offices were destroyed. Following this last attack, Zambia begin receiving extensive military assistance from the Soviet Union. Simultaneously with the Rhodesian attacks, South African forces were launching attacks on South-West African People's Organization (SWAPO) camps in western Zambia. Although the Rhodesian conflict ended in December 1979, two coup plots allegedly planned by external groups, were discovered. In the past 2 years, however, there have been no serious incidents of conflict except for occassional incidents on the border with Zaire and student unrest. CROSS REFERENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION 1964 Rebellion Members of the Lumpa Church in Northern Province, opposing outside interference in armed resistance to . the new its affairs, stage government which an is suppressed by government troops. Zimbabwe 1966-67 Insurgency ZANU launches guerrilla attacks from adopts guerrilla tactics, launching Zambia. attacks ZIPRA into Zimbabwe from Zambian bases. Mozambique 1968 Insurgency Mozambique's Front for (FRELIMO) infiltrates the into Liberation Mozambique of Mozambique from Zambian bases. Zimbabwe 1974 Insurgency A group of Rhodesian ZANLA ZIPRA guerrilla leader, guerriHas, rebels in led by a Zambian former camps, killing many ZANLA guerrillas with tacit support from the Zambian army and police. 114 ZAMBIA Zimbabwe Zimbabwe Zimbabwe Angola South Africa Namibia South Africa Namibia Zimbabwe Zimbabwe 1975 1977 1978 1978 1979 March April October Insurgency Military Invasion Military Invasion Military Invasion Insurgency Military Invasion Military Invasion Military Invasion Rhodesian ZANLA ~nd ZIPRA. gu~rrillas ~lash in Zambia, seriously disrupt1ng guerr1lla supply l1nes. Rhodesian jet bombers attack the border town of Feira in a search-and-destroy operation against ZIPRA bases. Rhodesian land and air attacks against ZIPRA bases in Zambia intensify through the year, including a 3-day offensive air strike on the outskirts of Lusaka. Zambian forces join with SWAPO guerrillas to shell the Caprivian capital and garrison of Katima Mulilo in response to the massacre of hundreds of Namibian refugees by South African troops in the SWAPO base town of Cassinga in Angola during Operation Reindeer. South African troops skirmish with SWAPO guerrillas in Western Zambia. South African troops attack SWAPO camps in Zambia near the Angolan border. Rhodesian commandos launch a pre-dawn raid in Lusaka, destroying ZAPU homes and offices, including ZAPU leader Nkomo's headquarters. Rhodesian commandos blow up road and rail bridges in Zambia's Northern Province, resulting in the temporary loss of the Tazara Railroad. Fighting continues in Southern Province between ZIPRA guerrillas and Rhodesian forces. ZAMBIA ll5 South Africa Namibia Zimbabwe South Africa Namibia South Africa Zaire Angola October November 1980 April October 1981 September 1982 February February Military Invasion Military Invasion Military Invasion Rebellion Military Invasion Border Incident Insurgency Clashes are reported in Western Province between Zambian troops and South African troops raiding SWAPO camps. Rhodesian commandos blow up the Chongwe Bridge on the road linking Zambia to Malawi and Mozambique. Zambian troops are placed on full alert. South Africa withdraws two battalions from Zambia's Western Province. A group of former Zairean Katangan gendarmes engagesecurity forces in a battle at a farm in Chilanga, nine miles south of Lusaka. Large quantities of AK47s and ammunition are captured. Several prominent Zambian citizens are arrested. South African forces attack Sesheke in western Zambia during a search-and-destroy operation against SWAPO camps. Border skirmishes break out in which Zairean soldiers hijack a Zambian bus and its passengers near Sakania and capture and irnprision several Zambian policemen.Zambian and Zairean border guards exchange fire. Angolan UNITA guerrillas harass villagers in western Zambia, claiming the territory as their own. 116 ZAMBIA 1983 Zaire October Border Incident 1984 February Rebellion Zaire June Border Incident Zambian troops are deployed along the border with Zaire to combat bandits who are frequently Zairean soldiers. Several thousand students at the University of Zambia riot in a dispute over meal cards. Military police are brought in to repress the riot. A small Zambian patrol crosses the border into Zaire, firing on Zairean smugglers and gendarmes who returned the fire. 117 ZAMBIA ZIMBABWE Independence: April 1980 Zimbabwe was called Rhodesia until independence was won by black nationalists in 1980. Conflict in Zimbabwe has been a constant factor since the mid-1960s when the armed struggle began against the white Rhodesian regimewhich had declared unilateral independence from Britain in 1965. The struggle against the regime was waged by two groups, the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) and the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU). Following independence in 1980 and the victory of the ZANU party under Robert Mugabe, violent rivalry between troops loyal to the ZANU ruling party and those loyal to ZAPU continued and persists to the present.Joshua Nkomo, a nationalist activist, formed ZAPU in 1961 after the banning of an earlier nationalist organization, but personal ambitions and tactical differences caused a split in 1963 with the dissidents formingZANU. Both groups were banned in Rhodesia. The guerrilla organization of ZANU, the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA), and that of ZAPU, the Zimbabwe African People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA), began their separate armed struggles shortly thereafter. ZANLA, supported by Mozambique's Front for the Liberation ofMozambique (FRELIMO) nationalist movement, was based in Mozambique. Although ZANU was also permitted bases and headquarters in Zambia up until 1974 when the organization was expelled from that country, Zambia backed Nkomo and ZAPU, providing bases, offices, and headquarters in the country. ZAPU also received heavy military support fromthe Soviet Union. Guerrilla bases in both Mozambique and Zambia were attacked repeatedly by Rhodesian forces during search-and-destroy operations. The guerrilla war intensified in the 1970s until late 1979 when a ceasefire took effect following accords reached at the Lancaster House conference. ZANU leader Robert Mugabe won the British-supervised election in 1980,becoming Prime f1inister. Nkomo was given a ministerial appointment, but conflict between the two men soon emerged. It was aggravated by the discovery in February 1982 of several large arms caches on a farm owned byNkomo and the subsequent dismissal of Nkomo and some of his colleagues from their government posts. Although both Mugabe and Nkomo had tried to control the sporadic clashes between their armies, the 1982 dismissals fueled the outbreak of violence in Matabeleland, Nkomo's base of support, which continues to the present. CROSS RE'F'ERENCE DATE TYPE OF CONFLICT DESCRIPTION 1963-64 Insurgency ZAPU guerrilla activity begins. Bitterness between ZAPU and ZANU supporters escalates into violence in and around Salisbury (Harare) with members of each groupattacking members of the other. 118 ZIMBABWE 1965 Insurgency ZIPRA guerrillas enter the country, resulting in the declaration of a state of emergency which remains in force for 15 years. A violent Zambia 1966-67 Insurgency ZANU launches guerrilla attacks from Zambia. clash occurs between Rhodesian security forces backed by helicopter gunships and ZANLA guerrillas near Sinoia. Numerous subversive operations occur. ZIPRA adopts guerrilla tactics, using bases in Zambia. ZIPRA and South African ANC guerrillas fight together against Rhodesian forces at Wankie in the northwest. A large force of ZIPRA guerrillas penetrates southwards 1967-68 Insurgency and engages in a battle with security forces near Mana Poo 1s. ZI PRA guerrillas are defeated by the security forces with air force assistance. Other fighting occurs sporadically in the north. attck the Victoria Falls Airport, Mozambique 1970 Insurgency ZIPRA guerrillas a railroad line, and denoating damaging equipment, explosives on a telephone pole. FRELIMO and ZANLA guerrillas join forces in Tete Province, Mozambique. from Mozambique 1972 Insurgency ZANLA guerrillas infiltrate Rhodesia and attack a farm in the Centenary district near the border. ZANLA is active, killing two government land inspectors1973 Insurgency and kidnapping a third. ZANLA guerrillas also kidnap 292 pupils and staff members near the border with Mozambique, most of whom escape. guerri 11 as ki 11 severa1 Europeans in the north 1974 Insurgency ZI PRAand launch a number of attacks across the Zambezi River. The Rhodes ian Government announces a ceasefi re which fails to take effect. ZIMBABWE 119 Zambia 1974 Insurgency A group of ZANLA guerrillas, led by a former ZIPRA guerrilla leader, rebel in the Zambian camps and on the war front in Rhodesia, killing many ZANLA guerrillaswith tacit support from the Zambian army and pol ice.The rebellion is put down a month later by loyal ZANUmembers. Mozambique 1974 Insurgency The FRELIMO interim government in Mozambique opens the Border War 750-mile border with Rhodesia to ZANLA guerrillas. Tanzania 1975 Insurgency ZANLA and ZIPRA guerrillas clash militarily outside of Zambia Foreign Military Intervention Salisbury (Harare) and in Zambia, seriously disrupting guerrilla supply lines. Tanzania opens training facil ities to ZANLA guerrillas. Rhodesian forces concen trate in the northeast. Mozambique 1976 InsurgencyBotswana Border War ZANLA guerrillas infiltrate from Mozambique on threeMilitary Invasion fronts--Tete, Manica and Gaza Provinces--and with thehelp of Mozambican FRELIMO soldiers, bombard Foreign Military Intervention Rhodesian border towns, particularly Umtali. Rhodesian forceslaunch strikes at guerrilla bases in many locations inMozambique. A new offensive is launched by ZANLA guerrillas in the Chipinga region in the south. Rhodesianforces attack the Nyadzonia refugee camp in Mozambique.The Rhodesian Special Branch organizes the anti-FRELIMO RENAMO. Rhodesian security forces pursuing ZIPRA guer rillas attack a police barracks near Francistown, Botswana. Mozambique 1977 Insurgency Two bombs explode in the middle of Salisbury (Harare). Zambia Military Invasion ZANU claims responsibility. Rhodesian forces attack ZANLA camps at Chimoio and Tembwe in Mozambique. 120 ZIMBABWE Rhodesian jet bombers attack the Zambian border town of Feira in a search-and-destroy operation against ZIPRA bases. Zambia 1978 Insurgency Botswana Military Invasion Mozambique 1978 Border War 1979 Insurgency Mozambique 1979 Insurgency An go1a Border War Zambia Military Invasion ZANLA guerrillas destroy 28 petrol storage tanks during an attack on the oil depot in Salisbury (Harare).Rhodesian land and air attacks against ZIPRA bases in Zambia intensify throughout the year, including a 3day offensive air strike on the outskirts of Lusaka. A number of Botswana soldiers are killed and several others injured by Rhodesian troops pursuing ZIPRA guerrillas into Botswana territory. In Mozambique, Rhodesian forces blow up the strategic railroad bridge on the Beira-Moatize line, destroy agricultural projects in the Manica highlands, and attack the Limpopo Valley agro-industrial complex. ZIPRA guerrillas shoot down an Air Rhodesia civil aircraft near Kariba, killing all passengers. A bomb planted by guerrillas explades in a Salisbury (Harare) shopping center. ZIPRA guerrillas bombard Salisbury Airport two times in 1 week. Rhodesian commandos raid the Beira oil depot in Mozambique in retaliation for the ZANLA attack from Mozambique on the oil depot in Salisbury (Harare). Rhodesian fighter planes and ground troops launch a series of raids on ZANLA guerrilla bases in Mozambique's central Tete Province. Rhodesian forces launch an airstrike on a ZIPRA camp near Luso, Angola. Rhodesian commandos launch a pre-dawn raid in Lusaka, Zambia, destroying ZAPU homes and offices, including ZAPU leader Nkomo's headquarters. Rhodesian commandos blow up Zambian road and rail bridges in Northern Province and the Chongwe Bridge on the road 1inkingZambia to Malawi and Mozambique. Fighting continues in Zambia's Southern Province between ZIPRA guerrillas and Rhodesian forces. 121 ZIMBABWE A Rhodesian commando group abducts 14 ZAPU officials in Botswana 1979 Military Invasion Botswana and blows up Kasangula ferry, the country's only link to the north. 1980 June-Insurgency Fo 11 owing independence, severa1 hundred government July troops and police are sent to the Zvimba Tribal Trust Land in northcentral Zimbabwe to round up ZIPRA guerrillas who are causing disturbances in the region. Two policemen are killed in Mtoko during clashes between ZANLA and ZIPRA guerrilla factions. Army soldiers go on a rampage in Mtoko directed at October Mutiny British whites despite a massive military and police crackdown on violence. November Insurgency Street battles break out in Bulawayo's western town ships between ZIPRA and ZANLA guerrillas. 1981 FebruaryInsurgency Fighting breaks out in Bulawayo between ZANLA and ZIPRA guerrilla factions. Mugabe sends in troops. Violence March Rebellion also breaks out in several battalions of the national army. Government forces d1sarm several thousand ZIPRA guerrillas at the Mushumbi Poo 1 s base camp in the north. December Insurgency A bomb blast at ZANU party headquarters in Salisbury (Harare) kills six people and injures dozens. Mugabe blames South African-supported groups. 1982 Mozambique r~ay Insurgency A series of explosions in southern Matabeleland by Foreign Military Intervention ZIPRA guerrillas damages railway electrical lines and water installations. Zimbabwean troops join Mozambican forces in an offensive against RENAMO aimed at clearing Mozambique's main road and rail link to Zimbabwe. 122 ZIMBABWE South Africa Mozambique Mozambique June July July August August October November-December 1983 January- February March Insurgency ZIPRA guerrillas launch an unsuccessful attack on Mugabe's home after having seized weapons and a truck from army barracks in Harare. ZIPRA guerrillas kidnap six foreign tourists in Matabeleland. Rebellion A substantial proportion of the Zimbabwean air force at Thornhill base is destroyed or badly damaged in an act of sabotage. The Zimbabwean Government. detains a number of white former Rhodesian officers. Insurgency ZIPRA guerrillas attack a national army battalion northeast of Harare, making off with a quantity of arms. Military Invasion Zimbabwean forces kill three white South African Defence Force soldiers about ten miles from the Mozambican border. Mugabe claims that they, along with a group which escaped, were preparing operations against strategic targets. Insurgency ZIPRA guerrillas remove sections of tra~k from the main Bulawayo-Victoria Falls railroad, disrupting Zairean and Zambian trade. Foreign Military Intervention Zimbabwean troops are sent into Mozambique to guard the Insurgency Maforga pumping station. Savage killings and attacks in Matabeleland by ZIPRA guerrillas intensify. Insurgency Zimbabwean security forces hunting for ZI PRA guerrillas Foreign Military Intervention in southwest Matabeleland are blamed for brutal treatment of many citizens. Nkomo supporters blame the North Korean-trained Fifth Brigade for the abuses. Zimbabwean troops provide training and aid to Mozambican forces. Insurgency ZIPRA guerrillas attack several white farms in Matabeleland. 123 ZIMBABWE September Insurgency Botswana October- Border Incident November Military Invasion 1984 February Insurgency Botswana February Border Incident The Fifth Brigade is redeployed in Matabeleland because of remaining tensions. Zimbabwean and Botswana troops clash four kilometers inside Botswana's territory when Zimbabwean troops retaliate for the actions of gangs of bandits from Botswana. A unit of the Zimbabwe National Army (ZNA) crosses into Botswana, attacking the village of Maitengwe. A battle breaks out as they encounter troops of the Botswana Defence Force before they are airlifted to safety. A government mi 1 i tary offensive, in which the Fifth Brigade is deployed backed by units of the Sixth Brigade, is launched in Matabeleland after the exodus of white ranchers from the Kezi and Marula areas after repeated attacks by ZIPRA guerrillas. A clash between the Botswana Defence Force and the ZNA results in the death of one member of the ZNA. ZIMBABWE 124 1-' N Ul Prolonged conflict events which occur during more than one year are designated by a hyphen. For example, an event which occurs in 1960, 1961, 1962 and 1963 is designated as 1960-1963. DATE COUNTRY Angola Central African Republic Ethiopia South Africa South Africa Zaire TYPE OF CONFLICT Rebe 11 ion Foreign Military Intervention Unsuccessful Coup Rebellion Rebe 11 ion MutinyForeign Military Intervention DESCRIPTION Portuguese armed forces fire on a crowd demonstrating in Catete against Neto's imprisonment and kill or arrest all inhabitants of Neto's home village of Bengo and neighboring Icolo. A French military garrison provides the country's only defense forces, supporting the Dacko regime against the more radical Abel Goumba, head of MEDAC. The Imperial Household Guard tries unsuccessfully to overthrow Emperor Haile Selassie. Police kill and injure a large number of Africans when they open fire on a crowd in Sharpeville protesting the compulsory carrying of pass books. The ANC and PAC are blamed for instigating the demonstration. A popular movement in Pondoland headed by the Mountain Committee, aimed against the imposition of Bantu authorities, establishes large control over most of the region. The revolt is stamped out by government troops. Congolese junior officers in the Force Publique revolt against Belgian officers and attack Belgian nationals. Belgium sends in troops to repress the revolt. Lumumba request UN military assistance and with the arrival of the UN force, Belgium withdraws its troops. Cameroon Rebe 11 ion Foreign Military Intervention Terrorists Douala and of the banned UPC Yaounde. French begin troops violent attacks are called in in to 126 1960/1960-63 1961 1962 1962-63 Angola Angola Ethiopia Somalia Zaire Angola Zaire Zaire Rebellion Insurgency Border War Rebe 11 ion Foreign Military Intervention Insurgency Rebellion Foreign Military Intervention Rebellion Foreign Military Intervention help put down the rebellion as unrest spreads throughout the country. Cotton workers strike in northcentral Malage district in opposition to the system of compulsory cotton growing. Portuguese leader Salazar dispatches troops and bombers from Portugal. An FNLA-led Kongo peasant insurrection in the north results in a Portuguese massive aerial bombardment and the deaths of thousands of whites and blacks. Military units of Ethiopia and Somalia meet in combat on the border in the Ogaden. UN forces undertake two unsuccessful military operations in Katanga (Shaba) Province to reunite it with the rest of the country. MPLA guerrillas attack the House of Military Detention, the Civil Prison of Sao Paulo, and the City Police Station in Luanda; Portuguese paratroopers repu 1 se the attack, forcing the MPLA into exile. The secessionist regime of Antoine Gizenga in Stanleyville (Kisangani) is overthrown by the army and UN forces. UN forces undertake severa 1 military actions to overcome the secessionists in Katanga Province, finally succeeding in overthrowing Tshombe. 127 1960-63/1961/1962/1962-63 Benin Chad Congo Ghana Upper Volta Guinea-Bissau Kenya Senegal Swaziland Togo Coup d'etat Rebe 11 ion Rebe 11 ion Military Invasion Insurgency Rebellion Rebellion Rebe 11 ion Coup d'etat Colonel Christophe Soglo ousts President Hubert Maga, installing a new coalition government headed by SourouMigan Apithy and Justin Ahornadegbe. Violence breaks out in N'Djamena following a northern conspiracy against the one-party system. Mass demonstrations incited by the trade unions are held in Brazzaville to protest government plans for the creation of a one-party system. A general strike is called in Brazzaville, Pointe-Noire, and Loubomo. Ghanaian forces occupy a 50-mile strip of land controlled by Upper Volta. The PAIGC begins an armed struggle to overthrow Portuguese colonial rule. Members of the LFA demand plots of land from the coalition government headed by Jomo Kenyatta. Kenyatta' s refusal results in new military actions in the forests during which the police in Meru district launch a campaign to liquidate the LFA. Rioting erupts in Dakar after the elections, but it is suppressed by government troops who kill a large number of people. Swazi workers stage a general strike which is broken up by a battalion of British troops. Sylvanus Olympia is assassinated in a coup led by Sergeant Etienne Eyadema who sets up a civilian government under Nicolas Grunitzky. 128 1963 Benin Unsuccessful Coup Niger Border Dispute Ethiopia Border War Somalia Military Invasion Zimbabwe Insurgency 1963-67 Kenya Border Dispute Somalia Foreign Military Intervention 1964 Benin Rebellion Gabon Unsuccessful Coup Foreign Military Intervention Kenya Mutiny Foreign Military Intervention Mali Rebellion President Diori of Niger tries to help Hubert Maga of Benin regain power. A dispute over Lere Island in the Niger River results in a break in relations and a closure of their common border. Somali nomads conduct raids into eastern Ethiopia, causing the dispute over the Ogaden to flare up. Somalia's military forces launch an attack into Ethiopia. ZAPU guerrilla activity begins, including eight sabotage attempts with plastic explosives. Bitterness between ZAPU and ZANU supporters esca 1 ates into violence in and around Salisbury (Harare) with members of each group attacking members of the other. Somali raiders ambush a Kenyan police patrol, setting off terrorism in the northern frontier district. The British supply Kenya with weapons and officers. Northern rioting in protest of the coalition government and Maga's dismissal results in many deaths. A military coup deposes President Leon M'Ba and sets up a Revolutionary Committee under the leadership of Aubame. At M'Ba's request, French troops intervene militarily to restore him to power. A mutiny by elements of the army is suppressed with British aid. An incipient riot by northern nomads resisting new economic policies is crushed by military forces. 129 1963-64/1963-67/1964 Niger Sudan Tanzania Tanzania Zaire Zambia Ethiopia Sudan Mozambique Tanzania Rebellion Coup d'etat Mutiny Foreign Military Intervention Coup d'etat Rebellion Foreign Military Intervention Rebellion Insurgency Military Invasion Insurgency 130 Guerrilla actions near the Nigerian border are blamed on the left-wing nationalist Nigerian Democratic Union (Sawaba). The regime of General Ibrahim Abboud is overthrown by a civilian coup. A trans ition a 1 government takes power under Sirr al-Khatim al-Khalifa. The tiny Tanganyikan army mutinies and deposes its British officers, but the mutineers are quickly disarmed by British marines. A bloody coup on the independent island of Zanzibar deposes of the Arab-ruled government. Field Marshal Okello takes power. As the UN force withdraws, antigovernment revolt breaks out in Kwilu and Kivu Provinces, soon spreading to the northern and eastern regions of the country. Tshombe and Mobutu respond with a massive expedition force which defeats the rebellion in Stanleyville (Kisangani) with the help of Belgian airborne troops. Members of the Lumpa Church in Northern Province, opposing outside interference in its affairs, stage an armed resistance to the new government which is suppressed by government troops. Ethiopian troops make incursions into Sudan to attack ELF camps. Mozambique's FRELIMO begins to launch military raids from bases in Tanzania into Cabo Delgado Province. The colonial regime in Mozambique responds by dispatching heavily armed troops and secret po 1ice agents to the area. 1964/1964-65 Benin Burundi Chad Sudan Chad Malawi Sudan Zaire Zimbabwe Angola Namibia Burundi Coup d•etat Unsuccessful Coup Civil War Foreign Military Intervention Rebe 11 ion Unsuccessful Coup Insurgency Coup d•etat Insurgency Insurgency Coup d•etat 131 Apithy is forced to resign. General Christophe Soglo takes over the government. Premier Leopold Biha is wounded by Hutu politicians. Defense Secretary Michael Micombero is given dictatorial powers. FROLINAT forms in the north of Chad in opposition to the southern Tomba lbaye government. The Sudanese Government offers the rebels santuary and equipment. The Moubi, stirred by the northern FROLINAT Muslims, attack Chad security forces in the southern province of Guera. The Toubou also become involved. Repression by government troops is harsh. Government opponent Chipembere leads a raid on Fort Johnston. The attack is rebuffed by loyal armed forces at the Liwonde ferry, forcing Chipembere into exile. Anyanya guerrillas are active in Juba and Wau south. Government troops are called in and large number of southerners. in kill the a Mobutu seizes control of the government. ZIPRA guerrillas enter the country, resulting in the declaration of a State of Emergency which remains in force for 15 years. The MPLA, based in Zambia, opens hostilities in eastern Angola, also striking into Cabinda. Heavy fighting begins between MPLA and FNLA guerrillas. SWAPO launches its armed struggle, attacking two Portuguese trading stores on the way to Namibia. Colonel Michel Micombero overthrows the monarchy of King Ntare V and declares himself President of the new republic. 1965/1966 Burundi Rwanda Centra1 African Republic Chad Sudan Congo Djibouti Ghana Namibia Nigeria Border Incident Coup d'etat Civil War Military Invasion Mutiny Rebellion Coup d'etat Insurgency Coup d'etat Tutsi raiders make regular armed incursions into Rwanda. Colonel Jean-Bedel Bokassa seizes power from David Dacko. FROLINAT rebels conduct large-scale raids into Chad from Sudan, causing Chad's President Tombalbaye to close the border and to order his army to fire on anySudanese aircraft over Chad. Chadian troops conduct incursions into Sudan. Paratroops and militia mutiny in response to the dismissal of paratroop commander Captain Marien Ngouabi, arresting Chief of General Staff Major David Moutsaka and other officers. Somali residents stage a mass demonstration which escalates into a violent confrontation with French security forces, resulting in the forcible expulsion of thousands of Somalis. President Kwame Nkrumah is ousted in a coup launched bythe army and police. The army establishes the National Liberation Council under the Chairmanship of General Joseph Ankrah. Skirmishes between SWAPO guerrillas and police occur when police attack guerrilla camps in Ongulumbashe. SWAPO guerrillas attack a settlement of the Department of Bantu Affairs at Oshikango, deliberately aiming at civilians and nonmilitary property. A group of Ibo army majors kills the Prime Minister, the regional leaders, and senior army officers from the North and West. The surviving leaders of the army step in to establish a military regime under Major-General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi. 132 1966-67 1967 Nigeria Rwanda Uganda Upper Volta Zambia Zimbabwe Benin Ethiopia Sudan Rebellion Coup d•etat Border Incident Rebellion Coup d•etat Insurgency Coup d•etat Insurgency Foreign Military Intervention 133 Fighting breaks out between Ibo and northern troops at the Abeokuta garrison and spreads to other locations. Ironsi and the military governor of the West are killed along with several other Ibo army officers. Northern troops threaten to secede and break up the country.Gowon seizes control of the government. Fightingbreaks out in the North again; thousands of Ibo civilians are killed. Tutsi raiders from Burundi make regular armed incursions into Ruwanda. Tension between the Ganda and the government eruptsinto violence as government troops storm the Kabaka's palace. In a military coup, Lieutenant-Colonel SangouleLamizana overthrows the civil ian government of Maurice Yameogo. ZANU launches guerrilla attacks from Zambia. A violent clash occurs between Rhodesian security forces backed by helicopter gunships and ZANLA guerrillas near Sinoia. Numerous subversive operations occur. ZIPRA adopts guerrilla tactics, using bases in Zambia. ZIPRA and South African ANC guerrillas fight together againstRhodesian forces at Wankie in the northwest of Zimbabwe. Young army officers stage a coup against President Soglo, installing a new regime headed by Major Maurice Kouandete and Lieutenant Colonel Alphonse Alley. The first large-scale offensive is launched against the Eritrean rebels by Government forces. ELF bases in Sudan are closed and relocated to Aden. 1966/1966-67/1967 Malawi Nigeria Sierra Leone Sierra Leone Togo Zaire Chad Chad Congo Unsuccessful Coup ' Civil War Foreign Military Intervention Coup d•etat Coup d•etat Coup d•etat Rebellion Mutiny Civil War Foreign Military Intervention Coup d•etat Rebellion A small armed band of exiles led by former Minister of Home Affairs Yatuta Chisiza attempts to overthrow the Banda regime. Chi~iza and several others are killed by loyal forces. The East, under Lieutenant~Colonel Chukwuemaka OdumegwuOjukwu, secedes, declaring the East the independent state of Biafra. Fighting breaks out between Biafran secessionists in the East and government troops.Egyptians pilot Soviet fighter planes which bomb Biafra. European mercenaries fight on both sides. Brigadier David Lansana, a Margai supporter, seizes power to prevent Siaka Stevens, whose APC party won the election, from taking power. Two days following Lansana•s coup, his own officers seize power. Juxon-Smith becomes head of the NRC. Eyadema overthrows the civilian government, taking over the presidency. Former Katangan gendarmes and mercenaries revolt against the regime, but are overcome by governmentforces. Toubou guards in the northern Tibesti region revolt in Aozou. FROLINAT rebels raid from the Birao and Ndele regionsof the Central African Republic. At the request of the Tombalbaye government, French troops arrive and intervene. President Massamba-Debat orders the dissolution of the MNR, sparking off riots which force his resignation.Ngouabi seizes power and replaces the MNR with the PCT. 134 1967/1968 1968-69 1969 Guinea GuineaBissau Senega1 Ma 1i Mozambique Zambia Sierra Leone Angola Congo Zaire Equatorial Guinea Ethiopia Sudan Military Invasion Insurgency Coup d•etat Insurgency Mutiny Coup d•etat Insurgency Border Incident Unsuccessful Coup Insurgency Foreign Military Intervention PAIGC guerrillas begin to inflict considerable damage on Portuguese troops which respond by 1aunch ing raids on PAIGC guerrillas based in Senegal and Guinea. Modibo Keita is overthrown in an army coup which brings Traore to power. FRELIMO gains control of 20 to 25 percent of the country, opening a third front in Tete Province in the northwest, infiltrating from Zambian bases. A group of enlisted soldiers mutiny, arresting the officers and restoring civilian rule under the APC with Stevens as Prime Minister. Large numbers of MPLA rebels begin operating from Zaire and Zambia. Clashes between MPLA and UNITA guerrillas break out; UNITA begins cooperating with SWAPO to offset supply problems in return for shelter in Zaire and guides for penetration into Caprivi. The Congolese Government claims that commandos from Zaire made an armed incursion into Brazzaville with the intention of overthrowing the Congolese regime. Foreign Minister Atanasio Ndong is killed while trying to overthrow the government of Francisco Macias Nguema. Numeiri •s rise to power in Sudan results in the reinstatement of military aid and base camps to the ELF rebe 1s. The ELF 1aunches a new series of attacks on Ethiopian Airlines planes, mines roads, ambushes police 135 1968/1968-69/1969 Guinea Ivory Coast Somalia Sudan Zaire Cameroon Nigeria Congo Guinea Ivory Coast Rebe 11 ion Insurgency Coup d'etat Coup d'etat Rebe 11 ion Border Dispute Unsuccessful Coup Unsuccessful Coup Foreign Military Intervention Rebe 11 ion 136 und army units, and briefly kidnaps the US ConsulGeneral in Asmara. Unrest breaks out in the national army as some members p1ot to separate the Labe region from the rest of the country. A secessionist movement in the southeast led by Agni militants is subdued by army units. Siad Barre topples the civilian government headed by Abdirashid Ali Shermarke who is assassinated. Numeiri seizes power from Muhammad Ahmad Mahgoub. Students at the university in Kinshasa, opposed to the Mobutu government, clash with the army. Several students are killed. Violence breaks out between Cameroonian and Nigerian border authorities and nationals of both countries illegally crossing from one country to another along the ill-defined swampy border area. An invasion plot supported by members of the gendarmerie is defeated. The gendarmarie is subsequently dissolved and replaced by a "people's militia." A large group of exiled Guinean opponents to the Sekou Toure regime led by Portuguese officers land off of Conakry and destroy a presidential residence and other buildings before being repelled by government troops, unleashing a reign of terror. An antigovernment uprising by Bete tribesmen is put down by the army and police. 1969/1970 Lesotho Coup d•etat Chief Leabua Jonathan seizes power after being defeated in elections by the BCP led by Ntsu Mokhehle. A number of attempts at armed opposition to Jonathan are crushed by the elite Police Mobile Unit. In the Gordian Knot campaign, thousands of Portuguese Mozambique Insurgency troops, including elite paratroop battalions under air Zimbabwe cover, swoop down on FRELIMO liberated zones in the Makonde highlands and northeastern Niassa, but they are soon involved in a protracted and costly engagement which is ultimately unsuccessful. FRELIMO and ZANLAguerrillas join forces in Tete Province. Nigeria Civil War Government forces secure a victory over the Biafran secessionists, bringing an end to the civil war. Sudan Unsuccessful Coup Several thousand followers of former Prime Minister Sadiq el-Mahdi, the leader of the Ansar religious and political movement, make an unsuccessful attempt on Numeiri•s life. They are all subsequently killed by government troops on Aba Island. 1970-71 Ethiopia Insurgency The government unleashes the Second Division of its Armed Forces in Eritrea. After months of fierce battles, the government forces are withdrawn. 1971 Angola Insurgency Sporadic fighting between MPLA guerrillas and Portuguese troops occurs in the countryside. Ethiopia Insurgency The ELF is expelled from Sudan. Sudan Foreign Military Intervention GuineaInsurgency Heavy fighting breaks out between PAIGC guerrillas and Bissau Foreign Military Intervention the army. The guerrillas mount a direct offensiveagainst Bissau. A small number of Cubans join theguerrillas. 137 1970/1970-71/1971 Madagascar Mozambique Namibia Sierra Leone Guinea Sudan Uganda Zaire Benin Burundi Zaire Burundi Rebellion Insurgency Insurgency Unsuccessful Coup Foreign Military Intervention Unsuccessful Coup Coup d•etat Rebe 11 ion Coup d•etat Unsuccessful CoupForeign Military Intervention Rebellion 138 Monja Joana leads a riot in the Toliary region to protest the Tsiranana regime. The riot is crushed by members of the gendarmerie. FRELIMO activities are concentrated in the northern provinces of Cabo Delgado and Niassa. Portuguese forces launch a new offensive along the border of Mozambique and Tanzania. SWAPO guerrillas blow up two police vehicles in the Caprivi Strip. Army Commander Brigadier John Bangura leads an uprising which is suppressed by loyal elements of the military. Guinean troops are flown in to support the government, remaining in the country for 2 years. The Communist Party, led by Major Hashim al-Ata, takes power for 3 days after which Numeiri regains the leadership. Idi Amin overthrows the Obote regime. Students parade in memory of the victims of the 1969 clash. The army intervenes and the university is closed. A coup brings Major Mathieu Kerekou to power, ending the experimental three-man Presidential Committee. Hundreds of Hutu troops are massacred following an abortive Hutu-sponsored coup attempt with the help of Zairean troops requested by Micombero. Tensions between the minority Tutsi elite and the majority Hutus worsens, exploding into the massacre of hundreds of thousands of Hutus. Equatorial Minor armed clashes occur between Equatorial Guinea and Border Dispute Guinea Gabon as the resu 1t of competing c1aims over severa1 Gabon uninhabited islands in oil prospecting areas. Coup d•etat A section of the army under Colonel Ignatius KutuGhana Acheampong seizes power from President Busia. A National Redemption Council is organized. Student riots erupt in Antananarivo. Tsiranana calls Madagascar Rebellion in the head of the army, General Gabriel Ramanantsoa, to restore order and assume power. A Merina dialect is adopted as the national language which causes riots in Toamasina. Government troops respond, crushing the riots. A peasant rebellion inspired by MONIMA breaks out inMadagascar Rebellion the south. Several hundred armed followers of Obote invade UgandaUganda Unsuccessful Coup from Tanzania, but are soon routed by forces loyal to Tanzania Military Invasion Amin. Uganda retaliates by bombing Tanzanian border villages. from Mozambique Insurgency ZANLA guerrillas infiltrate Rhodesia Zimbabwe and attack a farm in the Centenary district near the border. 1972-73 large raids into Burundi Rebellion Burundian forces carry out several Tanzanian territory against thousands of Hutus fleeingTanzania Military Invasion into Tanzania. FRELIMO moves out of the Tete area, penetrating further Mozambique Insurgency By the end of the south fo the Umtali-Beira Railroad. year, FRELIMO advances to within 400 miles of the capital. 1972/1972-73 139 Ethiopia Chad Congo GuineaBissau Namibia Rwanda Somalia Zimbabwe Insurgency Civil War Military Invasion Unsuccessful Coup Insurgency Insurgency Coup d•etat Rebe 11 ion Insurgency The ELF expands its activities into urban areas and incidents of violence multiply. Rivalry between the ELF and EPLF erupts into a military conflict between the two groups. The EPLF emerges as the dominant group. FROLINAT rebels in central and southeast Chad launch three small attacks throughout the year. Libya moves its forces into the Aozou strip in the extreme north. Ange Diawara, dismissed as Vice-President in the first few months of the Ngouabi regime, is allegedly behind a major plot to overthrow Ngouabi. A widespread purge and a restructuring of the military follow. PAIGC guerrillas, operating from Senegal and Guinea, obtain ground-to-air missiles, shaking the confidence of the Portuguese troops. SWAPO guerrillas atttack the Kamenga base in the Caprivi Strip, sabotaging arms at Katima Mulilo airfield. They also shoot down an Alouette helicopter. Habyarimana seizes power from Gregoire Kayibanda. Residents of the northern town of Burao riot after the imposition of direct taxation. The army intervenes, killing several people. Many others flee to Ethiopia. ZANLA is active, killing two government land inspectors and kidnapping a third. ZANLA guerrillas also kidnap 292 pupils and staff members near the border with Mozambique, most of whom escape. 140 1973-74/1974 Angola Chad Ethiopia Ethiopia Ethiopia Ethiopia Somalia GuineaBissau Senegal Lesotho Madagascar Rebellion Insurgency Civil War Mutiny Coup d'etat Insurgency Border War Military Invasion Insurgency Insurgency Mutiny Race riots in Luanda are repressed troops. Supporters of rival liberation the army is increasingly involved in operations between the groups. The by Portuguese groups clash; peacekeeping trans itiona1 government set up by Portugal collapses as fierce fighting breaks out between the MPLA, FNLA, and UNITA. FROLINAT rebels kidnap two French scientists, holding one for 33 months and the other for 17 months. Junior officers in Asmara (Eritrea Province) mutiny.The revolt spreads to the capita1 and Harar, and amongall divisions of the army, the airborne unit, and the air force. The government resigns as a 4-day generalstrike begins. Emperor Haile Se 1ass ie is overthrown and the PMAC is established. A battle between government forces and Eritrean guerrillas of all groups erupts in which Asmara, the capital of Eritrea, is assaulted. B1oody border skirmishes between Ethiopia and Soma 1i a break out. PAIGC guerrillas shoot down Portuguese jet fighter p1anes and 1aunch a 1ong-range weapon bombardment from Senegal and Guinea. A Portuguese commando unit destroys the guerrilla base of Kumbabori in Senegal. The BCP 1aunches a series of assaults on five po 1ice stations. Hundreds of BCP members are arrested or killed, forcing their leaders into exile. Cotier officers at a camp near Antananarivo mutiny; the 1nilitary's refusal to arrest the plotters results in the handing over of power to Richard Ratsimandrava. 141 Mozambique Insurgency FRELIMO guerrillas launch a mortar attack on the railway center of Inhaminga and derail trains on the Umtali-Beira Railroad. They also succeed in inflicting losses on several Portuguese aircraft. A new guerrilla front is opened in Zambezia Province. Mozambique Rebellion Following the announcement of impending independence June 1975, white right-wing elements seize control in of the main radio station in Maputo and the airport. Rioting breaks out between white and black residents in the area. Portuguese troops are called in to restore calm. Niger Coup d'etat Army Chief of Staff Lieutenant-Colonel overthrows the regime of Hamani Diori. Seyni Kountchi Zimbabwe Insurgency ZIPRA guerrillas kill and launch a number several Europeans of attacks across in the north the Zambezi River. The Rhodesian Government announces a ceasefi re which fails to take effect. Zimbabwe Zambia Insurgency A group of ZANLA guerri 11 as, led by a former ZI PRA guerri 11 a leader, rebel in the Zambian camps and on the war front in Rhodesia, killing many ZANLA guerrillas with tacit support from the The rebellion is put down a Zambian army and police. month later by loyal ZANU members. Zimbabwe Mozambique Insurgency Border War The FRELIMO interim 750-mile border with government in Mozambique opens Rhodesia to ZANLA guerrillas. the 1974-75 Mali Upper Volta Border Dispute Malian troops occupy several villages Upper Volta, claiming the area. in northeastern 142 1974/1974-75 Angola Angola Angola Namibia South Africa B-enin Chad Comoros Insurgency Foreign Military Intervention Insurgency Military Invasion Insurgency Unsuccessful Coup Coup d'etat Foreign Military Intervention Coup d'etat 143 Fighting between the MPLA, FNLA and UNITA continues. The FNLA gains control in the north. The MPLA gains control of Luanda with heavy reinforcements of Soviet equipment as Angola becomes independent. Savimbi formally declares war on the MPLA and fighting resumes. A Cuban troop buildup begins with the installation of the MPLA Government. FLEC starts fighting on the border of Angola and Zaire, but is quickly defeated by Cuban troops. South Africa moves heavily armed forces into southern Angola, penetrating 440 miles with UNITA and FNLA troops up the coast. UNITA takes control of the hydroelectric dam at Matala and captures Benguela and nearby towns. Cuban troops are reinforced, stopping the UNITA advance. Soviet troops arrive in Luanda with tank crews and fighter pilots. The FNLA is driven out of Caxito. The MPLA recaptures FNLA holdings in the north, then drives south, capturing UNITA strongholds on the coast. SWAPO camps open in Angola. South African troops cross the Namibian border into Angola in hot pursuit of guerrillas. After the killing of several South African soldiers in Namibia, South African forces retaliate by raiding two SWAPO camps in Angola. Conflict between the paracommandos of dismissed Captain Ai kpe and the gendarmerie results in Ai kpe' s execution and the reorganization of the military. President Tombalbaye is killed by a junta 1ed by General Felix Malloum who seizes power with French help. Ahmed Abdallah is ousted by Ali Soilih with the help of the mercenary, Bob Denard. Ethiopia Insurgency Madagascar Mozambique Coup d'etat Mutiny Nigeria Zimbabwe Tanzania Zambia Coup d'etat Insurgency Foreign Military Intervention 1976 Angola Insurgency Foreign Military Intervention 144 The ELF and EPLF launch a joint massive attack against army positions in and around Asmara. Government forces by guerrillas. PMAC forces attack Afar warriors in the eastern lowlands. Afar warriors damage the key bridge on the Assab road. The ELF and EPLF resume attacks on Asmara. Other dissident groups begin to fight in Wollo and Afar driving insurgent Provinces. Government troops react more of the local populations to movements. brutally, join the President Ratsimandrava Ratsiraka is chosen as his is assassinated. successor. Didier Soldiers from the Machava barracks in Maputo battle to take over the power station, radio stations, and the town hall. The capital is paralized until FRELIMO forces put down the mutiny. The Gowan regime is ousted in a bloodless coup by Murtala Ramat Muhammad. ZANLA and ZIPRA guerrillas clash militarily outside of Salisbury (Harare) and in Zambia, seriously disrupting guerrilla supply lines. Tanzania opens training facilities to ZANLA guerrillas. Rhodesian forces concentrate in the northeast. The MPLA captures a number of cities from the FNLA and UNITA despite the efforts of South African forces to halt MPLA and Cuban advances in the south. FNLA and UNITA guerrillas return to bush warfare. South Africa announces that a11 troops wi 11 be withdrawn from Angola. A Cuban-backed MPLA drive cuts UNITA links with Namibia. FLEC activity increases in Cabinda. 1975/1976 Botswana Zimbabwe Burundi Djibouti Somalia Djibouti Ethiopia Ethiopia Mozambique Tanzania Nigeria South Africa Sudan Military Invasion Coup d'etat Insurgency Border Incident Insurgency Unsuccessful Coup Insurgency Foreign Military Intervention Military Invasion Unsuccessful Coup Rebellion Unsuccessful Coup Rhodesian security forces pursuing ZIPRA guerrillas attack a police barracks near Francistown, Botswana. Colonel Jean-Baptiste Bagaza overthrows the Micombero regime. The FLCS attacks a school bus full of children, demanding unconditional independence for Djibouti. French snipers end the incident. Troops from Soma 1 i a exchange shots with the French troops from across the border. Armed clashes occur between the LPAI and supporters of Ali Aref, head of the territory's administration. Divisions within the PMAC lead to an abortive coup after which nine leaders are executed. A British journalist is kidnaped by the TPLF and is released shortly thereafter. A battalion of Tanzanian troops is sent to Mozambique to help defend it from attacks by Rhodesian forces. Tanzanian troops also crush an uprising in northern Mozambique among the Makonde people. Lieutenant-Colonel Bukar Dimka assassinates Murtala Muhammad in an unsuccessful attempt to take power. Olusegun Obasanjo becomes head of state. Riots begun by high school students break out in Soweto in which hundreds are killed. Special paramilitary squads are brought in as demonstrations spread and strikes begin. The exiled opposition National Front invades Sudan from Libya in an unsuccessful attempt to topple the Numeiri regime. 145 1976 1976-77 1976-78 Uganda Zimbabwe Mozambique Ethiopia Somalia Ethiopia Military Invasion Insurgency Border War Military Invasion Border War Insurgency An Israeli commando team raids Entebbe airport after the capture by Palestinian terrorists of an Air France plane which is being held in Uganda. One passenger is murdered by Ugandan forces. ZANLA guerrillas infiltrate from Mozambique on three fronts--Tete, Manica and Gaza Provinces--and with the help of Mozambican FRELil"'O soldiers, bombard Rhodesian border towns, particularly Umtali. Rhodesian forces launch strikes at guerrilla bases in may locations in Mozambique. A new offensive is launched by ZANLA guerrillas in the Chipinga region in the south. Rhodesian forces attack the Nyadzonia refugee camp in Mozambique. The Rhodesian Special Branch organizes the anti-FRELIMO RENAMO, recruiting Portuguese settlers and mercenaries and former members of the elite special force of the colonial army exiled in Rhodesia. WSLF guerrillas and Somali troops attack Ethiopian forces in the Ogaden. The EPRP engages in sporadic bloody encounters and assassinations. The PMAC responds with brutal repression. Clashes between PMAC forces and EPRP rebels in Addis Ababa result in many deaths and arrests. Eritrean guerrillas of the EPLF, ELF and ELF-PLF seize control of 95 percent of Eritrea. Angola Insurgency UNITA guerrillas blow up the Benguela railroad bridge and raid settlements ~nd villages. 146 1976/1976-77/1976-78/1977 Benin Chad Congo Guinea Mozambique Zimbabwe Seychelles Tanzania Togo Uganda Zaire Zimbabwe Zambia Unsuccessful Coup Unsuccessful Coup Civil War Coup d'etat Rebellion Military Invasion Coup d'etat Foreign Military Intervention Rebellion Unsuccessful Coup Insurgency Foreign Military Intervention Insurgency Military Invasion A group of mercenaries led by Bob Denard tries to overthrow the Kerekou Government with an unsuccessful armed assault on the capital. A group of armed men launch an unsuccessful attack on the presidential palace. A general offensive is mounted in the north by FROLINAT forces which capture Fada and Faya-Largeau. President Ngouabi is assassinated; former President Three Massamba-Debat is blamed Ngouabi's colleagues Yhombi-Opango take power. and under executed. A Colonel group of Joachim Riots begun in Conakry by market women protesting po 1ice abuse of power spread to many towns. governors are killed. Rhodesian forces attack ZANLA camps at Chimoio and Tembwe in Mozambique. The Mancham regime is overthrown by Tanzanian-tra i ned Seychellois guerrillas who form the core of the new People's Militia. Albert Rene is sworn in as President. Tanzanian troops move onto the island following the coup. Violent demonstrations by industrial workers are broken up by the army. Members of the air force attempt to dSSassinate Amin. FNLC rebels cross over the border from Angola and invade Shaba Province. Moroccan and French troops, responding to Mobutu's appeals for help, aid government forces in suppressing the rebels. Two bombs explode in the middle of Salisbury (Harare). ZANU claims responsibility. Rhodesian jet bombers attack the Zambian border town of Feira in a searchand-destroy operation against ZIPRA bases. 147 1977 1977-78 Ethiopia Border War Ethiopian and Somali troops engage in full-scale Soma 1i a Foreign Military Intervention warfare in the Ogaden. Soviet and Cuban troops fightwith Ethiopian troops. Ethiopian forces drive Somaliforces from the Ogaden. 1978 Botswana Insurgency A number of Botswana soldiers are killed and severalZimbabwe Military Invasion others injured by Rhodesian troops pursuing ZIPRA guerrillas into Botswana territory. Comoros Coup d'etat Ahmed Abdallah is reinstalled as head of state with thehelp of Bob Denard and his mercenaries; Soilih is killed. Ethiopia Insurgency PMAC forces take the offensive in Eritrea, capturingall but Nakfa in the northcentral hill country. Ghana Coup d'etat Acheampong is ousted in a palace coup led by his Chiefof Defence Staff, Lieutenant-General Frederick Akuffo. Madagascar Rebellion Students in Antananarivo initiate demonstrationsagainst academic reform which become vio1ent whenunemployed youths and criminal elements join in. TheArmed Forces intervene. Mozambique Border War Rhodesian forces blow up the strategic railroad bridgeZimbabwe on the Beira-Moatize line, destroy agriculturalprojects in the Manica highlands, and attack theLimpopo Valley agro-industrial complex in Mozambique. Namibia An go 1a Insurgency Hundreds of Namibian refugees are massacred by SouthSouth Africa Military Invasion African troops in the SWAPO base town of Cassinga in Zambia Angola and many others are taken to Mariental in Namibia during Operation Reindeer. SWAPO and Zambian forces respond by shelling the Caprivian capital andgarrison of Katima Mulilo. 148 1977-78/1978 Namibia South Africa Zambia Sao Tome and Principe Angola Somalia Uganda Tanzania Zaire Zaire Zambia Zimbabwe Zimbabwe Angola South Africa Insurgency Military Invasion Foreign Military Intervention Unsuccessful Coup Military Invasion Insurgency Foreign Military Intervention Rebellion Military Invasion Insurgency Insurgency Military Invasion Insurgency 149 South African troops skirmish with SWAPO guerrillas in western Zambia. Angola sends a large number of troops to the islands in response to a request from the da Costa regime which was threatened by exiled opponents of the regime. A group of Majertain army officers attempts to overthrow the Barre regime. The survivors of the attempt later form the core of the SDSF. Ugandan troops invade Tanzanian territory, annexing 725 square miles west of Lake Victoria. Tanzanian troops counterattack, forcing the retreat of the Ugandan troops. FNLC rebels mount another invasion of Shaba Province, occupying Kolwezi. French legionnaires, acting with the Zairean army, retake Kolwezi and Belgian paratroopers drop in the area. An antigovernment revolt breaks out near Idiofa in Bandundu by vi 11 agers. Government forces intervene, brutally killing many and executing 14 chiefs accused of being the ringleaders of the revolt. Rhodesian land and air attacks against ZIPRA bases in Zambia intensify through the year, including a 3-day offensive air strike on the outskirts of Lusaka. ZANLA guerrillas destroy 28 petrol storage tanks during an attack on the oil depot in Salisbury (Harare). South African security forces attack the southern Angolan town of N'Giva by air. UNITA scores major Angola Military Invasion Zimbabwe Insurgency Botswana Military Invasion Zimbabwe Cameroon Rebellion Central African Rebellion Republic Foreign Military Intervention Zaire Central African Coup d'etat Republic Foreign Military Intervention Chad Civil War Nigeria Foreign Military Intervention Military Invasion successes in an offensive against MPLA forces in the southeast, gaining control of a large area along the border with Namibia. Rhodesian forces launch an airstrike on a ZIPRA camp in Angola. A Rhodesian commando group abducts 14 ZAPU officials in Botswana and blows up Kasangula ferry, the country's only link to the north. Serious clashes break out in the north at Dolle over the cancellation of a school project. The army reacts brutally, resulting in a massacre of the local population. Student riots erupt in Bangui over the imposition of special uniforms. At Bokassa's request, Zaire sends in troops to suppress the riots. Bokassa's imperial guards are accused of stabbing and beating to death schoolchildren who had been part of the uniform protest. Emperor Bokassa is overthrown with the aid of French troops. David Dacko is installed as the new leader of the regime. The Malloum government collapses as Habre's FAN forces defeat the Chad National Army with the aid of FROLINAT rebels. Nigerian troops arrive in N'Djamena to police a ceasefire agreement between the north and south, but are soon ordered out of the country by the new government which claims they refuse to obey orders. Heavy fighting breaks out in N'Djamena between Goukouni's GUNT forces and members of the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Chad. Libya launches an offensive in the north from the Aozou strip against GUNT forces. Skirmishes occur between the Libyan forces and Goukouni 's forces at Faya-Largeau. 150 1979 Congo Equatorial Guinea Ethiopia Ghana Lesotho Liberia Coup d 1 etat Coup d 1 etat Foreign Military Intervention Insurgency Coup d 1 etat Insurgency Rebellion Yhombi-Opango is overthrown by radical junior officers declaring themselves for "i4arxism-Leninism;" Colonel Sassou-Nguesso takes power. The government of Francisco Macias Nguema is toppled by Colonel Teodoro Obyang Nguema, the President's nephew. Moroccan soldiers fly in at the request of the new government to help guard the Presidential Palace. Also at the request of the new government, Spain sends military advisers to the country. TPLF guerrillas capture four towns and block the main road to Addis Ababa during a sudden series of advances. Fighting between WSLF guerrillas and Ethiopian troops intensifies in the Ogaden. A coup is attempted by a group of Air Force officers led by Jerry Rawlings but is initially unsuccessful. A short time later, a military uprising frees Rawlings from prison and installs him as head of state. LLA guerrillas explode a bomb in the main post office of Maseru. Another bomb damages electrical transformers near the South African border. A new wave of violence breaks out as the LLA explodes a bomb at a pol ice post in the northern district of Buthe which results in violent clashes between the paramilitary police and BCP supporters, and the transformation of the paramilitary police force into a full fledged army. LLA guerrillas increase their sabotage efforts throughout the country, bombing bridges, electrical installations, and stores as well as diesel storage tanks. Rioting breaks out in Monrovia as a result of announced rice price increases. Police open fire, killing a large number of demonstrators. 151 Mozambique Zimbabwe Mozambique South Africa Namibia An go 1 a South Africa Seychelles South Africa South Africa Botswana Uganda Tanzania Border War Military Invasion Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Military Invasion Rebellion Insurgency Border Incident Insurgency Military Invasion Rhodesian cOJnmandos raid the Beira oil depot in retaliation for a ZANLA attack from Mozambique on an oil depot in Salisbury (Harare). Rhodesian fighter planes and ground troops launch a series of raids on guerrilla bases in central Tete Province. Rhodesian forces also launch a large-scale operation directed at Mozambican forces primarily in Aldeia de Barragem and the military camps around it. RENAMO guerrillas, with South African military and logistical support, engage in sabotage raids and attacks on government forces, including raids on railroad lines and army bases. Guerrillas kill five senior Soviet officers during a clash in the north and capture the central town of Macossa. SWAPO guerrillas attack two South African militarybases in eastern Ovambo. A clash occurs in the north between SWAPO guerrillas and~"~South 'African troops. SWAPO abducts seven children and their teacher from a school in Ovambo, taking them into Angola. South African troops and aircraft raid SWAPO guerrilla bases in An go1a. Widespread opposition to a proposed compulsory national youth service leads to violent demonstrations in Victoria. ANC guerrillas attack two police stations in Soweto. South African police and suspected ANC guerrillas clash near the border of Botswana in South Africa. The guerrillas flee to Botswana, leading to South African threats of hot pursuit raids. Tanzanian forces, along with over a thousand exiles belonging to the UNLF, invade Uganda. 152 1979 Uganda Tanzania Uganda Tanzania Uganda Uganda Tanzania Zaire Zaire Gabon Ivory Coast Senegal Togo Zaire Zambia Namibia South Africa Military Invasion Foreign Military Intervention Military Invasion Rebellion Military Invasion Rebellion Foreign Military Intervention Unsuccessful Coup Military Invasion Insurgency Libyan and PLO troops arrive in Uganda to help in the fight against Tanzania. Libyan troops organize antitank defenses and artillery around Kampala to protect the Amin regime. Libyan Air Force bombers launch unsuccessful cross border bombing attacks, missing the targets. Tanzanian troops launch new offensives, capturing Kampala and the Amin regime collapses. A provisional government is formed, headed by Executive Council Chairman Yusuf Lule. Government forces led by Tanzanian officers take West Nile district from Amin supporters. After the replacement of Lule by Godrey Binaisa, thousands of people riot in Kampala, demanding the reinstatement of Lule. Government troops open fire, triggering a new series of demonstrations. The first contingent of Tanzanian forces leaves Uganda. Government forces are called into Lubondoi in eastern Kasai because of the refusal of residents to pay a new tax. The ensuing violence results in a massive reprisal by the armed forces in which hundreds of youths are allegedly massacred. Togolese, Senegalese, Gabonese, and Ivory Coast troops, part of the African intervention force in Shaba Province during the 1978 uprising, leave Lubumbashi along with Moroccan troops. A group of military personnel attempts to take over the airport in Kinshasa, leading to the closing down of all borders. South African troops attack SWAPO camps in Zambia near the Angolan border. 153 1979 Zambia Zimbabwe Military Invasion Rhodesian commandos launch a destroying ZAPU homes and pre-dawn offices, raid in Lusaka, including ZAPU leader Nkomo's headquarters. Zambia Zimbabwe Military Invasion Rhodesian commandos blow up road and rail bridges in Zambia's Northern Province, resulting in the temporary Province between ZIPRA guerrillas and Rhodesian forces. Zambia Namibia South Africa Military Invasion Clashes Zambian camps. are reported in Western Province between troops and South African troops raiding SWAPO Zambia Zimbabwe Military Invasion Rhodesian commandos road linking Zambia blow up the Chongwe Bridge on the to Malawi and Mozambique. Zambian troops are placed on full alert. Zimbabwe Insurgency ZIPRA craft guerrillas shoot down near Kariba, killing an Air Rhodesia civil all passengers. A airbomb planted by guerrillas explodes in a shopping center. ZIPRA guerrillas Salisbury (Harare) bombard Salisbury Airport two times in 1 week. 1980 January Chad Civil War Serious clashes break out between factional forces in the eastern Ouaddai district, triggering a new alliance between Goukouni's forces and another faction. South Africa Insurgency ANC guerrillas in Pretoria. hold 15 white hostages in a bank siege Police storm the building, killing the guerrillas. 154 1979/1980 February Namibia South Africa March Chad Ethiopia Soma 1i a Mali April Liberia Namibia South Africa South Africa Zambia Insurgency Insurgency Civil War Insurgency Border War Rebellion Coup d'etat Insurgency Insurgency Military Invasion South African anti guerri 11 a po 1ice commando units are sent to the north to stop a SWAPO offensive in the white farming area. ANC guerrillas open a third front on the northern Natal border. Fighting breaks out as various armed factions competefor control of N'Djamena. Fighting breaks out between Ethiopian troops and WSLF guerrillas in the Ogaden. Ethiopia launches air raids in to Soma 1 i a . Student leader Abdou Camara dies in custody after his arrest for refusing to affiliate to the UDPM, sparkingoff student riots. The mi 1i tary suppresses the riots, killing several young people. A group of enlisted men, led by Master Sergeant Doe and General Weh Syen, launch a coup in which President William Tolbert is assassinated. SWAPO guerrillas attack the power line twice between Ruacana hydroelectric station on the Angolan border and Windhoek, blacking out the country. SWAPO guerrillas attack South African forces and farms on the eastern flank of the Etosha game reserve, inflicting record casualties. ANC guerrillas attack a polic e station in Johannesburg. South Africa withdraws Western Province. two battalions fro1n Zambia's 155 1980 May r~ay-June June Uganda Angola South Africa Chad Ethiopia Somalia Mozambique Guinea Guinea Bissau Lesotho South Africa South Africa Coup d•etat Military Invasion Civil War Foreign Military Intervention Border War Insurgency Border Dispute Insurgency Rebellion 156 A group of army officers led by a supporter of former President Obote takes power from Binaisa. In Operation Sceptic, South African forces raid twice across the Namibian border and occupy the area around· N'giva in southern Cunene Province for 3 weeks. Habre's FAN and two other factions join together to fight for power in N'Djamena. Fighting expands to outside of the capital. Libyan troops are involved in the fighting, attacking Habre's forces with mortar and artillery fire. Large-scale fighting breaks out once again in the Ogaden between Ethiopian and Somali troops. Ethiopian MiG fighter planes bomb the border area of Dolo in Somalia which is heavily populated by refugees from Eritrea. RENAMO guerrillas blow up a power station in Beira and other strategic installations in Manica and Sofala Provinces. Government forces attack the RENAI'-10 main base in the Sitatongo Mountains close to Zimbabwe. A long-standing territorial dispute with Guinea flares up; Guinea-Bissau sends troops to the border. LLA guerrillas launch a series of attacks from South Africa. Student unrest breaks out in the Transkei. Riot police are flown into Cape Town, killing and injuring a large number of demonstrators. South Africa June-July Zimbabwe August An go 1 a Namibia South Africa Uganda September Ethiopia Somalia October Gambia Senegal Uganda Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Military Invasion Insurgency Border War Foreign Military Intervention Insurgency 157 ANC guerrillas attack fuel storilge tanks at two Sasol oil-from-coal plants, penetrating heavy security. Following independence, several hundred government troops and police are sent to the Zvimba Tribal Trust Land in northcentral Zimbabwe to round up ZIPRA guerrillas who are causing disturbances in the region. Two policemen are killed in Mtoko during clashes between ZANLA and ZIPRA guerrilla factions. UNITA guerrillas attack and set fire to the large oil installations at Lobito port. South African troops based in Namibia launch a major incursion into southern Angola against SWAPO guerrillas. Violence breaks out again in Kampala as Amin supporters in military uniforms start a wave of shootings and looting. Six Somali units launch a two-pronged incursion into Ethiopia's Bale Province. Ethiopian air and ground forces continue to attack Somalia's Dolo district. Senegalese troops are deployed in Banjul for maneuvers with 4ambian Field Forces amid rumors of a coup plot from within the Field Forces allegedly inspired by Libya. Former Amin soldiers, organized into the UNRF, invade Arua in West Nile Province, destroying 50 percent of the town. 1980 Zarnb i a Zimbabwe October-December Chad November GuineaBissau Kenya Somalia Namibia South Africa Upper Volta Zimbabwe Rebellion Mutiny Civil War Foreign Military Intervention Coup d'etat Border Incident Insurgency Rebellion Coup d'etat Insurgency 158 A group of former Zairean Katangan gendarmes engage security forces in a battle at a farm in Chilanga, nine miles south of Lusaka. Large quantities of AK47s and ammunition are captured. Several prominent Zambian citizens are arrested. Army soldiers go on a rampage in Mtoko directed at British whites despite a massive military and police crackdown on violence. At Goukouni 's request, Libya sends in several thousand troops to fight against Habre's FAN forces. The latter are soon pushed out of the capital and flee to Cameroon. Libyan troops occupy the capital. President Luis Cabral is replaced with a "Council of the Revolution" headed by Joao Bernardo "Nino" Vieira. Somali raiders murder six people in Kenya's North-East Province near the border between the two countries. A series of attacks leads to a military alert. A landmine placed by SWAPO guerrillas in easterr. Ovamboland kills seven people, including former DTA President Pastor Cornelius Ndjoba. Rioting breaks out in the black townships of Port Elizabeth following a boycott of black students. Police open fire on the crowd. Saye Zerbo seizes power from Lamizana. Street battles break out in Bulawayo's western townships between ZIPRA and ZANLA guerrillas. December Mozambique Tanzania Nigeria January Mozambique South Africa Sudan Sudan January-December Ethiopia February Comoros Madagascar Insurgency Foreign Military Intervention Rebellion Military Invasion Insurgency Military Invasion Rebellion Insurgency Mutiny Rebellion 159 RENAMO guerri 11 as dynamite power pylons 500 miles south of the Cabora Bassa dam on the Zambezi River. Tanzanian troops are sent in to help Mozambican forces fight against RENAMO. Rioting breaks out in the northern city of Kano by Maitatsine sect members; several thousand are killed. When the police are overpowered, the army and air force become involved. South African commandos attack ANC headquarters in Maputo, killing 12 ANC members and one Portuguese technician. Libyan troops pursue rebels from Chad into Sudan. Dissidents protesting the appointment of a non-Darfuri governor demonstrate in the capital of the Darfur region, El Fasher. Government troops are called in. TPLF activity extends from hit and run raids along the main roads in Tigray into the neighboring southern regions of Gondar and Wallo. The army mutinies on the island of Grande Comore, but the mutiny is crushed by loyal Presidential Guard units. Fear of unemployment sparks off violent riots in Antananarivo which are repressed by the Armed Forces. 1980/1981 Nigeria Border Dispute Nigeria reinforces troops near the Lake Chad region because of fighting between villagers on the border of Chad Chad and Nigeria over ownership of islands in the lake. Uganda Insurgency UFM guerrillas attack several suburban pol ice stations and steal guns and ammunition. February-March Zimbabwe Insurgency Fighting breaks out in Bulawayo between ZANLA and ZIPRA in troops. Violence Rebellion guerrilla factions. Mugabe sends also breaks out in several battalions of the national army. Government forces disarm several thousand ZIPRA guerrillas ,at the Mushumbi Pools base camp in the north. Harch Uganda Insurgency Members of the underground Movement for the Struggle for Political Rights (MOSPOR), formed from the Uganda People's Movement and former soldiers of the national army, attack the Kabamba Army Training School and government convoys in the Kampala outskirts, leaving Kampala without electricity. r~arch-June Angola Military Invasion The South African Air Force hits a major SWAPO orientNamibia Insurgency ation camp, near Lubango, about 125 miles north of the South Africa Namibian border as South African aggression increases with a large number of military actions. April Chad Civil War Fighting breaks out between Goukouni's forces and those Foreign Military Intervention of Ahmat Acyl in Abeche in the north. Libyan troops intervene, causing numerous casualties. Equatorial Unsuccessful Coup An attempt to unseat President Nguema is made by Guinea members of the Presidential Guard which includes 160 1981 South Africa April-December Mozambique Hay Nigeria Cameroon South Africa June Insurgency Insurgency Border Dispute Insurgency t~oroccan troops. The attempt is foiled by security forces in Malabo after fighting in which a number of people are killed. ANC guerrillas attack the distribution electric substation south of Durban, destroying the station and disrupting electrical service to hundreds of factories and homes in Durban. In a series of actions, RENAMO rebels attack the garrison town of Espungabera and the Cabora Bassa hydroelectric plant, destroy a section of the electric line on the Beira-Umtali corridor, engage government forces in heavy fighting in central Mozambique, damage two major bridges in Sofala Province, blow up the Beira pipeline and railroad bridge over the Pungwe River between Mozambique and Zimbabwe, and expand back into Hani ca and Sofal a Provinces with a new front in northern Inhambane Pro vi nee. Government forces overrun the main RENAMO base of Garagua in Manica Province. Five Nigerian soldiers are killed in a clash with Cameroonian border guards as the result of an on-going dispute over potential oil-rich territory. ANC guerrillas launch a number of attacks and sabotage attempts. Five railroad lines are blown up, one in Soweto and the others on the Natal coast. A pol ice station near East London is attacked, power lines in the Orange Free State are cut, and a bomb destroys an army recruiting office in Durban. Ethiopia Border War Ethiopian troops launch a series of air raids against Somalia towns in Somalia. 161 Five members of the PRC, including Weh Syen, are unsucLiberia Unsuccessful Coup cessful in attempting to overthrow the Doe regime and are subsequently executed. Uganda Mutiny Hundreds of government troops plunder the town of Arua, causing thousands to flee. The violence follows the Tanzania Military Invasion withdrawal from Uganda of the remaining Tanzanian troops. Uganda Insurgency UNRF guerrillas invade the Umbachi mission on the out skirts of Arua, massacring civilians and taking control of everything north. of-Arua. July Central for National Liberation Insurgency The Central African Movement African claims responsibility for a grenade attack in a Bangui Republic cinema frequented by French troops. Antiregime violence breaks out from three opposition parties, resulting in the declaration of a state of emergency. Lesotho Insurgency LLA guerrillas attack a fuel depot outside of Maseru with mortar fire from across the South African border. South Africa South Insurgency ANC guerrillas attack the Arnot power station in Africa eastern Transvaal and an electric subpower station southeast of Pretoria. July-August Gambia Unsuccessful Coup President Dawda Jawara is temporarily deposed by a Senegal Foreign Military Intervention leftist coup led by a group including disaffected Field Force members under the leadership of Kukoi Samba Sanyang, an opponent of the Jawara regime. Two thousand Senegalese troops come to Jawara's aid and crush the coup, restoring Jawara to power. Libya is accused of inspiring the attempt though evidence does not support the accusation. 162 1981 July-September An go1 a South Africa Military Invasion South African forces launch Operation Protea in CuandoCubango Province, driving 200 miles into Angola. South African aircraft reportedly destroy all Angolan radar and anti-aircraft sites within a 95 mile strip north of the Namibian border. August Burundi Zaire Border Dispute Burundi and Zaire move troops to near Lake Tanganyika after Burundi to a new position on the disputed their moves Little common border a border post Rusizi branch of the Rusizi River Delta. South Africa Insurgency ANC guerrillas launch a rocket attack on the Voortrekkerhoogte military base outside of Pretoria, but inflict little damage. Guerrillas also explode two bombs in East London and Port Elizabeth. September Central African Republic Coup d'etat President Ko 1 i ngba. Dacko is overthrown by General Andre Lesotho Insurgency LLA guerrillas launch a number of bomb attacks on erty owned by Minister of Agriculture Peete Peete. prop South Africa Insurgency ANC guerrillas attack a police station in Mabopane, miles northwest of Pretoria, killing four people. 20 Zambia Namibia South Africa Military Invasion Insurgency South African forces attack Sesheke in during a search-and-destroy operation camps. western against Zambia SWAPO 163 1981 Lesotho South Africa Sudan November Angola Namibia South Africa Seychelles November-December Chad December Ghana South Africa Uganda Insurgency Military Invasion Military Invasion Insurgency Unsuccessful Coup Civil War Coup d'etat Insurgency Insurgency LLA guerrillas attack a paramilitary police barracks outside of Maseru with mortar fire from across the South African border. Libyan air force planes make almost daily raids against Sudan from Chad in reprisal for Sudan's sheltering of refugees from Chad. South African forces launch Operation Daisy, a 3-week raid 150 miles inside Angola, destroying a SWAPO regiona1 headquarters and mi 1itary command post. The main oil refinery in Luanda is attacked, allegedly by South African seaborne commandos. A group of South African-based mercenaries on a scheduled flight land in Victoria, but after their detection by customs officials, a fierce fight ensues during which several are captured. FAN forces take contro1· of Abeche, Bi lti ne, and Dum Hadjer, opening the road to N'Djamena. Fierce fighting breaks out in eastern Chad near the border with Sudan between FAN forces ~nd those of Acyl Ahmat. Rawlings deposes the Hilla Limann government. ANC guerrillas attack the Wonderboom police station in Pretoria, killing one black policeman and wounding four others. Government forces launch a big offensive aimed at ousting UNRF guerrillas from the West Nile District. 164 Zimbabwe January Chad Ethiopia January-March Ethiopia February Ghana Somalia Uganda Insurgency Civil War Insurgency Insurgency Mutiny Rebellion Mutiny Insurgency A bomb blast at ZANU party headquarters in Salisbury (Harare) kills six people and injures dozens. Mugabe blames South African-supported groups. Faya-Largeau is taken by FAN forces, placing a quarter of the country under their control. EPLF guerrillas launch a mortar attack at Keren and the airport at Asmara. The a steady series of attacks on main through Tigray into Eritrea. on r the TPLF oads airfield launches leading The OLF engages in antigovernment activities. The EDU component of the DFLE becomes active in Wo 11 egaProvince, forcing the government to commit several battalions to the province. Several clashes occur between army officers and enlisted men, most notably in Takoradi. Clashes also break out between civilians and army units, notably in Kumasi, because of the unruly condu~t of sections of the armed forces. Army elements mutiny in the north after several days of fighting following the January execution of several senior officers accused of collaborating with guerrilla groups. Government forces and NRA guerri 11 as engage in fierce fighting in Kampala's western suburbs around the Malire army barracks. 165 1981/1982 Zaire Zambia Zambia Angola February-May Ethiopia t4a rch Central African Repub1 i c Madagascar March-April Angola South Africa April Somalia Sudan Uganda Border Incident Insurgency Insurgency Foreign Military Intervention Unsuccessful Coup Rebellion Military Invasion Rebellion Military Invasion Insurgency Border skirmishes break out in which Zairean soldiers hijack a Zambian bus and its passengers near Sakania and capture and imprison several Zambian pol icemen. Zambian and Zairean border guards exchange fire. Angolan UNITA guerrillas harass villagers in western Zambia, claiming the territory as their own. PMAC troops launch the Red Star military operation in Eritrea with Soviet mi 1 i tary support. PMAC forces fail to advance beyond four miles of EPLF-held Nakfa. Ange Patasse masterminds a plot, supported by opposition elements in the armed forces, to overthrow the Kolingba regime, but is thwarted in the attempt. Violent social unrest breaks out in the northern Antsiranana Province due to the grave economic crisis and student unrest. South African forces strike deep into the southern Angolan province of Cunene, bombing the Chidemba region. Violent clashes break out in Hargeisa in the north between supporters of the SNM and security forces. Ugandan government forces make an incursion into Sudan in hot pursuit of Ugandan National Resistance Army guerrillas. 166 1982 April-October Angola May Kenya Somalia Lesotho r~ozambi que Tanzania Zimbabwe Zimbabwe May-June South Africa South Africa Insurgency Border Incident Insurgency Insurgency Foreign Military Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Intervention UNITA guerrillas sabotage the Benguela Railroad on an average of one action per day all along the line and escalate attacks nearer to Luanda. Fifteen Red Cross workers are kidnaped in Cunene Province along with a number of others from the Huambo District. FNLA activities recommence in the Uige and Zaire regions. Somali raiders kill three Kenyan officials during an ambush in North-East Province. LLA guerrillas ambush a vehicle carrying Peete Peete who escapes unharmed. RENAMO guerrillas damage the fuel pipeline linking Zimbabwe with Bei ra port. Government forces 1 aunc h an offensive against RENAMO bases in an attempt to clear the main road and rail link to Zimbabwe with the help of Zimbabwean and Tanzanian troops. A series of explosions ZIPRA guerrillas damages water installations. in southrailway ern elec Matabtrical eleland lines by and The ANC launches a series of major bomb attacks on installations and government buildings. The ANC is blamed for a bomb which explodes in an elevator in a building in Cape Town housing the President's Council. One person is killed. No one is killed when a locomotive pulling a passenger train in eastern Transvaal denotates a bomb. 167 June Chad Civil War June-July Zimbabwe Insurgency ~ Ethiopia Border War Somalia Lesotho Insurgency Zimbabwe Rebellion July-October Mozambique Insurgency Habre's FAN launch a military blitz, defeating the GUNT forces and capturing N'Djamena. Goukouni goes into exile in Libya. ZIPRA guerrillas launch an unsuccessful attack on Mugabe's horne after having seized weapons and a truck from army barracks in Harare. ZIPRA guerrillas kidnap six foreign tourists in Matabeleland. Ethiopian troops initiate new fighting in regions along the border with Somalia which Somali forces repulse. LLA guerrillas attack the residence of Chief Leabua Jonathan, but are driven off by police guards. An LLA guerrilla kills Koeyama Chakela, a prominent opposition po1iti ci a n . A substantial proportion of the Zimbabwean air force at Thornhill base is destroyed or badly damaged in an act of sabotage. The Zimbabwean Government detains a number of former white Rhodesian officers. In a series of actions, RENAMO guerrillas attack the Maputo to Zimbabwe railroad line, attack a train about 50 miles north of Beira on the line linking Malawi and Beira port, damage an oil pipeline between Beira and Zimbabwe, blowing up four pylons, sweep east across Zambezia Province, capturing a six-man Bulgarian technica1 team, kidnap five foreign missionaries from their mission in Inhambane Province, attack a pumping station in Maforga, kidnaping three Portuguese technicians and their families, and attack the rail 168 1982 August Kenya Ethiopia Kenya Lesotho Seychelles South Africa Zimbabwe Zimbabwe South Africa October Nigeria route linking Beira port, Malawi, and Tete Pro vi nee repeatedly. Government forces detroy seven RENAMO bases. Border Incident Ethiopian Mandera, cattle. militiamen killing 29 raid people Kenyan encampments and taking camels in and Unsuccessful Coup Members of Kenya's military r~oi government, but are commanders and troops. attempt thwarted to overthrow the by loyal army Insurgency LLA guerrillas Works. assassinate Jobo Rampeta, Minister of Mutiny A group of soldiers seize the radio station on Mahe island and take hostages, demanding the resignation of some government members. Loya1 forces crush the mutiny. Insurgency ANC member Ruth First is killed office in Maputo, Mozambique. for the attack. by a parcel bomb South Africa is in her blamed Insurgency ZIPRA guerrillas attack a northeast of Harare, making arms. national off with army battalion a quantity of Military Invasion Zimbabwean forces ki 11 Defence Force soldiers Mozambican border. Mugabe a group which escaped, against strategic targets. three about claims were white South African from the along with operations ten miles that they, preparing Rebellion Communal tensions led by members of the Maitatsine sect erupt into riots in northern Barno state which spread to Kana and Kaduna. 169 1982 Zimbabwe Insurgency ZIPRA guerrillas remove sections of track from the mainBulawayo-Victoria Falls railroad, disrupting Zaireanand Zambian trade. November An go 1a Military Invasion South African marines make a seaborne raid north ofSouth Africa Namibe and blow up two bridges on a vital rail link tothe interior. Ghana Unsuccessful Coup Members of the military attempt to overthrow theRawlings regime, but are crushed by loyal troops. Namibia Insurgency A landmine placed by SWAPO guerrillas in Ovambolandkills seven people. Upper Coup d'etat A group of noncommissioned officers and soldiers over Volta throw the Zerbo regime. Jean-Baptiste Ouedraogo heads the military junta. November-December Mozambique Insurgency Zimbabwean troops are sent into Mozambique to guard theZimbabwe Foreign Military Intervention Maforga pumping station. The RENAMO offensivecollapses as government forces capture the main RENAMObase in Zambezia Province, freeing six Bulgarianhostages. RENAMO guerrillas blow up the railroad twomiles west of Maforga. RENAMO releases the Portuguesehostages captured in O~tober. Zimbabwe Insurgency Savage killings and attacks in Matabeleland by ZIPRA guerrillas intensify. December Angola Insurgency During a 4-day Christmas offensive, UNITA extends itsoperations for the first time to the north, controlling the area around Huambo. Botswana Border Incident Botswana shoots down a private South African plane over South Africa northwest Botswana. 170 1982 Ethiopia Insurgency The Tigray insurgency escalates and TPLF guerrillas gain control of most of the countryside, leaving only the major towns in government hands. South Africa launches a raid on alleged ANC guerrilla Lesotho Military Invasion South Africa Insurgency houses in Maseru, killing 43 people. and demonstrations occur in Madagascar Rebellion A general strikeAntananarivo at Monja Jaona's instigation. Military Invasion South African commandos are accused of sabotaging andMozambique South Africa destroying fuel tanks at Beira oil depot. Mozambique Insurgency A new RENAMO offensive begins as severa1 hundred guer rillas cross into Mozambique from South Africa's Kruger National Park. A series of battles take place between RENAMO guerrillas and government forces. Senegal Rebellion A demonstration is staged by secessionists in Zi gui nchor, capita1 of the Casamance region in which separatist 1eaders demand independence from Senega1. Government forces react brutally. South Insurgency The ANC claims responsibility for four explosions which rip through the Koeberg nuclear power plant outside Africa Capetown, damaging one of two reactors. Security police arrest the leader and eight other members of the extreme right-wing Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging after uncovering illegal arms caches around the country. Uganda Insurgency Government forces launch a major offensive against NRA guerrillas in West Nile Province. 1983 January Somalia Insurgency A commando group of the SNM attacks Mandera prison 38 miles east of the regional capital of Har~eisa in Guban 171 1982/1983 South Jl.frica Uganda January-February Mozambique Tanzania Zimbabwe Zimbabwe January-March An go1a Province, freeing 780 prisoners. Somali forces respond by sea rc hi ng and~ bomb~ing-~-the a rea . A Soma 1i regu1a r army battalion attacks SNM guerrillas and the Issaq who support them in the north in an unsuccessful atte1npt to reopen the border between Somalia and Ethiopia along the eastern Ogadeen region. Insurgency A bomb planted by the ANC explodes in the offices of the Community Council in the black township of New Brighten in Port Elizabeth, killing one person. Other attacks take place in the Supreme Court in Pieterrnaritzburg in Natal and on a railroad line in Bloemfontein. Insurgency NRA guerrillas step up activities in and around Kampala, killing a number of people. Insurgency RENAMO guerrillas attack traffic on the main road north Foreign Military Intervention of Maputo, destroy part of the country's most important state farm, and ambush vehicles close to the main road and railroad line linking Zimbabwe to Beira port, killing several people. Government forces launch an offensive which cuts down on RENAMO attacks. Several hundred -z;-mbabwean and Tanzanian troops, as well as military advisers from Eastern Europe, provide military training and aid to Mozambican forces. Insurgency Zimbabwean security forces hunting for ZIPRA guerrillas in southwest Matabeleland are blamed for brutal treatment of many citizens. Nkomo supporters blame the North Korean-trained Fifth Brigade for the abuses. Insurgency UNITA guerrillas kidnap 86 Czech and Portuguese workers Foreign Military Intervention at the hydroelectric project in Benguela Province. Cuba airlifts another several thousand troops to Angola to participate in a counteroffensive aimed at retaking 172 1983 January-May Sudan February Lesotho South Africa Namibia Soma1 i a South Africa Sudan Uganda Mutiny Insurgency Military Invasion Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Foreign Military Intervention Insurgency 173 towns and villages in southern Angola occupied by South African forces for more than a year. Dozens of soldiers belonging to the All-Southern 105th battalion in the garrison at Bor refuse to be moved to northern posts, firing on northern troops who had arrived to replace them. Southern troops desert by the dozens from major southern garrisons at Bor, Akobo, Aweil, Kappeta, Bentiu, and Rumbek to join the newly formed SPLA. Lesotho accuses South Africa of dropping two bombs from a helicopter on a fuel depot in Maseru, destroying it and setting fire to a steel factory. The LLA claims responsibility. SWAPO 1aunches a 1arge offensive as guerri 11 as penetrate as far south as the Tsumeb-Grootfontein "triangle of death." SNM guerrillas attack government troops in Durosi near the Ethiopian border in the first joint military operation with SDSF guerrillas. The ANC is blamed for a bomb explosion in a pass office in Bloemfontein, injuring a large number of blacks. Libyan troops begin a massive buildup along the Sudanese border. A large number of Egyptian military advisers are stationed at Flamingo Bay in Port Sudan and at the border town of Kassala as integration of the military forces of Sudan and Egypt begins. NRA guerrillas begin a series of offensives aimed at government garrisons. February-Apri 1 Ethiopia March Comoros Lesotho South Africa Sudan Sudan Uganda Sudan Zimbabwe Insurgency Unsuccessful Coup Insurgency Mutiny Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Military Invasion Insurgency PMAC forces launch a large-scale offensive in Tigray to break communications between the TPLF and the EPLF. TPLF guerrillas capture eight famine relief workers. Three Australian mercenaries hired by John Pilgrim, a British mercenary who was allegedly hired by Prince Said Ali Kema 1, former Ambassador to France and now living in Paris, are charged with plotting to overthrow the Abdallah regime. LLA attacks increase from South Africa following a partial South African blockade on border crossings into Lesotho. Soldiers at the Raga military post in Bahr el Ghazal Provi nee f1 ee with their weapons after refusing to be transferred north. A number of soldiers based at Wangkay 100 miles west of Bentiu flee after killing their northern commanding officer. Northern troops are moved into the region. Government troops are ambushed by SPLA guerrillas in Upper Nile Province, leaving a number of government soldiers dead. Government troops arriving in Bentiu from Khartoum are also ambushed. SPLA guerrillas attack a police station at Warop in the Tonj area, and another in Ganyliel in the Rumbek district (Lakes Province), capturing weapons. Government forces cross the border at Karua into Sudan in pursuit of NRA guerrillas. NRA guerrillas open fire on a rally of the ruling Uganda People's Congress, killing a number of people. ZIPRA guerrillas attack several white farms in Matabeleland. 174 1983 April An go1 a Chad Nigeria May Equatorial Guinea Mozambique South Africa South Africa Sudan Uganda Upper Volta Insurgency Border Dispute Unsuccessful Coup Military Invasion Insurgency Mutiny Insurgency Rebellion A large UNITA commando group captures the vital Benguela railroad junction of Munhango, killing, capturing, or causing to flee the 436-man garrison as UNITA activities expand into the northern and northwestern provinces. Fighting breaks out between Chadian and Nigerian soldiers near Lake Chad. Chadian patrols attack Nigerian troops on Kinsara Island. A large number of the military are arrested after trying to assassinate President Nguema. South African fighter jets strafe a Maputo residential area in retaliation for a bomb blast in Pretoria. Several people are killed and injured. The ANC claims responsibility for a bomb in central Pretoria which kills 19 people. Troops in southern Sudan rebel, some defecting to the SPLA. Government troops crush the rebellion. A refugee camp at Ki kyusa, 40 mi 1 es north of Kampa1a, is attacked and hundreds of refugees are killed. The government claims that NRA guerrillas are responsible, but other reports put the blame on government troops who undertook a reprisal fot support in the camp of the NRA. The arrest of Sankara and Major Jean-Baptiste Lingani by the Ouedraogo Government, supported by the French Government, sets off a revolt by pro-Sankara commandos based in Po near Ghana. They take complete control of the town, including the police and customs posts. 175 1983 Summer June Ethiopia Ghana Lesotho South Africa South Africa Sudan June-July Chad Insurgency Unsuccessful Coup Insurgency Rebellion Insurgency Insurgency Civil War 176 The newly formed EPDM in Wollo begins to fight with TPLF support. A series of TPLF operations take place to the southeast of Tigray, deep in northern Wollo Province. A group of soldiers led by Sergeant Malik, who hadescaped to Togo after the November 1982 attempt, attacks three prisons in Accra and Nsawam, releasing a large number of military intelligence and other servicemen who had been detained following previous attempts. They also attack the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation before they are ~epelled. Several LLA guerrillas are killed by Lesotho's paramilitary security force at Kolonyama near the South African border, reportedly during an LLA mission to assassinate Chief Jonathan. On the anniversary of the Soweto riots, stone throwing blacks in Soweto damage a large number of buses, police vehicles and private cars. Police use force to break up the demonstration. Two bombs planted by the ANC explode, causing extensive damage to government offices in Roodepoort near Johannesburg. The SSLF abducts five foreign aid workers in Boma national park in the south. Goukouni 's GUNT forces enter northern Chad from Libya and capture Faya-Largeau. Heavy fighting breaks out between FAN and GUNT forces in the north. Habre appeals to France for assistance. ~ Ethiopia Somalia Namibia August Chad Lesotho Sudan Upper Volta August-September Angola Border War Insurgency Civil War Foreign Military Intervention Insurgency Insurgency Coup d • etat Insurgency Foreign Military Intervention Ethiopia launches a series of attacks along the Somali border which are repulsed by Somali troops. A four pound bomb, planted by SWAPO guerrillas, explodes in the center of Windhoek, timed to coincide with the scheduled announcement by the South African administration of contraversial new plans for the territory. A commando battalion with air support arrives from Zaire in support of the Habre regime. Government forces recapture the stronghold of Oum Chalouba, 200 miles southeast of Faya-Largeau. French marine paratroopers begin to arrive in N'Djamena along with aircraft and military equipment as well as French reserve troops which had been flown in from Bouar in the Central African Republic. A powerful car bomb explodes in the center of Maseru shortly after Jonathan's motorcade passes through. SSLF guerrillas attack a village in the north of Juba, stealing thousands of cattle. Sankara overthrows the Ouedroago Government. UNITA guerrillas 1 aunch an 11-day assault on Cangamba in southeastern Angola, taking the town and raid Calulo in the north, capturing 22 foreign workers as part of an offensive which has taken UNITA guerrillas to within 160 kilometers of Luanda. Extra Cuban troops are dispatched to bolster the Dondo garrison. MPLA forces recapture Calulo. 177 1983 Ethiopia August-December Mozambique September Lesotho Sudan Zimbabwe October Ethiopia Mozambique South Africa Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Military Invasion The TPLF captures 11 Swiss relief workers, releasing them soon afterwards. A new PMAC mobilization against the TPLF begins in the Wollo region. RENAMO guerrillas kidnap 24 Soviet mining technicians and kill 2 others at the Morrua mine in Zambezia Provi nee. Government forces 1 aunch a counteroffensive against RENAMO strongholds in Zambezia and lnhambane Provinces, freeing thrr.e Portuguese nationals and capturing a large number of guerrillas. RENAMO intensifies its armed offensive, attacking transportation, agriculture, and mining projects. Eight Soviet geologists are released by RENAMO. The LLA bombs a post office, an airport warehouse, and the home of a Cabinet Minister. LLA guerrillas also launch an attack with armored vehicles, mortars, and bazookas. A SPLA unit is ambushed by government forces in Bahr el Ghazal. Government forces attack another guerrilla unit moving from the Boma area near Ethiopia toward the interior of Upper Nile Province. SPLA guerrillas attack the outskirts of Aweil. The Fifth Brigade is redeployed in Matabeleland because of remaining tensions. WSLF guerrillas launch a raid on the Jigjiga central prison, escalating conflict in the Ogaden. South African forces raid ANC offices in Maputo, injuring several people. 178 1983 Niger Sierra Leone South Africa u·ganda Zambia Zaire October-November Botswana Zimbabwe November Angola Unsuccessful Coup Rebellion Insurgency Mutiny Border Incident Border Incident Military Invasion Insurgency A group of officers and civilians attempts to overthrow the Kountche regime. Violence breaks out in the Pujehun district between the Temne and Limba peoples. Army troops move into the region to suppress the violence. ANC guerrillas blow up six fuel storage tanks in the northern Transvaal town of Warmbaths. Army soldiers rampage through townships around Entebbe on the eve of the 21st anniversary of independence. Zambian troops are deployed along the border with Zaire to combat bandits who are frequently Zairean soldiers. Zimbabwean troops and Botswana army troops clash four kilometers inside Botswana's territory when Zimbabwean troops retaliate for the actions of gangs of bandits from Botswana. A unit of the Zimbabwe National Army (ZNA) crosses into Botswana, attacking the village of Maitengwe. A battle breaks out when they encounter troops of the Botswana Defence Force before they are airlifted to safety. UNITA guerrillas shoot down an Angolan airliner, killing 126 people. A new UNITA offensive begins to take control of the northeastern province of Luanda. UNITA claims to have captured 5 British and 12 Portuguese citizens in eastern Angola. UNITA guerrillas capture Cazombo, one of two garrisons in the region still in government hands. Government forces liberate the Mussende area in Cuanza Sul Province following a clash with UNITA guerrillas, effectively destroying UNITA's second strategic front. 179 1983 Guinea Sierra Leone Somalia Sudan December Angola Namibia South Africa Nigeria Cameroon Nigeria Senegal Sudan Border Dispute Insurgency Insurgency Military Invasion Border Dispute Coup d'etat Rebellion Insurgency Guinea sends troops into Sierra Leone's southern border region as a result of a border dispute. Government troops launch a new offensive against bases of the SDSF in Hiiraan Province. The SSDF succeeds in repulsing the offensive. SPLA guerrillas kidnap 29 foreign workers, demandingthe cessation of work on the Jonglei Canal and Chevron oil operations, repeal of the Muslim penal code, and release of political prisoners. Government troops free the hostages. In Operation Askari, the South African Air Force bombs SWAPO's alleged headquarters and South African troopslaunch an attack on SWAPO bases in Angola. South Africa agrees to a 1-month military disengagement from southern Angola which ultimately extends into the new year. Nigeria claims that Cameroonian gendarmes crossed the border into Nigeria and harassed citizens, destroyingtheir property, in the area where violence had occurred in 1981. The Shagari regime is overthrown by a military coup led by Muhammadu Buhari. Tensions in lower Casamance erupt as members of the principal ethnic groups in the region begin an uprising. Government forces suppress the riot, killinghundreds of people. Intense fighting between government troops and SPLA guerri 11 as erupts in Sobat Provi nee near the Ethiopian border. 180 January Chad Ethiopia Soma1 i a Mozambique Senegal Guinea Bissau Sudan Sudan Uganda Uganda Zaire Uganda January-March Ethiopia Civil War Foreign Military Intervention Insurgency Border War Insurgency Border Dispute Insurgency Military Invasion Insurgency Military Invasion Insurgency 181 Rebel forces shoot down a French Jaguar fighter plane, killing the pilot following a series of French air strikes prompted by a Libyan-backed raid through French lines near Ziguei. French forces retaliate by pushing 62 miles northward to the 16th parallel. WSLF guerrillas attack two trains on and Djibouti lines. The Ethiopian various targets in northwest Somalia in Air the Addis Force reprisal. Ababa bombs RENAMO releases 12 Soviet geologists, leaving only 2 as hostages. As the result of a dispute over an offshore drilling site, both Senegal and Guinea-Bissau send in warships off Cape Ski ring, and a 1arge number of Senega1ese soldiers move into the Casamance r~gion. A military confrontation breaks out between two factions of the SPLA. SPLA guerrillas capture the town of Akobo close to the Ethiopian border. Ojiga in Moroto district is pillaged and four women abducted during a series of raids by Ugandan troops into southern Sudan. NRA guerrillas kidnap 11 International Red Cross workers in Mpigi district, soon freeing 9 of them. Ugandan armed forces cross into Zaire at Gombe and kidnap 13 men. Fighting between EPLF guerrillas and PMAC forces intensifies in the northern corner of Eritrea. The 1984 EPLF, during 3 days of fighting with PMAC forces on the 60-mile Alghena front, overruns all government positions, scoring the largest victory yet. Uganda Rebellion Karamojong warriors begin a series of raids in Teso, Lango, and Acho 1 i to the west and Sebei to the south. Ugandan army and militia attack Matany and Kangole in central Karamoja and villages around Namalu. Acholi and Langi militia mass for an attack on Jie in northern Karamoja. February Botswana Border Incident A clash between the Botswana Defence Force and the ZNA Zimbabwe results in the death of one member of the ZNA. Chad Civi 1 War A serious clash between government troops and GUNT forces occurs near Oum Chalouba in which the GUNT forces are defeated. Kenya Rebellion Kenyan soldiers and police officers are called into Somalia Wajir in North-East Province to settle a confrontation between rival Somali clans, killing several hundred people. Namibia Insurgency SWAPO guerrillas infiltrate northern Namibia from bases South Africa in Angola as South African forces disengage. Insurgent attacks increase. Sudan Insurgency SPLA guerrillas attack a Nile riverboat at Wath Kei, killing hundreds of people. SPLA guerrillas attack and burn the French Compagnie de Construction Internationale headquarters 12 miles from Malakal, taking six hostages, some of whom are released soon afterward. Three foreign workers at Chevron's southern Sudan base camp are killed by SPLA guerrillas who launch an offensive in the south aimed at halting development work. 182 1984 Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe February-t~arch An go1a February-June Kenya March Nigeria Insurgency Rebe11 ion Insurgency Insurgency Rebellion Rebellion NRA guerrillas attack the army and police barracks in the town of Masindi, 140 miles north of Kampala, stealing weapons and ammunition. They are soon repulsed by government troops which launch search-and destroy operations in the area. Several thousand students at the University of Zambia riot in a dispute over meal cards. Military police are brought in to repress the riot. A government military offensive, in which the Fifth Brigade is deployed backed by units of the Sixth Brigade, is launched in Matabeleland after the exodus of white ranchers from the Kezi and Marula areas after repeated attacks by ZIPRA guerrillas. UNITA abducts 77 British, Portuguese and Filipino workers from a diamond mine in Luanda Norte Pro vi nee and four Bulgarian and ten Portuguese technicians in Novo Redondo. Units of the Kenyan army, supported by the General Service Unit, police and anti-stock theft units, move into southern Pokot in response to tribal tensions, taking punitive actions in an effort to collect illegally-held arms. The army encounters resistance at Kapchok and Kodich and use helicopters to attack homes and herds. Rioting by Maitatsine fanatics breaks out in the northeastern city of Vola. Troops are called in and they bombard the rioters' enclave as they fight back with relatively sophisticated weapons. 183 1984 Sudan Zaire March-May Mozambique March-June Kenya Uganda April Angola Cameroon Foreign Military Intervention Insurgency Insurgency Rebellion Insurgency Unsuccessful Coup 184 Five bombs explode near, the broadcasting station at Omdurman, allegedly the 'work of Libya. Egyptian air defense troops arrive in Sudan after the attack. Two government opposition groups based in Belgium, the Lumumba National Congolese Movement and the Zairean Socialist Party, claim responsibility for the bombings in Kinshasa of the Voice of Zaire complex and the main post office in which two people are killed. A number of RENAMO guerri 11 as surrender to government authorities after the signing of the Nkomati Agreement with South Africa. RENAMO guerrillas attack five civilian trucks in Tete Province, killing a large number of people and attack a passenger bus on the road from Marracuene to Maputo, killing and wounding several people. The Kenyan and Ugandan armies combine forces to combat "ngorokos" (bandits) in their border areas. Kenyan troops arrive at Amudat, a Pokot area inside Uganda. Many young men of the Kenyan Pokot region, who had fled to the Ugandan Pokot region, are attacked by Kenyan gunships. A bomb planted in a building housing Soviet and Cuban technicians in Huambo is blamed on UNITA. UNITA releases 89 hostages, continuing to hold 37 others. Northern members of the Presidential Guard, loyal to former President Ahidjo, seize the radio station and airport, and surround the presidential palace. Troops loyal to the Biya regim e overcome the revolt. 1984 Guinea South Africa Swaziland South Africa r~ay Angola Ethiopia Namibia South Africa Swaziland Mozambique May-June Mozambique Malawi Coup d•etat Insurgency Border Incident Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Insurgency Junior army officers seize power from interim President Louis Lansana Beavogui after the death of Sekou Toure. Colonel Lansana Conte emerges as Head of State. Two car bombs explode in Durban, killing three and injuring 22. The ANC is blamed for the attack. ANC guerrillas pour into Swaziland from Mozambique, resulting in armed clashes between Swazi forces and guerrillas in Mbabane and Manzini. UNITA reieases 16 Britons and a Portuguese woman held captive for several months. EPLF guerrillas attack the air base at Asmara, destroying aircraft and several buildings including a munitions depot and a gasoline depot. SWAPO guerrillas attack the town of Oshakati in the north with mortars, causing slight damage. The ANC launches a rocket attack on a Mobil Oil Corporation refinery in Durban, killing several people. Another explosion occurs in central Durban at the Trust Bank Center. A Swazi freight train is attacked in Mozambique. Neither the ANC nor RENAMO claims responsibility. RENAMO guerrillas step up their attacks on the railroad linking Nacala port to Malawi, damaging the line in the Nampula area and causing an almost complete halt in rail traffic to and from Malawi. 185 1984 June An go1 a Insurgency UNITA guerrillas central Angola attack government and claim to troops have in Quibala captured in 11 foreigners. A new government offensive against UNITA is launched from the Luena area, sweeping south toward Lumbala and east toward Cazombo, the aim of which is to take back some of the small towns captured by UNITA in the previous year. UNITA releases 20 Czech hostages who had been held for 15 months. Zambia Border Incident A small Zambian patrol crosses the border into Zaire, Zaire firing on Zairean smugglers and gendarmes who returned the fire. 186 1984 J> "'C "'C rr'1 z c - >< 1960-1964 Border Border War Civi"l Coup d'etat Foreign Insurgency Hi"litary Incident or Dispute War Military Invasion Ar.go 1 a Benin 1 Botswana Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea Ethiopia 2 Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-l3issau Ivory Coast Kenya 1 Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Intervention 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 188 1960-1964 1960-1964 Border Border War Civil Coup d'etat Foreign Insurgency Military Incident or Dispute War Mi 1itary Intervention Invasion --------~-----~-------------------------------------~----------------~~- Malawi Mali Mauritius Mozambique 1 Namibia Niger 1 Nigeria Rwanda Sao Tome and Principe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia 3 1 1 South Africa Sudan 1 1 1 Swaziland Tanzania 1 1 1 Togo 1 Uganda Upper Volta (Burkina Fa so) 1 Zaire 5 Zambia Zimbabwe 189 1960-1964 1960-1964 Mutiny Rebellion Unsuccessful Coup --------· ---------------------------- Angola 2 Benin 1 1 Botswana Burundi Cameroon 1 Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad 1 Comoros Congo 1 Djibouti Equatorial Guinea Ethiopia 1 Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya 1 1 Lesotho Liberia :vtadagascar 1960-1964 190 1960-1964 Mutiny Rebellion Unsuccessful Coup Malawi Mali Mauritius Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda Sao Tome and Principe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Uganda Upper Volta (Burkina Faso) Zaire Zambia Zimbabwe 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 4 1 1960-1964 191 1965-1969 Angola Benin Botswana Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Border Incident Border War or Dispute Civil War Coup d'etat Foreign Military Intervention Insurgency Hilitary Invasion 2 2 1 1 1 3 2 1 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 192 1965-1969 1965-1969 Border Border War Civil Coup d'etat Foreign Insurgency Military Incident or Dispute War Military Invasion Intervention Malawi Mali Mauritius Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda Sao Tome and Principe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Uganda Upper Volta (Burkina Faso) Zaire Zambia Zimbabwe 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 3 1 2 1 3 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 19.'3 1965-1969 1965-1969 Angola Benin Botswana Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Mutiny Rebellion Unsuccessful Coup 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1965-1969 194 1965-1969 Mutiny Rebellion Unsuccessful Coup Malawi Mali Mauritius Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda Sao Tome and Principe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Uganda Upper Volta (Burkina Faso) Zaire Zambia Zimbabwe 2 1 1 1 2 1965-1969 195 1970-1974 Angola Benin Botswana Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar BorJer Border War Civil Coup d'etat Foreign Insurgency Military Incident or Oi spute War Military Invasion Intervention ~---------------____ ~----____ _ ____________2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 2 1 3 1 1 1 196 1970-1974 1970-1974 Malawi Mali Mauritius Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda Sao Tome and Principe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Soma 1 i a South Africa Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Uganda Upper Volta (Burkina Faso) Zaire Zambia Zimbabwe Border Border War C/ivil Coup d•etat Foreign Incident or Dispute War Military Intervention 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 197 Insurgency 4 2 1 1 1 - 6 Military Invasion 1 2 1 1970-1974 1970-1974 Angola Benin Botswana Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Mutiny Rebellion Unsuccessful Coup 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 1970-1974 198 1970-1974 Mutiny Rebellion Unsuccessful Coup Malawi Mali Mauritius Mozambique 1 Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda Sao Tome and Principe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone 1 Somalia 1 South Africa Sudan 2 Swaziland Tanzania 1 1 Togo Uganda 1 Upper Volta (Burkina Faso) Zaire 1 1 Zambia Zimbabwe 1970-1974 199 An go 1 a Benin Botswana Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Border Border War Civil Coup d'etat Foreign Insurgency MilitaryIncident or Dispute War 1•1il ita ry Invasion Intervention 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 200 1975 Malawi Mali Mauritius Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda Sao Tome and Principe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Uganda Upper Volta (Burkina Faso) Zaire Zambia Zimbabwe Border Border War Civil Coup d'etat Foreign Insurgency Military Incident or Dispute War Military Invasion Intervention 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 201 1975 Angola Benin Botswana Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Mutiny Rebellion Unsuccessful Coup 1 202 Mutiny Rebellion Unsuccessful Coup Malawi Mali Mauritius Mozambique 1 Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda Sao Tome and Principe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Uganda Upper Volta (Burkina Faso) Zaire Zambia Zimbabwe 203 An go 1a Benin Botswana Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Centra1 African Republic Chad Comoros Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Border Border War Civil Coup d'etat Foreign Insurgency ~1il itary Incident or Dispute War Military Invasion Intervention 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 204 1976 Malawi Mali fvlaurit ius Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda Sao Tome and Principe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Uganda Upper Volta (Burkina Faso) Zaire Zambia Zimbabwe Border Border War Civil Coup d'etat Foreign Insurgency ~lil itaryIncident or Dispute War Military Invasion Intervention 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 205 1976 An go 1a Benin Botswana Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Mutiny Rebellion Unsuccessful Coup 1 206 1976 Mutiny Rebellion Unsuccessful Coup Malawi Mali Mauritius Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda Sao Tome and Principe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Uganda Upper Volta (Burkina Faso) Zaire Zambia Zimbabwe 1 1 1 207 Border Border War Civil Coup d'etat Foreign Insurgency Military Incident or Dispute War Nilitary Invasion Intervention Angola Benin Botswana Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar 1 1 1 2 1 1 208 1977 Malawi Mali Mauritius Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda Sao Tome and Principe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Uganda Upper Volta (Burkina Faso) Zaire Zambia Zimbabwe Border Border War Civil Coup d'etat Foreign Insurgency Military Incident or Dispute War Military Invasion Intervention 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2l)9 1977 Ango1 a Benin Botswana Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Centra1 African Repub1 ic Chad Comoros Congo Djibouti Equatoria1 Guinea Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Mutiny Rebe11ion Unsuccessfu1 Coup 1 1 1 210 1977 Mutiny Rebellion Unsuccessful Coup Malawi Mali Mauritius Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda Sao Tome and Principe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Uganda Upper Volta (Burkina Faso) Zaire Zambia Zimbabwe 1 1 211 1978 Border Border War Civil Coup d'etat Foreign Insurgency ~1ilitary Incident or Dispute War i~ilitary Invasion Intervention Angola 1 1 1 Benin Botswana 1 1Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central AfricanRepublic Chad Comoros 1 Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea Ethiopia 1 1 2Gabon Gambia Ghana 1 Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar 212 1978 1978 Border Border War Civil Coup d'etat Foreign Insurgency Military Incident or Dispute War r~il itary Invasion Intervention ~---------------------------- Malawi Mali Mauritius Mozambique 1 Namibia 2 2 Niger Nigeria Rwanda Sao Tome and Principe 1 Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Soma 1 i a 1 1 South Africa 2 2 Sudan Swaziland Tanzania 1 Togo Uganda 1 Upper Volta (Burkina Faso) Zaire 1 1 Zambia 3 3 Zimbabwe 1 3 2 213 1978 Angola Benin Botswana Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Repub 1 i c Chad Comoros Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Mutiny Rebellion Unsuccessful Coup 1 1978 214 1978 Mutiny Rebellion Unsuccessful Coup Malawi Ma 1i Mauritius Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda Sao Tome and Principe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Soma 1i a South Africa Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Uganda Upper Volta (Burkina Faso) Zaire Zambia Zimbabwe 1 1 215 1979 Border Incident Border War or Dispute Civil War Coup d'etat Foreign Military Intervention Insurgency Military Invasion Angola 3 3 Benin Botswana 1 1 1 Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic 1 2 Chad 1 1 1 Comoros Congo 1 Djibouti Equatorial Guinea 1 1 Ethiopia 1 Gabon 1 Gambia Ghana 1 Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast 1 Kenya Lesotho 1 Liberia Madagascar 216 1979 Border Incident Border War or Dispute Civil Coup d'etat War Foreign Military Insurgency Military Invasion Intervention Malawi Mali Mauritius Mozambique 1 2 1 Namibia 2 3 Niger Nigeria 1 1 1 Rwanda Sao Tome and Principe Senegal 1 Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa 1 6 4 Sudan Swaziland Tanzania 1 4 Togo 1 Uganda 1 4 Upper Volta (Burkina Faso) Zaire 2 Zambia 1 5 Zimbabwe 1 3 6 217 1979 Angola Benin Botswana Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Mutiny Rebellion Unsuccessful Coup 1 1 1 218 1979 Mutiny Rebellion Unsuccessful Coup Malawi Mali Mauritius Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda Sao Tome and Principe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Uganda Upper Volta (Burkina Faso) Zaire Zambia Zimbabwe 1 1 2 1 219 An go 1 a Benin Botswana Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Border Border War Civil Coup d'etat Foreign Insurgency Military Incident or Dispute War i1il itary Invasion Intervention 1 2 4 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 220 1980 Malawi Mali Mauritius Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda Sao Tome and Principe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Uganda Upper Volta (Burkina Faso) Zaire Zambia Zimbabwe Border Border War Civil Coup d'etat Foreign Insurgency Military Incident or Dispute War Mi 1itary Invasion Intervention ----------~~----~----- 1 2 4 1 1 1 3 1 1 6 3 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 221 1980 Angola Benin Botswana Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Mutiny Rebellion Unsuccessful Coup 222 Mutiny Rebellion Unsuccessful Coup Malawi Mali 1 Mauritius Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria 1 ----------------~----------------------- Rwanda Sao Tome and Principe Senegal Seyche11 es Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa 2 Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Uganda Upper Volta (Burkina Faso) Zaire Zambia 1 Zimbabwe 1 223 An go 1 a Benin Botswana Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Border Border War Civil Coup d'etat Foreign Incident or Dispute War Military Intervention 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 Insurgency Military Invasion 2 3 1 1 3 224 1981 1981 Border Border War Civil Coup d'etat Incident or Dispute War ------------~---------------------------- Malawi Mali Mauritius Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria 2 Rwanda Sao Tome and Principe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia 1 South Africa Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Uganda Upper Volta (Burkina Faso) Zaire 1 Zambia Zimbabwe Foreign Insurgency Military Military Invasion Intervention 2 3 1 3 1 12 3 4 2 1 1 1 1 1 225 1981 An go 1 a Benin Botswana Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Mutiny Rebellion Unsuccessful Coup 1 1 1 1 1 1981 226 Mutiny Rebellion Unsuccessful Coup Malawi Mali Mauritius Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda Sao Tome and Principe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Uganda Upper Volta (Burkina Faso) Zaire Zambia Zimbabwe 1 1 1 1 1 1981 227 Border Border War Civil Coup d'etat Foreign Insurgency ~1il itary Incident or Dispute War Military Invasion Intervention Angola Benin Botswana 1 Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad 2 Comoros Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea Ethiopia 1 1 Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya 2 Lesotho Liberia Madagascar 3 2 1 4 4 1 228 1982 1982 Border Incident Border War or Dispute Civil War Coup d•etat Foreign Mi 1itary Intervention Insurgency Hilitary Invasion Ma1awi Mali Mauritius Mozambique 2 4 1 Namibia 1 Niger Nigeria Rwanda Sao Tome and Principe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia 1 1 South Africa 1 5 5 Sudan 1 1 Swaziland Tanzania 1 1 Togo Uganda 3 1 Upper Volta (Burkina Faso) 1 Zaire 1 Zambia 1 1 Zimbabwe 2 7 1 229 1982 An go 1 a Benin Botswana Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Mutiny Rebellion Unsuccessful Coup 1 1 1 1 1 2 1982 230 1982 Mutiny Rebellion Unsuccessful Coup Malawi Mali Mauritius Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda Sao Tome and Principe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Uganda Upper Volta (Burkina Faso) Zaire Zambia Zimbabwe 1 1 1 1 1 1 1982 231 Border Border War Civil Coup d'etat Foreign Insurgency Military An go1 a Benin Botswana Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Incident or Dispute War ~1il itary Invasion Intervention 1 1 1 2 4 1 1 2 1 1 4 1 5 1 232 1983 1983 Border Border War Civil Coup d•etat Foreign Insurgency Military Incident or Dispute War t~il ita ry Invasion Intervention ----· --------·---·-·--- Malawi Mali Mauritius Mozambique 1 2 2 Namibia 2 1 Niger Nigeria 2 1 Rwanda Sao Tome and Principe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone 1 Somalia 1 3 South Africa 7 4 Sudan 1 9 1 Swaziland Tanzania 1 1 Togo Uganda 4 1 Upper Volta (Burkina Faso) 1 Zaire 1 Zambia 1 Zimbabwe 1 1 4 1 233 1983 An go 1 a Benin Botswana Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Mutiny Rebellion Unsuccessful Coup 1 1 1 234 1983 Mutiny Rebellion Unsuccessful Coup ---.~-------- Malawi t1a l i Mi}urit ius Mozambique Namibia Niger 1 Nigeria Rwanda Sao Tome and Principe Senegal 1 Seychelles Sierra Leone 1 Somalia South Africa 1 Sudan 3 Swaziland Tanzania Togo Uganda 1 Upper Volta (Burkina Faso) 1 Zaire Zambia Zimbabwe 1983 235 1984 Border Incident Border War or Dispute Civil War Coup d'etat Foreign Military Insurgency Military Invasion Intervention·· An go 1 a Benin Botswana Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya Lesotho Liberia i~adagascar 4 1 2 1 1 3 1 1 236 1984 1984 Border Incident Border War or Dispute Civil War Coup d•etat Foreign Military Intervention Insurgency Military Invasion Malawi 1 Ma 1 i Mauritius Mozambique 4 Namibia 2 Niger Nigeria. Rwanda Sao Tome and Principe Senegal 1 Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia 1 1 South Africa 1 4 Sudan 1 2 1 Swaziland 1 2 Tanzania Togo Uganda 2 2 Upper Volta (Burkina Fa so) Zaire 1 1 1 Zambia 1 Zimbabwe 1 1 237 1984 Angola Benin Botswana Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Mutiny Rebellion Unsuccessful Coup 1 3 238 Mutiny Rebellion Unsuccessful Coup Malawi Ma 1i Mauritius Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria 1 Rwanda Sao Tome and Principe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia 1 South Africa Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Uganda 2 Upper Volta (Burkina Faso) Zaire Zambia 1 Zimbabwe 1984 239