%. ^> ^. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) '^^ -fJiTiL 1.0 I.I us Ni lis |2^ 2.0 1.25 1.4 1.6 « 6" ► <*!% ^7^ -'^ ■! ^ i;W»ijc-e™^ ■"?i*^' --WJ •VTrtSSt 41) mTRODUCTION. rs VV HEN' the number and variety of English Grammars already published, and the ability with which some of them are written, are considered, little can be expected from a new compilation, besides a cai'eful selection of the most useful matter, and some degree of improvement in the mode of adapting it to the un- derstanding, and the gradual progress of learners. In these re- spects something, perhaps, may yet be done, for the ease and advantage of young persons. In boolcs designed for the instruction of youth, there is a me- dium to be observed, between treating the subject In so extei>- uve and minute a manner, as to embarrass and confuse their minds, by offering too much at once for their comprehension ; and, on the other hand, conducting it by such short and gene- ral precepts and observations, as convey tu them no clear and precise information. A distribution of the parts, which is ei- ther defective or irregular, has also a tendency to perplex the young understanding, and to retard its knowledge of the prin- ciples of literature. A distmct general view, or outline, of all the essential parts of the study in which they are engaged ; a gradual and judicious supply of this outline ; and a due arrange- ment of the divisions, accordbg to their natural order and con- nexion, Appear to be among the best means of enlightening the minds of youth, and of facilitating their acquisition of knowledge. The author of this work, at the same time that he has endea- Toared to avoid a plan, which may be too concise or too exten- «ive, defective m its parts or irregular in thehr disposition, has ctudied to render his subject sufficiently easy, intelligible, and «nnprehensive. He does not presume to have completely at- taiiaed these objects. How far he has succeeded tai the attempt. zai wherein he has failed, must be refei^d to the determuatioo tf the judicious and candid reader. Thc method which he has adopted, of ezhibitii^ the per- Anoance in characters of different siMs, will, be trmti, bs wmi- A3 1 KjXj^k'litf^ »^ tji^ijifo-. t^^'^ p^4 m t .-'■ i,:- 'J 4 INTRODTTCTION. ilcr lias been induced to pay peculiar attention to tins part ol' the subject ; and though the instances of false granmiar, under the rules oi" Syntax, are numerous, it is hoped tJiey will not be found too many, whcr their variety and usefulness are considered. I.v a work wliirh professes itself to be a compilation, and which, from the nature and dirsign of it, must consist chiefly of materials selected from the writings of others, it is scarcely necessary to apologize for the use winch the Compiler has made of his [jieilecessors' labours ; or for omitting to insf^rt their uanjes. From the alterations wliich have been frequently made in the sentiments and the language, to suit the connexion, and to adapt them to the particular purposes for which they are intro- duced ; and, in many instances, from the uncertainty to v.'houu the passages originally belonged, tlie insertion of names coultl seldom be made with propriety. But if this could have been generally done, a work of this nature would derive no advantage from it, equal to the Ineonveajence of crowding, the pages with a repctifioii of names and referetfces. It is, however, proper to ackuovvle be justly asserted, that many of the differences in opinion amongst men, with the disputes, contentions, and alienations of heart, which have too often proceeded from such differences, have been occasioned by a want of proper skill in the connexion and meaning of words, and by a tenacious misapplication of laa^ guage. One of the best supports, which the recommendation of this study can receive, in small compass, may be derived ft-om the following sentiments of an eminent and candid writer* on lan- guage and composition. " All that regards the study of com- **' position, merits the higher attention upon this account, that *• it is intimately connected with the improvement of our intel- " lectual powers. For I must be allowed to say, that when we ** are employed, after a proper manner, in the study of compo- '* sition, we are cultivating the understanding itself. The study / *♦ of arranging and expressing our thoughts with propriety, ** teaches to think, as well as to speak, accurately." Before the close of this Introduction, it may not be super- fluous to observe, that the author of the following work has no interest in it, but that which arises from the hope, that it will prove of some advantage to young persons, and relieve the la- bours of those who are employed in their education. He wisltes '■*-* ,w..i.. INTRODUCTION. ^ to pronfDtc, in some degree, the cause of Tirtue, ai well u of learning ; and, with this Tieir, he has been studious, through the whole of the work, not only to avoid every example and illus- tration, which might have un improper effect on the nundi of youth ; but also to introduce, on many occasions, such as have a moral and religious tendency. His attention to objects of m much importance will, he trusts, meet the approbation of every well-disposed reader. If they were faithfully regarded in all books of education, they would doubtless contribute very mate- rially to the oMer and happiness of society, by guarding the in- nocence and cherishing the virtue of the rising generation. BildzaU, ntar York, -4795. ADVERTISEMENT I we will la- iltes I • TO THE NINTH EDITION. ! «r»iw'.»^ti, aIo the Oetova editioa of the trvBunar, the reader wi^ find many additioml diacwislani of tUa i Boligatt, Mor Ytnt, I80«. # ,HjU ■i*> m 'm. ■jJr* 8 INTRODUCTION. The writer is sensible that, after all his on(li;avoiir»to chiei- djile tlic principh^s of the work, there are few of thr divisions, arr.ingeroents, deiuiitions, or rules, against which r'liUrai iiiat- nuity cannot devise plausible objections- The subject is attend- ed with so much intricacy, and admits of views so various, that it was not possible to render every part of it unexceptinnabJi . or to' accommodate the work, in all respects, to the opinions ajid prepossessions of eveiy grammarian and teacher. If the author '•has-adopted that sy«tRm which, oh the whole, is best suited U' ' the nature of the subject, and conformubJe to the sentiments of the most judierntis grammarians ; if his reasonings .lud illustra- tions, respecting particular points, are founded ou just princi- ples, and the pecuii:iriti(.'S of th«> Kut^Iish lani^uago ; he ha«, per- haps, done all that could rea'sonably be expected in a work 0} this nature; and he may warraiiL^Iy indulge a hope, that the book will be still more extensively approved and circuuitcJ- u •• ...■••. r.r-^f^.. :ii««9> ^'" — » f- ■ .„?rv.v. j^.i -. '* »>■<;•'■ ■■'■' ■■■'• C] ci ' ■/ ,;'.??• *'. ■ ♦ CONTENTS. r"i I \ PART I. OiiTiioGRAvae. CHAP. I. Of letters. Page. SECT. 1. or the nature of the letters, and of a pci- ' feet a!i>hahet '. . . 13 '■ 2. General observations on Um! sounds of the letters 21 3. The nature of arlieulation exj)Iahied. . :VJ CHAP. 2. Of syllables, and the rules for arrang- ing thcni. 35 CHAP. 3. Of words in general, and the rules for spellhig them 37 PART II. -Etymology. CHAP. 1. A general view of the parts of speech. 41 CHAP. 2. Of the articles 44 CHAP. 3. Of substantives. f SECT. 1. Of substantives in !2;eneral -IG 2. Orgender 47 3. Ofiniraber .vr» 4. Of case 53 CHAP. 4. Of adjectives. SECT. 1. Of the nature of adjectives, and the de- grees of comparison. . ■» ....... 2. Remarks on the sultject of comparison. CHAP. 5, Of pronouns l:. Oil :''r:'-f' ; SECT. 1. Of the personal pronouns. ... , 'rL •,, '; • 60 2. Of the relative pronouns. . . : . * fit 3. Of the adjective pronouns G5 ,')6 60 A3 t 10 CONTENTS. CHAP. 6. Of verbs. Page. , ^ HOT. 1. Of the natnre of rerbs in general. . . 70 2. Of number and person . 73 3. Of moods and participles 74 4. Remarks on the potential mood. ... 78 5. Of the tenses 80 6. The conjugation of the auxiliary vevhs to have and to be 86 *'■ 7. The auxiliary verbs conjugated in their simple form ; with observations on their peculiar nature and furce» . 96 8. The conjugation of regular verbs. . . 99 9. Observations on passive verbs. . . . 108 10. Of irregular verbs Ill 11. Of defective verbs ; and of the diSerent ways in which verbs are conjugated. 117 CHAP. 7. Of adverbs 119 CHAP. 8. Of prepositions 123 CHAP. 9. Of conjunctions 126 CHAP. 10. Of interjections 129 CHAP. 11. Of derivation. ucT. 1. Of the various ways in which words arc derived from one another. • . 130 2. A sketch of the steps, by which the ' English language has risen to its present state of refinement ... 134 PART m. SiMTAx. 137 Of the syntax of the article. ....... 166 Of the syntax of the noun. Of several nouns joined by copulatives 143 Of nouns connected by disjunctives. ...... 146 * Of nouns of multitude 147 Of one noun governing another in> the possossirt case. i99- V ■ - ' r ' ' ' I ■ ■. # <■:: CONTKKTf . — ^ jj Of the syntax of the pronoun. Page. Of proBouns agreeing with their antecedentf. . . 148 Of the relative being oominatire to the Terb. . . • "Ids Of the relative preceded by nomioatives of difibreot -■■ - persons. .«. •»;.....••.. IM Of the syntax of the adjective. 156 Of the syntax of the verb. Of the verb's agreement with the nominative csm. . 130 Of verbs active requiring the objective case. . . . 176 Of one verb governuig another in the infinitive mood. 178 Of verbs related in point of time 170 Of the syntax of the participle 184 Of the rules respecting adverbs. Of the position of adverbs 186 Of two negatives 188 K^f the syntax of prepositions 190 Of the syntax of conjunctions. Of conjunctions connecting the same moods, tenses» and cases I9t Of conjunctions requhlng the sabjonctlve mood, ike- 188 Of the syntax of interjections 15j|^ Of comparison? by the conjunction than or at, . 206 Directions respecting the ellipsis. ..... 207 General rule of syntax 212 Directions for parsmg. 21i PART. IV. ^Pbo80i>t. , CHAP. 1. Of pronunciation. 224 SMT.l. Of accent. 284 2. Ofqaantlty 288 3. Ofemphasis 231^ , 4. Ofpanses. ..........."*• ' & Of tones •...•... 1.1 , . V '*'.%; ' .'J .' y •T--^- , ^ '■,■■',,» 12 ! CONTENTS. ». - CHAt*. 2. Of versification. ...... 2il .'iil Of PUNCTUATIOJM. 1 CHAP. 1. Of die comma. 2oS ch'ap. 2. Of tlic semicolon. . ... , : 2G.| cHap. 3. Of tlie colon. . .'..... 2GS - chap. 4. Of the period. . . . . . . . 2UG * OHAP. 5,,;;^-^ Of tlie dash, notes of interrogation, .. "tvHj. , . , ..;. ex^'lanjation, capitals, Jk.c. . . 207 ■a .... APPENDIX. : : : '. .. •: v ..:x RUTjESAND OJJSERVATIONS F0« PKO.MOTINC PEnSPICUITT AND ACCLIIACY IN WlllTlKG. • •■••- • ■ ■. PART I. ; ■ •■■ :•- •':^> Of'persjyicuity and accuracy of cxj/ression, uiiJi respect to single ivords and phrases. ' ' ■ CHAP. 1. Of purity. ^ 274 , CHAP. 2. Of propriety 275 ? CHAP.'S.' "Of precision 232" "■ .•-''' , ^ mt^- ; '.'^:^ ■ .-.'PART 11. Offers'piculiy and accuracy of eipression, with respect to the construction of sentences, '"f- ..... "^ . .. . . <^HAP. 1. Of the clearness of a sentence. . 287 ;f CHAP. 2. Of the unity of a sentence. . . . 293 CHAP. 3. Of the Strength of a- sentence. . • 297 CHAP. 4. Of figures of speech. 316* ADDRESS TO YOUNG STITUENTS 335 v.".-..» ... , Mi ... ' - ■ ' m 1 ..ii,„ stI#I'-T^'^'"-' rf^^ivy: ENGLISH GRAMMAR. r>mi -•;■ 'XiNGLisH GBAMMAR IS the art of Speaking and ^nfinp- the English language with propriety. , f;. It is divided into four parts, viz. orthography, ETYMOLOGY, SYNTAX, and PROSODY. This division may be rendered more intelligible to the student, by observing, in other words, that (grammar treats, first, of the form and sound of the letters, the combination of letters into syllables, and syllables into words; secomUt/^ of the different sorts of words, their various modifications, and their derivation ; thirdly, of the union and right order of words in the formation of a sentence ; and lastly, of the just pronunciation, and poetical construction of sentences. PART I. ORTHOGRAPHY. CHAPTER I. OF THE LETTERS. )% Section 1. Of the nature, of the letters, 'and of 'is a perfect alphabet. > -^ Orthography teaches the nature and powers of let- ters, and the just method of spelling words. A letter is the first principle, or least part, of a word. " s , The letters of the English language, called the English Alphabet, are twenty-sis. in number , > These letters are the representatives of ccitain ar ticulate spunds, the elements of the language. An arti- culate sound, is the sound of the human voice, formed by the organs of speech. ^ - ^^..^ '■^^ M v* :A& ■.^'itf^Aii! 14 ■■■'f-^i. ;: •^••!5; EKOLISH ORAMIIAB. The following is a list of the ADglo-Saxon, Roman, Italic, '¥ and Old English Characters. Saxon. Ron nan. Italic. < )ME nglish. Name. Cvf. SmaU Cap. SmU. Cap. SmalL Cap. SmalL H a A a d a a a aL B b B b B b 25 h bee. Z c C c C e € t see. D b D d D d ^ D dee. e e E e E e e t ee. p F F f F / f t */ n S G g S e jet. b h H h H h ^ 1) aUck I i I • I f i a i tor eye. J • J / • 3 J jay. K k K k K k Si ii hay. L 1 L 1 L I % I d. CO m M m M m M m em. N n N n JV n B n en. O o 4^ 0. P P P P P P 1^ P pee. Q q Q 9 «a q eue. R P R r R r It c or. 8 r 8 fi S f» i& t^ CM. T c T t T i % t /ee. B ^th ' V u T U V n T U V u w m J" uorytm. vet. U3 P w w W » IB ID doubku. X X X X X X f V tkt T f Y y Y y 9 9 wy,' Z m Z ■ Z M -a S t^ ■^ftiiiim .-..*^.:--.,.!'^^'^„iVV-J.il.L«ALj^.'j i immiWHi' un mm wkif^' iaUc, ORTUOGIlAPHr. 15 A perfect alphabet of the English language, and, imIeeU, of every other language, would contain a number of letters, precisely equal to the number of simple articulate sounds belonging to the language. Every simple^ sound would have its distinct character; and that character be the representa- tive of no other sound. But this is far from being the state of the English alphabet. It has more original sounds than distinct significant letters; and, consequently, some of tiiese letters are made to represent, not one sound alone, but several sounds. This will appear by reflecting, that the sounds signified by the united letters M, «A, ngj are ele- mentary, and have no single appropriate characters, in our alphabet: and that the letters a ami u represent the dif- ferent sounds heard in hatf hate, hall; and m bulf buUy To explain this subject more fully to the learners, we shall set down the characters made use of to represent all the elementary articulate sounds of our language, as nearly in the manner and order of the present English alphabet, as the design of the subject will a1; g h* k 1 ■■'^ n P r 8 IE t W as ' m M in as in as in as in as iH m in ais in 0* in as in a» in an in aa in m in bay, tub. day, sad. off, for. van, love, egg, go. hop, ho . kill, oak. lap, all. ,,my, mum. no, on. pin, map. rap, cry. so, lass. ' zed, buzz, top, mat. V wo, will. ,,i^'**Sonie grammariAns suppose h to mark only an aspiration, or breathing; hut It appears io be a distinct sound, and formed in a partlculsr manner, bf tbedrgansofspefK-b. Encyclopedia Brit^nica. •0 ^*; -!?. .^:v.,- Letters denoting the simple sounds. f?-W OKTHOGRAPnr 05 heard in 17 th zh ff aa$ as in in in in in Word? containini? the simple sound!*. 'i' yc, yes. 2 ing, sing. %' shy, aslj. ■; ' . fliin, thick. then, thoiu. pleasure. Several letters marked in tiie English alphabet, as ron- sonants, are either superfluous, or represent, not simple, but complex sounds. C, for instance, is superfluous in both its sounds; the one being expressed by k, afid the other by s. (t, in the soft pronunciation, is not a simi)'L, but a complex sound; as age is pronounced aidgt. J is unne- cessary, because its sound, and that of the soft g, are iu our language the sanie. <^, with its attendant m, is eitlier compiex, and resolvable into krv, as in quality ; or unne- cesss^ry, becuusc \U i?-9UiR^l 'i» lb'- samti v;:lii /;. asin Qpi>^{ne:' X is compoundod oi' gs^ as in example j or of Ics, as in exped. ,, ' i From the preceding representation, it appears to be a point of considerable importance, that every learner of the English language should be taught to pronounce perfectly, and Avitli facility, every original simple sound that bdoiigs to it. By a timely and judicious care in this respect,^ th& • voice will be prepared to uttei,*^, with ease and accuracy, every conibhuilion of souuds; and taught to avoid that confused and iniperfect nuinner of pronouncing words, wjiich accompanies, through iife, many persons who have not, in this respect, been jiroperly inslfuctcd at an early period. I . ,, Letters are divid^l into Vowels and Consonants. ■,; A Vo\>x4 is an articulale sound, that can be perfectly uttered by itself: as, a\% o; which are formed witliout the help of any other sound. - ' •; A consonant is an articulate sound, which cannot 19 £NGLI!^H GRAMMAR. }^e perfectly uttered without the help of a vowel, as, bf df ff I ; which require vowels to express them fully. ,, *> ... The vowels are, a, e, t, o, v, and sometimes w and y, W and y are consonants when they he^n a word or syllable ; but in every other situation they are vowels. ' r It is generally acknowledged by the best grammariant, that n and y arc consonants when they begin a syllable or word, and vowels when they end one. That they aro consonants, when used as initials, seems to be evident from their not admitting the article an before them, aa it would be improper to say an walnut, an yard, &c ; and from their following a vowel without any hiatus or difticulty of utterance ; as, frosty winter, rosy youth. That they are vowels in oUier situations, appears from their re- gularly taking the sonno or omer vuwviv f %», tw i*t»m tk* exact sound of u in saw, few, now, &c. ; and y that of t, in hymn, fly, crystal, &c. See the letters W and Y, pages 30 and 31.* We present the following as more exact and philosophi- cal definitions of a vowel and consonant. A vowel is a simple, articulate sound, perfect in itself, and formed by a continued effusion of the breath, and a certain conformation of the mouth, without any alteration in the position, or any motion of the orgaVA of speech, from the moment the vocal sound commences, till it ends. ,,.0, A consonant is a simple, articulate sound, imperfect by itself, but which. Joined with a vowel, forms a complete sound, by a particular motion or contact of the organs of speech. M; Some grammarians subdivide vowels into' the simple and' * The letten n aad y are of an ambiguous namira ; being consonants at the be; in- nio^ of wor(la« and vowels at the end. WAI>K1:RN Critical Pronouncing Dictionary, page 24, thiri tdititn PKRRY'a Knglish Dietioaary, Preface, page 7. , <» h#«" Sucychpt^iu 3tUs% i'-i- "■ « 0. ' ♦ •» :>, l&v as t tself, 1(1 a ition ech, nds. tby lete -'■fcl **4 'f. ORTIIOGBirRT. 1$ file wmpmmL But there does not appear to be any foun- dation for the distinction. Simplicity is essential to the nature of a Towel, which excludes eTery degree of mixed or compound sounds. It Requires, according to the defini- tion, but one conformation of the organs of speech, to form it, and no motion in the organs, whilst it is forming. ■ < Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels. The mutes cannot be sounded at all, without the aid of a vowel. They are b, p, t, d, k, and c and g hard. ..^^ The serm-vowels have an imperfect sound of them- selves. They are/, I, m, n, r, «, 5, z, a?, ana c and^ soft. . ,• Four of the semi-vowels, namely, /, %, n, r, are also distinguished by the name of liquids, from their readily uniting with other consonants, and flowing as it were into their sounds. We have shown '^ti '\ fc. writers on gra name, are oft nant: mnd, • J. , that it is essentiaT to the nature of a consonant, that it cannot be fully uttered without the aid of a vowel. We may furthvir observe, that even the flames of the cor^Qjiants, as they ara fM^RcnR««d in reciting the alphabet, require the help of vowf express them. In pronouncing the names of the the assistant vowels follow the consonants : as, be, gmr *^'t de, ka. In pronouncing the names of the semi-vowels, tlie vowels generally precedt the consonants : as, ef, e//em, «rt> or, 65, ex. The exceptions are, ce, ge, ve, zed. ■''^■/^_ ; This distHliilion between the nature and the nayne of C- consonant, is # j|yeat importance, and should be well ex- plained to tlie pIIP They are frequently confounded by . * Observations and reasonings on the applied to explain the nature, of a conso- ls means, the student is led into error and pil^plexity, respecting these elen^ents of language. It aliiMrfd be impressed on hivmind, that the name of every 11 ■.S'-.J. I ■ 1 / >r. 'flO ENGLISH GBAMMAH. / consonant is a complex Bound ; but that the consonant U self, is always a simple sound. . , Some wrifer3 have described the mutes and senii vowels, with their subdivitjion**, nearly in the fpUowinji The mules arc those .consonants who!?e sounds cnnriot be protracted. 'JMic semi-voticls, such whose sounds can be continued at plea^'ure, partiiiiiug of the nature 'if vowels, from which they (Urive their name. . . . The mules may be subdivichul into pure and impure Tl)e pure are tho?e whose sounds cannot bft at all pro- lon;i;ed: \hey a e Ic, p, I. The impure, are tliose vvhoi»e sounds may be coutimuMl, th.)a<:;h for tf very short si>aee; thev are lud, a;. ^ The serai-vovrefs m'ay be subdivided into vocal and as- 'pirated. The vo fa I are tho>^e which are formed by the voice; the as[nrated, those formed by tlie breath. There 4UH: elcTI^.Tocaij and tlve a-j>irated. The vocal an* I, w, n, r, Vf^i pf Zf Hi flat, zh, ng: the aspirated, f, h, «, //* sharp, sh. ^ -'■ The vocal semi-vowels may be subdivided Into pure anti- |j)«i*;;*,-^T,!ic ;iure are those whicJrHI'fe foimed ^^'.J'-rly by tHiftpipe: tlie inlT'^*''^'^««i**^* hufc a mixture of breath the voice. Tliere are seven pure — /, myUf r,n\y, i{>roporly denotes a double vowel sound, no union of two ,,. vowels, where one is silent, can, in stiiclness, be entitled/ to tliat appellation ; and tlie single letters t and i<, whrn;5 pronounced long, must, in this view, be considered a8;j diphliiong?. The triplithongs, having at most but two sounds, Jt^e merely ocular, and are, therefore, by som^jts' grammafrians classed witli thfe diphtllong»-■^^■,^J,,^^ |;^4f gif^Vif; General observailons on the rounds of • -jijj .. the lelters. ^ ;,_. r u;,y<.5 ,:JfeA fas four pounds; the long or slender, the broadj'^tlie ehort or open, and the middle. The long; as in name, .basin^ creation The broad J as in call, wall, all. The short; as in barrel, fancy, glass.' ' > • . ..r^ti^ The middle; as in far. farm, falher. ' " ^^ *rhe diphthong aa generally, sounds like a short in proper names ; as in Balaam^ Canaan, Isaac ; but not in Baal, Gaal. Ae has the sound of krng^?. It is someU7*ios found % Latin words. .Some authors retain this form ; as, aenignBi) jequator, &u;.; but others have laid it aside, and^'^yilte ^ enigma, Cesar, Eneas, &c. ^ - ; •: ^ .j.^|-5|5 . -x 'i-% J The diphthong ai has exactly the long slender sound of ♦ tf, as in pail, tail, &,c.; pronounced pale, tale, &c.: except-^^^ plaid, again, l*aiUery, forntain, Britain, and a few other*. ^5 Ju is generally sounded like the broad a : as in tau^, -jr carght, &c. Sometimes like ihe shorter open st/-<|^ ia, ndnt, Bauut, gauntlet, &CC. It has the sound of iong o tit liWiitbo)^^ {^nd tliat of short in laurel laudaottm, ^ .;;;.-« ■^ \ 22 EN0LI6H ''\MMAR. Jiw has always the sound of broad a; as in bawl, scrawl, crawl. Jf/f like its near relatiui. . , 19 pronounced like lue loDg •lender sound of a; as in pa^ ^^y, delay. B B keeps one unvaried sound, at the beginning, middle, and end jf words; as in baker, number, rhubarb, buc. In some words it is silent; as in thumb, debtor, subtle, Sec. In others, besides being silent, it lengthens the syll»* ble ; as in climb, comb, tomb. ^ C has two different sounds. A A hard sound like, k, before a, 0, u, r, /, t; as, in cart, cottage, curious, craft, tract, clotli, &u:. ; and when it ends a sylkble ; as, in victim, flaccid. A soft sound like a before e, t, and y, generally; as in centre, face, civil, cymbal, mercy, &.c. It has sometimes the sound oi tik; as in ocean, social. , C is mute^ in czar,' czarina, victuals, Sic. C, says Dr. Johnson, according to English orthography, never ends a word; and therefore we find in our best dic- tionaries, stick, block, publick, politick, &cc. But many writers of latter years omit the k in words of two or more qrHables; and this practice is gaining ground, though it is productive of irregularities; such as writing mimic and mimickiy; trafiSc and trafficking. Ch is conmionly sounded like tch; as in church, chin, «Jia(r, charter: but in words derived from the Greek, ha» flie sound ot k ; as in chymist, scheme, chorus, chyle, dis lich; and in foreign names; as, Achish, Baruch, Enoch, sotmtlcd like \ow^ u or civ; as in ((ijiIjiIoikm;, Eiv is aliin)st aiuayrf pronounced like lon<; //; as in few, nrw, (low. /•J//, vvIm^u the accent is on it, is always pronounced lik< a long; as in bin', groy,.convey ; except ui key, ley, where it is soutuU;d like loni»; e. When this tliphthonsi; is nnaccentedfit takes the sound of (• long; as, alley, \ alley, barley. F F keeps one pure unvaried sotmil at tlie beginning;, niul •'«' die, aiul end of words; as, fancy, uuiUin, unschief, lk.v..^^ except in of] in which it has the Oat sound of or; but not in composition ; as, whereof, th(>reof, iScc. We should not, pronounce, a wire's jointure, a calve's head; but a wife's jouiture, a calf 's ' ad. G lias two sounds: one hajp4>^«G|ia other soft; as in gem, giant. , At the eiul of a w ord it is alwfty frog. It is hard before^^Bi, o, u, /, and gull, glory, grandeur. (i before c, i, and ?/,-i8 soft ; as in gtnius, gfslure, ginger, Eg}'pt ; except iu get, gewgaw, finger, craggy, and soirie others. , G is mute before n ; as in gnash, sign, fonagn, &.c. G/t, at the end of a word, or syllable accented, gives the preceding vowel a long sound ; as in resign, impugn, oppugn, impregM, impugned; pronounced impuue, im- prene, &c. Gh, at the beginninjij of n word, has the sound of tJie hartl g ; as, gliost, ghastly : in the middle, and sometimes at the end, it is (juite silent; as in right, high, plongh, mighty. At tile end it has often the sound of/; as in laugh, coughj tough. Sometimes only tlie g is sounded ; as in burgh, bag, snilg, me, gone, burgher. .,j, ,11 . r.i^'U UKi> ORTHOGRAPHY. 25 H - • Tlie sound signified by this letter, ib, as before observed, an articulate sound, and not merely an aspiration. It is heard in the words, hat, horse, Hull. It is seldom mute at tlic beginning of a word. It is always sHent after r; as, rhetoric^ rheum, rhubarb. » * 11 fi|ial, preceded by a vowel, is always silent ; as, ah ! hah ! oh ! fob ! Harali, Messiali. From the faihtness of the sound of this letter, in many words, and its total silence in others, added to the negli- gence of tutors, and the ihattention of pupils, it has hap- pened, that many persons have become almost inca[\able of acquiring its just and full pronunciation. It is, therefore, incumbent on teachers, to be particularly careful to incul- cate a clear and distinct utterance of this sound. ^ I / has a long sound ; as in fine : and a short one ; as in fin. The long sound is always marked by the e final in mono- syllables ; as thin, thine ; except give, live. Before r it is oftf^Q^^ded like a short u; as flirt, first. In some wordi it hasLim^ sound of e Ion;;; as in machine, bombazine, ma- galdnc. The diphthong ia is frequently sounded like ya ; as in christian, filial, poniard ; pronounced chriat-yan, &c. It has sometimes the sound of short i ; as in carriage, mar • riage, parliament. le sounds in general like e long ; as in grief, thief, grena- dier. It has also the sound of long i; as in die, pie, lie : and sometimes that of short i; as in sieve. leu has the sound of long u ; as in lieu, adieu, purlieu. Jo, when the accent is upon the first vowel, forms two distinct syllables ; as, priory, violet, violent. The termina- tions Hon and ston, are sounded exactly like the verb shun ; except when the i is preceded by a or x; as In question, digestion, combustion, mixtion, &cc. The triphthong iou is sometimes pronounced distinctly ia ^k 1 ^ yiilV: ,*(• f}-' ,u ^ S6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. two syllables; af4n bilious, various, abstemious. But these vowels often coalesce into one syllable; as in precious, factious, noxious. J J is pronounced exactly like soft g; except in hallelujah, where it is pronounced like y. K K has the sound of c hard, and is used before ", and t, where, according to English analogy, c would be soft ; as, kept, king, skirts. It is not sounded before n; as in knife, knell, knocker. It is never doubled, except in Habakkuk ; but c is used before it, to shorten the vowel by a double consonant; as, cockle, pickle, sucker. L » L has always a softMiquid sound; as in love, billow, quarrel. It is sometimes mute ; as in half, talk, psalm. The f ustom is to double the I at the end of monosyllables ; as, mill, will, fall ; except where a diphthong precedes it ; as, bail, toil, soil.' JLe, at the end of words, is pronounced like a weak e/; in which the e is almost mute ; as, table, shuttle. M " - • JIf has always the same sound; as, murmur, monumental, except in comptroller, which is pronounced controller. N JVhas two sounds: the one pure; as in man, net, noble*; the other a ringing sound like ng; as in thank, banquet, &ic. .^Tis mute when it ends a syllable, and is preceded by m; as, hymn, solemn, autumn. The participial iw^ must always have its ringing sound ; an, writing, reading, speaking. Some writers have sup- posed that when itig is preceded by ing, it should be pro- nounced tV( ; as, singing, bringing, should be sounded singin, bringin: but as it is a good rule, with respect to pronuncia- tion, to adhere to the written words, unless custom has clearly decided otherwise, it does not seem proper to adopt this innovation. r<- r m ■:■*-' 0RTH06RAPHT. 27 O has a long sound ; as in note, bone, obedient, over ; and a short one ; as in not, got, lot, trot. It has sometimes the short sound of u ; as, son, come, attorney. And in some words it is sounded lilse oo ; as in prove, move ; and often like au ; as in nor, for, lord. The diphthong oa is regularly pronounced as the long sound of o ; as in boat, oat, coal ; except in broad, abroad, groat, where it takes the sound of broad a ; as, brawd, &c. Oe has the sound of single e. It is sometimes long ; as in foetus, Anta;ci : and sometimes short ; as in (economics, oecumenical. In doe, foe, sloe, toe, throe, hoe, and bilboes, it is sounded exactly like long o. Oi has almost universally the double sound of a broad and e long united, as in boy ; as boil, toil, spoil, joint, point, anoint : which should never be pronounced as if written bile, spile, tile, &c. ^ • Oo almost always preserves its regular sound; as in moon, soon, food. It has a shorter sound in wool, good, foot, and a few others. In blood and flood it sounds like short u. Door and floor should always be pronounced as if written dore and flore. The diphthong ou has six different sounds. The first and proper sound is equivalent to on in down ; as in bound, found, surround. The second is that of short u ; as in enough, trouble, journey. The third is that of oo ; as in soup, youth, tournament The fourth is that of long o ; as in though, mourn, poultice. The fifth is that of short o; as in Cough, trough. The sixth is that of ame ; as in aught, brought, thought. Om is generally sounded like ou in thou ; as in brown, dowry, shower. It has also the sound of long o ; as in snow, grown, bestow. P^if-y The diphthong oy is but another form for ot, and is pi9- nouneed exaotly like it ■f^ ^.i^Xv ■M. ¥ ■J^. 22 ^vh «^i 28 ENGJ^ISH ORAUMAB. , P ■ ■ P has always the same sound,, except, perhaps, in eup- board, where it sounds like b. Ills sometimes mute; as in psakn, psalter, Ptolemy: and between ?;i and /; as, tempt, empty, presumptuous. ^ ., .,f ........* FhiQ generally pronounced lik.ey*j as in philosophy, phi- lajithropy, Philip. . „ <;,,^ - In nephew and Stephen, it has the sound of v. In apophthegm, phthisis, phthisic, and phthisical, both letters are entirely dropped. ., , . , ■« ■ ■ : Q is always followed by u ; as, quadrant, queen, quire. Qu is sometimes sounded like k; as, conquer, liquor, iri§Que. R has a rough sound ; as in Rome, river, rage : and a smooth one ; as in bard, card, regard. B£ at the end of many words, is pronounced like a weak er ; as in theatre, sepulchre, massacre. , , S has two different sounds. .? ,.%. A soft and flat sound, like z; as, bosom, nasal, dismal. A sharp hissing sound ; as, saint, sister, Cyprus. .,, , It is always sharp at the beginning of words. At the end of words it takes the soft sound ; as, his, was, trees, eyes ; except in the words this, thus, us, yes, rebus, surplus, &.C. ; and in words tenninaling with ous. It sounds like z before ion, if a vowel goes before ; as, intrusion ; hut like 5 sharp, if it follows a consonant; as, conversion. It also sounds like z before e mute ; as, amuse; and before y final ; as, rosy ; and in the words, bosom, 4e- P^llrje, wisdom, ^. * f' S> is, inute in isle, island, demesne, viscount. , ''^ T generally souqcIS) as in take, tempter. T Ij^fore m, when ^ ^ (he accent p'eccww, sounds like kh: as, nature, virtue, are, pronounced, natchure, virtchue. Ti before a vowel has tfa« d like a weak ORTHOGRlkPBy;'^ 29 fiound of ah; as in dllvation: exciept in euch words as tierce, tiara, &cc. and unless an 9 goes before; as, question; and excepting also deriviitives from words ending in ty ; a?, mighty, mightier. Th has two sounds : the one soft and flat ; as, thus, whether, heathen : the other hard and sharp ; as, thing, think, breath. Th, at the beginning of words, is sharp ; as, in thank, thick, thunder: except in that, then, thus, thither, and some others. Th, at the end of words, is also sharp ; as, deati), breath, mouth : except iii with, booth, beneath, &«. Th, in the middle of words, is sharp ; as, panther, ortho- dox, misanthrope : except worthy, farthing, brethren, and a few others. • ' ■ ' * ' "■ ' Th, between two vowels, is generally flat in words purely English ; as, father, heathen, together, neither, mother. Th, between two vowels, in wdrds from the learned Ian- guages, is generally sharp ; as, apathy, sympathy, Athens, apothecary. Th is sometimes prdnounced like simple t ; as, Thomaa,^ ttiyme, Thames, asthma. U ■ -r'- ■ .^' •: ■'■i ■' •; U has three sounds, viz. A long sound ; as in mule, tube, cubic. * , • A short sound ; as in dull, gull, custard. ' ' ' An obtuse sound, like oo ; as in bull, full, bushel. '' The strangPdt deviation of this letter from its natural sound, is in the words busy, business, bury, and burial ; which are pronounced bizzy, bizness, berry, and berrial. A is now often used before words beginning with u long, and an always before those that begin with u short ; as, a • Mnion, a university, a useful book ; an uproar, an usher, an umbrella. ^^ The diphthong tm, has sometimes tKe sound of na; as in assuage, persuade, antiquary, ^t has also the sound of middle a : as in guard-, jtuardian, suaraatee. » Ue is often sounded like ne ; as in quench, querist, con- ^^ i I i: 30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. quest. It has also the sound of long u ; as in cue, hue, ague. In a few words, it is pronounced like e short ; as in guest, guess. In some words it is entirely sunk ; as in an- tique, oblique, prorogue, catalogue, dialogue, &cc. Ui is frequently pronounced jvi ; as in languid, anguish, extinguish. It has sometimes the sound of t long ; as in guide, guile, disguise : and sometimes that oft short; as in guilt, guinea, guildhall. In some words it is sounded like long uj as in juice, suit, pursuit : and after r, like oo • as in bruise, fruit, recruit. Uo is pronouEced like rvo; as in quote, quorum, quondam. Uy has the sound of long e ; as in obloquy, soliloquy ; pronounced obloquee, &tc. except, buy, and its derivatives. V V has tile sound of flat/; and bears the same relation to it, as b doee tp p, d to <, hard g to k, and z to s. It has also one uniform sound ; as vain, vanity, love. W Wy when a consonant, has nearly the sound of oo ; as water resembles the sound of ooaicr ; but that it has a stronger and quicker sound than oo^ and has a formatioti, es- sentially different, will appear to any person who pronoun- ces, with attention, the words wo, noo^ beware ; and who re- flects that it will not admit the article an before it; which 00 would admit. In some words it is not sounded ; as in answer, sword, wholesome : it is always silent before r ; as in wrap, wreck, wrinkle, wrist, wrong, wry, bewray, &c. W before h is pronounced as if it were after the h ; as, why, hwy ; when, hwen ; what, hwat. W is often joined to o at the end of a syllable, without affecting the sound of that vowel ; as in crow, blow, grow, know, row, flow, &uj. When TO is a vowel, and is distinguished in the pronun- ciation, it has exactly the same sound as u would have in the same situation ; as, draw, crew, view, now, sawyer, vowel, outlaw. < .- . r\ rf ■ r ;■# .'Mf ottin^Giurnr. 91 s in cue, Iiue, e short ; as in ink ; as in an- &c. gurd, anguish, » long J as in 't short; as in sounded like ^f like 00 ; as m, quondam. ly, soliloquy ; s derivatives. le relation to 1. It has also i of 00; as lat it has a Drmatioiiesi- lo pronoun- and who re- re it; which ided ; as in )efore r ; as nay, &c. the h; as, le, without low, grow, le pronun- d have in , sawyer. ^ has three sounds, tIz. It is sounded like z at the beginning of proper names df Greek original; as in Xanthus, Xenophon, Xerxes. It has a sharp sound like ks, when it ends a syllable with the accent upon it ; as exit, exercise, elxcellence ; or when the accent is on the next syllable, if it begins with a conso- ^ nant ; as excuse, extent, expense. It has, generally, a flat sound>likey»'2;, when the accent is not on it, and the following syllable begins with a vowel; ob, exert, exist, example ; pronounced, egzert, egzi8t,egzample. Y F, when a consonant, has nearly the sound of ee ; as^ youth, York, resemble the sounds of eeouth, eeork: but that this is not its exact sound, will be clearly perceived by pronouncing the words ye, yes, nerv-year, in which its just and proper sound is ascertained. It not only requires a stronger exertion of the organs of speech to pronounce it, than is required to pronounce ee ; but its formation is essen- tially different. It will not admit of an before it, as ee will in the following example ; an eel. The opinion that y and . TV, when they begin a word or syllable, take exactly the sound of ee and oo, has induced some granmiarians to as- sert, that these letters are always vowels or diphthongs. When y is a vowel, it has exactly the same sound as t would have in the same situation; as, rhyme, system, jus- tify, pyramid, party, fancy, hungry. Z Z has the sound of an s uttered with a closer com- pression of the palate by the tongue : it is the flat s ; as, ' freeze, frozen, brazen. It may be proper to remark, that the sounds of the let- ters vary, as they are differently associated, and that the pronunciation of these associations depends upon the posi- tion of the accent. It may also be observed, that, in order to pronounce accurately, great attention mi;|st be paid to : 9ft ENGLISH GRAMMAR. the vowels which are not accented. There is scarcely any thing which more distinguishes a person of a poor educa- tion, from a person of a good one, than the pronunciation of the unacemted vowels. When vowels are under the ac- centf the best speakers and tlie lowest of tlie people, with very few exceptions, pronounce them in the same manner; but the unaccented vowels in the mouths of the former, have a distinct, open, and specific sound, while the latter often totally sink them, or change them into some other sound. * Section 3. The nature of articulation explained. A CONCISE account of the origin and formation of the sounds emitted by the human voice, may, perhaps, not improperly, be here introduced. It may gratify the ingenious student, and serve to explain more fully the nature of articulation, and tile radical distinction between vowels and consonants. Human voice is air sent out from the lungs, and so agi- tated or modified in its passage through the windn'pe and larynx, as to become distinctly audible. The ^vindpipe is that tube, which, on touching the forepart of our throat ex- ternally, we feel hard and uneven. It convejs air into the lungs foiP'the purpose of breathing and speech. The top or upper part of the windpipe is called the larynx, consisting of four or five cartilages, that may be expanded or brought together, by tlft action of certain muscles which operate all at the same time. In the middle of the larynx there is a small opening, called the glottis, through which the breath and voice are conveyed. Tliis opening is not wider than one tenth of an inch ; and, therefore, the breath transmit- ted through it from the lungs, must pass with considerable velocity. The voice thus formed, is strengthened and softened by a reverberation from the palate anil Other hol- low places in the inside of the mouth and nostrils; and as these are better or worse shaped for this reverberation, the voice is said to be more or less af2;reeable. If we consider the many varieties of sound, which one and the same human voice is capable of uttering, together ■''00 i scarcely any I poor educa- pronunciation under the ac- people, witli ime manner ; former, have 5 latter often )ther sound. plained. oftheaounds improperly, student, and ulation, and sonants, and 80 agj- indn-'pe and windpipe is r throat ex- air into the The top or , consisting or brought ih operate nx there is the breath vUhr than transmit- isiderable encd and ctlher hol- s' and as ■ • ation, the hich one together a ORTHOGfRAPHY. 33' with the smalinessof the diametiT of (he glottis; and re- fleet, that the same diameter must uhvays produce tiie same tone, and, consequently, that to every change of tone a cor- respondent change of diameter is necessary; we must be filled with admiration at the mechanism of these parts, and the lineness of the fibres that operate in producing etfecta so minute, so various, and in their proportions so exactly aniforra. For it admits of proof, that the diameter of the hu- man glottis is capable of more than sixty distinct degrees of contraction or enlargement, by each of which a diffei ent note is [)ro!^e«l '<\\\"i:u%\\ tiie larynx. The simplest articulate voices arc those which proceed > from an open mouth, and ^.rv. hy jrraD;marians called voivel sounds. In transmitting these,, tiie ripcrture of the tiKiuth • may be pretty large, or somewhat smaller, or very small; - which is one cause of the variety of vowels; a particular sound being produced by each particular aperture. More- over, in pasaing through an open mouth, the voice may be . gently mted upon, by the lips, or by the tongue and palate, or by the tongue and throat; whence another source of variety in vowel sounds. Thus ten or twelve simple vowel sounds may be formed, . agreeably to the plan in page 15; and the learners, by ob- serving the position of their mouth, lips, tongue, &cc. whes they are uttering the sounds, will perceive that various operations of these organs of speech, are necessary to the production of the different vowel sounds ; and tliat by^mi- nute variations theymay all be distinctly pronounced. When the -voice, in its passage through the mouth, is to- tally intercepted, or strongly compressed^ there is formed a 34 ENOLISH GRAMMAR. certain modification of articulate sound, which, as expressed by a character in writing, is called a consonant. Silence is tlie effect of a total interception; and indistinct sound, of a strong compression; and therefore a consonant is not of itself a distinct articulate voice ; and its influence in vary- ing the tones of language is not clearly perceived, unless it be accompanied by an opening of the mouth, that is, by a ToweK By making the experiment with attention, tiie student will perceive that each of the mules is formed by the voice being intercepted, by the lips, by Ihe tongue and palate, or by the tongue and throat; and that the semi-vowels are formed by the same organs strongly compressing the voice in its passage, but not totally intercepting it. The elements of language, according to tiie different seats where they are formed, or the several organs of speech chiefly concerned in their pronunciation, are divided into several classes, and denominated as follows: those are called Inbials, which are formed by the lips; those dentals, that are formed with the teeth; palatals, that are fbrmcd with the i>alate; and nasals, that are formed by the nose. The importance of obtaining, in early life, a clear, distinct, and accurate knowledge of the sounds of the first principles of language, and a wish to lead young minds to a further consideration of a subject so curious and useful, have in- duced the compiler to bestow particular attention on the pre- ceding part of his work. Some writers think that these subjects do not properly constitute any part of granmiar; and consider them as the exclusive province of the spelling- bnok; but if we reflect, that letters and their sounds are the constituent principles of that art, which teaches us to speak and write with propriety, and that, in general, very little knowledge of their nature is acquired by the spelling-t^oki we must admit, that they properly belong to grammar; and that a rational consideratipn of these elementary pris- 7^ OIITHOORAPHT. 3S ciples of language Is an object that tlcinands the attentiou of the young grammarian. The sentiments of a vtry judi- cious and eminent writer (Quiuctilian) reitpecting this pact of grammar, may, perhaps, be properly introduced on the present occasion. " Let no person despise, as inconsiderable, the elements of grammar, because it may seen/ to them a matter of small consequence, to show the distinction between vowels and consonants, and to divide the latter into liquids and mutes. But they who penetrate into the innermost parts of this temple of science, will there discover such refinement and subtility of ?patter, as are not only proper to sharpen the understanding? of young persons, but sufficient to give exer- cise for the most profound knowledge and erudition." The elementary sounds, under their smallest combi- nation, produce a syllable ; syllables properly combined produce a word; words i -nl < '"^f ■v.--^ ■('' ORTHOGRAPHT. CHAPTER Iir. 37 •O) •••iJl.il > II O/* WORDS in generalf and the rules for spelling Utem. Words are articulate sounds, used by common con- sent, as signs of our ideas. , A word of one syllable is termed a Monosyllable; a word of two syllables, a Dissyllable; a word of three syllables, a Trisyllable ; and a word of four or more syllables, a Polysyllable. \11 words are either primitive or derivative. A primitive word is that which cannot be reduced to any simpler word in the language : as, man, good, content. A derivative word is that which may be reduced to another word in English of greater simplicity; as, man- ful, goodness, contentment, Yorkshire.* : r ' - '*' ^ There are many English words which, though com- pounds in other languages, 'are to us primitives: thus, cir- cumspect, circumvent, circumstance, delude, concave, complicate, &lc. primitive words in English; will be found derivatives, when traced in tlie Latin tongue. - The orthography of the English Language is attended with much uncertainty and perplexity. But a considerable part of this inconvenience may be remedied, by attending to the general laws of formation; and, for this end, the learner is presented with a view of such general maxims in spelling primitive and derivative words, as have been almost umversally received. RULE I. ,,,,.»- Monosyllables ending with^ I, or «, preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant: as, staff, mill, pass, &c. * A. compound word is included under the head of derivative vorda : as. penknife, teacup, looking-glass ; may be reduced to otlier words of greater limpUcity. .■.^;:; TiSL^.. m 38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. The only exceptions are, of, if, as, is, has, was, yes, his, this, us, and thus. / RULE II. Monosyllables ending with any consonant but^ /, or «, aui preceded by a single Towel, never double the final consonant; excepting add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn, purr, and buzz. RULE III. Woyrds ending with y^ preceded by a consonant, form the plurals of nouns, the persons of verbs, verbal nouns, past participles, comparatives, and superlatives, by chang- ing y into t: as, spy, spies; I carry, thou earnest; he car- rieth, or carries; carrier, carried; happy, happier, hap- piest. The present participle in ingj retains the y, that i may not be doubled; as, carry, carrying; bury, burying, &cc. But y^ preceded by a vowel, in such instances as the above, is not changed; as, boy, boys: I cloy, he cloys, cloyed, &c. ; except in lay, pay, and say ; from which are formed, laid, paid, and said; and tlieir compounds, unlaid, unpaid, unsaid, &c. RULE IV. Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, upon assuming an additional syllable beginning with a conso- nant, commonly change y into i; as, happy, happily, hap- piness. But when y is preceded by a vowel, it is very rarely changed in the additional syllable; as, coy, coyly; boy, boyish, boyhood: annoy, annoyer, annoyance ; joy, joyless, joyful. RULE V. * Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, ending with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double that consonant, when they take another syllable beginning \vith a vowel: as, wit, witty: thin, thiooish; to acteli an abettor; to begin, a beginner. m'^ w?i ORTHOGRAPHY. 39 But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is on the pre- ceding syllable, the consonant remains single : as, to toil, toiling; to offer, an offering; maid, maiden, &.c. RULE VI* Words ending with any double letter but /, and taking ness, less, ly^ or ful, after them, preserve the letter double ; as, harmlessness, carelessness, carelessly, stiffly, successful, distressful, &:c. But those words which end with double /, and take ness, less, ly, or JiU, after them, generally omit one /; as fulness, skillcss, fully, skilful, Sec. RULE VII. Ness, less, ly, sj^djul, added to words ending with silent e, do not cut it off: as, paleness, guileless, closely, peace- ful; except in a few words; as, duly, truly awful. RULE VIII. Merit, added to words ending with silent e, generally pre- serves the e from elision; as, abatement, chastisement, in- citement, &.C. The words judgment, abridgment, acknow- ledgment, are deviations from the rule. Like other terminations, ment changes y inio i, when preceded by a consonant; as, accompany, accompaniment; merry, merriment. RULE IX. Able and ible, when incorporated into words ending with silent e, almost always cut it off: as, blame, blamable; cure, curable ; sense, sensible, &c. : but if c or g soft comes before c in the original word, the e is then preserved iii words compounded vnih able; as change, changeable; peace, peaceable, &c. RULE X. When ing or ish is added to words ending with silent e, the e is almost universally omitted: as, place, placing; lodge, lodging; slave, slavish: prude, prudish. RULE XI. Words taken into eosfipoaition, often drop those |le..ters '■^ ,» l ' "*.i' / ' I 40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. which were superfluous in the simple words: as, hanijlful, dunghil, withal, also, chilblain, foretel. T ■*.. The orthography of a great number of English words is far from being uniform, even amongst writers of dis- tinction. Thudj hoviour and honor, inquire and enquire, negotiate and negodaie, control and coniroid, expense and expence, allege and alledge, surprise and surprize, complete and compleat, connexion and connection, abridgment and aJmdgenient, and many other orthographical variations, are to be met with in the best modern publications. Some authority for deciding differences of tliis nature, appears to be necessary : and where can we find one of equal pretensions with Dr. Johnson's Dictiohary? though a few of his decisions do not appear to be warranted by the principles of etymology and analogy, the stable founda- tions of his improvements. — " As the weight of truth and reaaon,(says Nares in his " Elements of Orthoepy") is irre- sistible, Dr. Johnson's Dictionary has nearly fixed the ex- ternal form of our language. Indeed, so convenient is it to have one acknowledged standard to recur to ; so much preferable, in matters of this nature, is a trifling degree of irregularity, to a continual change, and fruitless pursuit of unattainable perfection ; that it is earnestly to be hoped, that no a'uthor will henceforth, on light grounds, be tempted to innovate." This Dictionary, however, contains some orthographical inconsistencies, which ought to be rectified : such as, imihiovahle moveable, chastely chastness, fertileness fertily, sliness slyly, fearlessly fearlesness, needlessness needlesly. If these, and similar irregularities, were corrected by spelling the words analogically, according to tlie first word in each part of the series, and agreeably to the general rules of spelling, the Dictionary would doubtless, in these respects, be improvvu. ' \ ' z . .„ ■M- jMb^: ■^^■'";^ .r;:/-(4l )ma..'-^ * :;>^ . • -^. ■■■ :: . ! ^di ys0 PART II. ' :;. n 'Mn '\' ETYIVIOLOGY. 1 . CHAPTER I. )-it •^ General View of the Parts of Speech, ^ *« THE second part of grammar is etymology, which beats of the different sorts of words, their various mo- difications, and their derivation. There are, in English, ninie sorts of words, or, as they are commonly called, parts of speech ; namely, the ARTICLE, the substantive or noun, the adjec- tive, the pronoun, the verb, the adverb, the pre- position, the co.%JUNCTiON, and the interjection. 1 An Article is a word prefixed to substantives, to point them out, and to show how far their signification extends: as, a garden, an eagle, the woman. 2. A Substantive or noun is the name of any thing that exists, or of which we have any notion: as, London^ man, virtue. A substantive may, in general, be distinguished ^f/iw taking; an article before it, or by its makina; sense of i^mft: .a3,a);oo/c,tlie sun, aii apple ; temperance, industry, chu \H^- 3. An Adjective is a word added to a substantive, U express its quality : as, " An industiious man ; a virtuous 'Ui: woman. »» An^AdjectiVe may be known by its%iaking sense with the addition of %ie word thing : as, a good thing ; a bad Ihii^:' or of any particular substantive ; as, a sweet applCj l^pkasant piospect, a lively boy. 4. A I^ronoun is a wofd used instead of a noun, to Wlll[^ i %■•,«..*' "*■;■ .t; >7 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ivoid the too frequent repetition of the same word : '" The man is happy ; he is benevolent ; he is use- ful." 5. A Verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer: as, " I am; I rule; I am ruled,^* A Verb may generally be distinguished, by its making sense with any of the personal pronouns, or the word to before it : as, I malkj he plays j they write ; or, to walk, to play, to Tvrite. ^ 6. An Adverb is a part of speech joined to a verb, an adjective, and sometimes to another adverb, to express some quality or circumstance respecting it: as, "He reads well; a truly good man; he writes very correctly." An Adverb may be generally known, by its answering to the question. How ? how much ? when ? or where ? aa, in the phrase " He reads correctly" the answer to the question, How does he read ? is, correctly. ^7. Prepositions serve to connect words with one fiViotber, and to show the relation between them : asi, *' He went ^om London to York;" " she is above dis- guise ;" " they are supported by industry." A preposition may be known by its admitting after it a persona) pronoun, in the objective case ; as, with, for, to, ,4M9%(i^ allow the objective case after them ; with him, for ''kt^^m'^m, &c. 1. A conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly uf ed to connect sentences ; so as, out of two or more sentences, to mako but one: it sometimes connects only words : as, " Thou and he are happy, because vou areffood."' " Two an(/ three are five." -tiT, * 9. Interjections are words thro^vn in bet^veen xt^p paits of a sentence, to express the passions or emotioqs of the spealifcr: as, " O vii-tue! how amiable thou art!" '.'a-* - #„:•■ ■ * t 1 . I V L. W« #;^- -^'-■icfvbj^r^^'- ETTMOLdbT. ' ' ' «NI' l^e observations which have been made, to aid learn- ; erf in distingubhing the parts of speech from one another, may afford them some small assistance ; but it will cer- tainly be much more instructive, to distinguish them by the definitions, and an jftccurate knowledge of their nature. In the following passage,^ all the parts of speech are ex- emplified : ^ ^p^j. - vf -J4r 1 2 7 If 5 lV,| 3 7 2 The power of speech is a mculty peculiar to man ; 85 57474 3 27 and was bestowed on him by his beneficent Creator, fof;' j , 1 .3 i 6 3 2 8 9 6 6 the greatest aud most excellent uses ; but alas! how o^n 5 4 5471.372 do we pervert it to the worst of purposes ! -{^fi- In the foregoing sentence, the words thp,j a, are articles ; power, speechyfanillyy man, Creator, uses, purposes, are sub- stantives ; peculiar, beneficent, greatest, excellent, norst, are adjectives ; him, his, we, it, are pronouns ; is, niaa, bestow- ed, do, pervert, are verbs ; nwsl, liow, often, are adverbs ; of, to, on, by, for, are preposilions; an : . The article is omitted before nouns that imply the dif- ferent virtues, vices, passions, qualiti^, sciences, arts, metals, herbs, &i;. ; as, " prudence is commendable ; false- hood is odious ; anger ought to be avoided ;" &cc. It is not prefixed to a proper name; as, "Alexander," (because tliat of itself denotes a determinate individual or particular thing,) except for the sake of distinguishing a particular family : as, " He is a Howard, or of the family of the Howards ;" or by way of eminence : as, " Every man is not a Newton ;" " He has the courage of an Achilles :" or when some noun is understood ; " He sailed down ilie (river) Thames, in the (ship) Britannia." When an adjective is used with the noun to which the article relates, it is placed between the article and the noun ; as " a good man," " an agreeable woman," " the best friend." On some occasions, howevdr, the adjective precedes a or an ; as, " sixh a shame," " as great a man as Alexander," " too careless an author." The indefinite article can be joined to substantives in the singular number only ; the definite article may be joined also to plurals. But there appears to be a remarkable exception to this Tule, in the use of the adiectives fen) and manVi fthe latter chiefly with the word great before it,) whichi thou^ ' i #>^ ^' m- 48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Figuratively, in the English tongue, we commonly give the masculine gipider to nouns which arc conspicuous for the attributes of imparting or communicating, and which are by nature strong and efficacious. Those, again, are made feminine, which are conspicuous for the attributes of containing or brining forth, or which are peculiarly beautiful or amiable. Upon these principles, the sun is said to be masculine ; and the moon, being the receptacle of the sun's light, to be feminine. The earth is generally feminine. A ship, a country, a city, &c. are likewise made feminine, being receivers or containers. Time is always masculine, on account of its mighty efficacy. Virtue is feminine from Us beauty, and its being the object of love. Fortune andjfl church are generally put in the feiMnine gender. The English language has three methods of distinguish- ing the sex, viz. I. By different words Male. Bachelor. Boar. Boy. Brother. Buck. Bull. Bullock or Steer. Cock. Dog. Drake. Earl. * Father. Friar. . Gander. Wart Horse. as. n Female. Male. Female. Maid. Husband. Wife. Sow. King. *' Queen. Girl. I^d. Lass. ' Sister. Lord. Lady. Doe. Man. Woman. Cow. Master. Mistress. > Heifer. Milter. Nephew. Spawner. Niece. Hen. Ram. Ewe. Bitch. Duck. Smger. C Songstress or ( Singer. Countess. ^oven. Slut. Mother. Son. Daughter. Nun. Stag. Hind. Goose. Uncle. Aunt. Roe. Wizard. Witch. Mare. ■-• ETTHOLOOT. 2. By a difference of termination Male. Female. Male Abbot Abbess. Landgrare. Actor. Actress. Lion. Administrator. Administratrix.Marquis. Adulterer. Adultress. Master. Ambassador. AmbassadressJVIayor. Arbitress. Patron. Baroness. Peer. Bride. Poet. Benefactress. Priest. Cateress. , Prince. Chantress. Prior. ' Conductress. Prophet 49 Arbiter. Baron. Bridegroom. Benefactor. Caterer. Chanter. Conductor. Count. Deacon. Duke. Elector. Emperor. Enchanter. Executor. Governor. Heir. Hero. Huntecc Host Jew. Countess. Deaconess. Duchess. Electress. Empress. Enchantress. Executrix. Governess. Heiress. Heroine. Huntress. Hostess. Jewess. Protector. ' Shepherd. Songster. Sorcerer. Sultan. Tiger. Traitor. Tutor.' Viscount. Votary. Widower. as, Feimle. Landgravine. JJoness. Marchioaeig. Mistress. Mayoress. 1 Patroness. Peeress. ^ Poetess. ' Priestess. Princess. Prioress. Proi^ietess. * Protectress. Shepherdess. Songstress. , Sorceress. < Sultaness, * \ Sultana. / Tigress. Traitress. Tutoress. Viscountess. ' Votaress. Widow. 3. By a noun, pronoun, or adjective, being prefixed to (he substantive : as, A«oGk-sparrow. A hen-sparrow. ^' A man-servart. A maid-servant ; A he-goat A she-goat A he-bear. A she-bear. A male chUd. A female child. Male descendants. Pemjale descendants. It sometimes haoDena. that the same nous is either massB • line or feminine. The words parent j childf coimrif friend^ C I li vr. I 50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. neighbour J servant, and several others, are used indiffer- ently for males or females. Nouns with yariable terminations contribute to concise- ness and perspicuity of expression. We have only a suffi- ciei^t number of them to make us feel our want ; for when we say of a woman, she is a philosopher, an astronomer, a builder, a weaver, we perceive an impropriety in the ter- mination, which we cannot avoid ; but we can say, that she is a botanist, a student, a witness, a scholar, an orphan, a companion, because these terminations have not annexed to them the notion of sex. ; - v Section 3. Of Number. Number is the consideration of an object, as one or more. Substantives are of two numbers, the singular and the plural. The singular number expresses hut one object; as, a chair, a table. The plural number signifies raore objects than one 5 as, chaiiT), tables. Some noun:?, from the nature of the things which they e.xprosa, are used only in the singular form ; as, wheat, pitch, gold, sloth, pride, &c.; others, only in' the plural form; as, bellows, scissors, lungs, riches, &:c. Son]'- words are the same in both numbers; as, deer, sheep, swine, he. T-!' ; lural number of nouns is generally formed by adtiii '<; s to the singular: as, dove, doves; face, faces, thoup;'.t, thoughts. But when the substantive !?lngular ends in x, ch soft, sh, ss, or s, we add es in the plural : as^ bcX; boxes; church, churches; lash, lashes; kiss, kisses; rebus, rebusses. If the singular ends in ch hard, the pViraJ is formed liy adding s; as, monarch, monarchsf distjnh, distichs. indifler- concisc?- ly a suffi- for when noraur, a n the ter- say, that n oq)han, t annexed as one or ^ular and ect; as, a han one 5 rs which brm; as, oly in'the ,&iC. as, deer, jrrnrd by ce, faces, singular lural: as, ss, kisses V ard, the narchs; i r.TTMOLOGT. bt Nouns which end in o, have sometimes es, added to the plural ; as, cargo, echo, hero, negro, iiiauifesto, potato, volcano, wo: and sometimes only s; as, folio, nuncio, punctilio, seraglio. y Nouns ending in f, or fe, are rendered plural toy the change of those terminations into ves : as, loaf, loaves ; half, halves ; wife, wives ; except grief, relief, reproof, and several otliers, which form the plural by the addition of s, ITiose which end in ff, have the regular plural ; as, ruff, ruffs ; except, st^ff, staves. Nouns; which have y in the singular, with no other vowel in the same syllable, change it into ies in the plural : as, beauty, beauties ; fly, flies. But the y is not changed, when there is another vowel in the syllable : as, key, keys ; delay, delays ; -attorney, attorneys. Some nouns become plural by changing the a of the singular into e : as, man, men ; woman, women ; alder- man, aldermen. The words, ox and child, form oxen and children; brother, makes either brothers, or brethren. Sometimes the diphthong 00 is changed into ee in the plural : as, foot, feet ; goose, geese ; tooth, teeth. Lou^c and mouse make lice and mice. Penny makes pence, or pennies, when the coin is meant : die, dice (for play ^ ; di«, dies (for coining). It is agreeable to analogy, and the practice of the gene- rality of correct writers, to construe the following words as plural nouns ; pains, riches, alms : and also, malkemaiics, metaphysics, politics, ethics, optics, pneutnatics, with other similar names of sciences. Dr. Johnson says that the adjective m7ieh is sometimes a term of number, as well as of quantity. This may account for the instances we meet with of its associating with pains as a plural noun : as, " much pains." The connexion, however, is not to be recommended. The word news is now almost universa!!y considered as belonging to the singular number. C2 / 52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. H / . The noon means is used both in the singular and the plural number. , The following words, which have been adopted from the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin languages, are thu9 distiD- guished, with respect to number. ... Singular. , Plural. Singular Plural. Cherub ^ Cherubim. Datum. Data. Seraph. Seraphim. Effluvium. Effluvia. Antithesis. Antitheses. Tl f Encomia or I Encomiums. Automaton. Automata. Encomium. Basis. Bases. Erratum. Errata. Crisis. Crises. Genius. Genii*. Criterion. Criteria. Genus. €^&era. Dleeresis. Diaereses. » 1 c Indices or \ Indexesf. Ellipsis. Ellipses. Index. Emphasis. Emphases. Lamina. Laminee. Hypothesis. Hypotheses. Medium. Media. Iletamor- c Metamor- ( phoses. Magus. Magi. phosis. Memoran- ( Memoranda or I Memorandums Phoenomenon.Phoenomena. dum. A J» € Appendices < I Appendixes. TrRadius. RadH. Appendix. Stamen. Stamina. Arcanum. ' Arcana. Stratum. Strata. Axis. Axes. Vortex. Vortices. Calx. Calces. Some words, d'^ived from the learned languages, are confined to the plural number : as, antipodes, credenila, literati, minutise. The following nouns being, in Latin, both singular and plural, are used in the sam manner when adopted into aur tongue : hiatus, apparatus, series, species. . ' ^OHiiii, wHen denoting aerial »piT?»: Geniuies, when sigftliying ptttoia of geniii!). f Iniextt, when it signfUes pointen, or Tablet of eontente : /mKcff, #1imi referring to Algebraic quantities ETYMOLOGY. 53 Section 4. Of Case. . Ir^ English, substantives have three cases, the nomi- native, the possessive, and the objective*. • The nominative case simply expresses the name of a thing, or the subject of the verb : as, " The boy playsj** " The girls learn." The possessive case expresses the relation of pro- perty or possession; and has an apostrophe with the letter s coming after il: as, "The scholar's duty;" " Mv father's house." * When the phiral ends in s, the other s is omitted, but the apostrophe is retained : as, on eagles' wings;" " The drapers' company." Sometimes, also, when the singular terminates in ss, the apostrophic s is not added : as, " For goodness' sake;" " For righteousness' sake." The objective case expresses the object of an action, or of a relation; and generally follows a verb active, or a preposition: as, " John assists Charles;" " They live m London." English substantives are declined in the followmg manner: Singular. Plural. • Nominative Case. A mother. Mothers. Possessive Case. A mother's Mothers'. Objective Case. A mother. Mothers. Nominative Case. The man. The men. Possessive Case. The man's. The men's. Objective Case. The man. The men. • The iJOFsessivc is someliines called tl;e gpnitlve ca?e ; and the oUertIre, the accuiialiv » . , ! i)4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. The English language, to express different connexions and relations of one thing to another, uses, for the most part, prepositions. The Greek and Latin among the ancient, and some too among the modern languages, as the German, vary the termination or ending of the substantive, to answer the same purpose ; an example of vrhich, in the Latin, is inserted, as explanatory of the nature and use of cases, VIZ. Nondnaiive. Genitive. Dative. Jlccusative. ^ Vocative. Mlative. Nominalivi Genitive. Dative. Accusative. Vocative. Ablative. Singular. DOMINUS, Domini, Domino, DOMINUM, DOMINE, Domino, Plurai. Domini, dominorum, DOMINIS, DOMINOS; Domini, DOMINIS, A Lord. Lord's, of a Lord. To a Lord. A. Lord. O Lord. By a Lord. Lords. Lords', of Lords. To Lords. Lords. O Lords. By Lords. Some writers think, that the relations signified by the addition of articles and prepositions to the noun, may properly be denominated cases, in English ; and that, on this principle, there are, in our language, as many cases as in the Latin tongue. But to this mode of forming cases for our substantives, there are strong objections. It would, indeed, be a formal and useless arrangement of nouns, articles, and prepositions. If an arrangement of this nature were to be considered as constituting cases, the English language would have a much greater number of them than the Gfeek and Latin tongues : for, as every preposi- tion has its distinct meaning and effect, every combination of a preposition and article with the noun, would form a different relation, and would constitute a distinct case. — ,' ETTM0L06T. j 55 This would encumber our language with many new terms, and a heavy and useless load of iUctinctionsf. , j< u-n. n. . On the principle of imitating other languages in names and forms, without a correspondence in nature and idiom, we might adopt a number of declensions, as well as a ya- riety of cases, for English substantives. Thus, five or six declensions, distinguished according to the various modes of forming the plural of substantives^ with at least half a dozen cases to each declension, would furnish a complete arrangement of English nouns, in all their trap- pings. See on this subject, the Jjfth cmd ninth sections of the sixth chapter of etymology. But though this variety of cases does not at all corres- pond with the idiom of our language, there seems to be great propriety in admitting a case in Iv :; h substantives, which shall serve to denote the objecti .Liive verbs and of prepositions ; and which is, therefore, properly termed the objective case. The general idea of case doubtJless has a reference to the termination of the noun : but there are many instances, both in Greek and Latin, in which the nominative a,nd accusative cases have precisely the same form, and are distinguished only by the relation they bear to other words in the sentence. We are there- fore warranted, by analogy, in applying this principle to our own language, as far as utility, and the idiom of it, will admit. Now it is obvious, that in English, a noun governed by an active verb, or a preposition, is very dif- ferently circumstanced, from a noun in the nominative, or in the possessive case ; and that a comprehensive case, correspondent to that difference, must be useful and proper. The business of parsing, and of showing the connexion and dependence of words, will be mor>t con- t If cases are to be distinguished by the different significations of the no«n, or l)y the diffsrent relations it may bear to the governing word, then we have is our lan^age as many cases almost, as there htb prepositions : an^ above a nmn, be- seath a niau, beyond a man. ;ound about a man, within a man, without a man, Sic. iliill be cases, as well as, of a man, to a man, and with a man." . Dr. Bcattie. , ]i3l l!ti 56 ENQLlStt GRAMMAR. , venienUy aoeompIiBhed, by the adoption of such a case ; and the iiregalarity of having our nouns sometimes placed in. a situation, in which thej cannot be said to be in any case at all, will be avoided. The author of this work long doubted the propriety of assigning to English substantives an objective case : but a renewed, critical examination of the subject ; an examina- tion to which he was prompted by the extensive and in- creasing demand for the grammar, has produced in his ncind a full persuasion, that the nouns of our language are entitled to this comprehensive objective case. \7h^ the thing to which another is said to belong, h expressed by a circumlocution, or by many terms, the sign of the possettsive case is commonly added to the last term : as, " The kmg of Great Britaui's dominions." Sometimes, though rarely, two nouns in the possessive case inmiediately succee Section 2. Remarks on the subject of Comparison. If we consider the subject of comparison attentivdy, we shall perceive that the degrees of it are in6nite in number, or at least indefinite. — ^A mountain is larger than a mite ; — by how many degrees? How much bigger is the earth than a grain of sand? By how many degrees was Socrates wise!' than Alcibiades ? or by how many is snow whiter than this paper ? It is i)lain, that to these and the like questions, no deJiniiR answers can be returned. In quantities, however, that may be exactly measured, the ilfegrees of excess may be exactly ascertained. A foot 13 just twelve times as long as an inch ; and an hour is sixty times the length of a minute. But, in regard to qualities ^ and to those quantities which cannot be measured exactlj', it is impossible to say how many degrees may be compre- licnded in the comparative excess. But though these degrees are infimte or indefinite in fact, Ihey cannot be so in language; nor would it be convenient, if language were to express many of them. In regard to unmeasured quantities and qualities, the degrees of more awd less, (besides thope marked above,) may be expressed intelligibly, at least, if not accurately, by certain adverbs, or wonls of like import : as, " Socrates Was muck wiser than Alcibiades ;" " Snow is o greai deal whiter than this pa- per ;" " Epammoiidas was hyfar the most accomplished of the Thebaus;" " The evening star is a very splendid object, but the sun is incomparably more splendid;" " The Deity is infinitely greater than the greatest of his creatures." The inaccuracy of these, and the like expressions, is not a material inconvenience ; and, if it were, it is unavoid- able : for human stpeech can only express human thought; f *40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ' and where thought is necessarily inaccurate, language must be BO to 3. When the word very, exceedingly^ or any other of sunilar import, is put before the positive, it is called by some writers the superlative of eminence, to distinguish it frcm the other superlative, which has been already mentioned, and is called the superlative of comparison. Thus, very eloquent, is termed the superlative of eminence ; moat doquentf the superlative of comparison. In the superlative ^of eminence, something of comparison is, however, re- .^inotely or indirectly intimated ; for we cannot reasonably call a man very eloquent, without isomparing his eloquence with the eloquence of other men. The comparative may be so employed, as to express the same pre-eminence or inferiority as the superlative. Thus, the sentence, " Of all acquiiements, virtue is the most valiuAk" conveys the same sentiment as the following; " Virtue is more voliuible than every other acquirement" ' CHAPTER V. > i-.li Of Pronouns. A Pronoun Is a word used instead of a noun, to 'avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word : as, '** The man is happy; he is benevolent: he is useful." There are three kinds of pronouns, viz. the per- sonal, the RELATIVE, and the abjective pronouns. 'Section Of the Personal Pronouns. There are . Te onal Pronouns, viz. i, thou, he, fhefit; with their plurals, we, ye or you, they. Personal pronouns admit of person, number, gender, and case. ETrMOLOGT. Ql The persons of pronouns are three in each number, viz. /, is the first person Thou, is the second person He, she, or it, is the third person We is the first person UTe or you, is the second person * Plural. They, is the third person h Singular. 1 This account of persons will be very intelligible, when we reflect, that there are tiree persons who may be the subject of any discourse : first, the person who speaks, may speak of himself ; secondly, he may speak of the person to whom he addresses himself; thirdly, tu may speak of some other person : and as the speakers, the persons spoken to, and the other persons spoken of, may be liiany, so each of these persons must have the plural number. The Numbers of pronouns, like those of substantives, are two, the singular and the plural: as, /, ihou, he; we, ye or you, they. Gcwder has icspect only to the third person singular of the pronouns, he, she, it. He is masculine j^^Ae is feminine; it is neuter. The persons speaking and spoken to, being at the same time the subjects of the discourse, are supposed to be pre* sent ; from which, and other circumstances, their sex is commonly known, and needs not to be marked by a dis- tinction of gender in the pronouns : but the third person or thing spoken of, being absent, and in many respects unknown, it is necessary that it should be marked by a distinction of gender ; at least when some particular per- son or thing is spoken of, that ought to be more distinctly marked: accordingly the pronoun singular of the third per- son has the three genders, he^ she, it. m^- :« H 62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Pronouns have three cases; the nominative, the pos- sessive, and the objective. The objective case of a pronoun has, in general, a form different from that of the nominative, or the possessive case. The personal pronouns are thus declined : ^. Person. Case. Singular. Plural. First. JVom. I. We. Poss. Mine. Ours. Obj. Me. Us. Second, JVom. Thou. Ye or you. Poss. Thine. Yours. Obj. Thee. You. Third. JVom. He. They. Mas. ' Poss. His. Theirs. Obj. Him. Them. 'Third. JVom, She. They. Fem. Poss. Hers. Theirs. Obj. Her. Them. Third. JVom. It. They. JVeuter. Poss. Its. Theirs. Obj. It. Them. Section 2. C )f the Relative Pronouns. Relative Pronouns are such as relate, in general, to some word or phrase going before, which is thence called the antecedent: they are, who, which, and that: as, " The man is happy who lives virtuouelyf." t The relative pronoun, when used interrogaUTely> relates to a word or phrase which is not antecedent, but lubfeouent, to the relativs. See ooid under the vL RiiileofSyUax.' ,# # ETYMOLOGY. 63 H^ai is a kind of compound relative, including both the antecedent and the relative, and is mostly equiva- lent to that which: as, " This is what I wanted;" that is to say, " the thing which I wanted." ' *' Who is applied to persons, which to animals and inanimate things : as, " He is a friend^ who is faithful in adversity;" " The hird^ which sung so sweetly, is flown;" " This is the i t- [ §4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. three : as, " Philosophy, whose end is to instruct us in the • knowledge of nature," for, " Philosophy, Uie end of which is to instruct us," &cc. Who^ which, and whatf have sometimes the words soever an acted me." )assion, leep, I the ac- n some inclA. in the agent hich hu ao pleasing or n action nor uUraniiMV* for the dlf- is easy and aiti^ely as- lained. ETYMOLOGT. ' 71 other thing : as, " The tutor instru'cta his pupils ;" " I es- teem the man." ' ; • : :.. 1 Verbs neuter may properly be denominated intransi- tives, because tlie effect is confined within the subject, and does not pass over to any object : as, " I sit, he lives, they sleep," Some of the verbs that are usually ranked among neu- ters, make a near approach to the nature of a verb active ; but they may be distinguished from it by their being in- transitive : as, to run, to walk, to fly, &£.c. The rest are more obviously neuter, and more clearly expressive of a middle state between action and passion : as, to stand, to lie, to sleep, &:c. In English, many verbs arc used both in an active and a neuter signification, the construction only determining of which kind they are : as, to flatten, signifying to make even or level, is a verb active ; but when it signifies to grow dull or insipid, it is a verb neuter. A neuter verb, by the addition of a preposition, may become a compound active verb. To smile is a neuter verb ; it cannot, therefore, be followed by an objective case, nor be construed as a passive verb. We cannot say, she smiled him^ or, he rvas.smiled. But to smile on being a compound active verb, we properly say, she smiled on him ; he mas smiled on by fortune in every undertaking. -Auxiliary or helping Verbs, are those by the help of which the English verbs are principally conjugated. They are, rfo, 6e, have^ shall^ will., may., can, with their variations ; and let and must, which have no variationf . In our definition of the verb, as a part of spe«3ch which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer, &.c. we have included every thing, either expressly or by necessary consequence, Ill 72 ENGLISH GRAMMAF. that is essential to its nature, and no'ilvia^ that is not essen- tia! to it. This definition is wan:ni^<3d by the authority of Dr. Loivth, and of many other respecti^le writers on grammar. Tliere are, however, some grammarian, who consider assertion as the essence of the verb. But, aa the participle and the infinitive, if included in it, v> ould prove insuperable objections to their scheme, they have, witisout hesitation, denied the former a place in the verb, and dta- clared the latter to be mer^^ly an abstract noun. This ap- pears to be going rather loo far in support of an hypothesis. It seems to be incumbent om hcsc grammarian >, to reject also the imperative mood. What pn>'t oi speech would they make the verbs in the following t'lUeL'!.?-^? " Depart insJisTitly : improve yciir time : forgive »js qui s'n?}." Will it oe iiSid, that the verbs in these phrfei?es arc .ifisertionft ? In reply to these questii ns, it ^iis beea said, that " De- part infefetotly," is an expi'ession equivalent to, " I desire you to depart instantly ;" a'.id that as the latter phrase im- pJies afFlrm^^tion :h.' assertion, so floes the former. But, supposing the phrases to be exacily alike in sense, the reasoning is not concliXBtv^. 1st. In the latter plirase, the only part implying affiruu^iion, is, " I desire.*' Ths words " to depart," are in tiie infmitive mood, and contain no assertion : they affirm nothing. 2d. The position is not tenable, that " EquiVf\lence in sense implies similarity in grammatical nature" It proves too much, and therefore nothuig. This mode of reasoning would confound the acknowledged gramznatiiciiil distinction of words. A pro- i^oun, on this principle^ may be proved to be a noun ; a noun, a verb; an ad»^rb, a noun :ind jM-eposition ; the superlative degree, the comparative ; the imperative mood, the indieative ; the future tense, the present ; and so on : beund to 3AT1VE, rE, and clares a a ques- ing, ex- rt thou ; itimation osite na- ior being tbiB day liberty, he may should y ETYMOLOGT. 75 The Subjunctive Mood represents a thing under a condition, motive, wish, supposition, &c. ; and is pre- ceded by a conjunction, expressed or understood, and attended by another verb : as, " I will respect him, though he chide me ;" " Were he good, he would be happy;" that is, "t/he were good." — Seepages 202,203. The Infinitive Mood expresses a thing in a general and unUmited manner, without any distinction of num- ber or person ; as, " to act, to speak, to be feared." The participle is a certain form of the verb, and derives its name from its participating, not only of the properties of a verb, but also of those of an adjective : as, "I am desirous of knowing him f^ ^'^ admired and applauded, he became vain ; ' " Having finished his work, he submitted it," &c. There are three participles, the Present or Active, the Perfect or Passive, and the Compound Perfect: as, " loving, loved, having loved." — Seep. 102. Agreeably to the general practice of grammarians, we have represented the present participle, as active ; and the past, as passive : but they are not uniformly so : the present is sometimv}'} passive ; and the past is frequently active. Thus, " The youth mas .consuming by a slow malady ;" " The Indian was burning by the cruelty of his enemies ;" appear to be instances of the present participle being used pas^vely. " He kas instructed me ;" " I have gratefully repaid his kindness ;" are examples of the past participle being applied in an active sense. We may also observe, that the present participle is sometimes associated with the past and future tenses of the verb ; and the past parti- ciple connected with the present and future tenses. — Tb*"- most unexceptionable distinction which grai lans mak^ between the participles, is, that the one poin.s to the con- tinuation of Ihe action, passio.i, or state, ueuote(|l oj the D2 76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Terb ; and the other, to the completion of it. Thus, the preient participle signifies imperfect action, or action begua and not ended : as, " I am nriiing a lett^r.'^ The past par dciple signihea action perfected^ or finished: as, ' ^ ii'^^ •KrilUn a letter;" " The letter is rvrilten."^ The participle is distinguished from the adjeotiye, by the former's expressing the idea of time, and the latter'a de- noting only a quality. The phrases, " loving to give as well as to receive," " moving in haste," '* heated with li- quor," contain participles giving the idea of time ; but the epithets contained in the expressions, " a loving child," " a moving spectacle," " a heated imn urination," mark sim- ply the qualities referred to, without any regard to time ; and may properly be called participial adjectives. Participles not only convey the notion of time ; but they also signify actions, and govern the cases of nouns and pro- nouns, in the same manner as verbs do ; and therefore should be comprehended in the general name of verbs. That they are mere modes of the verb, is manifest, if our definition of a verb be admitted : for they signify being, doing, or suffer- ing, with the designation of time superadded. But if the esi^ence of the verb be made to consist in affirmation or assertion, not only the pcirdciple will be excltided from its place in the verb, but the infinitive itself also ; which cer- tain ancient grammarians of great authority held t'< he alon'^ the genuine verb, simple and unconnected with persons and'circumstances. TTie following phrases, even when considered I^ them' selves, show that participles include the idea of tithe': " The letter being nritten; or having been written;" "Charles being writing, having written, or hamng been writing." But when arranged in an entire sentence, which tliey mttst be to make a complete sensr they show it stiff more evi- dently : as, " Charles having written the letter, sealetl and * When this participle is joined to the verb to havt, it is called pc^ect ; wben it is join^ to iho verb to be, or UDden%tood with it, it is uvuo iiuated paaivt. tmg. milst le cvi- Idancl If ben it EXyMOLOGT. 77 degpatched it."— The participle does indeed associate with different tenses of the verb : as, " I am writing," " I was writing," " I shall be writing :" but this forms no just ob- jection to its denoting time. If the time of it is often rela- tive time, this circumstance, far from disproving, supports our positionf. See observations under Rule 15 of Syntax. Participles sometimes perform the office of substantives, and are used as such ; as in the following instances : " The beginning;" " a good understanding ;" excellent wriling i^ " The chancellor's being a'dached to the king secured his crown :" " The general's having failed in this enterprise occasioned his disgrace ;" " John's having been rvriling a long time had wearied him." That the wonls in italics of the three Intter examples, perform the office of substantives, and may be considered as such, will be evident, if we reflect, that tlie first of them has exactly tJio same mean'r.or and construction as, " The chancellor's attachment to th«. king securoa his crown ;" and that the other examples wii^ jar a siniilar construction. TJie words, being ailacfiedf. govern be word chancellor's in the possessive case, in the one instance, as clearly as attach- ment governs it in that case, in the otli* and it is only substantives, or words and phrases whici operate as sub- stantives, that govern the genitive or possessive case. The following sentence is not precisely the same as the above, either in sense or construction, though, except the getitive case, the words are the same ; " The chancellor, being attached to the king, secured his crown." In the former, the words, being attached, form the nominative case to the verb, and are stated as the cause of the effect ; in the latter, they are not the nominative case, and make only a circumstance to chancellor, which is the proper no- minative. It may not be improper to add another form of t From the very nature of time, an action may be pretent now, it may have beeit freteet fertnirly, or it may he present at some ftiture period— yet who ever suppos* ad, that the [ireseut of the iudicative denotes do time ? Encydopotdia BrVannica. 78 ENGLISH GRAMMAh. tiiie sentence, by which the learner may better understand the peculiar nature and form of each of these modes of ex- pression : " The chancellor being attached to the king, his crown was secured." This constitutes what is properly called, the Case Absolute. . Section 4. Remarks on the Potential Mood. That the Potential Mood should be separated from the subjunctive, is evident, from the intricacy and confusion which are produced by their being blended together, and from the distinct nature of the two moods ; the former of which may be expressed without any condition, supposi- tion, &,c. as will appear from the following instances : " They might have done better ;" " We may always act uprightly ;" " He was generous, and would not take ro- VPRgc ;" " We sho*fM resist the allurements of vice j" " I could formerly indulge myself in things, of which I cannot now think but with pain." Some grammarians have supposed that the Potential Mood, as distinguished above from the Subjunctive, coin- cides with the Indicative. But as the latter " simply in- dicates or declares a thing," it is manifest that the former, 'which modifies the declaration, and introduces an idea materially distinct from it, must be considerably different. " I can walk," " I should walk," appear to be so essentially distinct from the simplicity of, " I walk," " I walked," as to warrant a correspondent distinction of moods. The Im- perative and Infinitive Moods, which are allowed to retain their rank, do not appear to contain such strong marks of discrimination from the Indicative, as are found in the Po- tential Mood. There are other writers on this subject, who exclude the Potential Mood from their division, because it is formed, not by varying the principal verb, but by means of the auxiliary verbs mayj can, might, cotdd, woidd, &.c • but if we recollect, that moods are used " to signify various ETYMOLOOT. 79 intentions of the mind, and various modifications' and cir- cumstances of action," we shall perceive that those auxii liarioe, far from interfering with this design, do, in the clearest manner, support and exemplify it. On the reason alleged by these writers, the greater part of the Indicative Mood must also be excluded ; as but a small part of it is conjugated witliout auxiliaries. The Subjunctive too will fare no better ; since it so nearly resembles the Indicative, and is fonned by meanp; of conjunctions, expressed or un- derstood, which do not more effectually show the varied intentions of the mind, than the auxiliaries do which are used to form the Potential Mood. Some writers have given our moods a much greater ex- tent than we have assigned to them. They assert that the English language may be said, without any great impro- priety, to have as many moods as it has auxiliary verbs ; and they allege, in support of their opinion, that the com- pound expression which they help to form, point out those various dispositions and actions, which, m other languages, are expressed by moods. This would be to multiply the moods without advantage. It is, however, certain, that the conjugation or variation of verbs, in the English language, is effected, almost entirely, by the means of auxiliaries. We must, therefore, accommodate ourselves to this cir- cumstance ; and do that by theif assistance, which has been done in the learned languages, (a few instances to the con- trary excepted,) in another manner, namely, by varying the form of the verb itself. At the same time, it is neces- sary to set proper bounds to this business, so as not to oc- casion obscurity and perplexity, when we mean to be sim- ple and perspicuous. Instead, therefore, of making a sepa- rate mood for every auxiliary verb, and introducing moods IntfTrogativR, Optative, Promissive, Hortative, Precative, &c. we have exhibited such only as are obviously distinct ; and whicli, whilst they are calculated to unfold and display the Bubject intelligibly to the learner, seem to be sufficient, and 80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. not more than sufficient, to answer a]l the purposes for which moods were introduced. =a< . . From Grammarians who form their ideas, and make their decisions, respecting this part of English Grammar, CO the principles and construction of languages, which, in these points, do not suit the peculiar nature of our own, but differ considerably from it, we may naturally expect grammatical schemes that are not very perspicuous nor perfectly consistent, and which will tend more to pe\'plex than inform the learner. See pages 84 — 86. 109 — 104. 108—111.201—203. Section 6. Of the Tenses. Tense, being the distinction of time, might seem to iiidmrt only of the present, past, and future ; but to mark it more accurately, it is made to consist of six varia- tions, viz. the PRESENT, the imperfect, the perfect, the PLUPERFECT, ajid the first and second future tenses. The Present Tense represents an action or event, as passing at the time In which it is mentioned : as, " I rule 5 I am ruled j I think ; J fear." The present tense likewise expresses a character, quality, &c. at present existing : as, " He is an able man ;" " She is an amiable woman." It is also used in speaking of actions continued, with occasional intermissions, to the present time : as, " He f cequently rides ;" " He walks out every morning;" "He goes intp the country every sum- mer." We sometimes apply this tense even to persons long since dead : as, '' Seneca reasons and moralizes well;" " Job speaks feelingly of his afflictions." The present tense, preceded by the words, when^ before^ after^ as soon as^ &c. is sometimes used to point out the relative time of a future action : as, " Wlien he arriTcs he will hear the news ;" " He will hear the news before he arrives, or as soon as he arrives, or, at farthest, soon q/ler -7. (( the he he fler ETYMOLOGY. 8 I he arrives ;" " The more she improves^ the mojre amiable she will be." . ' . , In anhuated historical narrations, this tense is sometimes substituted for the imperfect tense: as, "He enters the ter- ritory of the peaceable inhabitants ; he fights and conquerSf takes an immense booty, which he divides amongst his sol- diers, and returns home to enjoy an empty triumph." The Imperfect Tense represents the action or evetit, either as past and finished, or as remaining unfinished at a certain time past : as, "I loved her for her modesty and virtue ;" " They were travelling post when he met them." The Perfect Tense not, only refers to what is past, but also conveys an allusion to the present time : as, " I have finished my letter ;" " I have seen the person that was recommended to me." In tlie former example, it is signified that the finishing of the letter, though past, was at-a period imraediateiy, or very nearly, preceding tiie present time. In the latter in- stance, it is uncertain whether the person mentioned W93 seen by the speaker a long or short time before. The meaning is, " I have seen him some time in the course of a period which includes, or comes to, the present time." When the particular time of any occurrence is specified, as prior to the present time, this tense is not used : for it woulu be improper to say, " I have seen him yesterday ;" or, " I fiave finished my work last week." In these cases the imperfect is necessary : as, " I saw him yesterday ;" " I finished my work last week." But when we speak indefi- nitely of any thing past, as happening or not happening in the day, year, or age, in which we mention it, the perfect must be employed : rs, " I have been there this morning ;" " I have travelled much this year :" " We Jmve escaped many danger's thi ^ :5gh life." In referring, however, to such a di- visior o ''7« i\ay as is past before the time of our speaking, 82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. we use the imperfect : au, " They came home early this morn- ing .)> « He wds with them at three o'clock this afternoon." The perfect tense, and the imperfect tense, both denote a thing that is past; but the former denotes it in such a man- ner, that there is still actually remaining some part of the time to slide away, wherein we declare the thing has been done ; whereas the imperfect denotes the thing or action past, in such a manner, that nothing remains of that time in which it was dene. If we speak of the present century, we say, " Philosophers have made great discoveries in the pre- sent century :" but if we speak of the last century, we say, *' Philosophers inade great discoveries in the last century." " He fias been much afflicted this year;" "I have this week read the king's proclamation ;" " I have heard great news this morning :" in these instances, "He^Aeen," "I have read^^' and " heard," denote things that are past ; but they occurred in this year, in this week, and to-day ; and still there remains a part of this year, week, and day, whereof I speak. In general, the perfect tense may be applied wherever the a';tion is connected with the present time, by the actual existence, either of the author,, or of the work, though it may havp been performed many centuries ago ; but if neither the author nor the work now remains, it cannot be used. We may say, " Cicero has rvritten orations ;" but we cannot say, " Cicero has written poems ;" because the ora- tions are in being, but the poems are lost. Speaking of priests in general, we may say, " They have in all ages claimed great powers ;" because the general order of the priesthood still exists : but if we speak of the Druids, as any particular order of priests, which does not now exist, we cannot use this tense. We cannot say, " The Druid priests have claimed great powers ;" but must say, " The Druid priests claimed great powers ;" because that order is now totally extinct. See Pickbourn on the English verb. The Pluperfect Tense represents a thing, not only as past, but also as prior to some other point of time only time ETYMOLOGr. 83 specified in the sentence : as, " I hsid finished my letter before he arrived." The First Future Tense represents the action as yet to come, either with or without respect to the precise time : as, " The sun will rise to-morrow ;" " I shall see them again." - The Second Future intimates that the action will be fully accomplished, t-X or before the time of another future action or event : as, " I shall have dined at one o'clock;" "The two houses will have finished their business, when the king comes to prorogue them."f It is to be observed, that in the subjunctive mood, the event being spoken of under a condition or supposition, or in the form of a wish, and therefore as doubtful and con- tingent, the verb itself in the preseiit, and the auxiliary both of the present and past imperfect times, often carry with them somewhat of a future sense : as, " If he come to- morrow, I may speal< lo him ;" " If he should, or would come to-morrow, I might, would, could, or should speak to him." Observe also, that the auxiliaries should and rvoidd, in the imperfect times, are used to express tlie pre- sent and future as ,7ei; a^ the past : as, " It is my desire, that he should, or would, cow^. now, or to-morrow ;" as well as, " It was my desire, that he should or would come . yesterday." So that in this mood the precise time of the verb is very much determined by the nature and drift of the sentence. The present, past, and future tenses, may be use^ either definitely or indefinitely , both with respect to time and cue- Hon. When they denote customs or habits, and not indi- vidual acts, they are applied indefinitely : as, " Virtue pro- inot^s happiness ;" " The old Romans governed by benefits more than by fear;" "I shall hereafter etnploy my time more usefuUy." In these examples, the words, promote,^, t Sea in ■eeount of tbe timplt and compeitHd tenses, at page 100. 84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. govemedj and shall employ, are used indefimtety, both in regftrd to action and time ; for they are not con6ned to in- dividual actions, nor to any precise points of present, past, or future time. When they are applied to signify particu- lar actions, and to ascertain the precise points of time to which they are confined, they are used definitely; as in the following instances. " My brother is miting;" " He built the house last summer, but did aot inhabit it till yesterday." " He tviil write another letter to-morrow." The different tenses also represcLt an action as complete or perfect, or as incomplete or imperfect. In the phrases, " I am writing," " I was writiiig,' " I shall be writing," imperfect, unfinished actions are signified. But the follow- ing examples, " I wrote," " I have written," " I had written," " I shall have written," all denote complete perfect action. From the preceding representation of the difierent tenses, it appear?, that each of them has its distinct and peculiar province ; and that though some of them may sometimes be used promiscuously, or substituted one for another, in cases where great accuracy is not required, yet there is a real and essential difference in their meaning. — It is also evident, that the English language contains the six tenses which we hare enumerated. Grammarians who limit the number to two, or at most to .three, namely, the present, the imperfect, and the future, do not reflect that the English verb is mostly composed of principal and auxiliary ; and that these several parts constitute one verb. Either the English language has no regular future tense, or its future is composed of the auxiliary and the principal verb. If the latter be admitted, then tlie auxiliary and principal united, constitute a tense, in one instance ; and, from reason and analogy, may doubtless do so, in others, in which minuter divisions of time are necessary, or useful. What reason can be assigned for not considering this case as other cases, in which a whole is regarded as composed of several parts^ 01 of pnncipal and adjuncts ? There is nothing heterogene oi n( GI « )D J8, ETYMOLOGT. 85 OU8 in the parts : and precedent, analogy, utility, and even necessity, authorize the union. '"'',•, In support of this opinion, we have the authority of eminent grammarians ; in particular, that of Dr. Beattle. " Some writers," says the doctor, " will not allow any thing to be a tense, but what in one inflected word, ex- presses an affirmation with time ; for that tliose parts of the verb are not properly called tenses, which assume that appearance, by means of auxiliary words. At this rate, we should have, in English, two tenses only, the present and the past in the active verb, and in the passive no tenses at all. But this is a needless nicety; and, if adopted, would introduce confusion into the grammatical art. If uinaveram be a tense, why should not amalus fueram ? If / heard be a t«nse, / did Jiear, I Imve heard, and / shaU hear, must be equally entitled to that appellation." The proper form of a tense, in the Greek and Latin tongues, is certainly that which it has iu Uie grammars of those languages. But in the Greek and Latin grammars, we uniformly find, that some of the tenses are formed by variations of the principal verb ; and others, by tire ad- dition of a helping verb. It is, therefore, indisputable, that the principal verb, or rather its participle, and an auxiliary, constitute a regular tense in the Greek and Latin languages. This point being established, we may, doubtless, apply it to English verbs ; and extend the princifile as far as con- venience, and the idiom of our language require. If it should be said, that, on the same ground that a par- ticiple and auxiliary are allowed to form a tense, and the verb is to be conjugated accordingly, the English noun and pronoun ought to be declined at large, with articles and prepositions ; we must object to the inferenco. Such a mode of declension is not adapted to our language. This we think has been already provedf . It is also confessedly ioapphcable to the learned languages. Where then is the t Soe page 54. 86 ENGLISH GRAMMAB. grammatical inconsistency, or the want of conformity to the principles of analogy, in making some tenses of the English verb to consist of principal and auxiliary ; and the caEcs of English nouns, chiefly in their termination ? The argument from analogy, instead of militating against us, ap- pears to confirm and establish our position. See pages 78— 80.— 102— 104. 108—111. 201—203. We siitt!! close these remarks on the tenses, with a few observations extractet^ Trom the Encyclopaedia Britan- MCA. They are worth the student's attention, as a part of them applies, not only to our views of the tenses, but to many other parts af the work. — " Harris (by way of hypo- thesis) has enun/ Tned no fewer tlian twelve tenses. Of this enumeration we can b'' no means approve : for, without entering into a minute examination if it, nothing can be more obvious, than that his inceptive present^ " I am going to write," is a future tense ; and his completive present^ " I have written," a past tense. But, as was before observed of the classification of words, we cannot help being of opini- on, that, to take the tenses as they are commonly received, and endeavour to ascertain their nature and their differ- ences, is a much more useful exercise, as well as more proper for a work of this kind, than to raise, as might easily be raised, new theories on the 8ubject."f Section 6. ^he Conjugation of the auxiliary verba TO HAVE and to be. The Conjugation of a verb, is the regular combina- tion and arrangement of its several numbei's, persons,^ moods, and tenses. . The Conjugation of an active verb is styled the acti VK voice; and that of a passive verb, the passive voice. t The followiog critici<e exactly signittcant of their nature and distinctions. But as they are u.sed by grammarians in general, and have an established authority ; and, espflcially, as tlte meaning attached to each of them, and their diRereut significations, have been carefully explained ; we presume that no solid objection can be made to the use of teriDB so generally approved, and so explicitly defined. See page 86 and 88. W« are supported in these sentiments, by the authority of Dr. Johnson. See the first note in his " Grammar of the English Tong^ie," prefixed to his dictionary-. If, however, any teatlers should think it warrantable to change the established names, they cannot perhaps find any more ap.'>ropriate, than the isiXSm^Titputirii, «c£rm* fTtteril, and tMrd prtttrit—)i6t the Octavo Gramaiw. 86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ^ SECOND FUTURE TENSE, i BIRODLAt. FLURAIi. ' 1. I shall have had. 1. We shall have had. 2. Thou wilt have had. 2. Ye or you will have had. S. He will have had. 3. They will have had. • Imperative Mood. aiNOCLAR. 1. Let me have. 2. Have, or have thou, or do thou have. 3. Let him have. PLURAL. 1. Let US have. 2. Have, or have ye, or do ye or you have. 3. Let them havef . The imperative mood is not strictly entitled to three per- sons. The command is always addressed to the second person, not to the first or third. For when we say, " Let me have," " Let him, or let them have," the meaning and construction are, do thou, or do ye, let me, him, or them have. In philosophical strictness, both number and person might be entirely excluded from every verb. They are, in fact, tlie properties of substantives, not a part of the essence of a verb. Even the name of the imperaUve mood, does not always correspond to its nature : for it sometimes petitions as well tis commands. But, with respect to all these points, the practice of our grammarians is so uniform- ly fixed, and so analogous to the languages, ancient and modern, which our youth have to study, that it would be an unwarrantable degree of innovation, to deviate from the established terms and arrangements. See the adveriise- ment at the end of the Introduction, page 8 ; and the quo- tatio^ from the Encyclopaedia Britannica, page 86. Potential Mood. PRESENT TENSE. •^ pi.rnAL 1. We may or" can have. •IROCLAS. 1. I may or can have. 2. Thou mayst or canst have.2. Ye or you may or can have 3. He may or can have. 3. They may or can have. 1. I she 2. TJ woi 3. Hi or t If such sentences should be rigorously examined, the Imperative will q;>pear to consist merely in the word let. Hee Parting, p. 223. .- ETTMOLOGF. ^ 89 ■ . ■■ ■■ IMPERFECT TENSE. ■ .Ji.\'-.' ^ •IiraVbAB. ''"V. PLURAL. 1. I might, could, would, or 1. We mi^ht, could, woui< , should have. ■ ^■' or should have, • < 2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, wouldst or shouldst have. would, or should have. S. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, or should have. or sl^ould have. PERFECT TENSE. SinOULAR. PttlBAL. 1 . I may or can have had. 1 . We may or can have had. 2. Thou may st or canst have 2. Ye or you may or caii had. have had. 3. He may or can have had. 3. They may or can have had. PLUPERFECT TENSE. SllfOnLAR. PLURAL. 1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, should have had. or shouid have had. 2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could i wouldst, or shouldst have would, or should h^vc had. . had. 3. He might, could, would, S.'They might, could, would, or should have had. or shouid have had|. Subjunctive Mood. PRESENT TENSE. PLURAL. 1 . If we have. ^ 8IIV0ULAR. 1 If I have. 2. If thou havef . 3. If he havef. 2. If ye or you have. 3. If they have. IJ Shall and mill, nhen tbey denote incllination, resolution, promise, may be con- sidered, aa 'well as their relations thould and would, as belonging to the potential mood. But as they generally signify futurity, they have teen appropriated, m helping verbs, to the formation of the future tenses of the indicative and subjunc- tive moods. . . t Grammarians, in general, conjugate the present of the auxiliary, in this man- ner. But we presume that this is the form of the verb, considered te a prineif^ not as an atmliary verb. See page 200. Note i. do ENGLISH ORAMMiR. ft ' Thr remaining tenses of the subjunctive elo >d, are, in every respect, similar to the eorrespondenrt tenses of the indicative moodf ; with the addition to the verb, of a con- junction, expressed or implied, u^noting a condition, mo- tive, wish,, supposition, &c. It will be proper to direct the learner to repeat all the tenses of this mood, with a con- junction prefixed to each of them. See, on this subject, the observations at page 103 ; and the notes on the nine- teenth rule of syntax. Infinitive Mood. PRESENT. To have. perfect. To have had. PARTICIPLES. PRESENT OR ACTIVE. Having. , PERFECT. Had. COMPOUND PERFECT. Having had. As the subjunctive mood, in English, has no variation, in the form of the verb, from the indicative, (except in the present tense , and the second future tense, < f verbs general- ly, and the present and imperfect tenses of the verb to be,) it would be superfluous to conjugate it in Ihis ^«ork, through every tense. But all the other moods an»> ienses of the verbs, both in the active and passive voices, are conjugated at large, that the learners may have no doubts or misap- prehensions respecting their particular forms. They to whom the subject of grammar is entirely new, and young persons especially, are much more readily and effectually instructed, by seeing the parts of a subject so essential as the verb, unfolded and spread before them, in ail their varie- ties, than by being generally and cursorily informed of the inunner in which they may be exhibited. The time em- ployed by the scholars, in consequence of this display of the verbs, is of small moment, compared with the advan- tages which they will probably derive from the plan. 1 Except tb^t the second and third persons, singular and plural, of the second future temx, require the auxiliary thall, shall, instead of nilt, mill. Thui. " He wtU have completed, the work by midsummer," is the indicative form : but the •ubjuDctive is, " If he thall have completed the work by midsummer " It mi persous memory I namely, first Jutil to memo! the busii progress general may afte| Jt app< era, to m (he tense some gn feet tens( they are to time, will appc but he wo in time ;'' " He was misunder might ha\ done it b( some oc should, r< The m person si the aux)l tense, in plied, n ferred fr notice, u served t " He sha arrives » ITTMOLOOT. 01 It may not, however, be generally proper for young persoua l.> ming the study of grammar, to commit to memory all the tenses of the verbs. If the simple tenses, namely, the present and the imperfect, together with the first future tense, should, in the first instance, be committed to memory, and the rest carefully perused and explained, the business will not be tedious to the scholars, and their progress will be rendered more obvious and pleasing. The general view of the subject, thus acquired and impressed, may afterwards be extended with case and advantage. Jt appears to be proper, for the information of the learn- ers, to maliv a few observations in this place, on some of fhe tenses, &.c. The first is, that, in the potential mood, some grammarians confound the present with the imper- fect tense ; and the perfect with the pluperfect But that they are really distinct, and have an appropriate reference to time, correspondent to the definitions of those tenses, will appear from a few examples : " I wished him to stay, but he would not ;" " I could not accomplish the business in time ;" " It was ray direction that he should submit ;" " He was ill, but I thought he might live :" " I may have misunderstood him ;" " He cannot have decHved me :" " He might have finished the work sooner, but he could not have done it better." — It must, however, be admitted, that, on some occasions, the auxiliaries might, could, would, and should, refer also to present and to future time. See page 83. The next remaik is, that the auxiliary will, in the first person singular and plural of the second future tense ; and the auxi Uary shall, in tlie second and third persons of that tense, in the indicative mood, appear to be incorrectly ap- plied. The impropriety of such associations may be in- ferred from a few examples : " I will have had previous notice, whenever the event happens ;" " Thou shall have served thy apprenticeship before the end of the year ;" " He shall have completed his business when the messenger arrives " " I shall have had ; thou rcilt have served ; he I IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) I '^i^' V ^' MP 1.0 I^|2j8 |2.5 |5o "^ MHi ■^ liiik |2.2 1.4 1 1.6 I.I 1 1.25 II II V3 72 /. >v ^>' SS '-5/ y Photographic Sciences Corporation •»-Q^- <^ 'i3 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 IL ^ .A. <> ''\V^W- -.•■(■^ 92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. mitt hare completed," &c. would bare been correct, and applicable. The peculii^r in^port of the^e auxiliaries, as explained ip page 98, under eepl'on 7, seemi^ to. account for their impropriet;|r In the applicatipns just mentioned. ♦Some writers on Gramj^nar oly'^ct to the propriety qf ad- mitting the second future, in both the indicative and sub- junctive moods : but that this tense is applicable to both moods, will be manifei^t from the following examples. " John will have earned his wages the next new-year's day," is a simple declaration, and therefore in the indicative mood : " If he shall have finished his work when the bell rings, he will be entitled to the reward," is conditional and conlin gent, and is therefore in the subjunctive, mood- We shall conclude these detached observations, with one remark which may be useful to the young scholar, namely, tliat as the indicative mood is converted into the subjunctive, by the expression of a condition, mofiye, wifdi, supposition, 2cc. being superadded to it ; so the potential mood may, in like manner, be turned into the subjunctive ; as will be seen in the following examples : "If I could deceive him, I should abhor it ;" " Thougli he should increase in wealth, he would not be charitable ;" " Even in prosperity he would gain no esteem, unless he should conduct himself better." . The auxiliary and neuter verb To be, is conjugated as fellows: r , ... ^ TO BE. ;^ i i . INDICATIVE MOOD. SIIfGCLAB. 1. I am. 2. Thou art. 3. He, she, or it is. SIHGVLAB. 1. I was. 2. Thpu wast. 3. He was. PKESENT TENSE. FliVRAL*. . 1 . We are 2. Ye or you are* 3. They are. IMPERFECT TENSE. PLVRAL. (,; 1, Wfc were. 2. Ye or you were. 3. They were. 1. I 2. 3. H( ETTMOLOGT 93 rERPECT TENSE. aiSOVLAl. 1. I have been. 2. Thou hast bees. 3. He hath or has been. #LURAL. 1. We have been. ^. Ye or you have been* 3. The. have been. PLUrisRFECT TENSE. •mOULAR. 1. I had been. 2. Thou hadst bieeik 3. He had been. PLURAL. J, We had been. 2. Ye or you hdd be';ia. 3. Thiey had been. T FCRST FUTURE TfcNSE. SIROl'LAR. 1. I dhall of will be. 2. Thou shalt or wilt be. 2. Ye or you shall or will be. 3. He shall or will be. 3. They shall or will be. _ PLURAL. 1. We shall or will be. MjU ■ r- tSfiCOND FUTURE TENSE. . T' ■ . '- I».-T • -r i" ■■'■ t SiNbULAR. PLURAL. "' * ... 1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have bieeik. ^ 2. Thou wilt have been. 2. Ye or you will have beien. 5. He will have heeiu 3. TheywillhaVebben. .Imperative Mood. SINOULAR. PLURAL. >- 1 Let me be. 1. Let us be. * 2. Be thou or do thou be. 2. Be ye gr you, or do ye be. 3. Let him be. . 3. Let them be. .' Potential Mood. ■• PRESJBNT TENSE. '" .v^ • .-.«•? sinauLA*. „ -*• ;. .; plural. .-y.o'^^ l'\; 1. I may or can be. 1. We may or can b€.^^( 2. Thou mayst or canst be. 2. Ye or you may or can be. 3. He may or can be. 3. They may or can be. ' 84 ENOUSH GRAMMAR. ••■•V.K if: ' 2 IMPERFECT TENSE. 9I50CI>AK. PLUKAIi. 1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, should be. cr should be. 2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, wouldst, or shouldst be. would, or should be. 3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, or should be. or should be. _ PERFECT TENSE. ,.,t -. SmOCLAR. " ' PLURAL. 1. I may or can have been. 1. We may or can have been. 2. Thou mayst or cansthave 2. Ye or you may or can been. -' have been. 3. He may or can have 3. They may or can have been. been. • it aiNOVLAR. PLUPERFECT TENSE. PLURAL. 1. I might, could, would, or should have been. 2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have been. 3. He might, could, would, or should have been. 1. We might, could, would, or should have been. 2. Ye or you might, could, would, or should have been. 3. They might, could, wc or should have been. M CIHODLAK.^^ 1. If I be. 2. If thou be. 3. If he be. ■IRSVLAR. 1. If I were. 2. Ifthouwert S. If he were. Subjunctive Mood. FREEENT TENSE. PLURAL. 1. If we be. 2. If ye or you be. 3. If they be. IMPERFECT TENSE. PLURAL. 1. If we were. 2. If ye or you were. 3. If they were. , would, :, could, I, would, Lvebeen. T or can an have 1, would, it, could, Id have > wc ben. ETYMOLOGY. - 95 The remaining tenses of this mood are, in general, simi- lar to the correspondent tenses of the Indicative mood. See pages 90, 102, 103, and the notes under the nineteenth rule of syntax. ,.!:) Infinitive Mood. PERlTECT. To have been. PEEBENT TENSE. To be. Participles. v PRESENT. Being. perfect. Been. COMPOUND perfect. Having been. • ; i SectYon 7. T/ie Auxiliary Verbs conjugated in their sim- ple form; with observalions on their peculiar ncUwe and force. :-■,;.: ., , , „ .'lu-*:^ i .; .-.;•■ The learner will perceive that the preceding auxiliary verbs, to have and to bet could not be conjugated througli all the moods and tenses, without the help of other auxiliary verbs ; namely, mayj caUf mill, shall, and their variations. That auxiliary verbs, in their simple state, and unassisted by others, are of a very limited extent ; and that they are chiefly useful, in the aid which they afiford in conjugating the principal verbs ; will clearly appear to the scholar, by a distinct conjugation of each of them, uncombined with any other. They are exhibited for his inspection ; not to be committed to memory. r .,:.;: t -,, i' •■ ■ TO HAVE. PRESENT tense Sit^. 1. I have. 2. Thou hast 3. He hath or baf. Plur. 1. We have. 2. Ye w you have. 3. They have. imperfect tense. S^m;. 1. I had. " 2. Thou hadst. 3. He had. Plur. 1. We had. 2. Ye or you had. 3. They had. PKEfBCT. I have had &c. pluperfect. I bad had &e. >< PARTICIPLES. ' ' prisbnt* Having pe%fict. Had. '''-''<; !i. '! ,vi:^\ (.;,+:.! ■^;s 1^- '■:;r ,»f i'l;- .■; u' ,! ■ M t •/.;"« 7 b : /;»>■„ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. '■'. iV ; ; ••■' ''.'/tliHUi: .'Ji~i ■> ••■it i;; TO BE./ ,u^ s ; ■'present tense. • .. i.h: ■ ... •■ Sing. 1. Iain, v 2. Thou art. 3. He is. P/ur. 1. We are. 2. Ye or you are. 3. Tbeyaro. _;,:,« u. -114^. T -• IMPERFBCT TENSE. • -vi^^. 5^171^. 1. I was. 2. Tiiou wast. 3. He was. Plur. 1. We were. 2. Ye or you were. 3. They wer*. PARTICIPLES. - ' ;/ PRESENT. Being. perfect. Been. SHALL. " ^_„ ' present TENsk. Stng. 1. Ishallf. 2. Thou shalt. 3. He shall. Plwr. 1. We shall. 2. Ye or you shall. 3. They shall. ,.*■ ■ •"'■ '•■■'. ;?■ ■■ s: a i:.- ■ > ,^\S ■ IMPERFECT TENSE. Sitig. 1. I should. 2. Thou shouldst. 3. He should. Plur. 1. We should. 2. Ye or you should.3. They should. : ,,..,;,,KM>r.: ;':-^ »^^- ,.,,.. .. .-..,. _ PRESENT TENSE. , .- , .Sing^ 1. I will. " 2. Thou wilt. 3. He will. Plwr. 1. We will. 2. Ye or you will. 3. They Will.' .. ..a , r.c. ■ . IMPERFECT TENSE. • . Sing. 1. 1 vrduld. 2. Thou wouldst. 3. He would. Pktr. 1. We would. 2. Ye or you would. 3. They would. .?^..v ;.. AU\)\ ■>M .:. PRESENT TENS£. . ' .- ■ ' ^ . ! , '• Sing. 1. Itnay. 2. Thou may st. 3. He may. Pkir. 1. We may. 2. Ye or you may. 3. They may. "'''"/■ ' .' IMPERFECT TENSK. ' ' ',," Sing. 1. I might. 2. Thou mightst. 3. He might. Plur. 1. We naijllit. 2. Ye or yotf might. 3. They might. t Shall is heh» ptoperiy used ia the present teqtei. hayiiig tlte aame v»kgf to •A««U Siat can has to could, may to night, aud mili to ivenM. ;■ ( Sing. 1. I can. Plur. 1. We can. Sit^. 1. I could. Sing' 1. I do. Plur. 1. We do. Sing. 1. I did. Plur. 1. We did. 3. He doth or dam. 3. They do. 3. He did. 3. They did. csyto ETTMOLOOr. 9f CJiN. : PRESENT TENSE. 2. Thou canst. 3. He can. 2. Ye or you can. 3. They can. IMPERFECT TENSE. 2. Thou couldst. 3. He could. Plur. 1. We could. 2. Te or you could. 3. They could. TO DO. PRESENT TENSE. 2. Thou dost. 2. Ye or you do. IMPERFECT TENSE. 2. Thou didst. 2. Ye or you did. PARTICIPLES. PRESENT. Doing. PERFECT. DoUC. The verbs havcj be, rvillj and elOf when they are uncoi>' nected with a principal verb, expressed or understood, are not auxiliaries, but principal verbs : as, " We htme enough ;" <^ I am grateful ;'* " He wills it to be so ;" *^ They do as they please." In this view, they also have their auxilia- ries : as, *^ I shaU have enou^ ;" " I mOl be grateful," &cc. The peculiar force of the several auxiliaries will a[^ar from the following account of them. ' Da and difdf mark the action itsetf, or the time of it, wiHi greater enei^ and positiveness : as, " I (^9 speak truth ;" " I <{t(2 respect him;" " Here am I, for thou didsichW me." They are of great use in negative sentences : as, " I dlo rtoi fear ;" " I did not write." Uley are almost univer«illy enipjoyed in asking questions : as, " Does he learn 1" **pid he nc»t write ?" l%ey sometimes also supply iStut plaee of another verik, and make the repetition of it, in the same or- a subsequent sentence, unnecessary : as, ** Yon attend not to your studies as he Feeaest permvuoD^ bul eitieatiBgi ex*^ E 98 ENGLISH GRAHMAKc. horting, commanding : as, "JiCt us know the truth ;" "Let me die the death of the righteous ;" " Let not thy heart be too much elated with success ;" " Let thy inclination sub- mit to thy duty." » . May and might express the possibility c liberty of doing a thing ; can and could^ the power : as, " It may rain ;" " I may write or read ;" " He might have improved more than he has ;" " He can write much better than he could last Miist is sometimes called in for a helper, and denotes necessity : as, " We must speak the truth, whenever we do speak, and we must not prevaricate." » , , . Willf in the first person singular and plural, intimates resolution and promising ; in the second and third person, only foretels : as, " I will rewanl the good, and will punish the wicked ;" " We will remember benefits, and be grate- ful ;" " Thou wilt, or he will, repent of that folly ;" « You or they will have a pleasant walk." Shallf on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretels; in the second and third persons, promises, commands, or threatens : as, " I shall go abroad ;" " We shall dine at nome ;" " Thou shalt, or you shall, inherit the land :" " Ye ehall do justice, and love mercy ;" " They shall ac- count for their misconduct " The following passage is not translated according to the distinct and proper meanings of the words shall and mill: " Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life ; and I will dwell in the house of the Lord for ever ;" it ought to be, " Will follow me," and " I shall dwell." — The foreigner who, as it is 8{dd, fell into the Thames, and cried out ; " I mili be drowned, no body shall help me ;" made a sad misapplica- tion of these auxiliaries. i,j ; ifv;n;j , ior a n\i;'p ^^'us ' These observations respecting the import of the Tcrbar mill and shaU^ must be understood of explicative sentences ; for when the sentence is interrogative, juSt the reverse, for *'m most part, takes place : thus, " I shcUl go ; yon mil ^ ko, rerbs J, for voiU ETTUOLOOT. 99. go ;" express event only : but, " tvUl you go ?" imports intention ; and, " shall I go V* refers to the will of another. But, « He shall go," and « shall he go ?" both imply will j expressing or referring to a command. ..ixfi 4 When the verb is put in the subjunctive mood, the mean- ing of these auxiliaries likewise undergoes some alteration; as the learners will readily perceive by a few examples : " He shall proceed," " If he shall proceed ;" " You shcUl consent," '-^ If you shall consent." These auxiliaries are sometimes interchanged, . in the indicative and subjunctive moods, to convey the same meaning of the auxiliary : as, " He mill not return," "If he shall not return ;" « He shall not return," " If he mill not return." Wouldj primarily denotes inclination of will ; and shoiUdf obligation : but they both vary their import, and are often used to express simple event. «►.>.>-. Section 8. The Conjugalion of regular Verbs ACTIVE. Verbs Active are called Regular, when they form their imperfect tense of the indicative mood, and their perfect participle, by adding to the verb ed, or d only when the verb ends in e ; as, I Present. I favour. Imperfect. I favoured. /' Perf. Particfp. Favoured. I love. I loved. Loved. A Regular Active Verb is conjugated in the follow- ing manner. ,-t ;!;■ TO LOVE. jidicative Mood. PRESENT TENSE. H 8IN0DI.AR. 1. Ilovef. i , «;;i 2. Thou lovest. ' : >. t] S. He, she, or it, loveth ) or loves. .,„ r . J PLURAL. 1. We love. • • 2. Ye or you love. 3. They love. U; t In the present and imperfect tenses, we use a different form of the verb, whea we mean to express energy tmd positivcness : as, " I do love ; thou dost Ioto; M ioet lore ; I did love ; thou didtt love : he did love." E2 100 ' ENGLrSH GRAMMAR. llMeOIilK. IMPERFECT TENSE. PI.VK4L. 1. I loved. SL ThoulOTi^d^t 3^ Be |oT^ 1. We loved. 2. Te or yov loved 3. T^ l^ved. flIIfOUIiAt. PERFECT TENSE. PLURAL. 1. I have loved. 2. Thou hast loved. 3. He bath w has loved. 1. We have loved. 2. Te or you have loved. 3. They have loved. PLUPERFECT TENSE -. •- — . » ■ aiNOUliA*. PLCKAL. 1. I had loved. 1. We h^d loved. 2. Thou hadst loved. 2. Ye or you had loved. 3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. .„^. FIRST FUTURE TENSE. aiSeULAI. PLURAL. 1. I shall w will love. 1. We shall txt wHl love. 2. Thou sbalt or witt love. 2. Ye w you shall w will love: 3. He shall or will love. 3. Tl\ey sbiall o?* will love. " i ■ SECOND FUTURE TENSE ^ IINOCLAR. PLURAL. 1. I M^all have loved. 1. We shall haye loved. % Thou wilt have loved. 2. Ye w you will have loved. 3. He will have loved. 3. Tbey will have loved. Those tenses are called simple tenses, which are formed of the principal, without an auxiliary verb : a^, " I Ipve, I loved." The compound tenses are such as cannot be formed without an auxiliary verb : as, " I Aove loved ; I had loved ; I shall qr vnll love ; I majf loive ; I ma,y be loved ; I may have been loved ;" &cc. These compounds are, however^ to be oonsidered as oiriy different forms of the same verb. t-- i.1^ ETTttOLOGT. 101 Imperative Mood. SINOUtAlJ PLURAL. L Let me love. 1. Let us love. 2. Love, or love thou, or do 2. Love, or love ye or yoa, or do ye love. tliou love. 3. Let him loVe. 3. Let them love. \ tIROUIiA*. Potential Mood. I PRESENT TENSE. PLURAL. 1. I may or can love. 1. We may or can love. 2. Thou mayst or canst love. 2. Ye or you may or can love, 3. He may or can love. 3. They may or can love. IMPERFECT TENSE. / SINOULAR. "■*'" '"" PLURAIi. 1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, should love. or should love. 2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, wouldst, or shouldst love, would, or should love. 3. He might, could, would, 3. They mi^t, Could, would, or should love. or should love. PERFECT TENSE. ' SINOCLAR. PLCRAL. 1. I may or can have loved. 1. We may or can have lOved. 2. Thou mayst or canst have 2. Ye or yon may or can have loved. loved. 3. He may or can have lov- 3. They may or can have lov< ed. ed. 8IN0DLAII PLUPERFECT TENSE. PLURAL. 1. I might, couId,^ould, or should have loved. 2. Thou mightst, couldst, woiddst, or shouldst have loved. 6. He might, could, would, or should have loved. ~ 1. We might, 'could, would, or should have lored. 2. Ye or you mi^t, could, would, or diouldhave lov ed. 3. They might, could, would, or should have loved. . U 102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Subjunctive Mood. PKESEKT TENSE. PLL'RAL. 1 . If we love. ' RiriauiiAR. 1. in love. 2. If thou love. 2. If ye or you love. 3. If he love.' 3. If they love. ' The remaining tenses of this mood, are,, in general, simi- lar to the correspondent tenses of the indicative mood. See page 90, and page 103. *; ^ r , « It may be of use to the scholar, to remark, in this place, that though only the conjunction if is affixed to the verb, any other conjunction proper for the* subjunctive mood, may, with equal propriety, be occasionally annexed. The instance given is sufficient to explain the subject : more would be tedious, and tend to embarrass the learner. Infinitive Mood. PRESENT. To love. PERFECT. To havc loved. PARTICIPLES. PRESENT. Loving. PERFECT. XiOVCd. COMPOUND PERFECT. HaVlUg loVCd. The active verb may be conjugated differently, by adding its present or active participle to the auxiliary verb to be, through all its moods and tenses ; as, instead of " I teach, thou teachest, he teaches," &.C.; we may say, "I am teach- ing, thou art teaching, he is teaching," &,c. : and instead of " I taught," &c. " I was teaching," &.c. and so on, through all the variations of the auxiliary. This mode of conju- gation has, on particular occasions, a peculiar propriety ; and contributes to the harmony and precision of the lan- guage. These forms of expression are adapted to parti- cular acts, not to general habits, or affections of the mind. They are very frequently applied to neuter verbs ; as, " I am musing: he is sleeping^." . ; .i i t As the participle, in this mode of conjugation, perrorms the office of a verb, through all the moods and tenses ; and as it implies the idea of time, and governs the objective case of nouns and pronouns, in the same manner as verbs do ; is it not manifest, that it is a species or form of the verb, and that it cannot bo properly •oBsidered «* t distinct part of speech 1 :.<■<■ ' ETTMOLOOT. ^ 103 Some grammai 'ans apply, what is caUed the conjunctive tennination, to the persons of the principal verb, and to its auxiliaries, through all the tenses of the subjunctive mood. But this is certainly contrary to the practice of good wri- ters. Johnson applies this termination to the present and perfect tenses only. Lowth restricts it entirely to the pre- sent tense ; and Priestly confines it to the present and im- perfect tenses. This difference of opinion amongst gram- marians of such eminence, may have contributed to that diversity of practice, so observable in the use of the sub- junctive mood. Uniformity in this point is highly.desirable. It would materially assist both teachers and learners ; and would constitute a considerable improvement in our lan- guage. On this subject, we adopt the opinion of Dr. LoiVth ; and conceive we are fully warranted by his au- thority, and that of the most correct and elegant writers, in limiting the conjunctive termination of the principal verb, ta the second and third persons singular of the present tense. Grammarians have not only differed in opinion, respect- ing the extent and variations of the subjunctive mood ; but a few of. them have even doubted the existence of such a mood in the English language. These writers assert, that the verb has no variation from the indicative ; and that a conjunction added to the verb, gives it no title to become a distinct mood ; or, at most, no better than it would have, if any other particle were joined to it. To tliese observa- tions it may be replied ; 1st. It is evident, on inspection, that, in the subjunctive mood, the present tense of the principal verbs, the present and imperfect tenses of the verb to Ae, and the second and third persons, in both num- bers, of the second future tense of all verbsf ; require a variation from the forms which those tenses have in the indicative mood. So much difference in the form of the verb, would warrant a correspondent distinction of mood, t We think it has been proTed, that the auxiliary is a constituent part of the verb to which it relates r that tlie principal and its auxiliary form but one verb. I 104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. though the remaining parts of the subjunctive were, in all respects, similar to those of the indicative. In other lan- guages, a principle of this nature has been admitted, both in the conjugation of verbs, and the declension of nouns. 2d. There appears to be as much propriety, in giving a conjunction the power of assisting to form the subjunctive mood, as there is in allowing the particle to to have an ef- fect in the formation of the infinitive moodf. 3d. A con- junction added to the verb, shows the manner of being, doing, or suffering, which other particles cannot show : they do not coalesce with the verb, and modify it, as con- junctions do. 4th. It may be said, " If contingency consti- tutes the subjunctive mood, then it is the sense of a phrase, and not a conjunction, that determines this mood." But a little reflection will show, that the contingent sense lies in the meaning and force of the conjunction, expressed or understood. y - . > ■ This subject may be farther illustrated, by the following observations. — ^Moods have a foundation in nature. They show what is certain ; what is possible ; what is conditional ; what is commanded. They express also oUier conceptions and volitions ; all signifying the manner of being, doing, or suffering. But as it would tend to obscure, rather than elucidate the subject, if the moods were particularly enu- merated, grammarians have very properly given Uiem such combinations and arrangements, as serve to explain the nature of this part of language, and to render the know- ledi^e of it easily attainable. The grammars of some languages contain a greater num- ber of the moods, than others, and exhibit them in differ- ent forms. The Greek and Roman tongues denote them, by particular variations in the verb itself. This form, however, was the effect of ingenuity and improvement : it is not essential to the nature of the subject The moods T Conjunctions have an influence on tlie mood of the following verb. Dr. Btattfe. ConjuncUons have sometimes a government of moods. Dr. Lontk. 2. ETtMOLOBt. 105 may be us effectually designated by a plurality of words, as by a change in the appearance of a single Word ; because the same ideas are denoted, and the same ends accomplish- ed, by either manner of expression. On this ground, the moods of the English Verb, as well as the tenses, are, with great propriety, formed partly by the principal Verb itself, and partly by tile assistance wMch that yerb derives from other words. For further observa- tions, relative to the views and sentiments here advanced, see pages 78—80. 84—86. 108—111. 201—203. PASSIVE. Veebs Passive are called regular, whriri they form their perfect participle by the addition of A or td, to the verb : as, from the verb " To love," is formed the pas- «ve, " I am loved, I was loved, I shall be loved," &c. A passive verb is conjugated by adding the perfect participle to the auxiliary to 6e, through all its changes of number, person, mood., and tense, in the following manner. . ... '^ * ' TO BE i V Indicative Mood. SmSULAR. 1. I am loved.' 2. Thou art loved. 3. He is loved. PRESENT TENSE. PLURAL 1 . We are loved. 2. Ye or you are loved. 3. They are loved. IMPERFECT TENSE. SINOULAR. PLURAL. 1. I was loved. 1. We were loved. 2. Thou wast loved. 2. Ye or you were loved 3. He was loved. 3. They were loved. PERFECT TENSE. 8IN0VLAR. PLURAL. 1. I have been loved. 1. We have been loved. 2. Thou hast been loved. 2. Ye or you have been loved. 3. He hath or has been loved. 3. They have been loved. t 106 ENGLISH OKAUMAR. FLUPERFECT TENSE. • ; < sitrauLAi. <;• * flubal. 1. *I had been loved. 1. We had been loved. 2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. Te w you had been loved . 3. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved. ^ FIRST FUTURE TENSE. ■ BINOVLAR. * PLDBAIi. 1. I shall or will be loved. 1. We shall or will be loved. 2. Thou shalt m wilt be lov- 2. Te or you shall or will be ed. loved. 3. He shall on' will be loved. 3. They shall or will be loved. LSECOND FUTURE TENSE. SINOnLAR. PliURAL. 1. I shall have been loved. 1. We shall have been loved. 2. Thou wilt have been lov- 2. Ye or you will have been ed. loved. 3. He will have been loved. 3. They will have been loved. Imperative Mood. SIHOnLAR. FLORAL 1. Let me be loved. 1. Let us be loved. 2. Be thou loved, or do thou 2. Be ye or you loved, or do be loved. , ye be loved. ' 3. Let him be loved. 3. Let them be loved. RmQTJLAR. Potential Mood. PRESENT TENSE. FLURAL. 1. I may or can be loved. 1. 2. Thou mayst or canst be 2. loved. 3. He may oir can be loved. 3. ' ■ IMPERFECT SlHeCLAR. 1. I might, could, would, or 1. should be loved. 2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. wouldst, or shouldst be loved. 3. He might, could, would, 3. or should be loved. We may or can be loved. Ye or you may m can be loved. They may or can be loved. TENSE. PLURAL. * We might, could, would, or should be loved. Ye w you might, could,, would, w should be loved. They might, i could, would, m should be loved. . -^ .■..r..tj»rtj,r at. 107 PERFECT TENSE. SINOL'IiAR. •"* 1. I may or can loved. 2. Thou mayst or been loved. & He may or can lored. vU]vi:-i i ' i PLURAL. have been 1. We may or can have been loved, canst have 2. Ye or you may or can have been loved. Lave been 3. They may or can have been '•i\ r-:]: ' , loved. • PLVPERFECT TENSE. '' ■ INOULAK. PLURAL. 1. I miglit, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or should have been loved. should have been loved. 2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, wouldst, or shouldst have would, or should have been been loved. loved. 3. He might, could, would or 3. They might, could, would, or should have been loved. should have been loved. . ' ,•■»''■' . ' ' » Subjunctive Mood. PRESENT TENSE. V 8IN0TTLAR. PliURAL. 1. If I be loved. ^ * I. If we be loved. ' 2. If thou be loved. 2. If ye or you be loved. • 3. If he be loved. 3. If thev be loved. IMPERFECT TEN"" i .» RINODLAR. l.-If I were loved. 2. If thou wert loved. S. If he were loved. TLtrrAti. 1. If we were loved. 2. If ye or you were loved. 3. If they were loved. *" The remaining tenees of this mood are, in general, similar to the correspondent tenses of the indicative mood. See pages 90, 103, and the notes under the nineteenth rule of isyntax. J ' , 108 KNOLXSH ORAIfMAB. Infinitivo Mood. PRKICNT TCNIC. PCRrBCT. To bo loTod. To havfl boen lo?ed. Participles. PREiBNT. Being lovod. PKRrECT OR PASSIVE. Lovcd. ', COMPOUND PERrEOT. Having been loved. When an auxiliary is joined to the participle of the prin- cipal verb, the auxiliary goes through all the variations of person and number, and the participle itself continues in- variably the same. When there are (wo or more auxilia- ries joined to the participle, the first of them only is varied according to person and number. The auxiliary must ad- mits of no variation. The neuter verb is conjugated like tho active ; but as it partakes somewhat of the nature of the pae^'ve, it admits, in many instances, of the passive form, retaining still the neuter signification : as, " I am arrived ;" " 1 was gone ;'* " I am grown." The auxiliary verb anit waSt in this case, precisely defines the time of the action or event, but does not change the nature of it ; the passive form still express- ing, not properly a passion, but only a state or condition of being. Section 9. Observations on Passive Verbs. Some writers on grammar assert, that there are no Passive Verbs in the English language, because we have no verbs of this kind with a peculiar termination, all of them beii^ formed by tlie different tenses of the auxiliary to be^ joined to the passive participle of the verb. This is, however, to mistake the true nature of the English verb ; and to regu- late it, not on the principles of our own tongue, but on those of foreign languages. The conjugation, or the variation, of the English verb, to answer all the purposes of verbs, is accomplished by the means of auxiliaries ; and if it be al^ leged that we have no passive verbsj because we cannot .>f KTTrtoLOor. 109 «xli!bit them without having recourse to helping verbB, it may with equal truth be fiaid, that we have no per/ketf ptU' perjhctf or JUture tmstt in the Indicative or subjunctive mood ; since these, as well as some other parts of the verb active, are formed hy auxiliaries. Even the Greek and I^tin passive verbs require an auxi- liary to conjugate some of their tenses; namely, the former, in the .preterit of the optative and subjunctitre moods ; and the latter, in the perfect and pluperfect of the indicative, Uie perfect, pluperfect, and future, of the subjunctive mood, and the perfect of the infinitive. ITic deponent verbs, in Latin, require also an auxiPiary to conjugate se- veral of their tenses. This statement abundantly proves that the conjugation of a verb in the learned languages docs not consist solely in varying the form of the original verb. It proves that these langoages, like our own lan- guage, sometimes conjugate with an auxiliary, and some- times without it. There is, indeed, a difference. What the learned languages require to be done, in some instances, the peculiar genius of our own tongue obliges us to do, in active verbs, principally, and in passive ones, univer- sally. In short, the variation of the verb, in Greek and Latin, is generally accomplished by prefixes, or termina- tions, added to the verb itself; in English, by the addition of auxiliaries. The English tongue is, in many respects, materially dif- ferent from tlie learned languages. It is, therefore, very possible to be mistaken ourselves, and to mislead and per- plex others, by an undistinguishing attachment to the prin- ciples and arrangement of the Greek and Latin Gfamma rians. Much of the confusion and perplexity, which we meet with in the writings of some English GMunmariaos, on the subject of verbs, moods, and conjugations, has arisen from the misapplication of names. We are apt to think, that the old names must always be attached to the ideow- cal forms and things to which they were anciently attadi* I; 110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ed. But if we rectify this mistake, and properly adjust the names to the peculiar forms and nature of the things in our own language, we shall be clear and consistent in our ideas; and, consequently, better able to represent them intelligibly to those whom we wish to inform. , , The observations which we have made under tbis head, and on the subject of the moods in another place, will not .apply to the declension and cases of nouns, so as to require lis to adopt names and divisions similar to those of the ' €}reek and Latin languages : for we should then have more cases than there are prepositions in connexion with the ar- ticle and noun : and after all, it would be a useless, as well as an unwieldly apparatus ; since every English preposition points to, and goyerni, but one case, namely the objective; which is also true with respect to our goyerning verbs and participles. But the conjugation of an English verb in form, through all its moods and tenses, by means of auxiliaries, 80 far from being useless or intricate, is a beautiful and regu- lar display of it, and indispensably necessary to the language. Some grammarians have alleged, that on the same ground that the voices, moods, and tenses, are admitted into the JBnglbh tongue, in the forms for which we have contended, "we should also admit the dual number, the panlo post future tense, the middle voice, and all the moods and tenses, which are to be found in Greek and Latin. But this ob- jection, though urged with much reliance on its weight, is not well founded. If the arrangement of the moods, tenses, &c. which we have adopted, is suited to the idiom of our tongue ; and the principle, on which they are adopted, i' eztentl^d as far as use and convenience require ; where is the impropriety, in arrestmg our progress, and fixing our forms at the pouit of utility ? A principle may be wairant- bbly adopted, and carried to a precise convenient extent, without subjecting its supporters to the charge of incoiisis- iency, for not pursuing it beyond the Une of use and pro* prietar.r't- i'..i •/ ETTM0L06T. Ill The importance of ^ving the ingenious student clear and just ideas of the nature of our verbs, moods, and tenses, will apologize for the extent of the Author's remarks on these subjects, both here and elsewhere, and for his solicitude to Tjimplify and explain them. — He thinks it has been proved, that the idiom of our tongue demands the arrangement he has given to the English verb ; and that, though the learn- ed languages, with respect to voices, moods, and tenses, are, in general, differently constructed from the English tongue, yet, in some respects, they are so similar to it, as to warrant the principle which he has adopted. See pages 78—80. 84—86. 102—104.201—203. Section 10. Of Irregular Verbs. Irregular Verbs are those which do not form their imperfect tense, and their perfect participle, by the ad- dition oi doied to the verb : as, -, Present Imperfect. Perfect Part ,■■:.:■ .' < I begin, "I began, ; ' begun. j; I know I knew, known. '• V IRREOULAR VERBS ARE OF VARIOUS SORTS • ' ' 1. Such as have the present and imperfect tenses, and perfect participle, the same : as. Present Imperfect ., , Perfect Part •?..;; Cost, cost, • , cost ,] m'T Put, put, put. 2. Such as have the imperfect tense, and perfect parti- ciple, the same : as. Present ^ Imperfect , Perfect Part. ,■,'■, Abide, ' abode, " abode. Sell, sold, sold. 3. Such as have the imperfect tense, and perfept parti eiple, different : as, s v^* < •>; Present Imperfect Perfect Ptrt ,, -j ^ *•! i Arise, ^ , arose. Blow, ,^jjj blew, arisen. ^ blown. I • I 112 ENOLISH 0R4MMAR. Kany verbs becomfe irregular bjr contraetion; m, " feed, fed ; leave, left :" others by the terminatioc m ; as, " fkll, fell, fttllen:" others by the termitutioii gkt; as, "boy, bought; teach, tau^," &c. The following list of the irregular verbs will, it is presum- ed, be found b6th comprehensive and accurate. Freseht Abide, \ Imperfect .0-1. abode, Am, ^ ' ' was. Arise, arose. Awake, '>' " awoke, r. Bear, to bring forth^vtef . Perf. or Pan. Part. "abode, been. ■»fc' 'h 1 ; Bear, to carry ^ Beat, Begm, Bend, Bereave, Beseech, Bid, Bind, Bite, Bleed, Blow, Break, Breed, Bring, BoUd, ^urst, uy, ^ast, Catch, Ohlde, Choose, -U ■»( It.i '■/ bore, beat, began, bent, bereft, R. besought, bid, bade, bound, bit, bled, blew, broke, bred, brou^t, buUt, burst, bought, . cast, caught, R. chid, ansen. awaked. ' born. borne. beaten, beat. begun. bent. ber^, R. besought. bidden, bid. bound. bitten, bit bled. blown. broken. bred. brought bdlt burst bought * cast * caught, R. ehiadf n, diid. diosen. chose. Cleave, to^ckHr \ adhere, Jmo^^ar. Cltwe, to 8fHt^ clovei or cleft, I' ckft,el6veft. ' ETTriioLoer. "','' ' u Present. ^ ' ' ' *" ' lapeifeec 't "^ PMr.orFau. Pait. «»; Cling, • "^ dung, '^'^* w clung. , u'iiy Clothe, •'^' :^ clothed,^ i^^*- ^: clad, R. .IVutiJ Come, ' came, '^*' if*, come. .rfiili Cost, • A/i ' cost. cost ,<.utiW Crow, 1'*; crew, R. |* ' 1 crowed. ,.rfj>H Creep," " crept, crept. ,V/;»l-f Cut, '•■ ' cut, ' cut .>bil{ Dare, to venturey durst. dar^. t Dare, a. /o cAa//e7^e. ' ' :i ' UA\ Deal, dealt, K. ' dealt, R. ^•^^.\^ Dig, ' dug, R. dug, R. V.V> :•*';'. Do, did. done. \itU_ Draw, '. drew, ' drawn.* ,.'.-i Drive, r .1 drove, ' driven. "i«>t.kl Drink, ' drank. drunk. ■ /,>.i. Dwell, dwelt, a. dwelt, R. ;'.M^7..i Eat, eat, or ate. eaten. ,vV.^rl Fall, ; fell, fallen. '■■i-jfj. Feed, fed, <■■ fed. • y.I Feel, ' felt, felt.' ' Fight, fought. fought. Find, ' :■■■ found, found. ,:'iC,.... Flee, fled, «\ » fled. ,^hvAf Fling, '■>■■■'- flung. flung. *', : Ir Fly, flew. £|own. V ■ ■ ■' v'' Forget, forgot. forgotten. forgot Forsake, .forsook. forsaken. '. Freeze, ■ ' froze. frozen. ,-.:; .;i Get, ^^ got, gotf. J'VrJ^ Gild, gilt,R. ' gilt, R. ,^■^.1 Gird, -^' ' - i • ■ girt, a. girt, R," ■ J*' Give, ' ■■■'■'-■[■ gave, ■ "' <-- given. -'.iV.AlJ * Go, ' ^ went. gone. i. ■ ' * -' Grave, • graved, graven, r. - ' ! ' t CoflM is Dearly bliolete. Its compound fbfgbUm is still in good uie.*^ 114 ENOLIBH GRAMMAR. Pr«MDt tf'lf'.vV^, Imperfect rerf orP«H. Ftlt,, ., Grind, .i^jul, ground, ^.^ ground. ^,^. Grow, .1 bJli'j'&^'^t .I'9ti3ai grown. ,,^i.,^;| Have, ';j»«a>/"a*^» , jfut had. ^ f,..,s Hang," :J^^y. hung,R. .^^ hung,R. ;,,-») Hear, i»^,Mha.iv? heard, - jr , heard. [kM Hew, ninr* hewed, 'j.^ hewn, R. ,,>>i") Hide, 11,.. hid, J. hidden, hid. •", Hit, ' .c'-Jiiil:- "**> ,i'-,.iil ■ hit ,.,. >,„ J, ^.,.,.u Hold, held. held. v ,, ,;.» Hurt, .a,Hr>-.i,^ hurt, ;,, hurt Keep, .3,',-^i;ii' ^®P*» . :k>- kept. Knit, , ^»(s.)b l"»it> ^ knit, R. .,u Know, ..iws-il?, knew, ,,^ known. ,,;riU Lade, :>/M« Jad«», loaded, j,;.,.,' lad&n, R. Lose, UiW^A. 'OSt, J,.,;, lost .1 .11 / Make, .1 aR ™ade, ;, made. Meet, .ymdi ""^^ met ;^y > Mow, .iw/i'S mowed, mown, R. Pay, , .../ih..'i...i paid, .,,.. . paid. ! J,. 1 Put, ii^ls -^i pnt» .:-> -: put , : ,4,...,.,-.| Read, ,t:,Y.,m wad. read. . >ii Rend, ri 3 wnt. rent , Rid, _;. Jly rid, ^ ■. ■ rid. ,! ;, Ride, ^ \-.^ rcde,' . . rode,"riddenf. ,,, Ring, , ,^^ rung, rang, ™ng. ^ - Rise, .juC '08«» risen. Rive/ ^ ,i(->va;a; "ved, riven. Run, , -:. ^ "^n* run. t Ridden h nearly obsolete ' _,,,./( '•« ETTMOI :.OGT. 1 Pretent a'; - . . Imperfect > ' mi.ili Perf. or Pmi. Pert y^- Saw, '*•■ , Rawed, '">»s "1^ ,.-■ 8awn,R. •' M^ . Say, . >i< ,; said. - '.'■' said. \:'.«''i|V^ See, 'kk/, saw, '-i.K seen. ,* -u-j;';! Seek, !>l^;i sought, .'•ii! • sought. ', 1. ./i' Sell, .i-}Uti' «oW« .!/a'.>i/ sold. , i(' Send, ..un.^ «ent. sent. \, ^ Set, .:^;:;v *«*• . .1 )».'** •et. . '■.;^;. Shake, ^ ' shook. shaken. F •l.--.^'i ii :. nj.* V' ' Shape, shaped. r' ' <- 1 J r J shaped, shapciw Shave, shaved. .» 1 ; ■ shaven, b. Shear, '''■^ sheared, .ri- ^■ shorn. ^'' Shed, '■ shed. •^ .-"^■^^ shed. •'^•^^^ Shine, ' ■ shone, B. t ^ shone, b. Show, ' ,^ showed. »/ shown. Shoe, ' shod. . ' : ^ ' ' shod. '" Shoot, fc J •• shot. shot. t^'"!"" Shrink, . shrunk. 'h ■■''■ shrunk. j . -t Shred, t , , shred, ; „ iif/A-f- shred. ;;. -■f': Shut, ;^ , . shut. fiif.i' shut. ji-., /■: Sing. „.. > sung, sang. ;^v^ sung. .,^r' Sink, flunk, sank. ■ ^.l. u '■ sunk. ., , . Sit, ■ ';;";; sat, sat. Slay > «le^. *•*'"• . u,; Sleep, slept. slept. ;,,; Slide, •' ; slid. * • slidden. ' Sling, slung. . . , ! slung. ' Slink, slunk. , .' ■ •■■..• slunk. •' Slit, ^' 8lit,E. . 'if ■■ r slit or slitted. Smite, ' smote. !> smitten. Sow, ' sowed. sown, B. , Speak, spoke. spoken. ■ Speed, , , .; sped. sped. . . ' Spend, i spent, .J spent. ^. , ' Spill, spilt, B. spilt, B. , ,;^ Spm, ' , spun. ' ^ spun. Spit, spit, spat, spit, spittenf. Split, ;\' split. I split. \i'k t SttUtn is uMrii^ obsolete. 116 BUOLMfr amkVMAR, spread* S»>ring, iod, Steal, Stic. 'I Sting, Stink, Stride, "' Strike, String. Strive, Strow or strew » Swear, Sweat, Swell. * Swim. Swing, Take, Teach, Tear. Tell, Think, Thrive, Throw, Thmst, Trpad, Wax, Wear." Weave, Weep, Win, Wind. Work. Wring. Write, ■-.!»-' Imperfect. tpreiul, sprung, sprang, stood, stole, ■ ' stuck, stung, stunk, strode or strld. struck, strung, ^ «trove. strowed or strewed •1 swore, swet, R. swelled, swum, swam. swung, toolf, taught, tore, told, thought, throve, r. threw, thrust, trod, wazed« wore, wove, weipt. won, wound. wroBfht, ' wrote, Perf. or Put. PltC. > spread, npfung. stood, stolen, stuck. ! ■' swum, swung, taken, taught, torn, told, thought, thriven, thrown, thrust, trodden, waxen, a. worn, woven. '. wept, won. wound. wroa^t or wcAe^. wmng. written. ) n. ickeo. owed, ETTMOLOGT. 117 In the preceding list, some of the verbs will be found to be coqjugated regularly, as well as inreguUi 1y ; and those which admit of the regular form are roari&eU with an i. There iaa preference to be ^ven to some f these, which custom and judgment must determine. Those preterits and participles which are first mentioned in the list, seem to be most eli^pble. The Compiler has not inserted such verbs as are irrep^ilar only in familiar writing or discourse, and which arn li. ip op My terminated by <, instead of ed : as, learnt, sjielf , s^iu, &c. These should be avoided in eveiy 9ort v-r . -japoaition. It is, however, proper to ob- E'irve, ' I- 't some contractions oied into t, are uneiiceptioii- able : and others, the only esjtablished forms of expres- sion: as crept, g^t* &lc. : and lost, fell, slept, &«. These allowable and necessary contractions must therefore be carefully distio^iabed by the learner, from those that are exceptionable. The words which are obsolete have alto been omitted, that the learner might not be induced to mistake themfor words in present use. Such are, wreathen, drunken, holpen, molten, gotten, holden, bound^en, &«. : and Bwang, wrang, slapk, strawed, gat, brake, tare, ware, &cc. Httej. Sf CTiov U- Of Dative Verba ; and of the d^erentwuQif t}| nhich vfirba aire cof^ugaled. Defective verbs are those which are used only in some of their moods and tenses. Prasem Can, Majt Shall, Ought, T%e principal (f them are these. ImnerfwX. could, might, should* would, must, ought, quoth. Peil oxVaaiL Fait ' »■ 118 EN6LISH GRAMUAR. That the verbs must and ougM have both a present and past signification, appears from the following sentences : " I must own that I am to blame ;" " He must have been mistaken ;" " Speaking things which they ought not ;" " These ought ye to have done." ^ In most languages there are some verbs which are defec tive with respect to persons. These are denominated ini' personal verbs. They are used only in the third person, because they refer to a subject peculiarly appropriated to that person ; as, " It rains, it snows, it hails, it lightens, it thunders." But as the word impersonal implies a total ab- sence of persons, it is improperly applied to those verbs which have a person : and hence it is manifest, that 1!here is no such thing in English, nor indeed, in any language, as a sort of verbs really impersonal. The whole number of verbs in the English language, re- gular and irregular, simple and compounded, taken toge- ther, is about 4300. The number of irregular verbs, the defective included, is about 177f. Some Grammarians have thought that the English verbs, as well as those of the Greek, Latin, French, and other languages, might be classed into several conjugations : and that the three different terminations of the participle might be the distinguishing characteristics. They have accord- ingly proposed three conjugations ; namely, the first to con- sist of verbs, the participles of which end in ed, or its con- traction t ; the second, of those ending in ght ; and the third of those in en. But as the verbs of the first conjugation, would so greatly exceed in number those of both the others, as may be seen by the preceding account of them ; and as ttiose of the third conjugation are so various in their form, and incapable of being reduced to one plain rule ; it seems better in practice, as Dr. Lowth justly observes, to consider the first in e<2 as the only regular form, and the other as t The wtiole Bumbcr of wordi. in the English IrngMszt, is about thirty-S'S tbcm . MBd. ETYMOLOGY". 119 deviations from it ; after the example of the Saxon and German Grammarians. Before we close the account of the verbs, it may afford instruction to tlie learners, to be informed, more particular- ly than they have been, that different nations have made use of different contrivances for marking the tenses and moods of their verbs. The Greeks and Latins distinguish them, as well as the cases of their nouns,' adjectives, and participles, by varying the termination, or otherwise chang- ing the form, of the word ; retaining, however, those radical letters, which prove the inflection to be of the same kin- dred with its root The modern tongues, particularly the English, abound in auxiliary words, which vary the mean- ing of the noun, or the verb, without requiring any con- siderable varieties of inflection. Thus, / do love, I did love, I Imve lovedf I had loved, I shall love, have the same import with ajno, amaJbam, amavi, amaveram, dmabo. It is obvi- ous, that a language, like the Greek and Latin, which can thus comprehend in one word the meaning of two or three words, must have some advantages over those which are not so comprehensive. Perhaps, indeed, it miay not be more perspicuous ; but, in the arrangement of words, and consequently in harmony and energy, as well as in concise- ness, it may be much more elegant CHAPTER VII. Of Adverbs. An Adverb is a part of speech joined to a verb, an adjective, and sometimes to another adverb, to express some quality or circumstance respecting it : as, " He reads well;" " A truly good man;" "He v»Tites very correctly" Some adverbs are compared, thus ; " Soon, sooner, soonest;" " often, oftener, oftenest." Those ending in ly, are compared by more, and most : as^ " Wiselyj more wisely, most wisely." 4 120 ENGLISH ORAMMAR. Adverbs seem originally to have been contrived to ex- press compendiously in one word, what must otherwise have required two or more : as, '* He acted wisely," for he acted with wisdom ; " prudently," for, with prudence ; " He did it here," for, he did it in this place ; " exceeding- ly," for, to a great degree ; " often and seldom," for many, and for few times ; " very," for, in an eminent degree, &c. There are many words in the English language* that are sometimes used as adjectives, and sometimes as adverbs : as, " More men than women were there ;" or, " I am more diligent than he." In the former sentence inore is evident- ly an adjective, ami in the latter, an adverb. There are others that are sometimes used as substantives, and some- times as adverbs : as, " To-day's lesson is longer than yes- terday's ;" here to-day and yesterday are substantives, be- cause they are words that make sense c^ tliemselves, and admit besides of a genitive case : but in the phrase, " He camue home yesterday, and sets out again to-day," they are adverbs of time ; because they answer to the question when. The adverb nmch is used as all three : as, " Where much is given, much is reqinired ;" '< Much money has been expended;" "It is much better to go than to stay.'' In the first of these sentences, muck is a substantive ; in the second, it is an adjective ; and in the third, an adverb. In short, nothing but the sense can determine what they are. Adverbs, though very numerous, may be reduced to certain classes, the chief of which are those of Number, Order, Place, Time, Quantity, Manner or Quality, Doubt^ Afllnnation, Negation, Interrogation, and Comparison. , 1% Oltiumber: as, '< Once, twice, thrice," &c. "* 2. Of order : as, " First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, fifthly, lastly, finally," &c. d» Otpleux : M, " Here^ there, where, elsewhere^ any- where, somewhere, nowhere, herein^ whither, hither, thi* ihfiTt upward^ downward, forward, btekwanli whsnce^ hence, thence, whithersoever," &c. : c i d al th w wl he wii wh lere has 1^ Uttmologt/ '121 4. Of tinie. Of feme pr65m< : as, " Now, to-day," &c. Of time pasU as, "Already, before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, hitherto, long since, long ago," &c. Of time to come : as, " To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, henceforth, henceforward, by and by, instantly, presently, immediately, straightway s," &u;. Of time indefimie : as, " Oft, often, oft-times, oftenUmes, sometimes, soon, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, always, when, then, ever, never, again," &i:c. 5. Of quantity: as, "Much, little, sufficiently, how much, how great, enough, abundantly," &:c. 6. Of manner or quality : as, " Wisely, foolishly, justly, unjustly, quickly, slowly," &c. Adverbs of quality are the most numerous kind ; and they are generally formed by adding the termination ly to an adjective or participle, or changing le into ly : as, " Bad, badly ; cheerful, cheerful- ly ; able, ably ; admirable, admirably." ■ 7. Of doubt : as, "Perhaps, peradventure, possibly, per- chance." 8. Of affirmation : as, " Verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubtless, certainly, yea, yes, surely, indeed, really," &c. 9. Of negation : as, " Nay« no, not« by no means, not at all, in no wise," &cc. , 10. Oi itderrogation : as,' "How, why, wherefore, whe- ther," &c. ■W. Of comparison : asj " More, most, better, "best, worse, worst, less, least, very, almost, little, alike," &c. Besides the adverbs already mentioned, there ^e many which are formed by a combination of several of the pre- positions with the adverbs of place here, there, zxAjmhere : as, "Hereof, thereof, whereof; hereto, thcpeto, whereto ; hereby, thereby, whereby ; herewith, therev;ith, where- vrlth ; hereip, therein, wherein ; therefore, (i. e. there-for,) wherefore, (I. e. where-for.) hereupon or hereon, thereupon «i!i**5>.- 122 ENGLISH GBAMMAR. or thereon, whereupon or whereon, &«. Except thereforet these are seldom used. In some instances the preposition suffers no change, but becomes an adverb merely by its application : as when we say, " he rides about ;" " he was mar falling ;" " but do not after lay the blame on me." There are also some adverbs, which are composed of nouns, and the letter a used instead of a/, on, &c. : as, *' Aside, atliirst, afoot, ahead, asleep, aboard, ashore, abed, aground, afloat," &c. The words when and where, and all others of the same nature, such as, whence, whither, whenever, wherever, &c. may be properly called adverbial conjuwUiont, because they .participate the nattire both of adverbs and conjunctions : of conjunctions, as they conjoin sentences ; of adverbs, as they denote the attributes either of titne, or of place. It may be particularly observed with respect to the word •therefore, that it is an adverb, when, without joining sen- tences, it only gives the sense of, for that reason. When it gives tfc:it sense, and also connects, it is a conjunction : as, " He is good, tlierrfore he is hajipy." The same observation may be extended to the words consequently, accordingly, and the like. When the.se are subjoined to and, or joined to if, since, &c. they are adverbs, the connexion being made with- out their help : when they appear single, and unsupported by any other connective, they may be called conjunctions. The inquisitive scholar may naturally ask, what necessity there is for adverbs of time, when verbs are provided with tenses, to show that circumstance. The answer is, though tenses maybe sn£Scient to denote the greater distinctions of time, yet, to denote them all by the tenses would be a per- plexity without end. What a variety of forms must be given to thfe verb, to denote yesterday, to-day, to-morrom, formerly,, lately, just now, now, immediately , presently , soon, hereafter, &c It was this consideration that made the ad- rerbs of time necessary, over and above the tenses. ] • I I I F G .,0 tl P 8C C( th * ETTMOLOGT. 12S iration y,and tot/, with- orted tions. ssity with ough nsof per- bt be romf ad- CHAPTER VIIT. ,' Of PrepoaUiona. Prepositions serve to connect words with one another, and to show the relation between them. They are, for the most part, put before nouns and pronouns, as, ** He went from London to York ;" " She is aiove disguise ;" " They are instructed by him." / The followiog is a list of the principal prepositions : Of into above at off to within below near on or upon for without between up among by over beneath down after with under from before about in through beyond behind againet Verbs are often compounded of a verb and a preposition, as, to uphold, to invest, to overlook : and this composition sometimes gives a new sense to the verb; as, to understand, to withdraw, to for^ve. But in English, the preposition is more frequently placed after the verb, and separately from it, like an adverb, in which situation it is not less apt to affect the sense of it, and to give it a new meaning ; and may still be considered as belonging to the verb, and as a part of it. As, to castf is to throw ; but to cast up^ or to compute, an account, is quite a different thing : thus, to fall on, to bear out, to give over, &u;. So that the meaning of the verb, and the propriety of the phrase, depend on the preposition subjoined. 'In the composition of many words, there are certain syllables employed, which Grammarians have called m- separable prepositions : as, be, con, mis, &cc. in bedeck, conjoin, mistake : but as they are not words of any kind, they cannot properly be called a species of preposition. Que great use of prepositions, in English, is, to express Fl •^^tn- > 11^ BNCLISS GRAMMAR. those relations, which, in Bome languages, are chiefljr marked by cases, or the different endings of nouns. See page 5^, The necessity and use of them will appear from the following examples. If we my, " he writes a pen,'' " they ran the river," " ti)« tower feU the Greeks," " Lam- beth is Weaiininster'abbeyy" ther« is observable, in each ef these expressions, either a toAal waut of connexion, or such a connexion as produces falsehood or nonsense : and it is evident, that, before they can be turned into rense, the va- cancy must be filled up by some connecting word : as thus, " He writes tviih a pen f " tlvey Wii Uwmda the river ;" " the tower fell upon the Greeks ;" " Lambeth is over agqinsl Westmins|er-abbey." We' see by these instances, how prepositions may be necessary to coonect those words, which in their sigmfication are sot naturally connected. Prepositions, in their original and literal acceptafioir, seem, to have denoted relations of place ; bat thpj are now Used J^^raiioely to expressr other relations. For example, as they who are above have in several respects the advan- tage of such as are below, prepos^itions expressing high and low places are used for superiority and inferiority in gene- ral : as, " He is aJI?Qv& disguise ;" " we serve under a good ma^ster ;" " he rales over a willing people ;" " w^e should do nothing beneath out character." The important^ of the prepositions will be further per- ceived by, the explanation of a few of them. 0/ denotes possession or belonging,, an eCTect or conee- quenoe,. and other relations connected with these : as^ , ** The house of my flriend ;" that is, " the house belonging to my friend ;" " He died of a fever ;" that is, " in cosse- r such nd it is the va- is thus, tlver ;'* is ov0r stances, words, ted. ptafioir, are now sample, p advan- ish and gene- a good should ler peF- conse^ se : aSj ,. longmg coBse- "lefroia oroir- LeeouD^ i i iMnioLOGt. lis By is generally used with reference to the cause, agent, means, &u;. ; as, " He was killed by a falf :" that is, <* a fall was the cause of his bemg killed ;" " This house was built hy him ;" that is, " he was the buiMer of it." With denotes the act of accompanying, uniting, &tc. : as, " We will go mth' you ;" " They are on good terms itdih each other." — ^Wilh also alludes to the instrument or means ; as, " He was cut with a knife." In relates to time, place, the state or manner of being or acting, &c. : as, " He was born in (that is, during) the year 1720 ;" " He dwells in the city;" " She lives in affluence." Into is used after verbs that imply motion of any kind < as, " He retired into the country;" " Copper is converted into brass." Within^ relates to something comprehended in any place or time : as, " They are within the house ;" " He began and finished his work within the limited time." The signification of without is opposite to that of wUMm : as, ''She htdJiA^ without the gate:" But it is more frequent- ly o'pposed to with ; as, " You may go mthouiiSie*^ The import and force of the remaining prepositions will be readily understood, without a particular detail of them. We shall, therefore, conclude this head with obberving, that there is a peculiar propriety in distinguishing the use of the prepositions % and with; which is observable in sentences like the following : " He walks with a staff by moonlight ;" ," He was taken by stratagem, and killed with a sword." Put the one preposition for the other, and say, " he walks by a staff with moonlight ; " he was taken with stratagem, and killed by a sword ;" and it will appear, that they differ in signification more than one, at first view, would be apt to imagine. Some of the prepositions have the appearance and effect of conjunctions; as, ^^ After their prisons were thrown open," Sec. " Before I die ;" " They made haste to be prepared against their friends arrived :" but if ihe noun r I N 126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. iimef which is understood, be added, they will idse their conjunctive form ; as, " After [the time when] their pri- sons," &CC. The prepositions qfter^ before^ abovcy beneath, and several others, sometimes appear to be adverbs, and may be so considered : as, " They had their reward soon cifter; "He died not long before ;" "He dwells above:" but if the nouns titne and place be added, they will lose their adverbial form ; as, " He died not long before that time," &c. • CHAPTER IX. , (y* Conjunctions. A CONJUNCTION is a part of speech that is chiefly used to connect sentences ; so as, out of two or more sen- tences, to make but one. It sometimes connects only words. Conjunctions are principally divided into two sorts, the COPULATIVE and the disjunctive. The Conjunction Copulative serves to connect or to continue a sentence, by expressing an addition, a sup- position, a cause, &c. ; as, " He and his brother reside in London ;" " I will go if he will accompany me ;" " You are happy, because you are good." The Conjunction Disjunctive serves, not only to con- nect and continue the sentence, but also to express op- position of meaning in different degrees : as, " Though he was frequently reproved, yet he did not reform ;" "They came with her, but they went away without her." The following is a list of the principal Conjunctions. The CopuMive. And, if, that, both, then, since, for, because, therefore, wherefore. The Disjunctive. But, or, nor, as, than, less, though, unless, either, neither, yet, notwithstanding. The same word is occasionally used bbth as a conjunc- tion and as an adverb ; and sometimes, as ^ preposition. " X >8e their leir pri- [ several ly be so r; "He le nouns dverbial ffly used jre sen- ds only sorts, ;ct or to , a sup- r reside y me ;" to con- fess op- Though jforin ;" ut her." »ns. ice, for, though, jonjunc- ion. "I ETTMOLOGT. 127 rest then upon this argument ;" then is here a conjunction : in the following phrase, it is an adverb ; " He arrived then, unilniot before." " I submitted ; for it was vain to resist:" m this sentence, for is a conjunction ; in the next, it is a preposition : " He contended for victory only." In the first of the following sentences, since is a conjunction ; in the second, it is a preposition ; and in the third, an adverb : " Since we must part, let us do it peaceably :" " I have not seen. him. since that time :" ^ Onr fiieuclship commenced long since.''* Relative pronouns as well as conjunctions, serve to con- nect sentences : as, " Blessed is the man who feareth the Lord, and keepeth his commandments." A relative pronoun possesses the force both of a pronoun and a connective. Nay, tlie union by relatives is rather closer, than that by mere conjunctions. The latter may form two or more sentences into one ) but, by the former, several sentences may incorporate in one and the same clause of a sentence. Thus, thou seest a man, and he i% called Peter," is a sentence consisting of two distincfc clauses, united by the copulative and : but, " the man nhotn thou seest is called Peter," is a sentence of one clause, and not less comprehensive than the other. Conjunctions very often unite sentences, when they ap- pear to unite only words ; as in the following instances : " Duty and interest forbid vicious indulgences ;" " Wis- dom or folly governs us." Each of these forms of expres- sion contains two sentences, namely ; " Duty forbids vi- cious indulgences ; interest forbids vicious indulgences ;'* " Wisdom governs us, or folly governs us." Though the conjunction is commonly used to connect sentences together, yet, on some occasions, it mer61y con- nects words, not sentences ; as, " The king and queen are an amiable pair;"where the aflRrmation cannot refer to each ; it being absurd to say, that the king or the queen only is an amiable pair. So in the instances, " two and f il 128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. two are four ;" " the fifth and sixth volumes will complete the set of books." Prepositions also, as before observed, connect r. >rds ; but they do it to show the relation w^ich the connected words have to each other: conjunctions, when they unite words only, are designed to show the re- lations, which those words, so united, have to other parts of the sentence. As there are many conjunctions and connective phrases appropriated to the coupling of sentences, that are never employed in joining the members of a sentence; so there are several conjunctions appropriated to the latter use, which are never employed in the former ; and some that are equally adapted to both those purposes : as, ctgotn, JurtheTf besides J &,c. of the first kind ; tlmn^ lestf unless^ that, so that, &CC. of the second; and but, and^for, therefore, &ic. of the last. * We shall close this chapter with a few observations on the peculiar use and advantage of the conjunctions ; a subject which will, doubtless, give pleasure to the ingenious stu- dent, and expand his views of the importance of his gram- matical studies. , I " Relatives are not so useful in language, as conjunc- tions. The former make speech more concise ; the latter make it more explicit. Relatives comprehend the mean- ing of a pronoun and conjunction copulative : conjunctions, while they couple sentences, may also express opposition, inference, and many other relations and dependences. Till men began to think in a train, and to carry their ''easonings to a considerable length, it is not probable that they world make much use of conjunctions, or of any other connectives. Ignorant people, and children, gene - rally speak in short and separate sentences. • The w. me thing is true of barbarous nations: and hence unci^ltivated languages are not well supplied with connecting particles. ^^le Greftka Wfirp fh*> orpatpst rpaRonprs that pvpr annparpd 1 omplete bserved, n w|iich inctions, V the re- er parts ! phrases re never 80 there tter use, Dme that s, again y lesSf that, 'fore, &.C. ins on the a subject io'Ji stu- lis gram- conjunc- the latter le mean- unctions, position, Hces. rry their able that of any , gene he ov me ultivated larticles. inneared f ETyMOLOOT. 129 in the world ; and their language, accordingly, abounds more than any other in connectives. Conjunctions are not equally necussary in all sorts of writing. In poetry, where great concii^enesa of phrase is , required, and every appearance of formality avoided, many of them would have a bad effect. In passionate language too, it may be proper to omit them : because it is the nature of violent passion, to speak rather in disjointed sentences, than in tlie way of inference and argument. Books of aphorisms, like the Proverbs of Solomon, have few con- nectives ; because they instruct, not by reasoning, but in detached observations. And narrative will sometimes ap- pear very graceful, when the circumstances are plainly told, with scarcely any other conjunction than the simple copulative and: which is frequently the case in the histori- cal parts of Scripture. When naiTation is full of images or events, the omission of connectives may, by crowding the principal words upon one another, give a sort of picture of hurry and tumult, and so heighten the vivacity of descrip- tion. But when facts are to be traced down through their consequences, or upwards to their causes ; wheu the com- plicated designs of mankind are to be laid open, or conjec- tures offered concerning them ; when the historian argues either for the elucidation of truth, or in order to state the pleas and principles of contending parties ; there will be occasion for every species of connective, as much as in philosophy itself. In fact, it is in argument, investigation, and science, that this part of speech Is peculiarly and indis- pensably necessary." CHAF'I^ER X. Of Interjections. Intebjections are words thrown in between the parts of a sentence, to express the passions or emotions of the speaker : as, " Oh ! I have alienated my friend ; alas ! I fear for life ;" " vir xue ! bow amiable thou art I » ¥Z ii ISO ENGLISH ORAMMAR. The English InterjectionB, as well as those of other lan- guages, are comprised within a small compass. They are of different sorts, acjpording to the different passions which they serve to express. Those which intimate earnestness or grief, are, 0/ oh! ah! alas! Such as are expresBive of contempt, are pish! tush! of wonder, heigh! really! strange ! of calling, hein ! ho ! soho ! of aversion or disgust, foh! fie! arvay! of a call of the attention, lo ! behold! hark! of requesting silence, hush! hist! of salutation, welcome! hail ! all hail ! Besides these, several others, frequent in the mouths of the multitude, might be enumerated ; but, in a grammar of a cultivated tongue, it is unnecessarv to ex- patiate on such expressions of passion, as are jcarcely worthy of being ranked among the branches of artificial lan- guage. — See the Octavo Grammar. " CHAPTER XI. Of Derivation. Section 1. Of tlie various mays in which words aw de- rived from one anotJier. Having treated of the different sorts of words, and their various modifications, which is the first part of Etymology, it is now proper to explain the methods by which one word is derived from another. Words are derived from one another in various ways; viz. 1. Substantives are derived from verbs. 2. Verbs are derived from substantives, adjectives, and sometimes from adverbs. S. Adjectives are derived from substantives. 4. Substantives are derived from adjectives. 5. Adverbs are derived from adjectives. 1. Substantives are derived from verbs: as, from "to love," comes " lover ;" from "to visit, visiter;" from "to survive, surviver ;" &c. In the following instances, and in many others, it is difficult to determine whether the verb was deduced ETYMOLOOT. 131 ft-om Uie noun, or the noun from the verb, viz. ** Love, to love ; hute, to hate ; fear, to fear ; sleep, to sleep ; walk, to walk ; ride, to ride ; act, to act," &.c. 2. Verbs are derived from substantives, adjectives, and sometimes from adverl>d : as, from the substantive «a//, comes " to salt ;" from the adjective wann, " to warm ;" and from the adverb forward " to forward." Somcliincs they are formed by lengthening the vowel, or softening the consonant ; as, from, " grass, to graze :" sometimes by ad- ding en ; as, from " length, to lengthen ;" especially to ad- jectives : as, from " short, to shorten ; bright, to brighten." 3. Adjectives are derived from substantives, in the fol- lowing manner : Adjectives denoting plenty are derived from substantives by adding y : as, from " Health, healthy ; wealth, wealthy ; might, mighty," &c. Adjectives denoting the matter out of which any thing is made, are derived from substantives by adding en ; as, from " Oak, oaken ; wood, wooden ; wool, woolen," &c. Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from sub- stantives, by adding fal : as, from " Joy, joyful ; sin, sin- ful ; fruit, fruitful," &.C. Adjectives denoting plenty, but with some kind of dimi- nution, are derived from substantives, by adding some : as, from " Light, lightsome ; trouble, troublesome ; toil, toil- some," &UJ. Adjectives denoting want are derived fi'om substantives, by adding less : as, from " Worth, worthless ;" from " care, careless ; joy, joyless," &.c. Adjectives denoting likeness are derived from substan- tives, by adding ly : as, from " Man, manly; earth, earth- ly ; court, courtly," &c. Some adjectives are derived from other adjectives, or from substantives, by adding ish to them ; which termina- tion, when added to adjectives, imports diminution, or lessening tlie quality : as, " White, whitish ;" L e. some- what white. When added to substantives, it signifies simi- 132 ENGLISH GRAMxMAR. litude or tendency to a character : as, " Child, childish j thief, thievish." Some adjectives are formed from substantives or- verbs, by adding the termination able ; and those adjectives sig- nify capacity : as, " Answer, answerable ; to change, changeable." 4. Substantives are derived from adjectives, sometime? by adding the termination ness : as, " "White, whiteness j swift, swiftness :" sometimes by adding tk or t, and making a small change in some of the letters: as, " Long, length; high, height." 5. Adverbs of quality are aenved from adjectives, by adding ly, or changing le into ly ; and denote the same quality as the adjectives from w^^'^h^hey are derived : as, from " base," comes " basely ;" from " slow, slowly ;" from " able, ably." , There are so many other ways of deriving words from one another, that it would be extremely difficult, and nearly impossible, to enumerate them. The primitive words of any language are very few ; the derivatives form much the greater number. A few more instances only can be giveu here. Some substantives are derived from other substantives, by adding the terminations ^ooof or Aeorf, ship, ery, nick, rick, dom, ian, ment, and age. Substantives ending in hood or head, are such as signify character or qualities ; as, " Manhood, knighthood, false- hood," &c. Substantives ending in ship, are those' that signify office, employment, state, or condition : as, " Lordship, steward- fibip, partnership," &c. Some substantives in ship, are de- rived from adjectives : as, " Hard, hardship," &c. Substantives which end in ery, signify action or habit : as, " Slavery, foolery, prudery," &ic. Some substantives of this sort come from adjectives ; as, " Brave, bravery," &c. Substantives ending in nick, rick, and dom, denote do- i ETYMOLOGY. 133 minion, jurisdiction, or conciition : as, " Bailiwick, bishop- rick, kingdom, dukedom, freedom," &c. Substantives which end in ian^ are those that signify pro- fession ; as, " Physician, musician," &c. Those that end in meni and age, come generally from the French, and com- monly signify the act or habit ; as, " Commandment, usage." Some substantives ending in ard, are derived from verba or adjectives, and denote character or habit : as, " Drunk, drunkard ; dote, dotard." Some substantives have the form of diminutiyes ; but these are not many. They are formed by adding the ter- minations, kin, Img, ing, ock, et, and the like : as, " Lamb, lambkin; goose, gosling: duck, duckling; hill, hillock; cock, cockerel," &tc. That part of derivation which consists in Tracing English words to the Saxon, Greek, Latin, French, and other lan- guages, must be omitted, as the English scholar is not supposed to be acquainted mth these languages. The best English dictionaries will, however, furnish some informa- tion on this head, to those who are desirous of ot taining it. The learned Home Tooke, in his " Diversions of Purley," has given an ingenious account of the derivation and meaning of many of the adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions. It is highly probable that the system of this acute gram- marian, is founded in truth ; and that adverbs, prepo&< tions, and conjunctions, are corruptions or abbreviations of other parts of speech. But as many of them are derived from obsolete words in our own language, or from words in kindred languages, the radical meaning of which is, therefore, either obscure, or generally unknown ; as the system of this very able etymologist is not universally admitted; and as, by long prescription, whatever may have been their origin, . the words in question appear to have acquired a title to the rank of distinct species ; it \i \ 134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. seems proper to consider them, as such, in an elementary treatise of grammar: especially as this plan coincides with «that, by which other languages must be taught ; and will render the study of them less intricate. It is of small mo- ment, by what names and classification we distinguish these words, provided their meaning and use are well under- stood. A philosophical consideration of the subject, may, with great propriety, be entered upon by the grammatical student, when his knowledge and judgment become mOre improved. Section 2. A sketch of the steps, by which the English Language has risen to its present state of refinement. Before we conclude the subject of derivation, it will probably be gratifying to the curious scholar, to be in- formed of some particulars respecting the origin of the English language, and the various nations to which it is indebted for the copiousness, elegance, and refinement, which it has now attained. ^' When the ancient Britons were so harassed and op- pressed by the invasions of their northern neighbours, the Scots and Picts, that their situa^on was truly miserable, they sent an embassy (about the middle of the fifth cen- tury) to the Saxons, a warlike people inhabiting the north of Germany, with solicitations for speedy relief. The Saxons accordingly came over to Britain, and were suc- cessful in repelling the incursions of the Scots and Picts ; but seeing the weak and defenceless state of the Britons, they resolved to take advantage of it ; and at length esta- blished themselves in the greater part of South-Britain, ■Aci* having dispossessed the original inhabitants. ~f^m these barbarians, who founded several petty kingdoms in this island, and introduced their own laws, language, and maimers, is derived the groundwork of the English language ; which, even in its present state of cul- tivation, and notwithstanding the successive augmentatior's r ETYMOLOGY* 135 and improvements, which it has received through various channels, displays very conspicuous traces of its Saxon original. " The Saxons dM not long remain in quiet possession of the kingdom ; for before the middle of the ninth century, the Danes, a hardy and adventurous nation, who had long infested the northern seas with their piracies, began to ra- vage the English coasts. Their first attempts were, in gene- ral, attended with such success, that they were encouraged to a renewal of their ravages ; till, at length, in the begin ning of the eleventh century, they made themselves mas- ters of the greater part of England. " Though the period, during which these invaders oc- cupied the English throne, was very short, not greatly ex- ceeding half a century, it is highly probable that some change was introduced by them into the language spoken by those, whom they had subdued : but this change can- not be supposed to have been very considerable, as the Danish and Saxon languages arose from one common source, the Gothic being the parent of both. '' The next conquerors of this kingdom, after the Danes, were the Normans, who, in the year 1066, introduced their leader William to the possession of the English throne. This prince, soon after his accession, endeavoured to bring his own language (the Norman-French) into use among his new subjects ; but his eflforts were not very successful, as the Saxons entertained a great antipathy to these haugh- ty foreigners. In process of time, however, many Norman words and phrases were incorporated into the Saxon lan- guage : but its general form and construction still remained the same. " From the Conquc st to the Reformation, the language continued to receive occasional accessions of foreign words, till it acquired such a degree of copiousness and strength, as to render it susceptible of that polish, which it has re- ceived from writers of taste and genius, in the last and prt- ' . 136 ENGLISH CRAMHAR. sent centuries. During this period, the learned have en* riched it with many significant expressions, drawn (roin the treasures of Greek and Roman literature ; the ingenious and the fashionable hav j imported oc(%sional supplies of French, Spanish, Italian, and German words, gleaned du- ring their foreign excursions ; and the connexions which we maintain, through the medium of government and com- merce, with many remote nations, have made some addi« tions to our native vocabulary. " In this manner did the ancient language of the Anglo-' Saxons proceed, through the various stages of innovationi and the several gradations of refinement, to the formation of (he present English tongue.** See the Twelfth chapter of the Octavo Grcmmar,' t 137 PARTIII. Syntax. '• ' -• The thira part of grammar Is syntax, which treats of the agreement and construction of words in a sentence. A sentence is an assemblage of words, forming a com- plete sense. Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound. A simple sentence has in it but one subject, and one jBnitef verb : as, " Life is short." , • . * A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences connected together : as, " Life is short, and art is long." "Idleness produces want, vice, and misery. )) As sentences themselves are divided into simple and compound, so the members of sentences may be divide(^ likewise into simple and compound members : for whole sentences, whether simple or compounded, may become members of other sentences, by means of some additional connexion ; as in the following example : " The ox know- eth his owner, and the ass his master's crib ; but Israel doth not know, my people do not consider." This sen- tence consists of two compounded members, each of which is subdivided into two simple members, which are proper- ly called clauses. There are three sorts of simple sentences; the explicative^ or explaining ; the inlerrogaiive^ or asking ; the imperaiive^ or commanding. An explicative sentence is wh^n a thing is siad to be or not to be, to do or not to do, to suffer or not to suffer, in a direct manner: as, "I am; thou writest ; Thomas is loved." If the sentence be negative, the adverb not is placed after t Finite verbs are those to which number and p^on apportaia Verb* in tto (H« fiaitivt mood bav« oo rb^spect to uumber or person. 13S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. the auxiliary, or after the verb itself when it has no auxilia- ry : as, " I did not touch him ;" or, " I touched him not." In an interrogative sentence, or when a question is asked, the nominative case follows the principal verb or the auxi- liary : as, " Was it he ?" *' Did Alexander conquer the Persians ?" In an imperative sentence, when a thing is commanded to be, to do, to suffer, or not, the nominative case likewise follows the verb or the auxiliary: as, " Go, thou traitor !*' " Do thou go :" " Haste ye away :" unless the verb lei be used ; as, " Let us be gone." A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, making sometimes part of a sentence, and sometimes a whole sentence. The principal parts of a simple sentence are, the sub- ject, the attribute, and the object. The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of; the attri- bute is the thing or action affirmed or denied of it ; and the object is the thing aflected by such action. The nominative denotes the subject, and usually goes before the verb or attribute ; and the word or phrase, de- noting the object, follows the verb ; as, "A wise man governs his passions." Here, a wise man is the subject ; governs, the attribute, or thing amrmed ; and his pas- swns, the object. Syntax principally cr jsists of two parts, Concord and Government. Concord is the agreement which one word has with another, in gender, number, case, or person. Government is that power which one part of speech has over another, in directing its mood, tense, or case. To produce thr agreement and right disposition of words in a sentence, the following nile > and observa- tions should be carefully studied. # Rule 1.) 8T1VTAX* 130 RULE I. A Verb must agree with its nominati\ d case, in num- ber and person : as, " I learn ;" " Thou art improved.** " The birds sing." The following are a few instances of the violation of this rule. " What signifies good opinions, when our prac- tice is bad ?" " what signify." " There's two or three of us, who have seen the work :" ' there are.** " We may- suppose there was more impostors than one :" " there mere more." " I have considered what have been said on both sides in this controversy :" " what has been said." " If thou would be healthy, live temperately :" " If thou tvotUdst." " Thou sees how Httle has been done :" " thou aeest.** " Though thou cannot do much for the c^use, thou may and should do something :" " canst not, maysl^ and shouldst." " Full many a flower are bom to blush un* seen :" " is born." " A conformity of inclinations and qualities prepare us for friendship :" " prepares us." " A variety of blessings have been conferred upon us :" " has been." " In piety and virtue consist the happiness of man :'* " consists." " To these precepts are subjoined a copious selection of rules and maxims :" " is subjoined." f 1. The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is some- times put as the nominative case to the verb : as, " To see the sun is pleasant ;" " To be good is to be happy ;" " A desire to excel others in learning and virtue is commend- able ;" " That warm climates should accelerate the growth of the human body, and shorten its duration, is very rea- sonable to believe ;" " To be temperate in eating and drinking, to use exercise in the open air, and to preserve the mind free from tumultuous emotions, are the best pre- servatives of health. t The chief practical notes under each Rule, are regularly numbered, in OTdxr t* Bwlcc them correspond to the examples '.n the volume of Exercises 140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2. Every verb, except in the infinitive mood, or tlie par* ticiple, ought to have a nominative case, either expressed or implied : a9, " AwaJke ; arise ;" thai i9, " Awake ye ; wise yc.'* We shall here add some examples of inaccuraity, in the use of the verb without its nominative case. " As it hath pleased him of his goodness to give you safe deliverance, and hath preserved you in the great danger," -&cc. The verb " hcUh preservedy" has here no nominative case, for it cannot be properly supplied by the preceding word, " Atm," which is in the objective case. It ought to be, " and as he hath preserved you ;" or rather, " and to pre- serve you." " If the calm in which he was bom, and last- ed so long, had continued ;" " and Tvhich lasted," &cc. " These we have extracted from an historian of undoubted credit, and are the same that were practised," &.c. ; " and they are the same." " A man whose inclinations led him to be corrupt, and had great abilities to manage the busi- ness ;" " and who had," &.c. *' A cloud gathering in the north ; which we have helped to rise, and may quickly break in a storm upon our heads ;" " and which may quickly." 3. Every nominative case, except the case absolute, and when an address is made to a person, should belong to some verb, either expressed or implied : as, " Who wrote this book?" " James;" that is, " James wrote it." " To whom thus Adam," that is, " spoke." One or two instances of the improper use of the nomina- tive case, without any verb, expressed or implied, to an- swer it, may be sufficient to illustrate the usefulness of the preceding observation. " Which rulCf if it had been observed, a neighbouring prince would have wanted a great deal of that incense which hath been ofiFered up to him.'' The pronoun it is here the nominative case to the verb " o?>served ;" and tvfttch rule, is left by itself, a nominative case without anj: r the par- xpressed wake ye ; y, in the s it hath iverance, :c. The ease, for ag word, lit to be, [i to pre- and last- ed," &ic. idoubted I. ; " and led him the busi- ig in the quickly ich may lute, and elong to 10 wrote " « To nonrina-' 1, to an- is of the ibouring incense un 37 is i;" and out any Kule 1.) SYNTAX. 141 verb following it This form of expression, though im- proper, is very common. It ought to be, " {/* this mk laid been observed," &c. " JIfan, ti^ough he has great variety of thoughts, and sUch from which others as weU it himself might receive profit and delight, yet th^y ate all within bis own breast." In this sentence, the nominative mem stands alone .and uiiiconnected with any verb, either e:^pressed or implied. It should be, " Though man bte great variety," &c. 4. When a verb comes between two nouns, either of which may be understood as the subject of the affirmation, it may agree with either of them : but some regard must be had to that which is more naturally the subject of it, tfs also to that which stands next to the verb : as, '* His meat naa locusts and wild honey ;" " A great cause of the low state of industry were the restramts put upon it ;" " The wages of sin is death/" 5. When thc^ nominative case has no personal tense of a verb, but is put before a participle, independently on the rest of the sentence, it is called the case absolute : as, " Shame being loet, all virtue is lost ;'' " That having been discussed long ago; there h no occasion to resume it." As in the use of the case absolute, the case is, in Etiglisb^ always the nominative, the following example is erroneous, in making it the objective. ^' Solomon wa^ of this mind ; and I have no doubt he made as wise and true proverbs, a« any body has done since ; Jam only excepted, who was a much greater and wiser man than Solomon." It should be, ** /te only eiKcepted." The nomina^tive ca^e is commonly pladed b^fofti fhfe verb ; but sometimes it is put after the verb, if it is a sim- ple tense; and between the attxiliary, and the verb or par- ticiple, if a compound tense : as» Ifit, When a' question is aakedj a command ^iren, or a I *l 142. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 1. wish expressed : as, " Confidest thou in me ?" " Read thou ;" '< Mayst thou be happy !" " Long live the King !" 2d, When a supposition is made without the conjunction if: as, ** Were it not for this ;" " Had I been there." dd, When a verb neuter is used : as, " On a sudden ap- peared the king.*' 4th, When the verb is preceded by the adverbs, here, iherej Ihen, thencCf hence, thus, &cc. : as, " Here am I ;*' " There was he slain;" " Then cometh the end;" ** Thence ariseth hb grief ;" "Hence proceeds his anger;" "Thus was the affair settled." 5th, When a sentence depends on neilher or nor, so at lo be coupled with another sentence : as, " Ye shall not eat of it, neither shall ye touch it, lest ye die." Some grammarians assert, that the phrases, cu folUms, as appears, form what are called impersonal verbs ; and should, therefore, be confined to the singular number : as, ** The arguments advanced were nearly asfolUms^\ " The positions were aa appears incontrovertible :" that is, " as it follows," " as it appears." If we give (say they) the sen- tence a different turn, and instead of as, say such as, the verb is no longer termed impersonal ; but properly agrees with its nominative, in the plural number : as, " The argu- ments advanced were nearly such as follow ;" " The posi- tions were suxh as appear incontrovertible f." They who doubt the accjiracy of Home Tooke's state- ment, " That aa, however and whenever used in English, means the same aa it, or that, or which ;" and who are not t'^tisfied whether the verbs, in the sentence first mentioned, t These gnmmariaiis are supported by general usage, and hj the authority of aa oDineot critie on tanguage and composition. " When a verb is used impersonally," . nys Dr. Campbell in his Philosophy of Rhetorlcj " it ought undoubtedly to be ia the ■ingnlai' number, whether the neuter pronoun be expressed or understood. Forthia ntaon. Analogy and usage favour this mode of expression : " The coaditions of th* agreement were at foUont ;" and not, atfoUon. Kf'-w late writers Itave incon* ■Idcrately adopted this last form, through a mistalce of the construction. For the saoM r eaaon, we ought to say, " I shall co«^der his censursa sq far 91^7 at tfincstH ay ' friaod'aooodiKt;" aiKlaot*iofara t See Uie excepttun to thia rule, at p. 46 of the JCtj ; laUi editkuk . 144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rulc 2. 1. When thh nouns are nearly relhfed, or scarcely dis- tinguishable in sense, and soinetiines cveniwhcn they are very difierent, some authors have tlioiiglit it allowable to ^ut the terbsj nouns, and pronouns, in the singular num- ber: as, " TranqiiJIIity and [;eace dutlls there;" "Igno- rance aiid negligence has produced the efluct ;" " The diacum6ture and slaughter was very great." But if is evi- dently contrary to the first principles of grammar, to con- eider two distinct ideas as one, however nice may be their shlid^s of difference : and if there be no difference, one of them must be superfluous, and ought to be rejected. To support the above construction, it is said, that the ve>b ttiitf be Understood as applied to eacli of the preceding ietnis; as in fh6 folloAving example. " Sand, and salt, and a mass of iron, is easiet* to bear than a man without under- stahding." But besides the confusion, and the latitude of application, which suoh a construction would introduce, it appears to be more proper and analogical, in cases whpre the verb is intiended to be ap[)lied to any one of the terms, to make use of the disjunctive conjunction, which gramma- ^cally refers the verb to one or other of the preceding terms in a separate view. To preserve the distinctive uses of the copulative and disjunctive conjunctions, would ren- der the rules precise, consistent^ and intelligible. I)r. Blair very justly observes, that " two or more substantives, joined by a copulative, must alivays require the verb or pronoun to which they refer, to be placed in the plural number." 2* In many complex sentences, it is didicult for leaniers to dieterminel whether one or more of the clauses are to be considered as the nominative case ; arid consequently^, whether the verb should be in the singular or the plural number. We shall, therefore, set down a number of varied examples of this nature, which may serve as some govern- ment to the scholar, with respect to sentences ol^ a siniilar construeUoD. *^ Prosperity, with humility, renders its pes- % (Rule % rcely tlia- they arc )wahle to liar num- " « Igno- >» « »^'hc t i( is cvi- r, to con- y be their le, one of ed. I, that the preceding d salt, ami out under- latitude of troduTse, it ases whpre [ the terms, h gramma- )receding nctive uses kvould ren- ble. t)r. bstantives, le verb or the plural )r learners ; are to be Bequeritly,, the plural^ of varied ke govern- asiniilair itspoa^ Rule 2.) SYNTAX. 145 sesaor truly amiable." " The ship, with all her furniture, mas destroyed." " Not only his estate, his reputation too has 8u£fered by his misconduct." " The general also, in conjunction viiih the officers, has applied for redress." " He cannot be justified ; for it is true, that the prince, as well as the people, wds blameworthy." " The king, with his life- guard, has just passed thro' the village." " In the mutual influence of body and soul, there is a wisdom, a wonderful wisdom, which we cannot fathom." " Virtue, honour, nay, even self-interest, conspire to recommend the mea- sure." " Patriotism, morality, every public and private consideration, demand our submission to just and lawful government." " Nothing delights me 80 much as the works of nature." In support of such forms of expression as the following, we see the authority of Hume, Priestley, and other writers; and we annex Uiem for the reader's consideration. " A long course of time, with a variety of accidents and cir- cumstances, are requisite to produce those revolutions." " The king, with the lords and commons, Jbrm an excel- lent frame of government." " Th?* side A, with the sides B and C, compose the triangle." " The fire communicated itself to the bed, which, with the furniture of the room, and a valuable library, were all entirely consumed." It is, however, proper to observe, that these modes of expression do not appear to be warranted by the just principles of construction. The words, " A long course of time," " The king," " The side A," and " which," are the true noinina tives to the respective verbs. In the last example, the word all should be expunged. As the preposition tvitk governs the objective case in English; and, if translated into LaUn, would govern the ablaiive case, it is manifest, that the clauses following nnV/t, in the preceding sentences, cannot form any part of the nominative case. They can not be at the same time in the objective and the nomi eative cases. The foUowing sentence appears to l>e unex* :l ll J i • 146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (( (Rule 3. ceptioilable ; and may serve to explain the others. " The lords and comihons are essential branches of the British constitution : the king, with them, forms an excellent frame of government f." / * 3. If the singular nouns and pronouns, which are joined together by a copulative conjunction, be of eeveral persons, in making the plural pronoun agree with them in person, the second person takes place of the third, and the first of botH : as, " James, and tliou, and I, are attached to our country." " Thou and he shared it between you." RULE III. The conjunction disjunctive has an effect contrary to that of the conjunction copulative ; for as the verb, aoun, or pronoun, is referred to the preceding terms taken separately, it must be in the singular number : as, Ignorance or negligence has caused this mistake ;" " John, James, or Joseph, intends to accompany me ;" " There is, in many minds, neither knowledge nor un« derstanding.*' The following sentences are variations from this rule 4 *' A man may see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture ; as well as read them in a description j" " read i7.'' " Nei- ther character nor dialogue were yet understood ;" " rvas yet." " It must indeed be confessed, that a lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or murder;" "does not carry in i/." " Death, or some worse misfortune, soon divide them." " It ought to be " rfmefe*." 1. When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun, of different persons, are disjunctively connected, the verb must agree with that person which is placed nearest to it : as, " I or thou art to blame ;" " Thou or I am in fault ;'* '' I, or thou, or he, is the author of it ;" " George or I am t Though the construction will not admit of a plural verb, the sentence would cer tainly stand better thus ■ " The king, the lords, and the commoos, /om an excellent- oaoBUtution.*' ^ ^ -a Rule 3. "The E5 British ;nt frame re joined ,1 persons, n person* the first of ed to OUT ji. » y^ contrary to the verb, iing terms imber: as, mistake ;" ipany me ;" Ige nor un« n this rule i in a picture it:' « Nei- )od ;" " was ampoon or a^ Ller;" ''does fortune, soon pronoun, ot td, the verb : liearcst to it : in fault ;" porge or I cm sntence would cer [/omwjexeeUeBt Rule 4.) SYNTAX. 147 the person." But it would be better to say ; " Either I am to blame, or thou art," &c. 2. When a disjunctive occurs between a singular poun, or pronoun, and a plural one, the verb is made to agree with the plural noun and pronoun: as, "Neither poverty nor riches were injurious to him;" " I or they were offended by it." But in this case, the plural noun or pronoun, when it can conveniently be done, should be placed next to the verb. RULE IV. A noun of multitude, or signifying many, may have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it, either of the singular or plural number ; yet not without regard to the import of the word, as conveying unity or plurality of idea : as, " The meeting tvas large ;" " The parlia- ment is dissolved ;" " The nation is powerful ;" " My people do not consider: they have not known me;" " The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure, as their chief good ;" " The council were divided in their sentiments." We ought to considier whether the term will immediately suggest the idea of the number it represents, or whether \t exhibits to the mind the 'dea of the whole as one thing. In the former case, the verb ought to be plural; in the latter, it ought to be singular. Thus, it seems improper to say, " The peasantry goes barefoot, and the middle sort makes use of wooden shoes." It would be better to say, " The peasantry go barefoot, and the middle sort make use," &cc. because the idea in both these cases, is that of a number. On the contrary, there is a harshness in the following sentences, in which nouns of number have verbs plural ; because the ideas they represent seem not to be sufficiently divided in the mind. " The eourt of Rome were not without solicitude." " The house of commons were of small weight." " The house of lords were so much influenced by these reasons." '' Stephen's party ! Wi ■ ■.T^-'- 148 ENGLISH gHammar. (Rule 5. « rvere entirely broken up by the captivity of their leader." " An army of twenty-four thousand were assembled." " What reason have the church of Rome for proceeding in this manner ?" " There is indeed no constitution so tame * and careless of tJieir own defence." " All the virtues of mankind are to be counted upon a few fingers, but his fol- lies and vices are innuiDerable." Is not mankind in this place a noun of multitude, and such as requires the pronoun referring to it to be in the plural number, their ? RUIiE V. Pronouns must always agree with their antecedents, and the nouns for which they stand, in gender and num- ber : as, " This is the friend whom I love ;" " That is the vice which I hate ;" *' The king and the queen had put on their robes ;" " The moon appears, and she shines, but the light is not her own." The relative is of the same person as the antecedent^ and the verb agrees with it accordingly : as, " Thou who lovest wisdom ;" " I who speak from experiience." Of this rule there are many violations to be met with ; a few of which may be sufHcient to put the learner on his guard. " Each of the sexes should keep within its particu- lar bounds, and content themselves with the advantages of their particular districts:" better thus: "The sexbS should keep within their particular bounds," &,c. " Can any one, on their entrance into the world, be fully secure that they shall not be deceived ?" " on his entrance," aiid " that he shall." " One should not think too faVountbly of ourselves ;" " of owe'« self." " He had one acquaintance which poisoned his principles ;" " ivho poisoned." Every relative must have an antecedent ta wHIbh' it re- fers, either expressed or implied : as, " AVh6 is ftitat to others is so to himself ;" that is, " the man who is fatal to others." ^ I,. (Rule 6. • eir leader." Bisjembled." roceeding in on so tame * le virtues of , but his fol- Jdnd in this the pronoun antecedents, ler and num- ;" « That is le queen had ars, and she B antecedent, , as, « Thou experience." be met with ; learnier on his hin its particu* le advantages "The sexBB » &c. " Can >e fully secure ntrance," aiid faVourahly of acquaintance ned.'» a whiiAh= It re- lid is fieitaf to nho is fatal to I i ylfUi SYNTAX. 149 -» -' WhOf nhichf whaty and the relative thaty though in the objective carie, are always placed before the verb ; as are also their compounds, whoever j mhosoevw, &e. ; .as, " He whom ye seek ;" " This is what, or the thing which, br that you want ;" " Whomsoever you please to appoint." What is sometimes applied, in a manner which appears to be exceptionable : as, " All fevers, except what are called nervous," &cc. It would at least be better to say, " except those which are called nervous." 1. Personal pronouns being used to supply the place of the noun, are not employed in the same part of a sentence as the noun which they represent ; for it would be im- proper to say, " The king he is just ;" " I saw her the queen;" " The men they were there;" " Many words they darken spet: * '* " My banks they are furnished witli bees." These ji ..^owiidls are superfluous, as there is not the least occasion fur a substitute in the same part where the principal word is present, ^fhe nominative case they^ in the following sentence, is also superfluous ; " Who, instead of going about doing good, they are perpetually intent upon doing mischief." , 2. The pronoun that is frequently applied to persons as well as to things ; but after an adjective in the superlative degree, and after the pronominal adjective same, it is gene- rally used in preference to who or whidi : as, '' Charles XII. king of Sweden, was one of the greatest madmen that the world ever saw ;" " Catiline's followers were the most pro- fligate that could be found in any city." " He is the same man that we saw before." There are cases wherein we cannot conveniently dispense with this relative as applied to persons : as first, after who the interrogative ; " Who that has any sense of religion, wouid have argued thus ?" Secondly, when persons make but a part of the antece- dent ; ** The woman, and the estate, that became his por- tion were too much for his moderation." In neither of these examples could any other relative have been used I i^ ' f ■ ■ 150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 5 3. The pronouns mkichsoever, nhosoecsr, and the like, are elegantly divided bv he interposition of the corres ponding substantives: thus, " On whichsoever side the king cast his eyc9 ;" would have sounded better, if written, " On which sid soever," &c. 4. Many persons are apt, in conversation, to put the ob- jective case of the personal pronouns, in the place of the^e and those : as, " Give me them books ;" instead of " those l)ook9." We may sometimes find this fault even in wri • ting : as, " Observe them three there." We also frequently meet with those instead of thei/f at the beginning of a sen- tence, and where there is no particular reference to an an- tecedent ; as, " Those that sow in tears, sometimes reap in joy." They that, or they who sow in tears. It is not, however, always easy to say, whether a per- sonal pronoun or a demonstrative is p/eferable, in certain constructions. " We are not unacquainted with the ca- lumny of them [or those] who openly make use of the warmest professions." 6. In some dialects, the word rvhat is improperly use(f, for ihatf and sometimes we find it in this sense in writing ', " They will never believe but rvhat I have been entirely to blame." " I am not satisfied but what," &,c. instead of " but that." The word somewhat, in the following sentence, seems to be used improperly. " These punishments seem to have been exercised in somewhat an arbitrary manner." Sometimes we read, " In somewhat of." The meaning is, " in a manner which is in some respects arbitrary." 6. The pronoun relative who is so much appropriated to persons, that there is generally harshness in the application of it, except to the proper names of persons, or the general terms many woman, &tc. A term which only implies the idea of persons, and expresses them by some circumstance or epithet, will hardly authorize the use o.' it : as, " That faction in En**land vjho most nowerful!^ coposed his ar= bitrary pretensions." " That faction which,' would have (Rule 5 and the like, »f the corres side the king written, " On to put the ob- place of the^e Bad of " those t even in wn • l30 frequently ning of a sen- mce to an an- etimes reap in ivhether a pcr- ble, ?n certain [ with the ca- ke use of the properly usecf. ise in writing ', )een entirely &i.c. instead of iving sentence, shinents seem rary manner." le meaning is, rary." ppropriated to le application or the general ly implies the circumstance it : as, " That )posed his ar= would have Rule 5.) SYNTAX. I5l been better ; f nd tlie same remark will serve foi* the fol- lowing examples : " France, who was in alliance with Swe- den." " The court, nhoy" &cc. " The cavalry nho," &c. "The cities who aspired at liberty." "That party among us nfio" &c. " The family whom they consider as usurpers." In some cases it may be doubtful, whether this pronoun is properly applied or not : as, " The number of substan- tial inhabitants with whom some cities abound." For when a term directly and necessarily implies persons, it may in many cases claim the personal relative. " None of the company whotn he most affected, could cure him of the melancholy under which he laboured." The word acquaini' ance, may have the same construction. ^ 7. We hardly consider little children as persons, because that term gives us tlie idea of reason and reflection : and therefore the application of the personal relative who^ in this case, seems to be harsh : " A child w/to." It is still more improperly applied to animals : " A lake frequented by that fowl whom nature has taught to dip the wing in water." 8. When the name of a person is used merely as a name, and it does not refer to the pi^rson, the pronoun who ought not to be applied. " It is no wonder if such a man did not sliine at the court of queen Elizabeth, who was but another name for prudence and economy." Better thus ; " whose inme was but another word for prudence, ice." The word iKhose, begins likewise to be restricted to persons ; yet it is not done so generally, but that good v/riters, even in prose, use it when speaking of things. The construction is not, however, generally pleasing, as we may see in the follow- ing insla ices : " Pleasure, whose, nature, &ic." " Call every oroduction, whose parts and whose nature," &c. ' In one case, hov/ever, custom authorizes us to use which, with respect to persons; and that is when we want to (Ks- tji^guish one person of two, or a particular person among ^ • i ♦ \' h ' 152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [RulO 5. numlier of others. We should the* say, " Which of the two," or " Which of them, is he or she ?" 9. As the pronoun relative has no distinction of number, we sometimes find an ambiguity in the use of it : as v. hen we say, " The Disciples of Christ, whxm we imitate :" we may mean the imitation either of Christ, or of his Disciples. The accuracy and clearness of the sentence depend very much upon the proper and determinate use of the relative, so that it may readily present its antecedent to the mind of the hearer or reader, without any obscurity or ambiguity. 10. It >,s and it was, are often, after the manner of the French, used in a plural construction, and by some of our best writers : as, " It is eitl^er a fev^ great men who decide for the whole, or it is the rabble that follow a seditious ring' leader j" " it is they that are the real author^, though the soldiers are the actors of the revolution ;" " It was the here- tics that first began to rail," &c.; "'Tm these that early, taint the female mind." This license in the construction of it is, (if it be proper to admit it at all,) has, however, been certainly abused in the following sentence, which is thereby made a very awkward one : " It is wonderful the very few accidents, which, in several years, happen from this prac- n tice. 11. The interjections, 0/ Oh I and Ah! require the ob- jective case of a pronoun in the first person after them : as, " O me ! Oh me ! Ah me !" But the nominative case in the second person : as, " O thou persecutor !" Oh ye^ hypo- crites !" " O thou, who dwellest," &c. The neuter pronoun, by an idiom peculiar to the English language, i&^ frequently joined in explanatory sentences, with a noun or pronoun of the masculine of feminine gen- der : as, " It was I j" " It was the man, or woman, that .V,A u » UIU lit The neuter pronoun it is sometimes omitted and under- [Rules 5. itch of the of number, t: asv/hen litate:" we s Disciples, epeiid very the relative, the mind of nbiguity. nner of the ome of our who decide ditious ring- , though the was the here- (e that early, nstruction of wever, been his thereby he very few n this prac- luire the ob- them: as, case in the ye^ hypo- |the English sentences, linine gen- ^oman, that and under- 1 % Rule 6.) SYNTAX. 153 stood ; thus we say, " As appears, as follows ;" for " As it appears, as it follows ;" and " May be," for " It may be." The neuter pronoun it is sometimes employed to e press; Ist, The subject of any discourse or inquiry; as, " // happened on a summer's day ;" " Who is it that calls on me?" 2d, The state or condition of any person or thing : as, « How is a7 with you?" 3d, The thing, whatever it be, that is the cause of any effect or event, or any person considered merely as a cause : as, " We heard her say it was not he j" " The trutli is, it was I that helped her." RULE VI. The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when ho nominative comes between it and the verb : as, " The master who taught us ;" " The trees which are planted." When a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the relative is governed by some word in its own member of the ficntence ; as, " He who preserves me, to whom I owe my bemg, i/uhose I am, and whom I serve, is eternal." In the several menibers of the last sentence, the relative performs a different office. In the first mem^^er. It marks the agent ; in the second, it submits to the government of the preposition ; in the third, it represents the possessor ; and in the fourth, the object of an act 'on : and therefore it must be in the three different cases, correspondei^ to those offices. , , When both the antecedent and relative bcco.Tie nomina- tives, each to different verbs, tlie relative is the nominative to the former, anji the antecedent to the latter verb : as, " Tribe philoscphyf whieh is the ornament of eur nature, G3 154 ENGLISH GRAMMAB. iJj! I (Rule 6 consists more in the love of our duty, and the practice ox virtue, than in great talents and extensive knowledge." A few instances of erroneous construction, will illu&trate both the branches of the sixth rule. The three following refer to the first part. " How can we avoid being grateful to those whom, by repeateii kind offices, have proved themselves our real friends ?" " These are the men whom, you might suppose, were the authors of the work :" " If you were here, you would find three or four, whom you would say passed their time agreeably:" in all these places it should be who instead of whom. Tie two latter senten- ces contain a nominative between the relative and the verb ; and, therefore, seem to contravene the rule : but tlie student will reflect, that it is not the nomii.^live of the verb with which the relative is connected. The remaining examples refer to the second part of the rule. " "Men of fine talents are not always the persons who we should esteem." *• The persons who you dispute with, are pre- cisely of your opinion." " Our tutors are our benefactors, who we owe obedience to, and who Ave ought to love." In these sentences, whom should be used instead of who. 1. When the relative pronoun is of the in**»-''ogative kind, the noun or pronoun containing the answer, must be in the same case as that which contains the question : as, " Whose books are these ? They are Johyi's" " Who gave them to him 1 We" " Of whom did you buy them ? Of a bookseller ; him who lives at the Bible and Crown." " Whom did you see there ? Both him and the shopman." The learner will readily comprehend this rule, by supplying the words which are understood iu the answers. Thus, to express the answers at large, we should say, "They are .Tohn's books." " We gave them to him." " We bought U.em of him who lives, &c." " We saw both him and the shopman." — As the relative pronoun, when used interroga lively, refers to the subsequent word or phrase Gontaining (Rule 6 practice oi i^ledge." ill illuatrate 16 following iing grateful ive proved men whom, vork :" « If whom you hese places tter senten- ;^e and the lie : but tlie of the verb remaining "Men of we should h, are pre- )enefactors, it to love." ad of who. ♦p—ogative 3r, must be estion : as, IVho gave thnml Of Crown." shopman." supplying Thus, to 'They are ¥e bought m and the interroga sontaining Rule 7.) SYNTAX. ..._i 155 the answer to the question, that word or phrase may pro- perly be termed the subsequent to the interrogative. RULE VII. When the relative is preceded by two nominatives of different persons, the relative and verb may agree in person with either, according to the sense : as, " I am the man ivho command you j" " or, " I am the man who commands you." The form of the first of the two precedmg sentences, ex- presses the meaning rather obscurely. It would be more perspicuous to say ; " I, who command you, am the man." Perhaps the difference of meaning, produced by referring the relative to different antecedents, will be' more evident to the learner, in the following sentences. " I am the general who gives the orders to-day ;" " I am the general, who give the orders to-day ;" that is, " I, who give the or- ders to-day, am the general." When the relative and the verb have been determined to agree with either of the preceding nominatives, that agreement must be preserved throughout the sentence ; as in the following instance : " I am the Lord that makclh all things ; that siretcheih forth the heavens alone." Isa. xliv. 24. Thus far is consistent : The Lord^ in the tliird person, is the antecedent, and the verb agrees with the re- lative in the third person : " I am ike Lord, which Lord, or he that maketh all things." If / were made the antecedent, the relative and verb should agree with it in the first per- son : as, " J am the Lord, that make all things, that stretch forth the heavens alone." But should it follow ; " That spreadeth abroad the earth by myself;" there would arise a confusion of persons, and a manifest solecism. 156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 8. RULE VIII. Every adjective, and every adjective pronoun, be- longs to a substantive, expressed or understood : as, " He is a good^ as well as a wise man ;" " Few are happy f* that is '^^ persons ;" " This is a pleasant walk;'* that is, " Tids walk is,^"* &c. Adjective pronouns must agree, in number, with their substantives : as, " This book, th(^se books ; that sort, those sorts ; another road, other roads." a Jo b te I. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. A few instances of the breach of this rule are here exhi- bited. " I have not travelled this twenty years ;'*'* these twenty." " I am not recommending these kind of fjuffer- ings ;" " this kind." " Those set of books was a valuable present ;" " that set." 1. The word means in the singular number, knd the phrases, " By this means," " By that means" are used by our best and most correct writers ; namely, Bacon, Tillot son, Atterbury, Addison, Steele, Pope, &c.t They are, indeed, in so general and approvf d use, that it would appear awkward, if not affected, to apply the old singular form, and say, " By this mean ; by that mean ; it was by f *' By tMt meant, he had them the mure at vantage, being tired and harassed with a long march." Bacon. *' By thit meant one great restraint from doing evil, would be taken away." — " And thit \a an admirable mcajtt to improve men in virtue."—" By that means they have rendered their duty more difficult." TUlotton. *\ It renders us careless of approving ourselves to God, and by that means secur- ing the continuance of his goodness."—" A good character, when established, should not be rested in as an end, but employed as a meant of doing still further good." Atterbury. " By thit mtant they we happy in each other."—" He by that mtani preserves nis superiority." * Additon. " Your vanity fry this meant will want its food." Steele. " J?i( Mil mtortfalode. their greatest obstacles will vanish." Fopt. " Which custom has proved the moet effectual means to ruin the nobles." Dean Swi/f. KuleS.) ' SYNTAX. 157 a mean ;" although it is more agreeable to the general ana- logy of the language. "The v/ord means (says Priestly) belongs to the class of words, which do not change their termination on account of number ; for it is used alike in both numbers." The word amends is used in this manner, in the follow- ing sentences : " Though he did not succeed, he gained the approbation of his country ; and with thU amends he was content" " Peace of mind is an honourable amends for the sacrifices of interest." " In return, he received the thanks of his employers, and the present of a large estate : tf(ese were ample amends for all his labours." " We have described the rewards of vice : the good man's amends arc of a different nature." It can scarcely be doubted, that this word amends (like the word means) had formerly its correspondent form in the singular number, as it is derived from the French amende^ though now it is exclusively established in the plural form. If, therefore, it be alleged that mean should be applied in the singular, because it is derived from the French moyeny the same kind of argument may be advanced in favour of the singular amende ; and the general analogy of the lan- guage may also be pleaded in support of it. Campbell, in his " Philosophy of Rhetoric," has the ' I harassed Bacon, jiway." — it tntant Xillotson. If secur- kblished, 1 further UtTbury. reserves \ddUon, Steele, Fope, IS." " ThPrt? *» no meant of escaping the persecution." " Faith is notonly a meant of ob.^ying, but a principal act of obedience." Dr. Yovng " He looked on money as a necessary meant of maintaining and increasing power." Lord Lyttelton't Henry It . %■ " John was too much intimidated not to embrace every meant afforded for bit ^'* ' > " L«st thit meant should fail."—" By meant mean. Lowth and Johnson seem to be against the use of mean in the singular number. They do not, however, speak dc clsively on the point ; but rather dubiously, and as if they knew that they were questioning eminent authorities, at. well as general practice. That they were not decidedly against the application of this word to the singular num ber, appears from their own language : " Who'" sentences, whether simple or compound, may become im mbers of other sentences by means of some additional connexion."^--- Dr. Lowth's Introduction to English Grammar. " There is no other method of teaching that of which any one is ignorant, but by means of something already tnown." ^Dr. Johnson. Idler. It is remarkable that our present version of the Scriptures makes' no use, as far as the Compiler can discover, of the word mean; though there are several instances to be found in it of the use of means, in the sense and connexion con- tended for. " By this means thou shalt have no portion on this side the river. " Ezra iv. 16. " That by means of death,** &c. Heb. ix. 15. It will scarcely be pretended, that the translators of the sacred volumes did not accurately un- derstand the English language ; or that they would have admitted one form of this word, and rejected the other, had not their determination been conformable to the best usage. An attempt therefore to recover an old word, so long since disused by the most correct writers, seems not likely to be successful ; especially as the rejection of it is lM>t attended with any inconvenience. The practice of the best and most correct writers, or a great majority of them, corroborated by general usage, Conns, during its continuance, the standard of language ; (Riiie 8 ' No penoDa late the pre- ps of the ge- mn, by that ise of mean 3r, speak do 0(1 as if they ithorities, ai ot decidedly ingular num ' ' sentences, iiii mbers of jraiearton.''— - r. lat of which king already 18 Scriptures over, of the to be found mexion con^ portion on nsoideaihy* ed, that the curately un- would have [1 the other, to the best d word, so seems not tion of it is mters, or a era! usage, language ; Rule 8.) " V SYNTAX 159 especially, if, in particular instances, this practice continue, after objection and due consideration. Every connexion and application of words and phrases, thus supported, must therefore be proper, and entitled to respect, if not excep- tionable in a moral point of view. -" Si volet USUI " Quein penes arbitrium est, et jua, et norma loquendi." HOR. On this principle, many forms of expression, not less eviating from the general analogy of the language, than those before mentioned, are to be considered as strictly proper and justifiable. Of this kind are the following. " None of them are varied to express the gender ;" and yet none originally signified no one. " He himself shall do the work :" here, what was at first appropriated to the objec- tive, is now properly used as the nominative case. " You have behaved yourselves well :" in this example, the word ■^u is put in the nominative case plural, with strict propri- v-.y ; though formerly it was confined to the objective case, and ya exclusively used for the nominative. With respect to anomalies and variations of language, thus established, it is the grammarian's business to submit, not to remonstrate. In pertinaciously opposing the deci- sion of proper authority, and contending for obsolete modes of expression, he may, indeed, display learning and critical sagacity ; and, in some degree, obscure points that are suflB- ciently clear and decided ; but he cannot reasonably 'lape cither to succeed in his aims, or to assist the learner, in dis- covering and respecting the true standard and principles of language. Cases which custom has left dubious, are certainly within the grammarian's province. Here, he may reason and re- monstrate on the ground of derivation, analogy, and pro- priety ; and his reasonings may refine and improve the lan- guage : but when authority speaks out and decides the point, it were perpetually to unsettle the language, to admit vof cavil and debate. Anomalies then, under the limitation 160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 8. oientioned, become the law, as clearly as the plainest analo gies. The reader will perceive that, in the following sentences, the use of the word mean in the old form has a veiy un- couth appearance : " By the tnean of adversity we are often instructed." " He preserved his health by mean of exercise." " Frugality is one mean of acquiring a compe- tency." They should be, " By mmns of adversity," &tc. " By m4ians of exercise," &c. " Frugality is one means;" &c. , Good writers do indeed make use of the substantive mean in the singular number, and in that number only, to signify mediocrity, middle«rate, &£. as, " This is a mean between the two extremes." But in the sense of instrumentality, it has been long disused by the best authors, and by almost every writer. This means and thai means should be used only when they refer to what is singular ; these means and those meanSf when they respect plurals : as, " He lived temperately, and by this means preserved his health ;" " The scholars were attentive, industrious, and obedient to their tutors ; and by these means acquired knowledge." We have enlarged on this article, that the young student may be led to reflect on a point so important, as that of as- certaining the standard of propriety in the use of language. 2. When two persons or things are spoken of in a sen- tence, and there is occasion to mention them again for the sake of distinction, thai is used in reference to the former, and thisy in reference to the latter : as, '' Self-love, which is the spring of action in the soul, is ruled by reason : but for ihatf man would be inactive ; and but for thiSf he would he active to no end." 3. The distributive adjective pronouns, eachf every^ either, agree with the nouns, pronouns, and verbs, of the singularnumber only : as, " Hhe king of Israel, and Jehosh- aphat, the king of Judah, sat eocn on his throne ;'* " Every tree is known by Us fruit :" unless the plural noun convey i Rules.) srNTAS. 161 a collective idea : as, " Every si^ months ;'* " Every hun- dred years." The following phrases are exceptionable. ** Let each esteem others better than theipselTes :" it ought to be " himself.''* " The language should be both perspi- cuous and correct : in proportion as either of these two qualities are wanting, the language is imperfect :" it should be, '' is wanting." " Every one of the letters bear regular dates, and contain proofs of attachment :" " bears a regular da/e, and contains." " Every town and village were bnrn- ed ; every grove and every tree were cut down :" " was burned, and was cut down." See the Key, p. 16; and the Octavo Grammar^ Second edition, volume 2, page 322. Either is often used improperly, instead of each : as, << The king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah. sat eitlier of them on his throne;" " Nadab and Abihu, the sons of Aaron, took either of them his censer." Each signifies both of them taken distinctly or separately ; either pn.,perly signifies only the one or the other of them taken disjunctively. In the course of this work, some examples will appear of erroneous translations from the Holy Scriptures, with re- spect to grammatical construction : but it may be proper to remark, that notwithstanding these verbal mistakes, the Bi* ble. for the size of it, is the most accurate grammatic il compo- sition that we have in the English language. The riuthurity of several eminent grammarians might be adduced in support of this assertion ; but it may be sufificient to mention only ,that of Dr. Lowth, who says, " The present translation of the Bible, is the best standard of the English language."^ II. ADJECTIVES. 4. Adjectives are sometimes improperly applied as ad- verbs : as, " indifferent honest ; excellent well ; miserable poor;" instead of " Indifferently honest; excellently well ; miserably poor." " He behaved himself conformable to that great example ;" " conformably.** " Endeavour to live hereafter suitable to a person in thy station ;" " suit- 162 BKGLI8B GRAMMAB. (Rule 8. ably.^^ " I can never think so very mean of him;" " meanly." " He describes this river agreeable to the common reading :" " agreeably" " Agreeable to my pro- mise, I now write :" " agreeably" " Thy exceeding great reward :" When united to an adjective, or adverb not ending in /y, the word exceeding has ly added to it : as, " exceedingly dreadful, exceedingly great ;" " exceeding- ly well, exceedingly more active :" but when it is joined to an adverb or adjective, having that termination, the ly is omitted : as, " Some men think exceeding clearly, and reason exceeding forcibly :" " She appeared, on this oc- casion, exceeding lovely." " He acted in this business holder than was expected :" " They behaved the noblest, because they were disinterested." They should have been, " more boldly ; most nobly." — The adjective pronoun such is often misapplied : as, " He was such an extravagant voung man, that he spent his whole patrimony in a few years :" it should be, " so extravagant a young man." " I never before saw such large trees :" " saw trees so large." When we refer to the species or na'urc of a thing, the word such is properly applied : as, " Such a temper is seldom found :" but when degree is signified, we use the word so : as, " So bad a temper is seldom found." Adverbs arc likewise improperly used as adjectives : as, " The tutor addressed him in terms rather warm, but suit- ably to his offence ;" " suititble." " They were seen wan- dering about 'solitarily and distressed ;" " solitary." " He lived in a manner agreeably to the dictates of reason and religion ;" " agreeable." " The study of syntax should be previously to that of punctuation ;" " previous]." 5. Double comparatives and superlatives should be avoided : such as, " A worser conduct ;" " On lesser hopes ;" " A more serener temper;" " The most straitest sect ;" " A more superior work." They should be, " v/orsc conduct;" i For the rule to determine whether an adjective or an adverb is to be usedi see Ejjgltsh Exercises, Sittttnth, or any subsequent, edition, page UO I 'I I (Rules. lean of him;" ^reeable to the able to my pro- exceeding great or adverb not dded to it: as, ;" " exceeding- 'hen it is joined nination, the ly ing clearly, and red, on this oc- in this business ved the noblest^ lould have been, ee pronoun such an extravagant rimony in a few a young man." " saw trees so •d'mc of a thing, !uch a temper is ed, we use tlie found." adjectives : as, warm, but suit- were seen wan- olilary:^ « He of reason and ^ntax should be ioMsf." ves should be n lesser hopes ;" litest sect ;" " A I'orsc conduct ;" erb is to be used, see ige UO Rule 8.) SYNTAX. 163 " less hopes ;" " a more serene temper ;" " the straitest sect;" " a superior work." 6. Adjectives that have in themselves a superlative mg- nification, do not properly admit of the superlative or com- parative form superadded : such as, " Chief, extreme, perfect, right, universal, supreme," &tc. ; which are some- times improperly written, " Chiefest, extremest, perfectest, rightest, most universal, most supreme," &c. The follow- ing expressions are therefore improper. " He sometimes claims admission to the chiefest otfices." " The quarrel became so universal and national ;" " A method of attain- ing the 7'ighicst and greatest happiness." . The phrases, so perfect, so right, so extreme, so universal, &.c. are incorrect; because they imply that one thing is less perfect, less ex- treme, &,c, than another, '"hich is not possible. 7. Inaccuracies are often found in the way in which the degrees of comparison are applied and construed. The following are examples of wrong construction in this re- .ipcct : " Tliis noble nation hath, of all others, admitted fewer corruptions." The word fewer is here construed precisely as if it were the superlative. It should be, " This noble nation hath admitted fewer corruptions than any other." We commonly 'say, " This is the weaker of the two ;" or, " The weakest of the two :" but the former is the regular mode of expression, because there are only two things compared. " The vice of covetousness is what enters deepest into the soul of any other." " He celebrates the church of England as the most perfect of all others." Both these modes of expression are faulty : we should not say, " The best of any man," or, " The best of any other man," for " the best of men." The sentences may be corrected by substituting the comparative in the room of the superla- tive. " The vice, &cc. is what enters deeper into the soul than any other." " He celebrates, &.c. as more perfect than any other." It is also possible to retain the superla- tive, and render the expression grammatical. " Covetous t I 164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 8. ness, of all vices, enters the deepest into the soul." " He celebrates, &c. as the most perfect of all churches." These sentences contain other errors, against which it is proper to caution the learner. The words deeper and deepest, being intended for adverbs, should have been more deftly, most deeply. The phrases more perfect, and most perfect, are im- proper ; because perfection admits of no degrees of compa- rison. We may say nearer or nearest to perfection, or more or less imperfect. 8. In some cases, adjectives should not be separated from their bub<%tantives, even by words which modify their mean- ing, and make but one sense with them : as, " A large enough number surely." It should be, " A number large enough." " The lower sort of people are good enough judges of one not very distant from them." The adjective is usually placed before its substantive : as, " A generous man ;" " How amiable a woman !" The in- stances in which it comes after the substantive, are the fol- lowing. 1st, When something depends upon the adjective ; and when it gives a better sound, especially in poetry : as, " A man generous to his enemies ;" " Feed me with food con- venient for me ;" " A tree three feet thick" " A boc^y of troops fifly thousand strong;" " The torrent tuLiijling through rocks abrupt." 2d, When the adjective is emphatical : as, " Alexander the Great ;" " Lewis the Bold ;" " Goodness infinite ;" '' Wisdom unsp.archable." 3d, When several adjectives belong to one substantive : as, " A man just, wise, and charitable;" " A woman modest, sensible, and virtuous." 4th, When the adjective is preceded by an adverb : as, ** A boy regularly studious;" " A girl unaffectedly modest" 0th, Wl^en the verb to be, in any of its variations, comes (Rule 8. soul." "He hes." These t is proper to 'eepestf being deeply J most rfecf, are im- les of compa- tion, or more iparated from Y their mean- 3, " A large umber large ;ood enough istantive : as, a!" Thein- , are the fol- ective; and try : as, " A th food con- ' A boc(y of it tuLiuling Alexander i infinite;'* jbstantive : an modest, Iverb : as, ' modest." % Rule 8.) ' SYNTAX. 105 between a substantive and an adjective, the adjective may frequently either precede or follow it : as, " The man is happy;" or, "happy is the man who makes virtue his choice:" " The interview was tfe%A<^;" or, "delightful was the interview." 6th, When the adjective expresses some circumstance of a substantivv't placed after an active verb : as, " Vanity often renders its possessor despicable" In an exclamatory sentence, the adjective generally precedes the substantive ; as, " How despicable does vanity often render its posses- sor !" There is sometimes great beauty, as well as force, in placing the adjective before the vek'b, and the substantive immediately after it : as, '' Great is the Lord ! just and true are thy ways, thou King of saints !" Sometimes the word (M is emphatically put after a num- ber of particulars comprehended under it. " Ambition, interest, honour, all concuri'ed." Sometimes a substantive, which likewise comprehends the preceding particulars, is used in conjunction with this adjective : as, " Royalists, republicans, churchmen, sectaries, courtiers, patriots, all parties J concurred in the illusion." An adjective pronoun, in the plural number, will some- times properly associate with a singular noun : as, " Our desire, your intention, their resignation." This association applies rather to things of an intellectual nature, than to those which are corporeal. It forms an exception to the general rule. A substantive with its adjective is reckoned as one com- pounded word, whence^ they often tak^ nnother adjeciliVe, and sometimes a third, and so on : as, " An old ma;*; i a good old maujl a very learned, judicious, good old man." Though the adjective always relates to a substantive, it is, in' many instances, put as if it were absolute ; especially where the noun has been mentioned before, or is easily understood, though not expressed : as, ^ I odcn survey >ns, comes 4 1(56 KNGI1SH GRAMMAR (Ruie 9 the preen fields, as I am very fond oi green ;" " The wise, the vati,'i)UB, the honoured, famed, and great," that is, " peri, >nF ;" " The twelve," that is, " apostles ;" " Have compassion on the poor ; be feet to the /ame, and )5yes to the blind:' Substantives are often used as adjectives. In thi- ciss. the word so used is sometimes unconnected with the. sub- stantive to which it relate? ; sometimes connected with it by a hyphen ; and sometimes joined t* si, so as to make the two words coalesce. Tho total separalinn is proper, when either of the two words is long, or "^i hen they cannot h^ ^luentJy pronounced as one word: as, anp. Ijedive pro- noun, a silver '/ntch, a stone cistern : the hyphen is used, when both (.i»^ vvoii's are sho; t, and are readily pronounced as ». f=ingle ward • a^, coal-mine, corn-mill, fruit-tree: the word* md, they should be lustly iipplied, according to their u' finct i oil % 1^112/ (Kuje 9 " The wise, Jat," that 18, es ;» " Ihae aad »5yes to In th?', cis«. nth tile sub- i'ted with it as to make n is proper, liiey caiiDot jeclive pm- !sen 13 used, )ronounced it-tree: the meed toge- 1 ate in fre- Yorli shire, ^e, and has ef good ;" the sub- an adverb, in particu- rticularly, :h: but it 1 -f singular A chris- ( finite '^r ■ 1 and ,..Wi^ M "> <■ ..*.•. ■j.-r uvvtinct ilule 9.) STNTAX. ' 1C7 I nature : as, " Gold is corrupting ; the sea is green ; a ilion is bold." It is of the nature of both the articles to determine or ! limit the thing spoken of. A determines it to be one single dvur of the kind, leaving it still uncertain which: the de-^ t€? I lines vvhlch it is, or of many, which they are. The following passage will serve as an example of the different uses of a and they and of the force of the substan- tive; without any article. " Man was made for society, and ought to extend his good will to all men : but a nian will naturally entertain a more particular kindness for the tneuj with whom he has the most frequent intercourse ; and enter into a still closer union with the man whose temper and disposition suit best with his own." As the articles are sometimes misapplied, it may be of some use to exhibit a few instances : " And I persecuted this way unto the death." The apostle does not mean any particular sort of death, but death in general : the definite article therefore is improperly used : it ought to be " unto death," without any article. " When he, the Spirit of Truth, is come, he will guide you into all truth ;" that is, according to this translation, " into airtruth whatsoever, into truth of all kinds ;" very different from the meaning of the evangelist, and frcu the original, " into all the ikuth ," that is, " into all evangelical truth, all truth necessary for you to kUow." " Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel ?" it ought to be " the wheel," used as an instrument for the particular pur- pose of torturing criminals. " The Almighty hath given reason to a man to be a light uri'r)i him :" it should rather be, " to maHf* fr general. '' This day is salvation come to this house, ' ..asmuch as he alsc is the son of Abraham :" it ought to be, " a son of Abraham." These remarks may serve to show the great importance of iLu proper use of the article, and the excellence of the ■■♦ - ' Ay IGS ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Kule 9. English language in this respect ; which, by means of its two articles, does most precisely determine the extent of signification of common names. 1. A nice distinction of the sense is sometimes made by the use or omission of the article a. If I say, " He be- haved with a little reverence ;" my meaning is positive. If I say, " He behaved with little reverence j" my mean- ing is negative. And these two are by no means the same, or to be used in the same cases. By the former, I rather praise a person ; by the latter, I dispraise him. For the sake of this distinction, which is a very useful one, we may better bear the seeming impropriety of the article § before nouns of number. When I say, " There were few men with him ;" I speak diminutively, and mean to represent them as inconsiderable : whereas, when I say, " There were a few men with him ;" I evidently intend to make the most of them. 2. In general, it may be sufficient to prefix the article to the former of two words in the same construction ; though the French never fail to repeat it in this case. " There were many hours, both of the night and ihyf which he could spend, without suspicion, in solitary thought." It might hare been " of the night and of the day." And, for the sake of emphasis, we often repeat the article in a series of epithets. " He hoped tliat this title would secure him an ample and an independent authority." 3. In common conversation, and in familiar style, we frequently omit the articles, which might be inserted with propriety in writing, especially in a grave style. " At worst, tiriie might be gained by this expeditent." ** At the worst," woiild have beeii better in this ftlkce. '* Give me hiejre John Baptist's head." Th^re wo\M have been more dignity in sayiiig, « John the Baptlst^s iiead:" Or, « The head of John the Baptist." Tffe itiflile the m ^etim^s & ^Hta W e." But when any words intervene, perhaps on a' unt of th<; increased pause, the sign of the possessive .uouh be annexed to eac^ • as, "They are John's as well as Eliza^s books;" '* I had the physician's, the surgeon's, and the apothe- cary's assistance." 2. In poetry, the additional s is frequently omitted, foai " \ Rule 10 ot always when the m of the f virtue/' ■ sr to say, ixpreasion Q." ns, in the Us fruit;* is or it is: t n to which e proDOUU, as, "This 'Hw." If DID position ' The po- nsider that lust have a that ia tar- possessiTe 5 governed ler's," that nitive case, md under- is:" "Thi*" But when >, increased annexed to ^s books;" le apothe- nitted, but Rule 10.) SYNTAX. 171 the apostrophe retained, in the same manner as in sub- stantives of the plural number ending in « : as, " The wrath of Peleua' son." This seems not so allowable in prose ; which the following erroneous examples will de- monstrate : " Moses* minister ;" " Phinehas' wife ?" " Festus came into Felix' room." " These answers were made to the witness' questions." But in cases which would give too much of the hissing sound, or increase the difficulty of pronunciation, the omission takes place even in prose : as, " For righteousness' sake ;" " For conscience' sake." 3. Little explanatory circumstances are particularly awk- ward between a genitive case, and the word which usually follows it ; as, " She began to extol the ^armer's, as she cal- led him, excellent understanding." It ought to be, " the excellent understanding of the farmer, as she called him." . 4. When a sentence consists of terms signifying a name and an office, or of any expressions by which one part is de- scripUi or explanatory of the other, it may occasion some doubt i > 'hich of H em the sign of the genitive case should be annexed ; or whether it should be subjoined to them both. Thus, SOI. MTould say ; " I left the parcel at Smith's the bookseller;" other " at Smith the bookseller's;" and per- haps others, " at bi h's the bookseller's." The first of these forms is most agreeable to the English idiom ; and if the addition consists of two pr more words, the case seems to be less dubious ; as, "I left the parcel at Smith's, the book- seller and stationer." But as this subject requires a little further explanation to make it intelligible to the learners, we •hall add a few observations tending to unfold its principles. A phrase in which the words are so connected and depen- dent, as to admit of no pause before the conclusion, neces- sarily requires the genitive sign at or near the end of the phrase: as, "Whose prerogative is it? It is the king of Great Britain's ;" « That is the duke of Bridgewater's canal;" « The bishop of LandaSfs excellent book ;" « The Lord mayor of London's authority;" " Th" "aptain of the guard's house.* m r il i f i ( 172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Utile 10. When words in apposition follow each other in quick succession, it seems also most agreeable to our idiom, to give the sign of the genitive a similar situation ; especially if the noun which governs the genitive be expressed : as, " The emperor Leopold's ;" " Dionysius the tyrant's ;'* " For David my aervanVs sake ;" " Give me John the BaalUVa head ;" " Paul the apostU^a advice." But when a pause is proper, and the governing noun not expressed ; and when the latter part of the sentence is extended ; it appears to be requisite that the sign should be applied to the first genitive, and understood to the other : as, " I re- side at lord Stormont's, my old patron and benefactor ;" " Whose glory did he emulate ? He emulated Ceesar's, the greatest general of antiquity." In the following sentences, it would be very awkward to place the sign, either at the end of each of the clauses, or at the end of the latter one alone : " These psalms are David's, the king, priest, and prophet of the Jewish people ;" " We staid a month at lord Lyttelton's, the ornament of his country, and the friend of every virtue." The sign of the genitive case may very properly be understood at the end of these members, an ellipsis at the latter part of sentences being a common construction in our language ; as the learner will see by one or two examples : " They wished to submit, but he did not ;" that is, " he did not wish to submit ;" *' He said it was their concern, but not his;" that is, **not his concern." If we annex the sign of the genitive to the end of the last clause only, we shall perceive that a restingiplace is wanted, and that the connecting circumstance is placed too remote- . ly, to be either perspicuous or agreeable : as, " Whose glory did he emulate?" "He emulated Caesar, the greatest general of antiquity's ;" " These psalms are David, the , king, priest, and prophet of the Jewish people^sf* It is much better to say, " This is PauPs advice, the christian hero, and great apostle of the gentiles," than, " This is Paul the christian hero^ and great apostle of iue genUks (Rule 10. r in quick idioni) to especially 'essed : as, tyrant's ;" I John the But when expressed ; xtended ; it applied to as, « 1 re- enefactor ;" Cffisar's, the ig sentences, either at the le latter one priest, and a month at itry, and the ive case may 386 members, ng a common jr will see by ibmit, but he ^." '' He swd it his amcem,** end of the last lace is wanted, ;d too remote- . as, "Whose ir, the greateet tre David, the people's/* It IS e, the christian than, " This is ... Js.'7^B Rule 10.) 8TNTAX. ITS advice.*' On the other hand, the application of the geni tive sign to both or all of the nouns in apposition, would be generally harsh and displeasing, and perhaps in some cases Incorrect : as, " The emperor's Leopold's;" " King's George's :" * Charles' the second's;' " The parcel was left at Smith's the bookseller's and stationer's." The rules which we have endeavoured to elucidate, will prevent the incon- venience of both these modes of expression ; and they ap* pear to be simple, perspicuous, and consistent with the idiom of the language. 5. The English genitive has often an unpleasant sound ; so (hat we daily make more use of the particle ^to express the same relation. There is something awkward in the follow- ing sentences, in which this method has not been taken. " The general, in the army's name, published a declaration." ** The commons' vote." " The Lords' house." " Unless he is very ignorant of the kingdom's condition." It were cer- tainly better to say, " In the name of the army ;" " The votes of the commons ;" " The house of lords ;" " The con- dition of the kingdom." It is also rather harsh to use two English genitives with the same substantive ; as, " Whom he acquainted with the pope's and the king's pleasure." " The pleasure of the pope and the king," would have been better. We sometimes meet with three substantives dependent on one another, and connected by the preposition o/'applied to each of them : as, '< The severity of the distress of the son of the king, touched the nation ;" but this mode of expression is not to be recommended. It would be better to say, " The severe distress of the king's son, touched the nation." We have a striking instance of this laborious mode of expression, in the following sentence : " Of some cf the books of each of these classes of literature, a cata- logue will be given at the end of the work." 6. In some cases, we use both the genitive termination and the preposition of; as, « It is a discovery of Sir Isaac Kewton's." Sometiipes indeed, unless we throw ike seo- C I' i ! I ii f 174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rulf 10 tencc into another form, this method is absolutely ne^ssa- ry, in order to distinguish the sense, and to give the idea of property, strictly so called, which is the most important of the relations expressed by the genitive case : for the expres- sions, « This picture of my friend," and " This picture of my friend's," suggest very different ideas. The latter only is that of property in the strictest sense. The idea would, doubtless, be conveyed in a better manner, by saying, " This picture belonging to ray friend." When this double genitive, as some gramk.iarians term if, is not necessary to distinguish the sense, and especially in a grave style, it is generally omitted. £xcei>t to prevent am- biguity, it seems to be allowable only in cases which sup- pose the existence of a plurality of subjects of the same kind. In the expressions, " A subject of the emperor's ;" "A sen- timent of my brother's ;" more than one subject, and one sentiment, are supposed to belong to the possessor. But W'hen this plurality is neither intimated, nor necessarily supposed, the double genitive, except as before mentioned, should so' be used : as, " This house of the governor is very commodious ;" " The crown of the king was stolen ;" " That privilege of the scholar was never abused." (See page 56.) But after all that can be said for this double genitive, as it is termed, some grammarians think that it would be better to avoid the use of it altogether, and to give tlie sentiment another form of expression. 7. When an entire clause of a sentence, beginning with a participle of the present tense, is used as one name, or to express one idea or circumstance, the noun on which it depends may be put in the genitive case ; thus, instead of saying, " What is the reason of this person dismissing his servant so hastily ?" that is, " What is the reason of this person in dismissing his servant so hastily ?" we may tsay, and perhaps ought to say, " What is the reason of this per- son's dismissing of his servant so hastily ?" Jud as we say, " What is the reason of this person's* hasty dismission of h a II (Rule 10 tely ne«j88a- e the idea of important of r the expres- is picture of e latter only itltfa would, by saying, ians term it, leclnlly in a prevent ain- n'hich sup- same kind. i;""Asen- 't, and one jssor. But necessarily mentioned, governor is as stolen ;" Hi.'' (See his double link that it md to give ling with a imc, or to 1 which it instead of lissing his )n of this may esay, r this per- 8 we say, ion of h Rule 11.) SYNTAX. 175 servant 1" So also, we say, " I remember it being reckon ed a great exploit ;" or more properly, " I remember its be- ing reckoned," &.c. The following sentence is correct and proper : " Much will depend on the pupiVs coinposing^ but more on his rcarfing frequently." It would not be accurate to say, " Much will depend on the pupil composing^' &ic. We also properly say ; " This will be the effect of the pupiVs composing frequently ;" instead of, " Of the pupil coinpos- twg- frequently." , i? ■ " - RULE XI. Active vei-bs govern the objective case : as, " Truth ennobles her ;" " She comforts me ;" " They support us ;" " Virtue rewards her followers." In English, the nominative case, denoting the subject, usually goes before the verb ; and the objective case, de- noting the object, follows the verb active ; and it is the or- der that determines the case in nouns; as, " Alexander con- quered the Persians." r»ut the pronoun having a proper form for each of those case^, is sometimes, when it is in the objective case, placed before the verb ; and, when it is in the nominative case, follows the object and verb; as, " Whom ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you." This position of the pronoun sometimes occasions its pro- per case and government to be neglected : as in the follow- ing instances : " Who should I esteem more than the wise and good ?" « By the character of those who you choose for your friends, your own is likely to be formed." "Those are the persons who he thought true to his interests." " Who should I see the other day but my old friend ?" *' Whosoever the court favours." In all these places it ought to be rJiom^ the relative being governed in the objective case by the verbs " e^^teem, choose, thought," &c. " He, who under all proper circumstances, has the boldness to speak truth, choose for thy friend ;" It should be " him who," &cc Verbs ncuier uo not act upon, or govern, nouns and pro^ r ■ " '[ 176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule)l. nours. ** He skeps ; they muse" &cc. are not transitive. They are, therefore, not followed by an objective case, spe- cifying the object of an action. But when this case, or an object of action, comes after such verbs, though it may car- ry the appearance of being governed by them, it is affected by a preposition or some other word understood : as, " He resided many years [that is, Jbr or during many years] in that street;" " He rode several miles [that is,yor or through the space of several milesj on that day ;" " He lay an hour [that is, during an hour] in great torture." In the phrases, " To dream a dream," " To live a virtuous life," « To run a race," " To walk the horse," " To dance the child," the verbs certainly assume a transitive form, and may not, in these cases, be improperly denominated transitive verbs. 1. Some writers, however, use certain neuter verbs as if they were transitive, putting after them the objective case, agreeably to the French construction of reciprocal verbs ; hut this custom is so foreign to the idiom of the English tongue, that it ought not to be adopted or imitated. The fol- lowing are some instances of this practice. "Repenting him of his design." " The king soon found reason to repent him of his provoking such dangerous enemies." " The popular lords did not fail to enlarge themselves on the subject." " The nearer his successes approached him to the throne." « Go Jlee thee away into the land of Judah." " I think it by no means a fit and decent thing to vie charities," &c. " They have spent their whole time and pains to agree the sacred with the profane chronology." 2. Active verbs are sometimes as improperly made neu- ter; as, "Imust/W6?m«e with three circumstances." "Those that think ^o ingratiate with him by calumniating me." 3. The neuter verb is varied like the active ; but, having in some degree the nature of the passive, it admits, in many instances, of the passive form, retaining still the neuter signification, chiefly in such verbs as signify some ^ort of motion, or change of place or condition : as, " I am (RuIeH. >t transitive, ve case, spe- 8 case, or an 1 it may car- it is affected d : as, « He ny years] in r or through '■ lay an hour the phrases, ," "To run } child," the may not, in ive verbs. r verbs as if ective case, ocal verbs ; he English d. Thefol- tenting him repent him 'he popular e subject." le throne." " I think it rities," &c. 3 agree the made neu- ""Those me." ut, having idmits, in ; still the nify some fts, " I am Ride 11.) SYNTAX. 17? come ; I was gone ; I am grown; I was fallen." The follow- ing examples, however, appear to be erroneous, in giving the neuter verbs a passive form, instead of an active one. " The rule of our holy religion, from which we are infinitely swerved." " The whole obligation of that law and covenant mas also ceased." " Whose number was now amounted to three hundred." " This mareschal, upon some discontent, was entered into a conspiracy against his master." " At the end of a campaign, when half the men are deserted or kill- . d.-' It should be, " have swerved, had ceased," ^c. 4. The verb to be, through all its variations, has the same case after it, as that which next precedes it : / am ^ whom they invited ;" " It may be (or might have been) ^e, butiY cannot be (or could not have been) /;" " // is impossible to be they ;" " It seems to have been /te, who conducted himself so wisely ;"'*// appeared to be she that transacted the buoines 5 ;" " I understood it to be him ;" " I believe it to have been them ;" " We at first took it to be Mr; but were afterwards convinced that it was not she" " He is not the person mho it seemed he was." " He is really the person mho he appeared to be." " She is not now the wo- man whom they -represented her to have been." " Whom do you fancy him to be ?" By these examples, it ^y pears ;:iat this substantive verb has no government of case, but serves, in all its forms, as a conductor to the ca^es ; so that the two cases which, in the construction of the sentence, are the next before and after it, must always be alike. Per- haps this subject will be more intelligible to the learner, by observing, that the words in the cases preceding and follow- ing the verb to be^ may be said to be in apportion to each other. Thus, in the sentence, " I understood it to be him," the words it and him are in apposition ; that is, " they re- fer to the same thing, and are in the same case." The following sentences contain deviations from the rule, and exhibit the pronoun in a wrong case : " It might have been Wwi, but there is no proof of it j" « Though I H3 i- /t 178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 12 was blamed, it nould not have been me ;" " 1 saw one whom I took to be she ;" " She is the person who I under- stood it to have been ;" " Who do you think me to be ?" " Whom do men say that I am ?" " And whom think ye that I am ?" See the Octavo Grammar. Passive verbs which signify naming, &c. have the same case before and after them : as, " He was called Csesar ; She was named Penelope ; Homer is styled the prince of poets ; James was created a duke ; The general was saluted emptor; The professor was appointed tutor to the prince. " 6. The Hiixiliary let governs the objective case : as, " Let him beware ;" " Let tis judge candidly ;" " Let them not presume ;" " Let George study his lesson." RULE XIL One verb governs another that follows it, or depends upon it, in the infinitive mood : as, " Cep^e to do evil; learn to do well ;" " We should be prepared to render an account of our actions." The preposition to, though generally used before the latter verb, is sometimes properly omitted : as, " I heard him say it ;" instead of " to say it." The verbs which have commonly other verbs following them in the infinitive mood, without the sign to, are Bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel ; and also, let, not used as an auxiliary ; and perhaps a few others : as, " I bade him do it ;" " Ye dare not do it ;" " I saw him do it ;" " I heard him say it ;" " Thou lettest him go." 1. In the following passages, the word to, the sign of the infinitive mood, where it is distinguished by Italic cha^ ractera, is superfluous and '*nproper. " I have observed some satirists to usej^fccc. " To see so many to make so little conscience of so great a sin." " It canAot but be a delightful spectacle to God and angels, to see a young per SOB, besieged by powerful temptations on every side, to ao (Rule 13, I saw one ho I under- ne to be ?" m think ye the same ed Caesar; i prince of vsi9 saluted e prince. " as, "Let t ihein not ^ depends do enl; to render efore the "I heard following are Bid, >t used as hade him I it ;" « I gn of the alic cha- Dbserved make so but be a ung per le, to ac Rule 13.) SYNTAX. 170 quit himself gloriously, and resolutely to hold out against the most violent assaults ; to behold one in the prime and flower of his age, that is courted by pleasures and honours, by the devil, and all tiie bewitching vanities of the world, to reject all these, and to cleave steadfastly unto God." This mood has also been improperly used in the follow- ing places : " I am not like other men, to envy the talents ' cannot reach." " Grammarians have denied, or at least doubted, them to be genuine." " That all our doings may be ordered by thy goverua! ce, to do always what is righte- ous in thy sight" The infinitive is frequently governed by adjectives, sub- stantives, and participles: as, "He is eager to learn;" "She is worthy to be loved ;" " Tliey have a desire to improve ;" " Endeavouring to persuade." The infinitive mood has much of the nature of a substan- tive, expressing tlie action itself which the verb signifies, as the participle has tiie nature of an adjective. Thus the in- finitive mood does the otFice of a substantive in different cases: in the nominative; as, "To jj/ai/ is pleasant :" in the objective : as, " Boys love to play ;" " For to will is pre- sent with me ; but topeiform that which is good, I find not." The infinitive mood is often made absolute, or used in- dependently on the rest of the sentence, supplying the place of the conjunction that with the potential mood : as, " To confess the truth, I was in fault ;" ' To begin with the first;' " To proceed ;" " To conclude ;" that is, " That I may con- fess," &c. RULE XIII. In the use of words and phrases which, in point of tinie, relate to each other, a due regard to that relation should be observed. Instead of saying, "Tie Lord hath given, and the Lord hath taken away ;" w should spy, " The Loi-d gave, and the Lord hath taken away."!^ Instead of, " I remember the family more than twent) ISO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 13. years ;" it should be, " I have remembered the family more than twenty years." k It is not easy to give particular rules for the management of the moods and tenses of verbs with respect to one ano- ther, so that they may be proper and consistent. The best rule that can be given, is this very general one : " To ob- serve what the sense necessarily requires." It may, how- ever, be of use to give a few examples of irregular construc- tion. " The last week I intended to have rvritten,^* is a very common phrase ; the infinitive being in the past t':ne, as wel! as the verb which it follows. But it is certainly wrong ; tor how long soever it now is since I thought of writing, " to write" was then present to me, and must still be considered as present, when I bring back that time, and the thoughts ot u. It ought, therefore, to be, " The last week I intend- ed to write." TJie following sentences are also erroneous : " I cannot excuse the remissness of those whose business it should hive been, as it certainly was their interest, to have interposed their good offices." " There were two circum • stances which made it necessary for them to have lost no time." " History painters would have found it difficult to have invented such a species of beings." They ought to be, " to interpose^ to lose, to invent. " " On the morrow, because he should have known the certainty, wherefore he was ac- cused of the Jews, he loosed him." It ought to be, " because he movld know" or rather, " being willing to know." " The blind man said unto him, Lord, that I might receive my sight." " If by any means I might attain unto the resurrec- tion of the dead ;" " may" in both places, would have been better. " From his biblical knowledge, he appears to study the Scriptures with great attention ;" " to have studied" &c. " I fearedyhat I should have lost it, before I arrived at the ;" Mhoidd lose it." " I had rather walk ;" It should be, I mouM rather walk." " It would have afforded me no sa- ction, if I could perform it;" it should be, " if I coidd (Rule 13. the family lanagement ■o one ano- The best : " To ob- nay, how- r construc- " is a very t t^'iie, as ily wrong ; piting, « to tonsidered J thoughts I intend- rroneous ; )usiness it to have circum • 76 lost no fficult to ;ht to be, because I was ac- because ' "The eive my esurrec- ive been to study ^"&c. d at the )uld be, s nosa- Icould I m Kule 13.) SYNTAX. 181 Imve performed it ;" or, " It would afford me no satisfac- tion, if I could perform it." To preserve consistency in the time of verbs, we must recollect that, in the subjunctive mood, the present and imperfect tenses often curry with them a future sense; and that the auxiliaries should and wouldf in the imperfect times, are used to express the present and future as well as the past : for which see page 83. 1. It is proper further to observe, that verbs of the infini- tive mood in the following form; * to write,' * to be writing,' and * to be written,' always denote something contemporary with the time of the governing verb, or subsequent to it : but when verbs of that mood are expressed as follows ; " To have been writing," " to nave written," and " to have been written," they always denote something antecedent to the time of the governing verb. This remark is thought to be of importance ; for if duly attended to, it will, in most cases, be sufficient to direct us in the relative application of these tenses. The following sentence is properly and aualogically ex < pressed : " I found him better than I expected to find him." " Expected to have found him," is irreconcilable alike to grammar and to sense. Indeed, all verbs expressive of hope, desire, intention, or command, must invariably be followed by the present, and not the perfect of the infini- tive. Every person would perceive an error in this expres- sion ; " It is long since I commanded him to have done it :" Yet " expected to kavejoundy^* is no better. It is as clear that tbe finding n^ust be posterior to the expectation, as that the obedience must be posterior to tho conmiand. In the sentence which follows, the verb is with proprie^ put in the perfect tense of the infinitive mood ; " It would have afforded me great pleasure, as often as I reflected upon it, to have been the messenger of such intelli|;;^ce."j As the message, in this instance, was antecedent to the plea- snre^ and not contemporary with ii^ the verb ezpreBsive o( r ^ ■ i I 182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 13 the message must denote that antecedence, by being in the perfect of the inHnitive. If the message and the pleasure iiad been referred to as contemporary, the subsequent verb would, with equal propriety, have been put in the present of the infinitive : as, " It would have afforded me great plea- sure, to be the messenger of such intelligence." In the for- mer instance, the phrase in question is equivalent to these words ;"!/*/ fiad been the messenger ;" in the latter in- stance, to this expression ; " Being the messenger." — For a further discussion of this subject, see the Eleventh edition of the Key to tlie Exercises, p. 60, and tlie Octavo Grammar, RULE XIII. It is proper to inform the learner, that, in order to ex- press the past time with the defective verb oughty the per- fect of the infinitive must always be used : as, " ^e ought to have done :t." When we use this verb, this is the only possible way to distinguish the past from the present. In support of the positions advanced under this rule, we can produce the sentiments of eminent grammarians; amongst whom are Lowth and Campbell. But thens are some writers on grammar, who strenuously maintain, that the governed verb in the infinitive ought to be in the past tense, when the verb which governs it, is in the past time. Though .this cannot be admitted, in the instances which are controverted under this rule, or in any instances of a simi- lar nature, yet there can be no doubt that, in many cases, in which the thing referred to preceded the governing verb, it would be proper and allowable. We may say ; " From a conversation I once had with him, he appear^ to have studied Homer with great care and judgment" It would be proper also to say, " From his conversation, he appears to nave studied Homer with great care and judgment ;'' " That unhappy man is supposed to have died by violence." These examples are not only consistent with our rule, but they confirm and illustrate it. It is the tense of the govern- g verb only, that marks what Is called the absolute time ; tim mo ■^^ (Rule 13 ' being in the the pleasure sequent verb I the present le great plea- " Inthefor- ilent to these the latter in- ger."— For a tth edition of ro Grammar, order to ex- ?htf the per- , " Be ought s is the only •resent, this rule, we 'ammarians ; it therts are lintain, that in the past e past time. s which are IS of a simi- lany cases, rning verb, y; " From "ed to have It would he appears udgment ;" violence." irrule, but he govern- )lute time ; Rule 13.) SYNTAX. 183 the tense of the verb governed, marks solely its relative lime with respect to the other. :'.^' To assert, as some writers do, that verbs in the infinitive mood have no tenses, no relative ■.>;'inclion8 of present, past, and future, is inconsistent with just grammatical viev/s of the subject. That these verbs associate with verbs in all the tenses, is no proof of their having no peculiar time of their own. Whatever period the governing verb assumes, . whether present, past, or future, the governed verb in the infinitive always respects that period, and its time is cal- culated from it. Thus, the time of the infinitive may be before, after, or the same as, the time of the governing verb, according as the thing signified by the infinitive is supposed to be before, after, or present with, the thing de- noted by the governing verb. It is, therefore, with great propriety, that tenses are assigned to verbs of the infinitive mood. The point of time from which they are computed, is of no consequence ; since present, past, and future, are completely applicable to them. We shall conclude our observations under this rule, by remarking, that though it is often proper to use the perfect of the infinitive after the governing verb, yet there ar nar- ticular cases, in which it would be better to give th j ex- pression a different form. Thus, instead of saying, " I wish to have written to him sooner," " I then wished to have written to him sooner," " He will one day wish to have written sooner ;" it would be more perspicuous and forcible, as well as more agreeable to the practice of good writers, to say ; " I wish that I had written to iiim sooner," " I then wished that I had written to him sooner," " He will one day wish that he had written sooner." Should the justness of these strictures be admitted, there would stiii he numerous occasions for the use of the past infinitive ; as we may perceive by a few examples. " It would ever after- wards have been a source of pleasure,^ to have found him wise and virtuous." " To have deferred hi ^. itance 184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 14. longer, would have disqualified him for repenting at all." "They will then tur^, that to have faithfully performed their duty, would have been their greatest cousolati < ' { RULE XIV. Participles have the same government as the verbs have from which they are derived : as, " I am weary with hearing him ;" " She is instructing us ;" " The tu- tor is admonishing Charles " ir 1. Participles are sometimes governed by the article; for the present participle, with the definite article the be- fore it, becomes a substantive, and must have t^e preposi- tion of after it : as, " These are the rules of grammar by the observing of which, you may avoid mibtakes." It would not be proper to say, " by the observing which ;" nor, " by observing of which ;" but the phrase, without either article or preposition, would be right : as, " by ob- serving which." The article a or an^ iias the same efiect * as, " This wap a betraying of the trust reposed in him." This rule ^?rse:f from the nature and idiom of our lan- guage, and (mm as plain a principle as any on which it is founded; namely^ that a word which has the article be- fore it, anrl the possessive preposition of after it, must be a noun: and, if a noun, it ought to follow the construction of a noun, and not to have the regimen of a verb. It is the participial termination of this sort of words that is apt to deceive us, and mal^e us treat them as if they were of an amphibious species, partly nouns and partly verbs. The following are a few examples of the violation of this rule. " He was sent to prepare the way by preashing of repentance ;" it ought to be, " by the preaching of repents ance ;" or, " by preaching repentance." " By the continual mortifying our corrupt affections ;" it should be, " by the con- tinual mortifying of" or, " by continually mortifying our corrupt affections." " They laid out themselves towards the I See Key to the English Exercises, Eleventh Edit. Rule ziii ; The Not*. , i ^ (Rule 14. snting ai all." ly performed nsolati >« " J as the verbs I am weary ;" « The tu- '' the article ; irticle the be- 5 the preposi- ;rammai by lifctakes." It ing which j" ase, without as, " by ob- same efifect • I in him." 1 of our lan- n which it is 3 article be- lt, must be a construction irb. It is the hat is apt to '' were of an erbs. ation of this ireashing of ; of repent? e continual by the con- •tifying our towards the The Not*. ^ Rule 14.) SYNTAX. 165 advancing and pnmioting the good of it;" " towards advan- cing and promoting the good." ** It is on overvaluing our- selves, to reduce every thing to the narrow measure of our capacities ;"" it is overvaluing ourselves," or, " an overva- luing o/'ourselves." '' Keeping of one day in seven," &x;. it ought to be,* the keeping of one day;' or,' keeping uue day.* A phrase in which the article precedes the re ' par- ticiple and the possessive preposition follows it, wi in every instance, convey the same meaning, a? «'<^ bt; conveyed by the participle without the article u. sition. " He expressed the pleasure he had in the h« of the philosopher," is capable of a different sense fruin, " He expressed the pleasure he had in hearing the phiIo< sopher." When, therefore, we wish, for the sake of har- mony or variety, to substitute one of these phraseologies for the other, we should previously consider whether they are perfectly similar in the sentiments they convey. 2. The same observations which have been made re- specting the effect of the article and participle, appear to be applicable to the pronoun and participle, when they are similarly associated : as, " Much depends on their observing o/*the rule, and error will be the consequence of their neg- lecting of it" instead of " their observing the rule, and their neglecting it." We shall perceive this nipre clearly, if we substitute a noun for the pronoun : as, " Much depends upon Tyro^s observing of the rule," &.c. But, as this con- struction sounds rather harshly, it would, in general, be better to express the sentiment in the following, or some other form : " Much depends on the rule's being observed ; and error will be the consequence of its being neglected ;" or — ^" on observing the rule ; and — of neglecting it." This remark may be applied to several other modes of expres- aon to be found in this work ; which, though they are con- tended for as strictly correct, are not always the most eli- gible, on account of their unpleasant sound. See pagea 56, 77, 171—175. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 1.25 ISO '■'^^ IIIBB ■^ lU II 2.2 u i^ 1.1 l.-^l^ U_ llilli.6 V] / /A •'f/ '/ Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 p«f|;9V«*PPIIPII|PHPM|liP :'P^:' t86 ««wct hnguage • for „^' t^ ""'""• B"' ««• i. in- "■...aaHv,, .. we h„n?o1^2:^^ »«;««• ~«U. of . observing which." And vet H.. ^^, ** P*""®' ' By ."ay be consider >»^>1ZT^''' '^* '" '^'^^' ■=»«>, governed by (he nreD^^ "^ " '" '"* "''J^^" ««'*. «e become deIp~^r^Tf.^-»''«*«' -;«terdKPtir;or *' ''""^'-^ ««— i*ey be not indi^HmiX red""™ "7 "" '^" "«" He begnn," for » he beam " „,. " " ^^l-ently said, " He drunk,., for « he dS" 1 ™," ' "" " '"'' «»' '- "•ed instead of .he Imperfec, U ''""P'" ■"""S **« n"e««y 'be imperfect .e^*rI^Xf,r T? ""* ''«" b«d wrote,., for « , had written »", "^ u'"""'* = "' " » wa, chosen ;'. « i h,ve eat " L « I iT" "''""•" *■«". " » i "ords we„ i„te ;»' »'■. I bave eaten... « Hi. ' He would have spoke ..'l"fC ri """' '«*««»».'• 'o bU fti«.fi„serv,r^'.. t^' " ^'«' "»" -^taes. run his guide ;.. « o.^..^^ „Tl, ^^^'^ •»«»«' he over- « His consfitufion ha, b,^n g JSvT ^ ?' '" " '*«•'•" «oo ,t«,ng to be shq,k by^such ,f '"'^',.'''" "'■' ""■"» » J both phces. .. Theytere ve^' TZ' ' ',' **^ " '" -'■ '■ Philosopher. have oSrok re! •" " ""'• bappmess.. it ought to be « „ X^.^'ffif^,?' «™e .. , RULE XV. ' •'" -1 Adverbs, though .he, have „„go.e.„e„t of ease Rule 15.) SYNTAX. 187 ■ tense, &ic. require an appropriate situation in the sen- tence, viz. for the niost part, before adjectives, after verbs active or neuter, and frequently between the auxi- liary and the verb : as, " He made a very senile dis- course ; he spoke unaffectedly and forcibly^ and was at- Untively heard by the whole assembly." mu >Bi: ;t X-J *• f*'*iUl >'' U». .I':^U ihk\} 1i*U-"« A few instances of erroneous positions of adverbs may serve to illustrate the rule. " He must not expect; to find study apreeable always ;" " always agreeable." " We al- ways find them ready when we want them;" " we find them always ready," &.c. ** Dissertations on the prophe- cies which have remarkably been fulfilled ;" " which have been reinarkaJtly." " Instead of looking contemptuously down on the crooked in mind or in body, we should look up thankfully to God, who hath made us better ;" '* instead of looking down conlemptuously, &c. we should thankfuUy look upf^ &u;. " If thou art blessed naturally with a good memory, continually exercise it ;" " naturalty blessed,^' &.c. « exercise it conliniwllyy ' ^" ' ' *^ '" ^^^ •' Sometimes the adverb is placeJ with propriety before the verb, or it some distance after it ; sometimes between the two auxiliaries ; and sometimes after tliem both ; as in the following examples. " Vice always creeps by degrees, and insensibly twines around us those concealed fetters, by which we are at last completely bound." " He encouraged the English Barons to cany their opposition farther.''^ " They compelled him to declare that he would abjure the realm for ever ;" instead of, " to carry farther their oppo- sition ;" and " to abjure for ever the realm." " He has gen- erally been reckoned an honest man." " The book may o/- ways be had at such a place ;" in preference to " has beeu generally ;" and " may be always." " These rules will be clearly understood, after they have been diligently studied," are preferable to, "These rules will clearly be understood, after they have diligently been studied." ' ' ' "' ' i' 188 STNTAX. ( Rule 16 From the preceding remarks and examples, it appears that no exact and determinate rule can be given for the placing of adverbs, on ail occasions. The general rule may be of considerable use ; but the easy flow and perspicuity of the phrase, are the things which ought to be chiefly regarded. The adverb there is often used as an expletive, or as a word that adds nothing to the sense ; in which case it pre- cedes the verb and the nominative noun : as, " There is a person at Uie door;" ** There are some thieves in the house;** which would be as well, or better, expressed by saying, " A person is at the door ;" " Some thieves are in the house." Sometimes, it is made use of to give a small de- gree of emphasis to the sentence : as, " There was a man sent from God, whose name was John." When it is ap- plied in its strict sense, it principally follows the verb and ine nominative case : as, " The man stands there.** . 1. The adverb never generally precedes the verb: as, "I never was there ;" " He never comes at a proper time." When an auxiliary is used, it is placed indifferently, either before or after this adverb : as, ** He was never seen (or never was seen) to laugh from that time." Never seems to be improperly used in the following passages. " Ask me never so much dowry and gift." " If I make my hands never so clean." " Charm he never so wisely." The word " ever** would be more suitable to the sense. 2. In imitation of the French idiom, the adverb of p?ace rvheref is often used instead of the pronoun relative and a preposition. " They'f ramed a protestation, where they re- peated all their former claims ;" i. e. ** in which they re- peated." " l%e king was still determined to run forwards, in the same course where he was already, by his precipitate career, too fatally advanced ;" i. e. " in which he was." But it would be better to ayoid this mode of expression. The adverbs hence^ thence^ and whence, imply a preposi- tion ; for they signify, " from this place, from that place, from what place." It seems, therefore, strictly speaking, to IS, Rule 16.) ; stntax. I8f» be improper to join a preposition with them, because it is superfluous : as, " This is the leviathan, from whence the wits of our i^e are said to borrow their weapon ;" " An an- cient author prophesies from hen<9e." But the origin of these words is little attended to, and the prepoution from so often used in construction with them, that the omission of it, in many cases, would seem stiff, and be disi^reeable. The adverbs hert^ fhert^ mheref are often improperly ap- plied to verbs signifying motion, instead of the adverbs hi- thetf thither, nJdther : as, " He came here hastily ;" " They rode there with speed." They should be, " He came hi- iherf* "They rode th^her" itjc. «'•'> ■'„;,? -^^a ,,.,'i:i ? 3. We have some examples of adverbs being used for substantives: " In 1687, he erected it into a community of regulars, since wheUf it has begun to increase in those coun- tries as a reli^ous order ;" i. e. " since whidi time." " A lit-< tie while and I shall not see you ;*' i. e. " a short time," " It is worth their while ;" i. e. " it deserves their time and piuns.** But thb use of the word rather suits feumliar than grave style. The same may be sud of the phrase, " To do a ihing any- how ;" L e. " in any manner ;" or, " emndum /' L e. " in >me manner." " Somehow, worthy as these people are, diey are under the influence of prejudice." . , , , . RULEXVI. Two negatives, in English, destroy one another, or are equivalent to an affirmative : as, " ^or did they twt perceive him ;** that is, " they did perceive him." " Hi» language, thou^ inelegant, is notimgrammoHctd ;" that is, " it is grammatical." It is better to express an affirmation, by a regular affirma- tive, than by two separate negatives, as in the fonner sen- tence : but when one of the negfitives is joined t» another ' word, as in the latter sentence, the two negatives form & pleasing and delicate variety of expression. ihMrr.m^th^nn Some writers havt improperty employed two negatives # r # 190 ' ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Kule 17 instead of one ; as in the following instances : " I never did repent of doing good, norsliall not nov^;" " nor shall I now" " Never no inutator grew up to his author :" " never did any,'* &c. " I cannot by no means allow hiin what his ailment must prove ;" " 1 cannot by any means," &ic. or, ** I can by no fneoM." " Nor let no cofbforter approach me;" ** nor let any comforter," &«. " Nor is danger ever api)rehended in such a government, no more than we commonly apprehend danger from thunder or earthquakes :" it should be, " any more." " Ariosto, Tasso, Galileo, no more than Raphael, were n ▼ails in common conversation, and suits very well ndlth fbe (Rule 17 "I never did yrshalUnow." leverdidany/* ' his argument or, ** lean by nej" « nor let )prehended in ily apprehend uld be, « any ban Raphael, », Tasso, nor » a republic.** as, « I have that is needy sufficient yor houi riches.** ve case being tiou under?" ich at a loss 3u ask for?" ak well of." je J>rote 1. tood, chiefly !et ine some i. e. * lo me.' gland." the Illative it to?" in- 8 an author d is too po< erally their This is an led ; it pre» )11 with the . •.'/•? Rule 17.) JlfWl SYNTAX. familiar style in writing : but the placing of the prepomtion before the relative, is more graceful, as well as more per- spicuous, and agrees much better with the solemn and ele- vated style* ' *'-* iiiiii \i. iji.;> ,^^^*»■.i■J%( j, n* umj "i' ' .•J*^ 2. Some writers separate the preposition from its noun, f n order to connect dififerent prepositions with the same DOtin: as, "To suppose the zodiac and planets to be etlicient o^ and antecedent to, themselves." This, whether in the familiar or the solemn style, is always inelegant, and should generally be avoided. In forms of law, and the like, where fulness and exactness of expression must take place of every other consideration, it may be admitted. 3. Different relations, and different senses, must be ex- pressed by different prepositions, though in conjunction with the same verb or adjective. Thus we say, " to con- verse loilh a person, upon a subject, in a house, &ic." We also say, " We are disappointed of a thing," when we can- not get it, " and disappointed in it," when we have H, and find it does not answer our expectations. But two differ- ent prepositions must be improper in the same construc- tion, and in the^same sentence : as," The combat between thirty French against twenty English." .-..,. ^t ,..«, In some cases, it is difficult to say, to which of two pre- positions the preference is to be ^ven, as both are used promiscuously, and custom has not decided in favour of either of them. We say, " Expert at," and " expert in a thing." " Expert at finding a remedy for his mistakes ;" *' Expert in deception." When prepoditions^are subjoined to noons, they are gene- rally the same that are subjoined to the verbs from which tiie nouns are derived : as,* A compliance nilhf* *to comply wUh / * A dispo^ion to tyranny,' * di^sed to tyranme.* 4. As an accurate and appropriate use of the prepomtion is of great importance, wo shall select a considerable nnm • ber of examples of impropriety^ in th» application of this part of speech.. '^-'^-MUit^ k :^ilii 'ji< k ' -mcH'^ •.■;»; u«:H»i-f;} X 192 ENC'LiSH GRAHMAB. (Rule 17. Ut, With respect to the preposition q^" He is resolved of going to the Persian court ;" ** on going/* &c. ** He was totally dependent of the Papal crown ;^' "on the Papal/* &CC. " To call of a person," and " to wait of him ;" ** on a person,** &« ** He was eager of recommending it to his fel- low citizens,** " in recommending,'* &c. Of is sometimes omitted, and sometimes inserted, after worthy : as, ** It is worthy observation,** or, " of observation.** But it would have been better omitted in the following sentences. *' The emulation, who should serve theur country best, no longer subsists among them, but o^who should obtain the most lu- crative command.** " The rain hath been falling qfh long time ;** " falling a long time.** *''It is utuation chiefly which decides of the fortune and characters of men :** " decides the fortune,** or, " concerning the fortune.*' " He found the greatest difficulty of writing;** " in writing.** " It might have ^ven me a greater taste of its antiquities.** A taste qfti thing JTTplies actual enjoyment of it ; but a taste for it, implies only a capacity for enjoyment " This had a much greater sfaftre of inciting him, than any regard after his father*8 com- mands ;** * share in inciting,* and " regard to bis father*s,'* &c. 2d, With respect to the prepositions to and for.—-" You have bestowed your favours to the most deserving per- •ons ;** " iqton the most deserving,** &c. " He aecwed the mimsters for betraying the Dutch :** " ^havmg betrayed.** * His abhorrence to that superstitious figure ;* " ^ that,'* &c. "A great diange to the better;** "fir tiie better." " Tour prejudice to my cause ;" "agaxMV* '^TheEnglbh were very different people then to what they are at pre- sent;" "from uriiat," &c. "In compliance to the decia tation ;'* " mith^* &c. " It k\ more than they Oiought for f " tiiought of** " There is no need for it ;** ** of it** For IS sopeffluouB in the phrase, ''More than he knows y^." ** No ^scouragement for the authors to proceed ;** "taihe «lithors/* &c. " R was perfectly in compliance to some persons ;** " wUhJ* " The wiK.9t '^liac^a need nat think it ^ Rule 17.) ' • 8T!fTAX. 193 any diminution to their greatness, or derogation to their sufficiency, to rely upon counsel ;" *' diminution of^ and " derogation y^o»»." ddj With respect to the prepositions vAlh and uj^n.— " Reconciling himself vvith the Icing.^ " Those things which have the greatest resemblance with each other, fre- quently differ the most." " That such rejection should be consonant with our common nature." ' Conformable witli,' &c. "The history of Peter is agreeable with the sacred texts." In all the above instances, it should be, " to," in- stead of " mVA." " It is a use that perhaps I should not have thought on ;" " thought o/I" " A greater quantity may be taken from the heap, without making any sensible altera- tion upon U ;" " in it." " Intrusted to persons on whom the parliament could confide ;" " in whom." " He was made much on at Argos ;" " much o/!" "If policy can prevail upon force ;" " over fprce." " I do likewise dissent with the examiner ;" ^^from?^ 4th, With respect to the prepositions tn, ^om, &c. ' They should be informed in some parts of his character ;* ' about^ or ' cowxming.^ ' Upon such occasions as fell into their cognizance ;' ' under? * That variety of factions into which we are still engaged ;* * in which.* * To restore my- self into the favour '* * to the favour.' ' Could he have pro- fited from repeated e^'v^iences ;' ' byj From seems to be sttperfiuon? aXterJbrbear : as, ' He could not foriiear from appointing the pope»' &cc. * A strict observance after times and fashions f * qf times.* * The character wliicb we may now value onrselves by drawing ;' * upon drawing.' * Nei- ther of them shall make me swerve out of the path ;' *Jro7n the path.' * Ye blind guides, which strain (d a gnat, and swallow a camel ;' it ought to be, * which strain out a gnat, or, take a gnat out of the liquor by straining it* The im- propriety of the preposition has wholly destroyed the ineanfaig of the phrase. < tjj^ r, ^ -r ..., The preposifl^ among generally implies a number of ^^ms 194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 18. things. It cannot be properly used in conjunction with the word every t which is in the singular number : as, " Which is found among eyery spfecies of liber^ ; " ** The opinion seems to gain ground among every body.'* ^ ,,o .^ ..«. 5. The preposition to is made use of before nouns of place, when they follow verbs and participles of motion: as, " I went to London ;" '* I am going to town." But the prepo- sition (U h generally used after the neuter verb to be : as, " I have been tU London ;" " I was at the place appointed ;" ** I shall be at Paris." We likewise say : " He touched, arrived at any place." The preposition in is set before countries, cities, and lai^e towns : as, " He lives in Francis, in jLon- don, or in Birmingham." But before villages, single houses, and cities which are in distant countries, ai is used ; as, " He lives at Hackney ;" " He resides at Montpelier." It is a matter of indifference with respect to the pronoun one another y whether the preposition of be placed between the two parts of it, or before them both. We may say, " They were jealous of one another ;" or, " They were jealous one of another ;" but perhaps the former is better. Participles are frequently used as prepositions : as, ex- cepting, respecting, touching, concerning, according. *^ They were all in fault except or excepting him." /^ r . RULE XVin. ....^^ •..■^.■!;iX.l Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of verbs, and cases of nouns and pronouns : as, " Candour is to be aj^oved and practised :^* " If thou sincerely de- siref and earnestly j^ur^ue virtue, she ^dll assuredly be found by thee, and prove a rich reward ;" ** The master taught her and me to write ;" ** He and she were school' feUoWsf." ^'"'--^ '■■^- -^ ■■ .'U-^': • \^il^r]-r'- A few examples of inaccuracy respecting this rule may further display its utility. " If he prefer a virtuous life, and t Thla nile refers only to nouns and pronouns, which hkve the saae beafioi ot xttatiOD, with regard toother parts of the sentence - , ^«r I \-^M^.:-^.:.^.,i Rule 18.) ITVTAX. 195 is sincere jn his professions, lie will succeed ;" ** if he pre- fera.** « fpo deride the miseries of the unhappy, is inhu- uian ; and wanting compassion towards them, is unchris- tian ;*' " and to want compassion." " The parliament ad- dressed the king, and has been prorogued the same day ;'* *' and wcu prorogued." " His wealth and him bid adieu to each other ;" " and ^." He entreated us, my comrade and I, to li?e harmoniously ;" " comrade and me." " My sister and her were on good terms;" " and «^." " We often overlook the blessings which are in our possession, and are searching after those which are out of our reach :" it ought to be, " and aearc/i after." 1. Conjunctions arc, indeed, frequently made to connect different moods and tenses of verbs : but in these instances the nominative must generally, if not always, be repeated, which is not necessary, though it may be done, under the construction to wliich the rule refers. Wcmay say, " He lives temperately, and ho should live temperately ;" ** He may return^ but he will not continue ;" " She tvcu proud, though she is now humble :" but it is obvious, that in such cases, the nominative ought to be repeated ; and that, by this means, the latter members of these sentences are ren- dered not so strictly dependent on the preceding, as those are which come under the rule. When, in the progress of a sentence, we pass from the affirmative to the negative form, or from the negative to tlie affirmative, the subject or nominative is always resumed : as, ' He is rich, but he is not irespectable.' * He is not rich, but he is respectable.' There appears to be, in general, equal reason for repeating the no- minative, and resuming the subject, when the course of the sentence is diverted by a change of the mood or tense. The following sentences may therefore be improved. ' A;:ger glances into the breast of a wise man, but will rest only in the bosom of fools ;' * but rests only;' or, * but it mill rest only." < Virtue is praised by many, and would be desired also, if her worth were really known ;' « and she would." * The 196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 19. world begins to recede, and will soon disappear i* * and it will* See the Octavo Grammar, Rulk xviil .. RULE XIX. \..)* * Some conjunctions require the indicative, soiAe the subjunctive mood, after them. It is a general rule, that when something contingent or doubtful is implied, the subjunctive ought to be used : as, " ^ I were to write, he would not regard it ;" ** He will not be pardoned, unless he repent." Conjunctions that are of a positive and absolute nature require the indicative mood. " Jls virtue advances^ so vice recedes :" * He is healthy, because he is temperate.* The conjunctions, ift ihofughy unlessj except, whether, &c. generally require the subjunctive mood after them : as, " !f thbu be aflBicted, repine not ;" ** Though he slay me, yet win I trust in him ;'* ** He cannot be clean, unless he mash himself;" " No power, except it rvere given from above ;*» " Whether it mere I or they, so we preach." But even these conjunctions, when the sentence does not imply doubt, ad- mit of the indicative : as, ** Though he is poor, he is con- tented." — See subj. meod, p. 75, and pages 202, 203. The following example may, in some measure, serve to illustrate the distinction between the subjunctive and the indicative moods. " Though he mere divinely inspired, and spoke therefore as the ojracles of God, with supreme autho- rity; though he mere endued with supernatural powers, and could, therefore, have confirmed the truth of what he ut- tered, by miracles ; yet, in compliance with the way in which human nature and reasonable creatures are usually wrought upon, he reasoned.'' That our Saviour was di- vinely inspired, and endued with supernatural powers, are positions that are here taken for granted, as not admitting the least doubt; they would therefore have been better expressed in the indicative mood ; " Though he was di-^ 'M (Rule 19. I. (• ; 'J I ,■^.^^ I soiAe the il rule, that iplied, the re to write, pardoned, tlute nature dvances, so emperate/ vheiheTj &c. ;ni : as, " (f lay roe, jet ks9 he naah m aboTe;" : even these doubt, ad- he is con- 203. re, serve to re and the spired, and erne autho- owers, and rhat he ut- he way in ire usually ur was di- Dweni, are admitting Ben better le was di-^ i Rule 19.) SYNTAX. ' ' 19T Tinely inspired ; though he naa endued with supernatural powers." The subjunctive is used in the lilce improper manner in the following example : " Though he wtre a son, yet learned He obedience, by the things which he Buffered." But, in a similar passage, the indicative, with great pro- priety, is employed to the same purpose ; " Though he mu rich, yet for your sakes he became poor." a^r-vc 1 . lAstj and thaty annexed to a command preceding, ne- cessarily require the subjunctive mood : as, * Love not sleep, test thou coine to poverty ;* * Reprove not a scomer, kst he haie thee ;' * Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob.' IfviMh but following it, when futurity is denoted, requires the subjunctive mood : as, " 7/* he eb hut touch the hills, they shall smoke ;" " If he be hut discreet, he will suc- ceed.** But the indicative ought to be used, on this occa- sion, when future time is not signified : as, " (^ in this ex- pression, he does but jest, no offence should be taken ;** **If she is but sincere, I am happy.'* The same distinction ap- plies to the following forms of expression : " If he do sub- mit, il will be from necessity ;** " Though he does submit, he is not convinced ;'* " If thou do not reward this service, he will be discouraged ;** " If thou dost heartily forgive hhn, endeavour to forget the offence." 2. In the following instances, the conjunction thcUj ex pressed or understood, seems to be improperly accompanied with the subjunctive mood. " So much she dreaded hial tyranny, thai the fate of her friend she dare not lament."' " He reasoned so artfully that his friends would listen, and think [that] he mere not wrong." * ' ' "^ ^^* " '» 3. The same conjunction governing bpth the indicative and the subjunctive moods, in the same sentence, and in the same circumstances, seems to be a great impropriety : as in these instances. " If there be but.one body of legislators, it is no better than a tyranny ; if there are oinftwo, there will want a casting xoict "^If& man have a hundred sheep, and one of them it gone astray," &c. / t 198 EITGLISH ORAMMAR. (Rule 19. 4. Almost all the irregularities, in the construction of any language, have arisen from the ellipsis of some words, which were originallj inserted in the sentence, and made it regU' lar; and it is probable, that this has generally been the case with respect to the conjunctive form of words, now in use ; which will appear from the following examples : " We shall overtake him though he run ;" that is, " though he ihould k'un ;" " Unless he a;ct prudently, he will not accomplish his purpose ;" that is, " unless he shall act prudently." " If he succeed and obtain his end, he will not be the happier for it ;** that is, " If he should succeed and should obtain his end.'* These remarks and examples are designed to show the original of many of our present conjunctive forms of expression ; and to enable the student to examine tl}e pro- priety of using them, by tracing the words in questit^n to their proper origin and ancient connexions, ^ut it is ne- cessary to be more particular on this subject, and therefore we shall add a few observations respecting it. That part of the verb which grammarians call the pre- sent tense of the subjunctive mood, has a future signification. This is effected by varying the terminations of the second and third persons singular of the indicative ; as will be evi- dent from the following examples : " If thou prosper^ thou shouldst be thankful ;" " Unless he study more closely, he will never be learned." Some writers however would ex- press these sentiments without those variations ; " If thou prosperesf." &.c. " Unless he studies^" &cc. : and as there is great diversity of practice in this point, it is proper to offer the learners a few remarks, to assist them in distinguishing the right application of these different forms of expression. It may be considered as a rule, that the changes of termi- nation are necessary, when these two circumstances concur: 1st, When the subject is of a dubious and contingent na- ture : and 3i, When the verb has a reference to future time. In the following sentences, both these circumstances will b* found to unite : " If thou injure another, thou wilt hurt tbj- (Rule 19. ction of any rords, which tade it regu- een the case now in use ; ; "We shall ;h he should accomplish lently." « If ) happier for i obtain his ned to show ve forms of line tl;e pro- question to }ut it is ne- nd therefore all the pre- lignification. the second will be evi- ''ospeTf thou closely, he r would eX' " If thou d as there is )per to offer stinguishing expression. iB of termi- ces concur: itingent na- iJiuFe liijue. ices will b* ilthurtthy-> Rule 19.) • BYNTAX. 199 self ;" " He has a hard heart ; and if he contintit impeni- tent, he must suffer ;" " He will mair^tain his principles, though he lose his estate ;" " Whether he succeed or notj his intention is laudable ;" " If he be not prosperous, he will not repine ;" " If a man smite his servant, and he die,^* ^. Exod. xxi. 20. In all these examples, the things signi- fied by the verbs are uncertain, and refer to future time. But in the instances which follow, future time is not referred to ; and therefore a different construction takes place ; " If thou Iwesl virtuously, thou art happy ;" " Unless he means what he says, he is doubly faithless ;" " If he allows the excellence of virtue, he does not regard her precepts ;" " Though he seeins to be simple and artless, he ht?? deceiv- e raUon ;" that is, " If he should htreitfteT desire it." Thia last theory of the sulijune tive mood, claims the merit of rendering the whole system of the moodi consistent and regular ; of being mere coniormabie than any other, to the definition of the subjunc- Uve ; and of not referring to the indicative mood forma of expression, which ill as- eord with iti limplicity aod natiu«: Perhapa this theory wHl bew a itrict eumioalioa. 204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 19. 1 7tb| As — 80 : expressing a comparison of quality : as, * Jis the one dieth, so dieth the other/ * ds he reads, they read.' 8th, So — as: with a verb expressing a comparison of (Quality : as, * To see thy glory, ao as I have seen thee in the sanctuary.* 9th, So—^u : with a negative and an. adjective expressing a comparison of quantity : as, ' Pompey was not so great a general as C^sar, nor so great a man.' 10th, So — thai: expressing a consequence : as, < He was so fatigued, that he could scarcely move.' ^ The conjunctions or and nor may often be used, with nearly equal propriety. * The king, whose character was not sufficiently vigorous, nor decisive, assented to the mea- sure.* In this sentence, or would perhaps have been better : but, in general, nor seems to repeat the negation in the for- mer part of the sentence, and therefore gives more emphasis to the expression. 10. Conjunctions are often improperly used, both singly and in pairs. The following are examples of this impro- priety'. * The relations are so uncertain, as that they re- quire a great deal of examination :* it should be, * that they require,* &cc. ' There was no man so sanguine, who did not apprehend some ill consequences :* it ought to be, ' So san- guine as not to apprehend,' &cc.; or, ' no man, how sanguine soever, who did not,* &c. ' To trust in him is no more but to acknowledge his power.' * This is no other but the gate of paradise.* In both these instances, but should be than. * We should sufficiently weigh the objects of our hope ; whether they are such as we may reasonably expect from them what they propose,' &c. It ought to lie, * thai we may reasonably,' ^. * The duke had not behaved with that loyalty as he ought to have done ;' ' with which he ought.' * In the order as they lie in his preface :* it should be. '^ in order as Uiey lie*;* or, ' in the order in which they lie.* ' Such sharp replies that cost him his life ;* * as cost him,* &c. ' If lie were truly that scarecrow, as he is now commonly [Rule 19. p : as, * As bey read.' larison of BD thee iu ixpresBing >t 80 great I, * He was ised, with ■acter was > the mea- len better : in the for- ; emphasis »oth singly this impro- it they re- *ihaiihey ho did not J, * So sali- va sanguine ) more but lit the gate d be than. our hope; cpect from at we may with that he ought.' Id be. ' ui ie.* 'Such i,'&c. 'If lommoDly 4;' Rule 19.) SYNTAX. ; 205 painted ;' * such a scarecrow,' &c. * I wish I could do that justice to his memory, to oblige the painters,' &c. ; * do auck justice cu to oblige/ &c. j ' ;,.'r • There is a peculiar neatness in a sentence beginning' with the conjunctive form of a verb. * Were there no dififerencet the.'e would be no choice.' A double conjunctive, in two correspondent clauses of a sentence, is sometimes made use of: as, * had he done this, he had escaped ;* * Had the limitations tm the prerogative been, in his time, quite fixed and certain, his integrity had made him regard as sacred, the boundaries of the constitu- tion.' The sentence in the common form would have read thus : * If the limitations on the prerogative had been, &c. his integrity would have made him regard,' &c. The particle eu, when it is connected with the pronouta suchf has the force of a relative pronoun : as, * Let such as presume to advise others, look well to their own conduct ;* which is equivalent to, * Let them mho presume,' &c. But when used by itself, this particle is to be considered as a conjunction, or perhaps as an adverb. See the Key. Our language wants a conjunction adapted to fanuliar style, equivalent to notwithstanding. The words for all that, seem to be too low. * The word was in the mouth of every one, but, for all that, the subject may still be a secret' In regard that is solemn and antiquated ; because would do much better in the following sentence. * It cannot be . otherwise, in regard that the French prosotfy differs from that of eveiy other language.' The word ftEeep< is far preferable to other than. Mt ad- mitted of no effectual cure other than amputation.' Excqd is also to be preferred to all but. *■ They were happy aU but the stranger.' In the two following phrases, the conjunction aa is im> properly omitted ; < Which nobody presumes, of is so san : guine A to hope.' J I mait, howeyer, be eo juit ^ to own.* I 206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (RuIC 20. The conjunction that is often properly omitted, and un- derstood ; as, " I beg you would come to me ;" " See thou do it not ;" instead of " that you would,** ** that thou do.** But in the following and many similar phrases, this con- junction were much better inserted : " Yet it is reason the memory of their virtues remain to posterity.** It should be, ** yet it Is just that the memory,'* &c. RULE XX. When the qualities of different things are compared, the latter noun or pronoun is not governed by the con junction than or 1. e. " more Rule 21.) STNTAX.- 207 U8 * * King^ Charles, and more Uian him, the duke and the popish faction, were at liberty to form new schemes.' * The drift of all his sermons was, to prepare the Jews for the re>. ception of a prophet mightier than him, and whose shoes he was not worthy to bear.* * It was not the work of so eminent an author, as him to whom it was first imputed.' * A stone is heavy, and the sand weighty ; but a fool's wrath is heavier than them both.' ' If the king ^ve us leave, we may perform the office as well as them that do.' In these passages it ought to be, ' /, tve, A«, iheyy respectively.' When the relative who immediately follows //urn, it seemt to form an exception to the 20th rule ; for in that connex- ion, the relative must be in the objective case ; as, ' Alfred, than nhomf a greater king never reigned,' &c. ' Beelzebub, than wkomt Satan excepted, none higher sat,* iuc. It ia remarkable that in such instances, if the personal pronouft were used, it would be in the nominative case ; as, * A greater king never reigned than he* that is, * than he mas* * Beelze- bub, than hey* &x. ; that is, * ih(Ai he sat,* The pHrase ihan whom^ b, however, avoided by the best modem writers. RULE XXI. --^h Mr To avoid disagreeable repetitions, and to express our ideas in few words, an ellipsis, or omission of some words, is frequently admitted. Instead of saying, * He was a learned man, he was a wise man, and he was a good man ;' we make use of the ellipsis, and say, * He was a learned, wise, and good man.' f When the omission of words would obscure the sen- tence, weaken its force, or he attended mth an impro- priety, they must be expressed. In the sentence, * We are apt to love who love us,' the word i?um should be supplied. ' A beautiful field and trees,' is not proper language. It should be, < Beautiful fields, and trees ;* or. * A beautiful field and fine trees.' #; .Xi l! ^i ••:*'H-fm1-U:h ^1 >''A 208 ENGLISH ORAMMAR. (Rulc 21. Almost all compounded sentences are more or less ellip- tical ; some examples of which may be seen under the different parts of speech. 1. The ellipses of tlUs arliele is thus used ; * A man, woman, and child :' that is, ' a man, a woman, and a child.' ' A house and garden ;* that is, * a house and a garden.' ' The sun and moon ;' that is, * the sun and the moon.' * The i day and hour ;' that is, * the day and the hour.' In all these instances, the article being once expressed, the repetition of it becomes unnecessary. There is, however, an exception to this observation, when some peculiar emphasis requires a repetition ; as in the following sentence. * Not only the year, but tl^e day 'end the hour.' In this case, the ellipsis of the last article would be improper. When a different . form of the article is requisite, the article is also properly repeated : as, ' a house and an orchard ;' instead of/ a house and orchard.' ' 2. The noun is flrequently omitted in the following man- ner. ^ The laws of God and man ;' that is, * the laws of God and the laws of man.' In some very emphatfcal ex- pressions, the ellipsis should not be used : as, * Christ the power of God, and the wisdom of God ;' which is more emphatical than, ' Christ the power and wisdom of God.' 3* The ellipsis of the adjeelive is used in the following manner. ' A delightful garden and orchard f that is, * a delightful garden and a delightful orchard ;' * A little man and woman;' that is, ' A little man and a little woman.' *■ In such elliptical expressions as these, the adjective ought to, ^ have exactly the same signification, and io be quite as proper, when joined to the latter substantive as to the for- mer ; otherwise the elliptsia should not be admitted. Sometimes the ellipsis is improperly applied to noons of different numbers : as, ' A magnificent house and gardens.' In this case it is better to use another adjective ; as, * A magnificent bouse and fine gardens.' ' ' ' 4. The foUowiog is the ellipsb of the pronoun* * I loTe Rule 21. less ellip- nder the A man, I a child.' garden.' in.* *The 1 all these letition of exception } requires only the le eHipsis different properly / a house ^ing man- e laws of itical ex- )hrist the is more rood.' bllowing at is, < a ittle man lan.' ^In ought to quite as » the for- I. Qouns of rardens.' ; as, < A < I love # Rule 21.) bYNTAX. 209 and fear him ;" that is, " I love him, and I feiar him." " My house and lands ;" that is, " my house and my lands." in these instances the ellipsis may take place with propriety ; but if we would be more express and emphatical, it must not be used: as, " Hii friends and hin foes;" "My sons and my daughters.'* In some of the common forms of speech, the relative pro> noun is usually omitted : as, " This is the man they love ;'* instead of, " This is the man whom they love." " These are the goods they bought ;" for, " These are the goods which they bought." In complex sentences, it is much better to have the re- lative pronoun expressed: as it is more proper to say, " The posture in which I lay," than, " In the posture I lay :" " The horse on which I rode, fell down ;" than " The horse I rode, fell down." The antecedent and the relative connect the parts of a sentence together, and, to prevent obscurity and confusion, should answer to each other with great exactness. " We speak that we do know, and testify that we have seen.'^ Here the ellipsis is manifestly improper, and ought to be supplied : as, " We speak that nhi^ we do know, and tes- tify that which we have seen." 6. The ellipsis of the verb is used in the following in- stances. " The man was old and crafty ;" that is, " the man was old, and the man was crafty." " She was young, and ^eautiful, and good ;" that is, " She was young, she was beautiful, and she was good." " Thou art poor, and wretched, and miserable, and blind, and naked." If we would fill up the ellipsis in the last sentence, thou art ought to be repeated before each of the adjectives. If, in such enumeration, we choose to point out one pro- perty above the rest, that property must be placed last, and the ellipsis supplied : as, " She is young and beautiful, and Bue IB goou." <' I went to see and hear him :" that is, " I went to see tlO rnr.f.iifn nnn^nikn. (Rnlf 21. tnd I went to hear uiin." In Ihit in>tftnc# (here ii not nnlj V '^pRlt of the goTerning verb / tvent^ but likewise of the 4k». i thi- inflnitiTe moot! which ii governed by it. Dc *ffH, have, haHf ghnlt^ will, may, *»ighl, and the rctt of the auxiliari* love, of tneir goodness, and liter Iiina,' that Im.* r common ; it and shame !* nee in the En- Rulc21.) ITIITAX. in fifkh Unguaxe, numerous examples of it mi^^ht be given ; but only a few more can be admitted here. In the following Instance there Is ■ very considernnie one : '* He will often argue, that If this part of our trade were well cultivated, we should gain from one nation ; •nd if another, from another ;'* that is, " He will often argue, that if this fiprt of our trade were well cultivated, wa should gain trnti\ onr nndnn, and If another part of our trade were well culUvaied, wo should gain from another nation." The Tollowin^ instances, though short, contain much of the e! i> .; " Wo is me ;'* i. e. " wo Is to me.*» " To let blood ;" I. e. " to let out blood." " To let dbVn ;*» I. e. <* to let it fall or slide down." " To walk a mile ;" i. e. " to walk through the space of a mile." " To sleep all night ;" 1. e. « To sleep through all the night." " To go a Ashing j" " To go a hunting ;" I. e. " to go on a fishing voyage or business ;" " to go on a hunting party." *' I dine at two o'clock ;" i. e. " at two of the clock." ** By sea, by land, on shore :" i. e. " By the sea, by the land, on the shore." 10. The examples that follow are produced to show the impropriety of ellipsis in some particular cases. " The land was always possessed, during pleasure, by those in- trusted with the command ;" it should be, ** those persont Intrusted ;" or, " those who mere intrusted." " If he had read further, he would have found several of his objections might have been span^d :" that is, " he would have found thai sever ^i his objections," &.c. " There is nothing men are more deficient in, than knowing their own characters." It ought to be, " nothing in n^ich men ;" and, " than in know« ing." " I scarcely know any part of natural philosophy would yield more variety and use ;" it should be, " which would yield," &c. " In the temper of mind he was then ;" i. e. " in which he then was." " The little satisfaction and consistency, to be found in most of (be systems of divinitj I b»7e met with, made me betake myself to tbe sole reading i 212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 22. of the Scripturen 'J* it ought to be, " which are to be found/* and, " which I have met with." ** He desired they migh* go to the altar together, and jointly return their thanks to whom only they were due ;" i. e. " to him to whom,'* &iCo RULE XXII. ; I All the parts of a sentence should correspond to each other : a regular and dependent construction, through- out, should be carefully preserved. The following sen- tence is therefore inaccurate : " He was more beloved, but not so much admired, as Cinthio.*' It should be, " He was more beloved than Cinthio, but not so much admired.^' The first example under this rule, presents a most irre- gular construction, namely, " He was more beloved as Cin- thio.'* The words more and so tnuch, are very improperly stated as having the same regimen. In correcting such sen- tences, it is not necessary to supply the latter ellipsis ; be- cause it dannot lead to any discordant or improper con- struction, and the supply would often be harsh or inelegant. — See p. 203. As the 22d Rule comprehends all the preceding rules, it may, at the first view, appear to be too general to be use- ful. But by ranging under it a number of sentences pecu- liarly constructed, we shall perceive, that it is calculated to ascertain the true grammatical construction of many modes of expression, which none of the particular rules can sufficiently explain. '' This dedication may serve for almost any book, that has, is, or shall be published." It ought to be, " that has been, or shall be published." " He was guided by interests always different, sometimes contrary to, those of the com munity ;" "diflerent^om;'* or, "always different from those cf the commuuitv.and sometimes contrary to them=" " Will it be urged that these books are as old, or even older th ir tradition ?" The worrsi " as old," and " older," cannot have c:^ (Rule 22. be found,** they migh* ' thanks to hom," &c. nd to each , through- owing sen- re beloved, should be, Dt 60 much B most irre- ►ved as Cin- improperly (ig such sen- ellipsis; be- proper con- 3r inelegant. eding rules, al to be use- encea pecu- i calculated »n of many licular rules r book, that >, " that has by interests of the com it from those em=" "Will n older th vr canuot have Rule 22.) ' SYNTAX. 213 a common regimen ; it should be " as old as tradition, or even older." *^ It requires few talents to which most men are not born, or at least may not acquire ;" " or which, at least they may not acquire." " The court of chancery fre- quently mitigates and breaks the teeth of the common law.*' In this construction, the first verb is said, " to mitigate the teeth of the common law," which is an evident solecism. " Mitigates the common law, and breaks the teeth of it,** would have been grammatical. * They presently grow into good humour, and good lan- guage towards the crown ;' ' grow into good language,' is verj"^ improper. ' There is never wanting a set of evil in- struments, who either out of mad zeal, private hatred, or filthy lucre, are^always ready,' &c. We say properly, * A man acts out of mad zeal,' or, ' out of private hatred ;* but we cannot 'say, if we would speak English, * he acts out of filthy lucre.' . * To double her kindness and caresses of me ;' the word * kindness' requires to be followed by eitlier to or for, and cannot be construed with the preposition of. * Never was man so teased, or suffered half the uneasiness, as I have done this evening :' the first and third clauses, viz. * Never was man so teased, as I have done this even- ing,' cannot be joined without an impropriety ; and to con- nect the second and third, the word that must be substi- tuted for €is ; ^ Or suffered half the uneasiness that I have done ;' or else, ' half so much uneasiness as I have suffered.' The first part of the following sentence abounds with ad- verbs, and those such as are hardly consistent with one another : ' How much soever the reformation of this degen- erate age is almost utterly to be despaired of, we may yet have a more comfortable prospect of future times.' The sentence would be more correct in the following form : ' Tlwugh the reformation of this degenerate age is nearly to be despaired of,' &c. ' Oh ! shut not up my soul with the sinners nor m^ life with the blood-thirsty ; in whose bands is wickedness, and ¥/ ■i 214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Rule 22. (keir right-hand is full of gifts.' As the passage, introduced hj the copulative conjunction and,wB& not intended as a con- tinuation of the principal and independent part of the sen- tence, but of the dependent part, the relative whose should have been used instead of the possessive ^/te£r ; viz. * and tvhoae right-hand is full of ^fts.' ' Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered into the heart pf man, the things which God hath prepared for them that love him.* There seems to be an impropriety in this instance, in which the same noun serves in a double capacity, performing at the same time the offices both of the nominative and objective cases. * Neither JuUh it entered into the heart of man, to conceive the things,' &c. would have been regular. * We have the power of retaining, altering, and com- pounding, those images which we have once received, into all the varieties of picture and vision.' It is very proper to say, * altering and compounding those images which we have once received, into all the varieties of picture and vision ;' but we can with no propriety say, * retaining them into all the varieties ;' and yet, according to the manner in which the words are ranged, this construction is unavoid- able : for * retaining, altering, and compounding,' are par- ticiples, each of which equally refers to, and governs the subsequent noun, those images ; and that noun again is necessarily connected with the following preposition, into. The construction might easily have been rectified, by dis- joining the participle retaining from the other two partici- ples, in this way : " We have the power of retaining those images which we have once received, and of altering and compounding them into all the varieties of picture and vision ;" or, perhaps, better thus : " We have the power ot retaining, altering, and compounding those images which we have once received, and of forming them into all the varieties of picture and vision." i 't -!-.>»« (Rule 22. , introduced led as aeon- of the sen- )hose should ; Yiz. ' and lave entered ith prepared impropriety I in a double s both of the Ih it entered ' &CC. would , and com- ceived, into iry prpper to \ which we picture and aining them 3 manner in is unavoid- ng,' are par- governs the m again is )sition, inio. Qed, by dis- two partici- lining those iltering and )icture and lie power ot lages which into All the SYNTAX. 215 INTERJKCTIUN. For the syntax of the luterjection, See Rule v. Note 11. page 152, and Note 9 of Rule xxi. Directions for Parsing. As we have finished the explanation of the different parte of speech, and the rules for forming them into sentences, it is now proper to give some examples of the manner in which the leai;iiers should be exercised, in order to prove their knowledge, and to render it familiar to them. This is called parsing. The nature of the subject, as well as the adapta- tion of it to learners, requires that it should be (Kvided into two parts ; viz. parsing, as it respects etymology alone ; and parsing, as it respects both etymology and syntax*. Section 1. Sjieciinens of elyinologicaJ parsing, ■,■'■■■ " Virtue ennobles us." Virtue is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, the third [)erson, the singular number, and in the nominative case. (Decline the noun.) Ennobles is a regular verb active, indicative mood, present tense, and the third person sin- gular (Repeat tJie present tense, the imperfect tense, and the perfect participle^.) Us is a personal pronoun, of the first per- son plural, and in the objective case. (Decline it.) " Goodness will be rewarded." Goodness is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, the third person, the singular number, and in the nominative case. (Decline it.) Will be rewarded is a regular verb, in the passive voice, the indicative mood, the first future tense, and the third person singular. (Repeat the present tense, the im- perfect tense, and the perfect participle.) " Strive to improve." Strive is an irregular verb neuter, in the imperative mood, and of the second person singular. (Repeal the present # StiA the ** OAnArnl TIIrAO^Innc fni* nainir fliA Pnffltah P.«Anf%t«Aa «t «««aAva«I 4«« eW* JRflkM and every subsequeut edition of that book. , t The learner ahould oc( uionatly repeat all the moodi and tcoiet oC the Tirh. i^ E «P«« I 216 eJRslish grammar. iensBj SfC.J To improve h a regular verb neuter, and in the infinitive mood. (Repeat the present tense, SfC.J « Time flies, ! how swiftly." Time is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, tiie third person, the singular number, and in the nominative case. (Dedine the noun.) Flies is an irregular verb neuter, the indicative mood, present tense, and the third person mngular. (Repeat the present tense, &fc.) 0! is an inter- Jovtion. How and smifUy are adverbs. >^ : ' " Gratitude is a delightful emotion." Graiitude is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, the third person, the singular number, and in the nominative case. (Decline it,) Is is an irregular verb neuter, indica- tive mood, present tense, and the third person singular. (Repeat the present tense, SfC.) A is the indefinite article. Delight/vl is an adjective in the positive state. (Repeat the degrees of comparison.) Etnotion is a common substantive of the neuter gender, the third person, the singular number, and in the nominative case. (Decline it.) ' ' " They who for^ve, act nobly." They is a personal pronoun, of the third person, the plural number, and in the nominative case. (DecKne it.) Who is a relative pronoun, and the nominative case. (Decline it.) Forgive is an irregular verb active, indicative mood, present tense, and the third person plural. (Repeal the present tense, Sfc.) Act is a regular verb active, indicative mood, present tense, and the third person plural. (Repeal, SfC.) Nobly is an adverb of quality. (Repeat the degrees of comparison.) "By living temperately, our health is promoted." By is a preposition. Living is the present participle of the regular neuter verb " to Kve." (Repeat the participles.) Temperately is an adverb of quality. Our is an adjective pronoun of the possessive kind. (Decline it.) Health is a ooRMRon substantive, of the third person, the singular num- ber, and in the nominative case. (Decline it.) Is promoted rf" . I ,1. V «r SYNTAX. ♦' 217 i» a regular verb passWe^ indicative mood, present tense, and the third person singular. (Repeat^ Sfc.) " We should be kind ta them, who are unkind to us." We is a personal pronoun, of the first person, the phiral number, and in the nomkiati?e case. (DecMneiL) Shmtld be is an irregular verb neuter, in the potential mood, the imperfect tense, and the first person plural. (BJeptai the pi'esent iense^ Sfc.) Kind is an adjective, in the positive statie. (Repeat the degrees (^comparison.) To is a preposition. Them is a pcrsomil pronoun, of the third person, the plural num- ber, and in the objective case. (Decline it.) Wlio is a re- lative pronoun, and in the nominative case. (Decline it.) Are is an irregular verb neuter, indicative mood, present tense, and the third person plural. (Repeat, Sfc.) Unkind is an adjective in the positive state. (Repeat the degrees of eotnpajison.) To is a preposition. Us is a personal pro- noun, of the first person, the plural number, and, in the ob- iective case. (Decline it.) Section 2. Spedtnens of syntactical parsing. <. ,,r, " Vice produces misery." Vice is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, the third person, the singular number, and in the nominative case. Produces is a regular verb active, indicative mood, present tense, the third person singular, agreeing with its nominative " vice," according to rule i. whiehsays j (here repeat the rule.) Misery h & common substantive, of the neuter gender, the third person, the singular number, and the objective case, governed by the active verb ** produces," according to Rule xi. which says, &tc " Peace and joy are virtue's crown.** Peace is a common substantive. (Repeat the gender, per- son, number, and mse.) And is a copulative conjunction. Joy is a common substan^ve. (Repeat Ike person, rmtnher, sindcase. ). Are is an Irregiriar verb ncuieTj indicative moody present tense, and the third person plural, agreeing with the I 318 ENOUSH GEAMMAB. nomiiiatiTe case '* peace and joy," accordiog to mvum ib wliich says ; (here repeal Vie. nUe.) Virtue^s is a coBimon BubstantiTe, of the third person, the singular nnmber, and in the possessive case, governed by the substantive " crown,** agreeably to bule x. which says, &c. Cromn is a common substantive, of the neuter gender, the third person, the An- gular number, and in the nominative case, agreeably to the' fourth note of RULE XI. ;; , . , .,. , \^ -■ -li, _'- " Wisdom or folly governs us.'* Wisdom is a common substantive. (Repeat the genierf pereofif number^ and case.) Or is a disjunctive conjunction. Folly is a common substantive. (Repeat the person, mm- beTf and case.) Governs is a regular verb active, indicative mood, present tense, and the third person singular, agreeing with its nominative case " wisdom" or " folly," according to auLE III. which says, &c. Us is a personal pronoun, of the first person, plural number, and in the objective case, governed by the active verb " governs," agreeably to ruijS XI. which BAys, k.c. " Evejty heart knows its sorrows." Every is an adjective pronoun of the distributive kind, agreeing with its substantive " heart," according to Note 2 under rule viii. which says, &c. Heart is a common sub- stantive. (Repeat the gender, person, number^ and case.) Knoms is an irregular verb active, indicative mood, present tense, third person singular, agreeing with its nominative case " heart," according to rule i. which says, &:c. Its is a personal pronoun, of the tliird person singular, and of the neuter gender, to agree with its substantive " heart," ac- cording to RULE V. which says, &c. it is in the possessive case, governed by the noun " sorrows," according to rulb X. which says, &.c. Sorrows is a common substantive, of the third person, the plural number, and the objective caae MWAftiAH hy ihn activs vcrb ** knows*'* according to T^sSb Sji. which saysi &c. ^ ; ;; . 1 .^ti^. ' SYNTAX. 219 « * ^ a »jn,g mgn ig happy who lives wisely." TKeis the definite article. JUan is a common substantiTe; (iRepecU the persorti numbeTf and case.) Is is an irregular Terb neuter, indicative mood, present tense, and the third person singular, agreeing with the nominative case " man," according to rule i. which says, &.c. Happy is an adjective in the positive state. Who is a relative pronoun, which i has for its antecedent, " man," with which it agrees in gender and number, according to rule v. which says, &c. Lives is a regular verb neuter, indicative mood, present tense, third person singular, agreeing with its nominative *' who,** according to rule vi. which says, &c. Wisely \b an adverb of quality, placed after the verb, according to EULE XV. " Who preserves us ?" Who is a relative pronoun of the interrogative kind, and in the nominative case singular. The word to which it re- lates, (its subsequent,) is the noun or pronoun containing the answer to the question ; agreeably to a note under rule vi. Preserves is a regular verb active, indicative mood, present tense, third person singular, agreeing with its nominative *^ who," according to rule vi. which says, &c. (7« is a personal pronoun. (Repeat the person, number j ease, andnde,) " Whose house is that ? My brother's and mine. Who inhabit it? We." Whose is a relative pronoun of the interrogative kind, and relates to the following words, " brother's" and " mine," agreeably to a note under rule vi. It is in the possessive case, governed by " house," according to rule x. which , Bays, &CC. House is a common substantive. (Repeat the gender, person, number, and case.) Is is an irregular verb neuter, indicative mood, present tense, and the third person singular, agreeing with its nominative case "house," accord' ing to rule I. which says, &c. That is an adjective {no- noun of the demonstrative kind. My is an adjective pro- Boon of the possessive kind. Bro(^r'« is a common sub* K2 *^ -- 220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. stantive, of the third person, the singular number, and in the — issessive case, governed by" house" understood, accord- ing to BULE X. and a note under rule vi. And is a copu> lative conjunction. Mine is a personal pronoun, of the first person, the singular number, and in the possessive case, according to a i^ote under rule x. and anotlier under RULE VI. Who is a relative pronoun of the interrogative kind, of the plural number, in the nominative case, and relates to " we" following, according to a note under rule yi. Inhabit is a regular verb active. (Repeat the moody tensCy person, &cc.j // is a personal pronoun, of the third person, the singular number, and in the objective case, governed by the active verb " inhabit," according to rule XI. which says. Sec. We is a personal pronoun, of the first person, the plural number, and the nominative ca?" to the verb " inhabit" understood. The words " inhabit it" are im- plied after " we," agreeably to a note under rule vi. «v " Remember to assist the distressed." , Remember is a regular verb active, imperative mood, the second person singular, and agrees with its nominative case " thou" understood. To assist is a regular verb active, in the infinitive mood, governed by the preceding verb " re- member," according to rule xii. which says, &c. Tlie is the definite article. Distressed is an adjective put substan- tively " We are not unemployed." Wen a. personal pronoun. (Repeat the person, number, and case.) Are is an irregular verb neuter. (Repeat the mood, tense, person, inc.) Not is an adverb of negation. Unemployed is an adjective in the positive state. The two negatives not and un, form an affirmative, agreeably to rule XVI. which says, &.c. " This bounty has relieved you and us ; and has gratified the donor." < ■ ' , . ' This is an adjective pronoun of the demonstrative kind.' Boxmty is a common substantive. (Repeat thepersoHf num- ,i^:i'- her, and ehsi.) Dio^ f^tieved it a ^gtilar rerb active, in^ dicativ^ mood, peH^fct teiislfe, third person singular, ti'gree^ ibgwith its nokhinatiye '* bounty," according to kule 1.' which sayS) £tc. Vou is a t)ersdnal pronoun, of die second person plural, and in the obj^ctiv^ case. (Rejpeat tke' go- vernment aftid nde.) And is a copulative conjunction. Ui is a persbnal pronoun, in the objective case. You and tu are put in the same case, according to rule xviii. which says, Sic. And is a copulative conjuhction. Hcugraiified is a regular verb active, indicative mood, perfect tense, and thii'd person singular, agreehig With its nominative " boUhty,'* understood. " Has relieved" and " tuia gratifiedt" arte in the sanie mood ahd tense, according to rule xviii. which says, Sii;. The is the deiSnite article. Donor is a combion substantive, of the third person, the singular number, and the objective case governed by the active verb " has gra tifiedy'' according 16 Riile x\. which says, &ic. See the Op^ tavo Gternimixr, on gender. ' - • - '•.-•*•' • \ '*^ " Ite will not be pardohed, unless he repent." * * * Ht is a p^rBdb&l pronoun, of thd third person, singulaf number, mftsculltie ge&der, aiid in the nominative casei Will be pardoned is k regular passive verb, indicative mood, first future tfense,and the third person singular, agredng with its taominative " he," according to rule i. and composed of the auxiliaries " will be,*' and the perfect participle " par- dbned." Not is a negiitive adverb. Unless is a disjunctive conjuucftioh. He Is a personal pronoun. (Repeat the per- son, fiuniber^ gender, and case.) Repent is a regular verb neuter, in the subjunctive mood, the present tense, the third person sin^uldr, and agrees with its nominative case " he," acjcorditig to Rule 1. which says, &c. It is in the subjunc- tive mood, because it implies a future sense, and denotes ubceMaiiity signified by the conjunction " unless," agreeably tt» kdie 19. aftd the notes. « Good w6rks being neglected, devotion is false." Good tvorks fcetwi" n^g/ftf/er?, behig independent onth« I EK0U8H vMt of th* lenteiice, b the eaie abtoiatc, according to Ihc filUi note «j Rule 1. DevoHom it a common subitantiTei (Repeat number^ penon, and tau.) Jb it an irregular verb neuter. (Repeat mood, (mm, jMsrfon, Sfc) False to an a^e- tive in the podtive state, and belongs to its substantive ' d«- ▼otion* understood, agreeably to Rule viii. which says, &c. " The emperor, Marcua Aureliui, wai a wise and rirtaoas prince." , , .^ ^ Tke to the definite article. Emperor is a common sub- stantiTe, of the masculine gender, the third person, the un- gular number, and in the nominatiye case. Mareue Avrdme is a proper name or substantiTe, and in the nominatiTe case, because it is put in apposition with the substantiTe ** empe- ror," agreeably to the first note of Rule x. Wat is an irregu- lar verb neuter, indicative mood, imperfect tense, and the third person singular, agreeing with its nominatiTe case '* emperor." A is the indefinite article. Wi9ew an adjective, and belongs to its substantive " prince." And to a cc^ula^ tive conjunction. Virtuous is an adjective, and lielcngi, kc. Prince is a common substantive, and in the nominar tive case, agreeably to the fourth note of Rule xi. ^ • " To err is human.'* , • To erTt is the infinitive mood, and the nominative case to the verb " is." la is an irregular verb neuter, indicative mood, present tense, and the tliird person singular, agreeing with its nominative case " to err," agreeably to Note 1, under Rule the first Hummi is an adjective, and belongs to ito substantive " nature" understood, according to Rule 8. which says, &c. ** To ccantenance persons who are guilty of bad actions, is scarcely one remove from actually committing them." To countenance persona nhq are guilty of bad acHm^^\ is part of a sentence, which is the nominative case to the verb '* IS." la is an irregular verb neuter, &cc. agreeing with the aforementioned part of a sentence, as its nominative case, agreeably to Note 1, under Rule the first. Scarcely to an SYNTAX. 223 •dterb. Ont U a numeral adjeetif e, agreeing mih iti lub- •tentiTe ** remove.'^ RamoM iwi common lubttantiTe, of the neuter gender, the third person, the singular number, and In the nominative case, agi^ablj to the fourth note of Rule XI, From is a preposition. Commuting is the pre- sent participle of the regular active verb "to commit" Tfwin is a personal pronoun, of the third person, the plural number, and in the objective case, governed by the parti- ciple '* committing," agreeably to Rule xlv. which says, &c. ' " Let me proceed." This sentence, according to the statement of gramma- rians in general, is in the Imperative mood, of the first per- son, and the singular number. The sentence may, how- ever, be analyzed in the following manner. Lti is an irregular verb active, in the imperative mood, of the second lierson,^ the plural number, and agrees ^vith its nominative case "you" understood: as, "do you let" Mt is a per» sonal pronoun, of the first person, the singular number, and in the objective case, governed by the active verb " let," agreeably to Rule xi. which says, &c. Proceed is a regular verb neuter, in the infinitive mood, governed by the pre- ceding verb " let," according to Rule xii. which says, kc. " Living expensively and luxuriously destroys health. By living frugally and temperately, health is preserved." Living expensively and Iwnmoualy^ is the nominative case to the verb " destroys," agreeably to Note I. under Rule I. Uving frugally and tetnperaielyf is a substantive phrase uk the objective case, governed by the preposition "by," according to Note 2, under Rule xiv. The preceding specimens of parsing, if carefully studied by the learner, seem to be sufficiently explicit, to enable him to comprehend the nature of this employment ; and BulBciently diversified, to qualify him, in otiier exercises, to point out and apply tiie remaining nkles, botii principal and subordinate* ( 224 ] PART IV. PROBODT. jv>-;* <■■ .r'^'* ti' ., n •!« Villas'* P&osoBt consists of two parts : the former teaches the tru0 PBONUNCiATiON of words, comprising AccENTr quANTiTT, EMPHASIS, PAUSE, and TONE \ and the latter, the laws of TEBSIflCATION. .. ' ^ CHAPTER I. . . ,: ' OF PRONUNCIATION • ^ ' Section 1. Of decent Accent is the laying of a peculitur stress of the ▼oice, on a certain letter or syllable in a word, that it may be better heard than the rest, or distinguished from them : as, in the word jirefAme, the stress of the ▼oice must be on the letter u, and second syllable, sutnej which take the accent. A» words may be formed of a different number of sylla- bles, from <»ie to eig^t or nine, it was necessaiy to hate some peculiar mark to diBtLuguieh words from mere sylla- Ufis; otherwise speech would te only a contioued succest- MOB of 8ylliJi>les, without conireying ideas : for, as words ve the marks of ideas, any confuuon in the marks, must cause the same in the ideas for which they stand. It was therefore necessary, that the mind should at once perceive what number of syllables belongs to each word, in utter ance. 1Mb img)ai be done by a perceptible pause at the end of each word in speaking, as we form a certain dis- tance between them in writing and |)dntisg. But tills would make discourse extremely tedious ^ and thou^ it might render words distinct, would make the meanii^ of sentences confused. Syllables might also be suiBciently ■$■■ ■• »>5r' ■ \t teaches ^ ACCENTr the latter, sss of the M, that it stinguished ress of the able, sume, >erofBylla-' dry to haTc mere eylla- ued succe^- as words larks, mufit nd, It was ce perceive in utter ause at the certain dis- But this d though it meanii^of sufficiently Accent.) prosodt. 225 distbguished hy a certain elevation or depression of voice upon one syllable of each word, which was the practice of some nations. But the English tongue has, for this pur- pose, adopted a mark ol^ the easiest and simplest kind, which is called accent, and wL ch effectually answers' the end. '. . , ' £very word in our language, of more than one syllable, has one of them distinguished from the rest in this manner ; and some writers assert, that every monosyllable of two or more letters, has one of its letters thus distiDguished. Accent is either principal or secondary. The principal accent is that which necessarily distinguishes one syllable in a word from the rest. The secondary accent is that stress which we may occasionally place upon another syl- lable, besides that which has the principal accent ; in order to pronounce every part of the word more distinctly, for- cibly, and harmoniously : thus, " Complaisant, caravan," and " violin," have frequently an accent on the first as well as on the last syllable, though a somewhat less forcible one. The same may be observed of" Repartee, referee, priva- teer, domineer," &.c. But it must be observed, that though au liccent is allowed on the first syllable of these words, it is by no means necessary ; they may all be pronounced with one accent, and that on the last syllable, without the least deviation from propriety. As emphasis evidently points out the most significant word in a sentence ; so, where other reasons do not for- bid, the accent always dwells with greatest force on that part of the word which, from its importance, the hearer has always the greatest occasion to observe r and this is neces- sarily the root or body of the word. But as harmony of termination frequently attracts the accent from the root to the branches of words, so the first and most natural law of accentuation seems to operate less in fixing the stress ly other. Our own Saxon terminations, indeed, with t uniformity, leave the principal' part of the word in K3 .^•»' 22S XNOLISB ORAMMIR. (SeCt 1« quiet possession of what seems its lawful property ; but Latin and Greek terminations, of which our language is fulV assume a right of presenring their ori^nal accent, and sub- ject almost every word they bestow upon us to their own classical laws. Accent, therefore, seems to be regulated in a great mea- sure by etymology. In words from the Saxon, the accent is generally on the root ; in words from the learned lan- guages, it is generally on the termination ; and if to these we add the different accent we lay on some words, to dis- tinguish them from others, we seem to have the three great principles of accentuation ; namely, the radical^ the tertrii' nalionalf and the disiindive. The radical : as, " L6ve, Idvely, loveliness ;" the terminational : as, " Harmony, harmonious ;'* the distinctive : as, " Convert, to convert** ACCENT ON DISSYLLABLES. Words of two syllables have necessarily one of them ac- cented, and but one. It is true, for the sake of emphasis, we sometimes lay an equal stress upon two successive syl- lables ; as, " Di-rdct, some-times ;" but when these words are pronounced alone, they have never more than one ac- cent The word " a-men," is the only word which is pro* nounced with two accents when alone. Of dissyllables, formed by affixing a termination, the for- mer syllable is commonly accented : as, " Childish, king- dom, actest, acted, toilsome, lover, scoffer, fairer, foremost, zealous, fulness, meekly, artist.'^ Dissyllables formed by prefixing a syllable to the radical word, have commonly the accent on the latter : as» " To , bese6m, to bestow, to return." ^ Of dissyllables, which are at once nouns and verbs, th* i verb has commonly the accent on the latter, and the noun on the former Hyllable ■ as, " To cement, a cement ; to cob> tract, a contract ; to presage, a pr6sage." This rule has many exceptions. Though verbs seldom have their accent on the former, yet nouns often have it Accent) frosodt/ __ 227 on the IftUer syllftblet'as, " Delight,~perfiime.** Those noHiis which, in the common order of language, must have preceded the verbs, often transmit theur accent to the verbs they form, and inversely. Thus, the noun " w4ter" must have preceded the verb ** to w4ter," as the verb " to cor- re8p6nd," must have preceded the noun " correspondent :** and ** to pursue" claims priority to *' pursiiit" 80 that we may conclude, wherever verbs deviate from the rule, it is seldom by chance, and generally in those words only where a superior law of accent takes place. All dissyllables ending in y, mxr^ on}, /e, iah, ckj /er, age, en,ef ; as, "Cr4nny, l4bour, willow, w&llow;" except** all6w, av6w, end6w, bel6w, bestow ;" " bittle, b&nish, c4mbric, bitter, con cUor have the accent generally on the penultimate, or last syllable but one ; as, " Emendator, glaidi4tor,eqinv(xeuior,pfevaric^or.*'' *" ' ^ . Words endiisgi 'mile comnxsoly hhve the acCtot ov tiar first syllable : asy " AuneaMe^ despk^bl«:" unless'* the' second syllable has; a vowi^< before two ^oonsonaott:; aa^ '* Oombi^tible^condemnable*" ', Words ending in tV/t, out, va/i tjfi have their anatnt on*- » > riFraaatnt om (Quantity.) prosoot. 228 the antepenultimate, Or last syllable bat two : as, " Salvi- tion, victdrious, activity." Words, which end in 10^ to, and co/, have the accent on the antepenult : as, <^ Cyclopedia, punctilio, desp6ticaL" The rules respecting accent, are not advanced as com- plete or infallible : they are merely proposed as useful. Almost every rule of every language has its exceptions ; and, in English, as in other tongues, much must be learned by example and authority. It may be further observed, that though the syllable oil which the prittcipal accent is placed, is fixed and certain, yet we may, and do, frequently make the secondary prin- cipal, and the principal secondary : thus, " Caravan, com- pliaisant, violin, repartee, referee, privateer, domineer," may all have the greater stress on the fii^t, and the less 04 the last syllable, without any violent ofience to the ear : nay, it may be asserted, that the principal accent oii the first syllable of these words, and none at all on the lasf, though certainly improper, has nothing in it grating or dis- cordant ; but placing an accent on the second syllable of these words would entirely derange them, and produce ipreat harshness and dissonanice. The same observations nay be applied to " demonstration, lamentation, provoca- tion, navigator, propagator, alligator," and every simUar word in the language. Section 2. Of Quantity. ; . Thb quantity of a syllaule is that time which is occb*^ pied iA pronouncing it. It is cottsidered as iiona o¥ SBOtKP A vowtel or syllable IS Ibng, when the adcerit i^ Gh tfed rtmd ; wliicb occasions it to be slotvly joined in pltb- ittrticiation witli the following letters : as, " I^, bStdj ni65d,* hstise, featiire." ^1 A syllable is short, when the accent is on the conson, 1 230 _ ENGLISH GllAMMAR. " (Sect. 2. aiit ; \vhich occasions the vowel to be quicklj joined to the succeeding letter : as, *' Ant, bonnet, hiinger.'* A long syllable generally requires double the time o^ a short one in pronouncing it; thus, " Mate" and ** Note" should be pronounced as slowly again as " M&t" and«N6t." ,, [ Unaccented syllables are generally short: as, " Admire, bdldngss, sinner." But to this rule there are many excep* tions : as, " Also, ^xile, gangrene, timpire, foretaste," &c. j When the accent is on a consonant, the syllable i? often more or less short, as it ends with a single consonant, or with more than one: as, Sddly, rubber; persist, ni&tchless. When the accent is on a semi-vowel, the time of the syllable may be protracted, by dwelling upon the semi- Towel : as, * Cur', can', fulfil' :' but when the accent falls on a mute, the syllable cannot be lengthened in the same manner : as, " Bubble, explain, totter." The quantity of vowels has, in some measure, been con- fiidered under the first part of grammar, which treats of the different sounds of the letters ; and therefore we shall dis- miss this subject with a few general rules and observations. 1st, All vowels under the principal accent, before the terminations ta, io, and iorit preceded by a single conso- nant, are pronounced long : as, " Regalia, folio, adhesion, explosion, confusion :" except the vowel t, which in that situation is short : as, " Militia, punctilio, decisio|i, con- trition." The only exceptions to this rule seem to b6 " Discretion, battalion, gladiator, national, and rational." 2d, All vowels that immediately precede the terminations %, and ety, are pronounced long : as, " Deity, piety, spontaneity." But if one consonant precedes these termi- nations, every preceding accented vowel is short ; except lii «, and the a in " scarcity," and " rarity ;" as, " Polarity, se- verity, divinity, curtosity ; — impunity." Even u before two consonants contracts Itself: as, " Curvity, taciturnity^" &e. i Emphasis.) prosodt. 231 Sd, Vowels under the principal accent, before the temu- nations ie and.iea/, preceded by a single consonant, are pro- nounced short ; thus, " Satanic, pathetic, elliptic, harmo- nic," have the vowel short ; while " Tunic, runic, cubic," have the accented vowel long : and " Fanatical, poetical, levitical, canonical," have the vowel short ; but " Cubical, musical," &c. have the u long. 4th, The vowel in the antepenultimate syllable of words, wHh the following terminations, is always pronounced short loquy ; as, obloquy. strophe ; as, apostrophe. meter ; as, barometer. goncJ ; as, diagonal. vorous i as, carnivorous. Jerous ; as, somniferous. Jluous ; as, superfluous. parous ; as, oviparous. cracy ; as, aristocracy. gony ; as, cosmogony. phony ; as, symphony. nomy ; as, astronomy. iomy ; as, anatomy. pathy ; as, antipathy. fluent ; as, mellifluent. As no utterance which is void of proportion, can b« agreeable to the ear ; and as quantity, or proportion of time in utterance, greatly depends on a due attention to the ac- cent ; it is absolutely necessary for every person who would attain a just and pleasing de^very, to be master of thai point See this section in the Octavo Grammar. Section 3. Of Emphads. ' By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of voice, by which we distinguish some word or words on which we design to lay particular stress, and to show how they affect the rest of the sentence. Sometimea the emphatic words must be distinguished by a particu- lar tone of voice, as well as by a greater stroas. On the right management of the emphasis depends tte Kfe of pronunciation. If no emphasis be placed on wf ^ wordsi not only will discource be rendered heavy and liC»> H 232 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (SeCt 5. leUf but the meaning often left ambiguous. If the emphasis be placed wrong, we shall pervert and confound the ndean- iDg wholly. To give a common instance : bucU a simple question as this, " Do you ride to town to-day ?" ia capable of no fev EropbtK^s.) PiaysoDY. ' S33 laaon itt ilie jiropHeeyof Baekiel, " Why Will you <)ie V> la the tatter short rttatencte, every word is ^mphr litld t land on which ever word we lay the emphasis, wtretber on the first, second, thirds or fourth, it strikes 6at a difierent sense, anod opens a new subject of moving expostulation. As accent dignifies the i^y liable on which it is laid, tmid makes it more distitaguished by the ear than the teat ; so empbaais ennobles the word tb which it belongs, and {^re- sents it in a stronger light to the Unders' tiding. Were there no accents, Words would be reBolved itito theli: original syllables : were therife no emphasis, sentences would be re- solved into their original >tt>rd3 ; and, ih this case, the hearer would be under the painful necessity, first, of making out the words, and afterwards, tiieir meaning. Emphasis is of two kinds, simple and complex. Sil?iple, when it serves to point out only the plain meaning of any proposition ; complex, when, besides the meaning, it marks also seme affection or emotion of tlie mind ; or gives a meaning to words, which they would not haVe in their usual acceptation. In tht former case, emphasis is scarcely more than a stronger accent, with little or no change of tone ; when it is complex, besides force, there is always super- added a manifest change of tone. The following sentence contaihs an example of siniiple emphasis : " And Nathan said to David, Thm art the man.'' The en^hasis on thouy serves only to point out the meaning of ihe speaker. But in the sentence which fol- lows, we perceive an emotion of the speaker superadded to the ftiinple meanint; : " Why will ye die t" As the emf^hitsis often falls on words In difTereilit piarts of the same de&fekice, id it ib frequently i^qiiifirted io (re toh- tinued, witji a little vafriatkm, on two, add goihetinifes thr^e words together. The following ^entenc'^ exemplifies bbth the parts of this [foditidn : " If yon seek tb make On^ rkh, Bwaj not to MUcrAUe hik sioreSf but to ditnMsh Mi dH^eiy EmphasiB may be farther dhd. ^uished, ibto the Waaler and the stronger emphasis. In the senience, " EX^i^i^ti 234 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (SeCt. 9. and tempenace strengthen the constitution ;" we poreeire more force on the word atreng(hen, than on any otiier; though it IB not equal to the stress which we apply to the word indifferent^ in the following sentence : '* Exercise and temperance strengthen even an indifferent constitution.** It is also proper to remark, that the words exercisCf tempe- raneCf eonstitiUumf in the last example but one, are pro^ noonced with greater force, than the particles and and the ; and yet those words cannot properly be called emphatical : for the stress that is laid on them, is no more than suflScient to convey distinctly the meaning of each word.— From these observations it appears, that the smaller parts of speech, namely, the articles, conjunctions, prepositions, &e. are, in general, obscurely and feebly expressed; that the sub- stantives, verbs, and more significant words, are firmly and distinctly pronounced ; and that the emphatical words, those which mark the meaning of a phrase, are pronounced with peculiar stress and energy, though varied according to the degree of their importance. Emphasis, besides its other offices, is the great regulator of quantity. Though the quantity of our syllables is fixed, In words separately pronounced, yet it is mutable, when these words are ranged in sentences ; the long bdng changed into short, the short into long, according to the importance of the words with regard to meaning: and as it is by emphasis only, that the meaning can be pointed out, emphasis must be the regulator of the quanti^. A few examples will make this point very evident. PleEs'd thoQ shalt heSi* — and learn the secret powers &ek Pleas'd thoQ shalt hear — and thou al6jDe shalt hear — Pleased thou sbalt hear — in spite of them sh&It hear — Pleas'd tiiou shalt hear — though not beh6Id the fsdr— ^^ In the first of these instances, the words pleased and heart being equally emphatical, are both long ; whilst the two intermediate words, tk^u and sAait, being rapidly paseed over, as the sense demands, are reduced to 4 sbOft ipiantify. * we pereeire D any other; 3 appljrto tito Exercise and constitutioD.** ercisef tempe- one, are prcH am? and fhe ; I emphatical : ban BuflScient «rord.— Prom iller parti of lositions, &ce. that the sub- re firmly and itical words, '■ proaoaneed d acGordiog !at regulator t>Ies is fixed, itable, when long b«ing ding to the ing: and as be pointed i&ntity. A powers &fr hear — thear— e fidr— ^- lias'd and whilst the ig rapidity to a short £mphaffls.) pbosodt. 235 In the second instance, the word Oioit by bctitig the most impoc'ant, obtuns the chief, or rather the sole emphasis * and thus, it is not only restored to its natural long quantity but obtains from emphasis a still greater degree of length, than when pronounced in its separate state. This greater degree of length, is compensated by the diminution of quantity in the words pleased and heart which are sounded shorter than in the preceding instance. The word thali stiU continues short. Here we may alsd observe, that though thou is long in the first par', of the verse, it becomes short when repeated in the second, on account of the more forcible emphasis belonging to the word alorUf which fol> lows it In the third instance, the word ahalt having the emphasis, obtains a long quantity. And though it is impossible to prolong the sound of this word, as it ends in a pure mute, yet.in this, as in all similar instances, the additional quan- tity is to be made out by a rest of the voice, proportioaed to the importance of the word. In this instance, we may also observe, that the word shcUty repeated in the second part of the line, is reduced again to a short quantity., In the fourth instance, the word hear placed in opposi- tion to the word behdldy in the latter part of the line, ob- tuns from the sense the chief emphasis, and a proportionate length. The words thou and shall, are again reduced to short quantities ; and the word pleased lends some of the time which it possessed, to the more important word hear. From these instances, it is evident, that the quantity of our syllables is not fixed ; but governed by emphasis. — ^To observe a due measurement of time, on all occasions, is doubtless veiy difl^cult ; but by instruction, aKtenUon, and practice, the difficulty may be overcome. Emphasis changes, not only the quantity of words and syllables, but also, in particular cases, the seat of the ac- cent This is demonsirabie from the following examples. '* He shall increase, but I shall decrease." , "There is. a iifferencf between giving andyS^^vin^" " In this species 2dJ^ ENGLISH '61l4MttAR- (ScCt. 4. of coMpbsition, pkiiiiabiWiy is much iiiore eBwntial than /mibability." tb these examples, the enlphaBis requires tlie accent to be placed on syllables, td which it does not com monly belohg. In order to acquire the proper management of (he em phasis, the great rule, and indeed the only rule possible to bft given, is, tiiat the speaker or reader study to attain a just conception of the force and spirit of the sentiments Which he is to pronounce. For to lay the emphasis with exact propriety, is a constant exercise of good sense and attention. It is far from being an inconsiderable attain- ment It is one of the greatest trials of a true and just taste ; and must arise from feeling delicately ourselves, and from judging accurately, of what is fittest to strike the feod sense and erable attain- true and just lurselved, and trike the feel- I sularly proper iltiplying e*ih- ident reserve y weight. If; r attempts to I iihporttoce, learn to pdly Dce with em- f a book with ; the same as. ate a t Jtal )le, afld, in t^r, afid (lie ath, Without i\i&t he may, nied a^tibn : Bd from t^ 1 Pauses.) pRosoDT. 237 fatigue, which it would otherwise endure from a continuity of sound ; and that the understanding may i.?vo sufficient time to mark the distinction of sentences, and their several .nenibers. . ' > There are two kinds of pauses : first, emphatical pauses ; and next, such qs mark the distinctions of the sense. An emphatical pause is made, after something has been said of peculiar moment, and on which we desire to fix the hearor's attention. Sometimes, before such a thing is said, we ur.her it in with a pause of this nature. Such pauses have the same cQcct as a strong emphasis; and are subject to the same rules ; especially to the caution just now given, ■n* not repeating them too frequently. For as they excite uncommon attention, and of course raise expectation, if the importance of the mutter is not fully answerable to such expectation, they occasion disappointment and disgust. But the most frequent and the principal i oc of pauses, is, to mark the divisions of the sense, and at the same time to allow the speaker to draw his breath ; and the proper and delicate adjustment of such pauses, is one of the most nice and difTicult articles of delivery. In all reading, and public speaking, the management of the breath requires a good deal of care, so as not to oblige us to divide words from one another, which have so intimate a connexion, that they ought to be pronounced with the same breath, and without tlie least separation. Many sentences are miserably manfijlcd, and the force of the emphasis totally lost, by the divisions being made in the wrong place. To avoid this, every one, while he is speaking or reading, should be very careful to provide a full supply of breath for what he is t* utter. It is a great mistake to imagine, that the breath must be drawn only at the end of a period, when the voice is allowed to fall. It may easily be ga- thered at the intervals of the period, when the voice is only suspended for a moment; and, by this management, one may always have a sufficient stock for carrying on Ihe longest sentence, without improper interruptions. ^t 238 ENGLISH drAMMAR. (Sect. 4. Pauses in reading, and public discourse, must be formed upon the manner in which we ufter ourselves" in ordinary, sensible conversation ; and not upon the stiff artificial man- ner which we acquire, from reading books acQording to the common punctuation. It will by no means be sufficient to attend to the points used in printing; for these are far from marking all the pauses which ought to be made in speaking. A mechanical attention to these resting-places has perhaps been one cause of monotony, by leading the reader to a similar tone at every stop, and a uniform ca- dence at every period. The primary use of points is, to assist the reader in discerning the grammatical construc- tion ; and it is only as a secondary object, that they regu- late his pronunciation. To render pauses pleasing and expressive, they must not only be made in the right place, but also accompanied with a proper tone of voice, by which the nature of these pauses is intimated ; much more than by the length of them, which can seldom be exactly measured. Sometimes it is only a slight and simple suspension of voice that is proper; sometimes a degree of cadence in the yoice is required ; and sometimes that peculiar tone and cadence which denote the sentence to be finished. In all these cases, we are to regulate ourselves, by attending to the manner in which nature teaches us to speak, when engaged in real and earnest discourse with others. It is a general rule, that the suspending pi; use should be used when the sense is incomplete ; and lli j closing pause, Mhen it is finished. But there are phrases, in which, though the sense is not completed, the voice takes the closing, rather than the suspending pause ; and others, in which the sentence finishes by the pause of suspension. The closing pause must not be confounded with that fall of the voice, or cadence^ with which many readers uni- formly uuibh a suntence. Nothing is more destructive of propriety and energy than this habit. The tones and in- Hections of the vo^ce at the close of a sentence, oujght to be (Sect. 4. ist be formed i^in ordinary, irtificial man- rording to the i suflicient to hcse are far ) be made in esting-places r leading the uniform ca- points is, to :al construe- it they regu- (ley must not iccompanied lure of these he length of Sometimes roice that is the Toice is and cadence In all these iding to the len engaged e should be }sing pause, in which, 3 takes the a others, in lension. ith that fall eaders uni- jtructive of les and in- )ught to be Tones.) _ PMiODT 230 diTeraified, according to the general nature of the discourse, and the particular construction and meaning of the sen- tence. In plain narrative, and especially in argumentation,' a small attention to the manner in which we relate a fact, or maintain an argument, in conversation, will show, that it is frequently more proper to raise the voice, than to let it fall, at the end of a sentence. Some sentences are so con- structed, that the last words require a stronger emphasis than any of the preceding; while others admit of being closed with a soft and gentle sound. Where there is nothing in the sense which requires the last sound to be elevated or emphatical, an easy faH, sufiQcient to show that the sense is finished, will be proper. And in pathetic pieces, especially those of the plaintive, tender, or solemn kind, the tone of the passion will often require a still greater cadence of the voice. The best method of cor- recting a uniform cadence, is frequently to read select sen- tenceSf in which tlie style is pointed, and in which anti- theses are frequently introduced : and argumentative pieces, or such as abound with interrogative^ ur earnest excla- maUon. Section 6. Of Tones. Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses ; consisting in the modulation of the voice, the notes or variations of 'sound which we employ in the expression of our sentiments. Emphasis affects particular words and phrases with a de- gree of tone or inflection of the voice ; but tones, peculiarly so called, affect sentences, paragraphs, and sometimes even the whole of a discourse. To show the use and necessity of tones, we need only observe, that the mind, in communicating its ideas, is in a continual state of activity-, emotion, or agitation, from the different effects which those ideas produce in the speaker. Now the end of such communication being, not merely to 240 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Scot. 5. lay open the ideas, but also 'the' different feelings which they excite in him who utters them, there must be other Aigns than words, to manifest those feelings ; as words ut- tered in a monotonous manner, can represent only a simi- lar state of mind, perfectly free from all activity or emo- tion. As the communication of these internal feelings, was of much more consequence in our social inturcouree^ than the mere conveyance of ideas, the Author of our be- ing did not, as in that conveyance, leave the invention of the language of emotion, to man ; but impressed it him- self upon our nature in the same manner as he has done with regard to the rest of tlie animal world ; all of which express their various feelings, by various tones. Ows in- deed, from the superior rank that we hold, are in a high de- gree more comp-rehensive; as there is not an act of the mind, an exertion of the fancy, or an emotion of the heart, which has not its peculiar tone, or note of the voice, by which it is to be expressed ; and which is suited exactly to the degree of intecnai feeling. It is chiefly in the proper use of these tones, that the life, spirit, beaoty, and harmony of delivery consist. An extract from the beautiful lamentation of David over Saul and Jonathan, may serve as an example of what has been said on thia subject. " ']^he beauty of Israel is slain upon thy high places. How arc; the mighty fallen ! Tell it Hot in Gath ; publish it not in ihe streets of Askelon : lest the daughters of the Philistines rejoice ; lest the daughters of the uncircumcised triumph. Ye mountains of Gilboa, let there be no dew, nor rain upon you, nor fields of of- ferings ; for there the shield of the mighty was vilely cast awa, ; the shield of Saul, as though he had not been an- ointed with oil !" The first of these divisions expresses sor- row and lamentation ; therefore the note is low. The next contains a spirited command, and should be pronounced much higher. The other sentence, in which he makes a Datlietic addre9§ to the mountains whece bis friends were r (Sect. 5. slings which list be other as words ut- only a simi- nty or emo- iial feelings, inturcourse, ro£ ourbe- invention of ised it him- he has done all of which )s. Oufs in- in a high de* a act of the of the heart, le Toice, by id exactly to 1 the proper nd harmony David over of what has srael is slain len! Tell it skelon: lest le daughters s of Gilboa, fields of of- ) vilely cast ot been an< presses sor- The next pronounced he makes a riends were 0'' Versification.) prosody. 341 slain, must be expresBcd in a note quite diflerent from the two former ; not so low as the first, nor so high as the second, in a manly, firm, and yet plaintive tone.* This correct and natural language of the emotions, is not so difficult to be attained, as most readers seem to imagine. If we enter into the spirit of the author's senti- ments, as well as into the meaning of his words, we shall not fail to deliver the words in properly varied tones. For there are few people, who speak English without a provin- cial tope, that have not an accurate u&e of emphasis, pauses, and tones, when ti|tcy utter their sen,timc);its in earnest dis- course : and the reason thai they have not the same use of them, in reading aloud the sentiments of others, may be traced to the very defective and erroneous method, in which the art of reading is taught ; whereby all the various, natural, expressive tones of speech, are suppressed, and a few artificial, unmeiining, reading notes, nre substituted for them. But when we recommend to readers, an attention to the tone and language of emotions, wc must be understood to do it with proper Iimita,tion. Moderation is necessary in this point, as it is in other things. For when reading be- comes strictly imitative, it assumes a theatrical manner, and must be highly improper, as well as give offence to the hearers ; because it is inconsistent with that delicacy and modesty, which, on all occasions, are indispi^nsable. CHAPTER II. OF VERSIFICATION. As there are few persons who do not sometimes read poeti- cal composition, it seems necessary to give the student some idea of that part of grammar, which explains the prin- ciples of versification ; that, in reading poetry, he may be the better able to judge of its correctness, and relish its beauties. When this lively mode of exhibiting nature and sentiment, is pe.-fectly chaste, it is often fgpntl to be highly ioterje^Jipg ajfd instr^cUve. • Herrioi •#- I 24^ ENGiLISH GRAMMAR. (V^fsificatljll. Vbrsification is the arrahgeinent of a certain number and variety of syllables, according to certain laws. * Rhyme is the correspondence of the last sound ot one yerse, to the last sound or syllable of another Feet and pauses are the constituent parts of verse. We - shall consider these separately. OF POETICAL FEET. A certun number of syllables connected, form a foo^. They are called feetf because it is by their aid that the voice, as it were, steps along through the verse, in a mea* sured pace ; and it is necessary that the syllables which mark this regular movement of the voice, should, in some manner, be distinguished from the others. This distinction was made among the ancient Romans, by dividing their syllables into long and short, and ascertaining their quan- tity by an exact proportion of time in sounding them ; the long being to the short, as two to one ; and the long sylla- bles, being thus the more important, marked the move- ment. In English, syllables are divided into accented and unaccented ; and the accented syllables being as strongly distinguished from the unaccented, by the peculiar stress ' of the voice upon them, are equally capable of marking the movement, and pointing out the regular paces of the voice, as the long syllables were by their quantity, among the Romans When the feet are formed by an accent on vowels, they are exactly of the same nature as the ancient feet, and have the same just quantity in their syllables. So that, in this | respect, we have all that the ancients had, and something \ which (hey had not. We have in fiaGt duplicates of each foot, yet with such a difference, as to fit them for different puwoses, to be applied ai our pleasure. Every foot has, from nature, powers peculiar to itself; %mi it is upon the knowledge and right application of thei* Versification.) prosody. 243 powers, that ihe pleasure and effect of numbers chiefly depend. All feet used in poetry consist either of two, or oHhree syllables ; and are reducible to eight kinds ; four of two syllables, and four of three, as follows : DISSYLLABLE. TRISYLLABLE. A Trochee - w A Dactyl - w w An Iambus w - An Amphibrach w - w' A Spondee - - An Anapaest w w - A Pyrrhic ^^ A Tribrach u w w A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and tfie last unaccented : as, " Hatefiil, pettish." An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last accented: as, "Bi ./consist" A Spondee has - > ;he words or syllables accented : as, " The pale moon." A Pyrrhic has both the woMs or syllables unaccented : as, « On th« tall tree." A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the two latter unaccented : as, " Labourer, possible." An Amphibrach has the first and last syllables unaccented ; and the middle one accented : as, " D^llghtftil, domestic." An Anapeest has the two first syllables unaccented, and the last accented : as, " Contravene, acquiesce." A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented : as, " NtV* iner ' . \ ,^ To me tlie rose No longer glows. It sometimes takes, or may take, an additional short syl- lable: as, Upon a mOuntHin ': • * ■ . ■ ' • . i» Beside a fountain. ' S. The third form consists of three Iambuses. In places fur or near, , , Or famous or obscure, ■ Where wholesome is the air, Or where the most impure. It sometimes admits of an additional short syllable: aa, Oiir hearts no longer languish. 4. Tlie fourth form is made up of four Iambuses. And may at last my weary age. Find out tlie peaceful hermitage. 6.' The fifth species of English Iambic, consists oHJive Iambuses. How 15v'd, how valii'd once, avails thee l 3t, To whom related, or by whom begot : A heap of dust alone remains of thee ; *• ' *l^is all thou art, and all the proud stjall bt. 'I ' I Vers! fi eat ioih) i'rorodt: i 245 Ke wlie t6-diy, HKa rnadngas to d^fSr : '^'^"^^^ ''■ ■ Next day tho fktal precedent will pl«ad ; ^'i' ■ Thus on, till wisdom U pushed out of life. "•' • ' Tliis is called the Heroic measure. In its simplest form it consists of five InmbiiscB; but by the admission of otbor feet, us Trochees, Dactyls, Anaiinssts, kc. it is capable of many varieties. Indeed, most of the Knglish common niuusures may be varied in tho Bume way, as well as by the diflcrcnt position of their pauses. ,/,,,; ^^ |,j.j ; i ^ (,, < 6. The sixth form of our Iambic h commonly called th« Alexandrine tncasurc. It consists of six Iambuses. Fdr thou %rt bQt of dQst ; be hOmble and be wise. . > The Alexandrine is sometimes introduced Into heroic rhyme ; and when used sparingly, and with judgment, occasions an agreeable variety. /, , The seas sh^ll waste, the skies in smoke decay, Hocks fail to dust,, and mountains melt away ; But fixM his word, his saving pow'r remains : Thy realm for ever lasts, thy orvn Messiah reign*. 7. The seventh and last fok-m of our Iambic measure, is made up of seven Iambuses. 'J'!ie Lord descended from 2lbovfe, And bow'd thg heavens hTgh. This was anciently wrilten fn one line ; but it is now broken into two , the first containing four feet, and the second three : When all thy merciJs, O my God ! ,, - My rising soul surveys, Tra isportcd with the view, I'm lost In wonder, love, and praise. ..-*<'•• In a!! these measures, the accents are to be placeu on even syllables; and every line considered by itself, is, in general, more melodious, as this rule is more strictly obFiTVcd. '■ ^ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (VersificatlOQ. I I' TROCHAIC vene is of seyeral kinds. 1. The shortest Trochaic verse in oui' language, eonsists of one Trochee and a long syllable. Tflmiilt cease, Sink to peace. Thu measure is defective in dignity, and can seldom be used on serious occasions. 2. Tlie second English form of the Trochaic consists of two feet ; and is likewise so brief, that it is rarely used for any very serious purpose. . On tbS mountl&in By a fountain. It sometimes contains two feet or trochees, with an addi* tionallong syllable : as, in the days 5f did Fables plainly told. S. The tiiird species consists of three trochees : as, When dur hearts Sire mdurning : QT of three trochees, with an additional long syllable : as, Restless m5rt&ls toil for ndught ; Bliss in vain from earth is sought ; Bliss, a native of the sky, Never wanders. Mortals, try i Thete you cannot seek in vain ; For to seek her is to gain. 4. The fourth Trochaic species consists ofybur trochees: as, Round Qs roars thS tempest louder. This form may take an additional long syllable, as followa Idli after dinner in his chair, Sat a farmer, ruddy, fat, and fair. But this measure is very nhcommon. ificatioQ. , conBlBta Idom be msists of used for anaddi- Wf lie: as, ees: as, ' bUowi. ! Versification.) prosody. 24r 6. The fifth Trochaic speciei is likewise uocommon. It is composed of Jwt trochees. All thXt w&lk 6n foot 6r ride in chSridts, AH that dwell in palaces or garrets. 6 The sixth form of the English Trochaic or/nsists of fix trochees : as, On & m5unt&in, strStchM beneath 9 hdaij^ wlll&w, liay a shepherd swaiii^ and viewed the rolling billow. This seems to be the longest Trochaic line that our lan- guage admits. In all these Trochaic measures, the ticcent is to be placed on the odd syllables. The DACTYLIC measure being veiy uncommon, we ■hall give Only one example of one species of it: From th^ low pleasures 6f this fUlKn natiire. Rise we to higher, &c. ANAP^STIC verses are divided into several species; 1. The shortest anapaestic verse must be a nngU ana- psBst ; as, bdt 10 vain, They complain. This measure is, however, ambiguous ; for, by laying the stress of the voice on the first and third syllables, we might make a trochaic. And therefore th^ first and simplest form of our genuine Anapaestic verse, is made up of imo Anapaests: as, Biit his cdurlge 'g^n fail, For no arts could avail. This form admits of an additional short syllalo^e. Then his courage 'gan fail him, For no arts could avail him. 2. The second species consists of Mree Anapr/tts. ye woods, spread your branches upa. This toeasnre will hdmit oif a short syllable at the enH : as, On thS winh cheek ^f youth, smiles ^nd roses are blending. The preceding are the different kinds ' f the principal feet, in their bicre simple forms. They are capable of nu- merous variations, by the intermixture of those feet witli each bithbr ; and by the admission of the s'econ ^ary feet. We haVe observed, that ISngJish verse is composed of feet forme'ci hy dtCeht ; and that wheb the accent falls on vowels, the feet are equivalent to those formed by quantity. T^fat the ^tu'deiit tAkf clearly percieive this difference, we shall produce a specimen of eielch kind. O'er heaps of ruins stalk'd the stately hind. Here we see the accent is upon the vowel in each second syllable. In the following line, we shall find the same Iambic movement, but formed by accent on consonants, except the last syllable. Then rustling, cfackling, crashing thunder* d5wn. Here the time of the short accented syllables, is com- pensated by a short pause, at the eqd of each word to which they belong. ■ * ■ We now pioceed to show the mamier in which poetry is "ried and improved, by the admission of secondary feet •< ; Cf its coniposition. * Murmuring, and With him fled the shades of night The first f6ot here \a a Dactyl ; the rest are Iambics. O'er many & frozen, many a fiery Alp. This line contains three Aiiiphibrachs mixed with Iambics i <•': Vei'sificationO prosody. , ZiO ionQmSrilblS before th' Almighty's throne. . .1} il . ' Here, in the second foot, we find a Tribrach. '>>''<'' See the b5ld ySutb fitraln up the threat'ning steep. In this line, the first foot is a Trochee ; the second a genu- ine Spondee bj quantity; the third a Spondee by accent. In the following line, the first foot is a Pyrrhic, the se- cond a Spondee ., .;, . . - ; Th^t 6n weak wings from far pursues your flight. F^OM the preceding view of English versification, we ma^ see what a copious stock of materials it possesses. For we are not only allowed the use of all the ancient poetic feet, in our heroic measure, but we have, as before observed, duplicates of each, agreeing in movement though difilering in measure,* and which make dififerent impressions on the car; an opulence peculiar to our language, and. which m&y be the source of a boundless variety. OP POETICAL PAUSES. ,-'/ ^■^ !ii- ii.r There are two sorts of pauses, one for sense, and (me for melody, perfectly distinct from each other. The former may be called sentential, the latter, harmonic pauses. The sentential pauses are those which are known to us by the name of stops, and wluch have names given them ; as the comma, semicolon, colon, and period. The harmonic pauses may be subdivided into the Jinal pause, and the cmsurcU pause. These sometimes coincide with the sentential pause, sometimes have an independent state, that is, e^st where there is no stop in the sense. The final pause takes place at the end of the line, closes the yerse, and mariis the measure : the cteaural divides it into eqiml or unequal parts. . '■ > i^ ; ^^i - ' f j < h • ' 1.1 M , iij>>. * Moveinent and measwA are ttsus distisguishsu. luovemeni expresses the pro> Creasire order of sounds, whether ftt>m strong to ireak, from long to short, or vim vma. ileatwt Bisoifies the proportioa of tinie, both u sounds and pauses. u 250 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (VersificEtion. The final pause preserves the melody, without interferiDg with the sense. For the pause itself perfectly marks the bound of the metre ; and being made only by a suspension of the voice, not by any change of note, it can never affect the sense. This is not the only advantage gained to num- bers, by this final pause or stop of suspension. It also pre- vents that monotony, that sameness of note at the end of lines, which, however pleasing to a rude, is disgusting to a delicate ear. For as this final pause has no peculiar note of its own, but always takes that wltich belongs to the pre- ceding word, it changes continually with the matter, and is as various as the sense. It is the final pause which alone,, on many occasions, marks the diffierence between prose and verse ; which will be evident from the following arrangement of a few poetical lines. ** Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit of that forbid- den tree, whose mortal taste brought death into the world, and all our wo, with loss of Eden, till one greater man re- store us, and regain the blissful seat, sing heavenly muse \** A stranger to the poem would not easily discover tliat this was verse ; but would take it for poetical prose. By properly adjusting the final pause, we shall restore the pas- sage to its true state of verse. Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste Brought death into the world, and all our wo, With loss of Eden, till one greater man Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, Sing, heaventy muse \ These examples show the necessity of reading blank Terse, in such a manner, as to make every line sensible to the ear; fbr, what Is the use of melody, or for what end has the poet composed Iti verse, if, in reading his lines, we suppress his numbers, by omitting the final pause ; and de- §f%^v tuviu, by oiif fironuuclailqili iato mere prose i . ification. iterferiDg larks the MpenBion ?er affect I to numr also pre- lie end of sting to a iiliar note 5 the pre- ler, and is )cca8ions, ^hich will Y poetical lat forbid- the world, ir man re- y muse !** over tliat •ose. By e the pas- TO, ng blank Bnsible to nrhat end lines, we ; and de^ V^crsification.) prosody. 251 The Caesura is commonly od the fourth, fifth, or «iztb syllable of heroic yerse. On the fourth syllable, or at the end of the second foot: as. The silver eel^ in shining volumes roll'd. The yellow carp" in scales bedroppM with gold. On the fifth syllable, or in the middle of the third foot : as. Round broken columns" clasping ivy tvnn'd. O'er heaps of ruin'' stalk'd the stately hind. On the sixth syllable, or at the end of the third foot : as. Oh say what stranger cause'' yet unexplorM, Could make a gentle belle" reject a lord. A line may be divided into three portions, by two cksu- ras : as, Outstretch'd he lay" on the cold ground" and oft' Look'd up to heav'n. There is another mode of dividing lines, well suited to the nature of the couplet, by introducing semi-pauses, which divide the line into four pauses. This semi-pause may be called a demuccesura. The following lines admit of, and exemplify it Glows' while he reads" but trembles' as he writes. Reason' the card" but passion' is the gale. Rides' in the whirlwind" and directs' the storm. OF MELODY, HARMONY, AND EXPRESSION !iaving shown the gen^^l nature of feet and pauses, the constituent parts of verse, we shall now point out, more par- ticularly, their use and importance. Melody, harmony, and expression, are the three great ob-^ jects of poetic numbers. By melody, i» meant, a pleasing- effect produced on the ear, from an apt arrangement of tho constituent parts <^ verse, according to the laws of measure- and movement. By harmKiny, an efifect produced by an action of the mind, in ccMnparing the difieient members of • verse iriui each other, and perceivmg a due and beauUfiili 252 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Vei^lflCatlOIl proportion between them. By expression, such a Choice and arrangement of the constituent parts of Terse, as serv^ to enforce and illustrate the thought or the sentimtelnt. ' We shall consider each of these three objects in versifica- tion, both with respect to the feet and the pauses. V Ist, With regard to melody. ' • ' From the examples which we have given of verses com- posed in all the principal feet, it is evident that a consider- «ble portion of melody is found in each of thctn, though in different degrees. Verses made up of pure Iambics have an excellent melody. ., That the final and csesural pauses coritribufe to r^elody, Gbnnot »be doubted by any person who reviews lut in- stances which we have already given of those pauses. To form lines of ihe first melody, the caesura mu^t be at th^ end of the second; or of the third foot, or in the midi^le of the third. 2d, With refepect to hitrriidny. Vewes composed of Iambics have indeed a fihe har- mony ; but as tlie stress of the voice, in repeating suchf verses, is always in the same places, that is, oh every second syllable, such a uniformity wodid disgust the e^r in a long auccessioii ; and therefore such changes were sought for, as might introduce the pleasure of variety, without preju- dice to melody ; or which might even contribute to its im provement. Of this nature was the introduction of the Trochee, to form the first foot of an heroic verse : as, Favoiirs to none, to all she smiles extends, O'ft she rejects, but never once offends. ■■ t:^ Each of these lineis biegins with a Trochee ; the riemain- \ag feet are in the Iambic mdvement. In the following line of the same movement, the fourth foot is a Trochee. . All thesb our notions vain, sees and derides. -j „ The ntxt'charige rtdhiitt^d f6t the sake of vai^ety^ trith- Cttt prejudlde t<> melbdy, is the iutenuiAture uf Fyffuiu» cation Choice LS serv^ nt. ersifica- es com- onsider- [ough in cs have r^elody, me in- es. To : thh end e of the ihe bar- ing sucit second n a long gfat for, lit preju- o its im of the as, remain- >llowitig chee. *f , tvith- *yffiiic» : Versification.) PRosoDr. 253 and Spondees ; in which, two impressions in the one foot make up for the want of one in the other ; and two long syllables compensate two short ones, so as to make the tum of the quantity of the two feet, equal to two Iambics. On thS green bank to look tntd the clear , Smdoth lake that to me seem'd another sky. ' Stood rQl'd stood vast tnflnitiide cdnfin'd. The next variety admitted is that of the Amphibrach. \ Which many & bard hSd chaunted man;^ a day. In this line, we find that two of the feet are Amphibrachi ; an ' similarity [es. Sngdores. tportioned 17 be the it with the troduction 3ii-pausea. ' compari- the parts ampter beauty in xtent) ression. they na- e, which le mind ; mbic, or ording to To imi- vnrrla in tamake Versification.) prosody. 2B6 the mOTement correspond to the sentiment, by the proper use of the several kinds of feet : and this is the first and most general source of expression in numbers. That a judicious management of the feet and pauses, may be peculiarly expressive of particular operations and sentiments, will sufficiently appear to the learner, by a few neleot examples under each of those heads. In the following instance, the vast dimensions of Satan are shown by an uncommon succession of long syllables, Which detain us to survey the huge arch fiend, in his fixed posture. ~_ S5 strStchM out hQge in length the arch fiend I&y. The next example affords instances of the power of a Trochee beginning a line, when succeeded by an Iambus. and sheer within LTghts 5n his feet : as when a prowfing wolf Leaps o'er thS fence with ease into th£ fQlA. The trochee which begins the line shows Satan in the act of lighting : the Iambus that follows, fixes him — ** LT^ta 6n his feet" The same artifice, in the beginning of the next line, makes ns see the wolf—" leap o'er the f6nce." — ^But as the mere act of leaping over the fence, is not the only circumstanoa to be attended to, but also the facility with which it is 'lone, this is strongly marked, not only by the smooth foot which follows — ^" with ease" — ^itself very expressive, but like> 'i^e by a Pyrrhic preceding the last foot — ^" int& thS fJMd"— which indeed carries the wolf—" with Sase into thS f^Id.** The following instances show ihe effects produced by Cffisuras, so placed as to divide the line into very unequal portions : such as that after the first, and before the last lemipede. • ^thus with the year Seasons return, but not to me returns Day" or the sweet approach of evea or monu- . 256 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ( V ei'sification Here the ceesura after the first eemipede Dtiy, stops us unexpectedly, and forcibly impresses the ima^ation^with the greatness of the author's loss, the loss of sight. No sooner had th' Aimighty ceas'd, but all ,,, (/ -r: The multitude of angels, with a shout Loud'' as from numbers without number" sweet As from blest voices uttering joy.— ■ There is something very striking in this uncommon caesura, whidh suddenly stops the reader, to reflect on the importance of a particular word. We shall close the subject. With an example containing the united powers of many of the principles which have been explained. Dire was the tossing" deep the groans" Despair" ' Tended the sick" busiest from couch to couch" And ovSr them triumphant death" his dart" Shook" biit delay'd to strike. Many of the rules and observations respecting Prosody, are taken from " Sheridan's Art of Reading j" to wliic^ book the Compiler refers the ingenious student, for more extensive information on the subject. / • :-j *■ "■ I 1 ■ > • •• .■ 1 s ' : ( 23r ) .,.:'■ , •-> n "-•" •PUNCTUATION.*;-;;'' ;^*; , PuNCTUAtioN is the art of dividing a written compo- sition into sentences, or parts of sentences, by poi^its or stops, for the purpose of marking the different pauses which the sense, and an accurate pronunciation require. The Comma represents the shortest pause ; the Semi- colon, a pause double that of the comma ; the Colon, double that of the semicolon ; and the Period, double that of the colon. ; , . - The precise quantity or duratioti of eacTi pause, cannot be defined ; for it varies with the time of the whole. The same composition may be rehearsed in a quicker or a Islower time ; but the proportion beUveen the pauses should be ever invariable. In order more clearly to determine the proper applica- tion of the pointdj we must distinguish between an imper- fect phrase, a simple sentence, arid a compound sentence. An imperfect phrase contains no assertion, or does not amount to a proposition or sentence : as, " Therefore ; in haste ; studious of praise.'^ A simple sentence has but one subject, and one finits verb, expressed or implied : as, *• Temperance preserves health." A compound sentence has more than one subject, or one finite verb, either expressed or understood ; or it con- sists of two or more simple sentences connected together ; as, " Good nature mends and beautifies all objects ;" " Vir- tue refines the aficctions, but vice debases them." In a sentence, the subject and the verb, or either of them, may be accompanied with several adjuncts: as, the object, * As punctuation js intended to aid both ttie sense, anrl the pronunciation of a sentence, it could not have been exciusiveiy discussed uuder the part of Syntax, or of Prosody. The uattire of the subject, its extent and importance, knd the gram- matical knowledge irhich it presupposes, have induced us to vaaiit it a dietinet a&d subsequent arti):!*. 258 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (ComtMi. the end, the circumstance of time, place, manner, and the like : and the subject or verb may be cither immediately connected with them, or mediately ; that is, by being con- nected with something which is connected with some other, and so on : as, " The mind, unoccupied with useful know- ledge, becomes a magazine <^ trifles and follies." Members of sentences may be divided into simple and compound members. See page 137. CHAPTER t. ' , OF THE COMMA. The Comma usually separates those pans of a sen- tence, which, though very closely comiected in sense aud construction, require a pause between them. Rule 1. With respect to a simple sentence, the several words of wh!r*h it consists have so near a relation to each other, that, in general, no points are requisite, except a full stofi at the end of it : as, " The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom." " Every part of matter swarms with living cijeatures." A simple sentence, however, v/hen it is a long one, and the nominative case is accompanied with inseparable ad' jrncts, may admit of a pause immediately before the verb : as, " The good taste of the present age, has not allowed us to neglect the cultivation of the English language :" " To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real defect in charactsr " Rule 2 When the connexion of the diCerent parts of a simple sentence is interrupted by an imperfect phrase, a comma is usually introduced before the beginning, and at the end of this phrase : as, " I remember, with grcUitudef his goodness to me :" " His work is, in many respects^ very imperfect. It is, therefore^ not much approved." But when these interruptions are slight and unimportant, the comma j3 better omitted ; as, " Flattery is certainly pernfcigus j** •' There is surtly a pleasure in beneficence." fConims. ', and the mediately >eing con- >me other, ;ful know- mple and of a sen- in sense he several Dn to each f except a Lord is the sarins with ; ODe, and arable ad< the verb : allowed us ige :" " To I defect in ; parts o( a phrase, a ing, and at gratitudef pectSf very But when le Comma rnlcigus f wOmma.) punctuation. 269 In the generality of compound sentences, there is fre<- qnent occasion for commas. This wlH appear from the fol- lowing rules ; some of which apply to simple, as well as to compound sentences. Rule hi. When two or more nouns oceur In the same construction, they are parted by a comma : as, " Reason, virtue, answer one great aim :" " The husband, wife, and children, suffered extremely*:" " They took away their furniture, clothes, and stock in trade :" " He is alternately supported by his father, his uncle, and his elder brother." From this rule there is mostly an exception, with regard to two nouns closely connected by a conjunction: as, '* Virtue and vice form a strong contrast to each other :'^ " Libertines call religion bigotry or superstition ;" " There is a natural difference between merit and demerit, virtue and vice, wisdom and folly." But if the parts conneci)ed> are not short, a comma may be inserted, thou^ the con*- jonction is expressed : as, " Romances may be said to be miserable rhapsodies, or dangerous incentives to evil ;'*' ** Intemperance destroys the strength of our bodies, and the vigour of our mmds." Rule iv. Two or more adjectives belonging to the same substantive are likewise separated by commas : as, "Plain, honest truth, wants no artificial covering ;" " David was a brave, wise, and pious man ;" " A woman, gentle, sensible, well-educated, and religious ;" " The most innocent plea- sures are the sweetest, the most rational, the most affecting^ and the most lasting." But two adjectives, immediately connected by a con- junction, are not separated by a comma : as, *' '^rvie worth is modest and retired ; " Truth is fair and arUess, simple and sincere, uniform and consistent" " We must be wise or foolish ; there is no medium." • As a eoDsidcrable piuie in pronunciation, is neeeamry between the Ittst noun tnd tlie verb, » conura should be inserted to denote it But m so nauM k aiiAwsbie between the iMt a4}ectlTC Md tbc novn, under Rule IV. the eonuae ia there pro- mrly OBittcA See WALKBR's BiMMft ^Slecvlin, / 260 ENGLISH GiiA.MMAP. (Comtua. Rule v. f^ o or mere verbs, having the same notnipa* tive case, and immediately following one another, are ali'.o separated by commas : as, '• Virtue supports in adverax/y, moderates in prosperity :" " In a letter, we mfty advise, «'*- hort, comfort, request, aad discuss." Two verbs immediately connected by a conjuii^rtion, are an exception to the above frule ; as, " Tiie study of natural history expands and elevates the mind f ' Whether we eat or drink, labour or sleep, we should be modtr'ite/' T\ro or more participles are sutyeut to a siniiiar tu1<^, and ex'-t^ption : m. '• A irian, fearing, serving, and loving his Creator ;'' " H . was Vui»y commas : as, " Wft are feai'fully, wonderfully framed ;" " Success generally de- pends on acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously, in what we undertake." But when two adverbs are joined by a conjunction, they are not parted by the comma : as, " Some meh sin delibe- rat ly and presumptuously ;" " There is no middlis state j we must live virtuously or vitiourly." Rule vn. When participles are followed by something tlia^. depends on them, they are generally separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma : as, " The king, ap- promng fJie plan, put it in execution ;" " His talent3,^mj€d[ Jor great enterprises, could not fail of rendering him conspi- cuous ;" " All mankind compose one family, assembled un- der the eye of one common Father." ^ ' ' Rule vin. "WTien a conjunction is divided by a p?v- ^^i; or sentence from the verb to which it belongs, such as. nr- vening phrase has usuii v a comma at each ex ^m? rived at tlie destined place." Rule ix. Expressions in a direct address, are «p»-' ^^d ^oiTima. notnina* ■, are alao ttdverHtf, dTise, <'X- i«tion, arp ol ns^turai hether we ,t i-.',fcvJ* • rulft, and Icviiig his jined, and i are often uccced'mg " We are eraliy de- [y, in what ition, they sin delihe- diie state ; something ated from king, ap- im conspi- mbkd un- uch ' •- us, «pi^'-' f od Comma.) punctuation. 261 from the rest of the sentence by coc^mas : as, " My sortf 0ve me thy heart f " I am obliged to you, my JriendBf for y GOT many favours." R^Tij.^ X. The case absolute, and the infinitive mood ab- r :«3ute , ? e ?tnarated by commas from the bpdy of the sen- tenet; : as, " Ilia father dying, he succeeded, to the estate ;'' " At length, their ministry performed, and race well run, they lef^ the world in peace j" " To confess the truth, I v/a:. much in fault." KuLE XI. Nouns in apposition, that is, nouns adde4 to other uouns in the same case, by way of explication or il- tustration, when accompanied with adjuncts, are set ofiT by commas : as, " Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, was emi- nent for his zeal and knowledge ;" *' The butterfly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun." But if such nouns are single, or only form a proper mune, they are not divided : as, " Paul the apostle ;" " The em- peror Antoninus wrote an excellent book."/ Rule xii. Simple members of sentences cpnnecte^ by comparatives, are for the most part distiqgiusbed by a com- ma.: as, " 4^ the hart panteth after the water brooj^s, so doth my soul pant after thee ;" " Better is a dinner of herbs with love, iJian a Etalled ox and hatred with it." If the members in comp^^rafive sentences are short, the comma is, in general, better omitted : as^ " How mucli better is it to get wisdom than gold !" " Mankind act oftetM from caprice than reason." Ru^E ^iii. When words are placed in opposition to : !LcI other, or with some marked variety they require to be dis- tinguished by a comni ! aa, "T!i »deep i t clear; tho' gen lie, yet not iduU; Strong, wi.iout rage; without o'erflowing, fill.** ** Good men, in this frail, imperfect state, are often found, not only i" union vjilk, but in opposition io, the views conduct of ODC another.'' Sometimes when the word with wL.ch the last prepow- tion agrees, is single, U i^^ better to omit the comma befort 262 ENGLISH ORAMMAR. (CoUima. it : a8| " Many states were in alliance withf and under the protection ^Rome.'* The same rule and restrictions must be applied when two or more nouns refer to the same preposition : as, " He was composed both under the threatening, and at the approach, qf a cruel and lingering death ;" **• He was not only the king, but the father of his people." Rule xiv. A remarkable expression, or a short observa- tion, soknewhat in the manner of a quotation, may be pro- perly marked with a comma : as, " It hurts a man's pride to say, I do not know ;" " Plutarch calls lying, the vice of glares." Rule xv. Relative pronouns are connective words, and generally admit a comma before them : as, " He preaches sublimely, mho lives a sober, I'ghteous, and pious life ;" '* There is no charm in the female sex, which can supply the place of virtue." But when two members, or phrases, are closely connected by a relative, restraining the general notion of the antece- dent to a particular sense, the comma should be omitted : as, ** Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must make ;" *' A man who is of a detracting spirit, will misconstrue the most innocent words that can be put together." In the latter example, the assertion is not of " a man in general," but of " a man who is of a detracting spirit ;" and therefore they should not be separated. The fifteenth rule applies equally to eases in which the relative is not expressed, but understood : as, " It was from piety, wa):m and unaffc cted, that his morals derived strength." " This sentiment, habitual and strong, influenced his whole conduct^ In both of these examples, the relative and verb which n(u, are understood. Rule xvi. A simple member of a sentence, contmned virithin another, or following another, must be distinguished l^y the comma : as, " To improve time whilst we are bless- ed with health, will smooth the bed of sickness." ** Very often, while we are complaining of the vanity, and t)ie 'omma. ader the vhen two ' He was ipproach, only the obsenra' y be pro- m's pride le Tice of orda, and preaches ms life ;" ain supply connected e antece- litted: as, ike;" "A i the most the latter eral," but efore they vhich the was from strength." his whole I and verb contained inguished are bless- » "Very and t|ie <^omma.) punctuatiok. 263 eTils of human life, we make that yanity, and we increase those evils." If, however, the members succeeding each other, are very closely connected, the comma is unnecessary: as, " Revelation tells us how we may attain happiness." When a verb in the infinitive mood, follows its governing verb, with several words between them, those words should generally have a comma at the end of them ; as, " It ill becomes good and wise men, to oppose and degnade one another." Several verbs in the infinitive mood, having a common dependence, and succeeding one another, are also divided by commas : as, ^' To relieve the indigent, to comfort the afflicted, to protect the innocent, to reward the deserving, are humane and noble employments." Rule xvii. When the verb to be is followed by a verb in the infinitive mood, which, by transposition, might be made the nominative case to it, the former is generally separated from the latter verb, by a comma : as, " The most obvious remedy is, to withdraw from all associations with bad men." " The first and most obvious remedy against the infection, is, to withdraw from all associations with bad men." Rule xviii. When adjuncts or circumstances are of im- portance, and often when the natural order of them is in- verted, they may be set off by commas : as, " Virtue must be formed and supported, not by unfrequent acts, but by daily and repeated exertions." " Vices, like shadows, to- wards the evening of life, grow great and monstrous.** " Our interests are interwoven by threads innumerable ;" " By threads innumerable, our interests are interwoven ** Rule xix. Where a verb is understood, a comma may often be properly introduc^'^. This is a general rule, which, besides comprising somv the preceding rules, will ap- ply to map~ cases not determined by aiiy of them : ai, " From law arises security ; from security, curiosity ; from curiosity, knowledge." Ir\ this example, the verb " arises** ^ 264 ENGLISH GRAMMAB. (Semicolon. ii understood before '* curiosity" and " knowledge ;" at which words a considerable pause is necessary. Rule XX. The W'--^' la . w, hencey a^airif Jirstf ae- condly, formerly, m ^ r , /«." '^. oncp. morej above ally on the contrary f in the ncxf placCf in shorty and all other words and phrases of the same kind, must generally be separated from the context by a comma : as, " Remember thy best and first friend • formerly, the aupport^r r^ '"■'v infancy, and the guide of thy childhood ; now, the guardian ot tiiiy youth, and th" hope of thy coming years." "He feared want, Iience, ae over-valued riches." " This conduct may heal the diffi' i'cnce, nay, it may constantly prevent any in future." " Finally, I shall only repeat what has been often justly Miid." " If the spring put forth no blossoms, in summer there will be no beauty, and in autumn, no fruit ; ao, if youth be triflod away without improvement, riper years may be contemptible, and old age miserable." In many of the foregoing rules and examples, great r . gard must be paid to the length of the clauses, and the pro- portion which they bear to one another. An attention to the sense of any passage, and to the clear, easy communi, cation of it, will, it is presumed, with the aid of the pre. ceding rules, enable the student to adjust the proper pauser and the places for nserling the cou'inas. CHAPTER 11. OF THE SEMICOLON. The Semicolon ' : used for divirling a con pound sen- tence into two or more parts, not so closely connected as those which are separated by i ^omma, nor yet iiso little dependent on each otV, as ihose which are dis tinguished by a colon. The semicolon is sometimes used, when the preceding; member of tJie sentence does not of itself give a complete tense, but depends on the following clause : and sometimes when the sense of that member would be complete without imicolon. edge ;" at , firsts St' aUy on thR v^ords and rated from r best and ancy, and liiy youth, ared want, may heal in future." ften justly in Bununcr ruit; «o, if riper years IS, great r. md the pro- ittention to r communi. of the pre. ►per pauser pound sen- connected nor yet so ch are dis ; preceding; a complete i sometimes ete without Colon.) puNCTnATioN. 265 (lie concluding one : as in the following instances : " As the desire of approbation, when it works according to reason, improves the aminbU; part of our species in every thing that is laudable; so nothing is more destructive to them wlicu it is governed by vanity and folly." " Experience teaches us, that an entire retreat from worldly afTnirs, is not what religion requires ; nor do^es it even enjoin u long retreat from them." " Straws Bwim upon the surface ; but pearls lie at the bottom." " Pliilosophcrs assert, that Nature is unlimited in her operations ; that rIic has inexhaustible treasures in reserve ; that knowloilge will always be progr« ^ive ; and that all future generations will continue to make discoveries, of which we have not t.ie least idea." > CHAPTER III. OF THE COLON. T.,. Colon is used to divide a sentence mto two or more p- s, less n uiected than those which are sepa- rated by a semicolon ; but not so independent as sepa- rate distill icntences. The Colon may ' ■ properly applied in the three follow- ing cases. 1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but followed by some supplemental remark, or further illus- tration of the subject : as, " Nature felt her inability to ex- tricate herself from the consequences of guilt : the gospel reveals the plan of Divine interposition and aid." " Nature confessed some atonement to be necessary : the gospel discovers that the necessary atonement is made." 2. When several semicolons have preceded, and a still greater pause is necessary, in order to mark the connecting or concluding sentiment : afi, " A divine legislator, uttering his voice from heaven ; a^^ alnjii^hfy si;ovcrj!or, stretcljing forth his arm to punish or reward ; informing u» of perpe- tual rest prepared hereafter ^'^v the righteous, aad of indig- M 266 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (Period. nation and wrath awaiting the wicked : these are the con- siderations which overawe the worid, which support inte- grity, and check guilt.** 3. The Colon is commonly used when an example, a quotation, or a speech is introduced : as, " The Scriptures give us an amiable representation of the Deity, in these words : ' God is love.' " " He was often heard to say : ' I have done with the world, and I am willing to leave it.' ** The propriety of using a colon, or semicolon, is some- times determined by a conjunction's being expressed, or not expressed : as, " Do not flatter yourselves with the hope of perfect happiness : there is no such thing in the world." " Do not flatter yourselves with the hope of per- fect happiness ; for there is no such thing in the world.'* CHAPTER IV. OF THE PERIOD. " When a sentence is complete and independent, and not connected in construction with the following sen- tence, it is marked with a Period. Some sentences are independent of each other, both in their sense and construction : as, " Fear God. Honour the king. Have charity towards all men." Others are inde- pendent only in their grammatical construction : as, " The Supreme Being changes not, either in his desire to promote our happiness, or in the plan of his administration. One light always shines upon us from above. One clear and direct path is always pointed out to man." A period may sometimes be admitted between two sen- tences, though they are joined by a disjunctive or copulative conjunction. For the quality of the point does not always depend on the connective particle, but on the sense and structure of sentences : as, " Recreations, though they may be of an innocent kind, require steady government, to keep i\ ■lom wit hi Jfh n due and limited 'province; But sii^'h AH are of an irr^^ular and vicious nature, are not to be governed, but to be^nished from every well-regulated miud.'*^ eriod. le con* rt lnt«- nple, a riptures n these to aay : ive it.' " B some' Bsed, or with the ng in the e of per- irorld.'* lent, and ving sen- ', both in lonour the are inde- las, " The promote Ion. One Iclear and 1 two Ben- copulative lot alwayi sense anil , they may at, to keep Lch as are governedi Snd." Interrogation.) punctuation. 267 " He who lifts himself up to the observation and notice of the world, is^ of all men, the least likely to avoid cen- sure. For he draws upon himself a thousand eyes, that will narrowly inspect him in every part." The period should be used afler every abbreviated word : as, '• M. 8. P. S. N. B. A. D. 0. S. N. 8." &c. CHAPTER v. Of the Dcuhf Notes of Interrogation and Exclamation^ &cc. THE DASH. The Dash, though often used improperly by hasty and incoherent writers, may be introduoed with propriety, where the sentence breaks off abruptly ; where a significant pause is required ; or where there is an unexpected turn in the sentiment : as, " If thou art he, so much respected once — but, oh ! how fallen \ how degraded !" " If acting con- formably to the will of our Creator; — If promoting the wel- fare of mankind around us ; — if securing our own happi- ness ; — are objects of the highest moment :— then we are loudly called upon, to cultivate and extend the great inte- rests of religion and virtue." " Here lies the great False marble, where 1 Nothing but sordid dust lies here." Besides the points which mark the pauses in discourse, there are others, which denote a different modulation of Toice, in correspondence to the sense. These are, The Interrogation point, ? The Exclamation point, ! The Parenthesis. ( ) ^ INTERROGATION. A note of interrogation is used at the end of an interro- gative sentence ; that is, when a question is asked : as, •*Who will accompany me?" "Shall we always be friends?'' Questions which a person asks himself in contemplation, ought to be terminated by points of interrogation: as, * Who adorned the heavens «vUh such exquisite beauty !" M2 26S ENGLISH GRAMMAB. (Exclamatioo. " At whose command do the planets perform their constant revolutions ?" A point of interrogation is improper after sentences which are not questions, but only expressions of admiration, or of some other emotion. " How many instances have we of chastity and excel- lence in the fair sex !" * " Witli what prudence does the son of Sirach advise u% in the choice of our companions !" A note of interrogation should not be empioyed, in cases where it is only said a question has been asked, and where the words are not used as a question. " The Cyprians asked me, why I wept." To give this sentence the interrogative form, it should be expressed thus : " The Cyprians said to me, * Why dost thou weep ?' " ^ EXCLAMATION. The 'note of Exclamation is applied to expressions of sudden emotion, surprise, joy, grief, &,c. and also to invoca- tions or addresses : as, " My friend ! this conduct amazes me !" *' Bless the Lord, O my soul ! and forget not all his benefits !" " Oh ! had we both our humble state maintain'd, And saf« in peace and poverty remain'd !" " Hear me, O Lord ! for thy loving kindness is great !" It is diflicult, in some cases, to distinguish between an in- terrogative and exclamatory sentence ; but a sentence, in which any wonder or admiration is expressed, and no answer cither expected or implied, may be always properly terminated by a note of exclamation : as, " How much vanity in the pursuits of men !" " Who can sufficiently ex- press the goodness of our Creator !" " What is more ami- able than virtue !" The interrogation and exclamation points are indetermi- nate as to their quantity or time, and may he equivalent in that respect to a semicolon, a colon, or a period, as the sense may require. They mark an elevation of the Vs c latiob. onstant i ivhich ion, or i excel- ise u6 ia Id cases (I where ns asked •rogative s suid to 3sioria of invoca- t amazea iot all his n'd, great !" eu an in- tence, Ux and no properly ■>w much ently ex- lore ami- uletenni- quivalent [1, as the Parenthesis.) pdnctuatiok. 269 The utility of the points of interrogation and exclama- tion, appears from the following examples, in which the ineaniug is signified and discrminated solely bir the ooints. " What condescension !" " What condescension ?" " How great was the sacrifice !** • " How great was the sacrifice 1" PARENTHESIS. A Parenthesis is a clause containing some necessary in- formation, or useful remark, introduced into the body of a sentence obliquely, and which may be omitted without injuring the grammatical construction : as, " Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) , Virtue alone is happiness below." " And was the ransom paid ? It was ; and paid (What can exalt his bounty more ?) for thee." " To gain a posthumous reputation, is to save four or five letters (for what is a name besides ?) from oblivion." '^ Know ye not, brethren, (for I speak to them that know the law,] how that the law hath dominion over a man as long as he liveth ?" If the incidental clause is short, or perfectly coincides with tlie rest of the sentence, it is not proper to use the pa- renthetical character^. The following instances are therefore improper uses of the parenthesis. " Speak you (who saw) his wonders in the deep." " Every planet (as the Creator has made notliing in vain) is most probably inhabited." " He found them asleep again; (for their eyes were heavy ;) neither knew they what to answer him." The parenthesis inarks a moderate depression of the voice, and may be accompanied with every point which the sense would require, if the parenthetical characters were omitted. It ought to terminate with the same kind of stop which the member has, that precedes it ; and to contain that stop within the parenthetical marks. We must, however, except cases of interrogation and exclamation ; as, " While they 270 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (ApOStrophc, &C. wish to please, (and why should they not wish it ?) they disdain dishonourable means." " It was represented by an analogy, (Oh, how inadequate !) which was borrowed from paganism." See the Octavo Orammarf on this subject. There are other characters, which are frequently made use of in composition, and which may be explained in this place, viz. An Apostrophe, marked thus ' is used to abbreviate or shorten a word : as, His for it is : tho* for though ; e'en for even ; judged {or judged. Its chief use is to show the geni- tive case of nouns : as, " A man's property ; a woman's ornament." A Caret, marked thus ^ is placed where some word hap- pens to be left out in writing, and which is inserted over the line. This mark is also called a circumflex, when placed over a particular vowel, to denote a long syllable : as, " Euphrates." A Hyphen, marked thus - is employed in connecting compounded words ; as, " Lap-dog, tea-pot, pre-existence, self-love, to-morrow, mother-in-law." It is also used when a word is divided, and the former part is written or printed at the end of one line, and the latter part at the beginning of another. In this case, it is placed at the end of the first line, not at the beginning of the second. The Acute Accent, marked thus ' : as, " Fancy.''* The Grave thus ' as, " Favour." In English, the Accentual marks are chiefly used in spell< iog-books and dictionaries, to mark the syllables which re- quire a particular stress of the voice in pronunciation. The stress is laid on long and short syllables indiscrimi- nately. In order to distinguish the one from the other, some writers of dictionaries have placed the grave on the former, and the acute on the latter, in this manner: " Minor, mineral, lively, lived, rival, river" The PUNCTUATION. 271 The proper mark to diatinguifih a long syllable, is this * : as, " R5sy :" and a short one this ": as, " Folly." This hist mark is called a breve. A Diaeresis, thus marked", consists of two points placed over one of the two vowels that would otherwise make a diphthong, and parts them into two syllables : as, " Creator, coSldjutor, aeria^i." A Section, marked thus ^, is the division of a discourse, or chapter, into less parts or portions. A Paragraph IF denotes the beginning of a new subject, or a sentence not connected with the foregoing. This cha- racter is chiefly used in the Old, and in the New Testa- ments. A Quotation " ". Two inverted commas are generally placed at the beginning of a phrase or a passage, which is quoted or transcribed from the speaker or author in his own words ; and two commas in their direct position, are placed at tlie conclusion : as, " The proper study of mankind is man." Crotchets or Brackets [ ] serve to enclose a word or sen- tence, which is to be explained in a note, or the explanation itself, or a word or a sentence which is intended to supply Bc .ne deficiency, or to rectify some mistake. An Index or Hand Qj^ points out a remarkable passage, or something that requires particular attention. A Brace > is used in poetry at the end of a triplet or tiiree lines, which have the same rhyme. Braces are also used to connect a number of words with one common term, and are introduced to prevent a repe- tition in writing or printing An Asterisk, or little star *, directs the reader to some note in the margin, or at the bottom of the page. Two or three asterisks generally denote the omission of some letters in a word, or of some bold or indelicate expression, or some defect in the manuscrlnt. 2r2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. An Ellipsis — is &1.80 used, when some letters in a word, or some words in a verse, are omitted : as, " The k — g," for " the king." An Obelisk, which is itlarked thus f , and Parallels thus Q, together with the letters of the Alphabet, and figures, are used as references to the margin, or bottom of the page. PARAGRAPHS. It may not be improper to insert, in this place, a few general directions respecting the division of a composition into paragraphs. Different subjects, unless they are very short, or very numerous in small compass, should be separated into para> graphs. When one subject is continued to a considerable length, the larger divisions of it should be put into paragraphs. And it will have a good effect to form the breaks, when it can properly be done, at sentiments of the most weight, or that call for peculiar attention. The facts, premises, and conclusions, of a subject, some- times naturally point out the separations into paragraphs : and each of these, wLen of great length, will again require subdivisions at their most distinctive parts. In cases which require a connected subject to be formed into several paragraphs, a suitable turn of expression, exhi- bitiiig the connexion of the broken parts, will give beauty and force to the division. See the Octavo Grammar. DIRECTIONS respecting the use of capital letters. It was formerly the custom to begin every noun with a capital : but as this practice was troublesome, and gave the writing or printing a crowded and confused appearance, it has been discontinued. It is, however, very proper to be* gin with a capital, 1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, not«^ or any other piece of writing. 2. The first word after a period: and. if the two Benteoces -a %t Irs. [with a ive the ice, it tobe- IlOt«^ IteflCea CAPITAL LETTERS. 273 are totally independerUt after a note of interrogation or ex- clamation. ' But if a number of interrogative or exclamatory sentea- ces, are thrown into one general group ; or if the construction of the latter sentences depends on the former, all of them, except the first, may begin with a small letter : as, " How long, ye simple ones, will ye love simplicity? and the scorners delight in their scorning ? and fools hate know- ledge ?*' " Alas ! how different ! yet how like the same !" 3. The appellation'^: of the Deity : as, " God, Jehovah, the Almighty, the Supreme Being, the Lord, Providence, the Messiah, the Holy Spirit." 4. Proper names of persons, places, streets, mountains, rivers, ships : as, " George, York, the Strand, the Alps, the Thames, the Seahorse." 5. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places j as, " Grecian, Roman, English, French, and Italian." 6. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon, or when it is w. a direct form : as, " Always remember this ancient maxim : * Know thyself.' " " Our great Lawgiver says, * Take up thy cross .daily, and follow me.' " But when a quotation is brought in obliquely after a comma, a capital is unnecessary : as, " Solomon observes, ' that pride goes before destruction.' " The first word of an example may also very properly begin with a capital : as, " Temptation proves our virtue." 7. Every substantive and principal word in the titles of books : as, " Johnson's Dictionary of the English Lan- guage ;" " Thomson's Seasons ;" " Rollin's Ancient His- tory." 8. The first word of every line in poetry. 9. The pronoun /, and the interjection 0, are written in capitals : as, " I write :" " Hear, O earth !'* Other words, besides the preceding, may begin with ca- pitals, when they are remarkably emphatical, or the prin- cipal subject of the compositioik M3 ( 274 ) APPENDIX. CONTAINING RULES AND OBSERVATIONS FOR ASSISTINO TOUNG PERSONS TO WRITE WITH PERSPICUITY AND ACCU- RACY. TO BE STUDIED AFTER THEY HAVE ACQUIRED A COMPETENT KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ^, PERSPICUITY IS fhe fundamental quality of style : a quality so essential iu every kind of writing, that for the want of it nothing can atone. It is not to be considered as merely a sort of nega- tive virtue, or freedom from defect. It has higher merit : it is a degree of positive beauty. We are pleased with an author, and consider him as deserving praise, who frees us from all fatigue of searching for his meaning ; who carries us through his subject without any embarrassment or con- fusion ; whose style flows always like a limpid stream, through which we see to the very bottom. The study of perspicuity and accuracy of expression con- sists of two parts : and requires attention, first, to Single Words and Phrases ; 'and then, to the Construction of Sen iences, PART I. Of Perspicuity and Accuracy of Expression, tdth respect to Single Words and Phrases. These qualities of style, considered with regard to words and phrases, require the following properties : purity, pro- priety, and PRECISION. CHAPTEJl f. ; ' OF PURITY. Purity of style consists in the use of such words, and such constructions, as belong to the idiom of the language which we speak ; in opposition to words and phrases that arc taken from other languages, or that are ungrammaticair 9ISTIMO ACCU- IRED A issential ling can of nega- r merit : with aik frees ut D carries t or con- atreani} sion con- [) Single I of Sen If miih to words TT, PRO- rds, and' anguage ises that imaticalr Propriety.) appendix. ' 275 obsolete, new-coined, or used without proper authority. All such words and phrases as tlie following, should be avoided : Quoth lie ; I mst not ; \zrewhile ; behest ; selfsame , deiicatessey for delicacy ; politesse, for politeness ; hauteur^ for haughtiness ; incumbermentf connexilt/f marlyrisedf for encumbrance, connexion, martyred. Foreign and learned words, unless where necessity re- quires them, should never be admitted into our composition. Barren languages may need such assistance, but ours is not one of these. A multitude of Latin words, in particular, have, of late, been poured in upon our language. On some occasions, they give an appearance of elevation and dignity to style ; but they often render it stiff and apparently forced. In general, a plain, native style, is more intelligible to all readers ; and, by a proper management of words, it can be made as strong and expressive as this Latinised English, or tny foreign idioms. chapter 11. OP PROPRIETY. 1 Propriett of language is the selection of such words as the best usage has appropriated to those ideas, which we intend to express by them ; in opposition to low expressions, and to words and phrases which would be less significant of the ideas that we mean to convey. Style may be pure, that is, it may be strictly English, without Scotticisms or Gal- licisms, or ungrammatical, irregular expressions of any kind, and may, nevertheless, be deficient in propriety : for the words may be ill chosen, not adapted to the subject, nor fully expressive of the author*s sense. To preserve propriety, therefore, in our words and phrases, we must avoid loiu expressions ; sivpply words Dial are rvant- ing ; be careful not to use the same word in different senses ; avoid the injudicious use of technical phrases, equivocal or ambiguous words, uninidligibJe exirressions, and all sitth Tvords and phrmes as are not adapted to our meaning. 276 APPENDIX (Propriety. 1. Avoid low expressions : Buch as, " Topsy turvy, hurly burly, pellmell ; having a month's mind for a thing ; cur- rying favour with a person ; dancing attendance on the great," &c. " Meantime the Britons, left to shift for themselves, were forced to call in the Saxons for their defence." The phrase ** left to shift for themselves" is rather a low phrase, and too much in the familiar style to be proper in a grave treatise. 2. Supply words that are wanting. " Arbitrary power I look upon as a greater evil than anarchy itself, as much a* a savage is a happier state of life than a slave at the oar :" it should have been, " as much as the state of a savage is happier than that of a slave at the uar." " He has not treated this subject liberally, by the views of others as well as his own;" " By adverting to the views of others," would have been better. " This generous action greatly increased his former services ;" it should have been, " greatly increased the merit of his former services." " By the pleasures of the imagination or fancy (which I shall use promiscuously) I here mean," &.c. This passage ought to have had the word " terms" supplied, which would have made it correct : ** ^erww'Which I shall use promiscuously." It may be proper in this place to observe, that articles and prepositions are sometimes improperly omitted; as io the following instances : " How immense the difference be- tween the pious nnd profane !" " Death is the common lot <^f all ; of good men and bad." They should have had the article and preposition repeated : '* How immense the ^f- ferenee between the pious and the profane !" " Death h the common lot of all ; of good men and of bad." The repetition of articles and prepositions is proper, when we intend to point out the objects of which we speak, as distinguished from each other, or in contrast ; and when we wish that the reader's attention should rest on that dis- tinction : as, " Our sight is at once the most delightfaly and the most useful of all our senseSk" Propriety o) PERSPicuirr, &c. 277 3. hi the same sentence^ be careful not to tise the same word too Jrequently^ nor in different senses. " One may have tm air which proceeds from a ju!>^ sufficiency and know- ledge of the matter before him, ,Jlch may naturally pro- duce some motions of his head and body, which might be* come the bench better than the bar." The pronoun which is here thrice used, in such a manner as to tlirow obscurity over the sentence. " Gregory favoured the undertaking, for no other reason than this, that the manager, in countenance, favoured his friend." It should have been, " resen^tled his friend." " Charity expands our hearts in love to God and man : it is by the virtue of charity that the rich are blessed, and the poor supplied. In this sentence, the word " charity'^ is improperly used in two different senses ; for the higheit benevolence, and for almsgiving. 4. Avoid the injudicious use of technical terms. To in- form those who do not understand sea-phrases, that " We tacked to the larboard, and stood off to sea," would be ex- pressing ourselves very obscurely. Technical phrases not being in current use, but only the peculiar dialect of a particular class, we should never use them but w'.ea w* know they will be understood. 5. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous words. The fo!Iowing sentences are exceptionable in this respect. " As for such animals as are mortal or noxious, we have a right to destroy them." " I long since learned to like nothing brt what you Ab." " He aimed at nothing less than the crown/^ may denote e»i'*i«^r, " Nothing was less aimed at by him than the crown " c " Nothing inferior to the crown could satisfy his ambition." ' will have mercy f and not sacrifice." The (irst part of this se^..ence denotes, " I will exbidse mercy ;" whereas it is in this place employed to signify, *' I require others to exercise it." The translation should therefore have been accommodated to these different meao- iogs. " They were both much more anciert . '''>jig tb» 273 APPENDIX. (Piopriety Pereiant, than Zoroaster nr Zerduaht." The or in thii sentence is equivocal, it eerves either as a copulative to synonymous words, or as a disjunctive of different < . a. If, therefor , the studnt should not know that Zoroaster and Zerdusht mean the same person, he will mistake the sense. " The rising tomb a lofty column bore :" " And thus the son the fervept sire addrest." Did the tomb bear the column, or the column the tomb ? Did the son address the sire, or the sire the son ? 6. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent words or phrases. " I have observedi?' says Steele, " that the S"iperiority among these coffeehouse politicians, proceeds from an opinion of gallantry and fashion." This sentence, i,on- sidered in itself, evidently conveys no meaning. First, it is not said whose opinion, their own, or that of others : Secondly, it is not said what opinion, or of what sort, fa- vourable or unfavourable, true or false, hut in general, " an opinion of gallantry and fashion," which contains no de- finite expressioii of any meaning. With the joint assistance of the contex*, .'si^eviion, and conjecture, we shall perhaps conclude that the nutbor intended to say ; " That the rank among these polincians was determined by the opinion generally entertained of the rank, in point of gallantry and feshion, that each of them had attained." ** This temper of mind," says an author, speaking of hu- mility, " keeps our understanding tight about us." Whe- ther the author had any meaning in this expression, or what it was, is not easy to determine. Sometimes a writer ruhs on in a specious verbosity, amusing his reader with synonymous terms and \dentical propositions, well-turned periods, and high sounding words ;. but at the same time, using those words so indefinitely, that the reader can either affix no meaning at all to them, or may affix to them almost any meaning he pleases. " If it is asked," says a late writer, " whence arises the har- mony, or beauty of language? what are the nilesfor obtainibs opriety in thit iiative to \it.r .a. loroaster itake the " « And imb bear 1 addreai ' phrases. iperiority from an ice, con- First, it t others : t sort, fa- leral, " an IS no de- tissistance 1 perhaps the rank opinion mtry and »» ing of hu- Whe- , or what erbositj, 'identical ig words;, tely, that them, or • •sthehar' obtainibs FiOpnety.) perspicuity, &ic. 279^ U? the answer IB obvious. Whatever renders a period sweet and pleasant, makes it also graceful. A good ear is the gift of nature ; it may be much improved, but not acquired by •rt. Whoever is possessed of it, will scarcely need dry cri- Ucui precepts to enable him to judge Oi a true rhy thmus, and melody of composition. Just numbers, Hccurf*^ propor- tions, a musical symphony, magnificent figure ., that decorum which is the result of all these, are mi' u Oie human mind." The following is a poetical example of the sum :re, in which there is scarcely a glimpse of meaning, though it was composed by an eminent poet. From harmony, from heavenly harmony, This universal frame began : , From harmony to harmony Thro* all the compass of the notes it ran, The diapason closing full in man. In general, it may be said, that in writings of this stai^p^ we must accept of sound instead of sense ; being assured,, that if we meet with little that can inform the judgment, we shall at least find nothing that will offend the ear. And perhaps this is one reason that we pass over such smooths language, without suspecting that it contains little or no meaning. In order to write or speak clearly and intelligi- bly, two things are especially requisite : one, that we have clear and distinct ideas of our subject : and the other, that our words be approved signs of those ideas. That persons who think confusedly, should express themselves obscurely^, is not to be wondered at ; for embarrassed, obscure, and feeble sentences, are generally, if not always, the result of ^ embarrassed, obscure, and feeble thought ; but that persons of judgment, who are accustomed to scrutinize, their ideas, and the signification of their words, should sometimes write without any meaning, is, at first sight, matter of admiration^ This, however, when further considered, appears to be aB, effect derived from the same cause, indistinctness of con- eenUoD, and inattention to the exact impost of words. Tb» ' ^.'^> <^ /A V Photographic Sciences Corporation ^^u 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MS80 (716) 873-4503 i80 APPENDIX. (Propriety. occasions on which we are most apt to speak and write in this unintelligible manner, are the tljee following. The first is, where there is an exuberance of metaphor. Writers who are fond of the metaphoric style, are generally disposed to continue it too long, and to pursue it too far. They are often misled by a desire of flourishing on the several properties of a metaphor which they have ushered into the discourse, without taking the trouble to examine whether there are any qualities in the subject, to which tliese properties can, with justice and perspicuity, be appli- ^. The following instance of this sort of writing is from an author of considerable eminence. " Men must acquire a very peculiar and strong habit of turning their view inward, in order to explore the interior regions and recesses of 4he mind, tlie hollow caverns of deep thought, the private seats of fancy, and the wastes and wildernesses, as well as the more fruitful and cultivated tracts of this obscure climate." A most wonderful way of telling us, that it is difficult to trace Uie operations of the mind. The author having determined to represent the human mind under the metaphor of a country, revolved in his thoughts the various objects which might be found in a country, witliout considering whether there are any things in the mind properly analogous to these. Hence the strange parade he makes with rsgiofu and recesses f hollow caverns and private seatSf wastes and •* nildemesses, Jruitfvl and adtivated tracts ; words which, though they have a precise meaning, as applied to country, have no definite signification, as applied to mind. The second occasion of our being apt to write unintelligi- bly, is that wherein the terms most frequently occurring, de- note things which are of a complicated nature, and to which the mind is not sufficiently familiarised. Of these the in- stances are numberless in every tongue ; such as Govern- ment, church, state, constitution, power, legislature, juria- dieiion, &lc. The Oixrd and principal occasion of umntelligible writings ia, frfien (he terms employed are very abstract, and woa^ Propnety.) perspicuity, &ic. 291 qucntly of very extensive signification. TJius tlie word iion is more distinctly apprehended by the mind than th« word becLst, beast than animal^ animal than being, if - The 7th amd last rule for preserving propriety in our words and phrases, is, to avoid all those ' nch are not adapted to the ideas rve mean to communicate ; or which are leh sifpii- ficant than others^ of those ideas, " He feels any sorrow- that can arrive at man ;" better " happen to man." " The conscience of approving one's self a benefactor, is the best recompense for being so ;" it should have bee*. " consci- misness." "He firmly believed tlie divine precept^ • There is not a sparrow falls to the ground,"* &cc. It should have been " doctrine." " It is but opening the eye, ^nd the scene enters." A scene cannot be said to enter : an actor enters ; but a scene appears or presents itself. " "We immediately assent to the beauty of an objjict, without inquiring into the causes of it :" it is proper to say, tliat we assent to the truth of a proposition ; but it cannot BO well be said, that w^ absent to the beauty of an object, dcknowledgewouldhaye expressed the sense with propriety. " The sense of feeling, can, indeed, give us a notion of extension, shape, and all other ideas that enter at the eye, except colours." Extension and shape can, with no pro- priety, be called ideas; they are properties of matter. Neither is it accurate, to speak of any sense giving us a notion of ideas : our senses give us the ideas themselves. The meaning of the sentence would have been proper, and much clearer, if the author had expressed himself tlius : " The sense of feeling can, indeed, give us the idea of ex- tension, figure, and all the other properties of matter, which are perceived by the eye, except colours." ,;^ " The covetous man never has a sufficiency ; although he has what is enough for nature," is much inferior to, ** The covetous man never has enough ; although he has what is sufficient for nature." ** A traveller observes the most striking objects he sees ; a 282 APPENDIX. ^Precision general remarks all the motions of his enemy ;" better thus; ** A traveHcr remarks^* &«;. ; " A general observes" &,c. " l^his measure enlai^ed his school, and obliged him to increase the buildings ;" it should be, " increased his school ;" and " enlarge the buildings." " He applied a medicine before the poison had time to work ;" better thus : " He applied an antidote" &c. " The poison of a suspicious temper frequently throws out its bad qualities, on all who are witliin its reach ;" better, " tlirowf: out its malignant qualities." v ** I will go except 1 should be ill ;" " I saw them all un- less two or three :" corrected thus : " unless I should be ill ;" " except two or three." A selection of words and phrases, which are peculiarly expressive of the ideas we design to communicate ; or which are as particular and determinate in their signification, as is consistent with tlie nature and the scope of the discourse ; possesses great beauty, and cannot fail to produce a good 'Effect. CHAPTER III. OF PRECISION. Precision is the;third requisite of perspicuity with respect to words and phrases. It signifies retrenching superfluities, and pruning the expression, so as to exhibit neitlier more nor less than an exact copy of the person's idea who uses it. The words used to express ideas may be faulty in three respects. 1st, They may not express the idea which the author intends, but some other which only resembles it ; secondly. They may express that idea, but not fully and completely ; thirdly. They may express it, together with something more than is intended. Precision stands opposed to these three faults, but chiefly to the last. Propriety im- plies a freedom from the two former faults. The words which are used may be proper ; that is, they may express the idea intended, and they may express it fully ; but to be predsCf signifies that tliey express that idea and no more* Precision.) perspicuity ,&cc. 285 The use and importance of precision maj be deduced from the nature of the human mind. It never can view, clearlj and distinctly, more than one object at a time. If it must look at two or three together, especially objects that have resemblance or connexion, it finds itself confused and embarrassed. It cannot clearly perceive in what they agree, and in what they differ. Thus, were any object, sup pose some animal, to be presented to my view, of whose structure I wished to form a distinct notion, I should desire all its trappings to be taken off ; I should require it to be brought before me by itself, and to stand alone, that there might be nothing to divide my attention. The same is the case with words. If, when any one would inform me of his meaning, he also tells me more than what conveys it ; if he joins foreign circumstances to the principal objects ; if, by unneceesarily varying the expression, he shifts the point of view, and makes me see sometimes the object itself, and sometimes another tiling that is conne Tted with it, he there- by obliges me to look on several objects, at once, and I lose sight of the principal. He loads the animal he is showing^ me, with so many trappings and collars, that I cannot dis- tinctly view it ; or he brings so many of the same species before me, somewhat resembling, and yet somewhat differ- ing, that I see none of them clearly. When an author tells me of his hero's courage in the day of battle, the expression is precise, and I understand it fully : but if, from the desire of multiplying words, he should praise his courage and for- titude ; at the moment he joins these words together, my idea begins to waver. He means to express one quality more strongly, but he is in truth expressing two : courage resists danger ; fortitude supports pain. The occasion of exerting each of these qualities is different ; and being led to think of both together, when only one of them should be considered, my view is rendered unsteady, and my con- ception of the object indistinct. All subjects do not equally require precision. It is suffi- tient, on many occasions, that we havs a general view of 2S4 APPENDIX. (Precision. the meaning. The subject, perhaps, is of the kno>vn and familiar kind, and we are in no hazard of mistaking the sense of the author, though every word which he uses is not precise and exact. Many authors offend against this rule of precision, A considerable one, in describing a bad action, expresses himself thus : " It is to remove a good and orderly affec- tion, and to introduce an ill or disorderly one ; to commit an action that is ill, ipimoral, and unjust ; to do ill, or to act in prejudice of integrity, good nature, and worth." A crowd of unmeaning or useless words is brought toge- Uier by some authors, who, afraid of expressing themselves in a common and ordinary manner, and allured by an ap- pearance of splendour, surround every thing which they mean to say with a certain copious loquacity. The great source of a loose style in opposition to preci- sion, is the injudicious use of the words termed synonymous. They are called synonymous, because they agree in express- ing one principal idea ; but, for tlie most part, if not always, tlioy express it with some diversity in the circumstances. The following instances show a difTerence in the meaning of words reputed synonymous, and point out the use of at- tendingjwith care and strictness, to the exact import of words. Custom^ habit. — Custom, respects the action ; habit, the actor. By custom, we mean the frequent repetition of the same act ; by habit, the effect which that repetition pro- duces on the mind or body. By the custom of walking often in the streets, one acquires a habit of idleness. Pride, vanity. — Pride makes us esteem ourselves ; vanity, makes us desire the esteem of others. It is just to say, that a man is too proud to be vain. Haughtiness, disdain. — Haughtiness is founded on the high opinion we entertain of ourselves ; disdain, on the low opinion we have of others. Only, alone. — Only, imports that there is no other of the «ame kind ; alone, imports being accompanied by no other An only child, is one that has neither brother nor sister ; ; mat l*recision.) perspicuity, &c. 285 child alone, is one who is left by itself. There is a differ- ence, therefore, in precise language, between these two phrases : " Virtue only makes us happy ;" and '< Virtue alone makes us happy." ' Wisdom, prudence. — ^Wisdom leads us to speak and act what is most proper Prudence, prevents our speaking or licting improperly. Entire, complete. — ^A thing is entire, by wanting none of its parts : complete, by wanting none of the appendages that belong to it. A man may have an entire house to himself, ftnd yet not have one complete apartment. Surprised, astonished, amazed, confounded. — ^I am sur- prised with what is new or unexpected ; I am astonished at what is vast or great ; I an jitnazed at what is incompre- hensible ; I am confounded by what is shocking or terrible. Tranquillity, peace, calm. — ^Tranquillity, respects a situa- tion free from trouble, considered in itself ; peace, the same situation with respect to iany causes that might interrupt it ; calm, with regard to a disturbed situation going before or following it. A good man enjoys tranquillity, in hims<»lf ; peace, with others ; and calm, after the storm. ; These are some of the numerous instances of words. In our language, whose significations approach, but are not precisely the same. The more the distinction in the mean- ing of such words is attended to, the more clearly and forcibly shall we speak or write. It may not, on all occa- siond, be necessary to pay a great deal of attention to very nicie distinctions ; yet the foregoing instances show the utility of some general care to understand the .distinct im* port of our words. While we are attending to precision, we must be on our ^uard, lest, from the desire of pruning too closely, we re- trench all copiousness. Scarcely in any language are there two words that convey precisely the same idea ; a person thoroughly conversant in the propriety of the language, will always be able to observe something that distinguishes them. As they are like different shades of tbe same colour, S86 APPENDIX. (Precision, an accurate writer can employ thera to great advantage, by uskig thorn 80 as to heighten and complete the object which he presents to us. He supplies by one what was wanting in the other, to the strength, or to the finishing, of the image which he means to exhibit. But, for this purpose, he must bf} attentive to the choice of his words, and not employ them carelessly, merely for the sake of filling up a period, or of rounding or diversifying his language, as if their signi- fication were exactly the same, while in truth it is not To unite copiousness and precision, to be full and easy, and at the same time correct and exact in the choice of every word, is no doubt one of the highest and most difficult attainments in writing. PART II. or PERSPICUITY AND ACCURACY OF EXPRESSION, WITH RB 8PECT TO THE CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. Sentences, in general, should neither be very long, nor very short : long ones require close attention to make us clearly perceive the connexion of the several parts ; and short ones are apt to break the sense, and weaken the con- nexion of thought. Yet occasionally they may both be used with force and propriety ; as may be seen in the fol- lowing sentences. " If you look about you, and consider the lives of others as well as your own ; if you think how few are born with honour, and how many die without name or children ; how little beauty we see, and how few friends we hear of ; bow much poverty, and how many diseases there are in the world ; you will fall down upon your knees, and instead of repining at one affliction, will admire so many blessings which you have received from tiie Divine hand." This is a sentence composed of several members linked together, and hanging upon one anotiier, so that the sense of the whole is not brought out till the close. The following is an exam- pie of one in which the sense is formed into short, indepen- dent propositions, each complete within itself. " I confess, it was want of consideration that made me an author. I Clc wrc as Iw4 Clearness.) perspicuity, Sic. 287 wrote because it amused me. I corrected, because it was as pleasant to me to correct as to write. I published, because I was told I might please such as it was a credit to please." A trun of sentences, constructed in the same manner, and with the same number of members, should never be allowed to succeed one another. A long succession of either long or short sentences should also be avoided ; for the ear tires of either of them when too long continued. Whereas, by a proper mixture of long and short periods, and of periods variously constructed, not only the ear is gratified ; but animation and force are given to our style. We now proceed to consider the things most essential to an accurate and a perfect sentence. They appear to be the four following : 1. clearness. 2. unitt. 3. strength. 4. A JUDICIOUS USE OF THE FIGURES OF SPEECH. CHAPTER I. or THE CLEARNESS OF A SENTENCE. ' Purity, propriety, and precision, in words and phrases separately considered, have already been explained, and shown to be necessary to perspicuous and accurate wri- ting. The just relation of sentences, and the parts of sen- tences, to one another, and the due arrangement of the whole, are the subjects which remain to be discussed. The first requisite of a perfect sentence is Clearness. Whatever leaves the mind in any sort of suspense as to the meaning, ought to be avoided. Obscurity arises from two causes ; either from a wrong choice of words, or a virrpng arrangement of them. The choice of words and phrases, as far as regards perspicuity, has been already considered. The disposition of them comes now under consideration. The first thing to be studied here, is grammatical pro- priety. But as the grammar of our language is compara- tively not extensive, there maybe an obscure order of words, where there is no transgression of any grammatical rule. The relations of words, or members of a period, are, with iiB| ascertained only by the position in which they stand. L.. S68 APPENDIX. (Clearness. ■ Hence a capital rule in the arrangement of sentences is, that the words or membens, most clearly related, should be placed in the sentence as near to each other as possible, so aa to make their mutual relation clearly appear. It will be proper to produce some instances, in order to show the im- portance of this rule. 1 . In the position of adverbs. " The Romans understood liberty, at leasts as well as we." These words are capable of two different senses, according as the emphasis, in read- ing them, is laid upon liberty^ or upon at least. The wordi should have been thus arranged : " The Romans under* stood liberty as well, at least, as we." " Theism can only be opposed to polytheism, or athe- ism." Is it meant that theism is capable of nothing else besides being opposed to polytheism, or atheism ? This is what the words literally import, through the wrong placing of the adverb only. It should have been, " Tlieism can be ppposed only to polytheism or atheism." " By the pleasures of the imagination, I mean only such pleasures as arise originally fVom sight." When it is said, " / mean only such pleasures,'* it may be remarked, that the adverb only is not properly placed. It is not intended here to qualify the word mean, but such'pleasures ; and therefore should have been placed in as close connexion as possible with the word which it limits or qualifies. The style be- comes more clear and neat, when the words are arranged thus : " By the pleasures of the imagination, I mean such pleasures only as arise from sight." In the following sentence, the word more is not in its proper place. " There is not perhaps, any real beauty or deformity more in one piece of matter than another". The phrase ought to have stood thus : " Beauty or deformity in one piece of matter more than in another." 2. In the position of circumstances, and of particular members. An author, in his dissertation on parties, thus expresses in its ^uty or The lityin iicular iresseB ,'lcarncss.) pf.rspicuitv, kc. , 28.') imself : " Arc (hose ' &c. id vicis- ly, some ir as, in mortal Is work» |willt)C- jetween ^een the a man* len the Iroduced, mt and jncum- faulty : Intofhii empire Better empire Clearness.) perspicuity, &c. 291 This appears to be a proper place to observe, that when (liflerent things have an obvious relation to each other, in respect to the order of nature or time, that order should be regarded, in assigning them their places in the sentence ; unless the scope of the passages require it to be varied. Tlie conclusion of the following lines is intaccurate in this respect : " But still there will be such a mixture of delight, as is proportioned to the degree in which any one of these qualifications is most conspicuous and prevailing." The order in which the two last words are placed, should have been reversed, and made to stand, prevailing and conspicu- ous. — They are conspicuous, because they prevail. The following sentence is a beautiful example of strict conformity to this rule. " Our sight fills the mind with the largest variety of ideas, converses with its objects at the greatest distance, and continues the longest in action, with- out being tired or satiated with its proper enjoyments." This passage follows the order of nature. First, we have the variety of objects mentioned, which sight furnishes to the mind ; next, we have the action of sight on those ob- jects ; and lastly, we have the time and continuance of its action. No order could be more natural or exact The order which we now recommend, is, in single words especially, frequently violated, for the sake of better sound ; but, perhaps in no instances, without a deviation from the line of strict propriety. S. In the disposition of the rela^ve pronouns, who, which, what, whose, and of all those particles which express the connexion of the parts of speech with one another. A small error in the position of these words may ctouu the meaning df the whole sentence ; and even where the meaning is intelligible, we always find something awkward and disjointed in the structure of the sentence, when these relatives are out of their proper pla^e. " This kind of wit," says an authot, ** was very much in vogue among our eoyntrymen, about an age or two ago ; who did not practise It for any oblique reason, but purely for the sake of being 112 292 APPENDIX. (Clearness, witty." We are at no loss about the meaning here ; but the construction would evidently be mended by disposing the circumstance, " about an age or two ago," in such a man- ner as not to separate the relative nho from its antecedent our countrymen ; in this way : " About an age or two ago, this kind of wit was very much in vogue among our coun- trymen, who did not practise it," &c. The following passage is still more censurable. " It is folly to pretend to arm ourselves against the accidents of life, by heaping up treasures, which nothing can protect us against, but the good providence of our Creator." Whirh always refers grammatically to the substantive immediately preceding ; and that, in the instance just mentioned, is " treasures." The sentence ought to have stood thus : " It is folly to pretend, by heaping up treasures, to arm our' selves against the accidents of life, which nothing can pro- tect us against," &cc. With regard to relatives, it may be farther observed, that obscurity often arises from the too frequent repetition of them, particularly of the pronouns who and they, and them and theirs^ when we have occasion to refer to different per- sons ; as in the following sentence of Tillotson. " Men look with an evil eye upon the good that is in others, and think that their reputation obscures theirif and their com- mendable qualities stand in their light ; and therefore they do what they can to cast a cloud over them^ that the bright shining of their virtues may not obscure them." This is altogether careless writing. When we find these personal pronouns crowding too fast upon us, we have often no me- thod left, but to throw the whole sentence into some other form, which may avoid those frequent references to per- sons who have before been mentioned. To have the relation of every word and member of a sentence marked in the most proper and distinct manner, not only gives clearnesb- to it, but makes the mind pass smoothly and agreeably along all the parts of it. — See the Appendix to the Exercises. jamess. but the sing the I a man- ecedent two ago, ur coun- « It is idents of rotect us Which lediately ioned, is [lus: "It arm our- can pro- rved, that letition of and them erent per- « Men hers, and heir com- fore they the bright This is personal n no me- )me other Bsto per- aberof a t manner, [nind pass .—See tht Unity.) PERSPICUITY, &c. CHAPTER n. OF THE UNITY OF A 8BNTBNCF. 293 The second requisite of a perfect sentence, is its Unity. In every composition, there is always some cohnecting principle among the parts. Some one object must reign and be predominant. But most of all, in a single sentence, is required the btrictest unity. For the very nature of a sentence implies that one proposition is expressed. It may consist of parts, indeed, but these parts must be so closely bound together, as to make the impression upon the m'md of one object, not of many. To preserve iliis unity of a sentence, the following rules must be observed. In the Jirst place, During the course of the sentence, the scene should be changed as little as possible. We should not be hurried by sudden transitions from person to person, nor from subject to subject. There is commonly, in every sen- tence, some person or thing which is the governing word. This should be continued so, if possible, from the begiii- ning to the end of it. The following sentence varies from this rule : " After we came to anchor, they put me on shore, where I was wel- comed by all my friends, who received me with the greatest kindness." In this sentence, though the objects contained in it have a sufficient connexion with each other, yet, by this manner of representing them, by shifting so often both the place and the person, me and they, and / and who, thef/ appear in so disunited a view, that the sense of connexion is much impaired. The sentence is restored to its proper unity, by turning it after the following manner. " Having come to an anchor, I was put on shore, where I was wel- comed by all my friends, and received with the greatest kindness." Here follows another instance of departure from the rule. " The sultan being dangerously wounded, they carried him to his tent ; anu, upon hearing of the defeat of his troops, they [lut him into a litter, which transported him to a place Ilk i 294 APPENDIX* '• (Unity. of safety, at the ^stance of about fifteen leagues." Better thus : " The sultan bemg dangerously wounded, was car- ried to his tent ; and, on hearing of the defeat of his troops, was put into a litter, and transported to a place of safety about fifteen leagues distant." A second rule under the head of unity, is, Never to crowd into one sentence, things nhirh have so little connexioUf that they could bear to be divided into two or three sentences. The violation of this rule tends so much to perplex and obscure, that it is safer to err by too many short sentences, than by one that is overloaded and embarrassed. Ex- amples abound in authors. " Archbishop Tillotson," says an author, " died in this year. He was exceedingly beloved by king William and queen Mary, who nominated Dr. Ten- nison, bishop of Uncoln, to succeed him." Who would expect the latter part of this sentence to follow in conse- quence of the former ? " He was exceedingly beloved by both king and queen," is the proposition of the sentence. We look for some proof of this, ot at least something re- lated to it to follow ; when we are on a sudden carried off to a new propodtion. The following sentence is still worse. The author, speak- ing of the Greeks under Alexander, says : " Their march was through an uncultivated country, whose savage inhabit- ants fared hardly, having no other riches than a breed of lean sheep, whose flesh was rank and unsavoury, by reason of their continual feeding upon sea-fish." Here the scene is changed upor us again and again. The march of the Greeks, the description of the inhabitants through whose country they travelled, the account of their sheep, and the cause of their sheep being ill-tasted food, form a jumble ot objects, slightly related to each other, which the reader can- not, without much difficulty, comprehend under one view. These examples have been taken from sentences of n«;t great length, yet very crowded. Writers who deal in long sentences, are very apt to be faulty in this article. Take for an instance, the foUowitag from Temple. " The usual tt^ ipeak- aarch habit- ed of eason scene »f the chose dthe leot can- Iview. f n«;t long ake usual Unity.) PERSPicui .,Sic. 295 acceptation takes profit and pleasure for two different things, and not only calls the followers or votaries of them by the several names of busy and idle men ; but distinguishes the faculties of the mind, that are conversant about them, call- mg the operations of the first. Wisdom ; and of the other, fr»«; which is a Saxon word, used to express what the Spaniards and Italians call IngeniOf and the French Esprilf both from the Latin, though I think wit more particularly signifies that of poetry, as may occur in remarks on the Runic language." When the reader arrives at the end of this perplexed sentence, he is surprised to find himself at so great distance from the object with which he set out. Long, involved, and intricate sentences, are great ble- mishes in composition. In writers of considerable correct- ness, we find a period sometimes running out so far, and comprehending so many particulars, as to be more properly a discourse than a sentence. An author, speaking of the progress of our language after the time of Cromwell, runs on in this manner : " To this succeeded that licentiousness which entered with the restoration, and, from infecting our religion and morals, fell to corrupt our language ; which last was not like to be much improved by those who at that time made up the court of king Charles the Second ; either such" as had followed him in his banishment, or who had been altogether conversant in the dialect of these times, or young men who had been educated in the same country : so that the court, which used to be the standard of correctness and propriety of speech, was then, and I think has ever since continued, the worst school in England for that accom- plishment ; and so will remain, till better care be taken in thb education of our nobility, that they may set out into the world with some foundation of literature, in order to qualify them for patterns of politeness." The author, in place of a sentence, has here given a loose dissertation upon several subjects. How many diSerent facts, reasonings, and observations, are here presented to the mind at once ! and yet so linked together by the author, that they 296 APPENDIX. [Unity, all make parts ofa sentence, which admits ofno greater divi- sion in pointing than a colon, between any of its members. It may be of use here to give a specimen of a long sen- tence, broken down into several periods ; by which wc shall more clearly perceive the disadvantages of long sentences, nnd how easily they may be amended. Here follows the sentence in its original form : * Though in yesterday's paper we showed how every thing that is great, new, or beautiful, is apt to affect the imagination with pleasure, we must own, that it is impossible for us to asvsign the necessary cause of this pleasure, because we know neither the nature of an idea, nor the substance of a human soul : and therefore, for want of such a light, all that we can do, in speculations of this kind, is, to reflect on those operations of the soul that are most agreeable ; and to range, under heir proper heads, what is pleasing or displeasing to the mind, without being able to trace out the several necessary and eflicient causes, from whence the pleasure or displeasure arises.' The following amendment, besides breaking down the period into several sentences, exhibits some other useful alterations : " In yesterday's paper, we showed that every thing which is great, new, or beautiful, is apt to affect the imagination with pleasure. We must own that it is impos- sible for us to assign the efHcient cause of this pleasure, be- cause we know not the nature either of an idea, or of the human soul. All that we can do, therefore, in speculations of this kind, is to reflect on the operations of the soul which are most agreeable, and to range under proper heads what is pleasing or displeasing to the mind." A third rule for the preserving tlie unity of the sentence, is, to keep clear of all unnecessary parentheses. On some occasions, when the sense is not too long sus- pended by them, and when they are introduced in a proper place, they may add both to the vivacity and energy of the sentence. But for the most part their effect is ex- tremely bad. They are wheels within wheels j sea- Strength.) perspicuitt, kc. 207 tences in the midst of sentences ; the perplexed method of dbposing of some thought, which a writer wants judgment^ to introduce in its proper place. ' The parenthesis in this sentence is striking and prOper ; *' And was the ransom paid ? It wan ; and paid ^* (What can exalt the bounty more ?) for thee." But in the following sentence, we become sensible of an impropriety in the use of it. " If your hearts secretly re- proach you for the wrong choice you have made, (as there is time for repentance and retreat ; and a return to wisdom is always honourable,) bethink yourselves that the evil is not irreparable." It would be much better to express in a separate sentence, the thoughts contained in this parenthesis; thus : " If your hearts secretly reproach you for the wrong choice you have made, bethink yourselves that the evil is not irreparable. Still there is time for repentance and re- treat ; and a return to wisdom is always honourable." See the Appendix lo the Exercises. "- CHAPTER III. OF THE STRENGTH OF A SENTENCE. ipos- j, be- )f the itions rhich I what ience, sus- broper If the ex- seu- The third requisite of a perfect sentence, is, Strength. By this is meant such a disposition and management of the several words and members, as shall bring out the sense to the best advantage, and ^ve every word and every member, its due weight and force. A sentence may be clear, it may also be compact in all its parts, or have the requisite unity, and yet, by some cir- , cumstance in the structure, it may fail in that strength of im- pression, which a better management would have produced. Thejirsi rule for promoting the strength of a sentence, u, to prune it of all redundant words and members. It is a general m&xim, that any words which do not add some importance to the meaning of a sentence, always in- jure it. Care should therefore be exercised with respect to synonymous words, expletives, circumlocutions, tautologies, and the expressions of unnecessary circumstances. The 298 APPENDIX. (Strenglli. attention becomes remiss, when words are multiplied with out a correspondent multiptication of ideas. " Content with deserving a triumph, he refused the honour of it ;" is better language than to say, " Being content with deserving it," &c. " In the Attic Commonwealth," says an author, " it was the privilege and birthright of every citizen and poet, to rail aloud and in public." Better simply thus : " In the Attic commonwealth, it was the privilege of every citizen to rail in public." '• Another expresses himself thus : " They returned back again to the same city from whence they came forth ;" in- stead of, " They returned to the city whence they came." The five words, back, again, same,Jiom, and forth, are mere expletives, that have neither use nor beauty, and are there- fore to be regarded as encumbrances. The word but is often improperly jused with that : as, " There can be no doubt but tfiat he seriously means what he says." It is not only useless^ but cumbersome : " There can be no doubt that he seriously means what he says.'* By transposing the parts of the sentence, we shall im- mediately perceive the propriety of omitting this word : " That he seriously means what he says, there can be no doubt." . ! " I am honestly, seriously, and unalterably of opinion, that nothing can possibly be more incurably and emphati cally destructive, or more decisively fatal, to a kingdom, than the introduction of thoughtless dissiftation, and the pomp of lazy luxury." Would not the full import of this noisy sentence be better expressed thus : " I am of opinion, that nothing is more ruinous to a kingdom, than luxury and dis- sipation ." Some writers use much circumlocution in expressing their ideas. A considerable one, for so very simple a thing as a man's wounding himself, says, " To mangle, or wound, his outward form and constitution, his natural limbs or body.V But, on some occasions, circumlocution has a peculiar their as a |d, hb )dy." suliar Strength.) perspicuity, &:c 299 force ; as in the following^entence : *' Shall not the Judge of all the earth do right ?" In the sentences which follow, the ill effects of tautology appear. " So it is, that I must be forced to get home, partly by stealth, and partly hy force.** " Never did Atticus succeed better in gaining the uniuer »al love and esteem of cUl men." The subsequent sentence contains several unnecessary circumstances. " On receiving this information, he arose, ivent out, saddled his horse, mounted him, and rode to, lown." All is implied in saying, " On receiving this in- Jbrmation, he rode to town." This manner, however, in a certain degree, is so strongly iJiaracteristic of the simple style .of remote ages, that, in ^looks of the highest antiquity, particularly the Bible, it is not at all ungraceful. Of this kind are the following scrip- tural phrases. " He lifted up his voice, and wept." " He opened his mouth, and said." It is true, that, in strictness, they are not necessary to the narration, but they are of some importance to the composition, as bearing the vene- rable signature of ancient simplicity. It may, on this oc- casion, be further observed, that tlie language of the present translation of the Bible, ought not to be viewed in an ex- ceptionable light, though some parts of it may appear to be obsolete. From universal admission, this language has be- come so familiar and intelligible, that in all transcripts and allusions, except where the sense is evidently injured, it ought to be carefully preserved. And it may also be justly remarked, that, on religious subjects, a frequent recurrence of scripture-language is attended with peculiar force and propriety. Though it promotes the strength of a sentence, to con- tract a roundabout method of expression, and to lop olT excrescences, yet we should avoid the extreme of pruning too closely : some leaves should be left to shelter and sur> round the fruit. Even synonymous expressions may, on 300 .appb:vdix. (Strength. some occasions, be used with propriety. One is, when an obscurer term, which we cannot well avoid employing, iieeds to be explained by one that is clearer. The other is, when the language of the emotions is exhibited. Emotion naturally dwells on its object : and when the reader also feels interested, repetition and synonymy have frequently an agreeable effect. The following passage, taken from Addison, who de- lighted in a full and flowing style, may, by some persons, be deemed not very exceptionable. " But tliere is nothing that makes its way more directly to the soul than beauty, which immediately diffuses a secret satisfaction and compla- cency through the imagination, and gives a finishing to any thing that is great or uncommon. The very first discovery of it strikes the mind with inward joy, and spreads a cheer- fulness and delight through all its faculties." Some degree of verbosity may be discovered in these sentences, as phrases are repeated which seem little more than the echo of one another ; such as — diffusing salisfaclion and compla- cency through the imagination — striking the mind with inward Joy — spreading cJieerJulness and delight through all its facul- ties. But, perhaps, some redundancy is more allowable on such lively subjects, than it would be on other occasions. After removing superfluities, the second rule for promo- ting the strength of a sentence, is, to attend particularly to the use of copulatives j relatives^ and all the particles employed for transition and connexion. ■ These little words, but, and, or, which, whose, where, then, • therrfgret because, &,c. are frequently the most important words of any ; they are the joints or hinges upon which all sentences turn ; and, of course, much of their strength must depend upon such particles. The varieties in using them are, indeed, so many, that no particular system of rules respecting them can, be given. Some observations, tending to illustrate the rule, may, however, be mentioned. What is called splitting particles, or separating a prepo- sition from the nouti which it governs, is to be avoided. engtli. hen an iloying, ttlier is, Imotion ler also queutly vho de- persons, nothing beauty, compla- g to any tecovery a cheer- e degree nces, as the echo i compla- h inmard Usfacul- vvable on ocasions. r promo- cularly io employed lere, then, inportant which all igth must ing them 1 of rules I, tending ed. ; a prepo- avoided. Strength.) PERSPJCUITV, &C. 301 As if 1 should say, " Though virtue borrows no assistance from, yet it may often be accompanied by, the advantages of fortune." Here we are put to a stand in thcight, being obliged to rest a little on the preposition by itself, which, at the same time, carries no significancy, till it is joined to its proper substantive. • :• r .n 'iMUi ' Some writers needlessly multiply demonstrative and re- lative particles, by the frequent use of such phraseology ^as this : " There is nothing which disgusts us sooner than the empty pomp of language." In introducing a subject, or laying down a proposition, to which we demand particular attention, this sort of style is very proper ; but, on common occasions, it is better to express ourselves more simply and briefly : " Nothing disgusts us sooner than the empty pomp of language." Other writers make a practice of omitting the relative, where they think the meaning can be understood without it : as, " The man I love ;" " The dominions we possessed, and the conquests we made." But though this elliptical style is intelligible, and is allowable in conversation and epistolary writing, yet in all writings of a serious and digni- fied kind, it ought to be avoided. There, the relative should always be inserted in its proper place, and the con- struction filled up. " The man whom I love." ^ The domini- ons which we possessed, and the conquests which we made." , With regard to the copulative particle andy which occurs BO frequently in all kinds of composition, several observa- tions are to be made. First, it is evident, that the unne- cessary repetition of it enfeebles style. The following sen- tence from Sir William Temple, will serve for an instance. He is speaking of the refinement of the French language : " The academy, set up by Cardinal Richelieu, to amuse the wits of that age and country, and divert them from raking into his politics and ministry, brought this into vogue ; and the French wits have, for this last age, been wholly turned to the refinement of their style and language; and, indeed, with such success, that it can hardly be equall«d, and runs ! I 302 APPCNDix. (Stieugth. equally through their verse and their prose." Here are no fewer than eight amis in one sentence. Some writers often make their sentences drag in this manner, by a careless multiplication of copulatives. But, in the next place, it is worthy of observation, that though the natural use of the conjunction andf is to join objects together, yet, in fact, by dropping the conjunction, we often mark a closer connexion, a quicker succession of objects, than when it is inserted between them. " I came, I saw, I conquered," expresses with more force the rapidity and quick succession of conquest, than if connecting parti- cles had been used. , On the other hand, when we seek to prevent a quick transition from one object to another, when we are making some enumeration, in which we wish that the objects should appear as distinct from each other as possible, and that the mind should rest, for a moment, on each object by itself, copulatives may be multiplied with peculiar advantage. As when an author says, " Such a man might fall a victim to power ; but truth, and reason, and liberty, would fall with him." Observe, in the following enumeration made by the Apostle Paul, what additional weight and distinctness are given to each particular, by the repetition of a conjunc- tion : " I am persuaded that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, nor things present, nor things to come, nor height, nor depth, nor any other creature, shall be able to separate us from the love of God." The words designed to mark the transition from one sen tence to another, and the connexion between sentences, are sometimes very incorrect, and perform their office in an im perlect and obscure manner. The following is fin example of this kind of inaccuracy. " By greatness, I do not mean the bulk of any single object only, but the largeness of a whole view. Such are the prospects of an open champaign country, a vast uncultivated desert," &c. The word such signifies of that nature or quality, which necessarily pre- supposes some adjective or word descriptive of a quali^ nor resent, other God." nesen :es, are anim ;ample mean is of a npaign •Aaueh \j pre- Strcngth.) appendix. / 303 going before, to which it refers. But, in the foregoing sen- tence, there is no such adjective. The author had spoken of greatness in the abstract only ; and, therefore, such has no distinct antecedent to which we -ivt'.rions. '•''■ ' ' ' The fo'!jw;Lg is an example of natural construction : " O^u sigul la 'he most perfect, and the most delightful, of al? )!; senses. It fills the mind with the largest variety of idead, converses with its objects at the greatest distance, and continues the longest in action, without being tired, or satiated with its proper enjoyments. The sense of feeling can, indeed, give us a notion of extension, shape, and «ll other ideas that enter at the eye, except colours ; but, at the same time, it is very much straitened and confined iu its operations," &(,c. But whether we use inversion or not, and in whatever part of the sentence we dispose of the capital words, it is always a point of consequtince, that these capital words should stand clear and disentangled from any other words that would clog them. Thus, when there are any circum- stances of time, place, or other limitations, which the prin- cipal object of our sentence requires to have connected with it, we must take care to dispose of them, so as not to cloud that principal object, nor to bury it under a load of circum- st»»^""s. Tius will be made clearer by an example. " If, whilst they profess only to please, they secretly advise, and give instruction, they may now perhaps, as well as formerly, be esteenied, with justice, the best and most honourable among authors." Thisisawell constructed sentence. Itcon- tains a great many circumstances and adverbs necessary to qualify the meaning , onii/, secretly, cw well, perhaps, now, with justice, formerly ; yet these are placed so properly, as neither to embarrass, nor weaken the sentence ; while that which is the capital object in it, viz. " being justly esteemed 306 APPENDIX. (Strength the be&t and most honourable among authors," comes out in the conclusion clear and detached, and possesses its pro- per place. See, now, what would have been the efifect of a different arrangement : " If, whilst tliey profess to please only, they advise and give instruction secretly, they may be esteemed the best and most honourable among authors, with justice, perhaps, now as well as formerly." Here we have precisely the same words, and the same sense ; but by means of the circumstances being so intermingled as to clog the capital words, the whole becomes feeble and perplexed. The fourth rule for promoting the strength of sentences, is, thai a weaker assertion or proposition should never come after a stronger^one ; and thaij rvhen our sentence consists oj tno members J the longer should, generally, be tlie concluding one. Thus, to say, " When our passions have forsaken us, we flatter ourselves with the belief that we have forsaken them," is both more easy and more clear, than to begin with the longer part of the proposition : " We flatter ourselves with the belief that we have forsaken our passions, when they have forsaken us." In general, it is agreeable to find a sentence rising upon us, and growing in its importance, to the very last word, when this construction can be managed without affectation. " If we rise yet higher," says Addison, " and consider the fixed stars as so many oceans of flame, that are each of them attended with a difierent set of planets ; and still dis- cover new firmaments and new lights, that are sunk further in those unfathomable depths of ether ; we are lost in such a labyrinth of suns and worlds, and confounded with the magnificence and immensity of nature." The Jifth rule for the strength of sentences is, to avoid concluding them with an adverb, a preposition, or any incon- siderable word. Agreeably to this rule, we shoul|l not conclude with any of the particles, of, to, from, with, by. For instance, it is a Strength.) perspicuity, &c. 307 great deal better to say, " Avarice is a crime of which wise men are often guilty," than to say, " Avarice is a crime which wise men are often guilty of." This is a phraseology which all correct writers shun ; and with reason. For as the mind cannot help resting a little, on the import of the word which closes the sentence, it must be disagreeable to be left paushig on a word, which does not, by itself, pro- duce any idea. . t . For the same reason, verbs which are used in a com- pound sense, with some of these prepositions, are, though not so bad, yet still not proper conclusions of a period : such as, bring about, lay hold of, come over to, clear up, and many other of this kind ; instead of which, if we can employ a simple verb, it always terminates the sentence with more strength. Even the pronoun it, should, if possible, be avoid- ed in the conclusion : especially when it is joined with some of the prepositions ; as, with it, in it, to it. We shall be sen- sible of this in the following sentence. " There is not, in my opinion, a more pleasing and triumphant consideration in religion, than this, of the perpetual progress which the soul makes towards the perfection of its nature, without ever ar- riving at a period in it.'* How much more agreeable the sentence, if it had been so constructed as to close with the word period ! Besides particles and pronouns, any phrase, which ex- presses a circumstance only, always appears badly in the rear of a sentence. We may judge of this by the following passage : " Let me therefore conclude by repeating, that division has caused all the mischief we lament ; that union alone can retrieve it ; and that a great advance towards this union, was the coalition of parties, so happily begun, so successfully carried on, and of late so unaccountably neglected ; to say no worse." This last phrase, " to say no worse," occasions a falling ofif at the end. The proper disposition of such circumstances in a sentence, requires at- tention, in order to adjust them so as shall consist equally with the perspicuity and the strength of the period.~ ♦ liSKIl I' '^ 308 APPENDIX. (Strength. Though necessary parts, they are, however, like irregular stones in a building, which try the skill of an artist, where to place them with the least offence. But it must be re- membered, that the close is always an unsuitable place for them; Notwithstanding what has been said against con- cluding a period with an adverb, &,c. this must not be un- derstood to refer to such words, when the stress and signi- ticancy of the sentence rest chiefly upon them. In this case they are not to be considered as circumstances, but as the principal objects : as in the following sentence. " In their prosperity, my friends shall never hear of me, in their ad versity, always." Here, " never" and " always" being em- phatical words, were to be so placed as to make a strong impression. The sixth rule relating to the strength of a sentence, is, Ihal, ill the inemlyers of a sentence, where trvo things are compared or contrasted with one another ; where either a resemblance or an opposition is intended to be expressed ; some resemblance, in the language and construction, should Ite preserved. For when the things themselves correspond to each other, ive naturally expect to Jind a similar correspond- ence in the words. Thus, when it is said, " The wise man is happy when he gains his own approbation ; the fool, when he recommends himself to the applause of those about him ;" the opposition would have been more regular, if it had been expressed thus : " The wise man is happy when he gains his own approbation ; the fool, when he gains that of others." " A friend exaggerates a man's virtues : an enemy in- flames his crimes," Better thus : " A friend exaggerates a man's virtues ; an enemy, his crimes." The following passage from Pope's Preface to his Homer, fully exemplifies the rule just given : " Homer was the greater genius ; Virgil, the better artist : in the one, we modt admire the man ; in the other, the work. Homer hurries us with a commanding impetuosity ; Virgil leads us with an attractive majesty. Homer scatters with a generous Strength.) perspicuity, he. 309 profusion; Virgil bestows with a careful magnificence. Homer, like the Nile, pours out his riches with a sudden overflow ; Virgil, like a river in its banks, with a constant 8tream."-r-Periods thus constructed, when introduced with propriety, and not returning too often, have a sensible beauty. But we must beware of carrying our attention to tliis beauty too far. It ought only to be occasionally stu- died, when comparison or opposition of objects naturally leads to it. If such a construction as this be aimed at, in all our sentences, it leads to a disagreeable uniformity ; .produces a regularly returning clink in the period, which tires the ear ; and plainly discovers affectation. The seventh rule for promoting the strength and effect of sentences, is, to attend to ilie sounds the harmony and easy floWf of the words and members. Sound is a quality much inferior to sense ; yet such as must not be disregarded. For, as long as sounds are the vehicle or conveyance for our ideas, there will be a very considerable connexion between the idea which is con- veyed, and the nature of the sound which conveys it — Pleasing ideas, and forcible reasoning, can hardly be trans- mitted to the mind, by means of harsh and disagreeable sounds. The mind revolts at such sounds, and tfap im- pression of the sentiment must consequently be weakened. The observations which we have to make on this subject, respect the choice of words ; their arrangement ; the order and disposition of the members ; and the cadence or close of sentences. i*- We begin with the choice of words. It is evident, that words are most agreeable to the ear, when they are com- posed of smooth and liquid sounds, in which there is a pro- per intermixture of vowels and consoniEUits ; without too many harsh consonants rubbing against each other ; or too many open vowels in suc^|pion, to cause a hiatus, or dis- agreeable aperture of the iiputb. It may always be assumed as a principle, that whatever fioaods are difficult in nronunciatioo, 8$«^n th^^jjpae pro- i 1 P i 1 310 APPENDIX. (Strengta {lorlion, harsh and painful to the ear Vowels give softness ; consonants, strength to the sound of words. The melody of language requires a just proportion of each ; and the con- struction will be hurt, will be rendered either grating or ef- feminate, by an excess of either. Long words are com- monly more agreeable to the ear than monosyllables. They please it by the composition or succession of sounds which they present to it ; and accordingly, the most harmonious languages abound nlost in them. Among words of any length, those are the most melodious, which do not run wholly either upon long or short syllables, but are com* posed of an intermixture of them : such as, repent, prqfeas, powerful, velocity, celerity, independent, impetuosity. If we would speak forcibly and effectually, we mustayoid the use of such words as the following ; 1. Such as are com- posed of words already compounded, the several parts of which are not easily, and therefore not closely united : as, " Unsuccessfulness, wrongheadedness, tenderheartedness ;" 2. Such as have the syllables which immediately follow the accented syllable, crowded with consonants that do not easily coalesce ; as, " Qjuestionless, chroniclers, conventi- ders :" 3. Such as have too many syllables following the accented syllable : as, " Primarily, cursorily, summarily, peremptoriness :" 4. Such as have a short or unaccented syllable repeated, or followed by another short or unac- cented syllable very much resembling : as, " Holily, sillily, lonlily, farriery." A little harshness, by the collision of consonants, which nevertheless our organs find no difficulty in articulating, and which do not suggest to the hearer the disagreeable idea either of precipitation or of stammering, is by no means a sufficient reason for suppressing a usefu^ term. The words hedged, fied^d, wedg%drud^d,grudg*d, adjudged, which some have thought very offensive, are not exposed to the objections whiajkilie against the words abov« mentioned. We should not dfP'weU to introduce such hard and strong sounds too frequently ; but when they are used sparingh^^d prooerly) they have even a good effect. They Strength.) perspicuity. 311 contribute to that variety in sound which is advantageous tu ianguage. The next head, respecting the harmony which results from a proper arrangement of words, is a point of greater nicety. For, let the words themselves be ever so well chosen, and well sounding, yet, if they be ill disposed, the melody of the sentence is utterly lost, or greatly impaired. That this is the case, the learners will perceive by the follow- ing examples. " Pleasures simple and moderate always are the best :" it would be better to say, " Simple and moderate pleasures are always the best." " Office or rank may be the recompense of intrigue, versatility, or flattery ;" better thus, " Rank or office may be the recompense of flattery, versatility, or intrigue." " A great recommendation of the guidance offered by integrity to us, is, that it is by all men easily understood :" better in this form ; " It is a great re- commendation of the guidance offered to us by integrity, that it is easily understood by all men." In the following examples, the words are neither selected nor arranged, so as to produce the most agreeable effect " If we make the be?t of our life, it is but as a pilgrimage, with dangers sur- rounding it:" better thus, " Our life, at the best, k a pil- grimage, and dangers surround it." " We see tt| B| |fe are encumbered with difficulties, which we cannot pril^nt :" better, " We perceive ourselves involve^ in difficulties that cannot be avoided." " It is plain to any one who views the subject, even slightly, that there is nothing here that is with- out allay and pure :" improved by this form ; " It is evi- dent to the slightest inspection, that nothing here is unal- layed and pure." We may take, for an instance of a sentence remarkably harmonious, the following from Milton's Treatise on Edu- cation : " We shall condactyou to a hill-side, laborious in- lleed, at the first ascent ; ^Hilse so smooth, so green, so full jf goodly prospects, andHfiodious sounds on every side, that the harp of Orpheus was not more charming." Every thing in this sentence conspires to pnuat^e jUofH^l^pnoiij, MHpic \ # i^'i^-^ # 312 APPENDIX. (Strength. The words are well chosen ; full of liquids, and soft sounds ; laborious, sirwoih, green, goodly, melodious, charming ; and these words so artfully arranged, that were we to alter the situation of any one of them, we should, presently, be sen- sible of the melody's suffering. To [)roniote this harmonious arrangement of words, the following general directions will be fomid of some use. 1st, When the preceding word ends with a vowel, let the 8ubsec|uent one begin with a consonant ; and vici versA. A true friend, a cruel cncimf, are :^moother and easier to the voice, than a true union, a cruel destroyer. But when it is more perspicuous or convenient, for vowels or consonants to end one word and begin the next, it is proper that the vowels b^ a long and short one ; and that the consonants be either a liquid and a mute, or liquids of different sorts : thus, a lovely offspring ; a purer design ; a calm reti eat ; are more fluent i\\dii\, a happy union, a brief petition, a cheap triumph, a putrid distemper, a calm matron, a clean nurse. 7?rom these examples, the student will perceive the iifipor- (ance of accurately understanding the nature of voweb and consonants, liquids and mutes ; with the connexion and influence which subsist amongst them. 2d, In general, A c iMMftdp rable number of long or short words near one ano- thelHjI^ld be avoided. " Disappointment in our expec- (ati^ is wretchedness :" better thus ; " Disappointed hope is misery." " Na course of joy can please us long :" better, " No course of enjoyment can delight us long.'* A suc- cession of words having the same quantity in the accented syllables, whether it be long or short, should also be avoided, " James was needy, feeble, and fearful :" improved tlius, " James was timid, feeble, and destitute." " They could not be happy ; for he was silly, pettish, and sullen :'* better thus ; " They could not be happy ; for he was simple, peevish, and gloomy." 3d, ^ords which begin alike, or end alike, must not come to||Per ; and the last syllable of tlie preceding word, should dPbe the same as the first syl- lable of the subsequent one. It is not so pleasing and bar- ^ Strength.) perspicuity, &c. 313 monious to say, " This is a convenient contrivance ;" " He IS an indulgent parent ;" " She behaves with uniform for- iikality ;" as, " This is a useful contrivance ;'* " He is a kind parent ;" " She behaves with unvaried formality.'* We proceed to consider the members of a sentence, with regard to harmony. Thby should not be too long, nor dis- proportionate to each other. When they have a regular and proportional division, they are much easier to the voice, are more clearly understood, and better remembered, than when this rule is not attended to : for whatever tires the voice, and offends the eur, is apt to mar the strength of the exfiression, and to degrade the seAsc of the author. And this is a sufficient ground for paying attention to the order and proportion of sentences, and the different parts of which they consist. The following passage exhibits sentences in which the different members are proportionally arranged. Temple, speaking sarcastically of man, says ; " But his pride is greater than his ignorance, and what he wants in knowledge he supplies by sufficiency. When he has looked about him as far as he can, he concludes there is no more to be seen ; when he is at the end of his line, he is at the bottom of the ocean ; when he has shot his best, he is sure none ever did, or ever can, shoot better, or beyond it. His own reason he holds to be the certain measure of truth ; and his own knowledge, of what is possible in nature.'* Here every thing is at once easy to the breath, grateful to the ear, and intelligible to the understanding. See another example of the same kind, in the 17th and 18th verses of the 3d chapter of the prophet Habakkuk. We may remark f here, that our present version of the Holy Scri^itures, espe- cially of the Psalms, abounds with instances of an harmo- nious arrangement of the words and members of sentences. In the following quotation from Tillotson, we shall be- come sensible of an effect very different from that of the DcmciiV/ca. (( mu!- -i: xiiia uiacuuisc t , «u.. _« siness of the Divine commands, does all along suppose and acknowledge the difBculties of the first entrance upon a re t '^^^ . APPENDIX.' (Strength, lig^ous coune ; except only ia those persons who have had the happiness to be trained up to religion, by the easy and insensible degrees of a pious and virtuous education." Here there is some degree of harshness and unpleasantness, ow- ing principally to this, that there is properly no more than one pause or rest in the sentence, falling betwixt the two members into which it is divided : each of which is so long as to occasion a considerable stretch of the breath in pro- nouncing it. With respect to the cadence or close of a sentence, care diould be taken, that it be not abrupt, or unpleasant. The following instances may be sufficient to show the propriety of some attention to this part of the rule. " Virtue, dili- gence, and industry, joined with good temper and prudence, are prosperous in general." It would be better thus : " Vir- tue, diligence, and industry, joined with good temper and prudence, have ever been found the surest road to prosperi- ty." An author speaking of the Trinity, expresses himself thus : " It is a mystery which we firmly believe the truth of, and humbly adore the depth of." How much better would it have been with this transposition : " It is a myste- ry, the truth of which we firmly believe, and the depth of wliich we humbly adore." In order to give a sentence this proper close, the longest member of it, and the fullest words, should be reserved to the conclusion. But in the distribution of the members, and in tJie cadence of the period, as well as in the sentences tliemselves, variety must be observed ; for the mind sooii tires with a frequent repetition of the same tone. Though attention to the words and members, and the close of sentences, must not be neglected, yet it must also be kept within proper bounds. Sense has its own harmony ; and in no instance should perspicuity, precision, or strength of sentiment, be sacrificed to sound. All unmeaning words, introduced merely to round the period, or fill up the melo- jly, are ^«at blemishes in writing. They are childish and trivial ornaments, by which a sentence always loses more I &c. 315 Figures.) perspicuity, in point of weight, than it can gain by such additions to iti Bound. See the Octavo Qrammar, on thU chapter. See aJso the Appendix to the ExercUea. " CHAPTER IV. OF FIGURES OF SPEECH. * ' The FOURTH requisite of a perfect sentence, it a judi' eious use of the Figures of Speech. '' • i • , ' • As figurative language is to be met with in almost eve^ sentence ; and, when properly employed, confers beauty and strength on composition ; some knowledge of it ap- pears to be indispensable to the scholars, who are learning to form their sentences with perspicuity, accuracy, and force. We shall, therefore, enumerate the principal figures, and give them some explanation. In general, Figures of Speech imply some departure from simplicity of expression ; the idea which we mean to convey is expressed in a particular manner, and with some circumstance added, which is designed to render the im- pression more strong and vivid. When I say, for instance, " That a good man enjoys comfort in the midst of adversi- ty ;" I just express my thoughts in the, simplest manner possible : but when I say, " To the upright there ariseth light in darkness ;" the same sentiment is expressed in a figurative style; a new circumstance is introduced; " light," is put in the place of <' comfort," and " darkness" is used to suggest the idea of adversity. In the same manner, to say, " It Is impossible, by any search we can make, to ex plore the Divine Nature fully," is to make a simple propo- sition : but when we say, " Canst thou, by searching, find out the Lord ? Canst thou find out the Almighty to perfec- tion ? It is high as heaven, what canst thou do ? deeper than hell, what canst thou know ?" this introduces a figure into style ; the proposition being not only expressed, but with it admiration and astonishment. *lnt. ikanoh fic;;rpa imriiir a deviation from ign ngut ipiy may reckoned the most simple form of speech, we are not thenc«; 'i' . u s-^' 816 APPENDIX. (Figures, to conclude, that they imply any thing uncommon, or un* natural. On many occasions, they are both the most na- tural, and the most common method of uttering our senti^ meiits. It would be very difficult to compose any discourse without using them often ; nay, there are few sentences of considerable length, in which there does not occur some expression that may be termed a figure. This being the case, we may see the necessity of some attention, in order to understand their nature and use. <^ At the first rise of language, men would begin with giving names to the different objects which they discerned, or thought of. The stock of words would, then, be very small. As men's ideas multiplied, and their acquaintance with ob- jects increased, their store of names and words would also increase. But to the vast variety of objects and ideas, no language is adequate. No language is so copious, as to have a separate word for every separate idea. Men naturally sought to abridge this labour of multiplying words nfiithout end ; and, in order to lay less burden on their meLVjriesy made one word, which they had already appropriated to a certain idea or object, stand also for some other idea or object, between which and the primary one, they found, or fancied, some relation. The names of sensible objects, were the words most early introduced; and were, by degrees, extended to those mental objects, of which men had more obscure conceptions, and to -which they found it; more difficult to assign distinct names. They borrowed,, therefore, the name of some sensible idea, where their ima«^ l^ation found some affinity. Thus, we speak (^Apierdng judgment, and a clear head ; a aqft or a hard heart ; trough or a smooth behaviour. We say, inflamed by anger, nanned by love, swelled with pride, melted into grief ; and th^*« aro almost the only significant w^ords which we have for suck ideas. The principal advantages of figures of speech, are the two following. Eini^ They enrich language, and render it more copious* no Figures.) perspicuity, &o. 31 7 By Ibeir means, words and phrases are Ihultiplied, for ex presBMig aH sorts of kleas ; for describing eTen the minatest differences ; the nicest shades and colours of thoir^ ; which no fauagnage ooaid possibly do by proper words^ alone, withoitt assistance from Tropes. Seeondty^ They frequently pve us a much clearer aad more striking view of the principal object, than we could ba?e, if it vrere expressed io simple terms, and divested of its accessory idea. By a well chosen figure, even conviction is assisted, and the impression of a truth upon the mind, made more lively and forciUe than it would otherwise be. We perceive this in the following illustration of Young : ** When we dip too deep in pleasure, we always stir ar sedi- nent that renders it unpure and noxious :" and in this in- stance : " A heart boiling with violent passions, will riways send up infatuating fumes to the bead." An image that presents so much congruity between a moral and a sensible idea, serves, like an argument from analogy, to enforce what the author asserts, and to induce belief. Having considered the general natqre of figures, we pro- ceed next to particularize such of them as are of the most importance ; viz. Metaphor, Allegory, Comparison, Meto- nymy, Synecdoche, Personification, Apostrophe, Antithesis^ Interrogation, Exclamation, Amplification or Climax, &c. A Metaphor is a figure founded entirely on the resem- blance which one object bears to another. Hence, it is much allied to simile or comparison, and is indeed no other than a comparison, expressed in an abridged form. When I say of some great minister, " that he upholds the state, like a pillar which supports the weight of a whole edifice," I fairly make a comparison : but when I say of such a minister, " That he is the pillar of the state," it now becomes a me- taphor. In the latter case, the comparison between the mi- nister and a pillar is made in the mind ; but it is expressed without any of the words that denote comparison. The following are examples of metaphor taken from Scripture : " I will be unto her a wall of fire round about, 318 APPENDIX. (Strength. and will be the glory in the mid»t of her." " Thoa art my rock and my fortress." " Thy word is a lamp to my feet, and a light to my path." Rules to be observed in the use of metaphors. 1. Metaphors, as well as other Jigures, should, on no oeeth sion, be stuxk on prqfUsely ; and should alrvays be such as ac- cord with the strain of our serUiment. The latter part of the following passage, from a late historian, is, in this respect, very exceptionable. He is giving an account of the famous act of parliament against irregular marriages in England. " The bill," says he, " underwent a great number of altera- tions and amendments, which were not effecte '. without violent contest. At length, however, it was floated through both houses on the tide of a great majority, and steered into the safe harbour of royal approbation." 2. Care should be taken that the resemblance, which is tJie Jbundation qfthe metaphor, be clear and perspicuous, nolfar- Jetched, nor dijfficult to discover. The transgression of this rule makes what are called harsh or forced metaphors ; which are displeasing, because they puzzle the reader, and instead of illustrating the thought, render it perplexed and intricate. . 3. In the third place, we should be careful, in the con< duct of metaphors, never to juinble metaphorical and plain language together. An author, addressing himself to the king, says : To thee the world its present homage pays ; The harvest early, but mature the praise. It is pidn, that, had not the rhyme misled him to the choice of an improper phrase, he would have said, The harvest early, but mature the crop ; and so would have continued the figure which he had be- gun. Whereas, by dropping it unfinished, and by employ- ing the literal word " praise," when we were expecting something that related to the harvest, the figure is broken, and the two membcFs of the senience have no suitable cor- respondence to each other. Strength.) persmcditt, Sm!. , ^ 319 4. We should avoid making two inconstatent metaphort meet on one object This is what is called mixed metaphor, and is indeed one of the greatest fnisapplications of this figure. One may be " siullertd under the patronage of a great man :" but it would be wrong to saf, " ahellered un- der the mask of dissimulation " as a mask conceals, but does not shelter. Addison in his letter from Italy, says * I bridle in my struggling muse with pain. That longs to launch into a bolder strain. The muse, figured as a horse, may be bridled ; but when we speak of launching, we make it a ship ; and by no force of imagination, can it be supposed both a horse and a ship at one moment ; bridledf to hinder it from launching. The same author, elsewhere, says, " There is not a single view of human nature, which is not sufficient to extinguish the seeds of pride." Observe the incoherence of the things here joined together ; making a view extinguishf and extin- guish seeds. As metaphors ought never to be mixed, so they should not be crowded together on the same object ; for the mind has difficulty in passing readily through many different views of the same object, presented in quick succession. The last rule concerning metaphors, is, ilml they be not too far pursued. If the resemblance, on which the figure is founded, be long dwelt upon, and carried into all its minute circumstances, we tire the reader, who soon grows weary of this stretch of fancy ; and we render our discourse ob- scure. This is called straining a metaphor. Authors of a lively and strong imagination are apt to run into this exu- berance of metaphor. When they hit upon a figure that pleases them, they are loth to part with it, and frequeniiy continue it so long, as to become tedious and intricate. We may observe, for instance, how the following metaphor is spun out. Thy thoughts are vagabonds ; all outward bound, •Midst sands, and rocks, and storms, to cruise for pleasure ; If gain'd, dear bought ; and better missM thau gain'd. •ri 11 320 APPENDIX. (Figures* Fancy aod sense, from an infected shore, TI17 cargo bring ; and pestilence tlie prize : Tlieu sucli a tliirst, insatiable thirst, By fond indulgence but inflamed the more : . Fancy still cruises, when poor sense is tired. An Allegory may be regarded as a metaphor continued ; since it is the representation of some one thing by another that resembles it, and which is made to stand for it. We may take from the Scriptures a very fine example of an allegory, in the 80th psalm ; where the people of Israel are represented under the image of a vine : and the figure is carried throughout with great exactness and beauty. " Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt : thou hast cast out the heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it ; and didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it: and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars. She sent out her boughs into the sea, and her branches into the river. Why hast thou broken down her hedges, so that all they which pass by ttie way do pluck her ? The boar out of the wood doth waste it, and the wild beast of the field doth de- vour it. Return, we beseech thee, O God of Hosts, look down from heaven, and behold, and visit this vine !" See also Ezekiel, xvii. 22—24. The first and principal requisite in the conduct of an alle- gory, is, that the Jiguraiive and the literal meaning be not 7nixed inconsistently together. Indeed, all the rules that were given for metaphors, may also be applied to allegories, on account of the affinity they bear to each other. The only material difference between them, besides the one be- ing short and the other being prolonged, is, that a metaphor always explains itself by the words that are connected \>'ith it in their proper and natural meaning : as, when I say, " Achilles was a lion ;" " An able minister is the pillar of &..W Swi.^ , uic fiuu auu the " pillar" are sumcientiy interpreted by the mention of " AchiUes" and the "minis- ter/' which I join to them ; but an allegory is, or may be, Figures.) perspicuity, &c 321 allov^ed to stand less connected with the literal meaning, the interpretation not being so directly pointed oat, but left to our own reflection. Allegory was a favourite method of delivering instruction in ancient times ; for what we call fables or parables, are no other tilian allegories. By words and actions attributed to beasts or inanimate objects, the dispositions of men were figured ; and what we call the moral, is the unflgured sense or moaning of the allegory. A Comparison or«tmt7e,is,when the resemblance between two objects is expressed in Jbrnif and generally pursued more fully than the nature of a metaphor admits : as when it is said," The actions of princes are like those great rivers, the course of which every one beholds, but their springs have been seen by few." " As the mountains are round about Jerusalem, so the Lord is round about his people." " Behold, ho>%good and how pleasant it is for brethren to dwell together in unity ! It is like the precious ointment, &c. and as the dew that descended upon the mountains of Zion.*' The advantage of this figure arises from the illustration which the simile employed gives to the principal object ; from the clearer view which it presents ; or the more strong impression which it stamps upon the mind. Observe the effect of it in the following instance. The author is explain- ing the distinction between the powers of sense and imagina- tion in the human mind. " As wax," says he, " would not be adequate to the purpose of signature, if it had not the power to retain as well as to receive the impression, the same holds of the soul with respect to sense and imagina- tion. Sense is its receptive power ; imagination, its reten- tive. Had it sense without imagination, it would not be as wax, but as water, where, though all impressions are in- stantly made, yet as soon as they are made, they are in- stantly lost*' In comparisons of this nature, the understanding is con* oemed much more than the fancy : and therefore the rules to be observed, with respect ^'^ them, are, tiiat tiiey be m 322 _ APPENDIX. (Figurcf. clear, and that they be useful ; that they tend to render our conception of the principal object more distinct ; and that they do not lead our view aside, and bewilder it witli any false light We should always remember that similes are not arguments. However apt they may be, they do no more than explain the writer's sentiments, they do not prove them to be founded on truth. . « Comparisons ought not to be founded on lilcenesses which are too faint and remote. For these, in place of assisting, strain the mind to comprehend them,, and throw no light upon the subject. It is also to be observed, that a compa- rison which, in the principal circumstances, carries a suffi- cient^ near resemblance, may become unnatural and ob- scure, if pushed too far. Nothihg is more opposite to the deugn of this figure, than to hunt after a great number of coincidences in minute points, merely to show how far the writer's ingenuity can stretch the resemblai|ce. A Metonymy is founded on the several relations, of causw and effect, container and contained, sign and thing signified. When we say ; " They read Milton," the cause is put instead of the effect ; meaning " Milton's works." On the other hand, when it is said, " Gray hairs should be respected," we put the effect for the cause, meaning by " gray hairs," old age. " The kettle boils," is a phrase where the name of the container is substituted for that of the thing contained. " To assume the sceptre" is a common expression for en- tering on royal authority ; the sign being put for the thing signified. When the whole is put for a part, or a part for the whole ; a genus for a species, or a species for a genus ; in general, when any thing less, or any thing more, is put for the pre- cise object meant ; the figure is then called a Synecdoche or Compreltension. It is very common, for instance, to de- scribe a whole object by some remarkable part of it : as when we say : " A fleet of twenty imV," in the place of *^8hips;" when we use the " head" for the " ferson" the " waves'^ for the "9ea." In like manner, an attribute may b« Figures.) perspicuity, &c. put for a subject: as, " Youth" for the "young/* the "deep," for the " sea ;" and sometimes a subject for its attribute. PfrsoniJUation or Froaopopoeia^ is that figure by which we attribute life and action to inanimate objects. The use of tliis figure is very natural and extensive : there is a won- derful proneness in human nature, under emotion, tu animate all objects. When we say, "the ground thints for rain," or, " the earth smika with plenty ;" when we speak of " ambition's being restless^" or, " a disease's being deceitful ;" such expressions shov^ the facility with which the mind can accommodate the properties of living crea- tures to things that are inanimate, or to abstract conceptions of its own forming. The following are striking examples from the Scriptures : " When Israel went out of Egypt, Uie house of Judah from a people of strange language ; the sea saw it, and fled : Jordan was driven back ! The mountains skipped like rams, and the little hills like lambs. What ailed thee, O thou sea ! that thou fleddest ? Thou Jordan, that thou wast driven back ? Ye mountuns, that ye skip- ped like rams ; and ye little hills, like lambs ? Tremble, tliou earth, at the presence of the Lord, at the presence of the God of Jacob." " The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad for them : and the desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose." Milton thus describes the immediate effects of eating the forbidden fruit. Terror produces the figure. Earth trembled frum her entrails, as again In pangs, and nature gave a second groan ; Sky low*r'd, and, mutt'ring thunder, son^ sad drops Wept, at completing of the mortal sin. The impatience oY Adam to know his ori^n, is supposed to prompt the personification of all the objects he beheld, in order to procure information. Thou sun, said I, hir tight ! And thou enlighten'd eiurth, so fresh and g«ij ! ' Ye kills and dales, ye rivers, woods, and plains. And je that live and wove, fair creatures, tclU ^ ' Tell, if you saw, haw came I thus, how here ' 324 APPENDIX* (Figures. We shall give a remarkably fine example of this figure, from bishop Sherlock. He has beautifully personified ita tural religion : and vre may perceive, in the personificatiou, the spirit and grace which the figure^ when well conducted, bestow^ on discourse. The author is comparing together our Saviour and Mahomet. " Go (aiiys he) to your Natural Religion: lay before her Mahomet, and his disciples, ar* rayed inarmour and biood, riding in triumph over the spoils of thousands who fell by his victorious sword. Show her the cities which he set in flames, the countries which he ravaged and destroyed, and the miserable distress of all the inhabitants of the earth. When she has viewed him in this . scene, carry her into his retirement ; show her the Prophet's chamber ; his concubines and his wives ; and let her hear him allege revelation, and a Divine command, to justify his adultery and lust." " When she is tired with this prospect, then show her the blessed Jesus, humble and meek, doing good to all the sons of men. Let her see him in his most retired privacies ; let her follow him to the mount, and hear his devotions and supplications to God. Carry her to his table, to view his poor fare; and hear his heavenly discourse. Let her attend him to the tribu:aal, and consider the patience with which he endured the sco£fs and reproaches of his enemies. Lead her to his cross ; let her view him in the agony of death, and hear his last prayer for his {>ei~ecutors ; ' Father, for- give them, for they know not what they do.' — When Na- tural Religion has thus viewed both, ask her, which is the Prophet of God ? — But her answer we have already had, when she saw part of this scene, through the eyes of the Centurion, who attended at the cross. By him she spoke, and said, ' Truly this man.was the Son of God.'" This is more than elegant ; it is truly sublime. The whole passage is animated \ and the Figure rises at the conolusion, whep Natural Religion, '/ho, before, was only a spectator, is in- troduced as speaking by the Centurion's voice. This figure of speech is sometimes very improp issnge whep Figures.) pebspicuity, &c. 325 extravagantly applied. A capital error in personifying ob- jects, is, to deck them with fantastic and trifling circum- stances. A practice of this sort dissolves the potent charm, which enchants and deceives the reader ; and either leaves him dissatisfied, or excites, perhaps, his risibility. Another error, frequent in descriptive persomfications, consists in introducing them, when the subject of discussion is destitute of dignity, and the reader is not prepared to relish them. One can scarcely peruse, with composure, the fol- lowing us6 of this figure. It is the language of our elegant poet Thomson, who thus personifies and connects the bodily appetites, and their gratifications. Then sated Hunger bids his brother Thirst Produce the mighty bowl : Nor wanting is the brown October, drawn Mature and perfect, from his dark retreat Of thirty years : and now his honest front Flames in the light refiilgent. It is to be remarked, concerning this figure, and short metaphors and similes, which also have been allowed to be the proper language of high passion, that they are the pro- per expression of it, only on those occasions when it is so far moderated as to admit of words. The first and highest transports seem to overwhelm the mind, and are denoted by silence or groans : next succeeds the violent and pas- sionate language, of which these figures constitute a great part Such agitation, however, cannot long continue ; the passions having spent their force, the mind soon subsides into that exhausted and dispirited state, in which all figures are improper. Apostrophe is a tuning off from the regular course of the subject, to address some person or thing ; as, ** Death is swallowed up in victory. O death ! where is thy sting ? O grave ! Vvhere is thy victory ?'* The following h an instance of personificutiou and J -5i.-i apo- strophe united : " O thou sword of the Lord ! how long will it be ere thou be quiet ? put thyself up into thy scab- iiil 326 APPENDIX. (Figures. bard, rest and be still ! How can it be quiet, seeing the Lord hath given it a charge against Askelon, and against the sea-shore ? there hath he appointed it.'* See also an extra- ordinary example of these figures, in the 14th chapter of Isaiah, from the 4th to the 19th verse, where the prophet describes the fall of the Assyrian empire. A principal error, in the use of the Apostrophe, is, to deck the object addressed with affected ornaments ; by which authors relinquish the expression of passion, and substitute for it the language of fancy. Another frequent error is, to extend this figure to too great length. The language of violent passion is always concise, and often abrupt. It passes suddenly from one object to another. It often glances at a thought, starts from it, and leaves it unfinished. The succession of ideas is irre- gular, and connected by distant and uncommon relations. On all these accounts, nothing is more unnatural than long .speeches, uttered by persons under the influence of strong passions. Yet this error occurs in several poets of distin- guished reputation. The next figure in order, is Antithesis. Comparison is founded on the resemblance ; antithesis, on the contrast or opposition of two objects. Contrast has always the effect, to make e.'ich of the contr^^ted objects appear in the stronger light. White, for instance, never appears so bright as when it is opposed to black ; and when both are viewed together. An autlior, in his defence of a friend against the charge of murder, expresses himself thus : " Can you be- lieve that the person whom he scrupled to slay, when he might have done so with full justice, in a convenient place, at a proper time, with secure impunity ; he made no scru- ple to murder against justice, in an unfavourable place, at an tfnseLtton^ble time, and at the risk of capital condem- «ation?" Ti._ *_ii • i •__ A 11 'i'. A i._ At.:- a ,_^ ue luiiowiug ti&HiupieB lunuer I'lUBiraic uiis ugure. Tho* deep, yet clear ; tho' gentle, yet not dull ; • Strong, without rage ; without o'erflowiog, full. (( igures. ing the linst the n extra- apter of prophet , to deck y which obstitute ! to too s always 'rom one iirts from 1% is irre- relations. than long of strong of distin- arison is )ntrast or le effect, ir in the so bright e viewed rainst the you be- when he nt place, no scru- place, at condem- ;ure. I; Figures.) peespicuity, &c. 327 " If you wish to enrich a person, study not to increase his stores, but to diminish his desires." " if you regulate your desires according to the standard of nature, you will never be poor ; if accordu)g to the stand- ird of opinion, you will never be rich." A maxim, or moral saying, very properly receives the form of the two last examples ; both because it is supposed to be the fruit of meditation, and because it is designed to be engraven on the memory, which recalls it more easily by the help of such contrasted expressions. But where such sentences frequently succeed each other ; where this be- comes an author's favourite and prevailing manner of ex- pressing himself, his style appears too much studied and laboured ; it gives us the impression of an author attending more to his manner of saying things, than to the things themselves. The following is a beautifu! example of Antithesis. " If Cato may be censured, severely indeed, but justly, for aban- doning the cause of liberty, which he would not, however, survive ; what shall we say of those, who embrace it fiaiptly, pursue it irresolutely, grow tired of it when they have much to hope, and ^ve it up when tliey have nothing to fear V* — The capital antithesis of this sentence, is instituted be- tween the zeal of Cato for Hberty, and the indiiference of some others of her patrons. But, besides the leading anti- thesis, there are two subordinate ones, in the latter mem- ber : " Grow tired of it, when they have much to hope * and give it up, when they have nothing to fear." The eloquent Burke has exhibited a fine instance of this figure, in his eulogium of the philanthropic Howard. - " He has visited all Europe, — ^not to survey the sumptu- oueness of palaces, or the stateliness of temples ; not to make accurate measurements of the remains of ancient grandeur, nor to form a scale of the curiosity of modem art; nor to collect medals, or collate manuscripts : — ^but to dive into the depths of dungeons ; ^o plunge into the infectioo 328 APPENDIX. (Figures, of hospitals ; to sunrej the mansiona of sorrow and paiu ; to take the gage and dimeuBiona of miaery, depression, and contempt ; to remember the forgotten, to attend to the neg- lected, to viait the forsaken, and compare and collate the distreaaes of all men, in all countriea." The next figure concerning which we are to treat ia call- ed Hyperbole or Exaggeration. It consista in magnifying an object beyond its natural bounds. In all languagea, CTen in common conversation, hyperbolical expressionis very frequently occur : aa awift aa the wind ; aa white as the snow ; and the like ; and the common forma of compliment, are almost all of them extrayaguit hyperboles. If any thing be remarkably good or great in its kind, we are in- stantly ready to add to it some exaggerating epithet, and to make it the greatest or beat we ever aaw. The imagination haa alwaya a tendency to gratify itaelf, by magnifying ita preaent object, and carrying it t'j exceaa. More or leaa of thia hyperbolical turn will prevail in language, according to the livelinesa of imagination among the people who apeak it. Hence young people deal much in hyperboles. Hence the language of the Oriec Ja waa far more hyperbolical, than that of the Europeana, who are of more phlegmatic, or, per- hapa we may aay, of more correct imagination. Hence, among all writera in early timea, and in the rude perioda of society, we may expect thia figure to abound. Greater ex- perience, and more cultivated society, abate the warmth of ima^nation, and chasten the manner of expression. Hyperboles are of two kinds ; either such aa are em- ployed in deaoriptio!!, or auchas are auggeated by the warmth of passion. All passions without exception, love, terror, amazement, indignation, and even grief, throw the mind into confusion, aggravate their objects, and of course prompt a hyperbolical style. Hence the followng senti- nenta of Satan in Milton, aa strongly aa they are deacri- •ed, contain nothing but what is natural and proper ; ex- iting the picture of a mind agitated with rage and deapair. rigurcs. d paiu; lion, and the neg- )llate the it is call- ignifying res, even 3n» very ;e as the ipliment, If any re are in- it, and to agination ifying its or less of iccording rho spealc lence the ical, than 5, or, per- Hence, eriods of eater ex- 3 warmth sion. are em- by the 3n, love, hrew the of course ng senti- e descri' 1 despair. Figures.) PEBSPICUITT, &c. 3^ Ale, miserable ! which way shall I fly Infinite wrath, aad infinite despair ? Which way I fly is Hell, myself am Hell ; And in the lowest depth, a lower deep, ' Still threat'ning to devour me, opens wide. To which the Hell I suffer seems a Uearen. The fear of an enemy augments the conceptions of the size of their leader. " I saw their chief," says the scout of Ossian, " tall as a rock of ice ; his spear, the blasted fir ; his shield, the rising moon : he sat on the shore, like a cloud of mist on the hill." The errors frequent in the use of Hyperboles, arile either from overstraining, or introducing them on unsuita- ble oucasions. Dryden, in his poem on the Restoration of king Charles the Second, compliments that monarch, at the expense of the sun himself. That star at your birth shone out so bright. It staln'd the duller sun's meridian light. This is indeed mere bombast. It is difficult tQ ascer- tain, by any precise rule, the proper measure and boundary of this figure. Good sense and just taste must determine the point, beyond which, if we pass, we become extra- vagant. Vision is another figure of speech, which is proper only m animated and warm composition. It is produced when, instead of relating something that is past, we use the pre- sent tense, and describe it as actually passing beiore ouf eyes. Thus Cicero, in his fourth oration against Catiline : " I seem to myself to behold this city, the ornament of the earth, and the capital of all nations, suddenly involved in one conflagration. I see before me the slaughtered heaps of citizens, lying unburied in the midst of then: ruined country. The fqrious countenance of Cethegus rises tq my view, while, with a savage jcy, he is triumphing in your miseries." This manner of description supposes a sort of enthusiasm, which carries the person who describes^ in some measure K f 330 APPENDIX. (Figures. out of himself; ami, when well executed, must needs, by (he force of sympathy, impress the render or lieurer very strongly. But, in order to a successful execution, it requires an uncommonly warm imagination, and so ha|)py a selec tion of circumstances, as shall make us think we see be fore our eyes the scene that is described. Interrogation. The unfigured, literal use of interrogation, is to ask a question : but when men are strongly moved, whatever they would affirm or deny, with great carnestnes?, they naturally put in the form of a question, expressing thereby the strongest confidence of the truth of their own sentiment, and appealing to their hearers for the impossi- bility of the contrary. Thus Balaam expressed himself to Balak. " The Lord is not a man that he should lie, neither the son of man that he should repent. Hath he said it ? and shall he not do it ? Hatli he spoken it ? and shall he nut make it good ?" Interrogation gives life and spirit to discourse. Wc see tills :n the animated, introductory speech of Cicero against Catiline : " How long will you, Catiline, abuse our pa- tience ? Do you not perceive that your designs are disco- vered ?" — He might indeed have said ; " You abuse our patience a long while. You must be sensible, that your designs are discoverero against c onr pa- are tliaCO- abuse our that your eive, how the force »ns .of the ', and the 1 dwell in a fountain le slain of vilderness close and •ong emo- Figures.) perspicuity, &c. 331 tions of the mind. When judiciouBly employed, they agi- tate the bearer or the reader with similar passions : but it is extremely improper, and sometimes ridiculous, to use them on trivial eccasions, and on mean or low subjects. Vhe unexperienced writer often attempts to elevate his lan- guage, by the copious display of this figure : but he rarely or never succeeds. He frequently renders his composition frigid to excess, or absolutely ludicrous, by cal^ng on us to enter into his transports, when nothing is said or done to demand emotion. Irony is expressing ourselves in a manner contrary to our thoughts, not with a view to deceive, but to add force to our observations. Persons may be reproved for their neg- ligence, by saying ; " You have taken great care indeed.** Cicero says of the person against whom he was pleading ; " We have great reason to believe that the modest man would not ask him for his viebt, when he pursues his life." Ironical exhortation is a very agreeable kinu of figure ; which, after having set the inconveniences of a thing, In the clearest light, concludes with a feigned encouragement to pursue it. Such is that of Horace, when, having beau- tifully described the noise and tumults of Rome, be adds ironically ; *' Go now, and study tuneful verse at Rome." The subjects of Irony are vices and follies of all kinds : and this mode of exposing them, is often more effectual than serious reasoning. The gravest persons have not de- clined the use of this figure, on proper occasions. The wise and virtuous Socrates made great use of it, in his en- deavours to discountenance vicious and foolish practices. Even in the sacred writings, we have a remarkable instance of it. The prophet Elijah, when he challenged the priests of Baal to prove the truth of their deity, " mocked them, and said : Cry aloud, for he is a god : either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is in a journey, or peradventure ^.e sleepeth, and must be awaked.'' 332 APPERDix. (Figures. SxclamtUom and Irony are •omctiQici uaitedi as In Cicero's oration for Balbus, where be deriUei his aocuser, by Baying; " excellent interpreter of the law ! matter of antiquity ! corrector and air,ender of our oomtituiion !** The last 6giire of ipeecb that we shall mention, is what writers call AmpUJioatiou or Climasi. It consists in height- ening all the circumstances of an object or action, which we desire to place in a strong light. Cicero giTes a lively instance of this figure, when he says ; ** It is a crime to put a Roman citizen in bonds; it is the height of guilt to scourge him ; little less than parricide to put him to death : what name then shall I give to the act of crucifying him ?" Archbishop TiUotson uses this figure very happily, to re- commend good and virtuous actions: " After we have prac- tised good actions awhile, they become easy ; and when they are easyt we begin to take pleasure in them ; and when they please us, we do them frequently ; and by fre- quency of acts, a thing grows into a habit ; and confirmed habit is a kind of second nature ; and so far as any thing is natural, so far it is necessary ; and we can hardly do otherwise; nay, we do it many times when we do not think of it." We shall conclude this article with an example of a beau- tiful climax, taken from the charge of a judge to the jury, Jb the case of a woman accused of murdering her own child. " Gentlemen, if one man had any how slain an- other ; if an adversary had killed his opposer, or a woman occasioned the death of her enemy ; even these criminals would have been capitally punished by the Cornelian law ; but if thi^ guiltless infant, that could make no enemy, had been baiirdered by its own nurse, what punishment would not then the mother have demanded ? With what cries and exclamations would she have stunned your ears! What shall we say then, when a woman, guilty of homicide, a tiother, of the murder of her innocent child, hath com- iprised all those misdeeds in one single crime ? a crime, io Figures.) its own n a mother, age called affection, favour." We hav Perspicuit; constructi( under the the latter i the propel those attei pear minu greater th which is c clearly, n« impressioi rately, or feels this i in one sei compositi The fui which all muntco/e, natural oi minds ofi asdomoE tage, ma points ha^ we alway fully mast be occasi course, \ strength, For we e selves ill, (Figures, ed : ai In sftocuser, master of uOon!'* o, is what in helght- on, which BB a lively ime to put [ guilt to to death : ing him ?" pily, to re- have prac- and when lem; and ind by fre- confirmed > any thing hardly do ve do not of a beau- D the jury, 5 her own slain an- ' a woman criminals elian law ; emy, had ent would ! cries and rs! What micide, a lath com- crjme, io Figures.) perspiccitT) &cc. 333 its own nature, detastable ; in a woman, prodigious ; In a mother, incredible ; and perpetrated against one whose age called for compassion, whose near relation claimed aflfection, and whose innocence deserved the highest favour." We have now flnlshed what was proposed, concerning Perspicuity in single words and phrases, and the accurate construction of sentences. The former has been considered under the heads of Purity, Propriety, and Precision ; and the latter under those of Cleamess, Unify, Strength, and the proper use of Figurative Language. Though many of those attentions which have been recommended, maj^ ap- pear minute, yet their effect upon writing and style, is much ^eater than might, at first, be imagined. A sentiment which is expressed in accurate language, and in a period, clearly, neatly, and well arranged, always makes a stronger impression on the mind, than one that is expressed inaccu- rately, or in a feeble or embarrassed manner. Every one feels this upon a comparison : and If the effect be sensible in one sentence, how much more in a whole discourse, or composition that is made up of such »f^' ences ? The fundamental rule for writing wuh accuracy, and into which all others might be resolved, undoubtedly is, to eo7n- municate, in correct language^ and in the clearest and most natural order j the ideas which rvt mean to transfuse into the minds of others. Such a selection and arrangement of words, as do most justice to the sense, and express it to most advan- tage, make an agreeable and strong impression. To these points have tended all the rules which have been given. Did we always think clearly, and were we, at the same time, fully masters of the language in which we write, there would be occasion for few rules. Our sentences would then, of course, acquire all those pro[)ertie8 of clearness, unity, strength, and accuracy, which have been recommended. For we may rest assured, that whenever we express our- selves ill, besides the mismanagement of language, there is, 11 3iM APPENDIX. (Figure!!, for the most part, some mistake in our manner of conceiv- ing the subject Embarrassed, obscure, and feeble senten- ces, are generally, if not always, the result of embarrassed, obscure, and feeble thought. Thought and expression act and re-act upon each other. The understanding and lan- guage have a strict connexion ; and they who are learning to compose and Arrange their sentences with accuracy and order, are learning, at the same time, to think with accuracy and order ; a consideration which alone will recompense the student, for his attention to' this branch of literature. For a furlher explanation of the Figures of Speech f see tk* OeUxvQ GrammarfOntkusiUtjeci. ~~ "v(u "^■' .' .'.'■■ .■; ■-.. > ■'■ '.;* ('1 !!.'•: ■ ■!.} ■•>' i •; . ";l I ^ i.\ . ... - ' . '■' .'•' • . . The languag the nat address of it, literatui apply t In foi trations by a dei at the i pies of in some vating ] fund of ment c and th; enfeebl youth, With others them, ; writer < an eari friends This c S«s^. i^pr3u^7—>rrr't\ Figures, conceiv- e senteo- arrassed, ssion act and Ian- learning racy and accuracy ompense iterature. I, aee ikt jj! •:»>■. L .„„.-,.«.=f ADDRESS'* r"!""""'? ^' TO YOUNG STUDENTS. -' :)fc The Compiler of these elements of the English language, hopes it will not he deemed inconsistent with the nature and design of his work, to make a short address to the young persons engaged in the study of it, respecting their future walks in the paths of literature, and the chief purpose to which they should apply their acquisitions. In forming this Grammar, and the volume of Illus trations ; connected with it, the author was influenced by a desire to facilitate your progress in learning, and, at the same time, to impress on your minds princi- ples of piety and virtue. He wished also to assist, in some degree, the labours of those who are culti- vating your understandings, and providing for you a fund of rational and useful employment ; an employ-- ment calculated to exclu-^e those frivolous pursuits, and that love of ease and sensual pleasure, which enfeeble and corrupt the minds of many inconsiderate youth, and render them useless to society. Without your own best exertions, the cohcem of others for your welfare, will be of little avail : with them, you may fairly promise yourselves success. The writer of this address, therefore, recommends to you, an earnest co-operation with the endeavours of your friends to promote your improvement and happiness. This co-operation, whilst it secures your own pro- gress, , will afford you the heart-feU satisfaction, of t 336 ADDRESS Knowing that you are cherishing the hopes, and aug- menting the pleasures, of those with whom you are connected hy the most endearing ties. He recom mends to you also, serious and elevated views of the studies in which you may be engaged. Whatever may be your attainments, never allow yourselves to rest satisfied with mere literary acquisitions, nor with a selfish or contracted application of them. When they advance only the interests of this stage of being, and look not beyond the present transient scene, their influence is circumscribed within a very narrow sphere. The great business of this life is to prepare, and qualify us, for the enjoyment of a better, by culti- vating a pure and humble state of mind, and che- rishing habits of piety towards God, and benevolence to men. Eveiy thing that promotes or retards this important work, is of great moment to you, and claims your first and most serious attention. If, then, the cultivation of letters, and an advance- ment in knowledge, are found to strengthen and en- large your minds, to purify and exalt your pleasures, and to dispose yon to pious and virtuous sentiments and conduct, they produce excellent effects; which, with your best endeavours to improve thenl, and the Divine blessing superadded, will not fail to render you, not only wise and good yourselves, but also the happy instruments of diffusing wisdom, religion, and good- ness around you. Thus improved^ your acquisitions become handmaids to virtue ; and they niay eventually serve to increase the rewards, which the Supreme Being has promised to faithful and well-directed exer- tions, for the promotion of truth and goodness amongst men. -'^--.itmm:^ i,~~ TO TOtTNG 9TDDENT8. ' 3SV But if you counteract the hopes of your firieods, and the tendency of these attainments; if jrougrow vain of your real or imaginary distinctions^ and re- gard with contempt, the virtuous, unlettered mind; if you suffer yourselves to be absorbed in oyer-cu- rious or trifling speculations; if your heart and princi- ples be debased and poisoned, by the influence of corrupting and pernicious books, for which no elegance of composition can make amends ; if you spend so much of your time in literary engagements, as to make them interfere with higher occupations, and lead you to forget, that pious and benevolent action is the great end of your being : if such be the unhappy mis- application of -onr acquisitions and advantages, — ^in- stead of becor . a blessing to you, they will prove the occasion oi greater condemnation; and, in the hour of serious thought, they may excite the painful reflections, — ^that it would have been better for you, to have remained illiterate and unaspiring; to have been confined to the humblest walks of life; and to have been even hewers of wood and drawers of water all your days. Contemplating the dangers to which you are ex- posed, the sorrows and dishonour which accompany talents misapplied, and a course of indolence and folly, may you exert your atmost endeavours to avoid them ! Seriously reflectmg on the great end for whidi you were brought into existence; on the bright and encouraging examples of many excellent young per- sons; and on the mournful deviations of others, who once were promising ; may you be so wise as to cJioose and follow that path, which leads to honour, useful- ness, and true enjoyment ! Thi» »8 the moniing of your 8Sd '8^'- ^'iBbSkl^i • hft, kk iMnh pttrtcJrt id ftrdent, and obsldeles readily givA ?^3r td yigdCDT and pe«a«VeraBcc. Embrace tiiu finroWfiiMe season ; devote yowsekes to the acquisition of knowledge and nrtue $ and liutnbly pray to Ood tiiaft be may lien your labours. Often reflect on the adyaai(;ages you possesSi and on the source l^om whence they are all deiired. A lively sense of the privilegee and blessings, by which you have been distinguished, will induce you to render to your heavenly Father, the just returns of gratitude and love : and these fruits df early goodness will be regarded by him as accepta- ble oSerings, aad secure to you hh favour and pro** tel:tion. Whatever difficulties and discouragements may be feund in resisting the allurements of vi&^e, you may be humbly confident, that Divine assistance will be stffoirded to aU your good and pious tiasolutions ; and $hat eyefy virtuous effort will have a coirespondent re- ward. You may rest assured too, that all die advan- tages arising from vicious indulgences, are light and contemptible, as well as exceedin^y transient, com- pared with the substantial enjoyments, the present pleasures, and the future hopes, which resute £rom pie^ and virtue. The Holy Scripturss assure us, thai ^ The ways of wisdom are ways of pleasant- ness, %id that all her paths are peace:'' '* that re- ligion has the promise of the life that now is, and of that which is to come :'' and that the truly good man, whatever may be.tiie condition allotted to him by Divine Providence, " in all things gives thanks, and r^oices even in tribulation." — >Some of these sentiments have been finely illustrated by a celebrated poet. The author of this address presents he illus- TO YOUNG STUDEKTS. 339 tn'^on to yo ;, as a striking aad beautiful portrait of virtue : with his most cordial wishes, that your hearts and lives may correspond to it ; and that your happi ne^ here, may be an earnest of happiness hereafter. w» ** Kooff then this truth, (enough for man to know,) Virtue alone is happiness belotv : The only point where human bliss stands still ; And tastes the good, without the fall to ill : Where only merit constant pay receives, Is bless'd in what it takes, and what it gives ; The joy unequall'd, if its end it gain, And If it lose, attended with no pain : Without satiety, though e'er so blessM ; And but more relish'd as the more distressed : The broadest mirth unfeeling folly wears, Less pleasing far than virtue's very tears : Good, from each object, from each place acquir'd ; For ever exercis'd, yet never tir'd ; Never elated, while one man's oppress'd ; Never dejected, while another's bless'd : i^d where no wants, no wishes can remain ; Since but to wish more virtue, is to gain.-— For him alone hope leads from goal to goal. And opens still, and opens on his soul ; Till lengthen'd on to faith, and unconfin'd. It pours the bliss that^fills up all the miod.* w l» THE END. / ■•/ r^^ I)- - : ■ \ I It: rt! ....... I . «.. ... ., ,r KijT^ r.?'*roY '';T ,i T i;f. jvfjr;*!-?)*; ?.n..- \ ;:.n: .; .- • ^'■ •V •. »»: .. -K .>/• ij, A V^ tt'.-.uti'" ntrn I <: ARMOUR & RAMSAY, . ' t ST. PAUL STREET, ,;. i MONTREAL, HAVB ON HAND A STOCK OF THK FOLLOWING / SGHOOI.-BOOKS : ri .li'i I!i V;. i 'i)V?< ..i? The Canadian Primer, by Peter Parley, Junior. Manson's Primer. Mayor's Spelling Book. Bentley'a do. Dilworth'a do. Webster's do- Murray's Small Grammar. MURRAY'S LARGE GRAM- MAR. The high price at which former^ editions were sold, alone pre-l vented this standard School Book from coming into general use. The publishers have made it their study to produce the present edition at such a rate as to insure it a ready sale . 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