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Les diagrammes suivants iiiustrant la mAthode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 S 6 .*i^ Is ?.«/ !iesS"'Mg~*^ .,-^J'- '.Jr^,.-. !£;.<.■;., >*.»- ■MMsaMMIi inifflrn II iiliiiii :«■-*' ENCYCLOPiEDIA Of GEOGRAPHY: COHPRISINO A OOMPLETE DESCRIPTION OF THE EARTH, (■ PHYSICAL, STATISTICAL, aviL, AND POLITICAL; I' 'I EXHIBITIRO ITS RELATION TO THE HEAVENLY BODIES, ITS PHYSICAL STRCCTCRE, THE NATURAL HISTORY OF EACH COUNTRY, AND THE INDUSTRY, COMMERCE, POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS, AND CIVIL AND SOCIAL STATE or ALL NATIONS BY HUGH MURRAY, F.R.S.E. ASSiaTKD IN ASTTRONOMY, &c. BY PROF. WALLACE, | BOTANY. &e. BY PROFESSOR HOOKEll GEOLOGY. Ae. BY PROF. .AMESON. I ZOOLOGY. &c BY W. SWAINSON. ESQ ILLUSTRATED BY EIGHTY-TWO MAPS, AND ABOUT ELEVEN HUNDRED OTHER ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD RETUBENTINO THK HOST REMARKABLX OBJXCTS OF NATVIIK AMO AST IN EVERT REGION OF THE GLOBE. TOOETHBR WITH A NEW MAP OF THE UNITED STATEa REVISED, WITH ADDITIONS, BY THOMAS G. BRADFORD. IN THREE VOLUMES. VOL. I. i.\ PHILADELPHIA: BLANC HARD AND LEA. 1857. *.\ .V. .- p i ^ Gns- A3 "J. M .,. .?',< V . >■ I. 1 A ,< I . .,, J , ;.!;T iV/ Entered according to the act of Congress in tbi jear eighteen hundred and thirty-nz, by CAREf, LEA, AND BLANCHABO. In the clerk's office of the district court for the eastern district of Pennsylvania. 3. STEREOTS-PED BY J. FAOAN FHII.ADELFHIA. PBINTI'.D BY C. 8HERUAN AND CO. ^ /•■■I i \ '..' ji- i (;>/ 1 ..UJ PREFACE TO THE ENGUSH EDITION. .1 .: .1 The value and Importance of the study of Geoflpraphy are so obvious, and indeed so universally acknowledged, as to require little illustration. Nothing can be more mteresting to man, or more gratify his thirst for Icnowledge, than a survey of the earth which he inhabits, peopled as it is by beings of the same nature with himself. To visit and observe foreign climes and regions is an object of {general desire, and forms one of the most enectual means of enlarging and enlightening the human mind. This wish, however, unless in the case of a few individuals, can be gratified only to a very limited extent, and in none can embrace more than a small portion of the vast variety of interesting objects which the earth comprises. This necessary defect of personal observation may, however, be in a great measure supplied, by collecting the reports and narratives of those intelligent Individuals who have explored and described its various regions, and forming out of these a general description of the world and its inhabitants. Works of this class have always possessed a peculiar attraction. Even in ancient times, when the extent of the known world, and the information with respect to the inhabitants and productions of its remoter regions, were comparatively Umited, the geographical descriptions of Herodotus, Strabo, Pomponius Mela, and Pliny, rank among the most valuable productions of the classic ages. But in modern times, and particularly in the present age, Geography has acquired a mutli more prominent place among the departments of human knowledge. The discovery of America in the fifteenth century awakened a spirit of enterprise, and a desire to explore unknown regions, that have continued to gain new strength. During the last half century more especially, the most civilised nations of Europe have oeen contending with each other for the glory of discovery ; and there is now scarcely a shore however remote, or the Interior of a continent however barbarous or difficult of access, which has not been surveyed and described. Materials have thus been provided for a much more complete. Interesting, and authentic description of the earth, than could have been drawn up at any former period. The extensive discoveries thus recently made have thrown a wonderfiil light on the structure and productions of the earth, and afforded large contributions to aH the departments or natural history They have also displayed man in every varied condition, from the highest refinement of civilised society, to the rudest and most abject condition of savage life. These representations are not only interesting in themselves, but throw fight on the history of past ages. Communities are still found exactly similar to some of those described in the earliest records of antiquity. The tent of the Arab sheik differs little from that which Abraham pitched on tne plains of Mamre ; many of the Tartar tribes are a people exactly similar to those who roamed In early ages over the plains of Scjrthia ; and the splendid courts of Babylon and Persepolis have their representatives in the existing world. We may thus, in fact, trace back man to an earlier and ruder stage than any represented in the ancient records ; for these convey only faint and fabulous notions of what mankind had been at a very early period. But the wilds of America, and the shores of the Pacif^'^, exhibit the state of savage simplicity, which doubtless existed in Europe before the light of authentic history had begun to dawn. Hence it is that Geography, in its present extended range, not only shows man as he actually exists, but delineates, as It were, the progressive history of the species. Besides the gratification thus aflforded to a liberal curiosity, the knowledge of even the remotest regicms has, through recent events, become an object of the utmost practical importance. In many of these, colonies have been founded, political relations formed, and a commercial intercourse with them opened, by the civilised nations of Europe, and particularly by Britain. Regions the most distant to which a ship can sail form integral portions of her dominion, and have their ports crowded with her vessels. There are thousands In this country who have a more intimate connection with Calcutta or Sydney, than with towns in their immediate vicinity. The manu&cturer labours to supply the markets of countries, the very existence of which, fifty years ago, was unknown ; the circumnavigation of the globe is now an ordinary trading voyage. The knowledge of Geography has thus become a necessary qualification for the pursuits of commerce and indus- try, and for much of the ordinary and current business of life. A great proportion of the youth of Britain are trained for employments In countries which lie far beyond the limits of Europa 8 69(552 PREFACE TO THE BNOLIBH EDITION. m m The same causes have, moreover, given to the knowledge of distant countries a peculiar hold on the domestic and social affections. There are few amongst us who have not a near relation, perhaps a brother or a child, residing in another nemispnere. Oceans now separate us from those to whom we are united by the tenderest ties ; the objects of our affection have their abode on the banks of the Ganges, or the shores of the Pacific ; and many, whose hearts are knit in the closest friendship, are divided from each other bv half the earth. In this situation, • description of the place in which oiur friena or relative dwells, the objects which meet his eye, the societv in which he mingles, must afford peculiar Ratification, and soothe the mind under this paiufiil separatioa Deeply impressed with a sense of the great extent and difficult execution of a complete geographical work, the Eklltor, during nearly ten years in which he has been engaged upon it, has used the utmost exerlion to procure from every quarter information and aid. He has studiously collected the most recent, authentic, and accurate accounts of the extent, natural features, population, productions, industry, political constitution, literature, religiont and social state of the various regions of the globe, with the leading details as to their districts and cities. The sciences connected with the natural history of the earth have, however, attained to such an extent and importance, that a thorough knowledge of them can only be possessed bv individuals who have specially devoted themselves to one particular branch. The Editor, therefore, considered it essential to procure the co-operation of writers who had risen to acknowledsed eminence in the departments of Geology and Mineralogy, Zoology and Botany. He considered that he bad fully succeeded, when Professor Jameson undertook to delineate the geological structure of the globe, and the distribution of minerals over its surface ; Mr. Swainson to explain the distribution of animals, and the most remarkable of those found in each particu- lar region; and Dr. Hooker to perform the same task in regard to the vegetable Idngdom. Profbssor Wallace has illustrated the relations of the earth as a planet, the trigonometrical surveys, the construction of maps, and other subjects connected with mathematical science. These tasks have been executed in a manner which, It is hoped, will fUlIy support the high reputation of their respective authors. In greparing the sections relating to commerce, the editor derived much assistance om Mr. M*CiilIoch's Dictionary of Commerce, and he is also indebted to that gentieman for many valuable communications. Various parts relating to remote countries have been revised by gentiemen recently returned from them. The Maps, which are so numerous as to form a complete Atias, have been executed from drawings by Hall; and having been carefully revised by the Editor, they will, it is'hoped, be found to be accurate, and to include all the most recent dis- coveries. Notwithstanding the smallness of the scale, they are illustrated by the letter-press in a manner which enables them to comprise equal information with others of much larcer dimensions. The other WoodEngravings are mostly original, or have been carefblly selected from the most faithfbl representations of the objects described; and they are exe- cuted in the best style by the eminent artists whose names appdur on the title-page. They exhibit the most remarkable plants and animals, the chief cities, public buUd- ings, natural curiosities, and picturesque scenery, with the characteristic figures and costumes of the natives, in the countries described. It is not believed that any work of this kind is similarly embellished, at least to nearly the same extent. These representations are by no means introduced for the salce of mere ornament ; they will be found of the greatest utility, conve]dng an infinitely better i lea of the objects than could be derived firom the most laboured description. Notwitiistanding all these efforts, it is impossible to lay this volume before the Public without the painful reflection, that, in a subject involving such an infinite number and variety of details, many of which are often very difficult to procure, not a few imperfections and even errors must inevitably occur. M. Balbi, whose exertions to collect the most recent geographical information are well known, and to whose labours the present volume 16 much indebted, candidly observes :— " One of the greatest obstacles to be surmounted in the composition of an elementary treatiso of Geography is the want of contemporary documents. Geography is olmost necessaiSy a compound of things which are, with things which have ceased to be. How can one be informed of aU the changes that take place in the course of a few years, even in tiie capitals of Europe, sUH more in those of Asia, AfHca, and America 1 To compose a Geograi^y which should exhibit a complete picture of the globe at a particular period, it would be necessary to have authentic docu- ments, all of the same date and that a recent one; which never has been, and never can be." <5 h.u!.;J (!'.i;i...'.l W; ADVERTISEMENT ^' :'*''^:'""^*^^ '^'= '^;/^'; .!,■■ ■.,!,.'' '..^ff'itX i»t''|'* .■•;'« '•'...■♦V i)«''.ii.i).» , •"■'M'ljiuv'Jii ij'fl fM . ■ ' ■ 'to ths ' t • , 1 ., .-ti AMERICAN EDITION, if .'hi?- The object and plan of the ENCTCLOPiEDiA of Geography have i)een very fully set forth in the Preface to the English Edition, and the names of the editor and his collaborators are sufficient vouch- ers for its value. It is due, however, to the American reader, to inform him in what respects these volumes differ from the original. The whole of the EInglish work is here given, with the single ex- ception, that the description of Great Britain, which occupied more than one-third of the Book devoted to Europe, and con- siderably more than the space given to the whole of America, has been somewhat abridged ; but, it is believed, without the omission of any thing of importance. The text has been carefully revised and corrected throughout, and in most cases more recent statis- tical details have been substituted for those of the original. The additions to the first volumes are not considerable in amount, but are generally such as have be^ required by changes in oi*r' know- ledge or in the condition of things. The Book relating to Ai ierica has been enlarged as far as the limits of the work would allow, principally by the addition of local details ; the condition of the new American states is too unsettled to render it worth while to fill much space with accounts of their political relations, which might be entirely changed before these pages met the eye of the reader. The Chapter which treats of the United States has been written anew, the original being extremely imperfect and incorrect, as all European treatises on the subject are. — Our growth is so rapid, the increase of our population, wealth, commerce, manufac- tures, and other industrial resources, so amazing, the creation of new towns, cities, nay, states, is continually making such a change 1* 6 %, .,^v, #■•** ft ADYBRTISBMBNT TO THB AMBRICAN BDITION. in the face of things, public works are conceived, planned, and executed on so great a scale and with such promptitude, that it is not at all surprising that a distant writer should be entirely baffled in his attempts to describe the country as it is. The SCoolooical section has alone been retained, but it has been much enlarged, chiefly from a later work of Mr^'Swainson^s ; and some general remarks upon the shells of the United States have been added. For the account of the Geology of our country, the reader is indebted to Prof. Rogers, of the University of Pennsylvania. The Botanical section has also been prepared by a gentleman of high reputation in the scientific world. The Editor is painfully sensible of the imperfection of the other parts of this Chapter, but he trusts that the difficulties of the subject will obtain for him the indulgence of the reader. ■ ~^^ »• « -- ' • - ' - — - - ^ ^^ - PBn.Ai>M.«iiA,OrtofterW,i88e:' '^'.' noiNp:.v>!. ofli Ji..?] .Mu%io iinminv Gt'l tiioiitjv/' J).>voi!.!u Ht il J.'xf : fv^- hr:<}.; ttitlvf- ,•:(■: f\yA\ ly^sr/st '(.l][i/);'T«'> f"|;>(f ai.)i .!/i;f -jiiT ' .■v'.»(is-'<'4/.:t 'lo ^fv 'f ,',«rr 'to •tftisii'j imyy^t: onoax m>'.r.'\ i ■nfu ij {.trui .f»«iifvHf.iMi \y,i'. xxi-u- > Ivj'. /«gll'u fe{irv>v/ :^V)V 'rM 'to U:h ;! wdi >^i; ist '<■■; b.>vt;-[n'? v.. "J j-km wlJ lo liOt)i(»«0:'> mh :--.fiul"!i f; wi lo Koijiliftrv mi: vJ /'i, .li-Hti-ii; «>*li lo $iV'» fnft torn K'>7>r'^| u-f-oAi tnol'Hl f)ai^(jj«l') ylyittii - 'o*.* W>^\ui ttji'^fd s«ff K'jJiti'Si vjifiJ j.{If lo ftt«s'?tt ft'>fi!.v *i Ujuti ) --MCr '.rjlMtif ,r*f)«ior^ai b«/i i'.wl'rjq/ai,7Jofu'.>*!lzo jjfiir>:5 Wn!jmcv'biL%Yf'>fio it •tu-oY > *M«*»*«fi\| VV> • . ''' .' tu il CONTENTS OF VOL. I. ■ ft. MMttJt*^ J/ ni mirAcn to tub bnoum iDmoif » in rBBTAOB BT TRB AMERICAN BDITOB V nmoDuonoir % PART I. .t>t. RisTOBT or oBooiunnr. ■n t* (i;i BOOK I. ANonir^ aMojunr l» utf yVanlelin Gtognphy « P«»».«ir*i" " 11. KlBfikMi .A.^iknki I P••^arrJM' Aim... 11. KlBfikMi of final, lit. ConunerM of TVN . ft|«n> 10 U !V. tlM Worl<< iieeohlini to tiw Rtbrtwi'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. n 1. Tanhlth U 8. OpMr 14 1. Tim IiIu 19 4. Bhcba and Dedtn IS 5. OnuntilM oa iha Kuphrataa 17 •^OoiiMWK.twItlMNarUi ,.,,,>„,um 17 CHAP. fl. AndaiilVojraivaorDlMOTenr U I. Clreumna*l|aiioD of Aflrlea undar Ifaetao 18 II. Voyagaof Botaipaa IS III. Vuyaga of Hanno 10 IV. Vojrai* of BwloiiM M V. Voyafo of Fytheaa V. Voyafo of Fytheaa VJ VI. Voyage of NearclMil M VIL rariploa of the Erythrean ■•■ 17 CHAP. lU. Oreek Oeofraphy befbre Alexandar. I. Oeofraphy of Homer II. Poetical Oeoiraphy . I of iMilntua . 10 31 III. School of Mllntua S IV. Oeograpliy of Herodotua 33 1. Europe of Herodotua 34 9. Alia of Herodotua 34 8. AlHoaoT Heradotua 18 CHAP. nr. Flrat Alexandrian School. Eraloathenaa and filrabo 37 I. Expedition of Alexander. 37 II. Expedition of Btleueaa 38 III. Eraloathsnea 38 IV. HIpparehui SO V. The World acoordlnitoEratoBtbanea Mid Strabo 30 1. Europe 40 S. Alia «>* 8. AAriea C CHAP. V. Boman Oeofrapby. I. Mela.rr....... II. Pliny m. Itiaarai lea— Peutlnierian TaUa 40 CHAP. VI. laeond Alexandrian School ....81 I. Marinua of T^re 81 n. Ptolemy 88 1. Europe .« S3 B. Alia 80 a. Aftka 80 BOOKIL owMttAnn aw n OHAP. L '■i^rr ; Arabian o«offnpiir ..;.;?^'..;;.;...'8l'" I. Oenaral iyitem 81 II. Alia.... ai IIL Africa 88 OHAP. n Eunpeau Oeoiraplqr daring tha Dark Afaa 88 CRAP. III. Gaoiraphlcal Xaowledia derived from tlM Oraaadw. 8t OHAP. IV. .»<^ TanarOeography ^u fli- OHAP. ▼. Vanatlan Gaography ff i<.e BCXMCni. ■ ta*** 4* •• a ••a«*a«aaaa«a*« 43 • •••a«aa*a«««aa 49 MODUN OlOOKArar. V 'Mtttvl it OHAP. I. Dlieovarjr of Amertea and tha Eait Indlaa 88 OHAP. II. Early Byitem of Modem Oeographjr.MxMOH »>wi10 CHAP. Ill -"'^^f^f'^^ ^?|- Modem Aatioaomleal Geography )l OHAP. nr. Modem Oritieal Oeography IS OHAP. V. , ,,i,',) in„i .t%. (■ .1^ Modem Deaeriptlve and Statlatical C« u t ikHj ...t.. ii OHAP. TL Modem Gaograpby of Aiia.. 94 OHAP. vn. Modem Oaofraphy of Africa ••••'i^ q^ .,..,.,.,, ... CHAP. VnL '7*-]' Modem Geography of Amerka f n OHAP. n. Modem Geograplqr of tlM Aonnl Ba^ and Uanda. 1^ .. V(l<|l ... -^I'si: \\ II 111 i.,upt(>i»i!«i>3»ii . PART II. •;.-•■•:'■ •><• PRIirCIPIiES or GSOGRAFHT. BOOK L AanoiioiiiaAii nuNOiru^Vv''<- *'' ■•. .•-i!l5t1^^t~>V ,.1«K .«■ -fM «>■«' •■> '* ■'" ■■■ ■ Htll 4;ft OHAP. L SaMra View of the Phenomena of tiM HeaTena, appannt Motiona, flzed Stan, Planeta, tee. 80 ■ .•fi>k•.,^.%y„.■,i^*ls^,■m?^ ctur.tii - The Heavana, aa aaea tliroagh tba Tcleaeope Bl OHAP. in. Appnxlmatloa to tha Figura and Magaltoda ef tha Ippfo] Bartl fUl OOMTBinib \^ .J f 4 if CHAP, n OoclrlM of lb* IplMrt M CHAP. V. leutlok of llM Bull, Moon, tnd titMtt M tlHlf Aim -llMir tigan M OHAr. vt. INM«i.«M and MM'lhMl* of »m HMVialjr lodlM. ■ n CHAP. VII. Boutloa of tlM lartk m CHAP. VIII. Apptrani AniiatI Molloa af Iba fca. Vidallada oraaaioat ORAP. IX. IHrlMoa and Maaturt of TIaM. CMAP. X. ProMr MMioB of Iha Moai. Uw Phaaia. XellpaM of Iba lua and Mooa CHAP. XI. Motion of Iba Planala round Iha Sua IM CHAP. XII. Motion ofthalartb round Iba Bna 110 OBAP. XIIL OrbtiaoflbaPlaaaia lis CHAP. XIV. OooMU 114 CHAP. XV. Law of UalvarMl OraTltalion iM CHAP. XVI. Fifura and Conitilutton of tba Bartb dadaead flrom UM Tbaorjr of OrkTltallon IM CHAP. XVIL TbaTMta M CHAP. XVIIL Oaaaral Vlaw af Iba lolar ■yMMH M CHAP. XIX. PIf ara and Mafniluda of Iba Karik Ill CHAP. XX. OttaiMlaalloa of Lailiada and U«|llada...» 117 CMAP. XXL Kapiaaanlalion of Iba lartk ........ ...... Ui Malaofolonr. Hrdrolofjr... Oaognoajr.... BOOK II. awLooiOAi. nuHoirLn. CHAP. I. CHAP. n. crap! iii.' BOOK IIL OKNUAL ptiNCirLn Of aiooEArar citnm iTf ULATION TO OMANiaU AND UTINO aUNOI. CHAP. I. Oaotrapbr MBaidarad in ralallon lo Iba Oiftribatlon ofPlania tsr CHAP. II. Ototraphjr eontldcnid In ralallon lo Iba Uitrlbailon of Man and Anlnala IM CHAP. III. Oaofripby contldtred la ralallon to Man In loalaty >7%- ■i(*i.' •-' n» (vmtff-' '■.•K« . : PART III. OBOORAPHY COIfSIDBRKD Iff RBLATIOIV TO THE VARIOX^ REOIOffS Or THK OLOBBi ' BOOK I^EUROPE. CHAP. I. OaHBRAL Bcnvar or Eoaora WB I. Natural Pe^lurao SM II. Inbabitanu Ml III. Botany IM IV. Zoolofy 998 V. Languaiaa 398 CHAP. II. BM0i.*ra SIS I. Oaographleal Outllna 317 II. Natural Oaomphy 319 III. Illitorieal Oaotrajiby S41 IV. Political Qaoarap^ 349 V. ProduetlTa Induitry «....•«.... 311 VI. Civil ond Bocial Btala 3S7 VIL Local Gaqcraphy 388 1. Bouthem Oountiea 364 9. Baatern Countiaa 388 3. Central Counllea 371 4. Northern Conntlaa 3(9 8. Weflarn Countiaa 391 & Walei 398 CHAP. lU. ricoTi.AnB 401 I. Gaofraphlcal Outlina 401 If. Natural Oeofraphy 403 m. Hiitorical Sunray 400 IV. Political Oonititutlon 400 V. Productive Induitry 410 VL Civil and Social Wata 413 VII. Local Geography 41S 1. The Lowland Countiaa 4M 9. The Highland Countlea 493 3. The Bcottiih Ulanda 498 CHAP. nr. II8L4IIB ■ 433 I. General Outline and Aipaet 439 II. Natural Ctoography «*. 433 m. Hiitorical Geography 440 IV. Political Oonititution 441 V. Productive Induitry 443 VL Civil and Social Mate 440 VIL Local Geography 4S0 CHAP. T. DamiMK 463 I. General Ootline and Aipeel 46S ' n. Natural Geography 471 in. Hiitorical Geography 471 IV. Productive Induitiy 471 V. Political Geograpby 47S VL Civil and Social Stale ».^ 473 Vll. lioeal Geogranb; -».«..«»««. .m.»m.«m. . 473 CHAP. VL ■waoaN AND Norway 478 I. Cenaral Outline and Aapael 470 II. Natural Geography 470 IIL Hiitorical Geography 481 IV. Political Geography 481 V. Productive Induitry 481 VL Civil and Social SUta 484 VIL Local Geography 486 1. Sweden 480 9. Norway 401 3. Lapland 403 CHAP. VIL RoUAnnAire BaLaiuM 4M I. General Outline and Aapact IL Natural Geography III. Hiitorical Geography IV. Political Geography V. Productive Induitry VL Civil and Social Rate . .. ■ VII. Local Geography •.*....•*..••• I «..•.•.«•..... ..4IB ..408 • •aa ••aooaaaaa* ,009 .803 .MS . . . .008 L Beliiuro 009 9. Holland Oil CHAP. VIIL FiANca sn I. General Outline and Aipaet 019 IL Natural Geography MO IIL Hiilorieal Geography 030 IV. Political Geography 039 V. Productive Induitry 034 VL Civil and Bocial SMta 040 VIL Local Geography 043 CHAP. IX. Bpain 038 I. General Outline aad Aapael S88 IL Natural Geography SOB IIL Hiiturical Geography 808 IV. Folitieal Geomphy 870 V. Productive Induitry 87] VL Civil and Social Stata 5JS VIL Local Geography 875 VIIL BepuMle of Andorra OBI CHAP. X. FORTIMAL L General Onlllne and Aapact . IL Natural Geography IIL Hiitorical Geography IV. PoUtieal Geography V. Productive Induitry .. ggo 800 090 801 001 ata VL Civil and Social AaU 803 V|L Lnc>!€«Q8ra^>!!y w3 i., ^ ENCYCLOPiEDIA OF GEOGRAPHY. «■ 1. INTRODUCTION. GwMMAPHT coniiiU in th« dMcription tad delinMtkn of the Etith. It coiuidfln that planet in reepoct to its fi>m, iti connexion with other bodies in the univene, the vtrioua puti into which it ia divided, their relatione to each other, and the objeota with which each ia reapectiveljr filled. Geography indeed could not attempt a acientiflc analjrsia of all these objecta, without seeking to comprohond within itaelf a complete circle of science. It viewa only their obvioua and visible characters, and chiefly those featu/es which arr peculiar 1o each respective country and region on the ikce of the globe. The great importance of this branch of knowledge must be sufficiently obvious It embraces a vast variety of those objects which are most interesting in themselves, and with which it most concerns man to be conversant. It enables the navigator, the merchant, the military commander, to carry on their reapective operations. Geography is moreover essential to the clear understanding of every branch of the history both of man and nature. The transactions of bordering states are unintelligible without a knowledge of their rel^ tive extent and position, and of the theatre on which the great events of their history arc acted. Every form, both of animal and vegetable nature, is modified in the most striking manner by the climate or the country in which it is placed. Still more intimate is its re- lation with geology and other sciences, which investigate the materials composing thu substance and crust of the earth. None of these branches of knowledge can be distinctly understood, or viewed under its proper relation and arrangement, without a previous know ledge of geography. This important and extensive subject seems to divide itself naturally into three parti. The Fir$t Part treats of the " History of Geography ;" the origin and pro g ress of the Science ; and the steps by which man, who seemed fixed by nature in a local and limited position, has made himself acquainted with the immense circuit of the globe. This Part ia divided into— L Ancient Geography ; — IL Geography of the Middle Ages ; — HL Modem Geography. The Second Part comprises the Prineipht of the Science. These are — I. Matkematu eal: those which relate to the form of the earth, its movementa, its plaee in the Solar System, the great circles by which it is divided, the operations by which it is surveyed, and the modes in which its spherical outlme can bo represented on the plane surface of a map. n. Phyneal: those which treat of the substances which cover the earth's surface, the elements which compose and aurround it; rock, earth, water, air, aa they appear under t^ various forms of mountain, plain, river, sea, and present all the changing phenomena of the atmoephere. HI. Geography may be considered in its relation to pther objects and sciences. 1. To Zoology, or the distribution of animals over the globe. 2. To Botany, or the difilision of vegetable productions. 3. To the human race, and the various branches into which it has been formed, considered in rotation to numbers, wealth, political union, social, intellectual, and moral condition. The Third Part considers Geography in detail, as it applies to the various quarters and countries into which the world is divided, the outline and extent of each, its natural fea> tures, the revolutions through which it has passed, its political constitution, the icdastrjr and wealth, the civil and social condition of its inhabitants. The descripticm of each country will conclude with a local and topographical survey of ita districts, cities, and towns. This Part will divide itaelf into five general heads : — ^I. Europe. U. Asia. lU. Afiriea. IV. Australia. V. America. An Index will be added, which, being extremely copious, and containing refbrenees t« all the places mentioned in the*work, will answer in a great degree the purpoees of a Geo> graphic^ Gazetteer. _^^.^ ]^ .■■r:^iVi: ■■^^..'■ - v.- •: ■•- J■•>n,-^►i7t^f^^•"i|'«^ff?^f•^e M?:*'.) "in (■ .(i;;^/i' *.\'.^ i"'y"[ PART I. ' '^ ' HISTORY OF OEOORAPHY. The History of Geography may be divided into three books: — ^L Ancient Qeognjity. T Geography of the middle ages. III. Modem Geography. 4J . '\ .^ ■; t ■ (■ i' ] BOOK I. ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. The Greography of the Ancients may be conai'lered under the heads of, I. Hebiew and PhoBnician Geography ; the principal features of which may be found in the Jewidi Scriptures. II. Greek Geography, in its early state, before the expedition of Alexander. ni. The first Alexandrian school formed by Eratosthenes. IV, The Roman school, finrmed chiefly by Mela and Pliny. V. The second Alexandrian school, formed by Ptolemy. 1 • ■. -fft-'-.. *■. CHAPTER L -.», ■ HEBREW AND PHOENICIAN GEOORAPHT. The Sacred Records, in addition to their higher claims on the attention of mankind, possess the important secondary advantage, that they enable us to trace human existence, and the forms of society, back to a much earlier period than the information derived firoro any other source. They were long anterior in this respect to the classic story of Greece and Rome ; the faintest light even of whose fabulous history cannot be traced back to the .period when Abraham was driving his flocks over the seats of future empire on the Euphrates. AoKHiff Abraham's contemporaries we discern the germ of the mat monarchies which fint changed the face of human aflairs. Nimrod, the founder of Babylon, almost like au Iroquois chief, is mainly celebrated for his activity and success in the chase. Modem di» covery has indeed made us acquainted with tribes existing in a still ruder form ; but there is no narrative in which we can trace so distinctly the gradual, yet somewhat rapid, transi- tion made in these &vourcd regions, from the hunting and pastoral, to the commercial and agricultural states of society. Sect. L — The Patriarchal Age$. In the early patriarchal records we discover first the rich Mesopotamian plain, not yet covered with cities and harvests, but standing as an open cranmon, over which the sons o# Terah drove unmolested their flocks and herds. In these fiivourable circumstances, and surrounded by suriple and rural plenty, the flocks and the shepherds multiplied in an extras ordinary manner. The heads of the families became petty princes, and were as such at once respected and ffeared. As they went on increasmg, the land became "not able to bear them ;" and the most intimate friends were able to prevent dissension among their adherents only by an entire though painful separation ; nay, even by striking into routes so opposite, as to prevent the possibility of a future union. This, however, was rather a palliation than a cure for the evil ; for, in whatever quarter each directed his course, he came into contact with other families. The difficulty was still augmented, when all the more fertile tracts began to be cultivated by a fixed population, subject to regular govern- ment The first regions which came under these circumstances appear to have been Lower EJgypt and Gerar, on the coast of Philistia, along the Mediterranean. In the latter we find Imac attempting to settle and cultivate the ground ; but the king, though evidently afinid to offend so potent a tribe, insisted, in a determined though courteous manner, upon their quitting his territory. The family were therefore obliged finally to establish themselves in the vicinity of Hebron, collecting the somewhat scanty herbage which grew amid the rugged mountains to the west of the Dead Sea. It was, therefore, an auspicious change when they were transported into the Z^and of Goshen, a rich pastoral district of Egynt The circumstances attending t!ie captivity of Joseph enable us already to observe ui6 activity of that interior caravan-trade, which afterwards on so great a scale, traversed 10 BookL HEBREW AND PHCENICIAN GEOGRAPHY h* Arabia. Two caravans, destined for the supply of Egypt, appear meeting each other in opposite directions; and that cruel trade, of which men were the object, ia already c&rried on in the same remorseless manne**, and by the same unjust means, by which it has ever since been conducted. k, , , ♦ Sect. n. — The Kingdom of Israel. *' - ' ' * -, The Israelites, after being established in Egypt for more than two centuries, were led back into the promised land, so long the seat of their ancestors. Every thing there, since the patriarchal age, had assumed quite a different aspect : it presented walled cities, and high cultivation, accompanied with that gross superstition and dissolute voluptuousness which are the too common attendants of early wealth. The ^ilty inhabitants of Canaan with their country were delivered into the hands of the Israebtes ; and the territory being divided among the ten tribes, gave occasion to a very careful topographical survey ; but nothing yet occurred to attract the views of the nation beyond these limits, or towards the world m general. Still less could this take place during the subsequent period, when thev were forsaken of heaven, and reduced to servitude under the neighbouring nations, it was under the favoured reign of David that Israel finally triumphed over all her ene- mies. That great prince left to Solomon, either as subject or tributary, a territory extend- ing from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean and the borders of Egypt, forming the most powerful state then in western Asia. Solomon, by the terror of his father's name, and of the powerful army transmitted to him, wan enabled to preserve the whole of this king- dom, during a long reign, in peaceful submission. This accomplished prince devoted him- self to the arts of peace, to the extension of commerce, to the culture of science, and to the improvement and embellishment of his dominions in every direction. By the alliance with Hiram, he was enabled to accomplish v jvaj'es more remote than had, perhaps, been ever undertaken under any former sovereign. His alliance, and even his society, were courted by distant princes ; and the observation of the Jews began to extend over a con- siderable portidn of the globe. , The separation of the kingdoms afler the death of Solomon, was a fatal blow to the greatness of the house of Israel. Their divided power could no longer maintain numer- ous tributaries in submission, nor was it adequate to distant and extensive enterprises. All the states beyond the Jordan shook off the yoke ; the attempts to navigate the Red Sea were abandoned ; and all distant regions in a great measure lost sight of. Their view, however, was enlarged by unexpected and unwelcome events from another quarter. The successive invasions of Assyria and Babylon, which terminated in the down&ll of both the kingdoms, forced upon the Israelites a knowledge of the existence of these proud and powerful empires. At the same time, the colossal grandeur of Egypt, the only power capable of contending with thenff was brought into prominent notice. Ample materials were thus afforded for those lofly and awftil images, those pictures of the shaking of the world and the downfall of nations, which abound in the writings of the prophets during the regal times. Another and nearer object attracted wonder, and afforded Uie means of knowledge respecting regions still more distant. This was Tyre, the earliest seat of commerce, in whose markets were found collected the tin of Britain, the gold of Africa, the cotton of India, and, perhaps, .the silks of China. This forms so grand a feature, and the descriptions of it tend so much to illustrate early geography, that it must claim some separate notice. Sect. EI. — Commerce of Tyre. Tyre, which under Solomon was already great and flourishing, continued to increase till, with the exception of one of its own colonies, it became the most splendid emporium of the ancient world. It appears, indeed, truly wonderful that, at this early period of arts and history, when Rome yet consisted only of a few straw-thatched cottages, merchants in Tyre should vie with the pomp of kings. So magnificent was the scene, that the prophet, in announcing the divine intention to destroy Tyre, considers it as implying a purpose " to Btain the pride of all glory, and to bring into contempt all the honourable of the earth." {Isai. xxiii. 9.) Perhaps, however, commerce in its earlier efforts has a particular ten- dency to concentrate itself in one point, where alone it finds protection, information, and regular channels ; while in the advance of society its streams begin to be moire widely diffused. In the interesting picture of Tyrian commerce drawn by Ezekiet, the foundation of the intercourse with Damascus and other contiguous districts, is stated to be " tiie multitude of the wares of her making ;" that is, it consisted in the exchange of her manu&ctured produce for the raw produce of these rich agricultural districts. There is little specificft- tion of the Tyrian manufactures, but the returns were alt made in natural products, of tiio first quality which the soils of Judea and of Syria afforded ; fbom Judea, the finest wheat, honey, oils, and balsam ; firom Syria, white wool, and the wine of Helbon. No situatioc roulc be more fortunate than that of Tyre for the formation of a navy, with the magnifr 19 HI8T0RY OP GEOGRAPHY. Past I cent fimata of Lebanon, Senir, and Baahan, rising inunodiately behind. The timben, it appoan, were conatructed of Ar ; the cedar auppUed masts ; while the oak was used for those long and powerful oars, which were then the chief instruments of navigation. The vessels appear to have been fitted up witii a luxury unknown to modern times. The benches were of the finest cypress wood, inlaid with ivory; tiie fine linen of Egypt, qdomed even with embroidery, was spread ont in sails. Tyre, like Carthage, appears to have adopted the policy of employing mercenary troops, which she drew even from the mountainous districts of Persia and Uie upper Euphrates. The immediate guard of the citf, however, was intrusted to its neighbours of Arvod and Gammadin, wtio, standing riniid the walls in brUliaat armour, are said to have " made its beauty perfect." With regard to the distant commerce of Tyre, the quarters to which it was carried on must become the subject of eame discussion, in the course of which we shall introduce the interesting particulan given by the prophet ■^■'''" "/'U i:»^^"'''» •■ •' t" - h» •"• "y^ Burr. TV. — The Worid according to th^ Hebrewi. No system of Geography can be traced in the sacred writers, who, occupied with higher objects, do not even idlude to any such as existing among the Hebrews. The ideas of that people with regard to the structure and boundaries of the earth may, however, be it\ferred from the genealogical chapters (Gen. x., repeated 1 Chron. i.), which contain, in fiict, a view of the known divisions of the earUi, agreeing in some striking particulars with the recrads of pro&ne history ; also fhxn the accounts <^ the commerce of Tyre, and from various detached notices in the historians and prophets. The Hebrews obviously never attempted to lorm any scientific theory respecting the structure of the earth. The natural impression, which represents it as a flat surface, with the heaven as a firmament or curtain spread over' it, is found universally prevalent Be- neath was conceived to be a deep pit, the abode of darkness and the shadow of death. In one place we find the grand image of the earth being hung upon nothing ; but elsewhere, the pillars of the eartli are repeatedly mentioned ; arid sometimes the pillars of heaven. In short it, is evident that every writer caught the idea impressed on his senses and im- agination by the view of these grand objects, without endeavouring to arrange them into any regular system. Although, however, the Jews never indulged in speculative geogra- phy, yet there are copious examples of minute and careful topography for practiced pur- poses. Our object however, is not to mark the divisions of Judea, but to trace the ideas of the Jews respecting the extent and boundaries of the known world. We shall at the same time be able to collect all that is now to be known of the Phcsnician Geography ; for it is evident that Ezekiel visited Tyre, as Herodotus did Babylon, with the eye of an in- telligent observer ; and he would doubtless hold intercourse with the best informed men in that great school of commerce and navigation. The objects alwara alluded to, as placed at the fkrthest limits of their knowledge, are Tarshish; Ophir; The Isles; Sheba and Dedan; The River; Gog, Magog, and the north. (^Fig. 1.) '4:i SvBSEOT. 1. — Tarthi$h. Ml Tarshish is the name which, in the annals of Jewish and Phcenician navigation, occurs most firequently, and ranks next to Tyre ; yet nothing has been found more difficult than to fix that name to any precise place. The peculiar difficulty is this ; that there are two voyages from Tarshish : one up the Mediterranean, bringing iron, silver, lead, and tin, the produce of Spain and Britain {Ezek. xxvii. 12.) ; the other up the Red Sea, bringing gold, ivory, and apes, the produce of tropical Africa (1 Kinprg, x. 22.). How Uieae two voyages can be from the same place, appears at first sight to baffle research. Various places have been suggested, among which I should not think it nccessanr to mention Tarsus, in Cilicia, were it not supported by such names as Volney and Malte Brua Except the resemblance of name, it has not a single feature which can be recon- ciled to the Tarsb': h of Ocripture. Besides, the name Tartus is evidently of Greek origin (See Steph. Byzant. in v. Strabo, 1. 14. Bocharft Phaleg., and Wetatein's Nov. Test vol. u. p. 511. and 606.), whereas Tarshish is manifestly of oriental derivation, and is doubtless of Phmnician origin. Indeed, Malte Brun admits it to be tenable only on the clumsy and improbable supposition of Uiere being two places of the name of Tarshish. Tartessus ar Cadiz is certainly more plausible, and agrees with the Mediterranean voyage ; but the distance is too great, and notice might have been expected to be taken of not a few iiitcnnediate objects, particularly of the Straits of Gibraltar. It is altogether foreign to the voyage by the Red Sea. This last objection appears also to hold against Carthage, which, in every other respect seems preferable to Tartessus, and of which more willbe •kid in the seQuel. To flolve the problem of the two voyages, ijie onl* attempt, sc far as I know, has beeD in the ingenious hypothesis of GosseUn : Tarshiui, according to him, signifies Uib great or open sea, as distingubhed even from the largest of its inclosed gul&. The name may then oe applied equally to the Atlantic and the uidian Ocean ; and Uie voyage to and BiiOKt % ■vtHUk-'^iStt HEBRrvv AND PH(ENICIAN GEOGRAPHY. aRAPHICAL SYSTEM OF THE HEBREWS. "^^ ***i'*^ ^ n « _ ., . , ^mi..,' ■P ao from Tarahish may equally be by the Red Sea ox the Mediterranean. But though thi« hypothesis be supported by the signification of an dd Hebrew term, and though it solve the great probleoi, I think any one, who attentively traces the various occaaicnw tr8e, can it be supposed that this, the chief of all others, would have been totally omitted 1 Bui. if Tarshish be Carthage, then that eelebnted city bolda exaolily the prominent place which, according to every circum- stance, it ou£;ht to have held in relation to Tyre. This general neeative argument doe* appear to me quite irresistible. The detaUs are equally conibnnable. Carthage in her Scffy monopolized, almost entirely, the commerce of Spain and Britain. She even took e most violent measures to prevent any maritime power from penetrating to the west of Sicily. There appears no trace of ti)e Tyrians ever proceeding further. They found, apparently, in CarUiage, a complete assortment of the commodities of all the countries to the west, and on ^e ocean — silver, iron, lead, and tin, which were thus naturally viewed by the Jews, and perhaps by tho Tyrians themselves, as Carthaginian commodities. With regard to the name, considerini; that both Tarshbh and Carthage are corruptions of the onginal Phcenician term, they have that rude resemblance winch might be expected. The coonexion is rendered stronger by Carchedon, the Greek name of Carthage, which ferms a sort of middle term between tliem. The voyage from Tarshish by the Red Sea, however, which fi)nns the grand difficulty, remains yet unaccounted for ; and it can ooly, I think, be solved in the following manner : I conceive the name of this great African metropolis must have been generally extended to Uie whole of the continent of Africa. All the names of the continents, we may observe, were originally derived from one of their remarkable and frequented districts. The name of Asia was extended W the Greeks from a tract of that name immediately opposite to their shore, includmg llroas, Ionia, and some other of the more eastern districts of Asia Minor. Witii the Romans, Africa derived its name from the very district now in quertion, called always Africa Propria, being the finest on that coast, and including Carthage. It appears, then, quite natural that a place so very prominent, with which Tyre held such close and c -_• '"-■;.: -"'v..- • The name of Ophir, combined, as it always is, with the most precious of metals, and the most coveted of all commodities, ranks among the distant countries known to the Jews, almost superior in splendour to Tarshish, though not equal in greatness and com- mercial importance. The voyages of Sol<»non to Ophir for gold, form the greatest naval enterprise in which the kingdom of Judea was ever engaged. Yet this name has been attenaed with little less difficulty, and produced scarcely less controversy, than that of TanJiish. The belief that Ophir was m Arabia has certamly not a little to urge in its &voar. Ir the genealogical chapters it is always combined with Sheba, or Sabea, which was undoub^ edly situated at the south-west angle of Arabia. It was from Sheba that gold (doubtless, the gold of Ophir,) was regularly brought to Judea and Phoenicia. Even Bochart, who thinks himseu obliged to seek in India a more distant Ophir, clumsily compounds the matter t^ making another Ophir in Arabia. He is followed by M. Malte Brun. M. Gae> selin, wiUi his usual zeal to restrict ancient knowledge, insists, that there never was any Ophir except the Arabian, and places it in the modem interior district of Dofar. There appear to me, I confess, vast improbabilities in this Arabian Ophir. As an interior district, it must have been nearer, or certainly as near, to Judea as Sheba ; and it appears strange, that no direct land communication should ever have been opened vrith iU Let us consider the mighty operations of Solomon ; his utmost efforts combined with those of Hiram ; the inaterius of shipbuilding conveyed by land over a vast desert; the most skilful workmen transported to Ezion Geber ; a fleet composed of large vessels, called ships of Tarshish, at Ituit fcrnsedi and !i?! Id (doubtless, Bochart, who mpounds the un. M. Gos- ever was any O&r. There :erior district, ears strange, t us OHiaiaer Hiram; the fill workmen Taiahi^, at years were which could fet the repe- rms than by ir mentionea Book I. HEBREW AND PHCENICIAN GEOGRAPHY. m relation to Sheba or Arabia, but characteristic of equatorial AiKca^-ivoiy, a]iea, and peacocks. With regard to the oloae combinaticm in which Sheba and Ophir are always fiwnd, it will appear natural enough, when we consider that, unless during the short lition of Solomon, Sheba appears to have been the channel by which the sold of r was transmitted to Judea and Phoenicia. This circumstance might readily lead the abitants of those countries to consHer the two as closely connected, thoiwh CMiir might be beyond Sheba, and even be separated finm it by seas and territories oTcoatiacff- abw extent The hypothesis which places Ophir in India, though sopported by great ntunes, appear* quite untenable. The trade of Ophir bears not the least resemblance to an Indian trade. It does not include tiie fine manunctures and rich spices which India has always furnished ; and its staple is gold, which never, at any time, was an article of export tcom tint quarter of Asia. India has, on the contrary, always demanded a large balance of specie, mi has ftrmed a gulf in which the gold of the west has been absolved. If we tmect Inlk, we dull not certainly, with some lavatu, travel as far as Peru in quest of our omect, notwith- standing the sli^t resemblance of name, and the attempt to eke it out by the expression "ffdd m Parvaun,'' which has some appearance of being synonvinous. The eastern coast of Africa is the quarter to which all the indicatkms appear very clearly to point In the voyage to Tarshish by the Red Sea, its name and that of Ophir are al- ways combined ; nay, the voyage, which in the Book of Kings is called the voyage to Tarshish, in the Chronicles is called the voyage to Ophir; so that it is evident the two are one and the same voyage ; and, if Tarshish was Africa, Oidiir must clearly be in Africa. There is, however, on ^is coast no abundant si»ply of gold till we reach as fiu: south as Sofida ; thus impl]ring an extent of navigation wmbn is certainly somewhat startling. M. Gosselin particularly urges, that in the time of Alexander there was no longer any know- ledge of eastenf Africa ; and that even the Romans never appear to have penetrated heycni Cape Delgada On the other hand, it ia to be considered that the alliance of Hiram and Solomon united advantages which never existed again in an equal degree. The wealth, naval skill, and ample materials which those great princes could command were scarcely equalled, even by the Ptolemies. After the deaUi of Solomon, the kingdom, split into two, and weakened ay continued dissention, abandcmed entirely these distant commercial enter- prises. A solitary attempt to renew the trade was made by Jehosha]riiat, but the vessels prepared ftr that purpose were wrecked in the very mouth of the port of Ezion Gebor; after which the undertaking was entirely given up. In the calamities which aHerwaids befbl Israel and Judah, and me revolutions which subverted the whole political system of Western Asia, it is not wonderfhl that every trace of this distant intercourse should have been obliterated ; and that the successors of Alexander should have had to enter on a new field of discovery. In support of the supposition of Sofiila, there may also be noticed a certain resemblance of name; and the duration of the voyage, stated at three years, wcrald affind very ample time to reach the Zambese, even under all the imperfections of ancient Bvmam. Z.—The likt. The Isles, a term which occurs much in Scripture, mij^t be supposed to describe gene- rally those portions of the globe which come under this description; yet a carefU compal- risen of the different passages in which the word occurs will probably show, that it is used in a much more precise and determinate sense, and is applied to a wide and connected range of territory. The whole of the southern coasts of Europe, consisting either of real islands or of peninsular tracts, appears by the Jews and Phcenicians to have been viewed as a long range of islands. Besides, the terms M^oof and insula were, in periods of remote antiquity, ap^ied loosely to peninsulas as well as islands proper. Among many examples which might be adduced, one will suffice — Peloponnesus. The isles, relative to Tyre, appear to liave ranked only second to Tarshish as a source of wealth, and in respect of close and intimate intercourse. Tyre is called expressly, " a merchant of many isles :** and the consternation which shook the isles at the sound of her fall ; the dismay of their kings, who are said to have then cast off their robes, and sat on the ground, — all point out the extent and importance of this commerce. Tarthith, Elitha, Chittinif and Dodanim are named in the genealogical chapter as the four who divided among them the isles of the Gentiles; but tfaou^ Tarshish is so often named in «x>mbmation witii "the isles** maoag the most distant maritime territories, there is never any indication as if it were itself an island. The coirbination is probably produced by the extensive possessions and commerce of the Carthaginians in the western islands and coasts of Europe. These, is- e!ading the southern point of Italy, were, as already observed, probably considered as insu- lar, and were distinguished by the appellations of the "isles afkr off," and *'the distant isles of the sea," 'Rie " isle" in particular, which Isaiah mentions in such close connex- ion with Tarshish, and which the merchants of Sidon, "by passing over the sea, had replenished," can scarcely be any other than Sicily, an island almost Carthaginian, and '■^* HISTORY OF GEOQRAPHY. PabvL li coDtAuunff M mujr flouruhing citiea. With ngud to the iales of Eliaha, they are evidently Hellu, the Greek name cf Greece. The only diatinetive ohanusteriatici indeed, that fi[ flimiahiiy Tvre with the Uue and purple dye, doee not recall to ua aiqr of the featurea under which we have been aoonatomed to reoognim that celelarated region. But Greece waa not yet the aeat of arta and anna; and, had ahe been ao^ the Tyrian merehanta mi^ •till have viewed hn only aa die aerved their purpoae. Boehart haa collected ample teeti* mooiea Uf ahow that the mures, the ahell which yielded thoae celebrated dyea, waa fcond in tieculiar abundance on the ooaat of Laconia. Chittim appean very evidently Cypnub ana its earlr capital of Citiirp- The alarm being given thence of the approach cr the kiiu: of BabyUHi, and ita beincr oouridered aa the natural place of rdbge far the inhabitanti of Tyn, whem yet they woiud not be fiilly aecure, mark a pnoimity which belonga to no other island. The name, indeed, ia in one inatance given to Greece, and in another to Italy ; but thia aeema merely to be, that, aa the neareat known ialand, ita name ia aome- timea thua vaguely extendea to the whole of that torritoiy ccaaid»«d by the Jewa aa inath lar. The attempta of Boehart to find the name of Chittun in Italv have been wholly aboi^ tive ; for we cannot coiuider aa worthy of notice the obaervation that it and Lathun, in the reapoctive Greek and Latin langua^^ea, both aignii^ "to hide." In regard to Dodanim, oonvertiUa into Eodanim(T and 1 bemg perpetually mtorchanged and combunded), tboo^ it ia mentioned only once, we aeem fauufled in mdng en Rhodea, already iourishing and commercial, thou^^ not yet became the rival of kinga. Boehart aeema to go moch too fiir, whfu he aeeka f^ it on the Rhone or the Ebnk . , > ' ^'^' Sm»m i.Sheba and DeiaH. '"■■'*>*• ^^"^* '**'^ t*^ '^ ' A^ during the early agea, the moat eztenaive and I Arabia. It conaiated, not ao much in the prodnctiona Of the mtemal trade of western important waa that carried lont cu|)|)cr nil the liomnr Ana. Tho otiior article, rIw, in but too doscriptivo. The txpmwiun, " iNtmonM of mon," mnrki tho trade in iiluvoa, with which it hua ulwuya boon tho tiito of ('uiicaMiuii coiintrioA to mipplv tho VMtt. Horaoa and iiiulca are roportod (ta bruuglit by Uin " hoiiao of Tominnah." Iloraoa havo always boon a booxt of Turtiiry ; and an ulliunco hnii lio«)n imoginod bctwonn this namo and that of tho Turcomuna, who still furnish the these limited voyages were iVaught with peril and adventure. Tho record of tliom is however, involved m much mystery and controversy. Thoy woro not reported to the worl* in those regular narratives with which tlio modern press teems. The ancient norrativoi are al>vay8 meagre, nnd in many cases we have only fragments of hearsay testimony, col lectod by careless or prejudiced writers. A learned investigation, therefore, is usually necessary, to discover along what roost tho navigator sailed, to what point of it he reached and sometimes whether he ever sailed along any coast. In several cases the most skilfli^ disputants arc still divided on oucstions, which, sunk in the deep abyss of time, must probably remain for ever undecided. Faint and dubious, however, as are these records, they will lead u8 over some of the most interesting problems of antiquity, and will enable us to trace, in some degree, tlie iniimt steps of maritime enterprise. , ,, Sect. I. — Circumnavigation of ^rica under Necho, To perform tho circuit of tlie coast of Africa was tho favourite object of ancient maritime enterprise, as it continued to bo of that of modem times, till tlio era of its final happy oecomplislinicnt. The manner in which its coasts, beyond tho Mcditerraneau and the Red Sen, begin to converge, suggested the idea of a peninsula, tlie circumnavigation of which miglit he effected, even by the limited resources of ancient navigation. The wide sphere, botii of knowledge and trade, which such a discovery would open to the enterprising mari* time nations round the Mediterranean, was sufficiently obvious. The first attempt of this description originated in a quarter which had usually been accustomed to keep aloof from every species of naval enterprise. Egypt had long held itelf as a country strictly agricultural ; but Necho, who, next to Kcsostris, raised its military glory to the greatest height, appears, like other conquerors, to have been animated by an active spirit, which exerted itself in every direction. Not poRsessing fit instruments among his own subjects, he engaged some Phoenician navigators to descend the Red Sea, and endeavour to find their way back to the lueuitefratieau, by the Pillars of Hercules. The narrative is so very short, that we may easily give it in the words of Herodotus: "Tho Phoenicians, setting sail from the Red Sea, made meir way into the southern sea ; when autiunn approached, they drew their vessels to land, sowed a Part L oa with oxcoU criptivo. Th« 1 alwiiyi boon ra roportod iii ■ Turlary ; whI naiiR, who ■till )land tracta of ich laat roH])Ocl Ifor. Thiw we n the nortliorn tAnt fVoin thoac y. I Moahpch and ia, in fiict, tlic nil tho woatorn inp[o of narrow mtmont, appear CO. Aloxandor was rccojjniaed scription at Uic 9 wcro probably tarkoUwitliUuH Book I. VOYAGKS OP HATASPES AND IIANNO. hosedelineationa I Rome in their lidor tho ajratoms yaj^oa performed ires of a modern crnbly appointed iy to undertake ank above boat* bscrvation, evo» on! of them i» led to the worla iciont norrativGi f testimony, col sfore, is usually of it he reachea die most skilflr le, must probably scords, they will able us to trace, incient maritime its final happy lau and the Red ^tion of which le wide sphere, iterprising mari- attempt of this keep aloof from lo, who, next to jther conquerors, direction. Not Lician navigators leuiterraiiean, by lly ffive it in the |e their way mto land, sowed h crop, and waitad till it was grown, when they reaped it, and avain put to sea. Hating apont two yoara in tliia manner, in tho tliinl year thoy reached tho Pillnra of Uorculea, and rnturnod to E^ypt, roiwrting what dutm not find belief with me, but may, perhapt, with aoino other piriion; tor thoy aaid that in paaaing Africa thoy had the aun on their rigiit hand (i. o. the north). In thia manner liibya was flrtrt known." Tho authenticity of tliia narrative has been in a remarkable degree tho object of learned ctirioaity, and haM produced a moiW of controveray, greater, perhapa, ttian ita abort and vaguo iiaturo is well able to admit The argumunta appear to have been exhauated on tho believing aide by Uennell, on the acoptical by Goeaelin an! Vincent. Formidable aa the acliieveinent was, it docs not seem to involve any absoluto impoaaibilitv, aince the whole voyage might bo performed without loaing aight of tho ahore, or launching into the open sea, through wiiich tho ancionta hud no means of guiding tiieir courae; and their smaller voaaols, keeping close to tho ahore, might even poaaeas aome advantage over our larger onoa, obliged to stand out to aoa, and encounter tlie atomiy waves of the Atlantic. Herodotus aoema inclined to credit tho information, unlcsa, on tho ground of one general utatemont, which, bemg tlie very thing that should liave happened, and diabelioved only tlirough hia ignorance, atrongly fortifloa our inclination to credit the atory. ■ ■■■ , 1- • I t..-j ' •■ft:'. Sect. H. — The Voyage of Satatpe$. The Peraion monarchs, ailer their sway was established over tho eastern coasts of tho Mediterranean, found the exploration of Africa in some degree their peculiar province. This nation, however, laboured under on aversion and dread of the sea, greater, perhaps, than that of the other orientals. The only effort of theirs on record waa one which arow in a singular and rather casual manner. tiatospcs, a Persian nobleman, having committed a heinous offence, was condemned by Xerxes to a cruel death. His friends, however, persuaded the monarch, that by com- muting tills sentence into that of a voyage round Africa, ho would inflict sufTerings scarce- ly loss severe, and might render a national benefit They prevailed, and Sataspes, having procured in Egypt a vessel and crow, passed tho Straits of Gibraltar, and bent hut courao southwards. He ia represented as havmg beat about for several months, at the end of which he probably reached the coasts of tho Sahara. The view of those frightful and desolato shores, and of the tempestuous ocean which dashed against them, might well intimidate a navigator bred in the luxurious indolence of tho Persian court. Satospes was struck with a panic, and measured l>ack his course to tlie straits. Yet, hoping that time and the degree in which he hod accomplished his mission might efikce tlie im- pression, both of former offence and of present failure, he again presented himself before Xerxes. In giving an account of his voyage, he merely related, that wherever he landed ho had seen little mcii wearing a Phoenician dress, who immediately fled into the moun- tains ; but his people had done them no injury, bevond carrying off the cattle of which they stood in need. The failure of the ultimate object of the expedition he imputed to the occurrence of an insurmountable obstacle, the nature of which has not been satisfac* torily explained. Xerxes, however, accustomed to expect that all nature should be sul^ Bprvicnt to his will, would listen to no excuse, and ordered the original sentence to be im- mediately executed, ' :' SicT. III. — Voyage of Hanno. The CarthaginiaiiB, as the greatest maritime and commercial people of antiquity, might have been expected to make earlier and further progress in the discovery of Africa than 'Uiy other nation. In general, however, a veil of deep mystery shrouded all the proceed- ings of that powerful and aspiring people. It is even asserted tliat they considered as ex> clusivcly theirs the whole Mediterranean west of a line drawn across to Sicily, and that they captured all the vessels, and put to death the crews, that were found navigating within these forbidden precincts. The Romans, on the other side, anunated by inex- tinguishable enmity, are said to have industriously destroyed all the records of the literature and history of their fallen rivals. The only fragment that escaped is the Periplus of Hanno, which, notwithstanding the scepticism of Dodwell, its editor, the learned world are now generally agreed in considering as ancient and authentic. T%ia celebrated document is so short, that we may find space here for a complete translation of it " It pleased the Carthaginians that Hanno should sail beyond the Pillars of Hercules, and should found cities of the Liby-Phcenicians. He set sail, therefore, with a fleet of sixty vessels, each of which was impelled by fifty oare. They carried with them men aiid women to the number of thirty thousand, with provisions and suopliea of various kinds. \Vp. sailed two days beyond the straits, and fi)unded a city overlooking an ample plain, and which we called Thvmiaterium. Thence we proceeded westward to Soloe, a promontory of Libya, thickly shaded with trees, where we founded a temple to Neptune ; then turning OAstwurd for half a day*s sail, we came into a lake not far nt>m the sea, overgrown wiu 20 mSTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Part i. numeroui and high reeds, and on wlioso banks elephants and a number of wild aninialt were feeding, ifaving pofiftod this lake in the course of a day's sail, wo founded cities on the sea coast, Caricuu^-Teichoe, Gytte, Acra, Melissa, and Animbys. Then sotting sail, we made our way to the great river Lixus, which flows from Libya. On its banks the Lixits, a pastoral race, (bd their flocks ; with whom wo formed ties of friendship, and spent t short interval. The country above them waa inhabited by inhospitablo Ethiopiann, filled with wild beasts, and traversed by very high mountains, whence the Lixus is said to descend ; and it was added, that these mountains were inhabited by men dwelling in caves, 3f a strange appearance, who outran even horses in the chase. Having received mterprctcrs from the LixitK, wo proceeded along a desert coast till the middle of the second duy ; when we ■ailed one day to the eastward, and in the recess of a little bay found a small island, five stadia in circuit We left inhabitants there, and named it Ceme. This island, on taking an account of our course, we conjectured to be opposite to Carthage ; for the navigation from Carthage to the Pillars, and from the Pillars to Come, corresponded. Then we came to a lake through which flows a great river called Chretcs. That lake contained three islands greater than Ceme ; by these, in the course of a day's navigation, we reached the interior shore of tlio lake, where very great mountains impended over it, inhabited by a rough people dressed in skins of wild beasts, who by throwing stones repelled us, and prevented us from landing. We tlien sailed into another river, large and broad, full of crocodiles and river horses. We then returned to Ceme. From Ceme, renewing our course to the south, we pfused for twelve days along a shore, the whole of which waa m the possession of the Ethi* opians, who showed a trembling dread of our aspect, and spoke a language unknown to our Jiixite interpreters. On the lost day, we came to high mountains covered with trees, the wood of which was odoriferous and variously tinted. Passing round these mountains by a navigation of two days, we came to an immense opening of tlie sea, bordered by plains in which we saw fires of different magnitude glittering at mtervals from every spot. Having watered there, we proceeded five days along the snore, till we came to an immense bay, which the interpreters called the Wcstem Horn. In it was a large island, and in that island a salt water lake, in which again there was another island. Entering this lake, we saw in tiie day nothing but forest ; but ir the night there were many fires buming ; and we heard various sounds of musical instruments, fend the cries of numberless human beings. I^ing terrified l^ these objects, and the prophets also exhorting us to quit the island, we made off, and reached next the fiery region of Thymiamata, whence torrents of flame poured down into the sea. Here the heat of the earth was such, that the foot could not tread upon it We therefore took our speedy departure firom this place, and after four days' further sail, saw the earth in the night full of flames. There appeared also in the midst of thi m one lofty fire greater than the rest which seemed to reach to the very stars ; this, when seen by day- light proved to be a very lofly mountain, called the chariot of the gods. Thence by a navi- gation of three days, having passed these fiery torrents, we came upon another bay, called Uie Southern Horn. In its inmost recess was on island similar to that formt.'rly described, which contained in like manner a lake with another island, inhabited by a mde description of people. The females were much more numerous than the males, and had rough skins : our interpreters called them Oorilke. We pursued but could take none of the males ; they all escaped to the top of precipices, which they mounted with ease, and threw down stones ; we took three of the females, but fJiey mode such violent stmggles, biting and tearing their captors, that we killed them, and stripped off the skins, which w^e carried to Carthage : being out of provisions, we could go no further." Such is the entire narrative of this most celebrated of the ancient voyages ; but it would be impossible to comprise within the some limits even a sketch of the commentaries to which it has given rise among the learned. Three leading hypotheses have been formed ; one, that of Bougainville, who conceives Hanno to have reached the Gulf of Benin ; another, of Major Rennell, who carries his course only to Sherbro Sound, a little be^^ond Sieira Leone; while M. Gosselin insists upon terminating it about the river of Nun. {Fig. 2.) When we reflect that the first of these courses is upwards of three thousand miles, and the last under seven hundred, an idea may be formed of the extremely vague nature of these data, where all the names are changed, and no one point fixed with such certainty that the others can rest upon it. Bougainville contends that his assigned limits do not exceed what may reasonably be supposed to have been passed over by the most skilful navigator of antiquity; in fact the period of thirty-eight days is precisely the time employed by the squadron sent in 1641 to found the Portuguese fort of Elmina. All the grand features of man and nature described by Hanno are to be found in tropical Africa only; Ethiopians or Negroes, Crorillee, who are evidentlv apes or orang-outangs ; rivers so large as to contain croco- dilefi and hippopotami. The great conflagrations of the grass, arS the music and dancing prolonged through the night are phenomena which have been observed only in the lient) territories. Major Rennell'ti system retains all the arguments by whicii that of Bougainville is eav PABTk r wild aninialf Lindod citicfl on )n lottinff iail, I its banks the ship, and spent thiopiann, tilled aid to descend ; in cttvcB, of a iterpretcrs from day ; wlien we lall island, five id, on taking an mvigation mm we came to a ed three islands led the interior ' a rough people vented us from odiles and river to the south, we lion of the Ethi- unknown to our I with trees, the mountains by a red by plains in Y spot. Having n immense boy, nd in that island lake, wo saw in f ; and we heard 1 beings. Being nd, we made on, me poured down ot tread upon it further sail, saw f th<'m one lofty len seen by da3r- lience by a navi- Dther bay, called mi.'rly described, rude description lad rough skins : the males ; they ;w down stones ; ind tearing their Carthage : being BS ; but it would intaries to which i, who conceives who carries his Gosselin insists :t that the first iren hundred, on 1 the names are t upon it. y reasonably bo iquity; in fact, luadron sent in man and nature 18 or Negroes, contain croco- oic and uanciug sd only in the gainville is sur Book 1. ^ VOYAGE OF HANNO. '* """"'"' jpig. 3._MAP ILLUSTRATINU THE VOYAGE OF HANNtt f^ »- MBDITiaBANI AN g^ 10- CVefd '1 '■:■'. '' 'i.r ;,-M ,}<;;,■..(» I Vy .».■-,•■ I ■" ,'■'••• '- ■*■ ' ■' ■,' •■ ■■') ■' -r -r 1 ■-'I • • ',,.' • - • ■.■:-';.' ' .«.■'. "• '. . :<,f ..ij-^ •ft. <*'>.■',. \i •>. ,t^^.->f- "M ported, at the same time that it avoids the extravagant supposition of ancient vessels hav- mg made a course of seventy geographical miles m the day. The Gulfs of Bissago and Sherbro present those numerous i^ands described by Hanno, and not found on any other part of the coast ; and even their form seems to correspond to the appellation of Horn, applied by him to these great gulfs. If, then, Hanno's career reached Central Africa, there can bo little doubt that Major Rennell's hypothesis, or something near it, exhibits his real progress. M. Gosselin restricts the voyage within much narrower limits. It was impossible, he urges, that the course could be otherwise than slow in a voyace of discovery Ujion an un- known sea, where the mariner could sail only bv daylight, wim constant precautions, and minutely examining every part of the coast. The motions of Hanno were clogged also by the large and incumbered fleet of which he was the escort. Destitute of the compass, and without the power of standing out to sea, he could never, it is alleged, have doubled Cape Bojador, which so long baffled the efforts of the Portuguese. With regard to the features supposed to be exclusively characteristic of tropical Africa, M. Gosselin conceives that Morocco, yet in no degree, civilized or subdued, but in the fbll possession of rude native tribes, would bear a much more similar aspect than now to the interior portions of the con- tinent The ape tribe and the wild river amphibia might probably fill a region unoccupied by man, though now, it is supposed, expelled by culture and a more crowded population. The term Ethiopians has been applied, not to negroes only, but to all nations of a dark colour. He conceives, therefore, that Hanno's course could never pass much beyond the frontier of Morocco, and could have reached only a very little further than the estuary of the river of Nun. To decide a point on which such learned men so widely disagree, is what we do not feel very forward to undertake ; and really the difficulties appear very great in any view of the subjcc*. The detail of the positions would, on the whole, lead us to prefer tlie most HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY. Tart I. ! i I »*"* ;ii' tiitiu ". or UmMW |Miti<)fw tho iMlniul of Cortio fonim tlin kny ; and the Idcntiiyiiig of it wii i.: • • *»ontl« t«» rt.ii> ►. iDort ot' tho two rt'iiioto liypotlii'no*. Dut th«)UKh it i» cvitioiu .a . >lu of tlio «. kI tu Curno i« iiot Kivun, t]io time boing omittoti rlnif wliicli ti< nitioM wi'in i ■ro i« nmnifonUy en huhhin, and hii* authority, on tlio wholo, ia in fkvour of re- I iiig rorno >■ itliin tho lIinitM of Morocci Tho dotaila of Ilnnno do not apiwar to bo ftlwtjfa ' ""v aati»(ii( tr)ry ; but |Nd our time ; a moat unfortunate circumstance to tho fliino of those early diMcoverera, However, in many inntancva, nature honiolf hna Httxxl ti)rth aa tlieir vindicator; and our moro extunded knowledge hoa enabled ua to detect tlio fiillacy of tho nrguinent^ by which StnilK) lm« enilimvoure*! to reflito them. Thia ia not IMirtioularly the cnso with regani to Kudoxua; but really, in Strabo'a noticea respecting tho wIventuMiH lifo of tho bold navigator, wo cannot aoe any tiling which tonda to controvert the general belief of antiquity, that he liiul modo re[M>atod and spirited attempts to oxplor* tho unknown cousta of the AfVican continent. Arconling to the normtivea of Strabo, Ki: I \ m waa a native of Cyitious, sent on a miaaion to Ale.xandria, then the great aoat of m .iilimn enlerprido and geographical knowledge. His anient mind waa strongly imbued •^ itii the spirit which roigntMl tlicre; and he ofl'ered himaclf to Ptoloiny Everpeten, tho reigning king, as a lealouH inatrunicnt to bo employed in any exiHHlition having these objects in view. There was, at first, some talk of ascending tJio Nile, and endeavouring to roach its unknown sources ; but their views received a new direction from tho arrivol of a person who waa, or profbsscd to be, a native of India, CBcape<1 alone lVi>m tho wreck of his vessel near Uie foot of the Arabian Gulf, Ptolemy im- mediately fitto•. h ont iVcn tliat port for purposes partly of trade, and partly of fishing, to the cwj' iiv NruritHxii i. Eudoxuu listened with enthusiastic credulity, and determined now to reri "tunc > o \v litfiil patronaco of courts, and to fit out a new exiiedition fVom the commercir< c'-y * C««»Jis. lie p*-"" "^drd thither by way of Mossilia and other maritime utations, when« he iout'ly proclaimeii his hopes, anil invitea «1! who were animated v.'ith any spirit of enterprise to accompany him. He accordingly succeeded in equipping an cxpeditian on a considerable, and oven magnificent scale. He had one ship and two large boats, on board of which he carried, not only geods and provisions, but artisans, medical men, and even Book f. VOYAGE OP PYTIIEAB. playcn on muiieal Inrtramontii. A crt^w m> g!i;r, and filled, probably, willi ojitravaKniit Iw|h ^ wore ill fitted to oncountor ttin hanlNhipM > : African diacovory. They Uwk fright at the awoll of tho npon loa, tliroiiKJi which HudoxuM wuh nnxiuim to conduct thoin, and inxioted, accordiii|7 to tiio uaual tiiiiiil nyaloin, on Iwi " broimlu in n to U>o nhorn. Thia lod to the diaaator which Kudoxua had tbroaoon: tho » .\< nro atrandud, ind tho carso with difficulty aavod, Tha moat valuable articloa w<'r<- then [mt on Ixmrd on« v«'kp< I of a liKhtor conatruc- tion, and ho proaocutml tho voyaf^e till li' '^amo to n rn. f people who appeared U> hini ta apoak tJio Minie lunguiiKO with iJioao whom no hod mot on tiio oppoeito ahore of thio rotiti- nent. Conceivinfr hiniMolf to have thua aacortaiiicil the object ot hi^ vu^a^p, ho rotumnd, and endeavoured to procure the barbaric aid of IIoccIiiih, kinu of Mauritania , I «>■ »iiHpoctin(( that monarch of a tronchcrouH doaiffn ai^ainat him, ho ifain betook himaclf to 8|»iu.. Jfero ho niccoeded in equipping a fVoah oxpu n^ more ia atated on any authority, we fuur tliat thia luHt cxptnlition inuHi liavc ! 1 I ' .nf lunuto iaHiio. Huch ia tho iiarmtivo (fiven by Htrabo, \i\mi information whicli • ''»i.« J' i been orif^inally obtained fi-oni Kiidoxua himaolf; and wo acn nothini; m it un- worlliy ot iMlief, or which might not very well be accnmpliahod bv a man of bold i»nd cnthu- cin itio charnctor, posaoaaed of acionce and talent, and dnvotcd with audi ardent znal to the (.>' ." ! of diacovery. Eudoxua cannot bo mado rcaponaible for the fablca which antiouity- haa Cut into hia mouth. Ho ia ropreaentod bv lonio aa havin/; actually made tho circuit of Africa ; y othera oa having ccnne to one nation that waa dumb, and another whoae mouth waa entirely cloaed, and which received tbod through an orifice in tho noae. But none of thcae fitbloi at I found in the report of Eudoxua himaolf, oa coming through tlie medium of i^tmbo hia enemy. Bbot. V. — Voyage qf Pythea$. ,,,;v Tho voyage of Pythoaa, the Maasilian navigator, ia of peculiar intereat, aa it )t> the only one deacribod in any detail, liaving Europ<}, and particularly the liritiah lalcr', Wit ii -< obinct. It comea to ua, howcwor, Btill more deeply tinj^od by tho aamo dim and discoloured i 'lortium through which that of Eudoxua hna paaaed. It ia known almost solely by tiie hoeti o quo- tationa of the acopticiil Btrabo, adduced for tho purpoao of proving Pytheaa to bo a liar of tlie first magnitudo." Yot, tiio nature of tho grounds on which thia conclusion in mado To rest, ia such as to placo in tho clcaroHt light Btrabo'a own ignorance, and tho suijorior information of Pythcoa. This lost will become more connpicuous, if wo suppose, oa sr^cms probable, that the errors of tho geographer were transmitted to him from Moaailia itself ; in which caao, Pytheaa being found poasoiwcd of knowledge of which his countrymen v cro destitute, there appears no mode in which he could have obtained it, except tlie actual p<:r- tbrmanco of the voyages. The following aro statements on which Strabo rests his refutation of Pytheaa. That no !■ gator stated, that the Calbium I'rotnonlorium, the extremity of Bretognc, pointed to t c west, while Strabo afHrms it to bo perfectly notorious that its direction was to the twrth. This last strange idea was connected with what wo shall find to bo tho general error of th 4 school, which allowed to Franco a southern coast only, and not a western one. Again, Pythcas represented Britain as having ono of its sides much longer than five hundred mile.-, wlicroas, his adversary maintains this to bo the dimensions of its longest side, which, accord- ing to him, is that oppoHito to and seen from the shores of Gaul. Finally, Pytheos asserts that his Ultima Thule vas farther north than Ireland ; whcreos, all wcll-mformed persons, knowing Ireland to be tour hundred miles north from Britain, and scarcely habitable on ac- cr^iint of the cold, considered it as fbrming on that side the extreme boundary of the in- habited earth. Thus tiir it is necessary only to name the charges against Pytheaa, to make him shine conspicuoiiH above his enemipH. There are other stnlemcnts, it must be confessed, which appear at first sight a little start- ling. Pytheaa describes the longest side of Britain not only as more than five hundred miles in length, but as exceeding two thousand. It is to be observed, however, tliat while Strabo described Britain as a triangle, having its longest side opposite to Gaul, Pythcas conceived it to have only two sides, one of which, consequently, reached fiom the Land's End, or the Lizard Point, to th»5 extremity of Scotland. If wo consider this vast extent of coast, with so many winding shores and deep bays, all tlie sinuosities of which an ancient navigotor was obliged to follow, the "stimate will appear not very extravagant. Again Pytheas described the coast of Kf ^ iis K«>veral days' sail from that of Gaul, But the term by which Strabo designates Gaul, is KijXTixtj (Celtica) ; and it appears fVom Ceesar, that Celtica formed only one of the three parts into which Gaul was divided, and was bounded on the en«t by tho Seine. Pytheas probably used the term in this restricted and more proper sense ; when the distance assignefl became strictly correct. Ho moreover described the coast of Spain as inhabited by Gallic nations; it would even seem, that he considered the Calbium Promon- *orium as Spanish. Here lie was clearly in the wrong ; but tlie error will probably be 24 rnSTORY OF GEOGRAPIIY. PaetL !\ ':«' *buiKl to have rested not in his observations and facts, but in mixing them with on errone- ous theory prevalent at Massilio, according to which, France had not a western coast, nor one facing the Atlantic ; such a coast belonged to Spain only. Under this impression, Pytheas, so long as he sailed akng the western coast of Gaul, and till he came to that opposite to Biitain, would naturally imagine that he was sailing along the coast of Spain. Strabo at last traces Pytheas to Thulo, and " her utmost isles," when he does, certainly, present a narrative assuming somewhat of a fabulous aspect, i'he most daring navigator, as he approached the dreary boundaries of earth and ocean, and saw only the high billows of the North Sea dashing against a rocky and misty shore, might become liable to some sinister impressions. Pytheas, it seems, said, that beyond Thule there commenced what was neither earth, sea, nor air, but a confused blending of all the three, similar to the sub- stance called pulmo marinus (a species of medusa common on our shores). He added, that this substance was the basis of the universe, and that in it, air, earth, and sky hung as it were suspended. If we place ourselves in tiie situation of Pytheas, seeing before him the northern sea, overhung by thick and gloomy mists, shrouded in twilight, and darkened by tempest, we may suppose him very easily persuaded, that what he beheld was a contused blending of all the elements, not very dissimilar even to that thick viscid animal substance to which it was compared. Nor can we feel much wonder, if, after this long and difficult navigation through so many perils, he should lend somewhat of a ready ear to a report which represented him to have reached that farthest boundary of nature, beyond which it was no longer possible for mortal sail to penetrate. Anothei report of Pytheas was, that at Thulo the phenomenon took place which belongs only to the polar circle, — a summer of one long day, and a winter of one long night. Antiquity is somewhat full of rumours of this phenomenon, which bcience had pointed out as likely to take place at a certain latitude ; and there was a general disposition in those who had made any progress northwards to an- ticipate the term. Considering the loose way in which rumour then spread, it may easily be supposed, that the partisans of this idea might support it by an exaggerated representa- tion of the real statements of Pytheas. One of these (Geminius) merely reports him as saying that the nights appeared to him to last only for two or three hours, a statement which at midsummer would be quite correct. Indeed, we have been assured by persons who have resided in the Shetland islands, tliat at that season there was scarcely any sen- sible term of darkness. A foreigner, then, visiting the islands, might very readily imagine he had arrived at that point on the globe where the summer was one uninterrupted day. The theories, which would make Thule any other place than Shetland, seem not to require much discussion, though there are not wanting learned partisans in favour of each. Iceland would imply too great an extent of open sea for an ancient navigator ; and the period of five days' sail from the continent would be very inadequate. Some Scandinavian writers have claimed Thule as belonging to their own region ; Rudbeck for Sweden ; Saxo Grammaticus, and Schojnning for the Norwegian Tellemach; Malte Brun for Jutland. These theories seem sufficiently refuted by the single consideration, that Pytheas mvariably considered Thule as British, and expressly calls it the " farthest of the Britains." But Jutland or the Baltic he could have only reached by a long navigation along the coasts of Germany, which could never have been performed witliout the clear perception of having left far behind him every thing belonging to Britain. Sect. VI. — The Voyage of Nearchus, Alexander the Great was animated beyond, perhaps, any other ancient monarch or sage, with an ardent zeal for discovery His expedition became almost as much one of explora- tion as of conquest. Its course was in general by land, and through the interior of the continent; but his mind was not loss deeply fixed upon commerce and maritime discovery. On reaching, therefore, the banks of the Indus, and being obliged by the mutiny of his troops to fix there the termination of his career, he was seized with a desire to explore the lower course of that river, and afterwards the southern coasts of Asia ; a long range com- pletely unknown to the Greeks. The prospects of this voyage, however, were such as to appal the most enterprising of his naval officers. The perils of tempest and shipwreck on this wide and unknown ocean, with those of being driven upon a barbarous and desert coast, appeared almost to preclude the hope of reaching by this long circuit the destined station of the army on the banks of the Euphrates. The inferior officers variously excused themselves from so heavy a task ; and the enterprise appeared ready to fiiil for lack of instru- ments, when Nearchus, the admiral of the fleet, came forward and proffered his own ser- vices. Alexander unwillingly committed tliis task to an officer so high in rank, and his intimate friend ; but tiie earnestness of Nearchut, and the backwardness of all the others, left him at length no alternative. The voyage down the Indus was brilliant. Alexander conveyed his army in a crowded .Iret of two thousand vessels. The sound of the numberless oars, eciioed by the surround- ing woods, as they floated down tliis majestic stream, excited tiie admiring gaze of the natives. Alexander even accompanied his admiral down tiie Delta of the Indus, and took I Book I. VOYAGE OF NEARCHUS. 2!5 u vie AT of the ocean, after which he returned, to lead his army by a most perilous and diffi- cult route through Gedrosia and Karamania to Babylon. Nearchus now began his arduous naval route ( Fig. 3.), after the usual antique preparation Fig. a— MAP OF THE VOYAGE OF NEARCHU& M 65 eo es J I L -« of sacrifices and games. At the mouth of the river appeared a most formidable obstacle , a rock barring the passage, and against which the waves broke with fury. This was sur- mounted by cutting a canal across the softest part of the rock, tlirough which the vessels were able to pass at full tide. He then pa£sed the sandy island of Krokali (Corachie,) and Mount Eirus (Cape Monze,"* when, being now in the open ocean, a series of galea began, so lieavy and continued, as obliged him to seek the shelter of an excellent harbour formed by an island called Bibacta. The crews here landed, threw up an entrenchment to defend themselves e^inst the natives, and remained for twenty-threo days, subsisting chiefly on shell-fish. The wind having abated, they set sail, and came to a coast where water, of which they appear to have needed almost daily supplies, was only to be got by going several miles up into the country. They then passed between a range of rocks, so close to each other, that the oars struck against tliem on each side. After sailing a con- siderable space, partly in a narrow channel between a wooded island and the shore, they came to the river Arabius (the modem Pooralee). It gave name to a numerous people, inhabiting all the territory between this river and the Indus. On the other side was the coast of the Oritte. In proceeding, however, Nearchus met witli a dreadful tempest, in which three of his vessels perished, though the crews were saved by swimming, and he with difficulty brought his shattered vessels to the coast. Here he found Leonatus, whom Alexander had detached to open a communication with him, which he obtained only by very hard fighting, Nearchus here spent some time in refitting his shattered vessels, and exchanged those of his crew who had proved themselves less efficient, for fresh men out of the Greek army. Having laid in com for ten days, they sailed with a prosperous wind, and reached the lapid stream of Tomeras (the modem Wudd). Here the natives, six hundred strong, were drawn up to oppose their landing; a barbarous race, armed with lances six cubits long, pointed not with iron, but with wood hardened in the fire. Near- chus caused a band of his light troops to swim on shore, and to make no movement till they were drawn up in a triple line, then suddenly to raise a general shout, and pour in clouds of darts and missiles. This sudden attack, their shouts, and the glitter of their armour, produced instant and total rout on the part of the natives. They are described as presenting an aspect almost incredibly savage, being covered in a great measure with hair, and having long nails like the claws of wild beasts. Their dress consisted in the skins of animals and of large fishes. The expedition now steering out to sea, and taking a southerly course, observed pheno- mena belonging to the midsummer of the tropic, the novelty of which stmck them with surprise. When the sun was in the meridian no shadow was projected, and when there came to be a little shadow, it dfir.lined to the southward. Stars, which were wont to be seen high in the heavens, were now little above the horizon. At Bagaziri (Cape Arrubah) they left the coast of the Oritte, and entered that of the Ichthyophagi, or fish-eaters, a food which is said to have so remarkably abounded, that even the flesh of the cattle savoured of fish, from their making it, like sea-birds, their daily food. The people were hospitable, but could ffive only fishes and goats. It was not till the Greeks had sailed a considerable distance that at Bama they found some palms, gardens, and verdure. After passing Cophantce (Guadel,) Vol. I. 3 D 'io HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Part 1 where they obtained a Bupply of fine water, and Cyzia (Gwutter) on a desert and rocky shore, they camo to a small town on a hill a littlo inland (probably Churbar,) where it appeared probable tlmt i supply of grain might be obtained. To possoss himself of this, Ncarchus had recourse to measures that harmonized much more with the clmnicter of a buc- caneering freebooter, than with that of an officer of the first prince in the world. The people met him in the most kindly manner, and presented to him roasted fish and other vic- tuals. Meeting their friendly advances, he expressed a wish to visit tlicir city, and being cordially admitted, his first step was to take military occupation of it, and command the natives to lay open to him all their stores of grain. The poor citizens at first flew to arms, but having no means of effectual resistance, were obliged to yield. It proved, however, that they had little except dried fish reduced to powder, and Nearchus could get only a very small stock of grain. In sailing now along an almost desert coast, the stock of provisions Secame excessively ocanty ; and they obtained only a poor supply by landing and cutting off tlio leaves of wild palm-trees. The pressure became so extreme, and was so impatiently •vjme by the crews, that Nearchus did not think it safe to land at night, lest they should all take flight into the interior. l\i one place he found a paltry village, all the inhabitants of which fled ; but the Greeks found seven camels, which they killed and eagerly devoured. The same distress continued to press upon them so long as they sailed along the coast of the " fish-eaters." Notwitlistanding this name, few of them were fishers, or had even boats. They procured this food by immense nets, sometimes a quarter of a mile long, formed out of the fibrous bark of the palm tree. These they placed at high tide across tlie moutli of little bays, so tliat when the waters receded, the nets retained all the fish which had been carried up with the tide. The houses of the rich were built with the bones of whales cast ashore, tljose of the poor with tlie back-bonea of smaller fishes. Nearchus descried a number of whales, whosu presence was at first made sensible only by the quantity of water thrown up into the air, and tossed as in a whirlpool, a spectacle which struck the sailors with terror, and made the oars drop f^om their hands. The commander, however, on being informed of the cause, made his crews raise the loudest possible sound by shouts, trumpets, and dashing of oars, which at once kept up their own spirits, and was supposed to induce these monsters of the deep to replunge into their abysses. The coast of Caramania was next reached by Nearchus, atler passing the fabulous abode of a Persian Circe, who, according to report, was accustomed to seduce the navigator by voluptuous pleasures, and then convert him into a fish. Nearchus now found his distresses nearly at an end, as the soil was tolerably productive in grain and fruits, and there was plenty of good water. After passing Capes Jask and Bombareck, they came in view of a huge pro- montory, stretching far into the sea, called Cape Maceta (Mussendoon), and forming the entrance of the Persian Gulf The great body of tlie sailors, and even Onesicrotus, an officer high in command, weary of this long navigation, earnestly proposed to land, and march on foot to Babylon. Nearchus justly and strongly insisted that this was in no degree to fulfil the intention of Alexander, whose injunction it was, to survey every coast, every harbour, and every bay, between India and the Euphrates ; and that besides they incurred great hazard of being involved in those arid and burning deserts, ot which Arabia in a great measure con- sists. This wise opinion prevailed, and in ascending the Persian Gulf they found, for the most part, a fertile and beautifiil coast. In the delightful country at the mouth of the river Anamis (the modem Minab) they landed, and began to refresh themselves after so many hardships. Nay, a party having proceeded to some distance into the interior, met, with tears of surprise and joy, a man in a Greek dress, and speaking the Greek language. This proved to be a soldier who had straggled from the army of Alexander, which he reported to be at a distance of only five days' journey. On receiving tliis intelligence, Nearchus cnused the ships to be drawn on shore, a rampart to be formed round them, and tJie crews to take rest and refreshment, while he and Archias set out alone for the camp. On their arrival they presented an aspect so haggard, pale, and squalid, that the persons they met did not know them, but on being told their name, hastened to carry the first tidings to Al'-xander. They added (a hasty conclusion formed fVom appearances,) that the fleet and the army had per- ished. Alexandci* received Nearchus with a kindness mingled with sorrow, and after the first salutations, began to a.sk particulars of the catastrophe of his favourite armament ; but when Nearchus replied, "O king! thy ships and men are safe," the conqueror burst into a flood of tears, and swore by Jupiter Ammon, that he derived more pleasure from this event than from the entire conquest of Asia, The rest of the navigation of Nearchus, when he had with some difliculty regained the fleet, was easy, care being taken that he should find on the coast every kind of supply. They passed the barren and desert rock of Organa, afterwards so celebrated under the name ci' Ormuz, the large and fertile Oaracta (the modern Kishme). Soon after they quitted the coast of Caramania and entered that of Persia proper (the modern /are,) which they follow- ed till its termination at the river Arosis (the modem Endian Tab,) which appeared to them the largest they had seen since they had left the Indus. They were now in Susiana, and soon reached the mouth of the Tigris where the voyage terminated. Paht 1 a desert and rocky f Churbar,) whore it BPBs himself of this, 10 charttctcr ofa biic- in the world. The d fish find other vic- their city, and beinfj t, and command the It first flow to arms, It proved, liowevor, !ould get only a verv ! stock of provisions iding and cutting oft' was 80 impatiently lest they should all I the inhabitants of id eagerly devoured, long the coast of the or had even boats, ile long, formed out icross tlie moutli of ish which had been ones of whales cast 8 descried a nimiber ty of water thrown ) sailors with terror, I being informed of mpets, and dashing uce these monsters the fabulous abode :e the navigator by round his distresses nd there was plenty 'iew of a huge pro- ), and forming the esicrotus, an officer 1, and march on foot degree to fulfil the Jvery harbour, and ed great hazard of reat measure con- they found, for tJie nouth of the river ves after so many or, met, with tears lage. This proved eported to be at a archus caused the rows to take rest their arrival they net did not know M>"xander. They he army had per- •ow, and after the e armament; but ieror burst into a J from this event regained the fleet, )f supply. They ider the name ti' they quitted the 'hich they follow- ippeared to them in Susiana, and Book I. PERIPLUS OF THE ERYTHREAN SEA. 27 The circumnavigation of Arabia, and the opening of a communication between the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, formed to Alexander on object of almost equal ambition. He ax'cordingly appears to have sent expeditions down both seas, in the hope of accomplishing this object Those, however, who went from Persia were never able to double that formidable promontory (the Mussendoon) which Nearchus had passed at the entrance of the gulf; while those who went from Egypt, after making a certain progress, were always obliged to return for want of water. The narrator chose to conclude with inferring, that such an achieve- ment must be beyond human skill or power, otlierwise the daring curiosity of Alexander would certainly have accomplished it. He reinforces tliis argument by observing, that as caravans which crossed Arabia were able to travel only during tlie night and in the day wore unable to bear the intense heat of the sun, it was unreasonable to suppose that a region still farther to the south should be at all habitable. Sect. VII. — Periplus qf the Erythrean Sea. The complete establishment of the dominion of Rome produced a long period of compara- tive peace. The encouragement of industry and commerce never formed part of the policy of that powerful empire ; but the demand for luxuries of every description in its overgTown capital, where the wealth of the world was collected, and to procure which the remotest extremities of the earth and sea were ransacked, powerfully stimulated mercantile enterprise. Alexandria continued still the great nautical school, by whose mariners the obstacles which in the time of Alexander had been deemed insurmountable were completely overcome. Regular voyages were established across to India, and for a considerable extent along the •lastern coast of Africa. The course of this commercial voyage is related by Arrian, not Uie historian of Alexander, but a merchant of Alexandria ; and though not so much a voyage of discovery as a coasting guide, it is founded, probably, upon personal observation, and wUl enable us to complete the survey of the great naval routes of the ancient world. Tlie voyage down the west coast of the Red Sea began with Berenice, founded by the Ptolemies, and the site of which, after being long sought for in vain, seems to have been nearly fixed by Belzoni. The coaist on the African side was wild, ond occupied only by a few rude huts of barbarous Nubians. The small port called Ptolemais Theron was the only place where refreshments could be obtained. At length, the navigator came to Aduli, a groat emporium, whose site Mr. Salt seems to have ascertained in the vicinity of Arkceko. Here was a profusion of excellent ivory, collected and sent down from Axum, the metropo lis, about eight days' journey in the interior. In return for this single staple of Ethiopia was exchanged that variety of showy colours, suited to a rude taste ; pottery and glass vessels, the manufacture of Diospolis ; brass for vessels and ornaments, iron for pointing lances, arms, and cutting instruments. Some fine clothfe, and ornaments of gold and silver, were brought as presents or tribute to the king. Fartlier down, apparently in the Gulf of Zeyla, was the kingdom of Zoskalcs, a prince who is described in glowing terms as adorned with every virtue, and eminently skilled in Grecian literature ; but these seeds of civiliza- tion, if they ever existed, did not ripen in so ungenial a climate. The coast now turns eastward to the Indian Ocean. A view of the passage down the opposite or eastern coast of the Red Sea must now be taken. Navigators do not seem to have ventured across the breadth of that sea from Berenice, but went by Myos Hormus, along the mouth of the Gulf of Suez, touchmg at Leuhe Kome, the fair village, which formed the port of tlie great commercial capital of Petra. The coast downwards was most unfavourable to navigation, " full of danger, without harbours, beset with rocks, everywhere full of horror ;" and such the whole of the Red Sea is described to be by modern navigators. If a vessel was driven too near the shore, it was immediately plundered by the barbarous inhabitants, and all who survived carried intij slavery. At length they came to the Burnt Island, which seems to be Gebel Tor, on the coast of Yemen, where they found a fine country and a friendly people. The emporium of tliis coast was Moosa, near the modern Mocha, said to be inhabited by a race skilled in maritime affiiirs. The imports were of the same description as at Aduli, but of finer quality, including a considerable quantity of dye-stuffs. The exports were myrrh, gum, alabaster (no mention yet of coffee). They then proceeded downwards, and passed the straits now called Bab el Mandel. The southern coast of Arabia formed the next object of navigation. Ocelis (the modem Ghella) was a good harbour, though with little trade ; but Arabia Felix, which seems to have been near the site of Aden, had been a most flourishing port, forming a depot in which the merchants of Alexandria found all tlie commodities of India, It had lately, however, been destroyed by the Romans. In coasting along Arabia, they found Kane (the modem Maccuiia) ; the Gulf of Sachalites, in which is found the modern Sahar ; and Syagros, de- scribed as the largest promontory in the world, usually supposed to be Raa el Had, but which Vincent appears clearly to fix in the much more westerly position of Cape Fartash. This region is described as. yielding a considerable quantity of"^ incense, but as extremely iiicist and unhealthy. They now passed Mosca (Morebat), Asichone (Hasec), the islands 28 inSTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Part I. 1; I. , ' I Fig. 4. — Perii'lus— Coast of India. 09 70 73 74 KtlUoia '■•i .23 20 .1 of Zcnobius (Curia Muria), and came to Ras cl Had, where the coast turns northward to the Persian Gulf. The writer observes, and truly, that the entrance of the Gulf is bordered by very lofty and rugeed mountains; he mentions the celebrated pearl fishery on its western shore, and Apologos, otherwise called Oboleh, then the emporium of the Euphrates. He does not dwell, however, on these details, and passes also, with very slight notice, the southern coast of Persia, which the observations of Nearchus hod shown tooe destitute of any materials for commerce. The coa£t of India (Jig. 4.) now commences, and forms the most important era in the voyage. He reaches the mouth of the great river Sinthui, by which name he designates the Indus. It is represented as entering the sea by seven mouths, only one of which is navigable, and on which is situated a place called Emporium Bar- baricum, subject to the interior metropolisz^ - of Minnagara, which last is described as a Scythian city. The idea of Scythia at- tached to this part of India coula only he^ suggested by the rude pastoral manners of tlie people, and, combined with the cir- cumstance of its being included in the Parthian empire, points out Minnagara asm belonging to what is now called tlie king- dom of Caubul, to which, in fact, the Del- ta of the Indus is still subject The mer- chants were obliged to go up to Minna- " gara, and to negotiate with the prince himself. After passing the Indus, navi- gators found successively the gulfs ofi8-| Eirin(Cutch) and of Barygaza (Baroach). The narrator here remarks the dangers of every kind with which these gulfs arc beset, shallows, concealed rocks, narrow and difficult entrances, but above all, the extraordinary occasional violence of the tide ; in consequence of which, unexpe-,2 rienced navigators often saw their vessels eitlier sunk or driven on shore. Frequent- Iv, when tliey were sailing in perfectly smooth Avater, a sound was heard as of an advancing army ; and soon the tide rushed on with such force, that no anchor could secure the vessels. Barygaza wap a very great emporium, at which were found the same commodities as at Emporium Bcrbaricum, with much finer cloths, and a quantity of long pepper. Ozene (Ougein) was a great interior capital, the prince of which it was necessary to propitiate, by sending up handsome presents of the very best wine, rich unguents, cloth, and beautifiil female slaves. The region of Dachinabades (the Decan, i. e. the South, for Arrian remarks, Aajjavoj wAttrai 6 voto{ ir) avtuv 'fiMeati) extended to the south of Barygaza, and is described as combining " many regions, deserts, huge mountains, wild beasts of every kind, and finally, many great and populous nations." It had two large interior capitals, Plithana and Tagara ; the one twenty days' journey south from Barygaza, the other ten days farther. The gran- deur of both has sunk under the changes to which eastern cities are subject ; but the site of the former seems recognised in Piltanah on the Godavery, that of the latter in Deoghir, now Dowlatabad, in whose vicinity are the magnificent sculptured temples of Ellora. A number of ports are now described, whicli cannot be very precisely determined ; but Kal- liena, mentioned as the scat, though with some interruptions, of a very great commerce, is pretty clearly recognised at or near the modem Bombay. Afterwards we may know the Concan by the mention of pirates. At length the Greeks reached Limyriko, a fine port, and the seat of a great trade. The three chief emporia were Tyndis (Barcelore), Moy ; by a sea of darkness, tiff to hold a place in pian on the frontier led still more cxten- he north of Enropo. ' the earth; end this' ave been confounded least as there is anj system, and to apply .sia Minor rank high rious quarters of the y were very wealthy is. To a commercial it to peoffraphy and Inaximander, Anaxi- itors of all t!ie pro- lomon or sundial, for 3 latitude of parlicu- , are represented as lor these discoveries ildeans, whose fame, observation. limates, determined the rhinoceros, the loose method gave lonjjest and shortest cted on a horizorftnl on of the sun alxDvo nt was employed by rmcd, of addinflf five plote year. It has tures by whicii this md tliouph it mifijht ret it really appears perfectly "fitted for had larffely drawn information thence tes, are reportwl tn tained enabled liim rface ; but he could s a cylinder; some The details of t!ie iced tho sun in the int era attniiinients advanced stage of d as the best and , who is reported to bjccts which were of this nature was the Sparta:' kinjr e of that nionarcl., Book I. GEOGRAPHY OF HERODOTUS. 33 holding in hia hand a tablet of brass, on which were inscribed " tlie whole circuit of the earth, the sea, and all the rivers." Under this pompous description, however, was probably includ • little more than a route from tho Ionian sea to Susa, which was specially pointed to as t by which the Spartan prince might lead his victorious troops to the Persian capital. Even of this line, respecting which he was so deeply interested, the short detail of Herodotus shows him to possess by no means complete information. Beyond Cilicia his descriptions are very indistinct. He hao omitted Media altogether, and has given to Armenia quite an undue extension. „ , . Tho continental Greeks, during the era of theur greatest power, did not cultivate systematic geography, nor indeed any sciences dependent upon matliomaticiil principles, with much activity ; indeed, they did not even keep them up to tlie state in which they had been received from the Ionian cities. One solitary observation of latitude is recorded as having been made at Athens, by Meton and Eudemon, 432 years A. C. The different states, in the course of their extensive wars, must have acquired a great portion of that topographi- cal knowledge which is indispensable for military operations. Engrossed by these internal objects, their attention was little directed to the general system of the world. One mdividual alone, by extensive travels and diligent enquiries, procured an ample accession to the science of history and of historical geography. Sect. IV. — Geography of Herodottis. The system of geography included in the great historical work of Herodotus is as c(Hnplete as could be formed from tho materials within his reach. It comprises a general summary of all that he could learn respecting the human race, and the regions which they mluibited. His information was obtained not solely or chiefly from books, but mostly by travelling, the only mode in which at that era geographical knowledge could be effectually collected. He assures us that he had visited Persia, Assyria, Egypt, Thrace, Scythia, and all the distant regions which he describes. He viewed them, however, only as tracts of ter- ritory, the abode of men, and did not attempt to combine them into any system of the earth ; nor did he possess, or, at least, apply any of the mathematical or astronomical principles of the Milesian school. He even derides some of its conclusions ; as that of the earth being round and encompassed by the ocean. His strange statement, that the sun in India was ver- tical in the morning instead of at midday, is evidently a misunderstood report of what he had been informed respecting the difference of time in the different parts of the earth's circum- ference. His knowledge, however, such as it is, consisting of plain ihcts, untinctured with theory, is both solid ana extensive. The division of the eartJi into three quarters, or continents, was by this time completely formed. Sea, or at least water, seems to have been the principle of separation, though not re<^uired to be altogether complete. Setting out from Europe, for the origin of which appel- lation we have nothing but the fable of Europa, the Greeks seem to have named the other continents from the districts immediately beyond the intervening sea. Homer already men- tions the name of Asia as applied to a large and fine tract on the coast of Ionia. Thence it spread through tlie spacious peninsula of which it forms part, and which Europeans con- tmue to call Asia Minor; but soon passing these limits, it was vaguely extended through the boundless regions of the East, till it fmally embraced entirely the largest of the three conti- nents. On the other side, directly to the south, the Greeks first landed on the coast of Libya ; and the name of Libya was by them applied to the entire continei t With the Romans, on the contrary, whose position and political relations attached them entirely to the district of Africa proper, in which Carthage is situated, the name of Africa soon prevailed over every other. These grand divisions of the ancient world were already known to Herodotus ; but he has a^onbhed European readers in an extraordinary degree by the assertion, that Europe is longer and of greater extent than Asia and Africa united. The severe judgment of M. Cro^lin pronounces such an assertion, made in the midst of the nations which carried on tlie most extensive navigation, to be a proof that they had not formed the least idea of the distance which their vessels sailed along the Mediterranean. Before pronouncing so severe a sentence, we must consider attentively what, in the conception of Herodotus, was Europe, and what was Asia. He mentions two boundaries : one formed by the Black Sea and the Don, which, though it does not form a very appropriate boundarv of a continent, continues still to prevail, ^ing connected with tlie Northern Ocean by the mountain chain of the Urals. But in the ouier, which is that preferred by Herodotus, die Black Sea is continued by the Caspian ; the boundary line being carried along the north of that sea, and thence indefinitely eastward. Taking Europe in this sense, we find it in the west co-extended witli the opposite coast of Africa, which the ancients necessarily considered as marking the length " 'at continent, while, in the east, however &r Asia might be prolonged, Europe was stil. nf fhat regarded as co-extensive, extreme want of precision. Voul With regard to the boundaries of Africa, too, there was an Our limit of the Isthmus of Suez is certainly the most accurate ; E M HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY. Past L I '*■' \ but the Kiicicntfl, who could not readily admit tho notion of a continent bounded by any thing but water attached themselves more to tho Nile, and did not well know whether to conaider Rgrypt 08 Asiatic or African. SvoascT. 1. — TTie Europe of Heroiolu$. Scythia wan tho extremity of Europe, beyond Greece, with which Herodotus appear* to have been most fhniiliar, and which, m fkct, he knew better than almost any other ancient writer. Tliis name, which became ult aatcly Asiotic, was restricted by him to the tracts that now form the southern provinces of tho Russian empire. Those regions were then, and in a great measure still are, possessed by the same description of rude Nomadic and pastoral people, who have always occupied tho central plains of Asia. The attention of tho nistorian was specially called to them by tho rash and daring expedition of Darius into a region secured by its natural barriers, and tho wandering and untamed character of its people, ag^ainat every form of regular subjection. Darius, crossing the Hellespont, marched along tho southem shore of the Euxino, reached tho Iwinks of tho Volgo, and after the fhiit- Icss labour of erecting there several fcrtresseB, returned by a moro inland route, in which Major Rennell even supposes him to have passed tlie site of Little Novogorod. The know- ledge acnuirod by this expedition, however, did not enable Herodotus to avoid great errors in tiie delineation of European Scytliia. Ho imbibed a most exaggerated idea or the dimen- sions of the PaluB Mocotis, which Ito calls the " mother of tho Euxino." This appears to have arisen chiefly from the false orienting of tho side which feces Russia, and which is mado to stretch almost due north, instead of west, while tho sea itself is represented as forming the eastern boundary of tJiat great space of four hundred miles square, wi!>iin which Herodotus comprises Scythia. Tho southern boundary was formed by the Euxirf , and the otlier two by tho land, so that he does not connect it in any shape with tLo Forthem Ocean. The details of this extensive region are given by Herodotus with considerublo accu- racy. Of its rivers, after tho Danuho, which ho ranks second to the Nile, ho mentions the Tyres or Dniester, tho Hyponis, or Bog (and even describes the close approach of these rivers to each other in the upper part of their course), tho great channel of the Borysthenes. or Dnieper, and the Tonais or Don. Between the last he mentions several streams, the Panticnpes, Hypacyris, and Gerrhus, which not being recognized by modem geography, Major Rennell supposes to be creeks or branches of the greater rivers. Milesian colonies had, by the active enterprise of that commercial people, been already formed even on these rude shores. One, called the oorl of the Borysthenes, is described as the centre of the trade of Scythia. On the bonkk. of this great river dwelt a people, bearing the rare character of the ploughing Scythians, who renouncing the almost universal habits of their race, raised crops of grain in this fertile district, which still furnishes to the ports of Taganrog and Odessa those supplies, which render them 1^0 granary of the Mediterranean. The Milesians had also a colony established at tho mouth of the Danube. The northern interior countries of Europe, which h.y beyond the limits of the Scvthia explored by tho expedition of Darius, were covered for Herodotus with a veil of dim olscu- rity. On the Scythian frontier, along the heads of the Dniester and Borysthenes, he repre- sents several nations ; the Melanchleni, " men clothed in black ;" tho Androphagi, " men eaters;" the Neuri, "once a year converted into foxes." These Greek names, and partly febulous attributes, show the very imperfect nature of the notices collected on the subject The regions beyond the Danube axe expressly stated to be occupied by nations to him unknown. Two precious commodities, the amber from the coast of Prussia, and the tin of the Cassiterides, under which last name a vague idea of the British Islands seems to be included, communicated the knowledge, that there was a great ocean in the north, but witliout the means of ascertaining its extent and limits. On the east, however, as already observed, he had attached to Europe a vast extent of territory which has been entirely severed from it in subsequent systems. The expanse of northern and even middle Asia, which the ancients afterwards called Scythia, and which forms the modem Tartary, inha- bited by races exactly similar to the Scythians already described, appeared to Herodotus decidedly European. It was bounded by the Phasis, the Caspian, the Aral (not distinctly recognized), and the Jaxartes. The Massagetce, celebrated for their contest with Cyrus, gave name with Herodotus to all the wandering tribes in this eastern part of Europe ; but Uiey were afterwards merged into the prevailmg appellation of Scythians. Sdbsect. 2. Asia of Herodotus. Asia, according to the conception of it formed by Herodotus, will appear, from what has oeen said, to include only a small portion of the vast continent to '.vhich we assign thai tiame. On the north it had the same seas and rivers just enumerated as the boundaries of easterr. Europe ; to the east it terminated with India; while even to the south, a large por- tion of the desert tracts of Arabia were lot yet believed to exist When this great historian .■.I-' Pabt I, ndod by any thing tiothor to consider lorodotuB appear! any other ancient him to the tracts Dffions were then, lido Nomadic and 10 attention of tho of Dariim into a character of its llcspont, marched nd after tho fhiit- id route, in which )rod. The know* ivoiA ffreat errora dea or tho dimen- This appears to sia, and which is is represented u are, wi*>iin which 3 Euxirr., and the ith tlA! Forthfcm onsiderublo accu- , ho mentions the ipproach of these r the Borysthcnea 3ral streams, the oAcm geography, iai people, been e Borysthenes, is eat river dwelt a mcing the almost trict, which still render them the hed at the mouth _ of the Scythia eil of dim oLscu- thenes, he repre- idrophagi, "men imes, and partly ' on the subject nations to him and the tin of ids seems to be n the north, but ^evor, as already as been entirely en middle Asia, n Tartary, inha- d to Herodotus (not distinctly !8t with Cyrus, of Europe; but from what has re assigu that e boundaries of ith, a large por* I great historian Ik)OK I. ASIA OF HERODOTUS. m wrote, all tho various kingdoms and potty states, into which, in tho infancy of the world, Asia had been partitioned, were absorhi-d into one vast empire. Tho Persians claimwl Asia as their own, and had distributed it into tweiityfinir satrapies, which have been illustrated in a very learned manner by Major Ronnell. They included, with tho exception of the northern part, which ho considered as Euronean, oil of Asia that was known to tho Greeks. In collecting tiiereforo from Major Rennell's investigation the following table of those satrapies, we exhibit not only the outline of that great empire, but, with tho somewhat dubious exception of a small part of Greece, the whole of the civilized world. Tho tribute paid in talents of silver will exhibit their relative wealth and importance. ,, TABLE OP THE DIVISION OP AttA INTO BATRAriF.& Tnnlft, Msgnonln, Cnrln, JF.ntia, I.ycia, Piimphylln (tho woit and louth coart of Aiin Minor) Myniii, I.vdln, ic. (llio wcitcni interior) ......................... . riirygin, Pnplilaitnnia, Cnpnnilcjcia, &r. (llin iinrth rnml and the Rruat Interior table-land of Alio MInur) Cilioia (Incliidiiiir iiart of Hyrin, anil rcncliinu to tho Euphrntea) Plimnirla, I'niontliiu, and Cyuriin (which rUrninhod aUo a third part of the naval force of tha empire) KKypt, incliidinx (Jyrciio BmrUarcB (lialf of the tribute paid in fraln). . Ilaliylnii and AHuyrla, includini; Syria, and fiirniihing aUo SOO eunucbi. BiiKiana, nr Hnutlicrn Pcrnia. Media, (Northern Periia) • ;"•••.• V ' Tho (?B«pian«, Pa!(iicii', Panlimnthi, and Darilm (tho Cniplan prnvlncei of Pcrtla). Tho Maticni, Banpirei, tc. ( Adcrbijan and tho Armenian province*) Armenia. Tim MoaynoDci, Tibareni, Moselii, tiC. (the Wcitern Cauiasui, Georgia, Mingrolia, ai far aa Trebl- »ond) ; The Sngartianii, Baramoani, &c. (Belitan, Caramanla, Lar, and other territories along tha Indian Oenan, and tho eaatern part ol tim Pcriian Giilf ) Tliu Parthiani, Choaaminna, Soadiana, and Arlana (Khoraaan, Herat, Candohar) Tliu Oandarii, the Dadicoi, fcc. (Margiana, the country on tho Murghab, between Khoraaan and tha Oxiii. nactria (Balk) Tim Sacx andCaapiciB(Kaahgar, Famer, and other tract! of mountoinoui country about tha head of the Oiiia) . The Paricanii and Ethiopiani of Aaia (Mokran, including, pcrhapa, Cnubul, and the Delta of tho Indiia) India, tho largoat of all, being 300 talonta in gold, which amounts in silver to Tdmh. 400' MM 3no 900 300 1400 1000 300 430 SOO iMW 4U0 300 000 300 170 300 330 400 4680 R Some tracts of this vast empire, not formed into regular satrapies, were privileged to furnish only presents, or gifts, under an appearance of voluntary homage. Among these were ranked the Persians proper, inhabiting the modern Pars, who obtained this distinction OS the conquering people by whom tho empire was originally founded. The Southern Arabians, and the Ethiopians above Egypt, derived the same immunity from the difficult access to those rude regions in which they dwelt. The Southern Arabians are said to have propitiated the favour of the great king by tho present of a thousand talents of incense. The Colchians, and the occupants of the neighbouring heights of Caucasus, were also numbered among the " givers of gifts ;" while the inhabitants of the northern parts of that great range, secure in their mountain fastnesses, are said to have cared very little about the mighty ruler of Persia. These delineations of Asia display, upon the whole, a surprising accuracy and extent of knowledge ; yet several remarkable errors occur with regard to points of which the investi- gation does not ftppear very difficult. Thus the breadth of Asia Minor was reduced almost a half; that between Babylon and the capital of Egypt was underrated at least a fourth ; and the country between the Black Sea and the Caspian was placed in the same meridian with the Persian Gulf, while it is really four degrees to the westward. These errors are the more remarkable, as the distances, instead of being in excess, according to almost every other ancient example, fall short of the truth. The early travellers exaggerated every space over which they actually passed; but it sometimes happened that two points were ap preached from different quarters, and then united to each other by a hypothetical line, which, OS men usually undervalue what they know nothing of, was made generally too small. It would not appear that any regular route had been formed across tho high and rugged table- land in the interior of Asia Minor from Cilicia to Trebisond. These two points, being approached respectively along the southern and northern coasts of the peninsula, might be supposed nearer to each other than they really were. Egypt was approached tlirough Syria and Palestine, and Babylon by descending the Euphrates ; but the direct line between tiiem lying across the Arabian desert, was scarcely known or frequented, and therefore became an ideal line in the view of Herodotus. The line from Armenia to the Persian Gulf was of course measured along tho Euphrates, the general course of which was south ; and aa the ancients oriented all their lines to a cardinal point, they overlooked the gradual but constant bend which that river takes to the eastward. The ideas of Ilerouotus concerning the extent of Asia, even including all that portion of it which he assigned to Europe, could not fell to bo defective. He knew notlimg of India beyond the Ganges, Thibet, Cliina, Eastern Tartary, or Siberia, more than half the superficial extent of *he continent. Even his notions concerning India were most imper- 30 HISTORY OF OKOGRAPIIV. f>AlT I. Icct. IIo (IvHcribos it u bounded on tlio cut hy Hand, iitrntclilnff into an unknown and inoaMurnlotH duHurt. From tliirt utatoniunt it clnnrly npimnrN tliat hiit India coinprnliundod merely tlio wcBtrrn part watered by tlin Indui and it« llvo triiiiitaricM ; lio l borders, on tlie side of Gyrene, where verdure first began to adorn the waste, Herodotus has fixed the fabled site of*^ tho Hesperian gardens. The Garamantes, to the south-west of Augila, and the Nasamones, ore represented by our historian as inhabitants of a region infested by wild beasts, and of a timid character fljing the view and intercourse of other men, destitute of arms, and unacquainted with war. These characters do not appljrto the people of modem Fezzan, which, however, is undoubt- edly the tract pointed out To the north-west were the Gindanes (the modem Gadamis), among whom the license of public morals had risen to a greater height than among all the wandering tribes of Libya. Still proceeding north-west, the traveller came to tlie lake Tri* [■f Hiifl'.'iL' .^^•w^-ii^Ji.i^'rT^ Boo* I. THE EXPEDITION OF ALEXANDER. 4i :h no longor nxiiit; than tho clmnnclu Hulcmbln confuHion be a(ljuil((0(l. Aa I of Suoz, boliovod limit Tho Nile. tinonts: all to tho rig the lot of Egypt 10 Delta; but this nuflt formerly havo :od by the OTailual inka of tho Nile as fypt. Ho accuROfl bya. If wo rightly 3 tho proper point Ihs' journey partly current througii capital of Ethiopia ivero viewed with [uored Egypt and ) Egyptian exiles, protection of ttie 1 may bo Sennaor, irodotus shows his lerodotuB in somo jocts hero are the of Jupiter Ammon, gives tho names cso arid and sandy ny of Uiem stand dulging openly in f tlicir paramours, frican ladies. An jnaica, where the rever, only by the ) the scene of dis- jf the wandering Miired to tho Oasia imong this people Lvo had a peculiar id. Within thei' waste, Herodotus e represented by timid character uainted with war. vever, is undoubt- nodcrn Godamis), lan among all the 3 to tlie lake Tri> tonis, celebrated in ancient ftl>lo as the birth-plnco of Mincrvo, who, according 'o one legend, was «prung from Noptuno aiul tho nymph of tho lake. This lake forms tlic wcstoni limit of tho long rango of nomadic trilws. Doyond it, Hii gives us tlio Maxyos, who cul- tivated tho ground. He hod now reached timt flue rniigo of torritory belonging to Curthugc, stretching along the coaiit, watered and enriched by streams fVom the Atlas. It is very romarkftWo, however, that ho should pass by entirely that mighty and celebrated state, , which was not only thn most powerllil in Africa, but was also tlio centre of industry anci commerce with respect V) 'lie ancient world. Major Kcnnoll has suspectrd that this arose fVom a national feeling of amity on account of Uieir alliance with the Persians ; but when we consider that no such feeling has prevented the flillest account (Vom being given of tho Persians themselves, it can scarcely be supposed that tho being merely fVienus to tho Per- sians would exclude so great a people tVoin his notice. It seems reallv very dilBcult to conjecture his motive, unless, according to tho suggestion of a learned ftiena, we suppose that Herodotus, writing almost entirely to illuHtrate what was obscure, or communicate know- ledge on points respecting which tiie world were in ignorance, might tliink it superfluous to describe what must havo neen well known to the bulk of his readers, for tho same reason that ho has given no regular description of Greece. In reference to tho transactions of this people with othor nations, he takes repeated occasion to mention them, so that tho omission could not arise fVom absolute ignorance. Atlas and tho desert border behind it next engage tho attention of our historian; a tract reaching as far as tho straits, which ho calls the hiffh forehead of Africa. He describes Atlas as a long and lofty range, whoso highest pinnacles are wrapped in perpetual clouds and ho ascribes to tho natives tho origin of tho belief adopted by the Greeks, which mwlo it tho pillar of heaven. Even in this extreme boundary of the continent, ho mentions somo peculiarities thot really exist : — tho enormous sizo and formidable character of the serpent tribe; oxen with largo and crooked horns; houses of salt which would melt away if a single shower wore to interrupt the continued drought. When ho begins, however, to speak of people with horses' hoods, and others without heads at all, it is timo to take our leave ; though somo learned writers suppose this to be a mere exaggerated description of somo animals of tho desert. We must still follow him, however, to tho western coast beyond tho straits, whero tho Carthaginians, ho was informed, carried on trade with tho natives in a peculiar manner. The parties did not sec each other, but after a signal made by smoke, one laid down his proflcr, went away, and loft room for the other to do the samo ; when tho first came, and citner accepted or rejected the bargain, till the terms were adjusted. There have been reports in various quarters of this mooe of traffic, but all, we suspect, exaggerated representations of the timid manner in which civilized traders make their approaches to those savage people who possessed any valuable commodities. The product sought upon this shore was gold : and, as it docs not exist in any latitude north of tho Senegal, Major Renncll concludes that the trade of Carthago extended to that distant river. A sceptic might surmise that tho gold was brought across the desert to tho coast of Barbary ; yet, considering the formidable character of this desert, it seems doubtful if at so early a period a commercial route across it could have been opened. The interior of Africa could not fail deeply to attract the curiosity of Herodotus. The part already noticed as described by him forms only a belt along its northern coast, and mcludes none of the vast inland tracts. On this subject, however, he has only one tale to tell. Several Nasamonian youtlis of distinction, seized with that desire to penetrate tho continent which has prevailed throughout all ages, departed on an expedition to the south- ward. They traversetl thrco successive belts ; first, the cultivated, or at least verdant and mhabited tract along the sea-shore ; then, another occupied only by wild beasts ; and, lastly, a region arid and desolate. Here, while plucking fruits, they were surprised by some men of small stature, who carried them by the way of very great lakes, to a city inhabited by black inhabitants, and situated on a large river flowing from west to east. This river Herodotus, naturally enough, judges to be the Nile. Major Renncll conceives it to be pro- bably the river of Tombuctoo, which Europeans call the Niger ; but wo think, since the late discoveries, there can scarcely bo any hesitation in fixing it as the Yeou, the river which rolls through Bornou, while the Tchad may be identified with tho great lakea along which the expedition was conducted. CHAPTER IV. FIRST ALEXANDIIIAN SCHOOL.- ERATOSTHENES AND STRABO. Sect. I. — The KxiwAitinn of Al(>.rantf/>f The geography of the Greeks became little more than a topographical delineation of military routes, after the intestine wars in which they were involved caused them to lose eight of the moro distant regions of the earth. Besides, as they never cultivated mathe- Vol. I 1 88 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Part I w •f - Wi' ^- 1; fr l)i!l nmtical scionco witli any caro or to any extent, tliey had not Uio power of arrtuiffin^ even tliese limited nmterials into a systematic form. The expedition of Alexander gave a much greater degree of expansion to the human mind. That monarch transferred the scat of war into tlio Persian empire, and carried his victorious arms into the remotest regions of the East Wiiatever might be the faults and follies with which his career was stamed, it cannot bo denied that an enlightened curiosity animated all his proceedings. Wherever he wont, ho was uccompnied by skilful surveyors, Diogno- tus and Bmton, who measured the length and direction of every route over whicli the army passed. Alexander himself carefully inspected tlioso itineraries, employed oil prac- ticable means for obtaining the best materials, and his letters are even quoted by Pliny as authorities for many geographical statements. These itineraries are said to have been afterwards published by Bicton, under the title oi '* the Marches of Alexander." From the 'cfoctivc state of the science, however, which that prince could not remedy, all these .natorials were necessarily imperfect. They could include nothing beyond mechanical measurement, nor is there any record, throughout this long career, of a single attempt to fix the position of any spot by celestial observation. Imperfect as they were, however, tlicse documents did not the less form a completely new era in geographical science. After the death of Alexander, they passed througu the hands of Seleucus into tliose of Ptolemy Philadclphus, wlio spared no cflbrts to render Alexandria the greatest seat of learning and science in tiic ancient world; and among the sciences there cultivated, geography and ustronomy held the most distinguished place. The progress of Alexander led him at first through Syria, Egypt and Persia, but did not bring the Greeks to the knowledge of any countries, of whose existence and limits the/ were not already fully apprised. But after he began the pursuit of Bessus, who had carried off Darius into Bactriana, his march became a sort of exploratory route. In his vain pur« suit of tlic Scythian armies he reached the banks of tlie Jaxartcs, though he did not fully trace the course eitlier of that river or of the Oxus. On his way tlience to India, he liad to penetrate the narrow passes overhung by the snowy ramparts of the Hindoo Coosh, and, with much difficulty and many hardships to his troops, learned to appreciate the magnitude of that great inland barrier of Asia. In Lidia, Alexander could not penetrate beyond the region watered by the five rivers. Yet he did not consider it as the boundary of the earth ; he learned t.ho existence and beauty of the fine regions on the Ganges, whither he in vain attompted to persuade his fatigued and refractory troops to follow him. He consoled himself by conveying his army in pomp down the Indus, to view the entrance of that great stream into tlic ocean, and with instructions, as we have already seen, to trace the shores of Asia round the Persian Gulf. He himself, upon very bad information, undertook to lead back his army through Gedrosia and Caramania, the greater part of which he found, as modem travellers have done, to be a desert of the most dreary and formidable character, in which his army was with difficulty saved from total destruction. Sect. II. — Expedition of Sclcncus. Seleucus, on the partition of the empire of Alexander, succeeded to the dominion of Syria and tlie East. Neither that prince nor his successors were eitlier learned or patrons of learning ; but as the owner of extensive dominions, and oiming at fartlier conquest, he cherislied the natural wish to bo acquainted with what ho ix)ssessed or hoped to obtain. He employed his admiral, Patrocles, to make a survey of the Caspian Sea, which had not entered into tlie line of Alexander's route ; but the information gamed by this voyage must, as we shall see, have been far from complete. It would also seem as if he had employed the same admiral in an attempt to Circumnavigate Asia ; but the assertion which obtained credit in that age, that he hatl sailed round from India to the Caspian, sufficiently attests the failure of the enterprise. Seleucus, also, finding, probably, that the inroad of Alexander into India had been of vcrj transient result, undertook a military expedition, the details of which are little known, and which enabled him to cstablisli no permanent footing in the country ; but he collected some further materials for tlie geographer, and the record of his marches appean to have been of important service to Pliny. He sent also an embassy under Megasthenes to Palibothro, capital of the great Indian kingdom situated on tlie Ganges, from which the ancients derived u more accurate knowledge of tliese eastern parts of me world than they had previously possessed. Sect. HI. — Eratosthenes. Eratosthenes at length succeeded in reducing geography to a system under the patronaat, of the Plolnmies, which gave him access to all tlie materials collected by Alexander, his generals, and successors, and to the immense mass of documents assembled in the AIexan= drian library. The astronomicai observations made in this school were now sufficient to prove the gfobular form of the earth. Eratosthenes, proceeding upon this principle, mode it •lis study to adjust to it all the known features of the globe. He did not, however, attend V) tne grand original divisions of the equator, the pole, or even the tropics. The luic wliicb 1 m-k Part I owor of orraiiffin/r to the human mind, orried his victorious lilts nnd follies with [ curiosity animated surveyors, Diogno- ito over which tlie* employed nil prac- quoted by Pliny as said to have been Sander." From the remedy, all these beyond mechanical single attempt to cy were, however, cal science. After 3 tliose of Ptolemy sat of learning and ed, geography and Persia, but did not ce and limits they IS, who had carried In his vain pur- li he did not fully :e to India, he hod lindoo Coosh, and, iate the magnitude letrato beyond the ) boundary of the anges, whither lie him. He consoled [ance of that great to trace the shores I undertook to lead lich he found, as lable character, in the dominion of med or patrons of Jier conquest, he )ed to obtain. He which had not this voyage must, hwl employed the :h obtained credit attests the failure xandcr into India lils of which are the country ; but 1 marclies appears der Megasthenes , from which Uie world than they ?r the patronage. Alexander, his in tho A!exan= now sufficient to rinciple, made it lowevcr, attend The line wiiicb UooK T. WORLD ACCORDING TO ERATOSTHENES AND STRABO. 39 formed U>o basis of his geography, and generally of that of the Alexandrian school, was a parallel drawn across ue Mediterranean, and thence prolonged through Asia. It was rormed in a very rough manner, upon no actual observation, and comprising all loading positions which came nearly though not strictly within its sphere. It was called generally, tJie parallel of Rhodes. The most westerly point was the Sacred Cape of Iberia (Cape St. Vin- cent), after which followed the " Strait of the Pillars" (of Hercules). The next point was the Strait of Sicily, erroneously considered to be under the same meridian with Rome and Carthage. Then came Rhodes, the centre of the lino. Issus, celebrated as the site of the victory of Alexander, was with little difficulty brought within the limit. Next followed the somewhat doubtful position of the Caspian gates, onil tlie line was extended along the chain of Mount Taurus, supposed to divide Asia into two parts, till it terminated at the remote city of Thinoj, situatetf on the eastern ocean. This entire length of the habitable world, as 'A was called, amounted to about 7U,000 stadia, or, according to his estimate, one hundred degrees, not quite a third of the circuit of the globe. In determining a meridian to exhibit his breadth of the habitable world, Eratosthenes laboured under still greater difficulties. On the extreme south was " the limit of the habitable earth;" for, according to this school, a certain tract around the equator was, from the excess of heat, unfit for human habitation. Tho uninhabitable zone was supposed to extend 8,300 stadia, or about twelve degrees to the north of the equator. Under the next parallel were included the " Isle of the Exiles," in or near Sennaar ; the cinnamon-bearing region, which appears to be Berbera, and Taproban, or Ceylon. Next comes Meroc, the capital of Etibiopia, which was supposed, though witii great error, to correspond as to latitude with the southern extremity of India : thence descending the Nile the geographer marks the celebrated position of Syene, which was concluded to be immediately under the tropic, iiince there was a well, in the depth of which at noon-day, at the precise time of the vernal equinox, the disk of the sun was seen reflected entire. The observation was very nearly correct. Next came Alexandria, of which, as the centre of all theco observations, the position as to latitude was very closely approximated. Then followed Rhodes in the centre of the great parallel already described as exhibiting the length of the habitable globe. Continuing northward, though not upon the same line, were found the Hellespont, Byzan- tium, the mouth of the Borysthenes, and passing over the vast obscurely-known tracts of Germany, Gaul, and Britain, the farthest Thulc, which, on the report of Pythcas, Eratos- thenes regarded as the extreme northern boundary of the earth. As the same authority placed Thule under the Arctic circle, or at sixty-six degrees of latitude, the interval be- tween that position and the limit of the habitable earth on the side of the equator amounted to about fifty-four degrees, or according to his estimate 38,000 stadia, which fonned thus the supposed breadth from north to south of the habitable earth. Sect. IV. — Hipparchus. Hipparchus, carrying still farther tho system adopted by Eratosthenes, subjected tho whole science of geography to astronomical principles. His labours in numbering the stars, and arranging them according to their place in the heavens, were such as appeared mar- vellous to the ancients, and are esteemed by Pliny as achievements that would have been Arduous even for a god. In this career, however, he had been preceded by Timocharis and Arlstillus, who, more than a century before, had made some observations which paved the way for the present extended discoveries. Hipparchus appears to have first conceived the idea of transferring the observed latitudes and longitudes of the stars to their correspond- ing places on the uarth's surface, thus fixing the latter with a precision which no itinerary loeasurements could ever attain. He made a considerable number of observations of lati- tude, in addition to the very few previously existing, and he pointed out the mode in which the longitudes might be ascertained by observing the eclipses of the sun and moon. It does not appeiT to what extent he carried the difficult operations requisite for this investigation ; bur he is said to have calculated the eclipses for six hundred years, including the moments of their appearance at different places ; a performance which seems to indicate a know- ledge of their astronomical position. Thus Hipparchus distinctly perceived all the prin- ciples upon which an accurate system of geography migiit be founded, and made some progress in their application ; but these important principles, like others which were beyond the comprehension of the age in which they were made, remained for a long time dormant or misapplied, and were not brought into full practical application until a much more advanced period in the progress of science. Sect. V. — The world according to Eratosthenes and Straibo. The application to the different parts of the earth's surface of the principles according to which the globe was to be delineated, formed a task still more arduous than that of the first establishment of those principles. The longitudes and latitudes of the ancients are both erroneous ; more especially the longitudes, to which astronomical observation was never verv extensively apnlied ; hence it is not wonderful that the errors should be grea' ; w fflSTORY OP GEOGRAPHY. Part I. but the regular and rapid manner in which they accumulate appears very surprisina They begin from the Sacred Cape of Iberia (Cape St Vincent), wnich the ancients maoe their first meridian, and continue regularly increasing as we proceed eastward. To the Pillars of Hercules were assigned more than two degrees beyond the truth ; to Alexandria, nearly seven ; to Issus, ten ; to the Caspian gates, fourteen ; to Pattalena, or the Delta of the liidus, twenty-three ; to tlie mouth of the Ganges, nearly twenty-seven. We have already had occasion to observe, and tlie remark is found in the best ancient geographeni that merchants and travellers of that age gave an exaggerated report of all me distances over which they passed. The windmgs of the route, the hardships and obstacles encoun- tered by them, the desire to magnify dieir own achievements, all concurred in inducing them to view and present this particular through an amplified medium. All the itineraries continued along the line upon which Eratosthenes measured his length of the habitable globe being thus unduly extended, the degrees calculated out of them were of course equally in excess ; and this excess became .always the greater ip proportion to the length to which the line was protracted beyond its commencement at the Sacred Cape. The lati- tude of the principal places in and round the Mediterranean is in general not far firom thtt truUi, probably because it was determined by such rude observations as were within the compass of Chreek science at that early period. In tracing the outline of the known world, and especially of the continents, geographeis still proceeded amid obscurity and doubt. This school had laid down the fiindamental prii^ ciple of a great circumambient ocean, embracing the entire circuit of the three continents. This idea, inherited from Homer, was doubtless supported by facts to a considerable extent ; but its application to the world in general, and especially to the northern shores of Europe and Asia, was manifestly hypothetical. Eratosthenes, in comparing the magnitude of his known world, even under its exaggerated dimensions, with the general circumference of the earth, became sensible that only a third part of this last was filled up. He indulges in conjecture as to the contents of this vast unknown region, which, he observes, might either be supposed to consist of one great ocean, the whole of which he denominates the Atlantic, or of lands and islands which might be discovered in sailing to the westward. With a degree of caution, however, not very common in that age, he declines to give any decisive opmion on this question. — The system of Eratosthenes may now be considered in regard to Europe, Asia, and Afirica. ^' ^'. ^" ;^ ScBSECT. 1. — Europe. (^Fig.6.) ''.,',■ The imperfection of ancient geography is often conspicuous with respect to conntriet which were very near and familiar. Li regard to the very centre of the Mediterranean, Eratosthenes committed a capital error. Following the propensity to include all the lead- ing positions under some one line to which they approximate, he ^aced in the same me- ridian Rome, the Sicilian strait (that of Messina), and Carthage. The mistake with regard to the first and last of these points did not much exceed a degree ; but the middle point is nearly four degrees east l!-om Rome, and five firom Carthage. Such an error could not fiul to produce others. M. Gosselin shows that it has led to a signal mistake respecting the position of Sicily, as the geographer, in order to retain its relative position towards Carthage, necessarily represented its greatest length as from north to south, instead of firom east to west. The promontory of Lilybeum, meing Carthage, became the southern instead of the western extremity of Sicily ; while Cape Pachynum, instead of the southern, became the eastern. Sici^v being thus projected so unreasonably towards the south, Carthage also was made to recede too &r in the same direction ; and tiie coast leading thither fiom the straits of Gibraltar was supposed to bend to the south instead of the north. The same erroneous process, placing Sicily too fiir west, enlarged beyond measure the eastern basin of the Mediterranean comprehended between it and Asia Minor. This deformity became still more serious from another application, to Alexandria and Rhodes, of the system rf placing leading points under the same meridian. As the former error had made Sicily Uio far west, this made Rhodes too far east, and rendered the sea between these islands too large by at least a half. Strabo, ever alive to the faults of his predecessors, detected the mistake of Eratoa- thenes with respect to the relative positions of Rome and Carthage. He has been fitr, however, firom rectifying all the wrong positions established by his predecessor. He has 1% 3»dM Carthiso Nova iSirbo MiMUia Aniipoli* . Oeniu B. Lnns 9. Pomilaoliua 10. C(MM R*ference$ to the Map of Europe according to EratotOteneii. II. Roma 13. Ottia la Cinseii 14. PnlecU 15. Naapolii 19. Poridonii 17. Vclia la Lain 19. UipiNNiiun 90. RhcfiDm SI. Scrlacium JK. TfinrU {■* ttreaium . Braiiduiiiiai glpoi . TMDum Aneona Aiiminum ». Poll 30. r 9h . K ApoUooia aurni Mbh a A Beqiut lU»«rt d Lifer 9 0animoa ffc.i.iw ftonw RbodiuMI Tf/WT{s^|p^'^J jyi.;, Tlhf 7.\" Part I. rs very surprisina the ancients made eastward. To the ith ; to Alexandria, na, or the Delta of r-seTen. We have icient geographers, of all uie distances 1 obstacles encoun- curred in inducing All the itineraries th of the habitable em were of course ortion to the length 3d Cape. The lati- ml not far from the as were within tiie inents, geographers e fundamental prin- he three continents, onsiderable extent ; m shores of Europe le magnitude of his d circumference of ip. He indulges in serves, might either linates the Atlantic, westward. With a k> give any decisive sidered in regard to espect to countries the Mediterranean, iclude all the lead- in the same me- nistake with regard the middle point is error could not fiiil ake respecting the towards Carthage, ead of from east to suthem instead of southern, became )uth, Carthage also ^ thither fh>m die north. The same the eastern basin deformity became of the system (^ id made Sicily too these islands too listake of Eratos- He has been fitr, decessor. He has d Liter e avumnt I" Tuioi IbonM Kbodiumi VuiM EUROPE ACCORDING ERATOSTHENES. 41 43 mSTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. PartI i:.!i 11 ill left untouched the false orienting of Sicily, and all the errors dependent upon it. Both he and Eratosthenes describe Italy as extending from nortii to south, which, allowing for the early tendency to orient all luies towards a cardinal point, may be taken as a pretty fait representation. M. Gosselin has undertaken to show that such a direction would be incon- sistent with the other data given by these geographers, in conibrmity to whicli Italy must Btretch from east to west. Considering, however, the imperfect state of geographical deli- neation at that period, it seems going too far to follow each error into all its consequences, or to suppose that all the views given can be brought into complete harmony. The outline of the central and northern countries of Europe drawn by these geogra> phers is excessively vague. Strabo indeed makes some approach to accuracy in comparing the Spanish peninsula to a " hide spread out," or to a parallelogram. Various countries were by the ancients denominated from a fancied resemblance to some object in nature, nor are examples wanting in modem times. But the eastern side r^ this figure is formed by the Pyrenees, which are thus made to extend flrom north to douth, to form the western boundary of Gaul, and to be parallel to the Rhine. Hence arises the ^eatest of all these errors ; for Gaul is allowed to have on the ocean only i;ne coast which is that looking to the north, and every where opposite to Britain. Strabo treats with derision the report of Pytheas, that the Calbium promontorium, the extreme point of Brittany, looked to the west, and he represents vessels as sailing tc Britain as readily from the mouth of tlie Loire and (Saronne as from that of the Rhine and the Seine. Great as these errors are, we shall easily trace their origin in considering the sources whence the Greeks derived their information respecting these extremities of Europe. Whatever may have been the case with regard to the Carthaginians, it is evident that neither Greeks nor Romans ever navigated its exterior seos. Pytheas alone performed that daring voyage ; but having no witnesses to bring in support of his relation, it was denounced as fabidous, in common with others made by early discoverers. The regular channel of communication was Marseilles. The merchandise of Britain bemg brought across the British chamiel to the mouths of the Rhine and the Seine, was conveyed up those rivers, and by land carriage to that great emporium of Gaul. Hence the geography of Gaul and Britain, in that age, was ruled entirely by Massilian ideas. From the causes stated, the Massilians had no communication with Britain unless by the northern coast of Gaul, and by routes directed from south to north through that country. Reasoning only from what they knew, they might soon arrive at the conclusion, that Gaul had only a northern coast, and might apply to it the whole of the erroneous system now described. The result of this system was, that the Cassiterides, Islands of Tin, in which term the Scilly islands were evidently blended with Cornwall, were made to approach to Spain, and came to be considered as much Spanish as British. So prevalent was this idea, tluit even afterwards, when the conquests of Rome had made known the wide separation between the two countries, the Cassiterides are found in some maps still attached to Spain, and at a little distance from Cape Ortegal. Britain, under this system, was represented as a triangle, of which the base, or longest side, was that along the channel and opposite to Gaul. As the coast, after passing the two extremities of this line, begins on one side to bend inward towards the Bristol Channel, and on the other to the Thames, navigators then probably considered it as continue ing in these directions till it came to a point, far short of its real termination. leme, or Hibernia, (Ireland) appears in dim obscurity. It is said to be situated four hundred miles north from the centre of Britain, under a climate so excessively cold that there could not possibly be any inhabited country nearer to the pole. If the four hundred miles be measured from the centre of the southern coast, and allowance be made for fiilse orienting, it will not be found so very wide of the truth. The rest of the description was probably made out by confused ideas of Scotland, and particularly the bleak mountainous tracts in the north. Eratosthenes, indeed, has derived from Pytheas a knowledge of the fiir northern limit of Thule, and of its appendant islands, stretching towards the Arctic sea ; but, as the proud scepticism of Strabo rejected this statement, he was thrown back upon the more imperfect inl> Tnation afforded by the merchants of Marseilles. The eastern shores of northern Europe occasioned still more embarrassment to the Greeks. They had, in general, the idea of this continent having the sea for its boundary ; but this seems mainly to rest upon the general vague belief of a circumambient ocean, and an understanding that Germany had on the nortii a maritime boundary, indicated by the amber brought from the shores of the Baltic. Here, too, Pytheas, either by personal investigation or by careful inquiry, had collected some particulars which if Strabo had not disdained, he would not have been left in such total darkness. After proceeding far along the German coast, that navigator, it is said, came to a great gulf (evidently the Baltic). He found Basilia, a very large island, the same which Pliny calls Baltia ; being, in fact, the peninsiila of Scandinavia, whicli, until it was circumnavigated, must have been regarded by navigators as an island. Then, it is said, he came to the Tanais, which appears, no doubt, a very st-i'tling aisertion; bu; we must remember that, in this school, the circumambient ocean was supposed to have a coast only a little north of the Euxine and the Caspian, und Part I it upon it. Both he ich, allowing for the akon as a pretty iait :tion would be incon- ' to which Italy must of geographical deli- Eill its consequences^ rmony. fm by these geognu icuracy in comparing 1. Various countries object in nature, nor figure is formed by to form the western ^eatest of all these ich is that looking to srision the report of r, looked to the west, th of tlie Loire and s are, we shall easily I'ed their information i case with regard to lavigated its exterior 'itnesses to bring in thers made by early The merchandise of [Ihine and the Seine, ium of Gaiil. Hence by Massilian ideas, tritain unless by the hrough that country. :onclusion, that Gaul Toneous system now ids of Tin, in which lade to approach to falent was this idea, the wide separation 1 attached to Spain, loOK I. ^::^/nm ROMAN GEOGRAPHY. i^hich the base, or coast, after passing towards the Bristol idercd it as continu- nination. leme, or four hundred miles that there could not miles be measured rienting, it will not obably made out by racts in the north. northern limit of but, as the proud he more imperfect wrrassraent to the a for its boundary ; imbient ocean, and indicated by the either by personal 1 if Strabo had not K:eeding far along ly the Baltic). He >eing, in fact, the ! been regarded by appears, no doubt, he circumambient the Caspian, and to communicate with these seas or gulfs (as they were supposed to be) bjr narrow straits, one of which was the Tanais, and the mouth of one of the great Baltic rivers might very easily be unagined to form the termination of this strait. HcBSBcrr. 2.— Asia. {Fig. 7. page 44.) The limits assigned to Asia, already too small, were contracted by the geographers of the Alexandrian school, notwithstanding the additional sources of information which they pos- sessed respecting that continent This error arose partly from their theory of a surround- ing ocean, and partly from their neglect of the important information obtained by Herodo- tus respecting the countries along the heads of the Euxine and Caspian. The expedition of Alexander, indeed, and the embassy of Megasthenes, made them acquainted with the Ganges, rolling eastward through the fine plain of Upper Hmdostan. Seeing it pursue this direction to the utmost limit of the then knowa world, they were led to conclude that its course continued eastward, and that it fell into the eastern ocean, which formed, on that aide, the boundary of the continent. Connecting this with the Caspian, the only northern Asiatic sea known to them, tiiey drew a line from one to the other, by which they excluded nearly two-thirds the extent of Asia ; the Birman empire, China, the greater part of Tar- tary, and the whole of Siberia. On the shore of the eastern ocean was placed Thins;, evi- dently known only by vague rumour, and which they fixed at the extremity of the line measuring the length of the habitable globe. What may be the import of this mysterious name, ana whether it be the capital of Siam or of China, is a discussion which will be bet- ter reserved until we come to the more precise notices of Ptolemy. One other grand feature was known to this school ; the cape of the Coliaci or Cape Comorin ; but conceiving the coast of Coromandel to follow the Ime of the Ganges, and, conseouently, to verge to- wards the west, they made it several degrees more easterly than even Thinee. Asia within and Asia beyond Taurus were made the grand divisions of that continent. That great mountain chain arising m Asia Minor was supposed to be prolonged by those of the Elburz, of Khorasan, and of Hindoo Coosh, which, m fact, there is much reason to believe, may form a chain nowhere wholly interrupted. Within Taurus were all the fertile, populous, and splendid kingdoms and countries of Asia ; Syria, Assyria, Babylon, Persia, Susiana, Ionia, Cilicia ; beyond, were the ruder tracts of Scythia, Bactria, Sogdiana ; and more westerly, the Caucasian territory, and the part of Asia Minor situated along the shore of the Black Sea. SvBSBCT. 3. — Jifrica. In regard to Africa, the knowledge of these geographers, though accurate in some re- spects, was extremely limited. They believed its boundary to be the sea ; but this correct judgment proceeded rather from a casual coincidence with their theory of an encircling ocean, than from any actual knowledge ; since Strabo rejected even the possibility of cir- cumnavigation. This scepticism was founded upon the hypothesis of an uninhabitablb tor- rid zone, which formed an essential part of the reigning system at this period. It is a be- lief manifestly African, founded on the observation of those vast and burning deserts, which extend indefinitely beyond the narrow inhabited stripe bordering on the Mediterranean. TTie Nile, then, being still considered as the eastern boundary, Africa became a sort of right-angled triangle, of which the two smaller sides were formed by that river and the Mediterranean, while the hypotenuse, or largest side, was the unexplored shore. It was upon the Nile tliat Eratosthenes measured the habitable world of Africa ; yet he does not tnice that river so high as Herodotus, his details reaching only between three and four hundred miles above Meroe. In these details, however, he is very accurate : on the east- em side, he represents it as receiving two great rivers, liie Astapus and the Astaboras, the former of which flows from lakes in the south, and, when swelled by Uio summer rains, forms almost the main body of the Nile. He describes also the bend which the river makes in its passage through Nubia. The source, being imagmed to exist in regions rendered in- accessible by extreme heat, could not be considcied aa within the reach of discovery. The idea, however, still prevailed, that it came from the west, and Strabo even mentions a re- port, that its source was in the remote region of Mauritania, south of the Atlas. This is the only statement made by geographers of this school, which can be considered as indi- cating any idea of the existence of the Niger. \ .>;r>:T-- «- iA*i*"- CHAPTER V. BOMAN OEOGRAPHV, Thb Roman geographers attamed no proficiency in the mathematical branch of the science. M. Gosselin does not even hesitate to assert, that they remained always strangers to its very first elements. They made no attempt, therefore, to combine their materials into one harmonious system, or to fix their positions with that strict accuracy, which astronomi- THE WORLD ACCORDING TO ERATOSTHENES. Fio. 7 MrlX '^-t' -fe-i .-^^'^ . I II; ' )irm: 1' '■; '■■'• i)ooK I. ROMAN GEOGRAPin.— MELA. 45 cal observation alone can reach. "Vet no nation employed greater diligence in the opera< tions of practical survey. This was, indeed, absolutely requisite, with a view to that in- cessant warfare in which they were engaged ; they could not conquer the world without oreviously surveying it Their geographical researches were, however, held strictly mx\h servient to this ambitious design. Itineraries were thus the only fomi in which the results of Roman investigation were presented. Vegetius bforms us that when war was to be carried into any country, the first care was to procure a complete set of routes, and place them in the hands of the general. These itineraries, it is observed, ought, if possible, to contain, not merely the inter- vals, in paces and Roman miles, between one place and another, but the quality of the roads, the surrounding objects, mountains and rivers, delineated with the utmost possible precision. They were not only to be noted, but painted, that the commanders mlfiht not know merely, but see before then: eyes, Uie route by which they were to proceed. The Romans became thus the surveyors aa well as the conquerors or the world ; and evenr new war in which they engaged, every new conquest which their arms achieved, producea a fresh accumula- tio:? of materials for the use of the geographer. Even after a countnr was subdued, the necessity of accurate survey did not cease. The empire was long held in a state of mere military occupation; camps formed at ^>oper distances were connected bjr those excellent and durable roods, many of which remu : to this day. An accurate acquaintance with the position and intervals of these camps, and the nature of the intervening territory, was essen^ tial to the maintenance of th'eir dominion over the vast extent of their conquered countries. No sooner, therefore, had Julius Ceesar seated himseU* on the undisputed throne of the empire, ' than he caused a $enat{is constdtum to be passed for a general measurement of the Rcinan ^ world. This task, it is said, was intrusted to " the most prudent men, adorned with every endowment of philosophy." The east was assigned to Zenodoxus, the west to Thcodotus, [and the souUi to Polycletos. la the course of twenty-five years, as we are informed by l^thicus, die whole was completed. Julius Ctesar, however, did not long survive the com- Imencement of this great work, which the civil wars probably suspended. It was apparently resumed and completed under the reign of Augustus and the ministry of his son-in-law I Agrippa, to whom it appears, from Pliny, to have been afterwards ascribed. The exact prin- ciples upon which this grand measurement was conducted have nowhere been stated. The reform of the calendar, effected by Ceesar, seems to point out that some elements of astro- nomy existeii among those with whom he consulted. Rome, in the most flourishing era of its literature, produced ttoo eminent geographers Mela and Pliny. Sect. I. — Mela. The personal history of this eminent geoCTapher is a subject respecting which scarcely any particulars have transpired. From me allusions, however, in his own writings, to the conquest of Britain by Claudius as a recent event, made in those flattering terms which only a contemporary would have employed, it would appear that his work was written under the reign of that inglorious prince, and is, consequently, anterior to that of Pliny. Mela, in forming his system, does not appear to have possessed those extensive mea^ surements and itineraries, which were probably deposited in the imperial archives. Faith- ful, however, to the object of his treatise, "de situ orbis," he discovers very considerable anxiety to determine the position of the globe, and trace with accuracy its general outlines. He adopts the general principles of the school of Eratosthenes, incorporating into it the new features which had been aro)rded by Roman conquest He does not appear, however, to have comprehended their idea of the globular form of die earth, nor is he very perspicuous in any thing that he says upon that subject He begins — " All tliat, whatever it is, to which we give the name of the world and heaven, is one uiuig, and in one circuit embraces itself and all things ;" va-jue and pompous expressions, to which no determmate idea can be attached. We find hun, however, adoptmg in its fullest extent the belief of a circumam* bient ocean : and when he speaks of " the figh earth in this middle part of it," and describes the sea as going under and washing round it, we are led to believe, that he viewed the earth as a sort of cone, or as a hi^h mountain raised by its elevation above the abyss of waters. Having made a vague division of the world into east, west, and north, he distributed it mto five zones, two temperate, one torrid, and two frigid. Only the first two 'vere habitshle; A EUROPA. . MuailA .. Roma 3. Athena 4. ByiaoUum RlVtT9* a Rbenut b BonrathaoM e Tamil ASIA I. Diowuiiu RrfermentotkeMapoftht Worid according to EratoMhene*, . Amimi JSiBopa 4. Epbetui S-fe"" 0. Thapneui is. Palala 16. Palif 'alibothra « Ozuf Rivtn. 9. 10. n. lit; Babyhm Rhinoeohi-a /Elana .'inn Inula Aradu* Iniula b Jazartet ft Ph Phaiii d EaphratM J Tiirii f Indus ■ QaofM . ., AFRICA. I. yxui 9. CartBato , 3. Ptotomait - 4. fjvninit 5. Serahiee 6. Alexandria iO. BeraniM .CJ.. 1. Sreoe n.,, i9. Meroa ,■;.#' 3. ^:oi^«.i, e of the Nile he describes with less accuracy than Btrabo, the two channels of the Astapus and Astaboroa being made branches of the Nile itself, first seporaU ing and then re-uniting. His ignorance respecting oven the shores of the Red iSea i» proved by tiieir being filled wiUi poetical wonders; the pigmies waging their ancient wat with the cranes; the phccnix, afler a jife of four hundroa years, dying, and reviving fh)in ita ashos. Proceeding to the interior and remoter shores of Ethiopia, ne finds always now wonders, sphynxes, birds with horns, flying horses.* He refera to the voyages of Hanno and of EudoxuB, to whom I 3 ascribes a variety of fables, by which the reputation of tliat navi* Eitor has been much and perhaps umustly tarnished ; lastly, he comes to tlie Fortunats lands, of which the soil produces all tilings spontaneously, and the fountains are possessed of miraculo"s virtues. In short, every thing that Mela says of Aflrica beyond the mer* Mediterranean coast betrays a remarkable ignorance of the mysteries of that continent Sect. U.—PUm. Pliny, the most learned of the Roman writers, Avotes two books of his extensive work on natural history to a system of geography. He appears to have possessed a greater store of autliontic materials than any former writer. From his intimate connexion with the imperial family, and with manv of the most eminent commanders, all the military measure* ments, as well as the general survey of the Roman empire, were placed at his disposaL He has mtroduced, therefore, a multitude of itiiferasy details, which are generally very accurate and valuable. But he employs no astronomical elements, and appeara to have taken no pains to construct a regular system. All the general ideas which we can trace in his delineation appear to be founded on tlie same basis witli those of Mela. Pliny begins with Europe, which he considera as by for the most beautitlil and fVuitful of the three quortere of the globe ; and he applauds the opinion of those who consider it not merely as a third, but ua a half of the whole globe, separated fVom the other half b^ thj Tanais and the Mediterranean. This capital error, however, will not appear so surprising, when we consider that the regions here compared with Europe wete Asia terminated by the Ganges and the Jaxartes, and Africa extending only a few hundred miles inland from the Mediterranean. Europe had been computed by Agrippa at 8440 miles in length, by Polybius at only 2440 ; which last dimension is nearly correct Pliny discovera a clear conception of the form of Spain, drawmg the Pyrenees not from south to north, but from south-east to north-wcBt, and observingthat Spain, " where it begins fhun them, is narrower than France, and even than itself." The position of Britain in the map of Europe is very fairly given ; though, to enumerate Spain, with France and Germany, among the countries to which it is opposite, partakes too much of antiquated theories. He states the belief of Agrippa that Britain was eight hundred miles in length, and three hundred in breadth ; Ire- land the same in breadth, but shorter by two hundr^ miles; which is a tolerable estimate, the last particular excepted. His disposal of the islands around Britain is not a little con- fused. He mentions the Orkneys, seven iEmode, and thirty Ebudoe, but witliout showing any precise idea of how thev stand. Not only the Isle of Man, but that of Wight also, is pilaced between England ana Ireland. He conunita also a remarkable error when he men- tions Cassiterim or Cattiterim, where tin is produced, as an island at the distance of six days* sail from Britain. To the remotest pomt, Thule, he assigns the attributes of a region beneath the Arctic circle, having only one day and one night in the year ; and only a day's sail from the Cronium or Concrete Sea. Here, also, he mentions reports of other islands, Scandia, Bergos (Bergen), Nerigon, which have intercourse with Thule. These features evidently belong to the coast of Norway. In describing the north of Europe, Plinv begins from the northern shores of the Eiudne, and Palus Mceotis. The latter receives tne l^ais, flowing firom the Riphaean Mountains, and forming the boundary of Europe. Beyond that celebrated and demi-mbulous range, he still finds die Hyperboreans, a people screened from every noxious blast, leading a nappy life exempt from dd age, sickness, discord, and grief; till at length, satiated with felicity, they throw themselves firom a rock into the sea. These fables are, however, qualified with the saving clause, " if we are to believe them," which shows that Uie faith of Plinv was not implicit The shores of the ocean, he confesses, are " marked by uncertainty." On the authority, however, of Xenophon Lampsacenus and of Pytheas, he reports Eteisilia or BaJtia as an island of immense magnitude, three days' journey from the Scythian coast Proceeding westward, he comes to the Cimbric Chersonese, and ooposite to it another isIoikU Scandinavia, of unexplored magnitude, but which was by many described as forming quite •ootber world. Thus Boltia uid ScaJuiinavia, approached fhnn difierent points, are oon< g| ' »*"' I" ■ ^.•"^-"win^ oneath tlie ocoan. ) Bido of the world lowevor, have per* on into a map, and a conjccturo. The an Htrabo, the two itself, finit geparat- of the Red Sea ir I their ancient wai and reviving fVom 3 finds always now ages of Ilanno and tation of tliat navi- B to the Fortunate itains are possessed , beyond the mer« that continent his extensive work ised a greater store onnexion with the 3 military meosure- !ed at hia disposal ire generally very d appears to have ich we can trace in la. tiful and fhiitful of who consider it not ) other half bv UiJ ppear so surprising, ^ia terminated by miles inland from niles in length, by f discovers a clear to north, but from them, is narrower of Europe is very nong the countries tales the belief of 3d in breadth ; Ire- tolerable estimate, is not H little con* It witliout showing t of Wight dso, IS Tor when he men- he distance of six ributes of a region and only a day's a of other islands, These features res of the Euxine, pheean Mountains, mbulous range, he t, leading a happy ated with felicity, vcr, qualified with hiUi of Plinv was incertainty." On reports Basilia or e Scythian coast s it another islands as forming quite t points, are con< Book I. ROMAN GEOGRAPHY— PEUTINOERIAN TADri!. 411 sidored as two distinct insular territories, the vast extent of which, however, appears to be better apprehended by F'iny than by any otlier ancient writer. Alia, in Pliny, is delinfcc'-id according to the general ideas of Strabo and Mela. Tho Caspian or Hyrcanian Sea is a ''ulf opening into tho northern or Scythian ocean, which is m communication with that calltl Seric or Oriental. Pliny seems lo have fuller informa- vion of the grandeur and wealth of India than any of his Dredecessom. Its inhabitants and its cities were innumerable, and it was reported on gooa authority to form a third of tho whole worlJ. It enjoyed gentle h •'.es, two summers, two haivests, one before, another after the pciodical winds. Blessed witli these advantages, this happy people were never known to emigrate beyond their own territories. He describes the marclics of Alexaiider, fVom the measurements of Diognetus and Baston, and whoro these fail, ho continues them by those of Seleucus, and by the embassy of Megasthenes, as fkr as the mouth of the Ganges. These itineraries seem very good. In treating of Taprobnne, he observes, that it had been believed by some to be an opiweite continent or eirth, but that the inquiries of Alexander had clearly proved it to be an island. His report, however, tliat tho country of the Seres was seen mm it, inplies a most inadequate and erroneous con ^option of the eastern coasts of Asia. The Africa of Pliny does not differ in its general outline from that of Mela. His access, however, to the archives of the empire, and his acauaintance with some of the Roman generals, enabled him to give now details as to some or its most interior tracts. The region of Atlas had been first penetrated in tho reign of Claudius, by iEdemon, an adherent of the extinct family of the Ptolemies, who sought refuge there. Suetonius Paulinus, with whom Pliny had conversed, found it of immense height, covered with snow even in summer; on one side rising fVom the sands, rough, horrid, and bare ; on tlie other, covered with thick I groves of unknown species of trees, and sparkling with fountains. An account is given of a voyage along the western coast which Polybius had fliade by order of Scipio. Only the names of the places and tho distances are given. Tho former coincide in a great measure !; with those of Hanno; and if Polybius was right in this coincidence, his report tends much I to confirm M. Gosselin's view of the limited extent of Hanno's discoveries. In the time of f Vespasian, another expedition, under Cornelius Balbus, penetrated into and conquered Gara* ma (Germa), and C , damns (Qadamis). Tlie Romans here beheld with surprise houses built of salt .. From the Hebrew writers we have accounts per- haps of nearly the whole of the oistAnt countries with which the Tyriana held intercourse; J{r/trrmt» lo tAe PeiUingerian Thih (page SO). NORTH PART. . Biiciii I. Barilona I. Aquineo 1. Brifantio >. Jadera I. Raf adono '. Babaria I. Carnunto I. Celeia I. Vindobona . Tanaliea ': Emona I. Poltt I. Bilvo i. Parenlio L Fonte-iumaia '. Aquilala I. Ovilia I. Altino I. Resino . Tridents !. Placcniia t. Aqun Popiilftnie 1. Florentia Tiucoiui i. Sena Julia I. Bitutiba '. Verona I. Mantua I. Mutina I, Coaa . Adretio I. Bnnonia I. Oluiio . tiavenna ■ Arinino . GtaniKa . Contum eellia • Aquu luiri 41. Ancone 43. CBilro-(?i(.vo 4'J. Aqua, VolKMrti 44. Biflpti' 4.1. Poleinia 46. Reato 47. C^aMello Firmani 48. AJ Sam. Patium 49. k„ina .W.HoRii M. Chaduins m UileiiColooia Sa. Aquli .M. Inponta diarito 5.1. Capta Oolonit SH. Ad Medera 57. Dicleota Col. S». Thenaale 50. Bicca-reria liO. Ad Aqnai Caiuii a Danubiiit b urinom c Bavum d Ania e Frifido r Lieenna K .Afiiria h Cleuaia i Umatia J Padm kPaala I Aninio m Ihx ftntn* ;■. .4,,fc p r Tibeiii i Rubioum I Nejurum u Malana TMiao wFloiia xTania r Narninum ■ Aolo , BOUTHPART. I. Ad Protoium 9. Pjr»ltio 3. Ad Ptrlomm J. Muna Majoi O.jDdema 6. Tiuoburca 7. Ratnrio BieUi, run. Balona , Jftitlo 1. Inarona 9. Sinnhim 3. Naiona 4. Tanruoo 9. Ad Malrieam 8.Sintlduna 0. ^imiiritio i Drmllft Aalraia LgaSmta' uanion u. XrmeaiUl Marta II. Taranto J. BrlndiaT 33. Gnalia 34. Nernloi 35. Balnno 30. Nuceria 37. Oplontii 38. BeneTento 39. Vanutie ' NaapoU Capua ... Caiiiaa 43. Srllaa 44. Aerai 45. Pretonlnm Laocria- J num B. Biponio 7. JSaarnia 18. Teano Bccdicino n. BinuMia 90. Menturnli 5I.Filiidia 53. Terraeina 53. Fenniinura 54. Febralaria f''\ Iitonum . Coiilnio . Harrobio . Tre* Tabarmi SB. Canulb 60. pitia eterni 91. Pinna W. Caairo nora 63. P ia n ea to 64. RnaiK «5.Hoatis 1. Ohaitacioe [. Maxula BUiutClipaia 70. Oomt 71. Ad Horrea eptemioua hifbro Col. 73. ,., 74. Ad Aquai 75. Taparura 76. Tacapo 77. Drepania 78. Lilirbao 79. Aquaa Labodai cO. Bttacuiia HI AathnaMoiM ''i. Meaaana a pannbiai b Pnnum eSaram d Margaro ivtri. apaam ^anno Bilaram i Coler k ATaldluffl I AiifldenoK mLarinnm n Cloooria o Bannum pCtiman qNarnum r Arno aTiberia nVoitanraa vHhBem XJ rOttin 53 fflSTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. ParfI. but if those writers are supposed to have borrowed from them their ideas resptecting the general structure and boimdaries of the earth, geography among the early Phoenicians will not appear to have passed its in&ncy. As Tyre, however, even under the Roman empire, remamed still the seat of an extensive commerce, some of her intelligent citizens availed themselves of Uie lights afforded by the learning of Alexandria, and applied them to the illustration of those subjects on which the greatness and prosperity of tlieir city depended. If the merchants of Tyre had nothing left of that proud rule, and those monopolizing profits, which enabled them to rival the pomp of prmces, their commercial relations probably ex- tended over a wider surface of the globe than ever. They seem to have been engaged in that vast caravan route which was opened from Byzantium across the whole interior of Asia, conducting the merchants by a journey of ten or eleven months to the Chinese frontier, whence uey brought silic, the staple product of that great country. Collect* ing these enlarged materials, Marmus, a native of Tyre, sought to apply to them the astronomical principles of Hipparchus, and tiius to arrange geography into a new and more accurate form. * The works of Marinus have perished, and are known to us only by the references and extracts of Ptolemy ; but these ai-e sufficient to show that his system partook largely of the imperfection of a nrst effort. Aware that the degree of longitude diminished a? it receded from the equator, he yet did not attempt to express this difference by representing the meri- dians with curved lines approaching each ether, although this had been already shown by Hipparchus to be the proper course. He made them parallel to each other, not at the equa- torial distance, but at that which belonged to them at the meridian of Rhodes. Thus in the part of the globe which came into his immediate observation he avoided any material error; but the meridians, adjusted only to this latitude, became too near each other as they were carried southward, and too distant as they went northward. He fell into a still more per- nicious error in adopting the geodesic measurement of Posidonius, according to which the circumference of tlie earth was made to consist of only 180,000 stadia, and consequently the degree to contain only 500 stadia. This short degree, being calculated out of the exagge- rated itmeraries upon which the maps of those days were constructed, enormously amplified all the dimensions of the globe. Marinus appears also to have admitted with excessive cre- dulity the extravagant reports of the merchants who had penetrated across the vast moun- tain and desert tracts in the east of Asia. The rugged and difficult character of the region, the circuitous route which they were firequently obliged to follow, and the obstacles often encountered from the rude inhabitants, caused this journey to occupy a much longer time than those performed through districts better known ; and time, as already observed, was the element out of which the ancients were chiefly accustomed to calculate space. Ptolemy also accuses the merchants of vain-glorious propensities, which led them to magnify beyond truth the extent and vastness of the regions which they traversed. Hence the great line upon which Marinus measured the length of the habitable globe, instead of one hundred and twenty-nine degrees given to it in tiie measurement of Eratosthenes, is swelled out to two hundred and twenty-five degrees, not much less than two-thirds of the globe ; whereas the actual length, placing Thinse even at the eastern extremity of China, is not much more than one third. The exaggeration is enormous chiefly with respect to the country beyond India, which is made to comprise one hundred degrees. This being probably a new route opened through the Himaleh, and across the vast deserts of Eaetem Tartary, had been i^ected by all the sources of amplification in a remarkable degree. Sect. IT. — Ptolemy. Ptolemy, the last and greatest of the geographers of antiquity, and equally illuetrious as an astronomer, instituted a complete reform of the science, and undertook to purify it firom all the false elements with which it had been alloyed. The principles, in fiict, which he adopted were strictly correct ; for though, as an astronomer, his theory of the universe waS substantially fiilse, yet, in admitting the globular form of the earth and the revolution of the heavenly bodies, he admitted all the elements which were requisite for the less lofty sphere of earthly delineation. He adopted the system of Hipparchus in its utmost extent, subject- ig every spot on the known globe to astronomical data, and constructing his tables, never uccording to itinerary distance, but acv-urding to the supposed latitude and longitude of each place. He saw and corrected the error of Marinus in making the degrees of longitude equal under every lotitude. Thus, though Ptolemy did not actually introduce any new principle into geography, he was the first who combined together all the sound views of his prede cessors, and formed out of them a just and harmonious delineation. Yet he vfOB far froir. reaching his aim of forming a perfect system. He still retained the erroneous measurement of the degree formed by Posidonius, and of which Marinus had made so unfortunate a use. Hence, while he felt the extravagance of the distances assigned by his predecessor, in con- sequence of the adoption of the degree of 500 stadia, he extricated himself but partially from the same error. All his longitudes, extended along the lengUi of the knovra world, present a similar accumulation of errors, only somewhat diminii^ed in amount. Thow) ^-^ii«<«r^vuf ."iv^'. I ' "■■ "n pARrl. ieas respecting; the riy Phoinicians will the Roman empire, ent citizens availed ipplied them to the their city depended, nonopolizing profits, lations probably ex- have been engaged the whole interior nths to the Chinese country. Collect* apply to them the into a new and more the references and Ttook largely of the nished ai^it receded vesenting the meri- a already shown by ler, not at the equa- )iodes. Thus in the any material error; I other as they were to a still more per- ording to which the ind consequently the . out of the exagge- normously amplified with excessive cre- ross the vast moun- racter of the region, the obstacles often a much longer time dy observed, was the te space. Ptolemy 1 to magnify beyond ence the great line I of one hundred and !, is swelled out to the globe; whereas a, is not much more the country beyond robably a new route 1 Tartary, had been squally illufitrious as lok to purify it from !s, in fact, which he of the universe waS he revolution of the he less lofty sphere nost extent, subject* ng his tables, never d longitude of each !3 of longitude equal ) any new principle views of his prede ^et he was far from neous measurement a unfortunate a use. predecessor, in coD' imself but partially f the known world, in amount. Those BttoK T. PTOLEMY— EUROPE. 53 errors, beginning from Cape St. Vincent, constantly increase till, in India, they amount to upwards of forty degrees. M. Gosselin has even accused him of an error which, as he justly observes, would mark a strange departure from every principle, and a neglect of what ought to be the first care of a geographer. This consists in giving to his degrees of latituiw a different dimension from that of the degrees of longitude, and retaining, with regard to the former, Eratosthenes's standard of 700 stadia. I suspect, however, UaA M. Gosselin has been somewhat precipitate in advancing so serious a charge against the first geographer of antiquity. The ground on which he proceeds seems to be, that while Ptolemy has changed materially all the longitudes of Eratosthenes, the latitudes along the great line continue unaltered and generally correct. The real cause of this, however, appears to be, that the latitudes of Rhc^es and several other leading points of this great line were determined by observations which, though not perfect, at least approached to the truth, while the longitudes were calculated merely out of the itineraries. This central line, therefore, bisecting the breadth of the known world, was fixed upon sound data, and the errors could accumulate only to the north and south of it. Tn &ct, we shall find that they did accumulate as rapidly as in the longitudes, when the sphere of observation was passed, which was bounded by Syenc on tlie south, Marseilles and Byzantium on the north. The mouth of the Seine is placed one degree too far north ; that of the Rhine, nearly two degrees ; that of the Elbe, more than two degrees ; York is three degrees ; and tiie farther accumulation is only pre- vented by that singular conformation which we shall find given by Ptolemy to the northern part of Britain. To the south, again, Axum is placed three degrees too &r south ; Cape Aromata (Guardafiii), nearly six degrees ; and from that point the errors continually become greater. Thus it appears, that as soon as Ptolemy quits the sphere of observation, his lati- tudes are calculated exactly as his longitudes, out of itineraries, and exhibit the same accu- mulation of errors. The manuscripts of Ptolemy are clearly shown by M. Gosselin to have reached us £in a very imperfect state. In collating with care the different editions, that learned writer Miaa found a greater number of variations than in those of almost any other ancient writer. iThese variations were of course very likely to occur in copying cyphers where there was f no connexion of sense to check the copyist. The manuscripts and the maps appear to have i been copied by different hands, holding no communication with each other ; and accordingly I these two parts of the same work do not, in many instt^nces, correspond. Lastly, the work of Ptolemy appears, for several centuries, to have been carried about as a guide by mariners and travellers, who, wherever they found any feature which did not agree with their obser- vations, altered the writing or the map accordingly. This process appears in the numerous variations of the Latin copies with regard to the western part of the Mediterranean, and of the Greek with regurd to the eastern. The alterations thus made would often, and indeed, most generally, be improvements; but the great discrepancies which they introduced into the different copies, must have ^eatly bewildered the public. In delineating the geographical system of Ptolemy, we can only consider the general outline, which is pretty much the same in all the editions. Ptolemy begins with rejecting the theory of his predecf «rs, from Homer to Strabo downwards, whb represent the whole earth as enclosed by a circumambient ocean. Mercantile caravans, especially in the east of Asia, hod now proceeded considerably beyond the line of coast which, according to the last school, had marked the eastern bounding ocean. They had passed that line without reaching the distant corresponding one by which t)'e Pacific and Arctic seas were actually drawn around this vast continent. The eastern Atlantic, and the Northern Oceans were, therefore, effaced fi-om the delineation of Asia, and an mdefinite expanse of terra incognita (unknown land) was substituted as the boundary of the world. This proceeding must certainly be considered as more precise and philosophical than the gratuitous theoretical one for which it was substituted. Men, however, seldom know exactly where to stop: Ptolemy, having once formed the idea of a boundmg terra incognita, extended it round nearly the entire circuit of the known world. All the reports of flie circumnavigation of Afirica were rejected; that continent was represented as stretchinfr indefinitely south, and it was even carried round to join the east of Asia, and form the Erythrean or Indian sea into a vast basin. Thus the whole system and structure of these two continents underwent, in the hands of Ptolemy, a complete transmutation. Sobsect. 1. Europe. (Fig. 10.) In regard to all the remoter boundaries of Europe, Ptolemy displays an advancement in knowledge, trul^ wonderful,^considering the short period which had elapsed since the days Oi otiauc. xhe facts which we have stated under tlie head of Roman geography show the vast additional mass of information derived from the conquests of Ccesar, and from the imperial surveys. This having been incorporated mto the writuigs of Mela and Pliny, a century before the a^e of Ptolemy, would easily, through these and other channels, reach his knowledge. It is not surprising that the crude delineation of the exterior coasts cf Europe under the Strabonic system should have been materially amended; that Spam 5* M THE WORLD ACCORDING TO PTOLEMY. Fia. 10 T 'I w ■"■•■■'•-■.T'TT'- Book 1. PTOLEMY— EUROPE. 65 ehouU have now a southern, and Gaul a western coast; and that the Bay of Biscay should appear clearly under the appellations of the Cantabrian Ocean and the Aquitanian Sea. In regard to Britain, also, or, at least, England, a great reform had been effected. Its coast, after passing the promontory of Kent, bends mward toward the estuary of the Thames, called hero Tdumanus. Still more decided, on the opposite side, is the " Sabrina ettuarium" (U.(j ifltuary of the Severn), a very appropriate appellation for the Bristol Channel, The pioje Jtion of Wales, and its entire outline, appears then drawn in a very unexceptionable manner. With reganl to Ireland, Ptolemy has not been able wholly to shako off the errone- ous impressions of the first Alexandrian school, according to which that country lay to the north of Britain. He makes it west, indeed, but at the same time greatly too far north, its southern coast being on a line with that of Lancashire, or, at least, with the north-western point of Wales. The conseiuence is, that the island of Mona (Man) is placed off the southp eastern point of Ireland, r,.t fiir from Wexford. Having pointed out this great error, we must add, that the whole form and circuit of Ireland is given with a correctness which ap. pears very surprising, when contrasted with so great a mistake as to its relative position. Again, the eastern coast of England proceeds correctly till it reaches the vicinity of York, when an aberration takes place of the most extraordinary nature. The rest of the English coast, with the whole of that of Scotland, instead of ranging from north to south, runs from west to east The eastern coast becomes thus the southern, the western becomes the northern ; and the coast of Germany appears opposite and parallel throughout its whole extent. The most northerly extremity of Britain is thus fixed at a point which Mr. Pmker- ton supposed to be the Mull of Galloway, but which seams more probably to be some point near Port Patrick, which might be supposed the most westerly, for the west is here the north. It is part of this orrangement, tliat tlie iEbudaj (Hebrides) are placed in the Deuca^ ledonian Ocean, which washes the western coast of Scotland, made herp the northern ; and the Orkneys are in the same ocean; for, instead of following the line of the main land, they jareplaced, cs, indeed, they ought to be, north, becoming thus at right angles to that line, T^ ace- •'• for this strangely distorted form of northern Britain, M. Gosselin has formed la very ii.,;' . i tiory. The southern extremity of the island being in lat 62° N„ and I Thule, the ' extreinity, in 63°, Ptolemy could not, within these limits, find space for that vai ^ „a9 of coast, which the itineraries repvesented to him as belongmg to Britain, To make out this space he had no alternative but to give to the northern part the form it actually bears in his maps, and under which the latitude is augmented only by the breadth of Scotland, a much smaller dimension than the length. The question, however, is, by what circumstance Ptolemy was checked in his latitude of Thule, and why he should not have driven it out to the north as far as his itineraries seemed to require. We at one time thouglit it possible that this grand boundary point might have been fixed by some rude observation which was not applied to the mtermediate points. But it appears very improba- ble, that any expedition which should have made an observation of latitude at Shetland, should not have done the same in the southern and much more accessible parts of Britain. I rather incline to adopt the following solution. We have seen, that, in the ideas of the Roman navigators, Thule was in a great measure separated from Britain, and attached to tlie east of Germany, or rather to Scandinavia ; whether its existence was made known to tliem by Scandinavian navigators, or whether a part of the coast of Norway was actually fixed upon by them instead of Shetland for this most northern limit of the earth. This idea, which attached Thule to Scandinavia, appears to have 1)een combined in Ptolemy's mind with that of Pytheas, who made it the remotest extremity of Britain. Such a combination could be accomplished only by stretching Scotland across the German ocean in that strange direction. The details of Scotland, if we pass over this radical error, are given in a manner much more tolerable than cou'd have been expected in a country unsubdued by the Romans, and with their imperfect navig^ation, Thule, in Ptolemy, is not a cluster of islands, like those of Shetland, but one large island, upwards of a hundred miles in length : this circumstance more and more strengthens the suspicion that Norway, to a considerable extent, entered hito the idea attached to that celebrated name. EUROPA. 1. Cdrthago Nova 3. Mawilia 3. Genua 4. Roma 9. Athens 5. Byzantium Rivet t m RljsnUS E Ciietinuf e Tanaii dRha t Bsryithenet , „ ^ ASIA, 2. Sinope 3. Amiiui 4. Iwii 9. jBlana 0. ZHaram 7. Miua Q.Twedoii 10. Babylon 1, %t!_: A.. i^lUlM 13. Dioacnriu 13. Gtiiara 14.8uia 19. PetMpoUi 16. Baetra 17. Patala 1& PoliboUirt 96. Aipilhra 37. Tomara ss. Binda Sn. Daiooa 30. Sera itiD«r«. a Euphratu bTigrii cOxus d Polytimetiu Jaxartoa References to the Map of the World a'-jrding to Ptolemy. 10. Raracura 90. Betynga 91. Batabo 93. Tacola 33. Saiiana 34. CaUgaia 39. Thins f CEchardei ( Bautiaui pSenui i Gangaa J Indin 9. Cyrene 6. Alexandria 7. Heroopolii 8. Syone 0. Ptolomaia 10. Morne 11. Adolii Tavrohttna Intula. a Gange* Hivtrs a BtBchir" b Daratui LIBYA VEL AFRICA. Nigir 1. Niftira d Gir 9. Oira. e Nilui 3. Caithaf o f Aitapui 4. Phyciu f Aitabora* 06 fflSTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Past 1. I'Biiii !! ill :iiilili V'V: Under the Iieads of great Germany and of Sarmatia, Ptolemy has given all the knowledge he had acquired of the north and east of Europe, which was not inconsiderable. The line uf Uie German coast is very veil formed, and the Amasius or Ems, the Visurgis or Weser, the Albis or Elbe, the Vedrc. or Oder, and the Visula or Vistula, appear in regular succes* eion, and almost under their moder names. Jutland appears as the Cimbric Chersonese, and the southern coast of the Boiuc is carried on very correctly ; but, in regard to Scandi- navia, he fails entirely. Evidently ignorant that the Baltic is an enclosed gulf, he calls it " the Sormatic Ocean," and places in it ibur islands. Three of these, close to the Cimbrio Chorsonese, are clearly recognised in the islands of Denmark ; but the sther^ uf greater extent, fertb<^r to the east and opposite to the mouth of the Vistula, is probably part of Swe> den, and pe. .i^ps Gothland It is clear, that navigators had not thc-c rounded Jatland, and passed through the Skagerrack or Cattegat, otherwise they must have noticed these straits, and the great extent of continent opposite the Cimbric ChersonePc;. The A^oecian islands, however, situated off the northern extremity of Jutland, uiust have been suggested by some part of the Norwegian coast, as there are no islands in that quarter. The more northern part of the Norwegian coast was probably, as already observed, identified with Thule. The coast of Sarmatia is described by Ptolemy on passing the Vistula, and he traces with accuracy the great bend which it takes northward to the gulf of Riga. Pour rivers are given, which cannot be recognised by their names, but which M. Gosselin conceives to bo the Pregel, the Niemen, the Windau, and thi Dwina. Beyond this he places " the end of the sea of the known land," and immediately commences that boandary of terra incognita which he carries around the whole of Asia. In regard to the south of European Russia, Ptolemy recovers muc!i of the knowledge which had been wholly or partially lost under Strabo. He appears indeed to have gone back in a great measure to Herodotus, whom he imitates in giving most unreasonable extension to the Palus Mteotis. There is little room for complaint as to the Tanais, the Borysthenes, and the other great rivers which fall into the Euxine. In this remote end wild extremity of Europe, however, he has found a place for certain poetical and historical Actions, which experience had banished from better known quarters, but which could not find a place here with any propriety; — the grove of Diana, the race-course of Achilles, the altars of Ccesar and of Alexander ; neither of whom ever carried their arms into this part of the ancient Scythia. In tracing the Mediterranean, Ptolemy improve.! considerably upon the labours of his pre- decessors. Sicily, in particular, is much better constructed, and the straits of Messina are E laced nearly in their true latitude. He still, however, merits deep reproach for the utterly arbarous form which he has given to Italy, that ruling country, which must of all others have appeared to him the most interesting, and for which he must have possessed the most ample materials. Yet Italy, with the exception of a slight bend at its extremity, is oriented almoGt entirely east and west, having the Adriatic for its nortlierr, and the Tyrrhenian for its southern boundary. I cannot find any account of an error so strange, except by supposing that Ptolemy must have been led into it by one of those itinerary maps which, like the Peutingerian, made every thing subservient to the direction of the Roman high road, and drew it in a straight line from one extremity to the other. It is easy to suppose that he might not comprehend the very odd principle upon which this map was constructed, and might conceive that being made with regard to Italy, a country so near, and so completely within reach, it might be implicitly relied on. This suspicion is strengthened when we find, after passing Dyrrachium, the port of embarkation for Greece, this beiug the direction of the great road of the empire, that the coast of Italy suddc-fiiy resumes its just form, and the peninsula of Campania makes even too abrupt a bend to the south. SfiiSECT. 2. — Asia. In regard of Asia also, important discoveries had been mode since the time of Eratos thenes. Immense territories, included by that geographer withui the domain of the ocean, were known to Ptolemy ;j occupied by the wandering hordes of Scythia, or by the peaceful and industrious nation of the Seres or Chinese. This advantage might be partly due to the military itineraries, especially that of Trajan in his victorious expedition into Parthia. The grand source, however, evidently was that bold spirit of commercial enter- prise, to which an impulse was given by the vast consumption of Rome, when the wealth o' tlie world centred in that mighty and voluptuous capital. The East was the region njainiy resorted to for the supply of Uie boundless wants which arose in that artificial and luxuriouo state of society. The merchants soon learned to trace routes, both by land and sea, much longer and more adventurous than had been achieved by their predecessors at any forme; period. Under the narrative entitled "the Periplusof the Erythrean Sea," wn have followed iho maritime career by which the merchants of Alexandria were led to the coast of Mala- bar. Whether, in the time of Ptolemy, the Greek navigators had actually proceeded farther, it may be difficult to say with certainty. He has certainly, however obtained a considera ble accession of knowledge with regard to this eastern extrciaity of the known world. Ho f- :£ookI. PTOIJJMY— ASIA. 57 11 all the knowledge iiderable. The line Vifiurgifl or Weaer, ir in regular succes* !!)imbric Chersonese, in regard to Scandi* )sed gulf, he calls it close to the Cimbrio be cther^ of greater probably part of Swe- ounded Jutland, and aoticed these straits, he A^oecian islands, n suggested by some The more northern led with Thule. ,, and he traces with a. J^our rivers are selin conceives to be i places " the end of y of terra incognita h of the knowledge d to have gone back reasonable extension lis, the Borysthenes, and wild extremity rical Actions, which not find a place here the altars of Ciesar part of the ancient lie labours of his pre- raits of Messina are roach for the utterly ;h must of all others possessed the most ttremity, is oriented the Tyrrhenian for except by supposing ips which, like the nan high road, and to suppose that he as constructed, and and so completely ngthened when we bei:ig the direction es its just form, and the time of Eratoa the domain of the Scythia, or by the Bige might be partly ous expedition into f commercial enter- when the wesdth o* s the region tiainiy ficial and luxuriouii land and sea, much ssors at any forme? " wn have followed goes far heyord ths month of the Ganges, at which wo have observed the termination of all precise ':-"'.vledge in the author of the Periplus. After deluieating a coast, with a cuccpssiou I To-ts h.'^'ch it is difficult to identify, he comes to a erand feature, \yhich he ciUs "thn Gflden Chersonese," formed by three great estuaries discharging their waters into the sea. These phenomena are actually presented by the mouths of the Irrawaddy at the southern extremity of Pegu. This is followed by an extensive feature, the Magnus Sinus, or Great Bay, penetrating far inland, and receiving some considerable rivers. The gulf of Malacca is not nearly so large or so deep as this Magnus Sinus; but its mouth [being very broad, and its shores very wmding, it is not very improbable tha*;, in the eyes of ./ancient and unskilful navigators, it might assume this exaggerated form and dimension, 'iv Beyond the Magnus Sinus tiie coast, in continuity with its eastern shore, stretches due south to the farthest known extremity of the world. On this coast the leadmg features are Thinte, a great interior metropolis, and Cattigara, its sea-port at the mouth of the river Cotiaris. 'This coast, it should seem, can only be that of Malacca and the Isthmus of Kraw, which , ',.runs exactly in the direction here assigned by Ptolemy. Gosselin identifies Thinte with Tenaseerin ; but there seems more reason for acceding to Dr. Vmcent's opinion that it is i^Siani, This exposition, which is supported by Vossius, Gosselin, and Vincent, appears to me fl'andoubtedly preferable to tlie more general one supported by the authority of d'AnvDle, ^|which makes the coast of the Since extend along the gulf of Siam and the sea of China. iSuch a line would involve Ptolemy in ti).e strange and incredible blunder of making a coast |face the east which really feceo the west Sumatra, indeed, is so land-locked that it might '^easily enough have been taken for a part of the continent, and have been called the Golden 'Chersonese. But it seems inconceivable how the straits of Malacca and of Sunda, so im- ort-nt and so critical to navigators, and by one or tlie other of which they musv have .ed the sea of Chma, could have been overlooked. On this supposition, indeed, the sts are swelled very far beyond their due dimensions ; but we have often remarked how norjiously this is apt to be the case, in regard to routes, and above all coasts which are aversed for the first time, and by inexperienced navigators. Ptolemy, as we have seen, ler retrenching the eastern itineraries of Marinus one half, left them still greatly too large ; nd he does not mention any similar retrenchment in regard to the coasts. If, on the odier fcand, tliose of Ptolemy extend to tlie Chmese sea and to China, then, contrary to every incient example, he must have immensely underrated the extent of these imperfectly dis- covered tracts; an error which would be contrary to all precedent: — this, however, does not Umply that there may not, within this line of positive knowledge, have been a confused "blending of features Uiat lay in reality beyond. The mcreased knowledge of Ptolemy respecting the eastern part of the Asiatic continent was Schiefly derived, as we have already remarked, fi:>.>m the great caravan which proceeded from IByzantium, having the country of Serica for its ultimate destination. This caravan, having Straversed Asia Minor, crossed the Euphrates at Hierapolis, and journeyed through Medio, [by way of Ecbatana (Hamadan), to Hecatompylos (Baumghaun), tlie capital of Parthia. It [then advanced north to Hyrcania (Horkan or Jorjan), mence south, to take in the fine iprovuice of Aria (Herat). It now again turned north, to include the capital of Margiana %'; (Mem Rood), thence due east to Bactria (Balk), which then formed, as at present, the main centre of the commerce of interior Asia. The caravan now quitted the eauy and level tract ' through which its route had hitherto lei, and began to ascend that vast and rugged mountain world which fills the eastern interior of Asia. After occomplishing the steep ascent of the Montes Comedorum, which seems to be the chain of the Beloor, it reached a station called the " Stone Tower," which there is nothing to identify, except tiiat the direction towards it is north-east, and it may be either Ladauk or Yarcund, the great modem emporium of this part of the East. From the Stone Tower to the frontier of ^rica, Marinus, on the authority of the merchants, reported a journey of seven months, which Ptolemy considers as monstrous and incredible, though he admits that the road is exposed to the greatest hardships and diffi- culties. The (;ueBtion, what is the country described by Ptolemy and his contemporaries as Serica, is the most curious in the ancient geograpliy of Asii>. The earliest modem opinion identified Serica with northem China, whfle the country of the Sine composed the southern part. D'Anville, however, who transported the Suioe into the coast of Cambodia, carried westward also the Seres into the country of the Igours, or Eygurs, including in their terri- tory only the small projecting portion of*^ the Chinese province of Shensee. Mr. Pinkerton places it still fiirther west, in Little Eucharia. M. Gosselin, followed generally by the present French school, contends that Sermagur, in the north of Hindostan, is the real yera metropolis of Ptolemy. I can see no reason for altering the grounds on which I concluded formerly, and endeavoured to prove, Serica to be simply China. (See Edinburg Phil. Trans vol. viii. On the ancient Geography of Central and Eastern Asia.) AH tlie natives of India whom Ptole;-^ saw assured hun that the Seres lay beyond the Sine, and China is beyond Siam. The Sinte (Siam) had to the nortli Scytliia beyond Imaus, which country had Serica on the east. Serica is described as traversed by two great rivers, flowing eastward, as the Hoang-hi and Yang-tse-kiang actually do. Serica, according to Ptolemy's graduation was Vol. I. H ^ HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Pa«tI fourteen hundred milea from north to south, and eleven hundred from eiust to west, a very clooe approach to the dimensions of modem China. Serica, then, in form, extent, geogttf Shical features, and relations to the neighbo g countries, exactly corresponds to Uie mo- em China. Not less conformable is the repoi l given of the national character. The Seres are represented as frugal, quiet, sedate, and tranquil beyond all other nations ; as of all others the most unwarlike, and the most avena to the use of arms; as shunning, with the most studious care, tlie society and intercourse of strangers, and scarcely ever allowing them to enter their territory ; as carrying on trade at a fixed frontier station only, and under the strictest precautions ; as selling their o\fn cor.imoditie8 without receiving the comnxv dities of other nations in return. Silk was the staple of Serica, and it in of China. With regard to M. Gosselin'a Indian theory, it must now, wo mippose, be on all hands given ap^ since Thibet and Northern India, instead of being connected by the valley of the Ganges, have been found separated by the unbroken continuity of the loftiest ridge of the Himmaleh, which can be penetrated only by a few mrat perilous imd tremendous passes. Respecting Hindostan, and its limitary regions, thei details given by Ptolemy include a great mass of sound information. In some important particulars, mdeed, his map is decidedly superior to those possessed by the moderns, previous to the late important accessions to their knowledge. He describes the Granges rising, as it really does, on the southern side of the Himmaleh, and in the outer limits of Hindostan, while, prior to the mission sent by CoL Colebrooke, in 1808, its origin, and a considerable part of its early course, were supposed to be in Little Thibet The mission to Caubul first found that all the great western rivers emptied themselves bv one channel into the Indus, as they hod been represented by Ptolemy, while modem maps had exhibited them entering by two great separate channels. The same mission discovered two very considerable rivers, westem tributaries of the Indus, the Kaumeh and the Suaut, of which no trace had yet appeared in modern delineation; but, on turning to Ptolemy, we find them accurately traced under the names of the Coe and the Suaste. Thus we find him delineating with success geographical features in the most secret recesf-: mouth of the former. Boglipoor, however, instead of being only two-fifths of the distance between these two points, is about exactly midway. The space lower down the river, being less known, might more readily have been exaggerate)^, and Gange being on the moat easterly branch of we Ganges, might occupy nearly the position of Islanoabaa. The place assigned by Ptolemy is exactly midway, and therefore coincides strictly with the iition of &jgli- poor. Near it the Ganges receives the Cooay, or river of Nepaul, oerta / not the third r in India as to magnitude ; but the ambassadors might not have very precise means of as- i certaining the relative dimensions of the Indian rivers. There is, therefore, a great weight [of evidence, as to name and position, in fiivour of the theory he:e proposed. I must confess, Ibowever, that I find no description of any monuments, such a'j might be expected to mark the ancient site of so splenaid a capital. Indian structures, however, are not usually composed of materials sufiiciently solid to resist the ravages of sixteen centuries. If the ^.^ local data could at all have allowed us to fix upon the thrice ancient and holy Benares, its l^character would have given it at once a pre-eminence; but this is impossible. Ra^ Ijemahl, suggested, is not very distant from Boglipoor; but besides losmg the coin- cidence of name, it agrees less Uian the other position with the statements both of Ptolemy nd Pliny. ' V' . i.if '• SuBSECT. 3. — AJrica. •■'•'••i • ' • . In the delineation of Africa, Ptolemy, himself an African, had obvious advantages. Ac- cordingly his delineations of several of the most interior features have, as in the case of juthem India, proved to bo more accurate than those givon by modern geographers down i a very recent period. The course of the Nile, up to its highest probable source in the mtral range of the mountains of the Moon, has been justified by recent inquiry, in oppo- tion to the Portuguese missionaries, who drew it from the mountains and lakes of Abyi^ tia. This original fountain-head has not yot been traced by the daring foot of the modem iveller; but &e description given to Brown, of its descent from the great mountain chain >uth of Darfoor, corresponds very exactly with Ptolemy, making allowance only for his Erroneous ^rraduation. With equal fidelity, he delineates the Astaboros, or Atbara, tlie As- ipus, or river of Abyssinia, successively falling iuto it from the east He has, indeed, made leroe an island, enclosed by branches of the Nile ; but modem discovery has shown it to so very nearly insular, in consequence of the great bend taken to the south, tliat the srror cannot be considered excessive. In regard to central Africa, Ptolemy had not equal advantages, on account of the dis- ice, because no track had yet been formed across the vast ocean of desert which inter- rened. It appears to n 3 a matter of some difBculty to ascertain the precise extent of hie lowledge as to this region. M. Gosselin has not hesitated to assert, that he knew nothing )f Africa south of the dosert, and that all the features which he has assigned to interior "iibya, and the course of the Niger, belong in fact to Fezzan and that region behind the itlas which we coll the B'led-el-Jereede, or Land of Dates. This opinion certainly receives luch countenance when we find the Garamantes and the Garamantica vallis placed on the ime line with the Niger, the lake of Nigritia, and the other leadmg central features. I till, however, think it probable that Ptolemy might, by way of the Upper Nile, have ob- lined intelligence respecting a portion at least of these vast regions, the approach to which by way of Dongola and Sennoar was not obstructed by any very insurmountable barriers. Besides the agreement of several names, as Gano, Tagana, Panagra, the general picture of this region as one of lakes, rivers, and mountains, agrees much better with tlie interior than with the arid tract between Atlas and the desert. My suspicion therefore is, tliat, Ptol- emy, unacquainted with any route across the great desert, was not aware of the wide in- terval between the features to the north and those to the south of it, and linked them to- gether in his description as contiguous and connected. As his knowledge of central Africa was thus obtained only in a westerly course Trom the Nile, it was not likely to extend be- yond the eastern part of the vast breadth between the Nile and the ocean. The Mons Man- dras, his most western feature, with a great river flowing from it into the lake of Nigritia, may perhaps be recognized in the mighty range of the mountains of Mandara and the river Shary flowing from them into the lake or sea of the Tchad. About this quarter I should conceive the knowledge which reached Ptolemy by inland channels probably termuiated ; and the Atlantic coast, known to exist by the voyages of Hanno, Scylax, and Polybius, was united to these objects by a merely hypothetical construction. In regard to the course of the Niger, it is difficult to say very precisely whai were Ptolemy's views, and we only per- ceive that ho made it "ui inland river, neiilier flowing into the Atlantic, nor by the Nile into the Mediterranean. Respectiiig this greait central region of Africa, however, Ptolemy had obtained some no- tices from which he might have estimated its magnitude. Two Roman expeditions had been reported to him, one made by Scptimius Flaccus from Garama, and Uie other bv Juliiis HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. PaktI Matemus from the coast of Cyreno. The former in three, and the latter in four moutha, had penetrated into tlie country of the Ethiopians. Ptolemy expresses himself very sceptic cal as to the possible length of this march ; nevertheless he lays down the country of Agisymba as tnat farthest region of interior Ethiopia into which those commanders had penetrated. Affisymba we suspect to be Agodez ; at least as the march cconprehends no rivers or lakes, it cannot well have reached the line of the Niffer. Nevertheless Ptolemy places it considerably to the south of Nigritia ; which is donbtlesa in &vour of the limited exiflot which M. Goeselin allow.) to his infonnation. But we may observe that, suppoiiing Ptolemy to have formed, in the manner above supposed, his idea of the plain of the Nu[er OS little removed to the south of Fezzan, he must, in protracting marches of three or max months, necessarily have carried the lino much farther to the south. In regard to the western coasts of Africa, Ptolemy's delineation is not very luminous, but appears on the whole to flivour M. Oosselin's views respecting the extent of Hanno's Toy* age and of the knowledge of the ancients. He does indeed present two rivers, the Daradua and the Stachir, flowing on a line with the plain of Nigritia. But I have no idea iiuX Ptolemy could have any precise infonnation reaching across the entire breadth of the con- tinent, and conceive,. as already hinted, that the coast and interior were here hypothetically united. As Ptolemy placed the plain of the Niger much too tiir north, he might make these rivers on a line with it, without identifying them witli the Senegal ana Gambia. His position of the Fortunate Islands (Canaries) opposite to their mouths, and south of Ceme, is not at all in &vour of the opinion wniCh carries these last features deep into een- tral Africa. On the eastern coa-rt of Africa, Ptolemy adds to the line described by the author of the Periplus a coast extending from the promontory of Rhaptum to that of Prasum. At thia pomt the coast, hitherto running south-west, changes to south-oast No details are given of this coast, which is described as rough and difficult to navigate. We can neither, with M. Goeselin, limit Prasum to Brava, nor with Vincent cany it so far as Mosambique. There is no part of the coast to which the direction assigned to it belongs, except from Quiloa to Cape Delgudo ; and if Rhaptum be at or near Quiloa, the latter, allowing for some exag- geration of distance on a coast so little known, will be the promontory Prasum. Five de- Sees east and three degrees south of this promontory is uie island of Menuthioa. The enouthesias of the Periplus appeared pretty plainly to be one of the smaller islands near the African coast, and probably Zanzibar ; but none of these could be, the Menuthias of Ptolemy, which is manifestly Madagascar. .fej--* ■'-'■;'^- ■■•-?« :■■■■* :•!■)■, «.^ BOOK II GEOGRAPHY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. Under the "geography of the middle ages" may be comprehended that of the Arabian or Saracen nations, during uie period when science was successfully cultivated among them; and Uie geographical ideas prevalent in Europe, during that long darkness which preceded the revival of learning, and the commencement of maritime discovery. -/'\. '::■'::'■:'[ - chapter i. ARABIAN GEOGRAPHY. The Arabs were for some time the most learned of nations. As the mantle of science dropped from the sages of Greece and Rome, it fell upon this wild and stranffe race, sprung from the bosom of bigotry and barbarism. The fiinatic hordes, who, under wa guidance of ttitsir fidse prophet, rushed from the heart of Arabia, at first owned no law but the Koran and the sword. When they hod conquered half the world, however, and founded splendid capi- tals cm the banks of the Euphra.tes and the Guadalquivir, there aioee a race of humane and polished princes, who studiously sought to relumine the almost extinguished lamp of science. Almamoun above all, in the ninth century, may rank among the most distingui^ed of its pptrons who have ever filled a throne. Geography among the A^^bian states, appeara to have been studied with greater ardour than at any other place or country, except at Alexandria- It employed the pens of severs! of their most eminent writers; Masudi and Ebn Haukal in the ninth and tenth centuries; Abulfeda and Edrisi in the twelfth and thirteenth ; to whom may be added the respectable names of Ibn-al-Vardi, Bakoui, and Scheabeddin. Although none of their works have be- come at all familiar to the European reader, yet learned men have translated portions, whicb Pa»tI ttter in four mouths, r himself very acepti- lown the country of [*86 commanders had iirch comprehfinds no evertheless Ptolemy fiivour of the limited serve that, ■uppoainf ) plain of the Niffer ches of three or &ax }t very lumlnoua, but tent of Hanno'a voy- rivers, the Daradu 1 have no idea itM breadth of the coa< 3 here h}rpothetically )rth, he miffht make ene^ral and Gambia, ouths, and south of atures deep into een- W the author of the of Prasum. At this N^o details are given N'e can neither, with Mosambique. There , except from Quiloa >wing for some exag- y Pnsum. Five de- of Menuthias. The smaller islands near be, the Menuthias of hat of the Arabian or ivated among them; ness which preceded '■!■' ,' I'-''- , le mantle of science strange race, sprung der me guidance of w but the Koran and )unded splendid capi- race of humane and shed lamp of science. distinguished of ite with greater ardour the nma nf onygml and tenth centuries; Ided the respectable heir works have be< lated portions, whicb BookIL ::^t ARABIAN GEvOGRAPHY. 01 not onl^ convey a general idea of their system, but have enabled geographers to del'neatc some dMtriots of the globe which otherwise would have long remaineo unknown. Sect. I. — Qeneral System. Fig. 11. The mathematical sciences, and above all astronomy, were among the most favourite our- Buits of the court of Bagdad ; and the ample resources which they afforded were applied with considerable care to the improvement of geography. In 633, the caliph Almamoun en- deavoured, by observations of latitude made at Kufa, and at a point in the desert of Pal- myra, to measure the circumference of the globe. In all ttie countries subject to the Maho- medan arms, numerous observations are recorded which, though not always rigorously cor- rect, appear at least to have been real, and not merely calculated out of itineraries, like those of the Alexandrian geographers. The tables of Abulfeda, of Ulug Beg, ai^d of Nazir Ed- din, edited by Gnevms, anu republiuiicd by Hudson, afford materius that are still useful for the construction of the maps of interior Asia. ,«V> It-MAP OP THE WORLD TAKEN FROM AN ARABIAN MANUSCRIPT OF AL EI>RI8I, IN THE BODLEIAN LIBRARY. , HiHintf'.ni of the Moon and Bouiaef of thaNila Be rbsra ,(kio(dom of Adal »■ AlZuni 4. Sefah 5. Al-W_ 6. Serandeeb (Cerlon) 7. Al-Comor (Hada- Al Nuba Al Taideen Al-Bqah Al-Hani (Nubia) 30. Afreekeea (Africa) 31. BeladelGerid(Date Country) sfflW"' l-8anoed (Uppot 32. Sehaiee,B«raneeli(or :) 19, AittSffi (Oa- 33. sPffifc*''^ W. AlvSham (9»rfa) 35. Al-lrak (Penian aaacar) \-Dai If ■) 8. A-- 9. AbY^mao (Arabia 10. Tehama "" 11. Al-Hqai (Arabia: 37. DoKrta) SS. 19. AfShiuar,(Betor) , 99. 13. A|-iraaina(Yiinama) 14. Ai-Hab«>h ^opia. Abyainia) VouL Kanun empire) Belad Al-Iomlum 35. Fan (Pemia Propff) Be ad Muftada 37. Kirman (Cannania) Belad Nemanoh 38. Alfazeh itfu Sinbajali Knmie) Nanolanfl Al-Boui Nera Al-¥u|hrub Al Amkoen (Mogrsb the Weit) 37. Kirman (Cannania) 38. Alfazeh SO. Hiu(han w. Ai-bumia (Scindi) 41. Al-Hind (India) ' 43. Al-Baeo (China) 43. Khoraian 44. At-Bc)umia t ^Sfli^atf ■*" •6 47. Al-Shash 4a Kbirkeex 49. Al-Selur SI. Al-Nufuz In 53. Kuijeea (Ceorcia) a. Keyniak 54. Kulhiaa 55. Iizea S7.torkMh ^. Iturab Bnljihar (Bolcaiia) lo«) J uaua) gu. AKpiutenah 1. Yajooi Si. Majod 1. Aiiatic 64. _., 63. Al-Almaa 66. Al-Khuuua Show „ _(CBipian Oea) 67. Turkea Turkey) 68. Albeian (Albania) 60. Hakedunceah (Ma- cadonia) 70. BalucS-m 71. Jenubea (ptobabir „ ^ Sweden) 73. uermaniacaermUT) 73. Denmark 74. Arranaeeah (Franca) 75. Felowiah (Norwa*) 70. Burtea or B>«t«iMii _ (Britam) n Coni(»,8aid(ida,fte / =1 02 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Pa«t I. Many couc'rios, hitherto unknown and barbarouB, were explored, and in Mne dej^rec civilized, by Uio Moelem amu. Thow on the Oxua and the Jaxartei, the Aiiatic Scythia of the ancients, and occupied then only by Nomadic hordes, were covered by them with gnt' and flourishing cities. Among tJiese, Samarcand became atlcrwards the capital of an empire that extended over half of Asia. At the opposite extremity, Mauritania, which hod bficn regarded by the Romans as almost beyond tiie limits of social existence, became a flourishing kingdom, uid possessed in Fez an eminent school of learning. Even beyond the limits or the Mahomedan world, misBiona wero sent to explore the remotest limits of the east and west One interesting result of these lias been communicated in the relation of two Maho- medan travellen, Wahad and Abuzaid, who in the ninth century penetrated into China; and gave a description of that country ; which, though only recently known to us by the transla- tion of Renaudot, must have been the earliest over cc^mmuninatod to the natitms of the west. Ttata Lisbon, also, the brothers Almagrurim sailed, endeavouring to anticipate the discoveries of Columbus, by exploring unknown countries beyond " the sea of darkness." For ten or eleven days they steered westward; hut seeing n Btorm approaching, the light &int, and tlio •ea tempestuous, they dreaded havinj^ cnno to the dark boundaries of the earth. They turned therefore south, sailed twelve days in that u;i,.v!l>-.., ;•"' "ame to an island, which they called Ganam, or the island of birds ; but the floNh of these birds '• m too bitter to be eaten. They ■ail^ on twelve days farther, and came lo another island, the king of which assured them that their pursuit was vain: tiiat his father had sent nn expedition ror the same purpose ; but that, afler a month's sail, the light had wholly fliiled, and they had been obliged to return. The adventurers, therefore, made their way back to thf' coast of Africa, which they reached ii; three days. The bearings stated seem to jioint out Madeira and the Canaries as the two islands visited in this expedition. In regard to the general outline of the earth, the Arabs seem to have closely adhered to ancient theories. They revived the early mipressioii of an ocean, which, like a zone, encom- passed the whole earth. This, according to a natural feeling, was characterized as the " Sea of Darkness," an appellation most usually given to the AUontic ; but the northern sea of Europe and Asia, mspirin^ still more mysterious and gloomy ideas, is called the " Sea of pitchy Darkness." Edrisi has even imagined the land as floating in the sea, and only port appearing above, like an egg in a basin of water. At tho same time he divides it into seven seas, ftnciflilly appropriated to the seven climates into which the earth was divided. Ac< cording to these climates, he describes the earth beginning at the western and proceeding to the eastern extremity ; an ill-judged arrangement, wiiich, by a mechanical section, separates portions of territory the most intunately connected. The knowledge of the Arabs was sub- jected to another and a voluntary limitation. They studiously desisted from all inouiry respecting those blmded nations, whose minds had never been illummed by the light ot the Koran. Ibn Haukal even makes it a subject of glory, that he had found nothing worthy of remark among nations who could not be viewed without horror by men who had any innate principles of virtue, wisdom, or religion. These views of the subject greatly restricted their means of knowledge in respect to Europe, and rendered it of little value, imless with regard to those two continents, which their arms had rendered to a great extent Mahomedan. S\xrT. U. — Asia. The Asia of the Arabs comprised a wider range than had belonged to that coatinent under any former system. China b distinctly marked, partly under the appellation of Seen, and partly under that of Cathay ; the former term appearmg to comprenend Lidia beyond the Ganges. Lamery, productive in camphor, gold, ivory, and dye-woods, appears by these products to be Sumatra, and mention is even mode of Al Djavah. The countries on the Oxus and Joxartes having become the seat of an extended Moslem empire, of which Samar- cand vras the capital, Tartary, both eastern and western, was, for the first time, delineated with tolerable accuracy ; many of the leading positions, in this hitherto inaccessible part of the continent, were even fixed bv astronomical observation ; and some positive though &int and indistinct notice appears to have been received respecting the people situated along the shores of the Northern Ocean. Unfortunately the main objects of curiosity and inquiry were Gog and Magog. The authentic application of these names has been observed under the Hebrew system as belonging to a devastating race from the shores of the Euxine and Caspian. Oriental mncy had transformed them into two enormous giants, who had erected an impreg- nable castle on the borders of Scythia. The oflTorts made by the court of ^gdad in pursuit of this chimera were very extraordinanr. The first expedition was undertaken with the hope of finding it somewhere on the wores of the Caspian ; but as their conquests soon embraced the 'whole of that region, without the slightest trace of diis U^mendous castle, the more southern country of Boklura was the next object of search. When that alao bad been surveyed in vain, the court was involved in much perplexity, and scarcely knew to What ulterior region their view was to be du-ected. At length one of the caliphs dispatched a mission, with strict injunctions on no account to return without having discovered the castle of Gog. The envoys, according to Edrisi's report, proceeded first along the shores of the .*:«L »n. IN ELUOPE DURING THE DARK AGES. 69 and in Hme degnt he Aiiatic Scythia of d by them with gn^ capital of an empire inia, which hod Ixicn became a flourishing beyond the limits or mita of the east and elation of two Maho- rated into China ; and 1 to UB by the transl&' J nationa of the west. icipate thediscoveriea rknew." For ten ot le lieht fiiint, and tlio earth. They turned ind, which they called r to bo eaten. They which assured them le same purpose ; but li^ed to return. The ^ich they reached ii: I Canaries as the two e closely adhered to I, like a zone, encom- icterized as the " Sea the northern sea of called the " Sea of le sea, and only port divides it into seven Lh was divided. Ac< m and proceeding to :al section, separatca ' the Arabs was cub- ed ftom all inquiry by the light of the d nothing worthy of who had any innate eatly restricted their !, unless with regard t Mahomedan. that continent under llation of Seen, and d India beyond the appears by these le countries on the re, of which Samar- rst time, delineated inaccessible part of ositive though feint 9 situated along the ty and inquiry were observed under the luxine and Caspiaa erected an impreg- r Bagdad in pursuit idertaken with the eir conquests soon mendous castle, the 1 umi oiBu uoa neen Caspian, then through a vost extent of desert, probably the country of the Kirghises, when Hey arrived at a stupendous range of mountains, which must have been the Altai. Hero hey did actually fina or pretend to And something which they concluded to be the castle of 'og and Magog. Perhaps they reached some of those ancient monuments which have been ' along this range, and gladly enibracod this pretext to rid therasolves of so troublesome , commission. The picture they drfrkney, Shetland, the Ho- bridca, and the western cooat of Ireland. Their fleets reached even the ahoreo of Italy and Sicily. Towards the north, they eatabliahed coloniea in Iceland and Greenland. But the most important discovery of the Northmen was, undoubtedly, America, if their claun to the merit of that discovery shall be admitted to be mode good. In the beginning of the eleventh century, Thorwald and Leif, two nativea of Icelanfl, having sailed far to the south-west, came to a country which appeared to them, doubtless by comparison, to be mild and nr its telAtion to the three conti- nents, Asia, Europe, and Africa. Persia stands in its proper place ; but India, under the modifications of Greater and Lesser, is confusedly repeated at diflereQt points, while tiie river Indus is mentioned in the text as the eastern tioundaiy of Asia. To the nwth, the Boos n. KNOWLEDGE PROM THE CRUSADES. ng. it,-«ABruDO'a map or thb woiut. OrtaM 68 OecUtM castle of Gog and Magog, an Arabian feature, crowns a vast range of mountauu, within which it is said that the Tartars had been imprisoned by Alexander the Great The Cas- pian appears, with the bordering countries of Georgia, Hjrrcania, and Albania ; but these features stand nearly at the northern boundary of the habitable earth. Africa has a sea to the south, stated, however, to be inaccessible, on account of the intensi^ of the heat The European countries stand in their due place, not even excepting Russia and Scandinavia; thouffh some oversights are observable in the manner in which ic two are connected togeuer. '>,''^*^. ,f..|^ •■J- CHAPTER IV. TAETAB OKOGRAPHT. The revolutions of the north of Asia next attracted the eyes of Europeans to the distant quarters of the world. The roamin? tenants of those boundless wilds, known under the ancient name of Scythia, and the mDUcm one of Tartary, have at various periods conquered and desolated the civilized world of Asia. The ofispring of Tartar chiefs sat for many cen- turies on the thrones of Pekin, of Delhi, of Ispahan, and of Constantinople : but, of the Tartar rulers, none ever raised bo terrible a name, or established so wide an empire, a Gengis or Zinsis ; originally an individual chief of the Monguls, he attained the general swa, over that warlike race, and led them as conquerors fknn empire to empire. His first ana meet signal exploit was the conquest of China ; having thence crossed the whole breadth of Asia, he died on the shores of the Caspian. His successors pressed on westward, overran Russia, and penetrated through Poland into Hungary and Silesia ; their approach, their rapid mov^ ments, and the exaffgerated rennrta of their ravajjes* strack the nations of Europe with iaes pressible terror; this was greasy heightened by tiie prevailing ignorance of geography, which was such that none knew when they might arrive, or where mey might be encountered. The VoTh I. 6* J> ..v-.ff'T?,-?,' ^ ■;>;-», ff .■■'■, :', . ' ■ ■■'■iV'fT^??''!-^;-'' ' 08 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Pabt I. IP ■|1, ;j)l[ Danes were thus deterred one season even from going to the herring-fishery, on the coast of Scotland. The Tartars defeated and killed the Dule of Silesia ; but a general muster of the German chivalry being made to oppose them, thf y retreated into the mterior of Poland, said even further to the east, leaving only a nn'^cious vanguard; but it was suspected that they were only mustermg their strength, again to invade Europe, in more dreadful and destructive array. Embassy, at this crisis, was deemed the expedient most likely to appease the fury of these dreaded invaders. According to tlie ideas of the age, the pope appeared the most respectable character, in whose name a mission could be undertaken, and monks *he most fitting ambas- eadors. The choice was injudicious : these envoys. Ignorant of the political relations of countries, of the usages of society, and the mode of treating with mankind, obtained no respect in the eyes of the fierce conquerors of Asia. They returned without fulfilling any object of their mission ; and if Europe was not again exposed to this barbarous inundation, it owed its safety only to the division of the immense empire of Kaptchak, and the dissensions among its princes. These ambassadors, however, traversed a large portion of the continent, l>efore unknown to Europeans. One mission, indeed, under Ascelm, which met the Monguls on the frontier of Persia, does not communicate any geographical information; but the journey of Carpini, and aJfler him of Rubruquis, (Jig. 13.) led them through the north of Fig. 13— MAP OF THK JOURNEY OF RUBRUQUIS. Russia, along the shores of the Black Sea, and the Caspian, and thence into the very heart of the immense plains of interior Asia, where they found the great Tartar capital of Kara- korum, the chief seat of the posterity of Zingis. Here the masters of the world, while embassies and presents were waiting them fi*om all the courts of southern Asia, were living in the rudest Scythian fashion, feeding scantily on horse-flesh and mares' milk, roving aboui in tents, destitute of arts, and occupied only with war and plunder. The Tartars, however, treated with a proud disdain all other natiors, over whom they held themselves as commis- Bioned by heaven to rule, while they paid the most abject submission to their own Khan, re- vering him OS the appointed representative of the deity on earth. Karakorum was found scarcely entitled to the name of city, being little larger than one of the suburbs of Paris, and its most sumptuous edifices scarcely suitable to a European country town. The situation of this capital of so great an empire has been a subject of some controversy. D'Anville places it at a pouit to the north of China, near the eastern limit of the great desert of Shamo or Cobi, while Fischer fixes it on tlie Orchon, one of the rivers whicn unite in forming the Selingha. I have elsewhere endeavoured to show (Discoveries in Asia, I.) that both these positions must be about a thousand miles to the eastward of Uie real site. It is true that upwards of four months was occupied in passing from the western frontier of Russia to this capital ; and the missionaries complain of the grievous rapidity with which they were conveyed. They estimate the daily rate as equal to the distance fi'om Paris to Orleans, or about seventy miles ; and this tune and route would doubtless be sufficient to carry them to the most eastern extremity of the continent But whenever they g've us the time actually employed in travelling between known points, a rate is found which does not even approach to the above. Two months are spent by Carpmi in travelling from the Dnieper to the Volga, and by Rubruquis from the Danube to the Don, " riding post as the Tartars do ;" yet neither of these spaces exceeds in direct distance six hundred miles. Then from the Volga to the Ural, which may be two hundred and fifly miles, we have twelve days; while the journey from the Ural to the inland sea of Balkash, or Palcati, occupied above forty-three days. Thus down to that point it required four months to travel not quite eighteen himdred miles. From the Balkash to Karakorum, the journey was performed in three weeksi ■•': Part I. Iiery, on the coast of a general muster of interior of Poland, it was suspected that 1 more dreadful and ase tlie fury of these tlie most respectable i most fitting amba» jolitical relations of lankind, obtained no vitiiout fulfilling any rbarous inundation, it >, and the dissensions iion of the continent, ich met the Monguls nfonnation; but the through the north of Book U. VENETIAN GEOGRAPHY. 67 no 1» a. L\«* } Karakiiio -ySitJKIali.r) Kir&ium D'AoflUe) n into tlie very heart rtar capital of Kara- of the world, while n Asia, were living ' milk, roving about e Tartars, however, mselves as commis- heir own Khan, re- ttle larger than one ible to a European n a subject of some the eastern limit of one of the rivers ) show (Discoveries the eastward of the from the western :evous rapidity with distance from Paris less be sufficient to er they g've us the und which does not g from the Dnieper post as the Tartars niles. Then from have twelve days; iti, occupied above not quite eighteen led in three weeks. [s it possible to suppose that they could in that time have travelled fifteen hundred mucs, the space which would be necessary to enable them to reach the Karakorum either of D'Anville or of Fischer 1 They could not have passed tlie great table plain of Soongaria, compared by the Oriental histories to a great sea of verdure, and consequently of all ouers the best fitted to form tlie central encampment of this great pastoral and military empire. All the geo- graphical indications given by Rubruquis agree with this position ; and disagree wholly v/ith the other two. He says all the rivers observed by him flowed to the westward, which is true as far as Soongaria, but,directly contrary to what takes place in the other positions, bo;h of which are even placed upon rivers that flow to the eastward. China is said to lie 'o the south-east, as it does from Soongana ; but from the two other positions it wquld be directly south. The Kirghises are said to Tie to the north, and the Baschkirs to the west ; but these, according to the ordinary site, would have been at a distance quite immense, and could have had no relations with Karakorum. The hypothesis which places that city in Mongolia is founded upon the latter having been the original seat of Zingis; but Rubruquis expressly states, that this arrangement had now ceased, and that Tartaria was " the chief and royal city." Such a change was, indeed, almost necessary to an empire which was to embrace at once 'no East and the West; to bold China in one hand, and Russia w the other. CHAPTER V. VENETIAN GEOGRAPHY. The republics of Italy, and above all that ofVenice, were the states in which the spirit of commerce and inquiry, after being long dormant, revived with the most brilliant lustre. The commerce which they carried on was one which connected them with the most distant regions: they traded m tiie jewels, the spices, and the fine cloths of India, a country situated at a distance really vast, and which then appeared almost immeasurable. It was not by Venetians, however, or by any Europeans, that the vast intervening space waa traversed. They found the Indian commodities m the ports of the Mediterranean or the Black Sea, to which they were brought by the Arabs up the Red Sea, or by the interior caravans across central Asia. It was impossible, however, that they could see these precious and profitable commotlities continuing to enter their ports, without feeling some curiosi^as to the splendid and beautiful regions whence th^ came ; and, in that age of enterprise, it was likely that some would be impelled to brave even the obstacles presented by this vast unknown space, occupied by people of a hostile and bigoted fkith. The Abbe Zurla has collected notices of a considerable number who, actuated by this spirit of discovery, penetrated to a considerable depth into the interior of Asia. But the fkme of all these is eclipsed by one, whose travels extended far beyond the rest, and AVho haa always ranked among the greatest of discoverers of any age. Marco Polo vraa a noble Venetian, whose fiimily, like many others of the same rank, waa engaged in extensive commerce. His uncles, Mafleo and Nicole, had visited Tartary, and afterwards China, though without leavmg any narrative of their observations. The pope, however, being apprized of their discoveries, sent out an ecclesiastical mission, accompanied by the young Marco Polo, then only nineteen. They spent twenty-fi)ur years in traversing the most remote regions of Asia. The result of their religious mission is not stated ; but they returned laden with precious jewels, with which they dazzled the eyes of their countrymen, by whom they were not at firat recognised. Marco being afterwards made prisoner by the Genoese, was persuaded to amuse the hours of confinement by dictating a narrative of his travels, which was read with avidity, and soon translated into all the, European languages. He has suflTered like many other eminent travellers, under those injurious suspicions which arise in the minds of persons unwilling to believe any event or object which goes beyond the sphere of tlieir ordinary experience. His name even furnished the nickname given to a personage introduced into the comedies of the age, to recite every species of extravagant fablp. But modem uiformation has verified in all its most essential points the narrative of r.Iarco Polo, leaving only a slight tincture of that credulity which was characteristic of the age, and is confined to what was told bun by otliers of countries which he did not himself visit. He appears to have first proceeded along the northern shore of Asia Minor, then the seat of a flourishing Turkish dynasty. He passed through Armenia, along the lofty ridgea of Ararat, and descending the Euphrates through Curdistan came to Bagdad, no longer the capital of the caliphate, but still a flourishing and civilized city imder its Tartar conquerors. He visited the great commercial capital of Ormuz, and thence proceeded eastward through the southern part of Persia by Kerman and Kubbees, across the great salt desert. At length he reached Balkh, which, though still a coasiderable emporium of central Asia, presented only in its ruined temples and spacious squares the vestiges of its ancient grandeur. Then Eassing along the borders of Cashmire and the mountain tract of Bala8han(Badakshan), cele- rated for its mines of rubies, he ascended to the elevated plain of Pamere, forming the sum- mit of that CI) >ss branch of tlie Himmaleh called the Beloor, On this, which appeared to him lUSTORY OP GEOGRAPHY. Part 1. the highest ground in the world, he felt that difficulty in reapiraticn, and in producing com' bustion, which ia peculiar to the most elevated mountain eitea. He afterwards readied the large Tartar cities of Yarkund and Cashgar, and entered on that great eastern table-land which, before and since, has formed the Tar a Incognita of Asia. He then entered Northern China, which he calls Cathay, and visited its capital Cambalu, his description of which strik- ingly coincides with that of Uie modem Pekin. He afterwards visited Mangi or Southern China, and found in its capital, Quinsai, a scene eclipsing all that he had beheld either in Eurq)e or in the East It is described as a most immense, and, firam its splendour and the beauty of its situation, almost a magic city. In fact Hangtchoofbo, which corresponds with Quinsai, though it has long ceased to be the capital of Qhina, is still a very large city, very charmingly situated. From China, Marco Polo passed through the Indian Archipelago, hear- ing only of Great Java, but visiting Sumatra, which he caUs Little Java. He touched at the coasts both of Malabar and Coromandel, and learned many particulars respecting India and its people, which have since been confirmed by modem observation. He returned by the Red Sea to Europe. A map of the world on a large scale, (Jig. 14.) by Fra Mauro, which is preserved at Venice, and of which a highly finished copy exists in the British Museum, exhibits a view of the geographical ideas formed by the Venetians, founded upon the information derived from their Asiatic travellers, and prior to the discovery of America. Fig, 14. — Map or the World bt Fra Mavro. 1. Barara 3. Dsfur 3. FuDdan 4. Marocho 5. Sieno 6. Heoha Thaai s ■4aiQ . Soltaoflu 10, PelUgomii U. BiNnMa IS TurmUU 13. DeU 14 Ara IS. Charazan IS. Charaian 17. Mihen 18. Mognan 19. Siachone SO Belfetoo SI. Candai xt, Thymchain S3. Babilonia 34. Moaopotamia 23. Arcba No« 36. Tiphilii 87. Armenia aa Bpahan SB. Zaidaro 30. Here 31. Baleh 33. Tangul 33. rhaiuay 34. Nangio 33. Quantu M. uambalu 37. Arehanafa 3a Bilan SB. Olrar 40. Chataio 41. Baganaeh 43. Sepultuia 43. Sepoiero Uneam 44. Bamaigant 43. Nogra 46. Moachovia 47. Permia 48. Novocrado ¥. RUta SO. Fraca. Rivirs, Laket, i/t- a Galla b Xebe ATan bAbavi Eufti ralea h Indua IMandua Gangea Uniitn i Mare Braunto m Amu n roliianohin o MataBioncha p glU q Tanai r uanubio. Part 1. 1 producing^ coiH' ards reached the astern table-land entered Northern m of which strik- [angi or Southern beheld either in plendour and the corresponds with y large city, very ^hipelago, hear> He touched at respecting India He returned by ;served at Venice, fits a view of the derived from their Book IIL MODERN GEOGRAPHY. BOOK III. MODERN GEOGRAPHY. Geography was now to assume a new aspect, and worlds bctbre unknown were to be com- prehended within her domain. Although the Italian states produced, almost exclusively, emi- nent astronomers, skilful pilots, and hardy navigators, their attention was nearly engrossed by land conveyance, and the navigation of the interior seas of Europe : they did pot originate, or even attempt to follow out, any trains of oceanic discovery. The rulers of the exterior coasts of Europe, and especially of the Iberian peninsula, carried off all the prizes in this new and brilliant career. Between 1492 and 1498, the AmericaL contuient, and the passage to India by the Cape, were discovered by Gama and Columbus : the face of the world was changed ; and all the daring and enterprising spirits of the age embarked in this career of discover}', conquest, and commerce. M.Atttnt. Muocbo lipasit 1 v^ Si«i» f Euftatei RTiirii Indtu IMtndui Oangei Qllinn r flBre Bieunto m Amu n Poliianchin Mara BiaooM p lEAU q Tana'. 1 uanobiot CHAPTER I. DISCOVERY OP AMERICA AND THE EAST INDIEa The progress of discovery over the globe, when the first steps had been taken, waa astonishingly rapid ; no cost, no peril, deterred even private adventurers from equippmg fleets, crossing the oceans, and far'ng Uie rage of savage nations in the remotest extremities of the earth. Columbus had not yet seen the American continent, and the mouth of the Ormoco, when Cabot, of Venetian descent, but sailing under English auspices, discovered Newfoundland, and coasted along the present territory of the United States, probably as iar as Virginia. In the next two or three years, the Cortereals, a daring family of Portu- guese navigators, began the long and vain search of a passage round the north of America: the^ sailed along the coast of Labrador, and entered the spacious inlet of Hudson's ^y, which tliey seem to have mistaken for the sea between Africa and America ; but two of them unhappily perished. In 1501, Cabral, destined for India, struck unexpectedly on the coast of Brazil, which he claimed for Portugal. Amerigo Vespucci had sailed along a great part of Terra Firma, and Guiana, and he now made two extensive voyages along the coast of Brazil ; services which obtained for him the high honour of giving his name to the whole continent. Grijalva and Ojeda went round a great part of the circuit of the coasts of the gulf of Mexico. In 1513, Nunez Balboa, crossing the narrow isthmus of Panama, beheld the boundless expanse of the Pacific Ocean. These discoveries afforded the impulse which prompted Cortez and Pizarro to engage in their adventurous and sanguinary career ; in which, with a handful of darmg followers, they subverted the extensive and populous empires of Mexico and Peru. Expeditions wore soon pushed forward on one side to Chili, and on tiip other to California, and the regions to the north. Nearly a full view was thus obtained, both of the great mterior breadth of America, and of that amazing range of coast which it pre- sents to the southern ocean. In the Eastern world, the domain which the papal grant had assigne ' to Portugal, dis- covery was alike rapid. Twenty years had not elapsed from the landing of Vasco da Gama, when Albuquerque, Almeida, Castro, Sequeira, Perez, and many others, as navigators or as conquerors, had explored all the coasts of Hindostan, those of Eastern Africa, of Ara- bia, of Persia; had penetrated to Malacca and the Spice Islands; learned the existence of Siam and Pegu ; and even attempted to enter *Jie ports of China. But the characteristic jealousy of that power was soon awakened : the Portuguese embassy was not admitted into the presence of the emperor ; and a maiid;i*« was issued, that none of the men with long beards and large eyes should enter the havens of the celestial empire. Afler all these dis- coveries, the grand achievement yet remained, of connecting together the ranges of eastern and western discovery; and of laying open to the wondering eyes of mankind that ytructure of the globe, which, though demonstrated by the astronomer, seemed to the generality of mankind contrary to the testimony of their senses. Magellan, ui 1520, undertook, by circumnavigating the earth, to solve this mighty problem: he passed through the straits which bear his name, and crossed the entire breadth of the Pacific. He himself was unhappily killed at the Philippine Islands, but his companions sailed on, and presented themselves to the astonished eyes of the Portuguese at the Moluc- cas. They arrived in Europe, after a vo3rage of three years ; and it could no longer be doubted by the most sceptical that the earth was a spherical body. litii^rri'':!;'!!*'; H ii;;^' TO HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Part I CHAPTER n. EABLY BYBTEM OP MODERN GEOORAFIIY. The Bystcinatic arrangement of the immense regions thus discovered, their adjustment to each other, and to the mass of knowledge previously possessed, was a task as yet beyond the resources of modern geography. It was to Venice that the results of discovery were otill referred to be arranged and systematised ; but the Venetian geographers, however skilful, laboured under many difficulties. Tlie navigators seldom furnished tlicm with any celestial observations, or even accurate surveys ; for which, indeed, science had as yet provided no suitable instruments : they gave only rride delineations, on which the geographer was obliged to trace his uncertain way ; most of the countries formerly known were touched at new points, and recognised under new names ; and the continents, being made to contain both the old and tlie new features, were swelled to a preposterous magnitude. The en^t of Asia was obliged to contain at once the Serica of Ptolemy, the Mangi and Cathay of Marco Polo, and the China of the Portuguese, all as separate empires. The relative site of the two continents of Asia and America, tlie presentation of the west coast of the one to the east coast of the other, was of course the problem which they had the fewest means of solving. In a series of Venetian maps, preserved in the king's library, the two continents are de- scribed throughout their whole extent as either united or separated only by the narrow Strait of Anion : the former delineation is retained even in a map by Bertelli, dated 1571 ; and in one by Cimertinus (1566), Cathay is placed upon the Giulf of Mexico. The expedition of Magellan, it might be supposed, would already have opened their eyes to tlie extent of that vast ocean which here intervened : but Magellan scarcely penetrated into the northern Pacific ; and his Ul-understood course was probably supposed to reach direct from Cape Horn to tlie Moluccas, wiiich did not interfere with the hypothesis of tlin two continents meeting each other in a different latitude. The breadth of America, like all unknown spaces, was vastly exaggerated in the early maps; while eastern Asia, by the process above g)inted out, was tripled in all dimensions, and tlius made to cover an ample portion of the acific. Sebastian Munster, in 1572, produced a delineation of the world, which is cleared of some of the grossest mistakes, and which very tolerably delineates the general outline of the earth. He commits, however, a very discreditable mistake, in taking Ptolemy for his guide in regard to Scotland, and consequently representing that country as extending from west to east ; a blunder themore singular, as his forms of Scandinavia and Ireland are liable to little exception. Singular flights of fancy are found in the works of these early geographers. Munster underbdces to describe, not only the surihce of the earth, but also its interior : this is stated to be occupied by hell, a huge cavern two or three thousrnd German miles in length and breadtii, and " capable oi holding many millions of damned souls." Its existence was proved by the spirits which, in the depth of^mineral caverns, as he had been assured by Cor- nelius Agrippa, often killeid instantly a great number of men. The inflammatory gases, which are still frequently producing such disasters, affiird certainly no un|>lausible ground for that strange conclusion. Ortelius, in the commencement of the sixteenth century, exhibits a remarkable im- provement in geography. In his maps, all the parts of the globe begin to assume tlieir real form and dimensions; America and Asia are widely separated, the expanse of the South Sea interposing between them. The south pole is invested with a Terra Anstralis Incngnita; which, as it relates to New Holland, is said to rest on the authority of Marco Polo and Bar- thema, and in regard to the West, on that of Magellan. Terra del Fiteffo is nindo a por- tion of this Austral continent: while in lat. 41° S., Pud long. 10" westof Ferro, is Promori' torium Terrtr- Australis. There is a Terra Septentrionalis Incognita, nearly as extensive, and Boeming to include Nova Zembla. Greenland, however, exists distinct from it. In the interior of Asia, the Caspian, under the appellation of Mer de Bacha, presents the same form and dimensions aa in Ptolemy, and receives all the rivers filling really into the Aral, the existence of which seems not to be suspected by this geograpi^er. Mercator advanced considerably farther, particularly by shewing the imperfections rf Ptolemy, and the injudicious manner in which the delineations given by him had been mixed with those furnished by modem authority. Mercator retains the Austral continent, includ- ing in it Terra del Fuego. The lakes of Canada appear for the first time in his maps, as a sea of fresh water, the termination of which is unknown. In Africa, Abyssinia, enormously amplified, is made the principal and almost sole feature ; it extends southward to the vicinity of the Cape, comprehending Mosambique, and bordering on CafTraria : the Nile rises only about ten degrees north of the Cape, and consequently traverses all Africa from south to north. With respect to the extreme northern regions, this very learned man has indulged in some extraordinary flights of imagination. The ocean resumes, as in Homer, the character of a river, and is seen rushing by four mouths into the Polar Gulf, to be absorbed, it is said, into the bowels of the earth. On one of the river branches are placed pigmies, scarcely four tl &■ ,!? A^ 7''f'''t^'"''^'^"''-.I - '^TT^Wf' ■^»W'i-'?"">TJ' Part 1. hoir adjustment to OS yet beyond the scovery were otill , however Bkilfiil, with Dny celestial 18 yet provided no rapher was obliged e touched at new to contain both the The ep*t of Asia day of Marco Polo, fe site of the two ho one to the east , means of solving, continents are de- y the nnrrow Strait lated 1571 ; and in . The expedition otlie extent of that into the northern direct from Cape the two continents like all unknown y the process above mple portion of the hich is cleared of meral outline of the ilemy for his guide mding from west to are liable to little early geographers. its interior : this nan miles in length !ts existence was n assured by Cor- iflammatory gases, m.Jausible ground remarkable im- assume tlieir real of the South Sea straits Incognita ; arco Polo and Bar- fiffo is made a per- ~ Ferro, is Promon- learly as extensive, ct from it. In the n(s the same form into the Aral, the imperfections {£ m had been mixed continent, includ- in his maps, as a ssinia, enormously rard to the vicinity e Nile rises only •om south to north, indulged in some the character of 8 od, it is said, into nes, scarcely fniif Book HI. MODERN ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 71 feet high ; a notion suggested, perhaps, by the diminutive stature of the Laplanders and Sa- moyedes: on anotiior is placed a sort of northern paradise, while the Pole iteelf, a black and immense rock, towers *o a prodigious height. From the time of Mercator moth'm geography made rapid and continued progress, till it attained tlio state approaching towards perfection, in which it now exists : tliis will appear, when we consider it as astronomic. :., critical, or statistical; and when we view it in its rela Hon to the different quarters of the globe. CHAPTER in. MODERN ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY The astronomicol geography of the Greeks rested on a basis exceedingly narrow. It was only at Alexandria, Syeno, Rliodes, and a few other leading points, that observations of lati- tude appeal to have been made with a tolerable approach to accuracy ; all the others seem to have been only extended from rude itineraries. With regard to the longitudes, although the mode of calculating them by means of eclipses appears to have been understood, only one or two actual observations of this nature are recorded ; nor does it seem to have exerted any important influence on geography in general. The Arabs made much greater progress in this department ; but, through tiie snparation produced by religious antipathy, their works were scarcely at all known in Europe at the period of the revival of letters. At that time, the pompous display of latitudes and longitud;;3 made by Ptolemy, venerable as it hod become from its antiquity, v-ommanded univerrial ossent. Modem observations have groduaPj- jhown the magnitude of Ptolemy's errors. The first great shock to his authority was given by the latitude of Constantinople, which Araurath IIL caused to be taken in 1574, when it proved to be two degrees lower than ancient authorities had assigned : the idea of such a difference, however, was treated with derision by some European geographers, till it was confirmed, in 1638, by Greaves, who had been sent to the East by Archbishop Laud. Even then, many, rather than renounce the authority of Ptolemy, believed that a change had taken place in the position of the earth ; but this notion became no longer tenable to any extent when Alexandria and other points were found very nearly to coincide with ancient observation. But the great alarm as to the unsoundness of ancient graduation was given in 1635, when M. de Peiresc caused an eclipse of the moon to be observed at Marseilles and at Aleppo ; and the difference of longitude, instead of 45° as it had been represented, was found to be only about 30° : such an enormous error, in a dimen- sion which ought of all others to have been most exactly ascertained, shook altogether the blind confidence hitherto reposed in the longitudes of Ptolemy. It was at last perceived, that an entire reform of his graduations must be effected, before geography could rest on any secure basis. Numerous observations upon eclipses now began to be made ; but it was then discovered, that this only known mode of ascertaining the longitude was attended with many imperfections. In the observation of fifty-six eclipses, collected by Ricciolus, there were no two, observed in the same two places by the same men, which exhibited the same quantity of longitude : even the same eclipse gave different results, when observed at its four critical periods. As it was found impossible to guard against errors amounting even to three or four degrees, an opinion became prevalent, in the middle of the seventeenth century, that unlesa for very great distances, even itinerary measures would give the result with :, .ater accu- racy; yet Galileo, in 1610, had already pointed out a source of more accurate « lowledge: he had in tliat year discovered three fl the satellites of Jupiter, and in his Nuncius Sidereus, pointed out thf use to v/hich they might be applied. As his hints did not meet with the attention they merited, he communicated them more fully, in 1631, to Philip II. of Spain ; but that bigoted prince was unable to estimate their importance. Galileo met with a more favourable reception fi-om the Dutch, who sent Hortensius and Bleau to Florence, to commu- nicate with him on the subject. They found t! ;; great man involved in the storm of persecution which the ignorant bigotry of the Romish church had rai "d agamst huii: he was tlirown into prison ; and, after having asked pardon on his knees, • asserting that the earth moved round the sun, obtained only a mitigation of his confinement. This discoveiy was therefore of little ufe till 1G68, when'Cassini published his tables of the revolutions and elipses of these satellit'js ; and three vears afterwards, he and Picard made joint observations at Paris, and in the observatories of Tycho Brahe at Copenhagen, by which the longitude of these two important points, which had been the subject of long controversy, was finally fixed. The French government no\,' took the most active measures for extending geographical observation. Two academicians, Picard and De la Hire, v.'ere employed to eonatruci a now map of France upon astronomical principles. In this operation they almost everywhere reduced the previous dimensions, which had been founded upon itinerary measures, and were liable to their usual excess : they took off a whole degree fi-om the western coast between Britany and Gascony, and half a degree fi*om the coasts of lianguedoc and Piovence; so itaX n HiSTORY OF GEOGRAPHY Part f. ii |i:-:|; 'r ^k on tlieir return, Louis XIV. fiu:ov; msly reproached tliem with having robbed him of a part of hi: kinpfiom. Other academic, tans were employed to determme the lon^^itude of Goree on :1m -M!':* i>{ Africa, and of Guodaloupo and Martinico in tho West Indies; and M. Cha> zelleo ' ^ >vr.t up the Levant on a similar'mission. Expeditions on a much grar .br scale were l <;«[>»< jhed, under Maupertuis to the Arctic circle, and Condamino tr the equator The primary object of these was to determine the figure of the earth by tii.; ai)plic3.n(in of the pendulum; b;t the opportunity was taken of making various obseiviMions of Jon,j:;itudo and latitude, in regions wnich lir^l been formerly delineated only by procifsc a of the most vuffue description. In the operation of determining the position of places on the glotr . jmj. :n-jit improve" ments have been made fiuce the tbovo eras. Although thero can be no move ac;5»\i'!iuv^? of the ^jreat continont?. The trigoiiomotrical surveys oi' France and England, f^x.e« if y.l wi'Jiin Oic la£t thirty years, have almost completed the delineation of those cauntrie. »l!;iU I. •.■ bmncb oi giiography remains very imperfect. CHAPTER IV. MODERN CPITICAL GEOGRAPHY. The application of a sound criticism tj geograpliical materials c&iinot be discerned in the rude and mfant stajros of the science. There is no branch in whicli tiie inquirer is so likely to bo misled by fuJlfce and fabulous nunours. The persons from whom he must draw his infl)rm^,t on, — liie navigator, the merchant, the traveller, — make observations often only in a rough anrt superficial mamier, and nre swayed in their reports by fiirxy or vanity. The results of Sieir o-n: observation, or the authentic relations of well-informed persons, are confounded with the zijost vague rumours which float among the vulgar, Hence almost all tho early systems have a portion of truth, mingled "'itb many ideal and fabulous creations. The human mind umvillingly owns it3 ignorarce even to itself. The geographer wtis reluctant to stop short at the pomt where his au Jientic information ceased. Having to delineate a kingdom or a continent, he filled up the really unknown parts fi*om vague rumour, or a fenciflil pro- longation of those that were known. Whatever object had once found a place was copied mechanically without any inquiry, until modem maps and deaicriptions became crowded with objects, for ihe position cf which no reason could be assigned. Stralio, among the ancient geographers, was alone endowed with a critical spirit : but not having a sufficiently ample stock of materials, he exercised his judgment with a blind severity, which appears to have done injustice to several individuals whose exertions in the infant cause of discovery were highly meritorious. This extreme of scepticism, opposite to that of credulity, has mdeed tlirown unjustly into shade the merits of some of the most eminen* disc'iverers, both ancient and modem. It is only by the collation of numerous authorities, accumulated by time and extended intercourse, diet the just medium can be observed, and an equitable sentence pronounced on the reports of each party. D'Anville, in the eighteenth century, possessed of ample materials, endued with indefk* tigable patience and sound judgment, undertook to rev^ise the whole system, upon which the worli and its regions bad lieen hitherto delineated. The maps of the ?gewere still covered with many obsolete and many fanciful particulars; and large port,!, i.? -^f the world, con- cerning which absolutely nothmg was known, were filled with imagi . v ciries and countries. D'Anville subjected every geographical feature to the strictest rui, and expunged without mercy those which rested on no positive and actual autl ■ . The world, un^er Ids hands, assumed a n»- ". and in some respects, a less flat' ^-ng „ Maps, which bad before been amply and . ,larly covered, now exhibited vu^ • .aeemly blanks, which amid the boasted learn' :i this age, implied a mortifying v. impossible, however, i^. tit-ay, that this was the sound tj ; ".) Geography rested at last upon sure bases, and proceeded ixi a tr; , Major Rennell, with a skill and sagacity not inferior to ti:>^< <• illinrcr Ated the mass of important materials collected respecting lad . 1 of ignorance. It was jpon which to proceed. *"ville, arranged and Afirica; and, though Part I. )bed him of a part longitude of Goree (lies ; and M. Cha« lucli grar .'or acalo 10 tc the equator ' tji.' aoplicaf ici of ntions of Jongitudo iC'jssc'a of Uk. iAost imji'!nL"Jit improve" noie acf.i'ratf! ip^ndo s, thun? - are o; too tioHH of thb transit? ,1. Bnd of what are od in the following chronometers been laicwn points, they ikon by Ca')t, t:oo! , g many islands avid c general elrurtufe pxecut;;(i '^'Ttho ofeiiers, ha^^ gone 'cys aC France and the delineation of Book III. MODERN DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. be discerned in the inquirer is so likely he must draw his ions oilen only in a vanity. The results ms, are confounded ilmoet all the early tions. The human ;s reluctant to stop elineate a kingdom r, or a fanciful pn> 1 place was copied jame crowded with cal spirit : but not kh a blind severity, ions in the in&nt nn, opposite to that ' the most eminen* lercus authorities, a be observed, and idued with indefe* m, upon which the were still covered ^f the world, con- I Ties and countries. ii, and expunged The world, un^er Maps, which had nly blanks, which gnorance. It was vhich to proceed ie of iuiofcv^meni. ille, arranged and .frica ; and, though ^V* '■ additional contributions of vast importance have in some degree superseded his actual delinea- tion, his example has introduced a still greater precision into the mode of treating the subject. The compariDoii of ancient and modern geography, and tlie tracing of the infant steps of early discovery, constitute an interest- ig field of inquiry, which has been much cultivated during the present age. Vossius, Bochart, and other learned scholars of the seventeenth cen- tury, liad exercised much dUigence in these researches ; but they were not always guided by the soundest judgment, nor were they sufficiently acquainted with the objects actually existing, to be able to recognise them under the early descriptions. Rennell, Vincent, and Mannert, seemed to have carried this research nearly aa far as it can go, though without being a'/le to dispel that impenetrable darkness in which some questions are still involved. Qosseli 1 has applied to the science an extent of investigation, and a critical acumen, which, peiaapt , none of his predecessors have equalled ; but animated by too Strabonic a spirit, and seeking to subvert all the bases on which ancient geography had before rested, he has in many instanccE rather given lustre to bold and ingenious paradoxes, than made solid addi- tions to the science. CHAPTER V. MODERN DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL GEOGRAPHY. The mere outline of the globe, its continents and countries, the leading features of moun- tains, rivers, and cities, their distance and position with respect to each other, constitute all that in the very strictest sense can be called geography. But the mind cannot pass these in review, without feeling its interest excited, in even a superior degree, by other objects, for which these only serve as the basis. The productions of the earth, whether natural or arti- ficial ; the treasures hid in its bosom ; the animals which room or are bred on its surface ; above all, the men by whom each region is peopled, — then: manners, laws, industry, com- merce, the revolutions through which they have passed, — these possess the strongest claim on our attention, and are of an importance superior to that of the mere geometrical outline. The ancients did not occupy themselves with much more than the simple and fundamental bases of the science. The delineation of these formed alone an arduous task, which the geographer was required to accomplish before he could attend to the accessary and orna- mental parts. Eratosthenes does not appear to have extended his research beyond those branches which were connected with astronomy. The work of Ptolemy forms a mere naked tabular list of positions, rarely enlivened by any historical or descriptive notices. Pliny does not go much farther. Strabo alone has enriched his work with numerous anecdotes and de- scriptions which, though not given on any complete or systematic principle, constitute a great portion of its value. Early modem writers confined themselves, like the ancient geographers, to mere outlines. All the first treatises were formed on the model of Ptolemy ; D'Anville, the head of the French school, applied himself solely to the boundaries and positions of countries, which he fixed with a precision before unknown, but without directing much attention to their physical and social relations. Statistics, the science which treats of kingdoms and states in their relations of population, wealth, productions, commerce, and public force, is, as a separate branch of Imowledge, only of recent origm. From the first it had a natural alliance with geography. Busching may be considorr il as the father of statistical geography : his vast research, strict fidelity, and access to the best sources, enabled him, in his description of Europe, to assemble a mass of information unequalled by any of hia predecessors. He has arranged it, however, nearly in the same mechanical manner in which they had drawn the maUiematical outlines of the globe. His writings, instead of conveying to the mind striking general views, are loaded with minute and burdensome details, which can be useful only as matter of reference, and would therefore have most properly appeared in the form of a dictionary. His successors have been numerous, and their labours are of sunilar character and value. Bruns, with regard to Afirica, and Ebelin? to Asia, coniin 'ed the series. The great geographical work recently completed by H" ^ s;!, C r.iKbich, G.u pari, and Gutsmuth, in twenty-five octavo volumes, each equal to three ' ^jor of ordiriry size, comprises, probably, the largest mass of statistical information <■. ,,■ assembled into out vork. The E' ijh compilations of Bowei,, Guthrie, Salmon, and others of the same school were, perhaps, i'.m first works wiiich embraced nearly all be objects that can give interest to a system of geography; and though indiflerently ex» ated, and devoid of any charms of style, they acquired a very extensive popularity. Mr. Pinkerton hr j executed a work on the same plan, in a superior nianner, adding notices of the difilerent branches of natural history, and of the difierent languages of nationa M. Malte-Brun, by his acquaintance v/ith the eastern and rMrthiim literature of Europe, and by an snimated and interebting style, has produced a work in seme respects superior. M. Balbi has distinguished himself by tiie industry wit* which he has collected geographical facts. We sha'l now ^eke a view of modem discovery in the remoter quarters of the globe. Vol. 1. 7 K HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Part L '■]\ Vi.,, V' 'fh- • ) CHAPTER VI. ,i MODERN GEOGRAPHY OF ABIA. Asia wau the first continent which attracted the attention of Europeans, and the joumeya of all the early travellers. The enterprise of the Venetians penetrated into some of tna wide and perilous tracts of its interior, which the boldest of more modem travellers have in vain essayed to reacj^i. Since the passage of the Cape, the career of discovery has been chiefly maritime. We have seen how rapidly the Portuguese fleets explored all the 80uUi< em coasts and islands. The eastem shores beyond Japan, as they presented nothing tempt* •ng to commercial avidity, were left to be examined by expeditions having science and curi- osity for their object I'liis task was efiected by Cook, Perouse, Broughton, and Krusenstem. Jesso, which hadf figured as a large continental tract, stretching between Asia and America, was reduced by them to its insular form and dimensions, and its separation from Saghalien established ; the range of the Kurile islands was also traced ; but some questions respecting this very remote ana irregular coast remain yet to be solved. Along its northern boundary, beset by the almost perpetual ices of the polar sea, the progress of navigation was slow and laborious. The English and Dutch, the chief maritime states, made extraordinary efibrta and braved fearflil disasters, in the hopeless attempt to effect by this route a nearer passage to India ; but though they penetrated beyond Nova Zcmbla, they never could pass the formi- dable promontory of Severovostochnoi, the most northem point of the Asiatic continent. The Russians now claimed for themselves the task of advancing farther. They had most rapidly discovered, and conquered the whole south and centre of Siberia, and reached the eastern ocean at Ochotzk ; but the ftozen bounds of the north for some time defied their investiga- tion. Proceeding in little barks, however, they worked their way fVom promontory to pro- montory. Behring and Tchirikoif, early in the last century, sailed Uirough the Northern Pacific, discovered the American coast, and the straits, bearing the name of 3ie former, which divide Asia from America. Deschnew and Shalaurof, by rounding the Asiatic side of tliis Cape, and discovering the coast stretching away to the westward, were supposed to have es- tablished the fact of the entire separation of the two contbents. There still remained a portion of coast on the side of Asia, which, it was alleged, might, by an immense circuit, nave connected the two together; but the late voyage of Baron Wrangle seems to have re- moved every ground on which such conjecture could rest, and to have astablished beyond doubt or dispute, the existence of Asia and America as continents altogether distinct. Respecting the interior of Asia, the British obtained much additional information iirom India, after mey became undisputed masters of that region. This information was in many respects only a revival of ancient knowledge. The mountain boundary of India was traced, and found to rise to a height before unsuspected. The sources and early courses of the Ganges and the Indus, were foimd in quartera quite diflferent iirom those which modem geography had long assinied to them. The mountain territories of Cabul and Candahar, 5ife vast sandy plains of Mekran, were illustrated by the missions of Elphinstone and Pottin- ger ; while Turner and Moorcroft penetrated into the high interior table-land of Thibet Recent and authentic information has also been fiimished by Burnes respecting Bochara and Samarcand, those celebrated capitals of the early masters of Asia : but th.; e remains still a great central Terra Incognita, respecting which our information rests chiefly upon the desul- tory and somewhat clouded reports of Marco Polo, and the meagre narrative of Goez ; though some important and more precise information has recently been afforded by tlie researches of Humboldt and Klaproth. CHAPTER Vn. MODERN GEOGRAPHY OF AFRICA. Africa, more than any other quarter of the globe, has defied the research, and humbled the pride, of modem inquiry. After accurate surveys had been made of the remotest oceans and shores, this continent, placed almost in view of Europe, still baffled every attempt to pene- trate the mighty secrets which it held in its bosom. This vast and unbroken region enclosed by huge expanses of desert, and occupied by barbarous and predatory tribes, for a long period proved fatal to every daring mortal who attempted to penetrate into its depths. The Portuguese, however, at an early period, made very extraordinary exertions, impelled by the odd chimera of Prestier John, a Christian prince, whom they expected to find la the interior. With this view they explored Abyssinia, of which they vastly exaggerated the dimensions, making it extend even to the Cfape, in the vicinity of which, according to their idea, the MUe took its origin. In their progress also along the westem coast, they sent .epeated em- bassies into the mterior, to discover, if possible, Uie abode of Prester John ; ai.J though that fiivourite object always eluded their searrh, they appear to have reached on one occasion as far as Timbuctoo, and learned at Benin some particul3urs respecting the great Ulterior king dom of Ogane or Ghana. Part L ins, and tho journevi ed into some of tha m travellers have in ' discovery has been plored all the aouUi* )nted nothing tempi- ng science and curi- on, and Krusenstem. n Asia and America, tion from Saghalien questions respecting 8 northern boundary, gation was slow and extraordinary efforts te a nearer passage could pass the formi- atic continent. The hey had most rapidly reached the eastern lied their investiga* n promontory to pro- rough the Northern of the former, which Asiatic side of tlus supposed to have es- ere still remained a an immense circuit, fie seems to have re- i 3stablished beyond 3ther distinct, al information froio mation was in many of India was traced, larly courses of tho dose which modem ibul and Candahar, hinstone and Pottin- ible-land of Thibet, ting Bochara and e remains still a efly upon the desul- Iveof Goez; though ly tlie researches of Book IIT. MODERN GEOGRAPHY OF AFRICA. 75 ject 1, and humbled the emotcst oceans and Y attempt to pene- :en region enclosed tribes, for a long its depths. The ns, impelled by the ind io the interior, d the dimensions, to their idea, the sent lepeated em- oiiJ though that i'l one occasion as eat ulterior king Tho great interior river called by Ptolemy the Niger, was the object which from the first excited tho chief interest in respect to t\}e African interior. All the early European navi- gators, on coming to tho two broad estuaries of the Senegal and Gambia, concluded that one or both formed the termination of tho long course wljich the Niger had been described as taking across the entire breadth of Africa. For several centuries tho European nations, intent only on tho trade in slaves, merely touched at ''.itibrent pomts of tho roast, to which those unhippy victims were brought down by large caravans. In tho beginning of the seventeenlh centurj', however, the French and English having respectively settled on the Senegal and Gambia, were tempted, by the report and view of tho gold brought from the interior, to push up these rivers and endeavour to reach Timbuctoo. They had not ascended far, when they became sensible that the extraordinary magnitude and distant origin ascribed to both was altogether chimerical. They were traced so near to their sources as to be little moro than rivulets ; yet still the explorers were fiir from Timbuctoo, and from the great central plain, througli which the main course of tlie Niger was understood to flow. At tlie same time, notices were transmitted to the French geographers Delislc and D'Anville, which led them to infbr that there was in that region another and greater river, which flowed eastward towards tho interior, and of which they were unable to learn the termintu- tion. Yet this delineation of these great geographers had been in a great measure lost sight of, even among their own countrymen. Tho information obtained by the African Association at first tended to confirm this impres- sion. The persons who had crossed the Niger at the most eastern part of tho control Afri- can plain, described it to Mr. Lucas as flowing westward : but these conflicting statements wore silenced by tho first expedition of Mr. Park, who at Sego beheld it a broad and majes- tic stream, flowmg through the plain of Bambarra from west to east, and directing its course into the depths of interior Africa. From that time, tlio termination of the Niger became the grand problem which the science and the enterprise of the age were exerted to solve. A boundless field v/as open to conjecture. By one theory, the Niger was lost in some great inland seas or lakes of the interior ; by another, it bent to the south and west, and reached the Atlti ' ic either in tho Gulf of Benin, or by tlie estuary of the Congo ; lastly, it rolled to the eastward, till, under the name of the Abiad, or White River, it became the principal head of the Nile of Egypt. At last, by the persevering exertions of the British govern- ment, an expedition fairly succeeded in penetrating into the hitlierto unknown interior (f Africa, and m throwing a wonderful addition of light upon its structure. This mission, ho\i ever, broke up the grand question. They discovered, flowin • through the great African plain, not one river in one direction, but several in different directions ; all of which, it appears, nave been considered at different times, and under different circumstances, as the Niger. These rivers are four : — 1. The Senegal, considered by the Arabiaiu and modem Europeans as the embouchure by which the Ni^er entered the ocean, 2. The Joliba, which "ver since it was visited, and its course ascertained, by Park, has been fixed in the mind of Europeans as the only Niger ; thougli probably not known to any of tlie ancient geographers who used that term. 3. The Quorrama, or river of Zirmie, first discovered by the late mistiion, flowing from east to west, and falling into the Joliba or Quolla, This is evidently the Arabian Nile of the negroes, on or near which are situated all their great cities — Ghana, now known under the name of Cano ; Berissa, imder that of Bershee ; Tocrur, as I appre- liend, under that of Sackatoo. 4. The Yeou, flowmg eastward into the great lake of Boriiou, and whiph appears to have been the western Nile of Herodotus, visited by the Nasamonian adventurers from Tripoli. The mission also ascertained the site of the kingdom of Bomou, which had been very erroneously placed ; tliey discovered tlie fertile kingdom of Loggun, perhaps the Cauga of Edrisi, and the great mountain region of Mandara, which appear be the Mons Mandrua of Ptolemy. The subsequent expedition of Clapperton from ti. . Gulf of Benin showed the connexion between the Atlantic coast and the mterior, and com- pleted the diagonal section made across the greatest breadth of the African continent. It eiiowed also the continuity of large and populous kingdoms extending in this direction : Eyeo, the Gago of Leo and the early geographers ; Zegzeg, with its large capital Zaria ; ISfyffe, the most industrious of the African states ; Boussa, Koolfu, and other flourishing cities. The Niger of Park was here seen holding a southerly direction towards the Gulf of Benin ; but it was reserved for Lander finally to solve the grand problem by tracing the Niger down to its tennir.?tion in the Gulf of Benin. This discovery, witli that of its numer- ous tributaries, oper.- ^ nmerce the prospect of being able to penetrate into the most interior and finest i>^ of the African continent. Among partial but i uportont contributions to tho knowledge of Africa, may be mentioned V T observations of Bruue and Salt in Abyssinia; those of Brown in Darfur ; of Waddington a. J Caillaud in the upper part of the Nile; and, lastly, of Liciiienstein, Campbell, and Burchell, upon the countries which lie in the interior northward from the Cape of Good Hope. Yet a vast field still remains for future discovery. In particular, all the eoutiiera interior, from the ec^ ■ /or nearly to tlie Cape, has scarcely been the subject even of rumour. The sources of the 1 'h, after the search of so mv ' afres, are yet unexplored: as well as 76 HISTORY OF GKOGRAPIIY. Part L '& i liil;'l;i'v Ihat wide range / territory; whicli intervenes between it and tlie Bcries of rivers wliicli we have just noticed as ussutningf the name of Niger. Tiie continuity and structure also of tliat vast chain of mountains, which, according lo rrcr nt travellers, appears to cross Africa at its greatest breadth, and gives rise to so many mighty 8tream8,have yot by nomeans been completely traced. '^APTERVIII. MOi>rRi iioy are distinguished fiom the planets by their being visiule only for a sliiirt peri', i, ' "'' -—■— ;• i—i.* proceeding from them on one side, rorming a tail; these boo', number is not known, but it appears to be very considerable. niRr) hy n trim of light caikd coMETi^. Thai' 5?vTrnT^7"'™T^^-^^T PaatD. [OTIONB, FIXED , the moon, and an Jie concave Burface e. The sun at all in periods circular, iminous part, which oon from this earth, larent magnitude is . probability suppose learing smaller only oint in the northern ar to every one. If point appears to de- lat there is another the former, about points are the noeth hat the real and ap- sel canied along by 1 then, if he were to ;s on the banks were lence we may infer, the heavenly bodies itions, and the appli- wlute certainty been en discovered by the Ltor in any place of on the surface of a „ this sphere appears [eavcns, and is called IS are all situated in consistent with the onsequence of their objects very remote iference of a circle to them all, we di* 'leir apparent placet |ut a month describe )pears to change his [It is in consequence lerent seasons of the ^t tlie appearance of leir position ; and in |s " have been appro- I at all times, except sun. The planets liaracters; these are apiter 4, Saturn h, „en for a short time ley are distinguished I hy n train of iiglj* lied COMETS. Thei' Book I. THE HEAVENS AS SEEN THROUGH THE TELESCOPE. 81 Besides tlio sun, moon, planets, and comets, there are other luminous bodies visible every clear night ; these retain always the same position in reepect of each other, and for this leason are denominated fixed stars. Their apparent moticn about the axis of the celestial sphere is perfectly uniform, and a complete revolution is performed in about 23 hours 56 minutes. By the permanence of the relative situations of the fixed stars on the concavity of the celestial sphere, we are enabled to determine the apparent motions of the other heavenly bodies. Of these the motions of i,he sun and moon are the most conspicuous and simple. The motions of the planets appear more complicated, and are considerably different from one another. This dissimilarity might well lead to a conjecture, that the real motions of the heavenly bodies are very different from the apparent motions, and that these last are modified by the real motion of the earth. This conjecture we shall afterwards find fully verified. All the heavenly bodies which this general survey has brought under our notice, with their motions and mutual relations, form the subject of astronomy, which of all tiie natural sciences presents the most extensive series of discoveries. By observing for ages, and deter- mming v/ith exactness, the positions of the sun, moon, and stars ; by tracing and measuring with precision their various motions ; and by employmg all the resources of mathematical science in investigating the constant laws to which these motions are subject, the human mind has buc< ceded in passing from the first cursory view of the heavens, to that compre- hensive survey by which, in the present state of astronomical science, we contemplate Uie past and future states of the system of the universe. CHAPTER XL , THE HEAVENS AS SEEN THROUGH THE TELESCOPE. From the aisccvrery of the telescope, and its application to the purposes of astronomy, a new era may be dated in that science. The number of stars visible to the naked eye is about three thousand, wliich appear scattered over the concave surface of the heavens. Even in the clearest night, and in the absence of the moon, seldom more than two thousand are seen at once. They are not distributed indiscruninately over tlie heavens, but are disposed in groups, which fh>m the remotest antiquity have received distinct names, and these have been em- ployed to facilitate the description of the heavens, and the reference to any particular stac The ancients imagmedthe figures of various personages of their mythology, and of animals, &c. to be traced on the concave surface : these figures they called constellations, and con- sidered a group of stars to belong to each. To some of tlie brighter stars, and to those more remarkable for their position, proper names have been given. The distinction founded on the different degrees of brightness of the fixed stars, is the moat obvious which occurs to the spectator while his vision is unassisted iy the telescope, and has accordingly been employed for the purpose of classifying them. The stars visible to the naked eye have been, on this principle, arranged under six magnitudes. The bright- est are reckoned to be of the fi.st magnitude, the next m brightness of the second, and so on to the sixth magnitude. The arrangement of the stars has been still fiurther facilitated by combinmg the principle of this last-mentioned arrangement with the method of constellations. Inmapsof the heavens and on celestial globes the constellations are deluieated, and the stars in each constellation are marked with the letters of the Greek alphabet according to their degrees of brightness. The use "of the telescope has greatly increased the number of visible stars ; and has at the same time discovered to us many particulars before unknown respecting those that are visible to the naked eye. Many of the stars which to unaided vision appear single, are found, when observed through a telescope of high magnifying powers, to consist of two, sometimes of three or more stars extremely near to one another. Seven hundred of these multiple stars were observed by Sir William Herschel, and the number has been increased by the joint labours of his son and Sir James South, also by the German astronomer Struve. In some of them the small stars are different in brightness and in tlie colour of their light. Thus o Herculis is double ; the larger of the stars is red, the smaller blue : t Lyree is composed of four stars; three white, and one red: y Andromeda consists of two stars very unequal, the largest a reddish white, the smallest a sky-blue inclining to green. Some single stars evidently differ in their colour: Aldebaran is red, Sirius of a brilliant white. Nebulae are small lumuious spots of a cloudy appearance and irregular shape, seen in many places of the heavens. The most remarkable appearance of this kind is the Galaxy, or MUky Way, which encompasses the whole heavens, and is vibible to the naked eye. The Sword of Orion contams a beautifiil nebula. Two occur in the head of the Great Bear, one of an oval shape tlie other round like a comet without a tail. Viewed through a telescope of great magnifying power, these luminous spots are resolved into a multituae nf small stars, distinctly separate, but apparently very near one another, whose light being Vol. 1. L 62 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPin'. Pa?t n. III 'fi^' blended together produces the luminous appearance. In a portkn of the Galaxy, about tifteen degrees in length, and two in breadth. Dr. Herschel found rio fewer tlianfifly thousand stars large enough to be distinctly counted. The number of nebulee is very considerable. Herschel discovered two thousand ; before his time only one hundred and three were known. Continued observation has shown that the fixed stars are not altogether exempt from change. Several stars meitioned by the ancient astronomers are no longer visible, while some are now seen by the naked eye which are not in the ancient catalogues. Some stars have suddenly appeared, and after having been seen for a short tune have ceased to be visi- ble. In 1572 a new star appeared in Cassiopeia's Chair; and in 1604 another appeared in Serpentarius. These stara did not change their i>laces : but having gradually increased in brilliancy, until they exceeded Venus or Jupiter in brightness, ana were even seen in the day-time, they diminished in the same gradual manner, and in a few months enl irely disap- peared. Some stars are observed to have periodical changes of brightness. Of this descrip- tion is Algol, or |J Persei: when brightest it is of the second, and when least 'jright of' the fourth magnitude. It goes through all its changes of lustre in four days, twenty-one hours. Other stars like f3 in the Whale, have gradually increased in brilliancy ; or, like 6 in the Great Bear, have continually diminished in brightness. The fixed stars, when viewed through the telescope, appear like luminous points on the concave surfece of the heavens ; but the planets are found to exhibit the appearance of disc3 of greater or less diameter. Mercury and Venus accompany the sun, appearing at one time on the east, and at another time on the west of that lummary, and never receding from him beyond a certain distance. The other planets recede from the sun to all possiMe angular distances. Connected with this circumstance is a distinction which it is usefiil to make of inferior planets and superior planets ; the former appellation being applied to Mercury and Voon. From this state of illumination they again pass throug the same appearances in ai inverted order, until they disappear altogether. Some- times these planets are seen like black spots in the sun ; these appearances are called tran- sits of the plarif ts over the sun's disc. They are rare, but when observed, particularly the transit of Venus, they give the best means of determining the magnitude of tJie solar system. In all the phases of Mercury and Venus the convexity of the illuminated portion of the dist is turned towards the sun. The discs of the other planets are always nearly circular. Mars, however, in certaJTi posi- tions with regard to the sun, assumes a gibbous appearance ; but he never becomes comicu* lar like Venus. He has no satellite. As viewed from the earth, he is kno'Aoi by his red and fiery appearance. Dr. Herschel observed that the polar regions of Mars, after having been turned from the sun, appeared brighter than the rest of the planetary disc ; just as if these regions iiad in the absence of the sun's heat been covered with snow. Certam spots appear on the discs of the sun and the four planets Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, when they are viewed through the telescope, and are distinguished fiom other paits of the discs by the colour or intensity of their light. Similar spots are seen on the moon with the naked eye. Jupiter has also his disc marked with several parallel belts or stripes, which stretch across it. They are subject to considerable variation with regard to number, breadth, and distance f5x)m each other. Mercury is too much immersed hi the solar rays ; Vesta, Ceres, Juno, and Pallas, are too small ; and Uranus is too distant to allow points of unequal brilliancy to be obsenred on their surface. The spots upon the sun aio verj' varia- able in their number, position, and magnitude. Often they are numerous, and of great extent Each of them, in general, consists of a dark space, or umbra, surrounded by a penumbra, or fainter shade, beyond which is a border of light more brilliant than the rest of the smi's disc. Sometimes, though seldom, the sun has teen without sjwts for several years ; this was the case from 1676 to 1684 The dark nucleus of the spot is seen to form and disappear amidst the greater brilliancy that surrounds it. After the nucleus ceases to be seen, the umbra continues visible for some time : the place where it at length disappears becomes like the other parts of the solar surface, unless it be succeeded, which is sometimes the case, by a lummous spot. UnibreB of great extent have, with few exceptions, a nucleas m their centre ; but small umbra are often seen without it. The solar spots are never stationary, but are seen to move slowly over the sun's disc firom east to west Their paths across the disc, when accurately traced, are found to be rectili- neal in the beginning of June, and in the begimmg of December ; but in the intermediate seasons they are found to be elliptic. Between June and December the convexity of the path is towards the upper part of the disc, and between December and June it is towards the lower part Tiie planet Jupiter, when viewed through the telescope, appears to be attended by fbu imall stars, ranged nearly in a straight line, which are seen sometimes on the same side, k... : . Pa?tIL e Galaxy, about lan fifty uiousaod jry considerable, ree were known. «r exempt from er visible, while les. Some stara ceased to be viri- ither appeared ia ally increased in even seen in the 18 ent irely disap- Oftiiisdescrip- >ast bright of" the we:ity-one hours, or, like 8 in the ous points on the ppearance of discs laring at one time eceding from him . possime angular uaefiil to make of ■d to Mercury and ases of the moon, of the half-moon, last present a coni- n they again pass Itogether. Some- es are called tratv- , id, particularly the | of tlie solar system. | portion of the disc 1 ■er, in certain posi- r becomes comicu- known by his red Alars, after havinfj fry disc ; just as ii [Mars, Jupiter, and W from other paits I seen on the moon lei belts or stripes, regard to number, , iu the solar rays; to allow points of bun aTO jery varia- Ind of great extent [d by a penumbrOi e rest of the sun's [al years ; this was brm and disappear ses to be seen, the lisappears becomea jmetimes the case, nucleaq in their de sun's disc from Ifound to be rectili- . the intermediate convexity of the I June it is towards 1 attended by fou I on the same side. Boon I. FIGURE AND MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTH. 8» and at other times on opposite sides of the planet. These small stars occasionally pass between us and Jupiter, and then they are found to project shadows which are seen to tra- verse his disc. On the other hand, they are often immersed in the shadow of Jupiter, and exhibit the phenomenon called an eclipse. Tl j planets Saturn and Uranus are also simi- larly attended, the former by seven, and the latter by six, little stars. These accompanying stars ore called satellites, and also secondary planets, in contradistinction to the others, whi ^h r re called primary. Saturn is distinguished from all the other planets, in bebg surrounded by a circular ruig concentric with itself. When first examined by the telescope, this planet was almost always seen between two small luminous bodies of an irregular form, which seemed to be attached to it, ond which, as they suggested the idea of handles, were denominated ansa. Sometimes the ansse disappeared, and then Saturn appeared roimd like the other planets. By tracing with care these singulor appearances, and combining them with the positions ot Saturn relatively to the sun and the earth, Huygens at last discovered that they are pro- duced by a ring which encompasses the body of the planet, and which is everywhere sepa- rated from it. Being seen obliquely, the ring appears of an oval or elliptic form. Before the time of Herschel the ring of Saturn was supposed to be single ; but this distinguishea astronomer discovered that it is double : so that two rings concentric, and in the same plane, constitute what was formerly supposed to be a single ring. Thp ring, which is very thin, is inclined to the plane of the ecliptic. It revolves from west to east in 10'' 39' 54". Its breadth is nearly equal to its distance from Saturn ; that is, about one third of the diameter of the planet. The interval between the rings is very little ; yet Dr. Herschel saw a star through it. The iimer ring is somewhat broader than the outer. CHAPTER m. APPROXIMATION TO THE FIGURE AND MAGNITUDE OP THE EARTH. I'HB true figure anJ exact magnitude of th'3 earth are elements of the highest importance in geography. Their determination, however, has required the aid of astronomy in its most improved state ; yet it is necessary, tothe explanation of the general doctrines of astronomy, that we should, in the outset, know nearly its figure and magnitude : we shall afterwards explain by what means the first conceptions have been corrected, and its true figure and magnitude found. Having now pointed out, generally, the phenomena of the heavens — takmg into view the more remarkable discoveries made by aid of the telescope — we are next to consider the causes and mutual dependence of these phenomena. The first step towards obtaiiilng an explication of the motions of the heavenly bodies, is to form some notion of the figure and magnitude of the earth which we inhabit, and from which all the celestial phe- nomena are observed. To a person placed in an elevated siiaation in an open country, where the view is unconfined on all sides, the earth appears ar. extended plane, with the concave sphere of the heavens resting upon it, — the horizon being the common boundary. This appearance is, however, altogether illusory. The earth is a round body, and is isolated in space. This is sufliciently established by the following facts : — 1. To an observer who travels from north to Bouth the nocta'-nal heavens appear conti nually to change their aspect. The stars, indeed, retain the same relative position in respret of each other, and the pomts ou which the heavens appear to revolve remain unchanged ; but the angle, which the axis of their motion forms with the horizon, continually decreases; so that stars which, at the place from which he set out, appeared to reach their ereatest elevation to the south of the point directly over his head, now that he has changed His position, appear, when highest, on the north of that point. This clearly indicates mat his path on the earth's surfiice has not been a straight line, but a curve of which the con- vexity is turned towards the sky. 2. The convexity of the earth is quite apparent to a spectator in a ship receding from the shore. At first low objects disappear; then those more elevated; and at last the highest points of the land sink in the horizon, on account of the direct vLjual ray being broken by the interposed curved surface of the ocean. In like manner, when two ships approach each other, the navigators in each see at first the upper part of the rigging of the ot!icr vessel the hull being still invisible : as the distance becomes less the Imy of each vessel comes ^rradually imo view. The reverse happens if tlie distance between the vessels is increasing. Fro.n these appearances it is evident, that a straight line joining any two points of tlie earth's surfaces pas&es within the body of the earth. 3. That the horizon of the sea, which, to the eye, terminates its suriace, is only an appa- rent limit in reference to the position of the observer, is evident from the fact, that if we advance towards it we find it recede ; and, at the same time, wa still imagine ourselves placed in the centre of an extended pi me, bounded by the line in which the heavens and // // Vi/ n "i*s!^ ,iiH 9\ PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part IL eartii appear to meet. This ia what the navigator uniformly experiences ; wliilc, to an observer on the shore, his vessel appears to sink below the horizon ; and by continuing to sail in tlio same direction, he will at last arrive at the same port from which he set out, — having^ thus circumnavigated the earth. This enterprise has, it is well known, in numerous instances, been accomplished by navigators, who have left the shores of Europe and returned home, some by sailing always towards the wost, and others by holding an easterly course. This great experiment demonstrates that tho sea and land have a curved surface which returns into itself, so that no part of it is touc'.ied by the heavens. There are other phenomena which prove that the earth, if not an exact sphere, is at least nearly of that figure. The various appearunces of tlie moon, in the course of her revolution round the earth, e'low that she is an opaque body, and is visible only by the reflected light of the sun. The earth being also an opaque body, must project a shadow in a direction opposite to the sun. It will afterwards be shown that the moon, when full, must sometimes pass through this shadow. In this case, when the moon begins to penetrate, or is about to leave, the shadow, the greater part of the disc is still illuminated by the sun ; and it is found that this luminous part is always of the form of a crescent, having its concave side bounded by an arch cf a circle. The section of the earth's shadow, shown by its projection on the moon, is, therefore, as to sense, circular, — a proof that the earth is a sphere, or nearly of a spherical figure ; whence we may conclude that there is a point within the earth which is its centre. That the earth is a round body, is thus completely proved by experience and observation ; yet, when this doctrine is presented to the mind for the first time, there is some difficulty m believing that the earth is balaneed, as it were, on its centre, without any visible sup. port ; while all things at rest on it"? surface require to be supported. We must, however, consider that the bodies which v/e see fall towards the centre of the earth are mere atoms in comparison to the earth itse!tf ; and that, although their tendency to its centre is another fact e jtablished by experience, yet ^t does not thence follow that the earth itself should move towrrds one p^'nt of space rather than towards another. A little reflection will show that the? e is no inconsistency in supposing the earth, an immense mass, to be at rest, and all things to be retained on its surface by some force analogous to that by which a piece of iron is drawn towards a magnet. This is really the fact ; and a consequence of it is, that on opposite sides of the earth its inhabitants stand in opposite directions, with their feet towards f;ach other, fnr which reason they are called Antipodes ; and every country has its own Antipodes. The knowledge of the true figure and magnitude of the earth is of the greatest importance in geography, and on this account we shall treat of them in a particular manner. In the mean time, as a near approximation to the truth, the earth may be considered as differing but little from a sphere, 7916 miles ui diameter, and consequently nearly 24,870 miles in circumference. In geometry, the circumference of every circle is supposed to be divided into 360 equal parts, calleu degrees; and each of these ir*'^ 60 equal parts, called minutes, and so on. A degree, therefore, of any circle on the ei I's surface, whose centre is the same with that of the earth, will be rather more than 69 miles ; and a minute of a degree will be about Ij^j mile. n ■«:■ 11 Iv ':t^ CHAPTER IV. DOCTRINE OP THE SPHERE. The motions of the celestial bodies being in appearance all performed on a spiiere, of which the eye of the spectator is the centre ; with a view to describe the nature of these motions, it has been found expedient to suppose certain circles to be traced on this sphere, to which, also, the positions of the heavenly bodies in space are refemd. The distance of tlie fixed stars is immensely great in respect of the earth's seir.i-dlameter; for it is found that, when viewed from any two points of the earth'f surface, they have tho ve'>; same relative position, and the same apparent distances, at a given instant of time. Hence it follows, that the appearance of the heavens, and the angular distances of the fijced stars, will be, as to sense, the same, whether they be viewed from the centre of the earth, or from a pomt on its surface. We may, therefore, conceive the axis of the diurnal revo- lution to pass through the centre of the earth, which will be also the centre of tiie celestial sphere. DEninTicm. A great circle of the sphere is that whose plane passes through its centre ; and all others are called small circles. A circle of the celestial sphere, whc«e plane passes through the earth's centre, and id perpendicular to the axis, is caiied the JtXirATOR. The line in which this plane meets tho t-nrth's surface is called the Equator of the earth, or the Equinoctial. T p. If", BooeI. DOCTRINE OF TIIE SPHERE. R» tre ; and all others To illustiate this by a diagram, let c be the centre of tlie sphere (Jig. 15.)» which we suppose to coincide with the centre of the earth, and let Pep be the axis; then the cir- cle, whose diameter is E Q, which passes through c, and is perpendicular to P|), is the Equator. The circles which the stars deuiribe by the diurnal revolution, are all parallel to the £(ma- tor. Such is the circle whose diemeter is AB. A circle, whose plane passes Uirough the poles, is called the Meridian, and Uie section of the earth's surface made by this plane is call- ed the Meridian of all the places through which it passes. Thus PEj>Q is a meridian circle in the heavens. The number of these circles is indefinite. By the geometrical properties of a sphere, the plane of any meridian cuts the planes or the equator and all circles parallel to it at right angles. We know by observation, that any body at rest, and let fall from a point above the earth, will, by its weight or gravity, descend in a straight line. This line is the direction of gravity: it is also indicated by the direction of a cord to which a plummet is suspended, and is everywhere perpendicular to the surface of water at rest If, now, a line in the direction of gravity at any point on the earth's sur&ce be produced indefinitely upward and downward, this line, called a vertical, will mark, on the celestial sphere, two pomts called the Zenith and Nadir. The former is the point in the heavens immediately over head. A plane conceived to pass through any plane on the earth's surfiice at right angles to the line joining its zenith and nadir, will, when extended to the heavens, meet the sphere in a circle, which is the Horizon of that place. A plane that passes through the earth's centre, and is parallel to the plane just now defined, will meet the sphere in a circle, which is also called the Horizon, but, to distinguish the one firom the other, the former is called the Sensible, and the latter the Rational Horizon. On account, however, of the smallness of the earth's semidiameter, when compared with the immense distances of the fixed stars, the two horizons are, as to sense, the same. The zenith is at Z (Jig. 15.), and nadir at N. The circle H O R is the horizon. If the earth were a perfect sphere, the direction of gravity being everywhere perpendicu- lar to its surface, all bodies would tend towards its centre. But if there be any deviation from the exact spherical figure, (and this is really the case,) then the direction of gravity will not, in general, pass tlirough the centre ; though, if the deviation be small, it will nearly pass through that point. The plane of the horizon of any place touches the earth's surface, and divides the whole expanse of the heavens into two Hemispheres ; one of which, viz. that above the norizon, is Visible, and the other Invisible. To an eye placed close to the earth's surface, or to the surface of the sea, the two hemispheres will appear exactly equal. A spectator, however, on the top of a mountain, can see more than half of the heavens; because, if a line drawn from his eye to touch the earth's surface were carried round, it would generate the surface of a cone. The portion of the heavens within this cone would be invisible ; but he would see all the space without the cone, which would manifestly be the larger portion. His apparent hori- zon would still be a circle ; but it would be below the plane passuig through his eye perpen- dicular to the vertical. The depression of the horizon of a spectator so sithated below this plans is called the Dip. Circles whose planes pass through the zenith and nadir of any place are called Vertical CrRCLES. Such, for example, as the circle Z O N. These, by the properties of a sphere, are all perpendicular to the horizon. Tlio meridian is, of course, a vertical circle; and the vertical circle wliose plane is perpendicular to the meridian is called the Prime Vertical. The meridian cuts the horizon in the North and South points, and tlie prime vertical cuts it in the East and West. These four are the Cardinal Points. They divide the horizon into four equal parts. Let a vertical circle be supposed to pass continually through a star, or any pomt of the heavens, the arc of that circle between the star and the horizon is called the Altitude of the star ; and the arc of the hoi izon between the vertical circle and the meridian is called its Azimuth, which may be measured either from tlie north or south. Thus, in fig. \o., suppose a star at S, then its altitude is the arc S O, and its azimuth the arc H O, Vertical circles are called Circles of Azi iuth. The altitude of a star will evidently be greatest when it is on the meridian, and it will Vol. I. 8 86 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Paay U. have equal altitudes when it ia at equal distances from the meridian ; tliat is, when ita caatern and western azimuths are equal. Suppose a meridian to pass through a star, then the arc intercepted between the star and the equator is called the Declination of the star. Thus P S^ beinsf a meridian that passes through the star S, and meets the equator in K, the arc S K is tlie declination of the star. If the meridian circle pass tlirough the zenith of any place, the arc intercepted between the zenith and the equator is called the Latitvde of that place. Thus Z being the zenith of any place, and E K Q the equator, the latitude of the place is the arc Z E. Assuming the meridian circle that passes tiirough the zenith of any particular place as tiie First Meridian, the arc of the equator intercepted between the first meridian and the meri- dian circle passing through the zenith of any other place, is called the Longitude of tliat place. It b usual, in Uiia country, to reckon the longitude of places from the meridian circle that passes through the zenith of the Observatory at Greenwich. Because the arcs Z R, the distance of the zemth from the horizon, and P E, the distance of the pole from the equator, are each onc-fburtli of the circumference of a circle or a quadrant, they are equal, and consequently, leaving out the common arc P Z, the arcs ZE and P R ore equal. Hence it appears tliat P R, the distance of the pole from the horizon of any place, called the elevation or altitude of the pole, is equal to the latitude of that place. CHAPTER V. iiii ROTATION OP THE SUN, MOON, AND PLANETS ON THEIR AXES. THSTil PIOURE. From the phenomena of the spots which, by aid of the telescope, lire visible on his disc, we are led to conclude that the sun revolves from west tt east on an axis, in about twenty- five days and a half. Though these spots are subject to m!,ny variations, they are suffi- ciently permanent to enable us to discover that they have regular motions across the disc, exactly the same as must belong to corresponding points on tlie sur&ce of the sun, supposuig him actually to have a motion of rotation from west to east on on axis nearly perpendiculu to the plane of the path or orbit, which, in virtue of his apparent motion, he describes round the heavens in tlie course of a year. When a spot is first discovered on the eastern edge of the disc, it appears like a fine line : as it approaches the centre of the disc its breadth increases ; as it advances towards the western edge the breadth again diminishes, until the spot at length entirely disappears. The same spot is sometimes again observed, after fourteen days, on the east side of the disc ; but more frequentlv the spot is dissolved, and is no more seen. By careful observation of the time occupied by a spot in crossing the disc, taking also into account the proper motion of the sun fh>m west to east during that period, the time of the sun's rotation on his axis is found to be about twenty-five and a half days. That the moon, and the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, have each a motion of rotation from west to east, on an axis inclined to the plane of the sun's orbit, is inferred in like manner from the spots that are seen to traverse their discs. The moon pre- sents always nearly the same side to the earth ; and must, therefore, revolve on her axis in the same time in which she is carried round the heavens by her apparent motion, namely, in 27 d 7 m 43 . Mercury revolves in 24 * 5 " ; Venus in 23 " 30 "" ; Mars in 24 '' 39 " ; Jupiter in 9'' 56"; Saturn in 10 ^ 29". In the remaining planets no appearances have been discovered which enable us to ascertain whether or not Oiey revolve on axes ; though, from analogy, it is highly probable that tliey do. With regard to the figure of the sun and of Ihose planets which are known to revolve on axes, we may conclude that they are nearly spherical ; because no other but a spherical body cai, when revolving on on axis in the manner of the planets (with the exception of the moon), present in every position the appearance of a circular disc. The spherical figure of Uie moon, and, indeed, of the other p'aneta which exhibit phases, may be mferred from the fiict, that the concavity of the crescoLi; which they from time to time I'ltplny is bounded by an elliptic line. The planet Uranus always presents a disc tliat is r jorly circuiar, and it has not been ascertained that he revolves on an axis ; but it is very improhable, when we con aider how very irregular hu? motions among the fixed stars appear when seen from the earth, that he should keep the same side always turned towards us. His apparent motion is some- times direct, that is from west to east, sometimes retrograde, or in the contrary direction ; so that to present constantly the appearance of a circular disc, the planet would require, were it not spherical, to have motions in opposite directions about the same axis. The same rea- soning will apply to the remaining planets. We may conclude, tlierefore, tiiat the sun, moon, and planets, are bodies nearly spherical. t is, when its outern ed between the Rtu erne a meridian that le declination of Uie intercepted between S being the zenith of (irticul&r place as tiic eridion and the meri- I LoNoiTVDE of that n the meridian circle nd P E, the distance Qce of a circle or n ircPZ, the arcs ZE 3 from the horizon of ititude of that place. riffiifl FIGURE. :e visible on his disc, xis, in about twenty- itions, they are sum- tions across the disc, of the snn, supposing nearly perpendicular motion, he describes ered on the eastern entre of the disc its 1th again diminishes, mes again observed, he spot is dissolved, y a spot in crossing west to east during twenty-five and a Saturn, have each a " the sun's orbit, is The moon pre- olve or her axis in motion, namely, in 4 ■'39°'; Jupiter in ave been discovered jh, from analogy, it nown to revolve on but a spherical body e exception of the spherical figure of mferred fi-om the ^■Iny is bounded by circular, and it has ble, when we con een from the earth, mt motion is some- itrary direction ; so ould require, were I. The same rea- fnre, that the sun, ;3oox L DISTANCES, ETC. OF THE HEAVENLY BODIES. 87 CHAPTER VI. S- ' ' J.-., .• '-..■' DIBTANCEB AND MAQMTUDES OF THE HEAVENLY BODIES. DuTAMOia of the fixed stars. From whatever point of the earth's surface we observe the fixed stars, they always appear to preserve the very same relative positions. We may henco conclude Uiat these bodies are situated at immeasurable distances fi-om the earth ; and that though to us who inhabit it the dimensions of the earth appear very great, they are insensi- ble when compared with these immense distances. The earth is in reality but as a point in roace. But though the fixed stars are vastly too remote to admit of their distances being determined, we have reason to believe that they are placed at very different degrees of remoteness. They shine with very various degrees of brilliancy ; multitudes are not visible without the aid of the telescope, and it may reasonably be supposed that many more have not yet been discovered by the most powerful instruments which have been directed to the heavens. The distances of the fixed stars being unknown, we can only form conjectures fi-om hypothesis and analogy respecting their true magnitudes. When viewed through the best telescopes, they have no apparent diameter, but appear like points m the heavens. Mode of determining the distance of the sun, moon, ana planets. In reference to the sphere of the fixed stars, then, the earth is to bo regarded as a point. To a spectator, at the sun, moon, and planets, however, it would present a disc subtending an angle of greater or less magnitude, and, even when smallest, admitting of measurement. This angle can be determined by an observer on the earth's surface ; and as we know the true magnitude of the earth, it afibrds us the means of estimating the distances of these bodies. Let O (fig. 16) be the places of two observers under the same meridian, but very distant firom each other. Let P be a planet in the meridian of these places, and let some fixed star which comes to the meri- dian at the same time with the planet, be seen by the observers at O and 0, in the directions S, s. Join O P, P, and produce O P, to meet s in A. Then, because O S, s, are parallel (the distance of the star S being regarded as infinite), the angles O A 0, A O S are equal ; and, because O P is the exterior angle of the triangle A P, it is equal to the sum or toe two interior and opposite angles A P, o A P. Wherefore the angle O P is equal to the sum of the angles A P, P O S ; that is, the angle subtended at the planet by the chord of the terrestrial arc intercepted between the points of observation, is equal to the sum of the apparent distances of the planet firom the star, provided the planet is seen (as we have here supposed) on opposite sides of the star by the two observers. If the star is seen on the same side by both, the angle at the planet will tJien be equal to the difiTerence of the appa- rent distances. If the observers are so situated that P O, P (fig. 17) are tangents to the circle O E at the points and 0, the angle O P will be the angle subtended by the disc of the earth at the planet. But if P O, P are not tangents, draw P 0' and P 6 tangents to the circle O E 0, and fit)m C the centre draw C C, C ^ to the points of contact: draw aluo the vertical lines C Z and C Z' through O and the places of the observers, and produce P O, P to meet C C, C tf in B and D. Now, for the sun and planets the angle O P o is very small, and even for the moon it is not very considerable. The distance P C may therefore be regarded, in every case, as much greater than C 0', or C 6. Hence the lines C 0', C B,JII D may without sen- sible error be considered as proportional to the angles C P O', C f B, V f U ; so that we nave ZCPO': ZCP0 = C0': CBand ZCPO: ZCPo = CO': CD; where- fore ZCPO': ZCPO + ZCPo or ZOPo = CO': CB + CD But the angles 88 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. m at B and D aro very nearly right angles, and therefore, to radius C 0', we have C B = Sin. C B = Sin. P O Z ; and C D = Sin. C o D = Sin. P o Z' : Hence we obtain ZCPO': ZOPo = CCO:CB+ CD=)Rad.: Sin. POZ + Sin. P o Z: And2^ CPO'orZO'P. = 2ZOPoX g.^pQ^^a.^p^,^ -, If the planet be on the same side of the zenith to both oltservers, then the difference, instead ot the sum of the sines of the zenith distances, must b, Diameter of the Sun = 1923 Diameter of Jupiter = 46 Mercury = 12 Saturn = 18 Venus = 61 Uranus = 4 Mars = 18 Moon =2020 The four remaining planets, according to the most careftd observations, appear to iubtenJ only a small part of a second. Now, for deducmg the real diameters from the apparent, we have this rtHe : — As the apparent diameter of the earth, (or the seconds in the angle which its disc subtendt,) at mmm , moon, and planeti, Boo> I. ROTATION OF THE EARTIL uen from the planet, is to the apparent diameter of the planet as seen from the earth, «« is Uie true diameter of the earth to the true diameter of the planet. Cdling the diameter of the earth unity, or 8000 miles in round numbers, we obtain, ' Dianxlan of tha Earth. MUm. - , ■ • ,> Diameter of the Sun = 111.454 = 882,000 nearly. ' . ■ • V Mercu'"- = 0.898 = 3,140 ~ Venui - 0.9 = 7,200 — ,. ;; Mors = 0.517 = 4,100 — Jupiter = 10.860 = 87,000 — ; Saturn = 9.182 = 70,068 — ,, Uranus = 4.332 = 84,500 — Moon = 0.273 = 2,160 — ' ' My Ab the sun, moon, and planets are spherical bodies, their magnitudes compared with the magnitude of the earth, may be found upon the principle that similar solids are to one another as the cubes of their similar dimensions ; so that as the cube of the diameter of the earth is to the cilbe of the diameter of the sun, moon, or a planet, so is the magnitude of the former to the magnitude of the latter. Assuming the magnitude of the earth as unity : The magnitude of the Sua = 1384472.000 Mercury = .063 Venus Mars .987 .189 Jupiter = 1280.900 Saturn ::= 995.000 Uranus = 80.490 Moon == .020 Having now ascertained the distances and magnitudes of the heavenly bodies, we proceed to inquire whether the diurnal motion which we observe in them be a real or only an ap- parent motion ; and whether the earth is the centre to which the proper motion of any of them is to be referred. "Hvide the constant CHAPTER Vn. ROTATION OF THE EARTH. The diurnal motion of the heavenly bodies suggests the existence of some cause, under the influence of which they either perform or appear to perform a revolution from east to west round the axis of the celestial sphere in the space of t, .'"v and a night. Now, there are two suppositions, on either of which the diurnal motion • j.y be explained. We may suppose the heavens to be carried round the earth, while the la ' ir remains immoveable in the centre ; or we may suppose the heavens to be at rest, and the earth to revolve on an axis in an opposite direction ; that is, from west to east. To which of these hypotheses the preference is due, will be evident if we consider that the heavenly bodies are mdependent one of another, and are placed at very different distances from the earth ; that variations in the apparent diameters of the planets indicate great changes in their dismnces, while the comets traverse the heavens in all directions ; so that it is difficult to conceive that one and the same cause should impress on all these bodies a common .notion of rotation. Since the eartli is a globe of about 8000 mues diameter, it is small when cMnpared with the immense mass of the sun. Were the centres of the sun and earth brought mto coinci- dence, the former body would fill the orbit of the moon am' extend as far again beyond it Besides, the sim is distant from us about twel"e thousand uiameters of the earth; so that to revolve round the heavens in the interval of twenty-four hours, he must move at the im- mense velocity of about twenty-five millions of miles in an hour. It is therefore more reasonable to suppose the earth to have a motion of rotation on "n axis, than to suppose the sun, a body so distant and of such immense magnitude, to mov^- "ith the vast rapidity that would be requisite to carry him round the heavens in so short an interval. With regard to the fixed stars, we may reason in the same manner with still greater Ifarce : for the velocity necessary to carry the sun round in twenty-four hours is really insensible when compared with the rapidity with which the fixed stars must move to accomplish a like revolution. In order to account for the diurnal motion of the heavens on the hypothesis that the earth is at rest^ it must be supposed that the sun, moon, and stars have their velocities so adapted to their respective distances, that all of them con"^l' ' ^rir revolutions round the earth in exactly the some number of seconds. Such an a* • among innumerable indepen* dont bodies, placed at such a variety of distances, it is , iblc to admit. inere are other phenomena of the heavens which serv '^ farther to coniirm the con- elusion, that the diurnal motion of the heavenly bodies is uot • . al motion. Every difilculty, Vol I, S*" M 00 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY, PahtII liowevor diBappean, if we suppose tlie eailh to have a motion of rotation ijn an axis iVom west to east Carried round with a velocity common to all tho objects which aurrouQd ui on the earth's surface, we are in a situation similar to that of a spectator placed in a vesMJ in motion. At the fi'nt r.iri,l'!S8 (glance ho imaffines himself at rest, while tho shore, and all tho objects whic'i a bees, unconnected wiUi the vessel, appear to bu in motion. By reflecting;, however, on the extent of tlic shore, on tho mapnitud he mountains, and other objer's on land, when compared with the vessel from which he ' .ea them, he fteei bis miua from this momentary ilhision, and becomes convinced ti-.at the motion of these objects is only apparent, and Uiat it is produced by t'lO real motion of the ^ciscl. Th? multitude of stars scattered over the heavens are, with respect to us, what liio shore am! the objects upon it are with regard to tho spectator placed in the vessel : and l)y the same considerations, by which his first impressions are so corrected that ho becomen assured of the reality of his motion, wo arc led to tlic conclusion that the rotation of the earth on an axis produces the apparent diurnal motion of the heavens. An argument for the rotation of the curth may also be drawn from analogy. Several of the planets are known to have a motion on an axis similar to that which we have supposed to belong to tho earth. Jupiter, for example, which is many times greater than the earth, revolves on his axis from west to east in less than half a day* aiul to an observer on his Burfiice, the heavens would appear to revolve round tliat planet in tie samr mfinner as we see them revolve round tho earth, but in about half the tune. This motion of the heaven in reference to a spectator on the planet Jupitor would, however, bo only apparent ; and hence we may reasonably conclude, that the cose is the same in reference to a spectator on the earth. Lastly, if the earth is actually in motion, there will be generated a < .Urifugal force, or a tendency to throw off objects from its surface, which must diminish the torce of gravity, particularly at the equator, where the motion is most rapid. Now, by observations mane with the pendulum, this diminution of the force of grav'ty has been found to exist. The same cause affects also the figure of the earth, which has been found to be flattened some- what at the points of rotation, and elevated at the equatorial regions. The same is observed to be the flgure of Jupiter, — a circumstance which greatly strengthens the argument drawn from analogy. The evidence which has now been adduced leaves no doubt respecting tho earth's motion of rotation; and thus we are enabled to ascertain the true place which the globe that we inhnbit holds in the universe. The points in vhic^ the axis of rotation meets the surface are called the poles of tho earth ; and it iii evident that the axis, if produced, must pass through the poles of the heavens. ; ill m jihiii i|f):-: Ihlii'ii: CHAPTER Vm. APFABENT ANNUAL MOTION OP THE SUN. VICISSITtTOB OP SEASONS. While the sun participates in the diurnal motion of the heavens, he also appears to move eastward among the fixed stars. This motion it will be of importance now to trace out, and to explain 3ie change of seasons to which it gives rise. If we observe each day of the year the meridian altitude of the sun, and note the time which elapses between his passage over the meridian and the passage of any particular star, we shall have the apparent motion of tiie sun in the direction of Uie meridian, and of the circles parallel to tlie equator in which he appears daily to be carried by the diurnal motion of the heavens. The result of the composition of these two motions will give the true motion for each day. In this manner it has been found that the sun moves in a. path or orbit which cuts the equator in two oppo- site points, and makes with it an angle equal to 28° 28' nearly. The name of ecliptic is given to Sie circle which the plane of this orbit marks out on the sphere of the heavens. It passes through twelve constellations, which are cdled the TWELVE SIGNS. ThLs has given rise to the division of the ecliptic into twelve equal parts, called sioNs, each containing, of course, 80°. The twelve signs are contained in a zone of the starry heavens, called the Zodiac. The names of these constellationH, with the charac- ters by which they are usually denoted, are as follow : — Aries T, Taurus y, Gemini 11, Cancer 2S, Leo SI, Virgo W, Libra =2:, Scorpio l^i Sagittarius t, Capricomus yf, Aquarius x:, Pisces X- The vicissitude of seasons arises fix)m the combination of the apparent motion of the sun in the ecliptic with his apparent diurnal motion. When the sun is in either of the pomts in which the ecliptic intersects the equator, he describes the e(}uator on that day in virtue of his diurnal motion ; and as by the properties of the sphere this circle is divided into two equal parts by the horizon, at whatever point of the earth's sur&ce tlie spectator is situated, the day is then equal to the night over all the globe. The points of intersection of Ov^uator and ecliptic are called the Equinoctial Points. The first pouit of the sign Aries is supposed to coincide with the point of the vernal equinox ; »nd from that point the signs of the ecliptic are reckoned : the first point of tiie sign Libra Si'-i;"; PahtII Jon on an axis ttom which aurrouQd ua r placed in a vencl hile the shore, and bo in motion. By he mountains, and ,C3 them, ho iVeea he motion of these )f the \(s8ol. The vhat ilif) shore and 1 : and by the same becomes assured of I of the earth on an lalogy. Several of \ we have supposed iter than the earth, 3 an olicrver on his samr manner as we rtion of the heaven only apparent; and ice to a spectator on utrifugal force, or the rorce of gravity, f observations mane bund to exist. The o be flattened some. !'he same is observed the argument drawn ioubt respecting the ue place which the led the poles of tlu rh the poles of the 3EAS0NS. Iso appears to move now to trace out, rve each day of the etween his passage le apparent motion j1 to tlie equator in ns. The result of [ay. In this manner quator in two oppo it marks out on the ch are called the twelve equal parts, tained in a zone of H, with the charac- Gemini IT, Cancer jarius 'XC, Pisces X- motion of the sun ither of the points Uiat day in virtue is divided into two ectator is situated, uiNocTiAi. Points. je vernal cqainos ; of the sign lAbra Book I VICISSITUDE OP SEASONS. V iil therefore coincide with the point of tlio autumnal equinox. As the sun, when he 1ea>ei the pobt of tho vernal equinox advances in tho ecliptic, hia meridian altitude ubovo our horizon daily increases, and a larger portion of tlie parallel which he daily describes becomes visible. Ilunco arises a gradual increase in the length of the day in all countries to the north of tho equator ; imtu the sun having reached his greatest altitude, the day acauires its greatest len^^th, and begins to shorten. As tho variations of the altitude on each siae of the points at which it is greatest are insensible, the sun, '** we attend only to hia altitude, appcum stationary, and the day continues, for some time, very nearly of the sain ngth. The point of the ecliptic at which the maximum takes place is therefore 'Icnomiu d the point of the Summer Solsiick. The sun, having reached this point, n(>\^ turns towards the equator, which he crosses at the point of the autumnal equinox. lis m idian altitude ^^adually diminishes until it roaches tlie minimum at thi' nt <>t' the Wintke Solstiob. The day, shortest in the again gradually th< ovu, he Riccession of the >. cm. f spring equinox, apjcns about the 21st which falls about the .ainox and the winter aiia, lastly, tlie Winteb equinox. which has been gradually shortening from the sumni' sol year, and for some time does not sensibly lengthen Ti approaches the equator, and reaches it at the vernal equi< ox. Such is the constant progress of the sun in the heav ns. ■ seasons of the year. The Spbino is the tune comprised V wiiich fulls about the 2)6t of March, and the summer soi u, of Juno : the inter\'al between the solstice and the autunn: ! - 23d of September is the Summer : the time between the auti Bolstico, which occurs about the 22d of December, is the AurvM., is the time tliat elapses between the winter solstice and the spring The two circles parallel to the equator, which the sim describes on the longest and shortest days, are called, one the summer or northern Tropic, and the other tho winter or southoin Tropic. They are also respective! / denominated tlie tropic of Cancer and the tropic of Capricorn, in reference tx> tlie points in which they touch the ecliptic. The presence of the sun above the horizon being the cause of heat, and the temperature increasing as the altitude increases, it might be inrerred that the temperature should be the same in summer as in sprmg, and in winter a? in autumn ; because the altitudes of the sun in these seasons exactly correspond. But it is to be observed that the temperature is not an i.'stantaneous effect of the suns presence; but is the result of the continued action of hia rays. On this account it is not greatest on the day when the altitude is greatest, but some time between the summer solstice and autumnal equinox. In like manner, the greatest cold of winter does not occur on the shortest day, but some time between the winter solstice and the spring equinox. With regard both to temperature and the length of the day, great differences arise from the different elevations of the polu above the norizon, as we proceed from the equator towards either of the poles. The horizon of an observer at the equator passes through the poles, and by the geometrical properties of the sphere it divides the equator and all the circles, parallel to it into two equal parts. It also cuts them at right angles ; and hence the position of the celestial sphere, m reference to the horizon of an ol»erver at the equator, is called the Right position of the sphere. In whatever point of the ecliptic the sun is situated, his diurnal course is therefore at right angles to the horizon, and one half of it is in the visible hemisphere, and the other half in the invisible ; hence, at the equator, the day is at dl seasons equal to the night When the sun is in either of the equinoctial points, he passes through tlie zenith at mid-day. When he is in either of the solstitial points his meridian altitude is the least, and is equal to the complement of the inclination of the ecliptic to the equator. In these two positions of the sun the shadows of objects fall, at mid-day, in opposite durections, — a pheno- menon which at no season occurs in our climate, where the solar shadows are at mid-day always directed towards the north : there are, then, properly speakmg, two sununers and two winters in the year at the equator. The same thing takes place in all the countries where the elevation of the pole above the horizon is less than the obliquity of the ecliptic. In every country beyond this region there is only one summer and one winter in the year, with the intervening seasons of spring and autumn : the sun is never in the zenith : ^e length of the longest day increases, and that of the shortest day diminishes, as we advance towards either of the poles ; and when we have reached such a position, that the zenith is distant from the pole by an arc of the meridian equal to the obliquity of the ecliptic, the sun does not set at the summer solstice, nor rise at the winter solstice. The polar circles. About each of the poles of the celestial sphere, suppose a circle to be described distant from it by an arc equal to the obliquity of the ecliptic ; these two circles are called the Polar Circles. In the region of the earth situated around either of its poles, at every point whose zenith lines within the polar circle, the time of the sun's presence above the horizon and of his absence below it, at certain seasons, exceeds twenty-four hours: it increases as we approach the pole, and may amount to days or even to months. Thus, when the sun's declination north, increasing, becomes equal to the distance of the zenith of any place in the northern polar regk>n firom the north pole of the heavens, he ceases to set IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) ->} 1.0 I.I bi|2S 125 ■^ Uii 12.2 S? 144 ™™ 1^ 12.0 m kU u I; a iJil 1.25 III 1.4 1 1.6 ^ 6" ► 'M m / 'wj^ '/ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) S72-4503 i-'-r" •i- -#.*-.■. -;'«^-s ,«. 5i. ^ OS > .;^Ss?- " if^T^ '^'■T^i'. 'fT: '." ' 92 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Pabt H. at that place, and continues above the horieon until he ha<, reached the same declination in retuminff towards the equator. From that time the sun rises and sets in the course of twenty-tour hours, until the sun's declination south becomes equal to the distance of the zenith ficm the pole, and then he ceases to rise and continues below the horizon til^ he has Again acquired the same declination in returning northward. At the polo, the equator coincides with the horicon, nn^ all the circles parallel to the equator are also parallel to the horizon. This is called tiie Pabaixxl position of the sphere. To an observer, placed at the pole, the heavenly bodija would appear to move round, eitlter in the horizon or parallel to it Hence the sun is constantlv above the horizon when he is on the same side of the eouator with the pole, and constantly below it when on the other aide ; so that at either of tne poles of the earth there is only one day and one night in the year. At any point on the earth's surftce, between the equator and either of the poles, the equator and the circles parallel to it, are oblique to the horizon. This is called the Obuqvb position of the sphere; and by the eeometrical properties of the i^phere, the harikon, in this position, divides all the circles partulel to the equatu^ into two unsq;- il parts ; hence arises the inequality of the days and nights at all places between the equator and either pole. In this county, ftr example, in summer, when the sun is on the north side of 'iie equator, the larger portion of his diurnal course lies in the visible hemisphere, and die less in the invisible, so uat the day is longer than the night The reverse is the case in the winter when the sun is on the south side of the equator. If two places are situated on opposite sides Oi. he equator, the spring and summer of the one will, it is evident, correspond to the autumn and wmter <^ the other. With regard to the temperature, it is higher in the equatorial regions than in any other part of the earth, because there the action of the sun's rays is most direct To every point of tlie earth's surface, whose zenith lies between the tropics, tka sun is vertical twice in the year ; so that his rays, acting perpendicularly, produce their greatest efSact. In the polar regions the temperature is lowest, in ccmsequence of the obliquity with which the ten's rays fidl on the earth's surikce, and the great length of the winter night In the countries situated between the equatorial region and the two polar regions, there prevails a medium tempera^ tuie, increasing as the zenith approaches the nearer of the two tropics, and diminishing as it approaches uie nearer of the polar ciroles. A division of the earth's sur&ce into five zones has been suggested by this difl^rence «• temperature from the equator towards either poia In uie a^oining figure let P p represent the earth's axis, P Ef j> Q, a meridian, and E Q the equatorial diameter. Let E G Q be the representation of a circle on the eatth's surflice equally distant ihnn the poles, which vill therefore be the equator: and F G H, fg h circles on the earth's suriiice mrallel to the equator, and at the distance of about 29j^ degrees; on eadi side of it and A B D, a 6 d circles round the poles P, p, and at the same dis- tance of Wit degrees. At the times of the ;^ear when the sun is in the trop'e of Cancer, he will, in his apparent revolu* tion, be vertical to all places on the circle F G H; and when he is in the tropic of Capricorn, he will be vertical to tiie ciicle fg h. The space on the earth's sur&ce between these circles is the Torrid When the stm is m the southern tropic he will not be seen airewhere in the qnce bounded by the circle A B D "IJ^is is,*therefore, the northern Frigid Zone: and when he is in the northern tropic there is a like tract bounded by the cirele 0hd, round the south pole, where he will then be invisible. This is the southern Frigid Zone. The two tracts between the torrid zone and tiie frigid zones are the temperate zones. Another division of the earth into zones was used by the ancient geographers, founded on the difl!erent lengths of tlie longest day, as we proceed from the equator towards either of tibe poles. These zones were denominated Cumatbs, and were each of such a breadth, that the longest day at the boundary nearer the pole exceeded the longest day at the bounduy nearer the equator by. some certain space of time, as half an hour or an hour. Within the polar circle, the climates were supposed of such a breadth as to make the longest day at the opposite sides dififer \sv a month. The points in which the equator and ecliptic intersect each other are not immoveable, but appear, with respect to the fixed stars, to recede towards the west at the rate of 60iV'' nearly, annually, or about 1° in 72 years. This motion is called the Pawj^ioH of the 19 >< -J ■ir'.C •'.> \ '/-^ _IZ3?* '■ \ ^K- — V. ^-— -^ ...-.— ._.^ / _iiy* Equinoxes. Whet the constellations of the zodiac were first delineated bv the ancient BookL Vicissitude op seasons. 9« munerof the utronomers, the middle of the sign Ariei was at the point of tlie vernal equinox, fiom which it is now distant more than 58° to^murds the east In consequence of the precession of the equinoxes, the time in which the sun moves from the vernal equinox to the vernal equinox a^un, is less than the time in which be moves from any star to the same star again; — ^the point of the vernal equinox moving we'jtwaid, so as to meet the sun, and thus anticipate the time of his crossing uie eouator in the precedinjj year. The intervtJs of time which separate tiie equmoxes or the solstices are unequal Almott eight days more elapse from the spring to the autumnal equinox, than from the latter to the former. We may therefore conclude, that the motion of the sun is not uniform. From precise and multiplied observations, it has been ascertained that his motion is most rapid at a point of the ecliptic situated near the winter solsticial point, and slowest at the opposite pomt towuds the summer solstice. At die former point the sun describes doily 1° 1' 10", at the latter only 67' 11V'> The distance of the sun fitim the earth is also variable. This is proved by variations observed in his apparent diameter, which increases and duninishcs at tlie same time with his angular velocity, out not in the same ratia The angular velocities at any two instants of time are, to one another, as the squares of the apparent diameters. If V and v' be the angular velocities of the sun, «r his daily advances in the ecliptic at any two seasons of the year, and d and d' Ids apparent diameters at ihe same time, then v : v' = To diminish the apparent motion of the sun, it would be sufficient to suppose that body removed to a greater distance fixim die earth, without altering his true angular velocity. But if the dunmution of his motion depended entirely on this cause, the apparent velocity would diminish m the same ratio with die apparent diameter. Since it diminubes, however, as the square of the diameter, there must necessarily be an actual diminuticQ of the velocity (a the sun while he recedes to a greater distance from the earth. His distance being reciprocally as his appvent diameter, if D and D' be his distances at the two seasons when his diameters are d and d', we have « : v' = D**: D*; and viy=v'iy*. Hence it appears, that from the combined efiect of die two causes influencing the sun's apparent motions, — ^namely, the diminution of his velocity and the increase of his distance, — his daily angular motion diminishes as the square of his distance increases ; so that the pro* duct of the BQjaire of the distance by the velocity is a constant quantity. Let us imagine a straight line to join the centres of the sun uid of the earth. This line is usually called the Radivs Vbctob. It is not difficult to prove that the small sector, or the area which the Radius Vector traces in a day, in consequence of the sun's motion, is pr^rtional to the product of the square of this radius by the sun's daily motion, that is, to V Dr. This area is therefore constant ; and the whole area, described by the Radius Vector, setting out from a fixed radius, increases as the number of days reckoned from the epoch when the sun was at the fixed radius. Since vD''= v'D**, we have D' = D^/S Assuming, therefore, any line whatever tea: D, and finding, by observation, the sun's angular velocity for every day of the year, the value of D' for each day may be found. Thus we shall be' able to trace a curve line representing the orbit of the sun. This curve is fiiund to be not exactfy circular, but a litde elongated m the direcdim of the straight lin? passing through the centre of the eajth, and joining the points in the orbit at which th ': sun 18 at its greatest and least distances. The resemblance of this curve to an elUp$e hvving given rise to a comparison between them, their identity has been discovered. Hence we conclude, that the apparetU tolar orbit it an eUipte having the centre of the earth in one m the remotest date of aatroncHnical observation. Its present rate of dimmution may be stated at nearly 48" in r. century. The apparent elliptic motion of the sun does not represent, with perfisc'; exactness, the results of modem observation. The great precision now attained in the art of observing has made known to us small inequalities, the laws of which it would have been ahnost impossible to determine by mere bbeervatirn. These laws can be investigated only aftor tht physical cnuse has been discovered upon which the phenomena depend. ti^ < ;^1. ir> IT' If iV^ ;' iJ>' ^**l4wVi%;'*^>lf ;,■>«;)** -li-TtiU. ■»'k;.i >-ur«.i. ilf PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. Pabt O. CHAPTER IX. DIVISION AND MEAHUBB OF TIME. Taa notion of time is suggfested by th« succession of phenomena in the universe. When two events exactly correspond in all Ibeir circumstances, they are conceived to occupy e^ual portions of time. The descent of a heavy body to the earth, for example, from a given height, if repeated under precisely similar circumstances, will in every case be per- rmed in the same interval of tune. Suppose then that a number of heavy bodies fall to the ground one after another from the same height, — the descent of the second and of each succeedinff body conunencing at the instant in which the bodv that preceded it had reached the ground ; the whole time occupied by the &11 of these bodies will be divided into equal portions, one of which may be assumed as the measuring unit of time. The vibrations of a pendulum, performed under precisely the same circumstances, are employed for estimating the smaller portions of time : the larger portions are deterniined by the motions of the sun ; from which arise the vicissitude of day and night, and the change of seasons. The Day, in civil life, is the time that elapses between the rising and setting of the sun ; and the Nioht the time between his setting and risinff. The Astbonoiuoal or Solas Day, on the other hand, comprehends the whole period of the sun's diurnal revolution, and is reckoned from the time of his passing any particular meridian, to the time of his returning to the same meridian. Tlie pendulum usually employed is of such a length as to divide the mean astronomical day into 24X60X60=86400 equal parts called seconds; 60 of these parts make a minute ; 60 minutes make an hour ; and 24 hours complete the day. As the apparent motion of the sun carries him eastward among tne fixed stare, the time that elapses between his passing the meridian, and his retumins to it again, is longer than the time that intervenes between two successive passaees (called transits) of any particular star. This latter period is the exact time of the earth s revolution on its axis, and is called a Sidebeal day : it is about 23" 66" 4' in length. The motion of the earth on its axis being perfectly uniftrm, the length of the sidereal day is always the same. This is not, however, the case with rcmect to the astronomical or solar day, which is affected by the unequable motion of the sun, ana by the obli(}uity of the ecliptic. At the summer solstice, towai ds which the sun's motion in the ecliptic is slowest, the solar day is more nearly equal to the sidereal day than at the winter solstice, when the sun's motion is quickest With regard to the effect of the obliquity of the ecliptic in reference to the length of the sular day, it is to be observed, that, by the geometrical properties of the sphere, equeu portions of any circle, whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of revolution, pass over the meridian in equal times; but if the plane oi*'a circle is oblique to the axis, the arcs that pass ov" '^^he meridian in equal times are not equal. Hence, if the sun moved uniformly in the i ', the solar day would be always of the same length : but as he moves in the ecliptic j plane is oblique to the axis, even if he did proceed with a uniform motion, the equui <.:cs which he daily described would pass over the meridian in unequal times ; so that the solar daywould be longer or shorter according to the sun's place in the ecliptic. The motion of the shadow on a sun-duJ. marks out time as measured by the sun's motion in the ecliptic : but if the sun moved uniformly in the equator at such a rate as to complete the annual circuit qf the heavens, in the same time as he does by hir actual motion in the ecliptic, time measured by his motion would then correspond with that of a well-regulated clock. The difierence between the time shown by the sun-dial, and that shown by the clock, is called the Eqcatioii or Tnu. The part of this equation which depends on the obliquity of the ecliptic, vanishes at the equinoxes and at the solstices ; because at these seasons the sun C(Hnes to the meridian at the same moment as he would do if he moved in the etjuator. * From the vernal ec|uinox till pie summer solstice, and fr(Kn the autumnal equmox till the winter solstice, the tune as shown by the sun-dial is in tudvance of that indicated by the clock; because then the sun's distance from the first point of Aries, and first pomt of Libra, passes sooner over the meridian than the equal arc upon the equator, which the sun would have described had he moved in that circle. Again, the hour shown by the sun-dial is behind that shown by the clock, fh>m the simmer and winter solstices, till me autumnal and vernal equinoxes ; because at these two seasons the distance of the sun from the first point of Arte*, and from the first point of LU>ra, re- quires longer time to pass over the meridian, than the equal arc upon the equator. The part of the equation of time which arises from the unequable motion of the sun, will vanish when he is at his greatest and least distances from tlie earth ; because he is in these two points of his orbit at the same instants of time as he would be if he moved uniformly with his mean velocity ; itat is, with a rate of motion by which he would describe equally the ecliptic in the same time in which he describes it by his unequable motion. The dial, during the tune when the sun is movmg fi?om the point of his greatest, to tha point of his least oistance from the earth, is &ster than the clock ; because the sun is then ":;<;': Book I. DIVISION AND MEASURE OF TIME. 86 at no instant so far advanced in his orbit, as lie would have been if he had been moving ttni> formly with his mean velocity. The reverse is the case while the sun is movmff tttm the point of his least to that of his greatest distance. Time measured by the dial is called APPARBNT time; that shown by a well-rejrulated clock is called tbto tune. The effect of the obliquity of the ecliptic, and that of the sun's unequable motion, in rendering the dial faster or slower than the clock, sometimes combine with and at other times counteract each other. The amount of each is given in the two following tables for eve^ fifth day of the year; and by taking the sum or difference, according as the obliquity of the ecliptic and ihe sun's unequable motion pmduce sunilar or opposite efibcts, a table may be formed of ihe equation of time< • ^.IVf'-'^-'-i Table showing the Part qf the Equation qf Time that arises from the Obliquity qf ^ the Ecliptic. Dial Falter. Dial Blower. Dial Falter. Dial Blower. i M. fl. M. & M. S3 & M. & Much • • 31 ^une • • SI September December. 31 Vi 1 30 an 1 48 S8 1 39 SA 1 48 an 3 Iff July • • • 1 3 33 October 3 3 IS 31 3 33 April • • 4 4 4A 7 5 8 8 4 46 January • S S 8 A 13 A 33 13 9 10 6 3S ~itht;*\' u 7 n '"<».!'■ 17 7 48 18 7 33 IS 7 48 19 R S3 S3 8 4S S3 8 S3 so 8 4S 94 SR SA S8 9 ss 9 SA ao 9 40 Augoil* • a 49 NoTembcr> S 9 40 39 49 v$r' • ' 5 8 S3 7 S3 7 9 S3 February • 3 9 S3 10 40 , 13 40 13 49 8 9 40 ■^m>ri ■ Iff 9A m-'-if'T- 17 17 36 13 ;M'f ■■'»{'>• SO 8 44 S3 e S3 S3 8 4S 18 8 S3 M 7 48 SR 7 S3 37 7 48 83 7 S3 .;;<.i-:.>'.S-.! 31 A 3S Beptember S 6 9 December- 3 A 3S 38 A 9 Jane • • a S R 7 4 40 7 S 8 Uareli • • 4 46 10 3 33 13 3 IS 13 3 as 10 3 M in 1 4R 17 1 39 17 1 48 IS 1 39 1 SO TfMe showing the Part qf the Equation of Time that arises from the Inequality of the ■ mU "fe"' "■•'■■i"<^ "^''' y-Ph-- • Sun^s M^Hon, Dial Faiter than Clock. Dial Slower than Clock. M. B. M. B. M. S. M. s. July • • • 1 October • 3 43 December • 31 March • • 30 43 7 40 8 43 January • S 41 April • • 4 40 13 10 13 37 10 1 S3 9 34 17 S7 18 89 IS 9 8 14 34 29 3ff ^«. stfi S3 18 80 3 41 19 IS 98 13 38 3 SS 3 19 34 36 Aofuit- • 3 47 November* S 4S SO 3 SA 30 36 7 31 7 34 February . 3 4 30 May- • • S 14 19 ffS 13 39 8 5 S 10 SO 17 S3 f ■■i.-L- '■ 17 33 13 S 33 IS 88 39 SO . ■ • S3 S 18 8 39 80 n 38 14 37 4 30 S3 a 84 96 81 Beptember 3 30 December. S SA 88 6 45 31 3 47 7 SA 7 19 March • • S 7 3 June -V . S 3 13 13 13 I .m»'^ 13 41 10 7 IR 10 9 35 17 34 17 8 15 7 89 16 1 S7 S3 34 SI P9 80 7 37 SI 1 19 SS 40 SA 41 35 7 48 96 40 The difference between the aj^parent and the true time, is very observable about the season when the day is lengthening or shortening with most rapidity. It is a common remark, that when the day is shortening, the change is more observable in the evening than in the morning; but that the reverse is the case when the day is lengthening. This arises from the clock being before or after the sun. Thus, in the end of October, the dial is upwards of sixteen minutes foster than the clock; so that the time of sun-rise, and the time of sun-set, will each, as indicated by the clock, appear earlier by 16 minutes, than as indicated by the motion of the solar shadow. Hence me instant of noon, as shown by the clock, appears not to divide equally the time during which the sun is above the horizon : the time from sun-rise till noon, appears longer than from noon till sun-set Agam, about the middle of February, the dial is about 15 nunutes slower than the clock; so that the time of sun-rise and the time of sun-set will each, as indicated by the clock, be later by 15 minutes than aa indicated by the dial : and the time from sun-rise till boob, as shown by the clock, will appear shorter than the time ih>m noon till sun-eet. eo PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. i/Tff pakt n. h; E" As the return of the mm to the meridian marks out the day, bo his return to the same . equinox murks out attolher portion qf time of much importance to be determined witli accuracy ; namely, the Ybar. Thh period comprehends the seasons which divide it into four ports. Within this period also, the moon goes twelve times through all her phases, which occupy the space of nearly twenty-nine and a half days : hence the year has been divided into twelve months, three oi which are aUotted to each season. By accurate obser* vatun it is i^md, that the time which elapses between the instant at which the sun passes the vernal equinox, and the period of his return to it, is S6S^ 6^ 48^ 48*. This period is called the Tbomcal year. It is found to be shorter than the interval between two successive returns of the sun to the same star by 20^ 2ff. This last-mentioned period is called the SiDKREAL year, and consists of SBS^ 6" 9" 11*. In order to make such a distribution of time as is accommodated to the purposes of lift, it is necessary so to adjust the reckoning of the solar revolution to the length of the mr^zn solar day, that the beginning of the yea.: may coincide with the beginning of the day, and the seasons may always recur in the same months. If the solar revolution consisted of an exact number of days, there would be no difficulty ; but as it includes a fraction of a day, it is evident that one year cannot be made equal to one revolution, without incurring the inconvenience of making the year commence at a different point of tine from the beginning of the day. But though one year cannot be made equal to one revolution, a certain number of years may be made equal to a like number of revolutions. Julius CflBsar introduced the first near approximation to accuracy on this subject, in the 45th year before the commencement of tho Christian era. The Romans had before that time estimated the year according to the course of the moon, in imitation of the Greeks ; dividing it into twelve months, which consisted in all of 354 days; but lu an odd number was thought the more fortunate, one day was added which made the year consist of 355 days. To make the lunar year correspond with the course of the son, on which depends the vicissitude of seasons, an intercalary month was inserted every other year, between the 28d and 24th day of February. The intercalation of this month was leit to the discretion of the priests, who, firom interested motives, inserted often more or fbwer than the ftopm number of days, so as to make the year longer or shorter, according as it suited their own purposes. This caused the months to be transposed firom their stated seasons, the winter months being carried back into autumn, and the autumnal months into summer. When Julius Cesar became master of the state, he resolved to put an end to this disorder, by abolishing the use of intercalations which had been the source of it; and for that purpose, by the assistance of Sosigenes, a celebrated astronomer of Alexandria, he adjusted the year to the course of the sun, and assigned to *he respective months the number of days which they still contain. That matters might ph)ceed with regularity firom the beginning of the ensuins January, he made the current year, which was called the last year of confution, consist m fifteen months, or 445 days. The JuuAN year is founded upon the supposition that the solar revolution is exactly SSS** 6\ For three successive years the six hours are omitted ; but in the fiHirth year an additional day is inserted in the mmth of February, which makes the four years correspond with four solar revolutions. This fourth year, consisting c^ 366 days, is called Bissextiu or Leap year. But as the true length of the solar revolution is not 365'* 6\ but only 369^ 5^ 48" 48^, the Julian year b too lon^ by 11" 12*; so that before a new year begins, the sun has passed the point of the ecliptic where the preceding year began. The error thence arising is, however, so small, that it was long before it was observed. The Julian Calendar was introduced into the church at the time <» the Council t^Nice, in the vear 325 of the Christian era ; and the vernal equinox was at that time lixed to the 21st or March. In the year 1582, however, it was found that the vernal equinox fell, not on the 2lBt of March, but on the 11th of that month ; so that the Julian year had ftllen about ten days behind the sun. If this erroneous reckoning had been contmued, the seasons would have entirely changed their places. It was therefore resolved tu rtform the calendar^ which was done by Pope Gregory Xm., and the first step was to correct the loss of the ten ^ys, by countmg the day after the 4th of October, not the 5th, but the 15th day of the month. The error in the Julian year reckoning, being about eleven minutes yearly, amounts to nearly three days in four centuries. Hence to prevent its accumulation in future, it was agreed to suppress three intercalary days in the course of four hundred years, by ccmsidering the last of uiree successive centuries common, instead of leap years. The years in which ue inter calary davs are omitted are 1700, 1800, 1900 : and, in general, the last year df every century not divisible by four, is reckoned a common year, which in the Julian account is bissextile. The degree of accu|ucy thus attained is very considerable \ for taking the annual error at 11| minutes, in four centaries, it vrill amount to 4480 minutes, or to 3^2^ 40". Of this error, the fractional part, 2** 40", is all that remains uncorrected; and this error wfll require the lapse of 3600 years before it amounto to a day^. Other modes of intercalation. If the tropical year were 369' S** 40" 12^, the Gregorian intercalation would be perfectly exact Accurate observation proves, however, that Uia yea; 0OOK L DIVISION AND MEASURE OP TIME. IS ghortor by about 24 nconda. If Kiontific principles hod been strictly followed, thuj ^oold have pointed out other modes of intercalation still more accurate, thouffh perhaps not mora convenient, than that which has been adopted. The determination of the methods of inter* calation best suited to make the computations in the calendar correspcntd as nearly as possible with the real motions of the sun, requires all the integer numbers to be fiHmd, which most nearly express the ratio of 5** 48" 48* to a day. These numbers are easily determined by the method of continued fractiom. In the Gregorian calendar, 97 days are intercalated in the course of 400 years ; but it would be much more exact to intercalate 109 days in the course of 450 years. If the tropical year were preciselv 36S' 6** 48'" 48*, this intercalation would, in* deed, lie quite accurate : for S** 48" 48*, multiplied by 450, give exactly 109 days. The reformation of the calendar, or the change from the Out Sttub to the New Sttu, did n« take place tn England, till the year 1752, at which time it was established by an act of parliament The alteration was radered to be made on the 2d of September ; and as I he error of the Julian reokoning now amounted to 11 days, the 8d was to be counted the 14ta of September. Correspondence between the daw qfthe week and month. As the common year consists of 52 weeks and one day, it is evident that the beginning and end of each common year will fidl on the same day of the week. In a series of years, therefore, if no leap years occurred, the first day of each month would, year after year, be one day farther advanced in the week, till, in the course of seven years, the same days of the month would return to the same days of the week. But since leap year contains 62 weeks and 2 davs, and occurs every fourth year, it follows that the days of the week cannot correspraid to the same days of the month, till after the lapse of four times seven or twenty-eight years. This period is called the Otclh of tub Sun. When this period is completed, the sun's place in the ecliptic returns to the same signs and degrees on tne same months and days, so as not to difier a degree in a century ; and the leap years, as well as the common years, begin the same course over again with respect to the days of the week on which the days of the month fall The year of our Saviours birth, accoroing to Uie vulgar era, was the ninth year of the solar cycle : hence, to find the current year of that cycle, we must add nine to the given year of the Christian era, and divide the sum by twenty-eight ; the quotient will be the number of cycles which have been completed since the birth of Christ, and the remainder will be the cureent year of the present cycle. Thus, for tJie year 1829, the cycle of the sun is found to be '*''. The first seven letters of the alphabet have been employed to mark the several days of the week. As one of those seven letters must necessarily stand against Sunday, it is printed in the calendar in a capital form, and called the Dohinioal Letter : the other six letters are inswted in a difierent character, to denote the other six days of the week. When January begins on Sunday, A is the Dominical letter for that year : but because the next year begins on Monday, the Sunday will of course &11 on the seventh day, to which is annexed the seventh letter G, which will tiierefore be the Dominical letter wt all that year: and as the third year will begin on Tuesday, Sunday will fall on the sixth day, so that F will be the Dominical letter ror that year, and so on. Hence it is evident that the Dominical letters will succeed each other in a retrograde order, viz. G, P, E, D, C, B, A. As the days of the week correspond to the same days of the month only once in twenty-eight years, it follows that it is only after the lapse of the same period, that the series of Dominical letters can mroceed in the same order m reference to the days of the month. Every leap year has two Dominical letters; one answering from the beginning of January till the end of Pebruary; the other being the letter immediately preceding, answering for the remainder of the year. The Dominicd letter may be fbund for any year of any centunr by the following rule : divide tJie centuries by 4, and take twice what remains from 6: then add together this last remainder, the odd years above the even centuries, and the fourth part of these odd years, neglecting the remainder if any : divide the sum by 7, and the excess qf 7 above the remainder is the number answering to the letter required. Thus, for the year 1830, the Dominical letter is C. Por the centuries 18 divided by 4 leave 2 ; and twice this remainder taken firom 6 also leaves 2 ; by adding to which the odd number (^ years 80, and their fourth part 7, we obtain 89: this sum dimed by 7 leaves the remainder 4, which taken fron 7 leaves 8, answering to C, the third letter of the alphabet CHAPTER X. .r,>-:/f "/ V:J'^'-«i«SJi^: -.^A* ^; h-k'i.ui^-ir. <'k \ c „« . ...;. .:....i..-. -^^f^ PROPER MOTION OF THB MOON. HER PHASES. ECLIPSES OF THE SUN AND MOON. The moon, next to the sun, is the most interesting to us of all the heavenly bodies. Her phases, or that series of changes in her figure and illumination which she undergoes in the course of about a month, are one of the mo^ striking of the celestial phenomena ; tuid presen n division of time so remarfeible that it has been the first in use among all nations. The moon has an apparent motion among the fixed stars similar to that of tiie sun, tR< Vol. L N M pRLXCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. Past L. I' 20 nCi much mora npid : it carries her eastward i the rate of nearly 13° 10}', at an average, in 224 hours. Wnon this motion is accurately traced out, it is found, that the moon describe* round the earth, in 27* 7** 43", a path or orbit inclined to the ecliptic at an an^le of nearly 5° 9'. The line in which the plane of the orbit cuts the plane or the ecliptic is called the LiNB or THB NoDn. The point in which the moon crosses the ecliptic when aieendint to the north, is called the asokhdimo node ; and the opposite point, in which she crossoa ft when deietnditur to the south, is called the DnoiNDiNo node. The figure of the lunar orbit is determined in the same manner as that of the solar, by ofaserying the changes in the apporant diameter of the moon, and comparina these with the variations in her angular velocity. It is thus found, that the moon's orbit, like that of the sun, is in appearance an ellipee, having the centre of the earth in one of the foci, and that the radius vector, or the line joining the centres of the earth and moon, describes areas pro- portional to the times. Neither the Ibe of the nodes nor the greater axis of the lunar orbit u fixed. The former has a slow retrograde motion, by which It makes an entire revolution in something moro than 16i years ; the latter has a progressive motion, by which it com- pletes a revolution in somethmg less than years. The elliptic orbit is liable, indeed, to so many changes, that the fiill investigation of the lunar motion has been found one of the most difficult prralema in astronomy. At the same time it is one of the most usoftil, as connected with the finding of the longitude of places on the surfiice of the earth. Accordingly, the effi>rt8 of astronomers have beon assiduously directed to the perfecting of the lunar theory; and by employmg the resources of modem science, and combming these with continued and accurate ooservation, their labours have been crowned with wonderfiil success. The phases of the moon depend on her position with regard to the sun. Let E be the earth, M the moon revolving in her orbit round the earth, E S the direction of the sun, and let us suppose all the solar ra^s which illuminate the moon to proceed in straight lines parallel to S E. The moon is an opaque body like the earth, and is visible only in consc*- Suence of reflecting the light of the sun. When lie comes to the meridian, therefore, about the same time with the sun, that is, when she is at M, she must be invisible, on account of the unenlightened side being turned towards ns. It is then said to be raw moon : and, in refer- ence to her position with regard to the sun, Uie moon is said to be in coiumioTioN. Again, when the moon comes to the meridian about midnigfht, tiiat is, when she is at m, she is said to be in opposition, and in that position she presents an entire circular disc; because the whole of the enlightened side is then turned towards the earth. It is then said to be vvu. moon. At any point of her orbit, between the points of conjunction and opposition, the moon turns more or less of her enlightened side towards the earth, according to her anffular dis> tance from the sun, and presents exactly the same appearances as an opaque spherical body, of which one side is illuminated, would exhibit, if viewed flmai a distance, and in the same positions in which the moon is seen from the earth. After the conjunction, as soon as she lu^ emerged sufficiently flrom the solar rays, she is seen in the western sky, after sunset, in the form of a Cnnoswr, as at M', having the convex side turned towards the sun, and the concave bounded by an elliptic line. On every succeeding night the luminous part increases, while the elliptic boundary continually approaches to a straight line. On the seventh night from the time of new moon, the moon reaches the position M", where her distance fh>m the sun is 90° : she is then said to be in her first Qcadbatvbb, and exhibits the appearance of HALF moon ; that is, the disc is a semicircle. The enlightened port still continuing tc increase on the some side, the rectilineal boundary of the semicircular disc passes again into an elliptic line, and the moon becomes oibboto, as at M'": on all sides the disc is con- vex, though it does not become entirely fbll orbed until she reaches the point of opposition, at m, about the end of seven days from the time of half moou. From the instant of opposi- tion the moon begins to return to the sun on the western side ; and in her progress towards the conjunction she goes through the same series of changes in an inverted order, becoming first gfibbous, as at ffi* ; then hdf moon at the time when she reaches the position m", her second quo^ture ; then a crescent, as at m'", which, contmually diminishing, at last dis- appears altogether. Thus, on the supposition that the moon is an opaque body and nearly spherical, and that die revolves in an orbit round the earUi, the phenomena of her phases •re easily explained. u^ r ' A Vlft- \ jT r\ « .••*?.' v3v. ^ i. Jo ■m^^ ^^^^ fccr"^ >:•«.! ■:; v-i'V r: w V" '.^ti.':-. :,,.••.-,<.> r ^iiV- ...■ - ^ ..,.; ..; ,»'* • i it .- M.-. ■ J,,'-- B I Book L PHASES OF THE MOON. 09 at an avenge, in e moon desoribM an^le of nearly tic ifl called the when aicending :h ahe croMoa » t of the Bolar, by ff these with the like that of the the feci, and that icribea areaa pro* >f the lunar orbit entire revolution >y which it com- ible, indeed, to ao d one of the most jftil, as connected Accordingly, the the lunar theory : ith continued ud IGM* in. Let E be the ng in her orbit iction of the snn, solar rays which id in straight lines is an opaque body le only in conao* of the sun. When erefore, about the is, whon she is at n account of the med towards ns. )n : and, in refer* ird to the sun, the mioTioN. Again, e meridian about at m, she is said that position she isc; because the e is then turned in said to be rvhi rbit, between the Msition, the moon ) her anf^ar dis- le spherical body, and in the same n, as soon as she jr, miter sunset, in the sun, and the us part increases, he seventh night distance from the le appearance of ill continuing tc isc passes again i the disc is con- int of opposition, instant of opposi* progress towards order, becoming I position m", her ihing, at last dis* I body and nearly una of her phases Strictly speaking, the moon is not exactly 90 degrees distant fliom the sun when she pre sents the appearance of half moon. This phads occurs at the moment when the moon is in such a position that two straight lines drawn from her centre, — the one to the centre of the earth, the other to the centre of the sun, — form a right angle. By observing, therefore, the moon's distance mm the sun, at the instant when the boundary between the enlif^tened and dark part exaedy bisects tho lunar disc, we should have in the right-anf^led tri- angle S M F the angle at F; and hence, smce the side F M is also known, S F, the distance of the sun may be determined. This was the first method employed for finding the tun's distance from the earth ; but, from the nicety of the observatkms required, it cannot be expected to lead to any very sati^ctory result To a spectator on tho moon the earth must evidendy exhibit a series of changes similar to the lunar phases as scon from the earth. At the time of coi\junction the moon is on the illuminated side of the earth, so that the earth must then appear, as seen from the moon, an entire circular disc. Again, at the time of opposition, the moon is on the dark side Ol the earth ; so that the earth must then be invisible. When the moon is seen as a crescent, the earth will appear gibbous ; and when the moon appears gibbous, the earth will be seen as a crescent Tho fact of the earth appearing to a spectator on the moon an entire luminous disc, at tho time of the moon's conjunction with the sun, iiimishes an explanation of a phenomenon with which every one is fiuniliar. In clear weather, when the moon is three or foot days old, her whole body is visible. The horns of the enliffhtened crescent appear to project beyond the old moon as if they were part of a sphere of considerably larger diameter than the unenlightened part Now, the pe^ of the moon not direcdy illuminated by the sun is seen by the light reflected from the earth. The appearance of a lucid bow, connecting the horns of the crescent is produced by the circumstance of the eastern edge of the moon's disc being more luminous than the adjacent regions towards the centre. With regard to the enlightened crescent appearing a portion of a hirger sphere, this is an opUcal deception, and furnishes a remarkable proof that of two objects of equal magnitude, but of different degrees of brightness, the brighter appears larger. A lunation or lunai month is formed by tho time that elapses between one new moon and another. It consists of 29^ 12" 44" 9 nearly : and therefore exceeds the period of her mean sidereal revolution, which is 27^ T* 43°* ll|'. This excess arises from the proper motion of the sun in the ecliptic ; for it is evident that the period in which the moon goes through all her phases must be equal to the time required to describe 360°, with an angular velocitv equal to the dilFei-ence between angular velocities of moon and sun. Cycle of the moon. In 19 Juliiai solar years there are 235 lunations, and about one hour and a half more Hence, after 19 years, the conjunctions, oppositions, and other aspects of the moon recur on the same days of the month, and onl} about an hour and a half sooner. This period ia accordingly called the Cyolk or tbb Moon, and has been found of so much use in adjusting the lunar to the solar year, in order to know the time of new and full mooii, and to determine the time of Easter, and other moveable feasts, that the numbers of it have been called GroLDEii Nvmbkrs. The year of our Saviour's birth, accord* ing to the vulgar era, was the first year of the lunar cycle : hence, to find the golden number, or the current year of that cycle, we must add one to the year of Christ for which the golden number is required, and divide the sum by 19 : the quotient will be the number of cycles which have elapsed since the birth of Christ, and the remainder will be the golden nnmber or current year of the cycle. The epact is the difference between the solar and lunar periods at the end of each year, or the moon's age on the first of January. Since the Julian solar year is 365' 6', and the luna** year, or twelve lunations, 354' 8" 48" 36', if we suppose new moon to have happened on the first of January, so that the epact for that year is 0, it follows that the epact ror the next succeeding year will be 19' 21' 11" 24*, or nearly 11 days. For the third year, the epact will be nearly 22 daya For the fourth year it will be S3 days, or (rejectmg 30 days for a complete lunation) 8 days, and so on. The annexed table contains the golden num- bers with the corresponding epact$ adapted to the Gregorian calendar, tUl the year 1900. The epact for each month of the year is, in like manner, the moon's age on the first day of the mondi, supposiiur new moon to have liappened on die first or January. *<'fi; -i '»"-'■■•■ OoMen Hninbcn. Epwdb Ookln NoBba*. BpMll. Oolctai Nmabm. Eiaeti. ' I. II. III. IV. v. VI. VII. 11 99 3 14 35 vm. IX. x. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. 17 38 9 80 1 IS 93 XV. XVI. xvu. XVIII. XIX. I. 4 IS 96 7 IS , .1 Dee. 0. 10, PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Pam II, The epocta for the montha of the common and leap year are aa follow* :— »«*^'> ^^tit^ Jan. r«b, Mar. Apr. Miy. June. July. Auc. Btp. Oct. Nov. Common year 0, 1, 0, i, 8, 3, 4, S, T, 7, 0, Uapyaar 0, 1, 1, 3, 3, 4, 5, «, 8, 8, 10, It ia evident that the moon's age will In found by adding together the epact of the year, the epact of the month, and the day of the month, rejecting thirty if the sum amount to that number. Thus, if it is required to find the moon's age on the 11th November 1620; by adding 1 to 1620 and dividing by 10, we obtain a remamder 6, which is the golden number for the year 1820. Now, against VI. in Uie table, we find 25 for the epact of the year, and is the epact for November : hence 25 + + 11 — 80 = 16, which is the moon's age ; so that the moon is fiill on that day. The lunar cycle of 10 years, though remarkably simple, is however iiur fVom being accu- late. Nineteen years contain about an hour and a hiflf more than 235 lunations ; so that at the termination of that period the moon has advanced about an hour and a half in the next lunation. This error amounts to a d^iy in the course of 16 cycles, or about 800 years. But, to compensate this excess, the epocts may be advanced one day every 800 years, and in this manner the lunar and solar periods will be made to agree. In consequence of her apparent motion eastward, the moon is about 48 minutes later after every diurnal revolution of coming to the meridian. As 46 minutes is equal to | of an hour, an approximation is mode to uie time of her southing, by multiplying her age by 4, and dividing by 5. This gives the time, nearly, before or after noon, according as the moon is past the opposition or conjunction. The time of her rising and setting is afiected by the same cause. In one part of the orbit, however, this is in a great measure counteracted by the smaUness of the angle which the orbit makes with the horizon. For facilitating the illustration of this phenomenon, let us suppose the mo(»i to move in the ecliptic, firom which she never deviates much more than 5°. By turning round the celestial globe, it will be seen that the ecliptic makes with the horizon very different angles, as the points of their intersection vary. If the first point otArieg be brought to coincide with the east point of the horizon, the angle which the ecliptic makes with the horizon is equal to the dinerence of the obliquity of the ecliptic and the complement of the latitude : but if the first point oilAbra be brought into coincidence with the east point, the angle between the ecliptic and the horizon is equal to the sum of the oblic|uity and the complement of the latitude. When the moon is in Pisces or Arte*, her motion m her orbit will therefore produce a considerable change, each succeeding night, on the distance between the east and the point of rising, but the time of rising wiU not be much aflfbcted. The reverse will be the case when the moon is in Virgo or Lwra. Hence it is obvious that in every lunation, at a certain time, the moon must rise nearly at the same hour for several days together. This phenomenon, however, for the most part, passes unob- served ; but in the harvest season it attracts attention, as bemg then much more conspicuous than at anv other time of the year. In the autumnal months the moon is full in the signs Pisces and Aries,, (the sun being at that season in the opposite signs Virgo and lAbra,) and on that account rises an entire orb (or nearly so) for about a week, almost at the time of sunset, thus afibrding a supply of light very beneficial to the husbandman, in gathering in the firuits of the ear&. This lunation has accordingly been distinguished by the name of the HABVKST HOON. The inclination of the moon's orbit to the ecliptic, makes the liarvest moon rise, more or less, nearlv at the same time that she would if she moved in tiie ecliptic, according to the position of the line of the nodes. If we suppose the ascending node to be in Aries, the moon's orbit makes with the horizon an angle upwards of 5° less dian the angle which the ecliptic makes with it, and consequently the harvest moon will rise more nearly at the same time than if the moon had been in the ecliptic. In a latle less than 9} years, however, the line of the nodes will have made half a revolution, and the descending node will be in Aries. The moon's orbit will then make with the horizon an angle more tfaon 5° greater than that which the ecliptic makes with it ; and, consequently, the harvest moon will not rise so nearly at the same time as if the moon had been in the ecliptic. The quantity of moonlight which we 6i\joy in wmter is much greater than in summer. As the moon is always on the same side m the heavens with the sun, at the time of new moon, and on the opposite side at the time of fiill moon ; it is evident that at midsummer the moon, when seen as a crescent, will rise at a point of Uie horizon to the north o( east, and set at a point to the north of west, and will be seen high in the heavens when she passes tlie meruiian. As she approaches fiill moon, however, she will rise fortherand fitrther to the south of east, will appear low in the heavens when on the meridian, and will set fiirther and fiurther to the south of west. The reverse takes place at mid-winter : the moon is low when seen as a crescent, and rises higher and higher in the heavens as she approaches fiill moon. She also rises to the south of east when a crescent, and sets to the south of west; but, when fiill, rises and sets to the north of these points. Thus the great quantity of moon- light during the long nightc of winter arises firom the moon bemg fiill in the northern signs Paiit n. rov. Dee. 0, B. 10, 10. ict of the year, amount to that mborl829; by ffolden number f the year, and moon'i age ; lo om being accu- iona; ao that at lalf in the next M) years. But, 10 years, and in lequence of her imal revolution pproximation ia ng by 6. This lie opposition or one part of the he angle which ihenomenon, let ites much more ptic makes with [f the first point tngle which the the ecliptic and into coincidence il to the sum of Puces or Ariett icceeding night, sing wiU not be iMra. Hence urly at the same jrt, passes unob- lore coi^picuous itU in the signs and Libra,) and t at the time of in gathering in by the name of on rise, more or Bcording to the » in Artes, the ingle which the irly at the same ■s, however, the vill be in Aries. reater than that ot rise so nearly lan in summer, le time of new midsummer the rUi of east, and rhen she passes id&rthertothe Iset&rtherand le moon is low approaches full south of west; mnti^ofmoon* northern signn BookT. PHASES OP THE MOON lUl of the ecliptic, and is analofpous to that of sunshine in the long days of iummer, As we appioach the pole, the auantity of moonlight in winter becomes still more remarkable ; and at the pole itself, at mid-winter, Uie moon does not set for fifteen days together, namely, flrom the first to the last quarter. The lunar disc is diversiflod with a great variety of sjpots, which are auite permanent, but differ very considerably from each other in degrees of brightness. These inequalities of illumination are visible to the naked eye. Since the discovery of the telescope they have engaged tihe particular attention of several astronomers, by whom their relative positions have been carefiilly ascertained, and laid down in maps of the lunar sur&ce. From an attentive examination of the lights and shades seen on the moon's disc, it has been inferred ^t her surface is very irregular, being diversified by lofty mountains, precipitous rocks, and deep caverns. The existence of these irregularities of surface is strikmgly evident from the serrated appearance of the line which separates the enlightened flrom the dark part of the moon, and by a variety of bright detached spots, almost always visible on the dark part and near the line of separation between light and darkness. These bright spots are the tops of mountains illuminated by the sun, while his rays have not yet reached the bottom of the intervening valleys. The dark spots of the moon are smootn, and apparently level, while the luminous parts are elevated regbns, which either rise into hiffh mountains or sink into deep and immense cavities. The general smoothness of the dark spots naturally led to the conclusion that they were collections of water ; but more carefiil observatioi has made it appear that the line which separates the enlightened fi-om the dark part of the moon is not smooth and regular, even when it passes over a dark spot ; so that there is no reason to sup puse that there is any large collection of water in the moon : and this conclusion is strenetn- ened by the constant serenity of her appearance, which seems undisturbed bv any of those atmospherical phenomena which arise on our globe finm the existence of water. The mountainous scenerr of the moon, and more especially the immense caverns with which her sur&ce is broken, bear little analogy to what we see on the sur&ce of the earth. The resemblance may, however, be conceived to be considerably increased if all the waters of the earth were removed, and the beds of the ocean, seas, and lakes were left dry with all the ine^qualities of their surfiices exposed to view. The earth would then be diversified, not onl^ with the rocks and mountains now seen upon its suriace, but likewise with deep caverns of immense extent, and having detached mountains and rocks rising firom the bottom, similar to the cavities discovered in the moon. From certain light spots which have sometimes been seen on the dark part of the moon, at such a distance fix)m the enlightened portion that they could not arise nrom the light of the sun, astronomers have inferred the existence of volcanoes in the moon. Dr. Herschel, in particular, two or three different times, observed such spots. The height of a lunar mountain may be measured by the following method. Let DAE be a section of the moon maide by a plane passing through O, the eye of an observer on the earth, M the summit of a mountain situated in the dark part of the lunar disc, and S the sun. It is evident that this plane will be perpendicular to the line which joins the horns ' of the moon. Tiet D A be the arch of the circle D A F, which p T-nes over the visible portion of tiie enlightened hemisphere. Whenever the point M be- comes visible to a spectator at O, it must be illumi- nated by a ray of the sun SAM, which will be a tangent to the circle D A F at the point A, and there- fore at right angles to the diameter A F. Produce O M to meet the diameter D E in m, and draw A r and A n parallel to D E and M m ; also produce E D to meet S M in C. Because DAE is a section of that hemisphere of the moon which is turned towards the earUi, the visual ray O M m is perpendicular to D E: hence the angles m M C, M C m are together equal to two right angles. But because C A is perpendicular to A B, the angles ABC and A C B (or M C m) are also together equal to two right angles : whence it is evident that the angle m M C is equal to A B C ; and that the triangles A M r, A B n are similar. We have, therefore. An: AB = Ar: AM. Hence A M = r • An Now, A r is the projection of A M on the lunar disc, and will be found by measuring, with the micrometer, m a direction perpendicular to a line joining the horns of the moon, A. tk the distance of the illuminated summit M from the enlightened disc at A ; also T~^= Six. Z A B C, radius being unity, the angle A B C is equal to S M m the rnocm's distance or eloDffation from the sun : wherefore we obtain A M = «■ ^i^^^;^, * a ifiven quantitr. . 9* . . . ■ >v-i H"tl V 'Mfr S ^ ^\ ^ \ m «<4-(«]4 l-.tH- i -m U ■•.f.tt Thus the height of the lunar moimtain in question is found to be about a mile. The principle now explamed is correct in theory ; but with regard to the results obtained ftom the practical application of it, a greater difference of opinion exists than might have been expected. These results are, however, highly curious and interesting. MfMtCa motion round the earth. TJie moon's surfiice, when viewra through a telesoope, is so strongly characterised by the sjpots visible upon it, as to leave no doubt of ita being tlways the same. From this the inference is obvious, since we are certain fhun the tpQOira motion round the earth, that she must revolve on an axis nearly perpendicular to the plane of her orbit in the same time that she revolves about the earth, namely in 27^ days nearlr. Her rotation on her axis is equable ; but this is not the case with her motion fai her orbft, which is periodically variable : and hcnco there are parts of the eastern and western edgea of Uie moon which are seen occasionally. This appearance is called the unuTioN or tbi Mooif IN LONorrvDi. It is entirely optical, and argues no inequality in the moon's motion on her axis. The moon's axis of rotation is not altogether perpendicular to the plane of her orbit, but inclined to it at an angle of 88" 29' 49". In consequence of this position of her axis her poles are alternately visible, and a small portion of the polar regions; this phenomenon ia called the libration or thb moon in latitudh. The diurnal libration of the moon is another optical appearance arising iVom the moon bemg viewed fVom the surface instead of the centre of the earth. At rising, a part of the western edge is seen, which is invisible at setting ; and, at setting, a part of tne eastern edge is seen, which is invisible at rising. The explication of the lunar phases leads to that of Eouma — those occasional obscura- tions of tiie sun and moon which have, m ages of ignorance, been objects of superstitious terror to mankind, and at all times objects of curiosity to the philosopner. At the time of new moon, the moon is upon the same side of the heavens with the sun, but, ibr the most part, passes either above or below the solar disc without obscuring any part of it This arises fh>m her orbit being inclined to the ecliptic : for it is evident that if the planes of the orbit and ecliptic coincided, the centres of the sun, moon, and earth would, at every new moon, be in the same straight line ; so that the moon would be seen to poss over the sun's disc, and the sun would appear to be totally or partially eclipsed, according to the position of an inhabitant upon the earth's surface. Again, at the time of full moon, the moon is on the opposite side of the heavens from the sun ; and therefore she is on the same side of the heavens with the shadow, which the earth, as an opaque body, projects into space. In most cases, however, the moon passes above or below this conical shadow ; so that she is not deprived of the sun's rays. But if the plane of the orbit coincided with that of the ecliptic, • die centres of the sun, moon, and earth would evidently be in the same straight line at ev^rv ftill moon as well as at every new moon: the moon would therefore fall into the earths ■hadow, and would be eclipsed to all the inhabitants on that side of the earth which is tume4 towards the moan at the tune. Though the inclination of the lunar orbit to the ecliptic prevents the occurrence at every new and full moon of these phenomena, there are certain distances fh)m the nodes of the moon's orbit called aouFTio umrs, within which, if the moon is situated at the time of new or full moon, there will be a solar or lunar eclipse. PabtII. 9 tangent A M, a well-known (OH+HM), = MHX0H, li given ; there- d Mirfiuse, may iameter of the 07i', the dia. he lununit of a i 41i "; and let XNintain. 414" = 2180: re Ar = 48-85 Af Sin. eloiigatioD ■ "rrfi^ >■•■<;']« t a mile. The ■ obtained ftom ght have been Dooa I. ECUPSEa 101 Ef h a teleagojte, ' of ita b^ing -om the qtooQ*! ar to the plana fi daya nearlv. Dn in her omt, western edges ATION or TBM moon's motion her orbit, but ' her axis her ihenomenon is lk>m the moon a part of the )f the eastern ional obflcura» superstitious It the time of ibr the most of it. This planes of the »t every new }ver the sun's o the ppeition le mom is on 16 side of the ce. In most at she is not f the ecliptic, line at ev^ry o the earth 8 uchistume4 ince at every nodes of the t the time of To illustrate the general phonomona of lunar eclipses. Let A B, D E be seotuxu of the son and earth, by a plane perpendicular to the piano of the ecliptic. Draw A V, B V touching the circles A B, D E on the corresponding sides in E and D, and meeting each other m V : also draw B O, A H, touching Uicho circles on tlio opposite miea in M ana N. Then, if we suppose the figure A B H G to rovolve about tho line C F, wliich joins the centres of the circles, as an axis, tho cone generated by the lino E V represents the shadow which the earth projects into space ; and iVom every point of that conical shadow the lieht of the sun is entirely excluded. The spaces between E V, M G, and between D V, N H, will receive the light of a part of the sun : and hence the space round the shadow, which is generated by the motion of the lines G M, E V, is called the penumbra. Join G E. It is evident that the angle E V F is equal to the diflbrence of the angles A E C, E C F. But A E C is the angle under which the sun's semidiameter is seen mm the earth ; and E C F is the angle under which tho earth's semidiameter is seen from the sun. BoUi of these angles being known, their diflerence E V F is a given angle. Now, in the right angled triangle E V F we have given the angle at V, and Uie side E F, which is the earth's semidiameter : hence F V, the heif^ht of tlte earth's shadow, may bo determined. "Die height of the shadow varies from 213 to 220 semidiamcters of the earth. Again, let F be the distance of the moon from the earth : draw K O L perpendicular to F V, and join F L. The angle L F O, under which tlie semidiameter of the section of the eartli's shadow is seen from the earth, is equal to the difference of the angles, F L E, F V li. But F L E is the angle under which the semidiameter of the earth is seen fitnn the mom, and F V L is, as has Iwen shown, equal to the diflerence between tho angle under which the sun's semidiameter is seen from the earth, and tho angle under which the earth' semidiameter is seen from the sun : hence, to find the angle under which the section of the earth's shadow through which the moon passes in a lunar eclipse is seen from the earth, we must add together the two angles under which the semidiameter of the mrth appears when seen from the sun and moon, and from the sum subtract the sun's apparent semi- diameter, the remainder is the angle required. The angle L F O, when greatest, is about 46': but the inclination of t!ie lunar orbit to the ecliptic is upward of 5°, and to this distance the moon may recede from the ecliptic. It is evident, therefore, that on eclipse of the moon can take place only when she is near her nodes. Let the circle A H B be the section of the earth's shadow at the moon ; A B a poirtioQ of the ecliptic, and D F a portion of the moon's orbit near the ascending node. Draw C Q from the centre of the shadow, (which must be the point of the ecliptic directly opposite the sun,) perpendicular to A B, and let it meet D F in G ; then G is the point of op}K)sition at which the moon will be 180 degrees of the ecliptic distant finm the sun. Now, in moving frran D to G, the moon must enter the earth's shadow, and will therefore be eclipsed. The beginning of the eclipse will be the moment that she enters on the shadow at K : the middle of the eclipse will be the moment when her centre reaches the point E, the extremity of the per* pendicular drawn from C to D F; and the end of the eclipse will be the moment when she leaves the shadow at the point L. The portion of the moon's disc that is obscured will depend on the distance between E and C, which w^ill vanish when the point of the opposition coin* cides with the node. It is evident that haid the eclipse happened on the other side of the node, the opposite edge of the moon would have been immersed in the shadow. In eclipses there are various degrees of immersion. When this is entire, it is said to be total; when only a part of the moon is immersed, the eclipse is said to be partial; and when the centre of the moon passes through the centre of the shadow, the eclipse is said to be central and total. The breadth of the shadow at the moon is about three times her diameter, so that in the case of a total central eclipse, the moon may be entirely obscured for nearly two hours. m nmwim np fiWfKUtAi'iiY. PANt ii I'Itt* Mmt* wltt*N ttt*1liwf« tMi«t(|Htlr>tt IVotii llm Ihwh wltlfli ftttftiliitn (|ih imtllitttN ttt (lt>t Mtit nttil iiiitttii. I'IiIn tiiiiM|iittitHim rptittlfUM nMitimititli'itl tnltlxK, himI Im \mt' iitt'tii)')! Willi t''HiP)l)lrimltU> liilitMit. iltil II iimv Iim tilM»>rv««il lltnl: In UUIt ltnMilltiti*< iir IN vi>NrH Ui tiny 0*1' 1 1 tiny* Hi'i'ohllttM: im Ititif or iIvm lmt|i ^tmn iiHMtr In llin JitlnrliiO, 7 iMiiirit 4H liil'ltuloN, Mti« tttiMtii intMi'im III llio miiMi' ihwHImii tttMtilv willi fogmi In Him himii iitiit i\m liiitnf idhUim. Hint lliMMtifD lli)> tll|wDfi, will I'Hiifh MPitHy In llin wiHin nnlt^r MtiiMilriHini nlHiii'i^N. 1iiIm Iw lliiMi|tlit (i) tix llin (tMi'ltHl tmllott llm Clmlilimn Nrntm, Mug um\ Ity tint (\Hli1«>iMiti In |ii')«)lli>llntt t<(«*i>. Tlin tllMtnu'c nf lln* iidhmi l\iini llu> i of «i|i|N«i ♦Inn, ll»»> «nitl»>i» ninlm' \vlili>li lli»* imilliV Mnt tllitinitltM« ol'llntmi Ivvtt Itnnlimtlnit, tttn knnwn A'nitt ilni Ii«IiIph, In llin rlultl nntfli'tl hittttitlt' (' 14 Itnvtt ^\im V (I, Hitit lit)) Hntflti (I (I M, wliloli In ii<|tml In llin nti'llliHlInn <\titly i Innit'n wn (ttitt (1 M tititl v\ U, Kfnin (1 1>] nntl V it\ \\\v> m\\ nC Mtt* fttttnltllHinnlin-^ nl* Ihrt wM'lInn nl' llin PitHlt'ii Mimlnw tttiit lln< iniNMti wn fttttt M V\ \vltlt*li in t>i)n)tl Ht M IM lltrMii'n UU. (I t>* Immmmiip htinwii. Wn tnni|inltt mint tttttfVilHC inntlntt nt lltn tntttitt In In^t' nilill mlntlvnly In Hip ninit llin liillnr JKHly i»»»tl M n iii«< ivIiIpiiIIv ItPtti't' \v«> rrtit iln»»»Hnln*> flif llinnnfMnm'tlliiiiir IMI niiil « Ki Itml Ihi llin lltnn (Iml, plttjitdM JM^twonti Ittn l)r>tttnnltt(( ttl' (Itn »>t'll|wn nntl Itin n|t|tnollinti, nitii ItPlWPnit tlin n|tiMH f\\A nf llin «>iMl|»n, tttll IIip llinn nl' (tin o|tn»*lllnn In kttttwn, HiPfnIltrn llin ilinpii »f IliB lip^innlitD: nilil ntiil nl' llin politimt will hImi Iip htinwtt. rN«' nnVlninllnu; llin i|ii)inlily nt »tn pi«tl|wn, lli»« illntiiPlPf nl* (lin Mtlni- ni- liinttr illwi In pimi- M\Pi\ In lin illviilnil iiiln Iwnlvp «ii)iml (mtif) onilptl iitni iw \ nitil liponnlln^ In llin nninlipr tii' tittwp mf\* \vltli>ii siT' nl»w'ini>»l, ms \m\\\ A\\ii\\n itfn »«ltl In Im ppIIiwpiI, Let H Iw unjijKwwl lltiil tlin i^ilnii* nl' ifin nmnnV iUw> Inul lnni>liPti llin piljcn nt IIip (tpnllon \^ nC llin piittli'H filmtlnw nl \\ itiiil llinl nl llin Minin llnin Hip illninnlpht nl' Hip nuHin nnil KJinilnw nrn nnnli nt Hin wittV^HMtm. Nitil wn nlinll Itiiil Hip pi>li|illn llnili llir Inntiy poliiMPit. IHimIiiop 14 mill 11 A In iiippI In Ni Uiph N r Im Hip tlinit nl' Hip illdlnnnp nl' Hip iiimIp ilimi tli« «i)i|inKUinn ni wliioli nn P(>li|WP onn liit|itipn. Hinim tlin 'Xl ^ ---'''— Jtt tiiiti 1,1 whtnli Hip onnlfp nf Hip innnii innvnn (wIiIpIi llir ft olini'l (linlnnop nmy Im pniwlilptwl nt* n nlftilttlil linn) «inK« lin miiniiwpil iwwiIIpI to Hip t«n(tPiit In Hip I'lrt'ln A I* 11 Ml Hip (hiIiiI V, Hip nn|{tp nt K Is n riuflit nndn. *riiP nit^lp N, in Hip iiiplinnlinn nC Hin liiiint' nililt In tlin »s*U\vtW; nU\ OK in t>\\m\ to llin wiin nl Hip Hptiildlnniplpw nt' Hip nuHin nnil nlmdnw. Uwn>p \\\m Hip nj^hnvtenl trinnftln V M N, V N nmy lin ilnlprniinpil j ninl In Itiimil t» Im •ImuI \\{\ \f\\\i«n ninkpn it VPiy illfllinilt to nhnpi-vp, wlHi prn- \^l«Kviu tUn l«*>i»n«intt or niwl of n Imwi' poliiw j no Hint thoniyh tliwp jiprliHlK nmy Im phi i\K\Vw t^w «|pun'in(nri\ji; tlip UMinitinlo ol' j»l«i'ni« on IIip nnrtlt, nn tfivnl i|ptfr«'P nrnnnnrnny li h> Iip p\|HvtiHl> TIip li«*t mpTliml in to notp tlip tinip of tlin nrnvnt ol' tlin Imunilnry of Hit* •Iwilow At tl\p ilitllMvnt njiotn \M» Hip l[lill»»lt>»« olwpiM^tioiw. Top nu^Mi w>l»Kw ilii*mnH^n« nitiivly in Innnv po^i|>llp^ Init \» n^vw ol' n (limky iwl cnlnur: ie\-v»w tlip )«|*»t» \M» tlip lininr wirltit'o nm!j' Ih> »liptiiijniit»lipl ^^ n \M«ii<>n ol' tlio mniV U)j:lil, wliioh niitpi* IIip ooiilonl ulinilnw In »innm»" !«w>iH'^ »\t' lvii\>^ rpt^"«ott^l l\v lliP ntnuwptipiv ol' tlie p*rUi. Tho itainra niul ellbotn oPttU»o»- jshptrix'^l r^(\w»:'thM\ will nItprwnftiK I>p nxpUinwI. K^M^|vl«r ppll|HiPf. wo mny Wvjiin Mitli nMnnrkiivjt» timt wliPii tlio winV litflit in intiTppntptl liv Hip moon, ko Hint nt niiy pimv on tUp o^rtir* MirlHcp Iip Ihh\\iihv« (ini'tTy or wholly lnvi»il»lp, |iro|iprly nimnkiiig, it w »« wl^wf ot tk^t forftPM nif »*•» tniik on wliioli llip nnmii'n idindow or i^H'innnlim thllt». Ttvp iiviiii-Aiylp nt tliP wrtPx ol' Hip huhmvV ulindow in «lolpiniin«Hl in n niniilnr innnnor tvN thnt «ol\ v\f tlnMip bo»litN« wt>r\> vipwrti tVv^u tlin oHinr nt tliP timo of Hipir ooi\jnno- twin; nnni wiii tnrrrivMV wH tw rrry inf tVvMn itpiitft P'jnni K» \hv nnjinrrnt; wmi-ciiomPipf Oi tW «>« Ml p ti«i<> <^" tho «>^\|u«oti»>n mny tlipn^Rvw nt one timo oxoooH, nnd nt «jv>»hoT liww tJ»ll nJhwt x'A" tho HhN tmrth, whioh varion Ihvm (W to Ofl «>m)^>«(«K>lx>nk In tW l5>rmor cnws if tho coi\junclK>i) hnpiH>n when tlio moon ia witliin a I'ANt II I'll f(«t|lllHlM lllH \w, Mti)l IM |)«r* Mm. or IM vfttrit iiorliiO) 7 ftiMtrit llO XMIt. HtMl tltn lur mill I'lrt'iiHi' liitf tmnil liy ilio Km umipwl «'lr« «liti»« of lt|l|H«i- I iiMNitii ttlmi lli« llM rltfltt NlltfllMl I ilinTiii'litiNlliiit Kfiiiit (' t<)ntiil lit tliti iiiiNiii, wn It) t'litntiuln mini (lin liillnr iMHly Ipittly Uit'Mtiini iitm (imt >||, HIlHW ill" iinviK CwIiIj'Ii 1l»r n Hlriiltflii llii«) [(Hit to »li»» clivltt in n riKlii M\tt\«. mnt iiriiH li» thw «iit mill climliw. I \n Itiiiitil to Im I Hr0 IhiIIi llnltin lit jKwiillily Im ft wiivvp, wltli |»rp- loiln limy lin pi"- nil ot'mMMirmiy Ik tunimlnry of ilio niiiil M m\ inntiy Hdkv vivl colour : Thw I'rtt'Ct in nlmilow Ih iionmv it!tMoffttim)i>- ■>cliniii«i". wo tnny III, nt ttint lit miv ly ii)H>Kkin|r« it w innlirn tHIlii. mniilnr iimnncr mul. It in wjimi nml mi>oii wmiM if th«»ir ooi\i«nc- ipnuMiininrtpf ot il nlmilow of tJio ■til. 'rholonffth ^ oxoowt, mwl «t ot iVoni (W to W inoon k wiUiin • Owm I) / ij-«l < ^^^r>^ Bf'ilPHK^I. f'#f# iiprlNlfi (tlfrfMtmi* rif ttin imhIa, tlm liiiMr hIi>uI«>w will r«i«/ili lh» imrih. tinA « M<;il//ri '/ it wilt IritvnrMfl n pi»rtkifi iif tlin mrtli'ii NiirDui«« ytitAmlngt wtmraynr It fttll«« « U/t«l Mili(Mn Ht HiKMiritliitf nn tlift |iliiMlvn, linltttf mily Mlnmt \H) iiiil«N In illMifint^r) iiin iwiiDiiil/fit, \timwtst diit^MilN iivr*r It < bo HwAmim gf Uio NUti Niiil moon nml V tlm vtirt«x of tlm liiniir •IiimIow wIiIoIi In Nii|i|KtNi«l tmt, f nIiow tlm |iro({r«iNN of tlm nIin/Iow ovor tlm Miirfimo of tlm o«rth. Tlm niimt Nliti|iln |iro|ttiitlim In tlint which Nii|i|NiNnN thn 'ilmnrvnr t/i Iki plni^il in tlm win, and to Hon llm iHitli which nny plncn on tlm onrth'N mirfii'm iloNcrilmN in c^niwiiiimn'^n of tlio tlhiriinl motion tirojmit^il liitii mi ti|ll|iNn on thn nimm of tho mrth'N diw;, whim tho |Mth of thn tnnon'N nIiiuIow In itrojont^il Into it NtrnlKht linn on tho Niirnn iIInc, Thn ummuttrkh] con* Htrimtlon tliiiN ntititlnnil In Niilllclnntly nccnrntn liir tlm (irnilictlon of ncli|wnN, Thn clriMitiiNtmiciiN of it wilnr niOiiwo iiiny, hownvnr, Im cotnpiit^il witli cmNliloriihln occti* rnoy. TIihn, IIikI llir tlm ulvmi iilncn, IVotn tlm lAhlnN, tlm liiim of tho coniiincti'm of tho mm mill niiNin. Tlm itoNltliin of tlm himvculy limlinN in rclbroncn U> tho ocli|itic In deter* minnil hy Intitiuln mid lonKitiuIn, In tlm Niiinn innnnor an thn piMition of a pliu;a on tho mif' fkcn of tlm cnrtli In rntliroiicn t^i thn ci|iintiir. Plnd, thnn, foiftho tirno of tlm c.tiitinction, thn liitltiido mid lonKltndn of thn tnixiii, nnd nj)]ily to thorn thn Nninll chan/^n nriMUcnd by tlm Npnctntnr Imititf ptnnnd on tlm Hiirfticn itiNt/iad of thn contro of tlm oartji ; n cliango which ilcpnndN on tlm itn^ln which thn nnrtli'N Noniidimnnt^r militomlH nt tlm miri nnd moon nt tlm tinin: thlH will uivn iin tlm ftppnrcnt Intitndn nnd lon{(itudn of tho irioon on mum m tlm cimcnvo Niirlhcn of thn hnnvmiN. (^nnpiitn fVoin thnMo and thn hnffiUults of tho Hun, tliiit In, IiIn iliHtmicn fVom thn llrNt point of Aritm, tlio np|Miront diKtancn of tlm cciitroN r;f the mm nnd miHiti nt tlm itiNtnnt of cotunnction ; wimncn wo may noarly cmicludo thn time of tho ImKinninK and nndin(( of thn nclipmi, hy \nWmff into account tho apimront horary motioo of thn moon In Intitndn nnd Innuitiidn nt thn tinin of conjunction, notnptitnd frrwi tho tabic*. Almnt Ilin C(in|ncturnd tiinn of tlm b(<)(innin(; of tho oclipNO, compiito two or thrco apparent IntitiidcN mill lonKitiidnH of tho moon, nnd tlinncn, coinbinod with tho lon(;itudo of tho nun, thn npimrniit diNtjiticoN of thn cnntrcN, From tlicMo romilta tho timo may bo coniimtcd by pro|mrtinn when thn np|mront diHtiinco of tlm ccntroN In cr|Hal to tho mim of tho apparent ■omi-dinmotnrN, that In, thn timn of tlm bn)(iiinin(f of thn cclipio. Tho mnjfiiitudo nlmi of thn ndiiwo nt nny tinin may Iw IIiun dotflrmincd : let H K (Jiff. 28,) bo thn computed np|mrcnt dilfornnco of lon((itudo of tno controN o, Zl, of tho nun and moon, and M R thn compiitod npparont latitudo of tho moon. In the riirht-aniflb;? trianglo M E S, we have thnmfom ifivnn thn two nidoH to And tho hypothonuNo M S, which, being known^ we obtain m H tmi uciipiiod part of tho mm : ibr m n=S m+ M n — 11 S. Thn oclintio limiti of tho Bun may bo determined in tho following ma'.iner: let S and M (120— ^/l/jf. 1.; bn tho min and moon, «nnn f\tam E tho centre of the eartti a*, the moment of con- junction ; that In, whon their contrcH are in tho name circle S B perpendicular to the ecliptic. Lot tho nnufln n E h, formed by tanprnntfl drawn fVom E to tho a/ijaccnt odgcs of the solar ond lunar (Uhcn, bo equal to tlko greateit diiibronce between thd true pbco B and apparent Vol. I. O lOB PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. PJutT IL > '9^ 1 1 (M ' it!; I- place m of the moon, which can arise flrom her being viewed fnim the surfiice instead of the centre of the earth. It is not difficult to see that this difference will be greatest when the moon is in the horizon, and that its effect will be to depress her altitude. The distance of the sun ic so great, that we may at present consider his true and apparent place as coinci- dent Suppose now an observer on Uie earth's surfkce at A, whose horizon is at right angles to S B, to have the moon in his horizon at the moment of conjunction ; it is evident that to him tlie two discs would appear to be in contact: but to an observer on any other point of the earth's surface, the discs would appear asunder. In the moment of conjunction, there* fore, the penumbra must have just touched the earth at the point A ; and when the centres o( the sun and moon approach nearest to each other before or after the conjunction, it will spread over a very small portion of the earth's sur&ce near A, so as to produce barely an eclipse. Hence the distance of the sun from the node at the time of conjunction will be the solar ecliptic limit, nearly. In the right-angled spherical trianplo S m N ifig. 2.) let N S be a portion of the ecliptic, and N m a portion of tlie moon's orbit, N being the node, and let the perpendicular S m be equal to S m iafig, 1. The arc N S is the ecliptic limit required : and to find it, we have given the angle at N equal to the inclination of the moon's orbit to the ucliptic, and S m equal to the sum of the apparent diameters of the sun and moon together with the angle 6 E a, which is equal toBMmorAME,the angle subtended by the semi* diameter of the eartii's disc as seen from the moon. The angle N and the peri)endicular 8 m being known, the base N S is easily determined. The thrse quantities to the sum of which S ffl is equal, ore variable in their values. Taking for S m the sum of the semi* diameters of the solar and lunar disc, and of the disc of the earth as seen from the mocm when they are greatest, we find S N equal to 17° 12' nearly. But if S m be made equal to the sum of the semidiameters when they are least, S N is found to be nearly equal to 16° 19'. Withm the former of these limits an eclipse of the sun may happen, within thtf latter it must happen. If the moon's apparent diameter be greater than or equal to that of the sun, the eclipse will be total wherever the Iwar shadow falls. But if the sun's apparent diameter be greater Uian that of the moon, the eclipse will be annular within the lunar shadow. Number of eclipses. The ecliptic limits of the sun taken on each side of the node, give an arc of the ecliptic exceeding 30°, so that the sun will be more than a month in passing through these limita Hence there must be two ecli{)ses of the sun every year. Since the ecliptic limits of the moon, however, taken on each side give an arc only of about 23°, and since through this portion of the ecliptic the sun passes in less than a month, there may be no eclipse of the moon in the course of a year. When a total and central clipsu of the moon happens, there may be an eclipse of the sun at the preceding and following conjunctions, because between new and full moons tiie sun describes only about 15 degrees of the ecliptic, so that each conjunction may happen within the solar ecliptic limits. The some may take place at the opposite node : there may therefore be six eclipses in the course of a year. The retrogradation of the node at the rate of 20° yearly renders it possible, whe j the first eclipse of the year happens early in January, that another eclipse of the sun may occur in the end of the year. On the whole, there may be seven eclipses in the course of one year; five of the sun, and two of the mcon: and there never can be fewer than two, but though more solar eclipses happen than lunar, there are fewer of the former visible than of the latter ; because a lunar eclipse is visible at every place on the earth which is turned towards the mocm during its continuance ; but in a solar eclipse the sun continues visible at all places over which the penumbra does not pass. The greatest possible duration of the annular appearauce of a solar eclipse is 12°* 24', and the greatest possible time during which the sun can be wholly obscured is 7°* 58*. As the beginning and end of a solar eclipse can be observed with considerable acounusr, they are usefUl fpr determining the longitude, though the method which they fiimish is complex and laborious. , Pa«t IL BookL t V-ii ^UPSES. ■MHlH*'f. Wt I instead of the atcst when the 'lie distance of >lace as coinci* at right angles evident that to other point of unction, there* ten the centres unction, it will luce barely an inction will be N (fff. 2.) le* Pf the node, and limit required : >n's orbit to the moon together ed by the semi* perpendicular I to the sum of n of the semU i-om the moon be made equal learly equal to ton, witmn thu an, the eclipse 3ter be greater the node, give nth in passing Since the ibout 23°, and there may be eclipse of the ull moons Uie may happen : there may node at the >pens early in )n the whole, of themcon: n than lunar, e is visible at lance ; but in ioes not pass. 12° 24', and B8'. tie accuiae^, )y furnish m mfectt qf atmospherical rtfracUmt parallax. In the preceding explanation of solar eclipses we have had occasion to ref'.* . o the efibcts of atiiosphxrioaXi nsniAOTioN ; also to the (liflerence between the apparent places of the sun and moon, called their farau.az, produced fhun their being viewed from the surfiice instead of the centre of the earth. Before leaving this subject we shall state a little more ftdly the effects arising from these causes. Atmospherical refraction. The earth is surrounded on all sides by an aeriform elastic fluid, which is called the atmosfhibi. This fluid possesses weight, and is compressible; ftnd hence tiie parts near the surface of the earth are more dense wan those above them, on account of Uie greater superincumbent pressure which they sustain. The same tiling holds true of every stratum when compared, m reference to density, with that immediately below it ; so that fh>m the surface upwiurds the density gradually diminishes, at a few miles' eleva- tion becomes very small, and at some point may be considered as altogether evanescent Now, it is a well Known principle, that if a ray of light, after pofning through one medium (air, for instance), enters another (say water) of a different density, in a direction not per- pendicular to its surikce, it is bent out of its course towards the perpendicular to the surface on which the ray is incident, if the second medium is the denser of the two; hut from that per- pendicular if the second medium is the rarer, In passing through the atmosphere, tlierefore, a ray of light will be continually deflected fiasn the rectilineal into a curvilinoal path ; be- cause at evei7 point of its course it is entering a medium of a greater density. The ra^ is said to be refracted ; and as the tangent draws fVom the eye to the curve which it describes is the direction in which celestial objects appear, it follows, that refraction renders the appa- rent altitude of all the heavenly bodies greater than the true. Hence they oflen appear above the horizon when they are actually below it The deviation of the refracted ray from its original course increases with the angle of incidence, and vanishes when the direction of the ray is perpendicular to the surfkce of the second medium. Hence atmospherical refiraction is greatest when the object is in the horizon, where it may be about 34': at 45° altitude, it is about 57^": in the zenith it vanishes. Whatever alters the density of the atmosphere must affect also its refractive power. In all accurate observations, therefore, the state of the barometer and thermometer must be taken into account At the same zenith distances, the quantity of refhiction varies nearly as the height of the barometer, supposing the temperature to remain the same. The effect of a variation in the temperature is to diminish the quantity of refractim about tn^ partfbr every increase of one degree in the height of the thermometer. In passing through the atmosphere light is refected as well as refiracted. The reflective power of the atmosphere produces the splendour of day by difiusing light in every direction. Combined with its refiractive power, it causes that faint light called twilioht, which is per- ceived before sunrise and after sunset ; — ^beginning in the morning in our latitude, and end- ing in the evening, when the sun's depression below the horizon is about 18°. Varioua ouer phenomena are to be attributed to tb } same cause : the red and orange colour of the morning and evening clouds ; the ruddy appearance of all the heavenly bodies when near the horizon ; the blue colour of the sky ; and the bright azure of the distant mountains, are all the effects of the refhu:tive powers of the atmosphere. Refraction is also the cause of the oval appearance of the sun and maim when near th* horizon. The diameter of the disc that is parallel to tiie horizon remains unaffected in its apparent length, because both extremities are equally refVacted ; but the diameter perpen- d'oulor to the horizon is shortened by about ^th of its length, because the lower edge of the disc, being nearer the horizon, is romicted nearly five minutes more than the upper. The great apparent magnitude of the sun and moon when in the horizon is another remarkable phenomenon which we may here notice. This illusion, which is altogether optical, is usually accounted for on this principle, that we form an erroneous judgment respecting the distances of these bodies when they are in the horizm, compared with their distances when they have attained a considerable elevation. When we see the moon, fi>r example, in the heavens at a considerable altitude, we intuitively suppose, her nearer than when she is in the horizon ; because, in the latter case, we see a multitude of objects,— many of them at great distances, and the moon beyond them all ; but in the former case, we have no intervening objects by which to form an estimate of her distance. The angle under which she is seen being nearly the same, we infbr a greater magnitude when we Imagine the distance greatest that is, when the moral is in tiie horizon. Such is the error into which we, in this instance, &1I, in the rajgid judgments of the mind reepecting mafni- tnde and distance connected with yMoo. xne more deliberate conclusion on ^his subject drawn by reason is, that the moon must uideed be at a greater distance fh>m an observer on the earth, when she is in his horizon, than when she is m or near his zenith ; but that how- ever the eye may be deceived, her apparent diameter must when exactly measured, be found less. This is accordingly the cose; for, when accurately measured wit)i the miciometen «':.?'• V loe PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. Part II. the moon's apparent diameter, when she ia in the horizon, is actually found to bo less than when she has attained a considerable altitude. ParaUax. We have formerly shown that, in comparison with the distances of the fixed stars, the earth is but as a point in the universe ; so that their positions in the heavens appear the same when viewed from the euth's surface, as they would if they were viewed nrom its centre. This, however, is not the case with regard to the sun, moon, and planets. At. each of these bodies the earth presents a disc of an appreciable ma^itude: and, on the other hand, their positions among the fixed stars, when viewed from different points of the sur&ce of the earth, vary, and are different from what they would be were they seen from the centre of the earth. Let A B E (Jg. 80.) be the earth, C its centre, and M, M", M' (a heavenly body, for example) the moon in the sensible horizon, the zenith, and any intermediate position. The true places of the moon in these positions, as seen from the centre C, and referred to the starry heavens, will be m, m", m' ; and their apparent places, as seen from B, wUl be n, m", n'. It is evident, that in the zenith the true and apparent places coincide, so that there is no parallax. In the horizon the parallax is greatest : it is measured by the arc m n, and is equal to the an^le BMC, under which the semidiameter of the earth's disc appears when viewed from the moon. At the intermediate position M' the parallax is measured by the arc m' n' ; it is less than in the horizon, and decreases as the body ascends until it vanishes when the body reaches the zenith. From the horizon to the zenith, punllax diminishes the apparent altitude of a body ; but as the altitude increases, this diminution becomes less and less. Its effect, there- ftore, is contrary to that of refraction, which always increases the apparent altitude of a body. CHAPTER XI. MOTION OF THE PLANETS ROUND THE BUN. The phenomena of the motions of the other planets differ from those of the moon, which, •8 we have shown, are all easily accounted for, on the supposition that the moon revolves round the earth in an elliptic orbit, subject to various changes ; which are confined, how- ever, within certain limits. The attempts which the ancient astronomers made to explain the celestial phenomena, by supposing the earth to be the centre of the universe, introduced a system, the ptolemaio, which was received for about 1500 years, as affording the true explanation of the planetary motions ; but which the progress of scientific discovery has proved to be absurd. Ptolemy, an astronomer of Egypt, who flourished about 140 years after the Christian era, supposed the planets to revolve about the earth in the following order ; viz. the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn. Beyond the region of die planets he placed the sphere of the fixed stars. While he thus accounted for the proper motions of the planets from west to east, he conceived the whole to be carried roimd the earth by a diurnal motion, in the opposite direction, in twenty-four hours. The irregu- larities of uie planetary motions, — these being sometimes direct, at other times retrograde ; sometimes swift, and at other times slow, — ^were imagined by him to arise frt>m each planet moving in a small circle, called an epicycle, whose centre was carried round a larger circle, called the deferent, having the earth placed a little to the one side of its centre. The motions in these circles he imagined to be produced by the revolution of transparent globes ; each planet being supposed to be attached to a globe, which carried it round in its epicycle; and this globe agam supposed to be contained in the shell of another globe of sufiicient thickness to receive it within its solid substance, and to allow it to revolve on its own centre, at the same time that it was carried in the deferent round the earth. Setting aside the obvious objections to this theory, arising from the extravagance of the suppositions, as well as the awkwardness and complication of the machinery which it em- ploys, an insuperable difficulty remains ; viz. that the whole system is entirely hypothetical, and offers no proof of the existence of the agents to which it attributes such mighty effects. It is not surprising, therefore, that instead of being confirmed by subsequent discoveries, it fell to the ground as soon as the true method of investigating the laws or nature was under- ■tood and iSopted. Of the planets, two. Mercury and Venus, always accompany the sun, never receding firom him beyond certain limits : the rest are seen at all possible angular distances from the sun. Let us, then, fix upon Venus as the most conspicuous of the two which accompany the sun, and uponMaJs as one of the most conspicuous among those which recede to all angular distances from him ; and by tracing out the apparent motions of these planets, let us endeavour to ascertain the centre about which they revolve. Paht II. bo less than fl of the fixed savena appear ) viewed from planets. At. i: and, on tha : points of the bey seen from enly body, (at lie zenith, and f the moon in referred to the parent places, tt, that in the 9 that there is ^atest: it is an^rle BMC, I disc apptears idiate position it is less than cends until it 3m the horizon ; altitude of a a effect, there* ludeofabody. I moon, which, noon revolves confined, how- ade to explain 'se, introduced ding the true discovery has )ut 140 years the following md the region mnted for the carried round The irreffu- BooK I. MOTION OP THfi PLANETS ROUND THE SUN. IM s retrograde; n each planet ound a larger of its cen&e. )f transparent it round in its ther globe of revolve on its th. agance of the which it em- ■ hypothetical, lighty effects, discoveries, it re was under- receding from 1 the sun. Let r the sun, and ular distances endeavour to When the planet Venus is near the sun, she is invisible ; but when she has emerged sufficiently fh)m his rays, she is seen in the twilight of the morning or jvening, according as she is to the west or east of the sun. In the former case she is the mornino star ; in the latter, the evening star. When she begins to be seen in the evening, she is found to be receding from the sun towards the east, and thus disengaging herself more and more fVcon his rays. Having reached her greatest angular distance, or elongation, which is from 45^ to 48°, she begins again to approach him, and contmues to do so till her angular distance ia about 28°. During all this tune her motion is direct, that is, in the order of the signs ; but now she becomes stationary, and in a short time she is seen moving in a direction contrary to the order of the signs, and has thus acquired a retrograde motion ; but still she continues to approach the sun, until in a short time she is lost in his light After being invisible for about six weeks, she is again seen ; but now in the morning to the west of die sun, emerging fh>m the solar rays. Her motion is still retro^rrad^ i ^^^ when she has reached about ^° distance from the sun, she again becomes stationaiv ; and in a short time resumes a direct motion, receding from him night after nig:ht, until her angular distance exceeds 45°. She then returns to the sun ; is for a time lost in his rays ; and at length is seen in the evening to the east of the sun, to repeat the same round of phenomena. While Venus thus appears to have an oscillatory motion to the east and west of the sun, she is found, when viewed through a telescope, to present phases exactly similar to those of the moon, Uie illuminated portion bein^ always turned towards the sun. We may hence infer that Venus is an opaque f)ody, and shmes in consequence of reflecting the solar light At the same time her apparent diameter also varies, its variations having an evident relation to the position of the planet with regard to the sun. The diameter appears least when the planet is about to be immersed in the rays of the sun in the mornings or immediately after her emergmg from them in the evening. On the other hand, it appears greatest when she is about to be lost in the solar rays in the evening, or when she emerges from them in the morning. Such is a general view of the apparent motion of Venus ; and by attending to the phenomena which she ex* hibits, we are fed to the conclusion that she revolves round the sun. When in the morning she begins to disengage herself from the solar rays, she is seen to rise before the sun in the form of a crescent ; and it is then that her diameter appears greatest At that time, therefore^ she must be nearer to us than the sun is, and not far Smm being in conjunction with him. Her crescent increases, and her diameter diminishes, m she recedes from uie sun : when she has reached her greatest elongation and returns agair. cowards him, she continues to discover to us more and more of her enlightened hemisphere, her diameter all the time diminishing, until she is lost in the mommg, in the sun's rays. At the instant of her disappearing, Venus is seen as a fiill disc ; and at the same time her diameter is least Hence we may with certainty infer, that she is then at a greater distance from us than the sun, and again nearly in conjunction with him. After having remained for some time invisible, she re* appears in the evening to the east of the sun ; and in receding from and returning towards him exhibits, in an inverted order, the same phenomena, in rererence to the changes in her disc and apparent diameter, which she had presented when seen in the morning, on the west of the sun : her enlightened hemisphere turns more and more from us, and her apparent diameter continually mcreases, until she again disappears, or is seen oa a black spot traversinjf the disc of the sun. From these phenomena only one inference can be drawn ; viz. tliat Venus revolves m an orbit near the centre of which the sun is placed. This conclusion, which rests on the firm basis of observation, leads to a natural and simple explanation of all the peculiarities of her motion. The planet Mars, the next to be considered, appears to be carried round the earth by a motion which is subject to great inequalities. When he begins to be seen in the morning emerging firom the solar rays, his motion is direct and at its greatest rapidity ; but it gradu- ally dunuiishes until the planet's angular distance from the sun is about 137°. At that time it changes into a retrograde motion, whose rapidity increases till the moment that the planet comes into opposition with the sun, or is on the meridian at midnight It is then at its greatest rate, and presently begins to decrease, continuing to do so till the planet becomes stationary when at the angular distance of about 137° from the sun. The motion now returns to its direct sttite, Ss\jer having been retrograde for about seventy-three days ; and in that period the planet describes an arc of retrogradation of about 16°. Mars continues to approach the sun, until he becomes immersed in his rays in the evening. These pheno* raena are repeated at every opposition of the planet with considerable difforences, however, in reference to the duration and extent of the retrogradations. At different points of hia course round the heavens, the apparent diameter of Mars is very difJerent : it varies &osa about 13.3" to 29.1". It is greatest when the planet is in opposition to tlie sun. The phenomena now described can be satisfactorily explamed in no other way but by sup- posing Mars to revolve round the sun. As he recedes from the sun to all possible angular distances, the earth must be situated within his orbit; but the inci-ease of his apparent ■liameter as he approaches his opposition, and its decrease when he approaches the sun, show Vol. I. 10 no PRINCIPLES OF OEOORAPHY. Part II |» nil! that t.hj cutti M not the centre of his motion. Before he reaches the point of oppoeitioi., hia mjtior flrom being dir^rt, becomoi retrograde; after the oppoaition it reaumea its direct ntate, whei. the planet is at the same distance fhun the sun, at which he was situated when the motion became retrograde ; and it is at the moment of conjunction that this last motion is most rapid. Now, all these circumstances evidently indicate that the apparent motion of Mars is the result of two combined motions, which altornately conspire with and oppose each oUier, and of which one depends on the apparent motion of the sun. As we have found that Venus revolves round the sun, and accompanies him in his apparent annual motion round tho earth, we are led by analogy to extend the same law to Mars, and to conclude that he also revolves in an orbit round the sun. The disc of Mars changes its figure, and becomes sensibly oval, according to his position relatively to the sun : hence we may conclude that Mors is an opaque body, and derives hia light fVom the sun. Tho same reasoning being applicable in the case of the other planets, we may extend to all of them tlie conclusion which we have now established in reference to Venus and Mars, '—namely, tliat they are opaque bodies, and revolve about the sun in orbits nearly circular ; while that luminary of the system either describes or appears to describe an orbit about the earth in the course of a year. This general law, which affurds a simple and complete expli- cation of the planetary motions, receives additional confirmation fi'om the phenomena of the satellites of Jupiter and the ring of Saturn ; for these phenomena prove directly that Jupiter and Saturn revolve about the sun in nearly circular orbits. CHAPTER XII. MOTION OF THE EABTH BOUND THE BUN. •,nJ4 The conclusion to which we have now been led, — that all the planets describe orbits that have the sun near to tlmir centre, — naturally suggests the question, whether the earth itself is not subject to the same law, and therefore to bie ranked among tlie planets which revolve round the sun. With regard to the celestial motions, every appearance would remain the same to us, whether the earth described an orbit round the sun, or the sun with his accom- panying planets revolved round the earth. To which of these hypotheses the preference is Gue will appear from the following considerations :— The immense masses of the sun and of several of the planets, combined with their grsat distances from the earth, render it much more simple to suppose that the earth describes an orbit round the sun, than that the whole planetary system revolves round the earth. What an inconceivable rapidity of motion is it necessary to assign to Saturn, almost ten times more distant fh)m us than the sun, or to Uranus, at about double the distance of Saturn, in order that these planets may complete a revolution round the earth in a ycor, At the same time that they revolve about the sun ! It is a law which is found to pervade the planetary system, that the less body revolves about tlie greater body which is in its neighbourhood ; and b^ supposing the earth, in conformity with this law, to revolve about the sun, which in ma^itude greatly exceeds all the planets taken together, we avoid all the complication and rapidity of motion which follow from the supposition of the eartli being at rest. The analogy which subsists between the eurth and the planets confirms the hypothesis of the earth being carried round the sun by a motion of translation : Jupiter, for example, is known to have a revolution on his own axis, and to be attended by four satellites. In these particulars the earth resembles that planet, having also a revolution on its own axis, and being attended by one satellite, the moon. An observer placed on Jupiter would be led from appearances to imagine that the planetary system revolved round him, in like manner as an inhabitant of the earth supposes himself placed at the centre of the celestial notions : and tho greater magnitude of Jupiter would give to such a conclusion, when drawn by an observer placed on that planet, a greater resemblance to the truth than it would have when drawn by an inhabitant of the earth. With such a close analogy in these respects before our eyes, may we not naturally conclude that it extends still futher ; and that as Jupiter revolves in an orbit round the sun, the earth must also have a similar motion 1 Let us imagine ourselves to be placed on the surface of the sun, and from that position to observe the earth and the planets. All these bodies would appear to move from west to eiist ; the planets would be found free from all that complication m their motion to which they appear subject when viewed from the earth ; and the motion of the earth itself would in every circumstance correspond with tliat of the planets. The more distant a planet is fiota the sun, the longer is the time which it requires to perform its revolution round him ; but throughout the planetary system this remarkable law prevails, connecting the periodic times with the distances, — the squares of the former are proportional to the cubes of the latter. If we compute, b^ this principle, what should be the tune of revolution of a planet situated at the distance of'^the earth from the sun, we find the result correspond exactly with the sidereal veai ; thus, the earth's distance firom the sim being assumed as unity, the distance of ^■:^r. Part IL )f oppoutioi., nes its direct ituatod when 8 last motion mt motion of 1 oppose each e have found nnual motion conclude that to his position id derives his lay extend to us and Mars, irly circular; bit about the implete cxpli- omena of the y that Jupiter .,'m4 ibe orbits that e earth itself which revolve Id remain the ith his accom- ( preference is th their gtwt 1 describes an larth. What ost ten times of Saturn, in At the same the planetary ^hbourhood ; lun, which in ilication and lypothesis of example, is In these wn axis, and vould be led like manner itial notions : drawn by an d have when spects before it OS Jupiter BoobL MOTION OP THE EARTH ROUND THE SUN. Ill cs, at position to west to eiist ; which they elf would in lanct is fiom nd him ; but eriodic times f the latter, uiet situated tly with the e distance ot Man is known to be I'fi2d603: his periodic time is 666*9796 days. Hence we have ri-fiSi693)3: 13:: (686*9796) 3: f865*256}3. The periodic time of a planet, at the aune distance from the sun as the earui is, shcHild therefore be 865*256 days, which is the length of the sidereal year. This result leaves no doubt that the motion which the earth would be seen to have, if it were viewed from the sun, arises from the same causes, and is regu- lated by the same laws as the motions of the phnets : hence we may conclude that it is no leas real. The motion of the earth in an orbit round the sun, which the preceding considerations render so highly probable, is directly proved by the phenomena of the aberration of light It was long supposed that light was propagated from the sun and other luminous bodiee instantaneously ; but modem observatiims have proved that this hypothesis is erroneous, and that light, like all other projectiles, occupies a certain time in passing from one pomt of space to anouer. The fact that light hajs a progressive motion was first discovered by Roemer, a celebrated Danish astronomer, from observations made on the eclipses which the satel- lites of Jupiter undergo when they fall into his shadow. He found that these eclipses happened sometimes sooner and sometimes later than the time deduced from the tables of their motions ; the observation being before or after the computed time, according as the earth was nearer to or farther from Jupiter than the mean distance. Repeated observations have proved, that when the earth is between the sun and Jupiter, his satellites are seen eclipsed about 8^ minutes sooner than they should be according to the tables ; but tlut when the earth is on the opposite side of the sun from Jupiter, the eclipses of his satellites happen about 8^ minutes later than the time shown by the tables. The only conclusion that can he drawn fbsm these facts is, that liglit occupies about 16^ minutes in traversing a space equal to the diameter of the earth's orbit, which is upwards of 190 millions of miles ; it must therefore move at the enormous rate of nearly 210,000 miles in a second. Now, if the earth is really in motion, it must be moving at the rate of about 20 miles in a second, in order to accomplish its revolution round the sun in the course of a year. This rate of motion, although small when compared with the velocity of light, bears to it a iensi- ble proportion ; so that on evident consequence of the earth's motion will be, that the appa- rent places of the heavenly bodies will not be the same as they would be if the earth were at rest Suppose A B to be a portion of the earth's orbit, S a fixed star, and S A the direction of light proceeding fh>m the star to the earth at A. It is evident that if the earth were at rest at A, a telescope presented in the direction A S would receive the light of the star, which, proceeding along the axis of the telescope, would reach the eye at A, and show the star in its true position. But if the earth be supposed to move firom A towards B with a velocity that bears a sensible proportion to the velocity of light, the ray S A, which enters ^E the telescope at C, cannot reach the eye, but must, in conse- Juence of the motion, be lost against the interior of the tube, n order that the light from the star may reach the eye when carried forward by the earth's motion, the telescope must have such an inclination to A B, that S F being supposed a ray parallel to S A, and meeting the axis of the telescope in D, A F may have to F D the same ratio as the earth's veloci- ty in its orbit hajs to the velocity of light ; that is, of 1 to 10,000 nearly. In this position of the telescope, the light entering at D will pass along the axis as it moves from A to F, and will reach the eye at F ; but the star will be seen in the oirection, not of F S, but of F £ : so that its apparent place differs from its true by a quan- tity measured by the angle S' F £ or A D F. The angle D F £ is the aberration which wUl evidently be towards that part of the heavens to which the earth is moving. Let the axis F E be supposed to be produced to the starry heavens : it will trace out on the convex sur- &ce a circle, if the star S is in the pole of tiie ecliptic ; but an ellipse in every other posi^ tion of the star. The true place of the star is the centre of the circle or ellipse. If the star be in the pole of the ecliptic, the angle D A F may be considered as a right angle ; for die line joining the star and the earth will always be perpendicular to the direc- tion of the earth's motion. In this cose, therefore, the angle A D F will be the greatest possible ; for the ratio of sin. A D F to sin. D A F is constant, being the same with the ratio of A F to F D, or of 1 to 10,000 nearly : so that sin. A D F is greatest, and therefore A D F is greatest when sin. D A F is the greatest possible ; that is, when D A F is a right angle. In the case of any other star the greater axis of the ellipse which it appears to describe round its true place as a centre wul be equal to the diameter of the cifcie which a star in the pole of the ecliptic would appear to describe about the pole as a centre : for the ellipse will be the orthographic projection of a circle equal to that described about the ^lole, the greater axis being the diameter, which is perpendicular to a circle of the sphere passing Uuough the star and the pole of the ecliptic, and at right angles to the ecliptic. . When tho lis PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. - '^ Part ir. i •tar ia in the ecliptic, it will appear to describe an arch equal to the greater axi< of the ellipee described by a star not in the ecliptic, or to the diameter of the circle of aberration that would be described by a star in the pole of the ecliptic. When angle D A F is a right angle, we have D F: F A: : rad: sin. Z A D F; that it, 10,000 : 1 : : 1 : '0001 = sine of greatest aberration, which will therefore be 20" nearly. The aberration of a planet will depend on its own motion aa well as on that of the earth. If tlio motion of the planet were caual and parallel to that of the earth, no aberration would take place. The aberration of a planet may be (bund by first considering the effect of the motion of the earth on the apparent place, and then the aberration arising from the planet's own motion. Such are the effects which, if the earth have actually a motion of translation that carries it in an orbit round the sun, must arise from that motion combued with the progreuive moticMi of light. To obtain, therefore, decisive proof of the earth's annual motion, it is only necessary to ascertain by accurate observation the existence of these phenomena. The true system of the world, which supposes the sun to be at rest in the centre, and the earth and planets to revolve round him, while the moon revolves about the earth, and the diurnal motion of the heavens arises from the motion of the earth on its axis, was taught by several of tlie ancient philosophers, and particularly by Pythagoras. It was also held by Archimedes ; but after him it was neglected, and even for^tten for many ages, until at length, in the beginning of the sixteenth century, it was revived and improved by Coperni- cus, fh)m whom it took the name of the Copernican System. Notwithstanding the beauty and simplicity which distinguished this theory, it was at first coldly roceived or utterly rejected. Tycho Brahe, on illustrious Dane, was among its adversaries. He regarded the doctrine of the earth's motion as untenable, without abandoning the testimony of Scripture : hence he was led to imagine another system, which bears his name ; in which the sun, with all the planets and comets revolving round him, is supposed to perform a revolution about the eartli in a solar year, while at uie same time all the heavenly bodies are supposed to be carried round the earth fi"om east to west in twenty-four hours. The only apparent difficulty connected witli the Copemican system arises firom the fact, that the earth's axis is always pointed to the same star, and that the stars preserve always the same relative positions ; though by the annual motion of the earth, a spectator on its surface views them at any two instants of time seoorated by the period of about six months, ttom two points nearly 200,000,000 miles asunaer. During the seventeenth century the sup])orters of the Copemican system laboured to remove this objection, by detecting a change in the position of the fixed stars. The minute and accurate observations instituted for this purpose led, in the end, to the important discovery made by the celebrated Dr. Bradley, that the ver;^ effects which we have shown, must result firom the annual motion of the earth combined with the progressive motion of light. He found that each star describes, round its true place as a centre, a small ellipse of wnich the greater axis is about 40" ; and that this ellipse approaches to a circle or to a straight Ime, which are its limits, according as the star is situated towards the pole 3f the ecliptic, or towards the ecliptic itself. No parallax is observable in the fixed stars arising from the earth's annual motion ; and hence it must be inferred that their distance is so great, that even the diameter of tlie earth's orbit is to be regarded as a point in the universe. From an attentive consideration of the celestial motions, we are therefore led to reject as erroneous the notions which ajypearances at first suggest respecting the system of the foorld. Instead of the globe which we inhabit being at rest in the centre of the universe, it is a planet in motion about its own axis and about the sun. In regarding it under this aspect, we find all the celestial phenomena explained in the most simple manner, the laws of the motions of the heavenly bodies appear uniform, and every analogy subsisting among them is preserved unbroken. Like Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus, the earth is accompanied by a satellite ; it revolves on its own axis as Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and perhaps all the planets; like them it receives light from the sun; and to complete the analogy, it revolves about the sun in the same direction, and according to the same laws. Bv following out the results arising from the earth's motion being combmed with the real motions of the planets and of light, we find all the phenomena of the heavens flow, as necessary conse- quences, from one great principle. Thus the motion of the earth acquires all the certainty of which a physical truth is susceptible. The vicissitudes of seasons arise, as we have already explained, firom ..he obliquitgr of the ecliptic to the equator. The ecliptic, which we have hitherto considered as the pam of the sun round the earth, we have now proved to be the orbit of the earth round the sun. Ilia axis of the earth's diurnal motion is inclined to the plane of its orbit at an angle of aliDut 66° 82', and remains, as the earth revolves round the sun, nearly parallel to itself. Hence the circle which the sun appears to trace in the heavens in the course of a year forms with the equator an angle of about 28° 28'. This produces the differences in the distribution uf the solar l*^ht and heat which we observe throughout the seasons of the year. Part If. ' axil of tlie of aberration » F; that is, 20" nearly, of the earth, rration would efibct of the 1 the planet*! n that carries 9 propreuive ion, it 18 only na. ;ntre, and the arth, and the iras taught by also held by iges, until at 1 by Copemi- IB the beauty id or utterly regarded the of Scripture : the sun, with olution about apposed to be I the fact, that trays the same surface views Jis, from two ^e supporters ^ange in the le end, to the ;ts which we e progressive intre, a small es to a circle rds the pole e fixed stars heir distance point in the led to reject (Stem of the he universe, it under this Her, the laws sting among iccompanied ' perhaps all analogy, it iy following tions of the ssary conse- he certainty quity of the path of tJie sun. !%« fie of aliDut ilf. Hence ' forms with tribution («f Boos I. ORBITS OP THE PLANETS 213 The parallolism of the earth is not absolute ; for the axis is found to have a slow motion of revolution fVom oast to west round a line passing through the centre of the earth, and perpendicular to the ecliptic ; its revolution being completed in the period of 25,746 years. In consequence of this motion the poles in the sphere of the starry heavens describe each a circle round the pole of the ecliptic, at the distance of 23° 28' nearly ; and the two points in which Uie terrestrial equator, when produced to the stknry heavens, cuts the ecliptic, shift to the westward, at the rata of about 60| seconds jrearly, which causes the pre'^emon (rf* tht equinoxes. A small inequality has been observed in the precession of the equinoxes, and in the mean obliquity of the ecliptic, which arises fh>m a sliffht motion in the earth's axis, whereby its inclination to the ecliptic is not always exactly the same, but varies backwards and forwu^s some seconds. Thi>« is called the nutation of the earth's axis, and was discovered by Dr. Bradley while employed in verifying his theory of aberration. The period of the changes of this inequality is nearly nine years. .1. .ffv'u'i'T'r '' ?•; 4fj'?'ti, H ' CHAPTER Xra. ORBITS OF THE PLANETB. To an observer placed on the sun, all the planets wonld appear to trace on the conolve Bur&ce circular paths, cuttmg each other at various angles, but all comprehended within a certain zone of the heavens of some degrees in breadth. The angle which tiie plane of Uie orbit of a planet makes with the ecliptic is called the inounatiom of that orbit; and the line of their intersection is called the unb or thb nodes. If a planet be observed twice in the same node, the nodo being supposed to have in the mean time remained Etationary, the posi- tion of the line of the nodes can be determined, and also the distance of the planets from Jie sun at the times of observation. Let a superior planet be observed in its node N from the earth at E, (,F^g. 32), and after the planet has made an entire revolution let the earth be at E'. Then, firom the time and the theory of the earth's motion, E E' is given, and the angles S E E', S E' E. But the angles SEN, S E' N are known by observation ; therefore, in ue triangle E E' N, the angles E E' N, E' E N, and the base E E' are given; and hence the sides N E and E' N may be round. Wherefore from either of the triangles S E N, S E' N the distance S N is determined ; also the angle ESN, which ascertains the position of the node as seen from the sun. From observations of this kind, made at times considerably distant from each other, it found that the nodes of each planet have a slow retrograde motion. Again, the distance of a planet from the sun, and its place as seen from the sun, may be determined from observations made at the time of its opposition to the sun. •■ ■'-*JV-:/ r. »■ . ," ' •;$■») i'-' '■ 1 ' ■ ^ iVrl'l. ;V. ) . l!'''"! ■'.• '. 1' 1 h'-' '■• '•'■•;H •'■'■; ;;- :, . ,\ * ) 'i n.v^^'- .&;.(K H; : , *' ■ t^-:,^/ X - i .1 * fc- ; .' # . . «r - ■ ■''-■ ■ > - — "■^ ^ •^^*if •h!>\' • ,Tp Si^-' ■..rc.U.vf ■ ' ...i... ^' '.: •« *. -_ t.L. I ».>i {Fig. 33). Let E be the earth, S the son, P the planet, O its pface reduced to the eclip- tic, S N the line of the nodes passing through the sun. Since the planet is in its oppom* tion, the points S, E, O are in the same strai(^t line. The angle E S N is known by the last problem, which determines the position of the line of the nodes ; therefore the arch O N in the heavens, which measures it, is also given. The angle P N O is equal to the inclination of the planet's orbit to the ecliptic, and is therefore given ; also the angle P O N is a ri^t angle. . Hence in the spherical triangle P N O, the perpendicultur P O and the hypot«iuse P N may be found. Now the arc P O is the measure of the angle P S 0» and P N is the meaaure of P 8 N ; therefore these two angles are given. In the rectilineal triangle P S £, the exterior angle P E O can be determined by oDservatioin ; the angle PSEorPSOis Jiven, and the base E S is known by the theory of the earth's motion; whence P S| th« istance of the planet from the sun, may be computed. Vol. L 10* P . * tl4 PRINClPLEa 01' GEOGRAPHY. Part II Orbit qf a planet. Sinco tlio anglo P S N !■ alio known, tho line P S ii given in imm^ tion as well aa in magnitude, ir many oppositions of a planet are thua obaervcd, and if the radii obtained bo laid down, the line connoctinff their extreme points will represent the orbit of the planet In this manner it is found that the orbits of all the planets are ellipses, having the sun in their common focus ; and that the angular motions of a planet round the sun are inversely as the squares of its distance flrom the sun : so that the sectors described hy the radius vector are proportional to the times. This exactly corresnonds with what was proved respecting the apparent motion of the sun in the ecliptic, and therefore the motion of the eartii is regulated by the same law. The planets whicn move immediately round the sun are called primart, their satellites are called becohdart PLANxn. Thus, the moon is a secondary planet to the earth. In considering the lunar motion, we found that the moon describes round the earth an elliptic orbit, and that the radius vector describes equal areas in equal times. The same holds of the satellites of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus; go tliat the same principle runs through the motions of all the bodies of tho planetary system. When the mean distances of the planets ore compared, and also their periodical times, it is found that the squares of the periodic times are as the cubes of the distances. The great general &cts which have now been pointed out respecting the orbits of the planets, and their motions in these orbits, were first discovered by Kepler, ai^cr he had employed immense labour and ingenuity in the research, and ore usually called KEPtBB'R LAWS. It may be proper tn bring them under one point of view : — I. The primarv planets all revolve in elliptic orbits round the sun, which occupies one of tho foci of the ellipse ; tho plane of the orbit passing through the centre of tho sun. n. The radius vector describes eaual areas m equal times. HI. The squares of the times of revolution in the planetary bodies are u the cubet of their distances from the sun. CHAPTER XIV. COMETS. The fixed stars and the planets are alwavs visible when not obscured by the superior light of the sun ; but the class of bodies called comets ore seen only when they arc in that put of their several paths which lies nearest to the sun : at all other times they move through regions of space far beyond the reach of our vision, even when assisted by the most powerful telescopes. The motions of the comets are, like those of the planets, performed in elliptic orbits according to Kepler's laws ; but, unlike the planetary orbits, die ellipses which the comets describe are extremely elongated : so that the small portion of their orbits through which we have an opportunity of tracing them coincides veiy nearly with a parabola, ine curve of which is the limit of the ellipse when its greater axis is indefinitely increased. The inclination of the orbits of the comets is very various ; some move in planes almost coincident with the ecliptic, and others in planes nearly perpendicular to it They move also in very different directions ; the motion of some being direct, and of others retrograde. The comets differ widely from the planets in their appearance, as well as in the figure and position of their orbits. When a comet is first seen, it is usually surrounded by a famtlv luminous vapour, which becomes more bright as the comet approaches the sun, and at length shoots out into a long luminous and transparent train, very much resembling a streamer, and extending in a direction opposite to the sun. The dense part of the comet, which both tc the nakeid eye, and when viewed through a telescope, resembles much tlie planetary bodies, is called the nucleus ; the fiiintly luminous vapour by which it is surrounded is called the coma ; and the long luminous train proceeding fh)m the comet in an opposite direction from the sun is called the tail. Between the nucleus and the ccmfi lies a part fainter than the former, btt brighter than the latter, and in which the nucleus appears involved : this is called (he head o" the comet The len{;thof the toil is very various. Sometimes it extends only a few degrees; in other cases it has been found to reach over more than a fourth part of the heavens. If a comet does not come veiy near the sun, the coma does not shoot into a tail, but retains the appearance of a nebulosity round the comet during the whole period of its being visible. The tail sometimes consists of two or more diverging^ streams of light, and is always so transparent that the smallest stars are seen through it without any Bennble diminution of their brilliancy. Nature of comets. In ages of ignorance, comets have al^rays, fixnn their extraordinaiy appearance, been sources of superstitions terror to mankind, lliis fear has been dissipated by the light of science, which has shown that the appearances of comet« are regulated by tne same laws as other celestial phenomena. We are still, however, dmost entirely igno> rant of the nature of these bodies, though a great many h3rpotheses have been formed con" ceming them. They were considered by some of the ancients, and particularly by Aristotle, ', ~."s',^"=':"fT''"r-*^7'"r"' *:„_ PaitU ii gfivon in jxm^ irvcd, and ir the present tho orbit I cllipflCB, having und the sun are described by the vhat was proved 3 motion of the ', thoir aatellitea the earth. In earth an elliptic le same holds of runs through the riodical times, it (ices. he orbits of the er, al^er he had called Kefub'i 1 occupies one of ' the Bun. I as the cubes of Book I. .W COMETS. IKi 1 by the superior 1 they arc in that ley move through he most powernil rormed in elliptic lipees which the ir orbits through nbola, '^e icreased. in planes almost 1 it They move hers retrograde, as in the figure nded by a famtlv in, and at length a streamer, and it, which both tc planetary bodies, ed is called the te direction from fainter than the this is called few degrees; fai ) heavens. If a but retains the ts beine visible, id is ahvays so le diminution of lir extraordinaiy I been dissipated ro rc'ulatsd by St entirely ignO' leen formed con- irly by Aristotle, IS accidental firoa or meteors generated in the atmosphere of the earth ; but this optaion is obviously groundless. If thoy were connected with the earth or its atmosphere, thoy would partake of^tho diurnal motion on the axia, and could not therefbrs appear to have a diurnal revolution in tlie heavens along with the other celestial bodies. Besides, their having no diurnal parallax proves that they are at a great distance fVom the earth ; while the fket of their apparent motion being affected by the annual motion of the earth shows that they are situated in the planetary regions. Observation has demonstrated that, like the planets, they arcpermanent bodies, and, m all probability, derive their light fixmi the son. From the small portion of the orbit of any comet which we have an opportunitv of observ- ing, we cannot ascertain with sufHcient accuracy the elements necessary for oetormining the period of its return ; but supposing that their orbits are not disturbed by any cause in those distant regions of space through which the greater portion of the paths of comets lie, it is evident that by accurately observing all the comets that come within view, and caro- fblly recording the results, in tho course of ages the return of many comets may be detected and their pcriom the sun when nearest to him was almost the same ; the position of the comet in the heavens at the time of its nearest approach to the sun likewise corre- sponded ; as did also the inclination of the orbit, the place of the nodes, and the variablenesa of tho motion, as being direct or retrograde. These coincidences rendered the identity of the comet almost absolutely certain. Hence Halley predicted its return in the end of 17S8 or the beginning of 1759. It appeared about the end of December 1758, and made its nearest approach to the sun on the 13th of March 1759, differing not many days fVom the time expected. Again it made its appearance, as predicted, at the completion of its period, toward the end of August, 1835. Though there can be no doubt of^ the identity of the comet of 1531, 1607, 1662, 1759, and 1835, the appearances were considerably different In 1581 the comet was of a bright gold colour ; m 1607, it was dark and livid ; it was bright again in 1682 ; and obscure in The mean distance of this comet from the sun is about eighteen times that of the earth ; but in consequence of the great eccentricity of its orbit, its distance, when at the fiuther extremity of its greater axis, is nearly double diat of Uranus, the most distant of the planets. When nearest to the sun, its distance fVom him is about ^tli parts of the earth's mean distance. A verv remarkable comet was seen in the end of 1680 and beginning of 1681. Its tail extended 70°, and was very brilliant. This comet, of all those which have been observed, approaches nearest to the sun. Descending with immense velocity in a path almost per- pendicular to his sur&ce, it proceeded until its distance fh)m his centre was only about 540,000 miles. Sir Isaac Newton computed that, in consequence of so near an approach to the sun, it must have received a heat 2000 times greater than that of iron almost going into flision ; and that if it was equal in magnitude to our earth, and cooled in the same man- ner as terrestrial bodies, its heat would not be expended in less than 50,000 years. Three observations on comets are recorded in history, agreeing in remarkable circum- stances with the comet of 1680 :— one in the 44th year before Christ ; another in the con- sulate of Lampadius and Orestes, about the year of Christ 531 ; and Uie third in the reign of Henry I. of England, in the year 1106. These dates are nearly at equal distances of time, namely, 675 years ; which is also the period between 1106 and 1681. Hence Dr. Halley conjectured that these might be successive appearances of one and the same comet, revolving about the sun in the period of about 575 years. If this conjecture is weU founded, this comet may be expected again, after finishing the same period, about the year 2255. A comet remarkable for its beauty appeared in 1811. The tail of this comet was com- posed of two divergmg streams of faint light, slightly coloured, which made an angle of from 15° to 20°, and sometimes much more, ai^ were bent outwards. The space between was comparatively obscure. When at its greatest length, the tail subtended an angle c£ at lea^t 16° ; and was then computed to extend about 23,000,000 miles in length. ilesides Dr. Halley's comet there are two others whose returns have been observed, and the elements of their orbits determined, with such certainty, as to enable astronomers to predict their re-appearance. One of these was recognised for the first time in 1819 as a neriodic comcf. Encke, a Crerman astronomer, has determined the time of its revolution no T.ES OP OEOORAPIfY. Part II nearly. Tho othnr wu lut M«n in \H!i2. ' rnian Mtronnmor, to bo »ix ynare and iir' . '^omoU whoM porioda are curtainly ihriin 'lio wn to ' "^ " rf* nml thffu Itfl perkKlif tirav' > <'d by Bit three quau '•. Altogotlit thero tru known. Danger frmn comtti, Ai tl.o comota fraverM tho pliuintarv r«giona in all dircctinnii, it it natun' inquire whether Uioro i» not a |xN«ibility that m>u> /nn of thom may apprcech ■0 nc 'lio earth om greatly to diHtnrb ita motion, or by an actuul contact to produce tho tnusl iiiN troua utlirta. Upon tliia auli, t thoro ia no rooaoniiblo groimd for foar. If it i« not abaoliitxly impoaaibl*^ that a cumot may ">nio in contact with the earth, the probabilitioa aifainat auc. \ nvcnt hu|'|Nuiing tro oa ntilllnns to one Amon^f bcdiea ao ainul in com- piriaon witli uiu m nso h|>u( o m which tlioy move; u ' movinf^ with all velocitioa, and m orbita that arc incm. \ in all diroctiona, and uro of all dimonaiona, how amall muat be tho probability that any two ahall come in contact I Small, howovnr, aa thia probability is fur any one %ge, if we take into account a k)n{f aorioa of agca, tho probability may bo greatly incroaaod. If wo auppoae tho earth actually to roccivo such a ahock, it ia oaay to imagine tho calami- toua conaequencoa which muat follow. Tho axia and motion of rotation being changed, tlie waters of tlio ocean would Icavo thoir ancient poHition, and would be precipitated towarda the now equator. A groat part of tlio human raco, and of tlio lower anixnala, would bo drowned by thia univoraal dolugo, or doatroyod bv tho violent uhock improvsod on Uio tor- reatrial globe. Wliole apeciua of onimala might bo annihilated. All tho monumonta of human induatry and invention would be ovortlirown. In audi a catoatropho we And, too, a cauao adequate to account for tho ocean having overflowed lofly mountaina, on which it haa left incontoatablo evidence of ita preaonco ; and to exnlain how thu animals and planta of the aouth may have oxiatod in the climates of tlio north, whoro wo And tho romaina and im- preaaiona of them. Laatly, auch an event accounts for tho rocontnoaa of tho modem world, tho monumcnta of which go back scarcely 3000 years. The human race, reduced to a small number of individuala, and to tlio most miserablo condition, would fur a long time be mainly occupied in providing for thoir prosorvation, amidst tho wreck which surrounded tlioni, and would loBO all remembrance of arts and sciences; and when, by tho progroaa of civilization, they at length became sensible of tho want of tlioso, they would find it necessary to rocom- monco, UN it man had been newly placed upon tho earth. It aeoins impossible to contcniplato tho picture of calamity hero drawn, without being fbrcibly struck with tliis singular coincidence ; — that if we suppoao tho period of the comet of 1680 (which in tliat year mode a considerably near aii; Uieir cause. Tho sTiOtions of the heavenly bodies have been variously accounted for. We hs ■ . 'if Aj adverted to the rude mechanism of deferent and epicyclic- spheres, by which soiub ui' Ue ancient philosophers attempted to explain the celestial nnotions. This doctrine originated with Eudoxua and Callipua But a more sensible attempt was made b^ Cloanthes, another philosopher of Greece, who, from observmg that bodies are easily carried round by whirl- pools or vortices of « - 4r, imafprod that the celestial spaces are filled with an ethereal fluid, which is in con'.:. •*} ino'^^iou round the earth, and that it carried the sun and planets ¥ ; :'the&i9 af&rds no real explanation of the phenomena, it was . r; ■ niuii>V'i.ud by two of the most eminent mathematicians and ;!!L)i >, i>: Ikis Carted arid Leibnitz, and for a long time met with J>'!;i oiuoh nearer ap:.i'<^imation to right conceptions on this sub- ject was made by many philoroplers, both of '. -.cient and modem times, who supposed that the planets were deflected from uniform rectilineal motions, by fbrces similar to what we observe in the motions of magnetical and electrical bodies, or in the motion of common heavy bodies; where one body seems to influence the motion of another at a distance fhun it, witli- out any inten'oning impulsion. Femiat was the first who suggested that the weight of a round with it. Tho'^prh revived in modem tUif- philosophers in Euror , (leneral acquiescence Paet n Mon in inns. lix ycara ami I are curtainly liroctiniM, it i« may approach produce the fear. If it ia pn)babilitio8 iniall in com* yelooitioa, and mall muit be probability it iiay bo greatly ne the calami- changod, the tatod toward! ala, would bo id on tlie ter- inonumonta of wo And, too, a n whicli it liaa and pkntH of maina and im- modom world, icod to a unali imo be mainly [led Uioni, and of civilization, lary to rocom- without being 1 of the comet '■ orbit) to be )eriod of 4028 :ed by chrono- e in approach of a comet ttt (fy, though a very near the Book I LAW OP UNIVERHAL OP/* VITATION. 117 eneraV-' 'he! be deuub n i ha 'f .■'jf ,•'; sbiui. ui me ne originated ithea, another ind by whirl- an ethereal and planets omeno, it was maticians and ime met with IS on this sub* supposed that to what we ommon heavy firom it, witli* e weight of a body is the mim of the tendencies of each pcirticlo of mr ' r in the body to every particle of the earth. Kepler riuuio another approximation to thn truth when ho said, that if there were two bodies placed out of the roach of all external force and at pcffrrf liberty to move, they would approach each other with velocities inversely projN iiicnal to their (lunntilico of matter- whon he asserted that the eartli and tho moon mutually attract earh other, and im' prevented ft' I a miwting by their revolution round their coimn' > centre of n ' -ictbn; and when ho attributed tho tides to tho attractive influence of liie i ii in hoapint; ^P '''" waters iinme- dutoly under her. But Dr. Hooke mailo tho most precise surmise to this purpooe. At a meeting; of i Royal Society, Minr JJ, 1608, ho expressed himself in tho foil wing manner: — "I will explain a system of tho world very diflbrcnt from any yet received, and it is founded on tho three fbllowinir propositions : " I. That all the heavenly bodies have not only a gravitation of their parts to their iwn proper centres, but hit ' ley also mutually attract cacn other within their spheres of action. **2. That all H. f f ha- Inga simple motion will continue to move in a straight line unless continnally doi^':' ' Vm . ,, by some extraneous force causing them to descrioo a circle, an elliiNN), 01 ■■•ne riior cui . o. "3. Tim thJH ntiractiou is so much tho greater as tho bodies arc nearer. As to the pro- port! n in .v'lii > tse forces diminish by an increase of distance, I own I have not yet dis- co, •' ' it, althoti^'h I have mode some experiments to that purpose. I leave this to otliern wl.( '.'■■ e time and knowledge sufllcient for tho task." I'uu truly philoHophical views stated ii> tlicso propositions relatively to tho celestial motions were illustro'od by a very pretty experiment, which Ilooko had some time before exhibited to tho Society. A ball, suspenued by a long thread fVom the ceiling, was mado to swing round another ball laid on a table immediately below tho point of suspension. When the impulse given to tho pendulum was very nicoly adjusted to its deviation from tho perpendi- cular, it described a perfect circle round tho ball on tho table ; but when the impulse vvoa very groat or very littlo, it described an ellipse having the other ball in its centre. Tlio iurce, under tho influence of which this circular or elliptic motion was produced, Hooke showed to bo a deflectini^ force, proportional to tho distance from the other ball. But he added, tliat although this illustrated tho planetary motions in some degree, yet it was not fuitablo to their case ; for the planets describe ellipses, having tho sun not in their centre but in their focus, vo that they are not retained in tlmir orbits by a force proportional to the distance fVom the sun. Thus wo BOO that certain points of resemblance between the motions of tho planets and the motions of magnets and heavy bodies, had attracted tho attention of many philosophers; but these observers failed to deduce from tho principles which they so dimly perceived any satisfhctory conclusion. At length tho powerful genius of Sir Isaac Newton was directed to the subject, and by his penetrating sagacity the law of universal gravitation was brought fiilly into view, and successfully applied to explain tho celestial phenomena. He hod retired from Cambridge to tho country on account of tho plague, and wiiilc walking in his garden he was led to meditate on tho planetary motions, and on the nature of that central force which retains tlie planets in their orbits. The thought happily occurred to him that the same force, or Bome modifica- tion of the same force, wliich causes a heavy body to descend to the earth, mii^jiit extend to the moon, and might retain that body in its orbit by dcflectmg it from the rectilineal path. However plausible this conjecture i light appear, the mind of Nowton was too deeply imbued with tho true spirit of philosophy to adopt it as the groundwork of a theory, unless it could bo sho^^n by cs^ -ulation to be coin<'idcnt with fact. But before it could be brought to this to ' ■' was necessary that ho should fbrm some conditional hypothesis respecting the modi- fit a. lun of tho force as the distance increased, and also that he should know nearly the magnitude of tho earth. Tho hypothesis which ho assumed with regard to the modification of the force according to the increase of the distance was correct ; namely, that the force decreases as the square of the distance increases. But ho made a fiilse estimation of the bulk of the earth; so that his calculations showed that his conjecture did not agree with the phe- nomenon : he accordingly abandoned it A few years afterwards he was induced, however, to renew his calculations, having in the interval obtained more correct data, in consequence of the measurement of a degree in France by Picard. The attempt now succeeded ; and it is said that, as his calculation!? drew to a close, he became so agitated that he was obliged to request a fiiend to finish thf His former conjecture was found to agiee with the pheno- mena with the utmost precision ; and in exploring the grand scene which was now laid open before him, he was led to an explanation of^ the system of the world, consisting simply in an accurate narration of fftrtS; and such an arrangement of them as showed thsir mutiial depen- dence, and, at the same time, their reference to caio if reat fact of which they were all neces- aan consequences. We are now to explain briefly the theory of gravitation ; but our account of it must of course be verv limited. 118 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. PabtIL :!*'■' T 4: J There ia nc phenomenon in nature more familiar to us than motion ; and although it be ffreatiy diversified according to the causes by which it is produced, yet all motions are sub- ject to the three following laws : — 1st Law. Every body continues in a state of rest, or of uniform rectilinear motion, unless affected by some mechanical force. 2d Law. Every change of motion is proportional to the force impressed, and is made iu the direction of that force. 3d Law. Every action is accompanied by an equal and contrary re-action. It is a consequence of the first two laws, that if a body or particle of matter be subjected at tiie same time to the action of two moving forces, each or which would separately cause it to describe the side of a parallelogram uniformly in a given time, the body will describe the diagonal uniformly in the some time. By these very simple laws, tlio result of expe- rience, and by the principles of geometry, Newton established the sublime doctrines «f the planetary motions. It will not be expected tliat we should enter at any considerable length into the recondite doctrines of J)hysical astronomy. This subject requires for its fiill discussion ample space, and dl the resources of the higher mathematics : the mere elements of geometry, however, are sufficient to indicate geneiully some of ttie fundamental principles. Let us suppose that a (Jig. 34.) is a fixed point, «~...^ ^ and that a body moves in ,'' "'""'•-JE,-'' '\ the direction A B with an "" ' uniform velocity, at such a rate, that if not disturbed by any external cause, it would move from B to ft in '..^^T> a, second of time. Let us also suppose that when the body arrives at B, it re- ceives an impulse in the direction B S, and of such intensity, that, if acting alone, it would cause the body to move uniformly from B to H in a second. Complete the parallelo* gram H B 6 C, and draw the diagonal B C : the impulse at B, combined with the tendency to continue its motion in the line B b, will cause the body to move alon^ tlie diagonal B C ; so that at the end of a second it will actually be at the point C ; and if no external cause acted on the body, by the first law, it would continue to move uniformly ever afler in the direction B C c ; so that in the next second it would describe a line C c, eqtial to B C. But now suppose that the body, when at C, receives a second impulse in the direction C S, by which it would be carried uniformlv fVom C to I in a second : then, completing the parallelogram D I C c, the actual path of the body will be the diagonal C D, which will be uniformly described in a second ; and if undisturbed, the motion would be continued uniformly in the straight line C D d, tlie distance D d described in the next second being equal to C D. A third impulse at D, in the direction D S, such as would carry the body uniformly from D to K in a second of time, would, when combined with the tendency to move in the direction D d, produce a motion along D E, the diagonal of the parallelogram E K D J, and a fourth impulse in the direction E S, would, when combined with the motion in the direction E e, produce a motion along the diagonal E F, and so on. In this way, by successive instantaneous impulses, a body may be made to describe the rath A B C D E F, &c., which will be all in one plane. Since the lines A B, B 6 are equal, the triangles A S B, B S 6 are equal ; but because C 6 is parallel to S B, the triangle B S 6 is equal to the triangle B S C ; therefore the triar gle B S C is equal to A S B. In like manner, it may be proved tliat C S D is equal to B S C, and D S E to C S D, and so on : thus it apoears that the triangles A S B, B S C, C S D, D S E, &c. arc all equal. If we suppose a straight line to be drawn from the moving body to the fixed point S, and to be continually carried along with it, it is evident that this lino will pass over or generate the equal areas ASB,BSC, CSD, DSE, &c. m equal intervals of time: it is also evident tha . the shorter the interval between the impulses communi- cated to the moving body, the greater will be the number of sides of the figure formed by the diagonals of the parallelograms, and the nearer will tlie line composed of these diagonals approach to a curve. If we suppose-, therefore, that the body is urged towards F by a fofce acting, not at intervals, but incessantly, the body will move in that curve to which, as its limit, the line, composed of the diagonals continually approaches, while the Ime drawn fix)m the movmg body A S, or radius vector, will continue to describe areas pro- portional to the times. Book I. LAW OP UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION. US and although it bo 11 motions are sub- lear motion, unleaa led, and is made iu ion. atter be subjected d separately cause body will describe he result of expe- e doctrines «f tlie into the recondite Bsion ample space, eometry, however, ■et us suppose that 4.) is a nxed point, a body moves in :tion A B with an irelocity, at such a t if not disturbed external cause, it ove from B to & in of time. Let us ose that when the ives at B, it re- n impulse in the B S, and of such , that, if acting would cause the move uniformly o H in a second. • the parallelo. B 6 C, and draw nue its motion in at the end of a the body, by the C c ; so that in )8e that the body, vould bo carried C c, the actual >ed in a second; line CDd, tlie mlse at D, in the second of time, woduce a motion in the direction a motion along ilses, a body may lane. al; but because refore the triar D is equal to B J,BSC,CSD, moving body to lat this lino will equal intervals ulses communi- fure formed by iposed of these rged towards P that curve to ches, while the sribe areas pn>' The force which urges the body towards S, ia called a centripetal foroi. If the action of that force were to cease, the body would proceed in a straight line, — a tangent to iti curvilinear path. The tendency of the body to proceed in the direction of the tangent, ii called its obntrifvoal foboc From the important conclusion to which we have now been led, we may infer, conversely that if a body revolve in a curvilinear path about a point, and if the radius vector drawn ftom that pomt describe round it areas proportional to the times, the body is deflected from the rectilineal path by a force directed to that point Now, this is exactly the case of the planets, both primary and secondary. The former describe curvilinear orbits round the sun and, according to the second of Kepler's laws, the radius vector describes areas proportional ■ to the times. Hence we may infer, that each is retained in its orbit by a centripetal force directed towards the sun ; and that this force is counteracted by a centrifugal force genera- ted by the planet's motion in its orbit In like manner, each secondary planet revolves about its primary, the areas described by the radius vector following the same law ; so that the seconuary must be acted upon by a centripetal force directed towards the primary planet The next thing to be determined is the law of the centripetal force when a body moves in an elliptic orbit, the force being directed towards one of tlie foci First, let us suppose a body to revolve in the circumference of a circle ADC (Jiff, 35.), about any point S, as the centre of its motion, and let us inquire into the law of the centripetal force in that case. ^ 86 Draw the chord A S C, and let A D be so small on arc, that it may be considered coincident with its chord. Draw D E parallel to the tangent A B, and join C D. Then A D will measure the velocity of the body m its orbit at the point A, and A E the space over which the centripetal force directed towards S, if acting alone, would cause the body to move in the time in which it moves from A to D. Put v to denote tho velocity, and / Uie centripetal force. Since the triangles A DC, A E D, are equiangular and similar, we have A C : AD=AD: AE; that is, A C : i; = w ••/ : therefore/- j^ Next, let A P B (Jiff. 36.) be the elliptic orbit of a planett S the focus in which the sun is placed, A the point at which the planet is at its greatest di^itance from the sun, and P any other point in its orbit. Join P S ; draw the tangent P D, ".nd draw S D perpendicular to P D. Let v and v' denote ths velocities of Uie planet at A and P respectively ; and c and c' the chords of the equicurve circles at A and P which pass through the point S, and let /be the deflecting force at A, and /' tiie deflecting force at P. Then from what we have proved respecting a body moving in the circumference of a circle round any point P as the centre of its motion, we have/;/' = — : •^ = r'c' : v'*c. But since the small arcs which represent the velocities at A and P must be supposed to be described in equal times, the corresponding areas described by the radius vector will also be equal. Hence it is not difficult to see that v X A S = t' X S D, and t» : v' = S D : S A. We obtain, therefore, /: /'= S D' X c': S A' X c. Draw P E perpendicular to the tangent P D, meeting the axis in E, and draw E G perpendicular to P E, and E H perpendicular to P G. From the pro- perties of the ellipse, P H is equal to half the principal parameter, and consequently to half of c, the chord of the circle, of equal curvature at A, which passes through S. Also P G is half of c', the chord of the equicurve circle at P, which passes through S. Therefore, /:/'=2SD'X PG:2SA'XPH. = S D" X P G : S A» X P H. Now, from the similar triangles G P E, E P H, we have GP:PE = PE:PH; hence G P : P H = G P* : P £•. But the triangles G P E, PSD being also similar, G P* : P E' = P S':SD'; therefore, G P : P H = P S' : SD'; and P S'XP H = S D'xG P: and since it was shown that/:/'= S D'X P G : S A'xP H, wherefore/: /'=P S'XP H: S A* XP H; or leaving the common factor P H out of the two consequents we have /:/'=PS': SA». Thus we have arrived at this important conclusion ; that the force by which the planets evolvs round the sure in elliptical orbits, the sort beinff in one of the foci, and the radiu$ vector describing areas proportional to the times, it always inversely as the squads of the distances. rsc PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. PartU. There remains yet another point to be determined respectinff the fprce$ which retain the different j^mieta in their orbits; nomely, whether there is any anatogy between them. From Kepler's third law, wo blow iliat the squares of the periodical times of «ay two of tiie planets are proportional to tiie cubes of their mean distances frran the sun. This law is independent of the eccertricities of the orbits ; and tho same relation would subsist between the mean distances and the periodic times, though the eccentricities were to become infinitely small ; or, what is the eamo thing, the orbits were to become circles. Let us then suppose the planets to move with uniform velocities in circular orbits, having the sun in the centre. This supposition differs very little tram the truth. Put v, v' to denote the velocities of two of the planets, r, r' the radii of their orbits, t, t' their periodic times, nnd/,/' the forces by which tiiey are retained in their orbits. From what we have already bliown respecting a body moving in a circle round any point aa the centre of ita motion, we have/= ^and/' =|J, therefore/: /'"='7- : ^. But since the circumferences of circles are to one another as their radii, and the velocity or the space passed over by the planet in the unit of time is equal to the circumferen'. c of its orbit, divided by the periodic time expressed in that unit, it is evident that v : v'^-j- :— : hence — : ^-=-5- '• -pi't or, since t" : f'=r' : r", -^ : '^=~ : 4=-=- : ■7i=r"' - r". Wherefore -we obtain/:/' This result shows that the forces which, acting on two planets, would cause them to describe circular orbits, agreeing with Kepler's third law, are inversely as the squares of the distances. Hence we may infer the sameness of the force which retains the planets in their respective orbits ; since it varies from orbit to orbit, according to the very same law which regulates its intensity at different distances in the same orbit. This conclusion is fully established by the fact, that the force which acts upon the comets during their descent to the sun, varies exactly according to the law which we have now assigned as the law of the planetary force. The comet of 1759, which was predicted by Dr. Halley, came from regions far beyond the most distant of the known planets, and approached nearer to the sun than Venus ; and when it arrived at the same distance from the sun as any of the planets, its deflection fiwm the rectilineal course by the action of the centripetal force, was the very same as that of the planet. We may, therefore, conclude, that it is one and the same force which deflects all the planets as well as the comets. From what has now been shown, it is evident that if all the planets were placed at the same distance from the sun, they would all be deflected equally by the centripetal force independently of the quantity of matter in each. Hence it follows that, at equal distances, the centripetal force must act equally on every particle of matter of which the planets are composed ; so that if one planet contain exactly double the quantity of matter that another planet contains, and if botn are placed at exactly the same distance frumthe sun, tlie former will receive a double impulse. We may infer, therefore, that another law of the force which retains the planets in their orbits is, that, at equal distances, it is proportional tc the mass on which it acts ; and that if two bodies act on the same particle of matter, the forces which they exert are proportional to their masses. The force may be supposed to be produced either by a cause residing in the body which is placed in the centre of motion, or by a cause residing in the revolving body. In the former point of view, it is called a force of ATTRACTION ; m the latter, a force of gravitation. The truth is, however, that the cause of this force is absolutely unknown. We see only the effects produced, and from these we investigate the laws which connect them with each other, and the general principles op which they depend. Thus, from the fiicts discovered by Kepler respecting the planetary motion, we have showm that each planet has a tendency towards the sun, in consequence of which from a state of rest it would move towards nim, acquiring at every instant an increase of velocity according to a flxed and determinate rulb dr law which applies alike to all the p'anets. This tendency, if not counteracted, would bring the matter of the sun and planets into one mass. This, however, is prevented from taking place, in consequence of an impulse having been originally communicated to each planet,, giving it a constant tendency to move in a straight line with an uniform velocity. The effects arising from these two tendencies are so adjusted, as to produce elliptic orbits. But the law which regulates the effects arising from the tendency of the planets towards the sun remaining the same, such a velocity might have been communicated to each planet, by the original impulse which gave it its tendency to move uniformly in a straight Ime, as would have produced parabolic or hyper- bolic orbits. In a circular orbit, if the centre of motion comcide with the centre of the orbit, the velocity of a planet is uniform, and of such rapidity as at every point to produce a tendency to move in a tangent to the orbit, exantly sufficient to counterbalance t^e t^nuency lo move towards the centre of the orbit If the orbit be elliptical, and one of the foci ttie centre of motion, the motion of the planet is variable, and its tendency to move uni- tbrmly in a tangent to the orbit sometimes exceeds, and at othel: times fiuls dioit 0^ that " vypnj^ Book I. LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION. « vhich retain the >gy between them. 1 times of tcaj two the sun. Thia law tion would Bubaist jntricities were to come circles. Let ' orbits, having the Put V, v' to denote leir periodic times, it we have already e of its motion, we iferences of circles sr by the planet in the periodic time ire we obtain/:/' rould cause them lely as the squares retains the planets the very same law This conclusion is uring their descent ^cd as the law of Holley, came from ched nearer to the sun as any of the itripetal force, was Eit it is one and the ;ts were placed at e centripetal force at equal distances, oh the planets are latter that another the sun, tlie former law of the (one is proportional tc icle of matter, the lay be supposed to centre of motion, lew, it is called a however, that the ed, and from these leral principles op tary motion, we equenco of which ant an increase o^ es alike to all the le sun and planets nee of an impulse tendency to move 3e two tendencies the effects arising such a velocity which gave it its rabolic or h)rper- thc centre of Uie )oint to produce a ice i^e tendency one of the foci may to move imi- uls short 0^ that which would be necewaiy to canse it to revolve in a circle at the same distance from the centre of motion. Let A D B E be the elliptic orbit of a planet revolving about the sun, which is supposec to be placed in the foeua S. Suppose the planet to set out from A in the directic \ A P A being the point of its greatest distance from the sun. At A the direction of the p.anet'8 motion is at right angles to the radius vector, and if the velocity were such as to produce a tendency to move in the direction of the tangent A 6, exactly equivalent to the tendency of the planet to move towards the sun, the planet would revolve in a circle of which S la the centre, and S A the radius. But the velocity bemg supposed less, the path of the planet will fall within the curcle, and the angle S P H contained between the radius vector and the tangent P H, which shows the direction of the planet's motion, changes from aright angle to an acute angle. The tendency of the planet towards the sim is now exerted partly in accelerating its velocity in its orbit, and partly in- curvating its path. While the planet describes the quadrant A P D, its velocity is always less than that which would produce a circular motion ; until it is at the point D, and then the velocity is precisely what would be sufficient for a circular motion about S, if its direction were perpendicular to tha radius vector : the direction, however, bemg oblique, the planet is brought still nearer to S. The tendency towards the sun is, in a great measure, still exerted in accelerating the motion, and as soon as the planet passes D, its velocity becomes greater than what might produce a circular motion about S. The angle S D K is, therefore, the least angle which the radius vector makes with the direction of the planet's motion, and from the moment when the planet passes the point D, that angle begins to increase ; and the effect of this is to cause the tendency of the planet towards the sun to be principally exerted in incurvating the orbit Its influence in accelerating the planet's motion, though it still exists, is gradually diminished, until the planet arrives at Sie pomt B, where it ceases altogether, in consequence of the radius vector being at right angles to the tangent B L. As the velocity of the planet at B is greater than what is sufficient to produce a motion in a circle of which the radius is S B, the path of the planet &lls wholly without that circle; and consequently, it is now receding from the sun. The angle which the radius vector makes with the direction of its motion becoming obtuse, the tendency of the planet towards the sun is now partly employed in retarding its motion, so that its velocity is diminished. The angle contained between the radius vector and the direction of the planet's motion increases while the planet is moving from B to £, and decreases from £ to A, when it be- comes a right angle, as it had formerly decreased from A to D, and increased from D to R The velocity of Uie planet in ite orbit must, therefore, decrease from B to A, as it had for* merly increased from A to B ; at the point £ it will be equal to what it was at D, and from E to A, the influence of tho planet's tendency towards the sun to diminish its velocity will become less and less, until when the planet has arrived at A, it will cease altogether. The velocity is then the same as at first, and the motion goes on in this way for ever. Whatever has now been deduced firom Kepler's Laws respecting the orbits of the pri- mary planets, and Uie law of the force by which they are describ^, will apply equally to the orbits of the secondary planets : for in each of these little systems, there is the same analogy between the periodic times and the distances, which takes place in the general system; the figure of Uie orbits is also elliptic, and the areas described by the radius vector is proportional to the times. We may legitimately conclude, therefore, that the satellites revolving about any planet, are retained in their orbits by a force inversely proportional to the squares of their distances from their primary planet; so that all the celestial motions are produced by forces regulated by this general law. The foree that keeps the Moon in her orbit is, then, the attraction of the earth, or hergrar vitation towards the earth. But we find that the earth attracts all the bodies near its sunace by a force which is proportional to the mass of the body attracted. Whatever be tlie weight of a body, it falls to the earth from the same height in tho same time, and with the same velocity. Thus, if the resistance of the atmosphere be removed, it is found by experiment that the lightest feather falls to the earth, from a given height, in the very same time, and with the very same velocity, as a stone, however great its weijrht Let us inquire whether the force which retains the moon m its orbit may not be identined with this attracuve force which causes the descent of heavy bodies to the surface of the earth. W^e may without great error suppose the lunar orbit to be circular, and ita semidiameter to be equal to sixty semidiameters of the earth. Let it be represented by the circle C M A, the earth being supnosed to be placed at the centre E ; and let M C be the small portion Vol. L 11 Q PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Pabt li. of the orbit which the moon describes in a second of time. Draw M B a tanjrent to the orbit at M : draw also C D paral- lel to M B, and C B parallel to M A, the diameter of the orbit The arch M C may he regarded as coincident with its chord ; therefore, joining A C, it is evident that in the right angled triangle A C M we have A M : M C=M C : M D. Hence, since A M and M C are known, M D or B C, the deflection of the moon ftom the tangent in a second, by the attraction of the earth, may be found. The moon describes her orbit round the earth in about 27<: 7** 43"* or 2,360,580 seconds ; the circumference of her orbit is about 60 times the circumference of the earth, that is, if w? reckon 69 J English miles to a degree, 7,926,330,000 feet; therefore the length of the arc MC, which the moon describes in a second, will be found nearly equal to 3358 feet Again, A M, the diameter of the moon's orbit, is about 2,523,031,140 feet Hence y/e obtam M D equal to 00447 feet nearly. This small fhictional part of a foot is the space which a body, placed at the distance of the moon, and falling from a state of rnst by the action of the force which retains the moon in her orbit, would pass over in the first second of time. Observing, now, that this force increases aslhe squares of^ the distances decrease, we may determine the space which a body at the sur- face of the earth (or at the distance of one scmidiamcter from the earth's centre), and falling from a state of rest would pass over in the first second of time, if urged by the same force. For, since the moon's distance fhtm the earth is equal to about sixty times the scmidiameter of the earth, we have 1': 60* =00447: the space required, which is found to be 16'09 feet Now, this is exactly the space which a body, falling from rest by its own weight is found by experiment to pass over in the first second of time. Hence we may infer, that the moon is retained in its orbit by the very same force which produces pressure in a body supported, or causes a body when unsupported to fall to the ground. Though the attraction of the earth on bodies near its surface is only a particular case of a general principle, which produces all the planetary motions, the effects are, to appearance, considerably modified. At all the heights to which we are able to ascend above the general surface of the earth, or to which we can project a body, the force of gravity acts, as to sense, uniformly : it also acts in the direction of straight lines, perpendicular to the horizon, and therefore parallel to one another, for the greatest range that can be given to a projectile. Hence the phen >mena, which depend on the force diminishing in intensity, as the square of the distance increases, and on its emanating in the direction of straight lines drawn to the centre of tlie attracting sphere, become imperceptible. In consequence of the compa- ratively small velocity with which human power can project a body, its path always meets the earth, and its motion terminates. But if the whole matter of the earth were collected into a point at the centre, a body projected from a point 4000 miles distant from the centre, and with such a velocity as human power can communicate, would be acted upon by the same forces, with a body similarly projected from the surface of the earth. But on the sup- position now made, the body would meet with no obstacle, but would approach within a cer- tain distance of the centre, and would then recede from it until it reached another limit when it would again approach, and go on in this manner, approaching and receding alter- nately, for ever. The path of the body would be an ellipse, resembling in figure the orbit of a comet The extreme portions of tlie path would, as to sense, be portions of a parabola. Hence it is usually laid down as a law regulating the motion of projectiles, that y a heavy body be projected in a straight line, not perpendicular to the horizon, it will describe a parabola situated in the vertical plane passing through that straight line, and having its axis perpendicular to the horizon. This physical truth was first discovered by Galileo. The force of gravity near the surface of the earth being uniform in its action, it is found that the motion which it produces corresponds in all its circumstances with that which matliematical reasoning shows should result from the action of a constant force. The spaces through which the body falls are proportional to the squares of the times, and the velocity is proportional to the time during which the body has been falling. From the third law of Kepler, it is not difficult to see that the periodic time of a planet m its orbit is determined entirely by the mean distance, that is, half the transverse axis ; and is not at all affected by the increase or decrease of the conjugate axis. By supposing, then, the conjugate axis to be continually diminished, we are led to this conclusion, that the time in which a body would descend to the sun, if allowed to fall from a state of rest at any distance from him, is equal to half the time of revolution in an ellipse the semitransverse axis of which is half of that distance. Let T be the time of revolution of a planet at any distance, and t the time of revolution at half that distance ; then, by the third law of Kepler, T" : t* : 2* : 1* ; hence we have t = ^»' and ^t = ^53. But {t is the time in which a body would fall from the distance corresponding to T. Hence the time in which a plenet would Pabt Ii. second of time. also C D ponl- eter of the orbit . with its chord ; he right angled M D. Hence, !, the deflection jic attraction of irth in about 27^ :e of her orbit is h, that is, if w<« 8,330,000 feet; I moon describes diameter of the 1447 feet nearly, distance of the ins the moon in 8 force increases body at the sur- itrc), and falling the same force, le scmidiameter o be 1609 feet vcight is found r, that the moon body supported, irticulax case of I, to appearance, Kjve the general lets, 08 to sense, lie horizon, and i to a projectile. kr, as the square lines drawn to of the compa- always meets ere collected rem the centre, ed upon by the But on the sup- within a ccr- another limit receding alter- figure the orbit of a parabola, hat if a heavy ill describe a ind having its by Galileo, ion, it is found that which The spaces d the velocity BbOK I. LAW OP UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION. th e of a planet nsverse axis; By supposing, ision, that the of rest at any emitransverse planet at any "w of Kepler, which a body planet would fall to the sun by the action qf the centripetal force w etfutd to the periodic time divtdei hy n/^\ or (what amounts to the same thing) to the periodic time multiplied b]r 0176776, the reciprocal of the square root of 82. Bjr this general rule, the times in which the dii^ ferent planets would reach the sun, if the action of their centrifugal force entirely ceased at the moment when they are at their mean distances, are as follow : Dayi. Hra. Mercury in IS 13 Venui 39 17 TheEarth fA 13 Mars 131 10 Corps S97 6 Pallu 301 4 On SI- Juno Vests Jios Jupiter 76S Saturn 1801 Georgium Sidus S42S The Moon would All to the Earth in . . 4 Hn. 19 19 90 The prmciple in the Newtonian philosophy, that the effects produced by the attraction of a body depend very much upon tne quantity of matter which it contains, fiimi^es the means of resolving a problem which at first sight may appear of such difficulty as to tran- seend the powers of the human mind ; namely, to determme the quantity of matter in the sun and planets. Let / and /' denote the forces by which two bodies revolve in curcular orbits round two central bodies, of which the masses are denoted by m and m'. Let r and r' be the radii of the orbits, and ( and (' the periodic times. From what we have already proved with regard to a force that retains a body in a circular orbit we have r t' mm' m m' r r" f :f' = — : — But we have also/ • f = — : — ; therefore, — : — = — : — ; and ' (« I't ra rt ri rt la ra rS f » consequently, m : m' = — : — la ra Thus it appears that the masses of matter in the bodies which compose the solar system are directly as the cubes of the mean distances of any bodies which revolve round them, and inversely as the squares of the times in which the revolutions are performed. By means of this principle, the masses of the sun and of the planets which have satellites may be compared with one another. With regard to the planets which have no satellites, the quantity of matter contained in them can only be guessed from the efiTects they produce on the motions of the other planets. The quantity of matter in the moon can, however, be determined with greater certainty, by comparing together the infiuence of the sun and moon in producing the tides and the precession of the equinoxes. Hence we learn, that die mat* ter in the moon is about ^ of the matter iii the earth. The following table exMbits the masses of the planets, that of the sun being considered as unity : TABLB. Mercury Venus The Eaith Mars 334 031 Tsrrrsvs Jupiter Saturn Uranus ITYTJ If we add together the numbers given in this table, it will be found that the whole matter in all the planets is not one-six-hundredth part of the matter in the sun. Knowing the masses of the planets and their diameters, we can determine the force of gravity at their surfaces ; for, supposing them to be spherical bodies, and to have no rotation on their axes, the forces with which a body placed on their surfiices gravitates to them will be proportional to their masses, divided by the squares of their diameters. From the masses of Jnpiter and the earth. La Place calculates that if we suppose them to have no rotation, a body which at the earth's equator weighs one poimd would, if carried to the equator of Jupiter, weigh 2.509 pounds, supposuig t£e weights to be measured by the pressures exerted in the two situations. If the centrifugal force produced by the rota- tion of the planets be taken into account however, this weight must be diminished by about one-ninth imrt. The same body would weigh about 27.65 pounds at the surface of the sun. Hence it follows that a heavy body would mere descend about 425 feet in the first second of time. We have hitherto attended chiefly to the action of the central body upon that which revolves round it ; but in reality, the action is mutual. The planets attract the sun in the same manner as tiie sun attracts the planets ; and the same action and re-action have place among the primary planets and their satellites. Indeed, the gravitation of all the great bodies of the system towards one another, appears only to be a consequence of a similar action between every particle of matter and every other particle of matter. This great fact to which all the celestial phenomena are ultimately to be referred — that the particles of matter mutually attract each other by a force varytng inversely as the squares of the diitances — is commo'ily called the principle of Universal Gravitation. The mutual attraction of the bodies composing the planetary system gives rise to a train of consequences which it has required the utmost efforts of^^ human ingenuity to unfold. We have already remarked that the planetary motions are liable to a variety of irregulwi- 124 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY pAttT II i 'till ties with which accurate obeervation haa made ua acquainted. Now, here we see the cause to which all these irrefrularities are to be referred. It the sun were fixed immovable in the centre, and only one planet tevolvm^r round him, then the path of that planet would be an ellipse, from which tnere would not be the least deviation ; and that focus which is tlic centre of motion would coincide with the centre of the sun, supposing that body to be spherical and composed of matter of uniform density. But since the planet attracts the sun as well as Uie sun attracts the planet, with a force directly proportional to the mass and inversely proportional to the square of the distance, it follows that the sun must also move in an elliptic orbit round diat point of which the condition is in no way disturbed by the mutual action of the revolving bodies, namely, their centbe of oravitt. It is with this point that the focus of the orbit of the planet, and that of the solar orbit, would coincide, and about which the radius vector of eacn would describe areas proportional to the times. In reference to this point also, ttie squares of the periodic times would be proportional to the cubes of the distances. If we suppose two or more planets to revolve about the sun, it is evident that the motions of all would be disturbed by their mutual gravitation. The immense magnitude of the sun compared with that of any of the planets, or of all the planets taken together, might, however, give to his attraction such a preponderance as would preserve all the planetary orbits nearly elliptical ; while his own orbit would become a more complicated curve, but such as to nimish a centrifugal force in respect of each planet, just able to counterbalance the gravitation towards it. The centre of gravity of the whole system would be a point to which all their motions are to be referred. Now this is actually the case of the planetary system. Accurate observation proves that the sun is not at rest in the centre, though his motion is ver^ small. His centre is never distant from the centre of gravity of the system so much as his own diameter ; and hence the orbit which he describes must be very mcon< siderable, when compared with the orbits of the planets. With regard to those planets which are accompanied by satellites, it is not the centre of the primary which traces the elliptic orbit round the sun, but the common centre of gravity of the primary planet and secondary planets which revolve round it The perturbations which the mutual attraction of the planets produce in each other's mo- tions are divided into two classes. The one class affect the figure and position of the elliptic orbits, and increase with extreme slowness : these are called secular ineqvauties. The other class depend on the mutual situation of the different planets, and acquire the same amount whenever the same relative positions occur : these are called periodic inequalities. Both these classes of inequalities have been demonstrated to be periodical ; that is, they increase only to a certain extent, i i then decrease. Amidst all the changes which arise from the mutual actions of the heavenly bodies, there are two things which remain perpetu- ally the same ; namely, the greater axis of the orbit which the planet describes, and its periodic time. Thus the permanency of the planetary system is secured. To subject to calculation the perturbations of the system, requires the solution of the following problem : three bodies of given magnitudes, as the sun, the earth, and the moon, being projected into space with given velocities, and in given directions, and attracting each oiiicr according to a given law, namely, inversely as the squares of their distances from each other, aiid directly as their masses ; it is required to determine the nature of the curve, that one of them, as the moon, describes about one of the other two, as the earth. This is the celebrated problem op the three bodies, stated in all its generality, but under this aspect its solution is beyond the reach of the most refined methods of analysis which the mathe- matical sciences in their present state furnish. In its application to the purposes of physical astronomy, there are certain conditions which render the problem less difficult : viz. 1. That the sun greatly exceeds in magnitude the other two bodies, and is nearly at rest. 2. Its distance from the earth and moon is so great, that it may be considered the same for both. This condition fails, however, in reference to the action of the primary planets on one another, a circumstance which au^ents the difficulty of investigating the perturbations arising from their mutual gravitation. 3. The planetary orbits are nearly elliptical, and the aberrations from the ellipses in reference to each, are all that is required. Even with these limitations the problem is sufficiently difficult, and has engaged the attention, and exercised the skill of the most celebrated mathematicians of modem times. The general view which we have now given of the planetary disturbances is all that oui present object requires. We shall only, therefore, farther advert to the explanation which he theory of gravitation afibrds of the figure of the earth, and of the tides. CHAPTER XVT. nOUBB AND CONSTITUTION OP THE EAKTH DEDl] OED PROM THE THEORY OP GRAVITATION In the beginning (Chap. HI.) we proved that t\e earth must be nearly spherical, in ordei lo account ror the general phenomena which w) constantly observe. As soon, however, DookI. HGURE OF THE EARTH. Vio As soon, however, is the general law of gravUatum was discovered, it was a necessary conBequence that the earth could not be a perfect sphere, but must rather be an oblate spheroid flattened at the poles, and swelled out at the equator, and this inference is independent of all actual measure- ment, but may be confirmed by observation, and in fact has been so, as will be afterwards iuUy proved. This deviation from the spherical figure is to be attributed to the influence of the centrifugal force, arising firom the earth's diurnal rotation, in diminishing the force of gravity from the pole towards the equator, where the centriibgal force, in reference to the surface, is the greatest possible. This tendency which every particle of matter in the earth has to fly off in the direction of a tangent to the circle in which the particle is carried by the earth's motion of rotation would be increased if that motion were to be accelerated : and may be conceived to be increased to such power as not only to overcome the force of gravity, but also the force by which the particles adhere to one another, and so to cause the earth to separate into firogments. Suppose a small satellite to revolve round the earth close to its surface at the equator ; its periodic time may be deduced fix)m that of the moon, on the principle that the squares of their periodic times would be to one another as the cubes of their distances. For we have (since the moon's distance is about sixty times the semi- diameter of the earth, and the time of her periodic revolution 39343 minutesX 60* : l'=39343' : sq. of the periodic time of the satellite. ^ ^ ' Hence we obtain the periodic time nearly equal to 84^ minutes. If the earth revolved about its axis in 84j minutes while such a satellite described a circular orbit close to its surface, the satellite would tlierefore appear to be at rest on the sur&ce, but would not in the least degree press upon it, because the force of gravity would be exactly counterbalanced by the centrifugal force produced by the motion of the satellite m its orbit Now, all the objects on the surface at the equator would be in the verv some circumstances with the satellite.; for they actually describe circles in consequence of the earth's motion, and if the earth revolved in 844 mmutes, their centrifugal forcu would become exactly equal to the force of gravity ; so that they would no. longer have weight If the earth's motion of rota< tion became still more rapid, they would fly off fi-om the surface. At the equator a body describes a circle of which the circumference is about 132,105,600 feet in 23'' 56" nearly : it must therefore describe an arc of about 1528 feet in a second of time. From what we have shown already respecting central forces, it is evident that by dividing the square of this arc by the diameter of the earth, we shall find the deflection fi'om the tangent in a second, wnich will be the measure of the centrifugal force. This deflection amounts to about -p^ of an inch, or ^1, of 16i\( feet the space uirough which a body would fall in a second by the force of apparent gravity. The centrifiigal force at the equator is therefore the ^\^ part of the sensible weight of a body, or ^i? pait of its real weight Suppose, then, a body, when weighed at the equator by a spring-steel yard, to be found capable of drawing out the spring to the division 288 : if that body were weighed at the pole, where the centrifugal force vanishes, it would draw out the spring to the division 289. It admits of being demonstrated that proceeding from the equator where the centrifugal force is the greatest toward either pole, where it vanishes, the increase of gravity in different latitudes is as the square of the sine of the latitude. Such being the nature of the forces that act upon every particle of matter of which the earth is composed, the determination of its figure from physical principles involves the solution of the two following problems: — 1. What is the law according to which a particle will gravitate towards a solid of a given form and constitution, the particle being supposed situated either within or without the solid ? 2. What figure will a mass of matter, either wholly or partly fluid, assume in conse- quence of the joint effect of the attraction of its particles (that attraction varying inversely as the squares of their distances), and a centrifiigal force arbing fhon the rotation of the mass about an axisi Both these problems involve a great degree of difficulty; and the second is even more intricate than the first in consequence of the reciprocd relations subsisting between the figure of the attracting body and the law of gravitation at its surfoce, which renders a knowledge of the one necessary to the determination of the other. Assuming that an homogeneous fluid of the same mean density with the earth has the figure of an oblate spheroid, and revolves on its axis in 23** 66" 4' of solar time, it would be in equUibrio, if the axis of revolution were to the equatorial diameter in the proporti(»i of 229 to 230. This is the figure which Nevi^ton ascribed to the earth; and though th assumption which he made ofsuch a fi^re was certainly gratuitous, the result of his mves- tigation is almost the same as later writers luve obtained by a more rigorous as well as direct mode of reasoning than that which he employed. Again, it has been demonstrated by La Place, that a fluid and homogeneous mass, of the mean density of the earth, cannot remain in equilibrium and possess at the same time an elliptic figure, if the time of its rotation be less than 2" 25" 17*. If Uie time of revolution exceed this, there may always be two elliptic spheroids, and not more, in which the equilibrium may be maintained. In the 11* 126 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. Pamt If. Ill: M: ease of the maas revolving in 23' 66* 4*, the one spheroid u that which has alroady benn mentioned ; the other is ono in which the polar diameter is to the equatorial in 'he ratio of 1 to 081. The extreme flatness of tliis spheroid must render the force of ^vily at the equator almost nothing ; the fluid, therefore, would be so easily dissipated that this equilibrium can scarcely be rofrnraed as stable. Another conclusion on this subject, deduced by Clairault, is, that if the fluid moss supposed to revolve on its axis, instead of being homogeneous, be composed of strata which increase in density towards the centre, in order to remam in equilibrium, it must still possess tlio flgure of an elliptic spheroid, but Uie oblatencss will be diminished. The oblateness of the earth at its poles is a phenomenon which the measurements that have been made of ares of tiie meridian have placed beyond all doubt ; but there is still an UDcertaintjr aa to the exact (quantity of the compression. The results obtained, however, render it highly probable that it is less than ;^, wtiich Newton, proceeding on the supposition of a uniform density, assigned for the compression. Hence we may conclude, that if the earth is a spheroid of equilibrium, it is aenser in the interior than at its surflice. This inference has been verified by very accurate experiments made hy the late Dr. Moskelyne on the sides of the mountain Schehallien, in Perthshire. The object was to determine the derangement of the plummet by the vicinity of this loily and solid mountain ; and the results, obtained from observation made at two stations on tlie south and north sidos of it, showed that the plummet deviated from the direction of gravity towards the mountain more than 7". The quantity of this change of direction gives the ratio of the attraction of the mountain to that of the whole earth, or to the foree of gravity, equal to the ratio of 1 to 17804. But the bulk and figure of the mountain being also obtained by a trigonometrical survey, its mean density was found to be to the mean density of the earth nearlv as 5 to 9. Thus it appears that tne mean density of the earth is not much less than double the density of the rocks which compose the mountain Schehallien ; and these, again, seem considerably more dense than the mean of those which form the exterior crust or the earth. It may appear an objection to this mode of reasoning concerning the figuro of the earth, that it is not evident how a centrifugal foree should produce the some efiect on a solid body, like the earth, that it does upon a fluid mass. But the fact that the earth has made an approximation to the spheroid of equilibriunif is an indication that either the entire mass was originally fluid, ih>m whatever cause ; or the repeated waste and reconsolidation of the parts near the surface has gradually produced the spheroidal figure. In either of these modes the power of cohesion, which in the solid body resists the effects of the centrifugal foree, may have been overcome. However irregular a body, whose surfoce is composed of land and water, may be in its primitive form ; by t*^e process of constcnt waste, the more prominent parts are gradually worn down, aud the matter which composed them is deposited in the lower parts which are occupied by the water : here it acquires a horizontal stratifica- tion ; and having, by certain mineral operations, under Hie transforming hand of nature, been consolidated into stone, the water being removed, it may again form a part of the solid crust of the earth. In this manner the primitive irregular form will gradually disappear, and the surface in tlie course of ages acquire a position at right angles to the direction of gravity ; so that, by the action of the centrifugal force, there will be a constant approximation made to the spheroid of equilibrium. The irregular distribution of the heterogeneous materials which compose this terraqueous globe may, perhaps, prevent the coincidence from ever being complete. It admits of being demonstrated, that if the earth were a perfect sphere, and composed of matter of uniform density at equal distances from its centre, the action of the solar and lunar attraction upon it would be the same as if the whole terraqueous mass we<-e condensed into a point at the centre. Hence the position of its axis would not, in that case, be in the least degree affected by its gravitation towards the sun and moon, but would remain parallel to itself while the earth pemrmed its annual revolution. In consequence of the spheroidal figure, however, the earth may be considered as composed of a sphere of which the radius is half the polar axis, and of a quantity of redundant matter, which is distributed over it in such a manner as to sAU'ell out the equatorial regions. The action of the solar and lunar attraction on Uiis redundant matter produces the precession of the equinoxes and the nutation of the earth's axis. The complete explanation of these phmomena affords one of the hap- piest illustrations of the Newtonian doctrine of attraction ; but requires at the same time ^e aid of some of the most abstruse theories both in pure mathematics and mechanics. It CHAPTER XVn. Thi alternate rise and fall of the surface of the sea, or it flux and reflux, known by tho name of the tidkb, is a phenomenon which has attracted the attention of mankind from tbo earliest periods. Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus take notice of the daily flux and reflux •%:' f Dool I. THE TIDES. i;M,[>: W 'h hia already benn orial in ?he ratio of 36 of gravity at the that this equilibrium fluid mass supposed rata which increase ill possess the figure measurements that Mit there is still an obtained, however, ig on the supposition ncludo, that if the its surfiice. This ate Dr. Maskelyne 8 to determine the lin ; and tlic results, sides of it, showed ountain more than ion of the mountain fl to 17804. But :al survey, its mean >. Thus it appears msity of the rocks erably more dense iguro of the earth, 3Ct on a solid body, larth has mode an ler the entire mass onsolidation of the In either of these of the centrifugal ce is composed of t waste, the more 1 them is deposited trizontal stratifica- Jidof nature, been t of the solid crust disappear, and the ection of gravity ; proximation made [eneous materials idence from ever and composed of of the solar and 3 wp'e condensed it case, be in the d remain parallel of the spheroidal hich the radius is ibuted over it in solar and lunar and the nutation one of the hap- t the same time mechanics. of the waters of the Red Sea or Arabian Gulf, the latter historian describin£[ it as a gnaX and rapid tide ; but neither of these writers fbrms any coi^ectura respecting its cause. Ob> servation munt soon have shown, that this periodical ebbing and fbwmg of the waters of thn ocean had an intimate connexion with the position of the sun and moon in the heavens ; and, accordingly, we find that Pliny not only describes the phenomena of tides, but expressly attributes them to the action ot these luminaries. It was not, however, until Newton applied the principle of universal gravitation to explain these phenomena that the theory of the tides was fully understood. The weight of a body on the surface of the earth arises from the tendency which the particles composing it have to the centre (or to a point near the centre), in obedience to the law of gravity. But aa every object on the earth's surface gravitates towards the sun and moon, as well as towards the earth, it follows that the solar and lunar attraction must affect the weight of terrestrial objects. Upon solid bodies, between the particles of which adhesive force is powerilil, no discernible effects are produced by Uiis attraction. But the case is altogether diflbront wiUi regard to the waters of the ocean, the component particles of which yield to the slightest impulse ; so that any alteration in their weight that does not equally affect the whole must be followed immediately by a motion of the parts of the fluid mass, which will continue until, by a new arrangement of the particles, the equilibrium is restored. To see what must be the general effect, arbing from the action of the sui^ if tho whole surface of tho globe wore covered with water ; let A C B O (Jig. 39.) be the watery sphere, S the B '/ 41 (r I» \ \ "/ x C— ' Z * ■ ' ■ ,. t "7 1 ■. . 1m / \ 1 S N R ■• •, > ■it • •' r, known by tho lankind from tho flux and reflux Bun, and E the centre of the earth. Let tlie gravitation of the central particle E to the sun be represented by the lino E S, and the gravitation of any other particle M by the line M S D. Let the force M D be resolved into two forces, M H equal and parallel to E S, and M G. The force M H does not in the least degree affect the cavitation of the particle M towards the centre E ; and M G is, therefore, tho only disturbing force. If S M be pro- duced to meet the circle A C B O in the point m, the action of the sun on a particle situated at m is less than its action on the central particle E; so that if m d represent the gravita* tion of the particle m towards the sun, the point d will fall on the opposite side of S from the point D ; and die foroe m d being resolved into two forces, m A equal and parallel to E S, and the disturbing force m ^, it is evident that the tendency of the force m ^ is to diminish the gravity of the particle m, in like manner as the force M G diminishes the gravity of the particle M. When the pomt M coincides with A, the angle E S M is the angle under which the semidiameter of the earth is seen from the sun ; therefore E S M con never ex- ceed 8}" : whence, in determining the direction and quantity of the disturbing force fhim the geometrical relations of the lines, we may consider the lines D G, S L, and D M aa roincident, and M L may be taken for the disturbing foroe. Again, the difference between 138 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. PiRTlL iif'ii A W- WW wmmv S M and S E ii (freateit when the point M coincides with C or O. But if we oonaider that C E, tho difference between S E and 8 M when (p-oateat, is only about j^Un part of S E, it is evident that we commit but a very small error b supposing 8 M, S N, and S E 'i every position equal. Now, since S E and D M roprnsent the gravitation of the parti- cles £ and M towards the sun respectively, we have 8E:DM=:SM': SE'; therefore, SN« since 8 E and SN may be considered equal, D M = gp^,. But S N = S M + M N, there- foreSN» = SM*+8SM'xMN + 8SMxMN«-rMN». The ouantity M N ia so small, compared with S M, that the two last terms of this expression for 8 rr may be ne- glected: wehave, therefbre, SN* = 8M*+38M'xMN,and gigi = S M + 3MN; wherefore, also, DM = SM+3MN;and taking S M fhun each, we find S D = 3 M N. Now, since C D may be considered equal to L S 4- 8 D, and E S is by construction equal to Q O, it ia evident that E8 = L8+8D, or taking L 8 iVom each, E L — 8 D. Hence E L = 3 M N, and the disturbing force for any point M is determined both in direction and magnitude. Suppose now that A C B O {fig. 40.) is the terraqueous globe, E 8 a lino directed to the sun, and A E B a section by that circle which separates the enlightened from the dork hemisphere. *Lot M bo any particle on or within tlie mass. Through tlio point M draw a straight line M N perpendicular to the plane A E B, and in E S take E L, equal to 3 M N : join L M ; then L M represents the direction and intensity of the disturbing force which the sun exerts on the particle M. Let the force L M be resolved into two forces, one, M E, directed towards the centre of the earth, and the other, M R, tending from the plane A E B towards the sun. Suppose the same construction to be made for everr point of the sphere, the whole being supposed covered with water, it is evident that the forces represented by M E will balance one another, and therefore need not be considered. But the force repre- sented by M R will diminish the gravity of every particle M, reckoned in the direction of a line perpendicular to the plane of that great circle of the earth which separates the illu- minated from the dark hemisphere. The force thus diminbhing the gravity will be propor- tional to three times the distance of the particle from the Gcme plane ; for R M is equal to L E or 8 M N. Every particle in any column M N being thus acted on by a force which evidently tends to destroy the equilibrium of the fluid mass, the water in that column can- not remain at rest Its equilibrium may be restored, however, by the addition of a small portion M m, which, by restoring the weight of the column, enables it to resifcv the pressure of the adjacent columna A sunilor addition may be made to each column, pcrpciidicular to the plane A E B : and the result will be that, from being spherical, the figure of the globe will be changed into that of an oblong elliptical spheroid, having its axis directed towards the sun, and its poles in those points of Uie surface which have the sun in the zenith and nadir. Let the figure into which the watery sphere would be transformed by the solar action be represented by the ellipse a c 6 o (jf!^. 41.) : the points o and c are tlie poles of the spheroid ; and at these points the waters are highest above the sphere A C B O of equal capacity, while all round tho circumference B E A uie waters are below their natural level. By calculation it is found that the difierence between E c and E a is about twenty-four and a half inches ; BO that the deviation from the spherical figure is not great The figure which the watery spheroid assumes must be in a slight degree influenced bv the spheroidal figure of the earth ; but the deviation from the spherical figure is so small, that its effect in changing the spheroidal figure of the waters on the surrace of the earth must be quite mconsiderable. If the earth were at rest, the watery spheroid would acquire ^hat form which would produce an equilibrium among tdl its particles. This, however, can never happen under the actual circumstances of the case, because some time must elapse befi>re an acceleratiiuf force can produce a finite change in the disposition of the waters; but by the motion of^the earth on its axis, the disturbing force is every instant applied to a diflferent part of the sur&ce, so that the position of equilibrium can never actually be attain- ed. Such, then, is the <;^eneral effect which the solar action would produce if the whole globe were fluid, or a spherical nucleus covered with o, fluid of equal density. To explain the phenomena of the tides, however, it is indispensably necessary to take into account the action of the moon. It is with the moral that the tides are principally connected ; aiiu the sun's influence is known only by its increasing or diminishing the cnccts of her liicre powerful action. This greater influence of the moon in producing the tides arises from her vicinity to the earth, when compared with the sun, her distance being only about xhf P^rt of his. It must be carefully kept in view, that it is not the mere action of the sun and moon that produces the tides in the ocean, but the ineqiudUies in the action of each : and the ^vitation of the waters of the ocean to the moon is much more unequal than their gravitation to the sun. Whatever has been proved with regard to the influence of the aun in producing tides in the P4IITIL It if we consider ut 5jA,j pert of M, S N, and S E Lion of the parti- SE'; therefore, M + MN, there. tnti^ M N ia so S Ir may be ne- :SM + dMN; idSD = 3MN. }ni9tniction equal , — S D, Hence I in direction and ic directed to the id from the dark 3 pomt M draw a equal to 3 MN: binj; force which forces, one, M E, 1 the plane A E B int of the sphere, B represented by the force repre- 1 the direction of leparates the illu- ty will be proper- R M is equal to by a force which that column can- dition of a small Bsibv the pressure in, pcrjpendicular euro of the globe directed towards in the zenith and c solar action be I of the spheroid ; II capacity, while . By calculation 1 a half inches ; ee influenced bv lire is 80 small, ice of the earth id would acquire is, however, can me must elapse 1 of the waters ; tant applied to a itually be attain- ice if the whole ty. To explain into account the m's influence ia al action. This ity to the earUi, is. It must be lat produces the avitation of the ition to the sun. ling tides in the DooK I. THE TIDES. 120 ocean is equally applicable to the moon. The waters will bo accumulated imniediatelv under her, and on the opposite side of the globe, producing a spheroid of the same kind witb that wiiich wo have shown must be produced by the unequal action of the sun, but more elongated ; and this spheroid, directed toward the moon, will follow her in her apparent daily revolution about the earth. In consc'iuenco of this simultaneous gravitation towards botii luminaries, the ocean must assume a figure diflbrent from both of those spheroids; which will become blended and undistinguishable. The resulting figure resembles each of the splicroids in being elongated, and its most elevated parts aro found to follow tlie more powerful of tho disturbing Kxlies, namely, the moon, in her apparent diurnal revolution about the earth. We may, wiUiout sensible error, suppose that the change produced in any part of the ocean by the combined action of the sun and moon, is tho sum or tho difference of the changes which thov would have produced if acting separately. VVe have already remarked that the rapid motion of the waters, in consequence of the diurnal motion, prevents them from ever assuming the figure which would bo reouisite for tlie equilibrium of the forces acting on them ; so that they oscillate continually, alternately approaching to that figure and receding fVom it. The motion thus communicated to them ia one not of transference, but of undulation, one part rising and another sinking, unless when from wont of depth of water tho balance between tlie adjacent columns is destroyed. We may, therefore, re^rd the two elevations produced in tho ocean by tho inequalities in the solar and lunar actions as two vast waves which follow tho moon in her apparent diurnal motion. The lino joining tho tops of these two waves is not directed to tho moon, os would be the cose if the earth and moon were at rost, but ia directed to a point about 30° to tho eastward of the moon. This arises from the inertia of the water, which causes it, when once put in motion, tocontmue to rise for a time after the impulse communicated has ceased. If we consider the tides relatively to the whole surface of the globe, there is a meridian, there- fore, about 30° eastward of the moon where it is always hioh wateb, both in the hemisphere where the moon is, and the opposite hemisphere. On the west side of the meridian tho tide is Jlowinff, and on the east side of it the tide is ebbing. On the meridian which is at right angles to the former, it is everywhere low wateh. If we suppose, then, the sun and moon to he in the equator, and an observer to be situated on the sur&ce of the water under the equator; when the moon has risen 30° above his horizon, the state of the tido to that observer will be low water. As the moon advances towards his zenith, the tide will flow ; and when she has reachc i a point about 30° to tlie westward of his zenith, the summit of the wave will reach him, and then the state of the tide will be hir^h water. As the moon approaches the western horizon, the observer will see tho water gradually subside as it had formerly risen; and when she has descended 30° below the horizon, it is again low water. As the moon continues her course below the horizon, the waters again gradually rise by the approach of the other wave until its summit arrives at the observer, and again produces high water ; when the moon has passed the opposite meridian, and reached a point 30° beyond it, the tide iigain begins to ebb as the wave rolla on, and the same phenomena are repeated in the same order. Thus, in the space of time in which the moon performs her diurnal revolution, which may be called a lunar day, and consists of nearly 24' 50™, there occur two tides of flood and two of ebb. The time between one high water to the next is about 12" 25°, and the instant of low water is nearly but not exactly the middle of this interval, the tide in general taking about nine or ten minutes more in ebbing than in flowing. Spring and neap tides. As the magnitude of the two waves which produce the rise and fall of tho tide depends on the action of the sun as well as on that of the moon, it is evident that the height to which the water rises and falls must be affected by the relative position of the two luminaries. At new moon and full moon the actions of the sun and moon are combined, but at the quadratures they counteract each other. In the former case, tiie two spheroids produced by the solar and lunar actions have their axes coincident or nearly so ; in the latter, their axes are at right angles to each other. Hence, at new and full moon the flood tide will rise higher, and the ebb tide will sink lower, than usual. The revjrse of thia will happen when the moon is in either of her quadratures : the flood tide will not rise so high as usual, nor will the ebb tide sink so low. This is exactly coincident with experience ; and we here perceive the cause of what are called sprino tides and neap tides. About the time of full moon and change the tidus rise higher than when the moon presents any other phasis. The highest tide does not happen, however, the first afler the opposition or conjunction, though the disturbing forces are then united, but some time after; and the cause of this^is the same which prevents the time of high water of any one tide coinciding with the time of the moon being on that meridian under which the tide happens ; namely, the inertia of the water, or that tendency which all matter has to retain its state whether of rest or motion. At Brest, where an accurate register was kept of ihe phenomena of the tides about the beginning of the lost century, it waa found that ih<) highest tide happened about a day and a half afler the new and fiill moon. If the time of high water coincide with the very time of Conjunction or opposition, the third high water after that is the highest of all. Thia is called lie sfbimo tide. From this period the tides gradually decrease, until the third Vol. I. R 110 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Paet U. 111 ;! 4: high water ailor tho mnon'i (|ua(lniture, which ia the lowest of all, and ia called the nbat TiDK. Dut havinff reached their iitmoat dcproMion, the tidea a|fain increase until tho occur- rence of the next spring tide ; and so on cnntinually. The highor the tide of flood rises, the lower the ebb tide gonorallv sinks on Uiat day. The total magnitude of the tide is estinwtiNl by tho diflbrenco between high and low water. At Brest tlie medium spring tide is about 19 feet, and the medium neap tide about feet Effect in different hemi$pherei. Let us next suppose tho sun and moon to be situated ia one of the tropics; tho two waves raised in the ocean bv their actions on opposite sides of tho globe will now roll along under the tropics. If an observer be placed on tho surtkce of the water, and under the same tropic in which the sun and moon aro situated, he will still see two tides of flood and twoof ebo; but they will not corresjwnd in all their circumstances, as they did on the former supposition. The depth of tho high water produced by the wave situated in the same hemisphere with tho moon, will evidently bo greater than that of the high water produced by the wave which rolls along under the other tropic in the opposite hemisphere m>ro the moon ; for the observer will see the very summit of tho one wave, and only tiio sloping side of tho other. To an observer situated under the tropic on the opposite side of the equator from the sun and moon, the cose would be reversed ; and if he were so far removed from tho equator as to be situated under the polar circle^ no part of the wave accumulated in the same hemisphere with the moon would reach him ; so that he would see only one tide of flood and ono tide of ebb daily produced by tho motion of tho other wave. This also is consistent with what we know respecting the tides flrom observation. All the phenomena are found to be modifled by the latitude of the piaco of observation ; and some phenomena are found to occur in high latitudes, which are not at all seen when the place of observation is under the equator. In particular when the moon and the observer are on the same side of the equator, that tide in which the moon is above the horizon is greater than the other tide of ttie same day which happens when the moon is below the horizon. The contrary takes place when the moon and the observer are on opposite sides of the equator : in this latter case, if the polar distance of the observer be equal tu the moon's declination, he will see but one tide m the day, continuing to flow for twelve hours and to ebb for twelve hours. We have supposed for simplicity the sun and moon to be in the equa* tor, or in one of the tropics ; but it is evident that thii. con seldom be the case. Tho two luminaries are capable of on infinite variety of positions in reference to each other, as well aa in reference to any particular point of the earth's sunace. The phenomena with regard to particular places must, therefore, be endlessly diversified ; but by tracing the general features, the principles become apparent upon which all tho phenomena depend. The influence or the sun and moon in producing tides in tne ocean will evidently be aug* mented when these bodies are nearer to the earth, and dhninished when their distances are increased. From this cause it arises, that when the moon is in that part of her orbit where she approaches nearest to the earth, the spring tide which happens at that time is the highest, and the next spring tide is the smallest ; because the moon is then nearly at her greatest distance from the earth. This makes a difference of 2} feet fVom the mean height of the spring tide at Brest ; and consequently of double that quantity, or 5^ feet, between the greatest spring tide and the least The neap tide which happens between these two very unequal spring tides is regular, because the moon is then nearly at her mean distance. The reverse of this takes place when the moon is at her mean distance at the time of the change : the spring tide is regular, but the two neap tides differ considerably in height. The increased distance of the sun is the reason why the spring tides in our summer are not so great as in our winter. At the mean intensities of the disturbing forces, the sun tends to raise the waters about 24^ inches, and the moon about 58. Hence the spring tide should be about 58+24i=82J inches, and the neap tide about 58 — ^24^=33^ inches. Variations caused by continents, islands, dj^c. We have hitherto supposed the two waves which produce the phenomena of the tides to meet witli no interruption in their pro gross round the world. This is, however, ftr from being the case ; they are interrupted by continents and islands, and may be propelled or retarded by the action of the wind ; their velocity and direction may also be changed by irregularities in the bed of the ocean : so that, to explain all the phenomena at any particular place, the effect of local circumstances, which is often great, must be taken into the account. The great Pacific Ocean is, perlvips, the only part of the terraqueous globe in which all the forces have room to operate. But the wave which they form must, in rolling westward, encounter the coasts of Asia and New Holland, with the interjacent islands ; and amidst these obstacles it must force its way to the Indian Ocean. Its figure will thus be changed, and the phen')mena of the tides, which it produces, powerfully modified. On its eastern side the Pacific is bounded by a vast stretch of coast extending without interruption from Cape Horn to Behring's Straits. This bafrie? prevents all supply from the eastward for malung up the watery spheroid, and must be equally efiectuu in arresting the progress of tho waters accumulated to the eastward of the i\incrican continent So rar as we have information respecting the tides in tho Pacific TawtU. m called the nbat e until iho occur» I of flood riaoi, the ] tide is ORtimated ring tide ia about 1 to be situated ia , oppoflito sides of on the surtkce of latcd, lie will still sir circumstancea, ucod by the wave r than that of the lie in the oppoaita :ho one wave, and tic on the oppoaite and if he were ao I part of the wave BO that ho would otion of tho other lervation. All the 'vation ; and some in when the place le observer aro on horizon is g^reater lelow the horizon, poeite sides of the lal to the moon'a elve hours and to to be in the equa- te case. Tho two sach other, aa well tmena with regard cing the general spend. evidently be aug* their distances are )f her orbit where mo is the highest, :ly at her greatest lean height of the feet, between the en these two very ian distance. The me of the change: it The increased lot so great as in tends to raise tho should be about lupposed the two )tion in their pn^ re interrupted b^ ' the wind ; tiheir le ocean : so that, il circumstances, )ccan is, perhaps, to operate. But of Aaa and New rce its way to the le tides, which it by a vast stretch Its. Tiiia baiTioT oid, and must be e eastward of the es in tho Pacifio BookL THE TIDEa Ocean, they appear to be very imlike tli.- European tidet, until wo reach about 40" or 80* west from the coaat of America. In the neighbourhood of tliat coast, scarcely any tido occurs when the moon ia below tho horison. Even in the middle of tho Pacific Ocean tho tides aro very small, but at tho miiio time very regular. As a (^cat extent of aurfiico is ni-ccAtm the north, but is a whole tide earlier if not two, aa appears from the fact of the spring tide at Rye being a tide earlier than the spring tide at the Nore : it even seems two tides earlier, for it appears Uio one aa often aa tlio other. By tracing the hour of high water fh)m the Lizard up St George's Channel, and along the west coasts of Scotland, it appears that the two tides which pass along the east and west sides of Ireland and unite into ono wave to the north of it, travel round Britain in about twenty-eight hours, in which time the primitive tide has gone round the whole circumference of the earth, and nearly 45 degrees more. By attending also to the successive hours of high water along the western coasts of Africa and Europe, it appears that the wave, which mvides into three branches at the mouth of tho English Channel, takes up nearly two days, or between four and five tides, in travelling thither from the Cape of Gooa Hope. A similar progress of the same high water from the southward is observed along the eaistem shores of South America ; but beyond Brazil and Surinam the Atlantic Ocean is sufRciently extensive to contribute greatly to the formation of the regular spheroid ; so that the effect of this high water fh)m the southward, being blended with the tide raised in the Atlantic itself, becomes insensible. In an ocean of such a breadth from east to west as tho Atlantic, the water can rise on the one shore only by descending on the other. In the middle, therefore, it will retain nearly the mean height between its elevations on the two opposite coasts : this appears to be the veason why the tides arc small in islands that aro very far distant from the shores. The reflection of the tide from shore to shore is a great cause of irregularity in the tides. The coasts may be so situated that the time in which the undulation that constitutes the tide would of itself vibrate backward and forward fVom shore to shore, may ha so exactly accommodated to the recurring action of the moon that the succeeding impulses, being always added to the natural undulation, may raise it to a height altogether disproportioned to what the action of the moon can produce m the open sea, where the undulation difiitses itself to a vast distance. The inequalities which undoubtedly obtain in the bottom of the ocean affect the tides, by changing the direction of the waters ; also their velocity either absolutely or in respect of particular places. They may also influence the height by causing the tide to rush with mcreasing velocity towards a particular point, where the waters must at length be suddenly checked, and therefore be accumulated in an extraordinary degree : this appears to be the cause of the astonifdiingly high tides which occur in the Bay of Fundy. The high water of the Atlantic Ocean at St Helena does not exceed four or five feet ; but, setting in obliquely on the coast of North America, it seems to range along that coast in a channel or bed, gradually narrowing till it is stopped in tlie Bay of Fundy, where the accumulation of the waters becomes tremendous. The tide approaches with a p odigious noise in one vast wave, that is seen many miles off, and the waters rise to the height of more tlian seventy feet in the gulf of Cumberland basin ; the rapidity of the v.'atcrs is so great as to overtake atiimala feeaing on the shores. in consequence of the Icnofth of time requured for a tide to propagate itself up a great river, one or two succeeding tides may reach the mouth of the river before the first tide has arrived at the highest point to which it ranges up the stream. The second tide will also liU PRINCIPLES OF OEOORAPIIY. PAIIT 11. nnve propafratod itself lo fur up tiio river, bv tlio time Uiat tlio third tide ruachoa the mouth ; Olid thuH there may be three co-cxiatont high wiitors in the river. Tlio two intervening low waters in Uio ocean will also produce two corro8|)onding low waters in the river: thcso cliangGH in the depth of the Htream are produced by tlie high waters which arrive at its mouth checking its velocity, and Uio low waters accelerating it. To cause high water at nny particular point, it is by no moans necot«ary tliat tlie water should be raised to that level all the way flrom tliat imint to tlio inoutli of tiie river. Before such on accumulation could take place, in many instances, places fiirtlier down tlie stream would be inundated. At many places tliat are for flrom Uio sea, the strooin at the moment, of high water is down tlie river, and sometimes it is considerable. At Quebec, tlio current in the St Lawrence runs at the rate of not less than tliree miles per hour : this is u clear proof that tlio water is not heaped up, fur tliero can bo no stream witliout a declivity. The phenomenon termed the bore of a river, which occurs chiefly in largo rivers tiiat have a wide outlet, and where tlio greatest tides are experienced, arises IVom the waters accumulated in tiie gulf or outlet by one tide not being, m such circumstances, dischur^eil before the approach of tlio ensuing tide. Thcso accumulated waters encounter, therefore, the waters of the ocean flowing in an op- |)osite direction ; so tliat tlio reduction of tlio conflicting waves produces an elevation of tlie water far above the natural level. The surge formod in this manner rolls up tlio river with irresistible force, overwhelming every tiling which it encounters ; until, exhausted by the resistance which it has to ovorcomo, it at lengtli sinks into a feeble undulation. The vio- lence and elevation witli which tlie bore rushes along in some rivers is almost incredible : at the mouth of the Severn the flood comes up in one head about ten feet in height ; but in tlie great rivers of America, and particularly in the Amazon, it becomes a rolling mountain of water, which is said to attain the height of 180 feet. In confined senij of small extent, sur h as the Caspian, tlio Euxino, tlio Baltic, and the great lakes of Nortli America, the tid as must necessarily be almost insensible ; tlie dis- turbing forces in such situations have u Jt room to act to luiy extent : the greatest height to which tlio waters of the Caspian can r so above their level on tlie shore, m consequence of a spheroidal sliape being given to theri by the lunar action, does not exceed seven inches; an accumulation which a slight brce7 of wind is sufficient to counteract. Even in cases where a confined sea is connected with the ocean by a narrow channel, no sensible tide can happen ; for tlie tide in tlio ocean ca inot diffuse itself through tlie contracted inlet during the period that elapses between two consecutive tides. The Mediterranean is a confined sea of considerable extent ; and tlie tides there might be very sensible if the eficcts of the solar and lunar actions were not diminished by its distance from tlio equator. As Uio moon approaches the meridian of the eastern part of the Medi- terranean, Uiere is a considerable elevation of Uie waters on the Syrian coast, and a con- siderable depression at Gibraltar. In the middlo of the length Uie \vater is at the mean height ; in tlie AUantic Ocean, an opon and extensive surface of water, the regular spheroid- al form is nearly attained, and Uie water stands considerably higher on Uie outside of the straits than on Uie inside ; it is nearly low water wiUiin, while it is about one Uihtl or one half flood without NotwiUistanding Uiis accumulation, the communication is too narrow to allow the Ude of the ocean to difiiise itself in a regular manner into Uie basin of Uie Mediterranean. As the moon moves westward, toward Gibraltar, the water will begin to rise, but slowly, wiUiin the straits, while without it is flowing very rapidly. The accu- mulation within increases wiUi Uie progress of Uie moon westward, until it reaches hi^h water ; but by Uiis time Uic tide has been ebbing for some hours without Uio straits. It will now be low water on Uie coast of Syria ; and during all Uiis timo Uie water at the middle between Uie eastern and western extremities will not have sensibly altered its depth. The singular currents which prevail in Uic Straits of Gibraltar appear in a great measure explained oy these pcculiariUes with regard to the tides in the Mediterranean Sea and AtianUc Ocean. Changes of tide, alwa}rs diflferent and frequently quite opposite, are observed on Uio east and west sides of the narrow neck which connects Uie rock wiUi Spain; and the general tenor of those ciianges has a very great analogy with what has now been described. It is a fact which strikes the attention, upon Uie most cursory observation of the pheno- mena of the tides, that they fall later every day. This variation in the interval of the Udes is called the priming or laooino of Uie tides, according as we refer them to lunar or solar lime. If we suppose the sun and moon to be in Uie equator, and the watery spheroid tw attain instantmieoudy Uic form suited to its equilibrium, then Uie line joining the summits of Uie two waves produced in the ocean by their combined actions will always be directed ti:. a point situated between their centres; except in Uie case of the mm and mocm being in cos junction or opposition, when it will be directed towards their centres. The following table calculated on the above supposition, and for the mean distances of the sun and moon from the earth, exhibits the minutes of solar time that the moment of high >vater precedes or fol- lows the moon's southing, corresponding to every tenUi degree of the moon's elongaUon ^eest ward) from the sun or firom Uie point opposite to the sun. It shows sdso the hour and mmuti« Paiit U. 108 the nioutli ; itorvenin{( low a river: these 1 arrive at its liigh water at id to timt Icvui lulation could ited. At many twn tlie river, 36 runs at the ' is not heaped the BORE of a ) the greatest Lit by oue tide ensuing tide, ing in an op- 3Vtttion of tlie tlie river with lausted by the on. The vio- ; incredible : at ;ht ; but in tlie ( tnountaiu of iaitic, and the lible; tlie di^ test height to onsequcnce of seven inches; Even in casea nsible tide can d inlet during there might be by its distance of the Medi- at, and a con- at the mean |[ular spheroido outside of the I tliird or one is too narrow } basin of the will begin to '. The occu- reachos high ;rait8. It will at the middle I depth, prreat measure tiean Sea and opposite, are k witli Spain ; las now been of the pheno- fd of the tides lunar or solar ry spheroid tt^ ', the summits be directed ti. hoinrr in t*f\n ■ o — ' — " llowing tabic id moon from ecedes or fol* ngation ^csst ir and mmuti^ Book T. THE TIDES. m of the day, nearly, when it is high water; and the height of the tide, supposing the height of a spring tide to be 1000: — , .^ Time of High Water. Ileiibt Tide. Time of High Water. f! 1 « Before Moon'e ■outbing. Afternoon or Midnight, Afternoon or Midnight. After Moon'e ■outhing. Deg. Min. Ho. Min. 1000 087 OJO eH7 MH) 71S 010 S18 433 Ho. Min. Min. Deg. 10 SW 30 40 SO 60 70 80 no 83 3U 40 4S 40» 40i as set SS 1 98^ 3 3 3S 3 134 3 S0{ 4 SS 6 13 11 31 11 3 10 31 10 SS 7 S 1U 89 3U 40 4S 25 180 170 1«0 130 140 130 190 110 100 90 If wo note the exact time of high water of spring tide for any harbour, and the exact position of the sun and moon at that time, we can easily make a table of the monthly scries for that port, by noticing the diiTorence of that time from the table, and making the same difierence for every succeeding phosis of tlie tide. CHAPTER XVra. GENERAL VIEW OF THE BOLAR SYSTEM. Ten stars, among the countless number with which, in a clear night, the heavens appeal so resplendent, have been proved, by the observations and reasonings of which we have now given a brief outline, to bo planets revolving about the sun, and deriving their light from nim. The earth whicli we mhabit has been proved to have a similar motion, and to belong to the some class of bodies. Several of tliese primary planets are accompanied by satellites; and the whole are preserved in their respective orbits by a centripetal combined with a centrifugal force. Thus tJicre subsist among these balies relations which are regarded as uniting them in one system, having the sun in the centre ; and which is therefore called the SOLAS SYSTEM. In regard to the other planets, as we have employed the obvious analogy subsisting between them and our earth, in proving its annual and diurnal motion ; so, on the other hand, from the same grounds, it seems reasonable to conclude that, like the earth, they are designed and fitted by Infinite Wisdom for the accommodation of inhabitants, and that in all probability millions of beings are placed upon them. Though our observations in relation to tlie subserviency of the arrangements of nature to the enjoyment of sentient beings is confined to this narrow scene ; yet, seeinp Uiis small portion of the universe crowded with examples of utility, why should we imagme that Divine Goodness has not throughout the system in like manner diflliscd its bounty 1 As our knowledge of the celestial phenomena is extended, tlie probability becomes proportionably stronger that the other planets ore stored with inhabitants who share in the blessings of rational and sentient existence. Their rota tion, their atmospheres, of which the telescope has enabled us to detect the existence, and the changes which we see going on in these atmospheres, so much resemble what we expe- rience on the earth, that no man who clearly conceives them can divest his mind of the tliought that tliis is not the only part of the system where the Creator has displayed his bounty by giving existence to sentient beings. There is nothing that forbids us to suppose that m each of the other planets there is the same inexhaustible store of subordinate contrivances that we see here for living creatures in every situation, possessing appropriate forms, desires, and abilities. Before abandoning such an opinion, there may surely be expected, ftom those who require us to do so, some good reason for its rejection. In regard to the fixed stars, as the sun, if viewed from a sufficient distance, would be diminished into a luminous point, while the planets that revolve round him woidd become invisible; so, on the other hand, it is highly probable that each fixed star is itself a sun, and the centre of a particular system, being surrounded with a certain number of planets and comets, which, at different distances and m different periods, perform their revolutions around it. There appears strong reason to suppose that the sun, with his accompanying planets, has a motion among the fixed stars, round a centre. From a comparison of ancient and moidem Vol. I. 13 ■■rin"r*»r'i«'T5r" 184 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. PabtU observationa, it appears that while the stars in one quarter of the heavens are receding from each oUier, those in the opposite region are eraaually approaching. Dr. Herschel has found that these motions of the stars are nearly in the direction tluit wodd result from a motion of the sun towards the constellation oi Hercules. It is the opinion of I^nde that there is a kind of equilibrium aincmg all the systems of the universe, and that they have a periodic circulation about their common centre of gravity. . i TABULAR VIEW OP THE SOLAR SYSTEM. | i , L SECONDARY PLANETS. 1 ;, ! 1. The Moon. RerolutioiM. D. R. M. a. Synodieal 39 19 44 9.9 Anomaliitie 97 13 18 37.4 Sidereal 97 7 43 11.5 Tropical 97 7 43 4.7 Nodical 97 5 5 36.0 Inclination of Orbit to plane of Ecliptic. . . . Greater lemi.axii of Orl Ecoantricity — .054844 I 50 8' 47" .1 bit — 1.000001 Bemidiameter of Terrestrial Equator •- 1. Moon't mean diatance — 50.96435. in milea — 937000. Moon'a mean diameter ■- 9160 miles. Her volume — ^ of volume of tlw Earth. Her maaa =- ;r5 of "»""' of «'>o Earth. 79.OT Her denaity — tS ~ '^'^ °^ density of the Earth. Her light ia ^th of the light of the Bun. 3. Satklltrs or Jdpitxr. .1 Sidereal Bevolution. Mean diatance in aemidiame- ter«ofJupiter'8 Equator. 1 9 3 4 D. B. M. 1 18 88 3 13 14 7 8 43 16 16 38 6.049 9.693 15.330 96.998 3. Satklmtes OF Satvrn. 1 1 Sidereal Revolution. Mean distance in aemiaiame- tersofSaturn'a Equator. I 9 3 4 5 6 7 p. H. M. S3 38 1 8 S3 1 91 18 9 17 45 4 19 45 15 99 41 79 7 55 3.3S1 4.300 5.984 6.819 9.594 99.081 64.359 4. SaTXLUTES of UkANVS. 85 Mean diatance Sidereal in aemidiame- "3 Revolution. tera of Ura- ^ nua'a Equator. I>. H. M. 1 5 91 95 13.130 9 8 16 58 17.039 3 10 S3 4 19.845 4 13 10 06 )B.75a 5 38 1 48 45.507 6 107 16 40 91.00H n. PRIMARY PLANETS AND SUN. rtuMla. Mem DUtuce. BecMMeily. JulTlloi. UMS.Fnballoii. Ju. 1,1(01. lBdil.ofOtl>U. Ju. 1, 1801. iMcNota- Ju. 1,1801. MwiDiUt MotinlaOitH. S. O t II 1 II » II 1 II ' " fft.Mnuo 0.li87l»et .1(»9I494 168 48.8 74 21 48.9 7 •,! 49 57 80.9 4 (91.8 014.7007889 0.723S3ie .ocmm* II 33 3.0 128 43 63.1 3 23 28.5 74 S4 11.9 1 38 7.9 Euth . . . S65.at89ai» 1. 0000000 .oisTswr 100 99 10.2 9930 S.0 059 8.S Mara. . . . eae.9796«9s IJSW9B . «O700 64SUJ 332 23 588 i 5'l 8.2 48 3.5 3126.7 Vnta . . . igas.7431 ».367OT0O .08919000 '278 90 a4 249 23 44.4 ■ 7 8 90 108 IS 18.9 9 18 17.9 A»* • . ■ lUtMOS 2«etoaeo .35781800 8 900 18 19.1 S in 18 11.9 S 53 33 48.0 S 147 TSU 8 IS 4 9.7 5' I0(7 9(J 8 >TI T4a4 i 80 41(40) 13 31.9 Cem . . . issLsesi a.767MM .07843900 12 50.9 MiM . . . iS86.saa8 a.TTSseeo .14164800 ,108 24 S7.S .121 7 4.3 .34*4 55.0 ,17199 99.8 12 48.4 «.tm • • • aaoMAsaia «.ao377eo .048ie>IO Hi 19 23.0 IS 8 34.6 1 18 513 9*18 19.9 4 68.9 l07SeJI9ei74 9.saa7Mi .OMIS090 135 90 «.» 89 9 29.8 S29S6.7 III (8 S7.4 1 0.8 Cnuna . . . HMASUWH itLisaeoo .04*91938 177 48 23.0 187 31 I8.I 048 284 Tasassj 42.4 Planets and Bun. True Diameter, Volume. Maaa. Denaity, Oravi. ty. Sidereal Ro- tation. Inelinationof Alia to Axia of Ecliptic. Ligbt and Heat. Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Sun jMoon 0.398 0.975 1.000 0.617 10.660 9.962 4.332 111.454 .0275 0.396 0.927 1.000 0.139 1260.900 995.000 80.490 1364472.000 .000 3.9326 .9924 .5500 1.1000 1.0000 2.4185 1.0824 0.98 1.0024 .3324 2.72 1.01 0025 18127 m. B, 528 23 21 39 21 966 50 10 29 17 unknown 12 743 not known 7 not exactly known 23 27 66.5 30 19 10.6 3 6 80.0 31 19 not known 7 30 1 SO 10.6 6.680 1.911 1.000 0.431 0.037 nnii 0.008 1.000 Pabt 11 e receding from r. Herachel has Id result from a }f Lalande that lat they have a rth. Z8 or Urancs. Mean diitanM 1 in lemidiame- in. ten of Urn- nus'i Equator. M. a 13.190 B 17.088 14 19.843 e 82.719 18 45.907 W •1.008 (Ota. tfauDtUi MoUnlaOrtK. INI. I II ' " IT act 4 ISM A At iM rs 0»9 U • • M OSI B6,T ISIM l< IT.9 1«K* oisaa.* IM.0 13 sag • 96.8 0I9 4&4 dU 4S8.S «M.4 I a« wau 49.4 ofAiii Light nnd Heat. ieliptic. II 6.680 known 1.011 )6.5 1.000 0.8 0.481 m 0.0S7 0.011 0.003 0.8 1.000 OooE L FIGURE AND MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTH. 189 CHAPTER XIX. FIGURE AND MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTH. Wb have sufficiently established the important proposition that the earth is a rotmd body ; and have inferred from the figure of its shadow, as seen on the moon's disc in lunar eclipses, that it must be a sphere, or at least that it approaches to that figure. Thu hypothesis of its being exactly spherical is sufficient to explam, in a satisfactory manner, the general appear^ ance of the heavens, as seen from different points of its surface ; and before the true doctrine of motion and the law of gravitation, which connects the most remote bodies in the univens>, were discovered, a sphere was considered to be an exact representation of its shape, and Uie ingenuity of mathematicians was exerted to discover its magnitude. The determination of the magnitude of the earth might appear, to one altogether ignorant of mathematical science, as a problem of insuperable difficulty, and, indeed, as too suUime to be resolved by a human being. If, however, we suppose the earth an exact sphere, the theory of the solution is by no means difficult; it is within the bounds of elementary geome- try, and has been known ftom the earliest ages : but the case is very diflerent with the practice. In the actual resolution, instruments of the greatest nicety are required ; and to [>roduce these, the ingenuity of man has been tasked to the utmost durmg the last two lundred years ; besides, the application of them demands, in addition to the principles of geometry, some of the most refined theories in physics: so tliat, on Uie whole, few problems present a more ample field for the exertion of the mind of man, or have more extensively called forth the assistance of arts and sciences. It is now about two thousand years since Eratosthenes attempted to resolve this important problem. He knew that on the day of the summer solstice the sun illuminated the bottom of a well at Svene. At die same instant he observed at Alexandria that the sun was 7° 12' from the zenith : and it was supposed that Syene was due south firom that place, and therefore that both were under the same meridian. Let C (Jig.^.) be the earth's centre, A Alexandria, Z its zenith in the heavens, B Syene, and S the sun at the instant when it illuminated the bottom of the well, and consequently was in the zenith of that place. The angu- lar measure of the celestial arc Z S, or the corresponding ter- restrial arc A B, is the angle Z C S at the earth's centre. Eratosthenes obsened the angle Z A S, which by the elements of geometrv, is less than the former b;^ the angle A S C. However, this difiference is so small, that it may be altogether neglected in the present case ; and thus the angle A C B will be nearly 7° 12', that is, one fiftieth part of 360° ; and conse- quently the arc A B of the terrestrial meridian one fiftieth of the earth's circumference. The distance between Alexandria and Svene had been deter- mined to be 6000 stadia. Hence i^ immediately followed that the earth's circumference was 260,000 stadia. As it could not be supposed that this result was very accurate, Eratos- thenes reckoned the circumference to be 252,000 stadia, which give in round numbers 700 Btedia to the length of a degree. The geometrical principle here employed vras quite correct, and indeed was the same which is used at this time ; but the data were very inaccurate and uncertain, for Syene, instead of being exactly south from Alexandria, lies considerably to the east; and it may well be supposed that the assigned distance between Alexandria and Syene was not an accurate measurement, but merely a rude approximation. It is impossible, however, now to determine how near Eratosthenes came to the truth, for want of a knowledge of the exact length of the stadium by which the distance was reckoneti. The principles by which Eratosthenes was directed in his measurement of the earth appear to have been afterwards employed by Posidonius. This astronomer had remarked, that at Rhodes the star Canopus was just visible in the horizon, but never rose above it ; while at Alexandria it attained an altitude of 7^°, or ^'nth part of the circumference of a great circle. Tho direct distance between these two places, which were supposed to be on the same meridian, was accounted to be 5000 stadia ; and therefore, according to this observa- tion, the circumference should have been 240,000: but here the uncertainty of a distance reckoned by a sea-voyage, not to speak of other causes of error, renders the conclusion of no value. About the year 800 of the Christian era, the caliph Almaman directed that his astro- nomers should measure a degree of the meridian in the plains of Mesopotamia. The method which they employed was susceptible of greater accuracy than that of the Greeks. They divided themselves into two parties: after observing the altitude of the pole, one went directly north and the other south, measuring as they proceeded, and taking ftom time to 130 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. Part II. time the altitude of the pole, until each party had changed its latitude by a degree. Thus the measure of two degrees was obtained ; but, at the present time, our ignorance of the exact length of the unit of measure renders all their labour useless to us, even if (what is very unlikely) its accuracy might have been relied on. It appears, however, that their estunation of the earth's magnitude was less accurate tlian that of the astronomer of Alexandria. The method of Eratosthenes was practised in modem times, first by Femel, a Flemish physician. He travelled from Paris towards Amiens, which places are nearly under the same meridian, until he hod passed over a degree of latitude ; and, by a contrivance attached to the wheel of his carriage, he ascertained the number of revolutions it mode in that dis- tance. In this way he found the length of the degree to be 57,070 French toises. The same degree was afterwards measured by La Caille, and found to be ''7,074 toises. The near agreement of Fernel's result with tliia last, obtained by a more accurate and scientific process, is very remarkable. The Dutch astronomer Snellius was the first who attempted to resolve this most inter- esting and difficult problem in practical geometry with those scientific aids which its import- ance required. In the year 1617 he published his Eratosthenes Batavus, in which he has detailed the whole process. The extreme points of his meridional arc are terminated in the parallels of Alcmaer, in lat 52° 40^', and Bergen-op-2kK)m, lat 51° 29', the arc between them being 1° 11 J'. He formed a series of triangles between these places along the earth's surface, and determined (as well as the imperfect instruments of the time enabled him to determine) their angles ; and by several base lines, actually measured, he found their side& He reduced the positions of his stations to the meridian ; and he concluded that a degree of the meridian was 28,500 perches, which were equivalent to 55,100 toises of that period ; which, however, were rather longer than the toLse as it is now estimated. The error of Snellius appears to have been about 2000 toises on the length of a degree, of which 1000 may have arisen from the error in measuring the celestial arc, and the rest from the imper- fection of his ^eodetical measurements. Snellius measured his original base over again, aiid corrected his conclusion : he died, however, before he could publish the result. Cassini made certain corrections in his calculations, by which the length of the degree came out 56,675 toises ; and Muschenbroek, by an exammaiion of Snellius's papers, found that the degree ought to have been reckoned 57,033 toises, Richard Norwood made a remarkable approximation to the true length of a degree in 1635, by apparently inadequate means. He measured the distance between London and York, observing the bearings as he proceeded, and reducing all to tlie direction of the meridian and the horizontal plane. He determined the difference of latitude to be 2° 28' ; and firom the whole distance he determined the degree to be 367,176 feet English, or 57,800 toises. As fiir as pure mathematical theory was concerned, the method of Snellius was excellent ; the chief imperfection was in his instruments : but an immense improvement was made by Picard, in the application of the telescope and the micrometer to the measurement of angles : and, with the assistance of instruments constructed on the new principle, this astro- nomer, by the direction of the French Academy, began the measurement of an arc of the meridian, taking for its extremities the parallels of Sourdon near Amiens, and Malvoisine. His general manner of conducting the process was the same as that of Snellius. He con- nected the extreme parallels by a series of triangles, the sides of which were determined from a base of 5663 toises, measured twice with great care at one extremity of the seriea There was a base of verification of 3902 toises measured at the other extremity. The horizontal angles were measured by a quadrant of thirty-eight inches' radius ; and the celestial arc, which was about 1° 12', by a sector ten feet in radius. He concluded the length of a degree to be 57,060 toises. This was the first measurement in which confidence could be placed. It is true there wero several elem nts wanting in the determination of the celestial arc, owing to the imper- fect state of astronomical science at that time; but, by a fortunate compensation, the errors thence arising corrected each other. This measurement of Picard was of service to Newton, in verifying his happy thought of the law of universal gravitation. The measurement begun by Picard was continued northward to Dunkirk by La Hire , and in the opposite direction, as far as Perpignan, by the second Cassini, who published the whole in 1718, in a work on the magnitude and figure of the earth. The labour of the French astronomers determined the magnitude of the earth with a degree of accuracy suflScient for the general purposes of geography ; but science was now proceeding with rapid strides, and a new question was agitated, — Is the earth an exact sphere,, as had been hitherto supposed ] or, if it be not a sphere, what is its true figure 1 Huygens and Newton had established the doctrine of the centriiligal force "of bodies revolving in circles ; '.ad from this it was justly inferred that the earth, in consequence of its rotation on an axis, must necessarily deviate from a spherical figure, and assume that of an oblate spheroid ; that is, a solid generated by the revolution of an ellipse on its leaser axis, the extremities of which in this case were the poles. Part II. a degrree. Thus ignorance of the even if (what is vever, that their 3 astronomer of kernel, a Flemish nearly under the trivance attached made in that dis- li toises. 1 be ''7,074 toisea ore accurate and ^^ this most inter- which its import- , in which he has terminated in the the arc between along the earth's le enabled him to found their sides. 1 that a degree of !8 of that period ; id. The error of e, of which 1900 t from the imper- L base over again, e result. Cassini degree came out rs, found that the fth of a degree in iveen London and direction of the to be 2° 28'; and I, or 57,800 toises. IS was excellent ; ent was made by measurement of nciple, this astro- of an arc of the , and Malvoisine. icllius. He con- were determined lity of the serie& extremity. The radius ; and the e concluded the It is true there ing to the imper- sation, the errors rvice to Newton, irk hy La Hire, 10 published the he earth with a science was now earth an exact true figure 1 force of bodies consequence of 1 assume that of pse on its Cesser BookL FIGURE AND MAGNITUDE OP THE EARTH. 137 This opinion received support from some astronomical observations mode by Richer, who was sent by the Academv or Sciences, in 1672, to Cayenne. He there found that his clock, which had been regulated to mean time at Paris, went slower by a sensible quantity. This mteresting oleervatiou showed that the weight of the pendulum was less at the equator than it had been at Paris ; and hence the increase of the force of gravity in proceeding from the equator towards Uie pole, as shown Uieorotically by Newton, was completely established ; and consequently also the oblatoness of the earth at the poles, and its elevation at the equator which are the consequence of this diminution. If the earth were a perfect sphere, then all the degree of tiie terrestrial meridian from the equator to the pole would be equal in length. But this will by no means be the case it the earth Ix: a spheroid. For, supposing the earth to be an oblate spheroid (J:g, 48.), of which tix9 lesser axis is P P', that diameter of the eartli which passes through P P' the poles. Let E Q be any equa- torial diameter, and E P Q, P' a section of the earth, through the axis P P', which will therefore be a terres- trial meridian. Because the direction of gravity is always in a line perpendicular to the earth's surface ; at the poles and equator, the direction of gravity will pass through the centre. It will be otherwise, however, at any point, D, between the equator and poles; for, by tbe nature of the ellipse, a line, D F, drawn perpendicular to the curve at D will pass on one side of the centre. Now let us suppose that D F, H F, are two straight lines perpendicular to the earUi's surface at D and H, which meet in F, and contain an angle D F If, of one degree; dso let G K, L K, be other two lines perpendicular to the earth's surface at points nearer the pole; and suppose these also to contain an angle G K L, of one degree. The elliptic arc D H, because of its smallness, may be considered as an arc of a circle of whic'i D F or H P is the radius ; and similarly the elliptic arc G L may be considered as an arc of a circle whose radius is G K or L K. The curvature of the ellipse is greatest at E, the extremity of the greater axis, and gradually decreases to P, the extremity of the lesser axis, where it is least Hence the arc D H will be more incurvated than G F ; and since the angles at F and K are equal, each being one degree, tlie almost equal lines G K, L K, will be greater than the almost equal lines D H, H F; and the arc G L must therefore be greater than the arc D H. Thus, if tlie eartli is an oblate spheroid, a degree of the terrestrial meridian will, by actual measurement, be found to be least at the equator ; and the degrees will gradually increase as we proceed towards either pole. It is manifest that the case would be just the reverse if the earth were an oblong spheroid, generated by the rotation of an ellipse on its greater axis E Q. Hence the important question. What is the figure of the terrestrial meridiuil may be resolved by measuring arcs of the meridian in different latitudes. None of the measurements before that begun by Picard were made .with such accuracy as to enable mathematicians to resolve tlie question. But it was then supposed that this had been performed with such care as to afford the necessary data. Such, however, appears not to have been the case. The degrees actually measured were found to be unequal ; but, instead of increasing in going from south to north, the reverse was supposed to be the fact ; and had this been really true, tlie polar axis would have been greater than the equa* toriaJ, — a conclusion quite in opposition to that derivable from the doctrine of centrifugal force. To determine this most important question, tho Academy of Sciences resolved that degrees of the meridian should be measured in various latitudes which might differ as much as possible ; and it was determined that one party should be sent to the neighbourhood of the equator, and another to the polar circle. Two scientific expeditions were accordingly undertaken. Maupertuis, Clairaut, Comus, Lemonnier, and Outhier, went to Lapland, where the Swedish astronomer Celsius joined them ; and there they measured an arc of fifty-seven minutes of a degree, from which they concluded that a degree under the polar circle, viz. in lat 66° 20', was 57,419 toises, that is, about 349 toises greater than that of Paris. This degree has been since remeasured with great care by Svanberg and other Swedish mathe- maticians, who found it to 1)e 57,196 toises. This is 223 toises less than the determination of the French academicans ; but it is certainly more correct The otiie party, composed of Godin, Bouguer, and La Condamine, performed a similar but more extensive operation in Peru. After ten years' labour, they, with the assistance of two Spanish officers, Don Jorge Juan and Antonio de Ulloa, accomplisbed the measurement of an arc of about 3° 7'. Prom this they concluded that the lengtn of r degree wos 56,7oS toises, which was shorter than the French degree by 302 toises. These measurements set the question completely at rest There could no longer be any doubt that the polar diame- ter of the earth was shorter than the equatorial. The measurement of different degrees has been since performed many times in different Vol I. 18* S 199 PRINCIPLES OP CSOGRAPHY. Part H countries ; as afain in France, and also at the Cape of Good Hope, by La Caille ; in Italy, by Maire, Boscovich, and Beccaria ; in Pennsylvania, by Mason and Dixon ; in Hungary, by Liesganig ; in India, by Lambton. There nave been, in addition to these, two admeasurements of arcs of the meridian which deserve particular notice, on account of their extent, the excellence of the instruments employed, and the skill with which the operations have been conducted. We are indebted to the spirit of reform and improvement which spnuif; out of the French revolution for one of these, and to the liberal and enligfhtened views of the Enslish government for the other. The great diversity in the imits of a measure is an evil which has been long felt and com< plained of in every commercial country. The French Constitutional Assembly took up this most important subject in the year 1790 ; and, at the suggestion of Talleyrand, it was decreed, that the king should request his Britannic majesty to engage the parliament of England to cone xt with the National Assembly in fixing a natural unit of weights and measures ; that, under the auspices of the two nations, commissioners of the Academy of Sciences, and an equal number of members of the Royal Society of London, should determine the length of the pendulum in the latitude of 45°, or other preferable latitude, and from this deduce m invariable standard for all weights and measures. The Academy named a commission, composed of Borda, Lagrange, Laplace, Monge, and Condorcet, who gave a report, which is prmted in the Memoirs of Uie Academy for 1788. Three different fundamental units were suggested in their report The first is the pendulum which baats seconds in a given parallel. That of 45° was thought preferable to any other, because there the pendulum is a mean among all those which beat seconds in the difierent latitudes between the equator and the pole. They observed, however, that the pendulum contains a heterogeneous element, namely, time ; and an arbitrary element, viz. the division of the day into 86,400 seconds. They, therefore, considered it to be less proper as a standard unit of lineal measure, than another which they regarded as unexceptionable. This is the length of a quadrant of '<>e meridian, a linear magnitude of the same kind as the thing to be determined, and therefore more natural than the pendulum, which involved the considora* tion of time. There is yet another linear unit, namely, the circumference of the earth's equator. But this is not better known than the elliptic meridian ; nor does it admit o** being determined with so much precision. On the whole, therefore, it was recommended that the quadrant of the meridian should be taken as the primary unit, and that its ten-millionth part (a lineal space about 39jt English inches) should be the ordinary unit for the measurements which occur in the afSiirs of life. This was named a mitve. Although in the beginning it had been proposed to invite the English philosophers to assist in establishing a standard unit, yet, as the object to be attained could be accomplished per- fectly by the French mathematicians, without any fbreign aid, it was recommendeo to commence immediately the measurement of the arc of the merio on between Dunkirk and Barcelona, an extent of nearly 0} degrees. The operations neceisary for this labour were, 1. To determine the difiTerence of latitude between Dunkirk and Barcelona ; and, in general, to make such astronomical observations on tlie whole liile as might be thought useful. 2. To measure again the bases which had served for the measurement of the degree made at Paris, and the construction of the map of France. 3. To verify by new observations the series of triangles which had formerly been employed for the measurement of the meridian, and to Srolong them to Barcelona. 4. To make, at the 45th degree, such observations as might etermine the number of vibrations which a pendulum equal in length to one ten-millionth part of the meridian would make in a day, in a vacuut^ at the level of the sea, and at the temperature of melting ice, in order that, uiis number being once .'-nown, the mitre might be determined at any time by the length of the pendulum. In Uiis wa\ ^he advantages of the two methods of forming a standard would be united. 6. To verify by new eApcrunents the specific gravity of pure water in a vacuum, and at the temperature oif water just beginning to fireeze. 6. And lastly, To reduce all the old measures of every kind employed m com merce to the new standards. To accomplish these objects, it was recommended that six distinct commissioners should be appointed. This was done by a decree of the National Assembly, dated 26th March, 1791 ; only it was thought to bo better to commit the astronomical and geodetical observa- tions to a single commission. Immediately directions were given for the construction of the necessary instruments. Lenoir, a celebrated French artist, was employed to make repeating circles, long rules of pbtina for the measurement of the bases, and a idiorter rule ; also, balls of platina and gold for the pendulum observations. About the middle of the year 1792, Cassini and Borda began a series of experiments on the pendulum ; and, in tJie following year, Lavoisier was engaged in experiments on the expansion of metals. And about the same time Mechain began nis cperattOus for the deter- mination of the portion of the meridian between Rodez and Barcelona, an extent of 170,000 toises. Delambre had undertaken the portion of the arc between Dunkirk and Rodes, 38,000 toises in extent. This, however, had been twice measured before; and for this reason the labour was expected to be less tlian was requisite fo" the other portion, which Part 11 nille ; in Italy, b; in Hungary, t^ e m'sridian which the instruments We are indebted ivolution for one at for the other. }ng felt and com* My took up this id, it was decreed, nt of England to measures; that, Sciences, and an ine the length of a this deduce an ilace, Monge, and cademy for 1788. t is the pendulum ible to any other, s in the different lat the pendulum :, viz. the division opoT as a standard ble. This is the id as the thing to red the considora* ce of the earth's lit admit o*" being nmended that the ten-millionth part lie measurements losophers to assist ccomplished per- recommendea to en Dunkirk and this labour were, and, in general, fht useful. 2. To e made at Paris, ins the series of meridian, and to ations as might ne ten-millionth sea, and at the mitre might be vantages of the toApcrunents the r just beginning ployed m com lissioners should ed 26th March, letical observa- kstruction of the I make repeating 1 rule ; also, balls experunenta on kriments on the as for the deier* Jctent of 170,000 prk and Rodes, and for this portion, which Book T. FIGURE AND MAGNITUDE OP THE EARTH. vm was entirely new. Besides the privations and hardahipa, the ordinary accompanhnentu of a service which requires Uiose who perform it to live in elevated situations, with little shilter, with few of the comforts to which tiiey have been accustomed, and exposed to the vicissi- tudes of heat and cold, and the influence of the nocturnal dews, they had to encounter the Eerils arising from a disorganixed state of society. Mechain was stopped in the neighbour- ood of Paris ; but when he pursued his labours st a distance firom the capital, lie met with no farther interruption; while Delambre, in the north of IVanoe, was often exposed to the most imminent duiger. In the beat of the French revolution, the people were jealous of what they did not understuid ; and the astrononujn were at once exposed to the machinations of their enemies at Paris, and to the brutality of the ignorant peasants in the provinces. In the course of their operatims they measured two bases, on the accurate determuiation of which the utility of all their labours was to depend. One base, of 6075,9 toises, wa« measured by Delambre at Melun ; and the other, or 6006.2478 toises, at Perpignan. The distance between them was 860,830 toises, about 486 English miles. They were connected by a chain of triangles, the sides and angles of which were all known; so that the length of one base heua Imown, that of the other might h-^ found by computation. It is a remark- able fiict, that when the base of Perpignan was inin ?ed by calculation from that of Melun, the result was found to be only ten or eleven inches less than that obtained by actual mea- surement. This striking agreement i^rds a strong presumptive proof of the accuracy with which the operations had Men conducted. The determination of the latitudes of the two extremities of the arc was also a matter of the utmost importance. The pains which the astronomers took to arrive at true results are almost incredible. Delambre made 800 observations to ascertam the true latitude of the Dunkirk extremity ; and a corresponding degree of attention was bestowed on different intermediate poin'o.. Thia most iirtportant undertaking was at last, after seven years' labour, brought to a con- clusion in the year 1798. Although the result was, in its first application, to m directed to the establishment of a standard unit of lineal measure for the French nation, yet the advan- tages which may be deduced from it extended much fiurther, and were available to every nation enlightened by science. For this reason, the states living in pace with France had been invito to send emirent mathematicians and aatronomers to assist in a rigorous exami- naticm of every step of the operation. The astronomical and geodeUcal observations, in particular, were subjected to the examination of Tralles, the deputy of the Helvetian republic; Van Swinden, the Batavian deputy ; and the two French philosophers Laplace and Legendre. They entered into all the detuls of the measurement or the bases ; and they examined the three angles of every triangle, and determined their values. The calculations were then separately performed by four different persons — ^Tralles, Van Swinden, Legendre, and De- lambre ; and this last astroncnner calculated the length of the meridian by four different and independent methods ; and a report was made to the National Institute at Paris, in June 1799, in the name of the Class of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, on the Measure of the Meridian of France, and its Results. The general fact, that the degrees of the meridian increase as we recede from the equator towards Uie pole, was again rally confirmed ; so that the oblateness of the earth in the direction of the polar axis is a truth now placed beyond all controversy. Notwithstanding, however, the almost incredible care with which uie operations were conducted, the exact Suantity of tiiis compression was still left in some uncertainty. The limits between which ie true measure of the oblateness is contained are, however, narrower ; and it is likely that the problem, What is Uie exact proportion of the polar to the equatorial axis 1 does not, fix>m its nature, admit of a nearer approximation to the truth than has been already obtained. If we could suppose the measurements of lines and angles to bo perfectly correct, it would follow, that althocgh on the whole, taking considerame intervals, the length of arcs of the meridian corresponding to equal celestial arcs go on increasing from soum to north, yet the law of the increase is irregular, and not that which ought to result from an exact elliptic meridian. The result of the measurement will be seen vi the following table : — Latitude*. InteiTttli. Intenrali ib Toiwi. Length of a Oegrae. Mean Latitude. Are of one 1 Second. i Dunkirk Pantlieon Evsas Careanona Montjour 1 II 51 t, 0.90 48 50 4937 46 10 49.54 43 19 54.30 41 91 44.98 1 " 9 11 19.83 S 4C f..8R 9 57 48.94 1 51 9J4 U4044.8 168846.7 lU '99.0 Toiie*. Sne9.63 57069.31 56977.80 56946.68 1 II 40 .W 59.30 47 30 45.91 44 41 48.37 49 17 19.60 Toilet j 15.3S8SSS 15.859580 15.827107 ' 15£l850a 1 140 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. Part II. r V, Prom this table we see that the lenjf th of a degree in the (bur mean latitudes goes on in- creasing. Also, from tlie column of mean latitudes, and tliat of the length of a degree, it appears that a diminution of 2" 25' 4d".30 in the first mean lati.ude corresponds to a dmiinution of 13.18 toises in the terrestrial meridian : this gives 0.5 toises to a degree. Again, that a farther diminution of 2° 43' 57".54 produces a diminution of 01.51 toises, which is at the rate of 32.4 toises to a degree. Lastly, that a third diminution of 2° 24' 28".Tf gives a diminution of 31.1'/ toises, which is at the rate of about 12.9 toises to a degree. These changes of 5.5, 32.4, and 31.17 toises in the length cf a degree in going southward evidently do not follow a regular law, such as should result fh)m a continuous increase of curvature. We may, therefore, reasonably suppose that all the observations have not been equally perfect, or that, in addition to unavoidable errors in the estimation of lines and angles, some disturbing cause must have operated : prdnbly, an inequality of density, in the density of the strata over which the measurement was performed, may have had great influence in producing the irreg ever, it was concluded that the length of the terrestrial meridian between the pole and the equator was 5,130,740 toises ; and hence the mdtre, or ten-millionth part of the meridian, was .518074 of a toise, which is 443.295066 lines. Another most important result, deducible from these observaticxis, was the ratio of the polar axis of the earth to the equatorial axis. This must partake of the uncertainty of the data by which it is to be determined. We may, however, assume, without sensible error, that the equatorial axis is to tlie polar as 334 to 883. The difference, therefore, of the semi-axes, compared with the equatorial radius, will be one part in 334. The fraction ?}(— that is, the difference of the semi-axes divided by the equatorial radius, — ^is called the com- pression of the earth at the poles. The astronomer Mechain had contemplated the extension of tha measurement of the meridian beyond the limit at first proposed ; but he did not live to carry his views into execu- tion. However, the undertakmg was resumed, after a cessation of three years, by Biot and Arago, French astronomers, with whom were associated MM. Chaix and Rodriguez, Span- iards, all eminently distinguished for their talent and devotedness to the object to be ac- complished. By their exertions, a train of triangles was carried southward from the point where Mechain and Delambre had stopped, to lormentera, a small island near Ivica, in the Mediterranean. "This is the southern lunit of a most interesting labour: but, if ever European civilization extends into Afi-ica, the measurement may b« extended to Cape de Gata, and thence across the Mediterranean to the coast of Afirica, and continued to the city of Algiers, which is nearly in the meridian of Paris; so that in time the southern extremity may be actually carried to the summit of Mount Aths. The other measurement of a considerable portion of the earth, to which we have alluded, was bcgim under the auspices and at the expense of the British government as long ago as the year 1784 At that time a memoir, drawn up by Cassini de Thury, was presented to the minister (Mr. Fox) by the French ambassador. It stated the advantages which would accrue to geography and astronomy by determining the difference of longitude between the observatories of Greenwich and Pariu, by means of a series of triangles from the former to Dunkirk, to which place the meridian of Paris had previously been extended. The proposal was communicated to the Royal Society ; and having been approved of, the execution was Committed to general Roy. "The first step was to measure a base, from the length of which the sides of all the triangles might be iruerred ; and a line rather more than five miles in length was traced out on Hounslow Heath, and measured with the most scrupulous caie. It may at first sight appear a very simple matter to measure a straight line on the ground; but if'^the utmost exactness is required, the operation must be performed with instruments constructed with the greatest ingenuity, and the applicstion of much physical knowledge. Generally all solid bodies expand by heat, and contract by cold ; and, moreover, some change their dimensions by moisture and dryness. To counteract or to estimate precisely these changes, so as to allow for them in the final result, is a matter of great difficulty, and only to be accomplished by infinite care and perseverance. The measurement of the base was first undertaken with deal rods, twenty feet in length. These, however, were found to be much affected by the changes in the atmosphere from moisture to dryness : they were therefore laid aside ; and instead of them glass rods, of the same length in frames, were employed. This substance was chosen, from a belief that it was less affected by changes of temperature than the metals. The measurement, which had been begun about the middle of June, v/as completed in the end of October; and it was found that the base measured exactly 27404.08 feet, or 5.19 miles. The work in the field was not carried farther at thai time : ii was, however, resumed in 178T''. A theodolite of greater dimensions than had ever been employed in geodetical opera- tions was constructed by the celebrated artist Ramsden. The series of observations was begun at the base in the beginning of August, by General Roy, assisted by Isaac Dalby, an Book cxcelh cprtair to l»ov l«< Book I. MGURE AND MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTH 141 titudes goes on in- Ifth of a degree, it e corresponds to a oises to a degree, in of 91.01 toises, ninution of 2° 24' t 12.9 toises to a a degree in going from a continuous 1 the observations I the estimation of ', an inequality of rformed, may have luce corresponding n the whole, how- a the pole and the rt of the meridian, a the ratio of the uncertainty of the Dut sensible error, , therefore, of the The fraction »}i— -is called the com- jasurement of the I views into execu- years, by Biot and Rodriguez, Span- lie object to be ac- ird from the point 1 near Ivica, in the 3ur: but, if ever ended to Cape de itinued to the city Duthem extremity we have alluded, ent as long ago aa was presented to iges which would tude between the rem the former to ed. The proposal he execution was length of which han five miles in scrupulous caie. on the ground; with instruments sical knowledge, iver, some change precisely these fficulty, and only y feet in length. atmosphere from 'lass rods, of the a belief that it surement, which tober ; and it was !ver, resumed in 'eodetical opera- )bservations was Isiuic Dalby, an c.vcellcnl mathematician, and most voracious astronomical observer. After continuing to a cortain length, it was iudged to be expedient to break off, and proceed with the instruments to hcycr, A series of olxcrvations was there made, in con unction with the French acade- micin.id Cassini, Mechain, and Lecendre, by which the trlnrcrulation between Paris and Dunkirk miglit be connected with uiat between Dover and '\ .nwich. As a check on the operations, a base of verification was also measured on Romney Marsh ; and in tiiis, instead of the glass rods, a steel chain, constructed for the purpose by Ramsdon, was employed ; it having oeen found by experience the ' there was no sensible difierence in point of^ accuracy between this and the gloss rods, while the chain manifestly was more convenient. After- wards, when the two bases were connected by calculating the sides of the triangles, it was found that the measured base differed from its computed value by only twentv-eight inches, although Romney Marsh Is more than sixty miles nrom Hounslow Heath. The junction of tlie observatories of Grcenv/ich and Paris, by a series of triangles, was completed in 1788, and an account of the opnrations communicated to the Royal «>ciety ; but the death of Gene- ral Roy again suspended the survey until the year 1791. At this time, by the exertions of'^the Duke of Richmond, Master-general of the Ordnance, the survey was resumed witli great vigour. A new theodolite, and various ether instruments, in addition to those formerly employed, were liberally supplied, and placed under the direction of Captain (afterwards Colonel) Mudge of the Royal Artillery, and Mr. Dalby. Beginning their labours by a re-measuremen' of the base on Hounslow Heath with steel chains, they found the difference between this and the ibrmer, in which glass rods were employed, to be no more than two inches and three quarters. Thev also measured another base of verification, 36574.4 feet in length, on Salisbury Plain. When this was connected by a chrxiti' of triangles with the base on Hounslow Heath, and its length computed, the result did not differ more than an inch from the actual measurement ; a convincing proof of the accuracy with which all the operations had been conducted. Although an accurate survey or the island was the main object for which all this labour was undertaken, yet, aa its complete accomplishment requires a knowledge of the figure and dimensions of the earth, no opportunity of solving Uiis grand problem is to be neglected. The ^ two stations nf Beacny Head in Sussex, and Dunnoee in the Isle of Wight, are visible from each other, and more than sixty-four miles asunder, nearly in a direction from east to west: their exact distance was found by tiie geodetical operations to be 339307 feet The azi« muth, ov bearing of the line between them with respect to the meri- dian, also the latitude of Beachy Head, were determined by astro- nomical observations. From these data the length of a degree per- pendicular to the meridian was computed ; and this, compared with the length of a meridional degree in the same latitude, gave the pro- portion of the polar to the equatorial axis. The result thus obtamed, however, differed considerably from tha» obtained by meridional degrees. It has been found impossible to ex- plam the want of agreement in a satisfactory way ; and, for this reason. It has been thought better to rest the solution of the problem entirely on the measurement of degrees of the meridian m different lati- tudes, which, on the whole, give results more consiatent w.'th one another. Without noticing in detail all the steps by which the survey haa advanced, we shall next advert to the measurement of an arc of the meridian between Dunnose, in the Isle of Wight, and Cliflon, near Doncaster ; the former in lat 60" 37' 6", and the latter in 53° 27' 30" To accomplish this, the ingenuity of the artist Ramsden was again exercised in tiie construction of an instrument, a zenith sector, for finding the latitude of the different points of tlie arc : this was almost the last work of a man to whose genius astronomy and geography are highly indebted ; and it waa superior to any thing of the kind ever before constructed. To give the reader a distinct notion of this most important operation, we here present a sketch ifig. 44.) of the series of triingles, twenty-two in number, which connect tho extreme points togetlier with the angles contained by the straight Imes which join the different stations, and tiie length of tiieir sides. The numbers marked on the diagram indicate the names of the «ta(to»«, by referruig to ti.<) following table. The northern extremity of the base, Beacon Hill, or Clifton, ia marked N>. S. ; and the aouthem extremify, Dunnose, ia S3 Th3 sssiss of the inieimediate points may be seen in the table. ' ' Ili PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. Pa&t n No. of rrianglei. 0. 10. 11. Namta of Blallaof. Butier Hill . Dean Hill.., DunnoM. Dean Hill... Butter Hill . HIghclero . lutier Hill. Hind Head. Hlghclefe . . AnglM correct -i for Caleulailon. ^ * n 76 19 91.3 48 4 31.73 S3 43 0.73 09 99 47 48 98 40 60 8 33 Highelare . . Hind Head. Bagihot Heath. 61 31 Hi 66 13 34.93 90 13 91.93 Bagihot Heatb. Highclere . Nuffield. . . WHita Horn Bill . Highclere Nuffield White HofM Hill . Nuffield Brill Tnnr 83 90 14 61 33 31 46 10 17,73 78 17 17 Brill ::: White HorM Hill . . Btow on the Wold . Brill Stow on the Weld . Epwell Epwell Arbury Hill. Arbury Hill. Epwell . Corley . . ISTf 03 18 33 33 17 40.3 86 4 S3 7 TOT 13 39.3 30 14 64 43 64 89 49.8 3B.8 33 34 60 36 86 99 8.3 19.93 83 60 33 17.3 43 89 37 34 41 33 17 33^ ia93 36.93 Dlftance. Prom Dunnoaa to BulwrHIII to llean Hill . Dean Hill from ButMrHIU.... Highclere Butwr Hill itam Hind Head Highclere . Highcfere from Bagihot Heath . Hind Head Nnffield fVom Bagihot Heath ■ Highclere . White HorM) Hill from Nuffield Highclere. Brill nrom White Hone Hill. Nuffield Blow fVom White Horae HiU. Brill. Epwell IVom Btow Brill Arbury Kill flrom Epwell Brill Corley t^om Arbury Hill . Epwell Feet. 140S80.4 1834U0Ji 1S0133.1 183084.9 78003.7 14A031.0 143999.0 100U73.9 103331.9 190374. 130337.7 108363.1 146603.9 93803.3 194363.0 146.196.3 78038^1 138140 83008.4 140330 117463 143897.8 The distance of Butser Hill (22.) floin Dunnoee, 140580.4 feet, had been previously found, by a seriea of triangles connecting these stations with the bases measured on Hounslow Heath and Salisbury Plain ; but, ror (greater security against error, a new base of 26342.7 feet vfaa measured on Misterton Carr, in the northern part of Lincolnshire. From this the sides of the triangles proceeding fh>m the north to the south were computed, as exhibited m the remainder of the table. No. of Triangles. Namei of Btationi. Angle* corrected for Calculation. Distance. Feet. VI Beacon Hill (3 1 il 90 47 30 60 17 13 98 33 37 Beacon Hill from C4461.7 73381.0 North end of Baee (1) South end of Baie (9 South end of Baie 13. Beacon bill.... i North end of Baie (1 Qringley 4 ^44 4^ 74 46 30 70 38 99 Oringley ftom North enH of Baie 44338.3 7S068.0 Beacon Hill 14. Beacon Hill 3) Orinslev 4 13S7 33 31 11 3 114 51 S3 Oringley from Beacon Hill 73068.9 South end of Baio 9 13. Heathenedge a) Beacon Hill. 3 Oringley 4 18 40 38 138 9 16 93 10 8 Heathenedge ftom 92937.3 136.184.8 Oringley 18. Sutton AihOeld 6 Heatheraedge 3} Oringley 4) 78 47 1 34 39 33 46 90 94 Button Aabfleld from QflnflM , •••.. 130399.7 113339.9 Heathersedge 1 ■'■ Orptt ; 7" Heathenedire 3 Sutton Aihfleld 0) 80 38 37 39 8 38 60 33 33 hrpitfltim 1016603 73896.6 Sutton Aihfleld 18. ftollan hilt .'......'.. 8 44 43 31 113 49 7 3137 93 Hollan Hill lYom Sutton Aflhfield 38373.8 0597J.3 Rdttnn Aihflnlfl n\ Orpit 7 Orpit 19. Bardon Hill (10 Hollan Hill .(S 43 38 39 74 39 37 63 834 Bardon Hill from Hollan Hill. 134434.7 135895.3 Orpit 7) Orpit 90. Caetle Cing 9 BardonHil! (io) Orpit .(7) 83 33 43 6834 3 56 3 14 Castle Ring flrom 15333,1.3 136717.8 Bardon Hill 91. Corley ...(11 nnitiR Rin> 79 73 39 48 47 34 43 Corley from Barrion Rill 106337.3 1B5S39.7 EardsnHi!! (10< Casiie Ring 23. Arburv Hill ('13^ 34 14 33 107 90 14 38 95 13 Arbury Hill from Bardon Hill 180436.0 117457.1 Corley (11) Bardon Hill (10) Corley Pai>t n DookI. nOURE AND MAGNITUDE OP THE EARTH. 1431 — 1 FMt. 14fl9<«.4 1834U0.9 156191.1 12«M4.9 • • t« 7S004.7 14MM1.0 1430«.8 1Q0079.9 105381.9 190374. 1905S7.7 108563.1 146603.9 92805.5 134365.8 146396.3 78038.9 138140 830Ue.4 140530 ••••*• 117463 143827.8 3n previously found, lured on Hounslow ew base of 26342.7 ire. From this the iputed, as exhibited Feet. C4461.7 7:i:«i.o 44338.3 75068.0 75068.9 92297.3 150.184.8 130309.7 115339.9 1016603 73826.6 38375.2 95075.3 134454.7 135895.3 153235.2 136717.8 1063S7.3 I25ii3».7 180426.0 117457.1 From the last triaiwle the distance between Corley and Arbury Hill comes out 117467.1 foot This result has oocn found iri.'n the base on Misterton Carr: but the same distance, deduced flrom the bases on Hounslow fi '■th and Salisbury Plain, either of which is more than 150 miles distant flrom Misterton Carr, was tuind to be 117,463 feet, only six feet dLilerent Here we have a remarkable proof of the extreme accuracy with which the operations have been conducted; so that, fVom whatever cause any uncertainty in the conclusion sought may proceed, it can hardly be found either in the v nt of perfection in the indixuments, or of care in those who used Uium. By observations on the ptile star, the exact bearing of Butser Hill firom Dunnose (that is, the azimuth or angle which the line joining thorn makes wi'Ji the meridian,) was ftund : and by like observations the bearing of the station at Gringley from Cliflon \/a8 determin* ed. Uy these data, and bv tho known lengths of the sides of the trionglns, the portions of the meridian intercepted bv perpendiculars on it firom the stations was obtained. Their sum gave 1,036,337 feet fur the meridional distance on the surface of the earth, between Dunnose and Cliflon. Moreover, by the zenith sector, the arc of the celestial merit' ian between them was found to be 2^ 60' 2C" .88, or 2.8398 of difference of latitude. The length of the measured arc of the meridian, viz. 1,036,337 feet, divided by this number, gives 364,933 feet, or 6082 fathoms for the length of a degree in the parallel midway between Dunnose and Cliflon, which is 60° 2' 20". In the same way that the length of a degree, at the middle point between Clifton and Dunnose, was determined, the length of degrees at other intermediate points was found. The latitude of the station at Arbury Hill was carefully observed with the sector. The latitude of Greenwich was well known ; and that of Blenheim, an observatory belonging to the Duke of Marlborough, hod been determined from five years' observations. The two observa- tories were assumed as stations, in addition to those in the meridional chain of triangles, and their position in respect of the others was found. By comparing the celestial with the terrestrial arcs, Uie length of degrees in varioua parallels was determined, as in the following table :— Arbury Hill andCUnon.... Blenheim and Clinon Greenwich and Clifton Ujnnoae and Clifton Arbury Hill and Qreenwieb Dunnoie and Arbury Hill.. Blenheim and nunnoie Dunnose and Greenwich... Latitude of Middle Point. 590 S3 59 59 51 SI SI SI SO' 38 38 3 51 35 13 a 39". 8 SO.l 5.7 19.8 4.1 18.9 18.3 S4.9 Fatbomi. 60,766 60,700 00,794 60,820 60,849 60,804 60,800 00,884 This table presents a singular deviation firom the common rule ; for, instead of the degrees increasing as we proceed from north to south, they appear to decrease, as if the earth were an oblong instead of an oblate spheroid. The oblateness of the earth at the poles is, how- ever, a fact so well established by more extensive measurements^ that we must suppose either that some error has been committed in the observations, — a thing, however, not prolHible ; or else, what is more probable, that by inequality in the density of the strata, producing a local attraction, the plumb-line of the sector has suffered a deflection at some of the Btations, Notwithstanding the discrepancy of the results of the measurements in this particular arc, the length of a degree at the middle station (viz. lat 52° 2' 20") agrees very well with the measurements of me meridian in France and other places. Indeed, the measurements of the small arcs of the meridian in other countries nave presented similar anomalies, although in general not so remarkable. It is, ttierefore, only by comparison of the measures of extensive arcs at considerable intervals that we can arrive at certain conclusions. The Britidi survey has now been extended from tlie southern ports of the island tc Unst, the norUiernmost of the Shetland Islands. At present the engmeer officers who carried it oA are employed in the survey of Ireland; but we may expect that at no remote period they will resume the British survey, and supply the observations still wanting. When this is done, and the mmplete triangulation is published, it will then appear how far local attrac- tion may have disturbed the plummet in passing over the variety of rocks throughout the island. >, Although the compression of the earth be small, yet an exact knowledge of its quantity is of great importance, because of the deductions which are to be made from it. It has been explained, that the direction of a plumb-line is always perpendicular to the earth' sur&ce ; therefore, and because of the continual change of curvature of the meridian in going fi'om north to south, the direction of gravity can only paaa through the earth's centre zt the poles and equator. Thus it appears &at there is a necessary connexion between the form of the earth and terrestrial graviQ^ ; so that the small variations in the latter, which are owing to the deviations from uie exact spherical figure, being known, that deviation itself may be determined. 144 PRINCIPIJifl OF OEOGRAPHY. Part II. It tlio carlh woro iiphoricnl and homogctioui, tho attraction of its moai upon different points of its Rurtkcc, or tho force which Holicits every particle of mutter at its surfhce towards tho centre, wouhl bo everywhere the same. But the elliptic form produces & small deviation from this equality, which increases in (foing from the equator towards the poles, aa the siiunre of tho sine of tho latitude ; and tliis wcuhl be true oven if the earth were at rest: but, by its revolution about its shorter axis, there is produced a centrifugal force, which acts m a direction perpendicular to that axis, and therefore diminishes the force of gravity most of all at the equator, because there tlio two forces act in contrary directions. At the polo its direction is pornendiculnr to tho direction of gravity, and produces no cflbct, By tlie united operation of these two causes, in going f^om the equator towards tho poles, is produced a variation in the degree of quickness ot descent of a heavy body, which increases sa the square of tho sine of the latitude. The oscillations of a pendulum afford a simple means of verifying this fkct. The increase of weight in a hoav^ body, — that is, tho force of gravity in proceeding from the equator to tlio poles, — will be mdicated by a diminution of the time in which an invariable pendulum performs a vibration. Accordingly the pendulum has been employed to dotcruiino tho figure of the cartli ; and tho results obtained nave been found to accord perfectly with tho geo» detical nioasuremcnts which wo hsve described. I'hc British ond French governments have both instituted observations on tho pendulum. The l.-'t'or, on tho recommendation of tho Academy of Sciences, directed that the intensity cf tho ijrce of gravity should bo determined at different points of the ore of the meridian between Dunkirk and Formcntcra; and committed tho labour to MM. Biot, Arago, Mathieu, Bouvard, and Chaix : subsequently, Biot extended his observations to the northern extremity of the British islands. These operations were begun in the year 1807. At a somewhat later period the British government, with the assistance of the Royal S<>cicty, employed Captain Kater, an eminent observer and experimenter, in the same labour ; and also sent Captaiii Sabine, a British artillery ofilcer, with invariable pendulums, to the enuator on tho one hand, and the highest accessible latitudes of the northern hemisphere on the other. It was expected that, by thus multiplying the places of observation, the combination of results would destroy tlie irregular influences of local density, and give the true variations of the force of gravity, which are owing to tho earth's ellipticity. From a mean of all the obser- vations made by the British and French experimenters, it was found that the compression or ellipticity of the earth was about fg'g t ot ^tlrg Laplace had previously concluded, from the combined measurements of terrestrial degrees and pendulum experiments, and tho lunar ineq -alitios dependent on the figure of the earth, that the same important element was j^.f 7. There is a difference between the two conclusions ; but, on the whole, all the results which have been obtained are comprehended within limits which may be deemed moderate, considering the difficulty of the inquiry. The following tables exhibit numerical values of the magnitudes of tho degrees of latitude and longitude, and their proportion to each otlier. The first is from a valuable collection of astronomical tables and fomiuliB by F. Baily, Esq., President of the Astronomical Society of London. It shows the length of a degree of latitude and longitude on tho earth's surfhce, assuming tho compression to be jlu, toge- ther with the length of the pendulum beating seconds there, supposing tho compression to be jiiT, the measures at the equator being considered as unity ; also tlie increase in the number of vibrations of an invariable pendulum beating seconds at the eqiMtor on proceeding towards the pole. This merely shows tlie relative values of the quantiti os thercih stated. The second and third tables are from Mendoza's Tables for Navi^tion and Nautical Astronomy. And the fourth is from the very valuable Introduction to Practical Astronomy by Dr. Pearson, where it is stated to be computed from a Formula given by Lieut-Col. liambton in the Asiatic Researches, vol. xii. The tables are constructed from different values of the earth's compression at the polea The uncertainty of this important clement, in all questions of geography and astronomy, is an inconvenience which cannot yet be got rid of. In Tables II. and III., the dimensions of the degrees of latitude and longitude are given in minutes of the equator. To change these into feet or fathoms, we must know the number of them in a degree of the equator. According to Puissant and Svonberg, tho equatorial degree, or 60 geographical miles, is 60,847 fathoms. Cagnoli has assumed = 60,893 fathoms. Lieut.-Col. Lambton reckoned it to be 60,8.57 fatlioms. General Mudge concluded it to be 60,845 fathoms. Mr. Baily, as an accompaniment to his table (Table I.), assumes the equatorial diameter of the earth to be 7924 miles, and the polar = 7916 miles. A degree of longitude at tiie equator will, on this aupposition, be 69.15 miles, = 60,S.'j2 fathoms, = 865,110 feet: so one second of time, or fifteen seco'ids of a degree of longitude, will he 1521 feet Table IV. gives the measu. of each degree of latitude and ioiijjitude in fathoms. Part II. ifl upon 08.100 8568.043 2027.936 S687.838 2747.750 3807.679 2867.603 3037.544 71 73 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 4188.368 4348.493 4308.632 4368.757 4438.803 4480.044 4540.195 4009.350 4660.510 4730.074 30 31 32 23 24 35 90 87 88 29 30 1193.014 1252.711 1313.414 13^.134 1431841 1491.565 1551.397 1611.036 1670.783 1730.5.18 1790.302 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 .■i9 60 2087.495 3047.455 3107.425 3107.404 3227.303 3387.301 3347.308 3407.414 3467.430 3537.473 3587.515 M 81 83 83 84 85 80 87 88 89 SO 4789.841 4^50.019 4910.186 4970.362 5030.541 5090.722 5150.004 5211.088 5271.273 5331.458 5391.644 Tabu IV. The Measure of each Degree of Latitude and of a Degree of Longitude in each Parallel of Latitude from tho Equator to eitlier Pole. Compression ^j^. Par. Degree of Degree of Par. Degree of Degree of Par. Degree of Degree of of Latitude in Longitude in of Latitude in Longitude in of Latitude in Longitude in Lat. Fathoma. FathoiDB. Lat. Fathonu. Fathomi. Lat. Fatlioma, Fathomi. o 60458.6 60857.1 o 30 60607.4 53746.9 60 60006.6 30503.5 1 60458.8 60847.8 31 60616.5 52310.0 61 60915.7 99578.S 3 60459.8 60830.2 33 60635.8 51657.3 68 60934.5 88643.8 3 60400.3 60774.9 33 00635.3 51088.6 63 60933.1 87700.6 4 00461.5 60709.8 34 60644.8 56504.5 04 60941.4 86748.8 S 60463.3 60697.0 35 60654.5 40004.9 65 60040.0 25788.7 6 60405.1 60535.8 36 60664.4 40390.3 66 6O057.5 24820.7 7 60467.5 60406.4 37 60074.3 48660.3 67 6VX5.3 33845.0 8 60470.1 60968.6 38 60(>84.4 48015.0 68 60972.7 23861.9 B 60473.9 C0113.6 30 60694.6 47355.3 69 60979.8 21871.7 10 60476.5 599.18.4 40 60704.8 46688.4 70 60986.7 20874.8 11 60480.3 59746.1 41 60715.1 45904.3 71 60993.4 19871.4 18 60484.3 59535.6 43 60735.4 45293.0 79 60999.7 18861.8 13 60488.7 50307.1 43 60735.8 44576.0 73 61005.7 17646.4 14 60493.4 59060.6 44 60746.3 43846.3 74 61011.5 10835.4 15 60498.4 58706.3 45 60750.7 43103.0 75 61016.8 15709.3 16 60503.8 58514.1 46 00707.3 43346.0 76 61033.0 14708.9 ^7 60SO!i < 58314.3 47 00777.6 41577.3 77 61036.7 1.1733.6 Id 60515 57806.6 48 00788.0, 40795.1 79 61031.3 12698.7 19 60521i- 57561.4 40 00798.4* 40000.5 79 61035.3 1164a9 SO 60528.2 57808.8 50 60608.7 39193.5 80 61039.1 10C01.4 SI 60535.0 56838.0 51 60810.0 38374.5 81 61049.5 9550.7 93 60543.0 56451.6 58 00839.3 37543.7 89 61045.6 8407.0 83 60549.4 56047.8 53 60839.3 36701.4 ai 61048.3 7440.6 94 60557.0 55035.8 54 60849.3 35847.8 84 61050.7 6383.0 85 60504.8 55187.5 55 60859.3 34983.1 85 61053.7 5321.4 36 60579.9 54733.4 56 60869.0 34107.6 fM 61054.3 42.W.J 87 mwRi.o 54280.8 57 60B7B.7 33891.5 87 61055.6 3105.5 93 60589.7 53773.4 58 60888.3 38335.5 83 61056.5 9130.9 89 60598.4 53867.8 59 60897.5 31419.4 89 61057.1 1063.6 30 60607.4 53746.0 60 60906.6 30503.5 90 61057.9 oono.0 PabtII ]uator to the Pole; [uator. Ck)inpres. r.5is r.566 r.025 r.092 r.767 r.840 r.930 j.030 i.140 !.251 « 60.051 60.050 60.067 60.075 6fc388 60.000 60.097 60.104 CO.lll 60.117 60.134 60.130 60.135 60.141 60.146 60.151 60.155 60.160 60.164 00.167 60.171 60.174 00.176 60.179 60.181 60.183 60.184 60.185 60.185 60.180 .368 .4SIS .633 .757 .808 .044 .105 .3S0 .510 .674 .841 .013 .186 .363 .541 .723 .1104 .088 .373 .458 .644 each Parallel of '• BOf Degree of Icin LoriRitade in ns. Fathooii. 1.6 30503.5 .7 29578.S .5 38643.8 .1 87700.6 .4 86748.8 .0 85788.7 .5 84820.7 .3 33845.0 .7 22861.9 8 81871.7 ) 20874.8 19871.4 18801.8 17840.4 10885.4 15709.3 14768.S 13733.6 12693.7 11648.9 10601.4 9S50.7 8497.0 7440.6 6383.0 5321.4 4859. J 3195.5 3130.9 1065.6 oono.0 Book I LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. 147 )f ' ', CHAPTER XX x,r-' !- DETERMINATION OF LATITUDE AND LONOITUDE. There are three important problems in geography which require for their solution the doctrines of astronomy. The first requires to mid the direction of the meridian at any point of the earth's surfase ; the second, to find the latitude of any place ; and the third, to find the longitude. Pboblbm L — To determine the Meridian, or to draw a Meridian Linn. '■ This problem, like many others in practical astroncxny, admits of a comparatively easy solution, if no great degree of accuracy is required ; but to obtain a very accurate result, much care, and instruments of the most perfect construction, are indispensable. The general principle of the solution is the fact, that the celestial bodies which do not sensibly change their declination in the course of a day, have the same apparent altitude at equal mtervab of time before and eSter passing the meridian : also, that their altitude ia greatest or least when in the plane of the meridian ; that is, when they are due south or due north. About the time of the summer and winter solstice, the sim changes his declination very little in the course of a dav : and hence it happens that the shadow of an upright rod or gnomon is almost exactly of the same length when the sun is at equal distances from the meridian. To determine the position of the meridian, then, let a number of concentric circles be described on a horizontal plane, and let a wire or rod be placed directly over their common centre, and perpendicular to the plane ; and, the sun shimng on the plane, let the two points in which the extremity of the shadow of Uie wure crosses each circle be exactly noted. Then, through any point of the plane which is at equal distances, from each pair of intersections draw a straignt line through the centre c^ the circle ; and this will be m the plane of the meridian, or will be a merwian line. It is easy to see that one circle, and one pair of intersections of the path of the extremity of the shadow and the cbrcle, would he sufficient : but several circles will fiilfil the object with greater accuracy and more certainty ; because a mean position of the meridian line may be found among all Uie results ; and besides, one of a pair, or botli, may be lost by clouds intercepting the light of the sun. The imperfoction of this method of findmg the meridian arises from the indistinctness of the termination of the shadow of the upright wire, and firom the chance of the sun's decli* nation between the observations. There is, however, another as simple and exact as can be expected, without tJie assistance of a telescope. It is known that the pole star and the star Alioth, or t of the Great Bear, pass the meridian within about nine mmutes of each other. If, therefore, we suspend two plummets by threads to the ends of a rod which turns horizontally on a pivot, and by moving the rod, keep the two plumb-lines exactly between the eye and Aliotn when near the meridian, then, at the moment when the pole star is also reen along the two plumb-lines, the two stars and the plumb-lines will be all nearly in the plane of uie meridian. To keep the plumb-lines steady in the vertical plane, the plummets may hang in vessels filled with water. If we could determine the position of a star when its altitude is greatest or least, we would then have a point of the heavens in the plane of the meridian : but that position cannot be found with certamty, because the change of altitude is imperceptible to a sensible distance on each side of the meridian. The exact determination of the meridian requires the aid of the telescope, a well-regulated clock, and an instrument for determining the altitude of the sun or a star: Hadley's sextant, or a reflecting circle, are the proper instruments for this purpose. By the sextant wc can determine two instants of time when the star has the same altitude; the clock will give the interval of time between tiiem : and half this interval will be the time between eacn obser- vation and the passage of the star over the meridian. If we next day note the time by the clock when the star again attains that altitude, and add to that tune the above-mentioned half interval, we shall have the time by the clock when the star will be on the meridian. If at that instant a telescope, moveable in a vertical plane, be directed to the star, so that in passing the meridian the star may be in the axis of the telescope, the position of the plane of the meridian will be obtained : and if the telescope be fixed to a horizontal axis which ia perpendicular to that plane, it will have a vertical motion in the plane of the meridian, and wilt be what is called a transit instrument. By this instrument the exact instant when any celestial phenomenon is on the meridian is known. It is, therefore, one of the most essential instruments in an observatory. In a variable climate, it may happen that the observations necessary to determine the meridian may be interrupted by cloudy weather. This, however, is an inconvenience to which all astronomical observations are liable. It must also be observed, that a single set of observations will not give so perfect a result as a considerable number of sets, from which a moan may be deduced. 1 .11 148 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. Past H If the celestial object .change its jxjsition otherwise than by the diurnal motions of the earth, as happens when it is the sun, still the problem may be resolved, as has been explained, by making allowance for the change of position, by applying the principles of spherical trigo- nometry to the laws of the motion. •- :^ '; T[^^'':'-f^"' Problem II.— 3b determine the Latitude. ;' : : . In treatmg of the doctrine of the sphere, it has been already shown that the distance of the pole of me world (that is, the point of the heavens about which all the stars turn) ftom the horizon of any place is equal to its latitude. Now, in the course of twenty-four hours, every star passes the meridian twice, at equal distances firom the pole, and on opposite sides of it When the star passes the meridian below the pole, — that is, between the pole and the horizon, — its altitude is the least possible ; and when it crosses the meridian acKtve the pole, or between the pole and the south part of the horizon, its distance from the north point of the horizon will be the greatest possible. If, therefore, widi a suitable instrument, (a quadrant for instance,) we take the star's altitude when it is least, and also when it b greatest, and correct these for refraction, it is manifest that half their sum will be the latitude of the place where. the observations were made. We have supposed the star to pass the meridian between the pole and the zenith, and then its greatest altitude will be its distance from the north point of the horizon : but it may pass to me south of the zenith, and then its altitude, reckoned from the south, must be subtracted fivm 180° to get its distance from the north pomt of the horizon ; and half the sum of the two distances, as before, will be the latitude. Any one star that never sets, the pole star fbi instance, will serve to determine the latitnde : but it will be proper, if circumstances allow, to observe various stars, and the mean of all ^e observations may be expected to be more correct than a single pair. If, instead of the greatest and least altitudes of a star, its greatest and least distances from the zenith be found, then half their sum will be the complement of the latitude; that is, the difierence between the latitude and ninety degrees. For example, by observations made on the pole star at the Dublin Observatory, it was found that Its greatest zenith distance, corrected for refraction, was - . • 38° 19' 43".ll Least 34 53 49.55 The sum 73 13 32.66 Half the sum, or co-latitude of the observatory 36 36 46. 83 The latitude 53 23 13.67 When the latitude of one place is kno^vn, the latitude of another place may be found by observing with a quadrant, or other suitable mstrument, the zenith distances of any star at both places. The difference of these zenith distances, when corrected for refraction, will bo the difference of latitude of the two places. Thus, for example, to determine the difference between the latitudes of Greenwich Ob* qervatory and Dunnoee in the Isk of Wight, it was found that At Dunnose the z. d. of j3 Draconis was 1°60' 5".24 . And at Greenwich 58 33.13 Difference of latitude 61 32.11 The latitude of Greenwich was known tobe ----..- 51 28 30.05 The latitude of Dunnose is 50 37 8.39 The navigator has daily occasion to determine his latitude at sea. For this purpose, he finds the sun's zenith distance, or Its altitude at noon, by Hadley's sextant The Nautical Almanac gives him the sun's declination, or distance from the equator at the time he makes his observation : the sum or difference of these is his latitude, according as the ship and Uie sun are on the same or opposite sides of the equator. Ex. On July 24, 1783, at a place in Iraigitude 54° (3" 36°) west of Greenwich, the alti- tude of the sun's lower limb, when cleared from refraction and (nrallax, was observed by a sextant to 1)'> 59° 16' 30". By the Nautical Almanac, the sun's semidumeter was 15' 48", and his declination at the time of noon in that longitude 19° 51' N. 'The ctdculation for the latitude will stand thus : — Altitude of the sun's lower limb -••........ 590 16' 30" , Add sun's semidiameter .............. 15 48 Subtract altitude of sun's centre ........... 59 31 iq From 90 To sun's zenith distance - = = -----.--.-. 30 28 42 Add sun's declination -•-•-••••. .....1951 Q The latitude of the place i8>«>.-.. so 19 43 cq Part H ma] motions of the has been explained, s of spherical trigo> liat the distance of Jie stars turn) from twenty-four hours, id on opposite sides tween the pole and meridian above the rom the north point ible instrument, (a ' when it is greatest, the latitude of the Jie zenith, and then •n : but it may pass must be subtracted lalf the sum of the irmuie the latitude : td the mean of all east distances from titude ; that is, tiie ratory, it was found 3° 19' 1 53 43".ll 49.55 } 13 i 86 \ 23 32.66 46.83 13.67 ! may be found by ices of any star at refraction, will bo af Greenwich Ol>> ° 50' 5".24 58 33.13 51 28 32.11 30.05 > 87 8.39 r this purpose, he The Nautical le time he makes the ship and tiie lenwich, the alti* roB observed by a Bter was 15' 48", le calculation for )9° 15* 30" 15 48 >9 H) 31 18 to 9 28 51 42 K) 19 43 Boos L LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. 149 The navigator cannot always obtain an observation of the sun or a star when on the me- ridian. He may, however, be able to observe two latitudes out of the meridian, and the interval of time between them. With these data, and the aid of spherical trigonometry and the Nautical Almanac, he may find his latitude by rules given by writers on navigation and astronomy. It i :, h general, by one or other of these methods that the recorded latitudes of all places have Keen obtained, and arranged in a table for the use of the geographer and navigator. .■-•.' PbobuhIII. — To determtTie the Longititde. . - < • • ; f* The interval of time between two successive passages of the sun over the meridian of any place is twenty-four hours. If, therefr-e, we suppose a number of meridians to be drawn at equal intervals, — that is, to form successively with each other equal angl^ at the poles,^ then, in the course of twenty-four hours, each of these meridians (supposing their planes produced) will pass through the sun. Therefore twenty-four hours of mean solar time wUl correspond to 860 degrees of longitude ; for the whole scale of longitude must be contained between the eastern and western sides of tiie meridian at the same place. At places situated on the meridian opposite that on which the ran was at 0\ or, in civil reckoning, at 12 at noon, the time would be 12V or 12 at night ; and 12** would correspond to 180 degrees of longitude. At i)laces situated on the meridian at right angles to the former, the time would be 6" or 18N or, in civil reckoning, six in the morning or six in the evening; and, accord- mgly, six hours and eighteen hours of mean solar time will correspond to 90° or 270*' of longitude ; and so on for intermediate meridiana The selection of a meridian, frx)m which the longitude is to be reckoned, is entirely arbi- trary. The English take the meridian iMtssing through Greenwich Observatory for the first meridian, and reckon its longitude to be 0° or 0^. The first meridian of the Irench is that which passes through the oteervatory of Paris. An interval of 9" 21' elapses between the passages of the sun rvti ' meridians of Paris and Greenwich: the longitude of Paris Observatory is, therefor* . ^lish geographers, accounted to be 0^ 21' east m time ; or in degrees, 2° 20' 15". Since it is noon at ali pieces on the meridian of Greenwich from pole to pole at the same uistant, it will be an hour past noon, or 1\ at all places on the meridian 15° to the east of that of Greenwich ; and two hours past noon, or 2\ at all places on the meridian 30° east from that of Greenwich ; and so on. On the other hand, it will want an hour to noon, or will be ll^ at all places on the meridian 15° west from that of Greenwich ; and it will be two hours before noon, or 10\ at places on the meridian 30° west fix>m that of Greenwich ; and BO on, reckoning an hour, or sixty mmutes of time, to correspond to fifteen degrees, and fbur minutes of time to one degree. Since it appears that all places on the same meridian have noon, or any assumed hour, at the same mstant, and that the instant of noon is difierent at places on diflbrent meridians, — being earlier or later on meridians having west longitude, according as they are nearer to or imher from the first meridian, and the reverse on meridians having east longitude ; and moreover, that the diflTerence between the time of noon on two meridians is proportional to the diiference of their longitude, and therefore a measure of that difference ; it follows that if, knowing the hour of the day at an^ place, we can at the same instant by any means know the hour at a place on any other meridian, then we can determine the difierence of longitude between tiie meridians : for it will be t'. e difierence between the times of the day, as esti- mated on the two meridians, reckoned m hours, minutes, &c. ; and this may be converted into degrees, minutes, and seconds, by reckoning fifteen degrees to an hour, ana proportionally for minutes and seconds of time. The practical metiiods of determining the longitude are the following: — 1. By a Chronometer or Time-keeper. Let UB suppose that a traveller departs from any place, (St Paul's, London, for example,) and carries with him a watch regulated to mean solar time, and which indicates 12" at the instant of mean noon at London : then, supposing the watch to go with perfect regularity, if he go to Edinburgh, and compare the estimated solar time there with that shown by his watch, he will find uiat they difler by twelves minutes twenty-one seconds ; so that when it ia 12' at Edinburgh Observatory, it will be 12* 12" 21' bv his watch. He may therefore con- clude, that the diffbrence or longitude between London and Edinburgh is 12" 21' west; and since St Paul's is twenty-three seconds of time west from Greenwich, the longitude of Edinburgh Observatory is 12" 44* west which corresponds to 3° 11', If leaving London, ha had gone to Paris, he would there have found the estimated time to be 9°> 44' earlier Uian that shown by his watch : hence the difierence between the meridians of London and Paris IB ff" 44', and the longitude of Paris (fitMn Grr^enwich) 9" 21' east. ' In tlie same way the navigator at sea may determine his longitude by a good chronometer. He can determine the hour of the day by the sun's altitude, and the principles of spherical 13* 180 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. trigonometry. Or he may take equal altitudes, noting the times ; the middle point of time between them will be the instant of noon, as shown by the watch: he must, however, make a correction for the change of the sun's ieclination, and the distance run by the ship in the interval. Supposing now the chronometer to ha^' been set to the true time at the port from . whence he sailed, and to have gone unifiUi.iiy with a small known daily acceleration ot retardation, called its rate ; this correction being applied, he will have the time at tlie port corresponding to his observed time of noon, and their difference will be the longitude of the ship eastward ."r westward from the meridian whence she sailed. The longitude of any noint on the earth, either at sea or on land, may be determined by a good chronometer ; in h latter cose, however, the joltmg it must suffer by carriage will disturb its motion, and r» adcr the result sought uncertain. At sea, the mode of transport is not so liable to nidden jerks ; and, therefore, tlie chronometer may be expectiu to go v'th more regularity. If several be employed, considerable accuracy muy be obtained. The Board of Admiralty sent ten or twelve chronometers from Greenwich to Talmouth, and thence in a vessel to Madeira, and in this way determined the longitude of Funchal from a mean of their results. The facility of this mode of determining the longitude makes perfectiori in the construc- tion of chronometers an object of high importance in a maritime nation like Britaii^. It was, therefore, for man^ years encouraged by acts of parliament offering high rewords for pre- scribed degrees of^excellence. These, however, are now repealed ; t>ut the government has not lost sight of this important subject 2. The Longitude by Eclipses qf Jupiter's iiaiillites. If a celestial phenomenon can be seen at the same absolute instant of time in two dif- ferent places of the earth, this appearance gives the means of determining the difference of their longitudes ; for if the phenomenon be seen at both places, and the tunes, according to their reckoning, be noted, it is manifest that their difference will he the difference of longi- tude, in time, of the two places. Now the eclipses of Jupiter's moons are phenomena of this kind. They may be seen, almost at the same instant, everywhere in the hemisphere in which Jupiter is visible : and such is the perfection of astronomy, that the times at which tliey will happen can be pre- dicted with considerable accuracy. These arc computed according to Greenwich time, and published, along with various other matters, in the Nautical Almanac, several years before they happen, for the benefit of travellers. This method of finding the longitude can, how- ever, only be applied on land ; for at sea the rolling of the ship makes it next to impossible to durect a telescope so steadily to Jupiter as to view the eclipse of a satellite. Example. — Suppose an immersion of the first satellite should be observed at the Capp of Good Hope, April 18, 1805, at IS*" 25"" 35' mean time ; the predicted time given by tha Epheraeris being 12* 12" 2* at Greenwich. Here the difference is l"" 13" 33"; whence the longitude of the Cape should be 18° 23' 15" east of Greenwich. In this example, the observed time at the Cape is compared with the computed time of the eclipse at Greenwich. If, instead of this, the observed time at Greenwich had been used, greater accuracy might have been expected. This method is easy, and therefore much practised ; but it is liable tc uncertainty : for two observers in the same room, but using different telescopes, will sometimes differ in noting the time of an eclipse of the first satellite by as much as nfleen or twenty £.econds. Delam- bre thinks that the time of an eclipse of the fourth satellite may be doubtful to the amount of four minutes. 3. liongitude by an Eclipse of tke Moon. An eclipse of the moon has exactly the sar j appearance, at the same instant, wherever seen ; but it is impossible to be quite sure, by observation, of the exact time of their begin rang or end, because of the penumbra which bounds the earth's shadow. The results to be obtained from them ore therefore uncertain, to perhaps two minutes of time ; and therefore only to be regarded as approximations to the truUi. Example. An eclipse of the moon was observed Aug. 28. 1729, by the astronomer Cas- sini at Paris, and by Mr. Stephenson at Barbadoes. At Paris, Imm. ) - 12" 19" 13' At Barbadoes, Imm. > 8 11 Emer. ) Emer. ) 13* 5ff» 9 51 4 8 18 8 tu th tic By the mean of the two, the difference of longitude is 4* 8" 6"5 ; that is, Barbadoes k 62° i' 80" west of Paris. Part II. Idle point of time it, however, make by the ship in the le at the port from ily acceleration or le time at the port e longitude of the be determined by r by corriage will ode of transport is ipectiu to go V'th le obtained. The to Falmouth, and >f Funchal from a ti in the construc- e Britaii^. It was, I rewards for pre- e government Ifaa )f time in two dif- f the difference of imes, according to ifference of longi- "hey may bo seen, ter is visible : and appen can be pre- ;enwich time, and ^eral years before igitude can, how- lext to impossible lite, ;rved at the Capr ;ime given by tlu 33" ; whence the omputed time of enwich had been uncertainty: for es differ in notirig oconds. Dclam- ul to the amount nstant, wherever 9 of their begin rhe results to be 5; and therefore astronomer Cas< BooiL LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. 151 4. LongittKM, '>*/ Lunar Distances, or by Oceultations of Stars by the Moon. is, Barbadocfl m The '. -ton is, of all c.^ .elestiu! bodies, the most convenient for determining the longi* tudo, Iccniie of the gr» ater quickness of her apparent motion among the stars. She makes the complete circuit of thn heavens in 27* T"" 48" 4".7 (this is her mean sidereal revolu- tion) : therefore she chan&es her place among the stars more than half a degree, or her own apparent diameter, in an hour ; so that in two minutes of time she passes over one minute of a degree. This, or even its half, is quite a measurable quantity by a good sextant By the theory of the moon's motion, her place among the stars is known at any time that is, knowing the time of the day at Greenwich, the place of the moon is known ; and, on the other hand, knowing the place of the moon, the tune at Greenwich is knowa The Nautical Almanac gives the distance of the moon's centre fh>m the sun, and some of the brighter stars, as it would be seen from the earth's centre, for every third hour of the day, Greenwich time. If, therefore, the Almanac show that the moon, considered r represent on r plane & large extent of tho earth's surface, so that the distances of places in the plane map shall have to each other precisely the same proportion as their distaiices on the globe. To obviate this difficulty, geographers have had recourse to different methods of representing portions of the globe on a plane. pabi n, in. ■"' lian of any plivce, 9n two succeasive t ascension of the iddin^ the known >n the meridian is ■oenwich is given increment of her scension when on me between twc of right ascension s by signals made icfht may be seen fore, by observing ce of longitude of nected by a chain sn ftxjm every two 1 Paris was deter- in simultaneously joast, which were id at Ligniers and in has been deter- ins. ral Engineers, has , about the size of ing diiferences of on the top of Ben ed, we know that e means of deter n and Edinburgh. all the principal rticularly in Eng- Ireland. When geography of the southern, which, reparing plans of Book L HEPRESENTATION OP THE EARTH. iM geographical divi- In this way the eye their relative the earth, all the or differing but mentation of any s advantage. A gure, the magni- but the largest lis ; and then we >s of Maps. ace, so that the same proportion ve had recourse By one method the countries are represented by the rules of perspective, as they would appear to an eye that should view them on the surface of a sphere flrom a given point The dinerent positions which may be assumed for the pomt firom which the sphere is viewed give rise to different projection$, which all answer voiy well when the surface to be represented is of small extent, and the pomt of view, or projecting fnnt, is nearly over its centre. However, when the surfkce is of great extent, a whole hemisphere for instance, those '>laces which lie near the border of the projection are in them all much distorted. According to another method, the spherical surface to be represented is suppose j be cone whose vertex is somewhere in the polar axb produced, and its curved sur&ce eithe touches the sphere at the middle parallel of the map, or falls within the sphere at the mid- dle parallel, and without it at the extreme parallels. The surface of the cone is then sup- posed io be extended into a plane. This way of constructing maps is called the method of development. There are other mathematical hypotheses accordmg to which maps are delineated, and one in particular by which marine charts are constructed. In this, the parallels of latitude and circles of longitude are all represented by straight lines (that is, a Ime making always the same angle with the meridian), and the course of a ship sailing always on the same rhomb is also a straight line. A representation of the earth in this way is commonly called Mercator't chart, although the invention is due to an English mathematician, Edward Wright Charts of this construction are of great importance in navigation. L CONSTBVOTIOIf OF HAPS BY PROJEOTION. There are two projections of the sphere by which portions of its surface may be truly delineated by the rules of perspective : the orthooraphio and the BTERBOoRAPmo. In each, the plane on which the projection is made is called the plane of projection. , 1. ORTHOORAPHIO TROJECTION. To project any point in space orthographically en u plane, a perpendicular is to be drawn fVom the point on the plane and the bottom of the perpendicular ; that is, the point in which it meets the plane is tne orthographic projection of the point. The orthographic projection of a line of any kind on a olane is found by supposing per- pendiculars to be drawn from every point in the line, and that line on the plane which passes through the bottom of all the perpendiculars in the orthographic projection of the proposed line. It is easy to see that the orthographic projection of a straight line must be a straight line, because the perpendiculars drawn from every point in it to uie plane of projection will all lie in a plane, and the common section of two planes is a straight line. It is also apparent that the projection of a rectilineal figure will be a rectilineal figure. If a circle be parallel to the plane of projection, its orthographic projection or representa- tion will be a circle : for the perprjndiculars supposed to be drawn from every pohit in the circle to the plane of projection v/ill all be on the curve surface of a cylinder, and they may be considered as constituting that surface. The circle and its projection will be the top and bottom of the cylinder ; and since they are parallel, they will be alike and e^ual. If the plane in which a circle lies lie perpendicular to the plane of projection, its projec- tion will manifestly be a straight line, which will be equal in length to the diameter ; and the projection of any arc reckoned from the extremities of the diameter will be projected into its versed sine ; also the complement of the arc, or what it wants of ninety degrees, will be projected into its sine. But if a circle be in a plane which is neither parallel nor perpendicular to the plane of projection, then its projection will neither be a circle nor a straight line ; it will be an oval figure. The boundm^ line will be an ellipse, a curve formed by cutting a cylinder by a plane oblique to its axis ; and it is also one of the contc sections. An exact notion may be formed of the orthographic projection of any line or figure by holding it in the light of the sun, and observing its shadow formed on a plane which is per- pendicular to Uie mrection of the solar ravs. The rays which pass close to the figure are the perpendiculars to the plane, and the shadow is the projection of the figure. The plans and sections by which artificers execute dinerent constructions are no other than orthographic projections of the things to be constructed ; with these all workmen are familiar. The orthographic projection of any object, — the terrestrial globe, for example, — ^with all its circles, and uie continents and islands on its surfkce, is nearly the representation or jplc- ture which on arti -« and these will be the projections of parallels of latitude at distances of 10°, 20°, W, 1^ om the equator. The tropics and polar circles are to be drawn in the same way ; the '■ , at 23}^ on each side of the equator, and the latter 23^° fixim the poles. f ^ uiis projection, the polar regions, and all places near the meridian N E S Q, are very ! Iv't^rted in appearance to fiie eye : it is only towards the centre that there is any con •i«ibTbi/io <«semblance of a projected iportion of the earth's surfiice to its appearance on a globe. 2. mCREOOF VIO FOOJECnON. In the stereographic projection, the eve is supposed to be situated at a point in the sur&ce or the sphere, and the plane on which the projection is to be made is the plane of that great circle, which is everywhere 00° distant from the position of the eye : hence it must be evi- Pabt IL ictly exhibit their iphy, although iti Equator. V e a circle B A tiO V two diameters, r to each other: meridians distant be the projection [ equal parts, and ; draw diameters ill be the projoc- jm AC 180; and, the equator into represented. Of umed as the first tude : divide A B, }ual parts ; let 80, its of division ad- rs IVom these, and us A C meetmji it J 60, &c. describe le distance of ten \° from A towards lus determined on I, will be the pro- D completed, anted by this pro- dging by the eye ; kd. Meridian. draw two diame- to each other; jrojection of the epresent a meri- ivide a quadrant 5, 30, &c.; from pendiculars 15 a, 3es N o S, N 6 S, S, and the lines ugate axes; and ■idiuis which pass he equator. Or, iTis, they may be legroe. ide the quadrants irts at 10, 20, 30, ibers by straight of 10°, 20°, 30^, e same way ; the es. E S Q, are very there is any con appearance on a st in the surfecs ane ofthat great e it must be evi- BookI. REPRESENTATION OP THE EARTH. llO dent that the eye can see only the inside or concave surface ; however, we may suppose the sphere to be transparent, and its various circles, and the islands, continents, &.c. delineated on its surface to bo seen tlirough it If we now conceive a lino to bo drawn fVom the eye U) any point on the concave surface, the point in which that line cuts the plane of projection will be the projection of the point on the spherical surface. To illustrate what has been said, let E A C B (Jig. 47.) be a great circle of the sphere, p q r $ a plane passing through its centre, and perpen- dicular to the plane of the great circle ; let C E be a diametei of the sphere perpendicular to the plane ; then assuming p q r ana the plane of projection, E, one end of thut diameter, may be taken as the place of the eye or projecting point If, now, straight lines EA, EB, EC, ED, &c. be d/awn to A, B, C, D, any points on the surface of the sphere, the points a, b, c, d, Sic. in which these lines meet the plane p r, will be the pro- jections of the corresponding points on the surface of the sphere. Let A D B be any circle of the sphere : conceive a straight line to bo drawn from E, the place of the eye, to D, any point in the circiurlerence. If D, the end of this line, be now carried round the cucle, supposing it always to pass through the fixed point E, the line will generate the surface of a cone whose base id the circle, and vertex the place of the eye ; and the curve line adb, which is the common section of the plane p r, and the surface of the cone will be the pro- jection of the circle. It will now be sufficiently obvious, . . • v 1. That every circle which passes through the eye will be projected into or represented by a traight line on the plane of projection. 2. That every circle whose plane is parallel to the plan of the circle will be projected into a circle. These two properties hold true wherever the eye be situated. The assumption, however, that it is in the surface of the sphere gives rise to geometrical properties which are peculiar to this projection, and which by their simplicity and elegance give it great value. One geometrical property is this : whatever be the position of the circle ADB (ov base of the cone"^ on the surface of the sphere, the portion of the cone between the projecting point E and the plane of projection pr la always similar to the whole cone. If the plane of the base be psurallel to the plane of projection, the truth of this proposition is obvious ; but writers on geometry prove, that when it is oblique, still the cones whose bases are A D B and adb, and common vertex E, are similar ; only they have contrary positions. From the similarity of the whole cone to the part cut off, it follows that, 3. In the stereographical projection of the sphere, the representation of any circle that does not pass through the eye will always be a circle. There is another proposition demonstrated by writers on spherical geometry which is of great importance in this projection ; viz. if two straight lines be drawn from any point on the surface of the sphere to touch it in that point, their representation on the plane of pro- jection will contain an angle exactly equal to the angle contained by the lines themselves. Since straight lines touching the surface of a sphere at any point may be regarded as tan- gents to any circles of the sphere passing through tliat point, we have this other remarkable property : — 4. The angle made on the surface of the sphere by two circles which cut each other, and the angle made by circles which are their representations, are in all cases equal. This projection is extremely convenient in practice, because a circle may be easily de- scribed when three points in its circumference are given, or when two points and its radius are known ; also, the property of lines making angles at their intersection on the surface of the sphere equal to those formed by their projections, is of great value in the representation of the surface of the sphere of a plane. Moreover, the contraction of the map towards the extremities of an hemisphere is not so great as m the orthographical projection ; on all these accounts, the stereographical projection deserves a preference. Supposing E to be the projecting point, or place of the eye, and p r the plane of projection, let C be thv'* point of the sphere opposite to E, and therefore 90° everywhere fitim the circle, which is the common section of the sphere and plane of projection ; it is evident that any arc, A C, of a great circle passing through C and E will be projected mto a straight line a c now this line is manifestly the UkUgent of the angle A E C to the radius E c, sitd the wcasuxd of this angle is half the arc A C. 5. Hence it follows, that if a great circle pass through the projecting point, nny are of that cL'cle, reckoned from the opposite point of the sphere, is projected into a atratght Nn« vassing through the centre, and equal to the tangent of that are. Ifi0 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. Part II. (A) To project the Sphere tlereographically on the Plane of the Equator. Describe a circle, A B D (Jiff, 48.), to represent the equator, and draw any diameter A C D and a radius C D perpendicular to A O. Su^'posinflf now that the parallels of latitude to every tenth degree are to be represented in the map, divide A B,a quadrant of the circle, into nine equal parts, as at tliu points 10, 20, SO, &c. and draw straight lines iVom the points of division to D, the extremity of the diameter A C D, meeting the radius B C in thn points 10, 20, 80, &c. Then, about the centro C dcst^ribo circles to pass through the points 10, 20, 30, &( ., and these will represent the parallels of 10, 20, 30, &c. degrees of lati- tude. In this way, all the parallels of latitude may be found, as also the tropic and polar circle, by lay- ing off arc of 23J° and 00 \° from B towards A. Next divide inu cui-u...:' "nnce of the circle into into 24 earts, and draw u Mi from the centre .0 the points of division xie hour. These will represent the meridians which differ in longitude by 20 VnM-i, ,, (B) To project the Sphere stereographically on the ^'laneo/a Meridian. Describe any circle N Q S E (Jifr. 40.), to represent tlin meridian on which the projection is to be made ; which should bo so chosen as to include nearly one of the cont'nents, — the eastern, for in- stance : this will be accomplished if N E S be the meridian 20'' west from London. Draw the diameter N C S, which will represent the meridian tliat passes through the projecting point, and therefore is perpendicular to the plane of projection. Then N will represent the north, and S the south pole ; draw Q another diameter, E C Q, which will represent the equator. Since, by the nature of the projection, all the meridians will be represented by circles which pass through the poles N, S, it will be sufficient if we determine the points in which they cut the oqiutor: we shall suppose the meridians to pass through every tenth degree of longitude : the points where thev cut the equator will l» found by dividing one or tiie q^uadrantal arcs, N Q, into nine equal pa.rt8, as at 10, 20, 30, &c., and drawing straight Imes from S to the points of division, meeting C Q i' 1,2, 3, &c. Then, a cacle described through the points N 1 S will represent the meridian which cuts the equator 10° from Q, and a circle through N 2 S will be the meridian that cuts the equator 20° from Q. The remaining meridians N 3 S, &c. will be determined exactly in the same way ; and it appears from the construction, that the centres of the circles will be in the diameter E Q and its prolongation, and their distances from the centre will be the tangents of 10°, 20°, &c. ; viz. tiie inclination of the circles to the plane of the primitive; also, that their radii will be the secants of the same inclinations. To describe the parallels of latitude, divide the four quadrants each into nine equal parts, as at 80, 70, 60, &c., and draw straight lines from E, one end of the diameter E Q, to the ?omts of division, meeting N S in 8, 7, 6, &c. Then circles described through 80, 8, 80; 0, 7, 70, &c., will represent the parallels of 80°, 70°, &c. The centres of i3l the circles will be in the line N S, and distant from it by the secants of the distances of the parallels from the pole : also, the radii will be the tangents of the same distances. The polar circles and tropics being described by the same rules at the distances 23^° and 66^° from the poles, the projection will be completed. (C.) To project the Sphere ttereographically on the Plane of the Horizon/or u given Latitude. In this projestion, the eye is supposed to be in the nadir of the place for which the :si)- jection is made. On C (Jig. 50.) and C (fig. 51.) as centres with any radius, describe circles W N E S, W'N'J!i'S'', of which ^g'. 00. is to be the primitive or horizon; the other, fij-. 51., is to serve for determining the position of the circles to be described on fig. 50. Draw the diameters N S, W E, N'S', WE' in both circ es perpendicular to one another ; then N S mjlig. 50. will be the projection of the meridian, and W E the projection of the circle passmi; Uirough DOOB I. REPRESENTATION OP THE EARTH. l.'>7 80, &c. Then, xonfor u given or which the :so- pasBuu; through Iho cut and west points of the horizon and the zonith, — that is, the prime vertical ; N W)U bo the north point of the horizon, S the aoutli, and £ and W the east and west poinU, Make the arc NT', or Uie angle N' C P', fig. 51., equal to the latitude of the place ; join W'P' cutting C N' in P; make C P in ««■. 50, equal to C P in^^. 51., and V,fig. 50., will be the projection of the north pole. Draw the diameter E Q, fig. 61., perpendicular to P' Cp' ; join W'Q' meeting C S' in Q,'. Take C Q, fig. 60., equal to C Q,', fig. 51. ; de- scribe a circle through the points W. Q, E. and the arc W Q, E will represent the equator. Next, to project the parallels of latitude, — for example, those which are 40° and 20° from the pole,— from P', fig. 51., take P' 40 and P' 40, each arcs of 40° on opposite sides of P' ; also, P' 20, P' 20, arcs of 20°. Join W 40, W 40, meeting C N' in m and n ; also W 20, W 20, meeting C N' in r and ». In N C S, fig. 50., take C m, C n, C r, C », equal to C m, C n, C r, C s,fig. 51. ; describe circles on m n, r 5 as diameters, and these will be projections of parallels of latitude at the distances of 40° and 20° from the pole. In this way may all the parallels, also the tropics and polar circle, be projected. To project the meridian : in fig. 51. draw S' B perpendicular to N' S', meetuig P' p produced in B; take C A, fig. 50., equal to S' B, fig. 51., and through A draw a perpen" diculor to C A. Let us suppose that the meridians are to make with each other angles of 15° : at P, in the line P A, draw P 15 and P 15 on each side of P A, making angles with it of 15° ; and, in like manner, P 30, P 30, making andes of 30°, and so on to angles of 75°. On A, as a centre, describe a circle to pass through P ; this will pass through W and E, and will be the projection of the six o'clock hour circle in the heavens, or that meridian on the globe that is perpendicular to the meridian of the place for which the projection is made. On the points 15, 15 describe arcs a P a', a P a' to pass through P, and meet the projection of the horizon in a, a' ; a, a' ; and in like manner on 30, 30 as centres describe the arcs 6 P 6', 6 P b', &c. all passing throuf^li P : these will be the projectDns of meridians on the terrestrial sphere, or of hour circles on the celestial sphere. In this way, the pro- jection may be completed. , . 3. OLOBULAn PROJECTION. In the orthographic projection, equal portions of the earth's spherical surfiice are repre- sented by unequal plane surfaces ; and the deviation from equality in tlie surface to be represented, and its plane representation, increases from the centre to the circumference of the projection. The same is true of the stereographic projection, but with this difference, that the dis- tortion in the representation of the figure of any portion of the spherical surfiices proceeds in a contrary direction : in the former case, the degrcos of longitude and latitude are gra- dually contracted from the centre to the circumference ; but in the latter, they are enlarged. In the stereographic projection, the projecting point, or point of view, is the pole of the circle on which the projection is made ; and in the oithographic, it may be supposed in the axis, and at a very great, or rather indefinitely great, distance. It is this change of position of the point of view that produces tlie change in the direction in which the degrees of lati- tude or longitude are contraeted. Hence it maybe Bupposed, that, by taking a point of vie-JV at some finite distance greater than the radius of ^'e sphere, a perspective representation will be obtained, ui which the degrees in the representation will be nearly equ J, and the deviation flrom equality in the representation of equal portions of the spherical surface in some roea- sure corrected. Vol. L 14 PRINCTPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Pa«t n mi::-% Let ADD (Jiff. 62.) be » lecti'^n of Ae sphcrs by a piano poning throurh E, the point of view, and C tho contra ; draw tlie diameter F D to pa«j through E, and draw A C B perpendicular to D F, Since tho whole quadrant A F is to be projected into tho radiua A C, if it be poaaible to make he representations of equal portions of it nearly equal, its halves A K and K F may bo asaumod as repre- sented by A H and H C, halves of tho radius : therefore, a line drawn iVoni K to E must bisect the radius in H. This determines D E, Ihe dii- I it nee of the projecting point, to be ttqual to K G, a perpendicular from the middle qftiit quadrant. To prove this geometrical proposition, draw A F and K C intersecting in I, and join H I. Then A 1=1 F and A I : I F : : A H: H C; therefore H I i8paralleltoCF:hence,KI:IC::KH:HE:: G C : C E. Now, K I=FO and I C=G C ; there- foreFG:GC:: GC: CE: hence F OC E=G C'=K G'=F GG D; therefore C E=0 D, and, takin;^ away tho line C D common to both, D E is equal to C G or to K G. Hence it appears that tho distance D E is the sine of 45° ; and then ^ nearly 71 of •uch parts as the radius C A contains 100. This projection was first suggt u . by AI. Dela^ hire, and is now commonly called the Globular projection. If wo suppose the quadrant A F divided into ten enual parts, then the projections of the arcs of 9°, reckoning team F to A, will be as in this table, m which the radius C A is supposed to be 10. Arc. Rcpreientatlon. Arc. Reprewntation. 1.017 00.. OO .001 4-'50.. 540 U ... ]fl .004 M .. 03 1.080 18 .. 87 .000 03 .. 73 l.OIS 87 ... 30 1.0(H 73 .. 81 .007 36 ... 43 1.013 81 .. 00 .030 80 I^r 80 From this table it appears, that tho appro.\imation to equality in tlie projection of equal area of a circle perpendicular to the plane of projection is considerable. According to the principles of perspective, in thm projection the circles of the sphere will be represented by ellipses ; and they have been so delineated in two hemispheres, projected, drawn, and beautifully engraved by Mr. Joseph Lowry, of London. He has placed London at the centre of tho noruiem hemisphere, and insteail of .707, Delahire's aistance of the projecting point, he has made it .68 of^ the radius. m general, however, the projection is made on a meridian, and the circles of the sphere are represented by circles, and without any regard to the distance of a point of view. Also, the degrees of longitude on the equator, and of latitude on a meridian, are mode all equal. With uieee simplifications, the meridians and parallels on a hemisphere of the earth's sur- face may be represented by the following construction :— Let us suppose the parallels of latitude to be traced through every tenth degree, and that the meridians are to be an hour from each other. Describe a circle, E N Q S (Jg, 53.), for the representation of tlie meridian. Draw the diame- ters E Q, N S perpendicular to each other ; one, E Q, to represent the equator, and the other, N S, the meridian, which is 90° from that on which the pro jection is made ; N being the north, and S the south pole. Divide the quadrants E N, Q N, and the radius C N, each into nine equal parte ; let N 80, 80 70, &c. be the equal divisions of the quadrants, and Ne, c d, &c. the equal divisions of the radius : describe a circle through the three pints 80, c, 80, and it will be the representation of the parallel of 80° of latitude ; in like manner a circle described through the points 70, d, 70 will reprcseni Uie parallel of 70^ ; the remaining parallels, the tropics and polar circles, on both sides of E Q, the equator, are to be found in the same manner. Part H thn of Jie iphorn the point of view, rioter F D to nam jondicular to D F. la to be projected uiible to make he of it nearly equal, asBumod aa rcpre* res of the radiui : to E must bisect ines D E, the dU- I be ^qual to K 0, e oftne quadrant, position, araw A F Din H I. Then A C ; therefore H I C::KH:HE:: I C=G C ; there- mco F GC E=G I C E=0 D, and, lou to both, D E is f *» nearly 71 of euteii by M. Dela^ e the quadrant A ming ttom F to A, Book L REPRESENTATION OF THE EARTH. tion of equal arcs )f the sphere will pheros, projected, as placed London aistance of the les of the sphere it of view. Also, made all equal. ' the earth's sur- degree, and that fig. 53.), for the )raw the diame- ch other ; one, E other, N S, the n which the pro- , and S the south and the radius let N 80, 80 70, idrants, and N c, radius: describe 80, c, 80, and it irallel of 80° of iscribed throuj^h the parallel of tropics and polar quator, are to be Next for the meridians : divide the radii C E, C Q each into six eaual parts at the points 0, b, &c. : describe circles through the points N a S, N 6 B, 6lc. and tnoso will be the repre- sentations of the meridians, any one of which, in laving down the positions of places by their latitude and longitude, may be assumed as the nnt meridian. n. COnTRUOTION or MAPS DY DBVKLOPIHKirr. The three methods of projection which have been explained are usually employed in the representation of n honiisphero, but are seldom used in delineating the geographical features of a singlo country. For tlicse, the niuthud of devetopemerU is commonly en»i ploved. A perfect geographical representation of a country should represent all its parts in just proportion, and should exliibit its true figure. Tills is exactly done on the sphere ; but it can only bo nearly accomplished on a plane surface. The purposes of civil government require maps that give the true figure and dimcnsione of territory. Militarv afiiiirs require such as give corn^ct distances ; and navigation demands the exact bearing of one place from another. Ordinary mops fulfil approximately the two first purposes. The last is completely satisfied by a map of a peculiar construction, called Mercator's chart; but this is not immediately applicable to the other purposes. It is a known property of a cone tliat its curve suifaco can be expaiidcd into a plane: hence any figure delineated on it can always bo exhibited exactly in all its dimensions on a Elane sumce. Now, a part of the surface of a sphere contained between two parallels of ititude, not very remote, will not differ much from the surface of a frustum of a cone that touches the sphere in the parallel midway between them ; and this will also be true if it pass along the chord, or if it pass partlv within and portly without the sphere, cutting it be- tween the middle and extreme parallels : in each case the length of the slant side of the frustum must be supposed equal to the length of the meridian l^twccn the extreme paral- lels. On this principle, different constructions have been given for representing the surface of a sphere on a plane. 1. Conical Developement, Let P A Q (Jig. 54.) be a section of the meridian, P Q the axis, C the centre, E C the radius of the equator, B D any arc of the meridian, and A the middle point between B and D : draw the tangent A O, meeting the axis in O. Suppose now the plane figure O A B to revolve about Uio axis P Q ; the semicircle P A Q will generate a sphere, and the tangent A will generate the surface of a cone which touches the sphere in A. Tiie points B, A, D will generate the parallels of latitude B 6, A H a, D J, of which the middle parallel A H a will be a section of^the cone perpendicular to its ayis. Take H any point in the parallel A H o ; draw F H to its centre, and join H O. Con- ceive now the cone to be expanded into a 64 A / riz^ p — — ^ plane, and that the sur&ce O A H be- comes, by developement, 0' A' H'. The expansion of A H, the arc of the parallel of latitude on the sphere, whose radius is F H, the cosine of the latitude, will now become A' H', on arc of a c' -le whose radius is A' O' = A O, the r';"'.Tr.nt of the latitude of the parallel. In O' A' take A' B' and A' D', each equal to A B or A D, and with the radii O' B', O' D' describe arcs F m, D' n. it' The plane figure B' m n D' may now be taken as nearly equal to the spherical sur- n fhce bounded by meridians passing through A and H, and the portions of Uie paral- lels B 6, A a intercepted between Uiem : and any tract of country delineated on the sphere may be nearly shown by a delinea- tion on the plane ; uie approximation be- ing the more accurate as the breadth of the spherical zone is less. Let the middle latitude E A and the angle A F H, or breadth in longitude of the spheri- cal suriace, be supposed given, to determine the radius O' A' and the angle O' A' H' Because the middle latitude is lutown, its cotangent O H is given in parts of the radius by the trigonometrical tables, or it may be expressed in minutes of lailtude, by considering that half the r-lrcumference (to radius = 1) is 3.1416; therefore, the radius in minutes will be ezpresseiL a 60X180 3 1416 = 3437.7'. 160 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. Part IL nr Eience U' A', tho nulius of tho middlo parallol in tho dovolopomont, will bo expresied hi minutov of latitude by 8437.7' X cot. middlo lat. Noxt, to And tho tmg\o A' O' li'. Tho arc A H on the iphere and the arc A' H' on the piano boinK equal ; by tho principlos of geometry, the anglo A F H will be to the angle A' 0' ir oa i' 0' to A F: now, A' O' = A O is tho cotangent of the middle latitude, and A F iff its cosine, and the cotangent is to the cosine as radius to tho sine ; therefore, nutting L to denote tho degrees of longitude between two meridians on the sphere, the angle AC H , contained by the straight lines which represent them in the developement, will be in degrees L X Sine middle lat. Tho angle O', and the lines O' A', A' B', A' D', in the developement, are now known ; it roinainn only to divide B' D', the roprcsontatioii of tho arc of the meridian, and B' m, D' n, the parallels of latitude, into equal parts to form scales of latitude and longitude : then, circles described about O' as a centre, through tito proper divisions of B' D', will form tho parallels of latitude; and straight linns drawn joining corresponding degrees on the extreme Sarollols B' m, D' n, will represent the meridians on tho map; which' is now ready for the elinoation of tho geographical features of tho tract it is to represent Tliis is tite way in which the common maps are constructed. Example. Lot it be required to construct a map to comprehend the British islands, which extend from 00° to about 61° of north latitude, and from 2° east tolPwost, about 18° of longitude. Tho middle latitude is 50° 30', of which the cotangent in the tables is .68728 and sine = .82413. From these data, O' A', the radius of the middlo parallel, ii 3437.7 X .68728 - 2302' .7: the length of tho arc B D ia 11° = 680' ; therefore. A' B' =: A' D', its half, ia 330, and hence O B = 2362.7 X 830 = 2692'.7 DA- 2362.7 — 830 = 2032'.7. Tho number of dcproofl of longitude (L) in this case is 18° ; therefore, angle A' O' H' = 13° X .82413 = 10° 42. Knowiiij4 now tho radii ()' B', 0' D', and the angle O', wo can find tho area B' m, D' n ; or we can find their chords. Thus wo have, chord of arc B' m = 2 O B Sin. 4 0' = 375' .6. chord of arc D' n = 2 O D Sin. J 0' = 502* .1. Wo have now obtained the chords of 13° of longitude on the extreme parallels, and the meridians which fonn their extremities in minutes of a degree of tho meridian ; also the radii of the parallels of latitude : with these, tho intelligent student of geography will find no difficulty in constructing a map of Britain. 2. Murdoch's Conical Developement. There have been various modifications of the conical developement : of these, one was given by tho Rev. Patrick Murdoch, in tho Lond. Phil. Trans. 1708. Lot M denote the arc of the meridian which is to be repreacnted in a map: he proposed to make 0' A', tho radius of the middle parallel, equal to chord of arc M ^;^^ X Cot mid. lat tho cotangent being supposed cxprosdcd by tho radius of tho sphere. The remainder of the construction is the same as tho ordinary conical projection. % Murdoch's method, tho surface of tiio dcveloi)ement is exactly equal to tlio spherical surface which it represents, and tlic cone passes Mirough points of the meridian between tho middle latitudes and the extremities of Uie projected arc, its side being parallel to the tangent at the middlo latitude. 3. De LisWa Conical Developetttent. The astronomer Do Lisle employed the conical projection in constructing a general chart of tho Russian empire, which extended fVom 40° to 70° of north latitude. Ho, however, eupiKKod tlio cone to enter tho sphere so as to cut it in two parallels midway between the mean and extreme parallels : these, in tlie developement had the same dimensions as the corresponding circles of tlio sphere, and its whole extent diflTered but little from tliat of the tract it was meant to represent ; because tlio excess at the two extremities of the chart was compensated, at least in part by the opposite error in the middle. 4. Euler't Method. Euler was also occupied with this projection : but he substituted for the determination of parallels which sliould be common with the sphere, that of the point of concourse of straight fines which represent the meridians, and of the angle which they make when they contaui one degree of longitude. Ilia calculations rest on the following conditions : — 1. That the errors are equal at the northern and soutliern extremities of me mao. 2. That they are Part IL bo expressed iii arc A' H' on the 1 bo to the angle idlo latitude, and therefore, putting 10 angle A O' H , will be in degrees ■0 now known ; it a, and B' m, D' n, I longitiido : then, ' D', will form the les on the extreme now ready for the rhis is tJie way in liG British islands, LPwcst, about 13" ho tables is .68728 niddlo parallel, ia therefore. A' B' = ire, angle A' O' H' ho arcs B' m, D'n; ic parallels, and the meridian; also the jcography will find of those, one was ^t M denote the arc ;e O' A', the radius remainder of the lal to tho spherical ridian between the lUel to the tangent ]ng a general chart le. He, however, (dway between the Idimensions as the I from tliat of the Is of the chart was J determination of ■course of straight Ivhen they contain Ins:—!. That the 12. That they are BooeI REPRESENTATION OP THE EARTH. 101 also equal to the greatest of those towards its middle. Hence he concluded that the point of concourse of tne meridians should be situated beyond the pole by a quantity equal to 5^ of latitude, and that tho angle of two consecutive meridians should be 48° 44'. 6. Flanuteed'a Projection. The English astronomer Flamsteed, in constructmg his celestial atlas, developed all the parallels of latitude on the sphere into straight lines, and also one of the meridians; viz. tha which pojisou through the middle of tlie chart : then the parallels, which are all perpen- dicular to that meridian, are exactly of the same length oa on the globe, and consequently the degrees of longitude on the parallels will be shown in their just proportion, that is, as the cosines of the latitude. If, now, the parallels on the map be divided into equal puts, just as the parallels on the globe are, by the meridians, curve lines traced through corre- spending points of division will represent the meridians. The adjoining figure (Jig. 56.) exhibit! a sketch of a map of this construction. According to Flatnsteed's method, any distance cr. the map in the direction of the parallels is everywhere equal to the corre- sponding distance on tho globe ; but the configuration of places near the extremities is considerably distorted by the obliquity of the meridians to the parallels, so that the spherical quadrilaterals, the sides of which cross at right angles, are m the map represented by mixtilineal trapeziums, of which the angles are very unequal. Flamsteed employed this projection in representing the positions of the stars ; but it is also employed in geography, particularly in delineating countries which extend on both sides of the equator : Afhca, ror North. South. instance. 6. Modification of Flanuteed't Projection. C6 There is a modification of Flamsteed's projection (Jig, 56.), which has been extensively employed, and vvhich deserves particular attention, because it corrects, in part, the defect of the obliquity of the meridians. This substitutes arcs of concentric circles for the straight lines, which he proposed to represent the parallels of latitude. The common centre of the circles is m a straight line dra\vn through the middle of the map as an axis, and which repre- sents a meridian ; and its position in the axis ought to be such, that the obliquity of the angles made at the intersection of Uie curves which represent the meridians, and the circles which represent the parallels, should be as little as possible. The position of the centre is so assumed, that the radius of the middle parallel of latitude is equal to its cotangent ; and in this the modified projection of Flamsteed agrees with the ^f ordinary conical projection. To exemplify this construction, let it be proposed to describe the parallelo and meridians for a map of Europe, which shall extend fVom 85° north latitude to TO'. Let us, as before, assume a minute of a degree of latitude for the unit of the scale fVom which tho measures of the lines are to be taken. Therefore, as before, the radius of the sphere, of which a portion of the spherical surface is to be represented, will be 3437.7 minutes. Let O A C B (jig. 56.) be assumed as the tixis or middle meridian of the map; and let A D, BE be the halves of the part of tho extreme parallels of latitude to be represented, and C the point in which the middle parallel (52° 30') cuts the axis; also, let O be tiie centre of the circles, arcs of which are to represent the parallels By the nature of the projection, O C must be taken equal to the cotangent of 52° 30' ; this, to radius = 1, is .767^, and to a radius expressed by minutes, we have O C = .76733 X 3437.7 = 2(fe7'.8. Having found OC, the radius of the middle parallel, the radius of any other parallel may be found by adding or subtractinj^ its distance in minutes of the meridian from the middle parallel. Thus we find tho radii of parallels differing bv 5°, as in the annexed table : — Next, we must find the points in which some one meri- dian cuts all the parallels. We shall suppose it to be 30° of longitude fix>m O C, tlie avis of the map. From the nature of the developement, the arc of lonffi- tude on any parallel in the map is equal to the arc of ue parallel on the sphere which it represents. This has to an arc of Uie same number of degrees of the meridian the proportion of the cosine of tho latitude of the parallel to the VOL.L '^ 14* V Tinllil. na.liin. Firallel. iUdltti. it-IO 3HB7.8 53 iM87.8" 40 3387.8 60 8187.8 43 3087.8 03 1887.8 m » •'^ - ^;; From this formula, the chords may easily be deduced from the arcs. As an example, let tlie arc of 30° of longitude, and its chord on the parallel 35°, be required. For fecility of calculation, we shall use logarithms. Calculation of Arc Calculation of Log. of 34*-'. Losarithim. Ufuixhrn. Radius of are 687.8 3.S0677 rVtfinA MO , 001XW 3 An* A^1i74' % ?inARf1 i^ntt of flouara of radiui* (f >•<«.. 7.13354 3 " 34 1,38031 Losarithm 34t« 8.51375 Snhtrart Ijia 24rt fiJCIlTX Differ, of arc and chord D'^ 009814 Fir. of Ut. Xna. 1 Chord of Are. 1 35 1474.5 1464.7 40 1378.9 1369.4 45 1272.8 1263.8 50 1157.0 1148.7 55 1032.4 1025.0 60 900.0 803.6 65 760.7 755.5 70 615.0 C11.8 Thus, by an easy logarithmic calculation, we have found the arc to be 1474'.5, and its excess above the chord to be 9'.8. There- fere, the chord is 1464'.7 of the meridian. By a like process, we have found the arcs of 30° of longitude, and their chords on the parallels to every fifth degree, as in this table. Having now found the chord of 30° of longitude on the paral- lel of 35° to be 1464'.7 of the meridian, we must, with com- passes, place that distance taken from a scale of minutes from B to E, and to e ; and the points E, e will be in the representations of meridians 80° of lon- gitude from the axis on each side. In the same way, the intersections of these meridians with the other parallels are found. Curve lines E D, e d must now be traced through all the intersections, and these will be the meridians on the map. The intersections of the intermediate meridians with the parallels may ■? found by divid- ing each parallel into thirty equal parts, from the axis both ways ; and a£ many meridian lines may be exhibited as may be thought necessary. In the figure here given, they are traced to every tenth degree. If the map is to extend further than 30° on each side of its middle meridian, the divisions of the parallels may be repeated on each, and meridians drawn. This construction of a map is memorable, because it was adopted by the general dep6t of war of France, about the year 1803, as the groundwork of a system of geographical charts which should exhibit the French original territory, as well as the additions which had been made, and were expected to be made, by conquest or negotiation. Developement of the Curve Surface of a Cylinder. The mariner, in navigating a ship between remote points on the globe, directs his course by the compass ; steering as nearly as possible always in the same du-ection, supposing there are no obstacles to prevent him. the place from which he sets out, and that of his des- tination, be due north and south from each other, the ship's path will evidently be a great circle, viz. the meridian passing through them. If, again, they have the same latitude, he must sail on a parallel of latitude ; that is, his course must be due east or west But if the places differ both in latitude and longitude, then it becomes a question, what is the nature of the line on the globe along which a ship must sail, with her head always in the same direction, as indicate by the compass, so as to pass from one to the other 1 The line in question, which is called a rhumb line or loxodromic line, has manifestly this property, — it cuts all the meridians on the globe at the same angle. By this property, a ship sailing along it will move always in the same direction, as shown by a compass : but it will not be a great circle ; for the equator is the onlv great circle that cuts all tike meridians at the same angle ; and hence it appears that the line on the globe by which a ship passes from one place to another is never the shortest possible, except when they are on the same meridian, or on the equator. Supposing a navigator had a perfect delineation of the earth on a sphere, it is by no means evident how he should find the course he ought to steer to reach a remote port By due con- •ideration, however, he would see that the path must be a spural. It would also bo repre- PahtIL ig L will be in . . .. :.;, . ,t'-.. ble of logarithmic the chords of the hoee numerator is is very near equal a parallel 35«, be of a4r'. " LonrUhms!! 3.S0677 3 7.133S4 1.38031 8.51375 Book II. REPRESENTATION OF THE EARTH. 163 ! have found the arc to be 9'.8. There- By a like process, 3e, and their chords this table, gitude on the paral- ?e must, with com- ale of minutes from leridians 30° of Ion- I of Uiese meridians e traced through all y ; found by divid- I as many meridian lere given, they are ridian, the divisions le general dep6t of 'eographical charts ms which hod been , directs his course Ion, supposing there Ind that of his des- [vidently be a great same latitude, he Ir west But if the 1 what is the nature llways in the same [has manifestly this ^y this property, a I a compass : but it |8 all tike meridians thich a ship passes ey are on the same p, it is by no means t Iport By due con- lould also be repre- sented by a spiral curve on a map, formed by the developement cf a cone ; but navigators required charts before the theory of such curves was understood; therefore at that period his art must have been imperfect The wants of the navigator, accordingly, gave rise to the coastruction of a chart, in which the meridians and parallels were straight lines ; and in this the developement of the curve surface of a cylinder was employed. Let us conceive that a zona of the earth's surface, of no great extent in latitude, is inscribed in or circumscribed about a vight cylinder, whose axis coincides with that of the globe : the planes of the meridians will cut the curve surface of the cylinder in straight lincei, parallel to the axis; and tJib planoK of the parallels will cut it in sections pcrpcadicular to the axis, which will be circles equal to the base of the cylin- der. But in supposing the surface of the cylinder developed into a plane, these circles will oecome straight lines, perpendicular to the meridians. This developement has received the name of the plane chart : its invention is attributed to Henry, son of John, king of Por- tugal. This kind of chart has nothing but its simplicity to recommend it ; for the degrees of longitude have, indeed, their just proportion to the degrees of latitude in the parallel com- mon to the cylinder and sphere, but in no other parallel. In the developement of a cylinder circumscribing the whole sphere, the area of any zone in the sphere is exactly equal to that of its representation in the chart ; and indeed the same equality may be observed in all cases, by a proper assumption of a parallel of latitude as the base of the cylinder. The developement, however, has this great fiiult, — the doCTces of longitude always err in excess towards the north and in defect towards the south of me mean parallel, which is assumed as the base of the cylinder. There is a construction, described in books of navigation under the name of a plane chart, the prmciple of which is somewhat different from that just described. In the seaman's piano chart the meridians are parallel straight lines, and so also are the parallels of latitude ; and both are so laid down that a degree of latitude and a degree of longitude are equal in all latitudes. It may easily be conceived how incompetent such a representation must be to the purposes of navigation or geography. Mercator's Chart. The utter inadequacy of the old plane charts to the wants of geography and navigation induced ingenious men to consider whether a chart might not be so constructed as to repre- sent tlie meridians and parallels by straight lines, and at the same time readily show the true bearings of places from one another. The first that gave a true solution — at least an approximate one— of this important problem was Gerabd Mercator, who was bom at Ruremond, in Upper Guelderland, in the year 1512, and published a chart in 1556, wherein the rhumbs, which on the globe are spirals, were represented by straight lines, as in the plane chart ; and so also were the meridians and parallels. It is not known by what prin- ciple Mercator constructed his chart ; it has been supposed tliat he observed on a globe fur- nished with rhumbs what meridians the rhumbs passed in each degree of latitude : it is cer- tain he did not know the true principles of the construction ; for these were first found by Edward Wright of Caius College, in Cambridge, who communicated his discovery to his friend Thomas Blundeville, with a short table, showing the correct distances of the parallels of latitude from the equator, which was published in 1594 by Blundeville, among his Exer- cises, The truth of the divisions of Mercator's chart was then tried by the numbers given by Wright, and they were found to be inaccurate ; hence it appears that Merc-tor did not understand the principles of the map bearing his name, and that this important inv ntion is due to Wright, who explained it himself, in his treatise entitled The Correctic of certain Errors in Naviffation, published 1599, but written many years before. Although Wright's numbers were sufficiently correct for all nautical purposes, and might be carried to any degree of accuracy, yet, in the progress of mathematical science, an im- provement was made in his theory. Napier's invention of logarithins htid proved an inesti- mable advantage to navigation and geography, by shortening calculations : this, however, was not the only advantage that the navigator derived l^om the invention ; for, about the year 1645, Henry Bond showed that tlie division of the meridian in Wright's chart was altogether analogous to the logarithmic tangents of half the complements of the latitudes, and might be expressed by them. He seems to have found this by chance : such accidental discoveries are, however, never made but by men of genius. He could not demonstrate his important theorem. At last James Grego^ry proved its truth in his Exercitationes Geometrica, pub- lished in 1668. The construction of the chart was now made perfect. The invention of Mercator's chart, one of the most important in the 16th century, affords a notable instance of the slowness with which men si^rmt improvements in science. Although designed for the use of sailors, it was at first by no means generally used by them. William Burrough, a celebrated navigator, who had entered on his profession at the age of fifteen, and risen by his merit to the rank of controller of Queen ElizabeUi's navy, objected to its usefulness. He said — " By Mercator's augmenting his degrees of latitude towards the poles, the same is more fit for such to beliold as study in cosmography, by reading authors upon the m d MERCATOR'S CHART, j;^ Book I. REPRESENTATION OP THE EARTH. 105 >^ land, than to bo used in r>avi^atior\ at the sea." It is curious to observe that logarithms, the other grand auxiliary of navigation, met with a like reception from the German mathemo^ ticians that wore somewhat a^viinced in years, Morcator*s chart may bo pnxluccvl by developement, as follows:— Conceive that a sphere with the meridians and parallcLi and countries delineated on it, is inclosed in a hollow cyl- inder, and that the axis of the sphere coincides with that of the cylinder. Imagine now that the sphere is expanded in its dimensions, just oa a soap-bubble is produced by blowmg air into it, or as a bladder would swell in all directions by inflation, the parts always ntretchiiig uni- formly ; the meridians will lengthen in the same proportion as the parallels, till every point of the expanding spherical surmco comes into contact with the concave suiface of the cyl- inder : the meridians will at last become straight lines, and the parallels, circles on that surface ; the former in the uide« to serve ; but it does servo perfectly the purposes for which it was first c '. ted, wid which, before its invention, were a desideratum in geography. .:^Mi»^ PiUlTlL -1 ii: ">;..«■ I, ■ THE HEMISPHERES. 16 I 1 I I' 120 llO 160 W tie meridiian for the le propv?r direction, thus found perpen* tnnl piuts ; and the hip ought to sail m [ints, and t^ie angle Island of Madeira, course on which a ag that the meri- I meridional parts), triangle, of which acute angles, viz. |ng through them, igled triungle, of one side, and (he U of all places on In, Edinburgh, and If meridional parts ! of the pr, whi:. ifirstc n;,ne3 ti not (ed, -• r »;■■.; ■i -■ '^«^' PartIL Book II. METEOROLOGY, •m !, tho waters of dcpartmont of i; and thorofore tho atmoepherc, hydrology ; and, 3 properties ana onenu but little iolozical point of .mpfe proof. osphere. it, surrounds the denominated the •ely immersed in tlie fishes which do to mount up, dditional aid, we le bottom of our 3at heights ; still the existence or hich live on our tho innumerable our planet. It licrc should have lations to other atmosphere, and irology. Whilst ve, and scarcely :hich some of the f the more \A\i- iOtost antiquity. matter, appears ies. Thus, if il of water, that ly the air. This water. At the erwise it should ase with which th great facility ^f some of tlieir irerful air-guns, learly ages, the r o pots or kettles Ih excluded the Is in a portable Tiled themselves tld. It was on nometer. I presses on the This was con- rCSUit iiuiii •-!■'■: Icalled nature's was generally I that by means of suction fluids might be raised to any height whatever. But Galileo, though stiil inclining to tho old opinion, remarked that water dianot rise in a common pump unless tho sucker oi bucket reached within 34 feet of its surfhce in tho well. Hence he was forced to conjec- ture, that not Uio power of suction, but tlie pressure of the atmosphere on the sur&ce of tho well, was tho cause of the water's ascent; that a column of water 34 feet high was a coun- terpoise to one of air on an equal base, but reaching to the top of the atmosphere ; and that, for this reason, wa\'er could not follow tho sucker anv fartlier. Torricnili, a disi;iplo of Galileo, profitod by this hint. It occurred to him that the sama force which supported water to the height of 34 feet would sustain a column of any other fluid which weighed as much on an equal base ; and therefore mercury, being 13.0 tunes as heavy as water, should onlv be suspended to tho height of 20 or 30 mches. Accordingly, he took a glass tube from three to lour feet long, and closed at one end ; this he filled with mercury ; then, stopping itB mouth with his finger, he inverted tho tube, and on re-opening its mouth in a vessel of quicksilver the result verified his expectation. The mercury, obeying the lawp of hydrostatics, descended in the tube till the vertical column wus about 80 mches abovo the level of tiio cistern, leaving the remaining space at the top empty or nearly a vacuum. Hence he inferred that it was only the weight or pressure of the atmosphoro on the mercury in the cistern, which balanced tho column in the tube. This is usually called tho Toricellion experiment, and is the foundation of the barometer. The mean pressure is everywhere tho same at the level of the sea, and equal to about 14 i lbs. on the square inch. It becomes less as tho place is elevated above the sea, and greater if below its level. The pressure of tho atmosphere, as measured by the mercurial column, varies somewhat at every place on the earth s surface. Generally speaking, its variations arc greatest in tho temperate zones, decreasing towards the equator and poles. The annual range rarely exceeds half an inch in the torrid zone. It is about two inches at London, and tiie same at St Petersburg, but ratlier less at Melville Island. It nowhere exceeds 3]^ inches. The annual range is more considerable at the level of the sea than on mountains ; and under the same latitude it is less, as the height of the place above the sea is greater. Tho '>aromcter has a tendency to rise from 4 P. M. to 10 P. M. ; to fall from 10 P. M. to 4 A. M. ; to rise from 4 A. M. to 10 A. M. ; and again to fall from 10 A. M. to 4 P. M. DifiTcrent authors, however, differ a little both as to the hours and the amount of tliu diurnal variation, which appears to be greater as the latitude is lower. The barometer is likewise elevated a little at the quarters of the moon, and depressed at the new and fbll. The range of tliis instnunent is greater in winter than in summer. The kirometer ranges higher in proportion as tlie weather is more serene and settled; calm weather, with a tendency to rain, depresses it ; high winds have a similar effect In extra-tropical climates, a fall in the barometer, with a change or rise of wind, is usuiJiy followed by rain. The law which regulates the elasticity of the air formed the next important step, aflerthe discovery of Ihi. pressure. Boyle in England, and Mariotte in France, discovered, much ab<)ut the same time, that the temperature being the same, the pressure or elastic force of ail is directly as its density, or inversely as the space it occupies. This law, though received as correct at the time of its discovery, continued to be suspected till within these few years. But Dulong and Petit have recently examined it through a wide range of temperature ; Professor Oersted has tried it under a great variety of pressures ; and within the limits of their experiments it was found to hold good. The variable capacity for heat forms another property of air of no less importance, but which seems to have been little known or attended to till towards the end of the last cen- tury. When air undergoes a change of volume, it at the same time changes its capacity for heat ; becoming notter by compression, and colder by rarefaction. The want of acquaintance with this circumstance led Newton, and many others after him, into the mistake of con- cluding, that ths particles of elastic fluids repel each other with forces inversely as their central distances ; which cannot be the case if the capacity be aflTected, no matter in what manner or degree, by a change of density. But very extensive experiments, made by some of the most eminent scientific men in France, and repeated in England, are faVourable to the idea that the particles of air observe the same law as magnetism and electricity, repelling each other with forces inversely as the squares of their distances. There is a gradation of density ir ^he air. Being, as already stated, a compressible body, vt is obvious that the lower p^-^ " he atmosphere, by sustaining tjie greater weight or pressure of the air above them- be so much the more condensed ; and therefore, as we ascend in the atmosphere, the d 'nsity will continually dimmish. Accordingly, it may be shown from he principles already laid down, that were the temperature and tJie force of gravity unifo..n at all heights above the earth's surface, the densities of the strata would decrease in geometrical progression for altitudes taken in arithmetical progression, so as nearly to halve the density for every 3.5 miles of ascent But, indeiiendently of a trifling change in the force of gravity, • '3 is not exactly the law of nature; for it is found that the temperature generally decreaset n% we go upward, and tliat t acording to any fixed law V01.L 16 W 170 PRINCIPLES or GEOGRAPHY. Part IL illjJSS'' Hcnco tho relation betWv. n the density nnd nltitiido ia not of a steady character, and can only be obtained in any particular caaot'nim obiH'rvingf tbo prcwiiiro, ccmporaturo, and hyffro- metric ufato of tlio nir. This is a ronrarch to which many eiiiincn men have tumod tneir attention ; and tlieir sucocssivo labours have led to tho formation ^f convmiiont rules, by which tho heights of mountains can be obtained to a considerable dO(,roo of accuracy, and with preiit fkcilitv, by moans of the tmromotor, &,c. Tho height and form of iho atmoepheve pt objects of intorost. With nn umfiiim tem- perature, the law of Boylo would ii.v ..' ' that its hoi^^ht in infinite ; but this is an idea which has scarcely any Buppr^orH, . nl >;cnerally believed to bo incompatible with the laws of motion. Dr. Wo! a 'on, w' r> n jnion 'is entitled to great doferonco, main- tainrt that the atmosphere muf t ti rminalo at tlio height wlioro the repulsive force between its particles equals their teuil i -y to gravitate towards t'lc eiirlh. Tho law of gravity may bo admitted as known, but tdc sumo can hardly bo afflrnied of tlio law which regulates tito repulsive force, so long ns tho temperature nl great heights is unknown ; and this circum> stance leaves tho Iwundiiry undetermined. A doubt of a more serious nature, however, attaches to this speculation, on tho ground that wo are tot;\'ly >' 'int with what materials the air may bo mixed it great elovationn. The nti- li..,. ji, uo-ieral!; supposed to bo higher at tho equator than at the i)oles ; but we have neither data tor computing tho heights, nor tho proportion in which they dit!cr: so that tho oblate spheroidal figure which some give to tho atmosphere can bo considered as little else than an ingenious conjecture. The tcmperatJire of tho atmosphere has great influence on most metoornlogicul pheno* monu; but it is ■.cecdingly variable, and can as yet bo determined only by actual observa- tion on tho spot, .' nthing would tend to throw greater light on ninny of tho unresolved questions in mote ifology, than a ready mode of coi '^uting with certainty tho temperature which obtains at any instant in a pf)int of the atmoi , '>crc remote tVoui tho contnrt of tlie earth's surfat ., und at any point on the surfiice remote from tho observer: but tlieso are likely to contimio desiderata. Tho very little that is known of tho temperature of air rcmot J from tho earth's surface has been derived from a few ai rents in its ujiper regions usually some from a warmer quarter, and tlie lower currents from .i colder, there is upon the whole, independently of aeronautic observations, some ground for supposing tlmt the decrease of temperature on ascending in the atmosphere should be slower than tho law of capacity as increased by dilatation requires. The fbllowiiic;- list of temperatures, cniefly observed at Btations employed in tho barome- trical measurements of heights, is taken from M. Ramond's work on tliat subject Only a few of thes-o measurements embrace the whole heights of th< mountains on which ti/.y were mad( , unci the first case is of a different class. 'Ve hu reduced the temperatures to FahrPKheit's scale : — FlKO. Hcllkt. T*i»p. «t tK.1. Teln^ ■1 lop. I Riliht. Tarda T«n^ al bol. Tallin at lop. rtrft. o „ a a OiT'LnfMe^ Mraot Chlmbonio low n.A I4.t Plod'nrn, TtrlMa*... : Piodn Molilalia ttM« OH.l 11.8 MoalBltn' 4m eg.g M.8 rio da Midi, lancM IBM TOI 81.1 n, _ 81,7 M.l Dlllo....." 71.1 48.4 riodaT M «m W.f 47.1 nito _ 70.1 48.8 • MoolUi. Chamoua; MTO n.< «• mito ** W.i 11.8 KIM M tt¥> IK w.a Dlllo *- U.I Ml , Mont Vtrin, TirtoM VM 78.1 44.4 DItIo _v 8«.0 44.8 Cnl du i>VaBt M. «M n.8 40.1 Dlllo _ H.0 41.1 , HtMrW „,. tl14 N< V.l Ditto .. «t.l 41.1 n< dii MI.II, Tu»« IMS ai.i U.9 Far de Doo« Clannil nn 701 «7,a , Ditto n.s 47.t Dlllo •4.0 11.4 I DIUo - _ n.i 40.8 Dllta _ U.I 11.1 Dillo _ T4.t H.7 ni>!».> -....~ _ 7111 80.1 DIUO ,„ » «.8 4«.« Dlllo _ ai.i 74.1 nito •. M.I ».a ■nial du latacm, TarbM Ml 81.8 181 Dlllo _ U.8 M.7 Poatdo Boifn. Ctonnoal H7 R.I 1 Ool dn OMOt, CbimoiiBT MM ran 40.1 La BarrMa«. Clarmolit •• .. <1> 74.1 71.1 MoM rtrta. ImtM OM 77.0 44.4 Part IL harnctor, and can raturo, and hysro- have turned their ivoniont ruloi, by of accuracy, and nn luiiforni tcni' iito; but tills u an incompatible with dofcjoiico, iimin- 4ivo forcn between iw of gravity may hich rcL'nIatcB tlio ; and this circum- ) luituro, liowovcr, itii what materials !y siippo.iod to bo putint; tlio heights, which some give cturn. tcorcilogicitl pheno* by actual obacrva- of the tinreBolvcd y tlio temperature tlio contact of tlie •vcr : but these arc raturo of air remot j ns, particularly the rived from the sun, ts contact with the lore or less towar'i tmosphoro lowi. [19 that heat, which through a vacuum, 80, it would follcw but may oftener bo it opinion, among |hiH theory of dew. iplicro towards the upward fn^m the II of air m contact . is probable that s, towards on uni- [)or regions usually is upon the whole, [lit the decrease of aw of capacity as od in the barome- subject Only a lis on which tl.'.y [e temperatures to floOK II. METEOROLOGY. Illllhl. Tink Temp. •1 boL Tnnn It top. nit T«.9 tl.l 1M« W.I n.» laoa ni ti.t ii.t 4S.4 _ 10.1 40.9 _ U.I o.a ».g Ml , M.O 4<.a _ M.O 41.4 _ m *'i iia n» n.« no 11.4 __ U.I M.1 _ n.t W.4 __ •1.1 14.1 •11 ti.< 41.4 arr n.i «.a 8.a T>>ia table flhowv, in n verv itrikinff manner, with how i tie certainty the oecreaio of '.cinporature ciiu bo eituu iiou fVom the increaio of height; and how unsteady the rate of ilucn^ttxo in often ut tho same place. M. Ramond, however, has collected some cases which arc Htill more discordant. Tlio prodding table contains the temperatures of the air at different heights for one or a few purticulur instants ; but we shall now add a table from Baron Humboldt of the mean temperaturci qf elevated iUuatiotu, as deduced fhnn several years observations. Tho degrees are those of Fahrenheit's scale. From this table it appears, that, in the mean state of the atmosphere, the temitoraturo does not decrease uniformly for a uniform accent. At the equator, the thomiomotcr ilills 10° in the first 1000 yards of ascent, or about 1° for 310 foot In the next lUOO yards, it is only 1° for 524 feof but in tlie third and fourth stages there is a re- markable acceleration, which having attained its maximum rate, is diminished again in the fifth stage to somowhat less than it was in tho first, or to 1° in 320 feet Tho mean rate in tho varia^ tion of temperature, throughout tho whole hoight of 15965 foot, at tho limit of perpetual snow, is 1° for every ;i41 feet The smaller rate of decrease in the second and third stages is ascribed by Humboldt to tho largo dense clouds which are suspended in this region, and which, he alleges, have the triple effect of absorbing tho sun's ys, forming rain, and intercepting tho radiation of heat fram the earth. In the tempcrat /one, the decrease is at the rate of V for "MUl feet, during the first 1000 yards of ascent. But throughout the whole height of 0587 foef I to tho limit of perpetual snow, where tho moan tempoiaturo is 23.4°, the decrease is 1° for 317 ic% or almost 1" for 100 yards. As already remarked, observations made in tho frco regions jf the atnioHi>liere have not yet been so numerous as to warrant any certain conclusion regarding tho temperature ; but, so far as such observations go, they do not differ very widely from the mean or those observed on the sides and summits of mountains. But genorally in tho tcmperatu zone, a difference of 1000 yards in height will produco a difference of 12° it' temperature ; and so on in proportion for smaller heightd. In higher regions, the difli^rnn veen the heat;' of day and night, summer and winter, seem to bo less than at tim level of 'e sea; thouir from this there are some exceptions. Extensive table-lands are usually \ . ter than in ited peaks of the some height Humboldt calculates that, in the temperate . no, an asci-nt of 110 yards diminishes the temperature as much as on oddi- tiiinal degree of lat'tude. Temperatun > ^ in mines. Having thus noticed the lower temperatures which obtain inmoro olevateii bitaaiions. wo shall now give some account of the increased temperature which generally prevails in r occupying deep caverns and mines. There can be no doubt as to such facts, but the nn- of the heat is still a subject of controversy. There are some mines intensely cold ; and .hesc wero first observed, the explanation offered was, that tho colder portioiu-i of air had, by their greater weight descendea into the mines : but this solution entirely vanished when it was known that mines are generally hot The heat of the workmen, their fires and lights, have been stated as sources of heat; as likewise the chemical action of air and water on the minerals. Some again allege that a high tempera- ture obtains in the interior of our globe, and conseouently that the heat will always bi greater as we penetrate farther. However, it is found that on boring into the solid strata in Uio boitom of warm mines, and lettmg down a thermometer, tlie temperature, so fiir fron increasing, comes short of that in the mine. This sufficiently proves that, whatever be the sources of heat some of them at least must operate in or be situated about the muie itseltl That a high temperature obtains in the interior, is in many instances evident from the streams of hot wnter and vapour which issue fixim fissures in the strata : but in many warm mines nothing of this is observable. Professor Leslie, Dr. Forbes, and afterwards Mr. Mat- tliew Miller, have suggestcfl the heat evolved b} i current of air, while it undergoes an increase of pressure in descending into the mine. The firat two of these philosophers did not deem this an adequate source of heat ; and Mr. Miller seems to entertain similar doubts: But from what is now known of tiie great heat evolved by the compression of air, there can be little room to question that this furnishes a considerable supply, wherever there is a suf- ficient current of air. Thus, if air at the temperature of 62° P. have its density suddenly increased by the 170th part the temperature will be raised 1° ; supposing no heat to be lost on the sides of the shaft. This would ^ve 1^ for a descent of 170 feet, which is still short of the rate at which the temperature is observed I increase in British mmes : but when added to the heat caused by the presence of the workmen and horses, their lights, blasting of rocks, fires, &c. together with some increase of temperature belonging to the deeper strata, there does not seem any mystery in the heat of some, tilthough probablv not of all, nines. Those mmes, agam, in v hich there is almost no circulation of air, and which pre- m SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. Pai^t U Ik!! H f.. . acnta wide mouth to a clear iky, may have thoir tein|M>rature roducod by radiatitr' '.-'at upwanla, in the aamo way that plants are starvod witli cuid bv being too much sluitorod from the wind while they are cxpoaed to a clear iky. An immonso collection of fact« and obwrvatinns rolatins to thia aubject may bo soon in the Transactiona qf the Geological Society q/* Cornwall, and in tho first number of tho Edin. Phil. Journal, From tlto latter wo extract tho following lummary of Mr. Bald'i obaorvationi, made in tlio deepest coal-minea in Great Britain : — VVnlor at dapth otUttett Air at ••ma dupth Ptrcf Main diUtty, flMkumt4rland. trkiukattn CWJItry, Ciunlf rf CHmhtrttud. Air at Iha iiirniea BiOf A aprlng al iiirnico , 49 Water at depth of 480 hot •!••••••• .00 Air at laiiie dopth 03 Air at depth of 000 ft«t 00 WtrUngtit CtUitty, CimttrUni. Air at thaiurfhee 80 A iprlngal iurftiM 48 Walvr ttt dopth of 180 Aat M Wntor 304 foot beneath tho lurfkoa ofth* Irlah Hea 00 7Wm OflHtrf, Otaaty qf Durham. Water at turniea 49 t\9r Air at tho lurnice 49 Water at iiirftice 40 Air at depth of UOO (bet below the level n{ Hie ■ea, and Immodlatoly under tho bud of the river Tync 70 Water at laino depth 08 Here Lrillc'a hygromotor Indicated dryneia — 83 Jarmt CW/<*ry, County (^ Dnrkam. Air at the lurikea 4fl) Water at iiirlbce 40 Air at depth of HHS feet 70 Water at •anie depth 68 Water at mnat dlitant (brehead and ISOO Airt below lurface 740 F Air at same di'plh 77 At thIa depth, diitilled water boiled at 813 Whan at tur^co it boiled at SjO'S The engine pit of Jarrow is the deepest perpendicular shaft in Britain, being 000 feet to the foot of the pumps, where the temperature of the air was 64°. KUUngwrtA aUilry, Mrlkumttrlantt. Air at iurOice 48° V Water at iiirnico 40 Air at bottom of ahoft 790 ft!et doop 31 Air at depth of 000 fbvt, and a mlla and half fl-om bottom of down^cait pit 70 The temperature of springs and caverns, in many places, coincides with the mean annual temperature of the air : but Humboldt alleges that, in latitudes above 45°, the mean heat of sorings and caves excecdH that of the atmosphere. As connected with this subject, Mr. Ferguson, of Raith, had four largo thermometers sunk in his garden, to the respective depths of 1, 2, 4, and 8 feet, in lat 56° 10', and 50 foot above the sea. The stems and scales rose above ground, and indicated tho following monthly mean temperatures : January... February . . March April May June July Augiiit. ■ . ■ September . October.... November . December. ■ Mean of the Tear 1816. 1 Foot. 33.00 33.7 33.0 30.7 40.0 31.6 S4.0 30.0 31.6 47.0 40.8 33.7 43.8 3 Feet. 36.30 30,0 30.7 38.4 43.3 30.0 33.3 33.3 31,3 40.3 4:i.e 40.0 44.1 4 Feet. 40,70 3U,0 30.0 41.4 43.4 47.1 30.4 30.6 31.8 49.7 46.3 43.0 43.1 8 Foot. 43.00 43.0 43.3 43.8 44.0 43.8 47.7 40.4 30.0 40.0 43.0 40.0 46.8 1817. 1 Foot. 33.00 37.0 39,4 43.0 46.8 31.1 33.3 33.4 33.0 43.7 41.0 33.9 44.9 3 Feet. 38.70 40.0 40.3 43.4 44.7 33.0 33.9 33.7 49.4 44.7 40.8 4 Feet. 40.30 41.6 41.7 43.0 44.0 47.8 31.4 33.0 33.0 40.4 47.0 44.9 43.0 wa 8 Foot. 43.10 43.7 49.3 43.0 44.3 47.8 49.0 30.0 30.7 40.8 47.0 46.4 40.0 Had the thermometers been sunk considerably deeper, they might have been expected to have indicated 47° 7', which is the constant temperature of a neighbouring spring issuing from a trap rock. The local temperature or climate of a country depends very much upon its distance iVom the equator, and its height above the level of Uie sea : but the nature of the surface, tho proportion of humidity, tlie distance of the sea, of lakes, of mountains, of arid or frozen plains, and perhaps, also, the internal heat of the earth, have each their share in the fertility or salubrity of a coimtry. The decrease of heat as we recede from the equator follows dif- ferent laws in the two hemispheres, being greater in the southern than in the northern, and is also ejected by the longitude. On the west of Europe, the cold increases less wim the latitude than in any otiier quarter. Under meri- dians which are 90° either east or west of London, the increase of cold, as we go northward, is mor- rapid than in England. According to Humboldt, continents and large ads are wanner on their western sides than on the eastern, -J The annexed table shows the mean temperatures of western Europe and North America continued to the equator. Lat. Old World. New World. Diff OO 90 30 40 30 60 70 81J0 T7.9 70.7 63.3 30.0 41.0 33.0 81J0 77.9 67.1 34.3 38.3 t3.0 0.0 OO 3.6 9.0 18.6 16.0 33.0 a clir ThJ whil inorl whil the I 4l°« of] norn vex I ^w^wvw^mmfmmmfiwr Pa»,t II d by nidintiii ' i. o\ too much ■jruiioroU iect may bo soon in firat number of tho unary of Mr. Bald'i flPF «6 fMkumbtrlanil. 43 «i )w tha lavol of the dor tha bud of the 70 08 Icated drynou ....83 ty 1^ Durkam. «» 40 70 88 1. being 000 feet to ibeid and ISOO liirt 740F 77 boiled at 913 8J03 ith the mean annual >°, tho mean licat of th this subject, Mr. ho respcctivo depths :ems and scales rose 1 Pcct. 8 Fttet. 0.SO 45.10 i.e 48.7 1.7 49.3 U.0 43.n 4.0 44.3 7.8 47.8 1.4 40.0 8.0 SO.O 1.0 S0.7 t.4 40.8 1.0 47,« I.U 40,4 lit 40.0 Book II. METEOROLOGY. 173 been expected to ingr spring' issuing 1 its distance from )f the surface, tho of arid or frozen are in the fertility quator follows dif- ng greater in the n elected by the old increases less «r. Under meri- of London, the OTf rapid than in inents and large an on the ettaierii. .tures of western Isothorrnal linos have been conaidored tm measuring tho neat and cold of the earth. Tho climato of Kaatom Asia comes noaior to that of Eiuttorn America than of VV'catom Eurot)o. Thus tho latitudus of Naples, Puking, and Philaduluhia aro rcspcclivr'y 41°, 40°, ami 4()^, whilst their mean tem|)oratures are «W,8°, B4.8°, anu ft3.4°. Such differences arc rendered more seniiblo when wo connect tho places having tho same mean tom])omturo by lines which lluuibuldt denominates isothuimal lines. Thus, tho isothonnal line of 00° F. traverses the latitude of 4.'J° in Europe, but descends to lat 80° in America; tho isothermal lino of 41° F. tm8!4eN from lat. 60° in Europe to lat. 48° in America: but since Uie western const of Nortn America is warmer than the eastern, tlio isothermal lines, being traced round tlio northern hemisphere, would have concave summits at tho oast side of both worlds, and con- vex at tho west Tho ditforenco between the moan temperature of summer and winter is nothing at tho equator, and increases continually with tho latitude. Dut the extreme difference of tho seasons is comparatively small in Western Europe, and great where the mean annual tem- perature is low, as on the oast coasts of Asia and America. If wo draw a line in a north- cast direction from Bordeaux to Warsaw, and continue it to tho Wolga, in lat. 05°, then all places under this line, at the some elevation, will have nearly tho same summer tempera- ture of 09° or 70° P. Tho lines of equal winter teinnerature decline in an opposite direc- tion. Thus a straight lino drawn from Edinburgh to Milan, almost at right angles to tlio former line, would pass over places which, if equally elevated, woulc havo nearly tlio same winter temperature of 37° or 38° F. The extremes of temperature are experienced chiefly in large inland tracts, and little felt in small islands remote from continents. In the United States intense cold is felt when tlio wind blows from the frozen regions round Hudson's Bay. From snow-clad mountums, gusts of cold wind, called snoio windt, rush down and cool tne adjacent plains. The heat accu- mulates to an astonishing degree when the wind passes over extensive deserts of burning Band, which are said, in sbmo instances in Africa, to be heated to the boiling point. This fine sand, or rather dust, sometimes rises in tho air and obscures it like a fog, communicating to it an intolerable heat. In arctic countries tlie temperature is very much regulated by the freezing of the water and the melting of tho ice ; by the freezing of tho water great quantities of heat are given out which moderate the severity of the winter's cold, and thui save from destruction Uio arctic land animals, and plants ; while in summer, the intensity of tho heat, produced by the long continuance of the sun above the horizon, is moderated by tlio abstraction of a considerable portion of that heat by tho water during the melting of the ice. Had tho arctic regions been entirely of land, neither plants nor anunals could have existed in them : for durbg summer, owing to the sun remaining above the horizon for months, an elevation of atmospheric temperature would havo been produced fatal to animals and plants ; and in winter, the Ions darkness and intense cold would have proved equally fatal to animated beings. The cold of tlie icy regions of the north has been alleged to reach, by currents of air, southern latitudes, and thus to lower their temperature. Baron Humboldt has odded more to our knowledge of tho distribution of temperature over the globe than any other who had laboured in the same boundless field of research. Tho table on tho following page contains his general summary, to which is added Mclvillo Island. The temperatures have been reduced to Fahrenheit's scale, and the longitudes are reckoned from Greenwich. An asterisk is prefixed to those places whose temperatures have been most accurately determined, and in general bv means of 8000 observations. In treating on the mean annual temperature which ootains at different places, it is cus- tomary to give a table which makes the temperature depend entirely on the latitude. But observation shows, that the temperature is usually higher at tlie same latitude in the old world than in the new, and in north latitude than in south ; and, as was already mentioned, it differs in the same continent under different meridians. So that more than one table would be required for each quarter of the globe ; or else one very extensive table, involving the longitude as well as latitude, which is the case with Humboldt's table, so far as it goes. As the earth and its atmosphere are continually receiving heat from the sun, it is plain that their mean annual temperature must be contmually on the increase, if no heat be tlirown off by them into surrounding space. Professor Leslie accordingly allege?, that tho increase of temperature is at the rate of about 1° in 80 years. This would help to explain some of the changes of climate which seem to have been gradually taking place during successive ages in manv places, and particularly in the west of Europe. But the late cele- brated Marquis de la Place has endeavoured to show, from astronomical observations, that the mean temperature of the earth has undergone no sensible change during the last two thousand years. His arguments, however, are not free from objection. Sect. II. — Effect of Climate on Plants and Animals. The geographical distrihution of plants and animals appears to be chiefly regulated by the temperature of the atmospherr. Each has generally a particular climate in which it thrives best, and beyond certain limits it ceases to exist. Since an increase of height has an effect 15* 174 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Pakt n. on t:k^ Intlm- Ml Budi. NUMIOfRUM. rMltton. Mean Tempem* Mwa Ttmptnlun of MfuTunpmturaof ut !«». H|bl. turaurUM Yew. WlBltr. SprlDf. Sum. nifr. Aulumn. WarniMI Monlh. ColdM Mnnlh, —35,62 -11.20 - 0.58 + 15,08 22,10 7.70 11.48 860 19.58 6.08 a 1 Molville lalond .... Nain 1 74 47 57 8 68 30 46 30 71 65 3 63 50 j9 56 63 24 55 45 60 27 ' 110 48 w. 6120W. 20 47E. 8 23e. 25 .We. a5 26E. 20 16 E. 30 19E. 10 22E. 37 32E. 22 18E Feet 1356 6390 970 — 2.00 +26.42 20.96 30.38 32.00 35.08 33.26 38.84 39.92 40.10 40.28 -31.33 — 0.60 0.68 18.32 23.72 11.84 12.92 17.06 23.72 10.78 20.84 — 6.60 23.90 24.98 26.42 29.06 27.14 33.80 38.12 35.24 44.06 38.30 33.78 48.38 54.86 44.96 43.34 57.74 M86 62.06 61.24 67.10 61.88 o — 3.84 33.44 27.32 31.82 32.08 35.96 33.44 38.66 40.10 38.30 40.64 39.08 51.80 59.54 46.22 46.58 61.52 62.60 65.66 64.94 70.52 *Knontekiei UMpice de St. Go-, thard North Cope •Ulea •Umea •St Petenburg Drontheira Moacow Abo s 1 1 •Upial 59 51 59 20 46 47 59 55 47 47 55 41 54 17 51 25 50 5 51 32 47 22 55 57 52 14 46 50 53 21 46 5 46 12 49 29 48 12 17 38E. 18 3e. 71 Ow. 10 48e. 10 34E. 12 35E. 2 46w. 59 59w. 14 24E. 9 53e. 8 32e. 3 10w. 21 2e. 9 30E. 6 19w. 7 2f)E. 6 8e 8 28e. 16 22E. 3066 456 1350 150 1876 1650 1080 432 420 42.08 42.20 41.74 42.80 42.98 45.68 46.22 46.94 49.46 40.94 47.84 47.84 48.56 4a92 49.10 49,28 49.28 50.18 50.54 24.98 25.52 14.18 28.78 28.58 30.74 30.86 39.66 31.46 30.38 29.66 38.66 28.76 32.36 39.20 32.00 34.70 38.80 32.72 39.38 28.30 38.84 39.02 42.08 41.18 45.14 46.58 47.66 44.24 48.20 46.40 47.48 50.00 47.30 48.92 47.66 49.64 51.26 60.26 61.88 68.00 62.60 68.46 62.60 56.84 53.06 68.90 64.76 64.04 58.28 09.08 63.32 59.54 66.56 64.94 67.10 69.26 42.80 43.16 46.04 41.18 42.98 48.38 46.22 48.46 50.18 4a74 48.92 48.56 49.46 50.36 50.00 49.82 60.00 49.82 50.54 02.42 64.04 73.40 66.74 59.36 65.66 5a 10 65.76 66.38 65.66 59.36 70.34 C4.68 61.16 67.28 66.56 6a72 70.52 22.46 22.82 13.81 28.41 30.20 27.14 S4.8S 37.40 29.66 26.78 38.30 27.14 29.48 35,42 30,56 34.16 33.44 26.60 ♦Stockholm Christiania •Convent of Peinen- berg *Copenh(gen •Kendal Falkland Islands . . . •Prague Gottingcii •Zurich •Edinburgh Warsaw ♦Coiro Dublin Berne •Geneva •Manlieim Vienna a 1 1 •Clermont 45 46 47 29 42 22 48 50 51 30 51 2 .52 22 50 50 52 36 39 56 40 40 39 6 48 39 47 13 39 64 45 28 44 50 3 5e. 19 lE. 71 7w. 220 E. 5w. 2 22e. 4 50e. 4 22f, 6 22e. 7510w. 73 58w. 8427w. 2 Iw. 132w. 116 27 E. 9 He. 34w. 1260 494 222 510 390 50.00 51.08 .'JO.30 61.08 jO.36 .50.54 51.62 51.80 51.80 53.42 63.78 53.:9 51.14 54.68 51.86 55.76 50.48 34.52 33.98 33.98 38.66 39.56 38.48 36.86 36.68 36.68 32.18 29.84 32.90 42.26 40.46 26.42 36.32 42.08 50.54 61.08 47.06 49.28 48.66 48.56 61.62 63.24 61.08 61.44 61.26 54.14 62.16 64.iJ0 56.30 66.12 66.48 64.40 70.52 70.70 64.58 -3.14 .i4.04 65.84 66.20 67.28 73.94 79.16 72.86 66.02 68.51 82.58 73.04 70.88 72.50 75.74 75.20 75.02 82.94 79.16 5126 52.34 49.82 51.44 50.18 50.90 51.62 61.08 54.32 66.48 54..50 54.86 53.76 55.58 54.32 56.84 56.30 66.20 71,00 72.86 65.30 64.40 64.76 66.92 67.28 6908 77.00 80.70 74.30 66.92 70.i)2 84.38 74.66 73.04 28.04 27.78 29.84 36.lt 37.76 37.76 35.42 35.(;0 32.90 32.72 25,34 30.20 41.74 39.02 ?4.62 36.14 41.00 •Buda Cambridge, Mass. . . •Paris •London Dunkirk Amsterdam Brussels Philadelphia Ncvv York •Cincinnati Sl Malo Nantes Peking.. •Milan Bordeaux ll Marseilles 43 17 43 36 41 53 43 7 32 45 31 34 5 22e. 3 52e. 12 27E. 550 e. 129 55 E. 91 24w. 180 59.00 59.36 60.44 62.06 60.80 64.76 45.50 44.06 45.86 48.38 39.38 48.56 57.56 56.66 .57.74 60.80 67.56 65.48 60.08 60.98 62.78 64.40 64.22 66.02 74.66 ',-8.08 77.00 77.00 80,90 7J.70 44.42 4208 42.26 46.40 37.40 40.94 ^iontpellier •Rome Toulon Nangr saki •Natchez 680 to 720. •r.'-clmi 32 37 36 48 1656w. 3 lE. 6a54 69.98 64.40 61.52 65.84 65.66 72.50 80.24 72.32 72.50 75,56 82.76 64.04 60.08 Algiers Rand above 72= *Cairo 30 2 19 11 23 10 10 27 3018E. 96 Iw. 8213w. 6515W. 72.32 77.72 78.08 81.86 68.46 71.96 71.24 80.24 73.68 R>iin 71.42 78.62 7a98 80.24 85,82 M,86 83,84 84,38 56.12 ♦Vera Cruz •Havana 77.90|81.60 78.98,83.30 83.66^204 71.06 69.981 •Cumana 7916J Ht) £? pakt n. Book IL METEOROLOGY. MauTMiiiMntttraor -,- W«rn.iii Colilnl ■""• Monll.. Mnnlh. 3.84 39.08 - -35.52 3.44 51.80 -11.20 7.32 69.M - 0.68 1 15.08 1.82 4G.22 2.08 40.58 22.10 5.96 61.52 7.70 3.44 62.60 11.48 8.66 65.06 800 0.10 64.94 19.58 8.30 70.52 6.08 0.64 2.80 62.42 22.46 3.16 64.04 22.82 6.04 73.40 13.81 1.18 66.74 28.41 2.98 59.36 30.20 8.38 05.66 27.14 6.22 58.10 34.88 8.46 65.76 37.40 0.18 R74 66.38 29.06 8.92 05.66 20.78 8.50 59.36 38.30 9.40 70.34 27.14 )0.30 64.58 29.48 )0.00 61.16 35.42 19.82 67.28 30.56 )0.00 60.50 34.10 J9.82 68.72 33.44 30.54 70.52 26.00 28.04 )1.26 66.20 )2.34 71.60 27.78 9.82 72.8<) 29.84 .1.44 65.30 30.H. 0.18 64.40 37.76 0.90 64.76 37.76 1.62 66.92 35.42 1.08 67.28 35.60 4.32 69.08 32.90 6.4b 77.00 32.72 4..50 80.70 25.34 4.86 74.30 30.20 5.76 60.92 41.74 5.58 70.52 39.02 1.32 84.38 94.02 S.84 74.00 S0.14 S.30 73.04 41.00 ).08 74.66 44.42 ).98 78.08 4208 >.78 77.00 42.26 1.40 77.00 40.40 1.22 80.90 37.10 >.02 7J.70 46.91 !.32 75.50 04.04 !.50 82.70 00.08 .42 85.82 50.12 .02 M.8G 71.06 1.98 83.84 09.98 .24 84.38 7916 on climate in some respects similar to an increase of latitude, it has been commonly sup- posed that there are properly no plants peculiar to high latitudes, because such may be raised on the mountains 'mder the equator, which embrace every variety of climate between theu summit and base, at least in so far as temperature is concerned. In point of atmospheric pressure, however, the two situations diiler essentially ; and some naturalists allege, that pressure is of vital importance to the ffrov;th of plants. Professor Dobereiner is of opinion that the diminutive size of plants, in elevated situations, depends more on the diminution of pressure tlian of temperature. To ascerl'iin this, he put equal quantities of barley and moist earth into two equal receivers : the air in the one nad a pressure of 14 inches of' mer^ cury, and the othbr 56 ; germination commenced in both at the same time, and the leaves had' the some green tint. At the end of fifteen days, the shoots in the rarefied air were 6 inches long, and in the other from 9 to 10. The first were expanded and soft and wet on tlie surliice, especially towards their extremities ; the others were firm, rolled round the stem, and nearly dry. In some respects, this accords with what Humboldt observed of tlie trees on the Andes, that water transpires from them even in the driest weather. But such expe- riments are inconclusive, unless there were some contrivance employed to renew the confined air frequently. Independently of pressure, the barley in the condensed air hud the use of four times the quantity of air in the other vessel. Plants arc most numerous, and exhibit the ^eatest variety of species, and the most luxu- riant growth, witliin the tropics, beyond which they gradually diminish. In the arctic regions, and in the north of Russia, the vegetable kingdom has dwindled to almost nothing. The lines which limit the growth of certain plants depend on the average summer tempera- ture, for plants which require a long and moderate heat ; on the temperature of the wannest month, for those which require a short but great heat ; and on the temperature of the coldest month, for those which cannot bear cold. The transparency of the air is also of importance to many plants; but our limits will not admit of enlarging, and therefore we shall confine ourselves to a short account of the climatps of cultivated plants. The plantain, which is a primary article of food in tropical America, requires a temperature firom 88° to 73° F., which occurs between lat 0° and 27° : but, in the equinoctial zone (lat 0° to I0°), its fi-uit does not ripen at a greater altitude than 3300 feet. The sugar-cane has nearly the same range, but is cultivated, though with less advantage, in the old world to lat 36° 5', where the mean temperature is about 67°. The severity of the North American winter prevenfa the cultivation of the sugar-cane beyond lat. 31° ; but it succeeds at an altitude of 5700 feet on the table-land of Mexico. The fiivourite climate of the cotton plant lies between lat. 0" ar,d 34° ; but it succeeds with a mean summer heat of 75° or 73° P., if that of winter do not descend below 36° or 38°. In America, it is cultivated at lat. 37° ; in Europe, at lat. 40° ; and in Aslracan, at lat. 46°. The date palm thrives best between lat 29° and 35° ; but, when sheltered from the north wind, it is cultivated on the shores of Italy to lat 44°. The citron has nearly the same range, but is cultivated at Nice, at altitudes of 400 feet This tree, with the sweet orange, grows in Louisiana to lat 30°, but beyond that it is injured by the cold. The olive ranges in Europe between lat. 36° and 44° 5' ; it succeeds wherever, with a mean annual temperature from 66° to 58° P., that of summer is not below 71°, nor timt of the coldest month below 42°, wh'ch excludes all North America beyond lat. 34°. The favo'-ite climate of the vine in the old world is between lat 36° and 48° ; but it thrives wherever the mean temperature is from 02° to 47.5°, provided that of w'.iter is not below 33°, nor summer under 66° or 68°. Such is the case on the shores of Europe to lat, 47°, and in tlie interior to lat. 50°, but only to lat 40° in North America. The cerealia or com- mon grain, as wheat, rye, barley, and oats, thrive where the mean annual temperature descends to 28° P., provided that of summer rise to 52° or 53°. In Lapland, barley ripens wherever the mean temperature of summer "-ises to 47° or 48°. The rapid growth of barley and oats adapts tliem to the short summers of the north : they are found as high as lat 6'iJ° in Lapland, along with the potato. In some parts of eastern Russia, no grain is found beyond lat. 60°. Wheat, which is a precarious crop, and little cultivated beyond lat 58° in western Europe, yields good returns in tliis part of the temperate zone, when the hif an heat, while the grain is on the ground, is 55° ; but if no more than 46°, none of the cerealia come to maturity. These species of grain are cultivated at a height of 3500 feet on the Alps, in lat 46°. Barley and oats succeed at double that height on Caucasus, and at almost a triple height on the Andes, along with wheat and rye. In the west of Europe, maize has the same range as the vine, but reaches farther north on the east. In its native American soil, it forms the chief article of food, from the river Plata to the lakes of Canada. Recniiring a short but warm season of four months, it is well suited to the climate of the New World up to the latitude of 45°. The oak ceases at lat 63° in Norway, at 60° or 61° in Pinland, and at 57° in the government of Perm. The pinus sih sstris, or Scots fir, grows to a height of 60 feet in Lapland, at lat 70°, and 850 feet above the level of the sea : there the birch is found at double that elevation. In eastern Russia, the larch, pine, birch, and mountain-ash, disappear about lat 68° ; and, at Hudson's Bay, all trees teaso fUmtlat60°. m SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part U Book 3' ». Sect, m, — Compoaition of the Atmosphere. — Aqueous Meteot^. Re^rdin^ the composition of the atmosphere, abundantly va;^e and fanciful notions prevailed for many ages. The ancients considered air as one of the four simple elements, of which they supposed all other bodies to bo compounded. Thtse were earth, air, Are, and water. How for tho opinion was correct, which made fire an element, is a question on which nothing is vet known ; but the researches of modem chemistry have shown that tho other three are all compound bodies. The chief, and perhaps the only essential, component substances in the atmosphere, are the two gases called oxygen and azote ; its other ingro* dienta, occurring onl^ in small and variable quantities, are rather to be considered as foreign bodies. The analysis of air is a difficult problem. Many chemists ha,ve found it to consist of 21 parts by volume of oxygen to 79 of azote ; and this proTortiou 's sensibly the same whether the air be from the polar or tropical regions, from the iovel of the sea or a mountain top, frorti the most healthy or insalubrious countries. But Dr. Prout, guided by the laws of definitd proportions, alleges, that if the two gases of which air princi^ly consists be really combined, they ought to bo 20 oxygen to 80 azote ; and it must be allowed that similar conjectures of the same eminent chemist have been verified regarding the composition of other bodies, which had apparently deviated farther firom the atomic system. The investigation of the component parts of the atmosphere did not keep pace with that of its mechanical properties. Boyle, however, and his cotemporaries, put it beyond doubt thit it contained an elastic fluid and water in the state of va^wur. They also conjectured that it contained various other substances, which rose fi*om the earth in the form of vapours, and often altered its properties, rendering it noxious or fatal. Since the discovery of car- bonic acid by Dr. Black, it has been ascertained that this elastic . uid always constitutes a part, though a very minute one, of the atmosphere. Witlj resp^-M to moisture, or the state in which water exists in air, two opinions have been formed : 1. Water may be dissolved in air, in the same manner as salt is held in solu< tion by water ; 2. It may be mixed with air in the state of steam or vapour, after having been converted into vopour. The first of these was hinted at by Dr. Hooke, and afterwards prAposed by Dr. Ilalley. It has been a('ipted by many others ]• ..uccession, among whom IS Professor Leslie ; and it cannot be don .d that many of the phenomena agree with that theory. The second opinion seems to have originated with Mr, Deluc ; but it is to Mr. Dalton and M. Gay Lussac that we arc indebted for subjecting this theory to tlie test of experiment. Evajwration from tiie waters on the surfiice of the earth is undoubtedly the source whence the moisture which exists in air is derived. Accordingly we find that water exposed to the air suffers a gradual diminution of bulk, till it entirely disappears. It is then said, in com- nion language, to have dried up, or to have evaporated. Under an exhausted receiver, water diminishes even more rapidly than in the open air. Were this owing to solution, the very reverse ought to follow ; because, in place of vapour being caused by the presence of air, it goes on more rapidly in its absence. By comparing a set of experiments made at Geneva, with a similar set on the Col-du-Geant, J 0,950 feet higher, Saussure found that, supposing the temperature and dryness of tho air the same at both places, the evaporation at tlie upper would be to that at the lower nearly as 7 to 3 ; so that a diminution of about one third in the density of the air more than doubled the rate of evaporation. It is well known, that cold is always generated during spontaneous evaporation ; that is to say, that water, as it disappears, carries off a quantity of heat Dr. Black has rendered it probable, that the quantity of heat which disappears during spontaneous evaporation is as great as that which is required to form water into steam. A wet body is always cooled by exposure to dry ai\, owing to tiie evapo, ation from its surface. Hence, in warm countries, liquors are cooled by wrapping wet cloths round the bottles and exposing tliem to the air. M. Saussure observed, that the evaporation from the surfiice of melting snow caused it to freeze again, when the temperature of the air was 4° or 5" above the freezing point. The simplest mode of illus- trating the cooling influence of evaporation, is to cover the ball of a thermometer with wet cloth and expose it to the air, when it will be found to indicate a greater or less degree of cold. This, it is true, does not take place if tlie air be very damp, oeciusp there is then no evaporation. Wind tends to promote evaporation, both by communicating its heat to the colder evaporating surface, and also by sweeping away the vapour as it is formed. On the contrary, there is scarcely any evaporation in perfectly still air, unless some substance bo present which absorbs the vapour as it forms. On this prhiciple, Professor Leslie contrived an elegant mode of producing ice in any cli- mate. A cup with water is placed within the receiver of an air-pump, along with some substance which absorbs the vapour. The rate of evaporation is then increased in an aston- ishing degree, by exhausting the air fVom the receiver ; and the portion of the water which is converted into vapour abstracts so much heat from the remainder, that the latter is speea- ily converted into ice. Dew is a remarkable product of atmospheric moisture. The quantity of aaueous vapour wliicli wheth is alwt is big! tempei falls. Pakt U iciful notionn pie elements, , air, fire, and I question on lown that tho il, com{>onsnt s othev ingro- red as forei^ d it to consist bly the same or a mountain y the laws of sists be really d that similar ;omposition of Mice with that beyond doubt conjectured •m of vapours, :overy of car- 9 constitutes a opinions have i held in solu- , after having nd afterwards among whom free with that lit it is to Mr. to the test of oiirce whence posed to the said, in com- ceiver, water tion, the veiy nee of air, it lo at Geneva, lat, supposing at tlie upper one iliird in known, that water, as it ble, that the is that which re to dry ai\, ore cooled by uro obscrveo, in, when the lode of illus- ter with wet S3 degree of re is then no heat to the ed. On the substance bo ;e in any cii« with some in an aston- water which tor is speea- leous vapour Book IT. METEOROLOGY. 177 wliich can exist in a given space, as a cubic fbot, is pretty generally believed to be the same, whether there be air present in the space, or nothing but the vapour alone. The quantity is always (cat, par.) the same at the same temperature, but it is great'T as the temperature is higher ; and therefore, supposing the space to be sa arated with vapour at a particular temperature, a portion of this will return into drops t/ water whenever the temperature iklls. It is on this principle that a cold body, such as a bottl.* of liquor, being carried into a warm moist apartment, becomes bedewed on tho outside, till, perhaps, the water trickles down its sides. th:3 contact of tho cold surface chills the air, A\iilch in return deposits a por- tion of its moisture. Now this is similar to the mode in which moisture is insensibly depo- sited from the atmosphere on bodies at the earth's surface, and which is known by the name of dew. All bodies, nlaccd in still air and exposed to the aspect of a clear sky, are found to become colder than they would be if some screen or awning were interposed between them and the sky. In such circumstances, bodies often become much colder than the surrounding uir, which, if sufficiently moist, deposits on them a portion of its moisture or dew. When the temperature is low, the dew is frozen, and forms hoar frost. The radiation of heat also deserves notice. About the commencement of tlie present century. Professor Leslie discovered that bodies possess very different powers of radiating hea^; h d that this depends on the nature and condition of their surfaces. Metals possess Lhij quality in a degree inforior to vitreous bodies, and it is diminished in all of them by polishing the surface. Most fibrous and filamentorip vegetable substances are goofl radiators, as are likewise bodies in general which are bad conductors or bad reflectors of heat. Now the degrees of cooling, whi'-h different bodies undergo when exposed together to the aspect of the sky, is observed to follow the same order as that of their radiating powers ; an''., of course, the order in which they begin to acquire dew, as also the quantity acquired, is regu- lated by a similar law, as will be seen from what follows. For tlie investigation of the causes of dew we are chiefly indebted to the late ingenious Dr. Wells. The ancients maintained, that dew appears only on calm and clear nights. Dr. Weils found that, m oppoelte circumstances, very little is ever deposited, and that little only when the clouds are very high. Dew never occurs in nights both cloudy and windy ; and if in the course of tl e night, the weather, from being sorene, should become dark and stormy, dev which had been deposited will disappear. In calm weather, more dew will appear if tlie sky be partially covered with clouds, than if it were quite clear. It often happens, that even before sunset, dew begins to adhere to grass in spots which are sheltered from both sun am wind ; for, in clear weather, such spots suffer much from the chilling aspect of the sky, an ! mny often continue to acquire dew during the whole night, and for some time after sun- rise The quantity of dev/ depends on tiie moistness of the air, being greater after rain than after iong-continued dry weather. It -s more abundant, in Europe, with southerly and west- erly winds, than with those which blow from the opposite points. The reason of'^this seems to be tho direction of the sea rendering the wind moist ; for, in Egypt, dew rarely occurs unless the wind come from the sea. But with a soutlierly wind, which hns passed along the floods of the Nile, dew is usually observed in the Delta five or six days before the inunda- tion. After a long period of drought, Dr. Wells exposed to the clear sky; 28 minutes before sunset in a calm evening, known weights of wool and swan-down, upon a smootli, unpainted, dry fir table about 3 feet in height, and which had been placed an hour before in the sun- shine in a large grass field. At 12 minutes after sunset the wool was 11' colder than the air, but had gained no weight. The swan-down was 13° colde, l! .: th(j aii, but had got no additional weight; nor was it any heavier at the end of 20 minutes longt;r, but it had then become 14^'' colder than the air ; whilst the grass was 15° colder than Sie air 4 feet above ground. — From these, and many similar experiments. Dr. Wells concluded that bodies be- come colder than the neighbouring air before they are dewed. — He bent a sheet of paste- board into the form of a penthouse, making the angle of flexure 90°, and 1 saving both ends open. This was placed one evenini^, with its ridgo uppermost, ujwn a grass-plat, and, as nearly as could be guessed, in the direction of the v/ind. On the middle of the spot of grass sheltered by the roof, was placed 10 grains of wool, and an equal quantity on a spot of the grass fully exposed to the sky. In the morning, the first 10 grains were only 2 grains heavier, whilst the other had gained 16. The wool does not here acquire moisture from the grass by capillary attraction, for the same effect happens if it be placed in a saucer ; nor is it by hygrometric attraction, for in a cloudy night, wool placed on an elevated board scarcely gained any weight. The quantity of dew varies according to circumstances. When wool is placed upon a bad conductor of l^eat, as a deal board, a few feet from the ground, it will become colder and acquire more dew than if laid on the grass. At the windward end of the board, it is less bedewed than at the sheltered end ; because, in the former case, the wind keeps up tha tempeiature nearer to that of the atmosphere. Rough and porous surfaces, as shavings of wood, straw, &c., take more dew than smooth and solid bodies. Raw bUk and fine cotton collect moro than even wool. Glass, being a good radiator of heat, is much more quickly coated with dew than bright metals, which, indpcv, receive it more readily than many other Vol. I. X wm/''^' .78 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. Past II bodies. This circumstance has given rise to the strange idea that metals absorb dew, tliouffh they be the most compact bodies known. If we coat a piece of glass partially with bright tin-foil, or silver leaf, the uncovered portion of the glass quickly becomes cold by radiation, on exposure to a clear nocturnal sky, and acquires moisture ; which, beginning on those parts most rCinote from the metal, gradually approaches it. Thus, also, if we coat a part of the outside of a window-pane with tin-foil m a clear night, then moisture will be deposited inside, on every part but that opposite to the metal ; bat if the metal be inside, then the outside of the coated part of the pone will be sooner and more copiously bedewed. In the first case, the tin-foil prevents the gla^ under it fVom dissipating its heat, and therefore i; can receive no dew ; in the second case, tlie tin-foil prevents the part of the glass which it coatB from receiving the cctiorific influence of the apartment, and hence it is sooner cooled on the outside than the rest of the pane. When the night, after having been clear, becomes cloudy, though there be no change with respect to calmness, a rise in the temperature of the gloss always ensues. In clear nights the temperature always ialls, but, unless the air be sufficiently inoist, dew does not necessarily follow ; from which it is evident, that the cold cannot be the effect of dew. For a more particular account of these interesting phenomena, we must refer the reader to Dr. Wells's elegant Essay on Deia. Clouds. The various forms of clouds were first successfully attempted to be arranged imder a few general modifications by Mr. Luke Howard, and published in the 16th aqd 17th vols, of the PMlosoph. Magazine, The modifications of clouds is a term used to express the structure or manner of aggregation, in which the influence of certain constant laws is suf- ficiently evident amidst the endless subordinate diversities resulting from occasional causes. Hence the principal modifications are as distinguishable from each other, as a tree from a hill, or the latter from a lake ; although clouds, in the same modification, compared with each other, have often only the common resemblance which exists among trees, hills, and lakes, taken generally. There are three simple and distinct modifications, which are thus named and defined by Mr. Howard: — (1.) Cirrus. A cloud resemb'ing a lock of hair or a feather. Parallel, flexous, or diverge ing fibres, unlimited in their ex'.ent or direction. (2.) Cumulus. A cloud which increases from above in dense convex or conical heaps. (3.) lilratus. An extendenter. ..UU iiaiiioa u'y va* xiioiuu in fir'' Part II b dew, though y with bright 1 by radiation, ling on those coat a part of . be deposited side, then the iwed. In the id therefore i; glass which it I sooner cooled clear, becomes peratureof the ess the air be , that the cold nq phenomena, o be arranged 5 16th aqd 17th to express the int laws is suf- sasional causes. s a tree from a compared with trees, hills, and and defined by sous, or diverg- )nical heaps, am beneath. ! : these are- close order or circmnference, nixed with that loverhanging its ssing beneath . are not agreed, [ous particles of ^hich they float Iry, it '^as given of clouci.^ as an 11 be founa Iha* Ions above men- _ configurations Irther. that the [sooner or later imst-'.nce which -leral causes, as [ertain definable ds, and of the shall now be llightness of its If figures which ling the higher Esents consider- liei by B«- TuuiuuS Book IL METEOROLOGY. 170 ablo varieties of appearances, it will be proper to consider these separately, with reference to the particular kind of weather in which they prevail. After a continuaiico of clear fine weather, a whitish line of cloud may oflen be observed at a ^reat height, like a white thread stretched across the sky, the ends seemuig lost in each horizon : this is often the first indication of a change to wet weather. To this line of cirrus, others are added laterally, and sometimes, as it were, propagated from the sides of the line in an oblique or transverse direction ; the whole having the appearance of net-work. At oth-jr times the lines become madually denser; descend lower in the atmosphere; and, uniting with others below, pro> duce rain without exhibiting the above-mentioned transverse reticulations. The above- described varieties of cloud, Uiough composed of straight lines, are ranged under the general head of cirrus, from their resemblance to this cloud when it appears under curved and con- torted forms. The comoid cirrus, popularly known under the name of the grey mare's tail, is the proper cirrus. It somewhat resembles a distended lock of white hair, or a bunch of combed wool, and from this it got the name comoid. It usually occurs in variable weather, and is reckoned a precursor of wind and rain. In changeable weather it varies considerably in a few hours ; but when the fibres have a constant direction to the same point of the com- pass for any considerable time, a gale of wind generally springs up from that quarter. During warm changeable weather, when there are li^M breezes of wmd, long and obliquely descending bands of cirrus are often observed in the air, and sometimes seem to connect distant clouds. Frequently, by means of the interposition of these cirri between a cumulus and some other cloud, as, for instance, cirro-stratus, the cumulo-stratus, and ultimately the nimbus or ram-cloud, is formed. The cirrus, when attentively examined, is found to be in constant motion, not merely changing its form, but often exhibiting an internal commotion in the substance of the cloud, especially in the larger end of it Every particle seems alive and in motion, while the whole mass scarcely changes its place. This motion, on a minute examination, often appears to consist of the fibres which compose the cirrus, gently waving to and from each other ; frequently, however, it seems like minute specks all in commotion. This takes place more frequently in those large and lofty ctm, with rounded heads and long pointed tails, so common in dry winds during summer and autumn. The formation of the cumulus is best viewed in fine settled weather, about sunrise or a little after. Small specks of cloud are seen here and there in the atmosphere. These seem to be the result of small gatherings of the stratus or evening mist, which rising in the morning grows into small masses of cloud, whilst the rest of the sky becomes clearer. About sunrise these clouds increase ; two or more of them unite, till a large cloud l)e formed, which, assuming a cumulated and irregularly hemispherical shape, has received the name of cumulus or slackcn-cloud. This is properly the cloud of day, as it usually subsides in the evening by retracing the steps of its formation in the morning. It separates into small fhigments ai.d evaporates, giving place to the stratus or fall-cloud, which is therefore styled the cloud of night. Some varieties in the forms of the cumulus deserve particular notice, as they are sup- posed to be connected with electrical phenomena. The hemispherical form is more perfect in fir*" .lan in changeable weather. When such well-formed cumuli prevail during many successive days, the weather is settled, and the electrometer pretty steady in its indications. They are whitish coloured, and when opposed to the sun reflect a silvery light Cumuli which occur during intervals between showers are more fleecy, and variable in form and colour. Sometimes they arc blackish, and may at any time increase till they obscure the sky, "r assume the form of the twain-cloud or cumulo-stratus. The stratus or fall-cloud comprehends fogs, and all those creeping mists which, towards evening, fill the valleys, and disappear in the morning. The cumuli which have prevailed during a hot summer's day decrease towards evening, and by degrees tJiere is formed a white mist near the ground, increasing in density till midniffht or even till morning, and generally disappearing after sunrise. In autumn, this cloud sometimes lasts lonp^er in the morning. In winter it becomes still more dense, and sometime? continues a who » day or many successive days. A remarkable instance of this occurred in January, 1814, when a dense fog prevailed for about a fortnight extending over a great part of the south and west of England. It was particularly felt at London, where the stagnation and subsidence of the smoke more than doubled the dismal visitation. The stratus is often positively electrified, and its component parts do not wet leaves or othei substances connected with the earth. On this, however, it may be remarked that dry bodies, which continue warmer than the fog, must remain dry on the ordinary principles of evaporation. The stratus may be distin- guished from some varieties of cirro-stratus which resemble it by the circumstance that tho latter wets every object it alights on. The cirro-cumulus or sonder-cloud is subject to some variations in the size and figure of the orbicular masses of wliich it is composed, and in their distanns from each oUier. About the time of tliunder storms, the component parts rrc denser in their structure, rounder in their tbim, and closer together than usual. This has besn frequently noticed by poeu at 180 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. PartII a prognostiQ of thunder and tempestuous weather. In rainy changeable weather, tliis cloud has a liglit fleecy texture, and is very irregular in the form of its. component parts; so that it tlien apprc^ciies to the form of the cirro-stratus. Sometimes, indeed, it consists of nebecula, 90 small and li^ht coloured aa to be scarcely discernible. In fine summer weather, the cirro- cumulus is neither so dense as the stormy variety, nor so light as the one last described ; itu parts vary in size, and in their proximity. During fine dry weather with light breezes, small detachments of cirro-cumulus rapidly form and suDside, which do not lie in one plane ; but their arrangement is commonly horizontal. The cirro-cumulus sometimes commences in the clear sky. At other times the cirrus, the cirro-stratus, or some other cloud, changes into cirro-cumulus, and vice versd. In summer, this cloud forebodes heat : in winter, the break- inrr up of frost, and mild wet weather. The cirro-stratus is remarkable for its shallowness, compared with its horizontal extent; so that when any other cloud assumes this form, it seldom fails to end in a cirro-stratus. This clo^d is constantly changing its form, and gradually subsiding ; hence it has been called the wane-cloud. There are many varieties in its figure ; sometimes it is disposed in waving bars or streaks, varying almost infinitely in size and shape. A flat horizontal cloi' J, consisting of such streaks, frequently occurs during changeable summer weather ; its burs i.r(! f^enprally confused in the middle, but more distinct towards the edges. A variety of tliis sort constitutes what is called the mackerel-back sky. It is often very high in the atmosphere, as is proved from its still appearing high when viewed firom tlic top of a lofly monutiiin. The cumulus, on the contrary, may be seen on a level with, or even lower than, thy obsrrver. The cirro-stratus often appears in the form of a long plain streak, tapering towards the extremities. Sometimes such a figure seems to alight on tlie cumulo-ntretus; rnd, ia these cases, the density of the latter increases in proportion as the former alterra.lely K.r^puars and evaporates again on its summits. The usual result is the formation of the .nimbus, and a fall of rain. Another principal variety of the cirro-stratus consists of small row'j . '' ''tie clouds, curved in a peculiar manner: it is called the cymoid cirro-stratus, and is a su..- indication of approaching storms. Tiie last variety of this clo!-d which we shall now notice, is that large and shallow veil of cloud which covers a largo portion of the sky, particularly towards night, and through which the sun and moon are indistinctly seen. Those peculiar refiracUons of the light of these luminaries, called halos and mock suns, usually appear in this cloud. These are the most certain signs, yet known, of approachuig rain or snow. The cumulo-stratus or twain-cloud is a stage towards the production of rain, and is fre- quently formed in the following manner : — The cumulus which usually passes along in tlie wind, seems retarded in its progress, grows denser, spreads out laterally till it overhangs the base in dark and irregular protuberances. This change often takes place in all the cumuli which are near to each other ; their bases unite, whilst the superstructure remains asunder, lising up like so many mountain summits, or masses of rocks. The cumulo-strati, in which hail showers and thunder storms occur, look extremely black and menacing before the rain commences. Sometimes the cumulo-stratus evaporates, or changes again to camul(^, but it oftener ends in the nimbus and rain. The nimbus remains to be described ; a cloud which always precedes the fall of rain, snow, or hail. Any of the others above described may increase so much as to obscure the sky, without ending in rain, before which the peculiar characteristic of the rain-cloud may always be distinguished. The best way of obtaining a clear idea of the formation of the nimbus or rain-cloud is to observe a distant shower in profile, from its first formation to its fell in rain. The cumulus seems first arrested in its progress : then a cirrus or cirro-stratus may appear to alight on the top of it. The change to cumulo-stratus then goes on rapidly ; and this cloud, increasing in density, assumes that black and threatening aspect which is a known indication of rain. Th's blackness is soon changed for a more gray obscurity ; and this is the criterion of the actual formation of rain drops, which now begin to fall, while a cirriform crown of fibres extends from the upper parts of the clouds, and small cumuli enter into the under part. After the shower has spent itself the different modifications' appear again in their several stations: the ciri'is, the cirro-stratus, or perhapr \lir cirro- cumulus, appear in the upper regions of the air; while the remaining part » the broken nimbus assumes the form of flocky cumuli, and sails along in the lower current of wind. The reappearance of large '•umulo-strati indicates a return of the rain. In showery weather, the alternate formation and destruction of rain-clouds goes on rapidly, and is attended by the other modilcations in succession, as above described. From its connexion with local sliowers, the nimbus is distinguished almost exclusively by bearing in its broad field of sable the iionours of the rainbow. Rain. Theories of rain liave been founded on the above observations. Since, as already mentioned, a greater quantity of moisture can exist in a given space as the temperature is higher, it is plain thot there is a certain temperature at which air containing some moisture, will just be saturated, and which is called the point of deposition, or the dewing point ; fcr. PabtII ather, tliis cloud parts; bo that it ists of nebecula, Bather, tho cirro- st described ; itu ht breezes, small one plane; but ommences in the ad, changes into inter, the break- )rizontal extent; 1 a cirro-stratus, mce it has been les it is disposed A flat horizontal mer weather ; its dges. A variety very high in the lie top of a lofty even lower than, 1 streak, tapering 5 cumulo-ntrctus; brmer alterrirlely formation oi" the consists of small cirro-stratus, and (1 which we shall jrtion of the sky, indistinctly seen. 3 and mock suns, n, of approaching bf rahi, and is fire- asses along in the till it overhangs place in all the structure remains he cumulo-strati, menacing before again to camulfl^ the fall of rain, as to obscure the rain-cloud may formation of the formation to its IS or cirro-stratua goes on rapidly; ispect which is a obscurity; and n to fall, while a nd small cumuli ent modificationi' 3rhapr i!;" cirro- A the broken It of wind. The ery weather, the attended by the xion with local •ad field of sable lince, as already I temperature is y some moisture, wing point ; fcr, Book II. METEOROLOGY. in if cooled in the least below this, the air will deposit moisture. When tho cooling in Oic body of air below tiie dew point is very slight, the effect is merely to disturb the tnuis- parencv, or produce a fog. In the case of dew, formerly considered, tho transparency is not afrected ; because it is not the mass of air that is cooled below the point of deposition, but only a minute portion of it which comes into contact with surfaces cooled by radiation. When the cooling in a body of air below tho dewing point is considerable, the water is deposited more copiously, and collecting into drops, descends to the earth in the form of rain ; or, if the temperature be suflUciently low, the drops arc partially frozen, and form sleet ; if fully firozen, snow ; and if such drops be large and compact, they receive the appel- lation oihail. Dr. James Hutton of Edinburgh made the first attempt to account for tlie phenomena of rain, &c. on known principles. Without deciding whether moisture be simply mixed or chemically combined in the air, he conjectured from the phenomena, as is now established by experiment, that the quantity of aqueous vapour which can exist in air varies in a higher ratio than the temperature. Hence he inferred that whenever two volumes of air saturated with moisture are mixed at different temperatures, a precipitation of moisture must ensue, in consequence of the mean temperature not being able to support the mean quantity of vapour. But if tlie air, before mixture, was not fully saturated . with moisture, then a smaller quantity, or none at all, may be deposited. This theory has been adopted by various meteorologists, particularly Professor Leslie and Mr. Dalton : but Mr. Luke Howard has justly remarked, that it involves the assumption that the mixture should have the mean temperature, — a point which was then, and is even yet, not quite settled ; although so far as experiment goes, it is fully more favourable to tlie theory than the mean would be. Mr. Howard accordingly rejects Dr. Hutton's theo.ry, and alleges that rain is almost in every instance the result of the electrical action of clouds upon eacji other. This idea, he thinks, is confirmed by observations mode in various ways upon the electrical state of the clouds and rain; and he supposes that a thunder storm is only a more sudden and sensible display of those energies which are incessantly operating for more general purposes. There are two circumstances deserving of notice in the formation of the nimbus or rain- cloud, tho spreading of tlie superior masses of cloud in all directions, until they become, like tlie stratus, one uniform sheet ; and the rapid motion and visible decrease of the cumulus, when brought under the latter. The cirri, also, which so frequently stretch from the superior sheet upwards, like so many bristles, are supposed by some to be temporary conductors for the electricity evolved by the union of minute particles of vapour into the larger drops which form the rain. In an experiment of Cavallo s with a kite sent up 360 feet in oii interval between two showers, and kept up during rain, it seems that the superior clouds were positively electrified before the rain ; but on the arrival of a large cumulus, a strong negative electricity took place, which lasted while the cumulus was passing over the kite. We are not, however, warranted to conclude that the cumulus which brings on rain is always negative ; as the same effect might ensue from a positive cumulus uniting with a negative stratus : yet the general negative state of the lower atmosphere during rain, and the positive indications commonly given by the true stratus, render tliis tlie more probable opinion. It is not, however, absolutely necessary to determine the several states of the clouds which appear during rain ; since tliere is sufficient evidence in favour of the con- clusion, that clouds formed in different parts of tiie atmosphere operate on each other when brought near enough, so as to occasion their partial or entire destruction, — an eflTect which can be attributed only to their possessing bcfbrehand, or acquiring at the moment, the oppo- site electricities. Such is Mr. Howard's view of the subject ; but until electricity itself, and, in particular, the electricity of the atmosphere, be better underytood, it is doubtful if the phenomena of rain be brouglit any nearer home by being ascribed to electricity. In the present state of science. Dr. Hutton's theory has rather the odvantage of depending on principles which are better known, though there is some uncertainty regarding their fitness for the purpose. Rain is very unequally distributed to the different regions of the globe ; but nature has so arranged it, that it is most copious in those latitudes where evaporation is most rapid. There are, Iiowever, exceptions to this rule ; for, on several tracts on the earth's surfiice, it hardly ever rains. These are usually far inland, and are generally extensive plains utterly sterile and uninhabitable. The want of rain is in some places partially supplied by the copious deposition of dew. On the contrary, there are some spots where it always rains, and which are mostly on tho sea. As the whole atmosphere, when fully charged with humidity, is calculated to hold no more water than would form a sheet 5 inches in depth, while the mean annual deposit is about 35 or 40 inches, it is plain that the supply must b6 frequently renewed. Rain is more abundant toward the equator than the poles, ai'; the sea-coast than towards the interior, and on elevated situations than on plains. i;"rom tfie most authentic sources, Mr. Dalton has constructed the following table, showing Vol I 16 188 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. Part \l. tliu mean monthly and annual quantities of rain which have fallen at several places, bein^r the overage for many years : — January Fet>ruary March April May June July... Aui(uit So|)t«iiibar October . . November December < 1^ S'9 Inch. 3.I»I5 3.H37 3.1U4 S.017 3.5(18 9.974 3.35*1 3.11)9 4.330 4.143 3.174 3.143 S3.D44 3(i.91U it s Inch. 1.S1W 1.741 1.1H4 o.u;9 1.041 1.343 3.3U3 2.740 l.fll7 2.31)7 1.1104 1.U81 5s. Incli. 1.4(14 1.3.'<) 1.173 137U 1.030 \.1W 3.448 1.K07 1.H43 iM*i 3.333 1.730 3l.3:u >1 Fr. Inch. 1.338 1.333 1.190 1.185 1.707 1.007 1.800 1.600 1.S50 1.780 1.730 l.UOO Pr. Inch a.477 1.700 1.937 3.080 9.031 2.5U3 1.883 3.347 4.140 4.741 4.187 3.397 30.080 I 18.040 33.077 The depth of rain, according to Humboldt, at the latitudes of 0°, 19°, 45°, and 60°, is, respectively, 06, 80, 29, and 17 inches. In tlie torrid zone, a small thick rain lulls almost every day on tliat side of the equator where the sun is ; but it generally intermits during the night. In many places, there are two wet and two dry seasons in the year ; and in some regions, from the effect of the mountains and peculiar winds, places under the same parallel have tlieir wet and dry seasons at opposite periods. Though the annual depth of ritin be greatest toward the equator, the number of ramy days increases with the latitude. Aqueous meteors, so essential to vegetation, have their salutary effects modified by the chemical qualities of the moisture in the atmospiiere. The salt rain and dew of the vicinity of the Caspian Sea, owing to the vapours wiiich are exhaled from the soil, probably contribute to tlioso aalino efflorescences wiiich are said to be gradually overspreading the once fertile soil of Persio. The salt fogs in tlio west of Jutland are very injurious to the foliage of trees, without being hurtful to tlio gross. Rain has also been known to be impregnated with sulphur, and witli various substances approaching to that of animal and vegetable mattera Some of these communicate to Uio rain a peculiar colour, as that of blood, &.c. On the other hand, fogs occur in which little or no moisture is present : such are called dry fogs ; and are supposed to be the vapours and osiies ejected by volcanoes, and diffused in tlie atmosphere by the winds. TJjeir occurring about the time of great eruptions strengthens this conjecture. Glaciers. Ice and snow absorb a large portion of heat during liquefection, which they give out again on freezing ; for, in the ordinary process of nature, water doo,'^ not cool below 32° F. till the whole be frozen ; nor does its temperature rise above that point, while in contact witli ice or snow, — that is, till the wiiole be melted. This property has an important effect on the vompcrature of snowy districts. It retards and often prevents the occurrence of extreme cold, and it opposes a sudden rise of temperature above the freezing point. The cold in the ati.iosphere, as was tbrmerly stated, continually increases with the elevation; and, at a certain height, depending on the climate or latitude, perpetual frost prevails. Where the earth's surface attains this heigiit, it is, with the exception of some steep or ver- tical cliffs, continually covered witli snow. The snow acquires new additions from time to time ; for, tliough it may melt slowly from the heat of tlie ground on which it rests, yet il suffers little decay externally, except what the air carries off by evaporation. The warmth of the solar rays may soften it a little, but this only tends to its farther consolidation. Masses of this sort are called glaciers. By accumulating in the manner just mentioned, they often become top-heavy, or acquire such an enormous weight as to break their hold, or crush their lower parts, which are besides liable to be undermined by the warmth of the mountain on which they rest. Hence it not unfrequently happens, that huge masses of ice or conglo merated snow slide or roll down tlie sides of mountains, transporting, perhaps, large stones or fragments of rocks to which they had adhered, or which had been separated from their beds by the agency of the weather. Detached glaciers often descend into districts having a mean temperature considerably above the melting point of snow. But so great is the heat consumed ui liquefying such huge masses, tliat years may elapse before they entirely dis- appear ; and during that interval others descend ; and so on continually. So that the limit of perpetual snow may be found in a climate where little snow falls from the clouds. When glaciers descend into the sea, and particularly when detached and floating, they are termed icebergs. The snow-line, or lower limit in mountains covered with perpetual snow, descends in winter and rises agraui in summer. Under the equator, this change is scarcely perceptibV Book but it I direct! each Part H. al places, bein;;» «i 5 •C V It •!>• »>< •^la >^ Pr. Inch. Pr. Inch. l.iM 9.477 1.333 1.700 l.llH) 1.037 1.183 S.OHO 1.7U7 3.o:ii l.fl»7 3.303 1.800 1.H83 1.000 3.347 1.S50 4.140 1.780 4.741 1.730 4.1H7 1.000 3.397 iao4o 33.077 S", and 60°, is, ain falls almost mits during tho r ; and in some e same parallel epth of rain be tudo. modified by the I of the vicinity >ably contribute the once fertile the foliage of pregnated with etable matters. , &c. On tho led dry fogs; iifTused in tlie ns strengthens in, which they not cool below point, while in an important ;he occurrence tr point. The le elevation; frost prevails, steep or ver- from time to it rests, yet it The warmth ation. Masses ed, they often or crush their mountain on :ce orconglo irge stones or om their beds cts having u at is the heat entirely dis- hat the limit buds. When f are termed descends in perceptibV -T1i-rwTp.^iew, t]iou menon, but this is not very well ascertained. The light appears sometimes remarkably red, as was the case in many parts of Europe, Dec. 5, 1737. Tho aurora jorealis frequently appears in the form of a luminous arch, chiefly in the spring, and in the autumn ' a dry season. The arch is partly bright and partly darlc, but generally transparent. This kmd of meteor is almost constant during the long winter nights, in high latitudes. Tho " merry dancers," as it is culled in Slietland, afford the inhabitants ^eat relief amid tlie gloom of their long dreary nights. They commonly appear at twilight near the horizon, of a dun yellow, and sometimes continue so for several hours, without motion ; afterwards they break into streams of a stronger light, passing into columns and innumerable different shapes. During this, the colour varies from all the tints of yellow to tho most obscure russet, exhi- biting the most beautiful appearance. In the northern parts of Sweden and Lapland, the aurora borealis is singularly beautiful, and affords to travellers a very fine light during the whole night. In Hudson's Ba; il 'JifRises a variegated splendour sometimes equal to that of the full moon. Similar li-liti sv re observed by Dr. Forster towards tho south pole, but they were much feebler th«n in ii»c aorthern hemispliere. Tho cause of such phenomena is unknown. Some ascribn tl; : n to ei ictricity and magnetism. The electricity of the p\.i't..»i)ii»^r(j is very imperfectly understood. In storms, the clouds usually exhibit the vitreous cr posiuve electricity. In summer, when the earth is dry, and the day warm and serene, the eiociricity of the air increases from sunrise to noon ; in which state it continues for an hour or two, and again diminislies, till the dew appear. It revives towards midnight, and again decreases till it become insensible. The phenomena of thunder are so well known, as to require no description ; but no satis- factory explanation has yet been discovered, except that it is intimately connected with elec- tricity, which being itself in a great measure among the incognita, leaves us still in the dark. Thunder is more frequent as we approach the equator, and decreases as the latitude increases, being totally unknown in the arctic regions. It is a very rare phenomenon in intensely cold weatlier, and seldom occurs during night in the temperate zones. It is usually attended by heavy showers of hail or sleet, and loss frequently by rain. The distance of thunder may be estimated, by allowing 1100 feet Kir each second which elapses between seeing the flash of lightning and hearing the report. It is seldom heard at a greater dis- tance than two miles, and only does mischief when very near. St. Elmo's fire is a faint light which seems to adhere to the points of bodies carried swiftly through the air. It appears on the tops of ship masts, and at the points of spears and other warlike instruments when in motion. It is generally believed to be an accumulation of electric matter. A single flame of this sort was called by the ancients Helena. When seen in pairs, they were called Castor and Pollux. Fire-balls are those lumLious bodies which appear usually at a great height above the earth, and were on that account long known by the term meteor, which is now applied to many other aerial phenomena. They present a very imposing appearance, and are seen of an immense size, sometimes red, but oftener of a vivid dazzling white. They traverse the atmosphere with amazing velocity. This, and their great height, have been inferred from their being seen from various distant places almost at the same instant. Sometimes they buret in pieces, or discharge torrents of flames, with a detonation making both tho air and earth to tremble. Some of these balls descend like lightning, break through the roofs of buildings, destroy animals, and shatter vessels at sea ; in short, they are of*en attended with all the disastrous efTects of thunder and lightning, with which they arc occiisionally aeeoni- .,.:», -.;^, Part II ion, by whlrU poflition. The (\e light, ots w ith Ktvat ics this pncno* imarkably red, ilis frequently itumn ' !i dry This kind of Tho " merry tlie gloom of rizon, of a dun rds they break Iferent shapes, e russet, exhi- 1 Lapland, the jht during the equal to that pouth pole, but phenomena is ms, the clouds rtli is dry, and lOon ; in which It revives but no sati»> ted with elec- ts still in the Ls the latitude lenomenon in zones. It is The distance ipses between a greater dis- arried swiftly mrs and other umulation of lena. When it above the ow applied to d are seen of traverse the nferred from netimes they h the air and I the roofs of ttended with snally aceon»- BOOK II. METKOROLOOY. 186 panir ' 'dow3 consider these balls to be great mawiea uf electric matter, poMing from ono place u( another. Others suppose them to be the same with tho afirnlites. Afirolitcs, or rii'iteoric stones, have frequently descended from tho atmosphere from the romotost anlinuity. Both the above opinions may be in so far correct; because tlie fire-balli cxliibit very different appearances, rhilosophers are very much divided regarding the ori- gin of meteoric stones. Some imagine them to bo ejected IVom volcanoes on ttie eutli's sur- face; others from volcanoes on the moon. A tliird class maintain, that they aro (roncriited by the coinbinntion and condensation of their component portB, previously diilii in the atmoeplieru in the gaseous form. Others allege, tliat they arc detacli'^d stoiu moving through tlie boundless regions of space, and which casually come inlu (intact with our planet. All these are little else than conjecture, although thoir fbrmalii^in in ti - atmosphere IS till! most plausible. A numerous list of the most autlici. c fiiUs of nnch bodies is given in Phil. Mag. vol. Ixvii. Falling stars are very ordinary phenomena everywhere, but stil! i>. a class which is not well understood. Near Uie place of their apparent de^ueni gelatinous substance has frequently been found, of a whitish yellow colour.* Tlie zodiacal liglit is a luminous appearance, seen after sunHi unriK ^i>me- what similar to the milky way, but of a fainter light, in the fifjui 'n\ oone or pyramid, with its base towards the sun. Its axis is variously inclim i fizon, and makes an angle of nearly 7° with the plane of the ecliptic. The earliet L account of it was given by Cassini in 1683; but tliis olTords no ground for supposii;^ lat it had not existed or been seen prior to that date : it is always observable, when the sky m clear, in tho torrid zone ; but is more rarely to be found as wo recede from the equator. The season most favourable for observing it is almut the beginning of March : it is much brighter in Bome years tliun < ithers, and was particularly brilliant al Paris, 16th February, 1769. The zodiacal light lies in the plane of the sun's equator, and is tliereforc supposed by some to be connected with his rotation. Sect. V. — Winds. Winds are currents of air occnsioned by the disturbance of the equilibrium of the atmo- spliere by tii unequal distribution of heat. The general tendency, in such circumstances, JH for the heavier columns to displace thn lighter ; and for tho air at the earth's surface to move fron the poles toward tho equator: in consequence of tlie rotation of tho earth on its axis, ani iher motion is combined with the currents just described. The air, which is constantly moving from points where the earth's motion on its axis is slower to those where it is quicker, cannot have precisely the same motion eastward with the part of the surface over which it ia passing, and therefore must, relatively to that surfiice, acquire a motion some- what westerly. The two currents, therefore, from the opposite hemispheres, will, on meet- ing, about the equator, destroy that part of each other's motion which is in the direction of the meridian, leaving nothing but their united motion towards the west. Such is the cause of the trade-wind, as proposed and rejected by Dr. Halley : it was shortly after revjved by Hadloy, and is pretty generally received. The trade-wind (with certain exceptions) blows constantly from the east, between the latitudes of 30° N. and 30° S. ; it declines somewhat from due east, towards the parallel to which the sun is vertical at different seasons of the year. The only supply for the air constantly abstracted from the higher latitudes must be made by a counter current, in the upper regions of the atmosphere, carrying back the air from the equator to the poles. In a zone of variable breadth, within the region of trade- winds, calms and rains prevail, caused probably by the mingling and ascending of the oppo- site currents. High lands change or interrupt the course of the trade-winds : thus, under the lee of the African shore, calms and variable winds prevail near the Cape Verd islands, while an eddy, or counter current of air from the south-west, is generated under the coast of Guinea, The lofty barrier of the Andes shelters the sea on the Peruvian shores from the trade-winds, which are not felt till a ship has sailed eighty leagues westward ; but the intervening space is occupied by a wind from the south. In the Indian ocean, the trade- wind is curiously modified by the surrounding land : the southern trade-wind blows regularly from the east and south-east, from 10° to 23° south latitude ; but between 10° south and the equator north-west winds prer'ail from October to April, and south-east the rest of the year ; while north of the equator, the wind is south-west in summer, and north-east in winter : these are called monsoons, but are not fully understood. As to the parts of the globe that lie beyond the region of trade-winds, calms prevail pretty generally over a narrow space; beyond which, the region of variable winds extends probably to the poles. Mr. Forster observes, that beyond the tropics the west winds are most common. He also supposes that east winds have an ascendency within the antartic circle. According to Robins, a westerly wind almost constantly prevails about latitude 60° S. in the Pacific • Prnfpimnr Brandos, of Brcsiau, uu: puuiisiieu a curious Treatise on Falling Stars, to which we may direct ths attention of our readers. _, VOL.L 16* Y IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) 1.0 I.I li£|28 |25 ISO "^^ H^H 2.2 18 tiO 1.25 II u III 1.6 ^ ^ 6" ► V5 /J ^J> % ^ /. /> c;^ s Photographic Sciences Corporation ^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14SS0 (716)872-4S03 '^ ^ '%'-'^', M' ;■ 'V.V \ .,. '>' ^ o\ 186 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. PartIL Ocean. In Hudson's Bav, westerly winds prevail darinsf throe fourths of the year, as also in Komtschatka. At Melville island, the north and north-west winds prevail : on account of these winds, the Atlantic may be crossed eastward in about half the time of returning westward. Sea and land breezes arise fW>m the same general principle which chiefly occasions the trade-winds : during the day, when the sun renders the surface of the land wanner than that of the sea, the warmer rarefied air of the land ascends, being buoyed up and displaced hj the heavier air rushing fh>m the sea, and thus forming the aea breeze ; but the reverse often happens during tiie nig>.t, when the surface of the land becomes colder than the sea, and occasions a wmd iirom the land, or a land breeze. Winds of this sort are more fivqnent about islands and small peninsulas than in other situations; but they are not confined to any particular latitude. A variety of local winds have also been observed. The etesian, which is a northerly or north-easterly wind, prevails very much in summer all over Europe. Pliny describes it as blowing regularly in Italy for forty days afler the summer solstice. It is supposed to be a part of the greai lower current moving towards the equator. Another northern wind, which often continues about » month in February and March, is called the ornitkian wind, because some birds of passage then make tiieir appearance in the south of Europe. A gmtall, or sudden gust of wind, is common in many placf !? ; and when its impetuosity is suflicient to bear along trees, buildings, &o., it is called a hurricane ; such winds have frequently a whirling motion, and are accompanied with torrents of rain or hail, and even thunder; these are Bometimes called tornadoes : they are principally confined to the torrid zone. The siroceo is a hot southern w'nd, known on the shores of the Mediterranean ; when it reaches Naples and Sicily, it is very moist and relaxing to the human frame. Some warm climates are occasionally visited by excessive hot pestilential winds, generally from the south, and known under a great variety of names in different quarters. Such are the kamsin of Egypt, the simoom or samiel of Arabia and the Desert. The deleterious effects, which frequently cut off whole hordes or caravans, are sometimes ascribed to the predominance of one of the component gases of the air, or to a mixture of nitrous gas, &c. ; but this is not well ascer- tained. The very arid state of the air, bearing along vast quantities of burning sand and dust, must of itself be veiy prejudicial to animal life. The harmattan is a warm, dry, east wind, which occurs in Guinea, and is also of an unwholesome description. The velocity of the wind varies from nothing up to 100 miles in an hour ; but the maximum is variously stated by different authors. According to Smeaton, a gentle breeze moves between 4 and 5 miles per hour, and has a force of about 2 ounces on a foot ; a brisk pleasant gale moves firom 10 to 15 miles, with a fbrce of 12 ounces; a high wind, 30 to 35 miles, with a force of 5 or 6 pount^s ; a hurricane, bearing along trees, houses, &c. has a velocity of 100 miles, and a force of 40 poi nds on the square foot. The force of the wind is nearly as the square of the velocity multiplied by the density of the air. Some interesting experiments are described by Colonel Beaufoy, Annals PhU. vol. viil p. 94. The ataiosphere is the vehicle of sound, and we shall close this brief sketch by noticing this property. Till lately, the velocity of sound used to be greatly over-rated. From the experiments of Dr. Moll, in the plains of Utrecht, in 1823, it appears, that the mean velocity of sound is nearly 1100 feet p«r second ; but it varies a little witii the temperature ana humidity of the air. See PA«. TVajw. for 1824. Tr -■*(.■'. CHAPTER n. HYDEOLOOY. >.-'.(• ■\yn:3 :v;- This branch of natural history makes us acquainted with the various properties and rela- tions of the waters of the globe. Any definition of water is unnecessary ; but mankind must have remarked, at a very early period, that the waters distributed over the globe differ con- siderably in their fitness for drinking, for preparing food, and for other domestic purposes. These differences are occasioned by the foreign bodies which this liquid holds in a state of selAtion or suspension ; for water is capable of dissolving a greater nui.:her of substances than any other fluid. Hence it is scarcely ever found native m a state of absolute puri^' in some cases, the quantity of foreign matter is so mbute, as to have little influence on th(. taste or other properties; but in other instances they are so abundant, as to render it unfit for common use, or even noxious ; while at other times it is medicinal, &c., according to the nature of the substances with which it is impregnated. Native water, free from colour, is almost nevor poisonous, especially if it be at the same time tasteless ; but if blue from cop- per, green from iron, or brown from vegetable impregnation, it is unfit for the use of man. Water performs the most important mnctions in uie vegetable ^ juiimal ^ingdoiQSi SQd enters largely mto their compositions, as a constituent part ., , , „' ,.v,»,,',m .)i. t^w^vfwrSirra-jFm ■ ■rvyf'ri.'l-p.?*^;'^' m\ ' i y I'p. ' PaetIL of the year, as also ivail : on account of i time of returning hiefly occasions the id warmer than that ip and displaced by lut the reverse often r than the sea, and ; are more frequent I not confined to any ch is a northerly or Pliny describes it as t is supposed to be a lorthem wind, which ithian wind, because irop. A gqmU, or loeity is sufficient to Is have frequently a even thunder ; these id zone. The sirocco en it reaches Naples ! warm climates are ^he south, and known amsin of Egypt, the jvhich frequently cut nance of one of the lis is not well ascer- of burning sand and ; is a warm, dry, east Dn. iir ; but the maximum jentle breeze moves foot ; a brisk pleasaut gvind, 30 to 35 mUcs, &c. has a velocity ed by the density of ,ufoy, Annals Phil. sketch by noticing jr-rated. From the it the mean velocity le temperature and ■ . ■ 1 .a u't operties and rcla- but mankind must e globe difier con- omestic purposes, holds in a state of her of substances of absolute puritv* influence en tht. to render it unfit , according to the ee from colour, is if blue from cop- the use of man. lal kingdoms, and BoorII. tlJ*!/ HYDROLOGY. < ^'^ 187 The substance of water presents itself under three difl^rent fimns of aggregation. It under sufficient pressure, it is liquid at all temperatures above ^^, so far aa u loiown. It it densest at the temperature of HOP. When coded down to 82°, it ordinarily assumes the solid form of ice ; but if great care be taken to avoid agitation, it may be cooled almost to eero, without freezing. Congelation commences in the fbrm <^ prismatic crystals, crossing each other at an;|les of 60° or 120°, and the temperature, however low before, instantly rises to 32°. Ponng this process, the man expanos with a prodigious force, the volume suddenly increasing about a ninth part Glass bottles filled with water, and properly stopped, are burst during its congekition, and the same has happened to a strong bomlwell Water passes into vapour at all temperatures, and under any pressure; when the elasticity of tJie vapour ecjuala or exceeds the incumbent pressure, the process proceeds with violence, ojid is called boiling. Under the ordinaiv pressure of the atmosphere, this takes place at about 212° of Famrenheit's scale ; but tne boiling temperature varies with tiie pressure : hence, water boils at a lower temperature on a mountain top, and at a higher in a deep pit The relatimis of water to heat are very remarkable. With me exception of hydrogen gas, it aheorba more heat in warming, and parts with more in cooling, than otiher bodies do. Hence, large bodies of water have a powerful mfluence in checkmg or retarding sudden alterations of temperature in the surrounding aur. Ice, in melting, absorbs as much heat as would raise its temperature 140°, and gives out the like quantity again in freezing, — a pro- perty that enables it to resist or retard sudden alterations of temperature in cold clunates, in a more remarkable degree than the other ; which, however, exerts its influence in the torrid and temperate as well as in the frigid xoae. Lastly, water, in assuming the elastic form, absorbs heat sufficient to raise its temperature 1000°, and piuls with as much during re-con- densing into water ; so that water possesses an almost boundless influence in tempering climate. Water, as to its compositicm, was long ranked among the simple elements; but the researches ol' modem chsmistry have ascertained that it is a compound of 88.9 of oxygen, and 11.1 of hydrogen; or its composition by volume and weight may be thus stated : one volume of oxygen combined with two of hydrogen, or eight parts by weight of oxygen, with one of hydrogen. It is composed and decompmod, during many of the operations of nature, and its chemical agency is almost universtd. It is an ingredient in most bodj^^ which appear under the crystalline form. - ;- ;'^^,,'; •:«*.,,., Sect. I. — The Ocean, The ocean is the origin and fountain of all the other waters which occur, in whatever form, on the face of the globe. According to some naturalists, it forms the remains jf the menstruum or chaotic fluid, in which all solid bodies were originally held in a state of solu- tion, and ham which they have been precipitated or crystallized, m short, brought to their present state, during the countless ages which these processes are supposed to have occupied, anterior to tiie creation of man : be this as it may, we are certam, that it is flrom the vapours exhaled by the ocean that the atmosphere is flimished with sufficient moisture to support and refresh the organized bein^ which inhabit the earth. All nature languishes when the atmosphere withholds its ram and dews ; plants fade and droop ; aninna^s reel their strength &iling ; even man himself, breathing nothing but dust, can with iUiIi<;ulty procure belter from the sultry heat by which his fhune is parched and overpr vered. Tne ocean is die grand thoroughftxe of commerce, forming a medium of communication between the most distant and o&erwise inaccessible portions of the earth. It consists of one continuous fluid, spread round Uie land, and probablv extending from pole to pole. All the gulfe, all the inland seas, form only pfMlions detached, but not entirely separated, from that universal sea, denominated the ocean. Geographers roundly estimate the ocean and its branches to occupy three fourths of the entire surface of the globe. But to ascertain the exact proportion between the land and water will afford them ample emplojrment for ages to come, though every day adds to the stock of information already acquired. The ocean is variously subdivided by difierent authors : it may be conveniently divided into five great basins. The Pacific, so named ttom its comparative tranquillity, and often called also the Great South Sea, separates Asia fipom America. It is the largest of the basins, and somewha: exceeds the entire surface of diy land. Its greatest extent, from east to west is about 3700 leagues, and breadth 3700. It is bounded on the east by the western and north-west shores of America, and on the west by the eastern coasts of Asia : on the western side, and between the tropics, its sur&ce is studded with innumerable groups of islands, all remarkably small ; and consisting generally of coral reeft, rising up nke a wall from unknown depths, and emerging but a very little above the sea. These islands are the works of innumerable minute insects, whose inating ice [1 of 60°. It was long [reater part within the ireen the longitudes of 1 has sinje examined ce, Drtant : it is deserving B scene of by far the at Sea" of the Sacred greatest leugth, fix>m :unes small, is at tiie I, and on the north by aits of Gibraltar, and ny islands, gulfs, and lulf of Venice. The only brackish water, uiches of the ocean. a abundantly salt, and will be ailerwarda iickish waters, which e ice so strong, that German Sea by the irth Sea, or German tinent of Europe on where it joins the and St. liawrence, different properties jrious shades. Some Ipticol illusion, occa- 1 which may both be pr colours; some of purees of deception, red sea is a commop Book IT. ^! HYDROLOGY. m^> Erognostic of an approaching storm ; not that the water then is really blacker than usual, ut because the dark colour of the clouds indistinctly seen in, or reflected fh)m the waves, is mistaken for the colour of the sea itself. Whatever other colour the sky happens to wear has a greater or less influence on the appearance of the ocean : thus red clouds seem to tinge it red, &c. On some occasions, the edges of the waves, b^ refracting the solar beams like a prism, exhibit all the different colours of the rainbow, which is still more nearly imitated by the refhiction of the rays in the spray. Not unftequently, an indistinct image of the neigh- bouring coast reflected tVom the ruffled surfkce is mistaken for the colour of the water. The vpriety of colours in the sea may probably arise from animal and vegetable matters diffused through the waters in a putrescent state, and communicatmg various tints. The yellow and bright green shades seem to be owing to living marine vegetables, which grow at the bottom, stretch their fibres through the water, or spread over the surface ; and it is supposed that the colour of innumerable minute animals is often confounded with that of the aea. Near the shore, and especially towards the mouths of rivers, the difAision of mud and other earthy matters cannot fail to affect the colour of the sea : where it is shallow or very transparent, the colour of the bottom is frequently mistaken for that of the water. The colour of the Greenland Sco, according to Mr. Scoresby, varies tram ultramarine blue to olive-green, and fh)m the most pure transparency to great opacity. These appearances, he thinks, are not transitory, but permanent ; not depending on the state of the weather, but on the quality of the water. Hudson, in 1607, noticed these changes, and observed that the sea was blue where there was ice, and green where it was open. This, however, was only accidental. Phipps does not mention the green water ; it forms, perhaps, one-fourth of the Greenland Sea, between the latitudes of 74° and 80° ; often it constitutes long bands or currents, lying north and south, or N. E. and S. W. Mr. Scoresby sometimes passed through stripes of pale green, olive-green, and transparent blue, in the course of ten minutes. The fooa of the whale occurs chiefly m the green water, and there the fishers look for them. Whales are more easily taken in the opaque green water than in the transparent blue, be- cause they do not readily see their enemies through the former. On examining the differently- coloured sea waters, Mr. Scoresby found various substances and animalcules, especially in the olive-green water. The number of meduste was immense . they were about one-fourth of an inch asunder. Hence a rubic foot would contain 110,502. From these, and many simUar observations, Mr. Scoresby concludes, that the Arctic Sea owes its colour to animalcules, and that they occasion the opacity of the olive-green water. The blue water contains few ani- malcules, and is uncomm' nly transparent. The surface of the Mediterranean sometimes appears of a purple tint. In the Gulf of Guinea, the sea is sometimes white ; and around the Maldive islands, black. The transparency of the sea may in many places be very great, without such property being readily noticed. Thus, where the water is sufficiently deep to be dark at the bottom, it may seem quite opaque, unless some fish or other object happen to come within view. Agitation of the surface will likewise tend to conceal the transjnrency. In general, the oea is more transparent as we recede from the shore, and in cold climates than in hot ; owing perhaps, to the smaller quantity of organic matter diffused in the waters of high latitudes. From this, however, there are exceptions ; as in the opacity of the Arctic Sea just noticed, and in the case of the Caribbean Sea, which is often remarkably transparent. Admiral Milne observed the bottom at a depth of 150 feet in the Caribbean Sea. Authors are not agreed to what depth the solar rays penetrate ; and indeed we have every reason to suppose that this mu(t depend upon and be as various as the transparency. Some limit the penetra- tion to a depth of 100 yards ; while others more than double that quantity. The light diould surely penetrate to at least double the depth to which an observer can see from the 8ur&ce. The temperature of the sea has probably a tendency to follow the mean temperature of the climate ; but many powerfiil causes must interfere and modify it Thus, between the tropics, the mean temperature of the surface of the ocdiui is about 80'', and generally ranges between 77° and 84°. Beyond the tropics, it begins to decrease, but without observing any strict connexion with the latitude; because, on account of the great specific heat of water, powerfiil currents cannot fail partially to preserve, for some tune, the temperature of the [>Iace from which they come. Hence, currents fhnn the torrid zone, on possmg into higher atitudes, raise the temperature of the sea above what usually belongs to such parallels; the reverse holds of cold icy currents fhim the arctic regions. The temperature of the ocean is much more steady than that of the superincumbent air, and has likewise a smaller annual range : unless where very shallow, it has scarcely any diurnal range. ITie temperature of the sea on descending below the mirfiice generally decreases, but not according to any uniform or known law. Thus, at a depth of five Mhoms, it is sometimes 1" colder, while in other instances it requires 100 fiitnoms for 1°. Sometimes the cold attains its maximum at a depth of 100 fkthoms, and sometimes it requires 400 or 500 fiithoms. According to an experiment related by Capt Sabine, the temperature of thi yfas 'tu.n° at a depth of lOOO ftthoms, while its surfkce was 83°. But the enormous pres- .90 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. PaktIL niro at the bottom probably compreaied the ball of the thermometer, and kept the apparent temperature 45.5° above the trutli. In the Arctic Sea, however, the temperature increaaes with the depth. Mr. Scoresby, who first ascertained thia, found an increaae of 6.6° and 8° at the respective depths of 120 and 730 fathoms ; Capt. Parry, 6° at S40 ikthoms ; Capt. Sabine, 7.5° at 680 ftthoms; Lieut Beechy, 10° at 700 fkthoms; and Mr. Fisher, 9.6° at a depth of 188 fathoms. Thus, the rate of increase of temperature in the Arctic Sea has ■• inconstant a connexion with the depth as the decrease in the temperate and torrid zones, Bea water fireezes atwUt 28°; aller which, the ice has been olworved to cool down to » 550 J but we cannot thence infer, that a lower temperature does not occur in the polar regions. The phosphorescence of the sea is a common but very remarkable phenomenon, concern- ing tlie cause of which authors ore not agreed. But most probably, as Newton conjectured, it proceeds ih>m a variety of causes. Since his time, it haa engaged the attention of many eminent philosophers. The appearance of these lights is by no means uniform. Somctimea a vessel, in travorsmg the ocean, senms to mark out a track of fire ; while each stroke of an oar emits a light, sometimes brilliant and dazzling, at other times tranquil and pearly. These lights ore grouped in endless variety. Perhaps, at one time, innumerable shining points float on tlio surface, and then unite into one extensive sheet of light At another Ume, the spectator fancies he sees large sparkling figures, like animals in pursuit of each other, inces* aantly vanishing and re-appearmg. Such lights have been ascribed to luminous animals, and to the [diosphorescence of semiputrescent matter difilused in the ocean. It is well known, that various fishes and other marine animals emit light, which does not in every instance appear to be voluntary, or to depend on the vital principle, as, in some of them, it continues, and perhaps increases, afler death : but motion seems to be either a principal cause, or at least an exciting one ; for tills light more rarely occurs, and is much fainter, in still water, whilst it becomes more and more brilliant as the motion increases. It is also more abundant immediately before and during storms. In vol. v. p. SOB. of the Edin. Phil, Jour,, Dr. Francis Buchanan has given a very interesting account of an extraordinary shining of the Bea, which he observed, Slst July, 1785, in longitude 61° 25' £., ktitudc 6° 82' N. " About a quarter past seven p. m.," says he, " the sea was observed to be remarkably white. The sky was everywhere clear, except around the horizon, where, for about 15°, it was covered with a dark haze, as is usual in such latitudes. The whiteness gradually increased till past eight The sea was then as high-coloured as milk, not unlike tlie milky way, the luminous appearance very much resembling the brighter stars in that constellation. It continued in this state till past midnight ana only disappeared aa daylight advanced. The whiteness prevented us from being able to see either the break or the swell of the sea, although both were considerable, as we knew from the motion of the ship and the noise. There was much light upon deck, as we could discern all the ropes much more distinctly than usual. We drew several buckets of water, in which, even when at rest there appeared a gr^eat number of luminous bodies. The bulk of them did not appear to bo more than one quarter of on inch ui length, and nearly as much in breadtli. Some, however, were one inch and a half long, and of tlie same breadth as the others. These were seen to move in the same manner OS a worm does in water. When taken up on the finger, they retained their shining faculty even when dry. When brought near a candle, their light disappeared ; but, by minute attention, an extremely fine white filament could be observed and litled upon the point of a pin. It was of a uniform shining colour and form, and about the thickness of a spider's thread. In a gallon of water there might be about 400 of these animals emitting light The water itself, when in the bucket had a natural appearance. The atmosphere was seemingly free firom fog. The stars were bright and there was no moonlight The night before, the same appearance was observed at ten p. m. ; it lasted only 20 miiiutes ; but as I was below, I did not hear of it till it was over." — " "The animalcules which occasion the unusual luminousnesa of the sea emit light only when strongly agitated, and hence appear close by the sides of the ship, Ot v,-hai any larger fish passes swifuy, or when a bucket of water is drawn and suddenly poured out" — " In the year 1805, on returning firom St Helena to England, a little north nom the equinoctial line, and near the coast of Africa, I had an opportunity of seeing a still more splendid appearance of the luminous animalcules. Soon after dark in the evening, it being nearly calm, we saw numerous lights at a distance, like the lamps of a great city. The lights gradually approached the frigate, and on reaching us appeared to arise from a great many large fishes (idoicores) sporting in the water, and agi- tating the animalcules, so as to excite ueir luminous powers." ' The deptli of the sea is a question on which our information is very imperfect, and there is little likelihood that much accurate information will ever be obtained on the subject bo &i as reeards the wide ocean. According to the ^culations of the late celebrated Miir- quis Laplace, the depth of the ocean is comparatively small, and nearly uniform. If, how- ever, it be recollected that the bottcnn of the sea is still a part of the eiulh's sur&ce, and by much the greater part too, one would be apt to ask, why that larger part of the surface ■hould be more level than what appears as dry land 1 The soundings which have been mode • ..■*Tr'\vti^^*Trvr -irc;T(,' r ^ ''s;T»Qjs»ir;ilw^"v;f^n' PartIL and kept the apparent temperature increaues ioreafleof6.6°and8(> ,t 340ikthomB; Capt. Mr. Fisher, 9.5o at a the Arctic Sea haa u ■ate uid torrid zones, rved to cool down to not occur in the polar ihenomenon, concern- I Newton conjectured, the attention of many uniform. Sometimes hile each stroke of an uil and pearly. These lerable shining points At another tune, the it of each other, inces< to luminous animals, lan. It is well known, not in every instance of them, it continues, principal cause, or at fainter, in still water, is also more abundant Un, Phil. Jour,, Dr. dinary shining of the Jo 6° 32' N. "About mrkably white. The it 15°, it was covered illy increased till past Iky way, the luminous ion. It continued in iced. The whiteness be sea, although both se. There was much tly than usual. We 9ared a ^eat number ion one quarter of an one inch and a half in the same manner their shining faculty red; but, by minute upon the point of a ickness of a spider's mala emitting light rhe atmosphere was onlight The night 20 miiiutes ; but as I which occasion the id, and hence appear r when a bucket of ing fipom St Helena t or Africa, I had an animalcules. Soon ts at a distance, like , and on reaching us the water, and agi- mpertect, and there 1 on the subject bo .te celebrated Mar- uniform. If, how- th's surface, and by part of the surfitcc ich have been made Book It ,7M HYDROLOGY. 191 in the ocean are quite inadequate to decide the question. They, however, often indicate great inequalities in Uie depth ; but how far hollows may have been filled with dti>ri», or asperi* ties worn down, it is not easy to say ; though it is more likely that the summits of moun^ tains ex]ioscd to the altcmato or combined uctions of air and moisture suffer a more rapid abrasion than those which are wholly under water. In geijeral, the slope of the adjacent shore is continued downward for a good way under water ; that is, the sea is usually shallow where the shore is fiat, while its depth increases rapidly by the side of a cliff or steep moun> tain. It is therefore probable, that some islands, though very small, may be th? tops of sub-marine mountains as large, perhap, as the highest which occur on the earth's surface. In many instances, no bottom has been found; but this might proceed either fVom the shortness of the line, or fVom its being borne aside by rapid currents. We have already mentioned a sounding of 6000 feet in the Caribbean sea; but Lord Mulgrave's line of 4660 feet did not reach tho bottom of the Northern Ocean. In the entrance of the German or North Sea, at the Straits of Dover, the central depth is 20 fhthoms. This extensive basin contains various shallows and sand-banks ; yet, generally speaking, the depth increases in going northward, and near to Bergen in Norway it amounts to 190 fathoms. A verv inter- esting account of tho bed of the German Sea is given by Mr. Stevenson, Edin. Phu. Jour, m. 42. ; and in the third volume of the Memoirs of the Wemerian Society. The level of the open sea is believed, generally speaking, to be everywhere the same ; or to form a portion of the surface of an oblate spheroid, to which the surface of the land approaches with less accuracy. Some gulfs and inland seas appear to deviate in some measure from tlic general rule. This is more particularly the case where the com- munication of such seas with tlie ocean is narrow ; and there are a few other exceptions.'" When the general motion of the ocean or of the trade-winds is directed into the mouth of an inknd sea, it has a tendency to raise its level above that of the ocean. On this account it is that tho Arabian Gulf or Red Sea is higher than the ocean, and still higher than the Mediterranean, which, from the opposite action of the wind and the great evapora- tion, is supposed to be a little below the general level. f Some gul& and inland seas, as the Baltic and Black Sea, rise in spring, from tho copious influx of river water, and are bwered in summer by evaporution and the efflux at their mouths. Of late vears, there has been considerable discussion regarding the subsidence of the Baltic below the level it had formerly maintained Whilst some support this opinion, and venture to explain the cause of the subsidence, others deny the fact alto«;ether. The trade-winds and general w^^tward motion of the ocean force the water into the Gulf of Mexico, so as to maintain a higher level there than on the western coast of the Isthmus of Darien.| The consequence of this accumulation of water is, that it generates a current moving northwards ; and which, after various windings through the Atlantic, at length reaches the western shores of Europe, as will be more particularly noticed hereafter. Some naturalists allege, that the debris, or alluvial matters daily abraded by the action of the weather on the surface of the land, and swept into the ocean by the rain and rivers, must, at length, raise the level of the ocean till it cover the whole globe, and restore tho reign of ancient chaos. Unless there be some compensating process, which either makes up for the exhausted materials, or gradually ele- vates the entire continents above the water, it is not very easy to guess at an alternative. A compensating power is situated deep in the crust of the earth. The taste of sea water is disagreeable and bitter, at least when taken from the surface or near the shor'* ; but when drawn ii'om great depths, its taste is only saline. It would there- fore seem that the bitterness is owing to the greater abundance of animal and vegetable matter near the surface. Man, in a civilized state, cannot make use of sea water as drink ; yet it is said that the inhabitants of Easter Island, in the Pacific Ocean, make it their usual beverage. Some of the lower animals occasionally travel far to drink sea water. Sheep are very fond of licking the dry salt ; and so are horses and cattle. With them it ia a cure for various complaints. Several attempts have been made to render sea water pota- ble, or to free it from salt Distillation is the meet effectual ; but the expense of fiiel is a serious objection to this method at sea, and, after all, it does not divest it of all its bitterness. Thus, in the midst of water, mariners are frequently in danger of dying of thirst, when they run short of fresh water. Sea ice, when melted, affords nearly fresh water ; but being dcvcud of air, its taste is not very agreeable, though it would be highly prized in time of need. A temporary, and in eome degree an imaginary, relief may be obtamed, by holding ■alt water in tiie mouth. The saline contents of the waters of the wide ocean do not, so fiur as experience has gone, vary much in different latitudes and under different meridians, although we ought to find the sea flasher in the spaces occupied by the internal limits of the trade-wind, and also in those tracts of the ocean where calms and a high temperature prevail, as on the west coast * Strabo tayt the level of the Gulf of Corinth in higher than that of the Gulf of OenchreB. i>!^ iM t fii^ Maclaren on the level of the Red Sea, in the Edinburgh Philosophical Joamof. ii><:4 lY';, X '^B mean height of the Pacific above the Atlantic ii said to bo 3LS9 nmt. 'ii''-l!»-' 109 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. PabtIL of Aftica. The ir :an ia about 8.5 per cent, in the weight of the vrater; but the saltneM ia more or loss aflbcul by currents and Btorms. It is diminiBhed at the Burface during heavy rains, and by the discharge of rivers : but increased by evaporation, which carriea off the water fresh, and leaves tlio salt bcliina : lienco there is often little consistency in detached olMervations, From a great variety of experiments, Dr. Marcet concludes : 1. That the Southern Ocean contains more salt than the Northern, in the ratio of 1.02 91 to 1.087S7. 2. That the mean specific gravity of sea water near the equator is 1.02777, intermediate between those of the northern and southern hemispherea. 3. That there ia no notable dif> ference in aea water under different meridiana. 4. That there ia no aatisfkctory evidence that the sea at great depths ia more salt than at the aurface. 5. That the aea, m general, contains more Nilt where it is deepest and most remote fh>m land ; and that its saitneaa ia alwaya diminished in the vicinity of largo masses of ice. 6. That small inland aeas, though communicating with the ocean, are much less salt than the open ocean. 7. That the Medi- terranean contains ratlier larger proportiona of salt than the ocean. This last is explained fh>m tho fact, that a pretty strong current fVom the Atlantic always flows inward at tke mouth of the Mediterranean, to supply, as was supposed, the water which escaped b; evaporation, and left its salt behind. So great, however, ia the influx, that thia inland aea ougnt to have become perfect brine, or perhaps to have deposited beda of aalt, if there were no iffflux } and accordingly it ia maintained that there is on outward current at the bottom, very deep, which carries off this excess of salt, and prevents its deposition in the vast hol- lows in tne bottom. The water drawn up fVom this lower current u saltor, in a small de> gree, than at the Burfkce. The following are the mean apecific gravities of the waters of different aeas, according to Dr. Marcet'a experiments: — Arctic Oeciin 1,09004 Northern Hemiiphere 1.03890 Southern Homiiphere 1.03881 Yellow Soa I.03S01 Mediterranean 1.03030 Sea or Marmora 1.01015 Black 8ea 1.01418 White Sea 1.01901 Baltic 1.01S93 Lake Ourmia, In Penia 1.10807 Duad Sea 1.11100 The saltness of inland seas is subject to manv vaiieticz. In tlio entrance to tho Black Sea, the water is much Salter at the bottom than the surface. To account for this, it is said that an under current enters from the Mediterr'inean. It ia well known that there is an outward current at the surface, whicii brir js with it the less salt water of the Black Sea. The saltness of inland seas is often affected by tho direction and strength of the wind, either forcing in, or retarding the entrance of, water from tho ocean. Accoraingly, from the expe- riments of Wilcke, it appears that the saltness of the Baltic is increased by a west wind, and still more so by a north-west wind ; but it undergoes a diminution when the wind is from the east Thus, the specific gravities are, for a Wind at W 1.0067 Ditto at N.W. 1.0008 Storm at W. 1.0118 Wind at E. 1.00.19 Hence, the proportion of salt in the Baltic depends in no small degree on the different winds; a proof that the salt is not only derived fh)m the neighbouring ocean, but that storms have a much greater effect on it than has been commonly supposed. The constituent parts of sea water have been an object of examination to many chemists, and various sets of experiments made to determine tliem. The late Dr. Murray of Edin- burgh was of (pinion that there were various sources of fkllacy in analysing sea water; and that different modes of operating on the same water gave very different results. Two reasons are assigned for this ; viz. that some of the different salts mutually decompose each other in the process, and that a part is lost altogether by evaporation, especially if the tem- perature be high. According to this eminent chemist, 10,000 parts of water firom the Frith of Forth, which is not sensib^ different fh)m that of the ocean, contain 220 parts of common salt, 33 of uulphate of soda, 42 of muriate of magnesia, and 8 of muriate of lime. On analjrsing sea water fVom N. latitude 25° 30', W. longitude 32° 80', Dr. Marcet made die numbers respectively 266, 47, 52, and 12. According to Bladh, the saltness is greater about tho tropics than at the equator. Dr. Trail maintains the contrary ; and also that the salU ness increases with the depth. Ice is formed on the sea, though its saltness enables it to resist the process of congelation at the ordinary freezing point of fresh water. This quality does not withstand the rigour of the Arctic regions, where the temperature of the air has been observed so low as 65° F. Sea water freezes about 28°, but the temperature varies a little with the saltness. — It is a curious circumstance, that sea water parts with its salt in freezing. Hence compact trans- parent sea ice af&rda ftesh water on being melted. When, however, the ice is of a loose or cellular texture, its pores sometimes contain liquid brine ; and therefore, on being melted, it affords brackish water. It is supposed to be the affinity between the water and salt which retards the congelation of sea water ; because the greater the saltness, the lower is the freezing temperature. Detached masses of ice are occosinnnlly met with, floating in the ocean at so low a parallel of latitude as 40° in both hemispheres ; having been conveyed PabtIL r ; but the nltnen ia Buriace during heavy which carriea off the neiBtoncy in detached iciudes: 1. That the of 1.0291 to 1.08787. 1.02777, intermediate liere is no notable di& Batitfhctory evidence tho sea, in ffeneral, Lnd that its aaltnen ii ,U inland seaa, thouffh I. 7. That the Medi- This last is explained flows inward at the )r which escaped by K, that this inland sea of salt, if there were jrrent at the bottom, isition in the vast hoi- Salter, in a small de- ferent seas, according 1.01418 I.OIWI 1,0IS33 1.16807 1.11100 entrance to the Black louat for this, it is said own that there is an iter of the Black Sea. tUi of the wind, either lingly, from the expe- id by a west wind, and icn the wind is from Book II HYDROLOGY. U0 .1.0118 .LOWS in the different winds; jut that storms have a [on to many chemists, Dr. Murray of Edin- rsing sea water; and ferent results. Two lally decompose each [specially if the tern* water from the Frith |220 parts of common mriate of lime. On Marcet made the less is greater about ^d also that the salt- cess of congelation irithstand the rigour ired so low as 65° F. (he saltness. — It is a ence compact trans- lie ice is of a loose Ire, (Ml being melted, Vater and salt which Iss, the lower is the irith, floating in the ring been conveyed thiUier by currents flrom the polar regions.* At the parallel of 50° tliey are more abundant ; and diere it is common, in wmtor, to see the shallow edges of the sea covered with ice. A*. 60° N' latitude, the gulfs and inland seas are frequently iVozen over their whole surfhce. As wo proceed toward the poles, the ice becomes more and more abundant, and of larger dimensions, till at length we come to Jifldt of ice, and iceberg$ or mountains of ice. The process of congelation commences at the surface of the sea, with the formation of slender prismatic crystals resembling wet snow : this the seamen call ihtdge. The surface is at flrst rough ; out, by the union of the crystals and the accumulation of the iluige, the surfac* becomes smooth and forms a coi inued sheet, which is next broken, by the agitation of tho water, into flragments of about three inches diameter ; these again coalesce into a continued iheet of a stronger texture, which is in its turn broken as before, but into larger fragments called pancake tee. Where the water is fVee fVom all agitation, the congelation ^oe» on more regularly, and some allege more rapidly. During 24 noura of keen irost, the ice fVe- Suently attains a thickness of from two to three inches, and is soon fit for walking on : it is ^en called bay ice. When the thickness is about a foot, it is called light ice ; and when three feet thick, heavy ice. The term ield is given to a sheet of ice so extensive that its fiurther end cannot be seen from a mast-head. Very krge loosened pieces, whose boundaries may be seen readily, are called floea. Fragments of thick ice floating together are called broth ice. Floating ice of any sort, sufficiently loose to allow a vessel to pass through, is called open or drift *m the sea, who threw out some hints that it might bo as well for them to return. Afler some tune, their own Esquimaux hinted that there was a grotmd swell under the ice. It was then scarcely perceptible, except on lying down and applyiiu; the ear close to the ice, when a hollow disagreeable grating noiso was heard ascendmg from the abyss. As the motion of the sea under the ice had grown more perceptible, they became alarmed, and began to tiiink it prudent to keep close to tho diore. The ice also had fissures in many places, some of which formed chasms of one or two feet ; but as tliese are not uncommon even in its best state, and the dogs easily leap over them, they are firightful only to strangers. As the wind rose to a storm, the swell had now increased so much that its effects on the ice were extraordinary, and really alarming. The sledges, instead of gliding smoothly along as on an even surface, sometimes ran wim violence after the dogs, and sometimes seemed with difiiculty to ascend a rising hill. Noises, too, were now distinctly heard in many directions, like the report of cannon, from the burst- ing of the ice at a distance. Alarmed by these frightful phenomena, nu? travellers drove with all haste towards the shore ; and as they approached it, the pro? > t before them woa tremendous. The ice, having burst loose Scorn the rocks, was tossed tc :>i>d fro, and broken in a thousand pieces against the precipices with a dreadful noise ; which, aided to the raginff of the sea, the roaring of the wind, and tho driving of the snow, so completely overpowered them as almost to deprive them of the use both of their eyes and ears. To make the land was now the only resource that remained ; but it was with the utmost difficulty that the frightened dogs could be driven forward ; and as the whole body of the ice firequently sunk be£>w the summits of Uie rocks, and then rose above them, the onl^ time for landing was the moment it ^fained the level of the coast, — a circumstance which rendered the attempt extremely nice and hazardous. Both sledges, however, succeeded in gaining the shore, and were drawn up on the beach, though not without great difficultr. Scarcelr luid thev reached it, when that part of the ice firom which they had just escaped burst astmder, and the water, rushing up from beneath, instantly precipitated it into the ocean. In a moment, as if by signal, the whole mass of ice for several miles along the coast, uid extending as flu: as the eye could reach, began to break and to be overwhelmed with the waves. The spectacle was awfully grand. The immense fields of ice rising out of the ocean, clashing against one another, and then plunging into the deep with a violence which no language can describe and a noise like the discharge of a thousand cannon, was a sight which must have struck the most unreflecting mind with solemn awe. The brethren were overwhelmed with amaze* ment at their miraculous escape; and even the pagan Esquimaux expressed gratitude to God for their deliverance."t The term iceberg is applied to huge masses of ice resembling mountains, whether resting on the land or floating on the sea. The latter part appear to be sometimes formed in the * Honburgh mentioni loebergi iMviBf been met with in Bouth lat. 3S0 54|', and Wwt loBg. ITO 59' .—PMl.Mig t Brown'i Iliitorv of llie Propaiatioo of Cbriitianity, vol. ii. p. 57 Vol. I. 17 Z ItM SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. PabtII. ■Oft itnlf, by the ftceumulation of ice and mow ; at other timet to be fhm;mont» of land ie«* beruBor ^lacion, which have been pilin^f up on thr ihore till quite overgrown, and ultimately broken and launched into tiie ocoan by their own weight Maaiiea of this sort abound in Biffin's Bay, where they are aometimea two milea lonff, and half or one third aa broad. They are bristled with various spires, riaingf, perhaps, 100 reet above the surflue, and descendioff half aa much below it when compact ice floats in water, the part under the aurfkce it about nine times as great aa that above it ; and hence the icebergs may sometimes descend to a great depth, tliouffh they should bo ftr fVom consisting of very compact ice. Icebergs of an even surfkce, rising 00 feet above the sea, and havin{[ an area of five or aix square miles, are very common. Those of East Greenland are of inferior size, and they are still smaller around Spitzberren, where some of enormous dimensions occur on shore. The reason which Mr. Scoresby assigns for this is, tliat, owing to the shallowness of the water into which the huge masses are precipitated, they are all shattered against the bottom into a thousand pieces nsfore they are rairlv launclied into deep water. " On an excursion to one of the Seven Icebergs, in July 1818," says Mr. Scoresby, " I was particularly fortunate in witnessing one of the grandest effects which these polar glaciers ever present A strong north-westerly swell, having ibr some hours been beating on the shore, had loosened a num- ber of fragments attached to Uie iceberg, and various heaps of broken ice denoted recent shoots of the seaward edge. As wc rowed towards it with a view of proceeding close to its base, I observed a few little pieces Ml from the top ; and while my eye was fixed upon tlie place, an immense column, probably 50 feet souare and 160 feet high, began to leave the parent ice at the top ; and leaning majosticaJly forward, with on accelerated velocity fell with an awfiil crash into the sea. The water into which it plunge<) was converted into an appearance of vapour or smoke, like that from a furious cannonading. The noise wu equal to that of thunder, which it nearly resembled. The column which fell was nearly square, and in magnitude resembled a church. It broke into a thousand pieces. This cir- cumstance was a happy caution ; for we might have inadvertently gone to the very base of the icy cliff, from which masses of considerable magnitude were continually falling." A huge mass of this sort which fell on a Russian ship, broke the fore and main masts, sprung the bowsprit, and flung the ship over with such violence that a piece of ordnance was thrown overboard from under the hdf-deck, and the captain and some of the crew were projected in the same rr ^ner. The captain, however, escaped unhurt; but the mate and two others were killed, and many were wounded. Icebergs variously affect navigation. They are often highly useful by protecting naviga^ tors fh)m gales, as well as firom the concussions of drift ice, which moves more quiclcly when acted on dv the wind than the massy iceberg. To the latter, ships aro sometimes moored, but not without danger; for these floating masses are sometimes so nicely balanced as to be easily overturned, should they happen to catch the bottom of the sea. The concussion pro- duced in this way sometimes detaches large fragments ; and sometimes the iceberg rolls forward, to the imminent danger of tlie vessel, though perhaps 100 yards distant — so great are the waves and whirls caused by such an occurrence. Many dangers and discourage* ments attend the navigation of the polar seas : but the recent attempts to discover a north- west passage through the Arctic Sea have rendered the ice a subject of considerable interest These attempts have not yet been crowned with success: but different navigators have brought such different accounts of the state of the ice, that it is probably very changeable and very difficult to examine. It is not quite agreed that any navigator has been within 6° of the North Pole ; although some accounts pretend to a still nearer approach. Captain Parry, in his last voyage, reached to 82" 45' N. lat The failure of Captain Cook's attempt to penetrate to the SouIJi Pole gave rise to an idea, which has been prett\ generally enteN tained since his time, that the South Pole is surrounded with fixed ice to the distance of 18" or 19° ; and a more recent Ri jsian expedition gave still worse hopes, as they could not get beyond the latitude of 70° S. Mr. Weddell, however, has since reached 255 miles nearor the pole, and met with no such obstruction : this enterprising navigator contends strenuously that the South Pole must be firee finm ice, and might be reached by sea. Some of his ar^ ments are rather plausible ; but the question is invdved in so many uncertainties, that nothing leas than actual trial can decide it The expansion and contraction of ice has important effects. Though water undergoes a great cixinnsion in the act of fireezing, yet ice obeys the ordinary law of solids, — that of expanding by heat and contrs^ting by cold. The efiect, therefore, of intense cold is to ohi- tract ice, which, if of large dimensions, or fixed all around, has no alternative but to rend where it is contracting most This is often attended with a tremendous report On the contrary, a rise of temperatures may not only bring the parts to meet again, but often makes them lap over, or burst up with great violence.* The motion of the waters of the ocean is almost perpetual ; and it is believed, that withoot * The moat ntiiftetofv iceonnt of the polar iea is that of Boomby, flnt puUiihed in the Memoln of the WiC ■anu Natural Hiftoiy Bocietjr PAaxfl. iffmcnU of land io«« Town, and ultimately this sort abound in Jiird aa broad. They fkco, and descending inder the surikco u ^ aomotimos descend npact ice. Icebergs )f five or aix aquara Q, and they are still Bur on shore. The owness of the water ainst the bottom into I an excursion to one icularly fortunate in r present A strong had loosened a num* 1 ice denoted recent proceeding close to eye was nxed upon ligh, began to leave accelerated velocity 1 was converted into ng. The noise was hich fell was nearly nd pieces. This ciN e to the very base of tinually fallmg.*' A i main masts, sprung ordnance was thrown ew were projected in nate and two others by protecting naviga^ ^s more quicKly when sometimes moored, ¥ balanced as to be he concussion pro- es the iceberg rolls distant, — so great rers and discourage* to discover a north- onsiderable interest ent navigators have ibly very changeable has been within 6° approach. Captain >tain Cook's attempt ttv generally enteN the distance of 16" s they could not get ed 255 miles nearer iontends strenuously Some of hisarga ainties, that nothing water undergoes a of solids, — that of tense cold is to con« mative but to rend tus report On the in, but often makes ilieved, that without Memoin of tiM Wti r: / BooiII. ''i"T~rr':?-'^."^'", ■/LT'ff^i^^'nTTi^'j METEOROLOGY. «' 105 this provision in the economy of nafurp tho sea, in place of tempering and puriiyingthe air, would both become putrid and nxhale noxious vapours. Wave$. The motions which first present thomsolves to our notice are the partial and sltomate rising and fklling of the surface, known by tho name of undulations or wavet. Thi^ sort of motion is caused by the wind, which, by dislodging or depressing a certain portion of the waters, has destroyed the equilibrium or level, which they naturally end -savour to recover. Waves may be compared to the reciprocation of water in a syphon or bent tub?. !t was in tnis way that Newton deduced the velocity of waves, and the time required to an undulation. If water ascend and descend alternately in tho logs of a bent tube, and a pendulum bo con* itructed whose length between the point of suspension and centre of oeoillation is oing Pabt II. e current frcm th« ■trongthoned by Uie iloubles tho Cftpe of nor than the conti< Now lloUaml into olar current deflect amontoriei of Aflrica I Urocnland and thl )n, a gi^at body of a perpetual circuit. Gulf Htroam, which d Norway. At the na the waters north- ot by a current flrom id to Davis's Straits, lay ; and having re< reat whirlpools, con- lems to be a bar cost upy four-fifUis of the ly across the mouth )ably a brancti of the le ocean as minutely it vortices would be f rivers, the melting are liable to change J force, as the mon- currents which pre- upply of fVesh water el will have a tend- to it from tlie ocean, rated by evaporation, and the Salter water lich enters from the I entrance. Such is udsoninl724. The land sea exceeds the I of Azof. In these irront enters below. )ut, if no permanent Salter current is the Liy exceptions to this Straits of Gibraltar orth-westward ; and, Adriatic, then of the its. In the Cattegat, den ; and another, a a the German Sea, shore, while a south ch come in different rete, about a centre, 'he most celebratec IS in the Straits of lies sometimes aug- 1 of the winds. In t fiiil to make up foi haps, inferior to the famst the rocks, or ae time afterwards; that these vortices id excellent matter to lise and fall of rate every 12' 25"" die of the interval OS longer in ebbing nooK iL HYDROLOGY. 11>7 than flowing. At the new and fttU moon tho tides attain the greatest height, and tno in- terval between two high waters is least, viz. 12" 10" 26". At tho quarters of tho moon tho tides are the least, and the intervals the greatest, viz. 12^ 30" T, The time of high water IS mostly regulated by tho moon ; and in gcnernl, in the open sea, is from two to three honri* after that planet passes the meridian, either above or under the horizon. On the shores of large contments, and where there are shallows and obstructions, great irrogulnritics toko place in this respect ; and when tlioto exceed six hours, it may seem as if tho high watpr preceded the moon's pasaago over tho meridian. Though tho tides seem to be regulated chiefly by tho moon, thny appear also in a certain degree to bo imder the influence of tho sun. Thus, at tho svzigies, when the sun and moon come to the meridian together, tho tides, every thing else considered, are the highest At tho quarters, when the sun and moon ore OO" distant, tho tides aro least. Tho former are called the Mjtring, the latter tho neap tides. The highest of the spring tides is not that immediately after the new or full moon ; but is in general the third, and in some cases tho fourth. The lowest of the neap tides occurs mucn about the same time after the quarters. Tho total magnitude of the tido is estimated by tho diflbrcnce between tho heights of high and low water. Tho higher the flood tide rises, the lower the ebb tido generally sinks on tho same day. At Brest, tho medium spring tide is about 10 feet, and the mean neap tido about 0. On other parts of the coast of Franco opposite to England, tho waters, being confined, rise to a great height, and do so on both sides of the Channel. At St Malo it is from 43 to 50 feet Nearly as iiigh tides occur at Annapolis Royal, in Nova Scotia. It is the obstruction which the land pre- sents to tho motions of the waters which occasions tides of uijr consequence nt all : wero the globe entirelv covered with water, the tides would be very insignificant Thus, in the Pacific Ocean, the spring tide amounts only to 5 feet and the neap to from 2 to 2.5 feet. On the other hand, a free communication with tiie ocean is indispensable, to produc- n, high tide. Thus, in inland seas, the tides are very trifling, because the luminaries at;, .learly equally over the whole surfkce at the same time. The height of the tide increases as tho sun or moon is nearer the earth, but in a higher ratio. The rise of the tides is likewise greater when the sun or moon is in tho equator, and less as they decline from it. When the observer and the moon are on the same side of the equator, the tide which happens when the moon is above the horizon is greater than when she is below it Tho reverse occurs when the observer and the moon are on opposite sides of the equator. If tho tides be considered relatively to the whole globe and to tne open sea, it appears that there is a meridian about 30° eastward of the moon, where it is always high water, both in the hemisphere where tho moon is and in the opposite. On the west side of this circle the tide is flowing ; on tho east it is ebbing ; and on the meridian, which is at right angles to the same, it is everywhere low water. These meridian circles move west- ward, keeping nearly at the same distance from tho moon : only approaching nearer to her when new or full, and withdrawing at the quarters. In high latitudes the tides are very inconsiderable. It is probable that at the poles there are no diurnal tides; but there is some ground for thinking that the water will rise higher at the pole to which the luminaries are at any time nearest than at the opposite. The o^cnt wavo which follows the moon as above described, and constitutes the tide, is to be considered as an undulation or reciprocation of the waters of the ocean ; in which there is, except when it passes over shallows or approaches the shore, very little progressive motion. In ail this we are as yet overlooking the operation of local causes, winds, currents, &c., by which these general laws are modified, overruled, or even reversed. Most people find little difllculty in conceiving how the waters should rise on the side of the globe which is next the moon ; but there can scarcely be a harder task than bringing many to see why the watera should at the tame time rise on the side which is turned from the moon. Wo must however, confine ourselves to a very brief and palpable explanation. The force by which the moon draws any particle of our globe towards her is greater when it is nearer to ner, and less when more remote. The force, therefore, with which the moon attracts the particles on the side nearest her is greater than the average force which she exerts on the whole globe. These particles, therefore, rise or endeavour to come near the moon. On the other hand, the force by which the moon draws the particles which are farthest from her being less than the average force, these particles endeavour to recede from the moon, and in BO doing they also recede from the earth's centre ; that is, they rise higher than the general level. The action of the sun is sunilar to that of the moon ; but his being almost four hundred times as distant greatly diminishes his effect At the new and mil moon the luminaries act together, and produce spring tides. The highest of all are a little after the autumnal, and before the vernal, equinox ; and the least spring tides occur a little after the wlstices. At the quarters of the moon her action is opposed by that of the sun, and there- to neap tiiies are the result The time of high water deserves consideration. The preceding is sufficient to show tliat the phenomena of the tides are effects that might be expected from the principle of attraction or gravitation * but since the waters necessarily occupy some time in moving from ouo 17* 108 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Pabt n. Bool li-!^.'^' •■'jiderable rivulets. They have, likewise, a wide range of temperature; but necessarily limited between the freezing and boiling points. It is most usual for springs which are large, and which appear to issue from a considerable depth, to have nearly the mean tempe- rature of the place ; and in some instances the temperature is remarkably steady, — ^not the slightest variation being perceptible in the course of the year. Hence apparently, or rela- tively to the au", they are colder in summer and hotter in winter. It is, no doubt, tliis con- trast which has given rise to the popular notion, that good springs are really colder in sum- mer and hotter in winter. Nothing is more common tlian to see a well smoking during intense frost, which shows nothing of the kind during warm weather ; but it does not require a really high temperature to exhibit such an appearance, but only a temperature not so low as that of the air. The most that any spring keeps within the range of both seasons, is to remain always at one temperature. The greater number of the smaller springs, however, become a little warmer in summer and colder in winter ; particularly those which come along for a considerable way at a small depth under ground. By so domg, they participate in tlie temperature of the surface, which varies with the season : but all springs preserve a greater warmth than the mean temperature of winter ; and, excepting the thermal or hot springs, tliey do not reach the mean heat of summer. Hot springs are those which preserve a heat above the mean temperature of the place. Such as are merely tepid are common in most countries, especially in mines. Those having a considerably higher temperature are less frequently met with, and mostly in volcanic dis- tricts ; but some of them reach the boiling point, or are actually boiling and spouting forth • Fide Stevenson's great work on the Bell-Rock Light-house, for observations on Tides in the British seui Pabt H the moon is on the 1, when the sun is ind her, he retards should be sensibly lity of such action narrow seas, and r the direct action dulation. Of this 3 examples. The sen three and four rwe8t,soas to fall to three branches; de of Ireland and }ws at the rate of ) reach the Nore ! open sea, moves U3 got to the Ork- nmit of the same ly ; and in twelve le Nore, where it rs before. Thus, tive tide has gone lalies are observed I day or two, at a J, though perhaps er more than one lit : but it may be lal to the moon's mes a day on the rations of nature, m suggested how )m the temporary iatbody ofwatei Of such there the qualities of son of the year; 36, either wholly xticular periods ; i*er. The mag- ceptible, to con- but necessarily rings which are he mean tempe- steady, — ^not the arently, or rela- loubt, this con- f colder in sum- smoking during loes not require ture not so low th seasons, is to rings, however, se which come they participate ings preserve a thermal or hot •6 of the place. Those having in volcanic dia- spouting forth e Britiih Nui BookII. HYDROLOGY. sat' with great violence, which indicates their having had a still higher temperature before get- ting vent The most remarkable are the hot springs of Iceland, some of which are con- ■idered among the greatest vvonders of the world. They are believed to be more abundant in Iceland than in any other country. But the interest which the number and variety of these hot springs excites in a person who never saw any thing similar, is quickly lost in the feelings which are roused on beholding the magnificent and tremendous explosions of the Geysors, as they are called. Besides the principal fountains, there is a great number of boiling springs, cavities full of hot water, and several from which steam issues. There are also some places full of boiling mud of gray and red colours. The silicious depositions of the waters of the Grep.t Geyser have formed for it a basin 56 feet in diameter in one direction, and 46 in the other; a projection from one side causing it to deviate from the perfect circle, In the centre of this basin is a cylindrical pit or shan 10 feet in diameter. Through thii the hot water rises gradually, filling it and mo basin, after which it runs over in small quan* titles. At intervals of some hours, when the basin is full, explosions are heard from below, like the report of distant cannon, and at the same time a tremulous motion of the ground is felt all around the basin : immediately tlie water rises in a mass from the pit, and sinking again, causes the water in the basin to be agitated and to overflow : another and a stronger propulsion follows, and clouds of vapour ascend. At length, strong explosions take place, and, large quantities of steam escaping, the water is thrown to a height of from 30 to 90 feet, and even to 200 or 300 feet The steam, coming into contact with the cold air of that climate, is condensed into thick clouds, which are tossed and rolled with great rapidity ; the whole forming a very singular and magnificent exhibition. After continuing for some tune, the explosions cease, when the basin and pit are found empty. Bursts of steam sometimes take place, when the water is rising, without any warning by subterraneous noise. These phenomena seem to be occasioned by Stream finding its way from below into cavities, where part of it is condensed into water, which water is at length forced out by the action of the steam under high pressure. The New Geyser is somewhat smaller than the other. There are many hot springs of less note ir. Iceland ; but perhaps the most curious of the whole is the Tunguhver. Among a great number of boiling springs are two cavities, within a yard of each other, from which the water spouts alternately : while from one the water is thrown about ten feet high in a narrow jet, the other cavity is full of water boiling violently. This jet continues about four minutes, and then subsides ; when the water from the other imme- diately rises, in a thicker column, to the height of three or four feet This continues about three minutes ; when it sinks and the other rises, and so on alternately. The natural jets of water, called spouting springs, only diflfer from the rest in comir down some close canal from a fountain on a higher level. Being thus closely confined, th&y burst forth in consequence of the pressure, in me same manner as the artificial spouting Ibun- tains do.* Intermitting fountains have sometimes been viewed by the multitude as of a miraculous nature. One at Como, in Italy, rises and falls every hour: another at Colmars, in Provence, rises eight times as often. At Fronzanches, in Languedoc, one has a period of 24 hours 15 minutes. England afibrds many examples of such springs ; particularly those on the sea coast, whose waters rise and fall with the pressure of the tides. The town of Tideswell, in Derbyshire, is named from a noted fountain of this sort which once flowed there, but has now ceased to observe its tides. The principles on which intermitting springs depend are attempted to be explained in every popular treatise on hydrostatics and hydraulicB.t Various have been the opinions of philosophers concerning the origin of springs. Some suppose that sea water is conveyed through subterraneous ducts or canals to tlie places where the springs flow out of the earth ; but in this way fresh-water springs could not be produced ; because sea water cannot be freed from its salt by filtration. It is, besides, dif- ficult to conceive how the water should filter upwards. In order to overcome these objec- tions, recourse has been hod to subterranean heat, by which the water is conceived to rise upwards in vapour through certain fissures and cavities of the mountains where it is col- lected, and issues forth, as we see, in springs. Others vary the hypothesis a little, by saying that the sea water is raised through the mountains by capillary action ; but here we ought still to have salt springs; and it has been further objected that a current cannot be produced by capillary action. The most probable theory is that proposed by Dr. Halley, who maintained that springs are nothing more than a pt^ of the water which fiiUs on higher ground filtrating through, and afterwards issuing forth at a lower level. This, it is true, does not at first sight appea to account for the permanent flow of springs during dry weather. To complete the theory it is supposed that the water at first collects in lairge subterranean cavities, from which it nflerwanls filtrates slowly, and passes towards the springs. The disposition of the rocks in * Vide Ed. New Phil. Journal, vol, iz. for observations on spouting springs and Artesian welli. t V'de Gd. New Fliil. Journal, vol. viii. for an account of intermitting springs. 200 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. Part II. mi\^ ::l.vt strata contributes much to the collecting of the vratera under the surface, and conveying them without waste, as if in close pipes, till they are united in fountains, lakes, rivers, &c. Dr. Halley showed that the evaporation from the sea alone is a sufficient supply for all the waters that the rivers carry into it. His calculation was founded on a very complex view of tne subject, and liable to several objections. Buffon took a more simple view of the matter, by selecting one of those lakes that send out no stream to the ocean, and show- ing that the probable evaporation from the surface of the lake ia equal to all the water car- ried into it. The theory of hot springs is deserving of consideration. It has been ascertained that the greater number of warm and hot springs occur in volcanic countries — where volcanoes for- merly burnt or are still in a state of activity ; and of those that do not occur in volcanic dis- tricts, some are associated with trap and granite rocks, to which most geologists assign an igneous origin. Hence it is inferred that they owe theu: temperature to the same cause or causes as gave rise to volcanic and ignigenous rocks. That the heat of such springs is oflen connected with volcanic action cannot admit of doubt; for, from the Geyser of Iceland, the transition is almost uninterrupted to the hot springs in the dormant volcano of the island of Iscbia, and from thence to those connected wiUi the process which formerly took place in the now extinct volcanoes of Hungary and Auvergne. The hot and warm springs of Bath and Bristol, however, occur in a limestone country where no igneous recks are visi- ble ; but these may be under the limestone. This opinion is further countenanced by the fact that many of the hot springs met with in primitive, and also in secondary, formations, occur in spots where the strata appear to have been disturbed by igneous agency. Of this there is a striking example at the hot springs of Carlsbad in Bohemia ; the hot springs of Cliflon issue from a limestone which appears, at an early period, to have been disturl]«d by igneous action : the hot springs of PfefTers, in the Grisons, gush fh>m a ravine firom 400 to &4 feet in depth, and so perpendicular that the provisions required for the inmates of the bath are lowered from ropes attached to the summit of the cliff, and so narrow that the rocks in some places touch overhead, and nowhere, perhaps, are more than 30 feet apart The most obvious explanation of such a phenomenon is to be found in some convulsion of nature, such as that caused by an earthquake, or the sudden elevation of a large tract of country. The other hot springs in Switzerland appear in circumstances for the most part similar. Those of Weissenburg, in the canton of Berne, rise out of a gorge of the same kind as tiiat of Pfeffers : those of Louechi appear at the foot of the mural precipice of the Gemmi: whilst the spring of Baden, in the canton of Argovia, from which the only remaining one, that of Schinzath, is not far removed, lies near the point where, in consequence of the two moun- tains of Stafielegg and Lagem having been severed asunder by some great convulsion, the waters of the Rhine and of the other rivers, — ^which appear to have once constituted a single lake extending from Coire in the Grisons to this mountain ridge, including the lakes of Zurich and of Wallenstadt, with the intermediate country, — in one contiimous sheet of water, flowed off by the channel now taken by one of the riveis, the Limmat alone. Thus the Rhine, says Dr. Daubeny, may be supposed to owe its original direction to the event which produced one hot spring, and its present course to that which occasioned another. Some springs apparently emit inflammable matter ; for when a light is applied, it seemA to take fire like ardent spirits. But it is not so much the water that is inflammable, as some gas which it exhales, or bituminous matter floating on its surface. Springs in the sea. Powerful springs are occasionally met with boiling up in the bottom of the sea, so as, in some instances, to rise above the sur&ce. From some of them naviga- tors can draw up fVesh water fit for taking on board as store. The natives, in certain places, know where to dive under the surfiice of the sea for fi-esh water ; which, perhaps, may be the only source whence they could obtain it. Mineral waters, and the quantity of matter they deposit. Springs in their course through strata convey along with them portions of the strata, not only firom higher to lower situap tions, but also from below upwards. They contain salts, earths, acids, metals, and inflam- mable matters, of very varied nature: the variety depending sometimes on the nature of the strata through which they pass ; at other times, as m those that rise upwards in volcanic districts, on igneous agency. Hofl!man remarks, that when warm and hot springs, and those richly impregnated with mineral matters, occur in countries at a distance from active and extinct volcanoes, we observe the strata fVom which they issue to be much deranged, tlius intimating that formerly earthquakes and other igneous agencies were at work in the districts where these springs now flow. The quantity of mineral water brought from the interior of the earth by springs is very great ; whether that matter is abstracted from the strata traversed by the springs, or is brought by them fix)m a great depth, as in volcanic countries. Even some calcareous springs in Britain dennnit annuaUy vast quantities of csl' carcous tufia and calcareous sinter. In the neighbourhood of Edinburgh there are great calcareous deposits from calcareous springs that flow through limestone rocks ; and appear- ances of the same description abound around all the calcareous springs in England. Near to Clennont, in France, some calcareous springs, rising through rocks of jranite and ^neisSj Part II. ,ce, and conveying ains, lakes, rivers, ufficient supply for on a very complex )re aimplo view of e ocean, and show- all the water car- iflcertained that the rhere volcanoes for- cur in volcanic dis- cologists assign an 1 the same cause or . of such springs is e Geyser of Iceland, lant volcano of the ?hich formerly took tt and warm springs leous recks are visi- ountenanced by the condary, formations, LIS agency. Of this the hot springs of e been disturbed by ravine from 400 to r the inmates of the arrow that the rocks 30 feet apart The lonvulsion of nature, rge tract of country. e most part similar. le same kind as that f the Gemmi: whilst naining one, that of :e of the two moun- reat convulsion, the ! constituted a single luding the lakes of ;ontinuous sheet of mmat alone. Thus Bction to the event Bsioned another. is applied, it seemS nflammablc, as some ng up in the bottom ne of them navigar IS, in certain places, ch, perhaps, may be their course through her to lower situa^ metals, and infiam- the nature of the )wards in volcanic [ hot springs, and istance from active le much deranged, vere at work in the r brought from the .bstracted from the pth, as in volcanic t quantities of cal- h there are great ocks; and apoear- England. Near ranite and gneiss, BdoeII. HYDROLOGY. 201 m have formed a hi>y or hill S240 fbet high. Manv of the {[reat edifices in Rome are built of calcareous dept> :■■■ Stom caicareous springs. The hot spnngs of Carlsbad annually deposit much calcareous tii£a and sinter. Other springs, as the hot springs in Iceland and in the AEores, deposit annually great quantities or silica. Salt springs auo bring from the ulterior of the earth, and spread over their vicinity, much salt, which salt may be derived from the saline clays and stut beds through which {hey pass; in other instances the salt may come from a great depth as an igneous production. Chemical nature of tpring watert. The water of springs, when very pure, is named soft ; if impregnated with calcareous salts, hard ; and if impregnated with various minora matters, mineral. It was long believed that hard water was unfit for brewing and distilla- tion ; and hence soft water was often procured for these operations, at great expense ; but it is now found that water which owes its hardness to lime is the most proper of all for the fermentation of worts. A time will, however, be necessary to remove the popular prejudice in favour of soft water. We have, in the Table on the following page, given a view of the composition of the most celebrated mineral springs. According to some chemists, the salts found by chemical analysis in springs are considered as existing m the waters ; the late Dr. Murray considers the compound existing before con- centration of the water as, in all cases, the most soluble salts that can be formed out of the ingredients present But, in reality, so far from our having determined in any given case the nature of the existing combinations between the ingredients, we are ignorant even of any method by which such knowledge ia attainable. If, says Berzelius, the physician inquires of the chemist, what the proportion these salts bear to each other in any given case may be, the latter must reply, that this is a question as to which we are at present entirely in the dark ; as the proportion depends not only on the quantity of acids and bases present which admits being ascertained, but also on the relative force of affinity subsisting between the one and the other, for determining which we have as yet no data whatever. Sect. III. — Lakes. A lake is a body of water which does not communicate with the ocean. Independently of the qualities of their waters, lakes are distinguished into several sorts :— 1. Those whicn receive streams of water, and have an outlet, are the class of lakes best known. It is rare for a lake to give rise to more than one river, which often bears the name of the principal stream which flows into the lake, though the two rivers may differ materially in every respect 2. Those which receive streams of water, and often great rivers, without having any visible outlet This class is less numerous than the former, and is confined to warm climates ; but the largest of all lakes, the Caspian Sea, belongs to it 8. Those which receive no running water, but have an outlet, — circumstances which imply that such lakes are fed with springs from beneath, or with small imperceptible streams from the adjacent land. 4. Those which receive no running water, and have no visible outlet Lakes of this class, exclusive of marshes, are for the most part small, and merit little attention. Without regarding the foregoing distinctions, some writers subdivide lakes into two kinds, according to the general character of the surface in which their basins are situated : viz. those which ore formed in deep hollows between the ridges or at the foot of mountains, and fed by springs or torrents ; and those which are formed in low and level countries fur want of a general declivity, or dammed up by a mere accumulation of alluvial matter. Subterranean lakes form a class of lakes differing remarkably from all the preceding, and are bodies of water contained in cavities quite covered over by earthy strata. It is only when such cavities are laid open by earthquakes, by the falling asunder of mountains, bv the action of the weather or of rivers, by the "operations of mining, or when the roof falls in, that their situation becomes known. But they are probably very numerous, though perhaps often of small size. It is not easy to account for the permanent and uniform fiow of many springs on any other supposition. Some of them appear to give rise to rivers, while others are Imown to receive very considerable streams which lose themselves in the interior. Such are the numerous cavities of the Julian Alps. It is to similar reservoirs that we must attri- bute the periodical disappearance of certain lakes situated above ground. There are some caverns in Norway which afibrd a passage to rapid currents of water, as appears from the sound heard through their roofs. It is natural to suppose that many streams, finding nt readier outlet, flow into subterranean cavities, are absorbed by the earui, or discharge them- selves under ground into the sea. In this way may be explained the origin of those springs of fresh water that are to be seen spouting up even in the midst of the waves of the oceaiu The waters thrown up by volcanoes, the sudden and terrible inundation of mines, the number of rivers which disappear, the mountains which are suddenly engulfed in the bosom of new lakes, — all these facts leave no doubt of the existence of extensive subterranean cavities containing large bodies of water. The digging of wells has supplied a fiict still more inter- esting to physical geography. It appears that there are lakes, or rather sheets of water, which extend under ground to considerable distances. In digging wells near Aire, in the province of Artois, they always come to a clayey bed ; which being pierced, tlie water gushes \ou J. 2 A -"l*?!**^ "^iX'Ty'"" *'J^ -"■'" ■ *':'■>■. ■■'■^i*- Wi SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. Pabt n. p*BT n. •■1 y-T'TFT''^''^^-^'*" " "H^ 1-1 u) iSS I rH pH rHgt M§l Book II. . \h HYDROLOGY. I ir forth in large bubbles, and forma permanent springa. In the country of Modena, we find everywhere, at the depth of twenty Tarda, a bea of clay five feet thick ; which bemg pierced, the water apouts up with conBiderable force— indicating that it is connected with a reservoir which stands at a higher level. There is a district m the interior of Algiers, where the inhabitants, after diggmg to a depth of about 900 &thoDU, invariably come to water, which flows up in such abundance that they call it the subterranean sea. Lakes which receive much water, but have no outlet, were believed necessarily to com* municate with the ocean by some subterraneous channel The great distance of some of them from tiie ocean seemed to stand in the way of such an explanation ; and doubts might still have remained, were it not for the discoven of the remarkable ikct, that some of the princi(>al lakes of this description have their surmces far depressed below the level of the ocean. Thus the surface of the Caspian Bea, which is the largest known lake, and without an outlet, was found by Engelhardt a!nd Parrot to be 334 feet beneath the level of the Black Sea. A similar depression has been ascertained of the level of the &mous Dead Sea, in Judea, which is also a lake without an outlet Its surface is below that of the Mediterra- nean in its neighbourhood, and consequently still farther below tlie higher level of tlie Red Sea. The true explanation as to the consumption of the waters of such lakes seems to be, that it is carried off by evaporation. The climates in which the two last-mentioned are situated accord well with this supposition. The level of these lakes, however, varies with the weather, and with the abundance or scarcity of the waters discharged into them by rivers at particular seasons of the year. The variation in the height of the Caspian Sea is from four to eight feet ; but the level, at a particular point of its uiore, must be affected by the direction of the wind, and probably by a very trifling tide. When the banks of lakes are very porous, they cannot fiul, during very dry weather, to absorb a large portion of tlie water, and to throw it off by evaporation. The depth of great lakes has been seldom ascertained with much exactness. The gene- ral depth of the Caspian Sea is firom 60 to 70 fathoms ; but this increases towards the south end to such a degree, that no bottom can be found with a line of 380 fathoms. In lakes, aa in the ocean, the slope of the bank is continued downward for a considerable way below the water; that is, deep lakes are to be found in mountainous districts, and shallow marshy ones in flatter countries. The depth of Loch Ness, in the Hiehlands of Scotland, is in soma places 130 fiithoms, which is four times the mean depth of the German Sea; and its bottom IS actually 30 flithoms below the deepest part of that sea, between the latitudes of Dover and Inverness.*" The Lake of Geneva attains the still greater depth of 161 fathoms. Many other lakes are known to be exceedingly deep, without the amount being ascertained. Seve- ral have passed for ages as bottomless ; but uiis opinion now obtains little credit. It is more Srobable, tliat most lakes are daily getting more shallow, firom being filled up with mud or ebris. The temperature of the surface of lakes depends on the clunate and season ; but at the bottom of deep lakes it undergoes little or no change throughout the year, and approaches to that which corresponds to the maximum density of water, which diflTerent writers estimate variously, from 39" P. to 42.5" ; but 40" is most commonly received. In Loch Catrine and Loch Lomond, the temperature, at all depths below 40 fathoms, is 41° ; but the mean for the climate is 47°. The deep lakes of Thun and Zug, in Switzerland, have a temperature of 42° at the depth of 15 brasses. Thun was 41.5° at the depth of 105 brasses, while the surface was 60° ; and Zug, 41" at 38 brasses, with surface 58°. The bottom of the Lake of Geneva has a temperature of 42° : that of the Lago Sabatino at Rome is 44.5", at a depth of 80 fathoms. Tepid springs may, in some cases, keep up the temperature, when they occur at the bottom of lakes. From what we mentioned of the Caribbean Sea, it does not appear that the climate has much influence ; and yet most powerful springs of fresh water are known to boil up in its shallower parts. Such springs probably approach to the mean temperature of the climate; or, perhaps, those who contend for an uicrease of heat with the depUi of the solid strata would claim for them a higher temperature. Deep lakes almost never fi-eeze, except in a very cold climate ; because tiie whole body of water must cool below 40° before congelation could commence. Accordingly, neiUier Loch Ness nor its effluent river of the same name are ever frozen over. The qualities of the watera of lakes are various, accordmg to the nature of the substances with which they may be mixed or contammated. The principal distinctions, in this respect, are freshj saline, and alkaline. Lakes which receive much nresh water, and have a copious efllux, are almost always fl*esh ; but those which lose much of their water by evaporation may be slightly saline, especially if the neighbouring soil abound in salt When lakes have no outlet, uiey are invariably saline. To account ror this, two reasons have been given, which are quite compatible with each other. The one is, that salt lakes having no outlet are concentrated portions of the waters of the deluge, retained by the hollows of the earUi'a surface ; and that all other lakes were originally such, and saline ; but tiiose have had tiieii * Vide Stevenioi^ Wernerion Menioin, and Edinburgh Pbil. Journal. "r"''' 804 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. Part II Book Bait washed out and carried to the ocean, which are travened by riven or other fireeh wator The other opinion ia, that the salt in lakes has come flrom springs, or been washed from the noil of the adjacent country by means of the rain and rivers: for such lakes are most abun- dant where the soU contauis saline matter ; and where lakes only lose water by evaporation, the vapour goes off fresh and leaves the salt behind. The Dead Sea is the saltest of all known lakes, and appears to have been so for upwards of 4000 years ; for in the book of Genesis it is called, oy way of distinction, the " Salt Sea," even at a time when the adjacent plain was as noted for fertility as it is now for barrenness. The waters of this lake are in a state of saturation, containing about eight times as much salt as those of the ocean. The salt must be accumulating in beds at its bottom ; for the rivor Jordan, which is brackish, necessarily carries in more. Masses of bitumen frequently float on iJie surfkce, and seem to rise firom the bottom of the lake. The same thing occurs in other Ablatio lakes, some of which are impregnated with borax. In the island of Trinidad, there is a lake which pro. duces an enormous quantity of bitumen fit for naval purposes. Some lakes are both saline and alkaline, as is the case with a series of lakes in Lower Egvpt These are called tiie Natron Lakes, from their abounding in soda, which is there called trona and nattwt, the nt'fre of the Sacred Writings. Lakes appear to have been much more numerous at a former period than at present, and to have occupied a large proportion of the surface of the land. Traces of their existence occur everywhere. Many of them have been filled up with dibris, and become level plains traversed by a river; some have been drained by the gradual deepening of their outlets; or both causes have often operated togeUier. Others have got vent through cracks caused by earthquakes, or by the subsiding of a part of the basin. The kingdom of Hungary is eup. posed to have been originally the basin of a lake ; and some go so far as to allege ^he same of the Mediterranean Sea. Geological phenomena also show that new lakes arise, and old ones disappear, during those great risings and sinkings of the land which have taken place during former periods, and even now are not without example. There are several modes in which new lakes may be formed. In hot tropical climates, many large lakes are formed during the rainy season, and entirely disappear on a change of weather; but such hardly deserve the name, being rather land-floods, tiiough they would be permanent lakes in a colder country. We have already mentioned the formation of a visible or open lake from the felling in of the roof of a subterranean one. When a mountain falls asunder, it often happens that it stops up a neighbouring river and valley, and forms a lake. But the water of a river obstructed in this manner will always overflow, and can scarcely foil to regain its former level, either by wearing away a cut for itself above, or by under- mining Uie ruins beneath. Shallow marshy lakes are frequently formed by the surplus waters of rivers detained on flat ground by an accumulation of mud. Ice and snow some- times accumulate in narrow passes between mountains, so as to obstruct and make the water stagnant, and form a temporary lake, increasing perhaps for years, till at length the pressure of the water is augmented to such a degree as to burst the icy barrier. The consequences are sometimes dreadful. So great a discharge of water and ice, precipitated from the mountains, tears up not only alluvial substances, but fi-equently portions of rocks, which are scattered over the plain below. Thus villages and fertile fields are almost instantly con- verted into deep hollows and heaps of rubbish. These cavities perhaps continue filled with water, forming small lakea There are certain lakes which disappear and re-appear periodically, without regard to the rainy season. Such are supposed to be filled and emptied in a manner similar to the cavities of intermitting springs, or to communicate with some subterranean lake which undergoes such periodical changes. That any lakes, remote from the sea, should communi- cate with it under ground, so as to rise and fall with the tide, is very improbable. In Portugal there is a small lake near Beja, which emits a loud noise on the approach of a storm. Other lakes appear agitated by the disengagement of gas. Near Boleslaw, in Bohemia, a lake of unfathomable depth sometimes emits blasts of wind which raise up pieces of ice. Some of the Scottish lakes, and the Wetter in Sweden, experience violent agitations even during serene weather. A coincidence of dates has given ground for believ* ing that these agitations are connected with earthquakes in distant countries. Sect. IV. — Rivert. The origin and pro^fress of rivers have been compared by Pliny to the life of man. "Its beginnings are insignificant, and its in&ncy is frivolous ; it plays among the flowers of a meadow, it waters a garden, or turns a little mill. Gathering strength, in its youth it becomes wild and impetuous. Impatient of the restraints which it still meets wiUi in the hollows among the mountains, it is restless and fretful ; quick in its turning, and unsteady in its course. Now it is a roaring cataract, tearing up and overturning whatever opposes lis progress, and it shoots headlong down from a rock ; then it becomes a sullen and gloomy pool, buried in the bottom of a glen. Recovering breath by repose, it again dashes along, till tired of uproar and mischief, it quits all that it has swept along, and leaves the opening Part tl other fresh waior 1 woahed from the tea are most abun- ter by evaporation, I the saltest of all for in the book of when the adjacent ' this lake are in a ' the ocean. The vhich is brackish, Burfkce, and seem itic lakes, some of a lake which pro- [>f lakes in Lower da, which is there m at present, and of their existence Bcome level plains >f their outlets; or I cracks caused by f Hungary is gup> to alleg'e the same ikes arise, and old I have taken place tropical climates, lar on a change of igh they would be mationof a visible n a mountain falls and forms a lake, and can scarcely K)ve, or by under- jd by the surplus i and snow some- id make tlie water mgth the pressure ["he consequences ■pitated from the rocks, which are ost instantly con- ntinue filled with vithout regard to ner similar to the [lean lake which should commnni- improbable. In he approach of a ear Boleslaw, in which raise up tperience violent rround forbeliev- !S. e of man. "Its the flowers of a in its youth it leets witii in the ig, and unsteady whatever opposes illen and gloomy n dashes along, ives the opening Boor IT. Y ' HYDROLOGY. 206 r; of tJie valley strewed with the rejected waste. Now quitting its retirement, it comes abroad into the world, journeying with more prudence and discretion, through cultivated fields, rielding to circumstances, and winding round what would trouble it to overwhelm or remove, t passes through the populous cities, ohd all the busy haunts of man, tendering its services on every side, and becomes the support and ornament of the country. Increased by numerous alliances, and advanced in its course, it becomes ^ve and statelv in its motions, loves peace and quiet, and in majestic silence rolls un its mighty waters till it is laid to rest m the vast abyss." The sun and the host of heaven have, in all ages and nations, been obiects of sincere worship. Next to them, the rivers seem to have attracted tho grateful acKnowledgements of the inhabitants of the neighbouring countries. They have every- where been considered a sort of tutelar deities, and each little district, every retired valley, had its river god, who was preferred to the others. The expostulation of Naaman the Syrian, who was offended with the prophet for enjoming him to wash in the river Jordan, was the natural eflusion of tliis attachment " What (said he), are not Abona and Pharpar, rivers of Damascus, more excellent than all the waters of Judeal Might I not wash in them and be clean 1 so he went away wroth." In those countries particularly where the labours of the husbandman and shepherd depended on what took place in a &r distant country by the falling of periodical rains, or the melting of the collected snows, the Nile, the Ganges, the Indus, were the sensible agents of nature in procuring to the inhabit- uits of their fertile banks all their abundance, and they became objects of grateful adoration. Their sources were sought for even by conquering princes, and when found were worshipped with the most affectionate devotion. These rivers preserve to this day the fond adoration of the inlmbitants of the countries through which they pass, and their waters are still held sacred. The term river is applied to any large current of water which is not in the ocean or its branches, and which may discharge itself into the ocean, into lakes, marshes, or into other rivers ; for the waters of some rivers never reach the ocean ; as is the case with tlie Wolgo, the Jordan, and others, which discharge themselves into salt lakes, having usually the name of seas. When the atmosphere supplies a country with more water than it has an oppovtu- nity of carrying off again by evaporation, the surplus either penetrates through the sur&ce or collects into small streams, which, afterwards uniting an(^ receiving the water of springs, gradually form larger and larger currents, which, if allowed to proceed increasing, at .engta Become rivers. Some rivers proceed from lakes or marshes, but none come immediately from the sea. They invariably occupy the lowest parts of the districts from which their waters are derived, and these districts are called their basins. The basins are usually boimded by high lands, and sometimes by mountains. They form natural divisions in physiced geography. Those of the Rhone, Garonne, Loire, Seine, and part of the basin of the Rhine, comprehend the greatest part of France. In some cases, the boundaries of basins are not well defined ; as wnere the surfiice becomes flat or marshy. This is the case between the basins of the Amazon and Ormoco, which are connected by a natural and navigable communication. In Europe, the sources of the Dwina, of the Niemen, and of the Borysthenes, are nearly united in a marshy plain. It is evident that the deep ravines through which rivers flow could not m many instances be the work of the rivers themselves; because the margins of such ravines are often higher than other places of the district, through which the rivers ought to have flowed before such valleys were cut, as some fancy, out of solid rock. A more rational explanation is, that a crack or rent, — the effect of some earthquake or subsidence, — had taken place ; and that the water, getting through such rent, had gradually widened it by the attrition of its sand and gravel : the still more corrodmg action of the weather would mate- rially assist in widening the upper part of the ravine. Many rivers appear to have been at first a series of lakes and cataracts alternately, through which the water was conveyed from higher to lower ground. The bottoms of these lakes are gradually filled up with debris, the outlets are by degrees deepened, or the basins rent through as above described. The lakes at length become dry plains, traversed by the river; Uie cataracts, clefts or deep ravines ; and the river acquires, upon the whole, a pretty uniform descent There are traces of these changes everywhere : the parallel roads of Lochaber, as tliey are called, seem to be nothing else than the horizontal shelves with which lakes are usually surrounded. From these it appears that the valleys of Glen Gluov, Glen Roy, and Glen Spean, have formerly been the basins of lakes, which are now cut through and emptied. Three distinct basins are observed in the course of the Rhme : first, that of the Lake of Constance ; tlie second reaches from Basle to Bmgen ; and the third from this to the sea. They are separated fi-om each other by rocky straits. In many coses, the subsidence of the water, at successive stages, can be traced from one level to another, by means of the diflbrent horizontal shelves still visible on the sides of the valleys. Sir Thomas Lauder remarked this, in the above named glens in the Highlands of Scotland. In the valley of the Rhine, Professor Playfair dlBtin. guished tour or five such terraces, at the successive heights of twentjr, thirty, or forty feet aliove one another. The same tiling occurs on the banks in the great chain of North American tftkes which are not yet empty. The larger rivers are, their fall or declivity is generally so much the smaller. The reason 200 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. Part Tl. of thia is, that large rivew necessarily occupy the lowest parts of the country ; and also, that there are no materials of which beds of rivers are ordinarily formed, that could have resisted the action of a ffreat river, having a rapid fall, during the lapse of ages. In the last 200 leagues of the Amaions, the fell is only 10.5 feet; and in the 3000 miles above that, the mean fall is only five inches per mile. The Seine, between Valvins and Sevres, has a fall of about 0.6 inches per mile. The Loire, between Briaire and Orleans, has only one foot in 13,596. Between the Himalaya chain and the sea, the Ganges has onlv four inches per mile. The entire fall of the Wolga is 957 French feet, or five inches per mile. Notwithstanding the rapidity of the Rhine, it has only a fiill of four feet per mile between Schaffhauscn ana Strasburg ; and of two feet between that and Schenckenschantz. Sometimes a river falling into anotner with great rapidity, and at an acute angle, will at the time of flood force the latter to flow back fat a short way. Such is sometimes the effect of the Arve on the Rhone, which is forced back into the Lake of Geneva. The bore is a phenomenon which occurs on some great rivers, which enter the sea with considerably velocity, and experience a sudden check or obstruction fh)m the flow of the tide ; the consequence is, that an enormous wave, known by the term bnre, and various other names, is generated and sent backward or up the river with great velocity, to the no small dpneer of the navigation. The principle on which this phenomenon depends is nearly allied to that if the hydraulic ram : at the spring tides, it appears of a correspondingly greater magnitude. In the Amazons, the height of^ this wave is estimated at 180 feet Rivers are subject to inundation. In the Sacred Writings, some allusions are made to the overflowings of the Nile ; but those of the Jordan are distinctly mentioned, as covering all the banks during harvest, and expelling the lions which lurked in the thickets, so as to drive tJhem infuriated through tiie country. Modern travellers, however, assert that this river does not now overflow ; and they allege as a reason, that its channel is become deep enough to hold the floods. It is as likely that the banks have been raised by the deposition of mud and the growth uf vegetables : perhaps the fall of snow and rain upon Mount Leba- non, fipom which the floods came, is not so abundant since its forests of^ cedars were cut down ; for some travellers are of opinion that this river must, firom the accounts of the an- cients, have been formerly of much greater magnitude, at all seasons of the yeai, than it now appears to be. The excessive rains which fall in tropical regions, during a certain season of tite year, occasion the inundation or overflowing of the rivers which originate in the torrid zone. The following is nearly the general rulo for the rainy season ; viz., that periodical rains 3veiywhere prevail from the equator to the parallel of latitude over which the sun is vertical. Humboldt mentions as another pretty correct and still more general rule, apply- ing likewise to the firigid zone, that the season of floods falls within four months of midsum- mer. The floods of rivers originating in high latitudes proceed principally from the melt- ing of the ice and snow on the mountains, by means of the summer's heat. Such floods are violent, but of short duration, and occur in the four months preceding the summer solstice. Some of these rivers have two, or perhaps three, successive floods, corresponding to the seasons of thaw in the low ground, on the sides of mountains, and on their summits. The ancients were quite aware that some rivers derived their floods from the sources we have just mentioned ; but the overflowings of the Nile, in a country remote from both rain and snow, excited their surprise. The mystery was, however, dispelled, when once it was known that the Nile principally draws its waters from the tropical regions, where the exces- sive periodical rains cause other rivers to overflow. The Nile begins to swell in June, and continues to do so till the middle of August, when it has reached its maximum heiglit of from 24 to 28 feet With the exception of a few elevated spots, and some of the higher accumulations of alluvial matter, on the margin of the river, the whole of the Delta and the long valley of Egypt is then covered with water. The rising of the Ganges, which is partly owing to tiie melting of snow and partly to the rainy season, commences in April, and, like tlie Nile, attains its maximum of about 81 or 32 feet in the middle of August Tropical rivers which move parallel to the equator spread their waters pretty uniformly over the low ground : such is the case with the Orinoco and the Senegal. In rivers which descend from great elevations, or move at right angles to the equator, the action of the tropical rains is extremely unequal ; for the surplus watf^r only overflows the low and flat districts. This is exactly what happens with the Nile : but it is sufficient here to mention the general princi- ples ; as the inundations of particular ri 'ers will be described along with their respective countries. Waterfells, or cascades and cataracts, jxe often formed by rivers in descending from pri mitive mountams into secondary countries. Compact durable rocks are requisite for pro ducing a permanent eflect of this kind : such are the cataracts of the Nile, of the Gange«^ and various other rivers. Some cataracts, like those of Tunguska, in Siberia, have gradu- ally lost their elevation by the wearing away of the rocks, and have now only a rapid de« seent According to Humboldt, the height of the great cataract of the Rio de Bogota, in South America, long estimate*' at 1500 feet, is al»ut 800 feet ; that of Staubbach is about ■<- X^i Part T1. intiy ; and also, that ; could have rcaisted 1. In tho last 200 liles above that, tlio id Sevres, has a full has only one foot in four inches per mile. !. Notwithstanding n Schaifhauscn and times a river falling le of flood force the I Arve on the Rhone, i enter the sea with the'flowof the tide: various other names, the no small dpnofer nearly allied to that ' greater magnitude. ions are made to the ned, as covering all he thickets, so as to ver, assert that this inel is become deep !ed by the deposition n upon Mount Leba- 5 of cedars were cut accounts of the an- of the yeai, than it season of tlie year, ! in the torrid zone. that periodical rains ;r which the sun is general rule, upply- r months of midsum- mlly from the melt- at. Such floods are the summer solstice. lorresponding to the »r summits. from the sources we note from both rain I, when once it was ns, where the exces- t swell in June, and maximum hciglit of some of the higher if the Delta and the iges, which is partly s in April, and, like ■ August. Tropical formly over the lo^v which descend from he tropical rains is it distncts. Tliis is the general princi- th their respective sscending from pr» J requisite for pro ile, of the Ganget^ beria, have gradu- iw only a rapid de« Rio de Bogota, in Staubbach is about Boot n. HYDROLOGY. A> 207 000 feet. The small river Ache, in Bavaria, which riaea in the cavern of the fflaoi«r ot Mount Tauron, runs through the valley of Achenthal, and, after reaching the Gulf of Tau« ron, throws itsolf over an elevation of 2000 feet. It has five great falls; the last of which forms a moat magnificent arch of waters, which is resolved into spray before it reaches the ground. The noise of the waters is so terrible, that it is heard at the distance of more thu a league ; and the current of air produced by tho descent of the water is so violent, that it drives back those who attempt to advance towards thr: gulf: it is necessary, Uierefore, to approach it by walking backwards. The fall of Garispa in India is 1000 feet. One of the most considerable known falls takes place on the river Niagara, which connects Lakes E^ie and Ontario. Tho river here, just before the &11, is divided by Goat Island into two parts: the one, 600 feet broad, falls to tho depth of 150 feet ; while the other, 85 yards broad, &lle 164 feet in perpendicular height In Scotland the most considerable fiiUs are those on the river Clyde, near Lanark, where the river is precipitated down three successive precipices of red sandstone. In the upper fall, that of Bonniton, the whole river throws tself over a precipice 30 feet high : lower down, at Corra Linn, it is precipitated from a height of 84 feet The lowest fall, that of Stonebyres, consists of three stages, being broken by two ipn- iecting rocks ; its fall is 80 feet In tho course of the river Foyers, on the side of Loch Ness, there are two falls ; the upper fall is 40 feet high, the lower 00 feet In the miner- alogical report of Lapland, presented to tho Swedish government, the discovery of a great waterfall in the river Lulea is particularly mentioned. It is said to be one eighth of a mile broad, and to fall 400 feet; if the mile be German, as is most likely (equal to four and a half English miles), the breadth exceeds half an English mile. CHAPTER m. ,. . ,, , ;;,^^, GEOGNOSY. This branch of natural history makes us acquainted with the structure, materials, relative position, and mode of formation, of the great mineral masses of which Uie crust of the earth is composed. In conveymg to our readers a short view of this important subject, we shall adopt the following arrangement : — . ^ I. Describe the physiognomy of the earth's surface. ■'.' n. (^ve an account of the action of water and air on that surface, III. Give an account of the action of volcanoes and carthc^uakes on the earth's surface. IV. Descnhe the different structures observable in the solid mass of the globe. V. Define and describe the different classes and species of rocks of which the crust of the earth is composed. Sect. I. — Physiognomy of the EartVt surface. Dry land. The dry land, or the land above the level of the sea, is arranged into masses of various magnitudes and forms. It is not equally distributed ; for a much larger portion of it occurs to the north than to the south of the equator ; and the difference in thin respect is 80 great, that the southern half of the globe is principally water, while the northern is chiefly land. About the middle of the last century, it was asserted that a great continent must exist towards the south pole, in order to counterbalance the mass of land in the north* em hemisphere ; but by the voyages of Cook and Bellinghausen, and particularly the late enter- prise of Weddel, it has been shown that in hi?h southern latitudes, in place of a continent, there are but a few groups of islands. The absence of a continent near the south pole does not itself prove that there is less land there than in the north, since it is possible that the land in general may be only rather more depressed in the south, and consequently the ocean is spread more extensively over the surface of the earth in that quarter. The dry land is arranged into two grand divisions named worlds, viz. the Old World and the New World. The Old World, in the eastern hemisphere, extends from S. W. to N. E., and comprehends the three continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa. The New World, in the western hemisphere, extends from N. to S., and is composed of two continents, viz. North and South America, The general direction of the land in the two worlds is different In America, it is from N. to S. : in the Old World, it is S. W. to N. E : and, if we omit Africa, it is almost parallel with the equator. The longest straight line that can be drawn on the Old World com mences on tiie western coast of Africa, from about Cape Verd, and extends to Behring' Strait, continunt, as in Holland, the cout is low and sandy, and the sand is occasionally blown into bills. Caves, Thoso are cavities o*" greater or loss nxtont, which aro either open to day, u in tho cuHn of thn ina^iiHcont caves in tho Islo of Isla, ttiose in Arran, thotto near VVcinysa on the couMt of Fifoshiro, Sic, when they are named external or open caves ; or they are more rr less concoaled in the interior of tlie rocks in which thoy are contained, as Maclean's Cave in the Ulo of Egg, and many caves in the limestone of Derbyshire : such are named internal caves. SuBSKOT. 2. — Inequalities qf the Surface of the Submarine Land. The bottom of the sea, like tho surfaco of tho dry land, varies in form. In some seas thero occur flats and plains ranging to a considorablo extent, and near to tlie surfkce of the water, ii)rming what are callcf! lifi^i- •Scotland, aiwJ Si/'ytty, aro effbcU of tho destroying power of tho wavoa of th« u:oan, con- 1 with thu gfiAwintf »rtion of tho woathor. Un tnoM rocky cooata whvro tho atrata aro I 'lual hardaow, tM K>fl^r portloni, and also part of tho aurroundin^; harder maas, are roiiK -ciX i/y llio action of tho wul'Ra; and tiiua ira-cavei aro formcil. Tue water* of the ocean ollen »)ao catmo droadflil rava^ca in low countries exposed to their fliry. Hollnnd Airnishofl inn»);, trtrikingf examples of ita dovastatinj; pow t. In the year I'Ji!) the watvm of the ocean, ugituled by a violent tempest, inuuJiited tho country •, tlio Rhino. «\ ilon at tho time by extruonlinary floods, and retained at a ;;.pat hci^'ht, partly by tho watoru ul the ocean, and partly by tho wind blowing in a contrary direction to ita rounic, spread over tho neigh twuring country : but, tlie tempest hoving suddenly subsided, Uw highly elevated watera rt Tjd, with such velocity and force as to carry with them a considerable portion of the soil, and loft in ita place the sea now named the Zuvder Sta. In tho year 1421, a great inundation submerged the southern part of the province or Holland, drowned 60,000 persons, and on retiring formed the Biei-Boo$. The action of the aoa on tho submarine land is also worthy of notice. Stevenson apcaki of Bgitiitions of tho sea reaching to a depth of upwards of 2(X> feet; stating that, at a con- sideniblo depth tho power of tho ocean is so considerable oa to break rocks in nieces, ur.' throw them upon tho coosta in masHcs, of varioiiH sizes and forms. Thus ho says, ' numnmiir. proofk of the sea being disturbed to a considerable depth have also occurred since the orC' tion of tho Bell-Rock Light-house, situated upon a sunken rock in tho seo, twelve 'min? off Arbroath, in Porfiirshire. Some drifl-atonet of large dimensions, mcasuri ig up" i i- of thirty cubic feet, or more than two tons weight, have, during storms, been oftcr ti, ,v u upon tho rock iVom tho deep water. These largo bouldor-stonea are so familiar to tJio light- house keepers at this station, as to bo by them termed travellers.* On thu coast of tho main land of Shetland, particularly on tho west coast, wo have observed many striking displays of the power of tho waves in moving enormous masses of rocks. Tho currents that traverse the ocean, like rivers on tho dry land, probably scoop out beds for themselves, and carry awav, and often to distant places, great (|uantitie8 of abraded matter. Tho Kulf stream, and other branches of the great equinoctial current, may act powerfully in this way ; and tho same may be the case with the currenta in other seas, and thoso tiiat enter mediterranean seas and wind round them, oa tho Baltic and Medi- terranean. (4.) Action 0^ water by its own weight. Water by its own weight contributes very much to the degradation of the surfiicc of the globe. Sometimes great masses of rock, particu- larly those of a soil and poro-j' luture, imbibe much water, by which their weight is in- creased, and thus occasions br ' .king and rending, and slipping of masses often of enormous magnitude. Clay beds sonietimcH become soft from the percolation of rain or snow water from the superincumbent utrata. Wlien this takes place the superincumbent beds loso their support, and if tho clay and superimposed rocks i^ro inclined at a considerable angle, the rocks in vast masses separate, and slide down into tho lower part of the country. The fall of the Rossberg, in Switzerland, in September 1802, may be mentioned as an example of this phenomenon. This mountain (Rossberg) is 5193 feet high, and lies opposite to the Rigiberg, which rises 6182 feet above the level of the sea. The Rossberg is composed of molasse, with beds of clay, and all inclined at an angle of 45° to 50°. It is said that the clay in some of the beds was much softened by the percolating water, and the thick supep incumbent beds of molasse, in this way losing their support, were separated from the inclmed and soft surface underneath, and slid into the valley below. This avalanche of debris and mud overwhelmed several villages, and destroyed from 800 to 000 persons. In the year 1714, the west side of the Diablerets, in the Valais, sepsrt^ d, .ii.d in its course downwards covered the neighbouring country with its ruins for two .u'lc. m ^. ngth and breadt'i; the immense blocks of stones and I japs of rubbish intern .ru'd ^^ > se of the ,, and lakes were thus formed. In the year 1618, the onc( '■> .ul.'-'ril)' lown of Pleurs, m the Grisons, with the neighbouring village of Schelano, wtiu overwhelmed by a vast mass of rock, which had imbibed much water, and separated from tho south side of'^the mountain of Corto, ^5.) effects of the freezing of water. In those regions of the earth where the freezing and thawing of water takes place, the expansive and destroying action of ice is often dis- T.layxl on a grand scale. In the history of^ northern countries we meet with many accounts '■ t' • noises and rendings of rocks, occasioned hy the expansion of water during its freezing ' >Jio tuvi .a of rocki*. Terrible disasters take place m alpine countries by the bursting cii ffc'i >A' great masses of rock, split by the freezing of the water m rents. !.) Destroying cr'f's of ice and snow. Water in the form of ice causes considerable ohor.feit on the surfi'.:' 11' of oftop t', . ' I upon I liar to tiio liglit- I coast of tho main f striking displays }1y scoop out beds jititics of abraded current, may act nts in other seas, I Baltic and Medi- Tibutea very mncb of rock, particu- heir weight is in* often of enormous ain or snow water ent beds luso their lerable angle, the ountry. The M Ls an example of 3 opposite to the g is composed of is said that the the thick supep from the inclined che of debris and ions. In the year ourse downwards and breadth -, the of the ., and of Pleurs, in the 1 ^ a vast mass or the mountain rhere the fVeezing )f ice is often dis- th many accounts uring its freezing !8 by the bursting uses considerable lasses by rivers, it he lower country J ereby torn oil and >ice8 on the coast, For the breakmg fluot II. 0E00N08V. 6 I np and mo/ing of largo masiios ot mk, ono of the most poworibl engines employed by nature aro tho glaciers. Thoco iiniiNtcH uf '"<>ngonlnd water ami snow, in thoir course ilowiv ward, pusli boforo them enormoiir quantiin s 'I" hrDkon rocky matter, which form gr«>«t aiouiids, named moraine. Sdheot. '.' ' hemical tliKlmifing l^fecU qf Water. Atmospheric water enters into fissures of oicks in a pure state, but inmies forth again iiioro or loss impregnated with mineral mntters of various k'tiils abraded from the ■'•rat* through which tlioy pniM. Tho most abunilnnt substance brought uu* in this way iVom the interior of the crust of tho narth m lime, whii i is de|)osited f.'om tlicse i il' urooiis walcm in tho form of tufik. Many of tho excavations in liinoittdno aro partly owing to this defitroying efibct of water. Spring waters, in passing through beds of gypsum and rock salt, dissolva a portion of them, and in this way sometimes occasion consiilerabl'' changes in the interior tint' the depth of nearly twelve feet, and tho Indus, during its period of inundation, extends thirty or forty miles fVom its banks. This flood water carries with it muddy and other matter and deposits them upon the land. Gerard says that tho annual floods of the Nile had raisi 1 the surface of Upper Egypt about six feet four inches, English measure, since the comm< iicement of the Christian era, or four inches in a century. In other countries exteuKi u deposits, extending along the sides of rivers, are formed by the overflowing of their waters. Where rivers enter lakes and the sea, they form triangular pieces of land named deltas, %m their resemblance in form to tho triangular-shaped Greek letter ^. These deltas are more strongly marked in lakes tlian in nearly inclosed seas, as the Mediterranean ; and in thcsu Heas than in the ocean, where tho depositions are much interrupted by currents. Tho m( l &mou8 in history of these deltas is that of the Niio. This delta lias been considerably enlarged since the time of Herodotus, but not to tlie extent stated by many writers. At no groat distance from the shore of the delta the depth of the Mediterranean is about sev' :ity4wo feet, and farther out the sea suddenly deepens to 2000 feet, — a depth very probabh beyond reach of the delta, and which may bo conjectured to bo tho original depth of thin part of tho Mediterranean sea. The deltas of the other rivers that flow into the Mcditer-anean, as the Rhone and the Po, exhibit phenomena similar to those observed in tho delta of ^gypt ; and by their C' msiderable extent, and annual growth, furnish amplo proofs of the t -mmg power of rivers, and of the resemblance of alluvial matters to strata of an older date The groat seo-dcltu-, or those formed where rivers flow into the ocean, are sometimes on b rreat scale, as is the case witli the Ganges, of which a most interesting account has been -iven by Rennel and some otlier writers. A full description of this magnificent delta, as ai so of the vast deposites at the mouths of the Mississippi, Orinoco, and other great rivers, w.ll be given in tho body of this work. At present, however, we may remark, that the quantity of matter car rietl into tho Boa by all the rivers on the globe is very great, and fully as consuler- able as that stated by some authors, who have been held as exaggerating the amount of this earthy matter carried from the dry land to the shores of the ocean. The alluvial mater brought down by rivers not only forms great tracts of land at their mouths, but also, throui^h the agency of currents, assistea by the waves of the ocean, gives riee to extensive tracts of low and flnt laiid, which extend along tho coasts. Dowif Wh^n the sea-coast is low, and the bottom consists of sand, the waves push this sand towards the yhore, where, at every reflux of the tide, it becomes partially dried, and the winds, which often blow fix>m the sea, drift up some portions of it upon the beach. By this forming action of the ocean, sandy flats and downs, or rangss of sand-hilla, are formed along the coast. Wli«yatSSiaWI., iaM:WW W HM |P WiJv '? 212 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. 1) ■! named the Granary of Moray, has been depopulated, and rendered utterly unprriductive by the sand-ilood. This barren waste may be characterised as hilly ; the accumulations of sand composing these hilla frequently varying in their height, and likewise in their situations. The sand liills of Barry, at the mouth of the Tay, composed of blown sand, are from 200 to 800 feet high. Belhelvie links, in Aberdeenshire, and the extensive sandy tracts in the Shetland and Western Islands, are of the same description. These blowing sands some- times block up the mouths of rivers and rivulets : thus, many years ago, the mouth of the river Findhom in Moray having become blocked up with blowuig sand, it cut out for itself its present channel, which conducts it by a more direct course to the sea. In consequence of this, the old town of Findhom had changed its situation from the east to the west side of the river, and its site has since been covered by the sea. The lake at Stratlibeg, which covers a square mile of country, on the coast of Aberdeenshire, about ten miles north from Peterhead, was formed about 170 years ago, by the choking up by blowing sand of a small stream that fell into the sea. Tliese barriers sometimes give way, when the tract is again, for a time, covered by the sea ; a new barrier again rises, and the sea is excluded a second time. These operations, on a great scale, would afford alternation of productions of the land and of the sea. The sands of the African deserts may be sea sands, or land sands, or both together. Dr. Oudney, Major Denham, and Captain Clapperton have added to our knowledge of the blowing sands of the African deserts. The coloured engraving of the sand-hills of the African desert in Denham, Oudney, and Clapperton's Narrative, is a striking and in- teresting representation of the form of the moving sand-hills of Africa. Sand banks. The bed of the German Ocean supports many accumulations of sand, called sand-lMnks. One of these extends from the Frith of Forth, in a north-easterly direction, to a distance of 110 miles, while another, the Dogger Bank, extends, north and south, for upwards oC 350 miles. The average height of mese submarine sand-banks is estimated at about se ^enty-eight feet: the whole surface of the various shoals in this sea laid down in charts, according to Stevenson, is equal to about one-fiflh of the whole area of the German Ocean, or about one-third of the whole extent of England and Scotland. These banks are composed of quartz sand, varying in the size of the grain, from coarse to fine, which is abundantly mixed .vith broken shells and fragments of corals. These banks aro conjectured to owe their origin to the action of currents and the tides. SuBSECT. 4. — Chemical forming Effects of Water. (1.) Springs. Many spring waters, afler dissolving, by means of the superabundant carbonic acid with which they are impregnated, calcareous matter abraded from limestone rocks, or rocks containing lime, allow the carbonate of lime to crystallize, in consequence of the escape of the acid, and in this way form depositions of calc-sinter, or calcareous alabaster, on the roofs, sides, and floors of caves; or fill up fissures in rocks, and form veins; or when flowing over the surface of rocks, form, if the sur&ce is horizontal, horizontal beds — it inclined, inclined beds— of calcareous sinter and calcareous tuffa. These beds sometimes extend very far, and with a thickness of 200 or 300 feet. The water of such springs, when collected into hollows so as to form lakes, oflen deposits vast quantities of calcareous sinters and tuffas; and hence such lakes, when emptied, present extensive calcareous deposits. The travertine employed at Rome for buildmg is a lake or spring calcareous deposit of sinter and tufKi ; and the town of Guancavelica in South America is built of a compact cal- careous tuffa from the calcareous springs in the neighbourhood. In the mountain limestone districts in England, olso in the lias districts both in England and Scotland, the roofs, walls, and floors of caves are often elegantly ornamented by numerous varieties of calcareous sinter. In Persia, as mentioned by Sir John Malcolm, there are great deposits of a very fine calc sinter, which is extensively employed for omamuntal purposes ; and in the marshes of the great plain of the vast circular valley of Hungary, according to Beudant, there is a constant deposition of horizontal strata of calcareous tuflk and sinter, which are so hard as to be used for building, all the houses of Czlea being constructed of these minerals. The pea-stone, a beautiful calcareous carbonate, is formed in very considerable abundance from the waters of calcareous hot springs, as those at Carlsbad in Bohemia. As these calcareous springs often flow into rivers, and these rivers terminate in the sea, it is evident that in this way a vast quantity of carbonate of lime must reach the ocean where it will be deposited in the various forms of sinter, tuffa, and limestone. The Geysers, or hot springs of Iceland, and those of St. Michael's in the Azores, deposit on the dry land vast quantities of siliceous sinter. This siliceous mineral, which is sometimes like opal, although generally pure, is not always so, being occasionally intermixed with other earths, and thus giving rise to par- ticular mineral substances. Such springs also pour their waters into the ocean, and even rise from the bottom of the sea sometimes a considerable way upwards, or even jet above the surface level of the sea, all the time throwmg out much water impregnated with silica, which is deposited on the submarine land in various forms and states, depending on a variety of circumstances, which our limits prevent our noticing. (2.) Lakes. Having already noticed the calcareous depositions from the waters of Hill Part II. y unpmductive by imuktifjnsof saml in their situations, ind, are from 200 andy tracts in the iving sands some- the mouth of the L cut out for itself In consequence the west side of Strathbeg, which miles north from Qg sand of a small the tract is again, excluded a second actions of the land ind sands, or both to our knowledge f the sand-hills ot 1 striking and in- lulations of sand, a north-easterly (tends, north and ine sand-banks is shoals in this sea the whole area of Scotland. These im coarse to fine. These banks aro lie superabundant d from limestone in consequence of careous alabaster, a vems ; or when }rizontal beds — it ) beds sometimes ich springs, when calcareous sinters careous deposits, areous deposit of of a compact cal- )untain limestone the roofs, walls, ies of calcareous )sitsof a very fine in the marshes of mdant, there is a ch arc so hard as ! minerals. The abundance from these calcareous 'ident that in this ill be deposited in )rings of Iceland, itities of siliceous :enerally pure, is ving rise to par- ocean, and even ven jet above tha lated with silica, ding on a variety the waters of Book II. GEOGNOSY. 21b some lakes, we may now mention some other deposits that appear to owe their origin ic lakes. The bog iron-ore, or hydro-phosphate of iron, is often found in such situations as to show that it has been deposited from the waters of hikes ; and in some countries it is col- lected from the sides and bottoms of lakes once in a certain number of years; thus showing that it is still forming in such situations. In salt lakes considerable depositions of salt take place ; and when such collections of water dry up, or are drained ofT, the sides and bottoms of the hollows are found incrusted with salt, which is sometimes disposed in beds alternately with bedsofcla^. (3.) Marine tncrustations. Collections of perfect and broken sea-sheils and of corals are sometimes found agglutinated by calcareous, clayey, or ferruginous matters, forming banks or beds of considerable extent. Beds of this kind, particularly those foimed of shells, are met with in many parts of the coasts of this island. In other countries, aa in the West Indies, a solid conglomerate of shells and corals lines a considerable extent of coast on several of the islands. The human skeleton from the island of Guadaloupe, in the British Museum, is imbedded in a rock of this description. SuBSECT. 5. — Effects of the Atmosphere, <^c. Effects of the atmosphere. The air and moisture of the atmosphere eflTect great changes on the rocks at the surface of the earth. They either simply disintegrate the rock, or not only break it down, but also occasion a change m its chemical constitution. Sandstone, and other rocks of the same general description, often yield very readily to the weather ; their basis or ground is washed away, and the quartz, mica, and other particles remain in the form of sand and gravel. When trap veins intersect strata, it frequently happens that the softer parts of the rock are destroyed, while the harder trap appears rising several feet or yards above the neighbouring surrace, and crossing the countiy like walls ; hence, in Scotiand, they are named dykes. The variously shaped nummits of mountains and hills owe much of their form to the destroying influence of the weather. Some caves, as certain open caves in sandstones and limestones, are also formed by the destroying powers of the atmosphere. The various changes in the form of rocks, by which they assume columnar, globular, tabular, and indeterminate angular forms, and fall into scales, crusts, layers, gravels, and sands, are, to a certain extent, effects of the destroying powers of the atmosphere. Valleys owe much of their form and extent to the destroying influence of the atmosphere. Their sides and summits, everywhere exposed to its action, become covered with debris; and in this way valleys experience greater changes than are produced on their bottom by the passage of the nver, and on its sides by the rushing of the torrent. The chemical destroying efl^cts are to be traced to the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, and to the vast quantities of the same matter which rise from the interior of the earth : this acid dissolves lime, abstracts alkaline matters from granite and other similar rocks, and by combining with iron, converts that universally distributed substance into a soluble carbonate. The oxygen of the atmo- sphere also, by its action on the iron and other constituents of rocks, assists in breJcing them down. Effects of electricity on rocks. Electricity, as a chemical agent, may be considered not only as directly producing an infinity of changes, but also as influencing almost all that take place. There are not two substances on the surface of the globe that are not in different electrical relations to each other ; and chemical attraction itself seems to be a peculiar form of the exhibition of electric attraction : and whenever the atmosphere, or water, or any part of the surface of the earth, gains accumulated electricity of a different kind fVom the con- tiguous surfaces, the tendency of this electricity is to produce new arrangements of the parts of those surfaces. Thus, a positively electrified cloud, acting even at a great distance on a moistened stone, tends to attract its oxygenous, or acidiform, or acid ingredients ; and a negatively electrified cloud has the same eflject upon its earthy, alkaline, or metallic mat- ter ; and the silent and slow operation of electricity is much more important in the economy of nature than its grand and impressive operation in lightning and thunder. Sect. HI. — On Volcanoes, and the Changes they produce on the Land and the Bottom of the Sea, The agents which the globe conceals in its interior, and whose existence is manifested at its surface, are made known to us by the phenomena of volcanoes and earthquakes. We shall first describe these phenomena, and afterwards add some observations on their causes. StBSECT. 1. — Distribution of Volcanoes. Voxcanoes, as is well known, are openings in the crust of the earth, whence there issue from time to time jets of burning substances and currents of melted matters which bear the nam.e of lavas. These openings are generally on the summit of isolated mountains ; they have the form of a funnel, and take the name of craters. Position of volcanoes. Volcanoes occur in all quarters of the globe, and are often dis- tributed in a linear direction. 214 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. PabtIT Diitributiim. — Europe contains but few burning volcanoes. On tlie coast of Sicily, we •ee iGtna rising liko a colossus to a height of 10,870 English feet. On the opposite coast of Ita>y we have Vesuvius, which docs not attain more than tlie third of this elevation, viz. 3933 fecL Between them, in the Lipari islands, we find the small volcano of Stromboli, and the volcanoes of Vulcano and Vulcanollo, which still smoke. The islands of the Archi- Selago, at Milo and Santormo, contain mountains which, during an early historic period, pro- uced terrible igneous phenomena. Iceland in the norUi, in the midst of snow and ice, pre- sents to our view many volcanoes, of which the most prominent, Hccla, rises to a height of 5500 feet. Farther to the north, in the desolate and dreary Jan Mayen's Island, extending between north latitude 70° 40' and 71° 8', is tlie volcano of Esk Mount, which rises to a height of 1500 feet above tiio sea-beach in Jameson's Bay. The continent of Asia, as far as IS known at present, exhibits but few volcanoes. We can scarcely reckon three or four on its western shores, or on the edges of the Caspian: tliere ore none ui its northern part; some but vaguely kiu^wn exist in Central Asia : m the oast, the peninsula of Kamtschatka contains five or six ; but in the islands wliich surround this continent their number is great. The islands on the coast of Africa, such as Bourbon, Madagascar, the Cape de Vcrd Islands, the Canaries, and the Azores, also contain several volcanoes. In America, if we except those of tho West India islands, we observe the greater part of tliem on the ridge of that great Cordil- lera, which, like an immense wall or lofly terrace, l)orders the western part of that conti- nent. They are remarkable not only on account of their position, but also ibr their colossal form, tho nature of the masses of which tliey are composed, and the materials they tlirow out. Torrents of fire rarely issue from them, but streams of water and mud are of nrequcnt occurrence : tlie total number of American volcanoes is about eighty-six ; they ore placed as it were in groups. The king(lom of Guatemala presents about twenty ; in Mexico there are six, in the number of which is the Jorullo, so well known from tho account of Humboldt But it is in Peru tliat the greatest occur : tiiere arc seven in that country, of which we shall mention Picliincha, nearly 15,931 feet high ; Cotopaxi, wich rises to the height of 18,867 feet; and Antisana, wiiich attains a height of 19,136 feet. On a rough estimate, we state the number of burning volcanoes including solfiitaras at 803 ; of these 194 are in islands, and the other 109 arc on the continents : the most distant from the sea are those of America and Asia ; in Peru there are volcanoes thirty leagues fi'om the sea ; and that of Popocatepetl near Mexico, which, however, is now only a smoking volcano, is nRy-six leagues ; and they occur in the very centre of Asia. The circumstance of the most active volcanoes being situ- ated in the vicinity of the sea, is a fact worthy of bemg recollected ; it becomes still more 60 when we observe, that there arc submarine volcanoes burning in the midst of the waters. The islands, and tlie plienomena which they have been observed to produce, at Santorino, on the coast of Iceland, in the Azores, &c., leave no doubt respecting their existence. Independently of volcanoes in a state of activitv, the interior of our continents contains a great number of extinct volcanoes, but which still present their original form, or incontes- table remains of that form : perhaps no country contains more numerous and splendid displays of them than France ; there are more than a hundred in Auvergne, Vivarais, and Cevennes. They are conical mountains, composed of lavas, scoria;, and volcanic ashes heaped upon each other ; many of them present a crater, which has retained its form in a greater or less degree ; and sometimes tliere are seen as it were issuing fi-om tlieir bases lavas which extend to a distance of several thousand yards, and which have perfectly preserved tlie form of cur- rents : the matter of which they are composed resembles that of lava trap. We may fur- ther remark, tliat volcanoes are never or scarcely ever isolated ; they are collected into groups. This is the case witli the American volcanoes ; those of Asm, and the different Archipelagoes are similarly situated : in Europe, the Greek islands and southern Italy pre- sent distinct groups. Sometimes volcanoes are arranged one after the other in the same line, as is the case in Soutli America, and in the extinct volcanoes in the neighbourhood of the Puy de Ddme. SvBSECT. 2. — Phenomena and Theory of Volcanoes. Volcanoes do not incessantly emit flames, nor do lavas constantly flow from them ; they lemain for ages in a state of inactivity. Vesuvius was extinct from time immemorial, when, awakening from its slumber, it suddenly rekindled, in the reign of Titus, and buried the cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Stabioe under its ashes. It became quiet again at the end of the fifteenth century ; and in 16.30, when it resumed its action, its summit was inha- bited, and covered with wood. The inhabitants of Catania regarded as fobles the accounts of history respecting eruptions of ^tna, till the period when then* city was ravaged, and in part destroyed, by tlie fires of that volcano. Subterranean noises, and the appearance or increase of smoke, which issues from the crater, are generally the first symptoms of volcanic action. Presently the noise becomes louder, the earth trembles, it experiences shocks, and every thing proclaims that it is in labour. The smoke increases, tliickens, and becomes charged with ashes. When the air is tranquil, the smoke is seen rising, under tho form of an immense column, to a very great '•V PaetII loast of Sicily, we the oppoeite coast this elevation, viz. :ano of Stromboli, anda of tiio Archi- listohc period, pro- snow and ice, pre- ises to a heiglit of Island, extending , which rises to a ent of Aaia, us for ckon three or four ite northern part: a of Kamtschatka r number is great. 3 Verd Islands, the ve except those of ' that great Cordil- >art of that conti- } ibr their colossal terials they tlirow ud are of frequent Lhey are placed as Mexico tliere are unt of Humboldt of which we shall height of 18,867 istimate, we state 194 are in islands, I those of America at of PopocatcpeU eagues ; and they canoes being situ- !Comes still more dst of the waters, ice, at Santorino, r existence, tinents contains a form, or incontes- splendid displays s, and Cevennes. leaped upon each 2T or less degree ; ifhich extend to a tlie form of cur- ). We may fur- re collected into ind the different uthem Italy pre- ther in the same leighbourhood of i-om them ; they memorial, when, and buried the liet again at the immit was inha- les the accounts ravaged, and in issues from the I noise becomes ns that it is in WTien the air is to a very great BookIL GEOGNOSY. 215 height There, finding itself in a rarer atmosphere, it ceases to rise ; its upper part dilating, forms as it were an expanded summit, placed upon a lengthened shaft. The cloud, with the supporting column, in favourable circumstances, has the figure of an immense umbrella, or of tno Italian pine, to which Plinv the Elder compared that of the eruption of Vesuvius in A. D. 79, end which was accurately represented in October, 1822. At other times the smote disperses in the air : it there forms thick and vast clouds which obscure tlie day, and cover the surrounding country with darkness. These columns and clouds are often traversed by enormous jets of red-hot sand, resembling flames, and rising to extraordinary lieights. Some- times they are traversed b^ flashes of lightning, and on all sides loud explosions are heard. Then there are projected red-hot stones and masses in fusion. They issue from the volcano with a noise which is fVequently very loud. They rise into the air, spreading out in their progress, and fall around the mouth of the volcano under the form of showers of ashes, scoria;, or stones. The shocks and quakings of the ground continue and increase in violence. In the midst of these convulsions, and on tliese accessions, the melted matter which filled the subterranean furnaces, already carried into the mountain, is raised up by clastic fluids ; it ascends to the crater, fills it up, and passing over the least elevated part of tills enormous cavity, spreads out upon the flanks of tlie volcano. It then descends, sometimes very quickly ; sometimes, and more fretiuently, as a majestic river, quietly rolled along its peaceful waters. Very frequently, when the lava rises, the walls wjiich contain it being unable to resist its immense pressure or its heat, give way and burst asunder. It rushes forth like an impetuous torrent through this new aperture : rivers and torrents of fire make their way to the foot of tlie mountain ; they spread out upon tho neigiibouring ground, carrying along or burying all that they find in their way, breaking down or overthrowing every obstacle that opposes their passage. In the midst of torrents of fire, enormous currents of water and mud sometimes issue from volcanoes, and deluges falling from the atmospliere increase the ravages, lay waste fields which lavas had spared, and carry desolation into places which had already thought themselves happy in having escaped the scourges of the eruption. Mephitic gases and noxious exhalations sometimes arise, particularly in low situations ; they destroy onimala and blast vegetation, and thus complete the scene of misery and desolation. Afler the emission of the lavas the earth seems freed of the evil which agitated it, Iho earthquakes cease, the explosions and ejections duninish for some time, and the volcano enjoys a moment of rest : but presently a new accession takes place, reproducing in a still more terrible manner tho same phenomena ; and this state of things continues during a variable period of time. At length the crisis ceases, and the volcano finally resumes itf original tranquillity. Having premised this general account of volcanic action, we shall next treat of the sub- stances ejected or projected into the atmosphere by volcanoes, and the lavas which they pour out a. Ejected Matters. Those are, 1. Smoke. 2. Ashes. 3. Sands. 4. Scoriie. 5. Volcanic bombs. 6. Unal- tered Masses ? (1.) Smoke. The enormous columns of smoke which are seen issuing from the crater, sometimes with extraordinary rapidity, are chiefly composed of a(jueous vapour. This vapour is generally cliarged with ffoseous substances, and particularly with hydrogen gas, sometimes also with carbonic acid. Sulphurous acid and muriatic acid are also given out The smoke is gray or white ; sometimes also brownish black, or fuliginous, and then tho smell is not unlike that of asphaltum, or mineral pitch. It often contains a great quantity of volcanic a^es. (2.) Ashes. These ashes, which appear to be nothing else than the substances of the lava reduced to a state of minute mechanical division, are formed of flocculent and extremely minute particles of a gray colour, and forming a paste with water. They are always mixed with a greater or less quantity of sand, which gives' them the blackish colour which they sometimes exhibit The torrents of gas and vapour which issue from the craters carry these ashes along with them, bearing them into the atmosphere, where they form vast clouds, sometimes so dense as to cover the surrounding country with darkness. During the eruption of Hecla in 1766, clouds of this kind produced such a degree of darkness that at Glaumba, which is more than fifty leagues distant from the mountain, people could only find their way by groping. During the eruption of Vesuvius in 1794, c.t Caserta, four leagues distant people could only walk by the light of torches. On the 1st of May, 1812, a cloud of volcanic ashes and sand, coming from a volcano in the island of St Vincent, covered th wh:;le of Barbadoes, arireoding over it so intense a darkness, tliat at mid-day, in the open air one could not perceive the trees or other objects near him, or even a white handkerchief placed at the distance of six inches from the eye. The distance to which these volcanic ashes are carried by the winds is truly astonishing. Barbadoes is more than twenty leagues from St Vincent's, and Hecla is fifty leagues from Glaumba. Procopius relates, that in 472 the asiies of Vesuvius were carried as far as Constantinople ; that is to say, to a distance of no SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. PartII. 200 leofrues. These showora of ashcH produce, in the countries where they fhll, earthy beds, oilon of great thicknosH, which, on being heaped up and penetrated by water, form some kind of volcanic tuflk, (3.) Volcanic aanda. ThoHe are small particles of lavas which have been ejected into the air in the form of drops, and there harden. Tlioy are uotliing but very small sized scorisi, or fragmcntH of ordinary soorieD. They are, moreover, mineleu with numerous small crys- tals ot augite anr basalt. The Book II. rd no pr >tec. jon against tii',se destructive phenomena, which are equally prevalent in cold, m tempera'vd, and in tropical climates. They are, however, generally considered more firequent near to coasts; thus, Syria, the coasts and islands of Asia, America, the European coasts of the Mediterranean, and Iceland, are most subject to them ; while the plains of Afirica, Asia, and the North of Europe are least exposed. Viewing the whole earth, and including every slighter agitation, earthquakes appear to be exceedingly numerous, and it may be mamtained that not a week passes in which the earth's surface in some place or other is not more or less agitated. The great number of concussions observed in civilized countries, and the ikct that some districts are constantly agitated by them, entitle us to draw the conclusion. Their return in the places most subject to them, and in the places where they are less frequent, is not regulated by any precise period of time. Their appearance is not connected witli any particular season of the year or state of the atmosphere, and they take place by day as well as by night Phehomena of Earthquakes. The phenomena peculiar to earthquakes arc in themselves sufficiently simple. They consist in tremblings and oscillations of the earth's surface, called shocks ; extending over greater or smaller tracts of country, and frequently following a par- ticular direction. The shocks appear at first chiefly as perpendicular heavmgs ; then as horizontal undulations or oscillations ; lastly, in some instances, there is a violent agitation : the motion is more or less rotatory. If to these we add the rending, slipping, rising and sinking of the ground, the violent agitations of the sea, lakes, rivers, and sprmgs ; consist- ing, in springs, in their drying up or bursting forth with great violence ; in lakes, rivers, and the ocean, in their fiilling and rising, and rushing backwards and forwards, owing to the sinking and rising of the land, we obtain an enumeration of the principal phenomena. As the subject is very interesting, we shall view it somewhat in detau, and under the following heads : — 1. Shocks. 2. Extent, of earthquakes. 3. Duration of shocks. 4. Magnitude of rents formed, and the phenomena connected with them, 5. Elevation and subsidence of the land. 6. Agitations in the sea. 7. Notice of particular earthquakes. (1.) Shocks. The slighter shocks of an earthquake, consisting of perpendicular heavings and horizontal undulations, commonly produce rents in houses, moving light objects in them, as articles of furniture. Persons unacquainted with the phenomenon, or who do not per- ceive it from the subterraneous noise resembling thunder which accompanies it, feel un- steady while in their beds, but particularly when sitting, and believe themselves seized with a sudden giddiness. The shocks proceed gradually to be more violent, and then they are very easily perceived even by the inexperienced. Then the most substantial buildings are shattered to pieces, and the inhabitants buried beneath their ruins : while buildings of a lighter construction are only rent, and very slender reed huts are least of all exposed to destruction. In some cases the fi'acturing, or as it were trituration, surpasses description. Hence, for the plainest reasons, it is most dangerous to remain in houses or inhabited places ; but even the fields and mountains themselves afford no perfect security, inasmuch as the fields fre- quently in some places open into fissures, and are rent asunder ; while mountains are not only rent, but slide down into the valleys, dam up rivers, form lakes, and cause inimdations. Although the desolation produced by these convulsions exceeds all description, this is much more the case with the rotatory motions ; a species of motion, however, the existence of which has been denied by some geologists. In proof of it, however, it may be mentioned, that during the earthquake of Catania, whose general direction was from S. E. to N. W., many statues were turned round, and a large mass of rock was turned 25° from South to East But the rotatory motion was more strikingly exemplified in the earthquake at Val- paraiso, on the 19th November, 1622, by which many houses were turned round, and three palm-trees were found twisted round one another like willows. These rotatory motions of masses of rock are particularly interesting when viewed in connexion with the pheno- mena of faults or shifts among strata in non-volcanic districts. It is only the slighter earth- quakes that pass by with a single shock; in most of them more shocks follow at short inter- vals, and for the most part the number is proportioned to the violence of the concussion. The first shock is sometimes the most powerful, but the second is as often, if not oflener, equally violent Further, the concussions are also repeated after longer intervals, as the earthquakes in Sjrria, that sometimes continue for a number of months, with longer or shorter intermissions ; but the first catastrophe is generally the most violent and destructive. (2.) Extent of earthquakes. It is the agitation of the sea that points out the great extent of the tracts of land convulsed by earthquakes. In this respect, the earthquake at Lisbon, in 1755, was the most remarkable and most violent that ever visited Europe. In conse quence of it, by the concussion on the bottom, or momentary, rising or upheavmg of the sub- marine land, the sea overflowed the coasts of Sweden, England, and Spain, and of the islands of Antigua, SarbauoeB, and Martinique in America. In Barbadoes the tide, which rises only 28 inches, rose 20 feet in the bay of Carlisle, and the water appeared as black as ink, owing probably to bituminous matter thrown up from the bed of the ocean. On the Is* of November, when the concussion was most violent, the water at Guadaloupe retreated twice, and on its return rose in the channel of the island to a height of from 10 to 12 feet 220 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part II. Book Ipsi Similar appearances were witnessed at Martinique. A wave of the sea, 60 feet high, over- flowed a part of the city of Cadiz; tuid the lakes of Switzerland, such as Geneva, were ob> served to be m commotion six hours after the first shock. It is also remarkable that agita- tions wore noticed in lake Ontario, in October, 1756. During the earthquake at Lima, 1666, a wave of the sea rose 84 feet high in the harbour of Callao. During the earthquakes in Calabria in 1783, the sea not only overflowed the coast and drowned many people, but was in general so much agitated that the guns on shipboard sprung ih>m the deck to a height of •everal inches. (3.) Slipping of Mountaint. Besides the oonunon operations of earthquakes already mentioned, others occur that do not immediately succeed the concussions, and therefore happen less frequently. To these belong the sliding down of parts of mountains, as at Dobratch in 134o, and the fidling together of two mountains in Jamaica in 1692, by which the bed of a river was dammed up. In the latter place, a part of a mountain slid down and covered many plantations ; the city of Port Royal sunk to the depth of eight fkthoms ; and a plain of 1000 acres foil in, with all the buildings upon it. (4.) Duration of shocks. Single shocks frequently succeed one another very rapidly, and often after greater or smaller intervals of time ; they ore occasionally single, frequently very numerous ; and in volcanic districts, shocks sometimes happen after a lapse of months or vears, are then followed bjr longer or shorter ii.tervals, and even periods of 10 or 100 years. In regard to this, it is remarkable that since the earthquake which in 1204 shook Antioch, Damascus, and Tripoli, Syria was spared till the latter half of the seventeenth century, although no region of the earth sufters more from these destructive phenomena than that country. It is, in short, difficult to deiine the duration of a single shock. It is undoubtedly brief in general ; and in slighter shocks, witnessed by tranquil spectators and consequently observed with greater attention, it is not longer than a few seconds. In the greater convulsions, for instance at Lima, Caraccas, Calabria, Catania, Zante, Antioch, &c. the time is reckoned from fifty seconds to one minute and five seconds, or indefinitely {TX)ni a few minutes to a few seconds. When we consider how exceedingly distracted the atten- tion is when the shock is first perceived, that the duration cannot be measured by means of a watch, but by supposition, and that by such a mode of computation we are in the habit of reckoning time much longer than it really is, we may with great probability conclude that the duration of a single shock does not go beyond a few seconds, and we may affirm that, at the most, it rarely exceeds half a minute. (5.) Magnitude of rents formed by earthquakes. These vary fVom a few feet to many ft thorns in extent They have either a direction which is nearly straight or more or less winding, or they run in all directions from a centre. During the terrible Calabrian earth- quakes of 1783, rents were formed of great dimensions ; in the territory of San Fili there was formed a rent half a mile long, two feet and a half broad, and twenty-five feet deep ; in the district of Plaisano, a rent, of nearly a mile in length, one hundred and five feet brood, and thirty feet deep opened ; and in the same district two gul& arose, one at Cerzulli, three quarters of a mile long, one hundred and fifty feet broad, and about one hundred feet deep; and another, nearly a quarter of a mile lon^, about thirty feet broad, and two hundred and twenty-five feet deep. UUoa relates that m the earthquake of 1746, in Peru, a rent took place, which was two miles and a half long, and four or five feet wide. These rents some- times close again ; thus, in the year 1692, in the island of Jamaica, during an earthquake, the ground heaved like a boiling sea, and was traversed by numerous rents, two or three hundred of which were oflen seen at a time opening and closing rapidly a^in. (6.) Elevation and subsidence of land during earthquakes. It is evident that, if the land is fhictured and then traversed with vast rents by earthquakes, that portion of the land will in some places sink and in others rise, and this not once but several times in the same place. In the year 1772, during an eruption of one of the loftiest mountains in Java, the ground began to sink, and a groat part of the volcano, and part of the neighbouring country, estimated to be fifteen miles long and six miles broad, was swallowed up. During the earthquake at Lisbon in 1755, a new quay entirely disappeared ; thousands of the in- habitants had taken shelter on it, to be out of me reach of the tottering and falling build- ings, when suddenly the quay sunk down with its thousands of human bemgs, and not one of their dead bodies ever floated to the surfiice. In the year 1692, during an earthquake in Jamaica, a tract of land about a thousand acres in extent sank down in less than a minute, and the sea immediately took its place. On the north side of the island several large tracts with their whole population were swallowed up, and a lake appeared in their place covering above a thousand acres. Numerous examples of the upraising of the land by earthquakes might be given ; we shall enumerate a few of them. On the 19th of November, 1822, a most dreacUul earthquake visited the coast of Chili ; the shock was felt at the same time throughout a space of one thousand two hundred miles from north to south. When the country araind Valparaiso was examined on the morning after the shock, it was found that the entire line of coast, for the distance of more than a hundred miles, was raised above its former levd. The area over which this upraising took place was estimated at one hundred Part II. 60 foet high, over- I Geneva, were ob- irkable that agita> lake at Lima, 1586, the earthquakes in ly people, but was lecK to a height of irthquakca already iona, and therefore f mountains, as at in 1692, by which itain slid down and iight fathoms ; and it very rapidly, and fie, frequently very lapse of months or ods of 10 or 100 ich in 1204 shook of the seventeenth iictive phenomena ngle shock. It is pil spectators and V seconds. In the lante, Antioch, &c. )r indefinitely from stracted the atten- isured by means of are in the habit of lility conclude that ve may affirm that, a few feet to many ht or more or less Calabrian earth* of San Fill there five feet deep ; in ind five feet broad, at Cerzulli, three undred feet deep; two hundred and Peru, a rent took These rents some- ng an earthquake, ents, two or three L^in. indent that, if the lat portion of the ^eral times in the mountains in Java, the neighbouring )wed up. During >usands of the in- and &lling build- iings, and not one an earthquake in iss than a minute, vera! large tracts air place covering id by earthquakes fovember, 1822, a the same time rath. When the it was found that s raised above its id at one hundred Book II GEOGNOSY. 221 tliousand sr^uare miles: the rise upon the coast was from two to four feet; at f 'i^taneeof a mile inland, it was estimated from five to seven feet On the 18th of Mar. the year 1700, at St. Maria di Niscomi, some miles from Terranuovo, near the south coasi of Sicilv, a loud subterranean noise was heard under the town just mentioned, and Uie day atlcr earth- quakes were felt ; then the ground gradually sunk down for a circumference of three Italian miles, during seven shocks, and in one place to a depth of thirty feet ; as the subsidence was unequal, rents were formed, some of which were so wide that they could not be leaped over : this gradual sinking continued to the end of the month. About the middle of tliis period an opening took place in the subsiding land, about three feet in diameter ; through these contmued to flow, for three hours, a stream of mud, which covered a space sixty feet long and thirty feet broad ; the mud was saltish and composed of chalky marl and a viscid clay, with fragments of cr^rstalline limestone ; it smelt of sulphur and petroleum. On the 16th June, 1819, at Cutch in Bombay, a violent earthquake took place, wring which, independent of other changes, the eastern and almost abandoned channel of the Indus was much altered : this estuarv was, before the earthquake, fordable at Luckput, being only a foot deep when the tide was at ebb, at flood tide never more than six feet ; out it was deepened at the fort of Luckput, after the earthquake, to more than eighteen feet at low water, snowing that a con- siderable depression had taken place. The channel of the river Runn was so much sunk •hat, instead of being dry as before, during that period of tho'year, it was no longer fordable except at one place ; and it is remarked by Captain Macmurdoch, — and the observation is of high geological import, as connected with the formation of valleys, of river districts, &,c. — "should the water continue throughout the year, we may perhaps see on inland navigation along the northern shore of Cutch ; which, from stone anchors, &c. still to be seen, and the tradition of the country, I believe to have existed at some former period." Sindree, a small mud fort and village belonging to the Cutch government, situated where the Runn joins the Indus, was overflowed at me time of the shock. The people escaped with difficulty, and the tops of the houses and walls are now alone seen above water. In the year 1790, in the Caraccas, during an earthquake, a portion of granite soil sunk, and left a lake 800 yards in diameter, and from eighty to an hundred feet deep ; it was a part of the forest of Aripao which sunk, and the trees remained green for several months under water. (7.) Agitations of the sea. We have already noticed, in a general way, the agitations observed in the sea during earthquakes ; we shall now add some particulars illustrative of these motions. During the Lisbon earthquake of 1755, the sea rose along the coast of Spain ; and at Cadiz it advanced in the form of vast waves sixty feet high. At Lisbon about sixty thousand persons perished. The sea first retired, and laid the bar dry ; it then rushed in, rising upwards of nfly feet above its ordinanr level. At Einsale, in Ireland, the sea rushed into the harbour, and invaded tlie land. At Tangier, in Africa, it rose and fell eighteen times on the coast At Funchol, in Madeira, it rose fifteen feet above high-water mark ; although the tide, which ebbs and flows there seven feet, was tlien half ebb. Even ships at sea, a considerable distance from land, felt, in the midst of these convulsive motions, as if hurried across a ridge of rocks. This took place, to a distance of 100 or 270 nautical miles from the coast, durmg the earthquake at Lisbon in 1816. During the Lisbon earth- quake of 1755, the shock was felt at sea, on the deck of a ship to the west of Lisbon, and produced nearly the same feeling as on land. At San Lucar, the captain of the Nancy frigate felt his ship so violently agitated that he thought he had struck on the ground ; but, on heaving the lead, found he was in deep water. Captain Clark, from Derina, in N. lat. 36° 24', between nine and ten in the morning, had his ship shaken as if she had struck upon a rock, so that the seams of the deck opened. Dr. Shaw relates, that in 1724, being on board the Gazelle, an Algerino ship of 50 guns, they felt such violent shocks, one after another, as if the weight of twenty or thirty tons had been let fall from a good height on the ballast. Schouten, speaking of an earthquake which happened in the Moluccas, says, that the mountains were shaken, and ships that were at anchor in thirty or forty fathoms' water were jerked as if they had run ashore, or come foul of rocks. Le Genii says, " that ships at sea and at anchor sufi!er, during earthquakes, such violent agitations that they seem to be falling asunder ; their guns break loose, and their masts spring." (8.) Notices of particular Earthquakes. A full account of all the principal earthquakes that are known would much exceed our limits; we shall, tlierefore, select oaly a few of the more interesting. No part of Europe is more visited by earthquakes than Italy and the neighbouring islands. The first earthquake particularly worthy of notice was that which, in the year 63, destroyed Herculaneum and Pompeii. Since that period they have frequently visited Italy and Sicily, but much seldomer from A. D. 63 to the twelfth century, than from that period till modem times, that is. till the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Of theao we shall describe one of the most recent in Calabria, and another of still later date ill Sicily. Earthquake of 1783. The earthquake that so much affected Calabria, and destroyed the city of Messina, raged at unequal periods from the 5th of February till the 28th of March, 19* 33!l SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. Part IT. 17H3, Acnmlinif to Rnrcia, itn princiiNil Mrnt \vu tlio iiniall town of Oppido in Uio noi^h- bourhiKNi of Atnunontu, a ■now-C(iV(>reU pi'ak of tlio Aponiiinna, From tliiM point, nivh Hir William Hamilton, around tu a tliMtanco of twonty-flve miloM, cumprcliomlii thn lurluce of ooiuitry which Nuflbrud moat, and whoro all tho lownn and villai^PH wuro doitn>yo(l. If wo doMcribn tho ciroln with a radiim of iiovontv*two niiluH, it will mcliido tho wholo country which waa in any wny atfurtud by tlio eartiu|uako. Tho firat ohock, on tho 5tli Fobruury, in two minutoa threw do^ i tho groatoat |)art of thu htiuaea in all tho citiots towoH, and villaKoa tVom tho woHtorn acclivitioa of tho Apiuininoa, in Calabria Ultra, to Moitxina in Hioily, ami convulaod tho wholo Hiirtiico of tho country. Another nhock, which took pinco on tho W5th of March, waa nearly ociually violent Tho (rrunito chain which oxtondt through Calabria iVoni north to aoutli wiia but alitthtly a)(itatod, tho princi|)al HhonkH bi>iii|{ prt)|Hitfat(td with a wavo-liko motion through tho tortiary aandx, aand-Htoi <:>;, and clayn, tVoin wi'Mt to oaift It wna remarked timt the violenc of tho Hhock was ifnmiiiMt ut the liiio of junction of tho Kftmito und tertiary rjckii, occaitioned probably by tho ititerruptioii of the undulatory movement of tho Noilcr Htruta by tho hiirder Krai'ltc. 1'ho ffrnnito ran^'o nliio proventeil tho iwiMaffo of tho MhiH'ka to tho countriea on tho oppoitito Hide of the niounUiin* rauyo. About !2(K) towns and villa{;ea were deatroved, more than oiio hundred hillH «li(l down, fell toffether, daimnnd up riven, and formefl lakoa : numnrouH rontH, otlen of vast magnitude, were formed; many aubaidencea and ulao upraiamffa of the ground took pincc; anil the (ceneral featurea of tiie country wcio ao much cnanifcu that they could acarrnly bo rccojfniaeauac, tho nature of tlio motion changed, now resembling that of a wngon driven violentiv over rough stonca, which laid in ruina olmost every house, church, convent, and public building, with an incredible dcatruction of tho people. It continued in all alHiut six minutca. At the moment of its beginning, aomo per- sona on the TaguB, near a mile fVom tho city, Iienr I 0>oir boat mako a noiao na if it liiid run agn>und, thougii then in deep water, and aaw at tnu soino time houses fulling on both aided of tho river. Four or five minutes after, tho boat nfudo tho like noise, caused by nnothcr shock, which brought down more houses. Tho bed of the Tugus was in many placea ruined to itt surface. Siiipa wore driven from their anchors, and jostled together with great vio jonce; and tho musters did not know if they were afloat or aground. The largo (piuy called Caet lie Prada, was overturned, crowdeil with people, and sunk to an unfalliomablo depth in tlio water, not ao much as one boily aflerwurtls appearing. The bar was seen dry from shore to sh(tre ; then suddenly the sen, like a mountain, camo rolliiiff in, and about IJclem cuatlo tho water rose fifty f«!ct almost in an instant; and hud it not ucen for tlio great bny opjiosite tho city, which received aixd spread tho great flux, tlie lower part must have been under water. As it was, it camo up to tho houses, and drove the inhabitants to the hills. About noon, there was nnotlicr shock, when the walls of several houses which were yet standing were seen to open from top to bottom more than a quarter of a yard, but elated affain so exactly as to leave scarce any mark of injury. It is remarked, that on tlio Ist of Novinnber, 1750, being tho anniversary of Uio fatal tragedy of this unhappy city, another shock gnvo tho inhabitants so terrible an alarm that they were preparing for their flight into tlic country, but were prevented by several regiments of horse placed all around by the king's orders. Many or tlio largest mountains in Portugal during tho great earthquniio were elmken ns it were to Uicir fouiulation, and many of them opened at their summits, split, and rent, and huge masses of tliem were cost down into the suiijucent valleys. The same drciuJ- flil visitation was experienced at Oporto. We are told that at about forty minutes past nine in the morning, tho sky being serene, was heard a dreadftil hollow noiso like thunder or the rattling of coaches over rugjjed stones at a distance; and almost at the same instant wns felt a severe shock of an oartiiquako, which lasted six or seven minutes, during which every tiling sliook and rattled. It rent several churches. In the streets the earth was seen to heave untler the peojtle's feet, as \f in labour, Tho river was also airiazingly aflTected; for in tho space of a minute or two, it rose and fell five or six feet, and continued to do so for ibur hours. The river Douro was observed to burst open in some parts, and discharge vast quantities of air ; and the agitation was so great in the sea, beyond tlie bar, that it was ima- ginctl the air erot vent tliere also. On tlie fatal day of the great earthquake of Lisbon, at Ayamonte, near where the Gua diana fulls into the bay of f 'adiz, a little before ten o'clock, immediately on a rushing noiss being heard, a terrible eartliquako was felt which during fourteen or fifteen minutes damaged Book IL GEOGNOSY. la aInioNt ull tho hiiildinffi. In littln mora than half an liour aAor, tho soa and rivnr, with all Uieir canals, ovnrflowod thoir bouniia with (froat viulonco, laying undor water all tho cooata of tliu iviandi oiljauont to tho city and itM noi{;hbourhood, flowin|r into tho itrcutii. The wator nwo throo timcN, aflor it hiiu an many tiinoa iiubaidod. Ono of ttio hwcHh wan at the tiino of oltb, Tho water catno on in vot^t black mountain*, white with foam at tho top, and dumoliHhnd moro tlian half of tho town at thu bar called Do Canala. The earth was obaerved to open in Mvoral placet, and fVoni tho aperturei flowqd vast (iiiBntitioM of water. At Cudi/., m the same morninir, nome ininuton nflcr nine, tho whole town wiih shaken with a violent ourtluiuake, which lasted alwut flvo minutos. Tho water in the cistern* under ((round rolled backwards and forwards. At ten minutes atler eleven, a wave waa Kcn coniinff iVom sea, oiKht miles oif, at least sixty feet hiifhcr than usiiul. It dashed Ofifainst tho west imrt of the city ; at last it came upon tho walls, beat in tlio breast-work, and curried pieces of eight or ten tons weight tbrty or fitly yards fVom tho wall. When the wavo was gone, lomo parts that are deep at low wator were lotl quite dry, for tho wato.' roturnod tiiero with tho same violence as it camo. On tho same eventful morning Gibraltar was agitated by an earthquake. It lasted about two minutes. The guna on the battery were »een to ri»e, othera to sink, the earth hitvitiff an undulatinff motion. Most i)eople wcro seized with giddiness and sickness, and some fell down, others wero stupefied, tliough many that wcro walking or riding felt no motion, but were sick. The sea roso six feet every fifleon minutes, and fell so low that lioatH and all tho Hrnall crafl near tho Nhoro were Ictl aground, as wero numbers of fish. Ships in tiie bay soumed as if they hud Ktruck on rocks. Tho flux and reflux lasted till six next morning, having decreased gradually from two in tho afternoon. This oartlKiuako excited much attention, from the incredibly groat extent at which slighter contemporary shocks wore oxperienccd. Thev cxtnnded from Greenland and lucland to Norway, Sweden, Germany, Britain, Switzerland, B'rance, Himin, Morocco, Salce, Fez, Teuton, and ovon to tlie West Indi(!8 and tho lake Ontario in North America. However droadflal many of tho earthquakes of Europe wore, they bear no comparison with tlioeo which havo desolated many parts of Asia. Passing over those which wero observed in tho islands, on tho eastern continent, and in the environs of the Caspian Sea, our attention ia particularly drawn towards Syria, on account of tho ravages it has frequently experienced. Gibbtm, in tho forty-third chaptor of his Decline and Fall of tho Roman Empire, gives the following account of tho carlh(iuake that took place at Antioch in A. 1). 520, May SO. " Tho near approach of a comet may injure or destroy tho globe which wo inhabit ; but tho changes on its surface have been hitherto produced by the action of volcanoes and earth- quakes. Tho nature of tho soil may indicate tho countries most exposed to these formidable concussions, since they aro caused by subterraneous fires, and such fires ore kindled by tho union and fermentation of iron and sulphur. But their times and efiects ap[)ear to lie beyond the reach of human curiosity, and tho philosopher will discreetly abstain from the prediction of earthcjuakcs, till ho has counted tho drops of water that silently filtrate on the inflam- mable mineral, and medsured tho caverns which increase by resistance the explosion of tho imprisoned air. Without assigning tho cause, history will distinguish the periods in which tlicso calamitous events have been rare or frequent, and will observe, that this fever of the earth raged with uncommon violence during the reign of Justinian. Each year is marked by the repetition of earthquakes, of such duration, that Constantinople has been shaken above forty days ; of such extent, that the shock has been communicated to the whole sur- face of tlio globe, or at least of tlie Roman empire. An impulsive or vibratory motion was felt : enormous chasms were opened, liuge and heavy bodies were discharged into the air, the sea alternately advanced and retreated beyond its ordinary bounds, and a mountain was torn iVom Libanus, and cast into tlio waves, where it protected, as a mole, the new harbour of Botrys, in Phcenicia. Tho stroke that agitates an ant-hill, may crush the insect myriads in the dust; yet truth must extort a confession, that man has industriously laboured for his own destruction. The institution of great cities, which include a nation within the limits of a wall, almost realizes the wish of Caligula, that the Roman people had but one neck. 7^0 hundred and fiflp thousand persona ore said to have perished in the earthquake of Antioch, whose domestic multitudes were swelled by the conflux of strangers to the festival of tho Ascension. Tho loss of Eorytus was of smaller account, but of much greater value. That city, on tho coast of Phoenicia, was illustrated by the study of the civil law, which opened the surest road to wealth and dignity : the schools of Berytus were filled with the rismg spirits of the age, and many a youth was lost in the earthquake who might have lived to be the scourge or mo guardian of his country. In these disasters, the architect becomes the enemy of mankind. The hut of a savage, or the tent of an Arab, may be tliro'.vn down without injury to the inhabitonts : and the Peruvians had reason to deride the folly of their Spanish conquerors, who with so much cost and labour erected their own sepulchres. The rich marbles of a patrician are dashed on his own head ; a whole people is buried under the ruins of public and private edifices, and the conflagration is kindled and propagated by tho m SCIENCE OF OEOORAPIIY. PabtII. innumornblfl flrot which aro necewary for tho ■ubiiitonco and manufacturoa of a groat city. Iiutead of tho mutual aympatliy which tni^ht comfort and aniit tho diiitroMoo, they droad- fhlly oxporionco tho vicoi and pamioni which are roloaaod flromtho fearof puiiiniinicnt: the totteriim hiiiiMM* are pillaged by intrepid avartco ; revongo ombracoa the moiiuuit, and nolecta tlio victim ; and tho earth ofton Bwallowa tlio aaMuain or tho raviHhor in tlio cunatinimation of titeir criineM. Supenttition involved Uio prcoont (fanger witli inviiiible terror* ; and if tho iipage of doath may aomotinyn bo Hubaorviont tu tlio virtue or rcpentnnco of individuals, an aAiffhted pernio ia moro forcibly moved to oxpoct tho end of tho world, or to dcprcrato with aurviln homaifo Cn: wrath of an avonffiiiff Doily." In 1100 ainglo ahocka continued tor four montha; and in IQkti another carth(^uiiko doxtroycd many citiea, flUod np tho vulloya of Lebanon, and shattered tho basaltic dmtricts of Ilauran, ao that, accordinf; to tho exproasion then current, t( wat no longer ponible to lay, Here itnod Ihii or that city. A droadftil earthquiiko took place in 17%; tno ahocks continued for six months. At the HrHt shock the cities of Antioch, Balbec, Aero, Tripoli, &lc. woro laid in ruins, and n(),(MM) persons killed. The more rocont eartliquake, of lti23, lasted still longer, and committed dreadflil ravages. On tho 13tli of August, in ono horrible night, Alonpo, Antioch, Diha, Cesser, indeed every aingle villogo and cottage within tho pashalic of Aleppo, was, within ton or twelvo seconds, completely dostroyod, and converted into a honp of rubbish : no less than '20,l)0() people lost their lives, and many more were mutilated ; a very groat number, considering tho low population of those places. Africa is very littlo known, and wo are therefore ignorant of any earthquakes in its interior, where Uicy may occur as frequently as in other places. The southern extremity of this continent is rarely visited by sliglit shocks, but they are moro numerous in tho north, where, in March, 1825, they did considerablo damage to Algiers and Blida. On tho contrary, America, particularly in the southern parts, is inferior to no part of tho world for tho magnitude, numbor, and duration of its earthquakes. Wo shall now mention a fow of tho greatest recorded by naturalists. To those belong the oarthciuako of 1746, which, witiiin five minutes, destroyed the greater part of Lima ; Callao was inundated ; and of 4000 persons, 200 only escaped. Tho destruction of New Andalusia, on tho 21st of October, 1766, was equally terrible. The shocks extended rver Cumana, Caraccas, Maracaibo, the shores of the Casanas the Meta, the Orinoco, and Veitures; and tho granite districts in the mission of Encaranada were also slioken by their vioU nco. An e-jtliquake, in 1707, destroyed a great part of Peru. It proceeded from the volcano Tunguragua, continued with slight shocks during the wholv of February and March, and rfiturned on tho 15th of April, with increased violence. Many places were filled up by the summits of mountains tumbling down ; muddy water flowed from the volcano; and, spreading ovtr the country, became afterwards an indurated crust of clay. The entire numbor of persons who perished on this occasion was 16,000. No earthquake could well be more destructive to any place than that which destroyed the Caraccas in 1812, and of which Humboldt has given an excellent description. Tne Caraccas was thought secure on account of its primV.ive mountains, although in 1641, 1703, and 1778, violent earthquakes were experieriued, and a slighter shock in 1802. Humboldt, from actual inspec- tion, had no doubt but tliis country, from being in a volcanic region, must be liable to such disasters. In December, 1811, various shocks were felt; on the 12th of March, 1812, the city of Caraccas was destroyed. The sky was clear, and In Venezuela, there had not been a drop of rain for five months : there was no forewarning prognostic, for the first shock at seven minutes past four in the afternoon came on unexpectedly, and set the bells a ringing. This was immediately succeeded by a second shock, which caused a waving and rdline motion in the earth, thon a subterraneous rumbling noise was heard, and there was a Jiin shock, in which the motion was perpendicular, and sometimes rolling horizontally, with a violence which nothing could withstand. The people, m place of flying directly to the open fields, flocked in crowds to the churches, where arrangements had been made for a procession ; and the multitudes assembled there were buried beneath the ruins. Two churches 150 feet high, and supported by columns of fit)m twelve to fifteen fe'^t in diameter, fell in a mass of rubbish, and were for the most part ground into dust The Caserne el Quartcl vanished almost entirely, and a regiment of soldiera stationed there, and about to join the procession, disappeared at the same time along with it ; a few individuals only escaped ; nine- tenths of the city were completely destroyed, ond most of the houses that remained were rendered uninhabitable ; the number of people killed was reckoned at nearly 10,000, without including those who perished afterwards from bruises and want of sustenance. The clouds of dust having fallen, were succeeded by a serene night, which formed a frightful contrast with the destruction on the earth, and with the dead bodies lying scattered among the ruuis. The duration of each particular shock wos reckoned by some 50 seconds, by others 1 minute 12 seconds. These shocks extended over the provinces of Venezuela, Varinas, Maracaibo, and into the mountains in the interior. La Guayra, Mayquatia, La Vega, St. Felipe and Sicfida, were alniOBt entirely destroyed. In La Guayra ana St. f'eiipo the number of persons killed was about 5000. On the 5th of April another violent earthquake took place, during PabtII. I of a ffroat city, ••od, they (Iroad- puiiiNtiiiHMit: the rnorit, und lolecta lio cunmininiation rrun ; and if tho [>f iiulividuals, an to doprpcalo with :ontinucd for four ip tho valloya of to thu cxproasion city, A k place, during Boor II. GEOGNOSY. 9tS It waa nid that tlie nioufi- wliich onorntouM fmifmcnta were detached fVom the mountains, tain Milla ''i>rior of the earth, which he believes would be found there incloHod in roservuira of hciI hur and bitumen. Beccaria, oa ia known, endeavoured to attribute to clcc* tricity every Hung that had any probable affinity for it ; hence he believed that an accumu- lation of it u) tho cruat of the earth produced conoussiona with tho clouda, and then exhibited the appearance of earthquakes. Humboldt found it to be a prevailing opinion in America tliat eartluiuakei are electrical phenomena; but observes, that this must be excused bjr reason of tlie partiality entertained for Franklin. The invention of the Voltaic pile, and tho observation of its singular operations, induced many philosophers, at least those naturalists who were iierfectly intimate with the nature of this remarkable apparatus, to consider the whole eartJi as a column or pile of this description, or that it contains an apparatus of this description in its interior. These fancies, however, lead to nothing satisfactorv. Where then can wo seek for the cause or causes of earthquakes ] The subject is entirely hypothe- tical, aH we have no means of reaching the seat of these remarkable phenomena. Tho theory of tlie earthquake is the same as tliat of the volcano. Tho agitations may be produced by the motions of the liquid and gaseous matter at a great depth in the crutt of the earth endeavouring to escape, SicT. V. — Account of the different Structuret observable in the Crust qfthe Earth. Before the time of Werner, little had been accomplir* ed in re^d to the determination of the structures that occur in the crust of the earth. Some mamtained that everywhere irregularity prevailed, and that it was in vain to look for order or regularity in the coarse rocky masses of which mountains, hills, and plains are composed. Werner, however, on general grounds, assumed that if determinate structures and arrangements occurred in tho vegetable and animal kingdoms, tho samo must be the case in the mineral kingdom, not only in simple minerals, but also in the great and more generally distributeil ini. isea of which the crust of the earth is principally composed. His investigations fully con/rmed the truth of this opinion, for minerals he found as well characterised as plants and ani-nals and the following details will show that there exists amon^ mountain rocks, or those grea masses of which the crust of the earth is composed, a beautiAil series of structure, from that of hand-specimens to the general arrangements of tho great rock formations. We shall consider tnese structures in the following order, beginning with the smallest and terminating with the greatest. SuDSKCT. — Different Structures. 1. Structure of mountain rocks in hand-specimens. 2. Structure of strata and beds. 8. Structure of formations. 4. Arrangements of formations in regard to each other. 5. Structure of veins. (1.) Structure of mountain rocks. The kinds of structure occurring in mountain rocks are the following: — 1. Compact. 2. Slaty. 3. Granular. 4. Porphyritic. 5. Amygda- loidal. 6. Conglomerated. In the compact structure, the mass is uniform, without siaty or any other arrangement, and when broken exhibits various fractures as earthy, splintery, conchoidal, even, &c. Common compact quartz is an example of this kind of structure. In the slaty structure the rocks split readily into thin layers or slates, as in common roofing slate. Rocks having tho granular structure are composed of granular concretions or imperfect crystals, as in primitive limestone or statuary marble. In the porphyritic structure Uiere is a wwis or ground with imbedded crystals, generally of felspar or ouartz, or both, as in porphyry : in uie amygdaloidal structure there is also a basis or ground ; but here the base does not contain imbedded crystals, but amygdaloidal cavities, which are either nearly empty, half filled, or completely filled with minerals. The rock named amygdaloid exhibits this kind of structure. Lastly, the conglomerated structure is that which we observe in the rock named conglomerate, which is composed of fragments imbedded in a basis or ground. (2.) Structure of strata and beds. When a mountain or hill is composed of tabular masses of the same kind of rock, as of sandstone, that extend throughout the hill, it is said to be stratified, and the individual tabular masses are named stratOi as in fg. 56. If asicng these strata there occur tabular masses of a different rock, the masses are named beds : a, fig Vou I. a D m SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. Pabt II. '.i^j^ M. ropreacnU a bed of liinc6tuno in tlio clifT of stratified sandstone. These strata and beds 68 ■• •■■ ' . ■ ' vary in posilion ; sometimes they are fl.kt ut hjrizontal, or they are more or loss inclined until thoy bccomo vertical, or are set on thoir 0(lg«.ik They also vary in the point of the compass towards which thoy ore inclined, or dip ; but it is wortliy of remark that tho dip is always at riffht angles to the range or direction of tho strata; and timt if tlio dipiH givon, wo know the mrcction : but a knowledge of tlio direction will not give us tlio dip. Their direction also varies. Tho position of strata is determined by a well-known instrument, the clinometer, which is a compass with an attached quadrant When wo examine the structure of indi- vidual strata and bods, several varieties may bo discovered : thus, in some beds, die rock is arranged in columns, as in basalt ; in others, tlio arrangement is in tables, as in porphyry ; or in balls, as in granite and greenstone. (3.) Structure qf formations, Tho idoa of formations was first clearly brought out by Werner. To his views on this moat important subject we con trace tho new character of peology, and tho great progress made in geognosy within those Inst tliirty years. But this 18 not the place for discussing the subject Ail those rocks which appnar to have boon formed at tho same time, and in the same or similar circumstances, and which agree in position, structure, mass, petrifactions, imbedded minerals, &c. are said to belong to tlic same formation. These tbrmations are divided into simple and compound. Simple formations are those prin- cipally composed of one rock ; compound formations, of more than one species of rock : granite is an example of a simple formation ; tho first secondary sandstone, or tlio great coal formation, of a compound fbmwtion, because it contains several rocks ; viz. sandstone, slate, limestone, coal, and ironstone. (4.) Arranffement qf formations in regard to each other, ^Vhon two formations occui togetlier, and tho one rests upon the otiier, tho subjacent formation is named the fundamen- (a? rock, and that whicli covers or lies upon the other, tlie superincumbent. The line where die two rocks or formations meet is called die line of separation or line of junction. In ^. 50. a is die fundamental rock, and b die superimposed rook, and c o die line of juncUon. When the strata of the superunjwsed formation is parallel with tho strata of tho fitndamontal or subjacent rock, tho stratification is said to bo eot{formable, as Jig, 60 where a formation o 3 ■» we shall say of limestone, rests on b, of sandstone. If the strata of the superimposed tbrmation are dispoeed as at c, fig, 61., they are said to be uncori/brffloiZe. LaiBtly, if the •tnita lie over the ends of die strata of die fundamental rock, as at 6, in^. 59., they are said .-.,. .,..,.-;...■, r^--., .;/V7r-"v^/-;'^^TV*^Tr-jjr:'T*;-';.---;*,-iVi;?*.-:'-'' ■,',,■_■' fi.5^ Book H. GEOGNOSY. ' to bo unckich the Ctm. of the Earth is composed. It was at one time a genei-al opinion that the formations of which the crust of the earth is composed were destitute of all regularity in distribution and in individual characters. Lehman, a German miner, was early convinced of a certain degree of order in their arrange- ment ; and in his v/cU-known work, first stated their division into Primitive and Secondary ; under the first including those destitute of fossil organic remains, while under the other he arranged all those containing p<%trifactions or fossil organic remains. The first, he said, were generally in highly inclmed strata, the other in horizontal strata. Werner first dis- tincUy characterised these two classes of rocks, and added to them other two classes, viz. the Transitioic and Local, or what are now called the Tertiary. The whole rocks, from tlie oldest to the newest, were arranged by Werner under the following names and in the following order :—l. Primitive. 2. Transition. 3. Secondary, 4. Local, the Tertiary of tlie present geology. 6. Alluvial, 6. Volcanic. This arrangement, more or less modified, still remains, being adopted by the principal geologists in Europe and America. Primitive rocks. The rocks of this class lie under those of the succeeding classes. Coun- tries in which they predominate are in general more rugged and lofly than those composed of rockb of the other classes ; furtlier, their hMSb ate more extensive, their valleys narrower and deeper, and more uneven, than those in secondarj^ countries. The strata of primitive mountains are very fi-equcnUy highly inclined ; a circumstance which contributes in on especial monne'r to the increase of the ruggedness and inequalities of the surface of primi- tive regions. The primitive strata in many countries maintain a wonderful uni&rmity of direction. Thus, in Scotland the general direction of the strata of primitive mountains is from N. E. to S. W. ; and the same is nearly the case in tlie vast alpme regions of Norway, and in many of the lofly and widely extended primitive lands of other parts of Europe, The rocks of which primitive mountains and plains are composed are throughout of a crystalline nature, and present such cliaracters as intimate their formation from a state of solution. These characters are the intermixture of the concretions of which thev are composed at tlieir line of junction, their mutual penetration of each other, their consideraUe lustre, pure colours, and translucency. Thus, in granite the concretions of felspar, quartz, and mica are joined togetlier without any basis or ground ; and at their line of jiincture are either closely attached together, or are intermixed ; and frequently branches of the one concretion shoot into the other, thus occasioning^ a mutual interlacement, od is observed in bodies that have been formed simultaneously and from a state of solution. These characters show that the concretions of prranite (and the san?.e applies to the concFetions of limestone, gneiss, mica slate, and othor rocks of the primitive class,) are of a crystalline nature, and have been formed at tlie same time. The strata are so arranged as to show that they ore crystalline formations. Primitive rocks contain no organic remains, hence are inferred to have been formed before animals and vegetables were called into existence. Primitive rocks abound Part II. of rents. When no derangement i correspond, ovr'me rangement is csiU if which the crust f which the Otw. crust of the earth /idual characters. r in their arrange- ! and Secondary ; nder the other he 'he first, he said, Werner first dis- ■ two classes, viz. [vhole rocks, from names and in the , the Tertiary of » or less modified, rica. ig classes. Coun- those composed valleys narrower rata of primitive :ontributes in an surfiice of primi- iul uniformity of ive mountains is jfions of Norway, of Europe. The t of a crystalline state of solution, are composed at uble lustre, pure 'tz, and mica are re either closely concretion shoot Wdles that have re show that the »ne, gneiss, mica I and have been y are crystalline "ed to have been re rocks abound BookII. GEOGNOSY. 229 very much in metalliferous minerals, and hitherto no metal has been met with which docs not occur, either exclusively or occasionally, in this class of rocks. Tin, wolfram, lead, cop- per, iron, cobalt, zinc, manganese, arsenic, and mercury, occur either disseminated, in beds and veins, or imbedded in various rocks of this class, and many primitive distxicts are char- acterised by the metalliferous deposits they contain. The most beautiful of all productions of the mineral kingdom, the gems, occur in great variety in primitive rocks. Nothing can be more beautiful than the drutay cavitie$ met with in primitive mountains, whose walu are lined with pure and variously tinted and crystallized toimz, beryl, rock crystal, fluor spar, and calcareous sj^r ; the gneiss, granite, and mica slate, with their imbedded crystals and grains of sapphire, chrvsolite, and garnet ; and the veins in ^franitc, clay slate, and other primitive rocl«, with tneir emeralds, axinites, and spinel rubies, afford to the mineralogist highly interesting combinations. Species of primitive rocks. — ^The following are the species of rocks that form the primi- tive parts of the crust of the earth : — 1. Granite. 2. Syenite. 8. Protogine. 4. Trap. 6. Serpentine. 6. Porphyry. 7. Gneiss. 8. Mica slate. 0. Clay slate. 10. Quartz rock. 11. Limestone. Of these rocks one set, consisting of certain granites, with trap, gneiss, mica slate, clay slate, quartz rock, and limestone, are said to be of Neptunian origin, that is, have been de- posited from a liquid, probably water ; the other set, including certain granites, with syenite, porphyry, protogme, serpentine and diallage rock, are named Plutonic or igneous, it being probable that they have been formed from a state of igneous solution. We shall describe first the Neptunian, and next the Plutonian primitive rocks. SuBSECT. 1. — Neptunian Primitive Rocks. (1.) Cfranite is a granular compound of felspar, quartz, and mica. It occurs in beds and in imbedded masses, and also in included veins in ^eiss, mica slate, and clay slate. From its intimate connexion with these rocks, it is inferred to be a Neptunian deposit (2.) Trap. Under this name we include all those granular primitive rocks in which hornblende is the sole or predominant constituent part These rocks sometimes appear arranged like the steps of a stair ; hence tlie name trap, from the Swedish word trappa, a stair. (3.) Oneiss is a granular slaty compound of felspar, mica, and quartz. (4.) Mica slate is a slaty compound of mica and quart;:. Talc slate and micaceous talc rocks may be arranged under this head. (5.) Clay slate is a slaty rock, frequently entirely composed of mmute scales of mica. (6.) Quartz rock. This rock is almost entirely composed of quartz, either in granular concretiotis or in the compact form ; and grains of relspar and scales of mica not unfriquently occur in it When the felspar increases in quantity, the compound at length passes into granite. When the scales of mica increase and the felspar disappears, mica slate is formed. (7.) Limestone. This rock has generally a white or gray colour, is composed of shining granular concretions, and is more or less translucent It frequently contains scales of mica and grains of quartz, seldom or never grains and crystals of felspar. SuBSEOT. 2. — Plutonian or Ignigenous Primitive Rocks. : .•' (1.) Granite. The structure and composition of this granite is in general the same as that of the Neptunian kind already noticed. It differs from it in occurrmg in vast and often widely extended masses, which form the central parts of mountain groups, and appear to have come from below after the deposition of the Neptuuiun rocks that rest upon them. The highly inclined position of the primitive strata is considered to have been occasioned by this granite, with its syenites and porphyries. (20 Syenite is a compound of felspar, hornblende, and quartz : in short it is a granit* in which the mica is replaced hy hornblende. Some of the primitive traps belong to this hvad. (3.) Porphyry is a rock with a felspar basis, including grains and crystals of felspar and quartz, and sometimes scales of mica. This porphyry is a mere modification of granite. (4.) Protogine is a ^nular compound of felspar, quartz, and chlorite. It difiers from granite m the mica being replaced by chlorite. (6.) Serpentine is a simple green-coloured rock, with a compact ftacture, feeble trani^ lucency on the edges, which yields readily to the knife, and feels greasy. (6.) Diallage rock is a compound of felspar and diallage. It belongs probably to the primitive trap series. ,, / Sect. VII. — TVansition Rocks. The rocks of this class, in the regular succession, rest immediately upon those of the primitive class. Most of the rocks are distinctly stratified, and the strata are frequently vertical, and, like those of the primitive class, exhibit the same general direction throu^gfh- out great tracts of country. Some of the deposits are of a chemical, others of a mechawcal nature ; I'jnestone is an example of a chemical, greywacke of a mechanical deposit They Vol. I. 20 280 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Pabt IL are diBtinffuished from primitive rocka by tho presence of foesil orffanic remaiiu, and the poeitive cnamcters are drawn from the occurrence of certain foesil crustaceous animid% shells, and corals. The extensive deposits of limestone, particularly of the variegated kinds so highly prized 6>t ornamental purposes, which they contain ; the fine granites and por- phyries which they aiford ; and the ores of lead and copper distributed among them, are proofs of their importance in the arts. In this class there are also Neptunian and Plutonian rocks. The Nfptunian are the fbllowing, viz. 1. Greywacke. 2. Transition clay slate. 9. Gneiss and mica slate. 4. Quartz rock. 5. Red sandstone. 6. Limestone. 7. Glance coaL The Plutonian are, 1. Granite. 2. Syenite. S. Porphyry. 4. Trap. 6. Serpentine. SvBBEOT. 1. — Neptunian Transition Rockt. (1.) Greywacke is a conglomerated rock, having a basis of clay slate, in which fragments of various primitive rocks, as clay slate, quartz roc/., &c. occur imbedded. When the imbedded fragments become very small, and the quantity of the basis increases, the rock acquires a slaty fracture, and is named greyw%.?ke slate, (2.) Transition clay slate. This is tlie rock known under the name roofing slate. It sometimes contains trilobites. (3.) Gneiss and mica slate. These have the same general aspect as the varieties met with in primitive regions. (4.) Quartz rock. This rock very much resembles the kinds met with in primitive moun- tains. (5.) Limestone. It frequently occurs with less lustre and translucencv than primitive limestones, and often exhibits in the same bed various tints and shades of beautiful colours. It is frequently traversed by veins of calcareous spar. Some varieties are conglomerated, forming the brecciated marble of artists ; and others contain fossil shells and cords, and also the chuacteristic trUobite. (6.) Glance coal, or Anthracite. Beds of this coal, known by its metallic lustre, and burning without flame or smoke, are met with in transition districta SiiBBEOT. 2. — Plutonian Transition Rocks. (1.) Crranite. This rock does not differ materially from that of the primitive period. It is principally distinguished bj its being intermingled with greywacke and other transition rocks. (2.) Syenite. This rock, which has the same mineralogical characters with the primi- tive varieties, very generally contains crystals of sphene. (3.) Porphyry. This porphyry has sometimes a basis of felspar, sometimes of clay stone, and as usual contains imbedded grains and crystals of felspar. It occurs eitiier alone, or associated with syenite and trap, forming mountains, and even ranges of mountains. (4.) Trap. In this as in the pi-imitive trap, the sole or predominating mineral is horn blende. It passes into syenite. (5.) Serpentine. This rock does not differ materially from the primitive rock of tlie same name : geognostically it is distinguished fi'om it by its alternating with, and sometimes traversing in the form of vebs, greywacke and other characteristic transition rocks. Sect. VIII. — Secondary Rocks. This very interesting class of rocks rests, in the regular succession, immediately upon those of the transition clasa Much of the mineral matter cf which they are composed appears to have been deposited from a state of mechanical suspension, a circumstance which may be considered as distinguishing them, in some measure, from the transition class, where chemical deposits prevail over those of a mechanical nature. They abound in fossil organic remains, and it is here that for the first time we meet with remains of vertebrated animals, as lacerta and other species of the same general description. Coal, which occurs but in small quantity in transition deposits, is profusely distributed among secondary formations. Of ores, by &r the most abundant, and at the same time most important in an economical view, are those of iron and lead: of these the iron (it is the common clay ironstone, the aluminous carbonate of iron,) is the most abundant and most widelydiBtributed. In this, as in the preceding class, there are Neptunian and Plutonian rocks. The Neptimian rocks are the following: — 1. Sandstone. 2. Slate. 3. Limestone. 4. Gypsum. 6. Coal. The Plutonian are, 1. Granite. 2. Porphyry. 3. Trap. SvasBCT. 1. — Neptunian Secondary Rocks. In the primitive and transition classes geologists have not hitherto observed shy very determinate arrangement among the Neptunian deposits ; whereas in the present class a determinate order has been discovered throughout the whole series. In our sketch we shall follow the order of succession, beginningwith the oldest, and finishing our account with a •'cscriptinn of the newest formation. jThe whole Neptunian series is divided into brmations of s^iid^tone and formations of limestone ; the other members of the series, as the slate, gypsum, coal, and ironstore, occurring subordinate to these. First secondary formation ; or the old red sandstone. This formation is a sandstone of ■ Past II remains, and the taceous animal^ variegated kinda granites and por- unong them, are m and Plutonian m clav slate. 3. 7. Glance coaL trpentine. .. which fragments led. When the reases, the rock oqfing alate. It he varieties met primitive moun- than primitive eautiful colours. conglomerated, 1 corals, and also Hie lustre, and tive period. It is transition rocks, with the primi- bs of clay stone, either alone, or nitains. lineral is horn ve rock of the and sometimes 1 rocks. nediately upon are composed mstance which on class, where 1 fossil organic irated animals, occurs but in iry formations. an economical ironstone, the id. In this, as nian rocks are Coal. The rved ahy very resent class a ur sketch we our account divided into I series, as the sandstone of • Book IT. GEOGNOSY. SSt rod colour, and, being the oldest of the sandstones, is named the old red tandatone. It is composed of particles of quartz, with occasional scales of mica and fragments of felspar, held together by an iron-shot basis or ground. Sometimes it is associated with a conglome- rate made up of fragments of transition and primitive rocks. Second secondary formation, or mountain limeBlone, or metalliferou$ limestone, or car boniferous limestone of geologists. This deposit rests, generally conformably, sometimes also unconformably, on the old red sandstone. It is distinctly stratified,^^d the strata are frequently more or less inclined. Its colours are generally gray; the fracture in compact. Sometimes it has a granular foliated structure, particularly where it occurs in contact with trap rocks. Some varieties, viz. those named lucuUite, have a black colour. It contains fossil organic remains of animals of various descriptions. Of these the most characteristic are genera of the trilobite tribe. Third secondary formation ; or the secor^d secondary sandstone, or the great coal formo' tion. This very important deposit is a compound formation, therefore consists of different rocks. Of these rocks the predominating one is sandstone. The rocks of the formation are the following : — 1. Sandstone. 2. Slate. 3. Clay. 4. Limestone. 5. Coal. 6. Iron- stone. 1. Sandstone. The general colours are white and gray ; sometimes also it is reddish, and then it much resembles the old red sandstone. Some varieties are entirely com- posed of particles of quartz, held together by a very inconsiderable basis or ground; others contain, besides quartz, also felspar and mica ; these are by some geologists named arkose. It firequently contains coaly matter, and casts and impressions of plants. — 2. Slate. Of the slate there are two kinds, named slate clay and bituminous shale, both of which are mere modifications of clay with the slaty structure. These also contcin fossil organic remains.— 3. Clay. This is compact clay without the slaty structure, and from its use in the arts is named fire clay. — 4. Limestone, This limestone very much resembles the mountain lime- stone which lies below the coal ; but hitherto no trilobites have been found in it. It alternates in beds with the other rocks of this formation. Some geologists refer it to the mountain limestone, and consequently that limestone to the coal formation ; an opinion which may be correct.—^. Coal. The coal in this formation occurs in beds that alternate with the slates, sandstone, and limestones. The coal is bituminous or black coal. — 6. Ironstone. This iron- stone is the common gray clay ironstone of mineralogists. It is an aluminous carbonate of iron, and is the species of ironstone which affords most of the iron manufactured in Great Britain. It occurs in beds or imbedded, and most frequently in the slate of this formation. Fotirth secondary formation ; the second secondary limestone ; the magnesian and alpine limestone of authors. This formation, in the regular succession, rests immediately upon the coal forriiation. It contains several varieties of limestone. One of these, which fre- quently occupies the lowest part of the deposit, has a brownish black colour, a thick slaty fracture, and emits an animal bituminous smell, and is named bituminous marl slate. Another variety has a yellowish gray, or even at times an ochre yellow colour, with a compact or small granular foliated structure, wi*h a low degree of lustre, and is named magnesian limestone. Another variety has a brownish or yellowish colour, is sometimes compact, sometimes granular or cavernous, impregnated with sparry iron, forms the upper part of the deposit, and is called calcaire ferrifere. When this variety becomes charged with bitumen and cavernous, it is named by German miners rauchwache. It abounds in the fossil shell named Productus aculeatus. This formation does not abound in fossil organic remains. No true ferns, but fossil fuci and zostera, occur in it. Remains of the monitor, and it is said also of the crocodile, have been met with in it. Fishes of the genus chtetodon and of other tribes, and numerous remains of shells and corals, occur more or less frequently in diflerent varieties of the limestone. The trilobite tribe, so abundant in the transition period, and also in the first secondary limestone, occur here along with ortho- ceratites. It is the species named trilobites bituminous. Entrochi and pentacrini of great size also occur in it. The shells are not distributed throughout the whole mass of the beds, but rather occur in particular parts. The following are the ehells : — Orthoceratiles, very rare. Ammonites gibbosus. Terebratxda paradoxa, Terebratula elongata. Spirifer alatus. Encrinus racemosus. Productus rugosus. Mytilus rostratus. Terebratula ovata, lacunosa, trigoncVa. Fifth secondary formation ; the third secondary sandstone, or variegated sandstone, ox new red sandstone. In this formation, besides the sandstone, tliere are, when the deposit is complete, also beds of marl, with gypsum and rock-salt The infp tor part of this form- uticn 13 a red coloured sandstone conglomer^ie, which rareiy coniams subordinate beds of dolomite, but no fossil organic remains. Above this reposes what may be called the middle part of the deposit, which is the variegated sandstone, so named because it sometimes exhibits different colours, principally red, \vith yellow and gray blotches. It is composed of fine grains of quartz, with a little mica, ana sometimes felspar, held together by a base 28V SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. PartIL of ferruginous clay. It contains but few organic remains, principally of voffetables. The upper part of the deposit is ^onorally composed of beds of a clayey marl, always more or less slaty, and generally alternating in the lower part with beds of the sanostone. Its colours are red, gray, and yellow ; sometimes it is variegated in the same manner as Uie sandstone with which it alternates. It contains subordinate bods of gypsum, and rock'Salt, and sometimes also beds of dolomite. It contains littoral shells and bones of taurian animals. Sixth secondary formation ; the shell limestone, or muschel kalkstein. This interesting deposit, in the regular succession, rests immediately on the variegpted or new red sandstone formation. This limestone is of a gray, yellow, or reddish tint of colour. — It is compact, but tlie fracture sur'nccs exhibit numerous shining facets ih>m animal fossil remains. !wds of marl, which are sometimes oolitic, eltemate wiut it. It oflen abounds m well preserved fossil shells ; hence the name shell limestone. It sometimes contains gypsum and roek-t This, which is one of the most extensive and important of the secondary formations, r.iay be divided into the following members ; pro ceeding, as usual, firom below upwards : — 1. Lias. 2. Oolite. 3. Oxford clay. 4. Coral rag. 5. Kimmeridge clay. 6. Portland oolite. (1.) Lias, Lias is a provincial name applied to limestone shales, and marl stones, and some sandstones that occur along with them. The marls are sometimes very bituminous, and contain beds of lignite or brown coal, and also fossil shells, and occasionally beds of gypsum. The fossil vegetables of the lias are lignites, fossil wood, sometimes siliceous impressions of ferns, cycadaceiB, and fiici. The animal remains are numerohyllea, and Meandrina. Echinites of the genera Cidaris and Gypeus are met with, ''he fossil shells have not heem thoroughly examined. (5.) Kimmeridge clay. 'I he lower beds of the preceding deposit alternate with a blue or yellowish gray marl, whicn is more or less slaty, and contains beds of a very bituminoua slate, and even true lignite or brown coal, sometimes forming beds of considerable thickness. An ichthyosaurus different from that in the lias is found here ; also remains of the plesio* saurus, and bones of whales, it is said, have been found in the Kimmeridge clay ; also fine impressions of fishes. Serpula, also species of cidaris and asterias, occur in this formatiori. Many species of different genera of marine shells are enumerated as occurring in it, parti- cularly ammonites, belemnites, &c. It would appear that the prevailing fossil shells in the whole oolite formation are ammonites and belemnites. The belemnites do not occur lower down in the series than the lias. (6.) Portland oolite. This is a limestone which is frequently loosely aggregated, some- times oolitic, forming the last deposit of secondary limestone with this structure, none of the superior or newer secondary limestones possessing it. It contains petrified monocotyledonoiia and dicotyledonous plants. Remains of large saurian animals, and also of fishes, are met 'vt'ith in it. Ammonites, trigonia, and gryphites, are abundant. The most characteristic shells are the Ammonites triplicatus and the Pecten lamellosus. A cidaris and madrepore have also been discovered in it Ninth secondary formation. Wealden clay and Purbeck stone. This remarkable form- ation abounds in fresh-water shells and land plants ; but, in England at least, contains no marine species ; hence it is an example of a fresh-water deposit l^tween two marine depo- sits, viz. the oolite and chalk. It is probable, however, that future observations will prove that even in England it contains marine shells. There are two members of this formation, viz. the Weald clay, and Purbeck stone, (1.) Weald Clay. This is a bluish or grayish coloured clay, containing subordinate beds of argillaceous lunestone. The limestone abounds in shells belonging to the fresh-water genus paludinte ; dso a great quantity of the crustaceous tribe nam^ cypris. Broum iron ore, beds of lignite, and beds of sandstone much resembliiig some of tne varieties of the coal formation, also occur in it It contains impressions of ferns, but of different species from those in the coal formation. (2.) Purbeck stone is a clayey limestone, which alternates with marls. It abounds in paludina, also contains beautiful impressions of fresh-water fishes, and of tortoises and crocodiles. Tenth secondary formation, or chalk formation. This formation is well characterised, by its 0T^,'anic remains and flints. Five beds occur in this formation ; viz. 1. Lower green sand ; 2.' Oatdt clay ; 3. Upper green sand ; 4. Tuffaceous chalk ; 5. Chalk. (1.) Lower green sand. This sand does not differ from the upper ; but the fossil organic remains are less abundant The shells are ammonites, tcrebratulites, trigonia, &c. In Great Britain the trigonia alaformis is considered as characteristic of this lower greon sand. (8.) Oault. The green sand is divided into two by a very tiick bed of bluish gray clay, known in many of the districts v;here it occurs under the name of gault It contains ant- monites and other shells, particularly the Inoceramus sulcatua. ^ (3.) Upper green sand. The lower part of the tuffaceous chaik, containing a prodigiova quantity of fossils and of iron pyrites, becomes more and more chirged with green pointf, and we reach a mass composed of a green sand more or less marly, ami often a green coloured calciireouR «andsti5ne= F^gmente of silicified wood, and also parts of shells penetrated with silica ; teeth of fishes, but parts of no other vertebrated animals, occur in it The fossil shells are very num jrous : species of the genera cidaris and spatangtix are met with, and also corals of various kinds. f4.) Tuffaceous chalk, which is generally composed of a cretaceous matter, clay and sand, Vot.1. 20* 2E 284 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. PaetIL i>>i If ^B m ^^^1 Ism m p ',k i i; U is Bofler than chalk, and towards the Icwer part of the mass the clay prcdominatos, and itlaty clay marl is found. When the sand predominates, a loosely aggfregato trrayish sand- stone is formed. No flints occur in this tuffbccous chalk, their place hem? talren by chert. Fossil vegfetables, even lignite, are found in it. Fossils are most abundant m the I>,ver part of tliis deposit The chief are belemnites, ammoniteg, nautilitet, hamilet, baculitei, turru liles, echmitet, with madreporea and encrinitea. (5.) The uppermost is tne chalk properly so called, of which tliero are two principal kinds, viz. the vpper or soft or common chalk, which abounds in flints in beds, veins, and imbedded masses; and the lower or hard chalk, in which flint is more rarely met with. These chalks also contain iron pyrites and calcareous spar. The fossils are vertebra and teeth of fiihea ; numerous ecAtnt7e« and terebralulites occur throughout the whole mass; and in the descending order, ammonitea and belemnites first make their appenranco in the lower part of the chalk. SuBSEOT. 2. — Plutonian or Igneous Secondary Rocks. Igneous rocks appear, at diflTercnt determinate periods, to have broken in among the Neptunian rocks of this class, and also to have forced up through them older rocks of various descriptions, forming mountains, mountain ranges, and groups of mountains. The igneous rocks are porphyry, and sometimes also granite and syenite. Sect. IX. — Tertiary Rocks. SuBSECT. 1. — Neptunian Tertiary Rocks, The rocks of this class were first pointed out by Werner ; but it was not until the puhli- cation of the excellent work of Cuvier and Brongniart on the geology of Paris, '.hat their importance was felt and acknowledged by geologists. In the regular succession they rest immediately upon the chalk or uppermost member of the secondary class. Although the rocks are looser in texture than those of the secondary class, yet among them beds occur equally compact with those of the secondary class. They abound in fossil remains of the animal and vegetable kingdoms ; although many species are diflerent from the present ones, many of the genera are the same. The following are the Neptunian rocks in the order of tiieir occurrence, from below upwards : 1. Plastic clay. 2. Calcaire grossier, or London clay. 3. Gypsum with bones. 4. Superior marine sandstones and sands, sandstone of Fon- taincbleau. 5. Upper fi'esh-water formation. (1.) Plastic clay. This clay is fircquently divided into two beds by a bed of sand ; the upper bed is more or less mixed with the sand, the lower bed is pure, kneads completely with water, and is infiisible in the porcelain furnace. The upper bed abounds in fossil remains ; the lower bed contains none. Jet and brown coal, which are fossilised remains of dicotyle- donous and monocotyledonous plants occur, in it Remains of the palm tribe are very frequent ; but ferns have not been met with. Insects well preserved in amber are also met witli. The fossil shells are partly fresh- water, partly marine, which are sometimes separate, sometimes mixed together. (2.) Calcaire grossier, or d cerites of French authors, the London clay of English geologists. This deposit is sometimes separated fix>m the plastic clay by a bed of sand, which occasionally contains pure and solid sandstone, but no petrifactions. Resting upon this sand is a bed of shelly limestone, abounding in green coloured grains of silicate of iron, and which sometimes passes into a kind of sand ; it is in this limestone that the num- mulite shells are so abundant, and which are mixed with corals and numerous shells in a high state of preservation. Immediately above this lies the great bed of true calcau:e grossier. It is so compact that in the Paris basin, where it abounds, it is used extensively as a building-stone. It is the common building-stone in Paris. It contains marine shells well preser\'ed, and also remains of plants. In some districts it is divided into two beds by an interposed bed of lignite or Proton coal, which is intermixed with fresh-water shells. It is interesting to notice, that here a limestone abounding in marine shells is separated into two beds by an interposed mass of coal, filled with fresh-water shells. Around London tiiere is a great deposit of clay aboundmg in the same shtUs as occur in the calcaire grossier; thence, for this and other reasons, it is considered as the equivalent of the Paris calcaire grossier. The uppermost part of this formation consists of sand, homstone, and sandstone, with alternating beds of limestone. It sometimes abounds in cerites. (3.) Gypsum with bones. This deposit may be considered as consisting of three stages ; a lower, a middle, and an upper. The lower part, or that which rests immediately upon the calcaire grossier, consists of gray and white limestone, more or less compact, penetrated in all directions by silica. This silica, when it finds its way into cavities in the limestone, lines them with chalcedony or with quartz crystals. It contains species of the &eah-water genera Lymnea and Planorbis. The middle part is composed of gypsum which alternates wiUi layers of marl. It is in this gypsum that remains of the genera Palaotherium, Anoplo* PabtII. redominatos, and to sprayish sand- y tai:«?n by chert, in the w«ver part baculite$, turn- DooK n. GEOGNOSY. 235 ro two principal beds, veins, and rarely met with, ire vertebras and the whole mass; ppenranco in the in in among the Br rocks of Various IS. The igneous t until the puhli- Paris, '.hai their :cession tliey rest IS. Although the them beds occur il remains of the the present ones, ks in the order of ossier, or London sandstone of Fon- bed of sand ; the Is completely with in fossil romains; mains of dicotyle- tribe are very nber are also met metimes separate, clay of English by a bed of sand, Resting upon ns of silicate of me that the num- lerous shells in a of true calcabe used extensively ns marine sheila led into two beds esh-water shells. lells IS separated Around London alcaire grossier; he Paris calcaire e, and sandstone, of three stages ; mmediately upon (ipact, penetrated In the limestone, le fresh-watef which alternates herium, Anaplo' therium, of various cai-nivora, also different species of birds and of fresh-water fishes, like- wise the Tronex, Te$tudo, and Crocodilitt, are met with : and of the shells, the most char* acteristic is the Cyclottoma mumia. Here also in thu marls occurs that curious kind of opal named menilite ; a mineral wiiich in some degree may be considered as characterising this ^psum deposit. In this gypsninr is situated the salt of Wielickza, The upper pan consists of marls, with fVesh-wate. ».>dil8 of the lymnea and pknorbis tribes, remains of fishes, and frequently remains of the palm tribe. (4.) Superior marine tanda and landttonei. The lower part of this deposit is a green- coloured ar; illaceous marl with celeatine, upon which there are marls containing fossil oysters. The middle part consists of micaceous sands, and sandstones without shells. The vpper part is sandstone with marine shells. (5.) Upper fresh-water formation. TheZowertMirt of this deposit consists of sands, marls, and vesicular quartz or millstono ^meulidre), without shells. The millstone occurs rarely ese rocks very much resemble basalt, and have been sent from the interior of the earth in iSe form of streams or currents. In almost every countiy where they occur, we find craters 5-om whence they have streamed. These dark-coloured basaltic-like rocks, are accompanied \'ith puzzolana and scorie, very much resembling those of active volcanoes. Sonietimen liguier coloured lavas, named leucostine, and which resemble 'trachyte, occur along with the darker varieties. Modem volcanic rocks. These, as already enumer ited and described at p. 213, 214, are lavas, scoriffi, ashes, sands, &c. jj p iUJi ii i i jiiti gaiiMl 296 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY, Pabt IL BOOK III. GEN£a.\L PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY UNDER ITS RELATION TO ORGANIZED AND UVING BEINGS. In considering the extensive range of subjects which this book embraces, we have arranged thsm as they successively rise above the scale of inanimate nature. The first chapter treats of geography, in its relation to botany, or to the distribution of plants ove the surface of the globe. The oecond chapter considers it in its relation to zoology, or the distribution of animals, including man viewed simply as to his physical condition. The third chapter views geography in reference to human society, to man in his political, moral, and social condition. CHAPTER L OEOORAPHT CONSIDERED IN RELATION TO THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS. In proportion as our knowledge increases relative to any of the sciences, we find a more intimate relation and connexion between them. Formerly geograplw was only studied as it regarded the surface of the earth itself, its figure, the constitution of the several ret^ions and countries, their boundaries, &.c. ; and boteuiy has had too many votaries who devoted their atten- tion almost exclusively to determining the generic and specific names of plants, neglecting the more beautifiil and philosophical parts of the science. Of late years, indeed, our systems of geography have, in some mstances, contained a meagre catalogue of the vegetable produc- tions of the difiTerent regions, but nothing that could give the least information with respect to the lawL of their general distribution : and now that some of the most able naturalists and philosophers of our day have, by their labours, thrown new light upon this interesting sub- ject, we Aould feel tliat our work would ill merit the character which we hope it may obtain with the public, were we to omit a notice of it. At the same time, the limits of our publica- tion will permit us to give only a sketch of what indeed must be considered as still in its infancy ; and those who have most devoted their attention to botanical geography will most readily join with Mirbel in declaring that " we are even yet far from having arrived at that period when it will be possible to write a good history of this subject What we do know of climates and of vegetation, is little, in comparison with what we have yet to learn; and hence it would be rash in us to form an estimate of what we do not know by what we are already acquainted with. The surest way is to confine ourselves to collecting and arranging facts, leaving, to those who may follow us, the charge of discovering and de- velopmg the theory." To exhibit the present state of botanical science, we shall endeavour to put together the more interesting racts, collected principally from the writings of our most authentic travel- lers and natunuists; and, devoting this memoir to vegetable geo^phy in its more en- larged and general sense, shall afterwards, in the different countries, under the head of botany, point out some of the most striking and important productions of their respective regions. As the nature of the present work does not permit us to enter minutely into the Bubject in all its bearings, we shall give a popular view of it, as little encumbered as possible with technical terms. ^ That certain vegetables are confined to certain districts or limits, depending in a great measure, but by no means altogether, upon soil and climate, must be familiar to tlie most careless inquirer into the works of nature. In regard to climate, the two extremes are re- presented by the country within the tropics, and that which approaches the poles. In the one, nature exhibits herself in her most lovely and her most magnificent and exuberant form, and the earth is covered with vegetables which indicate a never-ending summer ; whilst in the others a brief summer, a few days of freedom fix>m firost and snow, call into existence a thinly scattered vegetation of small and stunted flowering plants, which scarcely rise above the mosses and lichens that surround them ; and the intermediate zones will be found to be occupied by other races, gradually, however, increasing in difference as they approach to one or other of these extremities. The same gradation exists, we know, upon a lofty moun- tain, situated within the tropics. At its base may be seen those plants which are peculiar to the tropics ; and the beauty, the grandeur and perpetual verdure will gradually diminish in the ascent, until a soil and climate be found on the higher summits similar in respect to climate and productions to Uiose in the vicinity of the poles. In regard to climate and vegetable productions, our globe has been aptly compared, in itr two bemisplieres, to two immense mountains, placed base to base, tne circumference of Part It I .' ^ ... ■ • r •.' ( ih ',.'•,■ ■ ' .. . LATION TO we have atranged the distribution of bution of animals, an in his political, P PLANTS. es, we find a more I only studied as it everal regions and levoted their atteri' nts, neglecting tiie ed, our systems of vegetable produc- lation with respect ble naturalists and is interesting sub- hope it may obtain nitsof ourpublica- |red as still in its pgraphy will most ng arrived at that :t What we do lave yet to learn; know by what we to collecting and scovering and de- 9 put together the authentic travel- ' in its more en- nder the head of if their respective minutely into the nbered as possible ending in a great niliar to tiie most I extremes are re- he poles. In the d exuberant form, immer ; whilst in 1 into existence a larcely rise above rill be found to be they approach to pon a lofty moun- rhich are peculiar radually diminish lilar in respect to ' compared, in it? circumference of SooK III. IN ITS RELATION TO BOTANY. 287 which at the ti.'^t i^ constituted by the equator, and ttio two poloi represent the lummits, crowned with pei,'< tual glaciers. That almost every v ountry posscssoa a vegetation peculiar to itself, is also well known ; and this is particularly the case with countries whose natural boundaries are formed by moun< tains, seas, or deserts, even in the same or different degrees of latitude. Europe exhibits a widely different class of p^'-nts fVom that part of North America which lies immcdiatcl) op- pjsite to it The botany ol >::iouthern Africa has little or no rcsemblauco to that of the same parallels in South America, or to that of New Holland. In Great Britain, some plants are confined to the eo«tem and some to the western side of the island. In Scotland, the Tut' lane and the Me qf Man Cabbage are never found but on the western side of the country, and the same is the case with the pale Butterwort (Pinguicula Lusitanica), both in England and Scotland. Nature has constituted the barrier, for by art they may be cultivated aa well on one a« the other side of the island. Botanical geography is constituted by considering plants in relation to their habitation, region, or the country in which they grow, and in regard to their locr Mty or particular station, and forming a collection of facts, deduced from these circumstances, from which general laws may Im) derived : nor is this a science destitute of advantages ; such, wo mean, as are immediately manifest; for there are few, in the present age, who will be disposed to deny that the study of the works of nature, like every thing that can exalt and renne the mind, is highly deserving of our attention. Vegetable geography is intimately connected with hor- ticulture. Our gardens will be better stocked with vegetables and miits, our forests with trees, our fields with com, and our postures with grasses, in proportion to our knowledge of the relation of plants with the exterior elements. Nay, Schouw has justly observed, that a good chart of the distribution of the vegetable forms over any given country will afford a far more correct idea of the productive strength of that country than many statistical tables. The systematic botanist may thence derive oenefit; for by it he will be better able to deter mine whether certain kinds of plants are species or varieties ; he will consider that a di& ferent local situation produces different efTects upon them ; that those growing in wet places are less hairy or downy than those growmg in dry ; that at great elevations plants are more dwarf in ;>\eir stature, with fewer leaves, but with larger and more brilliant flowers than those founa at lesser heights. The station, too, of certain plants, or groups of plants, fre« quently leads to a discovery of characters diverse from other individuals of other countries with which they had been associated. Thus the Canadian Strawberry and the Canadian chickweed Wintergreen (Trientalis), though long confounded with the European Stratobet' ty and Trientaiia, wa found to be quite distinct The regions, too, and the lunits of those regions, of very important medicinal drugs, are determined by vegetable geography. Sect. I. — Progress of Botanical Geography. This branch of science had been, however, for a long time, wholly neglected. Linnieus, indeed, with whom originated so many improvements in botany, besides what related to sys- tematic arrangement, was the first writer who gave stations for plants, as he called them, or rather habitations, or frequently both combined, and this plan has been followed by every suc- ceeding systematic botanist. Yet although these stations or habitations are frequently con- sulted in the geographical arrangement of plants, they are too vague and uncertain to be generally depended upon ; and the^r ipust be employed with caution. De Saussure, who so assiduously studied vegetable physiology, was particularly attentive, on that account to the elevation at which plants grow above the level of the sea ; and appears to have been the first to ascertain that elevation barometrically. Mr. Young, the celebrated agriculturist, in his Travels upon the Continent, determined with considerable accuracy the northern boun- daries of several of the most important cultivated plants, the Olive, the Vine, and the Maize ; whilst Soulavie, in the south of France, has characterised the limits of them, and uf the Orange and Chestnut. These, and other authors of less note, prepared the way, during the lost century, for the more important labours of the present when the study has begun to rank as a science. Stromeyer described, to a certain extent, the boundaries of the vegetable kingdom, in a work entitled "A Specimen of the History tlie tnuHt vuluubio rkt, Geographical ationa on the lltr- mgo, 1818." Dr. iunio portions havo ) work is accompa< ;raphical extent of that we BGC, at one !und, tiicir bounda- apth of colour nm- trelles" has given iginal information. onnaire Cla$tique old's " Memoirs of rvey of the Inter- x)n tiic distribution ["he " M> moires du ubject, particularly .aluable for its eco- les Vigetaux pha- ctique : and, lastly, iphy of Plants" by the surface of tlic are equally subject " The Palms, the he Cruciferous and ilo the Coniferous 1 ; and since those any farther, the hese M. de Can- nee ond growth of nter all vegetation jontinued state of B, or by substances m the temperature ter the vegetable e so great that the jffects, however, it 18 earth than at a )ts resist both the irface ; their fibres )f the outer air, so rtained by experi- ermometer placed or branch, and the being the moislest f able to resist the 0W9 older becotnes le Pride of India Id ; but that when DnoK III. IN ITS RELATICN TO BOTANY. QW it attaiuH a more advanced ago, it will endure, in the garden at Qenova, an intcniity of ■tmoi<))hero tbur tiin< bh severo m that which killed tho young plant in Uie south of France, Again, in propor' ,on aa the exterior layers are deprived of Mp or watery fluid, and fortiAod by a (ic[XMit of cuibon and rciiinoua matter, the nw>ro jMwermlly thoy withntand the rnld. Lvery ganlcner and cultivator iu acquainted with tho fact that m cold and wet summem when the sun and heat havo been inauflicient tc produce food bark upon tho now shuota uf the fruit-trees, they aro liable to bo aflTeoted by t very moderate fVost m the eniulng winter. Succulent plants and Monocotyledonoua plants, in general, which have no distinct bark, are higiily susceptible of cold ; whilst Uio Birch, wiiich is fenced around with numoroua layeM of dd and dry bark, and tho Fir, whoae bark abounds with resin, endure an intense degree ol it without injury. At Fort Enterprise, in North America, lat. 04° 30", Dr. Richard 'tun has ascertained that the Banksian Pine (Pinua Banksiana), the white, tlio red, and black iSpruce, tho small-fruited Larch, and other Amentaceous trees, bear a degree of cold equal to 44° below zero of Fahrenheit; and in Siberia, lat. 05° 28", the common iarcA, tho Siberian Stone Pine, tho Alder, Birch, and Juniper, &c. attain their greatest size, and are not affected by 'he oxtremest cold of that severe climate. Powerflii summei heats aro capable of causing trees and shrubs to endure tho most trying effects of cold in the ensuing winter, as we finu in innumerable instances ; and vice versi. Hence, in Great Britain, so many vegetables, fruit-trees in particular, for want of a suffi- ciently powerful sun in summer, are anected by our comparatively moderate frosts in winter ; whilst upon continents in tho same degree of latitude the same trees arrivo at tho highest degree of perfection. Even in the climate of Paris the Pistacia tree and tho Oleander will not bear tiie winter. Yet tho winters there are mild in comparison with those which prevail in the environs of Peking, where the Oleander was fbimd by Lord Macartney to remain abroad the whole year ; and at Casbin in Persia, where Chardm assures us that the Pistacia nuts, produced in the open air, are larger than those of Syria. On tlie otlier hand, the heat of these two countries in summer is infinitely greater than that at Paris : tlie Hummer temperature of Peking especially nearly equals that of Cairo, and surpasses thai. «f Algiers. For the same reason, too, the Weeping Willow becomes a large tree in England ; while in Scotland, where the winters are at least as mild, but where tho summer affords much loss warmth, this beautiful tree can only bo cultivated in highly favoured situations, and even there its vegetation is exceedingly languid : its young snoots, not ripened by the summer sun, are destroyed even by a slight frost Hence tho influence of temperature upon the geography of plants is pointed out by M. de Candolle under three points of view :— 1. The mean temperature of the year. 2. Tho extreme of temperature, whether in regard to cold or heat. 3. Tho distribution of tempera- ture in the different months oF th > f-ar. The mean temperature point which it has for a long time been tlie great object to ascertain, is in reality w .u is of the least importance in regard to tho geography of plants. In a general view, it <«»% be useful to tako it into consideration; but the mean temperature is often determined uy circumstances so widely different, that the consequences and tlie analogies to be dedaoMi fkom them relative to vegetables would be very erroneous. By attending U^ the extreme points of temperature, results more limited, but far more exact, aro to Iw obtained. Thus, every locality which, though at only short intervals, affords a degree of cuM or heat of certain intensity, cannot but produce plants which aro capable of supporting those extreme degrees. When, however, these widely different temperatures recur at very long intervals, man may cultivate in such a country a vegetable which cannot exist in a wild state ; either because, when destroyed by tho rigour of ^e season, he restores it by seeds or by plants derived from a more temperate counti7 ; or because he shelters it from tho inclemency of the r.ir; or, because ho is satisfied w 'i tho product of the plant, although it should not bring its seeds to perfection. And tlius it is that, in the south of Europe, the Vine, Olive, and Orange trees oflen vegetate exceedingly well for all the pur- poses for which they are required, though, if left to themse^es, they could not propagate themselves, nor sustain the winter. Thus we see a wide d Iference in the geography of plants, between those in a state of nature, and those individuals whose growth is artificially encouraged by man. This, indeed, is a subject closely connected with the acclimatation of plants, or the power which man is supposed to exert over them in inuring them by degrees to a climate not originally natural to them. This power is, howevei, denied by very able vegetable physiologists. Mirbel, in particular, declares that he has known many species indeed whose wants have been, to a certain degree, artificially supplied ; but not one whose con- stitution had been changed. " If," he says, " fi"om time to time, exotics mingle themselves with our indigenous tribes, propagate as they do, and even dispute the very possession of the soil with the native inhabitants ; this, assuredly, is not the work of man, but it is the climate which dispenses this fiicully of naturalization." Cultivators, however, maintain that seedlings from Myrtles, which had ripened their fhiit in Devonshire in the open air, are better able to endure the cold of the climate than those seeds perfected by artificial heat| or MO RCIRNCP OP OEOaRAPIIY. Part IT, timt linvn coiiio tVoin tho warmor |mrtn of Kiirnpn, It i* tnio, tlio power of no ncclinmtlii(f lUtilf nirtmily i^xlutu in thn votfdlnbln \ but It im iimn tliat onllM it iiiti) notion, for nntiirally tlio invrtlti woiiiil iiovor Axtumi itnolf to tlitiim JntitiiileN. Nny. Moiiiothinff nf the Htiine kiiiil M, Mirlifl liiiniKilf nllnwn, wliurn lin wiyn, "Wlimi ww ooiiNidor Hint tho Vinn \» ciiltivntod ill th«i plniiiN nf tliiidoMtnii nii«l Arnliin, notwoon tlin lilth niiil Ifttli p«rnllolit; tliitt it in ciil- tlvntml on llio Imnltit of tlin Itliinn iind Mnino, in Int. ni°; in 'I'liilmt, nt nn tilovution iibove thd lovoi of tlin Minof thnn IMHM) to nonrly U,(MH) tbot, unilur thn i\'M doKnut of hititiiHo; wimt nNtoniNlinN niiil intnrnttlN im thn iiKwt in, not that tho vino intmt)itit coiintri« thn oxtromnH tiro tho pfrniitoHt; wliilHt tho |»«tpm- nM jitiiHlf, whinh can In^tlnr diH|>nimo with tho miituriiitf of tlinir Hnnd«, nnd which nre ii\jur(>d liv tho novnritii'H of wiiitnr, alltn't tlio tompt^mtn niimntna. Of tlin«p, attain, tliosit kind* which hnvn doeiduoiw Inavn* nrcomnnHlnto tliomnnlvoH hoHt to unnqiinl toinporaturoH; whilst tlu> individnaiN on whinh thn foliiiffo miiminH, or cvr'r.ifrcAnR, (;ivo tho prolbrnnco to didtrictn whnn? thn tnmnnraturo in morn nonstantly tMiiial. MirlHxi8t in thn tropirol |mrt« ol it. Bnyond those limit», n trnut nninlM^r l)noomo i^mdunlly extinct. In tho 4Hth depnio of latitude, ■cnfcoly ono hnlf of that nimilM>r np|>nnr; in tlio (>nUt, not 40; nnd but 17 in tlio vicinity of Uio ]H)lar rouinns, I In liirthnr nNtimatON, that within tJin t ninicH tlin pro]iortion of woodjr niMjcios, trni's nnd sliniKs otiualm if it d(W« not exnnnd, that «>f nnrlnu'oouH, annual, biennial, niid pernnniiil jdnnts. 'nin rnlativo numlH'r of tlin winxly »p«H'io« to tlin hnrbticeoui, annual, biennial, and |>nrniininl, det^mnNnN !K)in tlin e«» nn>, at least, n» twenty to iine. We nmot, however, by no menjin conclude that tlio samo elevation in cnrresixindinu decrees of latitude is neceswirily i^iiitetl to the vetf«>tntion of tho same plants. A number of eircumstaiieoa may exist to motlity tlio deurroo of heat nt tho snmo elevation. In 8witze> land, Ihr example, tlio elevation of the vnlley of Untereee is tho same nn tlmt of Oestoin; yet the thermometer, in 18"22-S, fell only to 8° Iwlow r.ero in tlio (bnnor sjwt ; whoreiu at Gestein it ftdl to 10J<», nnd nt Berno to 10". Tho depth of tlio valleys influencci vejj»>t«tioii ; tlio deeiwr they nre, tlio more intense ia the cold on tho sumniita of tho surMimdiiijr mountains. Thus, tlio pine diws not tJirivo on tho Brnfyel, nt n heijjht of ftlOO iVet; wlmn'os it »uec<>eds j>erfl»ctly, nt tho same elevntion, on tlio Klietinn Alps, tho vnlloyj of the I.iiith, the Muotta, and KKhmi Uiinji deeiHT than tlioso of tlio hitter districts. In like maimer, in the vaiiey of tlie Havivs nffricultural pnxluco is certain in places much more olevntrtl thiiu the n«>rneso volleys, be«'nu«o tlio latter nro deeper. Tho wnnn winds fifom Italy have a jH^n'optible jwwer owr tho vogotatimi of the contiguous parts of Switzerland; b«t the dejrrees of that influence depend ujwn circumstnnces. In uie vnlley of tho Inn, barley and flax nro cultivated with success nt an olovntion of more than MOO foot; whereas •t IaivU in the valley of I)avo«, tliouirh the heifflit is only 4000 feet, no irrain will thrive. *vt, Matxw «iui'vis, mm (uv BUiruuiiutni 11/ iiiuiiiiuuiia ui oiiii'm altitudes ; they are U)th sheltered from the north-oast wind ; thoir soil is of tho snmo nature ; •HmsIm tvlnr in itini^ral. (lirnUhnl with A>w nrtRnt xvhirh abnunit in mn|itun>, nra in a ilogrrs inmniible lo tiM i*>trvim'« or hriil an>l rtiUI ; w Itoiiri) it ariaea that, in conveying tU'm IVom one country to anothvr, thay pat Uiruujti a varialy of rlimatc uuiiti»riHl. Paht it. ' w) iiccliiiiiitinif I'or natiirnlly tho the Htiinn kind iw i« ciiUivittoi] I ; timt it In oiil* nltivation above [TOO of lutitiido; itriilunt» ; uiul, laHtly, during tho absoncu of light tho green parts absorb a certain (piautity or oxygon gas, Altliough thoHO different causes affect all vegc- tabloH, yet thoy aro not affected »\ tho Hnino degree. Light is moro o(|iially dlHtrilniled than luMit upoti tho surfiicn of tho globo; but its mode of dimiNJon inducoH mimo very important con.HOtpienccH, In tho countries situated under the otjuator, an iiil( nso light, since it actH moro jiorpcndicularly, influences vegetables nearly equally, during twelve hours each day, throughout tho whole year. In proportion as we recodu tVom the ocpiator and approach tho poloM, tho intensity of tho moro oDli(|uo rays gra- dually diminishes ; but in regard to tho distribution of these rays, tho light is completely wanting (luring the winter, wlion tho ubsonco of vegetation indeed renders it nearly useless to pluntH ; and it is continuod during almost the whole period of vegetation, in such a man- ner that lis hMiglhenod innuoneo componHates wholly or in part for its want of intensity. Thus wo MOO that, iiidepondontly of what coiicoriiH tho toiii|)crature, plants which loso thcii leaves can bolter oxlHt in northern countries, and that those whoso vegetation is continued havo need of tho Houlhorn regions. And another beautiful and just remark is made by Do Candollo, in roforeiuui to tho distribution of light; namely, that those plants whose foliago and flowers maintain habitually and constantly tho saino position, can live in northern cli- mates, whore tho light Ih almost continued in summer; whilst it is in the regions of the Rontli that wo And, as might naturally bo expected, those species which are remarkable for tlio ultornato closing and oxi>unding, or sleeping and waking, of their flowers, a motion which has an intimate connexion with tho alternation of days and nights. Thus wo see why it is found so ditlicult in our country to cultivate many of the tropical vegetables, or, at any rate, to nng them to perfection. M. do Humboldt lias proved that it is less owing to tho absence of heat than to tho want of uufllcicnt solar light that tho Vinv docs not ripen it«i ftuit beneath tho foggy skies of Normandy ; and M. Mirbol has satisfled himself that the uninterrupted action of tho sun's rays, during a great number of days, is the cause of the astonishingly rapid dovolopemoni. uf aij ino plants in high northern roffions,f Dr. Ilicliard- wm, too, states that tho sugar-ltoilors in tho Canadian forests observe that tho flow of sap in tlio Suffitr Miiplo (Negundo fraxinifolium) is not so immediately influenced by a high mean tomperaturo as by tho |K)wer of tho direct rays of tho sun. Tho greatest (quantity of sap is collected when a smart frost during night is succeeded by a warm sunshiny day. Again, Humlioldt assures us, that in all places where tho mean temperature is below 02° 6', the revival of nature takes placo in spring in that month whose moan temperature reaches 42"^ 8', or 40° 4'. At Cumoorlond IIouso, Dr. Richardson found vernation to begui in Mdy, ♦ Wo inny tinro iiKintlon a ciiriniii ftir.t of voffetnllon rdBllnit upon a bnuli of Icn. Tho glacier of Koccowcco, wliieli AirmH ono of tlin brnnrhoa of tho nrrnertn, lina on itn niiiiiinit n valloy fliliid with iro ; ami on this tho ava- lunclu'i hnvo brouslit down mniiMi of earth. Thia oarth prodiicos a niimbor 01' aluino plnnta, that aflTuril abiin- ilnnt and iioiiriahlnii food 10 tho lluolta of tlio inbabltunti uf Sunmdcn. Tliis lingular pasture has boon used over •liico thoyuar l.intl. t " Veir<siin cifects on vegetation. Darkness, by keeping up tho soilness of tho vegetalde parts, fhvflurs their increase in length ; light, by ininlstoring to their nourishmont, consolidates them, and arrests their growth. IIoucr it follows that a flne state of vegetation, such as unites in Just proportionssizo and strength, must depend, in n measure, on the nicely balanced alternation of day and night. Now, the hyperborean plants spring up at a period when the sun Is constantly above the horixon, and the light which incessantly acts upon thorn conflrnis and perfects tliem before they have time to attain a c»iisidcrablo degree of length. Thoir vegeta- tion is active, but soon over ; they are robust, but small.'' Vol. I 31 2 F ziz SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY, PartIL when the mean temperature was only 40°, nearly 3° below that which Baron Humboldt considered neccssaiy for the evolution of deciduous leaves; but he adds, "the %t\fl%ience qf the direct rays of the sun u,as at this time very great, and the high temperature of the last decade of the month compensated for the first We can imitate the native climes of many of the delicate exotics, as far as regards temperature ; and in summer, when the days are long, we see them flourish almost as if they were in their natural situations ; but in winter they languish, and often die, especially the more tender species, such as tlic Hedysarum gyrans, and the humble plant (Mimosa pudica). It is evident that they wont tliat clistribu< tion of light which is most congenial to them. Plants^ then, are arranged in their different localities, according to the certain quantity of light which they may require. All those with very watery leaves, which evaporate much, wnich are of a succulent nature, which, having few pores or organs of evaporation, need a stimulus to determine their action, all which have a tissue abounding in carbon, or which contain very resinous or oily juices, or which offer a great extent of green surface, require much light, and are generally found in exposed places ; the rest, according as they are more or lees distinguished by these properties, exist either under the slight shadow of bushes, or beneath the more powerful shelter of hedges and walls, or of forests ; or, as is the case with many Fungi, in caves and darkness. These last are, indeed, destitute of any green colour; but Mosses, Ferjis, and even some evergreens, such as the Ivy, flourish best beneath tiie shade of dense forests, if the trees of those forests have deciduous leaves ; and in situations where plants that vegetate only during the summer could scarcely live. The subject, however, of the action of light upon vegetation, has not yet received the attention which it deserves. Many more observations and experiments are required before we can employ it with certamty in connexion with botanical geography. SvBSECT. 3. — On the Influence of Moisture. Water being the vehicle by means of which nourishment is conveyed into the plant, and, indeed, itself yielding a large proportion or even the whole of the nutriment of^ many ve- getables, it follows that this element is not only of the highest importance in vegetable economy, but one of the causes whioh afiects most powerfully the geographical distribution of plants upon the surface of the globe. Those vegetables, in particular, necessarily absorb a great quantity of water, which have a large and spo.jgy cellular tissue ; those which possess broadly expanded sofl leaves, fbr- nished with a great number of cortical pores; those having few or no hairs on their surface; those whose growth is very rapid, which deposit but little oily or resinous matter; those of which the texture is not subject to be changed or corrupted by humidity ; those, in fine, whose roots are voiy numerous, generally need to absorb much moisture, and cannot live but in places where they find naturally a large proportion of it. On the other hand, those plants which are of a firm and compact cellular tissue, which have small or rigid leaves, furnished with very few pores, which are abundantly clothed with hairs, of which the growth is slow, and which deposit, during the progress of their vegetation, much oily or resinous matter ; those whose cellular tissue is liable to be changed and decayed by too much moisture, and of which the roots are not numerous, require little water, and prefer, for their natural situation, dry places. Great differences, however, are produced, accordmg to the nature of the water that is absorbed ; the less it is charged with the nutritive principle, the more necessary is it that the vegetable shall absorb, in a given time, enough to suffice for its support Again, the more the water abounds with substances which alter its fluidity or transparency, and which, inasmuch as they are solid particles, tend to obstruct the orifices of the pores, or to impede absorption by their viscosity, the less do such vegetables imbibe in a given time. The very nature even of those substances dissolved or suspended in the %vater has a grett influence upon the topographical distribution or the locality of plants. The matters so dis< solved are, I. Carbonic acid. 2. Atmospheric air. 3. Animal and vegetable substances. 4 Alkaline principles or earths. Those plants whose cellular tissue is found to contain much carbon, such as trees producing hard wood, avoid, more than others, the vicinity of waters which are extremely pure, and which contain but little carbonic acid gas. Plants which exhibit much azote m their chemical composition, such as the Cruciferous Plants and the Fungi, seek those spots where there is much animal matter in solution. Those, again, which present, when chemically analyzed, a considerable quantity of certain earthy substances, Buch as silica'* in the Monocotyledonous Plants, gypsum in the Leguminosa, &c. will re- auire it in a greater or less proportion in the soil where they grow ; and if it does not exia lere naturally, the agriculturist must supply it artificially ; and those species which yield, • Thii filica, we know, ahounds in the itrasiea, aa weii ag in other monocotyledonous plant* ; and M. de candoiie obiervei.tbatit ii inconiequunceofita existence in the frames, &c. andoftha comparative indissolubility whicli is the result, that it is preferred by almost all nations or the world fbr a covering to their houses. The peopi* of the North tbus employ straw for that purpose, on the same principle that those uf the tropica use tba lenvesof Ibe palms. PartIL Baron Humboldt the ir^fluence qf ftture of the last I climes of many m the days are 3 ; but in winter the Hedysarum int that distribu< rtain quantity of evaporate much, iporation, need a :aTbon, or which surfiice, require ».s they are moro ow of bushes, or is the case with ny green colour ; lest beneath the uid in situations ^et received the required before a the plant, and, lent of many vo- ice in vegetable hical distribution ater, which have soft leaves, ftir- on their surface ; batter ; those of y ; those, in fine, and cannot live therhand, those or rigid leaves, s, of which the m, much oily or lyed by too much I prefer, for their Lccording to the ve principle, the I to Bufiice for its er its fluidity or tract the orinceB etables imbibe in mter has a grett e matters so dis< e substances. 4 to contain much icinity of waters . Plants which Plants and the )se, again, which rthy substances »«, &c. will re- it does not exii ies which yield, and M. de candoiie ndiaiolubiUty which lousei. The peopl* Id ufe tb« l«»T6iot Book lit IN ITS RELATION TO BOTANY. when burned, a more abundant portion of alkaline substances than usual, can only flonriah or even live where these matters abound. The species which have need of carbonate of soda will only grow successfully near the sea or saline lakes or springs. Thus the different property of the substances dissolved in the water is evidently one of the many causes which determme the stations of the vegetable species. ' '^ ■ SuBSGCT. 4. — On the Influence of the Soil. . tiWifiV. The influence of soil M. de Candoiie considers as perhaps more complicated tha.x that of the preceding agents. He reduces it to the following heads : — (1.) The soil serves as a means of supjurt to vegetables, and consequently its c(mn»tene« or tenacity ou^' it to possess, in this point of view, a peculiar fitness fbr sustaining, in a |[reater or less degree, plants exhibiting very various forms. Thus, soils composed of blow- ing sand can only serve as a support to vegetables which are of very humble stature and prostrate growth, so that the winds may not overturn them ; or to trees, furnished with very deep and branching roots, which may attach them into this moveable matrix. The contrary holds good in regard to very compact soils. Small-rooted plants may thus be firmly enough fixed, and they may subsist; but the very large roots are incapable of penetrating into soils that are very tenacious. The two extremes of these soils present an equally sterile vege- tation. Sands which ore not sufiiciently stationary (as those very remarkable ones on the nortliern shores of the Moray Fritl.), water which is subject to very rapid currents, clay of an extremely compact nature, or rocks of great hardness, are equally unfiriendly to the growth of plants. (2.) The chemical nature of the earths or stones of which the soil is composed, affects the choice of vegetables, as regards their flourishing in such situations. But this subject, simple as it appears at first sight, is in reality very complicated. For the difibrent earUis t)s their situation as regarding local circumstances, and the action of physical causes upon vegetables ; the latter implies the geographical position. When we say mat such a plant is found in marshes, on the sea-shore, in woods, or upon mountains, in England, in France, in North America; by the marshes, shore, woods, or mountains, we mean what we here term the station ; and by England, Prance, » r North America, the habitation : such is the sense, at least, in which we shall here use the terms ; for in systematic botanical writings the meaning is by no means always thus restricted. The seeds of plants, by varied and beautiful means, are widely dispersed by the liberal hand of nature ; whilst some, however, fall upon barren ground, or a soil imfit for the nature of that particular vegetable, others take root in situations, both with regard to the earth and surrounding medium, which are in harmony with their growth, and produce, " some thirty, some sixty, and some an hundred-fold." There ere, again, tribes which, under these circumstances, increase so prodigiously that they destroy vegetables of a less vigorous growth, and, to the exclusion of others, appropriate to themselves a great extent of the surface of the earth. Such are termed by Humboldt social plants. In this way, and notwithstand- ing the extreme poverty of the soil, the Seaside Sedge (Carex arenaria), the wpright Sea Lymegrass (Elymus arenarius), and the Sea-reed or Marram* (Arundo arenaria;, occupy a prodigious surfece of the sandy shores of Great Britain, almost to the exclusion of other vegetation ; their long, creeping, and entangled roots nerving to bind the sands together, and thus foiming a barrier to the encroachments of the sea. Thus it is witn the healths in the same country, where the sterile moors are purple with the blossoms of the heath. The flowers of the Gentians cover, as with a carpet of the most brilliant ultramarine blue, the sides of the alpine hills in Switzerland and the south of Europe. In England the fields are too oflen red with Poppies, and the marshes are whitened with the " snowy beard" of the Cottongrass, and the pastures with the blossoms of the Cardamine pratensis, so that * The Celtic name of thin plant is Marain. A tillage upon the seacoast of Norfolk ii named Mafham, fVont tiic ateat abuiidauco in which the Jlrnndo arenaria grow? in its vicinity, 21* 910 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY, PabtU. Book £j/u. i they appear at a distance as if covered with linen laid out for bloachinff, whence arises the Tuigar English name* of the latter i^ nt. Some of these plants thus Uving in society are continually strivmg with their neig. irs, till the strongest obtam the victory. Many low perennial and herlnceous vegetables ure overpowered by a colony of taller shrubs ; such as the Whin or Furze and the Broom : and these in their turns must occasionally give place to trees and shrubs of a larger and stronger growth. Mr. Brown has, however, noticed a curious fact in regard to the Field Eryngo (Erynffium campcstre,) and the Starthiitle (Centaurea Calcitrapa), which cover much cultivated ground upon the continent: viz. that these two engrosders are never mixed together indiscrmiinately, but that each forms groups of partial masses, placed at certain distances from their rivals. On the other hand, there are plants, which, from the circumstance of their not increa<)ing much by root, or bearing few seeds, or such seeds as from their light and volatile nature are much dispersed, and which are not particular in their choice of soil, do net form groups, but lie scattered (JPlantei epartes, errenees, or rares, of the French). The former kind, or " social plants," are t'aose which it will be most important for us to consider in relation to Botanical Geography. The stations of plants bein - thus, as we have already mentioned, liable to the influence of physical agents, it becomes necessary to define them by terms which are calculated at once to point out the places and the circumstances in which they grow. This, however, is a task of no small difficulty ; for, without swelling the list to an unmeasurable length, it will be impossible to define the various local situations of plant& There ore many situations which produce only one of two kinds: for example, the snow, in the highest arctic regions to which travellers have attained, has been found to nourish and to bring to the greatest per- fection that highly curious vegetable, the Red Stiow (Protococcus nivalis). The truffle (Tuber cibarium) is found entirely hid beneath the surface of the earth. Some fungi are detected upon the dead horns and hoofs of animals (no plant exists upon living bodiesf), and upon dead chrysalides; and both fungi and mosses grow on the dung of animals. Paper nor 'rishes the minute Conferva dendroidea : the glass of windows, and the glass table of the microscope, if laid by in a moist state for a certain length of time, produce the Conferva fenestralis. Wine-casks in <^amp cellars give birth to the Racodium cellare : and Dutrochet has detected living vegetables i.. Madeira wine and in Goulard water, (a solution of Saturn). These, however, and many othei-s that might be noticed, may be numbered among the extra- ordinary stations, and they principally afiect cryptogamic vegetables. In a popular view of the subject, though we cannot altogether omit tlie notice of such minute yet curious vege- table productions. We shall mainly direct our attention to the more conspicuous plants ; and they may be thus divided. 1. Maritime or saline plants. These are terrestrial, but grow- ing upon the borders of the ocean or near salt lakes ; as the Saltworts (Salsolse) and Glass- worts (Salicomiffi), &c. Hence these plants abound in the interior of Africa and the Rus- sian dominions, where there are saltpans, as well as on the shores. 2. Marine Plants. This tribe is indeed mostly cryptogamic, and comprises the Algie, Fuci, VlvtB, &c. The phsnogamous, or perfect marine plants, are tlie Sea-wracks (Ruppia and Zostera), and a few others allied to them. 3. Aquatic plants. Growing in fresh water. Both stagnant pools and running streams in various situations, abound in plants. Some are entirely sub> merged, but in this case, with the rare exception of the little Awlwort (Subularia aquatica), the flowers rise to the surface of the water for the purpose of fructification.^ 4. Marsh or swamp plants. 5. Meadow nnd pasture plants. 6. Field plants. This tribe ofl^n includes such OS, introduced with the grain sown in those districts, are equally placed there by the hand of man. 7. Rock plants, which may include the natives of very stony spots, and such as grow upon walls. Walls, although artificial structures, are known to produce many plants in greater perfection than natural rock ; yet we must not suppose that any vegetable is exclusively confined to this habitat The Holosteum umbellatum and Draba muralis may be cited as examples of this tribe in England ; and amongst mosses, the Qrimmia pulvinata, Tortula muralis, &c. 8. Sand Plants. 9. Plants «/ dry moors, where heaths (Ericte) abound. 10. Plants which attach themselves to the vicinity of places inhabited by man. Such are the Dock, Nettle, &c. ; these species follow everywhere the human footsteps, even *£aiiy'f Smock. Sucb planu were in olden time dedicated to Our Lady the Virgin Mary. t Sr.houw, indeed, has a tribe of plants which lie calls " Planta Epixoa" attaeh$d to Hvinf aninuiU. Thus, he lay*, Fuei and other Mg» are attached to whalco, mussels, and barnacles. But in this case the plants manirestly adhere to a dead portion of the animal ; like those vegetables which exist upon the outer and dead part of the bark of trees. 1 Raymond certainly observed, in the Pyrenees, a species of Crorifoot, the Water Crmfoot (I anunculus aqua* tills,) producing its flower and fVuit wholly under water ; but upon a closer investigation of the phenomenon, he found that in these cases the calyx enclosed a globule of air, with which this important flinetion of fertilization was performed. The curious aquatic, ValHiniria spiralt; has a still more wonderfUl contrivance for bringing the male and female flowers in contact. The plant is dioicious. The female flower is attached to the parent plant by means of a very long stalk, spirally twisted like a corkscrew, so that when it is in perfection, it rises to the surface by the untwisting of the stalk. The male flowers, upon a separate plant, am nimnat «e;:!>e, borne .~n s vnrv nhnrt Btrni'ht "ten!, which never ccald reach the nurfaco without detaching themselves from the plant. Thii they do at the proper season ; they float upon the top of the water along with the portant, are yet mostly cryptogamous. One species, a fungus yields a pale phosphoric light of considerable intensity. 14. Alpine or mountain plants, ' it is very difficult to draw the limit, and indeed they will depend much upon latitude. A ^nt which grows upon a hill ot inconsiderable elevation in Norway, Lapland, and Iceland, will of course inhabit the loftiest Alps of the south of Europe. Again, upon mountpins that have no perpetual snow lying on them, alpine plants will be found much higher thdn on such as have continued streams of cold snow-water descending, which aifect the stf.te of tlie atmosphere at much lower regions. 15. Parasitic plants, such as the Misseltoe, the various species of Loranthus, &c., and the most wonderful of all vegetable productions, the Rafflesia Amoldii : these, as their naiiie implies, derive nourishment from a living portion ot the vegetable to which they attach themselves. This is the case, too, with many Fungi whicii subsist upon the living foliage of plants; some exclusively on the upper, others as invariably on tlie lower side of these leaves ; and, lastly, the name of 16. Pseudo-parasites has been given to a very extensive tribe, which subsists upon the decayed portions of the trunk or branches of the trees to which they are attached, as many of the Lichens, Mossf's, &c. ; or which are simply attach- ed by the surface of their roots to tropical trees, obtaining no nourishment from them, but from the surrounding clement. Among this number may be reckoned that numerous and singular family of the Orchidea, called, from their nature and property, " air plants." Greatly as tliis list might be swelled, we shall find that even here there is a gradation and an approximation of one tribe to another ; but these are amply sufficient for our purpose. We have been able to r.ccount in some measure for the stations of plants, affected as these are by local circumstances ; but the study of the succeeding part, which refers to their habi- tations, considered in their most extensive scale, for instance, as Iselonging to certain regions or countries, we shell find to be much more difficult ; and we must frequently be content to study and to admire the amazing variety of vegetable forms which the beneficent hand of nature has scattered over the different parts of our world, without being able to account for these important phenomena. In New Holland we find almost exclusively, all tiie siieciea of Banksia, Goodenia, and Epacris, and the curious Acaci look the ini|X)rtant consoquoncoa of hm iniluonco. Sometimes, indeed, tho causes are acci- dental, but more iroquontly intentional. The shipwreck of a vessel on tho island of Guernsey, liaving some bulbs on board iVom tho Capo of Good IIo|)c, caused a plant to propagate in the sands u\wn the shores of that mild climate, to which has l)cun since given tho name of ylma- rtjllia Horniengii or Guernsey Lily, and a branch of trade of some importance is carried on in the sale of this very root. At JJunnos Ayros, a species of Artichoke f Cynara Cardun- cuius) has increased so much by seeds iinjiortod from Luropo, that Mr. lluad, m his anmsins " Sketches of a Journey across tlie I'amiMis," &c. tells us that " there are tliroe regions ot vegetation between Buenos Avres nnd tho base of tho Cordilleras; a space of WM miles: tho iirst nf which is covered, tor 180 miles, with clover and thistlea. This region," the author continues, " varies with tlio seasons of tho year in a most extraordinary manner. In winter, tho leaves of the thistles* are largo &m\ luxuriant, and the whole surihce of tho country has tho rough appearance of a turnip Held. The clover in this season is extremely rich and strong; and tho sight of the wild cattle grazing in full liberty on such pasture ii very beautiful. In spring tho clover has vanished, tho leaves of the thistles have extended along tho ground, and the country still hxjks like a rough crop of turnips. In Icpj than n month the change is most extraordinary ; tho whole region becomes a luxuriant wood of enormous thistloH, which have nuddcnly shot up to a height of ten or eleven feet, and are all in Cull bluom. The road or (mth is hemmed in on lioth sides; the view is completely obstructed; not an animal is to bo seen ; and tho stems of the thistles are so close to each other, and so s'rong, iluit, independent of the prickles witli which they are armed, they form an impene- trable barrier. The sudden growth of these plants is quite astonishing ; and though it would be an unusual misfortune in military history, yet it is really possible that an invadir; army, unacquainted with tliis country, might be imprisoned bv tlicse thistles before it I ad lime to escape iroin them. Tho summer is not over before the sceiio undergoes another rapid change : the thistles suddenly lose their sap and verdure, their heads droop, the leaves phriiik and ibdc, tho stems become black and dead ; and they remain rattling with the breeze, ono against another, until the violence of tlie pampero or hurricane levels them with the ground, when tliey rapidly dccomiioso and disappear, tiie clover rushes up, and Uie scene is again verdant." Tlie strong-scented Everlasting (Elichrysum foctidum), a native of the Cape of Good Hope, has found a soil and climate equally suited to its growth on the shores of Brest, where it covers a great portion of tho sands, to the exclusion of tho aboriginal natives of tho soil. Tl7i«!«( is supposed to be indigenous to Barbary. The potatoc, first found in South America, i.s now cultivated all over the world. JRice, from Asia, is grown to an immense extent in America, &c. ; tliesc, and many other plants similarly circumstanced, which we could men- tion, together with tliose that adorn our gardens, often owe their wide diflTusion to having cscaiJeti into uncultivated places, and become to a certain degree naturalised there. But tliero are limits to migration, for some of which wo can account, and for others we cannot. Even many gartlen plants, which, escaping by accident, or designedly placed in uncultivated spts so as to appear wild, have only for a time maintained a languid existence, and then have disappeared oltogetlier. Thus we know that the beautiful Gcntianella (Gen- liana acaulis) connot have a title to a place in trie British Flora, nor can some others, whicli ore mere outcasts firom gardens. Some plants are wholly confined to particular spots, and can bo found nowhere else. The Tree-Pink ^Dianthus arboreus) grows still on the single rock in the island of Crete, where Prosper Alpinus first detected it; and tho Double Cocoa- nut of the isle Prasliu, one of the littlo ^roup of islands called the Seychelles, notwith- standing tho annual migration of its nuts tor many thousands of miles, has never established itself in any other place. Nature has planted the common Thrift (Statice Armcria), the Scurvy Orasscs (Cochlearia anglica and danica), and the Rose-root (Rhodiola rosea), in rocky and stony , ". '9s, upon shores and on the tops of tlio highest mountains; yet these plants arc never found in any intermediate places. , , The visible obstacles to the miffration of plants, are — (1.) The sea, which, though we have introduced ii. as a means of extending the habitations * From tpcciincna in niir Horbariiini, wo hnve nurertnined that this tkitlle ii tho Cardoon (Cynnia Cardunculuiy, introduced no djubt (torn Europe as aii iirticic of Tood, but now growing wild, uselceo, and pernicious. Part 11. d tlian tlio didtricta )thor alpino plaiiU and iluuriuli in the iniinoniio diatancoH, in wandorinif from d bristloH, &,c. 6. )rfoot Htato, and, it mannor tho seedr licli thoy could not iseltoe. wo must not over* 10 cauBOB aro acci- aland of Guernsoy, ;o propugttto in the tho naiiio of Ama- banco is carried on ^Cynara Cardun- ad, in his aniusinD tliruo rojEfiona ot Tttco of 9()0 miles : This rejfion," tho innry mannor. In olo surfaco of tho mson is extremely on such posturo is los have extended )8. In Icpj than a luxuriant wood of feet, and are all in pletely obstructed ; each other, and so y form an impcno- ig; and thou^ifh it B that nn invadir j sties before it 1 ail mdoryocH another 3 droop, the leaves rattling with the levels tliem with 1 up, and tlie scene ape of Good Hope, jf Brest, wiiere it atives of tho soil, n South America, nmense extent in ch we could men- liffusion to having ed there, nnd for others we ignedlv placed in languid existence, jrentianella (Gen- amo others, which rticular spots, and till on the single 10 Double Cocoa- chelles, notwith- ncver establi^ed ice Armcria), tho lodiola rosea), in ntains ; yet these ig tho habitations Jynnio Cardunculufj, lernicious. Book IH. IN ITS RELATION TO BOTANY. 340 of plants, is yet a ikr greater impediment, by the injury it doea to th<» Kida, and the diffi- culty of their being convoyed to dutani, countriea in a sufficiently short time to prevent the natural death of the seed. It must be observed, too, that the greater number of seeds have a apociflc gravity heavier than that of water when in a living atate. The Double Cocoa- nut, when found floating, haa alwava lost ita vegetative property. The living nut is im* rnonsely heavy, and would inevitably aink. ^3.) Dry and burning de$ert». These, in apite of their oases, which have been happily assimilated to tho isles of the ocean, prove a powerAil obstacle to the transport of seeda. Thus, those districts of Africa which are separated fVom one another by the scorching sanda of Sahara exhibit a great dissimilarity in their vegetation. The planta of Morocco and the northern parts of Africa have little resemblance to the indigenous growth of Senegal ; whilst the affinity of tho vogctnblos brought by Caillaud from Upper Egypt to those collected by Palisot do Beau vols in (J ware and Benin would in itself lead to the concluaion that no very great and continued deserts intervene between these far distant countries. (3.) Mountain ranget. The barriers which these present would almost Ire insurmountable, were it not for tho defiles which here and there occur, forming passagea for men and ani- mals, OS well as for plants. Thus, the plants on the Italian side of tho Alps are quite differ- pnt from those on tlie Switzerland side ; those of the Spanish Pyrenees from tliose of the French Pyrenees ; and it was a subject oi' peculiar rer;ret to the enterprising Drummond, when he reached tho summits of tho Itocky Mountains in North America, that his commis- aion did not allow him to pcnetrato farther into the western side of that great continent, where ho found, every step he took, a vegetation very diifurent from what hoc been presented to him by the eastern side. A knowledge of the Natural Orders of plants is in no department of botany so important as in treating of their geographic':il distribution. The system of Linneeus, or the Artificial Arrangement, does not, as wo know, regard the habits and affinities of vegetables, but simply and beautifully points out to us, by certain characters, the means of arriving at the know- ledge of any given species. The natural method, which owes so much to the labours of JuHsieu, Decandolle and Brown, has i. higher object in view, that of grouping plants together according to their natural affinities ; and by such an aiTangement we are often led to other and vor* important results. Tho primary divisions of the Natural Method are, first, acoty- LGDONEs, or plants which liavp no cotyledons to the seed : these are pynonymous to the Cryptogamia, and include tho Mosset, Lichens, Sea-weeds, Fungi, Ferns, &c. ; secondly, M0NocoTYi,FiDONKS ; thoso whoso soods have one cotyledon, such as the Grasses, Liliaceous Plants, tlie Rushes, Sedges, the Palms, 4*c. ; and, thirdly, diootyledones, or the plants v.iiich liavo two or rarely more cotyledons to the seed, such as our Slirtibs and Trees, and very many Herbaceous Plants. Each of these possesses external characters which, though not very easily defined in words, yet cannot fail to strike the observer who devoted his atten- tion, even for a little while, to the subject ; and we find that, in a great proportion of instances, Uiey have not only a peculiar station, but that their geographical distribution is different. Tho ACOTVLEDONOvs plants increase in number in proportion to the other great classes, as we recede from the etjuator to the poles ; with the exception, however, of the Ferns. The latter abound more within the tropics than anywhere else: not, however, so much in open plains a^ in the sheltered, moist, and hilly countries ; so that their maximum is ui the moun- tainous part of the tropics. The island of Martinique afforded to the Abbe Plumier a rich and abundant harvest of ferns ; and some isles of small extent are said to have one-third of their vegetation composed of this kind of plants. Among the monocotyledonovs Plants, the Palms are exclusively confined to the tropics : the Liliaceous plants abound there and in the warm zones ; the three families of Grasses, Sedges (Cyperaceaj), and Rushes (Junci), present some important differences in regard to a comparison with the phtenogamous or flowering plants. The disparity between these latter and the grasses is not great in each of the zones ; whilst the two other families, the Ct/pe- raceee and Junci, diminish near the equator and increase towards the north. Nevertheless, there are exceptions to this rule ; for the grasses are very rare upon the coasts of Greenland. In what we have now said, we allude to the grasses, &c. in a wild state ; having no refer- ence to those regions where so many of the grass tribe, as the Wheat, Barley, Oat, Maize, Rye, Rice, &c., are found simply in a state of cultivation. The picoTYLEDONOus plants are the most extensively distributed, and we must ofler some further remarks upon them. The Compound or Syngenesious plants (Composite), as every one knows, form a very extensive natural family. They are diffused throughout the whole earth, but they are most abundant in the temperate and tropical climates. Fewer, however, of them are found in the warm regions of equinoctial America than in the sub-alpine and fomnasHiio #iiafwi«*fa r\f ^he co*^e c'^"n(r^ At the Con'^c and Sierra r.A/tno in ^A>ina in tiia East Indies and New Holland, thev exist in comparatively smaller numbers than in other regions situated in similar parallels, but which afford situations more congenial to their Vou I. 2G MO SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY, Part IT, K i growth. Again, in tho firozcn zone, in Kanitschatlia and lApland, the relative proportion ot plant! of this fhmily m ono-lmlf Icm than in tho temperate cliinatoB. Tho Ltguminmu ptantt (to which tho Pea, tho Boan, Sic. Mong, and Huch ai bear papi- lionaceous flowers,) abound most in tlio equinoctial rc|f iuns : they diniinioh gradually in each homisphero in diverging ftom tho equator, except indeed in certain countries where particu- lar gi'iiora, hy tho multiplicity of tlicir species, give a peculiar feature to the vegetation, at in Hiboria and tho vast provinces of Russia, where so many Astragali or Bitter-vetches are found. Mr. Brown has Judiciously separated tho natural order of Rtibiacrt^ into two groups thoeo with vorticillate leaves nnd no stipules (tho fltellata of Linnnus), to whicli belong the OooBegrass (Galium), Madder (Kubiu), &c., and which are almost peculiar to the temperate soncs; and the true Rul)iace e £ast Indies. On the ouier hand, this region approximates to America, in posseising many Ru- biacea, oa also in tho genera Schwenkia, Elais (a palm), Paullinia, Malj ,.f , and several more which are wanting in Asia, and in several species which it has in ■ >inmi i with Ame- rica. A considerable proportion of Grasses and Sedges (Cyperaceoj), willi Jie peculiar genus Adansonia (the Baobab, which is the largest known tree in the world), belong to tho char- acteristics of this country. The interior of Africa is unknown to us. (17.) Region of Eastern Africa. — Of the coast of this aide of Africa and the adjacent islands our knowledge is imperfect. We are tolerably acquainted with the islands of Bour- bon and France ; of Madagascar we know but little ; and of the cast coast itaelf scarcely anything. The Flora of the two first-named islands has a considerable rt-semblanco to the* of India. Amongst 290 known genera, 196 of them (equal to two thirds) are found also in India ; and of the species, not a few are likewise Indian ; many of these, however, may have been introduced by the constant intercourse that takes place between these two parts of the globe. The genera Uu^cnia, Ficus (fig), Urtica (nettle). Euphorbia (spurge), Hedysarum, Panicum, Andropogon, Sida, Pandanus (screw-pine), Dracana (dragon-wood), Conyza are very numerous in species, as are the same genera in India. In ferns, these islands are peculiarly rich. Again, their flora differs considerably from the South African ; an analogy existing, however, in their possessing single representati "'' of the Cape genera Erica, Ixia, Gladiolus, Bleria, Mesembryanthemum, Seriphium, ai!' r<' jral arborescent Syn^enesive. Still less is the affinity to the extra-tropical parts ot i\ ■ .v Holland, The similarity is stronger to the tropical portion of that country, of which the flora also approaches that of India, Single genera are all that it seems to possess in common with America ; for instance, AfeJicocca, Ruixia, Dodonaa, Dichondra. The Allowing are, perhaps, peculiar to this region, Latania, Hubertia, Poupartia, TVistemma, FHssilia, Cordylina, Assonia, Femalia, Lubinia, and others. The flora of Madagascar seems very peculiar. It agrees with the islands last mentioned ; and several genera are seen nowhere else than in them and Mada- gascar ; for example, Danais, Ambora, Dombeya, Dufourea, Didymotneles, Senacea ; several species also are common to both; aa Didymomeles Madagascariensis, Danais fragranS; Cinchona Afro^inda. Still, among thn 161 known genera from Madagascar, 54 only are found in the Isles of France and Bourbon ; so that there might be good grounds for fonning a separate region of the first ; unless, perhaps, the east coast of Afirica should come under the same. With New Holland and the Cape, Madagascar has probably still less in common than the two other islands. (18.) Scitaminean region (of the Turmeric, ZeJoary, Cardamom, Indian-shot, &c.), or the Indian Flora. — To this appertain India, east and west of the Ganges, together with the islands between India and New Holland ; perhaps, also, that division of New Holland which falls within the tropics. The Scitaminete are here in fiir greater numbers than in America; also, though to a less degree, the Leguminosa, Cucurbitacea, Tiliacea. The previously mentioned South American forms are rare, or else wanting. This region should be seoorated Vol. L 22 254 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY, Part 11. DooK into Boveral provinces; but ns yet we know too little to undertake such a division witli any deffrco of certainty. Jl9.) The hidian highland! ought to form ono or perhaps two roffions, their vegotfttion beinff very dissimilar to that of the lowlands : in tlio middle region, Melastoma, ()rchiik(c, ami PiliccB, appear to prevail ; in tlie higher, the vegetation is more liko the European and North Asiatic, and probably the Japanese : tlioso districts periiaps constituto ono region with the whole of Central Asia ; but of all those countries wo shall know much mora '.vhon the Flora of India by Roxburgh and Wallich is completed. (20.) The Flora qfthe South qf China and of Cochinchina partly resembles that of India, especially in regard to families ; but still Jx)urciro's Flora contains a great many ])eculiar S'ncra. It is true that perhaps the number of tlicso gonora migiit be reduced ; but oven en, tiio vegetation of Uiis tract will probably prove sufllcicntly peculiar to constituto a distinct region. (21.) The region of the Cassia and Mimosatf which prevail particularly in Arabia and Persia, sc::ns likowiso to iiavo a good right to be separated from India, as it is already sufficiently distinct from tho Mediten-anean region (No. 3.) ; for, of 281 genera mentioned by Forskttl, 11)9 only are found in the south of Europe. It is more probable that the Flora of Nubia and part of Central Africa appertains to this region. Abyssinia perhaps forms a distinct region, its elevated parts possessing sucli a ditforcnt climate. (22.) The islands in the South Sea which lie within the tropics form perhaps a separate region ; though witli but a slender degree of peculiarity. Among 214 genera, 17!) are found in India ; most of tho remainder are in common wUh America ; for instance, Chio- cocca, Weintnannia. Guajacum, Of tho species wliich exist equally in tliem and Asia, are Zapania nodijlora, KylUtigia monocephala, Fimhristylis dichotoma, Toitrneforlia argentea, Plumbago zeylanica, Morinda umbellata, Soiihora tomcntosa. In common with America, Dodoncca viscosa, Sapindus saponaria (soap-berry) : witit liotti Rhizophora Mangle (man- grove tree) : it has also some in common with New Holland, as Daphne indica (a species of Spurge Laurel). Peculiar families, or such as have there a decided maximum, can scarcely bo cited ; thougii, on tho other hand, most of tho species are peculiar. Tho Bread' fruit is among tlie characteristics of these islands ; tliough this tree is not confined to tho South Seas. The lunit of the present jssay does not allow of tho intended introduction of the geo- graphical situation of many of the more useful and important plants, which Professor Scbouw has so ably delineated ; such as that of tiie Beech, tho Vine, tho Fir tribes, tho Heaths, Corn, and such fruits or vegetables as are employed as bread : the Palms, tho Proteaca, which form so remarkably striking a feature in tho Capo of Good Hope and in New Holland; the Composita:, which are perhaps more universally dilfuscd than any ofiier kind of plant; the Crucifcra, to which the Cabbage, 7\triiip, Mustard, Scurvy-grass, &c. appertain; and tho leguminous trU)es, whoso seeds (as tlie Pea and Bean) are so valuable lor man, and whose foliage, as tlie tntpine and Trefoil, &c. affords most of tlie nourishment to cattle. We must endeavour to incorporate these witli tlie vegetation of the various regions w licre tliey are found in the greatest abundance. CHAPTER n. GEOCnAPHY CONSIDERED IN RELATION TO THE DISTRIUUTION OP MAN AND ANIMALS. The geographic distribution of animated beings is a branch of natural history which only of late years has engaged the attention of philosophers. The celebrated Blumenbach was the first, we believe, who generalized the numerous fects connected with the physiology of man, and proved that all the varieties may bo referred to certain types of form, equally distinct in tlieir physical structure and in their geoj^^raphic distribution. But whether from prejudice, or from the varied and comprehensive sphere of zoology, which renders the subject too vast for the power of any one mind, certain it is that animal geography has been uimost neglected. Isolated details, relative to particular countries, classes, or families, have been suc- cessfully investigated ; but no one has yet attempted to generalize these materials, and use them towanls tlie discovery of tho laws of creation. An attempt to ascertain the range of paN ticular species simply within a certain district or kingdom, is merely an inquiry into their local distribution ; but if our views are extended beyond such confines, and we embrace a large portion of the globe, tracing the relations of its animals, with those of the remaining portions, it k then only that we enter upon the comprehensive subject of geographic dis- lributi(Hi. Tbo inquiries relative to physical distribution, when directed to the animal world, assume a higher importance than those, however interesting, which regard plants : for not only do animals appear incalculably more numerous than vegetables, but their natuniil range, depen- dent on a multiplicity of concurrent causes, appears to be much more distinctly marked. Part II. livision witli any their veputation tomiB, ()rchiilc(n_ he Europciin and 3 one rcj^ion with h nioro '.vhcn the blcB that of India, at many ])uculiar iducod; but oven ir to conatituto a rly in Arabia and I, 08 it in already ;enera mentioned that the Flora pcrlmpa forms a erhaps a ecparate genera, 17<) are r instance, Chio- lem and Asia, are i^ortia argentea, on witli America, ra Manffle (man- indica (a species d maximum, can liar. The Bread' t confined to the iction of the goo- Professor Scho\iw ibcs, the Heaths, i«, the Prvteaca, in New Holland; r kind of plant; , &.C. appertain; aluablc lor man, ishment to cattle. .18 regions whore \ND ANIMALS. story which only Blumcnbach was he physiology of of form, equally it whether from nders tlie subject has been almost s, have been buc- als, and use them ^e range of par- iquiry into their id we embrace a if tlie remaining geographic dis- .1 world, assume ; for not only do 9I range, dcpen* Btinctly marked. DooK HI. IN ITS RELATION TO MAN. ihH Plants, indeed, in a great degree, ore stationary beings; but nature has wisely provided for tlioir removal and diBiJorsion to the most distant regions, by the diversified structuro or tena- ciiiuH vitality with wnich tlio seeds of numerous families are endowed; hence they become transjwrted Irv various natural causes to distant shores, and, without any UBsislanco from liinnan aid, taito root, flourish, and increase, in lands fur distant flrom tlioso which appear to have been their native regions. It is otherwise with animals : they may, it is true, be removed from their birth-place, and even become domesticated and natura' izcd elsewhere ; but, with the exception 01 those which seem to have been originally dostin 3d for the service uf man, such naturalization is only oflccted by artificial means, and by slov degrees, througli Bovoral generations. If such transjiortod animals bo left to tliemselves, or rather to the natural resources for supporting lifo peculiar to tlicir new abode, tliey almost invuriabW pino and die. Again, plants, ftom being mforior to animals in tlio complexity of their slructiiro, are, perhaps, necessarily dependent on fewer causes for retaining the vital energy ; their dispersion is, consoiiucntly, upon the whole, much more extensive. It may bo mentioned, in support of this remark, that out of 600 plants discovered in tropical Africa by Professor Smith, one-twolflh have been ascertained, by Robert Brown, to be natives also of India and South America. Now, if cither the vertebrated or inv«rlcbratcd animals, not ac^uatic, of Western Africa, wero compared in a similar way with those of the parallel latitudes in America and India, tho proportion collectively would hardly amount to one in a hundred : indeed, with regard to tho vertebrated orders, it is very questionable whether even one spe- cies is truly indigenous to tropical AfVica and to America ; so totally difierent arc the zoolo- gical features of these continents, even at their nearest approximation : and yet, in the obove number of plants, no less than twenty-two species are enumerated, as common to equi- noctial Africa, India, and America. These facts, while they strengthen the belief that zoology is a more favourable field than botany for discovering tlie laws of natural distribu- tion, lead ua to consider tho modes by which such inquiries are most beneficially prosecuted. Sect. I, — Modes of invegtigating the Subject. Tho powerful effect nroduced on animals by temperature, food, and locality, are known to all : whether as regards tho range of any particular species, or the numbers of which it may be composed. The effect of these agencies is indeed so great, that some writers have looked upon them as primary causes, and have imagined that by such laws alone has nature regu- lated tho distribution of tho whole animal creation. Very many instances, no doubt, from among tho diversities of animal structure, may be urged in supjwrt of this theory ; but how far it can be reconciled with other and nore general facts, which will be apparent on a wider view of tlio subject, wo shall hereafter investigate. It is clear that, by whatever laws Nature may have been guided, numerous exceptions will be found, proportionate to tho vast and almost infinite variety she has displayed in her productions. There is, perhaps, no theory professing to explain the laws of Nature, wliether on animal distribution or natural affinities, which the wit of man could possibly devise, that might not be supported with great plausibility, by certain fJicts, presented by those radiating tlireads of connexion, and those apparent deviations from her general laws, which are everywhere apparent : yet these will frequently be opposed to other facts ; and thus it becomes necessary, before determining on which side tho preponderance of evidence lies, that we take as wide a survey of the general distribution of animals as the existing state of knowledge will admit To set out with tho belief that the laws of geographic distribution are fully ascertained, and that nothing remains but to make ourselves acquainted with the range of individual species, is a doctrine which can only bo compared to those principles of classification insisted upon by the methodists of the last ago in natural history, who considered that all the generic groups had been discovered, and that future naturalists had nothing left but to appropriate to them the newly discovered species, in the best manner they could. Towards the discovery of the natural geography of animals there is, however, another mode of investigation, analogous to what wo now pursue, in searching after the true series of their affinities : this is, to lay aside all preconceived theories, and to begin with considering tho primary causes of geographic distribution to bo, what in truth they really are, totally unknown. We are thus compelled to take a general survey of all the existing onimals yet discovered, ond now dispersed over the globe ; and, fh)m the facts so elicited, endeavour to attain such general inferences as are supported by a preponderance of evidence, furnished by nature hetself. By the first method, as it has been truly said, we make nature bend to our own arbitrary theories; while by the second we humbly endeavour to receive her instrurtions ; striving to obtain a glimpse of that stupendous plan which can never be fully understood by fallible and imperfect mortals. The geographic distribution of man is connected in our survey with that of animals ; not so much in compliance with the popular notion, by which the noblest work of God is classed AS a genus next to the brute, but because we may iiiirly presume, from tho great diversity 250 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY, Pari TI. observed among the human species, that their variation and dispersion is regulated by some feneral plan ; and that such plan may be analogous to that which is apparent in the distri- ution of animals. It may be urged, indeed, tliat such a remarkable coincidence, if proved, might tend to sanction the modem theory of classing man and brutes together ; but the only legitimate construction which we think could be mirly drawn ih>m such a fact ,ij>w ■, . -; :'-r-"':.T/---;- ;-;-.T'^T-_-rii\7,'^-;.-T--,-,-7'' tc-i'.f-^'^' Vl- ;-^>y > Pari Tl. egulated by some rent in the distri- idence, if proved, bor ; but the only 1 a fact and the Incas lighest point of 3 the comparison which have fol- Book IIT. IN ITS RELATION TO MAN. 25i* lowed the progress of the Caucasian race, and to a certain extent beiong also to the Asiatics, appear to have made little or no progress among the Americans, even m ^e gorgeous court of Montezuma. When that monarch despatched messengers to bring him an account of the first Spaniards who landed on his territories, so ignorant were the Mexicans of figures or of writing, that their report was made in complicated hieroglyphics, mixed with rude figures of the hordes and persons of these unknown invaders. Theu: idolatrous worship enjoined no moral duties, like those of the superstition of Fo ; and its rites were celebrated by human sacrifices of such a revolting nature as to be worthy only of demons. It deserves attention, that while the central portion of America presented in its orig'nal inhabitants such a de- graded picture of the human mind, the northern nations of tlie new world, partakmg more of the Mongolian aspect, evmced a higher degree of intellect. It is true they were onlj wandering tribes of hunters, yet they appear to have had a fiiU belief in the existence of one " Gioat Spirit," and in a blissful unmortality for themselves. The American race, blending with the Mongolian to the north, spreads over the whole of the new world ; but whether any traces of this type exist beyond these limits, is a question which has not hitherto been investigated. In the Ethiopian variety {fig. 73.), the skin is black; hair short, black, and woolly; skull compressed on the sides, and elongated towards the front ; forehead low, narrow, ard slant- ing ; cheekbones very prominent ; jaws projecting, so as to render the upper fi-ont teeth oblique ; eyes prominent ; nose broad and flat ; lips (especially the upper one) particularly thick. The Afirican or Ethiopian race has ever remained in a rude and comparatively bu- barous state. Their cities are but congregations of huts ; their laws, the despotic whim of the reigning chief. Incessantly occupied in war or in the chase, they seek not to perpetuate their ideas. They have no written language, nor even a code of hieroglyphics. Abundantly supplied by nature with every necessary of life, they have retained Iheir character un- changed, ailer centuries of intercourse with the most enlightened nations. Different branches of this tvpe spread over the whole of the African continent, excepting those parts bordering the north and east of the Great Desert, which are occupied by the Caucasian Syrians, and where all traces of the negro formation disappear. The Malay variety (Jig. 74.) varies in the colour of the skin from a light tawny to a deep 74 brown, approacliing to black; hair black, mere or less curled, and abundant; head r'.i ..' vast continent of New Hol- land show strong indicar' m,'? of the riau r; origin, nnd of the oame untameable barbariKia; yet their features are desciibo.l aa not m^] rasant, tJieir BKin ia rather copper-colouied Ihan black, and tlieir hair either furling or Straight. The nativca of the mterior have ieen described aa somewhat uiore civilized, ami us s.:caking' a language diffrrcni fir-n tliat used on the coast In the neighbouring island of New V'ealfnd a considerable chfln,T;e fron the black Mulayan tribes takes plcc The suj.' rior costoa of those islanders iii liieix ptrsons arp tall, active, and well made; their skin is browM, ar'i thoir long i. . iiair is aomeiimes t'tniiglit, aometiifies curling. A degree of intell>;ct, raporior '/> all t> * tribe.') we have cnnwiM ii*?.d, ac o.'npanies those personal adviintagvjs. lletainiii^' many of the barbarous cu :,<.:,-, J of :heii sieighboura, Uio New Zealanders have, nnvcrtheless, mode some progress in .':.r: "bts 0. : % fiincn uicii intercourse with Europeans: they believe in a Supreme Being, and in n 2)up^')' Lmnortaliiy ; and evince, in various ways, a desire to improve their condition Tlie natlVi* • ov tJio I'Vtcndly Islands have the dork complexion of the New Zealanders, but art r» much ■Wji'.'ior race. They ore of the ordinary European stature, though some are above !ignj fheir colour is a daep brown, verging in the better classes on a light olive; their features, like thos^e of the New Zealanders, are varicaifl, approximating in some respects to them, and also to the true Europeans. Their progrcKi in civilization and in intellectual developoment is considerable ; as a proof of which, it in mentioned that they have terms to express numbers up to 100,000. The Otaheitians have long been celebrated for their per- sonal beauty : the lower orders, indeed, are of the same brown tint so generally prevalent in the Friendly Islands, but in those of a superior caste this is gradually lost, until we find in the higher ranks a skin nearly white, or at least but slin;htly tinged with brown; and dthough the usual colour of their hair is black, yet it is ot a fine texture, and fi-equent instuicea occur in which it is brov/n, flaxen, and even red. Their persons are well made, their feature.? sometimes even beautiful, and a blush may bo readily observed on the cheek of the women. Tht^ harmony of their language, and their simple though refined manners, have been imiversaJly remarked. These national characteristics extend to the Society Islands. Laatbj, The natives of the Marquesas have been described as the finest race in the Southern Ocean: "in form they are, perhaps, the finest in the world." Their skin is naturally " very fair," anci the colour of their hair exhibits all the varied shades, (exceptmg red), which are found in the dififerent tribes of Uie Caucasian race. Sect. III. — On the. Causes of these Varieties. The following questions naturally arise from consid.?ring these characteristics of tho most prominent varieties of the human race ; founded as they are on the concurrent te 'imony of travellers, and generalised by the most eminent physiologists: — 1. Whether these racjs, so dissimilar in their typical peculiarities, have originally proceeded firom one, or fi-om distinct stocks 1 2. Are they so strongly marked as not to present many and great deviations'? and, 3. To what causes are they to be attributed 1 In regard to the origin of the human race, there have not been wanting those, who, disbelieving the evidences of the Mosaic history, have attempted to establish the hypotliesis that these races have each sprung fi-om difierent stocks ; > , that they are, in &ct, so many species. Now, this, at the best, is but an assumption per every record fi"om which it could receive any support is it b m direct violation of a primary and universal law of . being of the '•-•iial creation shrinks instinctive? '■ *^om . anothe'.. It 1 .noreover, been fiiUy ascertaineu i .■, human form y be, such variations among difl?r: xiv, are even grt^^tet. Unless, therefore, it can be p' v ^^ that the laws of nature with reap. !t to man and animals are contradictory, we shall, by at ; . '>ing the least weight to the above theory, openly violate every principle of philosophif: i' ..;;; ir ^ as well as renounce all belief in revealed religion. On this head the Mosaic recoitts n ^ar and explicit ; and however the bceotic may deny their inspiration, he cannot \n'm^ 'jt- ird, on his side, any teetimonf (.•ratuitous ; not only because !y opposed to it, but because : a law by which the lowest .iiixing its species with that of /ever great the variations of the ' f"? of the same species of irim"^! Paht II. r, show a general Their language, ly beard. (Law* e great islands of ca and Philippine c barbarity as do ' iUiOty rt8 appear iUur-cc'icuvod and lace, longer hair, ppe ors (j! (, side, ler. p-<:!:-A'{ing ;-,i'y hfcir, '■■:. tJie ninat^d Now Ire- ent of Npw Hol- eable barbariKjn; )er-colouied than terior have ieen rj;, frn tiio; used chanjTfe frofv the iii their persons imir is aomeiimes tribes we have of the barbarous de some progress Supreme Being, e their condition ialonders, but arc li some are above on a light olive ; in some respects nd in intellectual ey have terms to ed for their per- nerally prevalent ost, until we find with brown ; and re, and frequent IS are well made, ired on the cheek refined manners, I to the Society finest race in the Their skin is lades, (excepting sties of tho most ent te 'imony of sr these racss, so , or from distinct deviations? and, iting those, who, h the hypotliesis in &ct, BO many not only because o it, but because A'hich the lowest tics with that of \ ariations of the pecies of •oin^'l ure with resp ct ht to the above lounce all belief it ; and however e, any teetimony bookul IN ITS RELATION TO MAN. 2(31 I of such remote antiquity, or of such generally admitted credibility. As to the second quefr- tion, it must not be understood that, in arranging the varieties of man under a certain num- ber of divisions, and assijqfning to each a peculiar character, there does not occur many and very remarkable exceptluns m each. So much, indeed, is this the case, that there are not wanting instances of native African tribes having tho light skin of Europeans, Caucasians combinmg the Mongolian with the Malay structure, Americans resembling whites, and Afri- cans with the copper-coloured skin of the American ; nay, even in the same island or pro- vince, a great diversity both in language and in physical structure, is sometimes apparent, and tliis between tribes bordering close upon each other ; so that, with the exception of a com- paratively small portion of each principal race, we find so much diversity in the remaining or aberrant branches — the typical peculiarities become so modified, altered, or evanescent, that it it totally impossible to draw an absolute line of demarcation between them. This point has frequently been adverted to by a well-known physiologist, who says, " there is no circumstance, whether of corporeal structure or of mental endowment, which does not pass by imperceptible gradations into the opposite character, rendering all those distinctions merely relative, and reducing them to differences in degree. It is concluded, therefore, that every arrangement of these varieties must be in a great measure arbitrary." (^Lawrence's Led, p. 472.) Yet, admitting this variation to the fullest extent, it cannot alter the correct- ness of the principle on which these distinctions are founded. Whatever might have been formerly thought as to tho nature of terms employed by naturalists to designate the particu- lar groups of animals, it is now generally admitted that, throughout nature, there are no isolating distinctions, save such as separate species. The characters of every zoological group, of whatever magnitude or denomination, are subject to exceptions equally numerouc. The typical peculiarities may, indeed, be prominent ; but in proportion to the number of objects which are embraced under any definition, will be the diversity of those imperceptible gradations, those threads of connexion, which shoot out in all directions, and unite not only genera and orders, but the primary kingdoms of the animal and the vegetable worlds. J| IS, therefore, irrelevant to argue that, because these divisions are liable to numerous excep tions, and are not always uniform and constant, they are either artificial or objectionable fbr as we find that all natural groups, both in the animal and vegetable worlds, are subject to the same variations, they are therefore liable to the same objections. In short, if such reasoning is valid, the distinction between plants and animals can no longer be maintained ; for it is to this day unsettled at what point the peculiarities of one are lost, and those of the other assumed. The causes that may have led to these variations in the human species, form the only question of a general nature remaining to be discussed. It has been argued by some writers, Uiat particular climates, food, and modes of life, have gradually operated, through a succes- sion of ages, to produce these effects on the colour, stature, and intellect of difiBrent nations. But, however greatly these causes may affect individuals, or even to a certain extent a whole people, they entirely fail when brought to solve our present question ; were it otherwise, the same causes would naturally have the same effect on all the inhabitants of a particular region ; but such, as is well known, is far from being the case. The negro, under a tropical sun, is black ; while an Indian of Para, in the same degree of latitude, is reddish brown. No race produces men more athletic, or more finely formed, than are witnessed among the Gold Coast negroes ; yet they inhabit, proverbially, some of the most pestilential districts of Africa. On the other hand, the New Hollanders, and the South African Bushmen, living in a salu- brious climate, are described as lean, squalid, and with an appearance scarcely human. It is therefore obvious, tliat neither the physical nor the moral condition of man can be so afiected by climate, or other external agencies, as to produce any great or permanent varia- tion in his form. Indeed, when we consider that such agencies have not produced any physical change in any one nation, within the memory or the records of man, we axe tempted to believe that in a general point of view, their influence has been very slight ; otherwise, thpro is in reason to loubt but that the same natural causes which operated at one period of ' T c, ■...'.'ilu still continue to do so at another; and that we should find the descendants ■" Europeans leg since settled in the New World, and in Southern Africa, beginning to assume the red ting^ of the American, or the black skin of the Etl.\iopian. Still less can it be supposed that this dtparture from one common standard has been effected by civilization, a consequent i^cvelopementof themi tal faculties, or even by diversified modesof life. Man, in remote ages, must have lived j :t>tty nearly the same life in every region ; whether as shepherds, hunters, or tillers of the field, their food, iiabits, and modesof life, must have been simple and regular. Whence comes it, then, that nations which still retain a great portion of w'tat may be conceived their primitive simpncity, do not exhibit a corresponding resem- blance in "hi'sical structure 1 If food, rairrfnt- and moral improvement have such a"owerful efiect in modifying the human frame, it would naturally follow that tribes living nearly in a state of nature would all show a close approximation to one common type; that they would, ir; iliort, retain more of the lineaments and characters which must have belonged to our first \. :"j than if they had deviated from their primitive simplicity ; yet the very reverse of 262 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY, Part II Booi Ik m^ 'i this is the fact The apparent aborigines of every nation are those in which the leadinjj characters of their own tribe are most conspicuous ; and which exhibit the strongest contrast to those of others. It is only when they have mode some progress in the arts of life, when conquest or commerce has led to a union with other races, that the national characteristics, both personal and mental, give way, and begin either to blend or to be lost in other modifica- tions. These reasons, did they more immediately concern the purposes of this essay, micht be much enlarged upon, more particularly as they have been offered by some descrveKlly eminent writers as a satisfactory solution of the question we are now discussing. Yet, allow* ing to all these causes the fiill effect they are known to have produced, we must yet confess they appear to us totally inadequate to explain the origin of the races of man. A writer intimately versed on this subject has well observed, that '• external agencies, whether phy. sical or moral, will not account for the bodily and mental diifcrcnees which characterise the «veral tribes of mankind." {^Latorence's Lectures, p. 431.) We have, in short, now brought the inquiry to a point where human reason is baffled : there is neither history nor tradition to guide us in a research which carries us back to tlie obscurity of ages ; to that remote period when the earth, for a second time, was again peopled, if not by a single pair, yet by the three eons of a single family. We are now to view the question in another light. It has been generally admitted, even by those who reject the Mosaic testimony, that the diversity in the human structure can in no way be accounted for bv any known combination of natural causes : are we, therefore, to suppose, in a question which concerns the most perfect earthly being made by Omnipo- tence, that nothing supernatural is to enter 1 that causes which effect the developement not only of the material but of the spiritual essence of man, have been left to chance 1 Is it not more reasonable to conclude, that, for purposes unknown to us, a supernatural agency was employed 1 and that the immediate descendants of the sons of Noah were as distinctly mark- ed in their outward form as tliey were in their moral character 1 The sacred writings, it is true, are not written to answer philosophic inquiries. Those who, in the present age, have been the most profound investigators of nature, discover in every part of creation a symbolic relationship; a mysterious system of types and symbols, which extends from the most com- plex to the moat simple of organized beings: and when we know, for instance, that even the colours of a bird or an insect have a direct reference to such a system, and are employed as typical indications of its station in nature, can it be supposed that such a sjrstem does not extend to man 1 That this will not, in tiie present infancy of our inquiries, admit of such direct and unanswerable proof as amounts co mathematical demonstration, we do not attempt to deny ; but that such a supposition is in harmony with that perfection which belongs to tlij works of Omnipotence, every reasonable person must admit Nor are there wanting circumstances which give some degree of sanction to this belief. The curse prciounced upon Canaan as the son of Ham has unquestionably been fulfilled. Learned commentators agree in considering that central Afi'ica was peopled by his descendants, and these have been for ages, and still continue to be, " a servant of servants," to their more favoured breth,r»n. Even their own despotic governments render the subjects but slaves. In them the human form is most debased, the divinity of mind least developed. Thry still exhibit those leading resemblances which rendered Cain a type of Canaan : with few v ';icceptionB, they are, to this day, but " wanderers and vagabonds" on the earth. Tho blessings pronounced on the two remaining sons of Noah, it has been well observed, are of a very different nature : Shem was more peculiarly favoured than his brother ; from his race not only the great patriarchs who typified Christ but even Christ himselfj descended. The peculiarity of the Jewish polity, which preserved the physical peculiarities of their race pure and unmixed through successive generations, leaves us in no doubt that they belong to the Caucasian type, in which, both m structure and intellect, a marked superiority over .all the nations of the earth has been universally admitted. The early descendants of Japheth, as b plainly intimated by Moses, were eminently warlike. All writers agree in considering that from the Mongolian race descended those vast and overpowering hordes of barbaric warriors who, at remote periods of time, conquered all Asia, and devastated Europe under Attila, Zingis Khan, and Tamer- lane. " It is remarkable," says Dr. Scott " that the first king of whom we read in authentic history, is Nimrod, the mighty hunter." The same learned writer mentions that there is some ground for believing that the greatest part of Asia (now peopled by the Mongolian race) descended from Japhetlu The population of Asia has been frequently mentioned as in an equal ratio to the superiority of its size over Europe, or rather of these countries over which the Caucasian variety has spread. Thus, in every sense, it appears, that the promise to Noah's first son, " God shall enlarge Japheth, and Canaan shall be his sei-vant," has literally and figuratively been fulfilled. That the three sons of Noah overspread and peopled the whole earth, is so expres ly stated in Scripture, that, if we bad not to argue against those who unfortunately disbelieve such evide.ico, we might hero stop: let us, however, inquire how iP- the truth of this decla- ration is substantiated by other considerations. Enough has been said to show that there is a curious, if not a remarkable, analogy between the predictions of Noah, on the future descend .a> v j| jA« 1" :-_:.j^-:- 'T'"-' ■ ■ ■ »i--^ rr. F^T-TTTf ' IW7?'" PaktH hich tho leading tronjfGst contrast irtfl of life, when 1 charactcristicB, 1 other modifica- his essay, mieht !ome deBorvedly ing. Yet, allow must yet confess man. A writer IS, whether phy- characterise the art, now brouglit r nor tradition to it remote period yet by the three ' admitted, even structure can in e we, therefore, ide by Omnipo- jvelopement not lance 1 Is it not ral agency xoas distinctly mark- d writings, it is esent age, have ition a symbolic 1 the most com- e, that even the ire employed as ystem does not admit of such ! do not attempt hich belongs to there wanting rse prciounced commentators hese have been lured brethren. 3m the human t those leading ley are, to this 3d on the two re : Shem was patriarchs who Jewish polity, ugh successive n which, both earth has been ited by Moses, longolian race emote periods [J, and Tamer- A in authentic 8 that there is ongolian race) ioned as in an es over which le promise to " has literally 8 so expressly e\y disbelieve ot this decia- that there is a iture descend Book III IN ITS RELATION TO MAN. ants of his three sons, and tho actual stato of those races which are generally supposed to have sprung iVom them. It mar here bo a^^ain remarked, that aluiough, to render the subject more clear, we have adopted the quinary arrangement of Blumenbach, yet that Cuvier and other learned physiologists are of opinion that the on'mory varieties of the human form are more properly but three ; namolv, Caucasian, the Mongolian, and the Ethiopian. This number corTcsponds with that of Noah's sons : assigning, therefore, the Mongolian race to Japheth, and the Ethiopian to Ham, t^ > Caucasian, the noblert race, will belong to Shem the third son of Noah, himself descended from Seth the third son of Adam. That the primary distinctions of the human varieties are but three, has been further maintained by thn erudite Pritchard, who, while he rejects the nomenclature both of Blumenbach and Cuvier, as implying absolute divisions, arranges tho leading varieties of the human skull under throe sections, diflering from those of Cuvier only by name. That the three sons of Noah, «,vho were to " replenish the earth," and on whose progeny very opposite destinies were pro« nounced, should give birth to different races, is what might reasonably be conjectured. But that the observations of those who do, and of those who do 'wt believe the Mosaic history should tend to confirm its truth, by pointing out in what respect these three races do actually differ, both physically and morally, is, to say tho least, a singular coincidence. It amounts, in short, to presumptive evidence that a mysterious, but a very beautiful analogy pervades throughout ; and teaches us to look beyond natural causes, in attempting to account for effects apparently interwoven in the plans of Omnipotence. To reconcile the different theories regarding the number of primary variations in tho human form is our next object. The greatest authorities on this subject are Blumenbach and Lawrence, Cuvier and Pritchard. The first two, as already observed, maintain that the primary divisions are five ; while the latter, with more show of reason, contend that there are but three, although they readily admit the distinctions assigned to the other two. In what manner, therefore, can these opposite theories be reconciled 1 To do this, we must revert to a third and very remarkoble one, which, although it has hitherto been solely di- rected to the animal kingdom, will yet be found to exercise a very important influence on the present question : we allude to the circular theory of MacLeay. It is the opinion of this learned naturalist that every group of organised beings divides itself, as it were, into two branches of affinities, which finally uniting again at their opposite extremities, form a circle ; and that this disposition of affinities holds good, not only in every group, of what- ever magnitude or denomination, but throughout tho animal and the vegetable world. It has been further shown that as such a circular arrangement of beings canno',, of necessity, present any absolute or isolated divisions, (for it <" uld not then be continuous and circular), yet, that there may be traced, in each circle, five deviations or varieties of structure • '• ' >h, however conspicuous in their typical examples, are blended and lost the nearer the) ■ .<- imate to each other. Now, so far as regards the afllinities of aiii/nals, this circulai iii jr:y has been demonstrated ; but it long remained a matter of doubt what number of primary divisions every group contained. Mr. MacLeay considers there are five ; and this accords with Blumenbach's arrangement of the human species. M. Cuvier, and Dr. Pritchard, as we have before stated, limit the leading varieties of man to three. In our arrangement of the order Insessores (North. Zoology, vol. ii.), one of the most comprehensive divisions in ornithology, we have shown that the p^rimary divisions of jvery natural group are only ^' .'ee ; one of which, by forming a circle of its own, includes three of those pointed out by Mr. MacLeay, — thus making the number Jive. Now, this theory, on the natural divisions of birds, rests upon no speculative assumption ; it is founded on the most rigorous and minute analysis, and has thus been capable of mathematic demonstration. The question, whether this theory is applicable to one part only of the animal creation, or whether there is pre- sumptive evidence to conclude that it pervades all nature, has been di' t some length in the " Introductory Observations on the Natural System," prefix^ .; o same work. In some respects the trinary and the quinary theory of divisions may be thought vhtually the same ; and so far as regards our present subject, considered abstractly, this observation may be true. We can analyze a group of insects, of birds, or of other animals, but how are we to analyze the different modifications of man 1 The thing is utterly impos- sible. Now, as every true theory must rest upon analysis, our present views on this subject would be purely speculative, did they not so strikingly and wonderfiilly coincide \vith those in other departments of nature, into which we can prosecute minute research, and attr'T. ^'gical demonstration. Besides, by supposmg that there are^ue principal varia- tions ■ I, each equally important with the other, we entirely destroy the beautifiil analtp, '•;. vveer. these variations and the sacred writings. But without entering farther upon thi.i question, it will be sufficient for our present purpose to repeat, that, in regard tc man, the views of Blumenbach and Cuvier are virtually the same ; for if, with the former, we reckon five, there will be two grouna more conspicuously typical of perfection, and three others, which, however distinct in many respects, possess several characters in common. If, on th' other hand, we follow Cuvier and Pritchard, and restrict the number to three, we have »lie Cr .vrasian and the Mongolian as the two principal groups, while there is a thurd, typi- *y MA SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY, Pabt caiiy rpprcaented indeed by the Ethiopian, but still so diversifled aa to admit of a threefold diviaioii, into the American, tlic Aft-ican, iind Jie Malapr varieties. That the variiition of man has been rogul ited by similar laws to those which have been traced throughout nature, is a conclusion supported by strong and presumptive evidence; drawp both from the sacred writings, and from inferences in zoological science, which no one has ventured to dispute. In establishing this point, I have studiously confined myself to such facta, coTinf<';t'Hl with the physical history of man, ns rest on high aqd indisputable authority. O .{<><■. i 'ast and intricate, illustrated by the united labours of the most acute philo'imei') v; vmg, little tltat is new could bo said, and that little might have been su ;< -taU of V nu oroughi. forward to favour a particular theory. In the preceding sketch M'lhii prmcipal cJifTerences in man, we have, therefore, merely condensod the obser- vation!:, li >(1 facts detailed in the writings o^ Blumenbach, Cuvier, Pritohard, Lawn nee, and Sumivir ; rather wishing, that, whatever inferences are drawn from such sources, the facts themselves should reiii. on testimonies of so much weight The order in which these races are here placed leans us to other considerations. Blumen- bnch is of opinion that the American form ■'■> intermediate between the Caucasian and Mon- golian; but we have foiled t<> ' ..j .issign^d reamn for such a disposition, which also seems at variance with Uie profession of develupemoiit The geographical situation of the two continents, as we have before observed, renders it highly probable that the American variety is more immediately connected with the Mongolian ; and the simple fact, that the Esquimaux have been by some considered as of Asiatic origin, while by others ihey are thought to exhibit more of the American type, is, perhaps, the strongest proof of their intimate relationship to both. Neither does the American race exhibit any direct affinity to the Caucasian; while, on the contrary, both their physical structure and mental (Invelope- ment seem to place them in c ' -se approximation to the Africans. For these and subsequent reasons, we have felt no hesitation m adopting the series intimated in the Rlgne Animal. We must now advert to another peculiarity in this arrangement, which renders its simili- tude to the zoological series still more remarkable. This is the progressive series of affinities, resulting from placing the five leading varieties in the order in \^ich they have been here notic'd. The Caucasian and the Mongolian races present the highest degree of civiliza- t'.on, although in very difibrent degrees when compared with each other : the regions they respectively inhabit, in like mann -r, approximate so closely as not to be divided by water. Yet the configuration of these races is so remarkable, that tliey " .^ot be mistaken founded. In the third race, comprehending the American, the lualay, and thi Etiiiopi very marked deviations from the typical endowments of the two former are manifest. T' inteiiority is first shown in the American, whose outward form and moral capacity i? neve, thelesd superior to the African. Yet, as nature in the animal Kingdom is ever prone to retrace her steps, and to return again to her original type ; so we observe that, after exhibit- ing, in some of the African hordes, the lowest debasement of the human form, and the least capacity for mental improvement, she begins, as Blumenbach observes, in the diversified races of the Malay variety, to show a progressive but a very marked inclination to return through them to the Cb rrasian type. So strong, indeed, does this appear in many tribes of the South Sea Islanders, not only in the beauty of their forms, but in the advance they are continually making towards intelh tual improvement, that every voyager, who has visited their shorei i^cncurs i" dkening t' n to Europrans. The infercLces to be drawn froi this circular disposition are important, if merely con- sidered in relation to those systems, which, by presupposing a lineal scale in creation, would place tlie negro in immediate contact wilji the monkey. Now, without laying any stress upon that princ-^ haracteristic of man, a reasoning, thinking, and immaterial soul, of which the bod> is but a temporary i ^eptacle, we luust, beforj we consent to this hypothesis, get over difficultiej which appear insurinountalle. That the Ethiopiar holds the lowest station among the varieties of his specii-^, if? fliliy granted; bu>. that th mea- ->llow There may be an approximation: but it is necessary, before we decide < the ws^ree of such approximation, ttiat we should examine the relative affinity which t ' '*hiop' m bears to the Caucasian, For if it should appear that Uie difference between ' lost >erfect and the most imperfect of the human races is unquestionably less than bt'i-von i, latter and the brutes; or, in other words, that the similarities between the negiu and tin Caucasian are decidedly greater than those between the negro and the ape ; we must admit that this latter approxunation is too slight to be termed an affinity. If, on the other hand, we consider man only as a material being, he stands so far removed from brutes — the interval between him and them is so great — tmit it would be a violation of natural affinities, and certainly an insult on his better nature, to class him in the same system. To arrive at a just conclusion on this subject, we must not look so much to any one point of comparison, or to mere anatomical analogies, but bring the dis- tiiiguiauiug charactera of each mto dif eel ouiiipariBon. Sues the negro, it may then be asked, uvinco a deficiency of those qualities which belong to the Caucasians 1 we allude not to tiie natural affections, for these are, in some degree, common to brutes; but in self-privatiou, Book III. IN ITS T^TION TO MAN. compaarion, and heroic love of their itry. Are they inc«p«ble of learning European arts, r of inventing others luitali' ! to loir wanta or habital To deny Uicni luch qualities would be prepoateroua ; they poeecM the gernu of otltera infinitely higiier, witich, under bvourable circumatancea, have produced expert artiaana, akiliul physioiana, pioua divinea, and pleasing poets. " I protest especially," observes Mr. Lawrence, " against the ofunion which oither denies to the Africans the enjovment of reason, or ascribes to the whole race propensities which would degrade them even below the level of the brate. It can be proved most clearly, that there is no circumstance of bodily structure so peculiar to the negro, as not to be found also in other far distant nations ; no character which does not run into those of other races, by as insensible gradations as those which connect together all the varieties of mankind." (p. 428.) To pursue this comparison farther is needless ; and to ask wliether the least indication of such powers has ever been manit'sBted by the quadrumanuus animals would be ridiculous. The learned and eloquent Bishop Sumner forcibly observes, " There is nothing philosophical in the comparison of a being possessed of improvable roa.ion with one that is governed by natural instmct, because there is no just affinity between the talents which are compared." (Recordt of Creation, vol. i. p. 23.) We consider this argument as conclusive. To class man, therefore, in the same zoological division with apes, merely because both have a hyoid bone, is, to our apprehension, as glaring a violation of natural affinities cj9 to arrange l»ts wiUi birds, because both fly in the air, and possess a crest to their stemtuii. So far, indeed, from considering man as the type of a zoological order of brutes, we cannot allow that he even belongs to the same system in which they are arranged. It may be, that the deviations of his structure are regulated by those laws which govern the universe ; yet, nevertheless, by his nobler qualities (whicii in fkct are his true distinctions) he belongs to a higher order beings : that he is, in short, a link between matter and spirit ; that he carries this evid< ice, through revelation, within himself; and will hereailer be most assuredly rewarded or punished, according as he suffers his spiritual or his earthly naturn to preponderate. Sect. IV. — On the Oeographic DistrAution of Animals. The geographic distribution of animals over the globe, is the next subject of inquiry. In the general outline of the variations in man which has been given above, we have deemed it more important to seek after general results than to enter upon minute details. Our atten- tion ha.i been fixed, not so much on those ramifications which shoot out near the extremities of I "If branch, and become too indistinct for clear elucidation, but rather to the leading br ;iea themselves, on the nature of which there has been little diversitv of opinion. Ill the inquiry regarding the geographic distribution of animals, on which we now enter, Uie aame mode will be adopted, but with this difference, that whereas we have hitherto drawn our inferences solely from the facts and general opinions of others, we shall now put aside all theories heretofore promulgated on the distribution of animals, and merely depend 01, imple facts for the support of those inferences which they may appear to sanction. We ' first briefly notice those principles which have been applied to elucidate the phenomena o imal distribution, and then inquire how far they appear conducive to that end. < iiat climate, temperature, soil, and food, exercise a paramount influence on the distribu- tion of animals, has been generally believed; and on this assumption naturalists have divided tiie world into climates, zones, or provinces regulated by degrees of longitude or latitude. Such has been the favourite theory not only of physiologists, but of professed naturalists, wliose knowledge of details might have furnished them with insuperable objections against such views. Thus, the celebrated entomologist Fabricius conceived that the insect world could be naturally divided into eight climates: one of which is mriio lo comprehend all those mountains, in every part of the world, whose summits are covered by eternal snow. It is, therefore, not surprising that M. Latreille should consider such .>. thciory ««!'^^Hi^^^gs^jf|^^. geography, nuch agencies, however, may bo safely allowed to possess much weight, when we descend to details and in- V stigato tiie local Fauna of any particular coimtry or dis- trict. It has been obser\cd by the celebrated Humboldt, and confirmed by iin authority nf no(irly equal weight, that, with regard to certain t'ibes of insoctfl, tholr gcojjraphical distribution does not appear to depend solely on the degree of heat or humidity to which they are exposed, or on the particular situation they inhabit ; " but rather on local circumstances, that are difficult to characterise." This opinion is in unison with tho whole tenor of the facts to which wo shall hereafter odvert. We must, therefore, agree willi Mr. Kirby, and consider that the distribution, not only of insects, but of animals in general, is " fixed by tho will of tho Creator, rather than certiinly regulated by any isothcririnl lines." {Jntroduciion to Entomology, vol. iv. p. 484.) 1 he distribution of animals, in connexion with that of the human race, remains to be conaid'^red. Prom whot has been already stated, there appears strong reason to believe, that the vai iations in the structure of man and of animals are regulated by similar laws ; and this supposition will receive considerable weight, should it appear, upon investigation, that those divisiorfa of our gkbe which have been apportioned to tho different varieties of man, are equally characterised by certain peculiarities in their animal tribes. Now, to establish the truth of such a theory, it is necessary to waive all general abstract reasoning, and to draw deductions from known facts. And it is equally obvious that, if such facta are to be collected flx)m the whole animal kingdom, this essay must be extended to several volumes, even admitting that our materials were sufHciently extensive for such a purpose. But the truth is, that the data for such a comprehensive investigation are so few, so meagre, and so unsatisfactory when compared with the diversity and vastness of the subject, that wey sink into insignificance. Nor will this appear surprising, if we consider the astonishing number of animals that have been already described by naturalists, or are known to exist in cabinets; Betting aside the hosts of species yet unknown, which, in many departments, may possibly amount to double or treble the number we are acquainted with. Yet, as details of some sort must be gone into, it becomes absolutely necessary to select for such a purpose some one department of nature ; and the result which might follow, we may fairly presume, would be in unison with those that would attend the investigation of other divisions of the animal world, could they be investigated upon tlie same principles. Nature, in all her operations, is uniform : and it cannot be supposed that the distribution of quadrupeds, birds, insects, or reptiles, would each be regulated by different laws. In choosing, therefore, fi-om the animal kingdom some ono order of beings for particular investigation, it might be thought that the distribution of quadrupeds would present the best field of inquiry. It possiUy might, did not their investigation involve certain points of con- troversy connected with geology, which, however important, are not so intimately connected with our present object as to render their discussion necessary in this place. The division of reptiles is subject to the same objection, and is not sufficiently extensive for our purpose. The onnulosc animals, on the other hand, are so numerous that they appear to baffle our inquiries ; nor can we hope, while yet in the infancy of geographic natural history, to do more than has been already done by the genius of Latreille. Birds alone remain. It has, indeed, been argued, that no very certain results can attend the study of their distribution; becanse, fh)m possessing the powers of locomotion, nd the instinct of migration, in a higii degree, they appear more widely dispersed than any other class of animals. How iiir tiiis may be true has never, indeed, bt-eu made apparent , yet, allowing the assertion its full weight, we may safely conclude, that if, undei these disadvantages, any definite notions of geographic distribution can bo gathered fix>m the study of such volatile beings, the i^A«T ii w« are thui corn- view. ThoM and of their method*. iro exorciiiei a pri- tumlly follow that i in corroRpondinff the same natural ecn the animals of such, for instance, )f Asia and Africa, ween the Toucans no species of these Nevertheless it d configuration of on the uititribution ondury nature, and jse general princi- syHtcm of animni r bo safely allowed I to details and in- lar country or dig. ted Humboldt, and weight, that, with t appear to depend ' on the particular It to characterise." we shall hereafler lie distribution, not reator, rather than gy, vol. iv. p. 484.) ace, remains to be 9on to beliovc, that similar laws; and son investigation, lerent varieties of tribes. Now, to ibstroct reasoning, , if such facta are [tended to seventi r such a purpose. 80 few, 80 meagre, subject, that uiey fitonishing number I exist in cabinets ; ents, may possibly IS details of some 1 a purpose some y fairly presume, sr divisions of the Mature, in all her quadrupeds, birds, ngs for particular d present the best ain points of con- imately connected CO. The division e for our purpose, lear to baffle our iral history, to do remain. It has, their distribution; juration, in a high s. How far this assertion its full definite notions atile beings, the Book III. IN ITS RELATION TO ANIMALS. rcsultfl would be materially strengthened if found to harmonise with what ii already known on the diatribution of other orJera of animals, which, ttam their physical construcibn, are leas capable of extending their geographic range. It ia here, liowever, neoeaaary to premise, that in this, aa in all other branchea of natuni hiatonr, the account* and relations of tra- vellers, not in themselvt'M zoologists, must be received with great caution. Unacquainted with those nice diatinotions upon which not only the differencoa of species, but of genen and families, are now known to depend, they perpetually contradict, by a hoaty application of well-known nainea, some of the moat acknowledged trutha in animal geography. Nor can tlio facta detailed inthecompilationaof more scientifio writer* be alway* depended upon. Tho voluminou* work* of a moat indu*triou* andzealou* omitliologistof the Linnean aonool abound with mistakes of thii nature ; wherein not only specie* but genera are aaid to in- habit countries where they have never been found except in the vague and erroneou* narrative of travellers. It i* the miafortune of those who complain against tho mMltiplicity, and regret the adoption, of modem diviarans, that by so doing they debar thomselvea fhnn studying the variation* of phyaical structure, and neglect the main clue to enlarged concep- tions of^zoological science. It i* necessary to make these allusion*, that tho roMer may be apprised of our adoption, in thi* place, of the principal nKxlem genera ; and our rejection ot many of tlie localitie* erroneoualy given to certain apeciea in the general hiatorie* of bird*. 1. The Caucasian or European Province. The omitliologicol features of the Caucasian range, or of the regions over which the Caucasian variety of the human species ia said to bo distributed, will first claim our atten- tion. It has been already shown that this range comprises such portion of Afirica a* lies north of the Oreat Desert, nearly tlte whole of Europe, and a considerable extent of Western Asia. The ornithology of the countrie* bordering upon this region has been but partially investigated ; yet sumciont i* known to show that it preaenta a mixture of those specie* which have their chief metropolis in other countries. It ha* been thought that the animal* of the arctic circle are so peculiar, a* to justify us in considering that region in the light of a distinct zoological provmce. The objection* against this idealiave already been alluoed to ; and they become more forcible when we discover, that on calculating the number of birds, both teneatrial and aquatic, which occur within the arctic circle, they do not amount to more tl\an twenty-two ; and that moat of these, durinj^ the greatest portion of the year, are found in the more northern parts of Britain and America. They probably occur in simi- lar latitudes on the Asiatic contment ; but on this point our information is defective. The swimming birds are known to poeaesa a very wide range ; but this is less extensive, perhaps, than is generallv imagined. The number of species found on the ehores of Europe and Northern Africa, independently of those more peculiar to the arctic circle, is sixty. Of these, two alone have been discovered in the four quarter* of the globe ; three are com- mon to Europe, Asia, and America ; one to Europe, Asia, and Southern Aftica ; and twenty- seven to Europe and Northern America : thus leaving twenty-seven (or nearly one-half the number of European natatorial species) a* peculiar to this zoological division of the world. Among the Grallatores, or waders, some particular species are so widely dispersed as to suggest the idea that the geographic range of this order is even wider than that of the Natatores ; and this, generally speaking, may be true. Of the sixty-five species described as natives of Europe, thirteen only occur in America, and two only can be reckoned arctic birds, although several others occasionally frequent tlioee regions. Of the remamder, four 76 occur in Asia; two in Asia and Afirica; four in Asia and America ; seven in Asia, Africa, and America ; and the Whim- brel (Jiff. 76.) (Numeniua Phajnu) ia said to be the same in all the five divisions of the globe. It is consequently among Uie wading birds that we find those whose range is most exten- sive ; yet, on a general calculation, the number of specie* pecu- liar to Europe is considerably greater than those of the Nate- tores ; the rormer being as aae to two, the latter nearly as one to four. It thus appears, that, even among birds of the most vagrant habits, the ornithology of Europe is characterised by a Th» Whimbrei. decided Superiority in the number of its own peculiar specie*. The rapacious birds, next to the aquatic orders, are thought to be the most widely distri- buted ; particularly the nocturnal species. It is very remarkable, that out of thirteen difc ferent owls inhabiting Europe, five only axe peculiar to this continsnt; and two of these more particularly frequent the arctic region*. Of the rest, five occur in America, two in Southern Africa, and one both in Asia and America. The FalconideB, or diurnal birds of prey, in regard to their species, have a more restricted distribution ; yet, of these, the eagles enjoy no inconsiderable range. Out of eight discovered in Europe, one is more properly arctic, thrco have been fbuud in gevernl parts of Africa, and one occurs in America ; leaving three only to Europe. It is singular that those rapacious birds which, firom the peculiar structure of thei/ wings, have been supposed to enjoy the greatest powers of flight amcng 268 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY, Part TT ''h%^ their con^feners, are those moet restricted in their geographic limits. This is proved by the fact, that out of eight genuine falcons occurring in Europe and Northern Africa, two only have been discovered in America. It has, however, recently been stated that the Falco peregrinus of Australia is identically the same as tiiat of Europe : neither does Southern Africa, we believe, possess a single European species, or not one of those inhabiting the northern extremity of that peninsula ; the Montagnard of Le Vaillant, long confounded with the European Kestril, being a decidedly distinct species. Upon the whole, the distri- bution of the forty-four species of European Raptores will stand thus : three are Arctic, eleven are found also in America, two m Asia and Africa, and one in Asia and America; leaving twenty-seven, or more than one-half, peculiar to European ornithology. M» The Gallinaceous genera are few ; and their wide dispersion '* ^ ^ - is decidedly against lEe theory, that all birds with heavy bodies and short wings are more limited in their geographic range than other terrestrial xribes. This argument has been ingeniously used to account fbr the venr restricted limits within which many of the Indian parrots have been found ; one or two species being frequently confined to a particular island. Ornithologists, how- ever, need not be told that the wings of the PsittacidiB are pecu- liarly adapted for strong and vigorous flight ; and those who have seen these birds in their native regions cannot fail to have re- marked that their flight is peculiarly rapid ; many genera, in Uiis respect, passing tlirough the air witli the celerity of the .fta|us and soft-billed birds that we must look for the principal ornithological features of any particular region. The immense family of Humming-birds in the New World, and of Melliphagidae, or Honey-suckers, in the Aus- tralian islands, would alone be sufficient to mark these regions with a distinct zoological character. To what cause we are to attribute the fact that these birds, by no means deficient in the power of flight (which, indeed, in many of t'cm is considerably developed,) sliould nevertheless be so strictly confined within certain geographic limits, remains unexplaiiwed. We can only in tins place illustrate the fact Of eighty-five species belonging to tlic Lin- neean genera of Turdus, Sylvia, Parus, and Muscicapa, eighty-two are strictly Europmn. In this number we of course include those which migrate, at certain seasons, to Nortlwjrn Africa and Western Asia; for these regions, it must bo always remembered, come wi»Ain the zoological province we are now treating of; yet, if w • Ijdurt the number of those wt«ich Save actually been detected in parts beyond th- '-'mres d th« Mediterranean on one »"de, and Western Asia on the other, they will am^'i.x. marked peculiarity in tiie ornithology of Europe, liiese families, it may be remaikcd, that three onlj' ' rthcr prccif of tiio limited rang* of (./ eighty-five \o birds of Europe. Naturalists look forward with the greatest, interest to the speedy termination of the zoological researches of General Hordwicke, as likely to supply these deficiencies. The vast stores of knowledge which a long residence in the East, and an ardent passion for natural history, have placed at the command of thia naturalist, render him peculiarly ( jalified tor such an undertaking. For our present purpose, muiute detail is not, however, essential. Whatever doubts might at first have arisen on the propriety of considering Europe as the centre of an ornithological province, there can be none with respecf to Asia. It is in these regions that the chief sea of the typical GallinaceaJ is placed; tliey abound in China, Thibet, the Indian Peninsula, and even extend to thrae islands which are considered the confines of the Mongolian race, The larger species, arranged in the genera Pavo and Polyplectron, appear to charac- terise the more elevated and central parts of the continent ; while those of the genus Gallus are more numerous in Sumatra, Java, and the adjacent islands. The phea< sants of China and Thibet form a no less ^^^^^_^ striking feature in Asiatic ornithology ; five ^;=25-«*'^«»w.-L,^-:^3?t=iii3S^^^^ species of magnificent plumage are pecu- Tho Silver Pheasant. liar : one of theso, the elegant Silver Phea- eant {Nycthemerus argentatus) (Jig. 80.) has been long domesticated in our aviaries. Three oihsr superb species represent a group (Lophophorits Tem.), discovered only upon the con- tinent. The whole of these Gallinaceous genera are totally unknown in Africa, Australia, or in the New World. When to these we add the Hornbiila (Bucerida), the Sun-birda (Cinnyridas), the short-legged Thrushes (G. Brachyptis), the short-tailed Thrushes (Pittw), certain groups among the Psittacidai, and many others totally unknown in Europe, Northern Africa, and Western Asia, yet abounding in the Mongolian nations, no further details appear necesscry to mark the ornithological peculiarities of Asia, as distinct from those of Europe. From the Asiatic islands it would, perhaps, be more natural if we proceeded at once to notice the Malay or Australiar. range, as it is here that the Faunas of these divisions of the globe evidently meet. But af this would interfere with the order observed in the early portion of this essay, we shall pass from the northern regions of Asia to those of the New World ; particularly as both present a mixed race of men, probably originating from the Asiatic continent 3. Tlie American Province. We proceed to a rapid sketch of American ornithology. It has already been shown that, excepting the Natatorial birds, there are fewer species common alike to Northern America and to Europe than might, perhaps, have been supposed ; yet, were the "proportion much greater, the circumstance would only prove that nature knows no abrupt distinction. It is not to the remote ramifications which she employs to connect her chain of operations that our attention is to be fixed; for they are too subt'le to be unravelled by beings mth facul- ties so limited. But as soon as she quits these iaexplicable mazes, and again displays her- self in a new but decided form, we may hope to gain some acquaintance with her laws. It is not, therefore, fi-om either extremity of the New World that we must form our opinion on its zoological peculiarities. The ornitholofi; of the Northern latitudes is evidently blended with that of Europe, and in ail prooabilitv many of these species exist in Northjrn Asia; those of the more southern parts of America, beyond the Rio do la Plata and Para- guay, are nearly unknown. It is only within the last few years that the provinces, elevated on the Mexican Cordilleras, and now constituting a great republic, have been opened to the naturalist ; and although, as yet, but superficially explored, there is perhaps no region in the New World which promises to yield more intertsting facts, as connected with the animal geography of that hemisphere. Even the configuration of the continent, at the junction of its two great divisions, is typical of this distribution. It appears as if nature, elevated as on a throne upon this vast table-land, 7!J00 feet' above tlie level of the sea, had dispensed her forms to the right hand and to th"? left, retaining immediately around her a typical representation of every group. Tc the north sho has given innumerable Hocks of sleuder- billed insectivorous birds (^Sylvicola, &c.), which annually depart to breed in those more temperate climes. These are accompanied by particular species; of Flycatchers, Thrushes, Pigeons and Hangnests (Icterina); Uie two latter in such countless rumbers as to darken the air. To Southern America has been more particularly assigned the Macaws, Toucans, Scansorial Creepers {Dendrocolaptes), Ant Thrushes (Myotherina), Ground Doves (Cka- mapelia), Tanagers (^Tanagra), Trogons, Fruit-eaters (Ampelidai), and the numerous and splendid race of Humming birds. Yet of all these groups, save one {AmpelidtB), typical examples are concentrated on the table-land of Mexico. Theso, moreover, are acccinca- nied by some peculiar forms, not yet discovered in either portion of America, ana by ?neci.es among the natatorial tribes hitherto found only in the more northern latitudes. Zfi SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY,' Part H. "I ft 'fi r !??•!« ■ li^f ^ The typical Gallinaceous birds begin to show themselves adjoming the equator, nearly in the same parallel of latitude as they occur in Asia : they belong, however 81 to distinct and peculiar types ; as the genera Meleagris, Crax, Penelope, Ourax, Phosphea, Ortalida, and Opisthocomus. These find their represent- atives, for tlie most part, in the ancient continents, but not one species haa been detected beyond the Now World. The foregoing remark applies to the two great divisions of tlie Simite, or Monkeys, so accurately illustrated by those distinguished naturalists, MM. Cuvier and Geofiroy St. Hilaire. The Meliiphagous groups of America, at the head of which shine the i^^^H.. splendid fiunily of Humming-birds (Jig. 81.), form the chie^ peculiarity of ^^H^l its ornithology ; other races, scarcely less beautiful, occur in Africa, Asia, ^. ^1^ and Australia : yet the natural genera arc totally distinct. The number ^X^ of species, and the variety of forms, among the frugivorous birds is another striking feature in the productions of the New World. Under this term Humming Bird. ^^ ^^^^ include the richlv coloured Chatterers {Ampelida Sw.) and Manakins (Piprina Sw.); topether with the whole &mily of Tanagcrs (Tanagrina\ Hangnes».s {IcterincE), and Par ota (Psittacidai). The first four belong solely to this conti- nent, which more than any oti er abounds in vast forests of lofty trees, affording a perpetual and countless variety of fruits and berries, adapted to nourish all the families of hard and sofl- billcd frugivorous birds. If v/e turn to the other orders of vertebratcd anunals, tiie Mollusca, AnnulostB, or Radiata, each and all conspire to stamp certain peculiar features on the zoology of the New World, ind to mark it as a distinct zoological empire. 4. The Ethiopian or African Province. The chief seat of the Eth opian variety of our species is central Africa ; while most writers agree in thinking that its northern limits do not pass the Great Desert. The pestilential atmosphere of tropical Afrlaa. has been an insuperable bar to the researches of Europeans; and nil the ideas that cr.a be formed on the zoology of such regions must be rathcred ftom the partial gleanings made by travellers on the shores of Senegal and of Sierra Leone. The ornithological productions received from these districts evince a total dissimilarity from those of Northern Africa, but intimately accord, both in species and genera, with the ornithology of the south : to this, however, there are several exceptions. The Plantain-eaters (Mmso- phagida), and the bristle-necked Thrushes (Trichophorus Tem.), are among the groups hitherto found only towards Sierra Leone. The Guinea Fowl, as its name implies, is most abundant in the mterior of that country, where three species have been discovered. The common Bee-eater, and the Golden Oriole are the only species among the land birds of Western Africa that occur in the European range ; and these extend southward to the Cape of Good Hope. The whole extent of Africa south of the desert exhibits, in short, a marked difference in its ornithological groups and species from those belonging to Europe, Northern Africa, and Western Asia. The comparatively ♦f'w exceptions of biwls common to Europe and the Cape cannot diminish the general force this remark, but merely shows that a few exceptions must never be taken as the groundwork of any particular theory. It is to inn of the greatest ornithologists that France, or indeed any other nation, has produced, mat wo are indebted for the most perfect account of South African ornithology yet published ; but it must ever be regretted that this portion of M. le Vaillant's labours terminated abruptly; leaving the Gallinaceous, Wading, and Swimming orders lo be completed by some other, who, with equal enterprise and observation, should visit the same regions, and record their maimers witii the same veracity. Between the ornithology of Africa and of America there ia, wiihln tlio same parallels of latitude, a very strong analogy, although (in the sense in which we apply the term) there is none of affinity. We know not, in short, a single perching bird common to both continents; although in the rapacious order, which among terrestrial biHs are well known to have nearly the widest raLj*3, two or three species occur which likewise inhabii. both extremities of Afirica no less than North America. The other vertebrated animals, and the insects of Soutliern Africa, furnish similai- results. On examining the largo collection of insects formed by Mr. Burchell, in the territories of the Cape of Good Hope, we could not discover one out of many hundreds which wea *o be found in a much more considerable collection brought by us from Soutl> America, although many generic groups, particularly among the Lepiuoptera, appeared common to both continents. Between the faunas of Africa and America the difference is unquestionably striking ; yet there are several points of connexion between the ornithology of Africa, Asia, and Aus- tralia ; and these apnear not merely in generic groups, out even in species. The Drongo Shrikes (G. Edolius), the Larva-eaters (G. Cehlepyris), the typical Fly-catchers (G. iJfiM- cipeta, C), the Crab-eaters (G. Halcyon), the Grakles {Lamprotonia), the Afi*ican Saxicolte, the two groups of tropical Finches (Estrelda Amadina Sw.), are all genera common to these three rcgton3,=to neither of WiUCu, jh a gcograpnic uiViSion, can tiiey oe exclusively assigned. But we need not dwell further on such resemblances, v/hich, after ail, are but si Part H. equator, nearly lelong, however Crax, Penelope, their represent- one species haa mark applies to ately illustrated >y St. Hilaire. Arhich shine the }*■ peculiarity of ' in Africa, Asia, t. The number birds is another Under this term elid tory birds, which invariably proceed from north to south, or from south to north. It would, indeed, appear, that if animal distribution is to be regulated by geographic degrees, a« accu- rate notions might result iVom making tJic divisions of longitude aa of latitude : both, how- ever, would be clearly artificial. These parallel relations of analogy, which everywhere present themselves in the animal kingdom, nevertheless deserve our greatest attention, as fraught with peculiar interest to tlio reflecting mind. There are throughout nature so many immediate and remote relations, so many unexplained ties of connexion, that the most careful of her students are perpetually misled in attempting to trace her footstepe. In ordinary cases, the admirable distinction that has been drawn between affinity and analogy (_Hor. Ent.) is, perhaps, the best that con be given ; yet instances might be named, in which even this is totally inadequate to the end proposed. Natural relations are so complicated, that series of affinities apparently incon- testable, will frequently, upon rigid analysis, turn out completely erroneous; proving no more than that nature, howevftr diversified, presents so many points of general resemblance and of connexion, that partial harmony will result even firom a false combination of parts. Let us not therefore conclude, as is now too generally done, that by synthesis alone vve can exhibit the true affinities of nature ; that we may her ceforward, without hesitation, assign to each of her productions its true station in the scale of being ; that we hove suddenly, and as if by magic, got full possession of that mighty secret which ot once explains her laws, and expounds all that has jDcrplexed the wise and confounded the learned, since science first dawned upon man. That the circular system is the nearest approach yet made to the true disposition which pervades nature, — a system which, from the perfections of its Creator, must be replete with order and iKtauty surpassing our utmost comprehension, — is indisputable, because none other has attempted to explain the relations of parts and the unity of the whole ; but fiirther than this its pretensions must not be carried : it still involves questions of ^eat weight, since by one theory the number of its primary divisions is stated to be^ue, while by another, founded on much more extensive analysis, it is maintained to be three. The searcher afler truth will give to these his patient investigation, his cool and unpreju- diced judgment : he may then hope to make one step nearer to truth ; for science, in all ages, has ever remauied most stationary when the advocates of any system have been most prejudiced. It is with these qualifications that the views here taken on the distribution of man and animals are given to the reader. It has been our desire to trace a connexion, and a unity of plan, in both, and to simplify a subject hitherto involved in much intricacy. How far this object may have been attained, it is not for us to determine ; but he who draws proofs of a Divine Creator from the harmony and design apparent in his works, has surely not writ- ten in vain. CHAPTER in. GEOGRAPHY CONSIDERED IN ITS RELATION TO MAN IN SOCIETY. Man, when considered not as a mere animal, but as a being endowed with thought, reason, and contrivance, capable of social intercourse and union, must be regarded as the most con- spicuous object in the delineation of the globe. These attributes raise him to the first rank in this lower world ; and in every region occupied and improved by him, the communities which he has formed become t!ie most prominent characteristic ; all other beings are there subordinate and subservient to him. The description therefore which, in the succeedmg part of the work, will be given of the diffiirent regions of the globe, must be chiefly employed in delineating the aspects which man, as an active and social being, presents. At present, however, it would be premature to enter into tJie numerous details which this subject embraces. We can do little more than indicate the following general heads, under which it will be treated : — 1. Historical Geography. 2. Political Constitution of the different coun- tries. 3. Productive Industry. 4. Civil and Social State of Man. 6. lianguages. Sect. I. — Historical Geography. A survey of the history of man is necessary for enabling us accurately to understand, ond duly to estimate his present condition. Not only inanimate nature, but even the anima. and vegetable kingdoms, if left to themselves, would remain constmitly in the some situation : the changes ond modifications undergone by them have been produced entirely by man's interposition. That improved and civilized fonn under which he now appears, is the result of a continued succession of changes, which have been taking place from the earliest periods of aiithentie history. All the revolutions, both of ancient and modem ti-Ties, have had a greater or less influence in producing the present moral, political, and social condition of man in the more improved quarters of the globe. ii. 270 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY, pARrlL ■%'"UW< ¥^ M^i t II ■ ." "' . ■' ' ■ Vii BvBazcr. 1.— Ancient History. , "• Ancient history is generally considered as comprehending the period which elapsed from the earliest authentic records, andparticularly fh)m che rise of the groat monarchies, to the downMl of the Roman empire. The various forms which government and society assumed during that long period, though they were instrumental in preparing those which have exist- ed in the modem world, did not bear any exact rusemblance to them. Through the conquest of Rome by the barbarous nttions, with which the first of these eras clos^, almost every connexion between them was cut off, except those of record and tradition. The rise of the great monarchies, Egypt, Assyrio, and Babylon, constitutes the first grand epoch in ancient history. It nearly coincides with that of the great commercial republics, Tyre and Carthage. Human society, which had before existed in a very rude and imperfect shape, began to assume a regular, orderly, and even splendid character. All the arts which contribute to man's supiwrt and accommodation were carried to a considerable degree of improvement ; and the foundation was laid of those intellectual attainments, which were to constitute his highest honour. Alphabetic writing was invented and widely diffused ; the arts of painting, sculpture, and architecture, made a considerable progress ; there were even formed some elen^ents of science and philosophy. During this peri«l, too, while the world generally was buriod in the darkest superstition, a divine revelation, preparatory for another more perfect, having been first communicated to tlie patriarchs, was more formally disclosed to the legislator of the Jewish nation. The Persian emp're embraced a wider extent of the globe than any that had previously existed, and comprehended those countries which had been most rcimarkable as the seats ot iinprovemenL and civilization. Although, however, it thus became instrumental in linking distant nations together, it bore chiefly Die character of empty and barbarous pomp, and does not appear to have produced any material advance in knowledge and improvement The rise of the Grecian States fbrmed, perhaps, the proudest era m the history of the human race. The constitutions then formed afforded a degree of political liberty, and a dcvelopement of the higher ener^es of the human mind, which could not be attained in extensive empires, subjected to 3ie arbitrary rule of a flngle individual. The military exploits of the Grecian people, by which they bafiled the force of almost the whole known world united under the sway of Persia, were the most splendid that had hitherto illustrated the anr.al8 of mankind. Genius was exerted with nearly unrivalled power in every depart- ment ; the historic page unfolded its utmost degree of enerOT and beauty ; and many sub- lime lessons of morality were taught by the Grecian sages. The fine arts, poetry, painting, and architecture, reached an eminence which they have scarcely since regained, and in each the purest models were left for future imitation. After Greece had long maintained a glorious defensive war against Persia, her arms were directed to conquest. The reigu and triumphs of Alexander, while they subverted her admired forms of civil polity, diffused her language, her arts, her knowledge, over a wide extent of the eastern world, and thus spread a circle uf civilization, the traces of which have never been .trholly obliterated. The dominion of Rome, which succeeded and overpowered that of Greece, extended over a still greater variety of countries and people, than had been comprehended under any for- mer empire. Her character, at first stem and austere, was gradually softened ; and on arriving at her highest pinnacle of wealth and power, she made at the same time an unri- valled display of the pomp and refinement of polished life. She emulated, without fully equalling, what was most brilliant in the arts and intellectual attainments of Greece. But the most signal service which Rome rendered to the cause of civilization, was by extending its empire over wide regions in northem and westem Europe, which had previously been the seat of almost complete barbarism ; though they now form the most enlightened and im- proved portion of the globe. ScBtiiiCT. 2. — Modem History. The downfall of the Roman Empire, which marked the commencement of modem his- tory, formed one of the most remarkable and disastrous eras in tlie destiny of the world. Durin^r the fourth and fifth centuries, a succession of barbarous hordes from Germany, Scandinavia, Russia, and even the remotest extremities of northern Asia, poured in upon civilized Europe, and exterminated or reduced to bondage the greater part of its people. All the arts and sciences, which had shed such a lustre on the Greek and Roman name, disappeared, leaving only some imperfect remnants, which were preserved in the depth of monasteries. The empire was partitioned into a number of disorderly little kingdoms, gra- dually merged into a few great monarchies, which, in their general outline, have continued to the present day. This era was aliao distinguished, in the East, by the introduction of the religion of Moiiammed, and the rise of the Saracen power, which undertook, by force of arms, to diffuse that religion over the world. Its armed votaries overran a great part of Asia, Africa, and even of J*Jurope, and continue still to maintain a powerful influence over the destinies of the human species. For some time, the states formed under this system pro PARrlL ch elapoed from onarchies, to the society assumed vhich have exist- iigh the conquest led, almost every iB the first ffrand lercial republics, de and imperfect 11 the arts which erable degree of 9, which were to ely diffused ; the there were even while the world atory for another )rmally disclosed it had previously e as the seats ot nental in linking i pomp, and does remenL lie history of the il liberty, and a }t be attained b . The military he whole known herto illustrated in every depart* ; and many sub- poetry, paintmg, ined, and in each ttained a glorious gu and triumphs 3d her language, s spread a circle e, extended over 1 under any for- jftened; and on tie time an unri> d, without fully )f Greece. But ■as by extending viouuly been the 'htoned and im* of modern his- ly of the world, from Germany, poured in upon t of its people. 1 Roman name, in the depth of kingdoms, gra- have continued 'eduction of the (ok, by force of a great part of influence ovei this system pro Book III. IN ITS RELATION TO MAN IN SOCIETY. 277 seiited a somewhat enlightened aspect, and even revived the expiring lamp ot science ; but the final issue of Moslem ascendency has been, to difiiiso through the world, ignorance, des- /)ti8ni, barbarism, and every principle hostilo to human improvement. The fcudiil system was established gradually among the barbarous states formed out of the dismembered portions of the Roman empire. The kin^, or chief, distributed the terri- tory among iiis nobles or followers, subject only to the condition of military service. These nobles, possessing alm'^"^ uncontrolled jurisdiction within their own limits, holding at their disposal tlie services umerous vassals, took advantage of every interval of weakness in the reign of the severe.^ n, and rendered his power little more than nominal. They reduced the bodv of the people to a stato of comparative slavery, waged numerous private wars witli each other, and practised various robberies and extortions. During this turbulent era, all refined arts and pursuits lan^ished, while, on the basis of ignorance, superstition erected an absolute and tyrannical dommion. The institutions of chivalry, however, which were then formed and gradually improved, introduced a sense of honour, and a dignity and refinement of manners, which have beneficially influenced nrodern society. This period was also marked by the piratical inroads of the Scandinavians or Northmen, who ravaged all the coasts of Europe, and obtained at least a temporary possession of considerable districts and even kingdoms. It was marked, lastly, by those memorable expeditions into the East, called the crusades, which, though attended with great extravagance, and occasioning much disaster and bloodshed, tended, on the whole, towards the improvement of European policy and social life. The subversion of the feudal power, accompanied by the revival of knowledge, arts, and industry, formed a most memorable era in the history of mankind. This change, which had been for several ages silently preparing, was carried into complete efiect during the fif- teenth and sixteenth centuries. The turbulent rule of the gretit nobles was then broken down, and was succeeded by several extensive but mildly administered monarchies, along with some free and commercial republics, and in one instance a limited constitutional mon- archy. The reformation of religion eminently distinguished thia period ; but being opposed by the violent intolerance of the Catholic church, it gave rise to a series of dreadful and sanguinary struggles. A eneral activity prevailed throughout the whole sphere of human exertion. The revival of learning, the invention of printing, the extension of maritime enterprise, leading to the discovery of new regions, and of new routes to those formerly known, rendered the age peculiarly eventful and interesting. It derived, however, a some what disastrous character from the establishment of the Turkish empire in the East, by which the throne of the Greek emperors at Constantinople was finally subverted, and very serious alarms spread through the whole body of the European nations. Tiie modern system of polity followed, as the result of the great changes which had taken place in the preceding period. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, when it prevailed, civilization mode very remarkable advances. The manners of social life became more polished and refined. The arts and , v. '>nces were carried nearer to perfection, and more widely diffused through the great bod" jf mankind. Amicable relations, before un- known, were established between the different tions of Europe ; fixed laws were agreed upon for regulating their intercourse ; and war, when it did occur, was carried on with greatly diminished ferocity. The system Oi colonization in the other quarters of the globe was also can'ied to a vast extent, particularly in America ; and though its first establislunent was attended with many circumstances of injustice and tyranny, it had the efiect of bringing those quarters of the world into a more improved and onUized condition. The era of political revolution, which commenced towards the end of the eighteenth cen- tury, being that which is still in progress, c.tnnot be characterised in so decided a manner. The formation of the great monarchies had delivered Europe from the turbulent sway of the feudal chieftains ; yet the almost absolute power with wliicn the sovereign was then invested, was found productive of many evils, ''"lie liereditary nobles, exchanging their rural seats for a residence in thu great capitals, and indulging in east- and luxury, lost all influence over the body of the people. The diflllision of intelligence and w^ealth through the middling and, in some degree, even the lower ranks, was followed by o demand, ob tJieir part, to be ad- mitted to some share in the administration p*' public nffains. This spirit, after fermenting for some time, and being diffused by the exer>,.^:\s of many distinguished writers, produced the French revolution, and the extraordinary series of events which have thence arisen. That great crisis did not merely agitate the interior of France, but by exposing it to foreign interference, and tlien impelling its own rulers to schemes of conquest, it changed for some time, in an extraordinary manner, the aspect of all Europe. Then, however, by a grand re-action, France was driven back within her origiral boundaries, and the political relations of the Continent were re-established nearly on their former footing. Considerable agita- tions, however, still prevail in the - ' ' f different kingdoms, and their political constitu- tions have sufiTered, and aie likely i . . material alterations. Vol. I. 24 I «78 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY, I'abtA Snrr. IT. — Political Cotittitution. The political constitution under which onv community Bubsista, furmB a meet important element in ita ncM condition. Doing usually established witliin certain local boundaries, and accomp'U. J vjtn a similarity '.n manners, religion, and other charucturistic circum- stances, it lb Uie leading' lu^ent in constituting a country or ' U*. In distributing, therefore, the Our quarters of the globe into their Bmaller portions, ^ographer uses chiefly politi- roi divisions. He finds states which have made any pr ^iob:i in civilization arranged into kingdoma, empires, and republics. The elements of political power appear to cuiibist of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy ; wliile the public functions, to be exercised within any state, are the executive, legislative, and judicial. A kingdom is a state of considerable though not vast extent, governed by a single person, as Prance, Spain, Prussia. The subjects are usually united by a similarity of language and manners, and pervadrd by a national spirit. The power of the sovereign is commonlv ex- tensive, though controlled in some instances by national assemblies ; and there is aunoat always a body of nobles possessed of high privileges luid immunities. An empire generally consists of a number of detached kingdoms, which have been united by conquest under one head, as the Turkish, Persian, and Chinese. Being thus formed of an aggregation of different states, empires are usually of v ery great extent ; and as military force has been the instrument of their combination, the sovb/eigns exercise almost always an unlimited authority. The different members having been brought into union by force only, rarely feel united by any national tie, and remain very dissimilar in manners, religion, and social institutions. Republics consist of states which own the supremacy of • king or sovereign, but are governed by a senate, an assembly of the people, or by both conjoined. Though these govern- ments have acted a conspicuous part in the history of the world, they have been generally of small extent, consisting, in many instances, of not more than a single city, with a limited circle of tenitory. Where this form or government has been diflused over a great sur&ce of country, it has consisted usually of a number of slates, joined in a federal union. This is remarkably the case with the United States of America, where such a government has been introduced on a scale of greater magnitude than in any other quarter of the git' -. Monarchy, among the elements which compose the political system, holds the roost con- spicuous place, and is the most generally prevalent. In some coses, the p'jwer of the monarc'. u vholly or very nearly absolute. In a majority of instances, howev< r, it is more or leer, coiurulled by the mfluence of certain powerful and privileged bodies. In some con- 8tit«ta>'^ Ihi' power of the monarch is combined with that of aristocratic and popular bodies, whi'jii uhrt: ° vith the sovereign all the higher functions of government. These are called linii'-ed tnor« jchies, and are well adapted for the preservation of a great people in a state of gjace u-Ia! prosperity. This form of government, after being for a long time confined to ritain, is now spreading, though with some difilculty and confusion, over the rest of Europe. Aristocracy, or the power vested in a distinguished and privileged class, is found exi-sting much less frequently as a distinct and decided form of government, than as an element com- bined with monarchy and democracy. Venice, perhaps, afforded almost the only example in which aristocracy subsisted for a series of ages pure and unmixed. In monarchies, the aristocracy consists of a body of nobility, possessing various gradations of personal and hereditary titles and rights ; while in a republic it is formed into a deliberative body, or senate, exercising or sharing the powers of the state. In mixed monarchies, both these privileges are usually held by the nobles. Democracy is the name given to the government in which the sovereignty resides in the great body of the citizens. They exercise it, either in a general assembly of the whole nation, or by means of persons elected, during a certain period, to act for the body of their constituents. The former was the mode usual among the ancient republics ; the latter is more prevalent in modem times, and is alone compatible with the great extent of territory occupied by the leading republics of the present day. Popular government has been very generally combmed in a greater or less degree with aristocracy, though there seldom fails to be an almost incessant opposition between the two parties. The legislative, among the different functions of the body politic, is justly considered supreme ; it establishes the laws and regulations, according to which all public af!iiirs are to be administered, and to which the persons exercising the other functions are bound to con- form. Countries in which the legislative as well as the executive power is exercised by one man, form absolute monarchies, where every thing depends upon the arbitrary will of that single individual. A purely aristocratic legislature is commonly felt to be severe and oppres- sive by the great body of the people. A government cannot be considered as free, unless the various classes of which the nation is composed have a voice in legislative arrangements. Those political systems, however, in which the laws ore enacted by the whole body of the assembled people, are fitted only for a single city with a territory of limited extent Of SUC.1 a nature and scale were the ancient republics of Greece, and also that of Rome, during Pa«th a niost important Itx-al boundaries, irt.ristic circum- buting, thoretbre, IS03 chiefly politi- ion arranged into ear to consist of exercised within ' a single person, of language and is commonly ex- there is aunost have been united f thus formed of t ; and as military almost always an on by force only, ers, religion, and vereign, but are gh these govem- I been generally gle city, with a ised over a great a federal union, ch a government ter of the gle'".-. ds the most con- e prmei of the vevf r, it b more '• In some con- d popular bodies, rhese are called pie in a state of imo confined to J rest of Europe. 8 found existing m element com- e only example monarchies, the )f personal and srative body, or hies, both these V resides in the [y of the whole e body of their s ; the latter is ent of territory has been very I seldom &ils to itly considered ic afiiiirs are to ! bound to con- cercised by one ry will of that Te and oppres- as free, unless arrangements, le body of the I extent Of Rome, during Book III. IN ITS REIATION TO MAN IN SOCIETY. 37'J the earlier periods of her hiMtory. But wlion the whole of a great people are convened into one place, they form a mere tumultuary crowd, incapable of any regular or etfcctual exer- cise of legislative functions. This diMadvaiitago has, among modem nations, been citudiously remedied by the representative system, under which the inhabitants of each different dis- trict elect an individual understood to possess their confidence, who exercises in their stead the legislative function. lJ\x>n this basis have been founded those constitutions that have been considered as exhibiting the most perfect forms of civil polity. The judicial power provides (or tlio security of pcr-^^on nnd property nnif)n(y all ranks of individiiiilH composing the political body, and forms thus ' uf the arrangoinonts most essen- tial to general prosperity and woll-bcniij. Tin instituU la for this purpose vary greatly in different nations and stages of society. Amonij vTy rude tribes, the individual has only his own strength and that of his kin<1r'vi to aid in repi ing aggression. As society advances, the administration of justice bclw^, n ruan "ti' man Iwrnmes a leading object of public con- cern. In the earlier forms of polity, ,(W( he ex tive and legislative functions are 'le tribunal of judgment, and the form.•«, and agents, by whom the different iiiiiious codes of law are formed, with 1 et the expense and delay consequent usually blended; the monarch, or liiw lepu j, of procedure'are exceedingly simple. T'»e p while the judge decides promptly and or •''• it is discovered that this branch of i)ubii entirely separated from the legislative m »»_ them. Hence arise the different orders, jim^i stages of procedure are conducted ; written « the view of providing for every particular caa upon these complicated arrangements sometimes < luse the society to look bacli with regret on the simple and expeditious machinery cmi>loyed by thoir rude ancestors. Other important particular- are comprehended in the political state of a society : — the titles of nobility, and the badges of honour and distinction among individuals ; the military and naval force employed in the defence of a country ; the elements which compose it; and the manner in which these are arranged and directed. The same subject embraces also the revenue, its amount, the sources whence it is derived, and the manner in which it is levied and t xpended. Sect. III. — Productive Industry, The industry of a nation is employed in producing the necessaries, the conveniences, the ornaments, and the luxuries of life — oil that is comprehended under the name of wealth. It forms thus one of the most important constituents of their prosperity and well-being. The sources of national wealth are usually divided into three ; agriculture, manufactures, and commerce : each of these is divisible into several distinct branches, nor can the cata- logue be completed without including the two ocoupations of mining and fishing. Agriculture, mcluding the means of procuring every part of the produce of land, or what land bears on its surface, is unquestionably the grand source of human subsistence and accommodation. Hence chiefly are derived the materials used in manufacture ; the objects, in the exchange of which commerce consists. The modes in which support and the means of enjoyment are obtained from land may be divided into three ; hunting, pasturage, and tillage, which last being the only form in which labour is employed upon the ground itself, is more specially considered as agriculture. The collection of the spontaneous fruits of the earth, being confined to a few tribes in the lowest stage of improvement, scarcely requires to be taken into consideration. Hunting, or the chase of wild animals, to obtain their flesh as food, and their skins as raiment, is the earliest and rudest mode of procuring human support. This employment requires art and contrivance as well as bold adventure ; but is usually accompanied with rude and turbulent habits, and, combined with them, constitutes what is called the savage state. As culture advances, and the greater proportion of the soil is devoted to the plough, or to the support of tame animals, its range is greatly limited, and in a high state of cultivation becomes little more than the amusement of the opulent. The chase of the fur-bearing ani- mals, however, still affords one of the most valuable materials of commerce. Pasturage, or the deriving of subsistence from herds and flocks, tamed and trained so as to be subservient to the use of man, forms a more improved and comfortable occupation than hunting. Peculiar habits of life usually distinguish nations subsisting solely by pasturage. They are often destitute of any fixed abodes, moving from place to place in large bands or encampments, living within their tents in patriarchal simplicity, but towards other nations Eractising on a great scale war and robbery. These habits constitute what is called the bar arous state, still prevalent among the Arabs, Tartars, and other nations occupying an exten sive portion of the earth's surface. Tillage, or the culture of the soil by the processes of ploughing or sowing, is employed, by all the more improved nations, as the most efficacious means of drawing subsistence from the earth. In proportion to the general improvement which any people have attained, is usually the skill and diligence with which this most important art is practised. The com* IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) ^■ 1.0 I.I 11.25 ■ 50 ■'^" ^HB 1^ IM 12.2 ^ 1^ ilill2.0 II iim 1.4 11.6 6" V] 7] 7 C?^ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREIT WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 m i\ <^ ;\ sB-f; ''S fcl' ■■■'•• -J- ■ f V^.."' '^#^^: i*./' '■ ,A«'. :'..-ts •^: ."'j^V -A i ., ' " ::T,'n'-- ■ ■" ■ ' .^ ' ^ - ■■ ;; "'■■■..,. ;•.. ..- ;.■. ■:-• - % ■y ' 'f'^'' ' . . ' ■- - v^ " ' ''.■'■' ">'?V''' -■' A. ' J' \-t\ 1 'r- .-■ '-■' '^^;.-L■, ■ " ■ . i ^ -.; " . •:r^:/^%i:^''#.V-''. ^•;'. :.;;.- - sfe 1« JSO PRINaPLES OF GEOGRAPHY, 5?I Paat 111. munity which derives its chief subsistence ih>m the culture of the soil, merits generally, to a great extent, the character of civilized. Some of the oriental people, as the Hindoo and Cmneae, practise this importui>t art with an inde&tigable industry applied to every available portion or theur soil, which is scarcely to be paralleled elsewhere ; but in Europe, and espe- cially in Britain, the use of machinery, the skilful rotation of crope, and various improved processes, render the same measure of industry much more productive. The objects of culture vary exceedingly, and for the meet part according to the varieties of soil and clt> mate. Grain, the mam sti^ of human subsistence, forms evervwhere the most extensive and important cAiject of tillage. Climate chiefly detenciifes tne grain cultivated in any particular region. In the tropical countries it is rice ; in the best port of the temperate aaono, wheat and barley ; in the colder tracts, oats and rye. Of luxuries, wine and oil are the most erateful, and in the most general demand; they have their almost exclusive growth in uie warmer tracts of tihe temperate zone. The delicate fruits, from which they are produced, do not Sourish in the excessively luxuriant soil of the tropics. There, how- ever, the fivgrant aromatic plants, and those filled with rich and sacchanne juices, produce valuable subrtances, which are eagerly » uzh'. after by the natives of less genial climates. Fishery, by which subsistence and wealUi are derived from the waters, forms a peculiar brooch of industry, which flourishes in bvery stage of society. Even the rudest savages, wherever their situation admits, conjoin it with hunting, as a means of affi)rding an imme- diate supply to their wants. They practise it often with a great degree of diligence and cme trade is either coasting or inland, the former, where practicable, being preferred for bulky commodities, or those to be conveyed between distant parts of a kincrdom ; much of the interior commerce also passes along rivers and canals. Foreign trade has no limits but those of the habitable globe; and, for reasons suni- lar to those just hinted at in another case, the more distant branches are considered generally as the most brilliant and important; while, in fact, the trade with the countries most closely contiguous, from its quicker returns, ranks highest in real amount and value. Unfortunately, it has been hitherto much fettered by the jealousy and rivalry between neighbouring nations^ which make each imagine the prosperity of another to be epained at its expense, and everv commodity received from them, to be so much abstracted from its own wealth. Altbrugr. this illiberal system has somewhat abated, yet the consequence still is, that intercourse with distant colonial possessions is more sure and steady than with any power entirel^r foreign. The extensive capitals now possessed by some European powers, especially Britain, enable them to carry on the most extensive commerce with countries situated at the greatest dis- tance, and even at the opposite extremity of the globe. In the interior, also, of the great continents, there is a foreign trade by land, carried on by caravans, which are so numerous as to resemble armies, and proceed to an immense distance. The instruments employed in conducting and fiicUitating commerce, and which are chiefly diipping, roads, and canab, form the most important part of what is called the fixed capitu of a country. Under die head of roads, tlie invention of railway, though ^et only in its infimcy, promises to &cilitate, in a remarkable manner, the interior communications of the countries in which it is employed. Sect. IV. — CivU and Social Condition of Man. I;. The population, or the number of individuals, of whom any community is composed, fbrmi, if not the most important, at least the most prominent circumstance in its social condition, and one on which its magnitude, and its place in the scale of nations, intimately depend. The ancient statesmen considered the increase of the numbers of a people as one of the most important of national objects, with a view both to its prosperity in j^ace, and its strength in war. Some politicians of the present day take a different view of the subject, maintaining that population in all circumstances of tolerable peace and prosperity^ easily keeps itself on a level with the means of subsistence, has even a tendency to rise higher, and by its super- abundance to produce a distressing degree of national poverty: they have suggested schemes for checking the progress of population. The actual amount of the population in any particular period or country, has been involved in considerable uncertainty. It is onlv in modem Europe, and in Iho United States of North America, and there very recently, that general or careful enumerations have been made. But in all the other quartera of the globe, tlie estimates are formed upon very vague observation, founded on the density with which, on a superficial view, the districts appear to be peopled. A national character is found to pervade every community. The particulars have been often exaggerated, fancifully delineated, and rashly and indiscriminately applied to indi* viduals; but to a certain e-t^nt such a variation may be always traced between one people and another. The grand distinction, founded upon the progress of arts, letters, knowledge, oiiid refinement, is into savage, barbarous, and civilized : the firat being marked by the total absence of these improvements; the second, by the possession of them in only an imperfect Vol I 84* 2L 282 . * ' PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY, ' Part 11 Book and progressiTe degree ; the third, by their having arrived at a certain maturity. The savage ■tate prevails among the natives of America, and the islanders of the South Sea; the former, however, bein? now in a great measure supplanted by European colonists. The barbuous state is generu throughout Africa, and extends over a great part of Asia. The civilized state is found m the great empires of Eastern Asia, and in a higher degree, as well as under dif< ferent characters, among the nations of Europe, and their widely-spread colonies. In these last, too, civilization appears tu continue in a progressive and advancing state, while over the rest of the world it is nearly stationair. The religion professed by any people is a remarkable and most important feature in their social condition. Religious opinions do not come directly under the cognizance of the geographer ; but he is called upon to mark this, as a particular in which nations strikingly differ from each other. The inhabitants of the eaiih may, in regard to religion, be divided into three great classes, — Christian, Mahomedan, and Pagan. The first, as to numerical amount, does not exceed the second, and still fells short of the third ; but the nations pro- fessing it, have acquired such an ascendency in arts, social improvement, and political power, while their colonies have filled, and are multiplying over ail the lately savage and unoccupied portions of the globe, that in all probability this faith will, in a few generations, be more widely diffused than any other. The Mahomedan nations, though in numbers they girhaps equal the last mentioned, and though they occupy a large proportion of the most rtile regions of the globe, arc yet sunk into such a state of slavery and degradation, and so decidedly surpassed by the Christian people, that their sway is not likely to endure above two or three centuries. Of the Pagan religions, much the most numerous, and the only civilized, professors, are those attached to the kindred creeds of Brahma and Boodh, estab- lished, the one over the greater part of Hindostan ; the other in China, and other continental kingdoms, and insular territories of Eastern Asia. From their peculiar habits, and tiie immutable nature of their institutions, they are likely to adhere to these systems with greater pertinacity than tlie votaries of superstition in Africa, the South Sea, and other ![uarterB, where the train of belief and observance, however fantastic, is of a slighter and ooser tszture. The progress of knowledge forms a most conspicuous chapter in the history of the human species : it follows generally that train of civilization which we have already delineated. In surveying different communities, various particulars connected with this subject are highly deserving of the attention of the geographer. Among these we may mention the most eminent philosophers, men of science, and authors who have flourished in any nation, — the institutions formed for the promotion and advancement of science, — the degree in which knowledge is diffused throughout the community, — the establishments formecTfor public and private education. The fine arts, — which are intimately connected with th-- elevated and intellectual part of man*s nature, and of which the successful cultivate Ssts glory on a people, and polishes and improves thcjir manners, — merit to be considereu ii.:nilarly, and under the same general heads, as their intellectual attainments. There are various points of minor importance, which yet are distinctive and characteristic of a people, and excite thus a just and natural curiosity. Such are the amusements in which they chiefly delight, the peculiar costume in which they are attired, the species of food on which they subsist, and the liquor by which they are, exhilarated, as well as the mode in which these articles are prepared for their use. Skct. V. — The Languages of the World. On the subjects now enumerated, it has been judged sufiicient to indicate their nature, and die light under which they will be treated, reserving the detaUs for the succeeding part of the work, when they come to be considered Buccessively in reference to the various regions of the globe. But there is one subject into which it will be expedient, even at tlie present staee, to enter more particularly. Longu&ge is one of the strongest characteristics by which nations ore distmguished firan each other ; at the same time the dialects spoken by different communities, even when most widely dissimilar, display in many cases relations and alliances indicative of a common origin. There exist over the world classes of languages, each of which comprehends the speech of numerous people, and forms a tie between them, marking early relations and connexions. Language thus acquires a character especially geographical, illustrating the origin and fami- lies of nations, and the connexions between different countries. It will Uien be advantageous to consider, in a large and comprehensive view, first, the languages spoken generally over the globe, and then those which prevail in its different quarters. The languages by which the nations of the earth are distinguished, and fi-om which are derived the names, not only of its principal features, natural and artificial, Nut of its different regions, and of the places contained in them, constitute an important department of geo- graphy. When v/c contemplate those names in maps, a little reflection suffices to convino'i us that most of them are to be regarded, not as mere arbitrary or fortuitous appellations, but Part 11 urity. The savage hi Sea ; the fbnner, 8. The barbarous The civilized state well as under dif> olonies. In these Eite, while over the nt feature in their cognizance of the nations strikinely eligion, be divided :, as to numerical t the nations pro- lent, and political lately savage and a few generations, h in numbers they )rtion of the most d degradation, and ly to endure above irous, and the only and Boodh, estab- i other continental ur habits, and Uie lese systems with th Sea, and other I of a slighter and itory of the human idy delineated. In subject are highly mention the most n any nation, — tlie degree in which med for public and and intellectual ^ on a people, and id under the same and characteristic usements in which species of food on ell as the mode in icate their nature, le succeeding part he various regions ven at the present listinguished from even when most a common origin, nds the speech of IS and connexions, le origin and fami- 1 be advantageous en generally over id from which are Sut of its different spartment of geo- iffices to convinof! 9 appellations, but Book m. IN ITS RELATION TO MAN IN SOCIETY. as terms ■ / definite meaning, or as significant memorials of the people by whom th( y were imposed ; and, in tracing those of ancient origin through the mutations they have undergone, we are compelled to summon history to the aid of geqgrntphy, for the purposes of explaminff them with reference to the great events which have, from time to time, altered the poliiicaf, civil, and social condition of the nations composing the great fkmily of mankind. Thus, without adverting to the rise, growth, and extraction of kmgdoms and empu-es in Asia, we may observe, that the series of revolutions which ended in the overthrow of the Roman empire, and the foundation of the existing system of Europe on its ruins, is in nothing more Tomarloible than in the change which it contributed to produce in the peater part of the world, through the migration of nations ; a change so ai)solute, that it has served to mark the distinction between ancient and modem history, ancient and modem eeograi>hy, and ancient and modem languages. Of this change the geographer, equally with the historian, is at every step of his investigations reminded. Ftance, for instance, commemorates in her modern name that branch of the Germanic family of nations who prevailed in Oaul ; vet she retains, not less in her topographical vocabulary than in her language generally, unequivocal traces of Roman dommion ; and we recognise, though strangely curUiiled, the imperial appellations Auguttodunum and Aureliana, in Autun and (hleant. Italy and Spam, preserving a semblance of their ancient names, exhibit similar instances of disfi^re- ment in those of particular places : Forum Julii and Casar-Augusta survive in Friuli and Saragossa ; but the Trosiniene suggests a less classic reminiscence as the lake of Perugia ; nor can the Betis and the Durias be recognised under the more sonorous names, the Gua- dalquivir and the Guadalaviar (the great river and the white river), conferred' on them by the Arab conquerors of Spain. Appullatives, also derived from languages little known, whether ancient or modem, are liable to mutilation from the varying orthography of travel- lers ; and we can no longer wonder at the coniusi^n caused by voyagers in this particular, when we call to mind the difierence not only between foreign and vernacular names, but between their written and oral expression ; as when a Grerman spells his native country Deutschland, and pronounces it Tcytshland; or a Persian writes for Persia Jrdn, and pro- nounces it Eeraun. But the diflerent idioms of the human race claun our attention from fiir higher considerations than the mere naming of places or of countries ; for geography, considered as an auxiliary to what has been emphatically called " the proper study of man- kind," is principally valuable as combining, with a description of the earth, a view of the difibrent branches of the great human fiunily by whom such vast portions of it have been "replenished and subdued." Ethnography is the term which has been employed to designate this branch of geographi- 1 science. It distinguishes nations by their languages, and professes to class them in kmg- oms, families, genera, species, and varieties ; but this systematic arrangement is as yet rar from being completed. Of the numerous languages that are or have been spoken on the earth, many are so imperfectly known that it is difficult to determine to what family they belong. For this and other reasons it has been deemed expedient by a modem writer, who appears to have collated the labours of his predecessors on the subject,*" to adopt a geographical arrange- ment, and consider languages in their relation to the five great divisions of the globe ; me Asiatic, the European, the African, the Oceanic, and the American. It is obvious, how- ever, that the ethnographical and geographical limits of a nation and its language may be widely different; the Spanish and the British, for instance, extend ethnographically to the remotest regions of both the Indies. Adopting this arrangement, not only as most convenient m regard to a brr^nch of knowledge still m its infancy, but as most suitable to a geographi- cal treatise, we shall proceed, wimout pausing to discuss the merits of any particular theory, to offer, in this and subsequent parts of the present work, such a succinct view of the known languages of mankind as its just proportions will allow. The distribution of languages into Shemitic, Hamitic, and Japhetic, according to the scriptural account, seems however entitled to some notice, ao being well warrantea in rela- tion to the early languages of the world, if we can reconcile our thoughts to an affinity of languages after their confiision, and the consequent dispersion of the human race. It has been placed in a striking point of view by the able author of the "History of Maritime and Inland Discovery," m Dr. Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopadia ; wnd a brief sketch of his observations may be useful as an introduction to an account of languuges more strictly geographical. On reference to the sacred records, we find that in the order in which the generations of the sons of Nrah are given, Japheth takes precedence of Ham and Shem, and is called the elder. This the learned writer we are now citing has not noticed ; he has taken tiie names in the order which long and universal usage has sanctioned. " The fiimily of Shem," he observes, " comprised the pastoral nations which were spread over the plains between the Euphrates and the shores of the Mediterranean, fh>m Ararat to Arabia. The Hebrews themselves were of this stock ; and the resemblance of their fon* * Baibi, Atlai Ethnogrnphique du Globe. Paris, 1836. 284 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY, Part IT. gua^t with the Anunean, or ancient Syrian, and with Arabic, suiScientlv proves tlie iden> tity in race of what are called the Shetnitic nations. There is no diflScultv in assiirning to each of the Jons of Shem his proper situation. Elam founded the kingdom of Elymeis; Amur, that of Assyria ; and Aram, the kingdom of Aramea or Syria, a name still clearly preserved ip that of Armenia. From Arphucad were descended the Hebrews themselves, and the various tribes of Arabia ; and this close affinity of origin was always manifest in the language and in the intimate correspondence of the two nations. Some of the names given by Moses to the children of Shem are still used in Arabia as local designations : thus there is still in that country a district called Havilah ; and Uzal, the name given to Sana by the sacred historian, is not quite extinct "The descendants of Ham," continues this learned writer, "constituted the most civilized and industrious nations of the Mosaic age. The sons of that patriarch were Gush, Mizraim, Phut, and Canaan. The name of Ham is identical with Cham or Chamia, by which Egypt has in all ages been called by its native inhabitants ; and Mixer or Mizraim is the name by which the same country, or more probably the Delta, is still known by the Turks and An. bians." [We may add, that it is the name by which, in the original Hebrew, Egypt is called in the admonition that precedes the decalogue.] " The land of Phut appears to signify Libya in general ; and the name Cush, though sometunes used vaguely, is obviously applied to the southern and eastern parts of Arabia. The names of Saba, Sabtah, Raamah, and Sheba, children of Cush, have long survived in the geography of Arabia. The posterity of Canaan rivalled the children of Mizraim in the early splendour of arts and cultivation. Though the Canaanites, properly speaking, and the Phcenicians, were separated from each other by Mount Carmel, yet, as the same spirit of industry animated both, they may in a general sense be considered as one people. The Phoenicians possessed the knowledge of the Egyp. tians, free from superstitious reluctance to venture upon the sea. Their local position naturally engaged them in commercial enterprise. Their chief cities. Tyre and Sidon, had reached the nighest pomt of commercial opulence, when the first dawn of social polity was only commencmg in Greece." To Japheth, "the Japetus of the Greeks," this writer concurs with others in ascribing the superiority over the sons of Nonh, if not in the number of his descendants, in the extent of their possessions. All the Indo-Teutonic nations, stretching without interruption from the extremity of Western Europe, through the peninsula of India, to the isle of Ceylon, he considers as belonging to this common ancestor. The Turkish nation also, occupying the elevated countries of central Asia, boasts the same descent Their own traditions accord with the Mosaic history; and indeed the affinities of language, which are still evident among all the nations of the Japhethian &mily, fUUy confirm the relation of the sacred writer ; yet the meaning assigned to the patriarch s name in the Sanscrit language, Yapati, " lord of the earth," tolls ror nothing unless we can suppose the name Japhem to be thence derived. To Gomer, the eldest of Japheth's sons, is ascribed, on the authority of Josephus, the distinction of being ancestor of the Celts. Magog may have been the founder of some Scythian nation. Madai is recognised aa the ancestor of tiie Medea. The posterity of Javan tm Tubal, and Meshech and Tiros, may be traced from Ararat, always called Masis by its inhabitants, through Phrygia into Europe. Tubal and Meshech left their names to the Til»reni and Moechi, Armenian tribes, whose early emigrations appear to have extended mto Moesia. In like manner the Thracians may have owed their origin to Tiras. That the progeny of Japheth peopled Europe, seems apparent on another ground, which we Gball explain, after mentioning the remaining branches of his posterity. Ashkenaz, the son of Gomer, is thought to be that Ascanius whose name so frequently occurs in the ancient topography of Phr^ia, and Smm whom, probably, the Euxine, at first the Axine, Sea derived its appellation. " u Togarmah," observes this writer, " we see the proper ancestor of the Armenian nation, and it is even asserted by the Turks." " Javan teas the Ion qf the Oreeka, the father of the lonians. In the names of his sons wo find fresh proofs of the consisteacy of the Mosaic history. In Elishah we see the origin of Ellis or Hellas. The name of Tarshish is supposed, with little foundation, to refer to Tarsus in Cilicia. Kittim is said to mean Cyprus ; and Dodanim, or Rodanim, is understood to apply to the island Rhodes." Here we may remark, that the sacred text contains a most important record relative to the descendants of Japheth : " By these were the isles of the (Gentiles divided in their lands, every one after his tongue after their /amtKc», in theii nations.'* Now, if the Oriental latitude of expression be allowed in this instance, the isles of the Gentiles must include not only the isles of the Mediterranean and other European seaa, but the VEmstmhAB of Asia Minor, of Oreece, of Italy, and of Spain, To the Phcenicians must be partly ascribed the discovery of those territories collectively called " The isles of the Gentiles," and the earliest intercourse with them. Unfortunately those early navigators have left no records of their discoveries; and the. little we know of their enterprises is derived from Scripture, and fVom the scattered notices of the Greek and lAtin autiiora They were, as elsewnere observed, the pilots of Solomon's fieet ; and as often M the fleets of Egypt are mentioned by ancient historians, we find them maimed and guided Part H Jy proves tlie iden- iilty in aseigning to igaom of Elymeig ; I name still clearly ibrews themselves, ays manifest in the of the names given lations : thus there ven to Sana by the I the most civilized re Cush, Mizraim, ia, by which Egypt ijm is the name by he Turks and Ara< ew, Egypt is called in to signify Libya msly applied to the lamah, and Sheba, [wsterity of Canaan ition. Though the "om each other by may in a general ledge of the E^jv heir local position fre and Sidon, bad >f social polity was others in ascribing lants, in the extent interruption from I isle of Ceylon, he lIso, occupying the n traditions accord still evident among sacred writer ; yet , Yapati, "lord of e thence derived. r of Josephus, the 9 founder of some posterity of Javan illed Masis by its ieii names to the to have extended oTiras. ler ground, which Ashkenaz, the iurs in the ancient Ixine, Sea derived 3r ancestor of the names of his sons we see the origin ation, to refer to lim, is understood A contains a most the isles of the families, in theit instance, the isles 1 other European lories collectively Unfortunately ittle we know of of Uie Greek and leet; and as often armed and guiden Boon ni. IN ITS RELATION TO MAN IN SOCIETY. 265 by Phcenicians. Their commercial enterprises had contributed to augment the wealth of that kingdom, which had attained a hiffh degree of social order and economy seven hundred years before the Greeka became acquainted with the use of money. The numerous colonies which they planted alone the shores of the Euxino, the Mediterranean, and the Atlantic, beyond the Straits of Gibraltar, attest the extent of their early voyages. Those of Utica, Carthage, and Gades, or Cadiz, were founded between twelve and eight hundred years before the Christian era ; but the seas of the west were probably explored ibr ages before settlements were formeid at such a distance from the parent state. Their geographical knowledge, even in the fiibulous times of Greece, probably embraced as large a portion of the earth as that of the Romans in the time of Augustus ; but, with the caution characteristic of a mercantile people, they forbore to communicate that knowledge to the rest of mankind. The silence of these descendants of Ham leaves us in uncertainty as to the pnurress of thooe of Japheth in peopling the continent, the peninsulas, and the wZes of Europe. In still deeper mystery is involved the descent of the negro tribes of Africa from the &ther of Canaan. Having thus briefly characterized the Shemitic, Hamitic, and Japhetic races, we leave to the consideration of the curious the theories that have been framed upon them in respect to the different idioms of mankind, and revert to the geographical arrangement which we pix>' pose to adopt Separating all the known languages of the globe into five grand divisions, we name them the Asiatic, the European, the African, the Oceanic, and tBe American, according to tlie part of the world in which they are spoken. Then tracing, according to the best auUiori- ties, the several lan^ages by their affinities, we class those which appear to be sister i^iomB in one group, assignrng to it a distinctive name ; as the Mongolian family, the Celtic family or the Sanscrit family, conformably, in most cases, to the name of the principal people of each of those fiimilies. But here a difficulty arises from the variance between geographic and ethnographic limits. Several nations included in one of these groups have dwelt from time immemorial at once in Asia, Africa, and Europe ; others in regions partly European, putly Asiatic : to which part of the world then must the family be assigned to which those nations belong 1 Two reasons influence the decision; the historical importance of the people, and its mass, or relative number, as may be better understood from one or two examples. That the Chaldeans, the Assyrians, the Arabs, the Hebrews, and other nations of the great Shemitic family, were from the earliest times inhabitants of Western Asia, we know from the writings of Moses, with which the results of the most eminent philologers and mathematicians wonderfully agree. These nations, therefore, belong imquestionably to Asia ; and the comparison of the Gheez and Amharic vocabularies havmg demonstrated an indisputable affinity between them and the people of Abyssinia, who speak the idioms com- prehended in the branch called Abyssmian, the languages of the latter also are classed in the Asiatic branch, though in all epochs, even anterior to historical tradition, those nations have dwelt in Africa. The great mass of the Malay people occupies almost all the isles of the Indian Archi- pelago, those of Polynesia, and some of Australia. Hence we regard the Malay family 8s Oceanic, and class sdl the people characterized by this idiom as t^longing to that great ethnogpraphical group. Thus, besides the Malays of the peninsula of Malacca, whose settle- ment in the extremity of Asia is of no remote date, this division includes the Si Dela or Formosans of Aisiv^ and the Madecasses of the African isle Madagascar. The Uralian nations belong equally to Europe and Asia ; because, from the little we know of Uiem, they have inhabited, time out of^ mind, the north-east and east of Europe, and tlie north-west and west of Asia. Following the demarcation prescribed by M. Malte Bran, we find that the great mass of the Uralian or Finnish nations belongs to Europe. We therefore regard the Finnish fiunily as European, and class amon^ them ul the ancient and HKidem nations who, from striking analogies in their respective idioms, seem to belong to them. The Esquimaux have from time immemorial extended over all the north of the New World ; while the sedentary Tchutchhis, who speak a language evidently related to the idioms of those American tribes, occupy only the extreme north-east of Asia. The Tchutch- his we therefbre consider as American colonies, and, following the precedent of Balbi, re-unite them as such to the other nations of America who fiwm the family of the Es- quimaux. Under a perfect ethnographical arrangement, the languages of the Indo-Germanic nations, extending from Ceylon and the Ganges to the extreme west of Europe, and even to Ice- land, would form, not a single family, but rather an ethnographic kingdom divided into six fiimilies. In subsequent parts of this work, the languages of the earth will be considered as divided into five principal branches ; the European, the Asiatic, the African, the American, and the Oceanic. 286 MAP OP EUROPE— WMT fabt. ' i /.i Fsa. 84 ■»■« Ci'.' *>■!*>' , » Fro. 84 M IS ^ 1 • (P w <: c<,. l>lt!l 'St rkh Fio. e& MAP OF EUROPE— SA«r pabt. 9Bfl 23 IiOii(itiid> EmI N from Ontawkh ■ '^' ■:'■' I DESCRIPTIVFi GEOnRAPHy, PABTia PART III. •*^ GEOGRAPHY CONSIDERED IN RELATION TO THE VARIOUS REGIONS OF THE GLOBE. Im the second part of thia work, the princidet of geography hare been treated of as founded upon a general survey of the globe. The moat extensive portion of our task still remains. We must delineete the leadmg objects of nature, art, and human life, as they appear successively in each different region into which the earth is divided. Five great general divisions of the earth are now usually recognized : — 1. Europe. 2. Asia. 3. Africa. 4. America. 6. The extensive and numerous islands of the Soutn Sea, to which the French give the name of Oceania, the English those of Australasia and Poly- nesia, to which We may add the islands of the Polar Sea. Each of these will form the sub- ject of a separate book. «^*;„,. '•'Vl BOOK I. EUROPE. •v. "- 4 EtBOPB ia the smallest in extent of the four great continents, and yet we may pnmounce it the most important of all the divisions of me globe; Asia, indeed, was the cradle of civilization and knowledge ; but her empires soon became, and have ever since continued stationary; while Europe has carried tiie sciences, arts, and refinement, with almost unin Reference* to the Map l 14. 1 >e 15. N< 16. Ci iZ- l> 18. »L 19. ^ndon 80. laneheitat 31. IcMol n. >oole 33. EzelR TLAND. IRELAND. LondoDoernr W(o [iimariek "eiroid blin Mheda NORWAY. 1. ialldalen fiSriVand J. SoTuc . 5. Drontneim 6. RniDida) Sforda 9 Loerif 10 Kmn l.l^al 3. Siaranger . 3. Chrwtianiand 4. toMbsrf 5. Konsb «.0o«f iansberc S:fa 3. Lidan . 4. OMtuMnd 5. Sundiwall 6. Heda 7. Tan §.' HudikiTan 10. Bodarhaiaa 11. niubr 13. Bala 13. Orabro 14. Carhbad 15. Ovilla IS. N/kophit 17. Linkopinc 18. Jonkopinc 19. Oottaoburt 90. folkanberc 31. Malmo 33. Ohriitianstad 83. Ktlmar 34. Emio DENMARK. 1. Aslbon SkVaile 9. BMlWIck e.KieI 7. CopanbataD ..foS-^- S« BwMMt6u 3.SaadiUI PRUSSIA. 1. Colborg 9. J^iaritaid 3. Sletlin 4. Bariin 9. ^ukfort Foaan T. Ohrnlirnia 0. Brealaa la Olatx n. Sfitan .gdeDOig AUSTRIA. 1. Qlmuts 8. Brunn 3. Tabor II: 36. Kara 37. Spalatro rrALjf. 1. Genoa 3. Turin 3. Aleaiaiidrla 3! Bologna fl. Florence 7. Leghorn 0. Rome 10. Nettaoo 11. Najplaa 19. i'oueaitro 13. Taranto 14. Bitonto 15. Foagia 16.Paaeara 17. Ancona l&Pai i i.SSSSlJ?'^- Hamburg Bremen Idenburg joaburg o. Hanovet 7. Brunawiek h^ armatadt wnrma flallbrona Prerburf ulm , - . Augaburg IS. Munich 17. Nuramburg 18.Ror 19. £aipiig xu. uieaoco SWrrZERLAND. I. ConMaooe 3. Heme 3. Oenera WEST PRUSSIA. 1. Miiniter 3. Weaol 3. ClHToa 4. t^nlogne 3. Coblents 6. Frujm NETHERLANDS. \nialerdam _. Jloliardam 3. Antwerp 4.Rhent 5. Bfunela «ge , xemburg FRANCE 1. Calaii 3. Amiena 3. Si. Qaindn 4. Rouen 5. Evreux 0. Caon 7. Si. I.O 8. SI. Brienx 9. BrMt 10. auiropet 11. Vannet 13. Rennea 13. Aleneon 43. Anrillae 44. Privaa 45. Chnmberry 46. Grenoble 47.Dlgiie, fagoinon 'oulon vignon S.Ra 9. Biu e.Llei 7. Lu) 14. Charim 1S.Parii 16. Solaona 17. Mela 18. Sirafbarg 19. Epinal 30. Chaumnnt 31. ChaliUoo @. Trorea 33. Orlaana 34.TourB 35. Angera 96. Nanlea 87. La Roche 98. Poiiiera 39. fluent 30. Moollna 31. Lena 33. Lrona 33. Macon lernont irigaus ^. Jordaaux 37. Dax 38.Pau 30. Tauionaa 40. Albr 41. Rodat & Agen 14. Burgoa 1.V Pnleooia 16. Ziimnra 17. Salamuima 18. Ciudad Rodrifo lU. AvUa egovia aria Pudala . . Rareeloaa rruxm 41. Qordora 43, Andumr «.Ciii" iudad Real enoera 43.Ciud 44. TbrrL -_^ 4S.AIraoeia 46.Villedar 49. Vitlencia 90. Atruenia 51. Mureia 98. Vera 5.1. II MM 54. Granwia 55. i t?:l 58. Carmoim 90. Huebia 60. Seville 61. Oibrallar OS. Cadia , PORIVOAL. 1. Molgaco 3. Almeida porto £ Guards 7. Coimbra 8.Leria 0. Liabon 10. Obidoa 11. Abraniaa 13. ETora 13. Alvilo 14. Quriqua 19. Lagoa 18. Faro. o Ouadianai R. _ p Guadalau'n'i* q Ebio.TE r Rhone, B. , a Qeoeva, L.or t gonatanee, L.ft u po. R. CORSICA. 3.' F^rto Veeehia SARDINIA. 1. Banarl 3. QrJaiagal 3. Cagliari SICILY. I.Mmi 8. Palermo 3.Sciaoea 4. SnaeoBS Past in. , ,,v »t%, , . .Jflu 8 REGIONS len treated of u I of our task still nan life, aa they — 1. Europe. U. : the South Sea, ralaaiaand Poly- vill form the mm- Hook L EUROPE. 280 t ,'ii' ■'-# "^i e may pronounce ras the cradle of ' since contmued rith almost unin fiS. pirmoM SO. Huebia (10. BsTllle 61. Oibralur 68. CadiB , P0R1V0AU 1. Molfteo 3. Almsida 4. Oporto 6. Arejrro 6.Gu(rdk 7. Coimbn aLerit 0. LiiboD 10. Obidot 11. AbrintM 13. Evoni 13. Alvilo 14. Ouriqua 19. Lainw 18. Faro. Jliotrt an4 Into, a pal. R. b MnitM, L. e Wenw, L. d Walter, L. r Oder, J ■ Weier, I Wiine. ] MeawJ Beioe, f Loire, 1_ Oaniiiiia.B. mPoaro, K. n Tacne, R. „ o Ouadianai R. _ p nuadBlgalTiril q Ebro,TE r Rhone, R. , a Qeneva, L. or t Oomtanee, L.A n Pp. R. V Drs^i R;. w Danube, R. CORSICA. S." Porto Vecchio SARDINIA. 1. BsMarf 3. Qriaiacnl 3. CaiUar) BIClLr. LMmina S. Palermo 3. Seiaoea 4. B/racuM terrupted projfrefls, to the comparatively elevated state at which thoy have now anivm Afirica ; and the Grecian Archipelago, with its subordinate branch, connected only by a narrow strait, the Euxine or Black »ea, divides it from a great part of Asia. Between the north-east extremity of the Black Sea and the Northern Ocean is an interval of 1400 or 1500 miles of land, forming the eastern boundary of Europe. Had this been known to tho ancientr, they would perhaps have identified Europe with Asia ; but the separation is now too deeply marked, ana is de- fined by too many characters, moral and political, ever to be altered. The absence of sea, the natural and most obvious boundarr of a continent, has somewhat embarrassed modem freographers ; for even a river limit is here wanting. The chain of the Urals, running from •■^- SWEDEN 3.0«Kara i! A^ioi Rtfennce$ to the Map tf Europe,— Eait Part 80. Ovinnlka Hi. Cielora 93. StohemaM SX Borovikaf a 4. M< "' PJnefa MoiMleljiiiara Plneca VerkouikPl m St. ShMtdnrakoi 88. ChaleheUia/a 80. Kanhakovaka 60. Makaoovaka ~l. Kramoboak [et*arakara -^. ^arenik 64. OuatSiMhk 65.Kai 06. Tehi lovjtorod MUbkai »Vol.. tohpki tagBteh 'elroTBk (OTfOV „ iSMIf Nov- abort 16. Kraat Novolok 17. Kpunte laYwo doiero jerdin 67. Bolikaniik 68. Vilrenikoe 60. Ortova mObva 71. OanhkoTa TS. Mlabamnvak 73. iTotorika 74. AkieMorakoa 79. Velikouitonfl 76. VIetak 77. Pudoc 78.Vilefra ^ 70. £Moicnk 'olofda -'olma Tenuehtoma -..KolofhiT 86.0ariievitM '" "otelnitoh llobodikoT 188. Boointk liU. Biabink i:«. Biniiier 131. Blnaii m. kanader 133, Ardotor 134. Pptohinki 139. Nomvlchat 1.16. TemnikuT i:<7. Marum 138. Budofda 130. RaaraoT 140. Moaoow 141. Pniiuv 141 Tv- 14.3.iVrvW; 144. KuMeot }iS:|$L..ki }&» 140. Oilrov ISO. Loltdn - -^alk 'enau Mia Uvnl (raplvna lolohoT Sirel KouotI Hoihitew -i^ iocalehe» iSO. Bloiiuk 100. HoriMT loT. Miniii 109. Wilna 103. Grodno 104. Noworad 109. Wai iS-.te'JiKoqf S49. EkaterlnaebTl m-] M. ftnKt 3,1 Barf o 37. St\i?tenbar| w. ntroiavodik 40. Povieoetz 4l.yajet.kaTa 49. BlaroiibiMlia «:felo VOL.L lAinak laboon Iflo! Kasane 101. Sriajak 103. Koiinadeaii- amk 103 Taraaak 104. yetlaof a 109. Varaavin 106. SemeiiOT 107. InreTelsPovol- •koe lOR. Koctrom 100. Jaroalar 110. RiUnik 111. Poaeoboo 106. Rawa 107.VUaTa 108. Lublin 100. Mienjiriela 300. Brat Liter ini. Riebk 903. kobrin In: Viaotik SU9. 0*routch WA. Moiir ^holmitoh rebemiitoT ^. Bielelia 310. Rilak 913.pakol . 914. Volouikl 819. BobroT SI6. Parlonk 817. ZaioTakaja 818. KamkXio 810. nolinaknra nOijVtarlliia 93I.Tilkha jTeotsiani llelka -.. Jolotsk 83. Smolenak 64.pDro(obaB at. Kalouta 66. Kalomna 67. Toola 68. Kiasana ee.K(nlpv mShealil [ovokhopeok Coalin Jhealibaloteb- „ kajra 834. Teherkaak 839.poneUk 9M. laiuna W. CharkoT 838. Pohara XBI. Novonoakovak 830. Krement fBl. »ilolaoaaha ^t. Coielela 838! Jito^' VS- tOTHO 837. Cameta S3a Balta 830.aai8in "40, ToherK 41. NoTomirtoroa Olviopol 340!Thraapol 853. Bander 393. Akarmann 894. tamaU PRUSSIA. 1. Boiuerrn J, Marlenburc . Dantiic 6. Qneaoa 7. Culm 8. Thorn 0. Plotik 10. Poien 11. Siaradi 13.Ratibor AUSTRIA. 1. Trautaen 3.Behemnici 3.Eperiaa 4.Huaa 10. Pela 11. St. Maria 18.BBeea ISiBeltrade 14. Temeawar 15.Arad 16. Bihar 17. Clanaeobnrc 18. CailaburR 10. Hermanatadt 80.Kua 31. Tamopi B9.Str7. S3. Bember 34. Lemberc 30. Sendomirja 37. Craeow TURKEY B»r!at. !§: iilaa traieTO oetar ' Tibant ipia So^ra ;*.,. |j. Oreava, ».Nieo|)aU :mr^^, 33.8hamla .. - 34. Buripa i'- 96. ConaialiUDOple Sb! Adriaaopla ». Caraila lf.&r"~" 3. Petolia 33. Baloniea 34.8catair alButrl 3.]ann JiitL. -. Adirad 4.GalBU 9. IbraUa (1. Biliairia 7. Bukareat 8. SlatiDa 9. Omtova GREECE. JutriDto -. lannina 11." 4. Aru 9. Lepanto .e! KBitpua Rivtr* andLaka r Donets, R. ] Dnieper, R. kpniMiar,R. 1 PrutH, B._ m Danube, R. n VMula, R. Niemen. R. p Dwina,R. , q Tchudikoe, L, r IhneD, L. a Ladoia±L. t Oneiia.L. u PuraTwi, U T Be(o, L. xTopj4 J imanarh li 1 Enaie.!* 2M B»|S^ESSS5!* DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pari QL north to louth, fornii k important a, feature, that it haa beon taken At the ifn im! lino of division ; and ii protractoci to the Black Boa by meant of continuoua portions of the groat riven Kama, Volpfa, and Don. Tho form of tliin continent ia singularly broken and varieil. While Alia, AfVica, and the two American aru each formed into a vant inland expanse, Europe is split into many distinct portions; peninsulas, largo islands, and kingdoms, with extended and winding coasts. This Kum arises chiefly out of its inland seas, which penetrate farther, and arc morn deeply ombayed, than those of any other part of the globe. Numerous gulfs, scarcely HRcondary ',a magnitude and importance, branch out tVom them. Tho Mouiterranean, which fbrms, as it were, a little ocean, separating Europe, Asia, and AfVica, is connected witli tlie Atlantic only by the celebrated Btraita of Gibraltar, twenty miles in breadth. Its great enclosed branches of the Adriatic and the Black Sea penetrate, and render maritime, some of the moat inland districU of the continent In the north, the Baltic, with its great gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, is neither inderd so extensive nor so accessible ; but it is of the highest commercial value, as afibrding a channel by which the rude nocosaoiies, tlie metals and woods of the north, may bo exchanged for Uio winea, the silks, and other luxuries of tho ■outh. The British isles, by their varied configuration, enclose bowccn thomsclvcs and the opposite continent sovoral important seas and channels. Wo may odd, that tiio mountains and tlie plains of Europe do not display those immense unbroken groups, or those level and almost endlosa expanses, which givo so vust and monotonous a clmractor to tho interior regions of Asia and Africa. In general they aro separated into smaller portions, and are happily and commodiously interchanged. They have kout Europo divided mto a number of aeparate nations, holding easy intercourse. Probably, this relative position has been one great cause of Uiat inteirectual activity, and those vigorous exertions in all liberal and ia> genious arts, which have raised this part of the globe to so high a pre-eminence. The immense inland plains of Russia and Poland, presenting an aspect wholly Asiatic, remained, even after the civilization and improvement or all western Europe, sunk in tlie deepest bar* barism, bom which they are but slowly and with difficulty emerging. ,, Sect, I,— Natural Featuret. The surface of Europe, as wo have observed, is vcrv diversifietl. Its mountains do not reach that stupendous neight, nor stretch in such unbroken chains, as those of Asia and America: nevertlieleas, wo may trace pretty distinctly two highlands, tlio northern and Bouthem, and an intermediate lowland. The southern highland comprises tho most elevated mountains of the continent, tho Alps and tiie I'yrcnees, connected together by the low chain of tlie Cevennes. Inferior branches from the Pyrenees extend through the Spanish penin- aula; while flrom the Alps branch forth tho Apeimines, which range through all Italy, and spread their lower slopes over the greater part of southern Germany. The extremity of the J\ilian Al^, and the mountains of Dalmatio, connect tho range with the great Turkish chains ot Heemua and Rhodope ; parallel to which, though with a large group intervening, stretches tho circuit of the Cfarpathian mountains. North of this, the great European lowland comprises the largest part of France, the south of England, the Netherlands, Northern Germany, all Poland, and the greater part of Russia. In the extreme north of Europe the mountainous character again prevails. The Dofrines reach through Scandinavia ; while the north of Ensland and nearly all Scotland is covered with mountains of secondary magnitude. Of all Uie European mountains the Alps are by much the highest, and perhaps may rank fourth to the Himalaya, the Andes, and Caucasus, among the mountain chains of the globe. Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa exceed 16,000 feet above the sea. The numerous other summits of tliis chain exemplify all the descending grades of elevation. The Apennines vary from 3000 to 6000 feet ; but JEtan, at their utmost extreini< ty, is nearly 11,000. The most elevated of the Pyrenees rises somewhat above that height The Spanish summits are in general of tho level of the Apennine, except the Guadarrama, which exceeds 8000 feet, and the Sierra Nevada, which equals the Pyrenees. The Thracian chains have not yet been subjected to survey ; but they doubtless exceed those of Greece, which ascend to 6000 or 7000 feet Tlie Dofrines, notwithstandmg their snowy and terrible aspect, are not of first-rate elevation. The great Norwegian chain docs not quite reach OCMK) feet ; Ben Nevis is only 4300 feet ; and none of the English mountains reach that altitude. The rivers of Europe are numerous, but none of them of the very first magnitude. The two largest flow through the great eastern plain, a semi-Asiatic region, and terminate in distant and interior seas, where they contribute little to commercial intercourse. The Volga, which alone can come into rivalrjr with the great rivers of Asia, passes the Asiatic limit, where it spreads into the great interior expanse of the Caspian. The Black Sea absorbs the other rivers from the ereat plain of Russia and Poland : it receives also the noble stream of the Danube, which belongs indeed to the central region of Europe ; but directing its lower course through barbarous and uncultivated regions, and terminating in this distant receptacle, it conduces only in a secondary degree to the distribution of wealth and plenty I'amt 01. ifp ind lino of )nii oF th« groat , AtVica, and the to many diitinet ng cooiits. Thia TO ninrn deeply irccly Bocondarj in, which fbimi, viili tlie Atlantic 1 great oncloaed nic, eome of the I great gulfs of 18 of tlio higheit Uie iiiotala and luxuries of the niHclvcs and the t tlio mountains thoBO level and to the interior portions, and are [nto a number of in has been one 1 liberal and in* Dmincnce. The siatic, remained, tlie deepest bar* lountains do not ose of Asia and 10 nortiiern and 10 moat elevated by the low chain Spanish penin- rough all Italy, The extremity with the great a large group f this, the great England, the lufKsia. In the I Dofrines reach is covered with ps are by much I^aucasus, among i,(H)0 feet above nding grades of utmost extremi* x)vc that height :he Guadarrama, The Thracian hose of Greece, lowy and terrible not quite reach tains reach that first magnitude, a, and termmate bercourse. The ksses the Asiatic >Iack Sea absorbs Jie noble stream ut directing its in this distant ealth and plenty Book 1. viiH/i EUROm «« iRiri 9U1 through the continent. Western Europe is too much broken into separate portions, and oroHs«ire, the Rhone, and the Garonne, throujj^h France i the Po through Italy ; the Ebro, the Douro, the Tagus, and the Guadalouivir, through Seain. The northern rivers of Britain and Scandinavia, restricted to a still nar- rower field, seldom acoomplish so long a course as 300 milea. Yet, though Europe does not present the grand rivers which distinguish the greater continents, it is on the whole happily and commodiously watered. Almost every part of it enjoys the benefit of river communication ,' it is neither overspread by the dreary swamps ot America, nor the sandy deserts which render uninhabitable so great a part of Asia and AfVica. The lakes of Europe are numerous, chiefly enclosed within its mountain regions; but few of them are of sufHcient magnitude to rank as inland seas. Those alone entitled to this distinction are the I^adoga and the Onega, which, forming a sort of continuation of the Gulf )f Finland, and being situated in bleak and fVozen regions, minister very littJe to internal intercourse. Finland is covered with similar lakes. The Wener and Wetter of Sweden rank next in miignitudo, and, surrounded by immense woods and iron mines, possess consid- erable beauty and value. Switeerland, with its Italian border, is the chief lake-region of Europe: its waters, particularly those of Geneva and Lucerne, enclosed between the loftiest snowy pinnacles of the Alps, present scenes of grandeur and beauty almost unrivalled ; but thoy are not on such a scale or so situated as to affbrd any important inland navigation. Those of England and Ireland are merely small picturesque features. Those of Scotland are larger and more numerous ; and a chain of them, having been connected by a broad canal, was expected to form a great naval route across the island. The European soil is distinguished for pnxluctions, perhaps surpassing in value those of any other quarter of the globe. It does not, indeed, possess that brilliant luxuriar < of vegetation which adorns the equatorial regions of Asia and America. But com and wine, the most substantial and most agreeable articles of human diet, are nowhere produced on so purest a scale or in such high perfection. Grain, of one description or another, is raised over Its whole surface, excepting in the extreme north ; wines throughout nil its southern king- donts. In hemp, flax, and wool, those staple materials of clothing, Europe is equally pre- eminent Silk, another valuable commodity, it produces copiously, though not so as to be independent of supplies firom India and China. Cotton is the only great material which the immense manufactures of Europe derive almost entirely from foreign regions. If we except the horse and the camel, for which Asia is renowned, Europe contains the most valuable as well as the most numerous breeds of domestic animals. Its northern forests produce the finest timber in the world, with the exception of the teak ; and its iron, the most useful of metals, surpasses that of the rest of the world: but all the more precious substances, gold, silver, pearls, jewels, exist in an extent so limited as scarroly to be deserving of mention. The cultivation of the soil is carried on with much greater diligence than in any countries except in the south-east of Asia, while in science, skill, and the extent of capital employed upon it European agriculture is quite unrivalled. In manufacturing industry, this quarter of the world has, within these few '.entiiries, far surpassed all the others of the globe. Asia, indeed, has long boasted some fabrics of extrar ordinary beauty,— silks, muslins, carpets, and porcelain, — which are not yet altogether equal- led : but the looms and workshops of Europe now yield a variety of fine and beautifiil fabrics, in such profiision, and at so cheap a rate, as to place them within the reach of almost every class of society. This continent thuli clothes all the young nations which have issueid finm her own bosom, and which fill nearly two entire quarters of the habitable earth. Commerce, on so great a scale as to connect together the distant quarters of the world, can hardly be said to exist out of Europe. European vessels are found in the utmost bounds of Asia and America, in the snowy regu>na of either pole, and crowding the ports of the Austral continent There is not now a place on earth, however remote, affi>rding any scope for the employment of commercial capital, which is not immediately filled with the same promptitude as if it had been situated in the heart of Europe. The ships of that continent exceed thoco of all the others in number and dimensions: they are also the most skilfully constructed, and navigated by the only seamen who are qualified to guide a vessel across the great oceans. All these observations are liable to one exception : uie new American states are beginning to form a commercial and maritime qrstem, modelled on that of Europe— • system which may one day surpass the origmal. Snrr. 11. — Inhabitant$. The population of Europe, though more closely calculated than that of any other quartet of the globe, is yet far from being ascertained on data that are very precise. In regard to eome districts, and in particular to the whole of the Turkish empire, no census has ever been instituted ; in others, the computation is founded only on the number of houses : and is some, ten, twenty, and thirty years have elaps ed since any was attempted.* « nee ihe Table si ihe ciow of thii book. DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pakt in. The people of Europe are divided chiefly into three great races, which differ, to a very marked de^e, in langttage, political situation, and habits of life. These are the Sclavonic, the Teutonic, and a third which Hassel calls the Romish, as occupying the chief of those countries which once composed the Western Empire. The Sclavonic races cover the greater extent of Europe, since they occupy the whole of the eastern plain bordering on Asia. The people have a resemblance to those of that continent; and were omsidered almost as beyond the social and political pale of Europe, till within the last half century. They have now forcibly thrust themselves into the European Bvstem, and rank among its most influential members. The Sclavonic people consist of about twenty-five milUons of Russians, ten millions of Poles, Lithuanians, aM Letts, and about ten millions of other races, known under the names of Windes, Tcheches, Slawakes, Croats, Morlachians, which have found their way into eastern Germany, Hungary, and Illy- ria. Without wishing to consider intellectual and moral qualities as necessarily belonging to any particular race exclusively, we may notice it as a met, that the Sclavonians are, in both ren)ects, less improved than otJier Europeans. They have only some infant forms of art and literature, which have sprung up ih>m the imitation of those of the eastern nations. They are generally subjected to abmlute monarchy, and the greater part of them are cmly beginninff to emerge from the degrading condition of personal slavery. All the habitu of life whi(£ connect them with polished society have been recently and studiously imported from the west, and are still intermingled with deep remnants of barbarism. The majority profess that superstitious form of Christianity acknowledged by the Greek church. Yet they are a brave, enterprising, and persevering race, and have established themselves as a rulmg and conquering people, m reference to all the contiguous nations of Europe and Aiiia. The Teutonic race occupies generally the centre and north of Europe ; besides Germany, their origmal seat, they have nlled the greater part of Scandinavia, the Netherlands, and Great witain, and may be reckoned at upwards of fifty millions. Under the limitations above stated, we may describe the Teutonic people generally as brave, hardy, intelligent, and industrious, though somewhat blunt and unpoliuied. All the sciences, and even the arts, both usefiil and ornamental, have been carried among them to the highest perfection ; yet they are accused of wanting some of the graces and agrimens which embellish the courts and fashionable circles of the south, by whom they are treated as semi-barbarians. A great majority of the Teutonic nations are Protestants ; and that profession is in a great measure confined to them, and to the nations in the other ports of the world who have sprung from them. The race called Romish, which comprehends the modem inhabitants of France, Italy, and Spain, has only a very imperfect claim to that title. The Teutonic nations, in conquering these countries, poured into them a vast mass of their own population : but Roman manner and the Roman language had taken such deep root in countries which once constituted the main body of the western empire, that the latter forms still the chief basis of the dialects spoken in this part of Europe. The Romish were the most early civilized of the modem nations. They have carried the polish of manners and the cultivation of the elegant arts to a higher pitch than any other known nation. In solid energy and intelligence, they scarcely equal the Teutonic nations. The Roman Catholic is the raling religion mD all these countries, and has among them her metropolitan seat Certain interesting and antique races inhabit the rude and mountainous extremities of Europe. The Celts were the most numerous people, and at a period of high antiquity, the possessors of all western Europe. Subdued and qisarmed by the Romans, they rapidly declined when the falling empire could no longer protect them, and became the helpless victims of tliat mighty torrent of barbarous invasion which poured in firom Uw remotest extremities of Europe and Asia. At this dreadful period they sought or found a refuge, partly in Ire- land and the Highlands of Scotland, where they exist under the name of Gael ; parUy in Wales and Britany, Where they are called Cymri ; and partly in the north of Spain, where they are termed Basques. Having retained their condition unaltered during so many ages, they cherish a fimd attachment to antiquity, and trace their pedigree higher than any of the Romish or Tentonic nobles. They have a traditional poetry celebrating the exploits of their ancestors, to which they are fondly attached ; but in general they have, in the rapid pro- gress made by the more modem races, been left somewhat behind ; though individual emi- grants have raised themselves to eminence in every department Ha«el calculates the Gael at 8,720,000, which, fVom the last census of Ireland, must be much too low ; the Cymri at 1,610,000 ; the Basques at 630,000. The Oreekt, once the most illustrious of all the races, no longer plant their colonies along the shores of the Mediterranean, but still occupy their old seats, and are spread through different parts of the Turkish empire. De- IfacDeou uj »nru mivukmuiu jcaio \ji Biavcijr, uaov iiau \>cictsou hu uiDuiav uiUDC ti^u aiUlDui<«c> which excited the admiration of manlund ; but the prospects of independence which they have now opened for themselves, a£S>rd some hope that theymay regain theur place in the scale of nations. Their number may be about 2,100,000. The Jews, that singularly inte- rating people, are spread through all Europe, but especially the eastern countries, Poland. Part in. Ter, to a very io Sclavonic, Jiief of those the whole of hone of that f Europe, till the European le consiat of d Letta, and 8, Slawakea, uy, and Illy- Hy belonging >nian8 are, in bnt forma of Item nationa. lem are only he habitu of laly imported The majority oh. Yet they « as a ruling 1 Abia. ea Germany, lerlanda, and e limitations ', intelligent, md even the t perfection; smbelliah the irbariana. A a in a great t have sprung ce, Italy, and n conquering nan manner natituted tiie ' the dialects ' the modem elegant arta licence, they 1 Ji all those ctremitiea of ntiquity, the idly declined >s victims of . extremities lartly in Ire- il; partly in Ipain, where many ages, 1 any of the loita of their e rapid pro* ividual emi- Iculates the o low; the trious of all an, but still npire. De< II attliuutoa which they place in the ularly inte- ies, Poland. Book ^""^^"' EURbWS. ■■!■>'!'! Wti Russia, and Turkey. They are suppoeed rather to exceed 2,000,000. The Qiptiet, in an humbler sphere, are strangely scattered over all Euro]>e to tho supposed number of 840,000; a wild, roaming, deminsavage race, of unknown origin, but probably Asiatic rather than E^ptian. Several Asiatic natiop" have penetrated by conquest or migration into the east of Europe. These are chiefly Tartars, whom Hassel estimates at 3,260,0(K) heads. The most pitmiinent branch is that of the Turks, the mling people in the Ottoman empire, though they form in a few districts only a majority of the population. It aeema doubtful, however, if all the Tutara who wander over the aouthem steppea of Russia can be considered as Asiatic in their origin. The Magyars, who, to the number of 8,000,000, prevail in Hungary and Tranayl- vania, appear to to also Asiatic, or at least to have sprang from tliat most eastern border cf EuropeaJi Russia, which can scarcely be distinguiriied ftom Asia. The religion of Europe is almost entirely monotheistic. A mere handflil of pagans, the Samoiedes, are found in its north-eastern extremity, on the shores of the Icy Sea. Europe is almost entirely Christian ; and the small population of Mahomedans who have found Uieir way into it consist of Asiatic races, Turks and Tartars. The Jews, however generally dif- fused, have nowhere a national church, nor are they in any nation fliUy identified with the body of the people. The Christians of Europe are divided into three great churches, the Greek, the Latin or Roman Catholic, and the Protestant The Greek or Eastem church, which Mraa that of the Conatantinopolitan empire, was severed from the Latia by the great schism in the ninth centurv, cauaed by aome abstruse Suestions respecting the nature and person of Christ. It is still professed by the modem freeks, is the established religion of Russia, and has votaries in Hungary and all its append- ant territories. Hassel reckons its rumiters at 32,000,000; Malte^run at 50,000,000— a strange discrepancy. We should thmK the former much nearer the trath, though perhaps somewhat under it. This religion having been long prevalent among unenlightened and degraded nations, has become encumbered with empty pomp and childish ceremoniea ; and manv of its clergy are ill-informed and of irregular lives. The Roman Catholic religion, which reigned so long with supreme sway over Europe, embraces still a numerical majority of its people. In Italy, Spain, France, ana the dominions 3f the house of Austria, it is dominant and almost exclusive. It still holdu attached to it a large portion of the smaller states of Germany, and of the Cantons'of Switzerland. The greater part of Ireland and of Russian Poland continue attached to it, without regard to the opposite systems supported by the state. That intolerance which gave birth to so many struggles m attempting to extirpate the Protestant faith, has been greatly mitigated, and, except in Italy and Spain, all professions enjoy an almost complete toleration. l%e number of Roman Catholics seems to be fairly estimated at between 90,000,000 and 100,000,000. The absolute authority of the Pope in matters of faith and worship, auricular confbfision, tiie prohibition of the Scriptures in the vulgar tongue, and a splendid ritual calculated to dazzle the eyes of the multitude, form the peculiar characters of the Roman Catholic system. The monstrous pretensions once advanced to excommunicate and depose kings, and to grant indul- gences to commit crime, seem now to be generally withdrawn. The Protestant or Reformed religion raised its standard early in the fifteenth century, and made most rapid progress, especial^ in the north of Europe. It sought to purge Christianity from the superstitious observances which had enveloped it during many ages of darkness; to introduce a more spiritual and simple form of worship ; to break up the institutions devoted to celibacy ; to deny human authority in matters of doctrine, and rest it solely on the found- ation of Scripture. It had to maintain a dreadful struggle a^inst the Romish see, which amied in its cause all the great monarchs of Europe ; and m France and Bohemia, after taking deep root, it was nearly extirpated. It has been finally established, however, in Great Britam, in the Netherlands, the north of Germany, and the Scandinavian peninsula. Not- withstanding its numerical inferiority, it now ranks among its votaries the most powerful, ^e most opulent, and the most intelligent nations of Europe and the globe. Its rejection of human authority, and direct appeal to the Scriptures, have caused it to be split into numerous sects and divisions. The most prominent is into Lutherans and Calvinists ; the Lutherans retaining still many of the Romish rites and doctrines, to which, in every pomt, the Calvinists place themselves in the most decided opposition. The English church may be considered a sort of medium between the two, inclming nearer to the Lutheran. In the Protestant countries, numerous smaller sects have asserted the right of private judgment, on which the Reforaiation was founded. Among these are the Anabaptists, chiefly in Germany, the Neth- erlands, and England, whom Hassel perhaps underrates at 240,000 ; Methodists and Quakers in Britain, estimated at 190,000 ; the Moravian brethren in Germany, 40,000. The Unita- rians have an established church in, Transylvania, comprising 40,000 souls, and are diniiaed, openly or secretly, through the other European countries, especially Britain. In learning, art, science, all the pursuits which develope the intellectual nature of man, which refine and enlarge his ideas, Europe has fiir surpassed every other continent The onmires of Southern and Eastern Asia alone have an ancient traditional literature, of which 25* IM DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part HI. the remains are yet preserved. But, besides beini; now in a reiy decayed state, it never included any authentic history, sound philosophy, or accurate knowled^ of nature. An extravagant thouffh sometimes poetical mythdioffy, proverbial maxims of wisdom, and a poetry replete wiui bold and hyperbolical images, compose almost its entire circle. The science of Europe has been employed with equal success in exploring the most distant regions of the universe, and in improvinff the condition of man in society. Astronomy, which else* where is a mere mass of superstition and wild conjecture, has here not only delineated witfi perfect precision the situation ud movements of the heavenly bodies, but has disclosed numberless systems of worlds, of which without her aid the existence could never have been suspected. Chemistry, which was formerly a mere collection of empirical receipts and chimeras, is become a mighty science, which analyses the most secret operations of nature, and discovers important, and before unknown, substances. A similarly sound and compre< hensive character marks her attainments in physical science, and in every branch of natural history. In regard to poetic fimcy, although some natural flights may be found among the rudest tribes, and though the Orientals possess a peculiar vein of learned and studied orna- ment, it is in Europe, during either ancient or modem times, that the polished and classic models of poetical composition have been exclusively produced. The invention of printing, and the consequent general difiusion of information among all classes, are features especially European. By theur means, in its enlightened countries, the essential branches of knowledge are now placed within the reach or the humblest classes, and even the highest branches are not absolutely beyond their attainpient. The endowments for the support of learning are very extensive, founded in a great measure during the middle ages, and bearing some stamp of the then infant state of literature ; but they are now adapting themselves to modem improvements. The extensive and extending institutions for the instruction of the lower orders have produced a general difiusion of mtelligence, to which in the other parts of the world, if we except America, there is nothing analogoua The political state of Europe is also peculiarly fortunate. Elsewhere, with rare exceptions, a turbulent anarchy prevails, or vast empires are subjected to the absolute sway of a single despot. It is in this continent only that the secret has been found of establishing a regular and constitutional liberty, in which the extremes of tyranny and licentiousness are equally avoided. Even the absolute monarchies are generally administered with mildness, according to legal forms, and afford to the bulk of the people a tolerable security of person and pro- perty. The European states have also established among themselves a buance of power, which sets bounds to the encroachments of any particular stale, and has repeatedly rescued the whole continent from the imminent danger of universal subjugation. The military and naval power has been raised to a height, to which none of the other continents can offer any efibctual resistance. A great proportion of them has now been conquered, occupied, or colonised by Europe; and if the whole is not reduced under this condition, it is only through distance and extensive deserts that many great countries still preserve their independence. The geology of Europe will be more advantageously treated of under its respective countries. Sect. III. — Botany. The botany of Europe presents come general characters, which it may be important to notice. In the preliminary observations, we have given a very general and rapid sketch of the vegetable geography of the globe, taken in its more enlarged sense. We must now survey it in its subordmate divisions; and the plan which we have prescribed to our- selves, is, in the first instance, under the great principal divisions of the earth, to mention the more striking vegetable features ; and then, under each respective country, to give a more particular statement of the plants belonging to it which deserve notice, either from their e?: -erne abundance, their rarity, their peculiar properties and qualities, or some circum- stance of general interest The nature of the present publication only allowing us to consider, in a very general way, the vegetable productions as connected with their geographical distribution, we can- not devote much space to what concerns the primary di visions. The artificial boundaries of Europe, especially o the east and to the south, are of that nature that many of what might otherwise be ranked among its more striking botanical features are gradually blended into those of Asia on the one hand, and of the north of Africa on the other. Local circum stances, as we have already seen, affect the presence or absence of certain plants, to an extent more than eoual to that of any artificial geographical arrangement. Temperature, which has so powerful an effect upon mera, varies in a regular progression upon a loily mountain ; but it is not so in all situations, and with the same regularity, especially on the great conti- nents, upon the plains and low grounds. " Sometimes," says the eloquent Mirbel, " a chain of mountains forms a barrier against the freezing winds of the north,* and receives and * In one «pot, in the extreme touth of Sweden, thcing the sen, and backed by lofty bills, oHvu have succeeded r the open air, and ripened their fVuit ; while, at the distance of six Swedish miles northward, the inhabltanti tlothe thamselvss witb Airs in tlie winter, to protect themselves from the severity of the cold. Part HI. ed state, it never > of nature. An ' wisdom, and a tire circle. The 9t distant regfions omy, which else- ' delineated witli ut has disclosed ould never have ical receipts and itions of nature, und and comprc- Jranch of natural Tound among the nd studied oma- shed and classic lation among all id countries, the umblest classes, i'he endowments iring the middle te now adapting itutions for the Ifence, to which OgODB. rare exceptions, iway of a smgle ishing a regular esB are equally Iness, according person and pro- lance of power, eatedly rescued he military and its can offer any id, occupied, or is only through independence. ' its respective be important to rapid sketch of We must now icribed to our- rth, to mention intry, to give a :e, either from r some circum- i very general iition, we can- iial boundaries many of what dually blended Local circum B, to an extent irature, which fly mountain ; le great conti- rbel, "a chain receives and t have nioceedeif I the inhibluntf Book IH. EUROPE. 295 refVacts upon the p'i:;,r- ^o heat which it derives from the solar raysj sometimes a parching sirocco from the soutiv ai.e8 the temperature ; in some places, the wmters are tempered by the {>roximity to the tiea^ whilst at other times all these causes combined, produce a climate BO mild, tliat, to judge of its geographical position only by the indication of Uie thermometer, we 'should suppose its latitude to be much nearer the tropics than it actually is. Again, continued plains of vast extent, exactly on a level with the sea, are of rare occurrence; and if there be but an elevation of 1000 or 1100 feet, it suffices to produce a considerable reduc- tion of temperature. This, in its turn, obtains an influence over the vegetable creation ; it changes the line of the progress of plants in their migration ; it arrests them, and limits their boundaries. Sometimes the northern species proceed southward towards the tropics ; some- times those of the south migrate northwards ; and sometimes groups belonging to both of these tribes exchange countries, passing one an- other ; each about to establish colonies in privi- leged stations, in the midst of a vegetable popu- lation to which they are no less strangers by their physiognomy than by their temperament. We shall here confine, as much as pos- sible, our observations to a table, by M. Mir- bel, of the phaenogamous (or flowering) plants of Europe ; to which have been added, for reasons already alluded to, part of those of Asia and of Northern Africa. He divides the northern hemisphere into imaginary belts or zones ; the equatorial, the transition tem- perate, the temperate, the transition frozen, and the frozen zones. The temperate transi' tion, where European vegetation commences, is limited, to the north, by the disappearance of the Olive ; the temperate zone by the ces- sation of the Oak; and theyrozen transition by that of the Fir (Pinus sylvestria) in the west, and of the Spruce (P. Abies) in the east. The frozen zone is divided into two bands ; the lower or southern, and the ujtper or northern. Both are entirely destitute of trees ; but in the frst band are many shrubs and suflruticose plants i* whilst in the second scarcely any thing is found but small herba- ceous plants ; and these cease where the line of perpetual snow commences.f Here, too, another important fact must be considered, — that, in the frozen or arctic regions, almost exactly the same flora is exhibited in Europe, Boraaua. Date Tree. Dwarf Pa!m Asia, and America. In the extent of country to which the following table is more peculiarly applicable, the Owarf Palm {Chamarops humilis), and the Date Tree {Phanix dactylifera), (fig. 86.), are die plants that hove the nearest approximation to a tropical vegetation, and which are, of course, the most southern. The plant which is found the nearest to the pole, and which, tiiere is every reason to believe, ascends to it, is the Palmella nivalis (Hooker), Red Snow (Jiff. 87.) of arctic navigators, belonging to the Cryptogamic fiimily, and which wfll be more especially noticed hereafter. In speaking of vegetation, however, generally, and except the contrary is otherwise expressed, the Cryptogamic plants are not taken into account ; partly because we are at present but imperfectly acquainted with their extent or limits, and partly because they are not Red Snow. of such general interest. * The ehrubby or ■uflVutieoie planta of the southern hand of the flrozen zone, are fifteen willowa : the Dwarf Birch {Betula nana), the Humble Birch (B. pumita), the White Birch {B. alia)— this last is only found on the louthern coasts of Greenland; the Hoary Birch {B.ineana), the Juniper (Juni>iiiala Tllriim rrata rmaa M '•..41 ■- > *l-i ^ ^ TnialtlaalMH. laM. lolfc Jl 1 . >i J . sH 1 . jfi jfi HwMriKilmlfuiUta. 1 I*' Ijil 1 ** 1 '1 ii !! . ■.,•..■; . .. >' h .,:VM"..fnMM, IM •.on ri •.000 M •.in M •.Ml M 1 I M o.oo« 41 •.•11 IT •lOll II •■Ml M M O.10« M !S u •.•N 1 Mm s M 11 0.001 O.CM 11 • •.001 • < •.ON •.Ml t •.Ml •1 10 uKHkUuiem, '...."::'....:..".";,' in O.OtI n •••s _N •.•!• 1 •.ON Mr «USMPMi nUVMMMi •••■M**aei •••••••••••« M OIN 11 0.001 41 >'n IfMnAt**** •■■ ••*■•••••••••••••••••■•••• *i 0.0M n •.•M " n •.ooi _ . _ _ Tl OicUftOraUiltM, Ml 0.011 M 0.01* n •.OM • •■•11 in AMdWM^ IVWMMk**a**a ■••(■•■••*•«*•■■ ((•• i U 0.001 1 •.001 1 •.on - - 14 1 — ■ H _ _ m . » ^ . . . . a 1 t — » . . m m . _ _ ^ M •• _ _ % nMt,0Mlh|M, M....» M O.IOt 11 •.ON 1 O.OM 1 •■ON n IM O.OII M 0.011 M 0.011 M •.•M m Wmt, Phiiinii, a O.OOI 1 o.m • KaHlK, VitiMM, M O.Oti • e.0N 1 O.ON _ « a , II in 0.011 M 0.0M n 0.0M _ . _ _ >lti K^Sn.?-^ :::::::::::::::::::;} M i O.O0* 0.001 i M •.ON 1 I o.ni •.Ml " * ■ " i M O.O0I • i.on 4 •.Ml - - • a M 1 1 BMtoWil. rulyifnim, .'..;; m o.oot 4* 0.011 M •.010 • •■HI M 104 X-Jii IM o.ni 4T O.OM IM IT 0.001 • O.OOI 1 o.m 11 s O.OOT 0.00O M 11 O.OM O.OM 11 IT O.0M O.OM % 1 O.NT •.on ?^ MunKRytutlMM > - > m - " " 1 GloMitIa, Olotalinw, 10 0.001 • O.OOI . K _ m . M u O.OOT M 0.WI4 n oil 11 •.OM m 10 0.001 a 0.001 1 O'OM 0.041 004 1 O.0M 14 Illfbtik«ta,lotaMM,... no 70 0(M 0.010 uo M O.OOT O.OM M M n O.0M Ml M OmUu, OhUumm, IM n O.OOI 10 0.000 11 0.001 O.0N M M O.OtI in 040 T4 0.000 o.on 4a euimiM, laiirniaM, ra o.ooa 40 o.ou 11 0.014 0.0M M ranlaa**, PurUlaiMW 11 0.001 a •.mi 1 •.ON . . 11 II 0.0*1 14 •.ON f O.MI . . . . n Hiwbata, OiwahM, " 10 0.001 M o.on u •OOT O.SM •1 0«mBt% eiiiiiin. , „ * •1 OJOI 1 0.001 f •.OH ; - 11 1 rrlekir Pon, OpaHlKna, aonri% OaoalMtMtM, s 0.001 1 ■ • I _ m m m . m • 10 O.OOI • o.m 11 WlUoW'htrba, OHf farlM,. M 0.ON n 0.1M " » O.ON 0.014 n Hjm^Hjrtmlmt. Lithium, WlnrlM, • B - - *a 1 10 •.001 " 11 O.IN T o.oo* _ _ _ •1 100 O.OM in 0.0M in O.OM e.osi Ml on O.IIO aa ono uo o.on O.0M iin ■•DiKlH, TutMnthaent, 11 O.OOI 1 m — _ . 10 Borkthoraa. Khamnaae. u O.OOI 11 O.0N 1 . _ _ . - M Oaitaria, Corlaraaa. 1 - » . _ _ , . _ 1 Kaa, Kutae«a«t 01 O.0O4 a •.m 1 •.m ^ , - a. N WmiUamkOialMcai,...., * 1 * _ 1 m m _ aa • I « . 1 * B 1 _ . _ . _ _ 1 Oanelana., Oaraalacaaa, 10 0.000 M •.ON 11 •.WT _ . _ . M Vlaaa, Ampalldaaa 1 1 - .. • . 1 Aartaneb, MallanM, 1 * _ m — B - a . _ . m m 1 1 > .■ _ . m _ . « . _ ^ . B 1 Ua|ila,Ah.:'. '. t •.Ml 1 • m 1 •.Ml _ . ■ N 11 Bl. Joha'a Wort, HrpaiMana, m •aOM u 0.M1 1 •.003 « ^ _ » u • . — „ ^ a a t UaJaii.Tlliacaaa,....' t ■• 4 O.MI 1 _ _ _ _ m . • Mallowi MaliaiiM, ..•■••mm.... ....m*. ■>•■ M 0000 11 i.oa 1 O.ON _ _ . n Plal,UM*a, 10 0.001 IT O.OM 4 •on O.MI M naka, Car;ovk;llcaa„ „ "! 0.040 IM •.M* IM •.OH •.OH in Vraakraia, riaaktataeaaap ( O.OOI 1 a u •■on T •.on 1 . . _ _ « _ a iS 4 o.m 4 0.0M I ▼labia, TlolMa, Saa olilla. OlalhMW, „ O.Oit M O.0N n o.on •aOM H 110 O.OII II •.OM ■ m IN Oapar.caiiiwldna. M 0.004 « o.m . _ » . m m .■ > H rmWT, riinaffaa, _ „.. •M 0.001 m • on IN O.OM cm Til s •.loe •.ON 11 u • ON •ON 11 • •*-s 1 O.0M 0.0M IT 1 0.001 1 •m 1 •.Ml T ■ukarir, lajtaAdfaa, 1 • •.001 1 I i •.Ml - - - - • m o.oa "'" •.Nl 111 0.M4 1 "b O.OM »m 1 -I 1 im 1 1 4M Mjn •TMa MllaiT Oiaiia la UUMaaad ftaa AaMttn. pabt in 1 !i il !i m ji M i.M •IT ktn M m m 1 ).m M k«* M II l.iM If I.OM MT « W >.ou ua ■ - u . . 1 ■ . % I.OM n I.Mt in » ■ m •I ■ - ■a !l " • 1 • N - 1 • 1* a M _ _ . M M m _ _ M IM . IB (11 n H M m ... —1 BooeIQ. /1!< EUROPE. 907 In the temperate tnnaition cone, out of 8108 species, 1262 have been aoeertained to be woody, and 6@96 herbaceous ; and of these latter 8861 are known to have perennial, and 2878 annual or biennial roots. In the temperate zone, ont of 8982 species, there are 867 woody, and 8625 herbaceous; of which 2610 are understood to have perennial, and 044 annual or biennial roots. In the frozen transition zone, out of 2129 species, ore 108 woody plants, and 1086 herba- ceous; of which 611 are supposed to have perennial, and 86^ annual or biennial roots. In the frozen zone, of the 488 species, ^ are woody, and 802 herbaceous ; of which 871 are estimated to have perennial roots, and only 16 annual or biennial roots. We have already stated that in the frozen or pplar region the vegetation is very similar throughout the north of Europe, Asia, and America ; vrhich mav in part arise from its litnited extent, and from the continents approaching comparativelv so near to each other. There must necessarily, too, be a greater equality of temperature than in the oUier zones ; the vegetation everywhere appearing nearly upon a level with the sea. In Greenland, Schouw estimates that there is hardly one-sixth of the plants that are not equally found in Lapland. Of the genera of Greenland only two are not found in Lapland {Streptomu and Ck^tia), and both occur in North America. We shall, by-and-by, notice how analogous is the vegetation discovered during Captain Parry's arctic voyages to that both of the European and American continents, in corresponding latitudes. Even in Kamtschatka, one half of the plants found by Wormskiold are European ; and of the genera only eight or ten are not European ; and they are North American. But, as we proceed from the Arctic Regions to the south, we find the vegetation gradually becoming more and more dissimilar Mtween America and Europe ; except, indeed, when the high mountains in the respective countries are examined, and then the resemblance again appears. Pursh, whose flora comprises, to a very limited extent, the plants of the arctic or sub-arctic regions, or of the lofW mountains of North America, but is principally confined to Canada, and to those districts of the United States whose latitude corresponds pretty nearly wiUi tlutof the more temperate parts of the European continent, has about one-seventh of his species oidy European ; and if the doubt* ful natives, those probably introduced fit>m the Old World, be taken into account, only one- tenth: out of 716 genera of North American plants, 480, or two-thirds, also occur in Europe, or in Northern Africa. Schouw estimates the most striking disparities between the vegetation of the western parts of the Old World, and the eastern parts of the New, to be as rollows : — 1. The Cruciform (fig. 88. a) and VMelltferotu familiea (b) : those of the Pinks (c) and Labiate flowers (d) are much the most numerous on the old continent The first, in North America, may be estimated at ^, in Europe at about ^ ; and the other &milies may be classed in the following proportions : — Norlh AbwIo. riuce. Deamuk. , ■ Umbelliferous ------ A ^ A ,-' Pink Family jV uj » <. . , *' Labiate flowers ----- jlr -^^ ^^ 2. Of the family with Compound flowers (Compositas), the groups of the Endives («') C/«iiVa. g8 (Cichoracea), and of the Aiti- "'"^ '^ f chokes and Thistles {CynarO' cephaUe), are more abundant in Europe; whilst, on the other hand. North America possesses such a number of spe- -^ cies of Michaelmas Daisy {As- ^ ter), and Golden Rod {Solida- f g go), that they constitute one- \ third of the compound flowers ' '^iss ^H^l^ °^ ^^ country, forming a striking feature in the vegeta- tion of the United States, and g carrying the preponderance in ^\^ ^^(^SSSMSUBESL'SSj^JI ll MSSBSH ^Ppb favour of North America. i:::j.^^^BPI^ ^SSB!^ USuJS^^w^&k s* l^^ ^>ly of Bellflow- ers(/)f Catnpanwace , Sect. IV. — Zoology, ;-;- The zoological features of Europe, although sufficiently important to render this continent a primary division of geographic natural history, are neither so extensive nor so varied aa those of more genial regions. We have already shown the propriety of including within this range the southern parts of Afi'ica bordering the Great Desert ; while the western provinces of Asia appear to partake both of the European and the Oriental zoology. It might be imagined that such a division, including countries suffering by the extremes of cold and heat, would present animals of the most diversified nature : but such is by no means the case, at least to any great extent The chief seat of this zoological province appears to be on the southern side of Central Europe, towards the Alps, or those countries lying between the latitudes of 40*^ and 50° N. ; as within these parallels the greatest proportionate number of species appear to be found. It may, however, be more natural to consider this zoological r^ion as presenting three minor divisions : 1. The arctic ; 2. The central ; and, 8. The southern. The arctic division will include Greenland, the islands of Spitsbergen and Iceland, and a considerable part of Norway, Sweden, and Northern Russia. The central division may be said to commence towards tiie northern limits of Scotland, and to reach the shores of North- em Italy ; or, more properly, to about the 45th degree of north latitude. The southern range includes the whole of the Mediterranean countries. Northern Afi'ica, and Asia ]^Tinor. The animals more particularly belonging to the arctic circle are few in species. Those dreary and inhospitable regions afford but Tittle sustenance to ruminating quadrupeds, or to insectivorous land birds; while the intense cold is as inimical to vegetation as to the pro- duction of insects. Yet these undisturbed solitudes are instinctively chosen by multitudes of marine animals, as secure retreats fh>m the interruption of man, for breeding and pro- viding for their young. The polar seas abound with innumerable water-fowl ; they congre- gate and build among the rocks, whose surface they almost cover by their numbers. Of the Herring, 0%. 89.) Pennant wa& among the first naturalists who believed that the countless myriads which annually visit the northern shores of Europe, migrated firom me Arctic Ocean. i ,i^SHSiS^i)3^l()('ki'OO0^l^^^ ^° account given bv this eloquent writer is so inte- t Willi I ~^3K^^ renting, that we shall repeat it nearly in his own words : — ** The great winter rendezvous of the herrmg Britbh Haninf. .t^ is within the arctic circle. There they continue for inany months, in order to recnsit themselves after the fatigue of spawning ; tne seas within ••*v ». BookL off the She Mon, which numbers of breadth and into distinct drive the wi minutes, th( colours, like The zool< America; writers who cius, many ates thirtv-t genera of T within the a tion to grow geoeraphy. The zoolo northern lat perceived; ' depend for t increased, a1 that space swarming with insect food in a degree far greater than in our warmer latitudes. Thus renovated, this mighty army begins to put itself in motion in the spring. They appear * or the 131 aeotyledonoui planti it may be observed, that all, except one, the Manilea quadrlfolia, are found m Gr«at Britain. ThnrkMdWoa^ Most of t and Shetlai Danica, en Among the 87, exclusi^ comparing i a considera terrestrial 1 endure exti dispersion i ceeding to mentation ( animals pec common in northern cc i _1» _4._ IIICUWUI BUI of Britain, birds the gi he open ai peacock an BookL 7H<>feH^«5>EUROFR«frXrld are greatly increased, at once m number and in species. Vegetables furnish nutrition to insects, ana seeds to birds: the former, again, become the prey of the latter; and thus the supplies of nature ore nicely and accurately balanced, with a just regard to the preservation of all her creatures. The dark pme forests of Norway, Sweden, and Lapland are the most northern boundaries of the Woodpeckers ; one of which (Apfemus tridactylus Sw.) is remarkable for having but tiuee toes to its feet {fig. 91.)« and is more peculiarlv a native of these high latitudes. The msectivorous and omnivorous tribes begin, also, to be common ; while the wading and natatorial birds diminish in numbers, Uiough not in species ; for as they congregate at certain seasons in the polar seas, so during winter they disperse themselves on the shores of Great Britain and the Continent. We have no very precise informa- tion OS to tlie extreme northern range of those birds whose chief metropo- lis is in Central Europe ; and we are still deficient in a Fauna Scotica. Most of the Arctic birds occur on the nortiiem shores of Scotland, the islands of Orkney and Shetland, and on the coasts of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. MIkller, in his Zoologia Danica, enumerates 57 species of Mammalia^ and 131 of birds, as natives of that kingdom. Among the former, 3 only are marine, and 14 are Cetacete: while the land birds amount to 97, exclusive of 26 belongii^ to the rapacious genera of Eagles, Falcons, and Owls. On comparing these numbers with those of the Greenland fkuna, we observe, on the one hand, a considerable diminution of marine Mammalia, and a very large addition to the list of terrestrial birds ; this latter circumstance is easily accounted for, — they are not formed to endure extreme cold; and being dependent upon insects and seeds for their support, their dispersion is naturally limited bv the facilities afforded by nature for supporting life. Pro- ceeding to those countries which lie towards the centre of Europe, there is a gradual aug mentation of animal life : we may even trace this change in the local distrilmtion of the animals peculiar to the British islands. Many species, in every department of zoology, are common in the southern and western counties of Englajsd, which ore totally unknown m the northern counties and in Scotland. Even among the domesticated races, a greater develope- iuentof BtTiicture under a more genial climate is apparent in the horse, the sheep, and the ox of Britain, when compared to those of the islands aai mountains of Scotland ; while among birds the gallinaceous genera, which, in the former climates, breed and live at all seasras in he open air, are reared and preserved with difliculty in countries fiurther north ; of these tho peacock and Guinea fowl mav be cited as examples Thiwiotd W<»4pwkar. 100 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pa«t mi. Book I. The Bouthem put of eontnl Europe b, then, the field beet calculated for studying tho peouliaritiea of Eurapewi loologr. Cofmneneiii^ with the existiuff quadrupeds, we may remark, that while two apeeiea akme appear to inhabit the cold reglone of Denmark, there are thirteen deecribed ae nativee of Fnuwe and the adjacent kinffdome, aeven of which havo been enumeratedl among Britiah quadrupeda. The great white Bear, which ia jperhaps more iTuly an arctic animal than any other, diaappeara on the aoathem ahores of the Polar Sea, and ia replaced in temperate Europe by the common Inown apeciee. Of thia ffonus there are, flcording to Cuvier, but two recent species belonghig to Euro|)e, the brown (fig. OS.) and the ,,yjj2 .^^^h.^^fc^ hltxk bear. Othera imagine, with aome show of reason, that ;^^ w^^^^l^g^^ ^^^ ^g^ ,„Q,^ . ^ ^g yuieties ftom the first are very remark- I able. The second is the black bear of Europe, diflbring firom that of America in many important points of structure : only one living example appears to have been seen and dissected ; and this, having died in confinement, «fibrded no clue to a Imowledge of its haunts or manners. ■ The Wolf and the Fox, under difibrent varieties or speclef, appear generally distributed over Europe : to these we must add the Ljta and ttie Wild Cat, as the onljr true rapacious or car- nivorous animals that have been appropriated to Uiia division of Biowa EiiMiMu B«M. ^jje e;lobe. The Ljrnx, once common m central Europe, is now only known in some parta of Spam, tho Apennines, and in the northern kingdoms. The wild cat is still said to be a native of Britain, and is spread over other kingdoms on the Con- tinent A recent author includes among the " extinct animals" of Britain tho hygena and tiger whose bones have been found in the caves-of Kirkdale, as forming part of the modem geographic distribution of animals. This hypothesis lies open to many and great objections. u such formidable and terrific carnivorous animals have existed in Europe since the last revolution of our globe, what others constituted their prey 1 Their food being flesh alone, what were the other races of quadrupeds destined by nature to furnish them with subeistence ! These questions must be first considered, before we can assent to an opinion so confidently advanced. Whatever might have been Uie character of European zoology before tho deluge, certain it is, that in its present state it exhibits Uiat harmony and consistency which peculi- arly marks a wise provision for all created things. As the number of European Mammalia is so disproportionably small, when compared with those of Asia, Afldca, and America, so are the species which are to keep their own class under subjection fbeble and few ; and this law is not only iq>parent among quadrupeds, but is equally observable in ever^ other division of animals. Now, as birds are much more numerous, we find that in addition to the natural enemies in their own chiss, there is a group of quadrupeds more particularly destructive to the feathered tribes. These are the Muttelte, or Weasels; few perhaps in species, but im- portant in their numbers, and in their powers of destruction. No less than eight species inhabit different parts of Europe. Like the monkeys of the tropics, many of uiem climb trees and suck eggs ; and by thus destroying birds in every stage of life, fixm the egg to the adult, are peculiany adapted to prevent an undue increase of numbers. On the granivorouB quadrupeds it may be observed, that although the woods of Europe are deficient in that variety of pulpy firuits so abundant in tropical countries, and upon which the muneraus monkeys, bills, and ouier animals of those regions principally live, yet there is a -mf«j>* i * gg 'M tv . !; peat diversity of nuts and grain. Hence we find a propor- tionate number of small quadrupeds, whose subsistence en- tirely depends upon tiiese bmmtiftil siipplies of nature: under this head may be enumerated the Hedgehog, Squirrel, and the various Mice, of which seven species belong to Eurroe. The Beaver (Jtr. 93.) is found in the vicinity of the Rhone, the Danube, the Rhine, and other of the larger ! i'-^^'^^ymii^ ';^Zz:iSiK^^ European rivers. If naturalists are correct in considenng this to be identical with the American beaver, it is one of j«fa,j^ '-—^-^.^^f " the very few instances of the same species of animal inhab- ' ' BMW. iting the temperate parts of the ola and new continents. The black bear of Europe was long confocnded with that of America ; and a simUar difier- ence may possibly exist between the beavers of the two continents. The diflffirent species of Mice, &e., now trranged under many genera, form an important part of European zoology; as will amear fnm ue following list, flimished by Mr. Griffith Iran Uie valuable Mammalogy* of M. D<««raarest: — Arvieola amphibiui • • ■ .Water Ru. ■nralis FitMlloaw. ftiWui Fulvoui ditto. - — SsHsntorstviiiw .oiruouif ditto. Oeoryehttt Nonraginui TIm iMiuniiif. tamatris Land ditto. Mui aylvatieua Field Monia. •->« easipaaitia Plaia ditto. Musmnaeuloa House Mouid ~— maaarina Rarveet ditto. — ^ ninutua Srb!! ditls. — acrariua Setnie ditto. aorieinne Blirew-lllce ditto. — — dielirunia PaKyeoioand Bat. — iriandicus ....Iceland ditto. 94 PABTfil. I BOOM 1. EUROPE. r atttdying tho ipeds, we moy )ejiinarki there of which have B perhaps more the Polar Sea, ronuB there are, r^. 92.) and the of reawn, that re very remark. , differing ftmn itructure: only and dissected ; no clue to a :ie8 or species, le we must add pacious or car- this division of Europe, is now ngdoms. Tie ma on the Con- tho hyena and of the modem "eat objections, since tho lost ng flesh alone, li subsistence ! so confidently )re tho deluge, which peculi- !an Mammalia onerica, so are ; and this law ler division of to the natural destructive to )eciee, but im- eiffht species >f uem climb be egdf to the of Europe are )on which the yet there is a And a propo^ ibsistence en- s of nature: hog, Squirrel, es belong to le vicinity of of the larger Q considenng r, it is one of ininuil inhab* V continent& similar difier- an important ' Mr. Cfriffitli itto. .,^..mtalns of Corsica and Sardinu ; and although now extirpated upon the continent, is well aseer* tained to have formerly been common in the mountains of Asturia in Spain. Lastly, it appears incontestable tbtat the ox, one of the most valuable of nature's ffifts to man, originally existed in a wild state over the whole of Europe, but whether as a mstinct speciet or mere variety is still uncertain. The white ox of Scotland is a peculiar breed, still preserved in some few parks of the nobility, and will be noticed hereafter. But a much larger race, dia- tinguished by Hamilton Smith under the name of the Fossil Urus {Chrfff', Cuv, iv. 414.), idthough, probablv, in existence long after the invasion of Ceesar, is now only known, like the elk of Ireland, by its gi^ntic bones. From this brief enumeration of the European quadrupeds it will be perceived that their numbers are too few, and their original dispersion too obscure, to allow or any correct notions being formed as to their natural distribution. With regard to the origin of our domestic animals, and the several races, breeds, or varieties that have appurontly sprung ftom them, the reader must be referred to the writings of F. Cuvier, and the extensive researches of Hamilton Smith, whose acquaintance with the order of ruminating animals, more partico* larly, is, perhaps, superior to that of any other living zoologist The ornithological features of the zoological province to which Europe belongs, have already claimed our attention. We shall, therefore, now merely notice a iew circumstances connected with the ornithology of central Europe On the highest summits of the Alps, and in the vajst forests which clothe their sides in Hungary, Switzerland, and the Tyrol, are found all the four spe- cies of European Vultures: only one of these, VuUur fulvut (Jig. 94.), appears to have a range in countries fajther north ; yet all are distributed over the southern kingdoms, and two are again met with on the northern limits of Africa and western Asia. 'Hie Iceland or gyr Falcon, long supposed to be peculiar to the high northern lati- tudes, is now considered the same with the Falco eandicatu of the northern parts of Germany. The wide geographic range of the rapacious order has already been advert^ to; nor do we find any- species besides the Vultures which serve to mark the ornithology of central Europe. The forests of Germany, Austria, Switzerland, uid France appear to contain all the European Woodpeckers, which, notwithstanding their wide dispersion, are but thinly and partially scattered in the northern and southern kingdoms. The range of the small insectivorous biros, or warblers, requires much investigation ; nor are we at Uiis moment aware of any species in Germany which does not occur in France or towards northern Italy. The few gallinaceous birds of Europe are nearly all found towards its centre, although the difibrent species of erouse seem to affect the more ntnthem lati- tudes. The warm covering of foathers whicn protects their feet, is peculiarly adapted as a defence from the intense cold of the polar regions; The Bustards, on the contrarv, occupy the middle regions of Europe, and extend latitudinally ftom the confines of Asia to the tdiores of the Atlantic. The Reenter {Merop$ ajAatter), the Roller, the Hoopoe, and the Golden Oriole, in their annual migrations finm Africa, visit all the central parts of the Continent, but become progressively scarce as we advance northward). In the third portitm of the European range, we comprehend the south of France, thei whole of Spain, Italy, and Turkey, together with the coasts and islands of the Mediterranean Sea bordering Ama Minor, and Northern Africa. On the geographic range of the quadrupeds more peculiar to thts^e countries, little can be said ; as the materials to be gathered ftom the relations of travellers unacquamted with zoology are generally mcwt imperfect Ther^ is no evidence of the great northern ruminating animals^ soch as tho Elk and the Reindeer, being found wild in any of the coontries which bnder the Mediterranean Sea, idthough a snuul species, probably die fallow deer or the roebuck^ Vol. I. 36 FdUous Vulture. DESCRIPnVB GEOGRAPHY. PmtITL b reprewntcd m ttill to be m«t with in the eztoiuive fbmitt of Calabria. The Porcupine, Qow wild in thoae countrici, is luppoaed, (but with a ili^ht show of reann,) to have been introduced flxiin Africa ; but fiur wnat purpom we are uninformed. The Buffldo ia domesti- eated in Greece and Turkey, and wme parts of southern Italy ; where it is sometimes, though rarely, used for draught The ornithology of the countries bordiring upon the Mediterranean presents many interesting peculiarities. The vultures, which are seldom found northward of the Alps, occur more Drequentl]|r as the climate becomes warmer. This tribe appears to follow Uio courso of the Apennines in Italy, and of the higher mountains of Spam and Greece, from whence they extend their range to Asia Minor and northern Aftica. The Imperial Eagle (Falco imperialU Tem.) is chiefly found in southern Europe, while the Golden Eagle ii much more numerous in the cokler latitudes. The gigantic Owls of the polar regions are hero unknown ; but two or three homed species, of diminutivo size, follow the migratory troops of smaller birds in their annual journeys across the Mediterranean. Two of thera ■mall owls have not yet been described. In the extensive fiimily of the warblers, many appear peculiar to Ituy, Spain, Sicily, and Sardinia ; and in the latter island thore has recently been discovered a second species of European Starling (5(umu« «ntco2or Tem.) (Jig. 96.) The grouse of northern Europe are rarely, if ever, seen. But two species of bustard (_Otia Tetrao and Houbara) seldom met with ikrther north, are common in Spain, Italy, and Turkey. Here also we first meet with the Afiriuan and Asiatic genera CfurtorUu and Hetnipodiut ; birds which delight in the dry and arid plains of these continentfl, where they run w;th amazinffswiftness. The rocky and un- cultivated wastes of Spain, Turkey, and Asia Minor, fumiih two species of rock grouse (Pterocle$) long confounded with ; . gioniui Unieoior. that northern genus, of which it is the representative in warm climates. The beautiful Wall-creeper, with its bright rosy wings, although rare in other Cof Europe, is not uncommon in Italy ; while the Golden Oriole, the Bee-eater, the .loe, and the Roller, four of the^ most beautiful European birds, are so abundant in the two Sicilies during the spring and autumnal migrations, that they may occasionally be seen hang- ing in the poulterers' shops of Naples and Palermo. The unicm of the African, European, and Asiatic ornithology on the coasts of the Mediterranean is further apparent among the water-birda. The Pelican, the Spoon-bill, and the Flamingo, are still to be met with in these countries; although, from their large size attracting the sportsmen, they are never seen is any considerable numbers. The European reptiles are too few to afford any material illustration of animal diatiibutioD. The most remarkable forms and the greatest numerical proportion occur in southern Europe, particularly in Italy and Greece, and the islands of Sicily and Maltti: some of these, as the Gecko, or house lizards of Naples and Sicily, belong to genera not met with iiurther north, but common on the opposite snores of Africa and Asia Minor. The fish and oUier marine animals of the Spanish and Portuguese coasts bordering on the Atlantic have not been well investigated, and our slight acquaintance with them is insuflicient to give us any correct idea of their nature; but on entering the Mediterranean, we find, at Gibraltar, many of those peculiar to much more southern latitudes. Spain and Portugal cannot be said, like England, France, or Holland, to have national fisheries ; but no sooner do we pass Gibraltar, than these natural sources of prosperity and plenty are again opened to the industry and support of man. The enormous shoals of Anchovies, (Jig. 96.) annually gg employ, in their capture and preparation, a great number of persons: and the exportation of this highly flavoured little fish, to all parts of the world, creates an important branch cf permanent commerce. The Herring and, we believe, the Pilchard, are not unknown in the fish-mar- AnehoTT. knis of Sicily and Malta; but, notwithstanding their abundance in northern Europe, they are scarce in the Mediterranean, and never seen in any considerable numbers. The tunny fishery is peculiar to Sicily, although there is very little doubt that the same fish firequents the shores and islands of the Peloponnesus ; yet the tota' disregard of the Turks to all sources of national wealth blinds them to this, and to every other advantage which Nature has placed within their grasp. The Ichthyology of southern Europe is certainly of a more marked and peculiar chuacter than any ouer department of European zoology. Of nearly 150 species observed in the Mediterranean Sea, not more iha.n one-third milonged to the Ichthyology of Great Britain and northern Europe. The Turtle of the Mediterranean is tmit described by authors under the name of Teitudo carella : writers have uniformly copied each other in asserting that this ia the same as the iioggeruead Turtle of the Wert Indies; and that its flesh is coarse, rank, oily, and uoi J .4>(*" VV^ ■> i^iitt •!# 'iV .HsV PajitIIL le Porcupine, to have been lo ii domesti- titnea, though esenta many of the AltM^ to follow ^0 Ghreece, fVom iperial Eagle [Icn Eagle ii I regions are he roigratoty Pwo of these rblere, many 3 has recently ingiSturnut u Europe are [Otia Tetrao J common in leot with the joditu ; birds e continents, >cky and un- [inor, fumidi bunded with live in warm are in other ee-eater, the uit in the two )e seen hang- n, European, t among the with in these lever seen in distribution. Iiern Europe, these, 08 the irthcr north, ering on the s insufficient we find, at nd Portugal at no sooner gain opened 6.) annually reat number ily flavoured tn important ing and, we lie fish-mar- nding their seen in any s very little ^et the tota' nd to every of southern lartment of la, not more 3. of TeBtudo ame as the ly, and ini ■'- J ,f«sV - Boot L "f EUROPE. 309 Losswbttd Taitls. edible. Th« aco iracy of both these itatementa may bo questioned. Whatever may be the qualities of the West Indian Loggerhead, we know, ftom personal experience, that the fleaa of the Mediterraneen species is delicious. We were once becalmed off the Isla of Elba, and in one morning captured a sufficient number ot small turtle to supply tho cabin table for a week. Thejr ' made exquisite soup ; and although one of the company wae ill, it arose fi:om repletion. We omitted to draw and describe the animal, firom a oolief that it was the HawkVbill TurUe^ the only species described as inhabitinff the Mediterranean; the figure given by Gottwold (fig. 07.j has been considered, by Dr. Shaw, as representing the TVstudo caretta. Of European insects, a bare enumeration of the genera would alone fill a volume; and in the half-artificial, half-natural, arrangement in which our entomological systems at this moment remain, it is impossible to form any precise idea even on the natural distribution of the fiunilies. As we approach the provinces of southern Italy and tlie Peloponnesus, we find many genera which more properly characterise Western Asia and Africa ; while, in OS Sicily and Malta, the seodephagous groups, particularly the Linniean Carabii, are diminished; apparently in species, but certainly in numbers. It is in these countries that the Ants, those universal scavengers of nature in tropical countries, begin to appear in almost every situation, and to perform those (^ces which in more temperate regions have been assigned to the Oeodephaga, Brachelytra, and Necrophaga among coleopter- ous insects. Most of the northern Butterflies (^Papilionea ow.) ci«op«tra'» Butierflr. are common even in Sicily, where, notwithstanding a dissimilar vegetation and a more heated atmosphere, we find only three or four species unknown to the British fauna : among these, the Gonepteryx Cleopatra {fig. 98.) or CleofMitra's Butter- fly, much resembles a British species, but haa the middle of the anterior wings of a rich orange. The Radiated animals of the Mediterranean are particularly numerous ; the many har- 99 bourn, coves, and sub-immersed rocks, sheltered from those violent commotions which agitate the mighty Atlantic, afford them secure protection, and contribute to their rapid increase. Their investiga- tion, hitherto much neglected, offers a wide field for the discovonea of naturalists who can study them in their native seas. Numerous ; species of Sea Anemone, or animal flowers, unfold themselves in the crevices of the rocks; one of Uiese {,fig. 99.), ornamented with rich purple, is particularly common on all the ahorea of Sicily. The tubular and cellular polypes, whose habitations are termed corals and corallines, are generally abund- IQQ ant in warm latitudes. Among these a vast number of species occurs on the ' shores of Sicily, Italy, and the Greek Animal Fiowen. laltinds, which do uot inhabit the British coasts. Sicily, for many ages, has been celebrated for its fisheries of the true red coral {fig. 100.); and it still affords employment at certain seasons to many fishermen : but the produce of the old grounds of late years has materially diminished, through wont of care and due preservation. The Bay of Naples likewise produces this beautifbl substance, but the pieces usually found are small, and in no great abundance. The Molluscous animals or shell-fish of southern Europe are in 101 great variety ; and are much prized by all classes, as general articles of food. to see from twelve to fifteen different sorts of shell-fish, none of a small size, exposed in the principal market at Naples; and we have been assured that double this number are not unfrequently served at the tables of the higher ecclesiastics and nobility of Tarentum during Lent, that city beui? highly celebrated for its shell-fish. The Solen strigilatm (fig. 101.) is abundant at Sokn striciittu. Naples, and considered most delicate food. On comparing the conchology of the Mediterranean with that of Britain, there does not annniyr act miich diflerence as tit first ini'^ht have been imo^ined - nor are we dwarn of more than three or four genera in those southern latitudes of which examples have not been found m the British seas. Yet, on descending to species, the difference is much greater. Perhapii Bed Coial. It is no uncommon thing DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. PabtUI. f j»>thirdi or thtm-Mhii ofthe Maditomnmn ■halla hav* bmn Iband in Um Chuuwl, and on 'ht "'n or othM ccmrta of BriUin. The remaininff portion indicatit a itroDjf affinity with ui« o(< Iff of India and t lo l{r>«l Son on one hano, and that of Africa, towarda Sena^ on tha « Tho fluviatllo speciei nrn nxMt numeroua in central Europe, whore the heti of ■ummci ^ icM calculated to dry up tlinm nnall poola and ahallow etreama, in which niott of thcBo univalve uiiiUuKa deliKlit to ij -II. Tna fluviatile bivalvea are few ; but a *« of apeoiea which Mem pocoliar to tiie European ninffe. Independently of thoee -cmmon ahlce to Britain and the Continent, there are othera in France and the iouth of Euro detervea to be particularly mentioned. ' h Rim Birtu* Biwii). phenomenon, ia entirely product >i bv votk a the Medi- terranean, cauaed aeveml buckets to be filled with this luminous water ; and tho following results attended his experiments : — These luminous animalcula adhered to whatever was wetted with the water, and continued to shine thereon ; the buckets, when shaken, appearing flill of luminous particles. The water, examined by a microscope, was filled with little todies, some roundisn, some oMonir, and generally about the size of a poppy-seed; each of those had, at one end, a small navel- like o{)ening, encircled by from six to nine delicate filaments which float within tho bladder, and with which the animal seems to attach itself to other bodies, and to seize its nourish- ment In the inside of these bladders there were many other small darker points, crowded together on one side, or here and there some larger ones, which might be either the remains ofsmaller animals which they had swii^jwed, or their own spawn. These globular animal- cula (which Spiz considers to be of \'\e nature of Medusie) have been named by Fitaa and Lechenault Arethu$a oelagiea, and by Savignv NoctUuca tnUiarit. They swim in greater or leas numbers at nignt, Imt in ue sunslime they appear to the naked eye like little drops of grease. When put into a vessel they soon die and fall to the bottom ; when they come near together, they appear involuntarily to attach each other, so that they ferm whole groups. The same phenomenon is sometimes observed in the day-time, when the sky is dark, which rarely happens : as these animals are seldom found in water taken up in the dav-time, it is probable they then sink to the depths of the ocean, and only return near the surmce towuds night (Spur, Trav.) „ Other luminous bodies resemble balls as large as a nut ; and every wave striking a ship, when filled wiUi these animals, lights up all surrounding object& Besides these, Uiere are sometimes insulated lummous blacUers, like fiery balls, a foot in diameter, which rise singly above the water ; and the striking (rf* two waves together produces a shallow bluish streak of light, resembling the reflection of lightning on Uie water. ( "f'ix, "^av. i. 44. 47.) The quadrupeds of Europe, accordini? to the most recent disUJt.'lc m'^Vm species {Orif. Cuv."), under toe modem oivisions, a prise about ninety specici, > i m -t ' under th<- lowing genera and sub-genero. To thes^ must be added th'^ K'l-- tv> Irii^'.as, or Cetaccte, chiefly mhabiting the high northern latitudes : — Blnl|ilm I. «riM|n TUim ■ Otiria . . MImiWk. •i%d , i«..(i «.f ^^^opean br'xds, in reference to our former remarks on the geographic dis* trif :iiIo:-< . 'oRv.ri\ts, deserves p.urticular attention. Those marked* are typical of fbmUies or su'^oiiii'i /; thijae f includ*; ub-genera, or subordinate variations of structure to which wo shr: U nut a'-: Ach a distinct p:- > .onymic name ; either because the higher gronps have not been sufficiently aaialysed, or because these subordinate forms have been mista&en Ibr genera. Decided atracnrlers are excluded ; other genera, of uncertain T*nk» are net tnarksd. T&9 typical genera'of ths wading birds hAve not yet been ascertained^ EUROPE. •(Wralw rnfUwCu. DMtatoimdK TMairaM Ml. • (Vifnnlx IW ftafm'in" Tim. Hg.'l l MIIMM ruu «^Si. MaamtM SKi. tCkMlitaC*!. Shot. V. — Langvagtt. '■'Xti d, conndcrad in regard to ita languagea, comprehend! the whole (jflobe, through thoea u.. r. colonies which have been fiMinded by the nation* of thia continent in every other .quarter nians. In a subsequent age, it was studied by all the most distinguished subjects of the Roman empire, and was the prevailing idiom in the East until the fall of Constantinople, at which period it was studied with renewed ardour in the West. In this language, 270 yean belbre Christ, was written the famous version of the Hebrew Scriptures called the SeptuD^ gint ; in this language also was the Gospel promulgated by the Apostles ; and it thus became for ever sacred. It appears not the least wonderful among tho dispensations of Providence, that the light of Christianity should have been originally diffused under the most powerful empire and in the most cultivated language of the ancient world, and that it should prevail notwithstanding the power of tho one, and the learning and philosophy for which the other was so proudly distinguished. The literature of the Greeks, comprehending some of the finest productions of the human mind, is, perhaps, the richest in the world, and presents an unparalleled series of eminent writers, extending from the age of Homer to the middle of the fifteenth century. The language is one of the most flexible, harmonious, and copious that have ever existed; its grammatical forms are almost identical with those of the Latin, to the formation of which it has greatly contributed, but in many essential points it ia superior, and especially in the unlimited faculty of making as many compounds as can bo required. M. Molte-Brun distinguishes in the ancient Greek two difilerent idioms : — 1. The primitive Hellenic, which he subdivides into three principal dialects — the Arcadian, the Thessalian, with the ancient Macedonian, and the (Enotrian, transported into Italy and min- gled with the Latin ; 2. The Hellenic of the historical times, divided into four principal dialects and several varieties. The Romaic, or the modem Greek, spoken by the Greeks of our own times, especially in the Morea, in Livadia, Thessaly, the isle of Candia, the Archipelago, part of Albania, Macedonia, Roumelia, Thrace, Asia Minor, Cyprus, and by the Greeks established in Wal- lachia, Moldavia, Syria, and Egypt. The Romaic is also spoken by the inhabitants of the Ionian Isles, by considerable numbers of Greeks in the Austrian and Russian empires, and some hundred of Mainotes in Corsica, near Ajaccio. It is divided into two principal dialects, the Romanic and the ^olo-Dorian, each including various sub-dialects. IV. The Italic branch, so called, as including the languages of the aborigines of Italy, which form the stem of^ the modern idioms comprised in tlus branch. Those aborigines were, the Euganei, the Ausones, the Lucani, the Bratti, the Piceni, the Marsi, the Latini, the Sabines, and the Samnites. From a mixture of the three last idioms, primarily witb the original Hellenic, afterwards with the old iEolian and ancient Doric, was formed, as M. Malte Bran inclines to think, the language spoken by the Romans, and called the Latin language. The languages included in that branch are, — The Latin, which was the written and current language of the higher classes in Italy and throughout the Roman empire. It was very different from the lingua plebeia or rustica, > the other provinces. Its grammatical forms are similar to the Greek, though less perfect Ijatin literature, formed on that of Greece, is very rich in all branches of knowledge, and, together with the Greek, is the source from which flows the literature of the modem nations jf Europe. Its most brilliant epoch was the Augustan age. In this language St. Jerome Part ill. brm the principal specially in Rou- 18 of Uio Austrian h This Scyp, oi' le-third of ancient cm not yet oscer- a: one sacred or modem Italian or , quasi Etrusci f) tion, according to es of Italy. The 9; it had sixteen ccn by the famous ) pcoplo of early isgi, the Lelcges, of Greece and its tit remarkable for B was — lependencies, and and its dependen- Mediterranean. \s of the descend- ct to the Macedo- id subjects of the Constantinople, at iguage, 270 years jailed the Septua^ nd it thus became ns of Providence, he most powerful t it should prevail r which the other ling some of the [, and presents an to the middle of lious, and copious lose of the Latin, ntial points it is )ounds as can bo idioms : — 1. The le Arcadian, the ito Italy and min- ito four principal times, especially , part of Albania, tablished in Wal> nhabitants of the iian empires, and irincipal dialects, torigines of Italy, rhose aborigines Mlarui, tlie ^tini, 6, primarily witb ras formed, as M. called the Latin classes in Italy flebeia or nutica, Snain ^niil nnn )ugh less perfect knowledge, and, e mod3m nations fuage St. Jerome Book I. . 'r^'f/jt..:*' EUROPE,''^ (.Si; .^fiK'i!^ no7 wrote the Vulgate, or Latin translation of the Bible which is used in the Roraiah church. The overthrow of the Roman empire in the fifth century save birth to a ccrnipt Latin, mingled with a great number of barbarous words, and named low Latin, which, until the. fourteenth, was, almost exclusively, the written language throughout the West. In the two succeeding centuries, Latin literature again flourisEed, esi>eciuly in Italy ; but it was only to contribute to the improvement of modem languages, which being diligently and success- fully cultivated, the Latin was restricted to works of emdition alone. Its phraseology haa had a marked influence on that of the most polite nations of Europe. It is now a dead lan- guage, except in Poland and Hungary, where some educated persons speak it in ordinary ife with considerable puritv, and with the continental pronunciation, of course almost unin- telligible to English travellers, who cannot or will not relinquish the Saxon diphthongal sounds of the vowelu A, I, and U, the chief causes of their embarrassment Latin is no 'ongcr empluved except in the Catholic liturgy, in medicine, in the diplomacy of the court of Rome, and partially in the literature of all the civilized nations of Europe. The alpha- oet, of twenty-throe letters, having been improved in its characters by the Italians and French, is used by all the people of Europe, except the Greeks, the Russians, and some other nations who have particular alphabets. This same Latin alphabet, with the Gothic forms it assumed under the pen of the writers of the middle ages, is used by the Germans and Danes, and by the Bohemians, and other Slavonic nations ; and, according to some authors, its capital letters, truncated and squared to facilitate the inscription of them in wood or stone, constitute the Runic alphabet, formerly used in the north of Europe. The Romana, or Romana Rustica, spoken m the brightest ages of Rome by the lower classes in the south of the empire, excepting Greece, and some other counties. After various modifications more or less considerable, it appears still to subsist among the vulgar dialects spoken throughout a great part of Spain, France, Switzerland, and some districts of Italy. The chief of those dialects, according to M. Champollion Figeac, are the following, classed with reference to those four regions : — In Spain, Sardinia, and the Balearic Isles, the Catalan, the Valencion, the Majorcon. In France, the Languedocian, the Provencal, the Dauphmois, the Lvonnais, the Auvergnat, the Limousin, and the Gascon. In Switzerlaiid, the Romanic, or Celto-Romanic, (frequently called Romance, Khurwelsh, and Rhtetish,) the Valaisan in the Valais. In the states of the king of Sardinia are spoken the Savoisian ; and the Vaudois in the vales of Lucerne, Pcrosa, and part of Piedmont To these might be added the jargon called lingua Franca, in which Catalan, Lunousin, Sicilian, and Arabic are the princi- nal ingredients. The Romance literature is also called that of the Troubadours. From the nixture of this langua^fre with the different Germanic, Slavonic, and other idioms, were formed, m the tenth century, the following languages : — The Italian, spoken by the Italians in almost oil Italy, in the isles geographically connected with that peninsula, and in various Alpine territories; also frequent in Dahnatia and the isle of Tino ; very common at Constantinople, and in several mercantile towns of the Ottoman empire. The written language, which is nowhere generally spoken, is common with all well-educated Italians, and differs considerably from the vulgar tongue, which is subdivided into a great number of dialects. The principal of these are, the Piedmontese and Genoese ; the Milanese, or Lombard proper ; the Low Lombard ; the Bolognese, the Bergamaso ; the Venetian, the Friulian, the Tyrolean, the vulgar Tuscan; the Roman; the Sabine and Abruzzan; the Calabrian and Apulian; the Taientine; the Neapolitan; the Sicilian, and the Sardinian. The French language, spoken by the French almost throughout the north of France; by the Walloons and Flemings in various Netherlandish provinces ; by the Swiss, in several of their cantons ; by the people of Jersey and Guernsey ; also in some parts of the Austrian and Russian empires, and of the Prussian monarchy ; by the French colonists in Asia, Ainca, and America. The following are the principal dialects : — the Picard, the Flemish, the Nor- man, the Walloon or Rounchi, the vulgar French, the Breton French, the Champenois, the Lorraine, the Burgundian, the Franche-Comte, the Nev^fchdlelain, the Orleannois, the Angevin, and the Manceau. To these might, perhaps, be added the jargon spoken by the negroes and Creoles in the French West Indies. The Spanish or Castilian langTiage, spoken by the Spaniards in the greater part of Spain, and, with some variation and admixture, by their descendants in Oceania, Africa, and America ; also by Uie numerous Spanish Jews established in the Ottoman empire, and in other states of Europe, and of North Africa; in the isle of Trinidad belonging to the crown of Great Britain ; in some parts of Florida and Louisiana ; and in the eastem part of Hispaniola oi' St Domingo. This language is also common to all the inhabitants of the towns of Spain whore tiie Basque and Romance languages are spoken. The written and polished language dififers little from tlie Italian ; it is very rich and harmonious, notwithstanding some guttural and aspirate sounds taken firom the Arabic, from which it has borrowed many words. It is singular to remark, that the Oerman is characterised by similar gutturals or aspirates. The reigns of the emperor Charles V. and of his son Philip II. were the golden age of Spanish 96 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part in. literature ; after which it fell into decay, but partially revived under the Bourbon kings Philip V. and Chanes III. Of the dialects, which differ little from each other, the following are the principal : — the dialect of Toledo ; that of Leon and the Asturias ; the Andaluaian ; the Murcian ; the Galician, or Qallego ; and the Transatlantic, spoken in America ; where, next to the English, the Spanish language is spoken by the greatest number of inhabitants. The Portuguese languaffe, spoken by the Portuguese in Portugal and the Azores, and, with some differences, hy Uie Portuguese Jews settled in Hamburg, Amsterdam, the Tyrol, and other parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa; also by the descendants of the Portuguese in their Asiatic, African, Oceanic, and American colonies. The Portuguese is as rich and concise as its sister languages; it has borrowed some words from the Arabic and the French; to the French it seems indebted for the soil sound of g, and for the nasal syllables ; it is sonorous, soft, and unimpeded by the aspirates and gutturals of the Spanish ; but the fre- quency of hiatus, and of the modem nasal ao, equisonant with the French am or an, injure the harmony of Uie language. Its origin, like that of the Spanish, is dated in the eleventh century ; and it had attained its maturity in the sixteenth. The Portuguese literature, which Comoens illustrated with one of the finest epics in existence, is as varied and rich as the Spanish, though less known. It revived in the memorable reign of Joseph. The language may be said to exhibit no differences of dialect ; there are only varieties : those which differ most from the written language arc, the Minho, Algarve, and Azores varieties in Europe; the Brazilian in America; Uiose of Congo and Mozambique in Africa; and of Goa and Macao in Asia. Some, however, regard as a dialect of the Portuguese, the jargon called lingtM geral, spoken along the east and west coasts of Africa, also along the coasts of Ceylon and the Indian peninsula. In Africa, as well as in Asia, it presents the phenomenon offered by the lingua Franca in the Mediterranean, and attests the power formerly held by the Portuguese in those regions. The Valac or Wallachian, spoken by the Rumanje or Roumouni, better known os Valacs, a people apparently descended from the ancient Roman colonists settled in Dacia and Thrace, and the Slavonic and other nations dwelling there. Its literature is very meagre. Among its numerous dialects the more remarkable are the Roumounic or Valac proper, spoken in Wallachia, Moldavia, and Bessarabia ; the Hungarian Valac, the Macedo>Yalac, and the Kutzo-Valac, spoken in various sub-dialects, in several parts of European Turkey, south of the Danube. r^~'.?.--Y ■.^,.'.^j, SiiBSBCT. 4. ■ . ' ',_ The ikmily of the Germanic languages next claims our notice. Without entering into the history of the Germanic nations, which rivals in importance that of the Grteco-Latin, we may clu» these different idioms, according to M. Malte-Brun's theory, in four branches ; the Teutonic, the Saxon or Cin^tric, the Scandinavian or Normanno-Qothic, and tlie Anglo- Britannic. The Teutonic branch, which comprises the idioms of the various ancient nations and tribes recognised as German by the Roman historians and writers ; as the Bastame, the Suevi, the Marcomanni, the Hermonduri, and the Franci, presents the following idioms : — The ancient high German (alt hoch DeutscK), formerly spoken in different dialects throughout South Germany, Switzerland, Alsace, Hesse, Thuringia, Wetteravia, and a great part of the countries once subjected to the Franks. It has been extinct for several centuries : its three principal dialects were, the Francic, and the Alemannic, which are of contemporary origin, and contain the most ancient productions of that language, and the Middle High German, which succeeded tliem. The Francic or Tudesc was the language of the Franks : it was spoken at the court of the Merovingian and Carlovingian sovereigns, until Charles the Bold ; after whose reign it gave way to the old French m France, but continued to be the court language in Germany until the times of the Hohenstaufen. The Middle High German is the language in which were composed the numerous works of the Suabian, Bavarian, Austrian, and Swiss writers, and several other authors in Middle and Lower Germany, from the eleventh to the fifteenth centuries. Its finest productions are dated in the period of the Hohenstaufen, from 1136 to 1254, called also the MinnesUnger, the trouveurs and troubadours of Germany. The Nibelungen-lied, the finest epic in this lan- guage, is supposed by Winter to have been composed in 1290, hy Conrad of Wvkrtzburg. The German, called also neu hoch Deutsch, in which distinction must be made between the written and the spoken language. The latter is divided into a great number of very difibrent dialects, subdivided into several sub^ialects and varieties. The written language is nowhere spoken by the people ; it was formed at the period when Luther, rejecting the Middle High and the Miadle Low Oerman, adopted in preference the dialect of Misnia or Mei»en, which had begun to be written much later. Tiiis Misnion dialect, ably employed by that great man and his numerous followers, soon became, as the language of books and of good society, common to an ./ell-educated Germans, and also ranked as the learned lan- guage of the north and ^reat part of the east of Europe. The literature of €lermany, in rogard to the quality of its productions, rivals those of France and England, and suroaMet PARTin. 3 Bourbon kings ler, the following the Andalusian ; Vmerica; where, r of inhabitants, the Azores, and, rdam, the Tyrol, le Portuguese in 3 ia as rich and and theFVench; l1 syllables ; it is sh; but the fre- am or an, injure I in the eleventh guese literature, ried and rich as if Joseph. The {T varieties : those Azores varieties I Africa; and of fuese, the jargon ong the coasts of the phenomenon sr formerly held nown 08 Valacs, acia and Thrace, leagre. Among roper, spoken in -Valac, and the Purkey, south of lut entering into jrsco-Latin, we four branches; ;,andtlieA7t^/0' ent nations and le Bastams, the ving idioms : — ifferent dialects itteravia, and a inct for several c, which are of iguage, and the £ the language fian sovereigns, in France, but nstaufen. The IS works of the iddle and Lower IS are dated in nnesanger, the pic in this lan- WOrtzburg. made between lumber of very ritten language ', rejecting the :t of Misnia or ably employed e of books and he learned Ian- 9f Germany, in , and sunwean Book L ^i* EUROPE. *'i''' v'v,* I ; 906 them in abundance. The German is the richest in words of any language in Europe ; and this distinction it owes to the great number of its monosrllabic roots, with which it creates new terms ad tri^nttum, by derivation and composition. Its principal dialects are, the Swiss; the Rhenish ; the Danubian, with its four sub^ialects, the Bavarian, the TVrolean, Austrian, and Bohemc-Hungaro-Silesian ; and the Franconian, or Mittel-Deutsch. To these, on the authorihr of Adelung, we may add two others, remarkable for the Strang* admixture of words totally foreign ; these are, the Oerman Jewish ; and the Rothwelsh, spoken by the Jenisb or Jauner, who are generally reported to be thieves and vagabonds. It contains a multitude of terms and expressions quite difierent fh)m German. The Saxon, or Cimbric, which compises the idioms anciently spoken by the Cimbri ; also b^ the Angli, who, with the Jutes and Saxons, afterwards made so great a figure in northern history ; the Bructeri and Chauci, the Menapi, the Tungri, the Kitavi, the Frisones, and other nations of less note, the ancient Saxons, and probu)ly the Longobardi. This biunch includes the four following idioms : — The ancient low German (alt nieder Deutsch), called also the ancient Saxon, after the people who spoke it This language, now extinct, was current thtroughout Lower Germany and the Netherlands, except in the countries occupied by the Frisones and the Angli. About the commencement of the seventeenth century it wholly ceased to be written. Its principal dialects are, the Saxon prober, or idiom of liower Saxony; the Eastern Saxon, spoken in various sub-dialects in Prussia, and the Westphalian, or Western Saxon. The Frisic, formerly spoken along the coast, from the Rhine to the Elbe, by the Frisones, and their allies the Chauci, the ancestors of the present Frisians, who are now ft.r from numerous, and speak a language very different from the ancient Frisic, being mixed with other idioms. Its three principal dialects are, the Batavian Frisic, the Westjpialian Frisic, and the North Frisic, or Cimbric. The Netherlandish, or modem Batavian, has two prmcipal dialects, the Flemish, and the Hollandish, or, as it is commonly called in this country, the Dutch. The Flemish is spoken in the southern provmces of the kingdom of the Netherlands, excepting those where Ger- man and French are spoken. It was the written and oral language of the seventeen pro- vinces once subject to the Counts of Burgundy. After their e^rtinction, and under the Spanish rule, the Flemish idiom gradually gave way in the north to the Dutch, in the south to the French language. The Dutch is spoken in different varieties in the seven provinces of the North, and in some bordering districts of the South : with certain changes and iidmixtures it is also spoken, or at least understood, in the various settlements founded by the Dutch in Africa, Oceania, and America, and in several places in Ceylon, India, and the peninsula of Malacca ; in South Africa ; at the Cape of Hope ; and on the American con- tinent in Guiana. Some descendants of Dutch settlers also in the United States retain their native language. It was only in the sixteenth century that this vulgar idiom of the pro- vince of Holland, in some degree polished and improved, became the national language of the Dutch. It is a mixture of ancient Francic, Frisic, and low German. The Scandinavian, or Normanno-Gothic, comprises the idioms formerly spoken ^ the Jutes, the Goths or Guts, and other less considerable nations of pure Gothic race. There are five different idioms in this branch : — The Mceso-Gothic, formerly spoken by the Goths established in Moesia. According to Grimm, this is the richest of the Germanic languages in grammatical forms : it has not less than fifteen declensions, with 120 cases, and sixteen conjugations. The Moeso-Gfothic has been dead many centuries. Its most ancient productions are, the famous Codex Argenteus of Upsal ; and other fragments of the translation of the Bible, made between the years 360 and 380, by Bishop Ulphilas. The Moeso-Goths appear to have been the first to embrace Christianity of all those nations who overthrew the Koman empire. The Normannic, called by Grimm the Alt-Nordisch. It is the language of the Edda, of the Voluspa, and other poems of uncertain date, and was generally spoken throughout Scan- dinavia in the eighth, ninth, and tenth centuries. The Norwegian, ancient Norwegian, Norroena tunga, not to be confounded with the modem Norwegian or Norsk, which is only a dialect of the Danish. Its principal dialects are, the Icelandic, the Norwegian proper, the Dalska, or Western Dalecarlian, the Jftmt- landish, and the Norse, spoken in the Shetland Isles. The Swedish (Svenskt), spoken by the Swedes throughout the greater part of tlie Swed- ish monarchy ; also in the principal towns of Finland and the isle of Runoe, in the Russian empire. It has two principal dialects, the Swedish, and the modem Gothic, subdivided into several sub-dialects and varieties. The Danish, spoken by the Danes in Denmark, and in their Asiatic, African, and Ame- rican settlements; also by the higher classes in the Ferfie Isles, and in Iceland. It has two principal dialects, each having several sub-dialects and varieties : the Danish proper, which mcludes the insular Danish, Uie ancient sub-dialect cf Bomholm, the modem Norwegian, and the idiom of Scania. The Jutlandish, or modem Jutic, including the Normanno-Jutic, the Dano-Jutic, and the Anglo-Jutic, 310 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pakt it The Anfflo>Britannio (not to be confounded with the BrUith, which is WeUh), comprisef onlv two idioms. The Anglo-Saxon, formed by a mixture of the idioms spoken by the Angli, the Saxons vid the Jutes, who, invited by the Britons against the Picta, finally took possession of th« 3ountry, where their language was successively preserved in three dialects, until the oi^htli sentury. During the invasions and temporary ascendency of the Danes, it was so modified as to become Dano-Saxon, or rather this may be called a dialect of the Anglo-Saxon. For •evoral centuries this language has been totuly dead. The English, spoken in England, in the east and south-east of Scotland, in part of Ireland and of Wales ; in the Shetland Isles, in the bles of Jersey and Guernsey, in the British colonies of Asia, Oceania, Afirica, and America. It is the national language of the United States of America. It is also cultivated and spoken by a great number of persons of differ- ent nations in all parts of the world on account of its literary, pditical, and ccnnmercial importance : the two latter considerations render it very current in the kingdom of Hanover, in the Ionian Isles and Malta, in Portugal and Brazil, and in the republic of Hayti. The English language is a mixture of the /uiglo-Soxon and the Neustrian French or Franco- Norman, with some Celtic words, and a few of ancient British origin. It has imported largely fWum the Greek and Latin, as knowledge and culture advanced in the nation. If the number of words in the language bo taken at uiirty-eight tliousand, those of Saxon or north- ern origin will be found limited to about eight thou«md, the rest beini; principally Greek and Latin derivatives. Copious and energetic, the English language is the simplest and most monosyllabic of all European idioms; and it is that also of \raich the pnsiunciation differs most from the orthography. It did not become the language of the state until the reign of Edward UL, smce which time it has rapidly improved. Towards the commence- ment of the seventeenth century may be dated its regular developement, and in the begm- ning of the eighteenth it took its fixed and invariable form. The English language occupies one of the most eminent places in European literature ; it is comparable wiUi any of them in elegance, and perhaps, surpasses them all in energy. It is no less gracefiil than concise ; its poetry is at once manly and harmonious ; and, like that of the cognate languages of the north, is admirably adapted to depict the sublimities of nature and pourtray the stronger ]»«• sions : as the language of political and parliamentary eloquence, it is without a rival. Of the number of its ditdects it might be mfficult to speak with precision : foreign philologers distinguish four as the principal: — the English mo^t; the Northumbrian English, culed also Dano-English from 'the great number of Danish words retained in it, and spoken in various sub-dialects in Yorkshire, Lancashire, Cumberland, and Westmoreland : the Scottish or Anglo-Scandinavian, including the Lowland Scottish, with the Border language ; and lastly the Vltra-European English, prevalent in the English colonies and in the United States. It has been observed Uiat the English language is spoken by the greatest number 3f the inhabitants of the New World. SuBSKCT. 6, Hie fimiilv of the Slavonic languages is widely difRised. From the neighbourhood of Udina in Italy, from Sillian in the Tyrol, and fi-om the centre of Germany to the remotest extremities of Europe and of Asia, and even to the north-west coast of America, are nations of Slavonic origin to be found ; the tract of country over which they hold sway amounting to about a sixth part of the habitable surface of the globe. These nations exhibit almost aU the varieties of the human race, both physical and moral, if not ftom the most exalted, at least to the most degraded. The Slavonic languages, so far as is at present known, may be regarded as forming three branches:—!. The Russo-Illyrian. 2. The Bohemo-Polish. 3. The Wendo-Lithu- anian. (1.) The Russo-Iu,TBiAM is so called from its chief people, the Russians, and from the general appellation Illyrian given to most of the nations who speak Servian or Croate. The languages comprised in this branch are : — The Slavonic, Servian, Serbe, or Illyrian, called also by some authors Rutena, spoken in different dialects by the more southern Slavi, generally denominated Illyrians. They dwell in the Austrian and Ottoman empires, excepting a small number, settled as colonists in south Russia. The dialects differing most from each other, and from the ancient Slavonic, are the Servian or Serblin, with various sub-dialecta ; the Italiano-Slavonic, spoken on the coast of Dalmatia ; the Uskoke, spoken by the wandering tribes in Servia, Bosnia, Dalmatia, Croatia, Maritime Hungry, and Camiola. It is mixed wiUi many Turkish words. lastly, the Bulgarian, spoken in Bulgaria, in the Ottoman empire. The Russian, Ruski, or modern Russian, spoken throughout the Russian empire bv tiie R;»3i&ns, who are the ruling nation ; also spoken in a great partof Gallicia and part of Hun- gary in the Austrian empire. Since the reign of the Czar Peter, when the Slavvenski was abandoned for the Ruski, it became the language of literature and of business throughout Russia. It has the following dialects, which di&r little from each other, tilie Valiki-Ruski Book or Ri the Th Th Pakt it fh), comprisci « the Saxons leasion of th« til the oiffhtk u 80 modified "Sftxon. For Nut of Ireland n the British of the United sons of difier- i commercial n of Hanover, Hayti. The ch or Franco- has imported lation. If the ixon or north- iipally Greek simplest and pronunciation ate until the e commence- in the begin- lage occupies any of them than concise; [uagesof the stranger ps» a rival. Of n philologers tgliah, cedled nd spoken in the Scottith nguage; and n the United iteat number ibourhood of he remotest L« are nations y amounting lit almost afl t exalted, at as forming endo'Lithu- nd from the Jroate. The I, spoken in They dwell ists in south avonic, are len on the , Dalmatia, is. Lastly, pire bv the artofkun- renski wajs throughout Hki-Riuki Book!. EUROPE. 811 or Russian of Great Russia ; the Malo-Rutki, or Russian of Littio Russia ; the Suzdalian , the Olonetxian, and the Rusniac. The Create, spoken by the Croates or Khorbates, who delight to call it the lllyrian. The Wende or Winde, spoken by several Slavonic nations subject to the Austrian empire, and known by different names in the countries thev inhabit. In the Wende appear to be distinguished three principal dialects, the Comiolan, the Carinthian, and the Styrian. (2.) The BoHBHO-FOLisH, named from its two principal nations, the Bohemians and the Poles. The languages belonging to this branch are the Bohemian or Chehhe, including the Bohemian proper, and certain idioms, bearing the character of principal dialects, and spoken in the Austrian empire. The Bohemian proper, or Chekhe, is spoken in several very different sub-dialects by the Chekhes or Czecks, better known by the appellation of Bohemians. The dialect of Prague is the most elegant and pure. The others aro the Slowac, the Hannac, the Straniac, the Pasaekafsk, the Sallashac, and the Szotac. The Polish is spoken by the Polos, called in the middle ages, Lechen or Liacliy. They form more than three-fburths of the population of the present Russian kingdom of Poland, almost the wliole population of the province of Cracow, and of the western part of Gallicia, in the empire of Austria. They also form three-fourths of the population of the grand duchy of Posen, two-thirds of that of West-Prussia, and part of that of Silesia. The Polish is also the national language of the nobility and part of the commonalty in all the countries formerly belon^in^ to the kingdom of Poland, and is spoken by thousands of colonists in Russia. Its prmcipal dialects are those of Great Poland, of Little Poland, of West Prussia, of Mazovia, of Polish Silesia, of the Geralys or highlanders, belonging to part of the Carpa- thians in Gallicia. The preference given in Poland to the Latin, long retarded the progress of this national language. The Serbe or Sorabe, spoken until the fourteenth century by the Serbes, or Sserske. It has two dialects ; the Upper Lusatian, and the Lower Lusatian. (3.) The Wendo-Lithuanian, called also the Oermano-Slavonic. This branch comprises the following idioms : — The Wend, spoken until the fourteenth century in different dialects throughout the north of Germany, from Holstein to Pomerania, by various nations, as the Wagrians, the Polabea, the Wihians, the Obotrites, the Ruffians, and the Pomeranians. Since the fourteenth centu»7 it has been extinct, with the exception of the Linonish, improperly called the Polabish dialect, which subsisted in some districts, until the latter half of the eishteemu. The Pnicze or ancient Prussian, formerly spoken in eleven very different dialects, by tho tribes forming the powerful nation of the Pruczi, dwelling between the Vistula and the Pre- gel. It is almost entirely extinct. The Lithuanian or Littauish, formerly spoken by those powerful nations the Lithuanians and Kriwitschi, and now current only among the common people ; as the higher classes speak Polish, with Russian or German, according to their different countries. Its principal dialects have been thus classed : — The Lithuanian proper, the Samogitian, the Kriwitsh, and the Prusso-Lithuanian. The Lette, Lettwa, Lettonian, or Lettish, spoken by the Letts or Lettons, forming the bulk of the population in the government of Mitta, a large part of that of Riga, a small por- tion of that of Witcpsk in Russia, and of the province of East Prussia. It has five principal dialects, subdivided into a multitude of very different sub-dialects. The former, according to Mr. WatBon, are, the Lette proper ; the Semgallian or Sengallish ; the Letto-Livonian or Liejlandish ; the Seelian, spoken by the Seeles in Courland : the Wende by the Wendes, in the north-east of that duchy, particularly in the neighbourhood of Windau. This language abounds with German phrases and expressions. The Slavonic nations employ five different alphabets : — 1. The Cyrilian, invented by St Cyril in 86.5, called also the Servian or Ruthenian. 2. The Glagolitic, Slavonic, Kruko- vntza, or Divinica, called also that of St. Jerome. 3. The Russian alphabet of the Czar Peter, which is the Cyrilian modified by that emperor : it has thirty-five letters, and is in use throughout the Russian empire. 4. The Sorabes, Bohemians, and Slavo-Silesians use the German alphabet or character. 5. The other Slavonic nations, as the Poles, Lithua^ nians, Lettes and Wendes, use the Latin or Roman letters. To these five alphabets may be added the Runic Wend, the Greek alphabet, adopted, according to Karamsin, by those Blavi who, in the eighth century, settled m Peloponnesus ; and lastly, the Bulgarian, imi fated from the Glagolitic, and used by the Bulgarians. SVBSEOT. 6. The fkmily of the Uralian languages, also called the Finnish or Chudic, completes the ethnographic division of Europe. From the north-west coast of Norway to the long chain of the Urals, and beyond tnose m DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part ID. mountainB to near the YeniscY in the centre of Siberia, in another direction from the Leitha to the Seret, and from the Carpathians to the Danube, nations of Uralian race live among other nations, and retain the manners, habits, and language of their fore&thers. In marking the ffradations amonff the people composing this family, wo may consider the Hungarians and ue Ostiaks as euiibitinj; the two extremes in a moral as well as physical respect, not> withstanding the great affinity of their respective languages. "Die Uralian family includes four brancties, according to Klaproth ; but some language* not included in them may be separately considered as a fifth. The Finnish, or Germanised Finnish branch, includes the four followbe languages : — (1.) The Finnish proper, or Sumenkieli, spoken by the Suomi, better known as the Fina or Finlanders. Its principal dialects are, the Finlondish, the Tawostian, the Corelian or Kyriala, tho Olonetzian, and the Watailaiset The Esthonian spoken by the Esthonions or Esthen, whose ancestors were formidable pirates, and who now form the most numerous part of the population of the government ot Reval, and of the circles of Pemau and Dorpat in that of Riga. Its two principal dialects arc that of Reval and that of Dorpat The Lapponian, spoken bjr the Sames, better known as the Lappons or Laplanders, inha« biting the northern extremity of Europe, partly under the monarchy of the Swedes, and parUy under tho Russian empire. This language, which is said to have more affinity with the Hungaiian than with the Finnish, has a great number of very different dialects, which nave been classed under the Lappo- Nonce ff tan, the Lapp'J-Swedish (western and eastern), the Lappo-Russ, spoken in the circle of Kola, in the government of Archangel. Through the beneficent care of the Swedish government, at the cloee of the last and the beginning of the present century, the Laplanders have been reclaimed from idolatry, and have begun to enjoy the blessings of Christianity and civilization. The Livonian, spoken formerly by the Lives or Liven, who gradually abandoned this idiom for the Lettish, in consequence of which it is become nearly exiinct. (2.) The Wolgaic branch includes the languages spoken along the Wolga and its tributa- ries. They have a strong admixture of Turkish, and may rank under two classes, the Che- remisse and the Morduine, including as dialects the Mokshau and the Ersan. (3.) The Permian branch includes two languages, the Permian proper, spoken by the Komi or Permians, and the Syrenes or Syranes ; and the Wotie^te, spoken by the Udi or Wotiaks scattered among the governments of Wiatka, Oremburg, and Kasan. They are all Christians, and the most industrious people of Uralian race in the Russian empire, except the Fins and per ^ps tlie Esthonians. (4.) The Hungarian branch includes tho following languages : — The Hungarian or Magyar, spoken by the Magyars or Hungarians. They form about a third of the nopulation of Hungary, and almost a fourth of that of Transylvania ; several thousands also of this people are settled in tlie Bukowine in Gollicia, and about forty thou- sand in Moldavia, under the Turkish sway. The Hunirarian, according to Czaplovicz, has four principal dialects : — 1. The Paloczen. 2. The dialect of the Alagyars beyond the Danube. 3. That of the Magyars of the Theiss ; and 4. That of the Szekler, living in Transylvania, in the Bukowine, and in Moldavia. The Hungarian language is very harmo- nious ; and is mixed with many foreign words, especially Slavonic, German, and Latin. The Wogoule, spoken by the Mansi or Monskum, more known as the Woguls, and called Wogoulitshe by the Russians. They are almost all Christians, and live principally as hunters and fishermen, scattered over the government of Saratow, in the high valleys of the Ural, in that of Perm, and in that of Tobolsk, between Kourjan and Beresow. Klaproth distinguishes in it four dialects, that of Chiasow, those of Werchoturia, and Cherdin, and that of Beresow in the government of Tobolsk. The Ostiak, or Obi-Ostiak, which is not to be confounded with the Yenisei family. The As-jachs or Ostiaks of the Obi, who speak this language, are mostly Christians ; some are still idolaters. The principal dialects are those of Beresow, Lumpokol, Wass-i-gun, and Narym. Under the branch still uncertain are ranked the Hunniac, the Awar, tlie BtLlga- •ian, and the Chazar. Fia. 10 r SI- CHAPTER a ENGLAND. The British islands, placed nearly in the north-western angle of Europe, command pecu- liar advantages, no less for natiral strength in war, than as an emporium of commerce in peace : on the southern side, th iy are almost in contact with France, Holland, and Germany, for ages the most enlightened xnd flourishmg countries of the civilized world : on the east, a wiue expanse of sea separatts them from the bleak region of Scandinavia; on the west, Uiey overlook the Atlantic Oct on, whose limit in another hemisphere is the coast of Ameri- ca: while, in the extreme nortli they may be almost said to face the unexplored expanse of the Polar Sea. Exclusive of the northern insular appendages, they may be considered sM Part ID. n the Leitha live among In nuurking Hungarians respect, not* e language! uagos :— 1 as the Fios Carelian or 3 formidable vemment ot ipal dialects aiders, inha* Swedes, and affinity with lects, which nd eastern), 1. Through e beginning have begun Lndoned this 1 its tributa- es, the Che- )ken by the tlie Udi or rhey are til pire, except brm about a lia; several forty thou- plovicz, has beyond the r, living in i^ery hanno- Latin. , and called ncipally as lleys of the Klaproth herdin, and mily. The some are -i'gun, and tlie Bulgih fiand pecu- nmerce in Germany, 1 the east, the west, of Ameri- wpanse of sidered as Fio. 108. MAP OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 813 M Vol. L T iM^ttoteWMt 4 bomOnnwlch a 27 dp 314 DESCMPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. PAmTlH. situated between the fiftieth and fifty-ninth degrees of north latitude, and between the ■econd donee of east and the tenth of west longitude. They are geographically divided into two islands of unequal magnitude, Great Britain and Ireland : Britain, again, is divided into two unequal parts: England, which, including Wales, contains 57,060 square miles; and Scotland, whicn contains 80,600. The three, though united into one kingdom, respec- tively exhibit peculiarities which characterise them as distinct countries It will, tlierefore, be requisite to describe each separately, commencing with England, the seat of empire and legislation. The chapter whicn treats of England will aflbrd the proper place for many details, particularly of a political nature, which are alike applicable to tlie two sister countries. Reference* to the Map qf the BritiA Idande. , ENGLAND U Alnwick a. kotiiburr 3. Morpeth 4. jlrthe a. Newcaitw 6. Huhain 7. Billinfhnm a CarliiTa 9. Cookermoutb 10. FiKrcmont 11. Kavenf Ian 13. fJlveratua 13. Kendal 14. Keawlck 15. Penrith 16. Applaby 17. AUilona 18. Darlington 19. Durham iiO. Sundarland SI. Stockton S3. Siukeilef 93. fluiiborouib SI. Whitby S5. Pickering 88. Thirak 97. North AllettoD «.Hawea K. Ripon 30. Kendal 31. Lancailer 33. Gantang 33. Puulton 34. Brndford 35. Bklpton 3S. Knaroabo:vugb 37. Leeda 39. York „ , 39. New Mallon 40. Billington 41. Scarborouth 43. Great Driffield 43. Hornaaa 44. Hedon 45. Kingston on Hull 46. Barton 47. Grimabgr 48. Ravendale 49. Baltfleet 50. Thedletborpe 51. Boston S3. Alford S3. Huriicattle 34. Lincoln 55. Gainsborough 56. Athby 57. Diincaster 58. Sheffield 59. Pnntarraet 60. Mancheator 31, Preston 63. Liverpool 63. Cheater (M. Newcastle 65. Newport 66. Stafford 67. Burton 68. Derby 69. Ashbonm TO. Chesierflald 71. Mansfield 73. Alfreton 73. Nottingham 74. Helton Mowtiny ?5, Grantham B. Newark 77. Sleaford 78. Spalding , 79. Lrnn Regb A. Wells 81. Cromer ffi. Yarmoatta 89, Beeclee 07, Rnat Dereham m.biu 89. f hetford OaEly ^ 91. March Oi. Peterborough 93. Oundia 94. Stamrord 95. Harborough 06. Leicester 97. Coventry Ua Tamworlb 09. Lichfield 100. Birminiham 101. Bridgunorth 103, Shrewsbury 103. Plynlimmua lot, Ludlow 10.5. Tenbury 106. Lnominster 107. Bromford 108. Tewkesbury 100. Worcester 110. Alcesler 111. Warwick 1 13. Kvasham 113. Tuwcostor 114. Northampton 1 15. Wollingburough 116. Thrapaton 117. Hununidon lia Bedford 119. Cambridita 130. MiManhall 131. Bury St. Ed mund'a 193. 1'rapilingham 133. AiuU.r^ugh 134. Inawich 135. Sudburir 196. Harwich 137. Colcheater 138. Coggeihall 199. Boyston 130. Bishop's Btort- ford 131. Hertford 1.13. St. Albani 133. Aylesbury 134. Winslow 135. Buckingham orwich 5. But 136, Woodstock ]:n, Burford i:i8. Gloucester 139. Hereford 140.aosa 141. Colford 148. Bristol 143. Melksham 144. Malmesbury 145. Cirencester 146. Swindon 147. Hungerford 148. Kennel 149. Abingdon ISaOxrord 151. Wallingford 158, Thuna 153. Windsor 154. Uxbridge 155. Kingston 156. Croydon 157. Greenwich 158. London 159. Chelmsfbrd 160. Maldon 161. Maidstone 163. Canterbury ltt3. Margate ' 164. Ranugala 165. Dover 166. Rye 167. Haatinta i&a~. 15. Killybegs 16. Donegal IB. Omag h 10. Pomeroy 90. Clogher 91. DungannoD 93. Armagh 93. Lurgan 34. Donaghadea 35. Portaferry 96. Downpalriok S7. Strevoy 98. Newry ao. Dundalk 30. Monagban 31, Cavan 33. Callahill 33. Rnniskillen 34. Churchill SI. Sligo 36. Drumeirn 37. Ballymore 38. Colooney 30. Ballina 40. Killala 41, Ballyglasa 43, Cloggon 43, Newport 44, Weatport 45, Kumor 46, Ballhimbe 47, C«stl« Barr 48, Klleolman 49, Tuam SafUpbin 51. Roscommon S3. Leitrim • 53. Longford M, Moynalty an, Cnrrickmacresi 56. Dunleer 57. Drogheda SH. Ualbtiggon 50. Dublin 60. Screen 61. Trim , 03. Muynoota Ki. Naas 04. 'i'ullamore 6.'i. Mullingar Ii6. AthloDO (i7. Kyrecourt 6* tlHllyfornn li!l. Newton Bellaw 7U. I.iiiiiihrea 71. Orninore 7a. Ouuntora 7;i. Uahvay 74. Gort 75, Inniitymon 70. Kilrush 77. Clare 7H. Ennis 79. LImerkk 80. 1'ortunin 81. Nenagh f>. Killiilue f'i. TIjuiles N't. Koscrea 85. Durrow 8». Ath 87. Kildare 88. Carlnw 811. Tullow 90. Baltingloaa 91. Blessington 92. Tnghor 93. Wicklew 94. Gorey 95. Rallyeanoa 96. Enniseortby 07. Wexfoid 98. Pethard 99. Waterford 100. Thomaa Town lUl. Kilkenny lO'.'.CarrickonSuin 10:1. Clonmi I 1114. Bnllyporeen 10.5. Tipperary 106. Killmallock 107. Askoyton no. CnstleFord Ill.Killatney 113. Konmare 113. Castletown 114. Bantry II.'), Castletown 116. Kinsala 117. Cork lia Killady 119. Tuchgeall 130. Mallow 1*21. Ralhcormueg ISi!. Kildorery 12:<. Lismore 134. Youghall 135. Dungarvan 136. Tramore Rivtr$. a Ban b Carlingford c Boyne d Barrow e Nore f Suire Y BlackWBKl h Shannon i EiKk, PabtIII. id between the phicall^ divided igain, la divided ) square miles; ingdom, rcspec- will, therefore, t of empire and place for many tlie two sister SI. Roieommoa &i. Leilrim • 53, Longford 54. Moynalljr ;'■}■ Cnrrickmacroit 56. Dunleer 57. Drogheda 5H. Unlbriggan 50. Dublin fiO. Screen 01. Trim . (U. Muynootk Ki. Naai R4. Tullamore fi.'). Mullingar tie. AthloDO 07. Kyrocourt (M. Halljrornn Ui). Newton B«llew 7(J. l.<)U|jlirea 71, Orninore 79. Ougntora T,l. Oarway 74. Gorl 75, Inniilymoo 7ti. Kilruili 77. Clare 7H. Ennit 79. Limerick 80. 1'ortunm 81. Ncnogli t«2. Killulue f3. Thurlei M. KoBcrea HS. nurrow ea. Ath B~. Kildare 88. Carlnw 8!l. Tullow !)0. nHllinglan Ul. UleMinftoD 92. 'Pogher 93. VVicktow 94. Gorey 9.^. Ballycanca 9n. Knniacortli/ 97. Wexfoid 96. Frlhard 09. Waterlbrd lOU. ThomaaTowo lUl. Kilkenny IIN.CarriokonSuin 103. Clonmi I 194. Ballypiireen 105. 'I'ipperary 100. Killmallock 107. Aikoylon 108. Bnllylongronl 109. Tralee no. CnatleFord III. Killafner 113. Kenmare 113. Caatlelowa 114. Bnnlry 11.% (.'nitlelowB 110. Kinaals 117. Crk 118. Killady 119. Tuchgeel* SO. Mallnw ■21. Raihcormueg Vi. Kildorery 21. Liamore 24. Yuughall 25. Dungarraa S6. Tramora Rivtn. a Ban b Cariingfoiu c Royne d Barrow e Nore f guire i.i f BlnekwaMI h Shannoa i Buck. Book .i#t.'ii«. ENGLAND. «b SioT. J.—Oeneral Outline and A$peet. England is bounded on the south by the English Channel, interposed betwcun Ji coa< and that of France ; on the east by the German Sea, on the north by Scotland, iVom which it is separated by the Tweed, the Cheviot hills, and the Frithof Solway ; on the west by the Irish Sea and St. George's Channel : the promontory of the Land's-End, forming its south- western extremity, faces the vast expanse of the Atlantic. The greatest dimension of England is from south to north, between the Lizard Point, 490 58' N., and Berwick on Tweed, 55° 45' N. ; four hundred miles in length. The points of extreme breadth are the Land's-End (Jg. 104.), in 6° 41' W., and LowestofTe, in 1° 44' E., forming a space of about 280 miles. There is no point, however, where a line ot* this extent can be carried across the island, and the northern part does not on an average exceed one hundred miles in breadth. The surface of England is of a diversifi- ed character ; the eastern districts are in general level, and there are several direc- tions in which hundreds of miles may be travelled without seeing a hill. Along the western side of the island are large tracts, not only hilly, but sometimes rising even to mountain grandeur. Such are the counties of Cumberland and Westmoreland, the bleak ridge of Ingleborough, extending like a spine through the north of England: of the same character are Derbyshire, the whme principality of Wales, and a great part of Devon and Cornwall. These tracts exhibit all the varieties of mountain scenery : in Cumberland, encircling little plains filled with beautiful lakes ; in Wales, enclosmg narrow valleys through which the rapid mountain stream dashes ; in Der- Uod'i-Eiid. Erference$ to the Map t(f England. — North Part NORTH SERIES. I. Rntwick 3. Meldrum 3. Ddfurd 4. N. Churllon 5. Alnwick ?. Whiltingham . IJawayfuid 8. F.lidiin 9. Rnthbury 10. Warkwonh 11. Morpeth 12. BIytha 13. Chfton 14. Stanirnrdhain 1.;. Kirii Harlo 16. Harlington 17. Bollingham 18. ButtHrdiaugh 10. Shillburn 2U. Kennel 21. Bewcaitia 32. Longtown fi. Brampton 4. Hakwhialla 35. Siroonburo SO. Hexham 37. Hiokley 88. Newcantle 39. North Bhieldi 30, Tynemnuth 31, South Bhieldi 33, Sunderland 33. Shotton 34. Durham 35. Cheiter-le-Slreet 36. Lancheater 37. Woliingham 38. Slanhupa 39. Acton 40. Afdilnno 41. Crnaisill 43. Kirk Oawald 43. Laionby 44. Hunon 4S,Carliala 46. Orton 47. Wigton 48. Abbeyholme 49. Maryport 50. Workington 51. Cockermouth S3, Ireby 53. Keawiek 54. Malterdale 55. Penrith 56. canon 57. Appleby 58. Milburn 59. Broagh M, Sfackholm 61,Middl«(on 131, Aldborough , flS, EggloBton 133. Knareaborouih 6:1, Barnard Ciitl* 133. Ripon 64, Siaindrop 184. Maiham 65. WpBt Auekland !«$, Wf ee. Biahop Auck- land 67. Sadgefield 68. Hartlepool 09. Saaton Carair n. StokeaieT 73, Rauntoa 74. Yarm 75. DarlinttoD 76. Croft 77, Rokeby 78, Bowea 70. Reelh _ ^ rhemaide 136, Graaainaton 137, ArneliSa 138, Bettia 13V. Ingleloil 130. Kirkby LoDi- 131, Hornby 1:13, Laneaater 133. Oantang 134. Slaidbum 135. Clitheroe 138. Colna 137. Paythoma i;«, Skiplon 130, Thurcroaa I. Kirkby Stephen 140, Otiey |l. Orton 13. Mardale 83. Ambleaide 84. Seathwaite 85. Whitehaven 86. Egremont 87. Rarenglaaa 88. Whitbeck 89. Ulveralon 90. Hawkahead 91. Kendal 03. Faweott 9:1. Milllhorp* 04. Bedbergb 05. Hawea go. Aakrigc 07. Middlenam 96. Richmond 09. Catterick 100. Bedale 101. Bumeaton 103. Thiiak 103. North Allerton _ 104. Helmaler 6. Blackburn 105. Kirby Moonide 7. Burnley 106. Bnainton 8. Halifax 107. Cloughton 0. Keiahler 108. Scarborough 10. Bradford 109. Filey 141. Harewood 143. Ripley 143. Wetherby 144. Tadcaater 145. Cawood 146. York 147. Pocklingtoo 148. Middleton 149. Market Weigh- ton 150. Beverley 151. Brandiburton 153. Horniea 153. ■■■ 154. Hedon 155. Pattrington SOUTH SERIES. 1. Poulton 3. Blackpool 3. Kirkham 4. Praaton 9. Chorley ilO, Hunmanby 111, Bridlington 113. Kilham 1IX Driffield 114. Sledmere 115. Wintringham 116. New Malton 117. Garraby 11& Stillenham 110. Coxwold 190, Eaaingwold 11, Dowibury 18. Wakefield 13. Leeda 14. Pontefr&et 15. Bnaith 1& Selby 17. Howden 18. Burton 19. South Cove 80. Hull St. Barton 93. Orimabr 33. Ravendale 34. Caiator SS. Qlaoford Bridge 36. Klitb.1 87. Brumby wie . - ^ ime 30. Dooeaater 31. Budaworth 33.Bamealey 33. Peniitone 34. HudderafieM 35. Meltham 36. Aahton-uoder- ..Una 37. Mancheater 38. Rochdale 39. Bury 40. Bolton 41. Leigh 43. Wigan 43. Ormikirk 44. Formby 45. Liverpool 46. Praacot 47. Newton 48. Warrington 49. Knutaford 50. Altringham 51. Stack -wrt S3. Diiley 53. Chapel in the -Fnth 54.TideaweU 55. Caatleton 56. Sheffield 57. Dronfield 58. Rntherham 59. Workaop 60. Rlyth 61. Retford 03. Gainaborough 63. Willoughton 65. Market Raaeo 66. Louth 67. Saltfleet 68. Sutton 69. Alford 70. Burgh 71. Wainfleet 73, Spilaby 73. Horneaatla 74. Tatterahall 75. Dunaton 76. Navenbjr 77. Lincoln 78. Thomey 79. Tuzford 86. Newark 81. Manafleld 83. Bolaover 83. Oheaterfiald 84. Alfreton 85. Matlock 86. W^rkaworth 67. Winater 88. Buxton 89. Iiognor 00. Leeke 01. Horton 03. MaceletfleM 93. Congleton 04. Talk 95. Nantwieh 06. Middlewioh 07. Northwioh 98. Tarporley 09. Cheater 100. Holt lUl. Wrexham 103. Mold 103. Flint 104. Ruthin 105. Denbigh 106. St. Aaaph 107. Abergeler 108. Abereonway 100. Llanrwit llO.PenueVoelai III. Tremadoc 113. Bangor 113. Beaumarii 114. Amlwch Its. Llanercbrmedd 116. Holyhead 117. Caernarvon 11& Bwioh Mawi 119. Pwllheli 130. Criokieth 131. Harledi 133. Arrennig 133. Llannweh- Uwyn 134. Bala 135. Cotven 136. Llangollen 137. Elleamcra 138. Wem 130. Whitohnich 130. Malpaa 131. Drayton 133. FxcleahaU 133. Stone 134. Newcaatle-un- det^Line 135. Buralem 136. Cheadle 137. Uuozater }%. Aahbona 139. Derby "" Belper Notlicfham 143. Bolteaftird 140. 141. 143. Grantha— 144. SleafoiT^ 145. Folkingham 146. Donninflon 147. Boaton 148. Bumhan Market 149. Caatle Biaint 150. Fakenham ISl.NewWalaing ham 153. Holt 153. Cromer 154. N. WaUi«m ISLE OF MAN I, Ramaey 9, PeeP 3. Douglaa 4. Caatletown a/"""- Coquet Wenabeek aTUL b AIn ?P c Wear b Teea i Eak k Derweot I Ouae m Swale n Ure Wharf p Air q Calder a Rotber t Derwent u Dove v Trent w Ankholm X Witham J Conway 1 Clwyd a* Dee b» Weaver e* Meraey d* Ribble e* Luno r» Derwent (*EdeB i 116 MAP OF ENGLAND— ifOBTH. Fio. im Pio. im Fio. 106. MAP OF ENOLAND-MOTH. 811 A a w } A^^%£* jsSl f! ^Hp '« Jjfl\ c^r»r~ { ifct^ I i*'^^^ - L'VV, 1 -^'AlA i: ^ 1 •9 5^^ ^ ^ w ms "^y ftB \y W'S ^tv *« rJP i^A, ^ « 87* 318 DESCRIiTIVB OEOORAPIIY. Pabt III bvBhiro, proaontindf rocky ncnnnry in ovory pictiircMnuo and fkntaitio ahapo ; wliilo in Devon •hire low broad stecpit ovenliadow wide ana l)<>autiml vaici. With onu oxceptioii, the mcmt important rivont of Kngland trnverfle thn breadth of the kingdom : riaing among the woatcru hilla, aiul tlowing ti-ward tlie (.icnnan Ocean, lltoy da not attain that length of courmj which tho cxtont of ita territory in nnolhtir direction would have admitted. Though deficient, however, in magnitude, thoy are numeroua, commodious, and valuable ; flowing through broad valea and widu-Hpreading plains. The Thames, though not tho longoMt, deserves to 1)0 ranked as tho flrst of British rivers. It originates iVom a number of rivulets on the bordcn of Wilts and Oloucestonhire, which, ■1*1'' Rrfennctt to the Map llr si L.l*n(»l»n .. .iluifair p. Bhnwiburr 0. OawMtrir 10. WtllinitoD i. Nawp<>rl .Bumir W. Ab«nralwlih 87. Alwflliiwirn tM. Huuitr Vmwith nt. .UnidkH't flO. thtriidsiKW/ 01, Jiinilgiler Kl. Knifhliin m. «;iunn Vi. Ludluw W. Cloubutr Mor- liiiwr 07. nnwrilcir OH. Itlitdr ' Euuch -- dgworih 10. Uiiuihbiirnufh 20. Mouiil Biirrttl 81. M«ltiin Muwbrar S:i. Curly 84. Iliiutn 8.'). Hiamronl 80. Maiki'l Deeping 87. rruwiand 8''. Hwalilini «». il.illwarh »). WiilK'nch !ll. Iilintli>n ',fl. I.ynii Riiitia 3.1. NarljiiriiUKh :t4. Iiitchnm Xt. Hvvnrt'linrn .ta. KmI [)i'iriitone 71. Tamwiiilh 78. (7>ofa 1 11.1. Iluntinfdon 1 116. Bi. Ivea '■ 117. VVillin«ham '. lia Newmarket ! 110. LittioBailnn '. 180. Bury St. Ed- mund *i 131. Blow Market 182. Uwurth 108. iia 1 i;n. !«. 13B. 140. 141. 133. Diti 184. Kyo las. Pelwnham m WiniiAeM 187. Finmlinthani 138. Soulhwiild 180. Dunwieh i:i0. Baxmundhtm 131. Aldbnrouf h i:iS. Wofldbr J|« 133. Ipewlch 134. Hadleiih 135. WhalAeld 136. pildealun leedham lavenham udbury laverhill Jnton 148. Cambridca 14.3. Caxton 144. Royaton 145. Potion 146. Bedford 147. OIney 148. Newport Pag- nel 140. Fenny Slratfurd 190. Toweatler 151. Buckinaham 198. Braekley 153. Bandbury 154. Kinelon 155. BhipitoD upon Stnur l.W. Tampden 157. Biralfurd on Avon 158. Aleeaier ISO. Eveaham lliO. Wurceiter 161. Penhoro 163. Uplon 163. Ledbury 164. Bromyard 165. Leomintler 166. Wenbly 167. Hereford 1AR. Thriivtnn l«>.Hair ■" 801. 8U1. 806. 807. 8118. m 911. i^ 314. 315. 816. 317. 818. 319. 880. 881. 888. ^: 880. 830. 831. 833. 3:a. 8'M. 2B. 836. 837. 338. 8:i9. 840. 841. 8(8. 843. 844. 845. 846. 847. 848. 840. 810. 331. . Tflf i»to1 4. VVriiigtnn 5. Penalbrd 6. Marahfleld 7. Bradf ird 8. Chippvnhani 0. Calna 10. Wullon Bnuot 11. Mnrlburouah 18. Ilungerfoia 13. IiumDuurnc 14. K. llilny iiiVTli^ham 17. Maidiinnuad 18. Windior 10. Uxbridga 80. Kingatu 81. F.wSlj 88. Croydon 83. Iinndon 81. Woolwich 89. Gravoaend 86. Roehetier 87. Chatham 8H. Sheeineaa 80. Faveraham :I0. Canterbury 31. Margate 38, Bandwiob 3:1, Deal "lover tha 67. Wella 68. Axbriilga •10, Blarkliird 0, Brldgewalai '. WhalohM I, Minehaad . Piiilluek , Combe Martin I. Ilfracomba L Barnitaple . Appleduia I. niaefoid . lla'lland L Torrlii|ton noulh Multon N. llulvarion to. WlYabaeomlM 84^ Welllngloa CS. 7'aunlnn tM, Lungport K7. Bomortun 8H. Ilchealor 8U. Miiburn Port UO. C'atilu Cary 01, Wlncnunlim 08. ShnllMbury 0:l. M'lra 04. VVaiininatur 01. Ilindon 06. Wdlon 07. Sallibury 118. Dciwnlon 00. Hoiiiaey 100. Hiockbildge ibi. Winchetler 108. Bramdaan 10.3. PetaraAold 104. Midhuhit 10.1, 'elAoilh 106. lailemcra 107. Horiham 108. CuckAeM 100. UokAeir 34. Dov 35. Hvtj :«. Wye 37. Aihford 38. Bmnrden 30. Lenham 40. Mnidaiona 41. Wrotham 43. Tunbridge 43. Sevennaka 44. Wnaterham 4,1, R.Giinali ' 46, Rniiale 4,1, R.Giinalead I Rnigi 47. D'.>'l'in« U. Ripley 40. Guildford 50. Gndalming 51. Alton 58. aiiham 53. Rniingitoka ,14. Newbury 55. Whilchuioli 56. Andover 57. Ludgerahall .18. Ameabury SO. Btonohenga 60. Devizea 61. Trowbridge 68. Wettbury 63. Bath 64. Bruton 65. Bhoplon Mallat 1.18. Axmlnatar IM. Chard 1.14. Hiiiiiiun l.M. <:olyion ISll. Sidriioulh 137. KimoulL 1.18, Milvarloa I.Vi, Cullumpton IttU. Cradiion tjT. Chumlaigh !n8. Cruckernwell 6:1. Oakhainplan 64. Halhatlaigh 6,1. Bheapwain m. lloUwurtby 167. Birattun 1(8. Jacobatow int. Cainairoid !7U. Launcvilan 71. Calllngion 173. Tavialook 173. Hiaiifoid Bpiiiay 174. Moralun Hamp' den 175. F.xBier 170. Chudloigh l'/7. Newiiin Buihii 178. Aahbuiton 170 Tuiiieaa JHO. Darlmoulh IHI. K iiif abridge IH3. Modbury m. PlympKin Ead 1H4. Plyuioulfa 18.1. Sallnah m. Hi. Gerinana 187. 1UU. 101. 111. 14. liikeard 188. Looe 1H0, Fowoy . Ilelainn aill. Mnraxion 808, 81, Ivia 80J. Penxanca ...fliaerf. a Welland b Nen Old Bedford d OldOoar e Onae f Wenaoa CColn Iiea i 'rhninea J (7harweH k Kennei 1 Wey m Molo n Medwa o Biour p Rulher q Arun r Avon a Exe t Tamer uTaw » Perrol w Axe X Avon J Beveru * Temo a'Wye b* Taaf c* Towey d» tolA •• Xalwitb f*i»»«jr Pabt in o; while in Devon the breadth of the nan Ocean, Uioy do i(!r direction would eroiii, zomrnodiouR, t of British river*. ice»ton»hiro, which, Book L ENGLAND. in W. .M. ^l in. •Ml. «U, Kt. A fl'. t Ttt. 71. 79. 173. 174. 17.V 1711. vn. 17H. m JW). IHl, 1H3 IKI. IHI. li». IW). 1H7. IflH. IHII. 1UU. lUI. ](N J0». lus! IIIH Kff. IIW. 1U9. aw. SIM. 9U9. !MU. Aimliwitr Ijh.rd MiiMiiun • '"lylcin Hldinnilth Kimoutt Hilvtrtiiq <iiitahrid|« iilbi ^ . JiiiTbury I'lympum Eari flyniiiulh Hallnih Hi. (ierinini {•iikeird Fi)Woy Lnuwllhtel llodmia Ht. Min*er PudaioMr Bt. Michtnl OrainiMiuBd Tfwruny Jrurn Ri'dtulh Penryn tlisluon Mnrniion Ri. Ivi« Peniuiic* ...ftijierf. a Wetland b Neil Old Redrurd d Old Oair e OiiM r VVunioa RCuIn i 'J^hnme* J OharweH k nnnne: 1 Wey m Molo n Mrdwa o Siour p Rulher q A run r Avon a Exe t Tamer uTaw r Perrol w Axe X Avon r Bevcru X 'IVrno a»Wyo b* Taaf c» Tower d'TeiH f*l«VBJ unitins at CricklHile, '°>nn a itreain which in about nine feet broul in miinmcr, and u called the Thamo. Noar (),xford it rcceivoH the ('barwidl and the Iniii, asiumiiiK on iti junction witli the latter nvui the compound naine of Tuinoiia, which hoii boon abbreviated into TharoeH. Atlcr a courso a]ino«t aoutliward to Heading, it wind^ northward through the wooded vale of Henley and Maulunhead, and thence by the caatoUatod hoighti of Windoor. Ita counto to London ii by ('hertoey, Hampton, Twickenham, and Richmond, among tlio maffnilicont wooda and niibcoa of thia parodiae of England. Near Teddington ita current is alightly acted upon by thf xtremo ebb and flow of the tide, which rises higher in thia than in any other river of Fliu.jpe. It divides the capital into two unenual parts, having on its northern bank the citiun of London and WeMtminster, and on its southern the borough of Sotithwark. Below lA)ndun Bridge it is navipblo for vnssels of large burthen ; ita ample channel, and tho spacious docks connected with it, aro there conHtantly flUod with forosta of masts, and seem to contain, as it were, tho wealth of the world. It winds its way to tho ocean through a country presenting few objects of interest, except the vast naval establishmonta situated on the soul I uank of the river. Woolwich claims particular attention, not only on account of Uie royiil doo.kyard, and tlie national dep6t of artillery, but for its military academy, which ranks as the first in tho empire. Tho estuary of tho Medway, opening into the river lVon< Kent, ailbrds commodious sites for tho naval stations of Chatham and Sheemosa. The entire course of tlio Thames is about Urii) miles. Tho Trent, with ita tributary, the northern Ouse, traverses tho whole midland territory of England, and several of its principal manufacturing districts, to which it affords a communi- cation with the eastern, and by canals with tho western, ocean. It rises nriiong tho low Staffordshire hills, and at Burton, it becomes navigable for vessels of moderate sizo. Re- ceiving tho Dove and Derwont, which, aller dashing through the rocky reccHscs of Derby- shire, Imvo already subsided into peaceful streamH, it ixisscs Nottingham, and at Gainsborough becomes navigable for steam-boats, and other vessels of larger burthen. Afler a farther course of a'uout thirty miles, it flows into the Huinber, already rendered a broad eotuary by tho Ousc, which has collected tho principal streams of Yorkshire. The Ouse, formed by tlie confluence of the Aire and the Swale fS-om tlie uplands of the North Riding, is subse- quently augmented by tho Wharfe, The Aire, with its tributaries the Calder and Don, ena- ble it to communicate with all the great manufacturing towns of the West Riding, and the confluonco of the Derwent from tlie East Riding renders it equal in magnitude to tho I'h imes. Tho OuBO, with its branches, forms ono of the most useful and least beautiful of En/lish rivers. It winds a sluggish course through manufacturing districts and rich arable f)jlda witliout any diversity of scenery. The Humbor, formed by tho junction of tho Trent and Ouso, resembles an arm of tho sea ; and ita trade contributes mainly to tho commercial prosperity of Hull. Tlie Severn is the only great stream which runs from north to south for a considerable part of it.s course. Rising in Wales, near the foot of Plinlimmon, it flows through the vales of Montgomery ; and, afler winding round Shrewsbury, directs its course to the southward, through Bomo of the richest and most beautiful plains of England, passing by the cities of WorceutRr, Tewkesbury, and Gloucester. In commercial importance it also ranks high, since it flows through Colebrook Dale, and otiier principal seats of the iron trade ; while Uie tracts on its lower course have for ages been distinguished for tho manufacture of fine wool- lens. Ita navigation is not free from obstructions, but much has been done to obviate these disadvantages, and to connect tlie Severn by canals with the other great rivers. In approach- ing Bristol, it receives tlie Wyo, which, rising in Wales, flows through scenery that renders it the most picturesque of English rivers. Tho Severn then expands into the estuary of the Bristol Channel, tho seat of a commerce once second only to that of the metropolis, but now surpassed by that of Liverpool. The other rivors of England are small ; the Eden, the beautiful river of Cumberland, forms the Sohvay ; the Mersey of Lancashire, with its tributary the Irwell, is important, for the mass of commodities which it conveys from the great manufacturing districts to Liver- pool ; the southern Ouse, combines with the Witham of Lincolnshire in forming that broad, shallow, marshy estuary called the Wash, through which ia exported a considerable quantity of grain from the agricultural districts ; the Tyne and the Tees in the north of England ore the channels of extensive trade ; the Tyne, m particular, which carries down tiio product of the vast coal mines of Newcastle. The lakes of England occur principally in the counties of Cumberland and Westmoreland, which are denominated the country of the lakes. These, of which Windermere, the largest, is only twelve miles long and one bmad, have been raisoil to distinction by the taste of the ago for picturesque beauty, rather dian as geographical features of the country. Their number, which is considerable, entitles them to notice; and a description of them will accom- pany that of the districts to which they belong. Sect. n. — Natural Oeography. This subject will be treated under the heads of Geology, Botany, and Zoology. asM) DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pakt in. SuBtowT. l.—Oeology of England. While in Scotland the prevailing^ formations belong to the primitive and trantiition classes, in England the deposits that most abound are the secondary, tertiary, and alluvial. Hence it is uiat Scotland appears lofty and rugged, when contrasted with the hilly, flat, and low land of England. To enable our readers to form a general conception of the gcognostical structure of England, we shail consider the mineral formations in the following onler : — I, Primitive and Transition. II. Secondary. III. Tertiary. IV. Alluvial. L Primitive and JVansition. These rocks are principally confined to the more moun tamous parts of England, and appear roost abundantly, in Cumberland and some neighbouring counties ; in Wales ; and in Cornwall and Devon. (1.) Cumberland district. This district is bounded to the west and the south by the Irish Sea and Morecombe Bay ; towards the north it descends into the plain of the new red sand- stone, within the basin of the Eden ; and on the east it is boundea by the central carbonifer- ous chain of the north. Within these limits there are two sets of rocks, viz. Plutonian and Neptunian ; the more central parts being Plutonian, and the others Neptunian. The order in which they occur, is as follows : — 1. Granite and Syenite. They form the geognosticdl axis of all this region, and extend from the centre of the Skiddaw range to tiie neighbourhood of Egremont. There is a fine display of the granite in the bed of the Calden, where it is intersected by veins of quartz, ana contains, besides other minerals, molybdena, tungsten, wolfram, and phosphate of lime. 2. A scries of crystalline slaty deposits, forming the centre of the Skiddaw region, extend- ing across Cromac lake, and by the foot of Ennerdale, as far as Denthill, is composed of gneiss, mica slate, hornblende slate, and chiastolite slate. In some parts of Skiddaw and Saddleback the curious mineral named chiastolite occurs : veins of quartz and galena occur in Thomthwaite, Newlands, Loweswater, and other places; a copper-mine was formerly worked in Newlands. The salt springs of Borrowdale issue from these rocks. 8. Deposit of cla^ slate. 4. An enormous formation of a green felspathose slate, intimately associated with porphvry, like that of Snowdonia in Wales, and the Needle's Eye in Scotland. The famous graphite or black-lead mine of Borrowdale is situated in the upper end of the valley of that name, where the graphite occurs in irregular veins associated with calc spar, brown spar, and quartz. The graphite is in nests in these veins, and the veins are contained in a Plutonian rock, viz. fblspar porphyry, which is in some places amygdaloidal. Some nests of graphite have afibrded 30001. wor& of that mineral. 5. Grey wacke, with subordinate beds of limestone enclosing organic remains. A grypheea and tumtella occur near to Kirby-Lonsdale ; a pecten, plagiostoma, trigonia, and patella near to Keswick. On the north side of the geognostical axis the Neptunian formations are repeated, with the exception of the grey wacke series, which is probably buried under the ola red sandstone and mountain limestone ; and on this northern side, notwithstanding its less extensive developement, there is a group of mountams, almost entirely composed of diallage rock, and other minerals ; of which, it is said, no trace occurs in the south. These occupy the place of the green felspar slate and porphyry series of No. 3. of Wales, after- wards to be noticed ; and seem to be in the precise place of the serpentine of the Lizard in Cornwall. Further, there is on the west side of Cumberland another formation of granite and syenite, which imderlies, traverses, and overlies the clay slate, Na 3., and is considered the great centre cf elevation of the region. It never overlies, it is said, the mica slate, chiastolite slate, &c. ; but is probably connected with veins of syenite, and other detached masses of crystalline rock, which do not belong to the ordinary rocks of superposition. A range of transition limestone extending from Mellam in Cumberland to the neighbourhood of Wasdale Head in Westmoreland, nearly across the whole region we are now describing, is finally cut off by % protruding mass of sranite, newer than the limestone. (2.) Wales, including the Ide of Angtesea. The Neptunian and Plutonian rocks m this extensive district are arranged as fellows : — 1st, Oranite rising among the clay slate strata in the Isle of Anglesea. 2dly, A group of slaty rocks consisting of mica slate, chlorite slate, and quartz rock. These appear upheaved by the subjacent granite. They occur in the Isle of Ang[Iesea. In tliis island are the great Mona marble aira Paris copper mmes, in which the ore is common copper pyrites. The Mona marble, a beautiful compound of marble and ser- pentine, occurs among these rocks. Sdly, A great group containii^f a vei^ large proportion of felspathose rocks and porphyries. Of these the district of Snowdonia is probably the lowest portion. Some of the slates of the Snowdon range contain organic remains, princi- pally or shells, some of which appear referable to the genus Proaucta. 4thly, A vast deposit of clay slate. Sthly, Greywacke, which forms the uppermost or newest member of the great series of deposits. Connected with these series are great beds of limestone. Fossil organic remains are met with in this series, and much more abundantly than in the deeper-seated slates. Corals of various kinds, crinoid animal shells, and Crustacea occur among these rocks, in a fossil state. Ot'fih, the remains of bones, teeth, and the defensive Part III. ition classtw, vial. Hence flat, and low gcognoatical ig onler ; — I, more moiin leighbouring by the Irish ew red sand- il carbonifor- 'lutonian and . The order , and extend lerc is a fine ns of quartz, ite of lime, jfion, cxtend- composed of Skiddaw and plena, occur vaa formerly ith porphyry, ous graphite f that name, vn spar, and i a Plutonian i of graphite A ffryphtea , and patella ^nations are ed under the istanding its composed of uth. These Vales, after- 13 Lizard in n of granite s considered } mica slate, ler detached )osition. A ighbourhood describing, txsks in this ate strata in te slate, and > the Isle of n which the }le and ser- e proportion irobably the ains, princi' ily, A vast *A«vaA«WA VA limestone, than in the tacea occur le defensive Bool I. ENGLAND. 891 f)n-oonos named ichthyodoruliteg, are met with. In the lists of orgtuiic remains of these slateii we And extinct genera, and genera that still exist : and, judging from the nature of Uie remains, we infer that some of the animals were inhabitants of deep, others of shallow, seas. The organic remains in greywacke rocks are rare, and form a very small proportion to the extent of the rock. (3.) Cornwall and Devon. In this district of England the rocks of the primitive class are arranged in the following order : — Ist, Granite. There are four great projecting masses of granite rising through me bounding slaty strata : they send arms or veins among the Neptunian strata, and have upraised and variously modified them. The granite is traversed by contemporaneous veins of granite, and also encloses contemporaneous masses and veins of a compound of quartz and schorl, named schorl-rock. It is also traversed by veins ot porphyry, called elvan. 2dly, Resting upon, or adjacent to, the granite there is a vast deposit of clay slate, named, in the county, killas. It abounds in ores, hence is sometimes named metalltferous slate. Where in the vicinity of granite, there is interposed gneiss or mica slate, or both ; and in many parts it contains subordinate beds of greenstone, felspathose slate, &c. 3dly, Apparently above the preceding slates there occura, in two places, a form- ation of serpentine, which, in the Lizard, contains dialUtffe rock, talc slate, hornblende slate, and mica slate, and appears to occur below the greywacke. 4thly, Greywacke. This, which ajmears to form a great mass, is the uppermost and newest member of the stratified series. It contains considerable beds of limestone, including various organic remains. Mines in Corntcall and Devon. Cornwall and Devonshire present three principal mining districts. The part of Cornwall situated in the vicinity and to the southward of Truro, tlie neighbourhood of St. Austle, and the neighbourhood of Tavistock. The first of these dis- tricts is the most important of the three, from the number and richness of its mines, in which copper, tin, and lead are obtained. The ores of copper, which are principally copper pyrites and gray copper, form regular veins, having a direction nearly from E. to W. in the rock named killas ; and sometimes in the granite which projects amongst the slaty strata. The tin occurs principally in veins, which, like the preceding, traverse the killas and granite. They have also, verv often, a direction nearly from E. to W. ; they have a different inclina- tion firom that of the copper veins, which mtcrsect and interrupt them, and which are, consequently, newer. The tin also occurs in contemporaneous masses and veins, and dis- seminated through the granite. Some veins afford, at the same time, copper and tin ; but most of them produce only one of these metals in any (juontity. There are also in Cornwall cross veins, that intersect the veins both of copper and tin ; these contain argentiferous galena, native silver, and ores of silver. Near to Tavistock there are veins of copper, tin, and lead. Mines of antimony occur at Huel Boys in Devonshire, and at Saltash in Cornwall. The tin and copper ores of^Corn wall are accompanied with arsenical pyrites, which is turned to profit by manufacturing oxide of arsenic from it. II. Secondary Rocks, The rocks of this class form the largest portion of the surface of England, and the districts composed of them are generally flat or hilly ; never assuming the mountainous character, unless where the old red sandstone or mountain limestone appears. We shall now describe the different formations in the order in which they occur, beginning with the deeper-seated or oldest (the old red sandstone), and finishing our view with an account of the newest, or chalk. (1.) Old red sandstone. This sandstone, which is distinguished from those newer in the series by its greater hardness and red colour, occurs in greatest abundance in Herefordshire and Brecknockshire. Smaller portions occur in the Cumberland district, the Isle of Man and the Isle of Anglesea. (2.) Mountain limestone, metalliferous limestone, or carboniferous limestone. This rock is generally grey coloured ; sometimes, however, it exhibits various tints when it is worked as an inferior kind of marble. Its firacture is compact, lustre glimmering, and opaque or translucent on the edges. Its structure is sometimes oolitic, as is the case in the vicinity of Bristol. Veins of calcareous spar frequently traverse it, and occasionally contribute to the beauty of the varieties used as marble. Sometimes remains of the encrinus are so abundant in it, that it is named encrinal limestone. Its name carboniferous is from its sometimes occurring along with coal, as that of metalliferous from its, in some districts, abounding in ores. It abounds in organic remains of various genera of corals, radiaria, and shells ; also some genera of Crustacea and fishes. These bear a strong resemblance to the fossils of the transition limestone in the greywacke districts. Derbyshire, Northumberland, and Cumber- land afford fine displays of this formation. Mines in mountain limestone. The mountain limestone forms several mountLinous dis- tricts in England and Wales ; in which there are three districts rich in lead mines. The first of these comprehends the upper parts of the valleys of the Tyne, the Wear, and the Tees, in the counties of Cumberland, Durham, and York. Its principal mines are situated near Aldston Moor in Cumberland. The veins of sulphuret of lead or galena, which form the principal object of the works, traverse alternately beds of limestone and sandstone. They are remarkable^ from the circumstance that they suddenly become thinner and poorer on Vol. I 2Q 368 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pabt ni. paasin; fnmv the limestone into the eondstoue ; an arrangement probably connected with ■ome eleciro-magnetic action. There ia also a copper mine S. W. of Aldston Moor. The ore is common yellow copper pyrites, which is associated with galena in a vein of great extent, and which does not seem to belong to the same formation as the other veins in this county. The iron mines of Ulverston are in this district. The ore is red hematite, which traverses the limestone in the form of veins ; some of which are said to be 80 yards wide. Near Whitehaven great masses of reniform hematite alternate with red beds of mountain limestone. The second metalliferous district is situated in the northern part of Derbyshire, and the contiguous parts of the neighbouring counties. The districts called Peak and Kings- field are the richest in ore. The blende, associated with the lead, is worked as an ore, and zinc is obtained from it A vein of copper pyrites occurs at Ecton in StaiTordshire, on the borders of Derbyshire. The Derbyshire vems have been long famous on account of Uie jeautiii'l minerals they produce, especially ^uor spars, and ulso from the interruption which Jie metalliferous veins experience on meeting with trap rocks, called loadstone, which occurs alternately with the limestone. The third metalliferous district is situated in Flintshire and Denbighshire, which form the N. E. part of Wales. It is the most productive next to Aldston Moor. Besides lead, it furnishes also calamine or true ore of zinc. The mines are situated partly in the mountain limestone, partly in various rocks of older formation. To the S. W. of this district there are also leaid mines in Shropshure : like the preceding, they occur partly in mountain limestone and portlv in older rocks. They yield a great annual return of lead. Some mines of galena and of calamine are mentioned as occurring in the Mendip hills to tlie south of Bristol ; but they appear to be now abandoned. Many beautifbl and interesting minerals are met with in these mines. Of the vem stones, quart?- in Com< wall, is the most abundant; while it is fluor spar and calcareous spar in Derbyshire; in Yorkshire heavy spar or sulphate of barytes ; and in Cumberland, heavy spar and fluor spar. (3.) Coal formation. This, which is the most important of the secondary deposits, follows in the regular succession the mountain limestone, on which it therefore rests. The lower beds of tiiis deposit sometimes alternate with the upper strata of the mountain limestone. The rocks of which it is composed are shale, sandstone, clay ironstone, indurated clay, and coal, alternating in various ways with each other. The shale, sandstones, ironstones, and clays contain numerous ibssil remains of extinct species of plants, rarely of animals, the animal remains occurring principally in the limestone. No countir of the same size in the world afibrds so much coal as England, end nowhere has its natund and economical history been so well examined as in this island. Me'-srs. Conybeore and Phillips arrange the different coal districts in the follo\Ying manner : — 1. Coal district north of the Ti 3nt, or grand Penine chain. — 1. Northumberland and Durham. 2. North of Yorkshire. 3. South York, Nottingham, and Derby. 4> South of Derby. 5. North Stafford. 6. South Lancashire. 7. North Lancashire. 8. Cumberland and Whitehaven. 9. Foot of Crossfell. 2. Central coal district. — 1. Ashby de la Zouch. 2. Warwickshire. 3. South Staflbrd or Dudley.' 4. Indications near the Lickey hill, &c. 3. Western coal district, divided into, 1. North Western or North Welsh. — 1. Isle of Anglesea. 2. Flintshire. 4. Middle western or Shropshire, — 1. Plain of Shrewsbury. 2. Colebrook-dale. 3. The Glee hills ad South Shropshire. 4. Near the Abberley hill. 5. South Western. — 1. South Wales. 2. JTorest of Dean. 3. South Gloucester and Somerset. These different districts are accurately described in Conybeare and Phillips's Oeology of England and Wales. Changes of the coal fields from the British Channel to the Tweed. The great coal fields in England experience a great change of structure in their range from tlie Bristol Chumel to the valley of the Tweed : these changes we shall now enumerate, using the view given t^ Sedgwick. In the various coal basins on the Bristol Channel, the limestone strata are develop only in the lower, and the coal beds in the upper, part of the series ; and the two members are separated by nearly unproductive deposits of millstone-grit and shale. The arrangement in Derbyshire is nearly the same ; there, however, the millstone-grit is more vari»l, and is of very great thickness, and subordinate to the great deposit of shale, and, here and there, very thick masses of a peculiar argillaceous sandstone, disposed in a U^ar manner. On the re-appearance of the carboniferous limestone, at the base of the Yorkshire chain, we still find the same general analogies of structure ; enormous deposits of limestone form the lowest part, and the coal fields the highest part of the whole series; and, as in the former instances, we also find the millstone-grit occupving an intermediate position, Th'8 Tr.i!!stono»grit, however, becomes a very complex ueposit, with Bcveral subordinate beds of coal ; and is separated fVom the great inferior calcareous group (the «car limestone), not merely by the great shale and shale-limestone, as in Derbyshire, but by n ■till more complex deposit, in some places not less than 1000 feet thick ; in which nvn groups of limestone strata alternate with great masses of sandstone and shale, abound in Pabt ni. onnectcd with m Moor. The vein of great ir veins in this ematite, which 30 3rard8 wide, da of mountain : of Derbyshire, eak and Kings- as an ore, and irdshire, on the account of the srruption which e, which occurs in Flintshire uctive next to The mines are formation. To )receding, they a great annual icurring in the Many beautifbl juart". in Com- Derbyshire; in and fluor spar. leposits, follows s. The lower tain limestone. rated clay, and ironstones, and of animals, the ame size in the lomical history ige the different lumberland and . 4. South of 8. Cumberland South Stafford th.—l. Me of [-dale. 8. The jrloucester and s's OeotogyoJ' Teat coal fields Iristol Channel the view given one strata are erles; and the Tit and shale, illstone-grit is sposit of shale, , disposed in a !ie base of the rmous deposits ! whole series; 1 intermediate — ;*i- 1 Willi Bcvciai proup (the »cof shire, but by n in which nvn ale, abound in 0OOK L ENGLAND. 828 impressions of coal plants, and three or four thin beds of good coal extensively worked fst domestic use. In the range of the carboniferous chain from Stainmoor, through the ridge of Crossfell tb the confines of Northumberland, we have a repetition of Uie some general phenomena. On ,'ta eastern flanks, and superior to all its component groups, is the coal field of Durham. Under the coal field, we have, in a regular descending order, the millstone-grit, the altema- tions of limestone and coal measures nearly identical with those of the Yorkshire chain, and at the base of all is the great scar limestone. The scar limestone begins, however, to be subdivided by thick masses of sandstone and carbonaceous shale, of which we had hardly a trace in Yorkshire ; and gradualljr passes into a complex deposit, not distinguishable from the next superior division of the series. Along with this gradual change is a great devel- opement of the inferior coal beds alternating with the limestone ; some of which on the north-eastern skirts of Cumberland, are three or four feet in thickness, and are now worked for domestic use. The alternating beds of sandstone and shale expand more and more as we advance towards the north, at the expense of all the calcareous groups, which gradually thin off and cease to produce any impress on the features of the country. And thus it is, that the lowest portion of the whole carboniferous system, from Bewcastle Forest, along the skirts of the Cheviot Hills, to the valley of the Tweed, has hardly a single feature in common with the inferior part of the Yorkshire chain ; but, on the contrary, has almost all the most ordinary external characters of a coal formation. Corresponding to this change, is also a graduu thickening of carbonaceous matter in some of Uie lower groups. Amny coal works have been opened upon this line ; and near the right bank of the Tweed (almost on a parallel with the great scar limestone) is a coal field, with five or six good eeams, some of which are pretty extensively worked. The beds of sandstone, shale, and limestone, forming the base m the carboniferous system in the basin of the Tweed, are often deeply tinged with oxide of iron ; and have been compared sometimes with the new, sometimes with uie old, red sand- stone: to the new red sandstone they have no relations; "and I would rather compare them," says Sedgwick, " especially as the old red sandstone of the north of Fuiglond seldom exist but as a conglomerate, and is seen in that form on the flanks of the Cheviot Hills, with the red beds of mountain limestone and sandstone, which, both in Cumberland and Lan- ca.shire, sometimes form the base of the whole carboniferous series." These coal fields are traversed and variously deranged by great faults ; interesting descriptions of which, particularly those in the northern fields, have been published by Messrs. Phillips and Sedgwick. The coal strata, or metals as they are sometimes called, are in some parts of England affected by Plutonian trap rocks, but in a very inferior degree to what takes place in Scot- land. The principal trap rock is greenstone, which appears in the form of overlying masses, as at Clee Hill and at Dudley ; m the form of mtersccting tabular masses or dikes (veins), as in Northumberland ond Durham. Sometimes the trap mass has been forced between the strata, when it has the character of a bed, or these bed-like mosses may be some of the rocks of the coal formation softened and recrystallised in situ by heat from below. The great whin sill of Northumberland, and the toadstone beds of Derbyshire, are examples of these trap beds. The strata near the trap frequently appear changed, the clays hardened, the limestone rendered crystalline and magnesian, the coal charred, and the sandstone hardened, &c.; and these strata are either moved fi-om their original position, or are imchanged. Although rather foreign to our subject, we may, as an illustration of the importance of the coal formation to England, mention the quantity of iron manu&ctured, and of coal con- sumed, in the carboniferous district of Wales. The quantity of iron, according to Mr. Forster, annually manufactured in Wales,, has been calculated at 270,000 tons. Of this quantity a proportion of about three-fourths is made into bars, and one-faurth sold as pigs and castings. The quantity of coal required for its manu&cture on the average of the whole, includmg that used by engines, workmen, &c. will be about 5^ tons for each ton of iron ; the annual consumption of coal by the ironworks will, therefore, be about 1,500,000 tons. The quantity used in the smelting of copper ore imported into Wales firom Cornwall, in the manu&cture of tin-plate, forging of iron for various purposes, and for domestic uses, may be calculated at 850,000, which makes altogether the annual consumption in Wales, 1,850,000 tons. (4) Magnesian limestone formation. The upper part of the coal formation has some- times a red colour with an arenaceous and conglomerated character. Above or resting upon it we have the magnesian limestone deposit. This deposit extends through Yorkshire and Durham. Its lower part is said to be separated firom the coal formation by a deprait of sand and sandstone, with occasional red marl and gypsuin. The magnesian limestone itself con- sists m its lower part of a bituminous marl slate, abounding in fossil fishes of the genua Pcdaothrissum; the middle and upper parts being a yellowish small granular or glimmer- mg magrjosian limestone. The organic character of this limestone approaches nearly tt Vii DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III that of tlie mountain limestone already described. It contains Prodwtee, Vihich, however do not occur higher in thu series ; also Spirifera, a tribe found as high as the oolite. (5.) Variegated or new red tanditone, with the red variegated mnrl deposit. Aa the idiell lunestone is wanting in England, the variegated sandstone and the red and variegated marls come together, and may here, therefore, be viewed as one formation. They rest immediately upon the magnesian limestone, but of the two sets the marl appears in general to be the uppermost or newest The sandstone is of a looser texture than that of the old red sandstone deposit, has a red or variegated colour, and tiie strata are generally horizontal. The marls arc red or variegated in colour. In tliese sandstones and marls, beds and great masses or nodules of gypnum occur, as in Derbyshire, Staflbrdshire, &c. All the salt mines in England are situated in this deposit. At Northwich there is an extensive deposit of solid rock saltj forming two bods, together not less than 60 feet n thickness. These beds are supposed to form large insulated masses of this mineral, extending in length about a mile and a hidf, and in breadth about 1300 yards. The "alt works at Droitwicn in Worcester- shire are also in this red marl deposit. Iron-sand and ioerine are said to occur in this sand- stone on the bonks of the Mersey opposite Liverpool ; and in other places sulphuret of cop- per, gray oxide of cobalt, and black oxide of manga.nese occur in the sandstone or its marls. It forms the surface of vast tracts extending witii little interruption from the northern bank of the Tees in Durham to tho southern coast of Devonshire. We find a tract in the great plain in the centre of England of about 80 miles in length and sixty in breadth, principally covered with this deposit ; several islands of the older rocks, however, rising, in various places, through it These are, Ist, the syenite, greenstone, and slate district ot Charnwood forest m Leicestershire ; 2dly, the coal district surrounding Ashby de la Zouch in the same county; connected with which are several patches of tho carboniferous magnesian lime- stone, and a patch of millstone-grit at Stanton-bridge on the Trent ; 3dly, the coal-field of War-.vickshire ; 4th!y, the coal-field in tho south of Staflbrdshire, with the transition lime- stone on which it rests; 5thly, the lower and nortlicrn range of the Lickey hill, near Broms- grove in Worcestershire, which exhibits strata, probably of transition quartz rock. Some trap rocks occur in tliis formation at Upton Pyne, a village five miles north of Exeter, and at otiier points near that town. (6.) Lias and oolite formation. This great formation occupies a zone having nearly 80 miles in average breadth, extending across the island fiom Yorkshire on the north-east, to Devonshire on the south-west It is eminently remarkable on account of the number and variety of fossil organic remains which it contains, and its wide distribution not only in England, but also in many other parts of the world. In this formation, at Stonesficld, the first or earliest remains of mammiferous animals were found. Crocodiles and many vast and strangely organised reptiles occur in this doposit, with a vast variety of shells, many radiaria, and also corals. Fishes are z\iw> met with in a fossil state, but by no means so fire- quently as reptiles. Fossil plants of various tribes also occur, and thus add to the organic variety of this remarkable formation : they belong to the Algce, Equisetacea, FUices, Oy- cadea, Conifera, and LUia. Beds of coal, generally of an indinerent quality, occur in difllerent parts of the country in this deposit (7.) Wealden clay and Purbeck stone. This formation, which lies immediately upon the oolite, consists of limestones, sands, and clays abounding in fossil organic remams, principally of terrestrial and firesh-water plants and animals, marine species being rare. In the lower part of this formation, in the neighbourhood of Weymouth, there is a bed of black earth, called the dirt bed, containing, in a silicificd state, long prostrate trunks of coniferous trees, and stems of Cycadcoidea. These trunks lie partly sunk into the deep black earth, like fallen trees on the sur&ce of a pat bog, and partly covered by the incumbent Purbecl( limestone. Many trunks of trees .use remain erect, with their roots attached to the black soil in which they grew, and their upper part in the limestone ; and show that the surface of tlie subjacent PorUand stone was for some time dry land, and covered with a forest ; and probably in a climate such as admits the growth of the modem Zamia and Cycas, remains of these genera being found here. This forest has been submerged ; first, beneath the fi'esh waters of a lake or estuary, in which were deposited the Purbeclc beds, and sands and clays of tlie Wealden formation (amounting together to nearly 1000 feet), and subsequently beneath the salt water of an ocean of sufficient depth to accumulate all the great marine formations of green sand and chalk that rest u]^n it (8.) Chalk formation toith green sand. This great deposit consists principally of chalk, with less extensive subjacent beds of green sand and tufniceous chalk. It stretches, with little interruption, fix>m Flamborough Head on the coast of Yorkshire, to near Sidmouth on the coast of jDevonshue ; forming a range of hills often of some hundred feet high, and of whii h the loost preripltous face is generally on the north-west side. From this long range several nuuges shoot toward the east and south-east Chalk does not often bear the charac ter of a level or flat country ; but, on the contrary, is subject to perpetual undulation of sur< face, the hills bein(|[ remarkable for their smootli rounded outline, and the deep hollows aiul mdentations on their sidea Part III lich, however oolite. oiit. Aa the nd varicgatecl They rest urs in general hat of the old lly horizontal, eda and great he Bait mines epofiit of solid lese beds are t about a mile n Worcester- ' in this sand- ))nirel of cop- or its marls, lorthern bank in the great principally 1^, in various ot Charnwood h in the same ^ncsian lime- coal-field of ansition lime- , near Broms- rock. Some f Exeter, and ing nearly 80 north-east, to ) number and n not only in tonesfield, the nd many vast shells, many means so fre- the organic FUices, C^ lity, occur in idiately upon tnic remams, iing rare. In L bed of black of coniferous > black earth, lent Purbeck to the black he surface of 1 forest ; and teas, remains lath the fresh ids and clays BubsequenUy ^eat marine illy of chalk, retches, with Sidmouth on tiigh, and of I long range r the charac ation of sur« hollows aiul Book I. ENGLANIX The upper part of this formation, through a great part of En^fland, is characterised by the presence of common gun-flint, arranged in thin beds or in variously-shaped masses, dis- posed more or less in parallel lines. In the lower part of the formation the flints becomo less and less abundant, and at length entirely disappear. This arrangement, however, is not always to be observed, for in some places the lower chalk abounds in flints. In the chalk fbrmation, the upper and middle parts are of chalk, while the lower and under are of sands, sandstones, and cla^s. The upper part may be considered an original deposit, the matter derived fVom the mterior of the earth ; the lower of a mechanical and alluvial nature. Chalk abounds in fossil remains of animals, and also contains fossilised plants. Corals in great variety, radiated animals, particularly cchinites, are in vast numbers; shells of all the grand divisions and in great variety add to the zoological interest of the fbrmation, which is further heightened by the fossil crabs, fishes, and reptiles, occasionally met with in it. The plants are C(n\ferva, Fuci, Zostera, Cycadea, with dicotyledonous wood perforated by some boring animal. The formation, as it occurs in England, appears to have been variously elevated and depressed at different times by some subterranean actions ; but, as fiir as we know, it does not anywhere occur in contact with trap or other Plutonian rocks. III. Tertiary rocha, Hitlierto, in England, these deposits have been found only in what are called the London basin and the Me of Wifrht basin ; two spaces conjectured formerly to have had the basin shape, but now more or less filled with tertiary rocks ; an opinion, however, which the late observations of Professor Buckland have shown to be less plausible than has been generally believed. The boundary of the first of these supposed basins may be stated, generally, as a line running from the inner edge of the chalk, south of Flam- borough Head, in Yorkshire, nearly south, till it crosses the Wash, then south-west to the upper part of the valley of the river Kennet, near Hungerford, in Wiltshire ; ond thence trending south-east to the south of the Thames, and the north-west angle of the Isle of Thanet : in all these directions the boundary line is formed by the chalk hills ; on the east side, the boundary is the coast of the German Ocean. The boundaries of the Isle of Wight basin may be stated as follows : — on the north, a few miles south of Winchester ; on the south, a little north of Carisbrook in the Isle of Wight ; on the east, Brighton ; and on the west, Dorchester. It is everywhere circumscribed by chalk hills, excepting where broken in by the channel between the Isle of Wight and the main land. The difrercnt members of the tertiary series met with in England, arc named Plastic clay, London clay, Bagthot sands, the Freshwater formations of the Isle of Wight, and the Crag. — Plastic clay. This deposit consists of a plastic clay with gravel beds, alternating with beds of sand (sometimes ffl a state of sandstone) and clay. Its organic remains are principally marine shells, with .avers of lignite or brown coal. — London clay. This is a bluish or blackish clay, sometimes BO much impregnated with carbonate of lime as to form a kind of compact marl. Layers or nodules of septaria (a calcareous concretion) frequently occur in it. It is the great clayey deposit on which London is built It has been bored to a depth of 700 feet, without reach- ing its bottom. The highest point it attains is the summit of High Beach in Essex, being 7^ feet above the sea. It abounds in fbssil organic remains from the animal as well as from the vegetable kingdom. Crocodiles, turtles, fishes, and crabs have been observed ; but these are few in number compared with the host of fbssil shells. These shells are often very beautifully preserved, frequently retaining the appearance of recent spficies. There are very few genera of recent shells which have not some representative in this formation, but the specific character is usually different; on the other hand, but few of the extinct genera, BO frequent in tlie older formations, occur in this. The Isle of Sheppey, formed of £x)ndon clay, afibrds a vast variety of fossil fruits and seeds, very few of which agree with any known seed-vessels ; many of them are conjectured to belong to tropical plants, some to the cocoa-nut and spice tribes. Fragments of wood pierced by a shell animal, resembling the Teredo navalis, are met with ; a fiict which shows that the wood may have floated about in the sea. — Bagshot sands. These rest upon the London clay ; they consist of sand, with greenish-coloured clay, variously coloured marls, containing grains of green sand, and fossil trochi and pectinites. — Freshwater formations of the Isle of W^ht and Hampshire. The Freshwater strata of the Isle of Wight are divided into two deposits by a rock characterised by the presence of marine remains, and named the upper marine formation, from being a supposed equivalent to the sands which intervene between the two freshwater deposits of Paris. The lower freshwater deposit of Binstead, near Rjrde, consists of a limestone firmed of fragments of freshwater shells, white shell marl, siliceous limestone, anu .nd. One tooth of an Anaplotherium and two teeth of a Palaotherium have been found in the lower marly beds of the (quarries at Binstead. In the same quarries several rolled fragments of pachydermatous animals, and the jaw of an anir/ial allied to the musk-f'eer tribe. In Colwell Bay the upper part of this deposit contains a mixture of fVeshwater and marine shells. — The upper marine formation. This deposit of calcareous beds abounds with freshwater shells In the lower part, but in the upper part wo find marine shells ; hence it is conjectured to have been formed in an estuary. — Vp^er freshwater formation. This consists principally of yellowish white marls. The organic rensains are either freshwater or land. The ireo- VoL. L 28 396 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part DL logical hiitorv of the tertiary deposits in England has not yet been placed m direct con- uexion with that of similar deposits on the continent of Europe. No trap or granite rocka have hitherto been met with in England in anv way connected with the tertiary strata. IV. Alluvial rocki. Nearly the whole of England is more or loss covered with alluvium, or debris of previously existing rbcks : thus it occurs on mountain ridges, and on the sides and bottoms of valleys; it is spread over plains, fills up, wholly or purtially, fissures in rooks, and caves, and cavoma, and forms beacnes and otlier accumulations of greater or lesser extent on the sea coast. It varies in age, fh>m the oldest called diluvium, which vtanda in immediate connexion with the crag or upper tertiary deposit, to the newest, those formins at present through the agency of tlie atmosphere, spiings, lakes, rivers, and the waves and currents of the ocean. It encloses numerous remains of plants and animals, either more or less mberalized, or simply bleached : those of tlio oldest dcpoeits appear to be of ani'.nal8, and sometimes of plants, which are cpparently extinct ; whue tlio newer enclose remains only of living animal and vegetable species. Although our limits do not allow ua to enter into details on this very important and curious department of geology, we may remark, that the characters and mode" of distribution of these alluvia are, m many instances, intimately connected with risings and depressions of the land ; and consequently with apparent sinking and rising of the waters of tlie ocean, and the violent agitations sometimes induced in the great mass of the ocean, anri also in lakes, by changes in the level of the solid parts of the globe. . _ I. • Sdbsbot. 2. — Botany. ...! w :,(.,. , The botany of the different parts of the British empire is so similar, that we propose to treat under one head that of England, Scotland, Ireland, and their adjacent islands. Extending through eleven dugrees of latitude, Great Britam includes a considerable vari- ety of climate, but everywhere, more or less tempered by the surrounding ocean ; so that, in no (.Tt of the island, except on the mountains, or high table-lands, can Uie temperature be compajred to similar latitudes, upon the European, much less upon the American conti- nent let, from its proximity to the tbrmer, the vegetation is, with few exceptions, similar to that of the adjacent districts of Europe. Although in consequence of the un&vourable summers, the fre<^uent obscurity of the sun, the damp and foggy atmosphere, it is not poch sible, without artificial heat and protection, to bring many of the fruits of more favoured climates to perfection ; vet the mildness of the winter renders it easy to introduce and to naturalise plants of much more southern latitudes : so that tlie gardens, parks, shrubberies, and even forests, are adorned with the most varied vegetation, producing the most beautiful flowers, or the most valued timbers. On the extreme southern coast of England and Ireland, tlie native vegetables of the warmer temperate zone are successfully grov u in the open air, and como to considerable perfection. In the south of Devonshire, the oringe and lemon trees are loaded with fruit of the finest kind, trained, indeed, to a wall, but without protection, or only provided with it during a very short portion of the wmter months ; the Lemon-scented Vervain (Lippia eitri^ora, formerly called Verbena triphylla, becomes quite a tree, without any artificial protection ; the American Agave, the creeping Cereus, the Prickly Pear, myrtles firom the south of Europe ; the Tea, Camellias and other Chuiose and Japanese plants, thrive well in the open air, as well as the Magnolias, and many other trees, fhim tne southern states of North America, whose native latitudes lie many degrees nearer to the tropics. The only two floras of Great Britain, whicH are so complete as to demand particuJhr atten- tion, are Sir J. E. Smith's English Flora, anu Gray's Arrangement of British Plants , Jie former classed according to the Linnman system, ^.-^ending, however, only to the end of the class Polyganiia, and the first order of the class Cryptogiuul:^ Filices. Gray's Flora includes the whole of the British vegetables, arranged according to the natural method, and is the only one that approaches, however deficient it may still be, to any thing lUce a catalogue of our present state of knowledge of the Cryptogamia. Among the Phsnogamous plants however, Mr. Gray has included a g:'eat number that are only known in a state of cultiva^ tion, as has been done by De Candolle, in his Flore Francaise, and many other continental botanists. We have, therefore, deemed it convenient thus to give a list of the plantbt, according to each of these authors ; and the increased number m the columns of species according to Mr. Gray, will be thus easily accounted for. Book wbloh OIM Namt Book I. ENGLAND. 88T' A liMT of the Number of BpMtat of Britlili Plaiitf, arranged ■oeonUng to the CItnei and principal Famlllea to wbieh Ibey btlong; exbibltkng the relative proportion which tbeie latter bear to the whole of the reipectiva Olaiaei.* Namei nf the Natural Famlllea. Fungi AlB« Uchene> Ilepaticm, by Hooker.. MuRci, by Hooker Fllicei AcOTTLEDOIf M QramineB Cyperaccai JunceiD and Rcitlacev Olumacoa) OrchideiB Monocotyledonei cietcris . MOKOCOTTLIDONgl .... Conifers Amentacen Euphoibiaceie Berophnl. and OrobanchsD '.nbiata and Verbcne. Boragineie Erlclneie and Pyroles. CampanulacoB CompoaitB Rublacen Umbellifbra Roeaeen LegumlnoM MalvBceB Caryophyllen Cruciftra Ranunculaces DIcotyledonei caters . DiCOTTLinOMU - - 2045 - - 416 - - 1220 It must be remarked, that in Cyperacea, Juncea, Salix, SaxifraffOt Rosa, Rubus, and some others, the species are not formed on the same rules as m Smith's English Flora ; and therefore, before drawing a parallel between these orders in Scotland, and m the whole of Britain, a considerable number of species ought to be added. To make this comparison, then, about twenty species may be added to the Monocotyledones, and about fifty (say forty- seven), to the Dicotyledonous plants, making these two, 280 and 870 ; whence tlie Monoco- tyledones of Scotland are to the whole of those in the British dominions as one to one and a quarter, or as four to five ; and the Dicotyledones as eight to eleven. Ireland possesses a flora which partakes of the nature of those of England and Scotland. A list of the pheenogamous plants has been recently published by Mr. J. T, Mackay, of the Dublin College Botanic Gaiden. It exhibits a much poorer vegetation thaa its sister island, including only 034 species; of which there are, 41 Filices; 2i.\ Monocotyledones, and 682 Dicotyledones. So that the proportion of Filices to Pheenogamous plants is as 1 to 21^ ; Monocotyledones to Phenogaroous plants, 1 to 4} ; Dicot^ledone'J to Phaonogamous plant", 1 to 1^. The proportion of Irish Monocotyledones to British Mcuocotyledones (accordi';if; to the species of Smith) is as 1 to Ij, or as 3 to 5 : of Irish Dicotyledones, 1 to If, or as 3 to 5. * Drawn up by O. A. q. of Edinburgh. fThe proportioni in the CryptogamU will bo fbund probably much more conect for Scotland than thote given In the Britiah table are for the whole ... Britain ; nwini to the researches mad'j In that tribe by Dr. Oreville, and Captain Carmichael ; particularly by the latter in the Fungi and AIkk ; the discovpries of that gentleman alone 1 those two groups, in one small district ( Appin) in the west highlands of f>cotland. amount to morv apeeiof thas were previously described at inhabiting the whole of the British douiinionr. 3tS DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part HI Fow, •ndcml, of tho npocKii* of pianta now oniimeratod na natives of Enffland, Scotlanu and Irnianil, and tho adjacent inl«,to, con be considorod as oxchisivoly bolnnginf; to thew oountrioM. For thou(;lt thore are many wliicli aro not rofbrrcd to as BpccicH in tiio woi!nning vast 1 Beech are ctraordinary ig counties. )pse woods, nitishdomr Book I. ENGLAND. m nions. It extends to lat 60°, on the continent in Ruatia, and 64° in Norway; and if in Scot- land oaks are u.* Iedlar may be advantageously planted. The Apple, Pear, the Plum of various kinds, the Peach, Nectarine, and Apricot ; all, according to soil, exposure, and other local circumstances, ripen their fruit in tho open air, if aiTonJed the protec- tion of a wall, as high north as InvemcHS, and some of the most hardy ones much higher ; but '■ the wont of sun must ever be a hindrance to tho thorough perfecting of good fhiit in the north of Scotland. Of the various kmdfT of Com, which are used aa food for man or cattle, Wheat, Barley, Here, Bigg, Oata, and Rye are the universal crops ; and these all succeed in situations not too much elevated above the level of the sea, as far to the northward as Inverness, beyond which the wheat becomes a very uncertain crop ; and even considerably south of Inverness, to the north of the Forth and Clyde, in lat. 66°, the cultivation of wheat is almost . 'holly confined to the eastern side of the country, the west being the district for pasture. In regard to the height at which certain plants will grow above the level of the sea, the southern and midland parts of Great Britam do not contain mountains upon a sufiiciently lofty scale to render their investigation particularly interesting. The northern parts of England possess mountains of upwards of 3000 feet ; and as Winch's ** Essay on the Geo- graphical distribution of Plants throughout the Counties of Northumberland, Cumberland, and Durham," of which the lat 55° may be considered the medium, embraces a very great pnr tion of this very (ountry, which, from its situation, may, in point of climate, be considered as intermediate lietween the more northern and southern floras of Great Britain, we select from his work what concerns the more valuable and more striking vegetable productions. The Oak, in lat 55°, attains a large size in the valleys ; it ascends the ^ills, but gradu- ally becomes of stunted growth in Weardale and Teesdale, to the elevation of 16(K) and 1700 feet The Common Elm {Ultmu Campeatris) is not indigenous north of the Tees; its place being taken by the Wych Elm {U, montana), which skirts the mountains at a height of 2000 feet The Beech and Aspen flourish beautifully in the low sheltered spots, but do not climb the hills to equal heights with the oak. The White and Black Poplars (Popultu alba and nigra) are doubtiul natives of the north of England, as of Scotland ; though the White Poplar is remarkable for withstanding the north-easterlv winds, which are so destructive to vegetation in the counties of Northumberland and Durham. The Lime, (IHKa Ettropeea), the Chestnut (Cattanea vesca), and the Hornbeam (Carpintta Betulxts), stand in the same predicament. Holly trees are among the chief ornaments of the woods in Durham, Northumberland, and Cumberland, aa is the Yew {Taxtu Baccata). The Birch (Betida alba) is not fi)und on the mountains at a greater elevation than the Sycamore (Acer Pseudo-platanus), whirh in the subalpine regions seems to be as vigorous, and to attain as great a size as it ao'» near the sea-cooat The Mountain Ash (Pyrua aucuparia) is found on the hills ; the WhiUs Beam (Pyrua Aria) may be traced from uie High-Force of the river Tees to the coast , the Alder (Alntu glutinoaa) and the Guelder Rose (Viburnum Opulus) accompany the streams ; and the Hazel, Black Cherry (Prunut Ceratua), Bird Cherrv (Prunua Padua), the Spindle-tree (Etumtftnua europeu*), the Raspberry (Rubua idaua), and the common Elder, (Sambucua nigra), are found in all the woods from the seo^shore to those ->itu>>,ted on an elevation of 1600 feet: but the common Mapls (Acer campeitfui) occuib ouly in thi> hedges, in some parts of the flat country. "inie Ash tree (Pramnua excelaior), the White Thorn (Meapilua Oxyacantha), the Crab tree, or Wild Apple (Pyrua Malvui), and Black Thorn (Pruntia apinoaa), abound throughout 832 DESCRIPflVE 0EO(JHAPUV. I'AiiT in Uio dwtrict in quoition. Thn niillai^o {Prunun intitUia) in raro : and tho Plum-lroo (I'rtinitii donuilica), I'oar (/*yru» communii), Red currant (Rifiei ntbrum), thn Dcrljorry (Jlrrhrrin vulgarin), and (looeoborry (RibcM Uromularin), though of fVcquont occurrence, a]iponr not to be original natives of tiio Moil, But tho Rix:k Currant {Ribe$ pftraum), tho Acid Moinw tain Currant {RUtt$ $picatum), Alpino Currant (Ribei alpimtm), Black (/urrant {Ribet nt> ifrum), and Privot (lAgUMtrum vulgart), aro indi^fcnoui, and not untVequont. Tho Furzo ( Ulex eurovaiu,) attaint to an elovation of 2000 foot in aoouontcrod Rpots, accompanied by tho Braniblu. Juniper may bo traced fVom tho coast to tho height oi iMK) foot The Cloudberry (Rubut ChamamnruB), tho Bcarbcrry ( Ar6t4/u« Vv.t UtmI), ondSand Willow {Salix arenaria), attain tho same elevation ; while tho Dwarf Willow {Salix her' bacea), but without its uoual attendant thn Hoticulatod Willow {S. reticulatn), rcrechcs to the top4 of tlio loftiest mountains, upwanls of 3000 feet abovo tho level of tho sea. Coano Grasses, Sedgos, and Hushes too oflen cover the wet moors with a scanty and almost useless vegetation. To tho asriculturist the diflbronl tieatlis are scarcely more acceptable ; but thov aro unquostinnably among tho most beautiflil of tho native plants, and their abundance and the vast extent of ground which thov clothe, give a peculiar character to very many parts of Great Britain, especially in the North. In tho districts in question, tho common Heather (Ca//una vut^am;, the Fir-leaved Heath {Erica Cincrea), and th«) Cross-leaved Heath {Erica Tetralix), the latter, however, loss (Vagrant, and preferring moist situations, flourish in various situations, from 1000 to 3000 feet a^ve tho level of the sea, but never in calcareous soil, which circumstance occasions tho striking difllbrence between tho heaths of Durham and Nortliumborland, and the Yorkshire Wolds as they are called, whore tho substratum is chalk. Tho most considerable elevation to which tho cultivation of wheat extends in the north of England does not exceed KKM) feet above the level of the sea. Oats grow at nearly double that height; but in unfavourable years tho sheaves may often be seen standing among tho snow, which not uncommonly covers tho tops of the mountains in October, and is never later in fHIling than the middle of November. The limits of Barley and Rye are between those of wheat and oats ; but Bigg, a more hardy kind of grain than either of the former, is no longer cultivated. Turnips, though of small size, and Potatoes, grow at the same height as Oats. On tho soil of tlio moors being ploughed for the first time, and lime applied, White Clover {TrifoUum repens) comes up in abundance. f SuBSKOT. 3. — Zoology of Great Britain, The Zootoffy of the United Empire might be treated of under the three kingdoms of which it is composed, were our materials sutHcicntly ample to mark the peculiarities of each. But although every year witnesses an accession of new species to tho British fauna, no attempt has yet been made to generalise these discoveries, with reference to the geographic range of groups or species. The zoology of Ireland has been sadly neglected, and we are still without a Fauna Scotica. We must therefore consider the natural history of Britain in tho aggregate; noticing such species as more particularly belong to the northern and the southern extre- mities. Of Quadrupeds, tlie most recent catalogue contains sixty living species, including the whale tribe ; besides those which profjressivo civilisation, and the effects of the chase, have now extirpated from the islands. Nine species of Btits have been detected, four of which have as yet been found only in the southern and western counties : two belong to the division of horse-shoe bats, so nniniHl, from their nostrils bein,-^'^ furnished with a complicated membrane, like a horse-shoe ; an ap^jendage which is probably intended to act as a sucker to assist the animal in retaining its p*rey. The Vespertilio inurinus, or common bat, has been bo far tamed as to take flies out nt its master's hand, carefully throwing aside the winm. The woods and heaths still sheitt r the Hedgehog {Jig. 115.), a harmless and a most useful animal 115 ill destroying snails, slugs, and worms; but persecuted by the k^KWil^ .^. vulgar for a long list of imaginary and nonsensical properties. These prejudices have been extended to the Mole, whose little hillocks form the best top-dressing, as a sensible farmer once ^JMH^^^H^^pi assured us, to poor lands, that can possibly be given : their soft / wKBBI^^^^^^SS^^ ^^ ''"^ '""^ ^^^^" mixed with that of the Beaver, in the making ^\ , ^^I^_^^-».^si^Sfe< of hats. Allied to the Mole, in general conformation, are the Shrew Mice, of which two species are natives, the common and the Water Shrew {Sorex araneus and fodiens): both these HedgeboB. appear to be widely distributed. Of true Mice tJierc are threo distmct sorts : the Common or House Mouse, the Field Mouse, and the Harvest Mouse ; tlie latter being aa destructive to the farmer as the first is to the housewife. Tho Brown and the Black Rat infest dwellings, and are equally injurioiis : the latter is known by the tail bemg longer than the body; whereas, in the Brown Rat, both these parts are equal. The pretty h* le Dormouse {Myoxus avellanariut), like the Squirrel and Jerboa, eats its food in on erect *^;it'uie, sitting nn its ha inches, and using its forefeet as hands. The Water Rat Door I. ENGLAND. 3flS tiul Hliort-tuilod >* jum of Punnant (now placed in tho ((onui Arvicola) occur in England : out tlio turinor ' • Htatod not to have bcun round in tho northern iHlands; the latter ia a moat deftructivo little oninial in ganlena, where it gruha up aoeda, particularly poaa, Juat aflcr they have bugun to germinate. A few yuara back, tho ahort-tailuu inouito audaenly itpptmrod in unnienao nuinbora in the New Foreat, am notwitlutanding every artifice cinpluyiKl to i; p tlieir ravugoa, they deatroyed many tlioua. nda of young treea, and devoatatod whola tcrea of voung plantationa. The vadaer la a nrxtumal feeder, ainoping in ita hole during the day, ^ot, when attacked, if reinarAably quick in ita niotiona, and aucceaatbl in ita defence. If unduturbcd, it ia liarm- lesa oi'J inottbnaivo, chiefly aubaiating upon vogetabloa, although it will likewiae devour tVoga and ahi^j Tho Otter haa become much leaa frequent than formerly ; it waa once conaidorod aa a bcoat of chaao, oa old game-booka mention otter hounds particularly trained for hunting tliia animal. It feeda entirely upon titih, which it divoa atlor with great celerity ; and, unlcaa preaaed by extreme hunger, invariably leavca tho tail extremity untouched. The lega are very abort; and 'Jie tooa being connected together by a membrane, gives to the animal the power of awimming very rapidly. Tho rapacious or carnivorous quadrupeds of Britain arc very few, and from their amall size too insignificant to inflict much personal injury upon man. Tho Bear and tho Wo\f have lung been extinct in Britain, and tho Fox might havo shared tho same fate, had it not been preserved oa a beast of tho chose since the extirpation of more formidable game. Pennant mentions three varieties of this animal found in Wales and other mountainous parta of Britain : — 1. The Milgri, or Greyhound Fox, is the largest, tallest, and boldest, and ia distinguished by a white tag or tip to the tail. 2. The Mostifl' Fox, which ia less, but more strondy built. 3. The Curgi, or Cur Fox, of a still smaller size, and having the tip of the tail black. (Brit. Zool. i. 87.) Tho varieties do not appear, however, to have fkllcn under the actual observation of subsequent naturalists. The Ferret tribe comprehends tlie Polecat, Weasel, Stoat or Ermine, the Common Marten, and tho Pine Marten. The Polecat (PutoriuM vulgaris Cuv.), called also the Fitchet, Fitchew, or Foumart, measures, with the tail, about twenty-three inches. Its fetid smell ia proverbial. Although included In tlio list of British quadrupeds, it appears, according to Strabo, to have been imported firom the north of Africa. Like all its congeners, its habits are sanguinary ; for it will destroy and suck the blood of many victims, before it attempts to carry on their bodies. The well-known Ferret is considered only a variety of this species. The Weasel is much ■mailer, and although repulsive from its odour, is yet an elegant-shaped anii<\»tl. It feeds on mice and small birds, b< " ,vill occasionally attack animals of a much larger size. Few persons suspect that tli mhs they see nailed against farm out-houses frequently belong to on animal whose fur, ui another state, forms a most elegant and expensive ornament to female dreas. Th.n animal, despised in one state, and valued in another, is the Stoat C/J(f. 116.), tho rvst oi the farmer, and the destroyer of his poultry. In the temperate and 116 117 >^... ■' Bloat. Pine Muteo. southern parts of Europe, its fur is yellowish-brown above, and pale yellow beneath ; yet 80 soon as its geographic range enters on the more northe rn countries, as Russia, Norway, and Siberia, these colours vanish, leaving the fur of a pure white in every part but the tail, which is tipped with deep black ; and in this state the skin is called ermme. In Scotland the animal, during winter, is frequently found in an intermediate stage of summer and win- ter clothing. Although small, it will attack large rats, and has l^en known to pursue a young hare by the scent The Common or Beech Marten (M. Fagorum Ra^) seems to prefer dwelling near habita* tions, choosing the shelter of out-houses and fiurm-buildings, as convenient retreats for carry* °og on its depredations among poultry, of which it is a great devourer; it also breeds occasionally in the hollows of trees. The Pine" frMn the las- Marten (M. Abietum Ray, fig. 117.) is rather larger, and is further distinguished t in having the throat and breast yellow, instead of white. It is wild and solitary; shunning mankind ; and only dwells in thick woods and forests, principally those composed of pines. It climbs with great &cility ; preys upon birds and their eggs, and also upon iquurels; tho female generally making use of the nest of one of her victims for the rearing S34 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pa«t III of hor own young. The akin of this ia much more prised than that of the common Marten, and appears to have been formerly, at least in Scotland, a lucrative article of commerce. The Wild Cat closes our list of these small but ferocious indigenous animals. Its mannen are similar to thoae of the lynx, and Mr. Pennant justly calls it the British ti^r. In ita savage state it appears to be much larger than the ordinary domestic cat ; and the teeth and claws, for the sise of tho animal, are tremendous. It is still found, although rarely, in the mountainous and woody parts of Great Britain. Formerly they appear to have been much more numerous, and to nave been considered a beast of chase. The best authorities agree in considering this species, common to the forests of Europe, as the origin of our domostio breed, the usual varieties of which are well known. Another, .vhich seems peculiar to Cornwall, is without any visible tail, and is stated to be an hereditary variety. (,Cuv, ii. 489.) To enumerate the varieties of the Dog now domesticated in Britain would be tedious, particularlv after the luminous manner in which this subject has been treated bv Pennant {Brit, Zool, i. 70.). Britain hoa been famous for her dogs from remote antiquity. 1 he British mastiiTs were held in such estimation by the Romans, Uiat their emperors appointed an officer in the island, with the name of Procurator Cynegii, whose business was to transmit thence such as would prove equal to the ferocious combats of the amphitheatre. Strabo also men- tions that the mastifis of Britain were in great repute, being trained for war, and used by the Gauls in their battlea The Bloodhound, during the troubled periods of English history, was in hi^h estimation, and much used to track the footsteps of robbers and marauders ; but the breed is now extinct. A remarkable variety of the Greyhound, more peculiar to Ireland (hence called the Irish Grevliound or Wolf Dog), is nearly lost, a few couples alone having been preserved in one of tno parks in that island. The Terrier ia the best house guard ; while the Shepherd, the Water, and tlie Newfoundland dogs are probably the most sagacious. Of ruminating animals now existing in a state of nature, there ore but three; the Stag or Red Deer, tho Fallow Deer, and the Roebuck. It would appear, however, that the first two are not indigenous to these islands. Mr. Pennant writes — " We have two varieties of falL'v deer, wliich are said to be of foreipi origin : these were introduced by King James I. out of Norway, which he visited for his mtcndcd bride, Anne of Denmark. He first brought some into Scotland, and firom thence transported tiiem to his chases of Enfield and Epping, to be near his palace of Theobald's." The only memorial of this palace is probably preserved in the name of Theobald's Road. M. Cuvier, indeed, expresses a doubt whether the stag was originally European ; but Major Hamilton Smith, with much better reason, considers the Fallow Deer {Cervus Damd) as indigenous to Europe ; adding, that it is still found wild fh)m Sweden to Gibraltar, and from Ireland to Constantinople. The Stag (Cervus Elaphus) seems to be unquestioned as an indigenous species ; and although the wild breed is yearly diminishing in numbers, it is still found in Gloucestershire, the north-west part of Devon, and in some of the remote districts of Scotland. Pennant, by some unaccountable mistake, has placed tlie Stag and the Fallow Deer as varieties of one species. The Roebuck (Cervtis capreolus Ham. Smitii) is much less than the two preceding, and is, indeed, tho smallest of European deer. It is remarkably graceful and active, habitually preferring the sides of elevated woods or forests. As he leaves a strong scent, nature has given him peculiar sagacity to perplex his pursuers : he begins, afler a forward dash, bv doubling over his track, to mislead the hounds, and then by some great bounds he springs forward to a cover, where he lies down to let the chase pass. The roebuck is now become very scarce in Britain, and was equally so in Scotland, but we are told it has renippeared of late years in Fifeshire, in consequence of the increased plantations. {Brit. An. p. 26.) The Ox is the only remaining animal of this order which claims a place among the indigenous quadrupeds. We have before observed, that in remote ages, a gigantic race of oxen was numerous throughout Europe ; and that, although now extmct, there is reason to believe that the colossal species mentioned by Ctesar, as existing in his time, was of this race, now only known by its fossil bones. These remains lie scattered through the whole of temperate Europe, in the some strata with the lost species of Elephant, but that the race was preserved to a much later period is proved by similar bones occurring in more recent formations, as in peat mosses, drained lakes, marshes, and beds of sand. The wild races, of inferior size, belonging to this species, may probably, as Major Smith observes, even now exist in Asia. However tliis may be, it appears certam that the real Urus was found wild in the Vosges mountains, and in the forests of Ardennes and Germany ; while its existence in England is incontestably proved by Fitz-Stephen, who speaks of the Uri silvestres, which in his time (that is, about 1150) infested the great forests — round London ! The only existing breed of wild oxen now known, is the white Urus, or Urua gcoticus of Ham. Smith. lui skull agrees with the tbssil breed in being " square from the orbits to tlie occipital crest, somewhat hollow at the forehead, and the horns showing a peculiar rise from their root, at the side of the above crest, upwards, and then bending outwards, tiien forward and inward : no domestic race shows this turn." The true Una was tiirther din DOOE I. ENGLAND. U:.)i^-S[ 9«l Wild ScoUiih Ox. tinguiflhed by u .nane, which is still observed about two inches long, in old bulls of tiie Scot* *^° tish race O^jS'. 118.)> When thu breed was exterminated from the open forests is not known ; but it was confined to parks long before the Reformation. Tlie colour is en« tirely white, with the muzzle wholly black. Their man- ners are singular : upon perceiving a stranger, they gallop wildly in a circle round him, stop and gaze, toss their heads, and show signs of defiance ; this is repeated sevo< nU times, each circle being made smaller, till they ap> proach sufficiently near to make an effective charge. The cows conceal their young eight or ten davs: and when one of the herd is wounded or enfeebled, the others ffore it to death. The breed is still preserved at Chillinghom Castle, near Berwick-upon-Tweed, Wollaston in Notting* ham, Gisbume in Craven, Limchall in CheEhirc, and at Chartley in Staffordshire. The domestic Ox (Bos Taurus), considered by some as a variety, and by otlicrs as a dis- tinct species from tlie last, is supposed by Hamilton Smith to have been first domesticated by the Caucasian nations of western Asia. It is stated to have fourteen ribs, whereas those of the B. Urm are but twelve ; a distinction sufficiently important to sanction tiie belief of a specific difference. Whether or not this parent of our domestic races ever existed in those islands in a state of nature, is very doubtful. The various breeds for which Britain has long been justly celebrated will be noticed under tho head of domestic animala The marine and cetaceous mammalia are few, and are not verv generally dispersed. Two species of seal have been noticed by Pennant. The Piked Whales {Balamoptera musculua and hoops), tho Razor-back Whale, and several others of the great northern cetacea, wander near tlio Ilobridos and Orkney islands, and occasionally visit tho shores of Northumberland and Yorkshire. The Porpoise and the Grampus have a wider range, and large shoals roam unmolested near p11 the coasts. Exterminated native animals. In every country the increase of civilization and agricul* ture is marked by the progressive diminution and final extirpation of the larger quadrupeds, particularly of such as are injurious to man. Among those which history clearly informs us were once living in Britain, tlie most remarkable are the Bear, the Wolf, the Beaver, and tlie wild Boor. To the writings of Pennant and Hamilton Smith we are indebted for the following notes on these lost inhabitants of our forests. It appears that Bears, in the time of Plutarch, were transported from Britam to Rome where they were mucii admired. They appear to have been extinct in Britain long before Queen Elizabeth's time. Wolves. It seems to have been a vulgar error that the wolf was extirpated in Britain by tlie salutary edicts of King Edgar, who accepted their tongues and heads as tribute, or aa a commutation for certain crimes : for in the reign of Edward I. these animals had again increased \ such a degree, that officers were appointed to promote their destruction, and lands were held by hunting and destroying them. Wolves infested Ireland many centuries afler their extinction in England ; some having been killed so late as 1710. In Scotland, the last on record was destroyed in 1680. The Beaver was still an inhctbitani of the Welsh rivers in 1188, as is attested, according to Pennant, by Giraldus Cambrensis ; but even at that remote period they must have con- siderably dimmished, as the historian only mentions their being found on the river Teivi. Local names of other waters in the principality attest their existence in other places. Fossil remains of this species are stated to have been found in beds of marl, under peat moss in Berkshire ; and similar bones have occurred in Perthshire and Berwicksliire. The Wild Boar, from which have sprung the domestic breeds of swine, must be reckoned among indigenous quadrupeds, although now extinct in Britain. William tlie Conqueror punished thg^e who killed the Wild Boar, the Stag and the Roebuck, by the loss of their eyes. Fitz-Stephen affirms that the vast forest, which in his time stood on the north side ctf London, was the retreat of Stags, Fallow Deer, Wild Boars und Bulls. At a more recent Seriod, Charles the First turned out Wild Boors in the New Forest ; but they were destroyed uring the civil wars. Fossil quadrupeds. The splendid discoveries that have resulted from the investigatiom of Buckland, Mantell, Conybeare, and other eminent geologists, have opened a field of re- search, which in Britain had long been overlooked or neglected. Without entering into the juestion whether these fossil remains belong to animals which did or did not at some period inhabit the spots wherein their bones have been found, it is sufficient to confine ourselves to simple facid. The remains of the cave bear of Dr. Buckland occur in several caverns, and are sufficient to prove the living animal must have equalled a horse in size. The Kirkdale and Plymouth caves abound with the bones of an extinct hyiena, somewhat resembling in its osteology that now existing in South Aftica ; with these have been found the bones of a tiger, which must have been as large as the Eiengal species. The tusks, teeth, and other .\afi DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Past IlL The lonc-bomed Oi. fira({iDent8 of an extinct species of elephant, totally difl&rent fiom those now in existence, 119 _ have been detected in marl clay, &.c. joined with those of twu other gigantic quadrupeds, a rhinoceros and hippopotamus; while tiie jaw of a marsupial animal, unknown among the existing race of beings, has been found in the Stoneefield slate quarries (Jff. 119.) Domestic qtuidrupeda. No nation, perhaps, has been more jiw of Hunpial Animii. solicitous to unprove their originally poor breeds of domesti- cated quadrupeds than the British ; and hence their present superiority over most of those on the Continent. Under this head we commence with the ruminating animals, as the ox, the aheep, and the goat, so essential in supplying food and clothing to man ; while the horse, the ass, and the dog assist him in his labour, or protect his property. The princi^ breeds of oxen more peculiar to Great Britain have been arranged by Major Hamilton Smith nnder nine divisions. Of these, three belong to England, three to Scotland, two to Wales, and one to Guernsey. The long-homed or Lancaster breed iJig. 120.), as the name implies, is remarkable for long horns; they have firm thick hides, long close hair, large hoofs, and give in proportion less milk, but more cream. They are of various colours, but are in general finched, that is, with a white streak above the spine, and a white spot inside the houghs. The improved Leicester is a slight variety, originally bred near Co- ventry. The short-horned breed includes those that are named the Holdemesa, Teeswater, Yorkshire, Durham, and Northumberland. This has been the most improved, producing usually twenty-four quarts of milk per day. and three firkins of butter per season. Their colour varies, but is generally red and white mixed ; called by the graziers fleeked. The middle-homed includes the ' Devon, Hereford, and Sussex breeds : they are active, hardy, and much esteemed for draught : but although they fatten early, do not milk so well as the last. The pure Devons are of a high red colour, without spots, a light dun ring round the eye, fine in bone, clear neck, thin feced, and the tail set on high : the north Devon is most esteemed for eating. The Sussex and Hereford are larger, the ox weighing from 60 to 100 stone. The Scottish breeds may be arranged under the Polled, the Highland, and the Fifeshire. The Polled Galloway is the most esteemed : it is straight in me back, the hair soft, the colour black or dark brindled, and the size not large. They travel well, and reach the London markets without deterioration. The Suffolk Dun is a variety of this race. The Highland race includes several varieties, the most valuable ones being the West Highland, Argyle, or SI ye, and the Kyloe from the Hebrides. The Norlands is another variety, with coarse hides, hng legs, and of a narrow make. The Orkney or Shetland are very diminu- tive : an ox weighing about 60 lbs. a quarter, and a cow 40 lbs. Their colours are various, and their shapes bad ; but they give an abundance of excellent milk, and fatten rapidly. The Fifeshire appears an improved breed of the Highlands, crossed with the Cambridge- shire ; they are black, spotted with gray ; the horns small, white, and very erect : a variety occurs in Aberdeenshire. The Welsh have twu breeds: the first is large, dark brown, with some white; the less long and slender; the horns white, and turned upwards: these, next to tiie Devon, ore the best in yoke, and are a cross of the long-horned : the second is lower, well formed, black with little white, and are good milkers. The Aldemey or Guernsey race is proverbially small : thek colour is mostly yellow or light red ; marked with white about the face and limbs, and with crumpled horns. The true breed is known by being yellow w.'thin the ears, and at the root of the tail and its tuft. Respecting draught Oxen, we cannot refrain from here inserting an excellent and judi- cious remark of Pennant. " It is now," observes this sensible writer, " generally allowed, that, in many cases, oxen are more profitable in the draught than horses : uieir food, harness, and shoes being cheaper ; and should they be lamed or grow old, an old working beast will be as good mea^ and mtten as well, as a young one." (Brt7. Zool. i. 28.) The Sheep is scarcely inferior ui utility to the ox : and the breeds now cultivated in Britain, taking all their qualities into consideration, are perhaps the most valuable in the uch lar£[er variety, having no wool on the belly. The Hertfordshire is a fine productive variety, with short tails. The Exmoor comes from Devonshire : it is small, the wool long, and tiie face and legs white, fjotland furnishes three breeds of homed sheep; the Dun-fiwed, the Shetland, aiM the Hebridean. , Th* Black-Faced 8h«ep. Tho Harerord Sbaap. The hornless race may be divided into nine breeds. The Lincoln has long wool and a white face : in the Teeswater the wool is shorter and lighter, and the legs longer. The Di^ey, or new Leicester, is distinguished by a clean head, and the exccUencv of its flesh. The Devonshire Nets, like the three preceding, are long-wooUed ; thev have white faces and •. .'hick necks, short legs, and large bones. The short-woolled hornless breeds are the ,' ' > ' flg : — ^The Hereford (Jig, 122.) nave very fine wool, which grows close to their eyes, '■ ■■£9 and &ce being white : the store sheop of this country are called CoUings or Rylands. Tho South Down, prmcipally cultivated on the chalky downs of Sussex, have the face and legs gray, and are highly esteemed for the table. The Cheviot have the head bare and clean, and are sometimes spotted with gray or dun ; the fleece is very short and fine. The Hard- wicke is peculiar to the rocky districts of Cumberland, and is speckled on the fiice and legs. The Goat, which in some parts of Italy supplies the only milk and butter known to uie inhabitants, is of little utility in a country abounding in sheep and oxen. But to the Welsh mountaineers it is a valuable animal : the suet will make excellent candles ; the meat is little inferior to venison, and those who have habitually fbasted upon mountain kid, know how superior its flavour is to lamb. The Horses of Britain, improved as they have been by the most sedulous care, next to the Arabian, are the finest in the world. The British breeds, originally but ill adapted for the saddle, have progressively improved; and the crossing of Uie indigenous kind with those of other countries has produced four principal classes of horses, — the Racer, the Hunter, the Roadster, and the Dray Horse ; to these may be added the Pone^, one of the original breeds. The Ornithology of Great Britain, after the general observations already made on that of Europe, will be here but briefly dwelt upon. The native birds may be arranged under three natural divisions: — 1. the rapacious; 2. the perching; and 3. the walking, running and swimming orders. The rapacious birds, as in all other countries, are the smallest in number, but the most formidable in strength. Among these the Golden Eagle {Aquila chty8a'it08,fig. 123.) is the largest known in the British islands: this noble bird weighs twelve pounds, and is still fi>und among the highest of the Welsh and Cumberland mountains ; it is said also to breed in Orkney. The Eme or Sea Eagle is somewhat smaller, and is principally confined to the ma.icime rocks of Wales and North Britain. The Fal- con tribe is more numerous in species ; but Uie destruc* tion to which they are doomed by game preservers has long been diminiwinff their numbers : some species are almost extirpated, and nearly all are now become rare. The Osprey (Pandion Haliattu), or Fishing Eagle, is now seldom met with. The two species of Henharrie (Otreiw cyanewt and ctneraacetu) were first discriminated by Montagu. The Owls are similar to those of the Continent, but the great Snowy Owl has only of late yeara been deiecteu in uie north of Scotland as a native bird. The Eagle or great homed Owl is of the same size ; the former hunting by day, the latter by night. The Bam oi White Owl is known to every farmer, and appears to be distributed over the whole habi table globe. Vol. L W 8 R Ooldan Eacle. 33d DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pabt UL TKe tooUied-bill or porching[ birds {Dentiroatret Sw.) are those fiimishcd with a notch to tlieit bill, by which tb.tur tbod is held firm before it is awallowod. Some ore formed to climb, others to hop on the /loUnd, and a few catch their food (like the swallows) upon the wii? They are united to the rapa'^ous. order by the shrikes or butcher-birds, so called Irom their singular custom of impalL^ >iisects and small birds upon the thorns round their nests. Three species of these birds are known in Ihritain. The mclodv of the Blackbird and Song-thrush need not be eulogised; and during spring and summer the woods and hedees are enlivened by numbers of warblers, or small insectivorous birds, which visit them }r. the oreeding season : amon^ which tlio Nightin|^e is most conspicuous. Large flocks of Finches, and similar hard >led birds, feai^ in winter, upon the red berries of the black and white thorn; while Crov. ^ Starlings, and Fieldfares devour prodigious quantities of slugs, worms, and other animals noxious to the fkrmer. The Woodpeckers, Creepers, and Titmice prey onlv upon tliose insects prejudicial to trees ; the Swallows, during summer, join with the warblers in keeping within due bounds the myriads of insects, which would otherwise increase to an alarming extent. The entire-billed birds (Curtipedea Sw.) are those which have no notch at the end of their bill, and never seek their food among trees : they are united to the former by the Pigeons, and comprise the gallinaceous, wading, and swimming tribes. Among the first Britain pos- sesses tiie Partridge, Grouse, and Quail, f-ut more particularly the Great Bustard, the largest of the European j^linacea: its weight is about 25 lbs., and its flesh excellent. To enume- rate the wauing and swimming birds would for exceed our li mits : they visit the coasts prin- cipally in winter, and depart in spring. The exterminated birds are very few ; for aiihough some, as the Egret (^g, 124.) and the ^24 Crane, are no longer conimon in Britain, yet indiviauals pxe some- times met with, snowing that man and not nature has scared them firom their hereditary range. Perhaps the only extirpated species is the cock of the wood, or capercaillie grouse ( Tctrao vrogallut L), a noble bird of game, weighing near thirteen pounds; once com- mon in the fir forests of Scotland, but which has not been seen, it is said, sinf:e 1760. Of domesticated birdn tlie Pheasant originally came from Asia Minor; tlte Guinec, Hen from Afirica; the Peacock and Fowl from India; and the Turkey from America. The fishes, both marine and fireshwatcr, are numerous: most are edible, and many higiily esteemed. Whale, and other cetacca, are mostly confined to Uie northern shores: but those of the west are fanious for the herring and pilchard fisheries. The John Doree is as remarkable for its grotesque form as for its exquisite flavour. The Turbot, Cod, Sole, &c. are well known. The chief river fish are the Salmon, Trout, and Char; and tliese are principally fiir- nished by tlie northern counties. The salmon fisheries ore highly important, and have long engaged the attention of the legislature: the eggs of one fish will often exceed 15,000. The Char is confined to the lakes of Cumberland and Westmoreland ; those of Windermere are the best, and ^\^cn potted become a ^eat delicacy. The Herring and Sprat supply the poor, during winter, with a wholesome dish ; while the citizens of London consider another species, called the White Bait, as possessing a peculiarly fine flavour. The Anchovy is not unknown in some of our estuaries ; and even the Flyiiig-fibh has occasionally wandered to the Welsh coast. The reptiles of Britam, known in a living state, are very few. Besides the Warty Eft (Lacerta palustris Ija.,jig. 12f<.) there are two other water lizards, and probp.bly as many 125 126 Ecrat. Warty Eft. Comnoa Vlp«r. species inhabiting the land. Of the Frog and Toad two sorts of each occur. The snakes and the blind-worm are harmless; the Common Viper (Jg. 126.) being the only venomous reptile : yet this species varies so much in its colours, that naturalists have described it under several namet. The Great or Gigantic Frog of Pennant is only a variety of the commwi toad. Extinct reptUei. The researches of geologists have brought to light the remains of such gigantic and extraordinary reptiles, that, but for such indubitable proofs, their existence might be thought fiibulous. At the head of these we may place the Megalosaunu, resem bling both a lizturd and a crocodile, whose probable length was near 40 feet ! The Ichthyo Paiit hi. with a notch to brmcd to climbs upon the wir j- illod trom their ir nests. Three nd Songf-thrush 9 are enlivened eedinff season : 98, and similar :e thorn; while rms, and other Eroy only upon warblers in increase to an Lho end of their )y the Pigeons, rst Britain pos- ird, the largest It. To enume- the coasts prin- r. 124.) and the iials pxe some- as scared them irpatcd species iUrogallusL.), ids; once com- t been seen, it une from Asia and Fowl from rous: most are er cetacea, are )f the west are John Doree is luisite flavour. hief river fish )rincipally flir- and have long xceed 15,000. Windermere •rat supply the nsider another \nchovy is not wandered to Jie Warty Eft >(>.bly as many The snakes nly venomous iribed it under the comm(H) mains of such leir existence lunu, resem The Ichthyo Book I. f ■tni ENGLAND. ■^l/f'^K'rt 830 tu,.i ^'. unitinff the characters of a lizard with the snout of a dolphin, tlie teeth of a croco- liic, the ttniJ of a turtle, and the vertebrm of a fish, is scarcely less wonderful. The Pleiio- gaurus is still more extraordinary ; for with the fins of a turtle, it had the head of a lizard, and a long neck, formed like the body of a serpent Tjurtly, the remains of several distinct species of crocodiles have been discovered in similar strata. All these attest the existence, at some unknown period, of a stupendous race of aquatic monsters, which have long been swept away fircHn the existing animal creation. ^ong the radiated animals, vast shoals of transparent Medusa wander about the coast during summer, and are fVequently by a sudden change of wind cast up on the beach in great numbers. But the deep recesses of the ocean frequently give to the nets of the fisherman animals still more singular. The Black Line Worm, or 9ea Long Worm (Ltn- naus longissimus Sow., Jig. 127.), whose mouth is hardljr a quarter of an inch wide, is said, by the fishermen, to measure twelve fathoms in length . it is soft, and so fragile, that tiie entire animal seems not yet to have been procured. --'■■-'■^i .--ii^,,.,^ 128 127 ,» '., Blaek line Worm. Mar-blonom Coral. Ellis was the first to make known the true nature of those plant-like productions generally termed corallines. Of Corals, the British seas afiTord few native species; the largest and most elegant is the May-blossom coral {Caryophyllia ramea), i^g. 128.), common in the Mediterranean, and occasionally found upon the Cornish coast : it is cinnamon-coloured ; and retains, for many years, a slight scent, like that of hawthorn. The Conchology of Britain, in the number and interest of its species, compensates for its deficiency in large or richly coloured object?. The beautifiil varietiee of Pecten opercu- fart's are, nevertheless, fi-equently variegated with *he most lovely tints of yellow, orange, pink, and deep red ; they also afiord a nutritious food to the lower classes. The most cele- brated edible shell-fish is tlie oyster, well known and highly prized by tJie luxurious Romans ; and every one is acquamted with the superior excellency of those from Colchester and Milton. Fluviatile shells, in a country so humid and watered as Britain, are more abundant than towards the south of Europe. Most of the rivers produce Unio pictorum (Jig. 129. ','■ Unio Mirtaritilbn. FtuTiaUIe Bhellf. muddy bottom, A little fragile shell, Succinea amphibia (/), crawls upon rushes and aquatic plants; and Physa fontinalis (h), Ancylus lacustns (0, and Planorbis vortex (k) prefer clear ohody streams and ditches overhung with wood. Native pearls were reckoned by the Romans among the prodnutions of Britain. They are the produce of a fluviatile bivalve shell, the Unio margaritifera, (Jig. 130.), still com- mon in manv of the northern counties ; but it was on the buika of the Welsh rivetB that thn British pearl Qshery was chiefly carried on. A 340 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paet UL iA^!!f?V CoiMidermg toe nature of the climate, it may exdUi aurpriw, that more than 10,000 difl^rent apooiet have actual! en found to inhabit Britain. Yet the bee may bo reckoned the only inaeot whose aorvicua are immediately and obviously beneficial to man Among the butterflies, are many of gtwt beauty ; while Eurymus Europome, or the Clouded Sulphur (/f . ISi.), ia considered one of the rarest British insects. 183 ■ "*■"■■'■■' Ooodad Bulphui Scotland. The toology of Scotland exhibits many arctic anunals as common inhabitants, which are only known as raro visitants to the western shores of England; in other respocta, it does not materially diflbr fh>m that of South Britain. The northern islands give shelter to innumerable wild fowl, and to many peculiar land birds, as the Ptarmigan andthe Golden Eagle. The great honied or Eagle Owl, is found to breed in Orkney. The Hiffhlands are famous for an abundance of Grouse, the red species (Lagopus acotictu, Jig. 1S2.) being the only bird peculiar to Great Britain. The domestic animals are of a small size ; in otlier respects, they are highly valuable. The polled or hornless cattle, with the Highland and the Fifeshire, have already been noticed. The iyloe breed are so named, because m their progress to the south from the Hebrides, they cross the kyloes or ferries in the main land and Western Islands. {Ham. Smith.) The same writer considen that the sheep of this kingdom spring from three principal breeds : the first is ffenerally named dui«&ced sheep; they are a small, homed race, said to have been originuly impwted fhom Denmark or Norway, and are still found, with sliffht varia- tions, in the North of Scotland and the isles. In Kincardineshire, this breed is known by its yellow fkce and legs, and by the dishevelled texture of its fieece, which is in part coarse, and in part remarkably fine wool ; its flesh also is delicate and laigh\y flavoured. The Shet- land broed cany a very fine weed, in three difierent successions yearly, two of which resem- ble long hair more Uion wool, and are called Fore and Scudda. The wool is of various colours. The Helnidian sheep ia the smallest anunal of its kind ; its horns are usually short and straight, the &ce and len white, the tail very short, and the wool of different colours. The Highland Ponies and Shetland Ponies (Jig. 183.), notwithstuiding their diminutive size, are greatly esteemed for their activity and /strength. 183 134 Hichlud PoDr. SoottUi Qmrhonnd. Among the numerous breeds of dogs, there appear to be three more particularly 1 Scotland : Uie true Shepherd's Dog, or Colly, is still preserved, unmixed, in man found in niany of the sheep districts : the Shetland Hound, approaches in character to the Greeidand Dog ; while the Scottish Greyhound (Jig. 134.), common in the Highlands, is possessed of great sagacity, strength, and swiftness. The Zoology of Ireland has been much neglected ; nor are we prepared to show what peculiarities belong to its natural history. The Irish Wolf Dog, called also th<. Irish Grey- hound, has generally been thought peculiar to this island ; but others consider it the same breed as the French mfttin (Canis laniariua L) It is a noble animal, standing near four feet in height, and seems to have been mainly instrumental in clearing the country of the numerous wolves which once over-ran it The cattle and sheep are inferior to those of Britain. Yet Imland exports vast quantities of salted pFovisioiiB, besides the supplies tiir- nidied to the navy and wipping interests. The remains of the Fossil Elk (jUg. 185.) are of firequent occurrence in beds of shell marl, beneath peat. Its antlers measure from the utreme tip of each, no less than ten feet ten inches, and ftora the tip of the right horn to Pa«t lit >« Uiat more than the be« may bo enefloial to man. e, or tho Clouded Hook I. ENGLAND. 341 non inhabitants, t other respects, ads ffive Bhcltcr andthe Golden B Hiffhlanda are 182.) being the lighly valuable, ly been noticed. I the Hebrides, {Ham. Smith.) rincipal breeds : oe, aaid to have th sliffht varia- d is known by a in part coarse, ed. TheShet- >f which resem* )1 is of various re usually short fierent colours, leir dimmuUve ilarly ibund in 1 many of the id Dog; while [reat sagacity, to show what I'. Irish Grey- ' It the same ing near four ountry of the t to those of Buppiies ftar- .186.) an of lire fhnn the >ight horn to itf root, five feet two inches. Remains of the same animal have been also found in England, and a very oerftot specimen in the Isle of Man. The Irish shores flimish the couchologist with several native shells, seldom seen on the British coasts, particularly the Isocaidi* cor, yr Heart Cockle (Jg- IM-X 185 i:(Vr , (V;./ ,. ■„.!,r-„; foiiUElk. „ ^„ .., BMitCookU. Sect. IIL — Hiatorical Oeography. Britain was originally peopled from Gaul, by inhabitants of tho Celtic race. For a long time it appears to have been noticed only as a country supplying^ tin ; a rare and useful metal, not then found in any oUior part of Europe, or in Western Asia. To obtain this valuable mineral, the coasts of Britain were at an early period sought by the ships of various mer* cantile states, espociallv the Carthaginians ; and the tin of Taruiish, mentioned by Ezekiel, was doubtless brought from the mines of Cornwall. Britain was invaded by tlie Romans, about fifty-five years before the Christian era. Of the thirty tribes of barbarians among whom the country was then divided, the most consid- erable were the Belgfe .'a tlie west, the Brigantes in the north, the Silures in South Wales, the Iceni in Norfolk and SuHblk, and the Cantii, who occupied Keut and part of Middlesex. The latter had made some progress in agriculture and the arts of civilized life ; but the other inhabitants derived their subsistence firom flocks and herds, clothed themselves in skins, and painted their bodies. The precarious auLlority of the chiefii derived support fivm the influence exercised by tho Druids, in one of the most terrible forms of superstition that ever enslaved the human mind. Besides the ordinary implements of war, they had armed chariots, whicli they managed with surprising dexterity ; and they were united m a species of politi- cal confederacy, of which Cassivelaunus was the head. They could not, however prevent the landing of Julius Ctesar, but that conqueror was prevented by more urgent aflkirs fl-om prosecuting an enterprise of which the difliculties were not likely to be compensated by its fflory. in the reign of Claudius the hardihood of Caractacus, and the heroic desperation of Boadicea, failed of exciting an effectual rcsiBtancc to the disciplined legions of Rome, whose victorious progress was continued during the reign of Nero. In that of Domitian, the Ro- man dorainion was extended by the wisdom and valour of Agricok, who defeated the Cale- donians under Galgacus, at the foot of the Grampians ; and the only part of the island which remained unsubdued was the region which lies north of tiiat natural rampart The Britons now subjected to the Roman empire were compelled to cultivate the habits and arts of peace : but when that empire, weakened, distracted, and verging to its decline, was compelled to withdraw its protection from its distant provirces, the Scots and Picts, emerging from their mountain fastnesses, then broke in, and committed dreadful devastations among their unwarlike neighbours. The Romans had recourse to the expedient of frontier walls; first, one between mo Forth and Clyde, called the Wall of Antonine, and afterwards a similar rampart between the Tyne and ^Iway, called tho Wall of Severus. About the middle of the fiflh century, the Roman forces were finally withdrawn, and the Britons were left to depend entirely on their own resources. The Saxons were callou in as allies, about forty years after the dissolution of the Roman government These hardy alvonturers, originating firom the north of Germany, and occi'py- mg the line of coast firom the mouth of the Rhine to .Jutland, had long inrestcd by tl.'eir piracies the neighbouring parts of Britain and Gaul. They eagerly accepted an invitation to a country so superior to their own. In the year 450, 1600 men under Hengist and Horsa, arrived in Britain, and obtained an easy victorv over the Scots and Picts. The success of the two brothers attracted numerous baJnds of their countrymen; and in the course of a cen tury, colonies arrived from the mouths of the Elbe, the Weser, and the Rhine, chiefly composed of three valiant tribes, the Jvtes, the Old Saxons, and the Angles. From allies. they lecame formidable enemies to the Britons ; whom, after a long and sanguinary struggle of one hundred and fifty years, they compelled to retire into Wales and Cornwall. Thus was established the Heptarchy, or Seven Saxon Kinffdoras in Britain : viz. 1. Kent; 2. Sussex, including Surrey ; 3. EastEnglas, including Norfolk, Sufiblk, the Isle of Ely, and Cambridgeshire; 4. Wess^x, including all the southern counties from Berkshire to Cornwall ; 5. Northumberland, including all the northern counties of England, and the southern coun- ins of Scotland to the Frith of Forth ; 6. Essex, including E^bx, Middlesex, and part of 29* M2 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paet III. I I 9* i Hertfordshire; 7. Mercryo, or Mercio, the largest division, including the midland districtd of England to the confines of Wales. About the year 800 Uiese small states >vero united into one kingdom, under the name of England, by Egbert, king of Wessex. The Anglo-Saxon dynasty derived i^ chief lustre trom Alft-ed, one of the wisest and most virtuous monarchs that have appeared in any age or country. He delivered his country fh>m the thraldom of the Danes ; but v\ the coume of tlio ensuinff century, however, they regained the ascendency ; and in 1017, Canute, king of Denmark and Norway, added England to his dominions. It was held successively by hu sons, Harold and Hardicanute; but on the death of the latter, it was restored to the ^axon dynasty, and Edward the Ccmfessor ascended the throne. The craquost bv William of Normandy, in 1066, overthrew ibr a time the liberties of the people of iinglana. Claiming the crown bv virtue of ft pretended grant flrom Edward tho Confessor, and acquiring it by victory over Harold II., himself an usurper, to tho prejudice of Edgar Atheling, Uie rightnil heir, he maintained by tyranny a dominion gained by fraud and violence. One of die consequences of the acquisition of the English crown by William was to convey to the kings his successors certain clauns on the French territory, which led to long, expensive, and sanguinary wars. Henry the Second, sumamed Plantagenet, son of GeofiVy of Anjou, who married Matilda, daughter of Henry L, in the right of his father, was master of Anjou and Touraine; in that cf his mother, of Normandy and Maine; in tliat of his wife, of Guienne, Poitou, Saintonge, Auvergno, Perigord, Angoumois, and ii'i Limousin. To these states he afterwards annexed tliat of Bretagne. The possession of provinces composing above one-third of the French monarchy, and superior in opulence to the rest of tho territory, rendered this vassal more powerful than his liege lord, and contributed to provoke that rivalry which for ages existed between England and France. Henry tho Second acquired the sovereignty of Ireland ; Edward the First annexed Wales to his dominions, and for a time subjugated Scotland. The contending claims of the houses of York and Lancaster for the crown of England, utlet a civil war of nearly sixj^ years, were adjusted by the marriage of Henry the Seventh with Elizabeth, daughter of lldward the Fourth. Among the memorable events that occurred under the Plantagenets, may be noticed the signature of Magna Charta, extorted bv the barons from King Jolm ; tlie rise of the House ofCommons in the reign of Henry the Third ; and tlie refbrmation of the church, commenced by John WicklifTe, in 1369. The rei^ of Heniy the Seventh was signalized by the overthrow of the feudal sway, and by tlie introduction of the modern system of polity. The emancipation of the kingdom from papal dommion was effected by his successor. In tho reign of Elizabeth, the most strenuous exertions were made to strengthen tlie maritime power of England, and extend her com- mercial intercourse. The result of these measures was to raise the nation to a very pros- perous and flourishing condition, and to overturn the lawless domination of the nobles, substituting for it, however, an authority almost absolute on the part of the sovereign. The union of tho two crowns on the accession of James the Sixth of Scotland to the throne of England, terminated those animosities which had proved alike injurious to both countries. The despotic conduct of Charles the First led to a struggle in which he lost both his crown and his life. In the interregnum which ensued under the Commonwealth, the vigilant, energetic, end decisive policy of Oliver Cromwell exercised a commanding influence over every cabmet in Europe. Charles the Second suffered England to lose the ascendency syhicu she had attained, and the in&tuatcd conduct of James the Second led to the revolu- tion of 1688, from which epoch to the present time, the industry, commerce, and wealth of Great Britain, rapidly rose to a height unparalleled in any other nation, ancient or modem ; but her political power sustained various fluctuations. She acquired in the Eost and in the West two empires, each for more extensive than her own territory. That in the East she retains and is continually extending ; that in the West, having become independent, is hei rival in commerce, and manifests a disposition to dispute, at no distant period, her maritime supremacy. Among the memorable transactions and events of this period may be ranked the union with Scouand in 1707 ; that with Ireland in 1801 ; the Scottish rebellions in 1715 and 1745 ; the Irish rebellion in 1798 ; and a series of wars with France, occurring at intervals rarely exceeding eight or ten years. The contests arising fVom the French revolution were distinguished by tlie most brilliant naval achievements, and afterwards by successes which raised the military glory of England to a level with her maritime renown, rendering her influence paramount among the states of Europe. '•" ' ;.-..\ .;? Skot. rV. — Political Geography. - • w-, , . . ^>.»... The constitution of Great Britain centres in the laws by which the country is governed, and in the union of povi^^i.. by which the laws are made and the government is admmistered. The legislative power is vested in the Parliament, consisting of the Kino, an hereditary sovereign ; the Lords, an hereditary aristocracy ; and the Hcuss cr CcsRicss, Cunsiatrng of rnenibefs chosen by the people from among themselves, and therefore said to represent tna ccinmons of the realm. The executive power is entrusted to the king. Book I. /.vj ENGLAND. 348 Of the three estates of the realm thus composinjf the legislature, the King la the highest : he ii the head or chief of the parliament: ana except in extreme cases, a parliament cannot be held unless convoked by him, nor can it except by him be dissolved or prorogued. Hii Uient is requisite to give the force of law to any measure proposed bv either of the two houses, and agreed upon by tliem. Propositions of laws, or bills as they are technically called, may be brought forward in either house ; all money bills must take their origin in the House of Commons ; but only in one instance con the king initiate an act of parliament, and that is, an act of grace, for the pardon of persons after a rebellion, or for the release of insol* vent debtors. The King is not supposed to hold his throne by divine right, or in virtue of any indefea- sible hereditary claim. The nation, by its supremo council, has dictated certain rules of exclusion with regard to the succeBsion, cf wliich the most important is, that the siwcreign shall maintain tlic Protesiont icfbrmcd religion, and, cither at his coronation or on the first day of the first parliament, shall repeat and subscribe the declaration against popery. On the death or demise of tho king, his heir becomes instantly invested with the kingly office and regal power. By a constitutional fiction accordant with the feudal policy, all lands ore held mediately or immedlotely from tho crown. Thus tho king is entitled to all lands left by the subsiding of the sea ; and estates may revert to liim by cschcxt, from the commission of ciime by their posscssorB. He is sovereign in ull seas and grent rivers ; he alone has a prerogative to erect beacons and lighthouses; he is entitled to allroyal mines of gold and silver, and is entrusted with the coinage. All persons born in his dominions arc his subjects, and owe to him an allegiance which they can neither renounce nor transfer to any foreign prince. He is su- preme head of the church within his dominions ; and as patron paramount of all tho benefices in England, ho has a right to present to all dignities and benefices of the advowson of arch- bishoprics and bishoprics during the vacancy of their respective sees. He is the fountain of justice, and has an undoubted prerogative in creating officers of state, ministers, judges, and other functionaries. To him, as j. urejis patriee, belongs the care of all who are unable to take care of themselves ; he has an original right to superintend the disposal of charities ; and in all such cases the application is to the Court of Chancery. Ho has, in certain cases, the high prerogative of pardoning, and likewise that of issuing special proclamations for tlie prevention of offences. The power of making war or peace is lodged singly in the king. He IS held to be incapable of doing wrong , and if an unlawful act be done, the minister instru- mental in that act is alone obnoxious to punishment By virtue of his prerogative the king may make grants and letters patent, conferring various rights and privileges. Lastly, the king cannot be attainted, and is never a minor; though when tlu; crown has devolved to a very young heir, it hos been thouglit prudent to appoint a regent, or council of regency. The same expedient has been adopted when, by reason of grievous illness, the exercise of the royal functions has been interrupted. All supplies granted by parliament ore given to the king ; but of these the largest pro- portion belongs to the public or its creditors ; that which pertains to the king in his distmct capacity, called the Civil lAst, is the provision for the support of the honour and dignity of the crown. On the commencement of the reign of William IV„ the civil list was entirely new-modelled, being limited to the personal expenses of the sovereign, and the maintenance of his state ; while the branches of administration hitherto defrayed out of it were charged upon the Consolidated Fund. The sum of 510,000?. was granted, under the following IlG&jQS * I»rivy purse. King's, £60,000 Queen's, 50,000 Maintenance of royal establishment, - 171,000 Salaries in tiie departments of Chamberlain, Steward, Master of the horse, home secret service, &c. 154,000 ' Pensions, 75,000 vt. :.«;■, £510,000 Thus the royal prerogative ia counterbalanced hy the control which the representatives 3f the people in parliament exercise over the public purse. The king has the prerogative of commanding arniies and equipping fleets ; but without tlie concurrence of his parliament he cannot maintain them. He can confer appointments to offices; but without his parlia- meni he cannot pay the salaries. He can declare war ; but without the aid of parliament he cannot carry it en. He has the exclusive right of assembling parliaments; but by law he m ist assemble a parliament ever)r three years. Though head of the church, ho cannot alter the established religion, or call individuals to account for their reli^fious opinions. He cannot create any new office inconsistent with the constitution or prejudicial to the subjec. He has the privilege of coining money ; but he cannot alter the standard. He has the power of pardoning offenders; but he cannot exempt them from making compensation to the injured Darties. Even with the military power he is not absolute, since it is declared in the Bill of 1144 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Past III. lUghto thkt a itandinff armv without the conient of parliament ic illegal. The kingr himnlf cannot be arraiffnod ; but it any abuio of power bo committed, thoM who were either tho odviaera or tho Initrumontu of the meaiure mav be impeached and tried befbre the Houm of Linda; in which caae it its of no avail to plead the kinff'a command, or to produce hia pardon. A diiaolution of parliament does not abato an impeachment, neither can the royal authority interpoM to stay or auapend ita courae. Other restraint! on the oreroffative exist in the uncontrolled flreodom or speech in parliament, secured by the Bill or Rights, and in the im* portant provisions by which, during the reign of George IIL, the independence of tho judges was established. The House of Lords is composed of the lords spiritual and temporal of England ; sixteen temporal poors of Scotland ; one arclibishop, tlireo bishops, and twenty-eight temporal peers dt Ireland. The roll of tho lords spiritual and temporal forming the House of Peers, In the sesaion of 1838, exhibits 426 lords, mcluding the Catholic peers of England. They are thus diatingoiahed : — RoyildukM ArohblibnM ..•••• Diikra wllb En|IUh UUm. MtrquoMM 4 3 91 IS Earls 100 '"•eount 18 Billl tliomselves. In all cases of treason, felony, or misprision of felony, a nobleman is tried by his peers; but in misdemeanours, he is tried like a commoner. In judicial proceedings, a peer gives his ver- dict not upon oath, but upon his honour; he answers also to bills in chancery upon his honour; but when examined as a witness in the inferior courts or in the hi^h court of parliament, either in civil or criminal coses, he must be sworn. Slander against a peer subjects the offender to very heavy punishment, being branded by the law with the term tccndalum mag- natum. Every peer, by license f om the king, may make a proxy Uy vote for him in his absence, u privilege which cannot be held by a member of the lower house. All bills which may affect the rights of the peerage, are, by the custom of parliament, to originate in the House of Peers, and to suffer no changes or amendments in the lower house. The House of Commons, as a distmct branch of the legislature, is the peculiar boast of the British constitution. In the earliest times of which any record exists in English history, there appear to have been assemblies of the nation, convoked to deliberate on occasions of great emergency ; but it was not until (A. D. 1266) after the overthrow of Siinon Montfort, earl of Leicester, that the people were regularly summoned by the king to sf nd represent- atives to the grbat council of the nation. Tho crown, little apprehensive of die formidable character which the House of Commons was afterwards to assume, favoured all the steps of its early progress, hoping by those means to counterpoise the overbearing sway of the grea^ Iraxons, and at the some time to obtain supplies of money from the growing wealth of the people. The decline of the feudal system had for some time favoured such a course of policy. Baronies escheated by forfeiture or for want of issue had been subdivided ; hence arose a class of men called minor barons, holding by knight's service ; and these being too numerous and toe poor to be all called to parliament, and to rank with the greater barons, were allowed to sit by representatives. Of these knirhts, each sAire was summoned to send two ; writs to that effect bemg addressed to the weriffi of the several counties. The Cinque Ports firobably about the same period sent their barons, and the cities and boroughs their burgesset, a early times these representatives appear to have considered attendance in parliament as n hardship rather than an advantage. It was expensive, f"d, from the imperfect police then established, often insecure ; and the summons, beinir always the prelude to a demand &r money, was by no means welcome. With the granting of supplies, however, was neces- sorilv combined the ri^t of petition, of stating grievances, and demanding guarantees; and tliese could not, by a sovereign pressed by vanous exi^ncies, be aJwaya denied. 1 TyDiT^IT'rF-l Pa«t III. ifl king[ himieir irere either ttxi e th« HouM of uce hia pardon, royal authoritj ie exist in the and in the im- ifl of the judge! igland; aixteon temporal peers of Peers, in the They are thus M 98 Total «a tiahons ; and for ifb, the Iriah by )od ; the biahope of the kinff to onaiat of dukea, , by the articlea the election ia he act of union, •oral elected for Lords exorcises ' courts ; and in of Commons, in tnial servants of Rsts for treason, themselves. In 18 peers ; but in r pives his ver- pon his honour; ; of parliament, ser subjects the andalum mag' for him in his All bills which >riginate in the iculiar boast of inglish history, an occasions of Imon Montfort, lend represent- ihe formidable ill the steps of ,y of the great wealth of the urse of policy. lence arose a too numerous were allowed nd two ; writs Cinque Ports eir burgesses. parliament as ct police then a demand &r ', was necea- .ranteea; and d. ,«•<■,,•.',.' BoorL' 'l^'fi ENGLAND. '»'' fUb The elootion of the Commons never reated on any principle of universal or eten general luflhige, excepting perhapa that of knights for each shire. As the kinga, however, could only attain tlioir objecta by aaaembling the moat poworftil and influential of the people, they endeavoured to mau an equal diatarimtion of the right of election, ao fkr, at least, aa related to property and influeice, at the time when auch a meaaure waa adapted to countervail th« preponderance of the barona. In after-timea, when aeats in parliament came to be appre- ciated oa conferring a deainble piviloge, and aa conatituting a powerflil check on the pre- rogative of the monarch, it would have been irreguhir to have allowed to the kins an ubi- trary aoloction ; and all parties adhered to the rights conferred on them by early gift or long usage. This permanence of the elective flranchise, amidst the local changes that ensued in the course of ages, gave rise to some very striking anomalies. Manchester, Leeds, and several other towns, which within tho lost century have become the commercial capitals of the kingdom, did not aend a aingle repreaentative ; while placea once important, but now dwindled into insignificance, returned each two memben. Cornwall, at a period when the rest of the kin(!|dom was poor and rude, enjoyed an abundant source of opulence in its tin mines, nnd retimed a number of chartered boroughs, beyond all proportion greater than those c'. any other couniy. The places holdinff the right of election were in many instances so small, timt what is called tho patronage of them wos easily acquired ; and that patronage of course involved the advan'.ugn of nominating one or both candidates for the representation. These were called close borougha, or, more reproachfiilly, rotten borougha. Another anomaly consisted in a number of what were called treasury boroughs, the nomination of which rested with the administration. With tho view of remedying these defects, the Reform Bill waa passed, in 183S, after long discussion and opposition. By this bill fifty-six of the smallest boroughs were entirely disfranchised, and thirty were reduced from two membcra to one, while Weymouth and Melcombe Regis were reduced from four to two ; a reduction was thus mode of 144 memben. In the room of these, twenty-two large places, — Manchester, Bir- mingham, Leeds, Sheffield, Greenwich, Bundcrland, Dovonport, Wolverhampton, Bolton, BlacRbum, Bradford, Brighton, Hulifhx, Macclesfield, Oldham, Stockport, Stoke-upon-Trent, Stroud, and four districts of tho metropolis, viz. Marylebone, Finsbury, Tower Flamlets, and Lambeth, — received each the right of electing two members ; while twenty smaller towns, — Anhton-under-Line, Bury, Chatham, Cheltenham, Dudley, Frome, Gateshead, Hud- dcrsfield, Kidderminster, Kendal, Rochdale, Salford, Soutli Shields, Tynemouth, Wakefield, Walaall, Worrington, Whitby, Whitehaven, and Merthyr Tydvil,— acquired Uie sight of nominating one member each. At tho same time twenty-seven counties acquired tho power of sending each two additional members, and seven that of sending one additional member. The representation of Great Britain now stands as follows : — English memben for countiM 143 univer»itiM 4 citiea and boroughs 334 . 471 , , WeUh memben for countiei IS citiea and boroughs 14 •■ 29 ' ' Scotch memben for coantiei 80 cities and boroughs S3 63 Irish memben for counties 64 *' ' univeniW '. 2 cities ana boroughs 89 105 Makinginall 6S8 The quclifirations requisite for a member of the House of Commons, in respect to pro> perty, are thoie : — A person to be eligible as a member for a county must have a freehold or copyhold, or must have been mortgagee in possession at least seven years, of a clear estate of the value of 600/. per annum ; and to be eligible for a city, borough, or other place, except the universities, of the value of 800/. per annum. The person so qualified is also to be of mature age, and must take the oaths imposed as indispensable to a member of the legislature. Among the persons who cannot sit in the House of Commons are judges, cler- gymen, persons holding certain ofiices under the crown, and persons having pensions under tne crown during pleasure or for an^ term of years; sherifllk of counties, and mayors and bailifis of boroughs, are ineligible in their respective jurisdictions; but a sheriff of one county is eligible as knight for another. The qualifications required in electors difibr, as they relate to counties or to boroughs. Ia the election of county members every member must have a fteehoW of the clear yearly value of forty shillings, over and above all rents and charges payable out of and in respect of the same, and must have been in the actual possession of it for twelve calendar months, unless it came to him within that time by descont, marriage settlement, devise, or promotion to a benefice in the church, or to an office. To these freeholders the new bill has added al! Vol. L 2T ai6 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Past IIL p«raon« holding property to the amount of ten poundi on copyhold, nr on leaae of not len tiwn lixty yoin; ud »lio thow occupying landi or tenementa for any period, at a rent of Dot leu than OOi. por annum. The aualificationfl of elcctora for citioe and boroughs wore, previoua to the premnt act, extremoly various. The right of voting in difibront placea reiidod variouily m the fVee- hoklera, tlie corporationa, Uie burgage tenants, and somotimca in the whole body of resident householdora. The now act, however, admits only the simple qualification of occupying a houMj rutcd at not loss than lU/. per annum. Those, however, who were fVoomen under the former system are still entitled to vote, altliough not possessed of the lUi. qualification, provided they reside within the borough. The mode of pro'^ccding to an election for a county and for a borough is nearly the same On a diiMulution of parliament, writo, pursuant to a warrant fh)m tl\o king, are issued undet Uie great seal, oddreiMed to the shcrills of counties, directing them to summon the people to elect two knights for each county, and one or two burgesses fur each borough. Tn supply a vacancy wiiilo parliament is sitting, tho warrant for the writ proceeds from Uio House of Commons. A certain day afler, tiio date or Ifitle of tho writ is fixed for tlio election to com- mence ; and on that day the candidate or candidates are put in nomination, at the place appointed, in tho presence of tho returning ofTiour. In a county election, tho shorilf or the under-sheriff is the returning officer ; in a city or borough, tha mayor or bailiff. If there be rival candidates put in nomination, the rct\irning officer calls on the voters for a decision by a show of tho hands, atlcr which the friend of any candidate, if diHsatixfiod, may demand a poll. The pull was formerly taken at only one placo. and mi(j;ht last fur lidecn days ; but under the new act, tho cities and counties are divided > listricts, witli separate booths, or polling-places, appropriated to each. The poll is uiuiu d to continue only for two days, which mu»t bo successive, and it must close at four o'clock in tho ailornoon of tlio second day. Poll clerks attend, to record the names of the voters, and their accuracy is watched bv inspectors nommatcd on each side. Tho returning officer who presides must, if required, oblige the candidates to swear to their qualiiications. At the close of the election, or on uio following day, the returning officer declares the names of the persons who have the majority of votes; and, unless a scrutiny [ya demanded, ho forthwith makcH Ida return. The duration of a Parliament has, for more than a century, been extended tu the term of seven years, from that of tliroe, to which it was formerly limited. Tho king, however, has tlin power of dissolving parliament at any time; he can also prorogue it at any time and for any period ; and, as such prorogation concludes the session, it puts an end to all bills or other proceedings depending in eitlier house, which must in tho next session be again instituted, as if they had never oeen begun. Eitlier house, or both houses, may adjoiini of their own accord, and, at their meeting again, mo^ take up the bills and other proceedings in the state of advancement in which they were left. A session of parliament usually commences io January or February, and continues until Juno or July. At tne commencement of every session committees of the whole house arc appointed ; one called the Committee of Supply, to consider the amount required by the crown for the ser vice of the army, navy, ordnance, and other departments ; and the other tho Committee of Wayt and Meant, to devise modes of niising, by taxes or loans, the sums which the house have granted. In this committee of ways and means, the chancellor of the exchequer, in an exposition technically called the Budget, demonstrates to the house in detail tliat the sums voted are sufficient to justi^ the committee in imposing such taxes, or sanctioning such loans, as are then recommended. When the two committees are closed, the House ot Commons pass a bill in which the grants made in the committee of ways and means are recapitulated, and directed to be applied to the services voted by the committee of supply specifying the particular sums granted for each service. Parliament have the sole right of making, altering, and amending all the laws of tlie kingdom, and by their authority alone can taxes be imposed or levied. An annual vote of the House of Commons is requisite to maintain the land and sea forces at the degree of strength which is every year fixed and determined upon. By these and other privileges, the annual meeting of parliament is secured without any express stipulation to that efl'ect By withholding these annual votes they may testify their disapprobation of the measures of government, and even compel it to change its ministers ; indeed, the principle has now become indisputable, that the minister who cannot rely on a majority of votes in parliament is disabled from conducting the affairs of the nation. The Privy Council is composed of persons, appointed by the king, who are bound by oath to advise their sovereign to the best of^ their judgment with all the fidelity and secrecy which their station prescribes. The king with the advice of his privy council publishes proclama- tions binding on the subject; but they are to be consonant to, and in execution of, the laws of the land. The power of the council is, to inquire into all offences against the govr rn- ment- and to commit the offenders to safe custody for trial in some of the courts of law ; but persons so committed are entitled to their habeas corpus as much as if they had been com- mitted by an ordinary justice of the peace. The privy council is a court of appeal in plants Past IIL laae of not lew od, at « rant of ho proient act, ily in the fVee- Nxly of roiident of occupying a ornon under the )l, qualification, loarly the nmo iro iwued undei on the people to h. To Huppiy a n tlio Iluuac of election to coin- n, at the place n, tlio Rhonlf or bailitr. Iftlioro ra for a dcciHion cd, may demand iflccn days ; but parato booths, or i\\y for two days, on of tlie second iracy is watched nuHt, if required, the election, or ns who have the his return, id to the term of iij^, however, has any time and for ) all bills or other again instituted, urn of their own ings in the state ly commenceB io appointed ; one :own for the ser Io Committee of Iwhich the house le exchequer, in detail tliat the . or sanctioning id, the House oi and means are littee of supply I the laws of tlie I annual vote of |it the degree of lier privileges. In to that efiect Ithe measures of iciple has now Is in parliament bound by oath '. secrecy which lies proclama- |on of, the laws st the govrrn- ^ts of law ; but bad been com* Ippeal in plants Oooi L ENGLAND. m ation and admiralty causes, which arise out of the Jurisdiction of the kinffdom, as also in eases of idiotcy ana lunacy. Wtion questions arise between two colonies respecting the extent of tiieir charter, "the king in coundT' exercises original juriHdiction in tnem, on the principles of fco«iul aoverei^ty ; he also determbee, on the same principle, the validity of claims to an island or provmco founded upon grant from the king or his ancestors. But from all tho dominions of the crown excepting Groat Britain and Ireland, an ajfpellate jurisdiction, in tlio last resort, is vested in the privy council. The judicial authority is oxorciMcd in a committee of the wiiolo priyv council, who hear allegations and proow, and make their report to At« myeily in council, by whom judgment is finally given. The dissolution of the privy council depends on tho pleasure of the king, who mi> y at his own discretion discharge any member, r- the whole of them, and appoint another council. It continues six months after the demise of the crown, unless sooner determined by tlie snccossor. Any natural- bom subject of England is capable of being a member of the privy council, taking tho proper oaths for security of tiio government and test fbr tho security of the church. A privy coun- sellor, if he bo only a privule gentleman, is styled right honourable, end takes prrccdence of all knights, baronets, and the younger sons of all biruiis and viscounts. A cabinet council is not, strictly speaking, recognised by the constitution, but by usage it is regarded as a body selected by the sovereign to conduct tho business of tho Liatc ; and tho inciiibers composing it are held to bo the responHiblo advisers of tiiu crowr. The cabinet council usually consists of those ministers of state who exercise tho most important functions of the executive authority ; their number and selection depend only on the king's plcatiuro ; and each member receives a summons for every attendanco. Though tiiis body, as consti- tuting what is essentially the government, bo compoeed principally of of ers of Htn ; yet a privy counsellor selected by the king as a member of his cabinet council, may hold is seat as such, without accepting any particular ofiice. The officers of state are those e^.. icratod in the fallowing lists : — QDkerf qf Slalt forming the Cabinet. FIrrt Lord of Um Treaiury. fleers iry of Binte (br ColonI'.- i > ■' War. Lord ChBneallor. Chmuillor nf the Exchequnr I/>rd Frivy Seal. Pint I^nrU nf tlio Admiralty. ! Proildent of tha Coiinell. Maater-general of the Ord'm co. Secretary of Btat« fbr tha Home Dapartmotit. Preiidont of the Board of Control, tiacrotary of Slate for the Foreign Doparlnient. Chancellor of the Duchy of Laiicaiter. Lord Chamberlain. Lord Steward. Maiter of tha Horaa. Beeretary at War. Treaaiircr of the Navy. President of the Board of Trade. Faymaiter of the Force*. Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. Lord Chnncellnr. CnmniRnder of the Foreei. Chief Secretary. Offietri qf Stati not qf tk$ CaUntt. Vica-Preiideiit of the Board of Trade. rnitinaaler-Gencral. Lieutenant-Oeneral nf the Ordnance. Firit Comminioner of the Land Bevenus. Attorney .Oeneral. Solicitor-Oeneral. Ireland. Vice-Trea«urcr. Attornoy-aeneral. BolicitorOoneral. That officer of state who holds the appointment of First Lord of the Treasury, is by eminence the minister. In the event of a change of ministry, tlie person who is directea by the king to form another, receives an implied offer o, li...' high office, and is generally placed at Uie head of the administration. The first loi - ae treasury, that is, the first of the five lords commissioners for executing the office of lord high treasurer, possesses most of the powers formerly held by the lord high treasurer, and is sometimes, though not in- variably, chancellor and under treasurer of the exchequer. The revenue applicable to the general purpoHcs of the state is, with a trifling ex (option, derived entirely from taxed. In the course of the last century it increased to an nmount unparalleled in the history of any other country ; but in consequence of the wau in which Great Britain was engaged with little intermission until t!io year 1315, it did not keep pace with the expenditure, and an enormous debt was gradually contracted, the interest on which occasioned a correspondent increase of taxation. Since 1817, a deduction haa been made of about sixty millions from the principal of the debt, and about five millions from the annual charge on its account This diminution has been principally effected by taking advantage of the fall in the rate of interest since the peace, and offering to pay off Uie holders of different stocks, unless they consented to accept a reduced payment. The system of fiinding by which the debt has been rendered national, rests on the prin- ciple of assigning for the amount of a loan, an equivalent amount of nominal capital, bearing interest charged on the national revenue in half-yearly payments called dividends, or of terminable annuities also payable half-yearly. Annuities granted for an indefinite period sre called redeemable debt, being redeemable at the option of government when at par ; those granted for a limited period are called irredeemable debt ; they exist only for a certain number of years, and a portion of the capital is annually absorbed in the interest. The ms DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. funds are respectively designated according to the rate per cent, they bear; and the shore which a public creditor holds in any of them, being tranisferable by sale under the name of $tock, they constitute a kind of circulating capital. The rate of interest granted on certain portions of the national debt, though nominally lower than that nf five per cent allowed by law, has been rendered advantageous to the lender by being chareed on a larger amount of nominal capital than Uie sum borrowed Loans have been made in fhnds at four and five per cent, but the greater part has bee made in a fiind bearing three per cent interest on the nominal capital, and commonly calle the three per cent, coruolidated annuitie$. The prices of these and other annuities consti tuting the redeemable debt are ratt;d according to the money value of one hundred pound on such stock ; terminable annuities according to the number of years' purchase which they are supposed to be worth. Particular taxes were, at an early period of the fUnding mtem, appropriated to defhiy the interest of difllerent descriptions of debt ; but in the year 1786, the whole were collected into one fiind, called the Consolidated Fund. The particular branches of revenue included in it were the cuttom* (with the exception of a certain amount applicable to other public services), the excise, the stamps, the land and assessed taxes, and the post-office, Ix) this fiind are applicable moneys ansmg fh)m other reBources, specified in the annual accounts. The following statement shows the progress of the national debt, fi-om the Revolution to the present time: — DBbts St the RAVoltitlon In 1A89 • Principal. Interett. £ 004,203 15,730,430 £ 3P,M!» 1»71,087 ExceM of debt contracted during the reign of William III. above debt Debt at the aeceiiion of Queen Anno in 170Q. ..*...■ *■■■••■■•• 10,394,709 1,310,042 Debt at the accetaion of Georffe L in 1714. 34,141,363 3,351,358 Debt at the accetaion of Geonra il. in 1V97. ^. ••••••• 59,092,238 8,217,551 138,805,430 4,852,051 Debt at the connmencement of the AmpricAn war in 177X 128,583,035 4,471,571 Debt at the conclusion of the American war in 1784 • 940,851,028 0,451,772 239,350,1-18 C08,»32,3a9 9,208,495 94,045,971 Debt contracted durina the French war. > Total flinded and uniUnded debt, Sih January, 1617, when the Engliih and Irish Exchequer! were conBolidated 848,982,477 33,854,400 A sinking fund for the gradual reduction of the debt had been formed by Sir Robert Wal- pole in 1716, but had been so frequently encroached upon, that in the course of half a cen- tury, it had not extinguished above fifteen millions. Its revival ibrmed part of the financial arrangements of Pitt in 1786. Out of the aggregate of the taxes applicable to the consoli- dated fiind, government then pledged itself, that one million annually should b^ paid to the commissioners for the reduction of the national debt. To this annual million were added the amount of government annuities ar a sinking fiind of one per cent, on the capital stock created by it, which should be exclusively employed in the liquidation of such particular loan; and that no relief nhould be a^r^ed to the public from the taxes which constitnted the one per cent sinking fund, until a sum of capital stock, equal in amount to that created bv the loan, had been purchased by it That being accomplished, both the interest and the sinxing fiind were to be applicable to the publ'c service. It was calculated that, under the most unfavourable circumstances, each loan would b* redoenved in forty-five years fh)m the period when it wns contracted. The provisions in this act, and in the former act of 1786, were altered by sub- sequent enactments ; but, by an act passed in 1813, those alterations were rescinded ; and it was provided first, that, as a sum equal to the debt of 1786, and bearing an interest nearly equal to the interest of Uiat debt, was tihen vested in the hands of the commissioners, the debt of 1786 should be declared discharged as soon as the interest of the debt redeemed should ben 1832 only 19,832,000 lbs. : New Holland and Van Diemen's Land in that year fumitiiied 2,377,000 lbs. of very fine wool ; and the supply is increasing. The entire im- port amounted La 1830 and 1831 to about 32,000,000 lbs. ; m 1832 to only 28,140,000 lbs. The annual value of the woollen manufacture appears to be about 20,000,000Z. sterling, and tiie persons employed between 400,000, and 500,000. There were exported, in 18^ 396,661 pieces of cloUt; 23,453 pieces napped coatings, duffels, &c. ; 40,984 pieces of ke^ sejrmeres; 34,874 pieces baize; 1,800,714 stufis or worsted; 2,304,750 yards flannels; 1,681,840 yards blanketing; 690,042 yards carpe^uig, &c. There wore exported also 4,199,000 lbs. of British wool, and 2,204,000 lbs. woollen yam. The cotton manufacture is of much more recent introduction, and for a kn^ period the progress of this branch of industry was slow. In 1760, ^e value of the fiibric was coly 200,000/. In 1767, James Hargreaves, a common Lancashire weaver, invented the spinning jenny, by which at first 8, and finally 120 spmdles were moved by a single spinner. Har- greaves became exposed to the persecution of the working people employra in t!iis operation ; was obliged to flee to Nottingham ; and died in poverty. Richard Arkwright, a barber of Nottingham, invented the water-twist, or " perpetual twist," spinning firame, in which the whole process was performed by the machine, and the workmen had only to supply the material snd watcli its progress. Samuel Crompton, in 1775, produced the machine called the mule, a combination of the two preceding, which it soon superseded both in the finer and moro valuable articles. That machuiery should weave aa well as spin, was necessary to consummate the triumpli Part III million is occu- ial, &c„ we mny subject of agri- ipwarda of threo 1 two and three D, and 4,400,000 9 of her agricul* all other nations. ; for, as to this 3ns; and British he immensity of ody of mankmd ; ig the machinery Inglond began to rools, instead of t Kent and Sua- 3 woollens in the id Wiltshire. In iss than half was jgh not with the wever, been aug- only 5,240,000i. ess liable to vicis- English wool is sively adapted to 3 manufacturer to tvool is fitted for !88. Efforts were )m Spain, and not oting themselves Brate, though the is that of Sussex of short-woollcd long-woolled tc of short wool ; making in all ge quantity from )ain : and Spanish 00,000 Ibb. annu- 12,626,000 lbs. It rmany, where the The importa. 26,073,000 lbs., ind in that year The enture im- 28,140,000 lbs. 00,000^. sterling, xported, in 18^ 34 pieces of ker- yards flannels; e exported also kng period the &bric was ooly tted tlie spinning spinner. Har> tliis operation ; ght, a barber of ae, in which the pply the material called the mule, finer and more late the triumph Book I. ENGLAND. 'Jb,i of art. Th!3 was aecofflpliflhed by the Rev. Mr. Cartwright, a clerg3rman of Kent, who in- vented a machine by which cloth was woven ; but the first trial was unsuccessful as to profit, and an impression long prevailed that cottons could be woven cheaper by the hand. Witiiin the last few years, however, the system of power-loom weaving has been adopted to an im- mense extent ; it is estimated that there are in Britain 80,000, absorbing 10,000,000/. of & ^ lUid 5,000,0002. of floating capital, employing 160,000 operatives, and working up 124,800,000 pounds of cotton. The steam-engine, Ute moving power, the greatest of all these discoveries, remains to be mentioned. Machines moved by horses and water, originally employed in manulacturing and other processes, were cumbrous, expensive, and often unmanageable. The steam-engine, brought to perfection by Watt, became at once the moving power of all this machinery, and thept'ncipal caufie to which its vast results may be attributed. llie cotton wool imported into Britain, whicn in 1781 little exceeded 5,000,000 lbs., rose in 1609, to 98,000,000; in 1817, to 126,000,000; and in 1832, to 288,000,000. The finest is that called Sea Island, a name given to what is grown on the coast of Georgia and Caro- lina. The bowed Georgia, produced in the inlerior, is not of equal value. Next to the Sea Island rank the West India and Brazil. Of the quantity imported in 1831, there came from the United States, 219,333,000 lbs. ; firom Brazil, 31,695,000; from the East Indies, 25,805,000; from the West Indies, 2,401,000; and from Egypt, 7,714,000 lbs. The con- sumption of printed cottons has diminished in England, silk being preferred as an ornamental dress, and the use of cotton, j /inted or dyed previously to weaving, having become preva- lent The demand abroad, however, is still extensive, so that the amount of pieces printed is about 4,500,000, giv.'"^g employment to 100,000 persons. The produce of the cotton manufacture is 34,000,000/. annually. Of this 18,000,000/. is paid in wages to 800,000 persons employed in its different branches ; and allowing for those who are dependent upon them, and for the subsidiary employments, it aflbrds subsistence to not much fewer than 1,400,000 people. The value of cotton manufactures exported in 1831 was 13,282,000/.; of twist and yarn, 3,975,000/. They were chiefly of the following descriptions: — Calicoes, cambric muslins, dimities, &c., 299,597,000 yards; lace, gauze-net and crape, 48,164,000 yards ; cotton and linen, mixed, 1,668,000 yards ; velvets and vel- veteens, 404,000 yards ; counterpanes and quilts, number, 23,000 ; hosiery, shawls, handker- chiefs, &.C., 536,000 dozen ; tapes, bobbins, &c., 99,000 dozen ; thread, 1,105,000 lbs. ; twirt and yam, 48,098,000 lbs. The working in metals is also one of the branches in which England has attained to a most decided pre-eminence. About the middle of the sixteenth century it rose to the rank of a staple : and within the last half century it has greatly increased in importance. Shef- field, perhaps the original f.'co.t of the trade in England, is still distinguished for the most solid and useful articles, knives, grates, and their appendages, agricultural implements, &c.; while Birmingham adds to these utensils a variety of small articles, ornamente, and toys, which, though minute in detail, amount to a vast value in the aggregate. Each of these two great cities forms, as it were, the centre of a large circle of population, all employed in the same manner. The numbur of persons employed in the product and manuracture of metals is estimated at 350,000, and the entire produce at 17,000,000!. The export of hard- ware and cutlery in 1831 amounted to 16,799 tons, value 1,620,000/.; in 1832, it was 15^294 tons; value, 1,433,000/. The silk manufacture was of late origin in England ; but it wr" considerably iminoved by the revocntion of the 'ilict of Nantes, which drove a number of French weavers into that country. It is established in a quarter of the metropolis, called Spitalfields, where it em- ploys about 25,000 men : at Macclesfield, Manchester, Coventry, and in other parts o( the country, the number occupied in it may amount to 40,000. The entire value of the manu- &cture was estimated some years ago at 4,000,000/. ; and may now, probably, 1:3 betwren 5,000,000/. and 6,000,000/. Notwi ; .^'mding the removal of the prohibitory duties on the importation of foreign silks, the British manufacture has : laintained its groand, and gnne on increasing. The importation of raw and thrown silk ii. -^ili was 4,224,0Ci0 Ibe. : .'hick 1,814,000 lbs. were iWim the East Indies and China; 1,006,000 lbs. from France ; 56 ■":■.> lbs. from Italy; and 458,000 lbs. from Turkoy. The exports amounted in 1332 to 52J,000/., chiefly to North America and the West Indies. In the manufacture of earthenware and porcelain, England has of late made vast ad' vances, and brought its various products to a high degree of beauty and elegance. Burslem in Staffordshire had, for centuries, been noted for its fiibrication of a coarse kind of ware ; but it was reserved for Mr. Wedgwood to carry this art to perfection by a combination of elegance and cheapness. Fine white clay from the south-western counties, and ground flint, iSf. the chief materials of thia celebrated ware, which bears the name of its inventor. The white ware of Derbv and the porcelain of Worcester, though on a smaller scale, are still finer productions. The latter is composed of a mixture of 13 different materials, and each cup passes through 23 hands. Earthenware pays no duty, so that its amount cannot be offi- VoL. I. 30* tU o54 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pakt m. cia?',y aBcertaiiiod ; tho i^^port, however, Iiqjb diminiohed froin nearly 700,000/. in 1815-Id t.if;.:v490,00'Uinl832. '■'■les are imported from all quarters of the world; the entire quartity in 1824 was ctured amounted to 46,800,000 )>)r , valut: 3,f>00,0()0/. ; and as tiie va'ne of tho llnislied article is supposed to bo tliree tirtOe that of th;: in«teria], this value will amount to rex.iy 12,000,000/. The shoes mart-, in Enfrland aie estirii acd at 6,800,000/. and the whcit.' manufacture employs about 250,0ii0 per?' ii>. Beer, gloss, soap, and •.nndles are branches of production ^vtiioh cijploy.i lar,^" ' ; ital End numerous v crkmen, lujd yield a yearly amount of great miIuo. In Ixindon the t >;•, ty of malt liquor ar.imally brewed is 1,700,000 barrelt. if whicli ;i^i,CO(l »^!' exj. . . jd. " ! ■ i» chiefly porUr, a liquor pemiliarly appreciate to Lon ,'i>d, and i\jc which she h liimoui? th. i gh- out tho world. In all Enjrland, there wero s.-ewed, ii 1820, alv.it 7,400,000 barrelw, f>t the viiluo of upwards of 22,00(,»,n00/. ; witli jut iiicluding l,.iOO,000 o^rrels of table-beer. Can- dies. — In 1829, the manufectunj amounti^u *> 110,000,000 lbs., which would make a value of 8,208,000/. Soap. — The aianufacturc, in 1829, was 100,000,000 lbs. which wotld amount to 3,175.000/. The linen manufecturo js tiiat in which En/^fiand ." nost dt^ficient; for tJiougi' ahe is fip- posod to produce the value of 1,0 sO.OOO/. a ^"■^^r, this do v) not, supeniedo the iiGi^assity of lerge imports fro3r Scotland and Ireland. Of late, ihe tlegml wjt.;K'./' ' .'C of 'ace iaa bee.ii carried to greji. perfection by means of bobbint! frauts. By I'bis m'Ji-'iactnve a value ')f Ib'ViifRiv', tU sil)< and Sea Island cotton is wroujht into kce, estiiJvt.ted at 1,390,000/. and oropji i );t iOS/KK) perjons. Dutilled lii^juors or spirits, too, tljough they produce a revenue of 2,0 ■•\!'(K?J., r • neither tqual in quality nor amount to those of the sister countries of Scc^tland nnd h- i> r!<), whi*.+ produce, if it had not been excluded by national jealousy, would probably i:v '1-5 timo hi'se driven that of England out of the market. The quantity distilled iu 1833." ano \9VJ2 avera ;ed 7,350,000 gallons. Mines it? ai oi;e of the most copious sources of the wealtli of England. Tho useful metals dntt iniucrals those wiiicii afford the instruments of manufacture and are subservient to the jiiiiy purposes of life, are now I'.i'awn from the ecjth more copiously there than in any other country. Her most valuable metals are iron, copper, and tin ; her principal minerals are coal and salt. Iron, the material of so important a class of manufacture, abounds in England, particularly m Wales, Staffordshire, and Derbyshire. While it was supiwsed, however, that the blast fiMioces could be composed only of charcoal, the limited supply of wood depressed the pro- dutij, and in the middle of the last century, the iron made in England from fifly new fur« naces did not exceed 17,000 tonx. It was tlien found, however, &at, furnaces filled with coke might be boated to the same degree as those of charcoal, and the inexhaustible supply of coal might be employed m brmging the iron mines into value. Hence, the increased production lias been asionisliingly rapid. In 1796, it amounted to 125,000 tons; in 1806, to 250,000 tons; in 1830, it was 680,000 tons, worth 5,100,000/. ; and which the additional labour of forming it into bar iron may raise to 6,300,000/. The export amounted in 1832 to about 150,000 tons, worth 1,120,000/. It is exported chiefly in tlie forms of bai° iron, to the amount of 74,024 tons; bolt and rod iron, 6938; pig iron, 17,566; cast iron, 12,495; hoops, 9417; nails, 4347, &c. Copper, also, hiis risen to importance in the course of the last half century. It is found chiefly in Cornwall, to the amount, in 1832, of 11,947 tons, and is carried thence to Swansea, to be smelted with the coal of North Wales, which itself produced 1320 tons of coppr r. The total produce is 14,449 tons, which, at 90/. per ton, wUl be 1,300,410/. Tin, a rare and peculiar metal, is found only in Cornwall and part of Devon. So early was it known, that wo find the British Islands first recognized by its name, and it is enu- merated among the articles with which the Carthaginians supplied the markets of Tyre. As Coin wall, with the exception of the Indian island of Banca, is the only tract known to produce tin in large quantities, there is a considerable export ia most countries of Europe, particularly France and Italy. The annual produce of the ii:,i;!ep amounts to 83,000 cwt ; of the value of 115,000/. Lead is found in Cumberland, Derbyshire, and Northua>v h], to the supposed amount of about 16,000 tons annually ; which, at 20/. per ton, will H; th 320,000/. ^n 1833, the British lead exfs. 'd was 13,898 tons. Coal, thd mor table of all the mineral substan' ' perity, exist4i ' < *t inexhaustible quantities in ' and Sti^ord, anu in that of Glamorgan in South W.. ( steam which sets the machinery in motion, and k, i"A'. every substance into a useful and merchantable f ' sity of extensive plantations for fuel, it enables a mucu gr devoted to cultivaution. The Northumberland and Durho ■quare miles, the South Wales field is 1200 ; which, alio «vhich Britain derives her pros- < ','"ia of Northumberland, DeiVy it fuses the metals, produces i!:>; istrumcntal in bringing almost 'uperseding also tlie neces- 'iroportion of the toil to be has been estimated at 732 I'or the average depth, will. ::x. Part III. m. in 1815-18 J' in 1824 wu n that year the sr«0,0(X)/.; and .!! uiiiferJal, this je v'Stiruitod at a largo c ».?ital ion the t .;% . ty [>>.r. .3d. " !.' is ittmoi'gtii. Mgh« barreltj, of the ble-beer. Can- Id make a value s. which woLld ougi' she is E'lp- the necessity of ' re of lace lias '. ictuio a value l,890,000i. and x4uce a revenue iter countries of 1 jealousy, would quantity distilled 'he useful metals ibservient to the han in any other lal minerals are land, particularly r, that the blast pressed tlie pro- )m fifty new fur- laces filled with haustible supply e, the increased ana ; in 1806, to the additional anted in 1832 to f bar iron, to the , 12,495; hoops, t is found chiefly ) Swansea, to be )f copp-: r. The even. So early I, and it is enu- arkets of Tyre, tract known to tries of Europe, to 83,000 cwt; ipposed amount I. Tn 1833, the erives her pn»' berland, DeiVy 9, produces ilrii bringing almost also the neces- ' the toil to be timated at 732 ige depth, will, flOOK I .Y 1'* ENGLAND. i>i>i;j'j aw >t is calculated, be sufficient to supply all England for 1700 or 2000 years. At all events, it seems certain that she is secure for many centuries against any denoiency. The quantity shipped flrom Durham tc.iA Northumberland is stated at 3,300,000 toni ; and the whole em- ploy ed as fuel, and in the manufactories and mines throughout Engfland (adding 700,000 exprirtcd to Ireland), at not less than 15,500,000 tons. The mines on the Tyne employed 8491 persons underground, and 3463 above ; those on the Wear, about three-fourths of this number : tlie conveyance of these coastwise employs 1400 vessels and 15,000 men ; while, in London, 7500 whippers, lighter-men, factors, agents, &c. are engaged in landing and distributing it Taking into view the whole of Great Britain, Mr. M'Culloch considers that the coal trade will give occupation to not less than 160,000 persons. In 1829, the total quantity shipped was 6,224,125 tons; of which, 6,014,132 were sent coastwise; 840,240, to Ireland ; 128,893, to the British colonies : 356,419, to foreign countries. Of salt, Britain possesses an immense supply. The finest and most valuable kind is the rock salt, drawn from muies and from brine springs in the county of Chester. The salt is refined by being boiled along with the brine of the springs, and is then called white salt. The annual prMuce is 15,0(X),000 bushels, of which about 10,000,000 are exported, chiefly to North America, the Netherlands, and Russia. Tlie commerce of Britain, like her manufacturing industry, is now completely without a rival. The exports of Britain consist almost wholly of her manufactured produce. Cotton takes the precedence of all others. In 1830, the quantity exported, including twist and yarn, was valued at about 15,000,000^ stCTling ; being two-fiflhs of the whole exportption. Tiicy are sent to every country, but most especially to those from which (he raw material is imported. The United States take an immense quantity ; the West Indies and Brazil im- port largely ; the market in the independent states of South America is daily enlarging, and they make their way in increasing quantities even into the East Indies. In Europe, Portu- gal and Italy are extensive markets ; and though studiously excluded from Spain, large con- signments are sent to Gibraltar, evidently with a view to clandestine introduction. Germany takes a great quantity both of manufactured goods, and of yarn and twist for her own manu- factories. The woollen manufacture has a difierent and less extensive range. The United States, the greatest market, take tiirce-eighths of the whole ; afler which rank the East In- dies, Russia, Portugal, and Germany. The wrought metals find a great variety of market j. Of bar iron, 7000 tons, and copper 50,000 tons, go to the East Indies. Ireland takes 7000 tons of bar, 700 of cast, and 2300 of wrought iron. The West Indies take largely both Iron and copper.* Among the imports, a large portion consists of raw materials, brought in vast quantities to be manuractured, in many instances for the use of the regions from which they come. Under the head of manufactures, we have enumerated the principal of these articles, and tlie countries from whence imported. They are chiefly cotton, wool, silk, and hides ; to which may be added, bark, ashes, and barilla ; cochineal, indigo, madder, and other dvoing stufl^. Although grain and provisions are now produced in suflScient quantity for internal consump- tion, there is much want of the raw produce of uncultivated land. Under this head a promi- nent rank may be assigned to timber and naval stores. Fir and oak timber, and staves, are brought chiefly from North America ; masts, deals, and deal ends, from Norway and Russia ; oak plank from I'russia. The import trade of consumption is, after all, the most extensive : it consists chiefly in obtaining from southeiii regions, and those warmed by tropical suns, the accommodations and luxuries which cannot be matured under a less genial sky. Wine would have been intro- duced to a very great extent, had not its exclusion been made a prime object of fiscal regu- lation. This, nowever, has been so potently applied, that the use of wine has not increased in any proportion to the general wecuth of the nation ; and it has been forced from the near- est and best wines of France, to the less palatable produce of Spain and Portugal. Brandy, also, still account'.Hl th ' finest of spirituous liquors, forces itself, to a certain extent, into the circ' A' \n<\ • r.^j. Biu iic saccharine and aromatic products of the tropical plains form the baF '^^ .' an ramien"? commerce, which even the adherents of the mercantile system cherish, > V r the idea that mi. • ^i of it is carried on with English colonies. The leading articles are ^ugar, tea, cofiee, tobacco, and spices. Notwithstanding the immense cotton manufacture of Britain, tho piece goods of India, m : their peculiar excellence, still find their way into the country. The shipping by which so extensive a trade is carried on, must necessarily be very exten- sive. Ill 1603 it was only 95,000 tons. It rose in 1701 to 273,000; in 1751, to 609,000; in 1792, to 1,186,000. The vessels belonging to the British empire at the end of 1834, were 20.055, of 2,716,000 tons, and nR"igated by Ifl'^.OOl men. The entries and clearunces for the coasting trade, in iS52, amounted each to 8,500,000 tons. Besides these, m the same year, 4546 foreign vessels, comprising 639,979 tons, and navigated by 35,399 men, entered til" v^xXb of Great Britain.* • See Btatiitical Tablet, ai end of Cbap. IV. DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pabt K1 The fisheries do not seem to have been so much cultivated in Britain, aa the hard^ enter' prise of the nation might have led us to expect The wliale fishery was considered so valu- able, both for its products, and as a nursery for seamen, that, till 1824, a bounty was granted in proportion to tlie tonnage of the vessels employed. They have found theur way to the antarctic polar sea, m search of an oil which, though not superior for burning, is better adapted to the purposes of manufiicture, than that drawn from the arctic reg&ns. This fishery, within the last twelve years, has considerably diminished both in amount and in the value of its products, owing to the use of gas, the greater cheapness of rape-oil for manu- fiicture, and pIso to a larger part of the tnme being ennosscd by Scotland. In 1820 there sailed fi-om England only 41 vessels, of 13,766 tons burden ; which brought in 4912 tuns of oil, and 289 tons of whalebone. The following year was still more deficient, owing to the disasters encountered by the vessels engaged m the fishery. Of the fisheries in the British seas, that of Herrings, the most important, belongs almost antirely to Scotland. Next to this ranks that of Puchords, on the coast of Cornwall and sart of Devon. The fish is found there in such immense shoals, that it forms the chief food of the people during the greater part of the year, and is also largely salted for exportation. The value annually taken is reckoned at 50,000Z. or 60,00(M. The interior navigation of England is justly regarded as one of the prime sources of her prosperity. Till the middle of last century, the making of canals did not enter into the system of English economy. In 1755 was formed the Sankey canal, a Ime of twelve miles, to supply Liverpool with coal from the pits at St. Helen's. The example then set by the Duke of Bridgewater gave a general impulse to the hation. Since that time, upwanls of 30,000,000{. sterling have been expended in this object. Twenty-one canals have been car- ried across the central chain of hills, by processes in which no cost has been spared ; all the resources of art and genius have been employed; every obstacle, however formidable, which nature could present, has been vanquished. By locks, and by inclined planes, the vessels are conveyed up and down the most rugged steeps ; they are even carried across navigable rivers by bridges. When other means fail, the engineer has cut through the heart of rocks and hills a subterraneous passage. Of these tunnels, as they are called, there are said to be forty-eight, the entire length of which is at least forty miles. The Duke of Bridgewater formed the plan of opening a communication between Man- ciiester and his extensive coal-mines, at Worsley. The obstacles were so great, both firom nature and art, that the attempt must have proved abortive, had he not been seconded by the genius of Brindley, who, firom a common millwright, raised himself to be the first engineer of the age. The canal was carried through vast excavations, made partly in the interior of the mine itself; it was led by aqueducts over a succession of public roads, and over the river Irwell by a magnificent bridge, which left space for vessels witii their sails spread to pass beneath. By deep cuttings, and by artificial mounds, in some places supportea upon piles, a level of upwards of fifty miles was completed. The Duke expended, m this undertakir>q', his whole fortune, amounting to.350,000I. ; and its failure would have left him destitute: but, OS it unmediately enablra him to reduce the price of coal in Manchester to one half, the trade in a short time yielded twenty per cent, upon his outla''- rnd rapidly produced an immense income. The Grand Trunk Canal, an undertaking on a still greater scale, formed under the patronage of the Marcjuess of Stafford, by a course of ninety miles through Stafilbrdshire, connects the Trent with the Mersey, Laverpool with Hull, and the eastern with the western coasts. It gave animation to the trade of all the districts throagh which it passed, particu- larly that of the Potteries, and served as a basis for various canals and railways branching from it. From a point near the commencement of the Grand Trunk, the Ellesmere ctmS has branched far into Wales, and conveys to Liverpool the mineral and agricultural produce of that principality. From its eastern termination, large branches have been extended to Derby, to Nottingham, to Grantham, and other considerable towns. The Leeds and Liverpool Canal, by a more northerly line of one hundred and twenty miles, connects the Mersey with the Aire, a tributary or the Ouse, and thus enaUea Liver pool and Hull to communicate by another line across the great cloth-manufkctnring districts. An important branch of this canal is carried to Lancaster, and on to Kendal. From the vicinity of London the Ghrand Junction, at an expense of two millions, was car- ried by a line of ninety miles to the neighbourhood of Coventiy. Near Daventry, the Grand Union strikes off, and joins the Grand "n^nk, thus securing for London an inland coihmuni- cation with Liverpool, and with all the great manufacturing cities of ik'i West A great system of canals was formed round Birmingham, of which one resrlt was to connect the Grand Trunk with the Severn, and thus to form a connexion betweeii all the four gre -t rivers of England, and all its commercial and manufiictnring citiea A canal had already been formed fl?om Coventry to Oxford. That of the ThameH tmA 8-^ ••'em joined these tvra main rivers at the highest navigable point of the former. The Gloucester and Berkeley is a lateral canal to the Severn, by means of which Gloucester is connected with t^e Bristol llhamiel by a direct line. The principal canals to the south of the Thames are the Eennat Pabt KI B hard^ enter- idered bo valu- y was granted sir way to the lin^, is better «gionB. This unt and in the ■oil fbr manu- In 1820 there 1 4912 tuna of , owing to the elongs almoBt Cornwall and the chief food >r exportation. sources of her inter into tiie twelve miles, lien set by the le, upwards of lave been car- pared ; all the lidable, which ;s, the vessels ross navigable tieart of rocks are said to be letween Man- sat, both from conded b^ the first engineer he interior of jver the river iprsad to pass d upon piles, undertakirq', im destitute: one half, the produced an under the Staffordshire, the western «ed, particu- ^s branching (smere camJ ural produce extended to and twenty tables Liver ing districts. ins, was car- y, the Grand id codimuni- it A great connect the > four gre "t had already } ^sse tws Berkeley is tlie Bristol theKeniwt Book I. nrt' ENGLAND. U'.i'<.l(| 357 and Avon canal, ond the Berks and Wilts canal, through which a communication is formed from the Thames near Abingdon to tlio cities of Bath and Bristol. The total length of canals in Great Britain, excluding those under five miles, is 2581 miles. Railways form another contrivance, by wliich the conveyance of goods is wonderfully fkcilitated, by causing the wheels to roll over a smooth surface of iron. Railways were at first used only on a small scale, chi^il^ in the coal-mines round Newcastle, for conveying the mineral m>m the interior to the surface, and thence to tiic place of shipping ; and it is reckoned that round that city tliere is on extent of about three hundred miles of tliese rail- ways. Thev were gradually employed on a greater scale, particularly in Wales, where IIlS county of Glamorgan has one twenty-five miles long, and in all two hundred miles f rail- way. The railway between Manchester and Liverpool extends tliirty-one miles, and is car- ried over sixty-three bridges, thirty of which pass over the turnpike road, and one over the river Irwell. The entire cost was about 820,000/. ; but the intercourse has been so exten- sive as to affiird an ample remuneration. The Cromford and High Peak railway is carried over the high mountainous district of Derbyshire, connecting the two canals which bear these names. Its length is thirty-three miles, carried over fifly bridges, and rising to a level d* 992 feet above the Cromford canal. The entire expense has not exceeded 180,0001. The common high roads of the kingdom are also an object of high importance to trade and general intercourse. Half a century ago most of them appear to have been in a miserable state, but they are now, perhaps, the best in the world, chiefly through the application of the turnpike system, under which they are made and repaired by tolls levied upon the travellers, uid administered by county trustees. There are a few cases where roads ore to be carried through poor provinces, or form grand lines of national communication, in which government judges it expedient to assist, or even to undertake the entire construction of them. In 1823, the turnpike roads extended in all to 24,531 miles in length. The amount of tolls was 1,214,0001., burdened with a debt of 5,200,000/. Bridges, in a country intersected by numerous and often broad rivers, necessarily attracted a great share of attention ; and the ingenuity and wealth of England have been employed in maxing extensive improvements in this branch of architecture. South wark Bridge is the most complete of any yet formed of iron. This species of bridge has the advantage of being lighter, and of requiring much fewer arches than those of stone. A still raore daring form Ijfff, , . , I ■)■ ■ has been given t'/ this material by bridges of suspeiision, formed by iron chains stretched f" ss, and ■ ■■■ ^^iMiiiM supported by fixed poi. - each ■^jJBMMl^ B /'Ml"' .ilt[!L..--_'^- L X^ i.'i i-^alKS slcle. This constructioi. ji <• cer- tain scale, has existed in China from the earliest ages. The Ame- ricans were the first to adopt it of Henai Bridge. any western nation. The greatest undertaking of this kind yet executed is the Menai Bridge (Jig. 137.), over the strait which separates Wales from Anglesea. Arches of masonry on each side, at the distanc" of five hundred and sixty feet, are united by a bridge of suspension, composed of iron chains. ... Sect. VI. — Civil and Social State. The population of England in former times was imperfectly known, being calculated only from very vague surveys and estimates. In 1377 the results of a poll-tax were given as 2,300,000 ; but from the many evasions to which such a census would gi-. ' 'hat number was probably below the truth. In the reign of Elizabeth, during the a; : : a menaced Spanish invasion in 1575, a pretty careful survey was made, the result of which gave 4,500,000. At the time of the Revolution, the increase appeared to be about a million.* From the com- mencement of fJie present century decennial enumerations have been made, of which the following are the results: — Engtanrl. Wa|. s . Population, ISOI. Incruate perceDt. PopuUlion, 1811. IncreaM pcrccot. FopulatloD, lai. Increoae percent. Fonuhtion, 1831. 8,331,434 541,546 470,598 14} 13 9,551,«W 611,788 640,500 171 17 11,361,437 717,438 310,300 16 13 13,098,338 805,-236 977,017 rv. fte Total 9,343,578 27f 10,804,176 34t 12,iW8,l74 38 14,180,591 * Population if the BriUik Empire and Cohniit. Great Britain andlreland 24>?il'^ Itfnrth AiripriMn nnlnnieg , , , ,,.,.,.,,,.,.. = = ,,, = ,:: = ■.■.;: = ,,==!! = ........ West India " AfVican " ' iatie " .lustralian " .• Ht India Company ,-. 1,309,000 800,000 300,000 1,000,000 05,000 133,000,000 Tota' 150,806,834 f Am. Ed.< #%• 338 DESCUEPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part 11. r,i'' I't'ipo'-tion qfdeathi, marriageM, (f-c. to thr populution. — Among tlio facta that attest tlit> improved condition of the people of Er<^lanJ siico 1770, the oxtraitrainory diminution in tlie rate of mortality u one of the least equivocal. In 1780, the deaths in England and Wales amounted to about 1 in 40 of the population ; 1700, to about 1 in 4&; in 1811, to 1 in 52, and at en avero^M of the five years ending with ld30, 1 in 54. The improvement has been particularly couapicuous in the great towns ; and is to bo iMcribed to tlio more comfortable situation of oU r' x. p (jreutcr attention paid to cleanliness, &c. The proportion of marriages to '! < ,if i iltf -n ..hi recontlv declined. In 1760, there was 1 mnrrio^o for every 116 individu , ' • in i~v. 1 in 118. liurinp the five years ending with 1810, it was as 1 to 122; I'.i. dur 1,. i.iO t»vo years ending with 1830, it was as 1 to 129. But this decrease is to be u ;cri jod wnolly to tho greater prevalence of moral restraint, the proportion of ille- gitimate I irths not having increastd. The number of births to a marriage in England is ut)out 4. Consumption is the most fatal diricase. Tho national character of the English exhibits some very bold and marked features. Of these tho most conspicuous is that love of liberty which pervades all classes. The liberty for which the English have succ '? V' .idcd, includes tho right of thinking, saying, writing, and doing most thTsfK >viiicti opmioii may liictatr, and inclination prompt. Tlie knowledge tliat the liighest omces and digniMes in tho state are accessible to all, redouble^ their activity, and encourages them tc perseverance. It is but little more than a ct n'ury bince they began to be distinguished as a manufacturing and commercial people, yet tiiey Jmvo already outstripped other European nations in mechanical ingcnuit]^, in industry, and in mercantile enterprise. The enormous increase of capital, and the substitution of machinery for human labour in most of their manufkcturcs, seem likcljr at no distant period to produce a total change in the condition o British society. Much of its tone is given by the landed gentry; a numerous body, whose estates, though generally considerable, are not enormciis: wh.i!^; on the Continent, landed property is usually in one or other of two extremes ; cither divided into minute portions, or partitioned into a fow princely domains. The English gentry, unlike tlieir continental neighbours, reside during the greater part of the yeor at their coun- try-seata; appearing in London and at court only for a few months in the spring. In this class, liid indeed among the English in gcnerol, an uncontrolled temper, clevotcd by the feelinof of independence, oflen impels individuals into extremes both of good and evil. No- where exists a purer spirit of patriotism; nowhere break forth • .o violent excessta fiiction. In no country of Europe, pcrhujiH, arc tliere so many men who act steaUiiy upot. f>rinciple ; yet in none exists, at the same time, so large a jjroportion of individuals living i • labitnal and open violation of all principle, and frequently in contempt of legal ordinunces. Domestic life is cultivated by the English more uedulously than by an^ of the continental nations ; tlio sanctity of marriage is more carefully guarded ; and cnastity in the female sex more strictly observed. In its minor features, the English character has undergone various changes. The vices of drinking and swearing, once so prevalent, are happily no longer fashionable. Horse-rt^cing, hunting, and rural sports, are carried to excess by some of the country getHlemen ; and t"e more barbarous practice of boxing still has cultivators. Per- haps the most estimable quality of tho English is their love of justice; the source of ail honourable dealing nmong the higher lasses, and of what is emphatically called ^flir|»Zay, in the transac*ion;^ of hum! ler life. "'"^ principh , that a man's word should be his bond, is acted upon moi.t i/gorousiy where the j;reate8t int'ircsts are at slake ; as on its observance more than on tlmt of any law that ha? been or can be devised, the commercial and financial Srosperity of tht; country depends. The English are the most provident people in the world, lore than a million o' individuals are members of f'iendly societies, and the deposits in savings banks ex. -ed 13,000,0001. "'iie great extension of life insurance affords another proof of this laudablu disposition. Tho English also deserve to ')e called a humane people, zealous, both from feeling and from princip' «, for the promotion of evdy thing that tends to the welfare of their fcllow-cr 'ures. ' lime in England has undergone a considerable change. Highway robbery, so p valeni towards the beginning and middle of last century, is now nearly unknown, and n) ts of crimes and violence have been materially lessened. On the other hand, there has I, . ver rapid increase, particularly within the last twenty y^rs, of crimes ao^ainst propetur. A u. terial change has recently been effected in the ciiminal law of Erigland, by the abolition ot'an immense number of capital punishments. Pnmition for the Poor. A enmpulaory rate haa been levied on all kinds of fixed property, for the aiippott ot all impotent, poor, and nii'inplnycd persons, ever since the reign of Elizabeth. In 1700 the rates amounted to about l,eO0,00O{., and, notn'iih!>landinc the increase of population and taxation in tho interval, tliey were little more than 3,00n,000<. at the close of ihc American war. In 179S several ill-considered changes were made in the mode of granting relief, ami the pernicious practice of eking out wages by contributions from tlic rates was then also adopted. From this period, down to the termination of the late French war, the progress of tho rates was very .a.iid, so that they amounted to 9,320,n00{. in the year 1H17-18. They have since liecn reduced, but they still amounted in 1831-32 to P,509,000/, The abuses arising out of the practice of paying wages out of rates are not inherent in the system. They were engrailed upon it so late as 17B5, nnrt r.i?.y, snd it U to be iiupeu will, be en- t!!e!y r^!:;ovcd. A refoiffi uf iliiti sort would of itselftakc nearly a third part from the rates. [By the act of 14th Angiist, IESM, which provides for the appointment of llircc poor-law commissioners, with power to makn rules and rcuiilatinns for the management of the poor ar.d he administration of the poor laws, these abuses have beea i('f diminution in tiie irland and Walu8 1811, to 1 in 52, >vcment has boon more comfortable riio proportion of inrriago for every 1810, It was as 1 But til is ()< ,epal ordinunces. tiie <'ontbental n the female sex iderffone various ippiiy no longer 3 by some of the iiltivators. Per- Lhc source of all cailed ^air play, i be his bond, is n its observance ial and financial )le in the world. the deposits in affords another humane people, ig that tends to a considerable of last century, irially lessened. the last twenty effected in the inishments. the Biippnrt ot all mounted to about ' were little more made in the mode itcs was tlicii also ho ratrs was very :od, but they still It of ratci are not hupeu wiii, be en- By the act of 14th to makn rulea and abuses bare bees Book I. KNGLAND. liO The English arc, in general, i people soberly religious, though the nation, amoug its other excesses, has presented striking diiplays of inndclity and fanaticism. The Church of Eng« land was established in the reign or Queen Elizabeth, when the reformation was completed which had been begun in that of Henry VIII. It is an integral part of the constitution, hav- ing for its head the king, who, as head of the church, nominates to vacant bishoprics and cortain other preferments, constitutes or restrains ecclesiastical jurisdictions, inflicts ecclo- liosticai censures, and decides in the last retort in all ecclesiastical causes, an appeal lying ultimately to him in chancery, iVom the scntenco of every ecclesiastical judge. In respect to its church government, England is primarily divided into two provinces or archbishoprics, Canterbury and York. Each province contains various dioceses or scats of suiTrogan bisiiops, Canterbury including twonty-ono, and York three, bcsirles tiio bishopric of Sodor iikI Man, which was annexea to it by Henry VIII. Every diocese is divided into archdeaconries, of which the whole number amounts to sixty, each archdeaconry into rural deaneries, which are the circuits of the archdeacon's and rural dean's jurisdiction ; ani each deanery into parishes, towns or villages, townships, and hamlets. The principal cliurch of each seo is appropriately called the cathedral church ; it is possessed by a spiritual body corporate, called a dean and chapter, who are the council of the bishop, but derive their corporate capacity from *ho crown. Chapters ore usually composed of canons and prebendaries ; tiio mainte- nance or stipend of a canon as well as of a prebendary being a prebend. Prebendaries are distinguished into simple and dignjtary. A simple prebendary has no cure, and nothing but his revenue for his support; a dignified prebendary has alvvajfs a jurisdiction annexed, which is gained by prescription, ''"'lo archdeacon has autliority in the bishop's absence to hold visitations, and under the 1 lop to examine clerks previous to ordination, and also before institution nnd induction. Ho has also power to excommunicate, to impose penances, and to reform irregularities and abuses among liio clergy, and has charge of the parish churclios within tiio diocese. Below tiie archdeacon and the ecclesiastics composing the chapter, no mcinber of tho Church of England is entitled to the appellation of dignitary. The inferior orders constitute what is called tho parochial clergy. The principal person of a parochial church is entitled either rector or vicar, that title, which is really more appropriate and honourable, having become corrupted by vulgar misuse. The revenues of the church of England are very extensive; and considering the diflbrent offices and gradations of its mem- bers, • i-ry varior.sly distributed The rental subject to tithe has been stated, in returns mode to nriiament, at 20,000,000/. Besides the tenth of this amount, that is to say, the tithe, clergy have other funds, which arc supposed to raise their entire income to upwards of ;f,0OO,0(X)Z. The Episcopal revenues are of various amounts ; that of the see of Durham is estimated at 30,000/. per annum, and is usually considered tho largest. The lowest, that of Landaff, falls short of 3000^ The prebends enjoyed by canons and prebendaries are some ^f them very ample ; those which exceed lOOOZ. a year are called golden prebends. Those (I -nitaries are also competent to hold livings as rectors and vicars. The salaries of curates ' formerly in many cases extremely small ; but, by a legislative provision and by funds b :ted o'\t of the piiblic revenue, most of them have been augmented in proportion to the value of the benefice and its population; 801. a. year is the lowest stipend, and, if tlie living be worth 400Z. per annum, the bishop may allow the curate of such living 1001. a, year, whatever be its population. In her intellectual character, England may be justly considered as standing proudly eminent. Bacon, Boyle, Locke, Newton, Davy, with a long train of coadjutors, have dis- closed to mankind perhaps a greater sum of important truths than lie philosophers of any other country. Strong, clear, sound sense appears to be thn qvi;)3jly peculiarly English; and her reasoners were the first to oxplode those scholastic su';tleUcs which, having usurped the name of philosophy, so long reigned in the schools. It waf their merit to discover and establish true philosophy, and apply it to objects of real interest and utility. In works of imagination, the genius of the English is bold, original, and vigorous. In the drama, Shakspeare stands unrivalled among ancient and modern poets, by his profound and extensive knowledge ( mankind, his boundless range of observation tliroughout all nature, his exquisite play of fancy, and his irresistible power in every province of thought and feel- ing, the sublime and the pathetic, the terrible and the humorous. In epic poetry, Milton is acknowledged by common consent to stand first among the moderns. Spenser and Dryden are alike eminent, the one for sweetness, tho other for versatility ; while in correctness ot taste, and the polished harmony of numbers, Pope has no rival among the poets of any modem nation. In hisiorical writing, England has many illustrious names, among which that of Gibbon deserves on honourabir place. In oratory, some of her statesmen have acquired great renown, though the general taste both in the- senate and at the bar seems to delight rathei in plain sense and in cogency of argument, than in those elaborate, ornate, and declamatory flights by which the great speakers of antiquity acted on the imagination and passions of their hearers. '''ho institutions for public education in England are extensive and splendidly endowed. DESCRIPTIVE QEOORAPHY. Part IIL )!'■! I < ^ :•! Ill I ill The two univenitios of Oxford and Cambridgo are not only V.u wealthieat but the moat tnciont in Europe. Thoy onjoy amongf other privilogoi that ofrotuminff each two mombera to parliament, and of holdini; courta for the decision of cauiea in which mombera of their own body are interoated. They were of eccleaiaatic ori|rin ; but they havo lonif been con- ■idorod as lay corporationa. Tneir reaourceM have bcon augmented by the munificence of ■ovcreisna, and of opulent individual*. The eatabliahmonta compoaing them are diatinguiahed into coilngcB and halla ; the latter boing academical houaea not incorporated or endowed, tliough they have had considerable benomctiona, which aro dispensed to the students in exhi* bitions limited to a stated period. Oxford hoa nineteen colleges and five halla; Cambridge has thirteen colleges and four halls, which last, however, possess the same privileges as the former. Each university is under the government of a chancellor, high steward, vice- chancellor, and rithcr ofnconi ; the persona who preside over the difibrent establishments as mastem, wardens, rectors, principals, or provosts, bear the general denomination of heads of colleges, and each college nos a number of fellowships to which large emoluments and easy duties are attached. Tiicy possona also extensive patronage in church livings, and a number of exhibitions or acholarsnips. These, though or considerable value, are not auppoeod ade- quate to defray the expense of a rosidonco at a university, which, at the lowest, is calcu- lated to amount to 150^. a year. On the books of each university are the names of many members who have long ceased to reside ; but, exclusive of these, the number actually resi- dent at Oxford may be stated at ?OOO..and those at Cambridge amount to considerably more. Students, according to their proficiency in leariilng, are Entitled to the degmos of bachelor and master of arts, bachelor and doctor in divinity, and bachelor and doctor in the faculties of physic and law. The time required by tiie statutes '.o bo occupied in study before each ■tudent can bo qualified for taking those degrees is three years for a bachelor, and about four years more for a master of arts ; seven years afler that he may commence bachelor of divinity, and then five years more entitle him to take the degree of doctor in divinity. In law, a student may commence bachelor after six years', and in physic after five years* standing. Only one year's attendance and the hearing of a smgle course of lectures are required as preparatory for entering into holy orders, the lownoss of tlie inferior church livings, and tlie expense of residence, rendering it difficult to exact more firom the greater number of can- didates for ordination. The qualifications for a bishop include the degree of doctor in divinity. The mode of instruction is by private tutors, who teach classical literature and the mathematics, the latter branch of study being particularly cultivated at Cambridge. The public examinations are conduct( t establishnionts as ination of heads of loluments and easy ingB, and a number ) not supposed ade- le lowest, is calcu- tho names of many mber actually resi- considerably more, legrnos of bachelor tor in the faculties I study before each clor, and about four achelor of divinity, ivinity. In law, a vo years* standing, res are required as ch livings, and Ute er number of can- f doctor in divinity, literature and the Cambridge. The ation. The lucre* rious case ; but to 1 hardly attainablo /ollego have been Westminster, Eton, 8, yet being now med in them are nasters eminently of both languages, there are numer- istablished in the principal of these any person can and be a member ons in such inn, rts or bachelor of r the inn. After may be called to his proficiency or cd a considerable The metropolis, Hospital or the 3d. The number 398, yielding an \g, so that their and lefl exposed atly was the in- he^, that witiun ead. The evilk iXMI I. /!'•)• Mr ENGLAND -.>'(»• 861 truing from want of education among them have, at length, beon strongly felt; and very Srcat exertions have been made, chieny by the benevolence of private individuals, to rcmady le defect. Of tho Bcientiflo institutions of England the foremost is " the Roval Society of Loodoo for improving Natural Knowledge." In its infkncy it owed much to the protection of Oliver Cromwell ; and having survived tho Commonwealth, Nvas incorporated by royal charter, in 1003. The Society publish an annual volume unilor tho name of Philoiophical 'IVamta^ tioM, The Society of Antiquaries traces its oriuin to tho reign of Queen Elizabeth, but was no*, incorporated until IwSl. It has publiahou a series of volumes entitled Arckaologim. Several private societies have been formed for tho cultivation of particular branches of knowlotlgc, by the union of individuals distindpishod for their attainments in or devotion to thoso branches. Besides these and other institutions in tho metropolis, most of the great ttrovinciul towns, as Manchester, Bristol, Derby, Liverpool, and Newcastle, have formed iterary and philosophical societies, which have made some important contributions to science and literature in their Transactions. The principal public libraries have owed their origin to the spirit and enterprise of privata individuals ; the Bodleian Library at Oxford was tho bequest of Sir Thomas Bodley, and was enriched by successive donations. The British Museum derived its first treasures tirom the collections of Sir Robert Cotton and Sir Hans Sloane ; but has acquired, through purchase bv parliament, the Harleian and Lanadowno M8S., tho libraries of Major Edwards and Dr. Bumcy, and several valuable collections of coins and minerals. It has also been enriched bv tho entire collection of Georffo III., presented to tho nation by his successor. With this accession, the library, which previously consisted of 125,000 volumes, has been aug- mented by one-half. The Museum is also very rich in specimens of natural history, par- ticularly of mineralogv. Institutions of a highly usefbl character have sprung fVom the general desire of knowledge which marks the present age. Their object is to communicate knowledge to the commeiw cial classes, as well as to persons who have not opportunities for a regular course of study; and tho chief moans employed for this purpose are a librarj^, a roading-room, and courses of lectures. Of these establishments are the Royal Institution, tho London Institution, &c.; and all the ^cat cities and towns have now their public libraries. Of the Fino Arts, that of painting has been greatly neglected in England. Portrait painting, indeed, always met with encouragement; yet Vandyke, the leader in this branch c£ art, was a foreigner. It was only toward the closo of the last century that Reynolds formed a style decidedly English, and of dititinguished excellence. The Royal Academy, under the immediate patronage of tho king, consists of forty artists^ including tiie president, while a number of others are attached in expectancy os associates. There are four professors, viz. of painting, of architecture, of anatomy, and of perspective, who annually read public lectures on the subjects of their several aopartments. To tho schools of this academy free admission is given to all students properly qualified for receiv- ing instruction, and there is an annua] exhibition of paintings, sculpture, and architectural designs, to which all artists may send their works for admission, if approved by the commit- tee appointed to judge them. The splendid collection of paintings formed by the regent duke of Orleans was imported entire, and the greater part of it now embellishes the gaflery of the Marquess of Stafford. The nobles of Italy, also, on the devastation of that country were obliged to strip their palaces of these valued ornaments, and to dispose of them at low rates to English speculators. From those sources were formed the Grosvenoi, the An* gerstein, and many other private collections. On the death of Mr. Angerstein, in 1824, his collection was purchased by parliament, and made the basis of a national gallery, which has since received considerable additions both by purchase and bequest. In the other departments of the fine arts, music, sculpture, and architecture, the English have been far excelled by the continental nations ; in engraving, they have produced some distinguished names. The publishing and selling of books form one of the prmcipal branches of her productive industry. PcricSical literature has a very extensive circulation. In the metropolis nearly sixty magazines and reviews are published, of which the monthly value has been estimated at 00002. Another important characteristic of the national spirit may be remarked in the immense circulation of newspapers, notwithstanding a heavy stamp-duty. There are in London eight daily morning papers, and five daily evening papers ; seven papers published thrice a week ; and upwards of forty weekly papers. Of the latter species of newspaper, every provincial city has two or three, and every town of consequence has one. The num- ber of stamps issuea for the London newspapers in 1832 was 21,4^,882. The produce of the duty in that year was 400,4512, The favourite amusements of the Engliah are those which combine the advantages of air and exercise. The stage, though eminently rich in dramas, and supplied with actors of high talent, is not the habitual resort of the people. In former times hunting was almost the sole business of life among the English squires ; and though their tastes are now much Vol. I. 31 2V m DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paht ni varied, this original pastime, in all its forms, continues to be e&eeTif fbllowed. By the nobility and gentry, horse-racing is supported with equal ardour, and no country rivals Eng- land in the high excellence to which she has brought tlie breed of animals employed in this diversion. The races of Doncaster, of York, and above all of Newmarket, are attended by the most distinguished persons in the country for rank and opulence ; and other race-courses Attract great multitudes of miscellaneous spectators. Among tlio common people bnxing matches present a similar occasion of laying wagers. Bull-baiting was put down only by statute. Of the national out-door games, those of ^cket and tennis deserve especial com- mendation, from their tendency to enliven the spirits and invigorate the frame. In their habits and modes of ordinary life, the English ma^ be called a domestic people, especiolly when compared with the French. In, common with other northern nations, the English retain a taste for fermented or distilled liquors, which, however, has been in a great measure corrected and subdued among the higher and middle classes. Beer and porter constitute the staple drink of the great body of the people ; but malt spirit of a clieap and very pernicious kind is consumed in great quantities by the lowest orders, especially in the metropolis, where it is rapidly accelerating their degeneracy. Among tlio middle classes the wines of Spain, Portugal and Madeira ure in general use ; but the collars of tlie rich nre stored with the choicest products of the French vineyards. Convivial excess, so long tlie reproach of the English, has become comparatively rare. Sect. VII. — Local Geography . England and Wales are divided into counties or sliires. Wales, until tlie time of Ed- ward 1., was an independent principality, but is now an appendcnt territory, of very inferior magnitude. It has still, however, its own courts of judicature, and retains some national peculiarities. The number of counties in England is forty, and in Wales twelve ; making in oil fifly-two. The following statistical table, gives a general view of tlie extent, popula- tion, employment, and wcaltii of eacii coimty : — M Incnnio in 1814-1 5, arising from ■'- CounUcs. 10/. and upwards. Rental of Uotucf. linn, IbSI. lAtA. Trade. OHices. Rilri, lioa Cilira anJ Towm. £ £ £ £ £ £ Bedford 430 723 12,019 95,383 304,970 94,798 1,481 90,994 Bedford Reading • Winiluor Newbury Biirkinshiim . Ayleiibury . .. 0,959 15,595 7,103 5,959 . 3,010 . 5,031 Berka Bucks 744 743 3,713 1,894 83,572 35,055 115,289 140,520 710,889 002,872 299.703 222,961 3,217 1,998 139,533 158,483 Cambridge.... G86 2,645 49,761 143,955 705,371 239,087 5,100 115,103 CiiinbridKO ■ .. Ely . 20,917 0,189 Chester (a) ... 1,017 1,784 92,854 334,410 1,114,927 289,309 4,907 2(',G08 144,102 Chepter MiiccleslleUI . 21,363 23189 Cornwall 1,407 2,853 48,117 302,440 022,258 330,113 3,233 77,930 '21,202 Lniinee^ton. . Fnlnu.iith 2,231 4,760 Cumberland . . 1,497 2,400 42,040 109,081 737,438 179,752 3,447 40,297 58,*-50 Carlisle 30,0061 11,393 Derby (6).... Devon Dorset 1,077 2,468 1,139 2,287 12,337 3,051 45,033 237,000 57,808 237,170 494,108 159,353 883,370 1,924,912 720.303 210,583 754.444 311,634 2,908 9,471 4,002 43,000 32,800 108,303 950.713 104,832 DiThv t Exeter < riyinuutli — I Devon pnrt . .. ( Wcvniouth . . < Poole 2;i,627 27,932 40,651 . 34,883 7,655 0,459| 4,075 ( Sberliorne . .. Durlmin (c) . . ■ 1,010 4,360 09,471 253,e27 885,5.50 953,031 3,771 52,300| 100,040, j Durham ) Sunderland . . 10,135 17.060 Essex (d) 1,525 0,984 139,806 317,933 1,584,108 603,935 8,030 .59,248 320,541 t Colclieslor . . . 10,167 < Harwich 4,2fl7 ( Saffl-on Wnlden 4,702 (Gloucester.... 11,933 Gloucester («). Hereford Hertford Huntingdon . . Kent (/)... . 1,133 971 345 1,403 0,080 1,794 3,490 945 16,139 951.974 30,434 70,299 16,791 347,110 380,904 110,970 143,341 53,149 470,155 1,315,723 029,150 583,057 325,694 1,087.442 367,243 01,851 202,989 08,401 1,686,328 S.-37 2,790 4,319 4,150 19,342 _ 201,402 70,000 115,092 50,093 399,080 1 Bristol ITewkcBbury . ( Cirencester . . Hereford Hertford HuntinRdon . ( Canterbury . . jDeptford and J Greenwich. (Maidstone ... 59,074 5,780 5,420 10,289 .^247 3,907 13,649 44,348 15,387 fe ■J Nantwich - Chesterfield [atiock - - - 3,303 4.8MA 1(e) Gateshead - 5,7751 Bi"bop. W. i.- moutn 15.1771 Btocklrn.-..- T'c;' I Suiiiii Siiieius U,t« 14,4831 (d) Chelmsford 3;4^ i!»n|.t:m S«,949 | Dunl • 7,SoB d - - a«a7 Marnate- 10,339 ^''- ' Part ni fbllowed. By tho !ountry rivals Eng- .la employed in this ore attended by the other race-courges non people bnxing I put down on!/ by lervc especial ccni- ianie. a domestic people, rthern nations, the vcr, lias been in a IS. Boer and porter irit of a cheap and ■s, especially in the tlie middle classes cellars of the rich excess, so long tlie itil tlie time of Ed- iry, of very inferior :uins some national twelve ; making in he extent, popula* DoOK I. *1 '»- ton - - - 34.732 Billion . - 14.493 (flHasUnis - ii/.OOT Rro - - - 3,715 (A) LeDminglon 6,200 Kenilwnrlh - 3,607 (:} niiilloy - - 23,043 Kidderminster 14.981 Ilurnbridge - 6,148 Eveaham • 3,991 Drnilwich - (t) Whitby - Scarborough Beverley - - Doncaster - Huddonflold Halifax - tiradrord - • Bs-nstey - - Kipon - - Pontefroot 3,487 11,725 a700 8,303 10,801 19035 I.V3R9 33,333 10,330 ?,080 4,833 (/) Bangor - (m) Wre.'cham Llangollen - (nJiMold Flint 1,751 5,48;» 3,630 8080 3,31« >"vil . . 29,083 Cardiff - - 6.187 (ff)Haverfardwoat 3.015 Tenby • 3,138 04 DESCllIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Parf til The topographical details of Engfland may be distributed under the following; suhtec- Hont : — 1. Southern counties ; 2. Eastern counties ; 3. Midland counties ; 4. Nortlicrn coun* ties ; 6. Western counties. SuBSBCT. 1. — Southern Countieg, < Under this head, Kent, Surrey, Sussex, Berksiiiro, Hampshire, Wiltshire, and Dorset, the counties south of the Thames, and along the Cimnnel will be comprclionded. This fine district is, in general, of a level character ; but is trave.'sed, however, by ranges of low hills or downs, which give to it o. varied and picturesque aspect. Chclk is a predominant feature in its soil ; and, on the coast, forms those bold cliffs, which characterise the southern bound- ai7 of Britain. Many tracts are under high cultivation, yielding, in perfection, tlio usual agricultural products, witli others of great valu<.>, peculiar to this district ; particularly hops, in Kent, and part of Sussex and Surrey. A promment feature consists of large expanses of downs, composed of chalky soil, scarcely fit for the plough, but pastured by vast Hocks of sheep. Kent, the largest and nncst of these counties, holds a conspicuous place in Englisli annals. The men of Kent have been noted as a race peculiarly stout, hardy, and courageous. In the west are extensive wealds, presenting still many finely wooded districts ; also larTC ii irshy tracts, interspersed, however, with dry cultivated portions, in which the best grain in the king- dom is raisea. The interior around Mpidstono and Canterbury forms almost a continued garden, supplying fruits for the markeis of London : and above all, hops, that essential ingre- dient in the staple beverage of the English nation. Canterbury, the chief place in Kent, is one of the most ancient and veneiablo of the English cities. It is the ecclesiastical metropolis of he kingdom, the residence of its primate ; whu, u such, places the crown on the sovereign's head, and ranks next in dignity to the royal femily. Its cathedral (_/?/?•. 138.) is of early origin and of vast extent ; while revered through . "! Catholic world as the shrine of the mur- dered Bccket, it was visited by crowds of pil- grims, and enriched with offerings ; ' w* of these treasures it was stripped by Henry "\'lll. Con- tcrbury is built in the form of a crosf, and in- tersected by branches of tlie Stour. Munufiic- tures of cloth, silk, and cotton woo early in- Produced, and still subsist, though I'te;- caimot bear a comparison with those of the g > c.d towns of the interior and of the north. Maidstone and Tunbridge are among the agreeable inland towns in Kent. The former, of great antiquity, has one of the most elegant jmrochial churches in the kingdom. It is the chief market for hops ; and has some manufactures, particularly of paper. Tunbridge Wells, situated five or six miles from the town of Tunbridge, have long been a place of public resort Tiie springs are considered efficacious in coses of debility and certain chronic disorders. The town has also a tliriving manufacture of Tunbridge ware, consisting of various wooden ornaments, snufli'-boxes, children's toys, &c. But the chief places of Kent are maritime, the most ancient being those called the Cinque Ports. At an early period, they were considered the most important stations for the defence of the kingdom, and were bound to furnish and equip fifty-seven vessels, each manned with twenty-one sailors ; in return for wliich, their citizens iield the rank of barons, and sent two members to parliament from eacli port Their greatness is now depnrted, and some of their harbours have been filled up by sand. The Kentish Cinque Porta are Dover, Sandwich, Hythe, and Romnoy. The first is still a place of considerable note. The spacious castle on a commanding eminence, the white and towering clifls, present to the approaching marmer an imposing spectacle. As the main channel of communication with France, it maintains twenty-seven pckets in constant ser- vice. Romney and Hythe are of little maritime importance. Sandwich on the east coast, yields in importance to its nominal de- pendencies. Deal, Margate, and Rams- gate. Deal derives its prosperity from the vicinity of that fiae anchorage, the Downs, where the outward-bound fleets of England usually remain for a certain period, when they obtain supplies and refreshments from Deal. Margate k crowded, though not fashionable ; and the estnbUshment of stoam-packets al- lows daily intercourse with the metro- DoTw Cutle. poiig. It likewise carries on some trade Cuteifaurr Catbednl. parf m ! followinjif mhiiec- ; 4. Nortliern coun* liro, and Dorset, tho hcndcd, Tliis fine ranges of low hills )redominant feature the southern bound- KjrfectioH, the usual ; particularly hop?, if large expanses of vast flocks of sheep, e in English annals, nd courageous. In 3; alsolaro'eiiiirshy st grain i:i tho king- almost a continued :hat essential ingre- iabloof the English f its primate ; who, lignity to the royal . 138.) is of early Mle revered throug!; shrine of the mur- 1 by crowds of pil- brings; ' n» of these Henry nil. Can- of a crosp, and in- ! Stour. Manufec- tton wc'o early in> :hough ! hey cannot ! of the g-c.d towns irth. are among the !ent. The former, kingdom. It is paper. Tunbridge ig bepn a place of ind certain chronic 'are, consisting of those called the ant stations for the ven vessels, each t'ne rank of barons, now dcpnrted, and The first is still linence, the white icle. As the main ts in constant ser- on the east coast, to its nominal de- rgate, and Rams- 8 prosperity from lie anchorage, tho ward-bound fleets main for a certain tain supplies and eol. Margate is fashionable; and <,».^n^ - I— ►- -' ! with the metro- ies on some trade BUOK I. ENGLAND. Sd5 with the Baltic, and supplies the metropolis with grain and fisli. Having risen within tiic labt half century, it is built with regularity, and contains twelve marble Imths, into which tiic sea-water is admitted for tho:^o who preibr that mode of bathing. Ramsgate, situated on tlie isle of Thanet, possesses * .e advantage of a smooth and extensive beach. Conside- rable improvements have been made in the harbour at the expense of government, with the view to its yielding protection to vessels navigating this coast, where the dangerous shoals of the Goodwin Bands have often prov<:J fatal. Deptford, Woolwich, Ciiatliam, and tilieerness, are grand establishments for the construc- tion of ships of war. Deptford contains also the Victualling Office. Woolwich is the de- p6t of artillery, and the theatre of all tho operations connected with its construction and preparation. Here is also the Royal Military Academy, in which an hundred young men of respectable family are trained in all tho branches of knowledge necessary for the engineer- ing department ; and who, after a strict examination, are appointed to commissions in the service. Chatham is tho grand magazine of naval stores. The rope-house is 1128 feet long, in which cables 101 fathoms in length, and upwards of two fool m circumference, are con- structed. Twenty forges arc constantly employed in the fabrication of anchors, some of which are five tons in weight This important post, with the exception of Portsmouth, is now the strongest in Britain. Sheerncss, on the Isle of Sheppey, is a smaller station, chiuily employed in the repair of shattered vessels. Greenwich, about two miles below Deptford, is celebrated for its superb hospital (Jig. 14C.) for disabled and superannuated ma- riners. This edifice was begun by Charles II., on a design of Inigo Jones, as a royal palace. It remained unfinished, until the reign of Wil- liam III., when it was converted into a naval hospital. It was en- larged by the addition of three wings, enrichea by donations, and by a tax of 6d. a month firom every seaman, and it now supports 3000 boarders, and pays pensions to 6400 in dif- ferent quarters of the kingdom. In Oraenwich Hoipiuki. Greenwich park stands the cele- brated observatory, fumislied with the best instruments that can be obtained for perfecting astronomical observations. The recorded observations of Flamsteed, of Halley, of Bradley, mi of Maskclyne, rank among the most important contributions to astronomical science. At Gravesend, near the mouth of the Thames, the vessels employed in foreign commerce, both in going up and down, must stop and undergo an examination. Rochester, with an ancient cathedral, contains in its vicinity numerous seats, among which may br particularly noted Cobham Hall. Lee Priory is also remarkal'lo for its works of art ; and Knowle Park forms a magnificent structure of^^great extent, Sussex extends about forty miles along the Channel. It is covered to the extent of 170,000 or 180,000 acres with noble oaks which are sought for the use of the royal navy. The Sussex sheep are peculiarly valued lx)th fo;" ri«utton and wool. The capital is Chichester, an ancient little city with a cathedral. Winchelsea, Rye, and Hastings are Cinque Ports, which have lost their ancient importance ; but Hastings, from its fine views of land and sea, attracts numerous visitants during the summer. Brighton, the gayest of all the southern watering-places, from being a large fishing village, rapidly rose to be an elegant town. Its extensive lawn called tbo Steyne, sloping towards the sea, fonris an agreeoble promenade. The Pavilion, or palace built by George TV., and the chain pier are among the objects of note. The rough downs and bleak heaths of Surrey contrasted with its numerous fine parka and wooded districts, give to its scenery a striking md picturesque character. Southwark is in Surrey ; but it is too entirely a part of Londoa to he treated eepant aly from the rest of that capital. Along the southern bank of tho Thames are Kew, witli i'^ palace and fino gardens, containing plants from every quarter of tho world; Richmond and its hill, which commands u magnificent view of the Thames winding among worxled parks and palaces. Camberwell, Clapham, and other villages in the vicinity of the capital, arc entirely composed of the villas of opulent citizens, and the seats are numerous. At St. Anne's Hill, a beautiful villa on ine Thames, Fox passed the latter years of his life in literary retirement Berkshire contains extensive sheep pastures ; and a great expanse of its eastern border is occupied by forests ; yet more than Jialf its extent consists of fine arable land. The sheep fair of Usley is the most considerable in the kir.^dom, the annual number sold averaging two I'.undred and fiily tliuusaiid. The iiogs also of this county are in high repute. Berkshire ia romarkable for its manu<^icturcs of copper, which ia brought from Swansea to the annual pxtent of six hundred to cue thousand tons. 31* 366 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III Reading- the capital of Berkshire, is remarkejble in history, aa several parliaments were held there, and a siese was sustained during tlie civil war. It still enjoys some prosperity, through the export of the produce of the fertile surrounding district Windsor, from the beauty of its site, on an eminence near the Thames, and the magniR- r^cnco of its royal castle i^S' ^41-)> forms a commanding feature in the prospect for man; Windior Caitlo. miles around. William 1. constructed hero a fortress of considerable size ; but the wliole structure was re-modelled by Edward III. Since it ceased to be important as a place of strength, it has been o( jupied as a palace ; and is the only one, in fact, suitable to the dignity of i'ae monarch. Tho noble terrace walk 1870 feet in length, commands a finely varied and extensive prospect. George III. completely repaired St. George's chapel, and partly restored the north front of tlie upper ward ; but in consequence of his illness, the improve- ments were suspended fbr eleven years. George IV. resumed them on a scale commensurate with the importance of so venerable an edifice ; and large sums of money were voted by parliament for this national purpose. The royal apartments contain an extensive collection of paintings, among wiiich are some fine portraits by Vandyke, and some historical pictures by Guide, Correggio, Carlo Dolci, and Leonardo da Vinci. The chapel of St. George is considered one of the finest specimens of the ornamented Gothic in the kingdom. The choir in particular is of admirable workmanship, and adorned with banners of knights of tlie garter ranged on each side. It includes also the tombs of many of tlie English princes, particularly their lato majesties, and the Princess Charlotte ; and some of its windows are painted after the designs of Reynolds. To the south of ■ palace extend Windsor Great Park, and Windsor Forest, grand features, first formed ^y William the Conqueror. Even ofter the considerable abridgment that has taken place, the domain is still fifty-six miles • . circum- ference, containing within its range some noblo timber. Parts of it were devoted by George in. to his iavourite pursuit of experimental farming. The other towns of Berkshire are small ; at Newbury, two obstinate battles were fought in 1643 and 1G44. Maidenhead (formerly Mainhithe), on tivi Thames, is beautifully encircled with villas. Hampshire contains extensive remains of those grand forests whirl' once overspread so great a part of England. The principal is the New Forest, bordering on the Channel and the bay of Southampton. From this tract of about 02,305 acres, William tlie Conqueror drove out the inhabitants, and demolished the parish churches, that the royal sports might be carried on undisturbed. The forests of Bex, Holt, Alice, lic, containing upwards of 30,000 acres, belong . Iso to the crown. The wood is chiefly oak and beech ; the former with a short thick trunk and strong crooked branches, rende/mg it of excellent service as knoe- timber for the navy, while the masts and acorns feed hogs of vast size, weighing sometimes eight hundred pounds, and producing the best bacon in the kingdom. Winchester is one of tho most ancient and venerable cities in England. During part of the Saxon period, it was the metropolis. It had atone time upwards of ninety churches and chapels, with colleges and monasteries attached to them. Being frequented on account of its fairs, and chosen as one of the staples for wool, it became at one period the seat of a very extensive commerce. After the Norman conquest, when London became the roypl residence, the decline of Winchester commenced, and was accelerated by the removal of the wool trade ; but above all by the dissolution of the monasteries, in the time of Henry VIII. It now owes its importance to its rank as an episcopal city, and h county town in which assizes are held alternately with Southampton. Its venerable cathedral (jig. l'I2.) has been the work of successive ages. It v.'as founded urider the Saxon kings, enlaiged by William of Wykeham under Edward III., and completed by Bishop Fox, in tfie sixteenth century, wh«'ii Part ITI parliamenta were 3 some prosperity, and the magnifi- arospect for man} R - ■ - "■•-■ '• •• >. ;■■ '. (•■ ■■!■■ 1 Km Book ENGLAND. .:■! 367 ze ; but the whole ant as a place of table to the dignity .nds a finely varied chapel, and partly Iness, the improve- cale commensurate ney were voted by ixtensive collection I historical pictures il of St. George is ngdom. The choir lights of the garter rinces, particularly are painted after Great Parle, and Even ofter the miles ■" . circum- devoted by George lattles wore fought autifuUy encircled ice overspread so the Channel and am the Conqueror ,'al sports might be ipwards of 30,000 the former with a It service as knee- iffhing sometimes During part of lety churches and ;ed on account of the seat of a very »e roynl residence, loval of the wool f Henry VIII. It n in which assizes 12.) has been the en by William of ith century, wh«'ii extensive additions were made to it in the highly ornamented and pointed English style; of which several of tho specimens hero pre- served are reckoned the finest in the king- dom. The college, or rather school, founded by Bishop Wykehanj is also a magnificent edifice, and is one of the four great classical schools to which the distinguished youth of England resort. Southampton now surpasses Winchester, and is a flourishing town, at the head of the bay called Southampton Water. It carries on a considerable trade with the ,.„ , ... south of Europe, and regular packets sail Portsmouth is the grand arsenal for equipping the powerful navies of Great Britain. The ■larbour is formed by a considerable bay, with a commodious entrance, perfectly landlocked, and sheltered fi-om every v/ind, aftbrding secure anchorage all round ; and capable fi"om its dimensions of containmg t'\e whole British navy. The Isle of Wight forms at its eastern extremity the safe and magnificent road of Spithead, the principal rendezvous of the national fleets. Tho place has been strengthened by fortifications, till it has become the strongest and most finished fortress in the empire, and is considered absolutely impregnable. Ports- mouth itself is situated on an island about fourteen miles in circumference, separated from the land only by a narrow channel. The suburb of Portsea, on the same island, begun only a century ago, has now outgrown the original town, and contains the principal dockyards. Here are carried on, upon a gigantic scale, all the operations subservient to building, equip- puig, and refitting ships, and supplying the navy. The sea-wall of the dockyards extends nearly three quarters of a mile, and encloses an area of one hundred acres: the forge, where anchors of huge dimensions are formed ; the ropery, above a thousand feet long ; the spacious dry docks ; the endless range of warehouses ; the gun-wharf, the armoury, are objects which astonish by their immensity. Christchurch is noted for a fine ancient church ; Beaulieu for the ruins of its venerable abbey ; Andovor, Basingstoke, and Romsey are considerable towns. The Isle of Wight is about twenty-three miles m length, and thirteen in breadth ; divided by a channel of only a few miles from the coast, on which are the bays of Portsmouth and Southampton. It is traversed by a ridge of chalky downs, in which are fed about fort/ thousand fine-woolled sheep of the Dorsetshire breed. On the north are luxuriant meadows supporting valuable breeds of horses and cattle ; while on the south are fine arable plains, yielding grain much beyond the consumption of the island. The island is celebrated for its striking and peculiar scenery ; the grand views of land and sea enjoyed from its high open downs ; tiio deep and dark ravines of its southern shore, and the bold romantic clifl's which it there presents to the expanse of the English Channel. One of the most conspicuous features is the range of coast called the Underclifi". This district presents the appearance of a scries of gigantic steps rising from the shore, to the summit of the great porpendicular wall. The chines, or chasms, with torrents bursting through them, are also characteristic features. T!ie western part of the Isle presents the rugged and pouited clif6, called the Needles, and a range of magnificent white cliffs, rising perpendicularly to the height of 500 or 600 foet. These precipices are inhabited by gulls and puffins, the eggs of which are taken by the islander, suspended in a basket, which is fixed by a rope to the summit. The eastern shore presents the Culver Cliff's, a range of precipices which, in grandeur and ruggedness, are not surpassed by any other on the island, Tiio castle of Carisbrook is an ancient edifice, in which Charles I. was for some time imprisoned. Tho towns, Newport, Yarmouth, Cowes, and Ryde, are small. Dorset consists of open chalky downs, fit only for sheep, which are here of a breed called the Southdown {Jig. 143.), peculiarly fine both as to carcase and wool. The fleece is very short and fine ; the mutton fine in the grain, and of an excellent flavour. The number of sheep is estimated p,t 800,000, producing 2,790,000 pounds of wool. The islands of Purbeck and Portland are valuable for the production of fine firee- stone. Dorsetshire has no remarkable towns. Dorchester, the capital ; Poole, with an excellent harbour ; and Weymouth, finely situated for a bathing-place, are the principal. Southdown Bieop. Wiltshire is a fine county ; the chalk hills here terminating, form the table-land, termed Salisbury Plain ; a naKed, undulating surface, which affords pastnrnge fer sheep. Tlio northern pari, or Wiltshire, watered by the Thames, is chiefly underwtod Bnd pasture and supiA)rts a valuable breed of cattle, from whose milk Js made the excellent iiiS DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part )TI. SaUiburr Cathedral. cheese bearing the name of the province. Wiltshire is a manuikcturing county. The pro> duce is of the finest description ; superfine broadcloth, kerseymeres, and fancy articles ; fine flannels at Salisbury, and at Wilton the carpets which bear its name. Salisbury, the capital, is a huidsome and well-built town. The streets are spacious and regular, crossing each other at right angles, and kept clean by streams of water, from the river Avon. The pride of Salisbury is its cathediti {fig. 144.) completed in 1268, which ia considered the mo".'. elegant and finished Gothic structure in the kingdom. It has also the loftiest spire, rising to the height of four hundred utid ten feet Wiltshire has a number of thriving little towns, in which fine woollen manufactures are carried on with activity: Devizes, Marlborough, Chippenham, Malmsbury, Warminster, Wilton, &c. Most of them are adorned with fine old churches. Stonehenge {fig. 145.), in Salisbury Plain, a remarkable monument of antiquity, is fupposed to be tlie remnant of a temple of the Druids. " It consists," says Mr. Sullivan, " of the remains of two circular and two oval n.nges, having one common centre. The miter circle is one hundred and eight feet in diameter, and in its per- fection consisted of thirty upright stones. Tho upright stones are from eighteen to twenty feet high, ih)m six to seven broad, and about thre<; feet thick ; and being placed at the , , . . , . 145 distance of three feet and a half from each other, are joined at the top by imposts or stones laid across. The inner circle is somewhat more tlian eight feet from the inside of the outward one, and consisted originally of Stonehenge. fojty smaller stoncs ; of which only eleven are standing." In the interior of all are two oval ranges, supposed to be the prin- cipal part of the work, composing the cell or adytum. The stones that form it arc stupen- dous, some of them measuring thirty feet in height The whole number is computed to have been originally one hundred and forty. No county is adorned with so many fine seats as Wiltshire. Wilton House contains the finest private collection of ancient sculpture in the kingdom. Corsham House and Longford Castle contain celebrated collections of pictures. Wardour Castle is distinguished for its grand terrace; Stourhead for the romantic beauty of the grounds: Longleat is a superb seat. SuBSECT. 2. — The Eastern Counties. Under this title are comprehended the counties of Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridge, Huntingdon, and Lincoln. The surface of this division is fiat and imvaried. Its sluggish streams unite in the shallow marshy estuary of the Wash ; a great proportion of its watere, however, never reach tliat receptacle ; but, spreading and stagnating over the land, form the Fens, a tract which is not unproductive to the husbandman, but sends forth pestiU ntiai vapours, subjecting the inhabitaiits to attacks of fever and ague. The district contains o'ide portions of good arable land, which are well cultivated by skilful farmers with large capitals; and is noted for its breeds of cattle, and for the products of butter and cheese. Essex, situated along t!;e north of the Thames, is, perhaps, the richest of tlie English counties. It is diversified 'jy gentle undulations, which «^j no., intpmipt the careful culture given to its rich alluvial soil. Its wheat, with that of Kent is reckoned the best in Eng- land ; but the districts near the metropolis are chiefiy in pasture, or artificial grass, for sup- plying calves to the London market or for fattening the cattle brought up from the north. Chelmsford, the county town, is a small regularly built place, wiUi a handsome town-hall. Colchester, the ancient Camelodunum, contams a strong castle, said to have been fbunded by the Romans. It ia supported by a manufacture of baize, and by the oyster fishery. Harwich, a seaport with a deep and spacious harbour, is the place where the government packets, in ti^ne of peace, sail for Holland and Germany. Many villas have been erected in this county, in consequence of its vicinity to the metropolis. Sufiblk is bordered by only a small portion of eastern coast The greater part of it b Part 111. ounty. The pro- ncy articles ; fine are spacious and if water, from the of Salisbury is its mpletod in 1258, mc^', elegant and 3 in the kingdom, pire, rising to the lid ten feet }r of thriving little illen manufactures ctivity: Devizes, lam, Malmsbury, c. Most of them d churches. 5.), in Salisbury jment of antiquity, nnant of a temple insists," says Mr. ns of two circular vin^ one common ;le IS one hundred ter, and in its per- ighteen to twenty ing placed at the ree feet and a half her, are joined at posts or stones laid 5 inner circle is )re tlian eight feet le of the outward isted originally of Istoncs ; of which ised to be the prin- )rm it are stupen- computed to have ouse contains the luse and Longford tinguished for its is a superb seat. rfolk, Cambridge, ;ed. Its sluggish ion of its waters, he land, form the forth pestilential ict contains >vide ■th large capitalti; se. it of tlie English le careful culture the best in Eng- al gross, for sup- rem the north, dsome town-hall, ve been founded I oyster fishery, the government I been erected in iter part of it 'a Book I. ENGLAND. S6li capable of good cultivation, and is carefblly tilled. The county is almost purely agricul lural, there being neither trade nor manufactures of any importance. Among the towns of Suffolk, Ipswich is considerable, though its employment is confined to sending down the Orwell malt and grain, the produce of the county. Bury St. £>lmund'ss an ancient town, is rendered veneiuble by some fine old churches. Lowcstoff, the most easterly point of England, is a noted seat of the herring fishery. Norfolk, though inferior in fertility to the two counties now described, has, by its industry, rendered itself more flourishing than either. The soil generally is a light sand, scarcely tit, origir ally, for any thing but sheep ; beneath, however, is a bed of rich soapy marl, whicii the farmers, with great labour, dig out, and spread over the ground. The light sandy loam tiius formed is peculiarly favourable to the growtli of barley, in which grain two-thirds of the country is laid out. Norfolk has extensive manufactures ; producing various ornamental &brics of silk and worsted. The ports carry on a considerable export of grain, and a spirited fishery. Norwich is the finest city in the east of England. The chief industry of Norwich, how- ever, consists in manufactures. Towards the end of the sixteenth century, a large colony of Flemings settled there, and established the fabric of woollens, which soon reached an •mprecedented height. The light and ornamented forms became tiie staples ; bombasines, crapes, fine camblets, and worsted damask. In its general structure, it has the defects of an old town, the streets being narrow and winding, though those recently built are in a more improved style. The cathedral (fig. 146.), founded in the eleventh cen- tury, ranks among the finest ecclesiastical edifices in the kingdom. Its style of architecture is the Saxon, of that broad and massive character which prevailed before the introduction of the i>ointed arch and the iiBMis light ornamental style. The castle, placed in the J {M^Si ^'"'^^ centre, is more ancient still, since antiquaries refer dw^rraESil ^^, it to the reign of Canute. Its style is Saxon ; the keep remains entire. Yarmouth, by commerce and fishery, has attained a prosperity almost equal to that of Norwich. Situ- ated at the mouth of the Yare, it is the chief chan- nel by which the manufactures of that city are transported to foreign parts, A more important resource is its herring-fishery, which employs six thousand seamen, and produces annually upwards of fifty thousand barrels. Its quay, upwards of a mile long, is said to be second only to that of Seville. Yarmouth is also much frequented as a watering-place. Lynn Regis is a flourishing seaport on the Wash, at the mouth of the Ouse, which, with its tributaries, brings down the agricultural produce of many rich counties. Seats. — Norfolk contains several of the most superb seats in England. Holkham, built by Lord Leicester on a design of Inigo Jones, and particularly noted for a gallery room, is richly adorned with sculpture and paintings, and has also a very extensive library. Houghton is a magnificent seat. Cambridgeshire presents a considerable variety of surface. Its northern district, called the Isle of Ely, inters-icted by the lower channels of the Ouse and the Nen, exists almost in an intermediate state between land and sea. Drainage, however, to a great extent has been effected, and many tracts have been converted into fine meadow, or made to yield large crops of oats, though the danger of inundation can never be wholly averted. The classic stream of the Cam or Granta, in descending to join the Ouse, waters a valley called "the Dairies," where some good cheeses and long rolls of excellent butter are prepared for the tables of tlie Cambridge students. The southern and western districts, encroached upon by the downs from the south, are only fit for the pasture of sheep. The capital of Cambridge is the seat of one of the two great universities. There are thirteen colleges and four nails, in which the masters, tutors, and students, not only teach and are taught, but are lodged and boarded. Some of the largest of these endowments are stated to be for " poor and indigent scholars ;" but are filled with the sons of opulent families, who cannot live there but at a very considerable expense. Yet the resort continues to increase, and the existing colleges are insufficient to contain the applicants, who must often wait several years previously to admission. These collages are large, and generally fine and handsome building ; yet they do not prodvice the same noble and imposing efllect as those in the sister university. There are, however, two structures such as its rival cannot Vou. I 2 W Norwich Cathedral. 870 match. DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part II. Kini'i Colkwa Cbtpal- The first of these is the chapel of King's College, (Jg. 147.)> built between tho reigns of Henry VI. and Henry VIII. Its interior has been called inatciiless; the roof is of the most perfect workmanBhip, and its supp)rt without pillars has been viewed aa an urchitectural mystery. But the most strihing characteristic is the prodigious blaza of painted glass, on each side, fhxn twelve brilliantly tinted windows fifty feel hi^li, giving to the fabric the appearance of being walled with painted glass. The other is Trinity College, particularly admired for its library, two hundred feet long, designed by Sir Christopher Wren, and perhaps the most elc^nt library-room in the kin^om. The hall is also the largest in Cambridge ; and tlie roof is ornamented with fine specimens of old wood-work. Its chapel is marked by a beautifbl simplicity, and contains Roubiliac's statue of Sir Isaac Newton, supposed the best resemblance that exists of that great man. The principal library contains 100,000 volumes, many of which are scarce and valuable. Trinity college, in its ornamental hall, has 40,000. Earl Fitzwilliam, from his scat neai Richmond, presented lately a handsome library, some fine pictures, and a large collection of engravings. The botanic g^arden is inferior to none in the kingdom, except those of Kew and Liverpool. The collection of valuable manuscripts and antiquities is likewise extensive. Since the university was adorned by tho immortal name of Newton, mathematics and natural Shilosophy have been the ruling pursuits ; and, notwithstanding the lustre reflected on it by f ilton, as well as by Bentley and Person, it has left to Oxford the foremost place in classical knowledge. At Newmarket, horse-racing has chosen its most favourite ground. This town lies amid bleak hills, that have, however, a sufficient extent of level heath to make the finest course in the kingdom. It consists of one long street, chiefly filled with inns and cofiee-houses for the reception of the sporting world, who crowd thither in tlie appropriate seasons, which are April, July, and October. The bustle is then immense. " Trains of horses," says Dr. Spiker, " were led up and down the streets. Excellent equipages, gigs, curricles, landaus, flew past us and past each other with the swiftness of an arrow. Horses were prancing about with their riders ; jockeys were carrying bridles to and fro : in short, all was life and bustle." The course is covered with turf, whence the pursuit of horse-racing itself is usu- ally designated the turf. Close to the goal is drawn on rollers a small wooden house, in which sits the judge, usually on experienced groom, who decides which is the winner. The Btand is an open raised house for ladies and. other curious spectators; but men of real busi- ness crowd round the betting post, immediately behind tlie judge, where they remain closely vedged together, "and nothing is heard but the continual cry of twenty, thirty, forty, two hundred pounds on such a horse." The small city of Ely rises like an island amidst the surrounding fens, and displays a magnificent cathedral. Wisbeach, a thriving town on a navigable branch of the Ouse, combines a prosperous trade with some spirit of literary enquiry. Huntingdonshire lies to the eastward of Cambridge ; the two are governed by the same sherifl*, chosen alternately in each. Huntingdon is entirely agricultural ; the pastures are peculiarly rich, and adapt it tor producing the famous Stilton cheese. Huntingdon, the county town, though small, has an antique and respectable appearance. St. Ives is a largo village on the Ouse. Lincolnshire occupies the eastern coast from tlie Wash to the Humber. The southern Mrritory, called, from tliat circumstance, " Holland," comprises more than half of tiie Bed- ford level, or fen country, and is naturally an almost continuous swamp ; but a great extent of it has now been drained, and produces fine pasture land, and excellent crops of oats. The rearing of live stock forms the chief occupation ; and Lincoln has breeds of every descrip- tion that are held in high estimation. The sheep, which amount to upwards of 2,000,000, E reduce the long wool, which, from the length of its staple, is chiefly fitted for worsted, aize, and other fabrics. Rabbits, almost innumerable, are bred in the upper districts ; and the unreclaimed fens, during the wet season, swarm with teal, ducks, geese, and aquatic game of every form and description, with which London and many other parts of England are chiefly supplied from this county. Manufectures have entirely deserted it; even its own wood, since the iate inventions in machinery, is no longer spun or carded within itself. The Trent, during all its course through this county, is navigable for large vessels, and artificial channels unite its streams, particularly the Foss Dyke, between the Witham anrt the Trent Foreign commerce, however, is much limited by the increasing sand-banksi by which the coasts and harbours are obstructed. Part II. built between tho Henry VIII. lU latchlesB; the roof trkmanHhip, and its us been viewed as y. But the most 8 the prodigious in each side, fVom wmdowa fifty feet the appearance of I glass. The other jlarly admired for eet long, designed , and perhaps the 1 in the kin^om, ith fine specimens jntains Roubiliac's that great man. irce and valuable, rem his scat ncai large collection of ept those of Kew ikewise extensive, matics and natural reflected on it by : place in classicid lis town lies amid the finest course 1 cofiee-houses for leosons, which are liorses," says Dr. Jurricles, landaus, Bs were prancing t, all was life and cing itself is usu- wooden house, in the winner. The nen of real busi- ey remain closely thirty, forty, two IS, and displays a ich of the Ouse, ned by tlie same the pastures are Huntingdon, the 5t. Ives is a largo . The sciuthem half of the Bod- it a great extent ropsofoats. The of every descrip- rds of 2,000,000, Lted for worsted, er districts; and iese, and aquatic parts of England ■ted it; even its led within itself, irge vessels, and the Witham and g sand-banks, by DOOK 1. ENGLAND. 4i'. The city of Lincoln was, during tho middle ages, one of the most conspicuous and «plen< did capitalp^of England. The cathedral (Jg. 14b.) still holds the lirst rank among religious edifices. From a distance its three towers appear conspicuous; two of them 180, and one 300, foot high, and ornamented with various pillars and tracery; and as the structure stands on a hill, in the midst of a vast surrounding flat, it has the most commanding site in the county. When plundered by Henry VIII., it wa.s found to contain an extraordinary treasure, in gold and silver, pearls, diamonds, uikI otlier precious stones. Lincoln, supported only by its county trade, and by the re- maming opulence of the cathedral, now holds a moderate rank among provincial Lioeoln Cathudtal. towns. Its fifty churclics are reduced to eleven ; and the fragments of the others are dispersed throughout tho town, many ordinary houses being adorned with Gothic arches, doorways, and windows. Boston, on the Witham, carries on the trade of Holland, or southern Lincolnshire, It exports the grain, and aflbrds a great market for cattle ; and has thus doubled its population, A fine Gotliic church attests the early prosperity of Boston. SiJDSECT. 3. — Central Counties. Under this term we comprehend that part of tho interior which is bounded on the soutlj and south-west by the two divisions already described ; on the north and north-west by York- ahircTand Ijancashire ; and on the west by the counties of Salop, Worcester, and Gloucester. In a description of this portion of the country, London claims a distinct and separate notice. As the metropolis oi tho united kingdom, it is the seat of legislation, jurisprudence, and government ; the principal residence of the sovereign, at wiiich affairs of state are tmnsacted, and relations maintained with foreign courts ; the centre of all important opera- tions whether of commerce or finance, and of correspondence with every quarter of the globe. Ijondon, in its comprehensive sense, includes tiie city and liberties of London, the city of Westminster and its liberties, the borough of Southwark, and tlie parishes and precincts contiguous to those three component parts of the metropolis. Its extent, from Poplar in the east to Bel grave-square in the west, is nearly eight miles ; its breadth, from Islington in the north to Walworth in the south, exceeds five miles. The circumference, allowing for inequalities, is computed at thirty miles. T' buildings, streets, squares, and other spaces, including that taken up by the river Thanic- winding from the eastern to the western extremity, about seven miles on an average ic""lth of a quarter of a mile, occupy an area of eighteen square miles. By a more convenient topographical arrangement, London has been divided into six grand portions: 1st, the City, which may be termed the central division; 2d, the western division, including Westminster ; 3d, the north-west division, including tlie district north of Oxford- street and west of Tottenham-court-road, — these two last, mentioned divisions constitute the west-end of tlie town ; 4th, the northern division, comprising the whole district north of Holbom and tha City from Tottenliam-court-r md on tlio west to Shorcditch and Kingsland- road on the east, including St. Pancras, Som rs-town, Pontonville, Islington, Iloxton, and Kingsland ; 5th, the eastern division, including the whole district east of the city and of Shoreditch ; 6th, the southern division, 'on.jyrising the liorouga of Soutliwark, and the mass of buildings extending *rom Rotherli.ilie to Vauxhall, and ranging southward for more than two miles. The divisions north and south of the Thames communicate by five bridges, — London Bridge, Southwark Bridge, Blackfriaxs, Waterloo, and Westminster bridges. The port of London extends from London Bridge to Deptfi.rd, a distance of about four miles, with an average breadth of from four hv !rod to five hundred yards. Its divisions are the Upper, Middle, and Lower Pools, and the space between Limehouse and Deptfbrd. Connected with it arc certain spacious docks, whicxi will be hereafter noticed. The population of London, according to the returns in 1831 of the census in 1830, is thus staled: — Persons Cit7 of London within the walls 57,jp Kmi'st and other wooded uplands of Ehsox. So early as tho roi^n of Nuro, IxHidon iiad liecoino a |)luuo of considerable traffic, as ap|K>an from Tacitus, the carlicHt of tho Roman historians who mentions it by name. Tho lionians fortified it with a wall, and made it one of their principal stations, At tho be^rinning of the third conturv, it is ropresentoci as a threat anu wealthy city, and considoreu to bo tho metropolis of Britain. In the end of tho Mixth century, it became the capital of tho Kaat Saxons, whoso kinff, Sobert, is reputed tho founder of the cathedral church dedicated to Saint Paul, and of tho abbey and abbey church of W estminster. Atler the union of tho ■even kinj^doms, Egbert, in 83!), held here his tirst wiucnaifemoli; or council : but London was not con3titutou tho capital of Enifland until its recovery from tho Danes by AliVed. VViliiam of Normandy, whose interest it was to conciliito iind Ilaiiipstuiui, — lKiiii(; now joinotl to llio uiotropoliM by continuod rantroa of itruotit, inny \to coniiidcred eh intoKml iK)rtions of it. Tho {lopulation within a rauiiia of oiffht iiiiloH from tit. I'iuiI'h, which Ih all virtually liondon, duuH not full Hhort of 1,800,000. I'ho Krowtli of Londuii, as a por', waaat first by d" ih'-hiih ni|)id. In l-M'i, hcMidoH IxiatA and otlnr cratl not ro{<;iMtnred, there belonged to tho ix>' liondon UOCO HliipH, of tho burthen of 50r>,174 tons; manned by 3*<2,7Hfl men and lioyg. t iho itanio voar, tho (^rom cuHtoma duty collected in tho iiort of liondon anioiiiu^.,' to 0,4:i4,Hr)4/. Tho mrt of Ixindon hoti already been described n» oxtcndinff from Ixindon Dridgo to Doptforo, a ditttJinco of four miloit; the avoraffo breadth bci hilly ii ■ •• .^ Middlesex side of tho river, wcro opened in 1802. They consiMted origii tahiing (tlxnit i)U and tho latter alxxit U.> recently boon added tho south dock, formui \\ : India Docks aro of vast extent, and are, in i Docks, also of very great extent, arc sitiiiitiMl i longing to them is the lurgcxt and finest building of near 5 acres ! Tlio vaults underneath tho ground aro IBJ acres in extent, and have stowage for (10,()(K) pipes of wine ! There aro also the St. Katharina^s Docks, adjoining tho Tower; tho East India Doc^s, at Blackwoll; and tho Commercial Docks, on tho Hurrcy side of tho river. Southwurk, tho third great portion of tho inetroixilis, (more commonly called tho Bornuffh, and as such returning two inunibers to parliament,) is situated on the south bank of the Thuiiios. The Borough was governed by its own bailiUs until Edward VI. granted Houth- wark ;o tho city of Jiondon tor a sum of money; nHiT which it became one of tho city wards by the name of Bridge Ward Without. It is much frecjiiontcd by agriculturists from Kent, Sum 'y, and Sussex; and is tho principal hop-markot m tho kingdom. Numerous Btroots in every direction connect it with the surrounding villages; and by tho fivo magnifi- cont bridges it communicatoH with every (piarter of liOndon and Westminster. London, is well built, well paved, well lighted, and abundantly supplied witli water. For- eigners who visit it for tho first time noon discover that utility, not ornament, is the main characteristic of the town, and that business, not amusement, occupies tho minds of its inhabitants. Tho main streets arc spacious; and all tho streets have tho advantage of Hogged foot-pavements on each side. The houses are of brick ; and though in the most populous streets discoloured by smoke, have by no means a gloomy appearance. Tho charm of London, as a great city, is its variety. Those who dislike tho narrow streets of the city, shady in summer, and sheltered from cold winds in winter, may delight in tho spacious streets and squares of the west end ; those who desire to contemplate what Dr. Johnson called " the full tide of human existence," may visit Chcapsido, Fleet Street, or tho Strand : Bond Street is the resort of gaiety and fashion ; and Regent Street, for architectural effect, is one of the grandest streets in Europe. Great improvements havo been made on the north side of the Strand from Charinjf Cross to Burleigh Street, by taking down an immense mass of small and old houses, partly in narrow streets and courts, and erecting others of large dimensions and forming wide and handsome streets. Hero also has been erected the elegant and com- modious structure of Hungcrford Market. Another improvement i^ that of opening a line northward from Bridge Street, BlackfViars, through the site of Fleet Market and across Clcrkenwell, to Isling- ton : it is intended that a parallel line should extend from Waterloo Bridge across the Strand, past the portico of Covent Garden Theatre, and into the northern district of the metropolis. St. Paul's Cathedral {Jig. 149.), the masterpiece of Sir Christopher Wren, is the finest specimen of modem architecture in the king- s'- PbuI'i. fiom, and, ftf>pr St.Peter's at Rome, nay rank as the finest ecclesiastical structure in Christendom ; but it is so surrounded with Vol. L 88 ^^#< IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I fcaiM |2.5 ■so "^^ ■■■ ^ Kii |2.2 -mi L8 1— '-^ 111'-^ < 6" ► p / vl '> Hiotographic Sciences Corporation ^ ^^>^ . ^,-?i?^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ■^ iL ;\ '^ 9) 874 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part Ht, i> Uti".. ^uiUiogi that the beauty of its exterior cannot be appreciated. The style, which is Grecian, unites erandeur of design with just- ness of proportion. The interior of St. Paul's iH too bare of ornament; but the defect is partly supplied by marble monuments m various de- ^■rees of merit Westmmster Abbev (Jig. 150.) is a noble specimen of Gothic archi- tecture. The interior is grand in design and rich in detail, and the interest which it excites is en- hanced by the numerous monuments of kings, warriors, statesmen, phi« losophers, an(^ y }ts, which it en- closes. The chapel built at the western extremity by lienry VII. in honour of the blewed Virgin, is in the richest style of the later Weitmioitor Abbor- Somenel Home. •'ilT ' weKmiMior ADOoy. I' ),'ji lit ,:":,' Gothic, and Its exterior has been skilfully renovated. Among the parish churches of the metropolis, thuv of St Stephen's, Walbrook, is distin- guished for Hie fine proportions and finished elegance of its interior. "The stately portico of St Martin's, Charing Cross, excites universal admiration ; next to which may rank that of the new church of St Pancras ; the steeple of which is constructed on the model of the Temple of the Winds at Athens. The other public buildings are too numerous to be described, uid a bare mention of them would give little satisfaction. The principal inns of court, and their subsidiary inns, are remarkable rather for plaiimess than mt^ificence of architecture. The pile called Somerset House (Jig. 151.) would have a grand effect if its eastern wing were com- pleted; and this desideratum L partly supplied by the buildings assigned to " King's ^ollege, Lon* don. The Banqueting House at WLitehall is a memorial of the fine taste of Inigo Jones ; and its ceiling is decorated with an alle- gorical pamting from the pencil of Rubens, which is still exposed to view, though the apartment has been converted into a chapel. Westminster Hall, of which the portal has been rebuilt in the original style, is reputed the longest hall in Europe unsupported by pillars. It is 276 feet long by 76 broad. Within it, on coronation festivals, 10,000 persons have dined. On its south side are entrances to the new law courts, the King's Bench Common Pleas, Exchequer and Chancery, with an addi- tional court for the vice-chancellor. The House of Peers is a spacious and lofly chamber, decorated with tapestry representing the defeat of the Spanish armada. The subordinate apartments and passages are of recent construction and of a dig- nified elegance. The House of Commons, originally a chapel dedi- cated to St Stephen, retains, perhaps, too much of that character in Its front and side galleries, the seats rising on either hand beneath them, and the speaker's chair exactly in the place where a pulpit might have stood. The house was aUered and enlarged, to admit the accession of members consequent on the union with Ireland.* The Bank of England, a buildmg of great extent; the Royal Exchange; the East India House, in I^adcnhall street; the Tower, which has still an arsenal and a garrkcn, being the depository of the regalia of the United Kingdom ; the Trinity House, and the New Mint both situated on Tower Hill; the new Post Office, in St Martin le Grand ; the new Palace in St James's Park, die. deserve mention. The Monument (fig. 152.) is one of the most c(Ni^cuoas orna- ments of the metropolis. The pedestal is 42 feet the shaft of the column 120 feet the cone at the top with the blazing urn of gilt brui 40 feet making the total height of the monument 202 feet It was erected by Sir CStriatopher Wren, to commemorate the fire of London, in 1666. Th« MonuBMOt. * Tbe Parliainont Hounea were burnt down in 1834. ' ,;=i.VTT!' ■('«?!«'" pARTHt. J, which is Grecian, r of desig^n with just* ion. The interior of > bare of oroatnent; B partly supplied hy ents (n various de> Abbey (Jiff. 150.) pen of Gothic archi- interior is grand in t in detail, and the it excites is en- unerouB monuments }rs, statesmen, phi* pr its, which it en- ihapel built at the lity by lienry VII. e bleraed Virgin, is style of the later Walbrook, is distin- le stately portico of :h may rank that of lodel of the Temple be described, and 1 of court, and their architecture. The merset House (Jig. ave a grand effect wing were com- his desideratum Li i by the buildings ling's College, Lon< loiqueting House at I memorial of the ligo Jones ; and its rated with an alle- irom the pencil ich is still exposed the apartment has into a chapeL e, is reputed the iroad. Within it, entrances to the , . with an addi- nd lofty chamber, The subordinate on and of a dig- ly a chapel dedi- of that character on either hand the place where red and enlarged, 01 the union with great extent ; the eadenhall street; rrison, being the om; the Trinity [■ower Hill; the ow Palace m SL ioni^euons oma>> , the abaft of the zing urn of gilt erected by Sir Book 1. . Y i f; A ?! ; KNGLAND. ri-^: n ; m sry. The bridges of London attract attention by their beauty and utility. Until the year 1710, the only one existing was London Bridge, built in the twelfth century, with arches so nar* row, unequal, and ill-placed, as to form a sort of breakwater, occdsioning a rapid at fall of the stream, highly dangerous to boats and barges. The new London Brid^fe (Jg. 153.) com- 153 New I aDilun Uridce. menced in 1824, and opened in 1S31, has taken its plase. The bridge consists nf five semi- elliptical arches ; the centre arch 152 feet span, with a rise above high water mark of 29 feet 6 inches ; the two next the centre arch, 140 feet span, rise 27 feet 6 inches ; the two abut- ment arches, 130 feet span, rise 24 feet 6 inches. The length of the bridge from the extremi- ties of the abutment is 028 feet , within the abutments, 782 feet The roadway is 53 feet between the parapets ; of this width, the footways occupy 9 feet each, and the carriage-way 85 feet Southwark Bridge leads from Queenhithe to Bankside, Southwark. Of its three arches of cast iron, the central one is 240 feet span ; the others 210 feet each. The piers and abutments are of stone, the rest of the work iron : this is the most stupendous bridge of these materials in the world. Blackfriars Bridge, built between the years 1760 and 1769, has 8 piers and 9 elliptical arches; length 095 feet Waterloo Bridge (fig. 154.), of granite, 154 Waterloo Bridie. has nine arches, each 120 feet span ; the piers are 20 feet thick. Westminster Bridge has fourteen piers supporting thirteen large and two small arches. The width of the middle arch is 76 feet ; that of the two next, 72, that of the last, 52. Waterloo Bridge is the finest piece of masonry in Europe : the expense exceeded 1,000,0001. These immense works, with the exception of London Bridge, have all been accomplished by associations of private individuals. The municipal institutions of London have received from time such modifications as were reiiuisite to improve them. The city is divided into twenty-five wards, the Borough, as findge Ward Without, making the twenty-sixth. Each has lor its magistrate an alderman chosen for life : and those persons collectively fbrm the Court of Aldermen. The chief magistrate, styled Lord Mayor, is elected annually, from the Court of Aldermen, by the great bo^ of fteemen called the Livery. The Common Council is an elective body representing the several wards.— These public bodies form a sort of parliament, the court of aldermen ranking as peers, that of common council as the commons. The military force of the city formerly consisted of the Train Bands ; but under an bCt passed in 1794, two regiments of militia are raised by ballot, each consisting of 2200 men. No troops can enter the city, nor cMi ite own militia dcp.^- 1 ucm it, without permission of the lord mayor. His power is very great ; and though his office be elective, his authority does not cease on the demise or abdi- cation of the king, as that of the commission officers does : and in such cases the LordMavur ■m DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. of London is said to be the principal officer of the kin^om. There are two aheriffb, one for London and one for Middlesex ; but they make but one officer; and if one of them dioa, the office is at an end until A Buccessor to him is chosen. The next officers m rank are, the Recorder, the Chamberlain, and the Common Sereeant The police of the metro^lis has not been brou^t to b very hUfh degree of efficiency, but is continually undergoing improvements. There are eleven offices : the Mansion House ; :.he Guildhall; Bow Street; Queen Square, Westminster; Marlborough Street, Hiffh Street, Mary>le-bone ; Hatton Garden; Worship Street ; Lambeth Street, in Whitechapel; High Street, Shadwell ; Union Street, Sonthwark ; and Wapping New Stairs, for offences connected with tiio dipping and port. The Bow Street Police Office is wholly under the direction and management of the Secretarj^ of State for the Home Department All the magistrates belonging to it are in the commission of the peace for the counties of Middlesex, Surrey, Kent, and Essex, this being the chief police office of England. Subject to its authority is the body of foot and horse patrole by which the roads within ten miles of the metropolis are watehed and guarded during a considerable pert of the night In another deportment of police a most important change has been effected by substituting for the nightly wateh appointed by different parishes without concert or coH>peration, a constabi)- LARV POLicB roRoi, regularly organized, and subject to officera appointed by the Home Secretary of State. The men are maintained by rates levied on the different parishes, and are on duty night and day, in successive divisions, relieving each other like gendarmes. The gaols and prisons cannot be passed without notice. The King's Beech prison, in Southwark, is under the particular authwity of the Court of King's Bench. The liberties, or rules, comprehend an area three miles in circumference, within any part of wiiich debtors may reside on paying certain fees. The Fleet Prison, chiefly for debtors, is situated on tJie east side of Forrin^on Street Whitecroes-street prison was erected in 1817, for the reception of such debtors as were liable to be confined in the city gaols of Newgate and the Compter. Newgate, a place of confinement for prisoners before and after trial, has been placed under new regulations through the efforts of benevolent persons anxious to render it a place of reform. Bridewell, Bl&ckfi-iars, though a prison, is usually ranked among the hospitals. The Middlesex House of Correction, in Coldbath Fields, has long been the terror (^delinquents, through the double punishment of incarceration and hard labour. The Peni- tentiary at MUbonk is destined for the reception of convicts selected from those sentenced to transportation or to confinement on board the hulks for a certain term of years. They are confined here to hard labour for a shorter term, part of which is remitted if they behave well ToUiill-fields Bridewell is a large pile of building, finished in 1638. A new House of Cor- rection has been erected at Brixton, in Surrey. The charitable institutions of London would require a volume for their descriptic Chelsea and Greenwich hospitals are asylums provided by national gratitude to support '"> aged or infinn who have devoted their liest days to the service of their country by land auu sea. St Bartholomew's and St Thomas's hospitals are assigned to the maimed and diseased. Bridewell Hospital to the correction of the idle, and Christ's hospital to the support and education of the young and helpless. For the cure of diseases, and for the relief of acci- dental injuries, there are various institutions ; such are the London, Middlesex, St George's, and Westminster hospitals ; St. Bartholomew's, St Thomas's, and Guy's, are also celebrated as schools of surgery ; the hospitals of Bethlehem and St Luke's are appropriated to insane patients: tliere are sixteen medical charities for particular purposes, as the Ophthalmic Institution, the Small-pox Hospital, the Vaccine Society, &.c. ; fourteen lyinpr-in hospitals and charities ; schools for the indigent blind, and for the deaf and dumb ; the Philanthropic and Humane Societies, the Refiige for the Destitute, tlie Foundling Hospital, the Magdaun Asylum, the Female Penitentiary, &c. To the class of charitable foundations belong idao the alms-houses of the various city companies. The most distinguished schools of the metropolis are, Christ's Hospital, the Charter-house, Westminster, St Paul's, and Merchant Tailor s schools. For the acquisition of the higher branches of knowledge, an important ptrovision has been made in the establishment of Uie London University, and in that of the institution called Kin^r's College, London. Of the scientific and literary associations of the metroixtlis, the most considerable are the Royal Society, the Society of Antiquaries, the Society ror the Encouragement of Arts and Manufactures, the Royal Institution for facilitating the introduction of useful Inventions and Improvements, the London, and the Russel Institutions. The College of Physicians, and the Royal College of Surgeons, decide on the admission of members to practise in each of those professions. For the cultivation of sciences connected with them, four eminent societies exist and lectures ore established at various theatres of anatomy and hospitals. Of instittr tions for particular branches of knowledge, the more eminent are the Linnean, the Geological, the Horticultural, the Geographical, and the Zoological societies. As a national repositciy (^literature, of antiquities, and of objects belonging to natural history, the British Museum- elsewhere described, is daily rising in public estimation. London is the orincipal literary emporium of the kingdran. Almost all books of import Part III. two sheriffk, one for no of them dios, the in in rank are, the 'ee of efliciencv, but le Mansion luuie; Dugfh Street, Hivh et, in Whitechapel; ' Stairs, for offences is wholly under the spartment. All the unties of Middlesex, nd. Subject to its bin ten miles of the night In another suMtitutug for the iration, a conbtabii- inted by the Home 9 different parishes, her like gendarmes. g'a Bench prison, in neh. The liberties, art of which debtors rs, is situated on Uie d in 1817, for the }fNew^to and the fler trial, has been anxious to render it ' ranked among the long been the terror labour. The Peni- sm those sentenced of years. They are if they behave well, new House of Cor- their descriptic itude to support V' :ountry by land aau aimed and diseased, to the support and the relief of acci- esex, St. George's, are also celebrated »ropriated to insane s tl;e Ophthalmic lyinpf-in hospitals the Pliilanthropic ital, the Magdafen Nations belong also the Charter-house, ition of the higher tablishment or Uie ondon. )n8iderable are the ment of Arts and ful Inventions and hysicians, and the 9 in each of those eminent societies itals. Of institu- m, the Geological, lational repository British Museum- books of import IS Book I ENGLAND. rv->;:ryy t .tiwii 877 ance are there printed and published; and thence distributed over the Kingdom; fomxtjtti considerable branch of commerce. The annual value sold is estimated at from 1,000 fiOOL to 2,000,000{. sterling. Bemg also the centre of intelligence relative to public affairs, the metropolis gives circulation to a prodigious number of newspapers and periodical joumdi. Some of the newspapers circukte upwards of 8000 a day ; and by the profit derived from such extensive sale, and firom advertisements, they are enabled to maintain complete and costly establishments for obtaining earlv political intelligence, and fbr reporting trials and parliamentary proceedings. The number of single papers, published annually in London, as calculated from the stamp returns, exceeds 16,000,000. The manufkctures of the metropolis are too miscellaneous to be particuhirised ; indeed, London may be called a commercial rather than a manufiicturing city. The most consider- able is the Spitalfields silk manufacture, which, however, has for ydars remained stationary, while that or other parts of the kingdom has been rapidly extending. In household furni- ture the artisans of London take the lead both in the design or fashion of the articles, and in the excellence of their construction. The same may be said of coaches, carriages, and harness, of watches, of gold and silver plate, and of jewellery. Of articles of consumption, the peculiar product of London is porter. In 1828-4, the quantity brewed was 1,168,000 barrels, incluuing a comparatively small quantity of ale ; and almost the whole of which was produced by eleven great establishments. The distilleries of British spirits are very extensive. The foreign trade of London has, since the peace, continued nearly stationary. The vici- nity of Liverpool to the manufacturing districts, and her more easy and frequent intercourse with Ireland, give her considerable advantages. But, on the other hand, the vant population of London and of the basin of the Thames, her proximity to the Continent, the immense wealth and connexions of her merchants, will most probably suffice to ensure her predomi- nance. The charges on vessels frequentmg the Thames, though withm these few yean very heavy, are now extremely moderate. The inland trade of London is very extensive, as appears from the number of arrivals by all the great roads of the metropolis, and by the Regent's Canal, extending from the Thames to the basin at Poddington, a sort of internal port, communicating with the principal canals of the kingdom. Sixty-four mail-coaches ana a great number of steam-packets maintain a constant communication between the London General Post-Office and the cities and towns in Great Britain and Ireland. The regulated speed of t'.e mails is eight miles an hour, including stoppages. London is the great money market of the empire. The Bank of England, founded i 1694, has become the greatest bank of circulation and deposit in Europe. Its usual issue amounts to about 20,000,000^ sterling; it advances about 10,000,000^ sterling to govern- ment, and discounts bills to the value of about 3,000,0002. Though some of its privileges are curtailed by the late act, this is compensated by the regulation which makes its notes a legal tender. The Stock Exchange is the place where purchases and sales are effected hv brokers, at a commission of one-eighth per cent on the amount of stock purchased or sola. The establishment consists of a certain number of brokers, about thirteen hundred, elected annually by ballot, and bound in a certain sum to the observance of certain regulations, which are superintended and enforced by a committee. None but members are admitted on the stock exchange ; and no stock-broker can, by the regulations, become a dealer, and sub- ject himself to the operation of the bankrupt laws. If he becomes a bankrupt, he is desig- nated a scrivener. The property bought and sold in this market, between the hours of ten and four, is sometimes enormous. The Insurance Companies are about twenty in number, of which only three are incorporated by charter. Of other joint-stock companies, for pur- poses immediately connected wiUi London, the principal are me Water and Gas Light Com- panies. As the seat of legislation and jurisprudence, London is necessarily the resort of the prin- cipal persons in the kingdom durlns the session of parliament, which usually continues from Christmas to midsummer ; and as that period includes three of the four law terms, the afflux of strangers is increased by those who are interested in any proceedings before the courts. The town mansions of the nobility and gentry are not so remarkable as their country resi- dences for architectural beauty ; but some of them are celebrated for their treasures of lite- rature or art. The grounds of St. James's Park, Hyde Park, and Kensington Gardens, emphatically called the lungs of London, and the fine enclosure of the Regent's Park, are destined fbr the recreation of the public. Middlesex may be regarded as the dairy and garden of London. Its soil is mostly a poor gravel ; but, by the application of manure, it is fitted for kitchen gardens to the extent of nearly three thousand acres ; the same extent of fruit gardens, and about half that extent of nurseries, whence the greater prt of England is supplied with choice plants and exotica. But the largest portion of Middlesex is in grass, partly for the support of iO,OuO cows, which supply London with milk, and partly for furnishing it with hay, that of Middlesex being said to be made in a superior manner to any other in Uie kmgdom. Great profits have V0L.L 32* 2X 879 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. PautIH. HuBptonCowL been derived fhxn that specien of clay which ia convertible into brick. Large tracts have yielded 400(U. an acre ; and after this clayey substance has been pared off, the soil has been Msily restored, by manure, to the uses of affriculture. HampUm Court (J^. IRS^), built by Cardinal Wolsey, and enlarged by Sir Christopher Wren, forms one of the largest of the English pahices. Here are many fine pic- tures, among which are seven of the <;ar- toons of Raphael, regarded as the master* pieces of that renowned painter. Bushy Park, the seat of William IV. while Duke of Clarence, is surrounded with magnifl* cent woods. Chiswick, the villa of the Duke df Devonshire, and Osteriey Park, both in this vicinity, contain fine paintings Syon House is the seat of the Duke ot Northumberland. But the chief ornaments of Middlesex are the villas of the wealthy citizens of London. At Twickenham, bB^ faarous hands have demolished Pope's villa. Strawbeny Hill ia a light fkntastic ihbric, built by Horace Walpole. The villas which cover the hills of Hompstead and Highgate com- mand beautiful prospects. Hertford, Bedford, Buckmgham, Oxford, Northampton, Leicester, consist generally of a vast plain, varied by gentle undulations; the air is healthy and pure; the agriculturists are careful and laborious. The horses and black cattle of Leicestershire are famous throughout the kingdom. Bedford and Berks have some fabrics of shawls, straw hats, and bone lace. Silk and woollen hosiery have found their way into Leicester and Oxford shires, and Coven- try has for centuries been renowned for its silk manufacture. Oxford justly claims the first rank amonff the midland cities. Its university, the most richly endowed in Europe, and the nursery of so many great men ; the numerous and exten- sive edifices connected with it, arranged in such a manner as to produce a truly noble effect, render it one of the most interesting places in England. The visiter, as he passes alon^ either of the two main streets (Jig. 15(3.), beholds at every step some antique and mojestie structure ; even the houses of pri- vate individuals, presenting the aspect of ornamented cottages rising one above the other, have a better effect than the usual mechanical lines of street This beautiful city is supported almost entirely by tiie university, which is of great anti- quity, and the principal buildings which now ornament it were buUt between the times of Henry VI. and Elizabeth. Oxford, in the reign of Charles I., was a place of consider- able political importance; parlia- ments were summoned to meet there, and the king maintained it long as his lost strong-hold. It has nineteen colleges and fbor halls, in which reside above three thousand persons, of whom about a third are maintained out of the funds of the colleges ; au 1 many, under the charae< ter of masters, fellows, and other fbnctionaries, enjoy liberal incomea The Bodleian Library is the most extensive in England, after that of the British Musemn. In the spacious quadrangle which contains this library are also the public schools; a large gallery of portraits havm? reference to the university ; the Arundel marbles, and the Pom- fret statues, which, though much mutilated, present some fine specimens of ancient sculp- ture. The RadcliAe Library is the finest library room in Oxford ; but it labours under a deficiency of books. Christ-church is an ample and venerable edifice, adorned with some fine old painted glass. In an adjoining aparbnent is the collection of pictures bequeathed by General Guise, which contains some specimens of unquestioned excellence. New Col- lege chapel attracts admiration by its fine series of paintings on glass, executed by Jervis. mer the designs of Sir Joshua R^nolds. All-Souls College, Magdalen College, am Queen's College, display architectural beauties of no common older. Woodstock has a gay aspect; to the interesting features in Ibglish history and romance it adds the solid benefit of a large manufacture of leather gloves. Buckingham and Da- ventry arc small antique towns, Newport Pagaell, in Bucks, forms a sort of centre of th»» lace trade. Bedford carries on some manufiwtures of this description ; and being situated i» Bicb BtiMt, Osfbid. PautIIL Lai^e tracts havo off, the soil hu been by Sir Chrbtopher the largest of the re are many fine pio re seven of the tax. arded as the master* led painter. Bushy liam rv. while Duke mded with magnifi< ck, the villa of tiio and Osterley Park, sntain fine paintings scat of the Duke ot t the chief ornaments villas of the wealthy Lt Twickenham, Iw- fiintastic fabric, built and Highgate com- nsist generally of a he agriculturists are e famous throughout hats, and bone lace, d shires, and Coven- university, the most lumcrous and exten- a truly noble effect, as he passes along uitique and majcstie 1 the houses of pri- Is, presenting the ented cottages rising other, have a better ) usual mechanical This beautiful city lost entirely by the ;h is of great anti< principal buildinss iment it were buut es of Henry VI. aid brd, in the reign of I place of considep mporto/ice; parliv immoned to meet cing maintained it trong-hold. It has persons, of whom under the charae< ) British Musemn. ; schools; a large les, and the Pom* of ancient sctdp> t labours under a idomed with some tures bequeathed ence. New Col- :ec'uted by Jervia en College, ana iry and romance ' gham and Da> centre of tb« being situated a ;of BooE L ENGLAND. mi'?^a 879 a rich valley, watered by the Ouse, has a ccmside'i-able stir in transmitting its produce. Tho industry of Dunstable is attested by the straw hats which bear its name Hertford is a small provincial capital, chiefly remarkable for the college which (lie East India Companv have founded, for the education of the civil servants whom they send abroad : 8t Alban's is venerable for its antiquitv, and its cathedral. Northampton, a place of considerable name in English history, » well-built town on the Nen, with a market-place which has been reckoned the finest in the kingdom, has a manulhetory of boots and dioes for exportation, and of lace. It is a great centre of the inland travelling between London and the norUi; and the trade in horses has always been carried on in great fiiirs at this pkce. Leicester is a still more important provincial capita]. It i> a place of note in English histonr, and attests its ancient importance by some fine old churches ; but it had fUlen into considerable decay, till it was revived bv the prosperity of the surrounding country, chiefly in conse- capital of Rutlandshire, is a very small town. The seats of this extensive district, though not so thickly planted as in the southern, are 107 vet numerous. Foremost stands Blen- heim (Jiff. 157.) that proud monument of a nation's gratitude to its long un- rivalled hero. Its exterior displays th|it minuteness of detail and general hea- viness, which characterise the designs of Vanbrugh : some of the apartments, however, are of almost unequalled grandeur; jparticularly the great hall, nfly-three feet by forty-four, and six^ high ; and the library, one hundred and eighty feet by forty-three. The woods, also, the lake, and the general disposition of the grounds, ore greatly admired. The gallery of Sictures is one of the verf finest in the kingdom, containing some of the best worlu of lubens, Vandyke, and Titian. Stowe, the seat of the Duke of Buckingham, is celebrated as the most elaborate and splendid example of the species of gardeniiuf called classical, in which an attempt is made to present nature herself in an ornamented mm. Her ovm pro- per ornaments, of wood, water, hill and plain, are heightened by the introduction of tem- ples, ruins, statues, inscriptions, and other objects calculated to excite lofty and poetical ideas. Modem taste rejects many of these accessories, as breaking in upon the idea of simple nature, to which it seeks to make the nearest possible approach ; yet, a space of four hundred acres, filled with groves, temples, and meandering streams, must present many beautifbl sites. " The rich landscapes," says Walpole, " occasionad by the multi}>licity of temples and obelisks, and various pictures that present themselves as we shift our situation ; occasion surprise and pleasure, sometimes recalling Albsno's landscapes to our mind, and oftener to our fancy the idoktrous and luxurious vates of Daphne and Tempe." The hpuse also is handsome and richly ornamented, an** contains some fine paintings. Wobum Abbey, where the house of Russel, by pmcely shows and festivals, have thrown a new lustre on British agriculture, is a magnificent edifice. The stables, experimental fimn, and other appendages of the most useful of arts, excite the adnuration of every fiumer and even ama- teur ; nor is this residence deficient in the lighter embellishments of painting and statuary. Althorp, near Northampton, is adorned with many rare and valuable works of art ; but it is in London chiefly that Earl Spencer keens his library, the first in the kingdom. Opposite to Stamford is Burleigh, a noble old residence of Cecil, Elizabeth's minister. It contains a fine library of books and manuscripts; and the Exeter fiunily have enriched it with 'a col- lection of paintings, generally supposed to be the most extensive in England. Near Oak- ham, is another Burleigh on the hUl, once the seat of the gay revels of Buckingham. It has a noble terrace in flrant, and contains a good library, with some curious paintmgs. , On he border of Leicestershire and Lmcolnshire, stands the Duke of Rutland's proud castel- lated edifice of Belvoir. From a lofty height it overlooks a vast extent of country, includ- ing the vale of the some name, one of the richest and most beautifl)l in England. The col- lection of paintings is of great value. Warwick is a noble county. Its woodlands, the remains of the wide ancient forest of Arden, are still extensive, arid a great part lies in fine natural g^ass. Pasturage predomir nates greatly over agriculture, occupving nearly two-thirds. Warwick, an ancient uid well-built town, still preserves a portion of its prosperity by the nwnnfkoture of woollens. Coventry is a large old town, built venr irregularly, and many of the houses exhibiting the uncouth architecture of a distant period. Its ecclesiastical monu- ments, however, are of importance. 8t Michael's is a very light and elegant structure, with a spire rising to three nundred fbet The fkbric of silk, introduced more than a cen- 180 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part 10 "yfy tury a^ by the French reftigees, hu made a most rapid pro^sa, so that in 1810 it employed 2^19 loomB. In the making of watches, also, this city now rivals Jjondon. Leamington, though its spa is mentioned by Camden, never became a scene of crowded resort, lill the teginning or this century ; yet so great since that period has been its attraction, ttmt it has risen from a mere village to bo a ^urishing place. There are both hot and cold baths ; and the waters are. used either for drinking or bathing. Leamington now possesses, on a hand- some scde, baths, inns, a theatre, an assembly-room, — all the accommodation for the sick and the gay. Stratford, a considerable town on the Avon, to which the muse has ffiven a deathless name, is the birth-place of Shakspeare ; the poetical pilgrim here beholds the Senuine tomb of the poet, and the site of the house chosen by him ror his final residence ; lough the house itself a barbarous hand has demolished. Birmingham is in Warwickshire, but as it is the capital of the iron country, which is almost wholly in Stafi^shire, wo shall class it with the great towns devoted to the working of that material. There are two castellated seats in this county, Kenilworth and Warwick, both of almost matchless gruideur ; but the former presents only the picturesque remains of its pristine 158 state m a state of decay ; and the late earl repaired it so judiciously, and made his additions in such harmony with the original pile, that he may be considered almost the creator of the edifice in its Wuwtek CuUe. present state. The entrance, cut through a rock, and opening at once on three of the loftiest towers, has an effect truly striking. The interior is equally grand and interesting. First is a passage or corridor up- wards of 300 feet in extent, seen from end to end, and Part IH 1819 it employed on. Leamington, ed resort, till the iction, that it hu id cold batliB ; and eeases, on a hand- ation for the sick nuse has given a here beholds the 9 final residence; in Warwickshire, fordahire, we shaJl ck, both of almost ins of its pristine Founded in the ., it was extended }hn of Gaunt ; and de princes of the irtill wrested from iph of the house of tied thenceforth a and was bestowed her handsome fa- rt whose residence sndid f&tes and nv I greatest romance lly by Cromwell to en it now appears, visiter who stands slight marlts, the )y me dome of^ the aveller has only to he proud mansion bwlt by tlie Earl rho, in the four- distinguished him- es of Cressy and rd IV. seized an nnexing it to the terwards bestowed on Lord Brooke, e sum in restoruig if decay ; and the d it so judiciously, idditions in sudi he original pile, considered almost iie edifice in its 'he entrance, cut an effect truly ge or corridor up- te apartments are with armour, and are smaller, and lineral stores are nt, and cannot b< asis of the works Tland, which, but tonishing height discovery that it nse scale. The pean land, where ) clays afford the ;ure. It is long led this fabric to Book T. ENGLAND. 881 the highest perfection, and rendered it an object of national importance. Not content witli the native materials, he imported tho finest white clays and best flints firom the southern counties ; and formed that variety of articles called Wedgwood's ware, applicable to all CpoHCs of use and ornament, and superior in some respects to the best porcelain. Hence sprung up a range of villages forming a district called the Potteries, of which Burslem is tho centre, and which contam about 60,000 inhabitants. * Tho principal cluster of large towns in Staffordshire consists of those in the southern Sarter which are employed in making iron, and manufkcturing it into various forms. Of is'district Birmingham is ttie capital ; and at the remotest periods iron is mentioned as its staple, but tho grand impulse given was early in the last centunr, when Joim Taylor, the founder of the wealthy family of that name, Matthew Boulton, IJaq., and other Wividuals, by tho spirit of their undertakings, and by their liberal patronage of skill and ingenuity in every line, contributed greatly to the establishment of the manufiusturing fiune of the town. Mr. Boulton, having secured the celebrated Mr. Watt, estaUiahed, in conjunction with him, tt Soho, hear Birmmgharo, their inunense manufkctory, in which talent, science, capital, ex- perience, united every thing which could raise hardware articles to perfection. Pre-eminent above all ia the steam-engine, which Mr. Watt, its great improver, not only applied to the osa of his works here, but constructed for the rest of England. The copper coinage exe- cuted at Soho by steam-power for the use of government has been greatly admired. Under the impulse of such an example, the citizens of Birmingham soon produced their standard articles of a cheapness and excellence which defied all competition. The articles manu- fiictured in Birmmgham consist, in a great measure, of such as, individually, appear un- worthy of being named, yet astonish and dazzle by their magnitude, when half the world ia to be supplied with them ; such as pins, buttons, nails, paper trtiys, filigree, and toys. There are not wanting, however, fabrics of greater magnitude, taken even singly, such as that of fire-arms, &c. During the last war, the gunsmiths of Birmingham met the demand with such energy, that, on one occasion, they delivered to government 14,000 muskets in a week. Of ponderous machinery, none, perhaps, is more interesting than that of the metal rolling- mills. Birmingham is commodiously built, with suitable churches and other edifices, but without any thing prominent in architecture, or any antique monuments. The town can boost of enlightened citizens, under whose auspices letters and the arts have been cultivated with ardour. The institutions for the education of the poor are not, perhaps, surpassed by any in the kingdom for extent and efficacy. The other great manufacturing towns, almost all in StafK)rdshire, are Wolverhampton, a very populous place, oi considerable antiquity, with a fine old church; but indebted for itn present greatness to tl^e making of locks and keys in a manner superior to any town in the world. Wednesbury has a fine old Gothic church ; but its main boast at present is, the making of all the hard materials of coach harness in an unrivalled manner. Walsall flour- iidies by the makuig of every thing connected with saddlery ; Dudley by its nails : but it has also a casUe of some note in history, commanding a view of seven counties. The nomintd capital, Stafford, is yet to be noticM ; an ancient but small town, of neat appearance, ornamented with the usual county buildings. The Grand Trunk Canal, how« ever, passing by it, has given an impulse to its mdustry ; and it carries on a considerable manuracture of boots and shoes. Newcastle-under-Line, and Ttunworth, are both consider- able towns on one of the great Lond(si roads. Lichfield is a more elegant and interesting place. Its most prominent object is the cathe- dral, of high antiquity, the finest part of which was built in 1140; some particular portions are equal to any thing of the kind in Britain : such are the portico, richly adorned with sculpture ; the choir; and St Mary's chapel. The society fixed there by this richly endowed establishment, together with the neatness of the town, and its pleasant situation, have induced many of the gentry in this quarter to make it their residence. These circumstances have contributed to give to Lichfield that intellectual character which b so conspicuous, and has made it almost the literary metropolis of south-western England. The birth and early education of Johnson and Garrick are alone sufficient to immortalise it Lichfield enjoys high privileges as a city, having a district of some extent round it considered a county of itself. Derbyshire, in its natural features, is perhaps the most remarkable of any county of Eng- land. Except in the lower and southern districts on the Trent, the whole county is traversed by ranges of rugged and rocky hUls, penetrated by vast excavations, and separated by narrow valleys. Lead is abundant, chiefly in the form of galena. Iron is also worked very plentifiiUy. This county is dso celebrated for the variety and beauty of its calcareous sub* stances, particularly the kind called Blue John (fluor spar), which, by the skilfiil application of a gentle heat, is nwde to exhibit the- most brilliant colours. Lastly, there are numerous not springs varii?usly impregnated ; and the county contains two oi the most remarkable watering-places in Uie kmgdom, Matlock and Buxton. In proceedino to CasUeton, the traveller passes through the Winyato, or gates of tho tea DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY Pa«t in. windi, a narrow road of about a mile in length, 160 P*tk CtTwa. Dwhrikln. between precipicet a thooMnd feet hivh, dark, ruraed, and perpendicular. At tnv end of tnia road opens on one side Mun Tor, or the Shivenng Mountain, ISUU fcot hiph ; on the other the High Peak crowned with the ruina of a Saxon fortrew ; aiid at its foot, the wonder of wonders, " the Peak Cavern." (Jg. 160.) This is a h\ig« gulf, 42 feet higli and 120 long, at tho foot of perpendicular clifls. The visiter ii thence guided through a succesaion of dark cavernous apartments, and is ferriod along a subterraneous river; abovo which the rocks rise so close, tlut ho muHt lie flat on his face. At the end of somewhat above 2000 foet the cavern terminates, or, at least, becomes no longer passable. Elden Hole is a iissuro near Buxton, whicii lieMends perpendicularly to an unknown depth. A line of 2652 feet has been let down without finding a bottom. Poole's Hole, noar Buxton, is chiefly remarkable for the petri- flwtions with which it is filled. On descending into the Low Peak, a milder grandeur presents itself. The most nigged chains •f Derbyshire are interspened with beautiftil valleys ; but none equals that of Matlock, where ^„ . .„ ' the banks of the Derwent are bordered •4rt V .; 101 ^ — by extensive woods, interspersed with the boldest and most varied forms of rock. Dovedale (fi/f. 161.) is a wilder ecene, where the river Dove is hcin< med in by perpendicular rocks, of fonni so bold, and covered with such variety of trees and shrubs, that this has 6onie< times been deemed the most picturesque spot in England. Derby, the capital of this county, on the Derwent, is handsome and wel. built, and has extensive manufactures. Silk, introduced at the commencement of the last century, has continued to flourish. Porcelain is also manufac- tured here ; and what is called its white ware is considered almost unrivalled. A consider- nble number of workmen are employed in cutting and polishing marble ; and Uie Derbyshire ■par is fiishioned into a variety of beautiful forms. The watering-places in Dierbyshire have the next daun to notice. Matlock contains mineral springs, efficacious in consumptive and rheumatic complaints. Buxton, in the High Peak, surrounded by naked mountains, attracts a much greater multitude ; and its waters axe considered very powerful in rheumatism, gout, and other diseases. The Duke of Devon- shire has hero constructed a superb crescent, occupied by inns, shops, ball-rooms, and every thinfr that can contribute to the accommodation and gaiety of the visitants. Of seats, Chatsworth has sometimes been considered the finest in England. It was built ty William first duke of Devonshire, in 1702; and is 191 fer ; square, of the Ionic order, richly ornamented both within and without. Keddlestone House has a fine Doric fi-ont, 360 feet long, considered one of the finest architectural features in England. Hardwicke Hall was long the residence of the unfortunate Mary ; the furniture and the portraits remain, in many respects, in the same state as during her residence. Nottiii^am is watered by the broad stream of the Trent, its tributaries, and numerous canals. The Vale of Belvoir, to the south-east, ranks with the richest tracts in the island. The north-western part contains the remnant of the great forest of Sherwood, famed for the revelries of the merry outlaw Robin Hood. Being covered, also, in a great measure, with the ornamented grounds of noblemen of high rank, it is called the " dukcries." The manu* factures of hosiery in this county, Leicester and Derby, employ 33,000 frames and 73,000 operatives, producing in cotton 880,000/., worsted 870,000!., silk 241,0001. The lace trade employs 150,000 enmroiderers in this counter. Nottingham is a large town, boldlv and picturesquely situated upon the Trent Its streets are arranged along the fiice of a hill so steep, that the ground floors of the street behind, in some instances, rise higher than the roofs of those in front The rocky materials of this hill are so soft and yielding, that they are cut to a great extent into cellars and warehouBes. The making of stockings has always been the staple of Nottingham. They are worked fs! paut in. Iioannd feet hidi, indicular. At tnv on one side Mam [ountain,lSUOrcot [igh Peak crowned ixon fbrtreBB ; and of wondere, " the ).) Tkifl is a h\xge 20 long, at the foot L The viBiter ii ti a succession of ants, and is ferried •ivcr; above which B, that ho must lie 3 end of somewhat rem terminates, or, longer passable. leor Buxton, which has been let down kable for the petri- roost rugged chains ; of Matlock, where rwont are bordered , interspersed with Bt varied fomis of r. 161.) is a wilder iver Dove is hem« lular rocks, of forms i with such variety that this has some* he most picturesque 1 of this county, on andsome and wel. isive manufactures, the commencement has continued to is also manufac- Eilled. A consider- md Uie Derbyshire Matlock contains luxton, in the Hi^h lie ; and its waters he Duke of Devon- 1-rooms, and every ts. land. It was built if the Ionic order, te Doric front, 360 Hardwicke Hall irtraits remain, in lies, and numerous icts in the island, rood, famed for the eat measure, with riee." The manu- nes and 73,000 The lace trade iTrent Its streets le street behind, in laterials of this hill and warehouses, key are worked cv BuokL ENGLAND. 388 fhtmos, which, in the middle of last century, scarcely exceeded 1900, and at present amount to 10.000. Tho lace trade recently added is of very groat importance. There are stated to be 1340 machines in the town, apd 1070 in the noighbcurhood ; and the lace sold in its mar- ket is valued at 130,00M. Nottingham has also a great inland trade by tho Trent and canal* connected with it Newark is notwl for its castle, and for a parish church, nid to be the finest in the king« doo). Nottinghamshire may boast some splendid Beats. Worksop Manor, built by the Duke of Norfolk, contains fine portraits of tlio Howard family. Clumber Park is fitted up in a rnatr niflcont stylo by tho Duko of Newcastle, with a very valuable collection of pictures. Wel- beck Abbey, a seat of the Duke of Portland, is noted for its fine stables, Newstoad Abbey lu4 jwen stripped of its fine fUmiture and paintings before it came to the late Lord Byron. '■'"''' Btnmtcrt 4,.— The Northern Countiei. The northern counties of England may be described, generally, as reaching fhmi the Humber and the Mersey to the Scottish border. They include tlie wide extent of yorAsAtre, divided into three ridings, and of Lancashire, Durham, Northumberland, Cumberland, and Wettmoreland. The eastern portion is interspersed with large bleak tracts of mountain, nxMS, and moor. Its ports carry on a thriving trade in coarse, bulky, and usefUl commodities. The south-western, comprising Lancashire and the west ridipg of Yorkshire, by the vast pr» duce of its manufactories, leaves far behind it every other district in the world. The north- western, or the country of the Iiokes, has a higher degree of picturesque beauty than anj other part of England. The counties of Northumberland and Durham are hilly and elevated ; and their chief wealth is subterraneous. A species of coarse coal, mixed with lead, everywhere abounds ; ind the load is exported to the extent of firom five to ten thousand tons. But within this mineral region there is enclosed a smaller one, reaching firom the mouth of the Coquet to the Tees, a length of about fifty miles, and having its greatest breadth of about twenty miles upon the Tyne. Within this tract are found uninterrupted beds of that valuable ctml with which London is whoNy supplied, and of which great quantities are either sent to other parts tS the kingdom, or exported. Newcastle was fkmed at an early period in the military annals of England. It formed a loading point in the wall of Hadrian and in that of Severus. Robert, son of tlie Conqueror, built here a castle of immense strength, more than two miles in circuit, which served long ai the main bulwark against Scottish invasion. Scarcely a trace of it now remains ; and the occupations of Newcastle are entirely changed. Both banks of the river, down to Tyne- mouth, form an immense wharf, to which, by railways and steam wagons, coals are conveyed ftom the contiguous pits. In 1830, the quantity exported was 867,613 chaldrons, about 2,300,000 tons. Newcastle carries on very extensive manufactories, particularly that of S'ass. There are thirty-one works on tho Tyne, which in some years have produced glass to e value of 500,0001. In shipping it is second only to London, having belonging to it, in 1832, 1077 vessels, of the burthen of 220,784 tons. Foundery, pottery, weaving, are not on a very great scale. Newcastle is now, on the whole, a well-built town, though some of the streets are inconveniently steep : it is highly ornamented by the spire of St. Nicholas, con- ridered by the best iudges as one of the fiiest speciqiens of the i^ Miic. It possesses a iite- ruy society, which has published valuable transactions ; and an mitiquarian society, destined particularly to receive the Roman coins, &c. which are frequently dug up on this line. The large town of Gateshead, on the opposite side of the river, though placed in Durham, is really port of Newcastle, and raises its population to 57,000. A contmued range of great commercial towns cluster thick around Newcastle. Near the mouth of the Tyne are North Shields and South Shields, on opposite sides of the river; the latter being in Uie county of Durham. They carry on with activity the coal trade, and the others proper to Newcastle ; particularly ship^building and the making of ropes and sails. Tynemouth, at the immediate opening of the river into the ocean, displays, on a bold prom- ontory, a castle, a light-house, and a fine old abbey ; they form a striking and romantic scene, which contrasts with those immediately above. At the mouth of the Wear, are Sunderland and Wearmouth, — ^the one a very great, and the other a considerable port Their prosperity is supported by the same great trade of coals, of which in 1832 they sent 600,000 tons to the port of London, two-thirds of that which comes down the Tyne. They carry on also the same manufiictures, particularly ship-building, in which Sunderland is supposed to exer a greater activity than any other place in the kingdom. The bridge there has long beea celebrated: it consists of one arch of iron framework thrown across the river, 200 feet span, 1^ 100 fiset high, allowing very large vessels to pass under without lowermg their sails. "Nothing," says M. Dupin, "can be more striding than this view of the two cities, end the ividge that unites them ; that majestic arch chawn against the sky, which allows large vessels to pass under its vault witii their sails flying." He afterwards adds, in regard to these poru ffenerallv : " It is an admirable th;''r within au extent of coast which a man may walk over 864 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. PartHI Alawleli CmU«, on foot in throe or four houra, to loe two great rivert receive 16,000 vesMls, and Mnd them away loaded with the proiluco of thuir banlu. On the nune narrow apace are lix flouriHhinif towna, containing a population of 65,027 peraoni, all devoted to commerce and industry." Durlmm ia handiomoly built, though on very uneven ground ; ita grand ornament ia tho oatheiiral, roared in the eleventh contury, wnioh ia perhapa unrivalled aa to ita aituation, ranging along tho aummit of a prRcipitoua rock eighty foot high above tho Wear, which windd along it<* boae. Tho see of iKirham ia the ricneat in iSigland ; and the cathedral, bcMidcH a dean, twelve prebendaries, and two archdeacona, haa attached to it about aixty apiritiml aervanta of various ranka. Tho number of smaller towna in thoae countiea ia atill conaiderable. In Durham, Stock- ton near the mouth of the Teea carries on the trade of that river ; in 1882 it carried 173,000 tona of coal to London, and haa also the Baltic trade, and the manu&cture of sailcloth and oUier naval matcriala. Hexham, on the Upper Tvne, ia the capital of interior Northumber- land, and of the grand ancient scene of border debate. Morpeth has a weekly market for the cattle brought up from Scotland, The seata are chiefly great baronial castles, at the head of which ntands Aln- wick (fig. 162.)- This proud keep of the Percies covers five acres, and is defend- ed by aijtteen towers. An expense of 200,000/. haa been incured in converting the interior fVom a feudal castle into the moat splendid of modern mansions. Wark- worth Castle, another seat of tho Percies, retains its antique character. Lumley, the feudal castle of the Earls of Scar- borough, presents entire its august and fbrmidable firont Raby Castle, Howick, Lambton Hall, and Bishop Auckland, are fino seats. Yorkshire is next in order : its eastern diviaion resembles the two counties just described ; while the western forms part of the great central seat of English monu&cturo. The York- ■hireman has a character of his own, marked by shrewdness, simplicity, good humour, and a species of drollery ; so that the London comic stage is considered incomplete without one ct his representatives. The North Riding consists, to a great extent, of moorlands ; tlie hills of which rise often to a considerable height These dreary tracts spread over the whole Riding, so that culture can exist only in the valleys. The East Riding, which extends to the Humber, is traversed also by a range of high wolds, which, though rugged, have not been able to resist the energies of British industry. Theso Ridings pesent to the German Ocean high and often precipitous rocks, of which Flamborough Iwad, nearly 500 feet high, forms one of the boldest features in English landscape. The West Riding is composed chieflv d a wide, flat, fertile plain, traversed by the Aire, the Calder, and other navigable rivers, which convey its produce to the eastern, and, by means of canals, to the western sea. In this tract is placed the immense manufacturing district of Yorkshire ; in its extreme west is the dis- trict of Craven, the most rugged and mountainous of all England ; for here rise Ingleborough, Whamside, Pennigent, each to the height of nearly three thousand feet There is scarcely a county in which the spirit of agricultural improvement has been so active as in Yorkshire; and vast tracts of waste and common land have been reclaimed and rendered productive. Hull, the prmcipal port, is the fourth commercial city in England, only surpassed by Lon- don, Liverpool, and Bristol. It carries on a most extensive export of goods brought by the interior system of rivers and canals. It is the principal of the whale-fishery ports ; though this branch has lately declined. During the nine ^ears ending with 1818, the average number of vessels fitted out tnm Hull for the whale fishery amounted to iH^ ; while in 18^ it sent out only A3. In 18S2, it owned 557 ships, carrying 68,892 tons, and there entered its poit 1279 vessels, of the burden of 1^661 tons. The Old Dock, completed in 1778, the Humber Dock in 1809. and the Junction Dock in 1829, ccHitain a space of twenty-diree acres. Ooole, on the Ouse, a little above its junction with the Humber, is beginning to share with Hull in the exportation of woollens. Though a few years ago a mere village, and still in 1831, containing only 1670 mhabitants, it haa two spacious docks, and in 1829 the customs exceeded 40,0001., and the declared value of exports amounted to 625,000i. Goods sent firom Leeds or Wakefield by rivers or canals can be embarked at Goole in tho course of twelve hours. Whitby is a very ancient town, with the remains of a fine abbe]r built soon after the Con- quest. Its modem importance is derived from large mines of alum. The export of theii i>roduce forms a consioerable trade, to which Whitby soon added the other branches preva- ent on this coast, and became second only to Hnll. Scarborough, romantically situated on a promontory between two rocks OTerlookiqg *he nea, is the chief watering-place of the north of England. .!.>.«.><....« »~ .. < . , >; y.. . 4. «. Book I. ENGLAND. 366 OTerlookingf ♦he Yurk, the cftpitol, ii Uia fint object that itrikei ui h we proceed into tlie interior of the North and West Ridingi. Thia celebrated city, though ao much eclipaod by aevoral that ar« only of to-day, atill boaata a di|niity auperior to them, and to almoat any other in England. Eboracum waa a diatinguiahed noman atation ; Tor aome time York diaputod with London the diitinction of being the capital of England ; and when obliged to give up thia claim, continu- ed the unqueationed motriMiolii of the north, till tho creative powers or trade raised uprivala to it in tho north-west. The houses are high, and tho ntreets narrow ; yet, altogether, York is a handsome, raspeotaUe-Iookinff old city. It boasls one fbaturo of almost unrivalled beauty, — its oathednl. {Jg. 168.) On the exterior all the richness and elegance of Gothic ornament has been lavished, particularly upon the western flront and the large win- dow in the eastern. But the interior is without a rival in the empire ; its efl'ect is altogether sublime : its numerous windows of painted grlass shed a dim, aolemn, reli- gious light, in accordance with the charac- ter of we edifice. Tho chapter-house is of singular elegance ond magnificcnco; and, though of great extent, hoa its roof support- ed by a single pin. The choir of this splen- did edifice sufiored severe injury fhun a fire kindled by tho hands of a maniac ; but by Yotk CsiiMdnl. great exertions has been fliUy repaired. The remains of the ruined abbey of St Manr, and those of several of the twenty-three churches of York, are also deserving notice. There are likewise some elegant modern edifices, par- ticularly the assembly room, the county hall, guildhall, the mansion-house, and the museum of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society. York is still a gay town, visited by many of the northern gentry, particularly at the time of its races. It conies on some inland trade by the Ouse, which passes through it Doncaster is much fVequcntod during the time of its races. Pontcfroct is surrounded by a great extent of garden and nursery ground, the produce of which is sent to a considerable distance. Scarcely a vestige remains of that immense and powerful keep, covering seven acres, in which Thomas of Lancaster, Richard II., and many other fallen chiefs ana statrs- men, were immured. The parliament, during the civil wars, having taken it ailer three successive and arduous sieges, caused it to be completely demolished. Leeds is tho capital of western Yorkshire, and, in a commercial sense, of the whole county. Although it was of some note even in early times, its present greatness is modern, and of the most rapid growth. The population, which in 1775 was only 17,117, amounted in 1331 to 123,893 ; being thus nearly quintupled. A peculiar activity and spirit of enter- prise has been observed among the manufacturers of Leeds : it was, doubtless, greatly favoured by the vast extent of inland navigation, which seemed to centre here, connecting it with the capital, with both seas, and wiUi the counties to the south, from which it derives inexhaustible supplies of fine coal. The woollen manufacture is not carried on wholly in large towns ; the cloth is wrought to a certain state of forwardness in the numerous villages, thence sent into Leeds, where it is purchased and worked up into a saleable state. The cloths are sold in weekly markets, held in the cloth halls, the most remarkable feature in Leeds. That for mixed cloths was built in 1758, that for white cloth in 1775. They form quadrangular edifices round an open area, and are divided into stands, of which in the first hall are 1800, and in the second 1210. These are let at a moderate rent to the owners of the cloth, who, on the ringing of a bell, occupy their stands, and though the market remains open only an hour, goods to an immense value are often disposed of. Although the staple of Leeds and of Yorkshire be common cloth, yet other branches are in some degree included* u sail-cloth, cotton, carpets, and superfine cloths. Mr. Drinkwater states the persons emf pfeyed in the mills for wool at 6200; worsted, 702; flax, 2434 ; cotton, 80; silk, 158 ; in all, 6664 ; of whom 5318 are males, and 3346 females ; to which may be added 1814 in the suburb of Holbeck. The town of Leeds is mostly well built, with several brood and spa** cious streets; and the theatre, the new court-house, and the commercial buildings, finished in 1620, are elegant structures. Kirkstall Abbey, three miles distant, presents, in a beauti- fill situation, the most complete specimen of the architecture of the 12th century that is extant The people of Leeds have formed a literary and philosophical society, and an insti- tution for the promotion of the .fine arts; tat the purpose of which a very handsome and commodious edifice has been erected : meritorious exertions have also been made for the education of the poor. Of the oUier towns of the clothing district, which cluster round Leeds, Wakefield, beauti- flilly situated on the Calder, has a cloth market, on a smaller scale, resembling that of Leads, and also great grain and cattle markets. Halifax, and the whole district about twenty miles (ound it, naa bmn converted ftwa a desert into a populous and prosperous scene, ccRtaisir.s VouL 83 ; 2Y 386 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. fu,l. ) hi altogether 110,000 inhabitants. Its staples are what are properly called stufi ; shallooiu, serges, baize, moreens, keracys ; and it has lately embraced a considerable share of the coU ton manufacture. Huddersfield is also a very thriving town, employed nearly in the same branches ; and its market hall is supposed, next to that of Leeds, to present the greatest show of woollens in the kbgdcmi. Bradford and Keighley are large towns, which carry on to a ^at extent the manufacture of worsted : besides which, Bradtbrd has great iron found- ries m its neighbourhood. In the southern part of this riding, the manu&cturea of iron and cutlery take the place of those of woollen ; and flourish to such an extent, that they are second only to the great iron district around Birmingham. Sheffield is the capital of this district. It early derived im- portance fVom the fabrication of arms, but it has reached a much higher degree of greatness since it betook itself to the more useful fabrics of knives, forks, razors, snuilers, scissors, combs, buttons, saws, sickles, and various instruimints of husbandry. The art of plating goods with silver is carried to a vast extent. The silver is soldered upon tlt into contact. Manchester, the centre of British industry, and the manu&cturing capital of the empire, is favourably situated on the Irwell ; though this stream, navigable for barges, scarcely makes any figure beside the vast artificial lines formed fVom itS watere. Although the cotton manu- faeture is now widely difflised throughout EJngland, Manchester continues the centre of the 'toade ; receiving and distributing the raw material, collecting the produce worked up in tiumerous towns and villages, and transmitting it to the various markets. From the middle of the last century she has advanced with amazing and accelerated rapidity ; and the systeni of inland aavigation having afforded copious channels by which the material can be introduced and the manufactured article exported, every obstacle to the absorption of the whole into thit; ce»tre was removed. Its manufiicture embraces the finer muslins and other delicate bbrica, with the plain and usefiil forms of dimities, fustians, velveteens, checks, eliirtiiig* Part ID. ed stufis; ahallooiu, ,ble share of tho cot- 1 nearly in the same resent the greatest wns, which carry on liaa great iron found- :ry take the place of inly to the great iron It early derived im- r degree of greatness an, snuilers, scissors, Tho art of plathi wn tl.e copper; an Sold knep many hun- ;ht gtiiiicos, contain- Uirough a multitude Sheffield commenced ithin a few miles of es having been con- fly modern, and well ) smoke of the forges xtensive pile of build- reat credit is due to ducation of the lower fj a mechanics' insti* r importance from tho i first iron bridge was :e' executed those of has also a great com eraie even the most lagnificent pile, noted k is admired for the aulx Abbey, situated ailed specimen of an 3 of the grandest of erally considered the 600 feet, forming a ico. forms the capital or soil and climate are n low and flat, while kinds of grain. But mty ; and being con- ibundant fliel for the igation, which origi- iny other part of the hriving towns, it has lole extent, and into he Leeds and Liver- it with London and ication has recent'y and Manchester, so .pital of the empire, rges, scarcely makes gh the cotton manu- ea the centre of the )duce worked up is From the middle ;and the system oi oil can be introduced in of the whole into I and other delicate IS, checks, eliirthiga Book L ENGLAND. ;rv''am tne surrounding towns and villages. A vast deal dtnxn is also spun for exportation. Manchester has extensive^^establishments ibr «rintinff and ^ing; also, for constructing and keepinj^ in repair steam-engines, os well as ouer machines employed in manufacture. Even iron founderies are necessary to Bupi>ly the materials. Other important branches have recently been added. Manchester now rivals Macclesfield and Norwich in the manu&cture of silks, and Nottingham in that of lace. In 1882, there were at work in the townships of Manchester and Solford, 96 cotton mills, 16 silk, 4 wodlen and worsted, and 2 flax mills. The number employed in cotton factories amounted to 20,585; of whom, 5361 were male and 7035 female adulta; 4286 mole and 8006 female children. The wages paid to them per month were 40,833/., making about 9*. 9d. of ave* rage weekly earnings to each individual. There were 7174 mule spinners, earning 16,1061. per month, averaging 10s. Qd. each per week ; 1407 spinners of a higher class, eaminff 649H. per month, or 11. Sa. id, each per week. Pieccrs' scavengors ^44, earning 82^71. per month, each weekly 5«. 6d. In the power looms, women receive 6». to 12«. ; men, 18*. to 16v. lOd. ; dressers, 28«. to 30«. per week. Manchester is not an elegit town ; some parts of its interior are narrow, crowded, fhll of warehouses and fac* ries in huge masseSw Tho entrances, however, have been made handsome ; and, in the c trtmities of the town, streets of elegant houses have been built for the accommodation of the opulent merchants. It has one handsome Gothic collegiate church of the fifteenth century, and several more modern, that are creditable to the taste of the town, as the Exchange, which includes a news-room and a good library ; the Infirmary (which in one year received above 12,000 patients) ; the Town Hall, which contains one of the most splendid public rooms in Europe; and the Royal Institution for the Promotion of the Fine Arts. The prison Called the New Bailey is an immense structure, — the inmates of which arc classed and provided with employment to a considerable extent Manchester is remarkable for its charitable institu- tions ; hospitals of diflerent kinds ; and schools for the education of the poor. Cheetham's Hospital, maintaining eighty poor children, has a library of 18,000 or 20,000 volumes, con> taining rare and valuable works. In 1781, a literary and philosophical society was formed at Manchester, and produced several valuable volumes of Transactions, enrichM by the cm- tributions of Percival, Ferriar, Dolton, Henry, and other eminent gentlemen there resident. In 1774, tlie population of the whole parish was 41,000; the amount of 142,000 for 1831 bv no means comprehends all that may be considered Manchester. The large towns and vil- lages which have sprung up withm its parish form really its suburbs, and raise the enture population to 270,000. Of these, the most important are Salford, immediately contiguous, and now raised to the rank of a borough ; and Chorlton Row, which in 1801 contains 675 inhalltants; in 1831, 20,565. Huge towns, resembling cities, devoted to the cotton rnonufiicture, are found in every direction round Manchester. To the north are Blackburn and Bolton ; the former chiefly employed in the branch of printed calicoes, which are supposed to be produced to the annual value of 2,000,000/. A great advantage is derived finm the Leeds and Liverpool Canal passing close by it. Bolton is a town anciently of some strength, but now supported entirely by industry. Some of the greatest improvements in the cotton manufiicture, have been made by Arkwright and Crompton, residents in this place. Preston, a flourishing seat of manufacture, elects two members on a basis of almost universal suffrage. Wigon is a large town, which adds to those of cotton and linen some manuflictures of brass and pewter. Bury, very near Manchester, besides extensive cotton works, has some of woollen. Oldhun' was early a place of some consequence, carrying on a large &bric of hats ; but the intro*: duction of the cotton manufacture has caused it to make an astonishing moeteea, so that in thirty years it has nearly trebled its population, and the parish, including Pilkington, Cromp-' ton, and other towns, contains 67,500 inhabitants. There are here now 65 cotton mills and 140 steam-engines, almost all erected during the present century. Some large towns employed in other manu&ctures than those of cotton lie da the borders of Lancashire. Rochdale, near the western point of Yorkshire, and in character a York- shire town, has for its staple woollen stufis and flannels, of which 8000 pieces are made weekly ; fifty-seven steam-engines are employed here, and about 84,000 l:e. of cotton yam spun in tho week, Warrington, en t.hG Meiaey, which is navigable for vessels of ei^ty tons firom Liverpool, in Henry VIIL's time was superior to Manchester; but it is now left for behind. Its staples of sailcloth and coarse linens have been exchanged for cottcm, to which it adds glass and pins. Prescot is noted for the making of watch-wheels, sprini^ chains, &c. several of which have been invented and improved by its workmen. Near it^ atdt. Helen's, is a great manufactory of plate gloss, employing 800 persons. - r. f ti^ • 388 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Past m. ' .V' Liverpool, the commercial capital of Lancaahire, is, if poasiblo, a still (frander object, and far surpassing indeed every other seaport, with the exception of the metropolis. Ijfothing can bo more remarkable tlian the contrast of its present state with its humble origin. In the sixteenth century, it is described as a small place with only a cliapel, having no parish church withm four miles. It had Uien 188 inhabitants, and two or throe ships, whose agtpre- gate tonnage was QSH tons ; and in a petition to Elizabeth, about the year 1578, it is styled, " her mi^esty's poor decayed town ;" it continued gradually to increase during the seven* eenth century, till, in 1700, it was constitutea a parish, and had 6000 inhabitants. Since that time it has advanced with rapid and accelerated steps ; in 1730, it had 12,000; in 1760, 26,000; in 1800, 60,000 inhabitanto; but the most rapid growth has been between 1811 and 1821, when it rose from 04,876 to 141,487. The increase to 165,000 in 1881 appears less rapid ; but in &ct, the population during tliis period has overflowed into the adjacent villages, and swelled them into largo towns ; Toxtcth-park increased firom 2069 in 1801, to 24,067 in 1831 ; West Derby, Kirkdole, Everton, form m fhct the suburbs of Liver, pool, and, added to it, make an amount of 203,000. There must always have been a consi- derable port at the mouth of the Mersey ; but this estuary, in its natural navi^ticn, could never come in competition with the Humber or the Severn. When, however, its disadvan- taffes as a seaptirt were partly removed, by the formation of docks, — and, much more, wlicn it became tlie basis of a canal system reacliing eastward to the German Ocean, and soutli- word to the Thames, — Liverpool could communicate with on immense interior circle. It derived benefit, above all, from tlie cotton manufacture established, on such an extensive scale, in the country immediately Irahind ; the materials of which were brought to Liverpool from the opposite side of the Atlantic, and the finished fabric thence exported, partly to the same quarter. At the same time Liverpool imported, for a groat part of England at least, articles of consumption from America and the West Indies. It found also a most extensive employment in bringing grain and provisions firom Ireland, and returning salt, coals, and pot> tery. The merchants of Liverpool, meanwhile, were most active in improving these cir- cumstances, particularly by the construction of that immense line of docks, which M. Dupin has described with such admiration. A dock, or space enclosed all round, and fed with sluices, in which the vessels while they receive or discharge their cargoes are kept regu- brly afloat, without being exposed to swell, tide, or current, is an obvious improvement upon the best natural harbour. The expense, however, is great ; and it was not till 1710 that Liverpool began the first dock in Britain, called the Old Dock, which has recently been filled up. Twenty yean were employed in its completion ; and a still longer time in that of the next, or the Salthouse Dock. The othera were, however, constructed on a more extensive scale, and with greater rapidity : — George's (II.) Dock ; the King's Dock, for Greenland ships and tobacco ; the Queen's Dock, directly for tho Baltic and North American trade. On a still larger scale have been constructed the Prince Regent Dock, opened in 1821, and the Clarence Dock, in 1880. The Brunswick Dock, for the accommodation of vessels with cargoes of timber, nearly completes the present plan, when the whole area of water in the docks will exceed 00 acres. In 1832, tliere belonged to Uiis port 853 registered vessels, of the burthen of 166,028 tons. The customs paid at the port amounted, in 1765, to 269,000/. ; in 1810, to 2,675,000/. ; and in 1832 they had risen to 3,926,062/. The following are the leading articles of import in the year 1830 :— 792,350 bags of cotton, 510,000 hides, 42,000 hogsheods of sugar, 8000 hogsheads of tobacco, 300,500 barrels of flour, 7800 casks and 7300 barrels and bags of coffee, 27,000 casks of palm oil, 000 seroons and 1430 chests of indigo, 12,000 puncheons of rum, 31,200 bogs of rice, 22,500 barrels of American ashes, 42,^ barrels of tar, 51,000 barrels of turpentine, 6200 tons of logwood, 56.'}0 logs of maho- ffony. The dock duties, which in 1800 were only 23,379/., amounted, in 1832, to 170,000/. In 1832, the ships entered inwar vj were 10,266, tonnage 1,361,000; outwards, 8717 ships, tonnage 1,218,645. Of this, 610,000 tons were from foreign parts, chiefly the United States and Sitish America, the rest coasters, of which 386,000 wore from Ireland. The value of agricultural produce from that country amounted to 4,444,000/. Liverpool has numerous lines of packets to all the principal foreign ports. Every month four sail to New- York, two to Philadelphia, one to Boston, two respectively to Rio Janeiro, (jienoa and Leghorn, and to Lisbon ; one every three weeks to Oporto. The New- York packets ore first-rate vessels containing splendid accommodations for passengera, and the value of goods conveyed in one of them has been known to exceed 140,000/. Trading ves- sels also are continually sailing to the above and to all other commercial places throughout the world. An almost daily communication is maintained by steam packets with Dublin, Belfast, Glasgow, Whitehaven, and all ports of any consequence in Ireland, and on the western coast of England. The solid construction of its docks; the powerful iron gates by which they are enclosed ; the long covered wayo wiiefe the goods may be landed withou* injury fhm the inclemency of the weatlier ; tlie immense magazines, some rising to the height of 12 or IS stories, — all denote a gigantic industry and a magnificence which spares no sacrifice to attain objects of public utili^. The inhabitants of Liverpool have generally shown the same spirit in their other arrangements as in those connected with trade. The Pakt m. 11 ifrandor object, and metropolis. Ijfothing ■ huiDDle origin. In pel, havinff no parish )e ships, whose agffre< ear 1578, it is styled, Else during the seven- od 5000 inhabitants. > 1730, it had 12,000; vUi has been between se to 165,000 in 1881 IS overflowed into the ncreased firom 2069 in the suburbs of Liver* lys have been a consi- ural navigation, could However, its disadvan- nd, much more, wlicn lan Ocean, and soutli- 80 interior circle. It on such an extensive Q brought to Liverpool sxportcd, partly to the t of England at least, also a most extensive n^ suit, coals, and pot- nnproving Uiese cir- ocks, which M. Dupin [ round, and fed with :argoe8 are kept regu- 3U8 improvement upon was not till 1710 that OS recently been filled er time in that of the on a more extensive Dock, for Greenland brth American trade. opened in 1821, and lation of vessels with area of water in the registered vessels, of in 1765, to 269,0001.; The following are the J10,000 hides, 42,000 our, 7800 casks and and 1480 chests of of American ashes, d, 5650 logs of maho- in 1832, to 170,000/. lutwards, 8717 ships, fly the United States land. The value of ports. Every month ively to Rio Janeiro, The New-York passengers, and the ,000/. Trading ves- A places throughout acKcts with Dublin, Ireland, and on the verful iron gates by ' be landed withou. _^some rising to the kence which spares riol have generally with trade. The GooK L ENGL, &n; and, among the other institutions common to great towns, the Strangers' Friends' Society distinguishes itself by its generous exertions. The English mercantile towns generally diow a zeal to combine intellectual pursuits with those of wei^th ; but none, perhaps so successfiilly as Liverpool,— one of whose merchants, while carrying on an extensive business, produced works which rank him among the most classical Enelish writers. Although this example be single, it is connected with a general spirit, \vakh displays itself in the liberal procedure of several individuals ; in the Lyceum and the Atheiueum; two public libraries and literary institutions, supported by subscription; and in a botanic garden, which ranks as the first that was formed, and at least the third as to eminence, in the kingdom. Both the Athenieum and the botanic garden owe their founda- tion to the public spirit and the munificent example of Mr. mtscoe, who had also the magnanimitv to exert his powerful talents for the abolition of the slave trade, ia a town long devoted to that traffic. Lancaster, the county town, is handsomely built of a beautiful firee^tone; the Town-hall ,^- and some other buildings are handsome; *** -J * but the castle 0^. 1&.) forms one of the gnindest monuments of the feudal age. Its vast extent; its commanding Bite; the greatness of all its features, even now, when three of its seven towers are fallen into ruin ; produce the most powerful impression. It has been con- verted into a well-arranged prison for the county. Lancaster, uiough its river, the Lune, is not navigable 6a vessels of more than 250 tons, possesses 73 sail. It builds some ships, makes sailcloth, and manufactures, upon a small scale, some cotton fabrics. About a mile flrom it, the Lancaster Canal is carried over the Lime by a very noble aqueduct bridge. The counties of Cumberland and Westmoreland, or the country of the Lakes, form a bold and peculiar region, presentmg a striking contrast to those recently surveyed ; being enriched neither by natural wealth, nor by human industry. Wide ranges of high and rocky moun- tains, enclosing long lakes and narrow vales, afford scanty space for the plough. A great proportion of these fells and moors is absolutely barren ; in the more fiivoiired spots the her- bage is often scanty ; and even the arable tracts are, in general, fit only for the coarser grain of oats. But the multitude of mountains crowded together, their bold, perpendicular, and oflen projecting forms; the pleasing though not extensive lakes, and soft pastoral valleys, which they enclose, render this the most beautifiil country of England, and Uie fiivourite resort of all the admirers of the picturesque and sublime. Three divisions are distinctly seen in these counties, reaching from north to south. I. A plain eastwu^ of the mountains, through which the high road runs by Kendal and Carlisle to London. It, The mountaiuB and lakes, occupying the larger portion of their surfiuse. m. A sea-coast, containing some harbours of importance. The first part consists of a plain, which, though narrow, is in many places fertile ; and contains some large towns. In the northern part is " merry Carlisle," long distingiiished in the border annals, and the scene of interesting events in the contest of 1745. Carlisle being a military post of the first consequence, its castle and walls were considered a model of aa* Ltooaitcr CaiUe. 880 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Past IH Btrengtli, according to the ideas of the middle affea; the cathedral ia an ancient edifice, still nearly entire, in the heavy Saxon style. Carlisle has of late he^pin to carry on some nianu> fiusture, chiefly cotton ; also woollen, linen, and a few minor articles. A capal connects it with the Solway, and enables it to employ some shipping. Eastward flrom Carlisle ia the Cmt debateable line ; and near Brampton is Na worth C^Ue, that powerful station where rd William Howard undertook to bridle the license of the border. Yet, however strong, it forms rather a dark border keep, than a display of feudal grandeur. Lord Howard s apartments, which, with their books, fbmiture, and armour, remain almost undisturbed, am separated by ibur strong doors from the rest of the castle ; and secret passages lead to every part, and to the dungeons beneath. Farther south is Kendal, the chief town of Westmore- land ; a considerable place, with an old manufactory of woollens bearing its name, and some of cotton and leather. Burton and Eirby Lonsdale are small neat towns cs the border of Lancashire. The second division comprises the country of the Lakes, forming the peculiar character- istic of the country, and chiefly distin- guished by its scenery. Ullswater, (£r. 166.) divided into three reaches. The mountains are numerous, steep and loftv, not broken or impending, but of a bold and swelling form. The two highest in the region are Helvellyn, and the square rocky mass of Stone Cross Pike, rearing their almost perpendicular forms to an amazing height above the wooded hills which cluster round them. Opposite rises the immense precipitous steep of Place Fell ; and the whole produces a •cene ofsolemn and simple grandeur. At Patterdale, though the features be grand, the "^ beautiful predominates. From the meadows bordering the lake, the nu- merous glens branching, off, with the scattered abodes of the shepherds and dalesmen, present one of the sweetest of alpme pastoral scenes. Keswick or Derwentwater (Jigr. 167.) is of equal nondeur, but a quite different aspect. The moimtains preserve no regular form, but are broken, shattered, im- pending, shooting into a thounmd fim- tastic shapes ; and though they do not produce the same grand unity of efibct, astonish by a continual change of scenery. In the wooded cliffi and water&ll of Lodore (Jig. 168.), and on the rocks of Borrowdale, nature seems to have sported her wildest fancies. Yet exquisite beauty is here mingled with horrors, particularly in the views of the lake m>m the south, with Skiddaw behind; and in a lovely rural vale, which runs along its northern bor- der, and is seen to peculiar advantage fhun the road to Ulbwaler. KMwiek Lako LodoraWaiaiiUL WladeroMra Uk*. ' , , AmUesido. Windermere (Jv- 169.), is of much wider extent ; not shut in by moantauiout cli^ but bordered by wooded and ornamented hills. Arouud its northern banks, however is ranged an amphitheatre of very high mountains, which, with their varied summits, form a sublime background to all its landscapes. These ore generally grand, open, diflusive, and extended. The other lakes, Coniston, Grasmere, Buttermere, Ciomack, Wastdale, ^iiner Past m I ancient edifice, still carry on ■ome menu- A cap«l connects it flrom Cttrlisle is tho rerfbl station whero Ifet, however strong, [ir. Lord Howard^) MMt undisturbed, aru usages lead to every town of Westmore- mting its name, and towns cs the border peculiar character- , and chiefly distin* ry. Ullswater, Mr. hreo reaches. The rous, steep and lofty, tiding, but of a bold The two highest in illyn, and the square Cross Pike, rearing licular forms to an re the wooded hills 1 them. Opposite precipitous steep of 3 whole produces a tures be grand, the inates. Prom the g the lake, the nu> tiching.oir, with the f the shepherds and one of the sweetest scenes. Keswick or f. 167.) is of equal ite different aspect. reserve no regular ken, shattered, im- into a thousand fim- thougfa they do not ge (rf^ scenery. In Lodore (Jig. 168.), ■me seems to have exquisite beauty is rly in the views of aw behind; and in : its northern bor- :e fixun the rood to by moantamous banks, however ed summits, form len, diffusive, and Wastdale, Enner DooK I. ENGLAND m dale, have attracti( ■■ ...i .■■.u.i:*i'„.p>v-ii. .. ■ m nESCIUPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III, Ludlow, an anoiont town, wiis flroquontly the residence of royalty, and the refpilar Btatioii of thoM powerful oillcers lliu liordii Prosidonta of the Marchea. The coatle, placed on « >\oodo«i rock overhanging tliu Teme, woa coniidemd one of the atrongest places in the king* dotn. In its vicinity occurred many of Uio most distinguished events in the contest between tho houHca of York and lAncoater. It wut* allurwardii diitiniiittlod ; yet romainod a splendid private mansion, in which Milton's " Comus'* was first pertbrmed, and where Butler wrote a part of his " Hudibras." It is now entirely roofless and covered with ivy, but still adorns the town, which is well built and pleasantly situated. Hurefonl and Monmouth, two demi-VVelsli counties, fill tlie interval fVoin Shropshire south- wards to the Bristol Channel. Being traversed by the Wye, tlio moot picturesque of tlio English rivers, they vio in beauty witli almost any part of tne kingdom. The chief industry is in tho rearing ot firuit, and the whole country is as it wore covered with orchards: hence Hereford draws its staple production of cider and perry, in peculiar abundance and iwrfuction. The crop is precarious ; but in a good year tho produce of an acre will bo iVom eighteen to .MA twonty-tbur hogiilieads, sometimes of such fine quality, that it will sell from tho press at 20/. a hogshead. The western district of Hereford produces also a large quantity of hops, and has one of the finest brotxis of cattio in the kingdom, both for draught and feed- ing. Tho breed of sheep, called nyoland (Jig. 170.), besides the excellence of tlieir flesh, l)ear the very finest wool in the kingdom. Monmouth is not so fertile: its chief wealth is mineral, cool neing most abundant ; and iron works are established to such an extent, Rirtlud Mmp. iJjjj jjjgy ijjyg jjgg^ known to produce a thousand tons in the week. Of the towns, Hereford bean venerable marks of antiquity, particularly its cathedral, not- l-yj .^^^miit, .^^sk witlwt*nding the tall of its principal '^'^^^ i«i*^Kfc. iny/^Y, RoM, once the residence of Mr. Kyrle, celebrated by Pope as " the Man of Ross," is a beautifiil village, considered as a sort of centre of the picturesque scenes of tho Wye. The towns of Monmouthshire are small. The capital has a limited trade along tho Wye; but its situa- tion, in a delightftil country, has attracted the neighbouring gentry. There are still remains of its once powerfiil castle, and of a Benedictine priory. A few miles from Monmouth IS Tintem Abbey ^fig. 171.), the moat Tintem Abbay. picturesque, prhaps, of all the Englirii monasUe remaini. This ariiet, not merely ftom its extent and beauty, although these bo great: but flom ita rooflesa and ruined state, whence the walls, both within and without, 172 .JUDl^ *" overgrown with luxuriant ivy, and de- ^,jmttm caying art and nature are blended together. In another direction is Ragland castle, the seat of the dukes of Beaufort (fig. 178.), and considered one of the strongest of the ancient fortresses ; but, after the gallant de- fence made by the marquess of Worcester for Charles I., "Cromwell," says Gilpiii, "laid his iron hand upon it, and shattered it to ruins; to which it owes its present pic- turesque form." Chepstow, at the mouth of the Wye, is a neat town, and carries on '{' '' Ruhad Cudb ' ' "oroo t«we- It is chiefly interesling, how- tK> m«.» ..^b:^. ^r II .k • u. /.^ ever, firom the remains of its caatle, one of the moat atrAmg of all Ae mighty fortresses of Wales. Five or six large towers still re- mam, with the outer walls of a magnificent chapel. Woreester and Gloucester occupy tho lower valley of the Severn, which there becomes a river of the first magnitude. This valley is broad, smooth, and fertile, yet nowhere degene- rates mto a dead unvaried level. Worcester has, on the west, the Malvern Hills, some of whose summits rise to the height of nearly 1500 feet Gloucestershire, again, has to the east the Cotswold Hills, more nigged, though not so elevated: while to th« ««» -re the nigged remains of the Forest of Bean. Worcestershire has, besides, the valley oif the Lower Avon and of Evwham, filmed for their beauty and fortuity. The vales of these fine counties •ure fitted for produce of every description,— grain, fraits, pasturage, with some preference of the two latter. Gloucester is particularly distinguished for its dairies, which oroduce that Part III, id the reifular ttatioii I coatle, pliicoil on a 9Ht places in Uio kinf^^ I the contest between , remained a splendid where Butler wrote a 1 ivy, but still adorm Irom Shropshire south- 9t picturesque of tlie I. The chief industry vith orchards: hence idanco and |)crfoction. 1 bo from cifrhtcon to 10 quality, that it will Q western district of hops, and has one of for draught and feed> fig. 170.), besides the wool in the kingdom. is mineral, coolDeing ted to such an extent, Bond tons in the week. arly its cathedral, not- iall of its principal nee the residence of Icbrated by Pope as loss," is a beautiflil -cd OS a sort of centre le scenes of the Wye. f Monmouthshire are Lpital has a limited Wye; but iti situa- ffhtKil country, has lei^hbouring gentry. remains of its once and of a Benedictuie niles from Monmouth '(Jig. 171.),themort aps, ofalltheEnglidi ty, although these bo within and without, ixuriant ivy, and de- ire blended together. lagland castle, the Jeaufort (Jig. 173.), ie strongest of the afler the gallant de- rquess of Worcester iwell," says Gilpiii, n it, and shattereid it ves its present pic< etow, at the mouth town, and carries on fly interesting, how- of its castle, one of ge towers still re- ich there becomes a et nowhere degene- vem Hills, some of i, again, has to the to the west are the ralley of the Lower these fine counties some preference of vhich oroduce thai Book I. ENGLAND. I Woiowlw CiUiedral rich cheese well Lnown under its name. The best, or double Gloucester, is produced in the vale of Berkeley situated along the lowest part of the course of the Severn. Both countie* liave flourishing manu&otures, though not on the vast scale of the northern districts. Gloucester, 'r. p racter, Somerset has vales almost aa extensive oa those of Gloucester, yet it is creased by long ranges of those rugged hills which pervade all the extreme west of England, The moat Vol, L 2 Z w 004 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. PastIII easterly arc tho Mendip Hills, rich in mineral stores ; ftrther west are the Quantock Hills, while on tho borders of Devon lies Exmoor Forest, the most elevated of all these tracts — its highest point Dunkerry Beacon, being 1668 feet high. The prevailing husbandry is pas- turage, chioflv of rich natural grass ; and, besides a number of cattle sent to the London markets, the dairy is a great branch of industry. Chedder cheese is considered equal to any in England ; and a great quantity of t. hat is called Gloucester is produced in Somerset The orchards are extensive, ana cider and perry nearly as abundant as in the counties on the Severn. The Mendip Hills yield excellent coal, lead of fine quality, and calamine. The manufactures are considerable, both WMllon and linen ; the former chiefly of the finer sorts ; the latter, mostly dowlas, tickens, and sail-cloth. Bristol, since we have attached it to Somerset, must hold the first place. This city ranked long as second to the metropolis in commercial importance ; but in the course of the last century, it has remained nearly stationary in extent and population, though not in wealth. In 1736, it had 80,000 inhabitants; in 1621, 87,771 ; but in 1831, with its suburbs, 104,886. It has still a very extcnHivo trade, chiefly with Wales, Ireland, and the West Indies. Nor does its spirit seem abated ; since, in 1800, it completed, ot an expense of 60,0001., a series of extensive improvements, by wliich tlie rivers Avon and Frome were spread out into vast basins, for the commodious reception of vessels. The manufactures of Bristol are very con- siderable ; its glass-works are twenty in number ; its brass founderies the most extensive in the kingdom ; to which it adds shot, pottery, &c. In 1832 there belonged to it 206 ships, of the burthen of 46,567 tons. The amount of customs, in 1831, was 1,168,0782., chiefly from duties on West India produce ; and there entered its port 2547 vessels, of the bur- then of 625,000 tons. It has still the remains of a magnificent cathedral, and the beau- tiful church of St Mary Redcliflfc, witli many interesting monuments. The old interior of Bristol is ill-built and inconvenient ; but tiie merchants in the new quarters of the city hare reared some handsome streets and squares. Bristol has wells, considered very efiicacious, especially in consumptive complaints. Visiters chiefly resort to the beautiful village of Clif- ton, about a mile distant, amid the romantic rocks of St. Vincent Bristol stands conspicu- ous for its beneficent institutions, in which those for education stand prominent. Chat- terton, Southey, and Coleridge were natives of Bristol. The name of Bath (^g. 174.) implies the circumstance to which from the earliest ages it has owed its importance. The Romans mode it one of their principal stations, and built BaUi. splendid baths, of which the remains have been discovered. Near the middle of the las; century, it became very distinguished as a scene of fashionable residence, and continued to increase till recently, when its attraction was shared by Cheltenham and some newer places of resort It became the most beautiful, we may nearly say tiie only beautiiul, city in England. The houses, built of a fine fi-eestone, while those of almost all the othtr great towns are of brick, have a decidedly superior aspect; and several of tiie streets, 'a Great Pulteney Street the Crescent the Parades, &c., being not only composed of fine houses, but fcrmed en a regular plan, may vie with the finest in Europe. The city, moreover, rising by s gentle ascent from the Avon, large portions of it may often be seen at once in the most advantageous points of view. The piimp-rocm, the sssembly-rooin, and every structure raised for the sick or the gay, are unequalled in splendour. Bath has a Gothic cathedral one of the latest built and on a small scale, but the most highly ornamented in the king- dom ; the chief beauty is in the west firtmt PastIII the Quuttock Hills, fall these tracts — ita \g husbandry is pas- ) sent to the London isidered equal to any )duced in Somerset as in the counties on , and calamine. The ifly of the finer sorts ; 8t place. This city t in the course of the though not in wealth, ito suburbs, 104,886. B West Indies. Nor I of 60,0001., a series spread out into vast Bristol are very con- > the most extensive Dnged to it 296 ships, I 1,168,978/., chiefly r vessels, of the bur- cdral, and the beau- The old interior of ■ters of the city have ered very efficacious, utiful village of Clif- istol stands conspicu* d prominent. Chat* m the earliest ages it il stations, and built Book I. ENGLAND. SOS I middle of the las; nee, and continued and some newer lonly beautiml, city ]all the othu: great streets, •« Great 1 of fine houi9es,but noreover, rising by once in the most every structure . Gothic cathedral lented in the king- Other venertble and interesting cities are found in Somersetshire. Wells is chiefly distinguished by a oathednl (Jg. 176.), which ranks with the finest in England. The 175 y^ western firont, built in the 18th century, is one of the most splendid specimens existing of the light and highly rmn,. mented Gothic. In the interior, a chapel dedicated to the Virgin is much admired; the rest is Saxon, aiul heavy. About two miles distant is Wookey Hole, a natural cavern ; the aperture, at first, merely al- lows one man to pass ; but it soon opens into a succession of large apartments, filled with spars, concretions, petrifkc- w«lb Cathadnl. tions of the moat fantastic forms. A sub- terraneous river prevents fiirther advance. Glastonbury contains the small remains of the most extensive monastery in the kingdom ; which, with its various gardens and offices, covered sixty acres, supported 600 monks, and enjoyed a revenue of 25,000/. Even the church attached to it rivalled the greatest of tlie English cathedrals. Bridgewatcr and Taunton are towns of note in history, which carr^ on some trade and manufactures. Wel- lington gives a title to the greatest commander ot the age, in whose honour a pillar is there erected. Frome is a large and flourishing town, employed in the woollen manufacture. Devonshire is traversM by ridges of hills, low, broad and flat, which, seen from a height, appear often as one uninterrupted plain ; but on minuter inspection are found separated by deep valleys called coombs, walled in by the steep sides of the hills. This structure pro- duces many sequestered and romantic sites ; it renders, however, many of the roads steep and circuitous, and in some places scarcely passable. The forest of Dartmoor, an extensive dis* trict on the west of the county, is of a character peculiarly rugged, broken into fantastic summits, and the valleys chiefly under wood or lying waste. On the other hand, the Vale of Exeter, and what are called the Hams, in the southern districts, are distinguished for fertility, which is rather heightened than injured by the moderate inequalities of Uie surface. Grain, cattle, sheep, potatoes, excellent cider, are raised according to the situation, and are all generally good. The cattle are of a very superior breed, both for feeding and draught Devonshire does not rank high as a manufacturing county ; yet woollens are made to some extent in Exeter and several other places. Fishmg is carried on with spirit and success, both in the sea and in the rivers ; of which last the Exe and the Tamar are the principal. The Western Canal, joining the two channels, passes chiefly through Devonshire. Exeter, the capital, is an ancient and pleasantly situated town, near the mouth of the Exe. In consequence of its advantages for education and society, many of the gentry from different parts of the county have made it their residence. Its manufacture and export of serges and kerseys have declined, but are still considerable ; the East India Company takin|; them to the annual value of 400,000/. The cathedral holds a high rank among ecclesiasti- cal antiquities. Some part of it is traced to the ninth century ; but the greater proportion belongs to the thirteenth and fourteenth. The painted east window, and the bell of 12,500 lbs. weight the gift of Bishop Courtenay, are particularly noticed. Some modern embellishments have been added. Plymouth is the most important of the towns of Devonshire, and one of the great naval arsenals of Britain. He main and central dep6ts lie at Portsmouth and on the Thames ; but it is important that the fleets should have this exterior station, where they may rendez- vous, and receive their final equipment and supplies before leaving the Channel ; where also, when exhausted, they may put in and refit The Plym and the Tamar, at their junc- tion, form an estuarv of nearly two miles hrooA, composing a harbour, or rather a series of harbours, capable of"^ containing 2000 vessels in a state of perfect security. In that of Ha- moaze, on the Tamar, 100 sail of Uie line may be safely moored. Catwater, the port at the mouth of the Plym; and Sutton Pool, immediately adjoining the town; are both excellent and extensive. Plymouth Bay forms also an excellent roadstead, though exposed to the heavy ■well which came in fhxn the Atlantic. To remedy this, government undertook that stu- *'. ' t • ' •■r.r( I pcndouB work Uie Breakwater, a mole formed by immense stones heaped npon eaeli o&e Ktetching acrass the entrance, and at a certain distance fixm either shore (jlg. 176.}. Tbv sse DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III Mtimaled expenie wu 1,170,0001. ; end the quantity of itone, 3,000,000 Urn*. It hu com< pletely aniwerad expectation ; and, in proportion oa it hM advanced, haa rendered the roadstead mora aecure. Aa the approach waa also rendered dangeroua by the Eddystone rocka, a liffht-houae haa, after much difficulty and aevoral UMucceaaful trials, been erected there by Mr. Bmeaton, aitffluiently firm to withstand the fiirioua aaaaalts of the Atlantic wavea to which it ia expoaed. Plymouth is now divided into two nearly equal parts- Plymouth and Plynwuth dock, at the mouth of the Tamar, recently called Devonport, and raued *o tlie dignity of a aeparate borough. The dock-yard ia moat wperb; 8000 yards in length vid fVom KXX) to 1600 in breadUi. All the eatabliahmenta connected with it, the ropery smithy, aaw-pita, mast-houses, as also the viotuallinff departments, aro on the moat extensive scoJe, yet conducted in the most regular order. Plymouth ia not, on the whole, a well-built town : but it containa some handsome edifices ; aa the govqmment-houso ; the theatre, chiefly of cast-iron ; the public library, &o. The charitable institutions are nu- merous. Barnstaple ia a sort of capital of North Devon, aituated on a rich plain, and retaining a few manufocturos. Dartmouth carries on some foreign trade ; while between it and Teign- mouth is Torbay, where, sheltered from the heavy galea that blow up the Chann?l, the British fleet can ride safely at anchor. Cornwall is a peninsula of a triangrular form, bounded by Devon, and the sea. The hills form a bleak central ridge, terminating in the rugged and obtuse point called the Land's End. But some of the narrow valleys wear the aspect of smiling fertility. In some se- cluded spots the climate is so (renial, that the myrtle and other shrubs peculiar to the south of Europie flourish in tlie open air. Cornwall has from the earliest ages been renowned for its mineral products. These are principally tin and copper; it also yields some lead. These metals occur in the granite chain, extending eastward as far as Dartmoor in Devon ; but at mesent the principtu mining district is that between the Land's End and St Austel. The most celebrated are the tin mines of Palgooth,* about two miles west of that town : in these there are no fewer than fifty shafts, of which twenty or thirty are constantly in use. The principal vein of ore, which is about six feet thick, runs from east to west, and dips to the north with an inclination of about six feet in a fathom. The ore is of the vitreous kind, but rarely found in crystals; the colour for the most port grayish-brown; the country of tlie ore is a gray killas. The water is carried away. Steam power has been substituted for that of horses in moving the machinery employed for raising, washing, and stamping the ore ; after which last operation it is carried to tne smelting-house. Tin cannot be sold until it is assayed and stamped witli the duchy seal ; for which purpose meetings are usually held four times a year. The annual produce is estimated at 20,000 or 25,000 blocks, each block weighing from 2| to 3| cwt, and valued on the average at ten guineas. Orain tin, which is obtained ftom stream ore, is deemed superior in value to the common metal, and has been procured to the amount of 2000 or 2400 blocks annually. The annual produce of copper is about 13,000 tons, estimated at 1,300,0002. The lead mines are not much worked. The tinners are in many respects a distinct body of men ; they have a court and parliament of their own. The stannary laws, by which the mines and the operations connected with them are regulated, do not appear to have undergone any change since the reign of Charles H. The mines give employment to about 16,000 men. The pilchard fishenr affords another source of wealth to Cornwall. The pilchards appear annually in vast shoals about the middle of July ; and are taken in Urge nets of a peculiar form, called seatu, each sean managed by three boats, containing eighteen men. After lying salted in store for six weeks, the fish are packed in hogsheacu, so closely that the whole contents, when turned out, appear in a compact state. Tka, oil expressed ftvm them is so considerable in quantity as to have become an article of trade. The quantity annually exported ftom the Cornish coast may be worth 50,000/. including the i?ceiptB for oil. The number of perstna employed in this fishery is about 5000. The towns of Cornwall are small. Launceston, situated on ti.e Tomor, extends up the side of a hill, on t';e summit of which are the remains of a small fortress called Cattle Ter- rible, where a vigorous stand was made to sustain the sinking fortunes of Charles I. Tmro is a neat thriving town, the trade of which consists in a considerable export of tin. Penzance, near the Land's tSnd, fiiom the mild salubrity of its air, has been found highly beneficial to persons of delicate constitutions, particularly of a consumptive tendency ; and those who take up their residence at Penzance, are agreeably surprised by the lovely scenery in its neighbourhood. Falmouth, the westernmost of the fine harbours on the Channel, is the prin- cipal packet station for Lisbon, the Mediterranean, and the West Indies. SmaKOT 6. — Waki. Wales is a territory which, though united to Enjglond by ^irly conquest, still retains the title of a aeparate principality, and possesses a natronal aspect The verdant and extensive * Or. Maton'i Obtenrationi oa Uw Wettern Countlef. Part If! W tunt. It hu com* kI, hu rendered the Dus by the Eddyatone il triali, been erected iiultB of the Atlantic nearly equal part»— ailed Devonport, and iperb; 8000 yarda in onnected with it, the enta, are on the most ia not, on the whole, tvQrnment-houae ; the ) inatitutiona are nu- (lain, and retaining a etween it and Teign* up the Chann?l, the d the tea. The hills >int called the Land's srtility. In wme se- I peculiar to the south been renowned for its ia aome lead. These floor in Devon ; but at End and St Austel. west of that town : in are conatantlv in use. it to west, and dips to ore is of the vitreous h-brown ; the countrv r haa been aubatituted ling, and stamping the in cannot be sold until tinffs are usually held 00 Dlocks, each block Orain Hn, which metal, and has been lal produce of copper much worked. The irt and parliament of uons connected with since the reign of The pilchards appear ge nets of a peculiar een men. After lying oeely that the whole Bed from them is so quantity annually 9ceipt8 for oil. The nar, extends up the called Castle Ter- of Charles I. Tmio irtoftin. Penzance, highly beneficial to >cy; and those who ovely scenerv in its Channel, ia the prin- t, still retauistlia idant and extensive Boca L ENGLAND. 307 plaint) of western England here give place to the lofty mountain, the deep valley, the mat* ing torrent, and the frightflil precipice. Walea haa rivers and torrents without numbe* which roll through ita mountain valleys, and whose banks, adorned with verdure and culti- vation, corobino in tlie most striking manner with the lofty and varied lummita which tower above them. The loftiest mountains are in North Wales; its valleys are deeper and narrower ; and it presents more strikingly all the characteristic featuroR of Welsh scenery. In South Wales, on the contrary, the valleys are broader, more fertile, and fliUor of towna and villagea ; they often even expand into wide plains, still encircled by a mountain bound- ory. Agriculture, in such a country, laboura under many disadvantages, and is carried on too oilon upon the old svstom of iniiold and outfield. Manufkotures arc nearly confined to the article of flannel, which haa always been a fiibric of the Welah, in which they still excel their Yorkshire rivals. It is to mining, however, that the industry of Wales has been chiefly attracted, by the proAision of mineral wealth which nature haa lodged in the bowels of ita mountains. The lead of Flint, Caernarvon, and other counties of North Wales, the copper of Anglesey, and above all, the iron of Glamorgan and other counties in the British Channel, are objects of extensive importance. Coal ia found almost eierywhere, and ia employed either for domestic purposes, or in ftising and refining the metallic ores. The Welsh are a Celtic race, the deauciidonts of the ancient Britons, who, in these moun- tain recesses, sought refuge IVom the dcHtroying sword of the Saxons, which so completely digpoHsossed tlicm of the low country of England. They could not resist tiio overwhelming power of Edward I., who annexed Wales to the EngliHh crown. In order to hold it in kuI^ joction, however, he was obliged to construct, not only on its frontier, but in its interior, castles of immense extent and strength. Yet they did not prevent formidable insurrections, in one of which Owen Glendower maintained himself for years aa an independent prince. Witliin the last 300 years, tlie Welsh have been as peaceable aa any other subjects of the empire. They have retained, of their feudal habits, onlv venial fliilings. Among these is national pride, through which the genuine Cambrian holds his country and his nation supe- rior to all others ; and regards the Sa»na or Saxon aa a lower race of vesterday. With this ia connected, in a high degree, the pride of pedigree ; even the humblest Welshman tracing bis origin fiir above any lowland genealogy. Strong ties of firiendship subsist between the landowners and their totianta : manifested, on one side, by indulgence and protecting kind- ness ; on the other, by a profound veneration for the representatives of the ancient chiefs of their race. The Welsh have many superstitions, mixed with much genuine religious feeling. They are hardy, active, lively, hospitable, kind-hearted ; only a little hot and quarrelsome. Their English neighbours complain that they have not yet attained that pitch of industry and cleanliness in which the former place their pride. North Wales compriaes the counties of Caernarvon, Merioneth, Montgomery, Denbigh, and Flint, with the island of Anglesey. The characteristic feature of this division consista in the very elevated chains of mountains which cross it from north to south, facing the Irish . Channel. The chief is Snowdon (Jiff. '■'' 177,) which raises ita head to the height of 3700 feet; yet it is only the most ele- vated of a crowd of summits, many of which rear their peaks almost as high. They cover a great part of the county of Caernarvon, at the northern part of which they present to the Bay of Beaumaris the lofty steepofPenmonmawr, whose broken fragments threaten to bury him who travels the difiicult path which has been formed along ita almost perpendicular aides. Merioneth is chiefly covered with inferior, but lofty and rugged mountains, till towards the southern extremity, they tower into Coder Idris, the second summit of Wales. It is everywhere steep, craggy, and precipitous. Lastly, in the heart of Montgomery, towers the huge mass of Plinlimmon, with a crowd of attendant mountains. The vales which intervene between these heights diversiiy bleak and barren regions, otherwise calculated to inspire only impressions of dreary sublimity. The most extensive is that of Clwyd, in the county of Denbigh, where the mountain chains g^ually sink. It is about twenty miles in length, and four or five in average breadth ; and presents a more brilliant picture of fertility, Heightened, doubtless, by contrast, than almost any other spot in the island. The narrower vales, however, present more of picturesque beauty, particu- larly that of Llangolen, where the Doe, winding through cultivated and paaioral scenes, overhung by high rocks and cliffi, {nresents at every step a varying landscape. The island of Anglesey is generally level, and its scenery presents few striking features, except the rocks of its western shore. It has happened, fortunately for the unprovement of this formi- dable range of territory, that it lies on the highway firom London towards Dublin ; and witii Vou I. 34 Boowdoa. 80f DE8CK1 inmon," whence bninc' " ahoot out in every direction, is yet, on the whole, of a milder aspect The town of K gomery is smaii, pleasantly situated on the declivity of a hill, crowned with the ruins ot a once ncble castle. Welshpool is an ill-built stragglingtown, but has a great market for flan- nels ; and communicates by a canal with Chester and flllesmere. Near Montgomery is Powis Castle, which dates firom the twelfth century, and was long one of the proudest fortresses in Wales: it is still a supek'o r ;^.em seat In proceeding to Denbigh -j. ' F!int we come to broader valleys, and hills gradually dimin* ishing down to the level plki:. ' ^' stem Tlngland. Denbigh, a pleasant, ancient little town, is crowned by a castn , «^>!i ^ oa a h' ,;.> rock, locking down to the vale of Clwyd, pro- verbial for its smiling fertilit; , i> *ie ' Muoy of the Dee, is Wrexham, noted for its fairs, in which Welsh flannel is the tupi'^ i ;im«)dity. But |.^;■ ?hjef ornament of Denbigh is Llan- gollen Vale, on the upper Dcy, v/heii th i mixture of : ulture and wildness produc** 'he most striking variety of scenery. Among its leadinj^ features are the ruined castle of Dinas Bian, lit of one of the principal hills : and the remains of the Abbey d Ctder Idrii. crowning the steep summit Valle Cfucis. This lost is situated in a valley connected with that of Llangollen, enclosed by lofty mountains verdant to the summit, and sprinkled with trees. The edifice has been in the simplest style of Saxon architecture ; but the situation renders it one of the moft P Pa»t in. nt, at tha natiomi Hrinoipal ftatiirai ol ■tupenaion-bridffe, m orlhe sea, called The ohiof contra ilkcture i« in Mont- !th. The load minei 10 copper minoa of tmpcNrtance scarce- .f South Wales. andaome, well-built ament is the castle, . 178.), built by Ed- spirit of the newly encloses an area of owncil by liofht and Snowdon, whence a those fortunate days mist, which usually len dissipated. On iie wild and rocky ia, with the ruined em overhongfing its at the oppoeite ex< sount^ ia Conway; containing the walls magnificent castle erected by Edward ia in a stato of total iw, fh>in a little dis- ;ht mighty towers, le summit of a lofty Tlooks the Bay of lents an image of scarcely any other in those two castled Dublin. Here, and of slates, brought muring mountains. tges, each enclosed cessibltt mountains. anufiicture of knit cinity of the largest ch has clear water lit midway between 9.), is seated in the lery of Wales. On lilt also by Edwa* " whence branc' ■' 'he town of A' vith the ruins ot a at market for flan- ntcomery is Powis mdest fortresses in s gradually dimin- ant, ancient little 'aleofClwyd, pro- ted for its fairs, in Denbigh is Llon- produc*" 'he most leof Dinas Bian, ! of the Abbey of ngollen, enclosed e edifice has been t one of the mort Poor L .,111, WALEa 906 > Uo\ftmA. pictureaquo spota in England. Chirk haa near it a caatle, one v>r the moat perfect of tb« many with which Waloa ia oilomed. Near it alau is the fine aiiucduct of 1 nt-v-('yailte, 1^ which Mr. Telford haa conducted the Elleamere Canal over ttu < f^. resting un 1^ piera, lUOT fbet in length, and ISM foot above tho level of ttw river. Flint ia rich in lead and other mineral stores. The county tnw n of Flint, and ita castle, hwo entire!) loat the importance they poaaesaed when they wnr< *he priaun of iMchard II.; aiL'l Uia glory of Caerwya, tlie ancient aoone of muaical and puctical cunteat, haa entirely paaa«)d awav. Holywell, beaiiloa ita extensive lead mine, carries on works in brass ana copDor, and even aome cotton fkbrics. Here the sacred well of tit. Wintri t;, from which it derivea ita name, ia beneficially applied to tho purpoaea of induatry. Tin; lead mine of Llan-y«Pander ia the moat extensive in the kingdom, a!nd employs four vast stoam-enginus in clearing oflT the water. Mold ia a pretty large town, in the centre of a rich plain of tlie nroe name., Bt. Asaph attractii no' xe liy ita neat cathedral. The Island of Anglesey is , or.> Iv a naked and gloomy flat It was anciently the cen- tral seat of druidical aup' *. i. . a'Vl attested by the cronUechi, or larffo, fiat, stone tablea supported by rude pm 750 to 950 tons. Beaumaris, the capital, ia a neat little town. Much more importance attaches to Holvhead, now the main point of communication between England and Ireland. To render it such, government has constructed a noble road from London across tlic most rugged Eart of North Wales, and also made an admira- le harbour, Tho neighbouring coast ia very bold, and the promontory, called the Head (Jig. 181.), consists of immense maaaea of precipitous rocks, hollowed into deep caverns. The town itaf If has been rapidly extended and improved. South Wales comprises the counties of Radnor, Cardigan, Brecluiock, Caermarthcn, Pem- broke, and Glamorgan. It presents scenery equally romantic with that of North Wales, mingled with a greater degree of softness and cultivation ; and ita agricultural and mining pro^ctB are of considerablv gi eater value. Radnor ia composed of bleak rangea of mountains, in some parta almost impassable; the Sealer part is only fitted to afibrd pasture ftr sheep, tho wool of which ia valuable. New bdnor, once a fortified city, is dwindled into a village. Cardigan includes some of the boldest features of Welsh scenery. The domain of Hafod, in particular, haa been covered with extensive plantations, so happily dispoaed aa to render it almost a scene of enchantment At a few miles' distance ia "the Devil's Bridge;" an arch thrown over a deep and narrow rocky chasm, overgrown with wood, at tlie bottom of which rolls the Myna'ch, after rushing down three lofty cascades ; forming altogether the (Himdest scene of the kind in the kingdom. The lead mines of Cardiganahire are extensive, though the want of fuel has caused the working of many of them to tie discontinued. Car- digan ia a small old town, which carries on a considerable coasting trade, having nearly 300 Bimdl vessels belonging to it There ia great resort to Aberystwith, an agreeable bathing place ; ita trade also is considerable. Brecon, or Brecknock, is mountainoua and rugged, but has some fertile lands in the vallcya of the Uske and the Wye. Brecon, an ancient town on the Uske, amid lofty mountains, has t! . remains of a co&tle, wh:. '\ was once strong, and held by Buckingham, the favourite and . "warda thr a of Richard HI. ^uennartheii mcludea an ample proportion of bleak and barren hills, intermixed with large fertile valleys. There are abundance of coal, and some iron works on the Glamorgan border. "The capitid, situated on the Towoy, which admita to it vessels of 300 tons, is one of the most flourishing and best built towns m Wales. Pembroke consists of a peninsula branching out between the Irish and British channels , it presents merely an undulating surface, rising at most to elevations of 200 or 300 feet. Its breed of cattle is in high repute, and its indented coasts contain some of the finest har- bours in Britain. Two Roman roads cross this ''ounty, which is also rich in druidical and feudal monuments. The ancient ci^ of Pemktjke ih strikingly situated on an almost in- sulated neck of land on the bay of Milfoil Haven, the highest part of which presents the nst remains of ita castle, one of the moat ma^ificent structures of Wales or England. The town containa some ancient churches. The large bay composing Milford Haven forms the most capacious and secure harbour in Britain. Hence government have oeen induedd, at the new towns of Milfbrd and Habefitone, at iia northern shore, to form dock- yards aiid establish packets for tibe south of Ireland. St David's, the ecclesiastical capital of South Wde% ia now only a large dirty vUlage, adorned, however with venerable ancient Wucturea. -" ■■ ^:>. ■■■' .••■>•«■•'< ■ ^> :,,:..... :;.'■.< v. ,.■.■: ■ u i-\f^-.j 400 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. Glamorgan is tlie flnoit county in Soutli Wales, and, as to wealth, Buoerior to any oilier in Die principality. Ita coast, along the Uristol Channel, and for some miles inland, is level, and fertile in the extreme. Thence the ground rises into hills of continually increasing elevation, till, on tlie frontier, thev rise to the height of upwards of 2000 feet, and unite with tho Brecon chains. From those heights descend numerous streams, which, in their progress to tlie sea, produce all tlie varieties of ravines, wooded vales, falls, and cataracts ; which, with tho beauty of the plains below, and the fine views over the Bristol Channel, render Glamorgan equal in picturesque beauty to any other county in Wales. The crops of every description of grain are ample; and tliere are good breeds both of cattle and sheep. But these objects are trifling, when compared with the mineral treasures of Glamorgan. It forms tho centre of a vast neld of coal and iron, fVom which branches extend into the neighbouring countiea Since it was found that iron could be smelted with coke, the work in^ of this metal iias prodigiously increased, and the town of Merthyr Tydvil, near which it is most abundant, has grown from a mere village to be the most populous place in Wales. In consequence also of tlio abundance of fuel, the copper ore dug out in Anglesey, Cornwall, and Ireland, is brought hither to bo smelted and refined. The plating of iron with tin is also an extensive occupation. The iron is reduced by rollers to tho requisite thinness, and is then cut by scissors into plates, which aflerwards require little more than simple immer- sion into the smelted tin. The coni, besides its essential use in these various works, is in itself a most extensive object of exjiortation, amounting in some years to 300,(K)0 tons. The rivers of Glamorgan are very imperfectly navigable; but this defect has been supplied by industry. From Neath, Cardif}^ and Swansea, canals reach far into tlio interior ; and their benefits being extended by railways, a channel has been opened for conveying to the sea the produce even of tho most interior mines. Cardiff ranks as the county town, but is now much Burpasscd by others. Yet it carries on a considerable trade ; liaving a commodious harbour, and being connectec? by a canal with the interior works at Merthyr Tydvil. It is now much surpassed by Swansea, which has risen to its present importance by immense works in iron ana copper, and by the exportation of c(a1 ; which is furnished in such abundance, that a large vessel may enter at one tide and go out loaded at the next Its pleasant situation on a fine bay has also made it an extensive re- sort for sea-bathing, and led to tlic erection of many elegant buildings. Swansea lias thus risen into a sort of capital of South Wales ; yet it is not so large as Merthyr Tydvil has been rendered by the extensive iron works in and round it There are near it seventeen furnaces, in one of which 11,000 t "^^B of pig iron and 12,0(X) tons of bar iron are produced annually. Caerphilly, a thriv- ing little town, with some manufactures, deserves notice chiefly from the remains of J its immense castle (fig' 182.), which pre- sent a most stupendous scene of ruins. It is stated to have been a mile and a quarter in circumference, and capable of contain- ing a garrison of 20,000 men. Llandaff, the only nominal city in the county, is only a vil- lage, the seat of the least richly endowed bishopric in Wales. The cathedral, however, ia a fine ruin. The small islands attached to England are unimportant Man, thirty miles in length by twelve in breadth, is nearly equidistant from each of tlie three kingdoms. It comprises a coiwiderable extent of level territory ; but rises in the interior into high mountains, among which Snowfell, nearly 2000 feet high, stands conspicuous. Mon ranked long as an inde- pendent sovereignty, held by the Earls of Derby, and is celebrated for the gollant (lefence made by the countess of that name for Charles I. It descended aflerwards to tiie Duke of Athol, from whom the sovereignty was purchased, in 1765, by the British government with a view to the prevention of smuggling, and to the establishment of a fi-ee trade. The natives are a Celtic race. Castletown, the capital, is the neatest town in the island ; and in its centre. Castle Rushen, the ancieut palace of the kings of Man, rears its gloomy and majestic brow. Douglas, however, as being the spot in which the whole trade circulates, is now tS superior importance, and has attracted a great number of English settlers. The Scilly isles, situated at some distance from the western extremity of Cornwall, are tenanted by 2000 poor inhabitants, who raise a little grain, but depend chiefly upon fishing, nilotncrp. ttnA thn rnnlriniT of \ro\n icTsey, Guernsey, and Alderney, with Sark, form a group naturally French, and originally part of the patrimony of the Norman kings, which the naval superiority of England has enabled her to retain. They enjoy certain privileges and immunities, founded on this dis- tuiction. as laid down by Coke, that, " though parcel of tlie dominion of Uie crovm of £ng< CuiphiUr CmiIs. Part III. niperior to any other [nilos inland, is level, )ntinually incroiuing iOUO feet, and unite ams, which, in their falls, and cataracts; the Bristol Channel, { Wales. Tlie crops I of cattle and sheep. iBuroB of Glamorgan, lies extend into the with coke, the work • Tydvil, near which ilous place in Wales. Anglesey, Cornwall, of iron with tin is tquiflito thinness, and tlian simple immer- 5 various works, is in » 300,000 tons. The 108 been supplied by 10 interior ; and their iveying to the sea the )wn, but is now much commodious harbour, 'dvil. It is now much imense works in iron ich abundance, that a Jdeusant situation on e it an extensive re- nd led to tlio erection Idings. Swansea lias •t or capital of South so large as Merthyr [ered by tlie extensive nd it. There are near in one of which 11,000 1,000 tons of bar iron Caerphilly, a thriv- some manufactures, from the remains of fig. 182.), which pre- 18 scene of ruins. It a mile and a quarter . capable of contain- county, is only a vil- lathedrol, however, is ty miles in length by ifoms. It comprises a i;h mountains, among Iced long as an inde- Ihe gallant defence wards to the Duke of ish government, with le trade. The natives 16 island ; and in its gloomy and majestic circulates, is now of Brs. nity of Cornwall, ore chiefly upon fishingi •rench, and originally ority of England hu founded on this dis- if the crotrn of Eng- RookI. SCOTLAND 401 land, they are not, nor ever were, parcel of the realm of England." The climate u mild and agreeable, and the soil generally fertile. Jersey, the finest of the group, is so abundant in orchards, that cider forms the chief object of exportation. St. Holier, the capital of Jeney, is a handsome town. 1 I CHAPTER in. KOTLAND ftlull of Galloway. ■::■ 1 The place which Scotland holds as part of Oroat Britain, has already been exhibited in the introduction to the chapter on England. We shall now describe in detail this import- ant, though secondary, member of the empire. Sect. I. — Geographical Outline, Scotland is bounded on the south by England, firom tvhich it is separated by a line drawn along the Tweed, the Cheviot Hills, and thence to the Solway Frith. On every other side it is bounded by the Atlantic, the Northern and the German oceans. The 'cngUi of Scotland, from the Mull of Galloway (Jig. 183.), in about 54° 40' to Dunnet Head, Caithness, in 58° 40', is 280 miles. The greatest breadth, from Buchan-Ness to a point on the opposite shore of Inverness is 180 miles. This breadth varies little in the interval between the friths of Forth and Moray ; but to the south of the former, the average breadth scarcely exceeds 100, and to the north of the Moray Frith, 40 or 50 miles. The entire extent of Scotland is 20,600 square miles. Scotland, in its general outline, consists of vWO great and perfectly distinct parts : the Lowlands and the Highlands. The former com- prehends all Scotland south of the frilhs of Forth and Clyde; for the pastoral hills of the southern and western borders, less elevated than the northern mountains, and inhabited by a different race, are not considered as forming any tie between these and the Highlands properly so called. Immediately north of the Clyde, the highland ranges begin to tower in endless succession ; but on the cast coast, the Lowlands extend beyond the Forth and north- ward through the counties of Fife, Forfar, Kincardine, and ^herdecn ; though these last are closely encroached upon by the mountain territory. The lowland district also extends round the northern promontory of Aberdeen, and along the borders of the Murray or Moray Frith, which contain as level tracts of territory, and enjoy as mild a climate, as any part of Scotland. This level tract docs not comprehend quite the half of the country ; even the Lothians, and still more the western provinces, are hemmed in by low ridges of bleak table- lands, covered, in a great measure, with heath and moss. The arable lands are almost solely comprised in broad flat valleys, chiefly along the friths, called slratlia or corses. Several of these are much famed for fertility, a blessing but partially bestowed even on th» beat districts of Scotland. The Highlands, which comprise the whole west and centre of northern Scotland, form a region of very bleak and rugged aspect. A chain of long and lofty ridg'^ extends from south-west to north-east, not reaching, however, the German Ocean or the Moray Frith, but leaving between them the level interval of the northern lowland. These mountains usually dip, almost perpendicularly, into the lakes and seas on which they border ; and even the in- terior valleys are on so high a level, that in this climate they admit only in scattered patches the culture of the coarser kinds of grain, particularly oats and bigg. These mountains, par- ticularly the great Grampian barrier, which extends across from Ben Lomond to Blair-Athol, lock in closely with each other, and can be entered only by formidable and easily defended passes. The consequence has been, tliat they have preserved within their recesses a primi- tive people, who, in dress, language, and the whole train of their social ideas, differ essen- tially from the Lowlanders, and nave retained antique and striking characteristics, both physical and moral, that are obliterated in almost every other part of Great Britain. The Isles comprise the third part of Scotland. On the east, indeed, and even on groat part of the south-west coast, only a few bold and naked rocks rise perpendicularly from the Ocean. But the western highlands aro bordered by the Hebrides, an extensive range of large islands, some of which are separated from the continent by such narrow channels, that they may almost be considered as forming part of it Again, the northern extremity of Scotland is pro.onged by the two ranges of the Orkney and Shetland islands, in a continu- ous line with eac': other, but at some distance. These islands are rocky and bare, exposed Vol.1. H* a\ MAP OP SCOTLAND. Pio. 184 V i liiraBK |,-..^i«i M 3» \» Eii(lish ^U« Lomttnto WmI ' ^liW^.tjt , 'r'9Fv^^'i'^^'y"-T''nw^mj^Pjwf?ffrt^^ Fio. 184 Book I. SCOTLAND. 4(KI Roiiiil(ltlii>« Jf^^ Klnn»ir q Niih r Ken a Ayr t Clyde SKYE ISLE. '.Dig 3, Totnacrach 4, Snizort 5, Stein e,Roag 7, Biacadato 8, Drumah 0, Gillan 10. BroadTord 11. Kyle , MULL ISLE. 1. Kilniniao S. Tobermoria 3. Keallan 4. Area 5. Achnaeriig 6. Cambua 7. Moy 8. Fidden JURA ISLE. 1. LeaghaU 3. Lagg ISLAY ISLE. l.Sanaig 8, Kikshomin 3. Bolaha 4. Aikaig 5. Bowmora n, Klldalton 7. Kintra ARRAN IBLB 1, Orari S, Corria . Kilbride .KUmi lonr IM DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. PARrllT The Clyde rises on the borders of Dumfries-shire ; flows for a considerable space through a wild pastoral valley ; and descends, by a succession of most picturesque cascades, into the lower reffion of Lanarkshire. After passing through a tract wnich may be denominated the jrarden ot Scotland, it enters Glasgow, becomes a broad stream, and expands into a winding frith, not so broad as the Forth, but the scene of a much more active trade. The Tweed rises irom the same chain as the Clyde, and running eastward, waters the most beautiful and classic of the pastoral districts of Scotland, in whose verse Tweed is the favourite name. Of simile fame are its tributaries, the Yarrow, the Gala, the Teviot; swelled by yrhone waters it forms, on reaching Berwick, a capacious harbour. The Tay rises in the central Highlands, descends into the lowlands of Perthshire, and after winding beautifully round the city of Perth, expands into the Frith of Tay, and forma tlie ha^bour of Dundee. The Spey has a longer course than any other ; but, rising in the midst of the Perthshire highlands, and rolling northward through the wild recesses of Athol and Braemar, its line is comparatively obscure. The other rivers of Scotland are of subordinate rank ; Uie Dee of Aberdeen, the Esk of Montrose, the Nith and Annan of Dumfries, the Ayr and Irvine of Ayr. Lochs form a characteristic feature of Scotland ; many of them are long arms of the sea, running up into the heart of the mountains. Among these. Loch Lomond is pre-eminent. The traveller admires its vast expanse, its gay and numerous islands, its wooded promon- tories and bays, and the high mountain barrier at its head. Loch Katrine, in a smaller compass, presents a singular combination of romantic beauty. Loch Tay, enclosed by the lOftiest of the Grampians, presents alpine scenery on the grandest scale ; while at Inverary, Loch Fyne unites the pomp of art with that of nature. The long chain of Lochs Linnhe, Lochy, and Ness, stretching diagonally across Scotland, comprises much fine scenery, and has aflbrded facilities for makmg a navigable communication between the German and Atlantic oceans. Sect. H. — Natural Geography. This section will contain Geology only, as the Botany and Zoology of Scotland were de- scribed along with that of Great Britain in general, unaer the head of England. SuBSEOT. 1. — Geology of Scotland. Scotland may be divided geologically into the following great districts : — 1. Southern ; 2. Middle ; 3. Northern ; 4. Insular. (1.) Southern division. This division includes that part of the country bounded on the south by the northern ihjntier of England ; and on the north and west, by the comparatively flat country between the Forth and the Clyde. It is traversed from St. Abb's Head on tiie east coast to Portpatrick on the west coast by a high land, named the great southern high land of Scotland, in which are situated the highest mountains in this division of Scotland. This lofty range sends out branches in different directions, many of which reach Uie sea^ coast, while oUiers termmate in the lower and flatter parts of the country that lies around them. Although abundantly supplied with rivers, the southern division contains but few lakes, in this respect formmg a striking contrast with the middle and northern divisions. The mountainous regions are composed of transition rocks, while the lower and flatter con- sist principally of secondary and alluvial formations. I. Transition rocks. The predominating rocks of the Neptunian class are greywacke, with subordmate beds of clay slate, flinty slate, and transition limestone ; the Plutonian species are granite, syenite, porphyry, serpentine, and trap ; by far the most abundant rock is the greywacke, in which the principal lead-mines in Scotland, those of Leadhills and Wanlockhead, are situated. They have been worked from an early period, and during a long course of years have yielded to the proprietors a very rich return. Of late years, owing to the disturbed state of the world, their prosperity has been interrupted. Copper ores have been raised in Galloway, but not in considerable quantity ; and the same may be said of the sulphuret of antimony, formerly mined at Glendinning in Dumfries-shire. II. Secondary rocks. Scotland is distinguished from England by the smaller number of its secondary formations, and their more limited die tribution ; the southern division contains a greater proportion than the middle or northern ; and hence approaches more nearly to England in a general geognostic point of view. The following secondaiy formations have been observed : — 1. Old r^ sandstone. 2. Mountain limestone. 3. Coal rormation. 4. New red sandstone. 5. Various trap and porphyry rocks. 1. Old red sandstone This formation skirts the transition chains of mountains lying immediately upon thm coal ; and during the same period in the sununer montlis, about 120,000. The pipes extend to more than fOO miles through streets. The great iron-works at Carron are supplied with the ore iVom which the iron is obtained, from the coalfields of this and the middle division of Scotland. The ore or stone, which is an argillaceous carbonate of iron, occurs in beds and embedded masses, and princi- pally in the slate of the coal deposit. The admirable building-stone around Edinburgh and Glasgow is a sandstone which occurs in beds in the coal formation. 4. New red tandtttme. This formation in the regular succession rests upon the coal formation, in which position it is to be seen in the neighbourhood of Cannoby in Dumfiries- shire. 6. Trap and porphyry rochs. These ignigenous masses occur in many parts : thev abound, wr instance, all around Edinburgh ; forming part of the Calton Hill, Castle Hill, Salisbury Craigs, Arthur Seat, the Pentlands, &c. : the beautiful conical hill named North Berwick Law, the Bass Rock, the Isle of May, Traprain Law, are also formed of trap and porphyry rocks. Renfrewshire and Ayrshire also abound in splendid and interesting displays of trap and porphyry. In many parts of the country these rocks are used as building-stones, and the greenstone of the trap series affords an admirable material for road-making. The splendid causeways and roads around Edinburgh are of greenstone. in. Alluvial rocks. In various parts of the country there occur deposits of old alluvium, or what is called diluvium ; and everywhere the modem alluvium, or that daily fbrming meets the eye. (2.) Middle division. This division of Scotland is bounded to the south by the southern divbion ; on the north by the Moray Frith aud the great chain of lakes extending fi'om Inverness to Fort William and the Linnhe Lc!r;h. It is traversed in a north and south- westerly direction by the Grampian range of inountains, which extends fh)m the Mull of Cantyre to Stonehaven in Kincardineshire, and to the rocky northern coasts of Aberdeen- shire and Banf&hire. The country in general falls rapidly to the west of this great moun- tain range, and comparatively gently to the eastward of it : hence the western acclivity is steep and short, the eastern gentle and long. On the eastern acclivity and the low lands connected with it are situated tho Sidloy, Ochil, and Carapsie hills, forming a pretty conti- nuous range ; and Kellie Law, Largo Law, the Lomonds, and the Saline Hills in Fifeshire, forming a less continuous and lower range of hills. Water is abundantly distributed over this district, in the form of rivers, lakes, and springs. Lakes, which ore so rare in the southern division, are here abundantly distributed, and exhibit many beautiful and splendid scenes. Of these lakes the most considerable are the following : Loch Lomond, Loch Tay, Loch Ness, and Loch Awo. The rocks are more varied in this than in the southern divi- sion ; magnificent displays of primitive, transition, and secondary formations present them- selves to our attention. I. Primitive and transition rocks. The Neptunian kinds are granite, gneiss, mica slate, clay slate, talc slate, chlorite slate, quartz rock, grey wacke, limestone : the Plutonian rocks are granite, syenite, porphyry, trap, and serpentine. The Neptunian rocks generally range from north-east to south-west ; most frequently dip under an angle of about 45° ; and are variously upheaved, broken, and disturbed by the Plutonian rocks. They are principally confined to the Grampian high Iind and its branches. The most remarkable granite and syenite districts are Cairngorm, Benachie, Aberdeen, Peterhead, Ben Cruachan; and Ben Nevis conjoins along with its slaty Neptunian strata, granite, syenite, and porphyry. In some quarters the limestone is raised as marble, as in Glen Tilt ; but more frequently it is burnt into quicklime. The clay slate quarries of Luss, on the banks of Loch Lomond ; those of Balachulish, in Argyleshire ; and the slate quarries in the interior of Aberdeenshire, are of considerable extent, and employ many workmen. There were formerly lead-mmes in the neighbourhood of Tyndrum, where the lead glance, or sulphuret of lead, was disposed in veuis in quartz rock and mica slate. II. Secondary rocks. These ore, old red sandstone, mountain limestone, coal formation, and new red sandstone, and probably the lias formation: these strata are variously inter- mingled with trap and porphyry rocks. 1. Old red sandstone. This rock, in some parts of the country, as in the vicinity of Stonehaven and near Blair-Gowrie, exhibits magnificent clifli of conglomerate. It forms the principal rock in the great tract of country included between lines drawn from Stone- •wven by Blair-Gowrie, Comrie, Callcnder, Dumbarton, Stirling, Kinross, Dundee, Arbroath, Y DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. pABTin. :■ -'mi • ;'j ;"» '.■ :^ ■■m ^v.i Montroee, and Borvie, It appears again noar Invemoaa, and on the banks of Loch Nosa, In many localities there are extensive quarries, tlie sandstone being used as a building-stone, and as a pavoment»stone. The Kinguddio sandstone and the Arbroath pavement'Stone, from old red sandstone localities, are well known. 2. Coal formation. The coal formation in the middle division of Scotland has not been met with &rther north than Fifcshire. The counties of Fife, Clackmannan, and Stirling, abound m coal ; of tliose counties, Fife is tliat which contains the greatest fields of this valuable mineral. 3. New red sandstone occurs apparently in some points on tho east coast, and also on the north coast between Cullen and tlio Cromarty Frith. 4. Zit'as formation. Near to BonflT there are beds of clay, which, iVom the organic re- mains contained in them, may turn out to belong to this formation. 6. Plutonian rocka. These are various traps, as greenstone, amygdaloid, trap tuffa, and basalt; and porphyries, having a basis of claystone or clinkstone. Tho famous headland the Red Head, on tne east coast, exhibits a fine display of Plutonian rocks, connected with tho red sandstone. Bervie Head and the vicinity are interesting from their porphyry rocks. Tho trap rocks of Montrose are famous on account of the agates they afford. Kinnoul Hill, at Perth, is composed of amygdaloid, tufTa, and other rocks of the trap series, and abounds in agates. The Ochil Hills are principally composed of trap and porphyry ; and trap rocks abound in the Campsie range. The Fifcshire hills, viz. Kellie Law, Loreo Law, the cones of the Lomond, and tlie SaUne Hills, are of trap. These various traps and porphyries have, as is generally the o^isc, broken and changed more or less tlie Neptunian strata with which they are intermingled. ni. Alluvial rocka. These have the same general characters as those met with in the southern division. In a few districts, however, as near to Peterhead, and in the vicinity of Banff, there are numerous chalk flinla. Those, by some, are considered as alluvial, and foreign to Scotland ; while others are of opinion that tliey are remains of the chalk forma- tion, formerly distributed in some of the tracts where the flints are found. (3.) Northern division. This division is bounde^. Book I. ■.'*( SCOTLAND. 40T coast, and also on the from the organic re- anner:— 1. Forth transition classes, viz. clay slate, mica slate, grey wacke, as Neptunian deposits ; and granite, as a Plutonian rock. The junctions of the granite, of which tncre are two formations, wiUi each other and with the Neptunian slates, are most instructive. Reposing on these rocks is a deposit of the old red sandstone, on which rests the coal formation ; and the whole are covered, more or loss completely, with new red sandstone. These Neptunian secondary rocks are traversed in all directions by Plutonian rocks of the porphyry and trap series, affording an admirable study to the geologist. Alluvial deposits occur all round the coast, and covering, more or less deeply, the bottom and sides of valleys. Both old and now allu- vium are met with in Arran. The Craig of Ailso, which is 900 feet high, is composed of secondary syenite, in several cliffs disposed m magnificent columns, and traversed by veins of secondary greenstone, &c. (3.) Tho Ilebridos or Western Islands form two groups ; the one, ranging immediately along the coast, the Inner Hebrides ; tho other, lying beyond, to the westward, the Outer Helmdea, Inner Hebridea, Oigha, Islo, Jura, Colonsay, Oronsay, Scirba, and the Slate Isles, are principally composed of Neptunian primitive and transition strata, having frequently a north* east and south-west direction; and variouflly disposed, from tlie slightly inclined to the ver- tical position. The rocks are mica slate, quartz rock, talc slate, chlorite slate, hornblende slate, clay slate, limestone, and greywacke. These are traversed by, and intermingled with, Plutonian rocks of tlie trap and porphyry series. The clay slate is extensively quarried in the isle of Eisdale, one of the Slate Islands. In hla there is a great deposit of limestone, in which formerly lead-mines were worked. lona, Tiree, and CoH are principally composed of gneiss, mica slate, quartz rock, hornblende rock, with occasional intermixtures of granite ana syenite, and all traversed, more or less frequently, by veins of trap rock. Mull, with the exception of two or three points, which are composed of j^ranite, gneiss, and mica slate, is composed of secondery trap and porphyry rocks, with occasional intermixtures of lias lime- stones, and lias coals. The usual alluvial deposits appear in different parts of the island. Slqffa, which is composed of basalt, amygdaloid, and trap tuffa, has been long celebrated on account of its splendid columnar basaltic cave, the Fingal's Cave of travellers. Eigff is principally composed of trap rocks, occasionally intermmgled with lias limestones. The Scure Egg is a remarkable columnar ridge of pitchstone porphyry, presenting the most splendid display of the natural columnar structure to be met with aiwwhere in the British islands. Canna is entirely composed of secondary trap rocks ; and Rum, a wild, rugged, and hilly island, besides red sandstone, which forms a prominent constituent part, also con- tains many varieties of trap, some of which are remarkable from their containing agates, bloodstone, opal, &c. Skye, the largest of the Inner Hebrides, exhibits great variety of scenery and of geological arrangement. The southern part of the island is composed of primitive and transition rocks, principally of the Neptunian series ; namely, mica slate, clay slate, chlorite slate, hornblende rock, quartz rock, greywacke, and limestone. The middle part ailbrds magnificent displays of Plutonian rocks, as syenite, porphyry and trap, which are frequently observed intermixed with lias limestone, which in many places is seen con- verted into marble through the agency of those ignigenous rocks : the northern division of the island is principally composed of various trap rocks, oflen abounding in zeolite and other curious minerals, and mtermingled with lias limestone and coal. The alluvium here exhibits its usual characters. Rasay. The southern and middle parts of this island are of secondary fomiation, principally of old red sandstone and lias sandstone ; the northern extremity is of primitive rocks, principally gneiss. J2ona. This island, which appears formerly to have been a pai-t of Rasay, is entirely of primitive formation, the prevailmg rock being gneiss, with subordinate mica slate, quartz rock, hornblende rock, &c., traversed by splendid veins of granite. Outer Hebrides. This group, which lies in a north-east and south-west direction, con- sists of the following islands ; viz. Lewis, Harris, North Uist, South Uist, and Barra, The whole range of islands is nearly of primitive formation, and the predominating rocks, which are gneiss and mica slate, range generally from north-east to south-west The following rocks, which are generally subordinate to those just mentioned, viz. quartz rock, clay slate, chlorite slate, hornblende rock of various kinds, limestone (?), serpentine, with masses and veins of granite, syenite, and porphyry, present many interesting phenomena. (4.) Orkney Islands. This group of islands is distinguished from all others that lie around the coasts of Scotland, by the uniformity of its structure and composition. With the excep- tk>n of a small extent of transition rocks near Stromness in the island of Pomona, the largest of the Orkneys, that island and all the others are composed of the old red sandstone, with aome rare appearance of secondary trap. (5.) Shetland Islands. This very interesting group of islands exhibits great variety m lis geognostical structure and composition. Mainland. With the exception of a band of old red sandstone extending from the line of Sumburgh Head to Rovey Head, on the east coast the whole of this island is formed of primitive rocks. The Neptunian strata aie 406 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. PaatIU n i Sieiaa, with ■ubordinate mica slate, olay alate, quarts rook, limeatone, and hornblende rocka; e Plutonian rocks, which fl-cquenUy alter and upraise the Neptunian strata, are granite, syenite, porphyry, greenstone, and epidotic syenite. Yell is almost entirely composed of gneiss, variously interseotod by veins of ffranite. Unut is composed of gpeiss, mica slate, talc slate, chlorite slate, and limestone, wliich are variously intermixed with serpentine and diallage rocks. Ilermonoss, the most northern point of the British dominions in Europe, ia oompMod of gneiss ; while the Land's End of Cornwall, the most south-westerly cape of Britain, is formed of granite. Unst and tho neighbouring island of Fetlar abound in chxvr mate of iron. Ilydrato of magnesia, grcnatitc, precious gamot, and other beautiful minerals, occur in this island. Fetlar is composed of serpentine as the predominating rock, with diallago rock, gneiss, mica slate, chlorite slate, and auartz rock. WhaUeyia composed of gneiss. Breiiay, Nose, and Mouea are composed or old red sandstone. Batra aivd Houee are composed of gneiss and mica slate, with subordinate limestone; Papa Stour is a mass of porphyry. In Foula tho predominating rock is old red sandstone ; at one point there ia a limited display of primitive rocks of granite, gneiss, mica slate, and clay slate. Sect. III. — Hittoricdl Survey. To the Greek and Roman writers, Scotland was not known as a distinct country. Albion, or Britain, was viewed as one region, parcelled out among a multitude of dilforent triben, Agricola first penetrated into that part of Britain, which we now call Scotland. He easily over-ran the low country, but encountered tho most obstinate resistance when he approached the Caledonians, who appear then to have held all the northern districts. An obstinate battle, the precise place of which has never been ascertained, was fought at the foot of the Grampians. All the rude valour of Caledonia could not match the skill of Agricola and the discipline of the Roman legions. The whole open country was abandoned to the invaders, whose progress, however, was stayed by what they termed the Caledonian forest, under which tney seem to have vaguely comprehended the vast pine woods of Glenmore, and the steep barrier of the Grampians. Their military occupation, however, id attested by the form- ation of numerous camps, of which that of Ardoch, {iig, 185), ten miles north of Stir- ling, is the most extensive and complete. The Romans endeavoured to resist the in- cursions of the natives, by rearing at different periods, two walls, ( ae between the FV>rth and Clyde, and the other south of the low cot'ntry of Scotland, between the Solway and the Tyne. The northern tribes, how- ever, continued their inroads, now chiefly under the name of Picts, who seem clearly to have been the same people with the Caledonians. In the fifth century Britain was abandoned by the Romans, and over-run by the Saxons, who occupied the eastern part of the south of Scotland, as far as the Forth. The western part was formed into the kingdom of Strathcluyd. It flourished for about 300 years, and was rendered illustrious by the name and exploits of Arthur and his ^ , . ^ ,. . , . , knights, whose power from 508 to 542, is represented by teadition as having been predominant over the south of Scotland and the north of England. The capital and bulwark of this kingdom was Alcluyd, called afterwards Dun Briton and Dumbarton, seated on an insulated precipitous reck at the mouth of the Clyde. The Strathcluyd Britons, closely pressed by their Saxon neighbours, endeavoured to defend themselves by a lengthened /o»«c, of which the traces have been supposed to remain in tho Cab^U or Picts-work Ditch, dravra across the counties of Selkirk and Roxburgh. Such feeble defences could not support a sinking monarchy; in 757, Alcluyd was taken by the Saxone, and the kingdom subverted. The Scots, before this time, had come firom Ireland, their origmal seat, which, in the fourth century, was often called Scotland. Even before the departure of the Romans, the Scots, jomed with the Picts, are mentioned as the ravagers of defenceless Britain. They appear at one time to have been driven back into Ireland ; but in 503 they again landed in Cantyre, and during the next four centuries, spread gradually over the kingdom. At length under tho victorious reign of Kenneth, which commenced in 836, they wrested the sceptre from Wred the Pictish king, and established .supreme sway over the wliole of that countoy, which, firom them, was ever afterwards called Scotland. Camp at Ardooh. PaatIII tnd hornblende rocki ; m strata, are granite, entirely compoBod of of ipeiu, mica alate, 1 with serpentine and minions in Europe, ia )uth-westerly cape of atlar abound in chro- ler beautiful minerals, ominatingf rock, wiUi alsey is composed of e. Barra aiul Hmue ipa Stour is a mass of it one point there is a ly slate. inct country. Albion, ido of different tribe«. Scotland. Ho easily when he approached istricts. An obstinate iiffht at the foot of tiie ill of Agricola and the loned to the invaders, ledonian forest, under of Glenmore, and Uie d attested by the form- mps, of which that d n miles north of Stir- :en8ive and complete. )ured to resist the in* I, by rearing at different le between the TotHi ther south of the low between the Solway northern tribes, how- inroads, now chiefly ts, who seem clearly ime people with Uie iflh century Britain Romans, and over-run jccupied the eastern Gotland, as fitr as the was formed into the It flourished for 08 rendered illustrious >its of Arthur and his from 508 to 542, is Gotland and the north lied afterwards Dun mouth of the Clyde, ideavoured to defend ised to remain in the td Roxburgh. Such was taken by the , which, in the fourth Romans, the Scots, [tin. They appear at landed in Cantyre, At length under the I sceptre from Wred iounUr, which, from Book 1. SCOTLAND. 400 The Scoto-Saxon era, aa Mr. Chalmers calls it, is memorable rathor fbr an imensiblo shange, than fbr any sudden revolution. After the subversion of the kingdom c^ Strath- cluyd, by the Saxons, that i>eoplo had colonized and filled the whole south ; and tlie Scottlidi kings, thougli of Celtic origin, having establislied themselves in this more fertile part of their territories, soon began to imbibe the spirit of its occupants. From this or other causes the whole lowlands of Scotland is in language and manners Teutonic, and the Ghiol or Celt! were again confined within their mountain boundary. An era of disputed succession arose out of the contendinfj; claims of Bruce and Baliol, after the death of Margaret of Norway. Edward I., availing himself of this dissension, lucceeded in mtroducmg himself under the character of an arbiter, and having established Baliol on the throne by an armed intcrforonco, sought to rule Scotland as a vassal kingdom. The result was a struggle, calamitous to Scotland, but which, however, placed in a con> ipicuous light the energy and heroism of the nation, and brought forward the names of Wallace and Bruce, ever afterwards the foremost in her annals. The result was glorious ; the concentrated force of the English w as finally defeated in a pitched battle at Bannock- burn ; they were compelled to ronounc > their ambitious pretensions, and allow the kingdom to be governed by its native princes. Under the turbulent and unfortunate sway of the Stuarts, Scotland continued for several centuries without any prommcnt revolution, though with a continual tendency to internal commotion. This dynasty, from their connexion with the French and English courts, had acquired the idea of more polished manners, and habits of greater subordination as due from the nobles. Such views were ill suited to the power and temper of a Douglas, and many other powerful chieftains, through whoso resistance the attempts of the monarchs were followed with disaster, and often with violent death. Tiie introduction of the reformed religion especially, in open opposition to the court, which granted only a reluctant and pre- carious toleration, was unfavourable to tho crown, and fatal to a princess whose beauty and misfortunes have rendered her an object of enthusiasm to the gay and chivalric part of the Scottish nation. The union of the crowns, by the accession of James VI. in 1603, to the English throne, produced a great change, in itself flattering to Scotland, whose race of princes now held Bway over all the three kingdoms. The struggle between presbytery and prelacy gave rise to a conflict which still powerfully influences the temper and character of the Scots. The effi)rts of the presbyterians, acting under the bond of their League and Covenant, first enabled the English parliament to rear its head, and had a great effect in turning the scale of contest against the crown. The Scots revolted, however, at the excesses of the inde- pendents, and endeavoured to rear again, on a covenanted basis, the fallen crown of the Stuarts. These brave but unsuccessful efforts were ill requited by an embittered persecu- tion against all the adherents of presbytery, till the Revolution finally fixed that system as the established religion of Scotland. The union of the kingdoms, in 1707, placed Scotland in that political position which she has ever since maintained ; and, by allaying internal contest, and opening a free trade with the sister kingdom, this union has produced results highly beneficial, although the devoted attachment of her mountain tribes to the exiled Stuarts repeatedly impelled them to attempt to replace that house on the throne ; attempts which, at one critical moment, spread alarm into the heurt of England. Sect. IV. — Political Cbnatitution. The political system of Scotland being now almost completely incorporated witii that of England, little is to be added to the statements given under the head of the sister kingdom. A few peculiarities, however, may be deserving of notice. The representation allowed to Scotland at the union was somewhat scanty. It consisted, for Uie House of Commons, of forty-five members, fifteen from the boroughs, and thirty firam the counties. The members were elected, not by the burgesses, but by the magistrates, who themselves were appointed chiefly by their predecessors in office ; thus constituting close boroughs, in which a party having once obtained a majority might keep it in perpetuum. In county elections, the right of voting was attached to the possession of lands held im- mediately of the crown, and of the valued rent of 400?. Scots. But the feudal superiority which entitled to vote was separable from the actual possession of the property. The original proprietor, who, perhaps, had a number of these votes on his estate, might either sell or aistribute them among his friends, so as to multiply his own elective influence. The free- holders of Scotland amounted to not quite 3000, of whom a certain number, for the reason stated, had no actual property in land. The peers of Scotland are represented by sixteen of their number, elected at the commencement of each parliament mere are, besides, upwards of twenty who are British peers, and sit in their personal right. Vol. L SB 4^0 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. PaktIH By the Roform liill of 183*2, Uio powor of rctuminff mombors to tho Houie of Coiunumi b voatod in tho following citios and burghi :— Edinburgh . Glouow . . . Abarilaen . . ]>*)il«y .... Duniloa , . . . Oronnock . . Membtn 9 a 1 . Perth. ' ' leith, i'nrlohollo, MiiiM>lbiir( 1 KIrkwnll, Wick, Durnorh, Dlnnwill, Tnin, Cromarty 1 Fnrtriwn, liiveriieH, Nairn, Korrci 1 Elfin, CulU'ii ilniiir, Iiiviirnry, KInlnrn, Peterheail 1 Invvrlivrvli-, Mnntriim, Arlirontli, llrechlii, Pcirflir 1 Ciipnr, Bt. Ahilrow'a, Aiiitrutliur Knaiurniiil Woatur, Orall, Kllronny, Pltt«nwa«n 1 Dyisrt, Klrkiilily, KInRliorn, lliiriitliilanil 1 InvorktiltliiiiR, Diinft>rmlliiv, KlnrtiM, Quoennflirry, UiilroM, Rtirling 1 RiMilVuw, KiilliBrilon, Diimbarlon, Kllmarnnck, I^>rt (llaigow 1 ]laililliiRt<»>, Duiibnr, Nnrth llorwick, LaiiilKr, joilburih 1 . MiilliliKnw. Lnimrk. Cnlklrk, Alrilrli>, llnnillton 1 Ayr, Irvine, (,'am|ibfllllnn, Invorary, Obnn 1 nunifViiiii, Sanqiialiar, Annnn, Lnclimnbfln, Kirkcudbright 1 WIgtnn, Now Galloway, Stranraer, Whlthnrn 1 in These mombcrs are returned by tho inhabits ntn payin^c rent to the value of 10/. and upwardu The counties continue each to elect a member, except that only one in conjunction iR ro turned by Elf^in and Nairn, one by Roes and Cromarty, and one by Clackmannan and Kin* rose. The power of voting, too, is attached to the possession ot actual property yielding 10/. of yearly rent. Tho judicial administration of Scotland has always continued distinct from that of the sister kinfrdom. The supreme court, or Court of Session, consisted until lately, of fiileen members, sittinir together, and deciding in all civil causes, while six of these constituted a Justiciary Court for the trial of criminal cases. Tho trial by jury was employed only in the Justiciary Court, and in revenue questions, which are tried before tho Court of Exciiequer. But the supreme court is now divided into two chambers, one of six and the other of seven members. Trials by jury, in civil cases, have been introduced, and are now carr.'d on, like others, under the direction of the Court of Session. The Court of Exchequer, \'..icii con« aistcd of five barons, tho Consistory and tho Admiralty Courts have been abolished, and their jurisdiction transferred to the Court of Session. The revenue of Scotland has been hitherto collected separately from tliat of England, and by separate boards for each branch ; but, under recent regulations, the whole has been placed under tho direction of boards resident in liondon, and the systems have been in a great measiure incorporated together. In the year ending 6tli January, 1881 — ■ffi- ''i K. . -"i ■4|vS'l The Scottish excise was Customs . • . Stamps ... Assessed taxes Post office . - - Sect. V. — Productive Industry. 2,395,490 l,a')7,000 526,000 292,000 201,000 4,771,490 Scotland has always ranked as a poor country ; and, for a long time, natural obstacles were enhanced by moral impediments. The Scots showed an aptitude to embark in all scheraeu of turbulence ; but indolence, and dislike of plain hard work, might be recognized as a national characteristic. Since the age arrived, however, when industry came into honour, and when improved processes were studiously applied to all the useful arts, the Scots have entered with peculiar spirit and intelligence into this new career ; and in its prosecution liave been more successnil, in some respects, than their southern neighbours. The agriculture of Scotland has to contend with obstacles which must be manifest, when we look at its rugged aspect, and its vast hills ond morasses. Forty years ago, moreover, the progress of Scotland in this primary art was generally behind that of the rest of the empire. As soon, however, as the great system of agricultural improvement was adopted throughout the kingdom, the Scottish farmers not only shared in it, but carried it farther than Uiose of England. The farmers of the Lothians, of the Carse of Gowrie, and even of the dlatfict on the Moray Frith, made a complete reform in the whole train of agricultural operations. They brought extensive tracts of common and waste under cultivation, reduced the number of cattle and improved the breed, cultivated the artificial grasses, dismissed WlTf^^W^W'^ PiiETin. 10 IIouM of Conxnona Membtiii 9 a 1 t 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I » 1 1 1 1 1 ::::::::::::::::::::} I 1 S3 110 of lOl. and upwards in in conjunction iH re- Clackmannan and Kin- ctual property yielding istinct from that of the until lately, of fifteen c of those conRtitutcd a as employed only in the he Court of Exchequer. : and the other of seven ire now carr! 'd on, like Exchequer, \'.ac\\ con- een abolished, and their from tliat of England, ns, the whole has been ms have been in a great U— £ 2,395,490 ,357,000 520,000 292,000 201,000 ,771,490 Book L SCOTLAND. 411 I, natural obstacles were I embark in all schemes Iht be recognized as a listry came into honour, ful arts, the Scots have 1 and in its prosecution l[hbours. lust be manifest, when years ago, moreover, .JiaX of the rest of the Lrovement was adopted L but carried it farther tf Gowrie, and even of le train of agricultural ler cultivation, reduced Iclal grasses, dismissed KupcrfUiouB htndi, and adopted the um of machinery, of which the moat important, the lliruMJiing machine, waa of ScotUih invention. The consequence was, that conaiderablo tbrtiuioH were made by lucceisAil fkrmers, and that rents were in almoat every instance troblud, and in wmo cases raised to eight or ten times tlioir former amount In the moun- tainous districts, also, a now system was introduced, which proved more profitable to the landlord. Tho numerous littlo tkrms hitlierto held by tenants or vassals, woro tlirown into cxtcMiHivo sheop-walks. Considerable depopulation, m tho agricultural districts, was the coiimMiucnco ; a groat proportion of this bravo and warm-hearted race were forced to quit their native glens, to which they were fondly attached, and to seek support, either in the great manufkcturing towns, or in settlements formed on tho other side or the Atlantic. Tli'f cultivated lands of Scotland, and the amount of its produce, after all these improve- mcn.M, are still limited. Of the 18,044,000 acres, its computed extent of land, only 5,043,000 are uiuier regular cultivation, and not more than 1,BOO,0(X) under grain. Of these only 140,(MM> produce wheat, though this is considered the most profitable rn p, and is raised of gwA (juulity, whoro tiio soil and climato admit Oats, a hardy plant, ii the stai)le produce of (Scotland, and tho food of its rural population: it covers 1,200,000 acr^s. Barley occupies 280,(MM) acres, being raised chiefly for aistillation ; but in tho highei districts it is the ruder gpccicH called bear or big, Tho chief exportable produce consists in cattle and sheep, which arc 8ont in numbers to the English markets. Tho sheep are not equal to tlie fine English brui'ils, hut the mutton of tho Grampians and Cheviots is of exquisite flavour. 'I'iio manuf^cturiitg industry of Scotland has, within the last century, advanced with pro- i'.if(iaiis rtipiditv, being quite equal, compared with the extent and population of tho country, 'x> that of England. Woollen, the grand original staple of England, has never obtained more than a very partial footing in Scotland. Linen, with other products of flax, is the original staple of Scotland. It was throughout tho country a household manufacture, and for house- hold use. Flax, in almost evorv family, was diligently spun into yam, which was then sent out to bo woven and bleached. The coarser kinds of linen still form the staple of the eastern counties, though Dunfermline excels in fine sheeting and diaper. The linen mode in Scot- land was estimated, in 1610, at 26,457,000 yards, value 1,205,000/. The increase in the manufacture has sinco been so great, that in 1831, Dundee alone exported more than 67,0(K),(K)0 yards ! By far the greater proportion of tho raw material is imported, very little hemp or flax being p^rown either in Scotland or England ; almost all tho former, and more than half the latter, is brought from Russia, the rest of the flax ttom Holland, Flanders, and Germany, Tho cotton manufacture, though of comparatively recent introduction, has, in Scotland, no less than in England, risen to be the firat in point of magnitude. Glasgow and Paisley produce fabrics carried to an extreme de^ee of fineness. The muslin of Paisley is one of the most delicate ikbrics existing. The printing of cottons, particularly shawls, is also carried on to a greater proportional extent in Scotlanuthan in England. The total quantity of cotton wool spun in Scotland in 1832, amounted to 24,500,000 lbs. of the value of about 4,000,0002. Distillation of spirits from grain has been long a characteristic branch of Scottish industry ; and in the highland districts, the quality of the article has been carried to very great per- fection. It has been much cramped by fiscal restrictions, which have, of late, been almost entirely abolished. In the first seven years of the present century, the quantity paying duty averaged 2,000,000 gallons ; it then gradually approached to 4,000,000 ; but in 1824, upon the reduction of the duty, it suddenly increased to above 5,000,000) and in 1830 it rose to 6,070,000. Scotland has various other ordinary manufactures, and generally supplies itself with all the common necessaries of life. The ale of Edinburgh and of some Scottish towns enjoys reputation even out of Scotland. In 1829, there were brewed ui Scotland 110,000 gallons of strong beer, and 229,000 of table beer. Glass is made to the extent of nearly double the consumption of the country ; the surplus being exported, chiefly to Ireland. Salt, which does not exist in a mineral form, is largely extracted from sea-water by boiling ; and though not equal in quality to English rock salt, nor fit for use in the fisheries, its cheapness recom- mends it for common culinary purposes. Candles, scap, starch, leather, paper, are produced in quantity sufficient for the supply of the inhabitants. In 1829, the produce was 5,731,000 lbs. tallow candles; 12,721,000 lbs. hard soap, and 2,332,000 lbs. soft soap; 812,000 lbs. starch; 6,002,000 lbs. hides; 7,162,000 lbs. paper. The mineral wealth of Scotland is chiefly of an humble and usefiil description. Its moun- tains are not metalliferous. In Lanark and Dumfries is a large deposit of lead mixed with silver, which, together with some smaller mines in the Hebrides, is supposed to yield 136,0001. in the former metal, and 10,0002. in the latter. Ironstone occurs extensively in the upper coal districts. In 1825, the annual production of pig iron in Scotland was 29,200 tons, which is not, however, sufficient to supply the founueries at Carron and elsewhere. Those at Carron are considerable, the casting biemg chiefly of ordnance, grates, and culinary ves- rIs. Coal, lime, and stone, compose Uie solid mineral wealth of Scotland. The great coal- field extends in a diagonal line of 100 miles along the friths of Clyde and Forth ; beginning 412 DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAIMIY. Paut ni '•i* ^ fi i\i ffoml (^utility, thou((l) nut oqual Ut Lima iH t\irniiiho(i abumlantly, bo ■idoi of the Forth ; ffranitn, in Al ■outh of Uio former, and ending; north of the Inttor. It ia immenat^ly rich in coal i)f |)rotti ' til thn bflHt Ktitfliah. A lar^e ({uantity ia «xport«Ni to Iri'lmul. both fur biiiitlinif and inanum. Froaatone, chiofly on IwtJi Abordeonahiro ; alatc, in the Hebridoa and Argyloahiro, alfbrd excellent inatoriala ror buildinif. The tlahrrioa turm a conaidurablo branch of induatry in Scotland ; the herrinff, cod, and haddock abound on varioua itarta of ita ahorea. The Dutch lonff monnpoliaod thi< (front nortliorn hnrrin^ bank; and, by a auporior mode of cure, obtainfMra prolomnco in nil mar- kota. The Britiah ffovemment, however, haa for aome time ma«ln groat nxortionH for tlio promotion of tlio Scottiah flaheriea ; and there liaa been a wondortUl incroaao in tho (jtmntity caught, and n correspond in(f iinpmvninont in tho procoaaoa of cure. Tho former, wliich in 181ft waa only KMMNK) barroU, had ribim in IHIM) to 330,()(N), of which 'i.M7,(NH) wnro i!X|Kirted. In tho Mutno yoar, 63,ft00cwt of cod wero curod in a driod atato, ami r>4(M)cwt. in pickle; of tho forninr, 'J1),000 wero exported. Salmon, taken in all the conHidornblo rivers, nn Icwing Table :— Ahi'rtlren. ... Rii'nrai niinduo Olmiiaw OranRnmouth arconoGk.... Tonniin tnll Irvine Leitli MniitroM.... P«rlh Poit Olaigow m 7,300 13,300 M,H0O 96,3nO 1A,100 0,000 Priiclure at Jn IH^ £ 8,000 4.40(1 (l,H(JO 44,4(10 (1,000 94«,(I00 Commerce, till tho union of tho crowns, and even of tho kingdoms, could scarcely bo con< Biderod as existing in Scotland ; but it has since been cultiviitocl with great ardour and cnteN prise. One branch of commercial intorcourso is that with hor opulent sister kingdom. In England sho finds a market for cattle, hor chief agricultural surplus ; for her wool, such u it is ; for hor sail-cloth and other coarse fabrics from flax ind liemp ; for part of her fine calicoes and muslins, &c. In return, she receives almost all tho woollen cloth, and n greni part of tho silk consumed by her; hardware and cutlery of ivory kind ; tea and other Eiul India goods ; and through this channel a part of all tho forei^ luxuries which she requires. Tho trade with Ireland is chiefly supported by the rAi;!mnge of coal and iron for oats and cattle. That with the Baltic, particularly Russia, is very active ; the eastern part of the kingdom deriving thence the hemp and flax, which form tho material of her staple manu- fkcture ; also tiinoer, iron, and the other bulky and usefUl staples of that trade. Having few articles of her own with which this market is not already stocked, the payment is made chiefly in bullion and colonial produce. The flourishing trade carried on fVom the west coast with America and the West Indies, is supported by the export of cottons, linen, wearing; apparel, and other commodities ; and by the import of cotton, sugar, rum, and tho various luxuries of those fertile regions. The Mediterranean trade is not neglected ; and since the opening of that to India, Greenock has adventured into it with considerable succesei. The roads, which half a century ago were almost impassable, are now, through all the Lowlands, little inferior to those of England. Afler the rebellion of 1745, government con- structed excellent roads into the heart of the Highlands as far as Inverness ; and in 1803, a body of commissioners was appointed by government, for improving the roods of the north of Scotland. They proceeded upon the principle, that half tne expense must in every ctae be defrayed by the county proprietors, and in eighteen years good roads were formed into the remotest tracts of Inverness, Skye, Ross, and even to the ferthest point of Caithness. Artificial navigation meets with peculiar obstructions from the ruggedness of the surface, and hence canals have never become very numerous. The "Great Canal," admits vessels of considerable size to pass from the Frith of Forth to that of Clyde, and thus unite the Ger- man and Atlantic oceans. Branches to Glasgow and to the fine coal-field at Monkland have been advantageously opened. The Union Canal, completed at an e.xpense of nearly 400,000/,, coimects the Great Canal, near its eastern point, with Edinburgh, by a line of thirty miles through a country very rich in coal and lime. The Caledonian Canal, uniting the chain of lakes which crosses Scotland diagonally through the counties of Inverness and Argyie, jtYlmavci A«*An aU.*^ /\4 raini* f.% naoa fi^nm tha aoot nnaat intn ihn Atlontin tirifKmit ononnntRT' ing the perils of the Pentland Frith and Cape Wrath. It was finished in 1822, at an expense of nearly 1,000,0001. sterling, entirely definyed by govemment The gates of the Part HI •ly rich in coal »)f protti ity i» (txpnrtml Id in'latui. ■oeiitono, chiofly on Iwih Bi and Arifyloahiro, atfbrd id ; the herrinff, cml, and ; monnpoiiMNl tlio Ktonl a protornnco in nil mar- n (frcat nxortiutiH for tlin 1 incroam) in tho (jimntity J, Tho tbrmor, wliich in h IKIT.OOO wore oxix)rt«|. and 54(Nlcwt. in piolcie; Hidorablo riven, ami kept t Tho whain flHhrry m ' Scotland with incrooMd only 40 ahipfl : in 1890, rna in extensive domand reduction of t)io duty on id is exhibited in the fol- ^^m* Pr,()UU. 'nio ceiutUM of iHll gave 1,8(I0,(NN); which was raised by that of 1821 to V2,()U:i,4M). In IWil, it was 2,:Hi:),84'J. In p< 1 1 lit of disposition, the Hcots aro a grave, serious, and reflecting people; but Ixildr enterprising, ainoitious, and imbued with a dcop-rooted dotennination to pursuu tho objccta of their dekire, and re\w\ tliuse of their aversion. Under these impulses, they i]uit, without much regret, a land Which affords few opportunities of distinction, and seek, either in the nietro|)o!is and commercial towns of England, or in tiie most distant transmarine regions, tiiat wealtli and ikme which they eagerly covet; yet, amid this distance and these eager pursuits, their liopea and affections remain fixed on the land of their nativity ; and they UHiiiilly seek toipemi the evening of their days in Scotland. The Scots appear naturnjiy bravo; a(|uality which is particularly observable among tho highland tribeN, and by which thoy rendered themselves furmidable, first under Montrose, and aflerwards in the rebellion against tho house of Hanover. Since they were conciliated by tho wise mcasureH of Pitt, thoy have crowded into the British army, and funned some of its bravest rngiincnts. Among the lower clatwcs, crimes against the order of society are of comparatively rare occurrence, and there is loss necessity for capital punishment; there is also less of extreme disHolutcncHs among the higher ranks. Among the Scottish females, in particular, tho obligations of tho marriugt; tie are much more seldom disregnnled ; and if the other sex too oflcn abuse the license which public manners aro supposed to allow, they are at least obliged to observe some outward ap|)ear- ances. Tho prido of birth is still prevalent, particidarly among the highland clans ; and it ii accompaniod with a general ambition to rise above their original station, and a propensity, with that view, to spend tlioir m(xlerato wealth rather in outward show than in solid com- fort Tho sister nations accuse the Scots as selfish, yet Scotsmen raised to power have not ihown any backwardness, either in the general ofHces of humanity, or to promote the pro*> perity of their country and countrymen. To their religious (luties the Scots people have always shown an exemplary attention. In catholic times, tho Romish church in Scotland enjoyed moro influence, and had acquired a much greater proportion of the national wealth, than in England. But they entered upon the cause of reform with un ardent zeal, which lefl behind it that of all their ncighlmura. After a desperate struggle, on which, for nearly a century, tho political destinies of the king- dom depenaed, they obtained their favourite form of presbytery, the most remote from that pompous ritual, for which they have entertained tho most rooted abhorrence. Tho principle of presbytery consists in tho complete equality of all its clerical members, who have each a separate pariah, of which they perform all the ecclesiastical functions. The title of bishop, ao long connected with wealth and power, has been rejected, and that of minister Hubsti- tuted. In the management of the poor, and some church functions, tho minister is assisted by a body of lay members called elders, who constitute the kirk session. The government of the church consists in presbyteries formed by the meeting of tho ministers of a certain district, with lay members from each session, the last of whom, however, attend only occa- sionally. A synod is formed by the union of several presbyteries ; and the General Assent- My is composed of deputies, partly clerical and partly lay, from each presbytery and borough. They meet every year, and an appeal lies to them upon* every subject ; but tlie laws of the thurch, though proposed in the Assembly, can be passed only by a majority of presbyteries, after being debated in each. The king sends a Commissioner, who is present at tlio debates of the Assembly, and seems even to claim a right of constituting and dissolving it ; but this is denied by the church itself, which acknowledges no human head, and accounts itself and the state as powers entirely independent. The nobles availed themselves of the downfall of the catholic establishment, to appro- priate nearly the whole of tho immense income with which it had been endowod. They took at first not only tlie lands, but the tithes ; and even when obliged to make a provision for the presbyterian clergy out of the latter, they retained part, valud oflen at a very low nte, but subject to be called upon if needed. Thus the Scots clergy have enjoyed only Buch incomes as enabled them, with strict economy, to maintain their place m the middle nmk of society. When even this became impossible under the increased expense of living, atunnpnfntions were "Tanted out of the (itnds- or valued tithes ' and where these weirs exhausted, the legislature have come forward, and raised the lowest stipend to 1501. a year. No body of clergy have maintained a fairer character, or more efficienUy performed theii important duties, than tJiose of the Scottish church. 35* 414 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pamt in. i.m The dissenters from the Scottish church consist chiefly of pei-sons zealously attached tc presbytery, and who have seceded because they considered its principles as not maintained m sufficient purity within the establishment. Their chief complaint is against the system of patronage exercised by the landed interest, who present generally to the vacant parishes. Two great bodies, into which Uiey were formerly divided on the subject of the burgher oath, have, since tlie abolition of that test, been united into what is called tlie Associate Synod. A considerable proportion, especially of the higher ranks, is attached to episcopacy, either as it was established in Scotland under the Stuarts, or as it now exists in England ; indeed, an union has been recently formed between these once separate branches. None of the ether sects, independents, baptists, methodists, &c. are numerous ; and the Roman catholics consist chiefly of emigrants tirom Ireland, though their form of religion still prevails in some of the remote highland districts. Literature, soon after its revival in Europe, was cultivated in Scotland with peculiar ardour. Even in the age of scliolastic pursuits. Duns Scotus and Crichton were pre-emi- nently famed throughout the Continent When the sounder taste for classical knowledge followed, Buchanan acquired the reputation of writing Latin with great purity. Letters were almost entirely suppressed during the subsequent perio■ i: Btitling Caitle. fVom tho account of Tacitus, it would appear to have been first tbrmed by A^ricola. It Beems to have reached from near Dumbarton to Carridcn, rather more than thirty-six miles. Stirling is also crossed by llio great canal between the Forth and Clyde. The town of Stirling can bmst a situation as noble and commanding as any in Scotland. Tho view from its castle, which includes entire the principal range of the urampiiins, the meadows or links through which tho Forth winds, and a part of thirteen counties, is gener- ally considered the finest in the country. The main street, like that of Fidinbui^h, descends gradually down the ridge of the hill on which the castle stands {Jig. 190.). This fortress, in feudal times, was accounted one of the bulwarks of tho kingdom ; and Stirling wo^ the frenuent seat of royaltv, and the scene of many of tho most memorable and tragic events in Sc i,tish his- tory. The town owes its present limited pros- perity chiefljr to its carpet manufacture and other branches of industry. Falkirk is a larger town, situated in a broad and beautiful carse, through which the Forth flows. Tho three great annual trysts exhibit an imniense show of highland cattle and sheep brought up for the su))ply of the south- ern districts. Near Falkirk is Carron, accounted only a village, but the seat of the greatest iron- works in Scotland, in which, during war, 2000 men were employed. It particularly excels in grates, and in that species of artillery first cast here, and hence denominated carronodes. Grangemouth, at the connecting point of tho great canal with the Frith of Forth, derives from this situation a considerable trade. The next district, including the counties of Roxburgh, Selkirk, Peebles, Dumfries, and part of Lanark, may most properly bear tlie appellation of pastoral Scotland. It is covered with long ranges of^^hills, from one to two thousand feet high, clothed with pasturage to their Bum.nita. This is tho region of Scottish poetry. It was amid these scenes that Thomson and Scott caught that inspiration which has rendered their poetry the delight of their country. The chief occupation in this tract is sheep-farming. The towns in this tract are generally small and agreeable. Kelso is one of the most beautiful in Scotland, being surrounded by ornamented villas and extensive woods. The abbey is not without grandeur ; and the ruma of the castle of Roxburgh are striking. The village of Melrose is only distinguished by its abbey {fig. 191.), founded by David L , in the 191 ,m 1 twelflh century, and tlie finest edifice ever elected in the south of Scotland. The profusion of the ornaments, and the beauty of the sculptures, which remain nearly entire, have rendered it the study of the painter and the theme of the poet. Selkirk and Pee- bles, capitals of their respective little counties, are only pleasant villages, bordering on the great pastoral voles of Ettrick and Yarrow. Dumfries, a well-built, gay-looking city, is a sort Meirow Abbey. gf southern Scottish capital, and it has been so distinguished from an early period ; but no traces remain either of the castle, or of the mona.'rtCTy in which Cummmg fell by the hand of Bruce. The town carries on some trade by the Nith, which admits vessels of one hundred and twenty tons, and it has two great annual markets for the cattle from tlie west ; but it is chiefly supported by the gentry who make it their residence. Annan is agreeably situated at the mouth of the river of that name. A small spot, filmed in the annals of gallantry, is Gretna Green, close on the English border ; whither fly many a fond matrimonial pair, to escape the jealousy of parents and guardians. On the bleak northern boundary is Wanlockhead ; and nearly con- tiguous to it Leodhills, ui Lanarkshire. Wanlockhead yields annually lead to the amount of about 15,000 bars, of nine stones each ; and Leadhills about 18,000. Seats. The Duke of Buccleugh has numerous seats in the district, of which the chief is Drumlanrig (Castle (Jiff. 192.), a magnificent edifice, on the Nith, and surrounded by extensive parks and planta- tions, Amono' many others round Kelso, w Flours, the splendid seat of the Roxburffh family. Abbotsford, from the many addi- tions made by its illustrious proprietor, has DramiHnrif Ciutle. bccome a striking and picturesque ooject ^ii!^1J{\; ~^» ::A^> "eS^^b9f Part III. formed by Atfricola. It are than thirty-six miles. Ilyde. iding 08 any in Scotland, re of the GmnipianB, the iiteen counties, is genor- it of Edinburgh, dpscends Hg. 190.). This n)rtre88, mted one of the bulwarks lirling woa tlie fre(juent ) scene of many ot tho ric events in Sc i-tish his- its present limited proe- Bt manufacture and other 'alkirk is a larger town, beautiful carte, through Tho three great annual le show of highland cattle r the supply of the south- drk is Carron, accounted seat of the greatest iron- ich, during war, 2000 men scies of artillery first cast I connecting point of tho lonsidcrablc trade. k, Peebles, Dumfries, and il Scotland. It is covered led with pasturage to their ese scenes that Thomson de delight of their country. Kelso is one of tho most id extensive woods. The iburgh are striking. The bunded by David I., in the tury, and tlie finest edifice d in the south of Scotland. ion of the ornaments, and of the sculptures, which rly entire, have rendered of the painter and the poet. Selkirk and Pee- of their respective little only pleasant villages, _ the great pastoral vales ind Yarrow. Dumfries, a ray-looking city, is a sort Scottish capital, and it (lain either of the castle. The town carries on twenty tons, and it has chiefly supported by the at the mouth of tiie river Gretna Green, close on _ escape the jealousy of Dckhead ; and nearly con* ually lead to the amount 000. Duke of Buccleugh has in the district, of which nlanrig Castle C^^. 192.). !dificfi, on the Nith, and .tensive parks and planta- n nv others round Kelso, w ididsoatof the Ro.xburffh Ford, from the many addi- 1 illustrious proprietor, has ig and picturesque ooject BooE L SCOTLAND. 419 a The three counties of Ayr, Wigton, and Galloway compose what is called the West of Scotland. They are chiefly under pasture, and tito cultivators are mainly occupied in the rearing of cattle. The range of mountains which separates Ayr and Galloway is almost as elevated as any in Scotland ; but tiie upland country of the latter is, in general, diversi- fied only with steep rocky eminences of two or three hundred feet high. In Ayr, too, though tiio southern district ot Carrick bo very mountainous, the middle one of Kyle has a level cuiiut ; while Cunningham, tiic most nortiierly, consists almost entirely of a fertile plain, lldtli counties, Irom tho boundary line of mountains, are watered by fine rivers ; in one, the Ayr, tho Doon, and tho Irvine ; m the other, the Deo and the Creo. The Ayrshire breed of liorHcs, called also the Clydesdale, is highly esteemed ; and generally supplies the markets in tlio ea«t of Hcotland ; but the little active breed called galloways are now become scorce. Tiin kino of Ayrsiiiro arc valued chiefly for tiie dairy. The Galloway bullock produces beef of a peculiar excellence. The northern division of Ayr participates to a certain extent in tho flourishing manufactures of Lanarkshire. It has immense beds of valuable coal, which not oiily serve lor the supply of tho inhabitants, but are exported to Ireland in such quanti- ties as to form the chief trade of this county. To facilitate the transport, the Duke of Port- land has formed u fine harbour at Troon, and has connected it by a raU-road wilJi Kilmar- nock. Ayr, at the point where the rivers Doon and Ayr fall united into the sea, forms a sort of capital for tho gentry of a considerable part of Scotland. It was the principal scene of some groat historical events in the time of Wallace and Bruce ; and was carefiilly fortified by Oliver Cromwell; but the bar at tlie mouth of the harbour has been unfavourable to its progress. It exports, however, chiefly to Ireland, a considerable quantity of coal, brought by railways. The town is irregularly built, but has one handsome principal street. Its theatre, its academy, and some charitable institutions, are on a greater scale than the size of the town might lead us to expect. The ports of Troon, Saltcoats, and Ardrossan send largo quantities of coal to Ireland ; whence they receive grain for the supply of the great interior towns. Saltcoats, which has sprung up within the last century, is also noted for the manufacture of salt; and Ardrossan is now a watering-place of increasing resort Largs, the celebrated scene of the defeat of Haco, the last Danish invader, attracts many visiters by the extreme beauty of its situation. In the interior of Ayrshire is Kilmarnock, its largest and most thriving town. Tlie manufacture of vorious woollen stufls, and fabrics of leather; and latterly branches of the cotton weaving from Glasgow, place it .high in the list of Scottish manufacturing towns. Galloway is almost entirely a rural district. Its capitals, Wigton and Kirkcudbright, are pleasant country towns, and the latter, having a 'good harbour, has, of late, considerably increased. Portpatrick, the nearest point of Great Britain to the Irish coast, is the main channel of communication between Scotland and Ireland ; for which purpose an improved harbour has lately been constructed, and regular packet-boats are established. The counties of Lanark and Renfrew constitute the valley of the Clyde, the grand thea- tre of Scottish commerce and industry. Lanarkshire, or Clydesdale, is divided into three regions, of widely different character ; the upper valley is altogether a rude pastoral region Bolow Tinto, the banks of the Clyde assume a softer and gayer character, exhibiting a smc- ccssion of gardens and orchards. Below Hamilton comes the flat district around Glasgow, which supplies that city with inexhaustible stores of excellent coal. Glasgow is tlio commercial capital of Scotland, and in population ranks as the third town in tho island. Tradition ascribes its origin and erectbn into a bishopric to St. Mango, in the year 560. Its rapid rise commenced with the union, which opened to it tho trade with America and the West Indies, hitherto monopolised by the English ports. In 1718, for tho first time, a vessel from the Clyde sailed across the Atlantic. By the middle of tho century, the merchants of Glasgow imported more than lialf the entire amount of tobacco which camo into Great Britain ; and to them the French &rmers-general chiefly looked for tlieir supply of tliis important article. Their intercourse also with the West Indies, which had hitherto been very limited, was now carried on to a vast extent. A still greater source of wealth was opened at home. Glasgow had, in the course of the century, become a great manufacturing city, employing her indue.*ry on tho old staple of linen of the finer descriptions, as cambrics, lawns, gauzes ; also in the makin,';^ '>f stockings and of shoes for exportation ; but its product in these branches never exceeded 400.000Z. But when cotton was extensively introduced into Britoin, Glasgow devoted herself entirely to this new manufacture. She beca.ne the rival of Manchester ; and, if circumstances did not allow her to obtain so great a share of the manufacture, she produced some finer fabrics, and was as prompt in availing herself of every improved process ; iniinense fortunes were realized, and an annua' value of nearly 4,000,000/. sterling produced. Glasgow was one of the first places which adopted the in- vention of power looms, and she has now 10,000 of these, and 32.000 workeo by the hand. In 1830, the number of persons receiving parochial aid was only fiOOO, not quite one-fortieth I»art of tho inhabitants, and the sum expended on the poor was only 17,237J., although 130 DESCRIPnVE GEOGRAPHY. PartITT. Glasgow is now the largest town in Great Britain, London and Manchester excepted. The harbour is at the Broomielaw, where there is an extensive quay along the Clyde ; but so S-eat are the obstructions to its navigation, that Glasgow depends chiefly lor imports on reenock and Liverpool. In 1832 there entered its port only 79 vessels, of 8154 tons. Glas- gow is a handsome and well-built town. Its original streets of Argyle ond Trongate art broad and spacious ; and several handsome squares have been built within the limits of the city ; but the fashionable residences are now almost exclusively in the west, where, along a range of somewhat elevated ground, t. number of elegant and spacious streets have been erected. Gorbals, Calton, Bridgeton, Hutchesontown, Tradeston, and Anderston, are the principal suburbs, and ibrm tlie manufacturing part of the city. The public edifices deserve admiration. The cathedral (fig. 193.), one of the finest m Scot- land, is a massive structure, with a wooded hill ad- joining, on the top of which a monument has been erected to the memory of John Knox. The modem edifices are also handsome ; the Lunatic Asylum, this Assembly-rooms, the Infirmary, the Roman Catholic chapel, the new Exchange Reading-rooms, &c. de- servo mention. The bridewell is esteemed the most perfect in Scotland, both in point of construction and tJinmow Cutbedrai. management. Glasgow is not a mere commercial town ; its university, founded in 1450 by Bishop TurnbuU, has been adorned by a long suc- cession of illustrious teachers, of whom Simson, Hutcheson, Reid, Smith, Millar, are suffi- cient to ensure its celebrity. It is at present attended by 1400 students, and its name stands as high as at any former period. The library contains 30,000 volumes. The Museum be- queathed by the late Dr. Hui>''>r, is rich in anatomical preparations, shells, insects, fossils, as well as in coins and medals. An elegant Grecian edifice has been erected for its reception. Auxiliary to the University is the Andersonian Institution, founded with the view of com- municatmg to the commercial classes a knowledge of the elements of physical science ; for which purpose it has been found highly efficacious. The intellectual spirit of the ciu- zens is also proved by three libraries, and a botanic garden, all supported by public sub- Gcription. Paisley, tJiough in Renfrewshire, may be considered next, in order to connect together the great .seats of manufacture. This town anciently derived its distinction from its ecclesias- tical character. The abbey founded in 1160, was in a great measure demolished at the pwiod of the Reformation. Several of the windows, however, still afford fine specimens ot the ornamented Gothic ; and the nave was left so far entire, that it has hince served as a place of worship. Paisley was a small town until the middle of the last centuir, when it con- tained little more than 4000 inhabitants. Soon after, its manufactures, whicn were already begun, made most rapid advances. Down to the year 1783, they consisted chiefly of linen, fine thread, gau2.es, both of linen and silk, and other delicate and elegant fabrics. On the introduction of cotton, the manufacturers of Paisley, like those of Glasgow, cultivated this branch almost exclusively, pr^rerring its most elegant species. Muslin, the finest of all tlie productions of the loom, became the staple of Paisley. In 1805, there were 20,500 persona employed in weaving muslin, the entire produce of whose labours was rated at 1,250,000/. Since that time, the population having increased one-half, *he productive industiy has not, probably, advanced in a less proportion. By the improved navigatio.^ of the Cart and a canal, this town has communication with the Clyde, and the canal fromGlas^~w likewise, destined for Ardrossan, has been carried as far as Paisley. The county gaol and Di;:''»"'ell form one of the finest structures of the kind in the kingdom ; the town-hall and several of the churches are very handsome. The operative weavers of Paisley are equal in intelligence to any class of the some rank elsewhere ; and this spirit has led to the formation among them of a num- ber of book societies, reading rooms, and subscription libraries. Greenock is entirely a commercial and maritime station ; it is the only great western port of Scotland, but by far the larger proportion of the vessels belong to Glasgow. The prin- cipal trade consists in importing the produce of the West Indies, to which is added a very extensive herring fishery, and a share of the cod fisheries of Newfoundland and Cape Breton. The sum of 90,000/. has hcen lately expended in the improvement of the harbour, which can now contain 500 sail, and a handsome custom-house has been built by government In 1832 Uiere entered this port 282 vessels, tonnage 78,131. Greenock is not an elegant town; but the hills behind it command a noble view of the river, and of the mountains of Argyle on the opposite coast Port Glasgow, about three miles higher than Greenock, and a much smaller port, continues Subservient to Glasgow, receiving bucIi vessels belonging to that city as are too bulky to ascend the Clyde ; in this capacity, its trade is very considerable. Here was built the first dock in Scotland, in front of which a spacious quay extends along the Clyde, for the accom- piudation of those vessels which do not require to enter the basin. Renfrew, tlie capital of Book I. SCOTLAND. 42\ laller port, continues Bothwell Cutle. the county, is an old town, which has not shared in the prosperity of its noightnurb. Tho jihabitants, however, receive a little employment from the manufacturers of Glasgow. The banks of the Clyde above Glasgow, whose vicinity forms only a small part, however unportant, of the extensive county of Lanark, are still to be surveyed. First occurs Both- well {fig. 194.), one of the principal seats of the Douglases. Here Edward L placed tlie -iQA .^^ .ev^ chief garrison, which wob intended to hold Scot- ._-»«^ijE^« "-*^'' land in subjection. It is now a bold and striking ruin, rising above the river banks. A little above is Bothwell Bridge, so noted as the disastrous scene of the rout of the covenanting army. Far- ther up is Hamilton, a pleasant handsome town in a fine country : it is supported by the residence of the family of Hamilton, and by a branch of the cotton manu&cturc. From Hamilton the road leads through a range of orchards, and the most beautiful see. .( -y, to lanark. This town, though bearing the u .ne of the county, is only a large straggling village; but about a mile distant is New Lafiark, noted for the extensive cotton manu- factory established by the late Mr. Dale, and lately conducted by Mr. Owen. Whatever may be thought of the speculative tenets of the latter gentleman, the attention paid to the behaviour and comforts of those employed presented, certainly, in many respects, a model worthy of imitation. But Lanark has a still greater attraction in the falls of the Clyde, Boniton, Corra, Stonehyres, situated above and below it, at about two miles' distance from each other. Their lieight does not exceed eighty or ninety feet ; but the mass of water, with the grandeur of the rocky walls and hanging woods, render them one of the finest examples of this description of scenery. The northern Lowlands, beyond the Forth, form a belt of about twenty miles in breadth, reaching the shores of the Moray Frith. The coast is generally level and fertile ; but a great part of the interior is bleak and moorish. This district contains, however, several cities and seaports of considerable magnitude and importance. Fife was formerly distinguished as the centre of Scottish industry ; and one of its cities forms the ecclesiastical capital of Scotland. All the foreign commerce of the country was carried on in its ports ; and less than two centuries ago its rental amounted to a tenth part of that of the whole kingdom. Since Scotland has ceased to be agitated by war, Edinburgh and the opposite side of the Forth have attracted all these advantages ; and the numerous seaports on the northern coast of the Forth, have dwindled into fishing villages. Fife is, in general, a level country, yet diversified by a few hills of considerable elevation, as the Lomond Hills, and Largo Law. A great part of the interior is bleak and unproductive; and forming is less advanced than in the Lothians ; the spinning and weaving of flax is carried on chiefly for domestic use, unless at Dunfermline, where there is a large fabric of fine sheet- ing and diaper. The western coast abounds in coal, and in fine limestone, which is exported to a very great extent. The county town is Cupar, a place of moderate size, neat, with some stir of gaiety. A greater interest attaches to St. Andrew's firom its former greatness, from the remarkable scenes there acted, and igg AjIV ^''^"^ ^^ splendid edifices, of which firag- ments still remain. It is seated on a bold coast, facing a wide bay of the German Ocean; and has two fine, broad, parallel ____^,^^__^ ^,™__ streets, of which one is now almost deserted. ^i MBt^^^^^K^^LhS^ISi '^^^ castle and cathedral (Jig. 195.) have been demolished ; but a high square tower, and a gable of the chapel of St. Rule, still attest the elegance of tlie latter structure. The university contains a school of theology and philosophy, but has no classes in law or medicine. Founded under the auspices of Buchanan, it can boast many eminent professors and pupils ; though, from its almost insulated situation, it does not attract so great a concourse as Edinburgh. Kirkaldy has some foreign trade, and a considerable linen manu- facture. Dunfermline, anciently the most flourishing town in Fife, was a place of impor- tance, and the frequent residence of royalty. Malcolm Canmore founded here an abbey, which became one of the richest and most e^ icious in the kingdom ; it has been nearly demolished, yet its ruins evince its former splendour ; and ; irt of them has been appropri- ated as the parish church. On a contiguous spot, the tomb of Bruce was lately discoverecl. Dimfermline is distinguished by an extensive manufiictory of damask, diaper, and other fire linen cambrics, which employ 1500 looms, and yield an estimated annual produce of 120,000/. Kinross, the capital of the county of the same name, is a pleasant little town, chiefiv VouL *^ 36 *^ 81. Andrew's Calhedial. iSU DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pa«t m 4^ '■1 notud for ita situation on the shoroi 196 Lochloven Coillo. of Lochleven. This is a little lake, of considerable beauty, having, on an island in its cen* tre, a castle, (fig. 196.), anciently of groat strength, and noted in history, even before it acquired the romantic interest derived tVom tiio imprisonment of Mary, and her adventurous escape. Only a square turrcted building and one of the walls of the chapel now re* main. On another island are the traces of a very ancient and considerable priorv. Clackmannanshire is a pleasant little county, with a considerable extent of fine carse land, and great quantities of coal and lime. The town of Clackmannan is distinguished for the beauty of its situation. Close to it is nn ancient tower, built by Robert the Bruce. Alloa, two miles farther down, Ls a thriving little place, in whose vicinity ore mines of coal, of which about 35,000 tons are annually exported. Forfar, morfl usually termed Angus, is of somewhat rough aspect, the westein border being encroached upon by lower branches of the Grampians, while the Sidlaw Hills, a range of considerable height, traverse the centre. Between those is a portion of the great valley of Strathmore, which is here fertile and beautitiil, as is also the plain between Sidlaw and tlie coast Its prosperity depends chiefly upon manufactures, commerce, and fishery. Dundee, the largest town in Forfarshire, ranks fourth in Scotland as to population and wealth. It was ot early importance and strengtli, deriving its origin from Malcolm Canmore, and it obtained a fatal celebrity through the sieges, by Edward I. ; by the Marquis of Mon- trose; and by Monk, who gave it up to indiscriminate pilloge. Dundee, however, has reco- vered firom these disasters, and is become one of the most flourishing commercial towns in Scotland. Her staple employment consists in the importation of flax and licmp, and work- ing them into coarse linens, sailcloth, &c. There have been exported in one year 100,713 pieces of Osnaburg, 148,377 of sheeting, 81,754 of sailcloth, with bagging, sacking, dowlas, and other fabrics, of the entire value of about 1,500,000^.; four-fif>.hs of which were made in Dundee itself. Dundee has belonging to licr, 270 vessels of 33,000 tons ; and in a single year a tonnage of 212,000 has entered the port. The harbour has been greatly enlarged Dy wet docks and other additions; and a railway opens a communication into the valley of Strathmore. The population, exceeding 45,000, shows a remarkable increase since 1821 when it was only 30,500. Dundee is agreeably situated on an eminence above the Tay ; the old streets are narrow and steep, but new and handsome ones are built and building in every direction ; and the vicinity i:; adorned with elegant villos. There is an academy, distinguished by the scientific attainments of some of its teachers. Arbroath carries on upon a smaller scale, the same branches as Dundee; and is adorned with the ruins of a magnificent abbey. Montrose is prettily situated at the mouth of a river, bearing, in common with many 1^ others, the name of Esk. Its trade and industry are considerable ; and it has a safe harbour. A number of the neighbouring gentry have been at- tracted by its agreeable situation, which renders it the most fashionable place in the county. Forfar, the county town, situated in the valley of Strathmore, is chiefly supported by the business of the courts ;. there ia also a manufacture of brown linens. The village of Glammis is distinguished by the magnificent castle (fig. 197.) in its vicinity. Kincaraine is closely hemmed in by the Grampians on the west : it contains, however, in its southern district, the termination of '■^ the great valley of Strathmore, which ia here called the " How of the Meams ;" and forms a tract equally fertile and de- lightful. The northern part consists chiefly of mountains and moors of the most bleak and dreary aspect. The coast is of great extent, and very bold, pre- senting in many parts high precipitous clifl[s, covered with innumerable flocks of sea-birds; on one of these are the Dunnouar Caitie. extensive remains of the castle of Dun Olammit Coaile. ■Tj;j»--i',f-',f, ififfi Rook I. SCOTLAND. 423 nottar, (Jig. 108.)i considored formerly as impregnable, where Uie regalia of Uie kinffdom were at oi><) time deposited. Stonehaven, tlio county-town, carri sa on some trade, and naa a manufuctui'e of brown linen. Abcnioon is a large and important northern county. It has . . ..y considerable line of cooBt, both to the east and to the north, and extends, with increasing breadth, far into tho interior. Thoro it forms Mar, or Braemar, a highland district, one of the most elevated in tho king|lom, some of the mountains risi.:g to above 40U0 feet, and containing extensive forests of anciont pines, with large flocks of wild deer, in tiie deep glens or valleys. From tho heigiils of Bniomar descend tho Dee and the Don, the first of which forms some very picturesque (alls in its early course. Even tho Lowland districts are in general bleak and moorish, adapted only to the cultivation of inferior spcies of grain, and the rearing of cattle. The old staple fabric of knitting worsted stockings has been greatly injured by tho cheap- neis with which these are now produced elsewhere by the aid ot machinery ; but other woollen branches, together with those of linen and cotton, the latter to a considerable extent, have been introduced. The beautiful rock crystals called cairngomu, and also the topaz and the beryl, are found in the mountains of Braemar; and tho fine grai\ite which abounds near Aberdeen, yields 12,000 tons to be annually shipped to London and elsewii? tho heart of their inal dress was pro< :cr the first alarms, illation. Pitt con* 'ing even a limited !st and most distin- ler funds voted by roads, bridges, and », deprived of their accustomed them- ording to the great among vassals, in eep-farms ; and the mo migrated to the nee of the advance ■ population during 3en 1801 and 1821, , generally diffused [prove the conditioD lis from their 6ere, England or Scot- lorth. Tho formal the latter embracet stern Isles, belong veen the Lowlands tho one with tht irse of Gowrie ; t orchards and cul- Ticff, varied with y almost be called impians gradually nty, in a line from jawers, Benmore, upwards of 4000 Earn, and Katrine. of great grandeur ibction; the high- hey are, however, ietors have been in the different jt this can in no in the kingdom. 5d plain, with the without a rival in Scotland. It was met there ofloner h was considered I a raLx decidedly lk)OK I. SCOTLAND. Fall ofBruar. orovincial ; and ita commerce, once conBidera>'e, has been almost wholly transferred to Dundee. It has linen and other manufactures, . 'hich produce an annual valuo of alxiut 200,000/. ; while ita advantageous site, and the exccJent education afforded by tlio grammar ichool and academy, attract a number of the neighbouring gentry, and render it gay and fashionable. The other towns of Perthshire are small, but distinguished for tho grand and picturesque Bcenery amid which thev are situated. Dunkeld, in this respect, is generally considered tho pride of Scotland; the finely wooded and rocky hills through which the Tay meanders, with tho valleys and glens opening on every side, produce a diversity of landscape scarcely equalled elsewhere. Tho late Duke of Athol, whose spacious (lotnaina cover this part of Perthshire, was most active in respect to plantations, since those of Dunkeld alone cover 11,000 acres; and the whole number of treea planted by ihe duke amount to 30,000,000. A route of twenty miles, directly north, passing opposite to the fine mountain village of Logierait, and through tho bold pass of KiUikrankie, leads to Blair, also part of the Atnol territory, and one of the most picturesque spots in Scotland. Its striking features consist in the lofly mountain Bcngloe, the glens of the Tilt and the Garry, ond the picturesque rocky falls of the Bruar (Jiff. 199.). Westward is Loch Rannoch, surrounded by extensive forests of fir, and overhung by Sche< hallion, on whose lofly summit Dr. Maskelyne per- formed some of his opierations for the measurement of the earth. Out of it flows the Tumel, n rapid stream, which forms some romantic cascades. From the Tumel, a military road leads to Lc< h Tay, the larj»est of the lakes, and surrounded by the loftiest mountains of Perthshire, ilen Lawers, with a chain of attendant mountains, overhangs it from tho north ; while Benmore shuts it in on the west ; and perhaps there ia no lake m Britain enclosed by so grand a circuit. The sides of the mountains are somewhat naked ; but the grounds of Taymouth, at the head of the loch, form a rich foreground. Farther south is the vale of Strathearn, at one end of which, Crieff, a thrivini^ little town, looks up '■.! the windings of tho river, and the vast mountains from amid which it issues. Loch Eain, a small Idee, ia bounded on the south by grand ranges of very lofty moun- tains. The upper valleys of the Forth and the Teith have some very remarkable scenery. On the Allan, i^ Dumblane; a pleasantly situated little town, with the remains of'^a fine cathedral ; Callender, overhung by Benledi, is chiefly frequented aa the key of Loch Katrine, situated about ten miles to the westward, and approached by a narrow road along the small lakes of Venachoir and Achray. The scenes of beauty and grandeur which adorn the eastern extremity of this lake, the mighty clif& of Benvenue, the wild wooded glen of the Trosachs, and the beautiful little island in the centre of the scene, have obtained celebrity from the muse of Scott. Farther south, the Forth, rising from Ben Lomond, rolls through a pastoral mountain valley, once the seat of the power and the scene of the adventures of the outlaw Macgregor. It forms several little lakes, of which Loch Ard is the largest and most beautiful. The county of Inverness is purely highland, presenting range after range of mountains, of which Ben Nevis, Cairngorm, and several others, are the most elevated in the Uni*^ed Kingdom. The intervals between them are filled either by long lakes, or by narrow glo is, the level space of which does not usually exceed a mile in breadth. The principal one, called the Great Caledonian Glen, reaches from Inverness in an oblique direction across the kingdom, filled with an almost unbroken chaui of lakes, — Loch Ness, Loch Oich, Loch Lochy, and Loch Linnhe ; which last opens by the Sound of Mull into the western sea ; a continuity which facilitated the formation of the Caledonian Canal. In the east, the district along the upper course of the Spey, bearing the name of Strathspey, comprises an unusual extent of level land. Only about a fortieth part of the county is capable of cultivation ; but that fortieth, composed of haugh or alluvial land, on the rivers, or the lakes, is extremely fertile. The greatest branch of industry consists in the rearing of black cattle, sheep, and goats. Game of all kinds abounds, and there are still considerable remains of the great Caledonian forest, composed chiefly of fir. Inverness, the gay capital of the Highlands, is of a very difTerent character from that of the wild region over which it holds a sort of dominion. Seated on a bay, at the head of the Moray Frith, it partakes in a great measure of the mild and fertile character of its shores, and stands at some little distance from the awful ranges of mountains by which it is enclosed. Vol. L 36* 3D DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part IH. m} ■ 4iM FtU or Fran. Aflor lufTuring a conaidoreble doclino Ouin ita ancient importance, it hoa, wittiin tho lut thirty yoara, nearly tripled itii extent and pupulatiun. In ((oncral, a cunitiderablo polislt of maniicra is obitcrvablo ; and it has boon ronmrkcd that tho En^liiih lunifuuizo i» i|)uken in (ffORtor purity than in any other part of ScutiamI ; a circuniiitancn whicli iiaii been ascribed to the rcaidonco of Enf^litth otticcrB atlcr tho Itattle of Culloden. InvcrncHa liaa a town huuHV, infirmary, OMonibly-ruom.H, and theatre. Manutiicturoa of hemp, flux, and tartan have been catablisliod. The views, botii of sea and hind, in its vicinity, arc alntoet un- rivalled. Iuvcmo8»4hiro has acorcoly another place which can make mucli pretension to tlio nam« even of a villaifo. Ben Nevis, usually considered tho loflicst mountain in Scotland and in the United Kingdom, is 4370 feot above tho level of tho sea ; the view fVom tho summit is very exten- sive, embracing a great portion of the Ilobrldcs, To the east of lioch Ness, tho rivulet of Fycrs or Foyers {fff. iJOO.), forms tJie greatest waterfall in Scotland; tho lower or principal full dcscemii from a height of 212 feet; but tho stream is not very coi)ious. Argylo, commonly called tho Western High- lands, IS tt wi xpanse of its waters, and ' ,'ic many bcautifiil islands with which is stuiWed. From its foot, bordered by cultivated hills and ornamented villas, to its mountain head, there is a con- tinu(>d transition from beauty to grandeur, and at the central point of Luss they are remarkably mited. The numerous and beautiful islands, and the long wooded pro- montories stretching into the water, with the majestic form of Ben Lomond in the background, protiuce a combination of land- scape which perhaps no other spot in Britain can equal. On turning the head of Loch Long at Arrochar, the view opens on the romanti'" valley of Glencoe, enclosed between two ranges of mountains rising almost perpendicularly to an amazing height, and leaving between them only a narrow vale, through which a rivulet flows. The vale of Glenfinglas is then passed, whose high sloping sides covered with innumerable flocks inspire pleasing pastoral images, and at the termination of which finrthar? the grand estuary of Loch Pyne. Liverary, the capital of the \ estem Highlands, is situated near the head of Loch Fyne Dumbarton Cullo. Loch Lomond. paht in. haa, within tho lut I coiiaidorablo polialt i languatfo iit spoiten [ICO wiiicl) iiaa been len. Invcrnoiw hu ^ lioinp, flux, and tartan inity, aro alntoet un« rotension to tlio name vis, UMually conaiilorcd Scotland and in the eot above tlio lovcl of Bumniit is very exton- rtion of tho IIcbrideB. ho rivulet of Fyors or Kroatest waterfall in rinciiwl fall dcscendi but tho stream is not d tlic Western Ilijfh- jlar territory, Btretch- , and indented by deep form a coast of very tho shore is bordered or covered with ranges indujtry is almost cn» black cattle and vast the sides of its moun- , enjoys a high remita- i rally round the Mac- tho ardour of kindred of the same district; nding along the north* 3 western part are the 'de at Dunglass; and ■)y tho Scottish vulgar jacli to Dumbarton af- proHpects in Scotland; ancient and mighty on tho sununit of a ;ains its importance as large manufactory of to foreign parts; and Ind t iio many beautifiil Vurtroiluces a highly picturesque ctlect. Dvyond this. Loch Ktive, a narrow arm of tho aoa, stretches far into Die interior. Climbing iliu high mountaina at tho head of Loch Etive, we como to Glcncoo, which in terrific mndeur Rurpaaaos jierhaps every other spot in Great Britain. This cfibct ia produced by its bold and broken mountain forma, ita spiry rocks, and black precipices ; at tho bottom of wliifli, in a deep chasm or ravine, flows the rivulet of Coo. This stream is tho Cona of OsHJan, believed tho favourite haunt of that celebrated Caledonian bard. Tho valo has also a gloomy recollection attached to it, from the massacre of 1601. Emerging from this scene, the traveller is cheered with tlio gay aspect of Loch Leven, which presents much pleasing highland scenery, while the hills round the ferry of Bulachulish afllird valuable quarries o? ilate. From Iklachulish, along the broad expanse of tho Linnho Loch with which tho great Caledonian chain terminates, (Extends Appin, a beautiful district, diveraiflcd with flno woods, rich pasturage, and more culture than is usual in Argyleshire. On the opposite side of the Linnlio Locn is a peninsular district called Ardnamurchan, separated only by a narrow ■»und from the Island of Mull. The district of Strontian contains lead-mines of some value. Crossing the Linnhe, and passing Liamore, a lon^, level, and fertile island, wo And Lome, leparated by Loch Creran from Appin, to which it is even superior in beauty and fertility. Near the opening of Loch Etivo into the sea, tradition places Beregonium, the reported capital of tho Picta in the third century ; and near it is found Dunstaffhago (fig. 204.), once tlu I '".of Scottish regal pomp, low a ruin, crowning a clifl* along the western sea. The long pen- insula of Cantyre stretches far out into the sea, being visible from the Irish coast of Antrim. The Macdonalds, lords of the Isles, long held away over it, till they were driven out by the earls of Argyle. Campbelltown, """"»''''•»•*'""•■ near ite southern extremity, is a thriving port, now the largest on this cooat, and serving in particular as a general ren- dezvous for the herring fishery. The three extreme counties, Ross, Cromarty, and Sutherland, form the most remote and northerly portion of the Highlands, and, Caithness excepted, of all the mainland. The south- eastern border of the friths of Moray, Cromarty, and Dornoch contains some fine land, and several thriving towns ; the rest is a continued range of rock, mountain, heath, forest, and loch, similar to Inverness, but still wilder. The lochs which indent the western coant ore large and numerous, particularly Loch Carron, Jjoch Terridon, and Loch Broom ; and they have generally grand mountain boundaries. Cape Wrath, the north-western point of Sco^ land, is a lofly pyramidal rock, standing in front of a vast range of broken cliffs, and breasting the whole wide expanse of the ocean. On the northern coast is Loch Eribol, a wide inlet, bordered by limestone rocks, per- forated by caves of great extent and re- markable form. Sutherland presents numer- ous Duns, or ancient forts of peculiar struc- ture, of which the most remarkable is Dun Domadilla^(/j§'. 205.), situated on the loflv sides of Ben Hope, not far from Loch Eribol. Cromarty, the capital of the little county si the same name, stands at the foot of ibi Dun Doroadilla. 128 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paiit III 'X' •'I ¥M4 own flrith ; while Din^^wall, the county town of Ross, is situated at the head. Cromnrty is « considerable fishing station. On tlio south side of the Dornoch Frith is Tain, and on tho north is Dornoch, an ancient town, of wIiobo cathedral some part still remains. Caithness forms tho north-eastern angle of Scotland : it is scarcely a highland county, only the Paps of Caithness rising to tho character of mountains. Its surface is moist, blonk, and bore, filled with little lakes, and covered with extensive moors. The chief branch of industry is tho herring fishery. Kelp is also made fVom the sea-weed thrown on its shores. Thurw), the county town, is an improving place, in tho midst of a cultivated country. Its bav ultnrds a safb roadstead, peculiarly valiiable for ships, which, in rounding the north of acutla: j, must pass through tho Pentland Fritli, rendered dangerous by its violent and rapid ctirronts, Wick, tho grand rendezvous of tho herring fishery, owes to tliis advantage a very mpid increase. The nortli-eastern point of Caithness and of Scotland bears the fiunuiar appelliition of John o'Grodt's liouse; though there is not the vestige of a house to correspond tu this title, which is founded on a mere traditionary story. SuBSEOT. 3. — Scottish Islandt, The islands appendent on Scotland, form ono of its most conspicuous fbaturcs. Tiiough neither rich nor fertile in proportion to tlioir extent, thov exhibit a great variety of bold and striking scenery, and are peopled by a race whose habits of life and forms of socinty are peculiar to themselves. They may bo divided into the islands at the mouth of tho Clyde; tho Hebrides, or Western Islands; and the Northern Islands, or those of Orkney and Shetland. The islands of the Clyde are chiefly Bute and Arron, with tlie smaller ones of tho Cum- brays and Ailsa. Bute is of beautiful aspect, with a climate accounted the mildesc in Scot- land, and for that reason resorted to by invalids ; a considerable part of the surface is arable and well cultivated. Rothsay is a pretty town, much frequented for sea-batliing, nnd en- riched by a considorablo herring fishery. Arran presents much bold alpine scenery, tiie central mountain of Goatficld rising to nearly the heigiit of 3000 feet, while the glen of Sanox at its base has the highest character of savage and romantic grandeur. Lamlanh, the principal town, possesses an excellent harbour. Ailsa, ofl" the Ayrshire coast, is a rock 900 feet high, with lofly basaltic clitfs, formed into columns several hundred feet in height. Tlie Hebrides, or Western Islands, stretch far into tho Atlantic. Their general aspect is highland, with rude rocks and mountains, deep and dark valleys, large expanses of peat-moss, hill postures, and scanty harvests ; the mountains ascend ratiier in single peaks than in lun^ ranges ; nnd tho rocky clifis whicli fticc tho sea assume, in many places, columnar forms of peculiar grandeur. The climate is moist ; yet milder than on the mainland. The oarlicBt mhabitants seem to have been Celtic. About tho eleventh century, they were conquered, together with Man, by Harold Harfiiger, nnd were governed for several centuries by a Nor- wegian dynasty, after which tliey owned the nominal sovereignty of the Scottish kinffs, but fell really under the sway of the Mncdonalds, lords of the Isles. Their territory incluilinp a great part of tho west coast of Scotland, formed a considerable power, till it fell partly under 5ie dominion of tlie Scottish crown, and was partly divided among a number of petty chiefs, whose feuds (ieform the subsequent pages of Hcbridean history. At present these islands may be considered as retaining moro of highland habits and feelings, than any part of the mamland. The Hebrides may be divided into two main ranges. One of them consists of tho large islands of Islay, Jura, Mu'.l, and Skye, with several minor attendants, which are nearly contiguous to the west coast, and separated from it only by narrow straits and sounds ; tlie other is composed of North and South Uist, Harris, Iicwis, which are considerably out at sea, and are classed, witli no very strict propriety, undei tho general appellation of Long Island. Islay contains a good deal of level and fertile territory, which induced the lords of the Isles to make it their residence ; good crops of barley, oats, and even wheat, are raised ; and the black cattle, hich form the main export, are held in great estimation. Jura is separated from Islay only ly a sound, tlie opposite sides of which correspond so exactly os to suggest the idea of their having been disjoined by some violent shock ; it is one continued tract of brown and rocky mountain pasture ; all the inhabitants, if collected, would scarcely people a large village. Scarba consists of a single conical mountain broken into rocky precipices, and terming a striking object. Between Jura and Scarba is the perilous strait of Corryvre- kon, a whirlpool noted fcr shipwreck. Colonsay and Oronsay form one long island, tlie channel between them being passable at low water. The former has a verdant appearance; at Oromiay are the remains of a priory, ranking as the finest in the Highlands next to that of lona^ Mull is a large, rough, stormy island, with winding and deeply indented shores, separated by a long narrow sound from the Ar^yleshire coast The shores are almost everywhere rocky and precipitous ; tho two once mighty holds of Duart and Aros crown rocky clifis on its eastern shore. The great keep of the former, with its walls nine feet thick, encloses on area Paut III 10 head. Cromnrty ia t itii is Tain, and on tlio \ rotnainB. a highland county, only kce IS moist, bioni{, and chief brancii of industry on its sltorcs. Thurso, iountry. Its boy uirnrds the north of Scotia; J, lent and rapid curronts. advantage a very rapid the fUmiliar appellation D to correspond to thia lous fbaturcs. Though rent variety of bold and nd forms of socioty are le mouth of the Clyde; those of Orkney and laller ones of the Cum- :ed the mildest in Scot- of the surface is arable or sea-batliinff, and en> lid alpine scenery, the feet, while the plen of frandeur. Laralnsli, the lire coast, is a rock OOC red feet in height. Their general aspect is > expanses of peat-moss, bgle peaks than in lon^ icce, columnar forms of lainland. Tlie oorlicet . they were conquered, ral centuries by a Nor- the Scottish kin^;s, but ir territory including a till it fell partly imdcr number of petty chiefs, present these islands I, than any part of the consists of the large nts, which arc nearly iraits and sounds; tlie re considerably out at 1 appellation of Long uced the lords of the wheat, are raised ; and ;ion. Jura is separated exactly as to suggest )ne continued tract of would scarcely people into rocky precipices, )U8 strait of Corryvre- one long island, tlie verdant appearance; ighlands next to that ted shores, separated B almost everywhere own rocky cliffs on its ick, encloses an area Hook I. SCOTLAND. 4Sb loni. of thir'y-six feet by twelve. Black cattle, black-faced sheep, celebrated for theii delicate mut on, kelp, and herrings, are exported. Staffa, a large rock, about a mile and a half round, and encircled by cliffs, which nowhere oflfl _^. .„ ^ ■_ exceed in height 144 feet, contains the *vo — r- .^'--...v. Cave of Fingal (//?■. 206.) Almost all the rocks of the island are basaltic and columnar; but here they are arronged so as to produce the most singular and magnificent effect. An opening, sixty- six feet high and forty-two wide, formed by perpendicular walls terminated by an arch at the top, admits into a natural hall, more than two hundred feet lon^, and bounded on each side by basaltic columns rising in regular symmetrical succession. Two other caves, the Cor- riniBi'tCav.. morants' Cave and the Boat's Cave, present similar scenes. Of the columnar rocks, which extend over a great part of the island, many are bent and twisted in a remarkable manner, lona ifg. 207), a small island near Staffa, excites the deepest interest by the venerable ruins which attest, in this secluded corner, the early existence of re- ligion and learning, at a time when the rest of the kingdom was buried in barbarism. St. Columba, about the middle of the sixth century, founded here a monastery, and made it a centre whence he en- deavoured to diffuse the light of Christianity. This religious estab- lishment was enriched and extend- ed, and a nunnery was afterwards instituted under the same auspices. The Culdees, or followers of Co- lumba, appear to have rendered very great services to Britain, and even to the whole North. Teachers were often drawn from among them for seminaries in England ; and they under took missionary expeditions to Norway, and even to Russia. They taught, in a grca measure, the principles of primitive Christianity, rejecting both the vows of celibocy, and the ceremonies of the Romish church. lonn, however, at length became Roman catholiC; and continued to flourish till the Reformatio i, when its monks were dispersed, and its edi- fices demolished. The cemetery also remains, in which, according to tradition, were buried forty-eight kings of Scotland, ci|fht of Norway, four of Ireland, and one of France. Al- lowing the scepticism of Dr. Macculloch as to this magnificent list, it appears confirmed, from the ornaments on the tombs, that many of the West-Insular ci iefs chose this as a sacred spot, where their ashes might repose. The ruins are extensive. The cathedral is 164 feet long and 34 broad ; and near it is a chapel sixty feet long. The style of architecture is early and rude ; and the sculptures, though pretty numerous, are, with a few exceptions, grotesque in design and execution. Skyc, the most northerly of this inner chain, is the largest of the group. Il^ is forty- five miles long ; but its shores are so winding, and so penetrated by lochs, that it may be said to form a cluster of peninsulas. Ranges of rocky mountains, many of them 3000 feet high, cover almost the entire surface, and the high rocks with which it is everywhere bordered, display objects of striking and romantic grandeur. In Strathaird, near the southern point, is the celebrated spar cave ; it is about 250 feet from the entrance to the extremity ; but a great part of the passage is gloomy and rocky, and only in its most inte- rior part do the stalactites begin to branch out into that variety of intricate and brilliant ornaments which make the cave so beautiful. The great body of the island is a hilly moor- land, barren, brown, and rugged ; the peaks being generally from 500 to 1000 feet high ; but some points are level and arable. The exportation of cattle, with that of a considerable quantity of kelp, forms the chief trade of the island ; large quantities of herrings are also taken, and cured by fishermen, who carry on this branch of commerce on a small scale. The property of Skye is almost shared between the family of Lord Macdonald who claims descent firom the ancient lords of the Isles, and that of Macleod. Duntulm, the almost ruined seat of the Macdonalds, and the Mscleods' castle of Dunvegan, a magnificent pile, founded in tho thirteenth century, are on the north-west coast. On the east is Rasay, masked by long lofly cliffs of fine sandstone, which have on their tops green and cultivated farms. To tho south-west is Rum, a wild aiid rugged mass of mountains, surrounded by shores scarcely :'.f ^-E-^r"- 43C DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pabt III. accessible, and involved in almost perpetual tempest On the east of Rum ii Egg at Eigg, which contains several large caves. Long bland is the general name ^iven to the exterior chain of the Hebrides, which con- sists of five large and many smaller islands ; so closely contiguous that the whole may be considered as one island. It is a strange mixture of bogs, rocks, lochs, and sands; its pas< tures are chiefly occupied with cattle destined for the markets of the mainland ; and large quantities of kelp are produced, which yield considerable profit Lewis is the largest of all the Hebrides, being upwards of eighty miles fi«m north -eajgt to south-west, and, at some points, more than twenty in breadth. Of its inhabitants, those occupying its most northern point called the Butt of Lewis, appear to be Danish, the rem- nant of that colony who once ruled the island. The people are industrious in cultivating their rude soil, and in the fisheries which have renderea Stomoway, the capital of Lewis, a place Of some consideration. Harris^ a peninsula on the southern point of Lewis, consists of a mass of rugged rocks, which project in long promontories into the sea, giving to the shore a very picturesque aspect The arable patches ore small, and in stm the summit to the base. " Dizzy heights, from which the eye looks down over jutting crags ; a boiling sea below, without a boundary; dark cliffs beaten by a foaming surge, and lost in the gloom of involving clouds ; the mixed contest of rocks, ocean, and sky," are the scenes which characterise SL Kilda. On the top of the rocks is a green and somewhat fertile surface, on which are fed sheep of the Norwegian breed, with short tails and coarse wool, but whose mut- ton is delicious ; there are a few cows, and a little very fine bear is grown. But the &vourite food of the natives is drawn from the fiice of the perpendicular cliffs, which in fearful and dizzy height overhang their shores. Suspended by a rope, they step from point to point and take the eggs or young of the solan goose, puffin, cormorant, petrel, and others of the numerous species which breed on their sides. The Orkneys form a group of about thirty in number; but Pomona or Main- land contains nearly as much ground as all the rest put together. Nothing can be more irregular than their form ; the deep sounds by which they are penetrated, and the narrow straits which separate them from each other, cause a complete intermixture of land and sea. These straits are rendered dangerous oy numerous currents and eddies fh)m the two oceans which rush in fi-om opposite sides. Reference to the Map of the Orkney Iiiande. NORTH RON- ALDSHAY. 1. Holland. i Stvii 3. Maykirk 4 Cron uid Burn« i Buty» WE8TRAY. 1. Nawark 3. Bpuonur 3. Pyrawall. ROWflAV. 1. Bavaaknai 8. Wealaide. I 8HAPINSHAT. 1. Wallnan 3. Kirkbuftei 3. Holland. POMONA or MAINLAND. I. at. Andrew'i 3. Bandiida 3. Holm 4. Popior 9. GaJoip 6. Snbo 7. KickwaU 8. Firlh 9. Beaps 10. Wiak 11. Orphir 13. Chaairon 13. Tumtton 14. Rpndall U. Woodwlek 16. 17. 18. 19. 90 si. S3. Bnrfai Biraa Maiwiek Kirknen MnjnMjMr Bandwiek BlromDeM. HOY .Uor S. Bring 3. Afr 4. Bt. Walbr. anTTTu Tjnw. "XiiDSHAY. 1. Cara S.Kirk 3. Bmrksk 4. Brouf li. ■rrr )[■■ .| irw«). -;■■.-/■■");*-' -j Part in. Rum if E^g or Eigg, Hebrides, which con- at the whole may be IS, and sands; its pa» mainland ; and large ailes flrom north -east its inhabitants, those > be Danish, the rcni- iiBtriouB in cultivating le capital of LewJB, a int of Lewis, consists the sea, ghi'mg to the in such inaccessible numerous than black Uist, with Benbecuk, ompose about eighty ). The most flourish- 2500 tons. Barra is s through the Crinan shore is Chisamil, the have been capabln of ir out in the Atlantic, x>ut three miles vong, feet high; Conoxhan, e island, being there \oi\yr firom the summit f heights, from which Dver jutting crags ; a ivithout a boundary; a foaming surge, and involving clouds ; the ks, ocean, and sky," ich characterise St f the rocks is a green surface, on which are rwogian breed, with wool, but whose uiut- are a few cows, and is grown. But the latives is drawn from ndicular clifls, whicl; eight overhang their a rope, they step nd take the eggs or ise, puffin, cormorant, le numerous spcciei sides. a group of about it Pomona or Main- B much ground as all Nothing can be ;heir form ; the deep rate them from ejich J rendered dangerous from opposite sides, S. Bring 3.Afr 4. 8t Wilby. ar\j-rru iinw. "Xloshay. 1. Can 3.Kifk 3. Berwick 4. Biouili. Book I. SCOTLAND. 431 P/g. atO. UapqflJke SitOmi Manii. llie Pentland Frith, in particular, between Orkney and the Mainland, is a most formidable passage. The opposing currents keep the channel in a state of perpetual ebullition, and produce at several points, violent whirlpools. Orkney is in general low, bleak, boggy, and bare ; though its western islands face the Atlantic with some very bold and rugged cli&. About a twelfth part is cultivated in i^ n.de manner with the plough; a somewhat larger portion is under regular pasture ; the re&t is moor and waste. The cattle, though small, are of a good breed ; and about 50,000 sheep, almost in a wild state, roam through the commons. The fisheries are not extensive ; kelp is the staple commodity for export : it has averaged annu" ally 2500 tons, employing 3000 men. There is some coarse woollen, and of late there has been some linen manuf»;turo. As raoet of the vessels destined for Hudson's Bay and the whale fishery, and many of those which, from the east coast, sail to all parts of the world, pass by the north of Scotland, the ports of the Orkneys are frequented, and a market is afibrded for their provisions. The topographical details of Orkney do not possess anv peculiar attraction. Kirkwall, however, bears marks of the periods when it was a Danish capital, and a residence of the sovereign Earls of Orkney. There is a large and massive cathedral, in some parts very elegantly ornamented ; also ruins of a king s palace, an earPs castle, and a bishop^ palace. The town has of late been considerably extended and improved, and it has a good natural har- bour. Stromness has one of the best harbours in the kingdom, and is the favourite resort of vessels which seek on this coast for shelter and refreshment Near Stromness is that remarkable remnant of antiquity the "standing stones of Steimis," tvhirh in magnitude and singular character almost rivals Stonehenge. Shapiiuhay, Stronsay, Rovirsay, Eday, Westray, Papa, and Sanday, are small islands stretching to the north-east Bum and South Ro- naldshay are towards Caithness; and to the west the long island of Hoy, which presents a series of bold and rugged promontories. The Zetland or Shetland islands, called by ttie natives Hialtland, form one of the extremities of Europe, en- circled by the illimitable exteiut of the Arctic and Atlantic oceans. Placed thus far north, and amid so wide a waste of waters, the climate of Zet- land is cold, bleak, swept by furious winds, and deluged by torrents of rain. The surface is rugged, without being mountainous; it is everywhere pene- trated by long lagoons with flat shores, called voeSf by which even the largest islands are so mtersected, that there is scarcely a spot in them two miles distant from the sea. The extensive mosses, and thp trunks of trees dug out of them, prove that a vast expanse was once covered witli natural forests; but these are now totally eradicated, and the violence of the v:..ds and sea-spraj has rendered abortive every attempt to replace them, so that the aspect of the country is now completely naked, scarcely producing even a shrub. The coasts are peculiarly steep, rocky, and bold, the rocks being hollowed into deep caverns, and broken into precipices and cliffs of the most vaiied forms. The aspect of these shores, against which the waves of the great surrounding ocean dash with almost perpetual fury, is equally grand and terrible. The References to the Map of the Shetlajid Island*. UNST. t NorwicJc jL Vmgarth ) WindEouM 3. Sandwick 4. Quexk. MAINLAND. l.Skw 3. Orbuara 4. Stennew a. SalherbouM 6. Deal 7 Broufh C ,fU1>ll 9. Berfild 10. Melbr 11. Munklnre is. Culiwick K. Sandateng ji. nraR 1.1. Dingwall Ifl. Iierwick 17. St. Paul'i 18. Marwick 19 Bigtowa. SO. Qucndal. BREBSAY 1. nnnlia S. Su Andnwi i 489 DESCRIPTIVE OEOailAPHY. Part IR author of " Tiie Pirate" draws a niost lively picture of these " deep and danj^roiM boiui oi the north, tlioir precipices and liendland<9, many hundred fbot in hoiglit — their periluun ■traits, and currents, and eddies — long sunken rep' of rock, over whicli tlie vivid ocean foams and boils,— dark caverns, to wnoso extrenmies neither man nor skiff has over von> turctl, — lonoly and oilen uninha'bitcd isies, and occasionally the ruins of ancient northern fliBt- nesBcs, dimly seen by the feeble light of the arctic winter." The danffors of tlie navigation, however, are consiiioiubly mitigated by the spacious and commodious havens, formed liy the deep bays and voe», or by tlr «mnds and channels, between difl'orent islands. ' Tlie Shetland Islands cod ..In about 2(),U0() acres of arablo land, and nearly as many of (food muadow ; but this com|>ri8C3 little more than a twentieth part of the surface, all the rest consisting of watite or common, on which tho horses, cattle, and sheep are (•'.rued oui, to find |Ni8turcs as Ixsst they may. The horses are of a very small size, v» lih a huge mane, but activo and hardy. Tho cows are equally diminutive, and givo very little milk, but both tho milk and tho ilesh are of good nuality. Tiie sheep are mobt numerous of all, beinjj reckoned at seventy or eighty thousanu ; tiiey aro stunted, like the other animals, and their wool ia very scnntv ; but some of it is peculiarly flne, oiTording the material of alnioat tho only manufiicturo of Shetland,— that of knit hosiery, of a texture close, soft, and warm. Tlio greatest branch of Shetland industry, however, is tiie cod and Viig fisher>[,. All the coostg aUmnd with tiieso flsh ; and, witliin tlio lost few years, a particularly rich and txtonsivo bank has been discovered to tho westward. At the proper season, fleets of boats iRs>uo from all tho buys and voe», to tho haqfoT deep sca-fmhory, which is carried on, not without peril, at tho distnncc of tVom twenty to thirty miles from the coast. The nsiiermen ni-o supplied by the iniidlnnls with boatd luul implements, on condition of their delivering to tliem the flsh at a stipulutod rate; and as tlicir flirms are held at will, they aro in a state of vassalage mioro cuiiiploto, perhaps, than any other class in the United Kingdom, Tho ttuimis of Shetland are Norwegian. These islands, according to tho earliest tradition, were peopled from Norway. In tlie nintli century they were conquered by Harold Ilarb- gor, or tho Fair-haired, tho most powerful and formidable of all the sea-kings of tiie north. Tho Norwegian sway extended for several centuries over all tlie Scottish islands ; but in tlio Shctlunds it was undiif>puted, till tho cession of them, along with those of Orkney, aa the dowry of a princess of Norway married to James III., in tho end of tlio titleenth century. Lerwick, tho capital, is a tiiriving village, ill and irregularly built, but improving, Tho opposite island of Bressay forms Bresaay Sound, one of tho finest harbours in the world, and the rendezvous of all tho vessels destined for the nortii and the whale fishery Off Bressay is tlie Nobs {Jiff, 210,}, a small high island, with a flat summit, girt on all sides by perpendicular walls of rock. The communication with Bressay itself is main* tained by strong ropes stretched across, along which a cradle is run, in wliicii the pas- senger is seated. The promontories of Sum" burgh and Fitful Head, at the oouthorn ex- tremity of tho Mainland, aro also distin- guished by the boldness of thoir aspect and the perils witli wiiich thev threaten tho ma- riner. The number of the Shetiands has been variously estimated, according to the gradations of islets and rocks included ; but only about forty are inhabited. Of these, Yell, and Unst. stretchinfr northwards from tho Main- land, are alone of any magnitude. The lost, thou^ n the most northerly, is rather the most fertile of any, and distinguished by its numerous -aves. Adjacent to Yell is Fetlar; on the east of the Mainland are Whalsay and Bressay ; to the west, Burray, Housa, Frondray, Papa Stour, Muckle and Little Rooe, all so close as to be little more than peninsulas. Considera- bly out at sea, Foula, a f-mall rocky islet, faces tlie Atlantic, with high cliflib covered with numberless flocks of sca-tbwl. 210 Non Holm, Sh«(land. CHAPTER IV. IRELAND. Ireland is a flne extensive island, situated to the west of England, and forming one of the three grand portions of the United Kingdom. Sect. 1. — Oeneral Outline and Aspect. Tho greatest dimension of Ireland is fironi Cape Clear, in 51° 19', to Malin Head, in 66" 23' N latitude ; making about 280 miles. The utmost breadth, if reckoned fVom the moti PabtITI nd danf^foroita rom o( oigfht — thoir nerilouM inch Uio viviu ocean r ikiif lias ovor von* anoiont northern fhst* eraof tlio navigation, invon«, formed Dy the slanda. nd nearly ob ncany of )f the Burfhop, all the Bheep are t>:riiod out, !e, vvilh a huge mane, y little milk, but both amorous of all, boinjj her animals, and thoir iriol of aliiiost tho only wft, and warm. Tho liery,. All Uio coostj ly rich and extensive 3t8 of boats issue from on, not without peril, s^ermGn sre supplied 'oring to thorn the flsh 1 a Btuto of vassalage 3 tho oarlicst tradition, ?Ted by Harold Ilarfii. 3ea-kin(|[B of iiio north, xittish islatidfl ; but in \\ Uioso of Orkney, as f tiio fifteenth century, built, but improving. ' BrcBsay forms Bressay inest harbours in tho vous of all tiio vessela and the whale fishery IRS (Jiff. 210.), a small it summit, girt on oil r walls of rock. TTie Jressay itself is main- stretched across, along in, in whici> the pas- promontories of Sum- il, at the jouthorn ox- and, are also distin- ss of thoir aspect and they threaten tlie ma- if the Shetiands has ks included; but only words from tlie Main- ly, is rather the most YellisFetlar; on the [ousa, Frondray, Papa eninsulas. Considera- 'h clifis covered with Book I. IJ. IRELAND .fif:^- 488 , and forming one of Malin Head, in 66" koned from the mo« eaakv'iy iwint of 'he county &, T^c wn (oupcslto Bur Islond) to Dunmore Head in Kerry, will DO 216 miles; l)u ;*; Ib nowiicr» bo broad under the same parallel of latitude. Tho island, according to Beaufort, contains mor^j than 8(),0U0 English square miles, or nearly 20,000,000 arreB; but, till the survey bo completed, precision on this subject cannot be attained. Tho Burihce of Ireland cannot on the whole bo called mountainous ; ita central districta cnrnposinff one vast plain, which cmsseB tho kingdom fVom east to west. It is, however, diversifleu by ranges of mountains, superior in extent, and. with tho exception of those of Wales, equal in uiovation, to any in England. Wicklow, in the vicinity of Dublin, may be classed as an alpine region. On the borderB of Leinster and Munster, the Slieve-Bloom, tiie Knookmole Down, and the Oalties, form long and lofty ranges, commanding an exten« livt view over tho wide plains that stretch beneath them. All these, however, are much surpassed by the extreme south-west county of Kerry, wliich presents a complete ciiata of loffy and rocky summits. The moBt elevated are those which enclose tho beautiful and Anely woony other spot in the known world. The Moume mountains, a lofty granite range in tho south of the county of Down ; those of Carlingford, which extend into the county of Armagh; with considerable ranges in Tyrone, Derry, and Donegal, may dispute the nre-cminenco with those of the souUi. In Connaught ''loro are also some considerable detached mountains, of which Croagh* C trick in Mayo haa ii.cn reckoned hy some to exceed even Macgillicuddy's Reeks ; but Ire* id has no extended table-lands, like those which cover a considerable part of England. Tiio most elevatedpart of the Bog of Allen, in that central point where the rivers divide, is not moro than 270 feet above the level uf the sea. The Shannon is without a rival in the three kingdoms. It rises far in the north, finm Loagh Allen in the province of Connaught, and has a course of 170 miles, throughout the whole of which it is more or less navigable, the only obstruction which existed having been removed. Below Limerick it expands into an estuary about sixty miles in length, by which the largest vessels liave access to that city. The Barrow is also an important river, which pjns southward through the greater part of LeinBter, receives fVom tlie west the Nore and the Suiro, and finally for^<« the harbour of Waterford. The Boyne, so celebrated for the victory gained on its bo .kb; tho Foyle, which, after passing Londonderry, forms I/mgh Foyle ; tiio Bann, wh' .i passes through Lough Neagh, and aflbrds a flourshing salmon fishery ; and the Blac twater, which terminates in the bay and port of Youghal, are aloo de- serving of mention. The other rivers aro ratlier numerous than of long course ; but they almost all terminate in wide estuaries and louffht, which diffuse through Ireland the moans of water communication, and afford a multiplicity of Bpocious and secure harbours. Lakes or loughs are a conspicuous feature in Ireland, where this last name, like the similar one used in Scotland, is in many instances applied to armc of the sea. Lough Neagh is tho largest lake in tlie United Kingdom, covering near!/ 100,000 acres. Its banks are flat, tame, and in many places marshy and inundated. Lough Erne, also in Ulster, is divided into two reaches, tne united length of which is about thirty miles, while its circuit includes a groat variety of rich and ornamented scenery. Lough Foyle, loujgh Swilly, and Belfast Ijough, are properly bays. The Shannon forms several lakes, of which Lough lieo is the principal ; and the whole of its coureo downwards fVom Limerick resembles more a lough or bay than a river. Connaught has several extensive lakes. That of Killarneyj in the douth, is famed, not for its extent, but for the singular grandeur and beauty of ita shores. A fbller description of this n nd some others now mentioned will be found under the local section. Sect. IL — Natnral Oeography. The Botany and Zoology of Ireland, having been treated under the head of England, thin section will lie confined to Geology. SmaixT. 1.- -Oeology of Ireland. | The geology of this mrt of the empire is not so well known as that of Great Briifani. The following sketch will enable our readers to form a general conception of the geognos- tical structure of those parts of tho island which have been already surveyed; viz.— 1, North of Ireland ; 2. Connaught coal district; 3. East of Ireland ; 4. South, and part of the wus^ of Ireland. (1 =) North oflrtlsnd. This district, limited by Dundalk Bay on the south-east, and by Lough Foyle on the nortli-west, is marked by three distinct systems or groups of mountains, one of which occupies the more southern counties , while the more northern are divided between the two others. Ist system. The Moume mountaim. — ^The Moume mountains form a well-defined Vot. I 87 3 R .„--, ■ . . ,. .. !,. y „-r-y:^,- ^■,,,:^.-..;, -m MAP OF IRELAND. I'lo. 211 (1'-^ '•'■>; ■■' '•lii V, mimTUi :,,-f 'J,, , -i ;; . ..,,,.^ ,;. ^ : ,^., r.j. .,., . .,>_.. - - .■■ ■•. ^ '■ v.' ■ ■...,>' Ik 9 lAWiMtWM I Itsia Onmricb 1 • • -.■r:'-*.fv.'^' r '•.-'►:''' ;,j.«.,;i,,M ''/'i^^KiM '-ir'''- i1 »Tt^ WkiM >(,''* .uMi-iV^ ^i' 'w^^:,\ IIookL nnh IRELANR :i,iimiQ 4SA ffroup, extending from Dundnun Ba^ to Corlinfffiird Bay, in the aouthern extremity at Down. Slieve Donard ia the highect aummit of thia group, and riaea about 2694 feet above the level of the aea. The north-weat uf the main group^ the Fathom HUl, Slieve Oirken, or the ^tewry mountaina, and Slieve OuUen, are aituated in the aouth-eaat of Armagh } and th^ RavAnodale and Carliufffbrd mountaina, in the north of Louth, may be conaiderM aa ita ' pcndagea. Granite, which ia the prevailing rock of these mountaina, containa beaut i rock crystala, also felspar and mica cryatals, topaz and boryL To the north of the Moume mountaina Sliove Croob, compoaed of ayenite, and Slieve Aniaky, of hornblende rock, form an elevated tract, dependent upon, but placed at aoroe distance ihim, the main f^toap. HarOf blende rock, greenatone,and porphyry are aaid to be abundant on the akirta of tdia gnnitedia* trict The Plutonian granite and syenite hilla riae through atrata of tranaitir/n rocka, which are greywacke, greywacke alate, tranaition clay alate, and transition limeatone. The Plu- tonian rocka bear bui a small proportion in auperficial extent to thoae of the tranaition class, tlie latter advancing west and norUt into Cavan, and to Belfhst Lough and the peninsula of Arda. The points of tiie coast of Scotland, directly opposite the peninsula of Arda, present in the neighbourhood of Portpatrick, and through the great alpine band which traveraea the south or Scotland, and terminates on the eaat coast of St. Abb'a Head, the aame tranaition rocks. Hence it ia probable that the groat aouthern high land of Scotland waa formerly joined with the transition hills of the Moume mountain group by a ridge of land extending across the Channel fVom Scotland to Ireland. In this district, there are some patches of mountain limestone and of old red sandstone, 2d system. Primitive chain of Londonderry. — ^This mountain group rises at tbediatance of about 30 miles to the north-north-west of the external chains of the first ayatem, includinff tho counties of Londonderry and Donegal. One of the highest points in this district is Sawelf, said to be 22o7 feet above tho level m the sea. This great tract of country ia principally composed of mica alate, with various subordinate beils, as limestone, quartz, &c. On the eastern bank of the Roe, these mica slate hills and mountains are succeeded by a nuige of secondnry hills covered by a neat platform of secondary trap, and forming a part of the third system of hills, afterwards to be described. These newer rocks repose upon and coiw Rrfereneei to the Map of Inland. NORTH PART. AG. Donathtdaa 117. JiniMtown I. Newtnntloni S. HnllrcMtla 3. (;iiiii(h 4. Raiharkan 8. HillymaDir gnletaina atvaih . niant'a Soonea 9. Rallxkelly 10. Miiir 1 Maim 3. ram 4. nuriifont 5. Oinakill 8. Rnihmullln 7. nottyhook B. Dunvlfls 9. Cunvoir 0. giranoilaa 31. Rnphoe V-2. l/ondondeny St. Liffcml S4. Sirahane S.'). Clad/ Sfl. Maiiliera 27. Swattetagh !H. Knilt Kl. nionarm 30. Ballycorrr 31. Carrickrergui 3%. Cromlln 33. Antrim M. RandsMtown ManRjriDore Cookulown %.^ 37. Frcderiekitown %. Newton Stewart 30. Benbell 40. Den Btidf* n. Anfrea 44 Jnver 45. Tlanecal 46. Hallrminiioo 47. Qarrieon 48. Churchill 49. Canldr SO.Keth Sl.Omath SJ. ■fniijrKawtvjr $4. Blacknatnr niiniannon ^iDiamllti P'. Hel!^ 50. Holywood iiRr.". '£&io 01. Grar Abbey 0S|. Porlarerrr "^iwnpatriek lljinchy iluborouih lundnim .athOiland ouihbriok- Jand OB. Lorxan 70. Armeiih 71. Newtown Ha- milton tMonnfihan Anther Cloiihej FiygM Town ronooth liniukea lallowhill Innlikillon nriaf indoek 62. glifo K.. Dunatra 84. Runro KV Killala tn. llatliKlon 87. Inver 88. CloK 80. BalFi 90.PoxL._ 01. Swinerord 03. Balearra 03. Ballymate 04. Leitdm 118. Elphin lie. Ca.rrhk on oican -jLlFma Poxford ^-.le-ll allinfmore ■ rlel Cavan Drum ajifhadiraen aillh e9.Ballybar 100. Cattle Dlineir 101. Jnneiboro 102. Newry ._ 109. Narrow Water 104. Kilkeel lOf. Carlingrord lOA. Dunddk 107. Lonth IU8. Luntan 100. piojiiwr liO. iiadmia 111. Nobbar 113.Moynalty ^ 113. Ballyborouih 114. BlradoiM lis. BtllyJajneidu 130. Kiltory l.ii. Clanan 1.13. Bunowen 133. Cone 134. Balllnrobe 13.V HollyiQnunt {36. Kllmalnmore 37. RIenwell 138. DuDiEors 130. fllanamoddy 140. Ballintober 141. Roioommon 142. Tarmnnburry U3. Loncford 144. Knnagh 145. Edftworthf tnwn 148. Jnhnatown 147. Mullinf ar m.Clonmellon 140. Trim liSO. Bummerbill I.M. Navan !93. gkrvae I.Vi. Drogheda 154. Nant 15S.Sworda BOtJTM PART. 1. Kilkerran 9. Inveron 3. Sunna 4. Killameen 5. nalwry Q. HoaJf >rd 7. fieldarj 8. Athenry 0. Monivia 10. Tuam 11. Uantle Blaekney IS. Balllnaaloa 13. Balllnamors 14. Knoekrou|hr7 15. Ainlona 18. MayilowD n.MoataOranoiD* 18. Qallimore in. Philipiiuwn SO. Tyrrel't PaH SI.Ballydcmot 53. Iiongwood 23. Cloneurry 34. Clone 8S. Maynooth SO. Ralnath S7. Rathcvole \l». Publin 30. Killgnbbln 30. Innltketry HI. Wicklnw 33. Diinard 33. BIcHington 34.Naa( :». Old Kilcullon 36. KIMare 37. Pnrtarlingtnn 38. Mountmelick 39. Birr 40. Rangher 41. Eyre Court 49. Porlunma 43. Aughrim 44. Loughrea 45. Carnamart 40. nort 47 Killany 48. Kllirflnora 49. Inniilymon 50. Knnif 51. Clam ra! Bearrlir 54. Klllaloe 55. Nenagh 56. Bui " 57. Roaerea 88. RatMowny SO. Ballynakill , 60. Maryborough 61. Athy 63. Carfow 63. Stmtford 64. " 66. 67. Rathdium 68. Arklow 6n. nnn>» 70. Petna 71. Clonegall 72. Burrii ?3. Old Leighlin 4. Kilkenny S.Grlingroid 76. Killenanl* 77- HurrialMigh 78. Toomevara re. BilyerMbw 80. Newport 83'. Bildgelown Kl. Six Mile Bridge 84. Parsdiie 8.1 Oanderlagh 86. Kilrutb 88'. baJlybeigli 80. LUnaw 00. Millilreei 01. Ballylonifiwd 92, LlitoweU 03. Alibyreale 94. Glynn 05. Ardagh 06. Atknatnn 97. Kiddogh 98. Rrnrea 90. Patrick'a WeU 100. Briift lOi.Cullan 103. TIpperary 10.X Cappugh lot. Golden Bridge 105.Caihel ion. Feihnrd 107. Ballypalrick 108. Knocktopbar ^09. Innlktioge 1 10. Thomaitoo ill. Now ttoai IJ^ ^ninorthy 135. Abbey Odom* 36 Tralee 37. Liapflg » ©ngW ., 39. Cahlr 40. Agbart ■,;'•" 41. Granliagh 43. Milliown 43. Kenmara 44. Kijlarney 45. HiloRgb 46. Mill Street 47. Maeronp 4a Cork 40. Fermoy SO. Raionrmuck SI.Liimore : S3. Dungarran S3.2kgliil> ■glM 4. Balunglan 12 .V RnihvTlla 19 8. Tinchely 19 martin ll6.Wrezror_ ^ 117. Ilunenmuik 118. Ulntimlnei . 119. Vrh bland 54. YoagfMl 36. Carliliie Fort 57. Paeaags _ 58. Qamden Foit 30. Kinaale na looithannon 61. IncMgeelaeh 63. PunnMMtway' 63. Olangan 64. GarinWi 65. Bantry 66. Dunmanus 67. Baltimora 68. Sklbbereen 160. Map. 17a Tiamlengua , Rivni.lft. a Foyle, R. b Bann, B. d £(ewry Canal ? Slancy, B. : Blancy arrow, t Jore, R. lulre. R. Ilackwater, R joe. R. mBBnaoq,E, n Peak, R. _ o Shannon, K. p Carnamart, R ■ q Mayno, R. r Suek, R. a Moy, S; _ , t »Ml,R.^T 436 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Past 10. ceal the mica slate in the eaatem part of Deny, but the mica ilate agam emer^s from beneath thia coveringf, after an interval of p.bout 80 miles, on the north-east coast ofAntrim, and rises into hills, which break down abruptly towards the coast between Tor Point and Cushenden Bay. The mica slate rocks on this part of the Irish coast may be considered a continuatian ot those tliat occur on the opposite coast of Scotland at the Mull of Canty re, ir, on a more general view, as a continuation of the great Grampian range, which may, in this way, be said to extend iVom the north-east coast of Scotland to the western shores of Ireland, on the coasts of Donegal. In the eastern part of Tyrone, which intervene* between the transition mountains and the mica slate mountains, a coal formation occurs associated with that kind of limestone which is usually feund below coal in Great Britain. The position of this coalfield oflers another analogy with Scotland, where the space between the southern and northern mountains is principally occupied by rocks of the coal formation. Sd system of mountains. The TVap groujt. — This group mav bo described as separated into two chains, bounding on the east ana west the trough or valley through which the river Bann fiows from Lough Neagh to the ocean. The eastern chain lies in the county of An- trim, being comprehended between the valley of the Bann and the North channel. It pr» ■ents an abrupt declivity towards the sea, falling with a gentle slope vcwards the west, in which direction the beds composing its mass incline. Knock-lead, in the northern extremity of the chain, is the highest summit : it rintes 1820 feet above the ^evel of the sea ; but the basis of this hill is occupied to the height of 500 feet by primitive mica slate rock, leaving only ^.320 feet for the thickness of the secondary strata peculiar to this system. Diris Hill, near the southern extremi^ of the chain, is wholly composed of secondary strata, and attains an elevation of 1475 feet. The western part of the cham included between the Roe and the Bann forms Uie exact counterpart of the former ; but the strata here dip nearly in a contrary direction, viz. towards the north-east; the fall of the hills being gradually in this direction, while they fh)nt tlie west and south with abrupt and precipitous cliffi. Crag- nashoack, at the southern extremity, rises 1864 feet above the sea, and is the highest sum- mit of the group. The geological nature of this third system is very different fVom that of the two former ; all the principal formations belonging to the secondary class of rocks. These rocks are partly Plutonian and partly Neptunian. The Neptunian rocks are gene- rally covered with an enormous mass of secondary trap, which appears to attain its greatest thickness on the north ; the trap cap of Beny-Avenagh, the most northern summit of the western chain, measuring more than 900 feet : the average depth of this superimposed mass may therefore be estimated at 545 feet, and its superficid extent at 800 square miles. The trap rocks are greenstone, basalt, amy^aloid, wocke, and red bole ; occasionally associated with them, forming isolated tracts, as in the Sondybrea district, there are porphyries of dif- ferent kinds, as pitchstone and pearl-stone porphyries. The amygdaloid and also some of the other rocks of this series contain calc spar and white calcedony, semiopal, felspar, and steatite, or serpentine. The basalt contains olivine. Iron pyrites is a mineral frequently disseminated in tlie greenstone. Wood coal occurs in seams varying from two inches to four or five feet in thickness, alternating with trap rocks, near Ballentoy ; also in the cliffii of Fortnoffer on the east of the Giant's Causeway, at Killymoris near we centre of the trap area, and at Portmaoc, and other places on the eastern shore of Lough Neagh. Veins of trap. Trap veins exhibit many interesting phenomena, particularly in their pas- sage through chalk, which they sometimes convert mto a kind of marble. They traverse not only the Neptunian strata, as chalk, lias, and coal formation, but also trap itself. The most interesting and splendid displays of the trap rocks occur at the Giant's Causeway and Fairhead, so well known to travellers ; and the cliffi of Kenbaan exhibit very interesting displays of the commingling of the trap and chalk. Underneath and sometimes intermingled with this vast mass of trap are the following Neptunian formations : — Chaik, which is frequently very compact, aiA sometimes, as where in immediate contact with the Plutonian rocks, changed into a granular limestone resem- blii»r marble: the average thickness does not amount to more than 2(X) feei. Underneath the occurs the deposit known under the name mulatto stone, the green sand of Eng- iifiL. : rists, lying upon tlie lias limestone. Underneath the lias occur beds of red and wrt- ;i { marl, variegated sandstone with gypsum, and from these issue salt mrinp. " - T ■ i> 'M formations, which, together with the trap, form the whole mass of the hills 1. ,.u, ' lie third system, cannot be estimated as possessing a less average thickness tiian isoiL 800 to 1000 feet The whole system appears at the north-eastern and south- western extremities co repose upon the coat formation and its accompanying rocks, and these on the transition or primitive rocks.* Ci~l occurs in Tyrone, at Cml Island and Dun- gannon, and in Antrim, near Ballycastle. Of these, the collieries at Ballycastle, which occupy an extent of not less than one English mile along the coast, are the most considerable. They have been long wrought, and were once in a mere prosperous state than at preisest, as * Patchei of M nd imuUtnt occur on tbe eMt coast between Ballygelly and Olenarm Bay; and also on tkl tame eoait to the louthward of Qerron Point. Past 10. gain emer^B fnim fit coaat ofAntrim, een Tor Point and tay be considered a B Mull of Cantyre, ge, which may, in western shores of which intervene! il formation occurs tl in Great' Britain, the space between ;he coal formation, sribed as separated igh which the river the county of An- 1 channel. It pre- wards the west, in northern extremity »f the sea ; but the slate rock, leaving ystem. Diris Hill, londary strata, and luded between the uta here dip nearly being gradually in pitous cliifs. Crag- IB the highest sum- fierent fVom that of lary class of rocks, lion rocka are gene> o attain its greatest liern summit of the superimposed mass Isquare miles. The asionally associated e porphyries of dif* and also some of aiopal, felspar, and mmeral frequently rem two inches to ; also in the clif& e centre of the trap eagh. cularly in their pas- le. They traverse _ trap itself. The int's Causeway and •it very interesting are the following nnetimes, as where r limestone resera- feei. Underneath \rreen sand of Eng- iir beds of red and issue ialt sprin^t. mass of the hills average thickness •eastern and south- ponying rocks, and )al Island and Dun- Bollycastle, which most considerable. than at present, as iBay; and alio on tk( Book L ii»i IRELAND. ' ii\ n tO'.'ili 1 437 they used formerly to send from 10,000 to 16,000 tons of coal to the market yesrlyj whoreofi now the quantity exported does not amount to more than 1500 or 2000 tons. The cod of these districts is almobt entirely what Berger calls slate coal. In one of the works, how- over, in Coal Island, a bed of cannel coal, six feet thick, is said to have been wrought The most remarkable minerals of the alluvial kind found in this part of Irelana are the fossil woods of Louffh Neagh, a sheet of water 182 feet above the level of the sea, about nineteen miles six nirlongs long fVom N. W. to 8. E., and ibrty-flve feet deep at its centre. The wood is silicificd, ana in some specimens one extremity will be petrified, while the other remains in a ligneous state. The oak, the holly, and the hazel appear to have been the trees thus aifbcted. It occurs in alluvium in the n'm Foxford in the county of Mayo, to Colooney in the county of Sligo, and ter mmates two miles to the north-east of Manor-Hamilton, which may be viewed i>.s the base on which the newer formation of this part of Ireland rests. This range of couwtry is prin- cipally composed of mica slate, with some subordinate rocks. Benbo Mountain, near Manor- mmilton, 1403 fbet above the sea, may be cited as exhibiting an interesting display of the various primitive rocks. The summit, and about 800 feet immediately below it are com- posed of a fine granular granite : the granite is covered on both sides of the mountain with gneiss, dipping m the durection of its declivity at an onglo of S0°. At the Inse of the mountain, mica slate, with garnets, hornblende rock and hornblende slate, are seen. Large blocks of beautiful syenite, also of serpentine with embedded garnets, were found in a stream at the bt ^e of the mountain near Lurganboy. The western side of Benbo is traversed by a vein of copper pyrites, which was formerly wrought but apparently to no great extent. Veins of iron pyrites also occur there. Resting upon these old rocks in many places, we observe the first or old red sandstone formation. A tract of this sandstone extends in Roscommon from west to east from Derry- naslieve to Cashcarrigana, and in greatest breadtli in a southerly and northerly direction, &om Leitrim to the neighbourhood of Drumshambo. Resting upon this sandstone, forming the base of the joal district <>ual character of the formations. The coal formation rests upon the limestone, and is the uppermost or newest of the secondary deposits met with in this part of Ireland. The external aspect of this coal district is described as being hilly and dreary, and as extending :n greatest length in a north and south direction, from Down Mountain to Keddue, about sixteen miles, and in greatest breadth from the hills above Swad- linbar to Killargy, sixteen miles. The area of the wliolc coal country within the edge of the limestone is about 114,000 Irish acres ; exclusive of Slieve Russel, which is detached fixxn the great district by the limestone valley of Swadlinbar. The rocks which form the coral series in the Connaught coal district are similar to those met with in other coalfields. Besides coal, which is the black bituminous species, the formation contains sandstone flag, slate clay, bituminous slate, clay ironstone, and fire clay. Some kinds of the coal afford in the 100 parts, 71.42 carbon, 23.37 bitumen, and 5.21 gray ashes. Iron-works. The beds of clay ironstone that occur in all parts of the Connaught coal district appear, at an early period, to have attracted the attentbn of miners ; and works, on a small scale, called Uoomeries, were carried on in various parts of the adjoining country, as long as any wood remained to supply them with charcoal, but they have since been given up. (3.) East of Ireland. This district extends nearly 100 miles firom north to south, and between sixty and ninety miles from east to west comprehending about a third part of the island. It is bounded on the east by the Irish Channel, on the south and west by the moun- tains which confine the Suire and the Shannon, and on the north by the clay slate hills of Louth and the mountain limestone hills of Meath, the clay slate hills of Cavan and the mountain limestone of Longford, and by a line produced from thence to the bay of Galway. In the landscape of Ireland there is one very remarkable feature, which cannot fitil to strike every observer : in traversing most porta of the island, we meet with ranges and groups of bold mountainous and hilly tracts, in some degree isolated, while the interval between them is generally occupied by a sur&ce chat appears nearly level, when viewed on the great scale, but which is found, on a nearer view, to present a gently waved outline : a considerable expansion of the plain occupies the central counties of Ireland, and extends across the island from Dublin Bay on the east to Galway Bay on the west ; and in general, where a similar plain surftice occnra, the immediately subjacent reck is mountain limestone; to the abund- ance of vvhich mineral, next to the mild temperature and general moisture of the climate, tfae soil of Ireland is probably more indebted for its superior fertility than to any other cauae In this district mountainous and hilly tracts arise above the sur&ce of the limestone plain, on the east the south, the west the centre, and the north. The eastern chain extends from 7* 488 DESPRIPTIVE GEOORAPHV. Pabt III the north tide of Dublm B>y to the confluenco of the Barrow with the Suire on the Bouth. The hiyheat point it Lugnaquilla, which is 3070 feet above low-watoMnark in Dublin Bay. It conouta olmoat wholly of primitive and transition rocka, of which the following ipeciei occur: s^nuiite, mica elate, quarts rock, clay slate, greywacke, trap and porphyrv. Metolli* ferous minerola are wanting on the weit aide of the granite chain, but abound on the east ■ide. In the granite and mica slate districts thero are veins of galena or lead glance ; of these the most considerable are in Olonntalur; in Uie clay slate tract eleven diflerent metallic substances have been met with, viz. gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, zinc, tin, tung- sten, manganese, arsenic, and antimony. Native gold occurs in the Ballinvalley streams at Croghan Kinshela : and in 1801, regular mining was commenced, but did not lead to any important rooults ; and a
  • fwW 4ao u an auxiliary m promoting the growth of peat bon ; and thla prostration appean in genenil to have taken place either ih>ni natural decay, or m>ni tr«ea puMeaaing little hold of a wet ipongy aoi! having been orortumed by atorma. Thia may partly acct^unt fur trees of all agea being found in the boga of Ireland, whether theae boga be aituatod in plaina, or form the im- mediate cover of high mountain tracta. The univenal deatruction of the forests of IreUnd arincipally to be attributed to the general introduction of iron furnaces, aa the most profit* I nuNie of consuming tlie timber, then a material esteemed of little value ; and hence the almoat toUl neglect of copsing those trocU in which the woods had been felled. The marl beds, so frequently met with in these peat boga, are curious in a zoological view, from their occasionally containing remains of that splendid animal the fossil elk. But the remains of the extinct species occur also in the crravol ; and the late Mr. Edgoworth observed the re< mains of the rod deer in the aame marl as that which contained the extinct species. (4.) South of Ireland. Under this division we comprise tlio counties of Cork, Kerry, Clare, Waterford, Tipperary, and part of Oalway. This mountainous, hilly, and diversified region is chiefly composed of chains having generally a direction from east to ^--cst, and atuii:anli> tHn north, and flnallv pass under the old red sandstone and mountain limestone of tho midland counties. The follow* ing may be considered a general estimate of the geognostical relatione of the south of Ireland : — Transition roek$. In Kerry, the transition strata range iVom east to west, and dip to the north and south, with vertical beds in the axes of the ranges : the strata, as they diminish in inclination on each side, form a succession of troughs. The rocks are chiefly Neptunian, the Plutonian being comparatively rare. The Neptunian are either simple or compound ; the simple are clay tlate, quartt rock, homttone, Lydian Hone, and limestone : the com- pound are, greywacke, ^reywacke slate, sandstone. The Plutonian rocks ore greenstone ind porphyry. Organic remains occur in the limestone, slate, and grevwacke, but more (tequentiy and abundantly in the limestone than in the other rocks. In Kenmare these fossils consist of a few bivalves, and some crinoidal remains; and these also are most numerous in the Mucruss and Killamey limestones. At the foot of the Slievemeesh range this limestone includes asaphus caudatus, calamine macrophthaln>a, with orthoceratites, ellipsolites ovatus, ammonites, euomphalites, tnrbinites, neritites, mclonites, and several ipocies of terebratula, spirifer, and producta. Near Smerwick harbour similar organic re- mains are abundant in slate and greywacke, together with hysterolites, and many genera of polyparia. Transition coal. All the coal of the province of Munster, except that of the county of Clare, is referable to the transition class. At Knockasartnet, near Killamey, and on the north of Tralee, there are three beds of glance coal, alternating with strata of greywacke and slate. In the county of Cork this glance coal is more abundant, particularly near Kanturk, extending from the north of the Blackwater to the Allord. The ravines of the latter river, and various other defiles, expoae clay slate, greywacke, talc, and sandstone, in nearly vertical strata ranging firom west to east. This transition tract extends to the river Shannon on the north-west As the strata range from west to east, in a series < ' parallel narrow troughs, they exhibit great variety of inclination, dipping rapidly either to the north or south, and becoming horizontal between the ridges. The glance coal is raised in sufficient quantities for the purpose of burning the limestone of the adjacent districts. The coal and the strata with which it is accompanied abound with impressions of equi- sf.te and calamites, and afford some traces of fucoides. Beds of glance coal also occur in the county of Limerick, on the left bank of the S'.iannon, north of Abbeyfeale, and at Longhill ; and on the right Inink of the river at Labbashaada. The transition rocks of Kerry and Lime- rick extend into Cork and Waterford. Mines. Copper mines occur in limestone in Ross Island in the lake of Killamey. In the county of Cork, there are copper mines at Allihies, Aiidley, and Ballydehol; and others, producing lead, at Doneen and Rinabelly. The mine at Allihies is one of the richest mines in Ireland ; it was discovered in 1812, and yields more than 2000 tons of copper ore annually. The ore occurs in a large quartz vein, which generally intersects tho slaty rocks of the country from north to south, but in some places mns parallel to the strata. It is remarked that all this portion of the county of Cork indicates a very general diffusion of cupreous par- ticles, so much so that in the year 1812, there existed a cupriferous peat-bog on the east side of Glandore harbour, forty or fifty tons of the dried peat producing when burnt one ton of ashes, containing from ten to fifteen per cent, of copper. The lead-mines of Doneen and ninabellv nro in glate. Coti/ormation of Clare, The transition clay slate of this county is bordered by a zone of old red sandstone, to which succeeds, in ascending order and conformable position, the uaqntain limestone and coal formation, both of which occupy flat and undukting hills, and UG DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Past III Ji« ■tnta are naulv horizontal. The best scctionr are M«n in the oUf& on the weit cout, where bituminotM ihale, tlutu clay, Mindatone, am' lanuatone flag, rest upon linieatone. Ckwl, however, m uf rare t^xurreiico, and when Luni', ia of indifihrent quality. Aa in every other part of Ireland, the diatr' jt abounda with alluvial dopoaita. In ronrd to the distribution ot the older of theao, ur tlit diluvium in the aouth of Ireland, it ia romarVed, — 1. That bouldera, gravel, and aond, derived tlrom tlie transition rocks, are diatributod along the bordom and aidea of the mountains in Kerry. 2. In a small diatrict of Limerick and Tippcrary, situated between the Oaulteea and Slieve-na-muck, the rolled maaaca conaist not only of portions of contiguoua rocks, but contain also porphyry, which is not to bo found in titu near the vicinity ot^allis HilL 8. In the peninsula ot Nenville, near Galway, tlio aur- &C0 of the mm itaiii limoatone is strewed ov^r with numerous boulders of red and gray granite, syoniu , greenstone, and sandstone, which must apparently have been conveyed mm the opposite side of the bay of Chdway. SiCT. III. — lliilorical Oeography. The earliest inhabitants of Ireland, from which tho native race now existing has sprung, appear, by the language still spoken, to have been Celtic, Tho Romans, in occupying Britain, could not fail to acquire much information relative to leme, Hibomia, or Ireland ; and accordingly we find that the map of that country by Ptolemy is less defective than the one which ho gives of Scotland. About tho fourth century, we find Ireland bearing the name of dcotlund, from the leading people on its postorn shore, who aflerwanla poi-sing into Argylc, and makin;? thcmselvea maaters of all Caledonia, communicated to it "^ name of ScoUand, finally withdrawn from tho country to which it originally bolonged. Tho Danes, during the height of their power, from the ninth to the tweltlh centuries, poeweased almost tho whole eastern coamt of Ireland, making Dublin their capital. Before this time Ireland hod been converted to Christianity, and a number of celebrated monaateriei liad been founded, tho tenants of which were distinguished, even over Europe, for their piety and learning. The Engash sway commenced in 1170. Richard Strongbow, en rl of Pembroke, as a pri- vate individual, formed the first settlement; but Henry II. soon assumed the title of " lord of Ireland." The rango of dominion was long restricted to a portion of the kingdom enclosed within what is called the English pale, without which the Irish remained still under the rult of their native chiellains. Ilenry VlII. assumed the title of " kmg of Ireland," but without any material extension of his authority over that kingdom. The Irish massacre was a dreadfiil outrage, to which attachment to popery and zeal fot national independence united in impelling a proud and fierce people. Forty thousand English settlers are supposed to have perished, and the rest were driven into Dublin, Cromwell, however, afterwards crossed the Channel, and mode cruel reprisals ; he took the principal fortified towns, and reduced Ireland under more full subjection than ever. Yet the disposition of the people remained the same ; and when James II. was driven from the English throne, he was received with enthusiasm in Ireland, and became for some time iti master. The battle of the Boyne, followed next year by that of Aughrim, decided the &te uf the empire, and more especially of Ireland, which then felt for the first time the miseries of a conquered country. The estates of many principal native proprietors were confiscated; the Catholics were deprived of all political privileges ; they were rendered incapable of holding any ofiice or employment in the state ; they were debarred even irom holding land, from devismg property, and from exercising other important fiinctions of civil society. Under these severities they pertinaciously retain^ their political attachments together with their religious creed ; and a continual ferment prevailed, which broke out from time to time into partial rebellions. The gradual emancipation of Ireland commenced at the period of the American war. Till that era England had denied to her the right of trading directly with any foreign nation ; and had compelled her to export and import every commodity through the channel of Great Britam. The extremity, however, to which Britain was reduced enabled the Irish to place themselves in a formidable attitude ; and by forming armed associations, and adoptmg other threatening measures, they induced parliament to ^nt them free trade with all nations. fVom this time also the most obnoxious of the restrictions on the Catholics were gradually repealed or fell into disuse ; and before the end of last century, they had obtained almost every political privilege, except that of sitting in parliament, and of holding the very highest offices of state. The propriety of conceding these also became one of the leading questioni which long divided the public mind. A very formidable rebellion broke forth in spite of these concessions. The French revolution, which caused a general ferment in Europe, was intensely felt throughout Ireland. A society was formed of "United Irishmen;" and secret meetings were Jield, havinor in view the entire separation firom England, and the forruation of the kingdom into an independent republic. The vigilance of government, and the failure of the French in their atUtmots to land a force of any magnitude, prevented matters fnHD coming to the lost Booh I. :f\r\n Ireland. «^»k?!im ui exuting haa Bprung, Rxtreiiiity till 1708, when ft violont iiuurroction aroae in fijur of the countiot neuoat Dublin. The rebels, though zealous and brave, boing without discipline, were routed in succoasivo encounters with much inferior bodies of reifulars and militia ; and being unsup- tortod by French aid were completely put down in a few months. The exasperation, owevor, produced by the tragical events of this short period continued long to rankle in the minds of the Irish, and to aggravate the evils under which ttiev laboured. To soothe this irritation, another oxpediunt was employed, which inaterially oflbcted the situation of Ireland. The difficult and reluctant union qf the two kingdom* was effhcted in 1600 bv Mr. Pitk. Ireland gained thus considerable commercial advantages ; and, fh>m the example of Scot* land, it was hoped that a gradual tranquillity would be tlio result This expectation has not yet icon fulfilled. The peasantry of the south, inflamed bv national jealousy, by ruligioua ani'noeity, and by the severe privations under which thoy labour, have continued, if not in open rebellion, at least in a state of turbulence constantly tending towards it; and their dis- contents have been increased by the indiscreet zeal of tlio Protestant party. The bill fur Catholic emancipation, so unexpectedly introduced, in 18!^ by the Duke of Wellington, and carried atler such a violent ferment of parties, has made a remarkable change in the political constitution of Ireland. The political disabilities under which the Catholics had hitherto laboured have been finally removed. They are made admissible to the highest offices of state, with the exception of that of lord chancellor; on exclusion decided upon, not so much on account of the dignity of that office, as the extensive church patronage attached to it. Roman Catholics are also made admissible to sit in both houaet of parliament, and to every other political privilege enjoyed by their fellow countrymen. Sect. IV. — Political Oeographij. The political evils under which Ireland labours will sufficiently appear from the forogoinff nrvey of her history. From the earliest times she has been in the situation of a i\ .quered country, without ever becoming reconciled to the yoke, or assimilated to the ruling nation. Within the last two centuries, her devoted adherence to a religion which had been renounced by her rulurs, has had a most fatal tendency, which we mav however hope to see much miti- gated by the healing measures that have now been adopted. In consequence, also, of repeated scenes of reoellion and forfeiture, by much the greater part of the lands are in the possession of English and Protestant proprictora, who, having no natural influence over the occupiers of their estates, hold their place only by the hated tenure of dominion and law. Being connected with the country by no natural ties, and attracted by Uie superior brilliancy of the English and French capitals, most of them quit Ireland, and become habitual ah»entee$. Wiien the Scottish Highlanders arrayed themselves against the government, they acted under the influence of a few leading chiefs, whose interests and passions aflbrded a lever by which the people could be moved. But the Irish people, deprived of any such guidance, chose their leaders from among themselves, or from those who courted their &vour by fos- tering all their national propensities. Secret associations, party badges, mysterious names, have exerted an influence over their minds, the extent and nature of which it is impossible to calculate. Ireland, like Scotland, has been united to England ; yet it retains somewhat more ot .:hp aspect of a separate kingdom. A lord lieutenant still displays a portion of the state u . \ exercises some of the functions of royalty. He has not only a household establishment, but a chancellor, a secretary, and other mmistera of state. The courts of justice, and the dif- ferent orders of magistracy, are nearly on the same looting as in England ; yet they have not the reputation of exercising their functions with quite the same dignity and in partiality. The violence of party spirit acts upon judges, and still more upon juries ; and in the country, the absence of great proprietors, and the want of any middlmg class, rendev it difficult to find materials for a respectable and effective magistracy Ireland sent to the Imperial par- liament 100 membera of the House of Commons, of whom 36 were for cities and boroughs, and 64 for counties, which latter sent two membera each. The large proportion of thia latter class was expected to render the representation more respectable ; but, unfortunately, the low qualification required, amounting only to 40s., enabled the great proprietora to split votes among their numerous little tenantry to such an extent as almost to produce universal mifihige. The very system of letting &nns on leases for lives, which confers the right of voting, extended that right to almost every tenant. This could scarcely be said tn confer the real right of suflrage, as the dependence of the tenants was almost always such as to enable the landlord to dictate their vote ; though in late elections, the influence of the priests was in several counties successfully exerted. To remedy these evils, the same act which removed the disabilities of the Catholics, raised the qualification of freeholdera in Ireland from 40s. to 1 1 •/. a year, and thus reduced them tc less than a third of Uieir former number. Many also of the principal boroughs, as Bel&st, Wexford, Cashel, Sligo, Dundalk, Ennis- kSlen, were entirely close, the membera bemg chosen by twelve sel^elected burgesses ; while, in others, the whole ground on which a borough stood belonged to the nearest great Vol. I. 3 F 448 DESCRIPTIVK GEOGRAPHY. Part m. proprintor. Tho aonuHiuonoo wan, that nn olif^archy, fbrmod hv tho pomoiBoni of thoHO vut propertioB into which tho grcntor part of Iroland in divided, liold an almost titiliniitod Bwav ovur the country. Previous to tho union, Uio influonco of tlio throe houses of Dorosforu, I'onsonby, and Foster was such, that Uio aid of one, and, if possible, two of timin, wus noco» wry for carryiii}; on the measures of ffovornment Tliat influence, howovor, has boon on the decline, and thoro is no nrospoct of its renewal. The lU:ti)rm Bill gave to Ireland only Hvo additional members, and it made no material chanjfo in the roturninjir boroughs ; lut, by placing the election in the hands of all house, holdurs paying 10/. annually, it rendered those nominations jpcn which had formerly boon made by tho small numlmr of individuals composing the corporation. The naval and military force of the empire in general defends Ireland. There is a com- mander of tho forces nsident in Dublin ; acting, however, imder the orders, not of the lord lieutenant, btit of tho British commander-in-chief. Tho numl)or of regular troops stutionod at ditfenMit points is ahvavs considcrairio. Tiio revonuo levied in Ireland has never homo the same proportion to her natural rcsourccg as that of England. The rates in all the princiiwl articles of consiim])tion have boon lower. Tho ta.x on hearths, howovor, was found very opprc'HHJvo ; as it recpiirod incpiisitorial visito, and aflected tho lowest of tiio |ieoplo. This and all tho otiier assessed taxes wore so irrogu- larly leviotl, that, notwithstiinding tho discontent (excited by them, they did little more than cover tho expensos of collection. For this reason, by a motion of tl\e chancellor of tho cxciieijuor, they were ontirely reniittetl. In 1800 the revenue was 2,084,000/. and the debt 25,(i(t'J,000/. At the union, the stipulation was made that Ireland should jKiy two-seventeenths of the whole expondituro of tho empire ; this arrangement has led to a continual incroiiso bi)th of debt and revenue. In 1811 the former amounted to 77,;i8iJ,000/., and the latter to S,90G,0(H)/. In 18»0 the reveiuic was ;),5'18,8'.!2/., and in 1630 it umoimted to 4,4(K),0&3{. The |>articult?iv for tlio latter year wore : — Ounlnnw Xl,7J4,7n4 I Stnmpi X470,9H(I KxciM l,IHIU„ril I I'oitaitc, Ac Siltl,:n3 Tho public expenditure in 1830 was as tollows :— Chnrxm nf flimloil ilvbt rMTH,4.t4 Civil liHt, &•; SHI.IHIO The national debt of Ireland in 1817, when it coased to form a separate item in the public accounts in consequence of the consolidation of tho British and Irish cxchequon, was 134,002,760/. For local and patriotic objects in Ireland, very considerable sums arc allowed out of the public revenue. Of those, tor tlio year 1832, tlicre appear the following : — Army i^tHl.OT!) Miu^ollnruuiH 747,080 eirhnolianit Gdiicntlon jDO.flflO Protpvtiint Charily School .1,00(1 t'lmiiilUng tlixipiial 3».:il4 Fnur nthnr Hnipllali ]0,(I4S lloiisoof Imluilrv SI,1U9 Kicliinoml I.miiilic Aaylum, llilierni*n Marine Sucioty. 'iwo Fcniain Orphnn Hnuiio XI,P33 Itiiiiinii Cnthdilc ( !ollogo S.ViSS Roynl Diihlin ^>cltersonB take a farm jointly, and make it a sort of common property. Each is allowed to put upon it a certain number oi^ collopt ; the collop consisting of ono horse, two cows, or twelve goats, A degrading stipulation is oflen introduced into leiuiOB, by which the occupant is bound to work for his landlord either without wages, or at 11 rate lower than ordinary. Tithe is one of the ^vils of which the Irish cultivator most grievously complains. Al- tliough it must in all cases full ultimately on tho landlord, yet to take from the cabin of the peasant the pig which he has reared, or tho handful of potatoes which ho has raised for the support of hiB &mily, is an act peculiarly discouraging and irritating. The exemption of grass lands tends also to discourage tillage. Measures taken by parliament to promote tho commutation of titiies, have been attended with considerable success; and by a late act arrangements are made by which the church rates, instead of being taken out of the farmer's produce, are paid by the landlord out of his rent. The extent of country, and tho objects of culture in Ireland, vary considerably from those of tho sister kingdom. Its superficial extent is computed at 12,()0(),()00 Irish, or 19,27H 760 English acres. Of this, notwithstanding the considerable amount to be deducted for moun* tain, lakes, and bogs, Mr. Young calculates that there is a greater proportion of productive land than in England. The soil of Ireland is shallow, consisting most generally of a thin sprinkling of earth over a rocky ground ; but tho copious moisture wafted from the sea, b^ which it is everywhere surrounded, produces a quick and rapid vegetation, and in par« ticular a brilliancy of verdure, not equalled perhaps in any other region of Europe. Such a country is of course highly favourable to pasturage ; and as this pursuit is suited to the irn- Cprfect stages of culture, the roaring of live stock has been long the main staple of Irish usbandry. Its luxuriant plains are depastured by vast herds of olack cattle; and from this Bource is derived the very large quantity of salted provisions shipped from the southern ports. The number of oxen and cows annually killed for this purpose was reckoned at 18,000. This trade has considerably decreaseci since the peace ; but the export of live cattle is extensively carried on. Great facilities have been lotely afforded for it by the steam packets. The dairy is also a great branch of industry in Ireland. None of its cheeses, indeed, have acquired a reputation ; but butter of excellent quality is made and largely exported. Another species of live stock is an essential article to the economy of an Irish cultivator. The pig usually shares his cabin, and is fed, like himself, on potatoes. It ia too great a luxury to be killed for his own consumption ; but is sold and driven to the ports to be salted for exportation. Sheep are bred extensively on the mountain tract*, which are unfit for rearing any other stock. In many places they are bred for the wool and milk. In this last respect, however, goats are more productive ; and they are reared in immense qnan titles ui the mountain districts in the north. The Irish horses are small, hardy, and capablo of doing much work upon little food. Poultry are fed in great numbers in and around all tho cubina ihe interior of which they are admitted to share ; a practice extremely favourable t*' i lit 444 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paut m, tlieir increase. Great quantities of geeso are kept for the sake of the feathers, which are cruelly plucked iVom the animals alive. The proauce of grain is also large, notwithsUinditiff the imperfect processes employed in cultivating it. Wheat and barley were little raittcd till of late, when botli the culture and export of the former have been greatly extended. Stil, the main objects are oats and potatoes ; the former as the subject of a largo export, the latter as the staple food of a considerable body of the people. The Irish boast of the potatoo, as if it were nowhere else produced in equal perfection. Compared with grain of any kind, it certainly atlbrds the means of supporting a greater population upon a given extent of ground. The scope, however, which it atfonls for the multiplicntion of the people in miser- able circumstances, ia generally considered by the political economists ns one of the causes of the present distress in Ireland. Flax is also a valuable product of Irish husbandry, afford' ing the material of tho linen manufacture. According to a return made to the trustcos in 1809, tho extent sown was 76,749 acres ; in addition to which, the various little scuttered patches raise the number probably to about 100,000 acres, supposed to produce at an average about 30 stones per acre ; which, at 10<. 6d, per stone, would make the entire value about 1,500,000/. There is a want of trees in Ireland. The immense forests which some centuries age covered a groat proportion of its surface, have fiillen and been converted in a great measure into moss or bog. The bogs of Ireland present an extensive obstacle to cultivation. They are estimated by the parliamentary commissioners at 2,330,000 English acres. From them, indeed, fuel is supplied to many districts, yet the draining of a large portion would bo cer- tainly desirable ; and the commissioners seem to think that, from their generally elevated position, this might be done with great facility and advantage. The great quantity of water bcneatli these bogs causes often a singular phenomenon, tliat of moving bogs. Bursting the surface, tho bog inundates the surrounding lands, spreading desolation and barrenness through its whole course, which in one instance extended no less than twenty miles. In respect to manufactures, the state of Ireland cannot be described as flourishing ; a mis- fortune for which she may accuse the oppressive policy of England. One species of fabric, however, she has been allowed and even encouraged to cultivate, and it has attained to a very considerable magnitude. The linen manufUcture was first introduced by the Earl of Strafford, who brought flaX' seed from Holland, and workmen from France and the Netherlands. His attainder, aid the subsequent troubles, suspended the undertaking; but it was revive9:» U,7(l.1 1,US5 7,1100 1,401) 11,003 13,1)76 430 10,407 3,020 3,4H0 .■5,470 7,tll8 2,4(13 3,137 Belonging. Ships. Tonnntro. 247 SAi 30 8Hi» 1!) 31) 39 101 SO 7B i:u S5,000 17,0UU a,30o »i,000 KOO 1,WM) 4,:«H) 8,000 l,i200 7,000 0,700 Paid. Cuatnma. «il),OUO in«,fl(M) 13.000 000,000 4,800 PS,7U0 74,000 &1,000 i.nno 110,000 4,H00 The shipping of Irclan,'. is small, compared with that of the sister island. On the 31st December, 1830, she had 1424 vessels; the tonnage of which was 101,820, navigated by 7794 men and boys. In 18J32 there were built twenty-five ship;., of 1909 tone. There were entered inwards, in 1831, 14,409 ships, of 1,420,382 tons ; outwards, 0801 ships, 1,073,545 tons. Of this were employed in trade witli Groat Britain, 13,584 ships, and 1,262,221 tons, inwards; 9029 ships, 921, i2R tons, outwards; in foreign trade, 915 ships, 158,161 tons, inwards; 772 ships, 152,417 tons outwards. Canals have been undertaken in Ireland on an extensive scale, but with only a small por- tion of the expected benefit. This seems partly owing to the excessive mag.iitude of llie plans, and partly to the prevalence of jobbing. The two chief undertakings are the Grand and the Royal canals, both proceeding from Dublin into the interior. The former, com- menced in 1756, has, by large advances from government, been completed, at an expense of upwards of 2,000,000/. It is carried across Kildare and King's County to the Shannon, nc ir Clonfert. This distance is eighty-seven miles, which, with a branch to the Barrow at Atliy, one westward to Ballinasloe, and several others, makes an entire length of 156 miles. Tlie Royal Canal, of nearly tlie same dimensions, reaches from Dublin through Meath and Lonjj- ford, nearly eighty-three miles, to Tarmonbarry, on the Shannon. The expense was 1,420,01)0/., while the tolls, in 1831, amounted only to 12,700/. The roads of Ireland have li^ii'' been excellent. Any person may present a memorial to the grand jury of the county, showing the necessity of a new road, and if this presentment be approved, the work immediately proceeds. Government has ertablished mail-coaclics to all the principal towns, and, eiuce the rebellion, has made fine military roads into the interior of Wicklow ; but stoge-coachea and other means of conveyance are indifferent Skct. VI. — Civil and Social State. The population of Ireland, from its great amount and rapid increase is co.nsidered as one of the chief causes of the severe poverty which presses upon the body of the people. Till the census of 1821, the data upon which it was calculated were conjectural. Between 1712 and 1726, upon a calculation from the number of houses, at six to a house, it was represented OS varying from 2,000,000 to 2,300,000. Calculations founded on the produce of tiie lienrtli duty gave in 1754, 2,372,000 ; and in 1788, 4,040,040. In 1812, it was estimated at 5,937,000. In 1821, a census gave 6,801,000. That of 1831 amounted to 7,767,401, of whom 3,794,660 are male, and 3,972,521 female. The Irish character presents very marked features, many of which are amiable, and even admirable. Hospitality is an universal trait, and is enhanced by the scantiness of the portion which is liberally shared with the stranger. The Irish are bnn'e, lively; merry, and witty; and even the lowest ranks have a courteous and polite address. They are celebrated Jbr warmth of heart, and for strung attachments of kindred and fi'iendship, which leads them, cut of their scanty means, to support their aged relations with tlie purest kindness. Benevo- ence is a distinguishing feature of the higher ranks. They are curious, intelligent, aiir -,- ■.-iryi^T^157w;>Wf?'iPfK;'^i,^«,y(P^"*«f'T Part in nto Groat Britain. Tli.» quarters of wlieat, nnd wl into Liverpool aloiio, oata, 3()9,4:h;. ; 14,460 34,542/. ; 74,200 :ihfcp, 177,252 BuckH of flour, half firkinH, and 10,:)48 p a value of 4,444,5001. }d to bo aa much muio, principal ports of Irc' and the amount of cus- 9:— mging. .... , — 1 Paid. Tnniingo. Ciislnina. 83,000 UR.OUO 17,000 iiM),n(H) 3,;Hm 13,000 S'l.OOO 000,000 KflO 4,H00 l.HOO HS,7«0 4,:ioo 74,000 8,000 &V0OO 1,SJOO l.fiflO 7,000 110,000 6,TO0 4,H00 3r island. On the Slst B 101,820, navigated by ' 1909 tone. There were Is, 9801 ships, 1,079,545 hips, and 1,262,221 tons, )15 ships, l.'i8,161 tons, t with only a small por- fssivo ma^.utudo of tlie ^takings ore the (irnml or. The former, com- eted, at an expense of nty to the Shannon, no ir to the Barrow at Atliy, gth of 156 miles. The rough Meath and Lous- The expense was present a memorial to and if this presentment iblished mail-coaches to ry roads into the interior indifferent se is co.Tsidered as one dy of tht' people. Till 3ctural. Between 1712 ouse, it was represented 9 produce of the hearth I estimated at 5,937,000. 101, ofwhom3,794,W50 are amiable, and even icantiness of the portion fllv. merrv, and witty ; hey are celebrated for I, which leads them, out jst kindness. Bcnevo" rious, intelligent, aiir Book I. IRELAND. 447 oogor for information. With so many good qualities, it were too much to expect that there aiiould not bo some faults. They are dodcient in cleanliness ; have little toate for conve' nionccs or luxuries ; and are destitute of that sober and steady spirit of enterprise which distinguishes tho English. The love of fighting seems to be a general infirmity. The fairs, which, in every town and village of Ireland, are regular and of long duration, afford tha graiid tlieatres, first of unbounded mirth, and ultimately of bloody conflict The Irish do not nght singlo-handed, but ia bands, and on a great scale. On receiving a supposed injury they go round to their companions, friends, and townsmen, and collect a multitude, with which they make a joint attack on the objects of their wrath. The other blemishes of th« Irish aro rather frailtieB than sins. They are represented as vain, talkative, prompt to speak u well as act without deliberation: this' disposition, with their thoughtless gaiety, betraya them into that peculiar bluudor called a bull, ivhich their neighbours have so loug held forth u a national characteriplic, Tho ecclesiastical state of Ireland has been one of the chief causes of its unsettled con* dition. Tho native Irish did not share in any degree tlie reformation so unai^^mousiy adopted in England and Scotland. When, therefore, the English church was introduced as the established religion, it threw cut, us dissenters, the bulk of the Irish population. Even of tho protestant part & large proportion introduced as colonists from Scotland, were attached to tho presbytcrian form. [From a parliamentary paper, it appears that in 1835, tlie.-e were, — fet Clint. Roman Catholics 6,427,712 - - SOi Members of Established Church, a'52,0G4 • - lOj Presbyterians, 642,356 - - 8 Other Protestants, - - - 21,808 - - i 7,943,940. Although thoro is here some slight inaccuracy, yet this statement serves to show very nearly the proportion of the different sects. Tho places of worship are stated in the some paper to be, — Roman Catholics, - - 2105 Established Church, - 1644 Presbyterians, .....-..---.-...- 452 Others, - - - 403 In 41 benefices there waa no member of the Established Church. — Am. Ed,] The Roman Catholic clergy receive no etipend from government but are entirely sup ported by their flocks. They are formed, however, into a regular hierarchy, at the head of wliich arc four archbishops; Armagh (the primate), Tuam, Cashel, and Dublin. Under them are twenty-two bishops, with a vicar-general, dean, and archdeacon in each diocese. The number of Catiiolic priests has been stated at 1400, besides several hundred friars. Their income arises less from any fixed allowance, than from dues, offerings, and presents; and tho bishops, to make up their incomes, receive from the parish priests a portion of what tliey have collected. Mr. Wakefield has attempted an estimate, according to which, Christmas and Easter offerings amount to 337,000i. ; marriages produce, in licenses, fees, nnd collections, 78,500i. ; christenings, 12,500/. ; buriiis, 12,500/. ; in all, 440,500/. Ac- cording to Arciibishop Curteis, the income of a bishop is about 500/. a year; that of a priest varies from 100/. to 400/. Although a conge is asked from the pope, the real election to vacant places rests with the clergy themselves ; but as tlieir incomes depend entirely on tlie favour of their hearers, they are subject to a necessity of choosing ' or/alar priests, which ia not felt by the established Catholic churches. Hence the influence jt'the priests, always so romarkablo under tho Catholic system, exists in Ireland to an extent perhaps unequa ' '.1. On the other hand, many, especially among the bishops, aro remarked for their exempiitry life, and for the diligent discharge of their functions. They are even sometimes instru- mental in preventing riot, in discovering thefl, and procuring restitution. The recent admission of Roman Catholics to all political privileges, though it does not make any change in the condition of the clergy, has been hailed by the body in general with peculiar satisfac- tion. It is hoped that it will either make them more friendly to the established government, or diminish their influence in estranging from it the minds of the people. The Presbyterians, as already observed, are nearly confined to Ulster, where they are the most numerous sect The synod of Ulster is formed into a sort of establidiment consisting of 201 congregations, besides which tJiere are 110 congregations in comnwnion vrAit the Scottish seceders. The ministers receive a royal gift of 14,000/. annually, which affords from 50/. to 100/. to each. The Presbyterians form the most industrious, thriving, and intelligent portion of the people; yet a great proportion have imbibed republican ideas, mi tiiey pmigrate to America more readily than any other class. 448 DESCRIPTIVE Gl'DGRAPHY. Paet hi. The Established ru,'rrh of Ireland in in union v/ith that of England, and every way simi- lar. It consists of K 'if '^'■v ;.i it hoprics and eighteen bishoprics ; but by an net recently passed, two arclibishopricH a^^e hf ■ onvcrted into bishoprics ; and ten bishoprics are to be abolished.* The entire revenue ok '-u- Irish church has been ascertained to exceed 150,000i. for th; bishoprics, and 715,200/. for other benefices. The lands belonging to the bishops are «>!' L( greater value; but in consequence of being let en rid leases renewed from time to t'uKj on payment of tines, and never coming to a terminLi.'on,the rent derived from them wat. (^uictlw under the real value. It iii proposed now to offe,- these leases to the present incunili/il, jiri perpetuity, on payment of six years' purcl\ase of the ir estimated value, which, it is calciiintcd, will produce about 3,000,000/. A tax, iixieover, varying, according ♦o the am )Uiit of i'" )ra» , from five to fifteen per cent., is to be laid on all livings above 9O01, ; and i'.! producv to be appliod to the augmentation of the poorer livings, iii.d the building o'' glebe louses and if new churchet^ Hence ihn parochial tax, called th.> vestry cesp, or church rait.-, amouQli'.jj to about 90,000/. a year, is no longer to be levied. The lite -ature of Ireland in moiiem times, cannot loiht any vsry .iistinpuished pre-emi- nence; yet v'i3 };as maintained her station in the lit', lary world. In wit and e1o«juonce, indeed, alw Imn excelled both the sister kingdom?. In the former quality, Swi'"* and Sl.iridan uhine unrivi'led; 'md in the latter, Ourke, Grattan, and Cinan have (lM()lay*;d daiiiit,' uid brilliant tligiit.'. In her graver pursuits, Irtjland has noi; been so happy; i.hou.ti fisher attained ;ho f.r.; ; riinence 'n t'leological It arning, and Berkeley was the auUiorc! a highly ingenious «j;fosn o''nhilr,aoipi>v. The Iribii establiahnoiils fUr education ar..^ ;!carcely adequate to the magnitude of thii coun- try. TJiero is only op o uni^ "■::ity, ttut of LJublin iovinded by Elizabeth on the model of those of England, but not on so grpi.t u nlo. Of it and of other Irish literary institutions, an account will of) found under t'le hoal of J>jblJn. As the constitution of this university is strictly Protostf>i>t, iin/! lioes not ai' » ' tlifi tencliing of Catholic theology, the Etmlents of that faith must liave been ail educr.vc i r.lwoad, hid not government endowed for tlieir use tlie Collogc of Mayntxu.'. It is supf.orted by a revenue of about 9000/. a year, and contains a president, \ : -e-prtsident, and eiovon professors, all vith moderate appointmcnv*;. The Btudents receive board and education ; and the whole ai^mial expense of each is not supposed to exceed 20/. The students of the north resort chiefly to Gilasgow for theology, and to Edinburgh for ..ledicinf ; though there has been an attempt to obviate this necessity by the formation of an instituiioi? at Belfast. The education of the pi,H}j in Ireland is a subject which excites the deepest interest in all thv I'lfiids of that country. It appears that by the 8tli of Henry VIII., every clergyman, on his inc'iiotinn, becomes bound to keep or cause to be kept an English school, This act, howev')-, Is (MMier obsolete, or so far evaded that only i. j,000 children are now taught in these parcx';!'»;il schools. The greatest etfort at Irish education, however, is that made by the Chortc) i-tliools, instituted in 1733, which, by parliamentary grants and private bene- fections, hav; i?njoyed an income of 30,000/. a year. But this sum, which might almost furnish sciioola t:. the half of Ireland, is spent upon 20C0 boys, who receive board as well as instruction. Although the act recites no other object than instruction in the English tongue, proselytism has become almost tne sole aim. The Hibernian Society, the Baptist Society and thaf. for discountenancing vice, support schools to a very considerable extent 'I he KiK'are Street Society, e; lablished in 1812, founded numerous schools, in which they endenvoared to induce the Catholics to attend by renouncing all attempts to gain prose- lytes ; but from the entire Scriptures being read in these schools, and other alleged causes, iKe Catholics were supposed to view them with jealous. The allowance made to this society was therefore withdrawn, and a new plan instituted, in which the moral and literary is 8e]Mirated from the religious education, and is communicated to the youth of both religions during four or five days m the week, while, in the remaining period, religious instruction is expected to be administered by the clergy of the respective churches. Extracts only from the boripture, approved by the leading Catholic clergy, are read in the common • The new arrangement, when completed, will be ai followi : AiiMAon (with CIngher, Archb.). Inco" i £1X1 Mcath, S,' ; Derry (with Rapbnc) 8.i':".i Down (with Connor snd Drnmore) A Kilmore (with Ardogh and Elphini. . 7. Tuam (with Killala and Achonry) * :C' OuBLiN (with Qlandclagh and Kildare) ..• . . '. .;vi Ossory (with lieighlin and Ferns) 04!)0 Cathel (with Emiy, Woterfbrd, and Liamore) ''4 Cloyne (with Cork and Ron) , & . Killalorwith Kilfenora, Glonfert, and Kilmaoduagb) i.i-^i limerick (with Ardfer :\nd Aghadoe). , , „ d,;ibii t%t. Tstal. [Aa Pabt hi. ,nd every way simi- nct recently passed, are to be abol ished,* «d 150,000i. for ths he bishops are it' La om time to f'liio in )m them was. riuwtly ■esont incumLinl, ;ti hich, it iscalcii'iitcd, leani )Uiitof i'' 'nnf., nd i rt producv to be lebe i'OUBos am! if irch rate, amount i;g ^inpuished pre-eml- wit and elo(iucnco, , Swit! aniJ Sl.'.ridan Mj)layt!d darinL' 'Jid ippy; ihou.-ii Usher le author cC a highly Eignitudr of tho coun- €th on the mudcl of literary institutions, on of this university logy, the Eiutlents of idowed for their use a year, and (ontains appointmcnVt;. The each is not supposed for theology, dnd to this necessity by the eepest interest in all every clergyman, on ih echool, This act, are now taught in is that made by and private bene- which might almost ive board as well as ;ion in the English Society, the Baptist considerable extent hools, in which they mpts to gain prose- ther alleged causes, (vance made to this moral and literary uth of both religions eligious instruction les. Extracts only ad in the common Inco"' . . O,- J. ,.. P.r-.i , . S ■ e 'iso ... ■. ni ■I i'ili ... o,;ii)ii Boos I. IRELAND. 149 rer Bchools. Ijx&I funds, to a certain extent, are required to be contributed. Although this system haa met with many opponents, yet, in the beginning; of 1833 there had been estab- lished under it betwoe.n 500 and 600 schools, calcul&r.ed for the education of about 90,000 scholars. In 1824, the number of schools in Ireland was 11,828, and scholars 660ji49i, or these scholars 304,742 paid for their own instruction, and among this number were ,'>07,0OC "■itholics, who thus showed no small ardour in obtaining the benefits of knowledge. The xl.'owmg table, from parliamentary documents, shows the number of pupils receivmg oiiblic instu'xtion in the years specified. tm:. Malei. Female*. Total. 905,606 130,907 3M 613 349,913 300,937. £68,004* 84,643 00,870 143,331 The fine arts do not appear to have attained any great excellence in Ireland. Her best painters have sought for patrona^^e in the British metropolis ; and the attempts to establish on annual ex' ibition in Dublin have not succeeded. The Irish harp and native Irish melo- dies pnioy C' isiderable reputation. The ecclesiastical structures have not tiiat splendour liji r jnne&: which so strongly mark many of those in England; but the modem edifices, espo-ially i.. Dublin, display a tastn as well as magnificence which render that capital alno't preeminent In fufiereis, marriages, and similar solemnities, the Irish retain several old national cus- toms. The practice of hired howling women at funerals, called ululates, is very prevalent; a considerable sum is paid to those employed, though, in cases of necessity, they howl gratis. A still more unfortunate custom is that of the wakes, where thirty or forty neighbours assemble, are entertained with meat and drink, and indulge in every sort oifun. Marriages in many parts of the country are marked by some real, or at least apparent, violence ; the bridegroom collects a large party of friends, seizes and carries off the seemingly reluctant bride. Alluding to this custom, her going to her husband's house, even in ordinary cases, is called the " hauling home." This is not prompted by any peculiar shyness on the part of the fair sex ; on the contrary, the mothers, with whom the ttoiir chiefly rests, display even a fever- ish anxiety that their oflspring should not remain long in a state of single blessedness. Thr &ir sex are treated among the higher ranks with a gay and romantic gallantry ; among the lower almost as slaves, being subjected to the most degrading labour. Amusement forms a copious element in the existence of an Irishman. Ample scope is afforded to the Catholics by their numerous holidays, and the Protestants vie with them in this particular. The fairs afibrd a grand theatre for fun of every description. The chief bodily exercise is hurling, which consists in driving a ball to opposite goals ; to this are added horse-racing, cock-fighting, cudgelling, leaping, and dancing; to say nothing of drink- ing and fighting. The conversation of the Irish is distinguished by loud mirth, seasoned with a go<^ deEU of humour, by singing, and telling long stories. Thus employed, even the poor will oflen sit up to a late hour. The houses of the Irish, if we except those of the rich, or in towns, which are formed after the English model, are mere hovels formed of earth, taken out of the ground on which they stand ; whence the floor is reduced at least a foot below the outer level, and becomes a receptacle for all the superfluous moisture. Tnis is the more incommodious as it has no boards, and the bed no frame ; nor is the latter raised from the ground, being merely straw spread upon the floor. This humble mansion is shareu by all the living creatures, which the ramily arr able to muster ; cows, pigs, geese, and fowls \ which are rarely separated by any partition li-oin the other tenants. No compulsory provision exists in Ireland for the support of the poor ; a circumstance to which we are inclined to ascribe much of their distressed state, as well as of the backward state of the country in genertJ. Not being obliged to contribute any thing to their support, the landlords and occupiers have, generally speaking, manifested great indifference to the condition of the peasantry. Fe^v p.. ));fr i^ia have aenitated to allow their estates to be subdivided into minute portions to ».'> ;nce ihoir ^Kjlitical interests, or to obtain an increase of rent But it is abundantly <, .r in that they wouu. -"nve paused before venturing on such a course of proceeding, had ■' j been made responsible, in all time to come, for the paupers tliey were thus introducing ^i jon their properties. T!.e dress of the Irish peasantry consists chiefly of the native v ol, worked rudely up into firieze or linsey ; for they seldom can afford to wear the fine linen which thf y fabricate. But the most prominent feature of this attiie among the lowest class, is its lamentable de- ficiency; in man; instances it covers little more 3ian half of the perscm, and i-resentE an image of extrer 9 poverty. When this deficiency does not exist, the Irishronn loves to dis- play the extent of his wardrobe ; when going to a fiiir, he puts on all the coats be has, though the season be midsununer. The foud of the Irish peasf at is on less scanty than his dress and habitation. It is almost VouL ' t:« v>, ;9f; not aaeertaiiMd. 9^ 450 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY Part in wnolly comprisod in tho potato, without any other vegetable (for ho is a stranger to ths luxury of a ganlcn), and only in favourable circumstances is it accompanied with milk. This fIxMl, however, is sufficient to preserve him in fbll health and vigour. In tho north, the use of oatmeal in the form of cakes nnd pottage has been derived ih)m Scotland. Se(t. VII. — Local Oeograpky. Ireland is divided into four provinces, or rather regions : Leinster in the east, Munster ia .he south, Connau^ht in the wcot, and Ulster in we north. This is independent of tb« minuter English division into counties, a number of which are comprised m each of the four provinces. These last, indeed, when Ireland was ruled by native governments, formed separate kingdoms. They are still distinguished by marked boundaries, by a different aspect nf nature, and by a considerable variation of manners and customs. The following table exhibits tho leading provincial statistics of Ireland. The population statements differ considerably fVom those nitherto published ; but they have been furnished by Mr. Porter, of the Board of Trade as the result of the latest and most accurate digest of the returns for 1881. CounCM. Souir* MIlM. Imprettd Unirn. Acrm, btliuM Annual I'alua, HOUM in IIBI. lion In IB3I. ClIlM ud Towu, Willi llieir Fopulalion. Uinif'. £ bubltn 931 TXIfiW 10,819 250,911 35,740 380,107 Dublin 804,155 Louth 173 191,345 14,9111 I04,70J 81,:«ii 134,84fl Drogheda .... 17,305 Dundalk 9,956 M«ath SlU 501,5,27 5,000 510,414 37,943 170,88(1 Trim 3,470 WIcklow... 480 400,704 04.000 2!m,P99 17,389 131,557 Wicklow.... 8,040 Arklow... . 3,806 W«xrord... SM 545,079 18,500 305,134 30,159 188,713 Wexford 8,336 Longford... SOU 103,500 55,947 151,505 18,987 113,55e Longford .... BnniKorthy . 3,783 New Ron . 4,475 3,557 Wcitmeath 301 313,935 55,088 2.51,063 33,015 136,878 Mullingar ... 4,100 Athlone 11,309 King-i Co. *V> 304,569 133,349 317,019 33,504 144,925 Phillpitown . Tullamore . . . 1,931 Birr 5,517 5,406 Qiicen'i Co. 307 335,838 00,972 977,767 83,105 145,851 Poriarlington 3,877 Maryborough 8,677 Kildara 309 335,988 60,447 255,082 10,478 106,434 Alhy Kildare 3,093 Naai 3,073 1,510 Kilknimy . . 4(W) 417,117 00,509 437,093 30,789 193,080 Kilkenny .... 83,741 Carlow . . su 100,833 83,030 lli4,H05 13,028 81,088 Carlow 8,035 4,3«> 4.113,300 035,494 3,472,400 278,398 1,009,713 UMer. Down 544 503,077 108,509 480,123 69,747 353,013 Newry 10,013 Downpatrick 4,133 Donnaghadee 8,705 Antrim •■■■ 005 483,100 383,970 569.150 48,028 325,615 BeiniBt Antrim 53,000 Carricklbrgua 8,485 Lisburn'' 8,706 4,684 Londonderr. 470 373,007 1.T0.0.TS 310,962 34,691 322,019 Londonderry. 0,313 Olerain 4,851 Doiipgal . . . 1,001 590,730 044,371 340,501 44,eoc 280,140 Ballyihannon 3,831 Lifibrd 978 Fermanagh 440 .330,5IH) 101,952 950,301 83,585 149,763 Enniikillen.. 8,300 Cavan 47H 431,403 30,00(1 307,741 34,148 887,933 Cavan 8,393 MonoRhaa . 2f« .TOfl.OfiP 0,9.Tfi 219,581 32,378 195,530 Monaghan . . . 3,738 Armagh. . . . 2K) 207,317 42,4?2 178,055 30.20(1 830,134 Armagh Omagn 8,493 Tyrone .... 724 550,830 171,314 598,005 47,104 304,408 8,095 Dungammon. 3JMb 4,894 3,749,352 1,409,992 3,905,378 359,801 2,286,099 MuntUr. Clare 744 534,113 259,584 441,903 35,373 958,333 Enni 0,701 Kerry 1,013 581,189 552,809 344,010 35,507 863,190 Tralee Dingle Cork 7,547 Killarney .... 4988 107!o]fl Bandon 7,014 Cork 1,038 1,068,803 700,700 1,303,090 114,459 810,733 10,179 Kinsale 7,098 Yoiighal 8,fi«0 Permoy 3,708 Mallow 4,114 Waterford . 410 353,347 118,0.14 305,304 23,800 177,054 Waterford... 38,831 LiHmore 9,33lt Tipperary.. 807 819,658 182,147 880,539 55,397 403,563 Clonmel Tipperary . . . Roacrun 15,590 Caihel 6,348 Carr.-on.Suir 5,830 6,548 7,4(6 Limerick... Cmnaught. Lcitrim.... e04 588,848 91,081 620,039 43,400 315,355 Limeripk .... Carriek-on-Sb. 66,554 1,673 5,875 3,935,853 1,905,308 3,801,070 300,995 2,397,153 400 800,040 128,167 910,187 21,709 141,594 Sllgo 380 257,217 108,711 897,443 37.050 171,765 Bligo 9,383 Mayo 1,335 871,084 485,134 550,018 5.1,051 .166,39e Caatlebar . . . . 5,404 Qalway.... 1,540 055,713 476,957 808,704 68,137 414,684 Galway Balllnaaloe .. Rowommon • 33,180 Tuam 1,811 3,015 4,571 Roscommon 541 453,455 131,003 370,038 37,399 849,613 4,108 3,805,009 1,330,093 3,330,070 197,408 1,343,914 •18,633 14,603,473 5,340,730 13,715,578 1,143,609 7,767,401 SuBSKCT. 1. — Leinster. Leinster is the richest and most cultivated of the four great divisions, and, as containing the seat of government, the most important theatre of political events. Though the sur- &ce be level to a great extent, it is not destitute of considerable ranges of mountains. Thesa SThii ii the Iriih mile of 40 to a degree. Ths area bai already been itated to tie 30,000 Engliih aquare mile* M. Eo.] PABTin Btrenger to ths with milk. Thia 10 north, the um cast, Munater in epcnUent of th« in each of the irnmonts, formed I different aspect The population ) been furnished ;curate digest of Book I. IRELAND IM Ihilr Fopulttion. )undalk 0;U6 Vrklow... . 3,806 «ew Rom . 4,i7t Mhlone liirr 11,3«1 «,«I6 Maryborough 8,677 Naai 3,073 Downpatrick 4,133 Carrickrergui 8,706 LiBburnf 4,884 Colerain 4,891 Lifford 070 Dungmnmon. 3JMli Killarney.... 7,0M Bandon 10.170 I'oughal 8,0«0 Wallow 4,114 Unmore 8,3» 'ashcl 6,ow larr.-on-Suir 7,469 fuam , 4,571 id, as containing Though the sur- lountains. These ingUih wiuare duIm Include almost the whole county of Wicklow, whose bold nnd picturesque sununita are aoen even from Dublin. In the interior, the long range of Slicvo-Blooni stretches towards thp borders of Munster. A considerable part also ot the midland counties is covered by the great bog, which crosses the whole centre of Ireland. Afler all deductions, however, there remains a large extent of level land, fit either for tillage or pai^turage. This is tiio port of Ireland whore wheat it grown to the greatest extent, oats being elsewhere almost the only grain ; and its rich pastures supply the capital with cattle and the products of the dairy. Leinster comprises the counties of Dublin, Kildare, King's county, Queen's County, Wicklow, Carlow, Kilkenny, Wexford, Meath, Westmeath, Ix)ngford, and Louth. The county of Dublin owes its distinction almost exclusively to its containing the capital nf Ireland. The city of Dublin disputes with Edinburgh and Bath the reputation of being the most beautiful city in the empire. If the brick of which the houses are built impair the effect of the general range of its streets and squares, its public builduigs, composed of stone* surpass in grandeur and taste those of any of its rivals. There is no period of Irish record ill which Dublin was not an important place. It is mentioned hy Ptolemy under the name of Eblona. The Danes, in the ninth century, made it their capital, and enclosed it with a wall about a mile in length, the course of which may still be traced. As soon as the Eng- lish began to establish themselves in Ireland, its proximity induced them to make it theur head-quarters; it new with the improvement of Ireland and the extension of the English sway, but all its splendour has arisen within the lost sixty or seventy years. The numerous streets and squares formed during that period have been built on a regular plan, and contain several superb mansions, which once belonged to the principal nobles. The squares are par* ticularly iidmired ; that of St. Stephen's Green is nearly seven furlongs in circuit; Men ion Square, which contains the splendid mansion of Leinster House ; Rutland Square, in the interior of which are the gardens of the Lying-in Hospital ; and Mountjoy Square, are also spacious and finely laid out Of the streets, the finest is Sackville Street, 170 feet wide, and adorned with many ^^plendid mansions. "To the west is tlic old town, now beuing marks of decay, and still farluor west is the tract called " the Liberfy," as being out of the juris- diction of the magistrates. It is inhabited only by the lowest orders, and exhibits scenes of filth and wretchedness not to be paralleled in any city of the sister island. A room fifteen feet square is frequently let to three or four families; and one house was ascertamed to have lodged 108 persons. Dublin has been " shorn of its beams" since the Unic ; when the nobles and gentry, no longer called to attend parliament, transferred their own residence to Uie raetronmis of the empire, and their Dublin mansions have been converted to humbler pur- poses. 1 ne Castle, the residence of the lord lieutenant, is extensive ; but its architectural beauty is almost confined to a modem Gothic chapel. The cathedral of St. Patrick (Jig, 212.), and Christ Church have a venerable aspect ; but they can rank only secondary to the fine 212 structures in the English cities. The splendid structure, formerly the parliament-house of Ire- land, and now the national bank (Jig, 213.), 213 St. Patrick'! Cathedral. Bank of Ireland, Dublin. was built between 1729 and 1739 ; but an eastern front was added in 1785, and a western front shortly afler. The portico is 147 feet in length, supported by lofly Ionic columns ; the whole covering an acre and a half of ground. The Royal Exchange (Jig. 214), forms a square of 100 feet, and its principal front has a richly decorated portico of six Corinthian columns. The Four Law Courts, situated on the north bank of the river (Jig. 215.), fonn ^ 215 214 Ezchaiwo, Dnblia. Feat Comti, Dobl Ji. *^. -^ '\w4^ 492 de'":riptive geography. p,iKT in. also one of the nobleat itructurea in Dublin : it conaista of a aqo^re of ].40 feet, preMntiiur a fVont of six Corinthian pillare, supporting^ a circular lantern and ina^nifiient aome. Tiie quay is orndinented by the Custom-nouse, of which the fVont ia entirely of Portland stone, embellished with a Doric colonnade, and extunding 376 feet. The Post Otficj, in Sackville Street, is extensive and magnificent, with u front of 223 feet, adorned with an Ionic portico of Portland stone; the main structure is of (r~ ' ' - ^n thu centre of i^ckvillo Street, la the monument erected to Nelson ; an objci. ( , ) ii ' i ornamental. The inns of court, the theatre, the half-finishei«'' \a cimpcl, and several other churchea and chnpels, with many of the hospit i'. iivir mentioned as adding to the architectural splendour of Dublin. All the usual n-wciations for the relief of distress are supported on a liberal scale, and grnat zeal is shown ' i favour of all institutions for the promotion of know- ledge. Trinity College was founded in 1503; and its students amount to 1600. There are 25 rellowships, and the livingb in the gifl of the university, which are considerable in num- ber and value, are offered to the fellows in the order of seniority. The gradations of rank, amongst the fellows in Trinity Colle^fe, are indicated bv n '-T- ' dress and table. The library contains 100,000 volumes; but its other collect!. ^^u uui uquul to :' .'•in of the Dublin Society. Usher, Swift, Berkeley, Chandler, Leltuid, Pamoh, Burke, Grattan, Curran, with other distinguished characters, are mentioned as pupils of this seminary. The buildings of the College are on a hrgu scale, divided into three quadrangles, for the accommodation of the fellows and pupils The iVont towards College Green extends 300 feet, and is lulorned with columns of the Cor.nthian order. The library forms a fourth quadrangle, built of hewn stone, with a rich entai i. ure ; and tlie principal room, 210 feet long and 41 feet broad, is elegantly fitted up. At i nhort distance from town is a bot nic garden. The Royal Dublin Society, incorporateil in 1749, for the promotion of husbu. /Iry and the useful arts, has a botanic garden ; a uiuscum of natural history ; a school for drawing, with modeln ; and teachers in all these departments. The Roval Irish Academy, incorporated in 1782, has published many volumes of Transactions. The Dublin Institution has been formed on the model of that of London, and a citv Library established. Although a g^reat literary spirit prevails in Dublin, there are few books printed there, and the art of printing is in a back- ward state. The works of Iri jh authors issue from the London presses. Dublin has very little foreign t ide ; but she has a considerable trade with England, particularly with Liver- pool. The bay ;s spacious, and has good anchorage ; but the entrance is beset with formida- ble sond-baiiks, particularly those called the North and South Bulls, which cannot be passed by large vessels at low water; so that vessels embayed at that time of the tide, and attacked by strong easterly c'^les, can scarcely escape being driven upon one of them. To avert these evils, a double wall has been constructed three miles in length, composed of enormous blocks of granite, dovetailed into each other, the interval filled with gravel; and a lightrhoui:3 erected at the end. Another pier of great extent has been built at Dunleary, now Kings- town, on the southern side of the bay, which is connected by a railway with the capital. To these advantages Dublin unites that of being placed at the termination of the Grand Canal on the souui, and the Royal Canal on the nort! , tvhich penetrate by different lines to the Shannon and the interior of*^ Ireland, In 1829, Dublin paid the sum of 660,000/. of duty on imported goods, wl. "'e that paid at all tl'e other pv)rt8 of Ireland amounted only to 910,000/. The environs are celebitited for their bea t The • st numbei " villas and villages which cover the adjacent districts, and are rendered conspicuous by the ^ound sloping down to the bay; the foreground of the Dublin mountains, and the picturesque summits of those of Wicklow in the background, render Uie situation striking and delightful. To the west, Phoenix Park, a royal demesne of several m'lp-; ,!• circumference, ufTorfs an ag. ;eable pro- menade, and has lately been adorned with a>i obelisk, 210 feet high, in honour of the Duke of Wellington. The rest of the county contains only villages, .iiid the interior possesses ff"i interesting objects. The shores of the bay, however, include manv If iking sites; and the view from the IMl of Killiney is almost matchless. Wicklow is in general composed of bog, forest, and moi-'^ in, anc contributes little to the wealth of Ireland. It is, however, celebrated for picture . bean v. Its coast, diversified by hills, broken into glens, and richly wooded, is almost c< i x< i the seats of the gentry and opulent citizens of Dublin. These variogoted and cmbellisht grounds, having on one side the expanse of tlie Irish Channel, and on the other thf! lofly miantains in the interior, produce a nuT"^ '"' of beautiful sites. The demesne of Powerscourt is pre-eminent, the water- fell (Jig. 216., descending 360 feet down a steep hill, amid vast hanging woods. The interior of the county presents features of n very difierent description ; glensnetween lofly mountains, naked and desolate. Among these is Glendalough (Jig. 217.), which is surrounded by a most majestic circuit of mountai.is, and contains some remarkable ecclesiastical monuments attri- buted to SL Kevin, a ereat patron saint of Ireland in the seventh century. One of his disci- ples founded at Glenaalougn a little city, long celebrated as a seat of religion and learning Only its site can ncv/ be traced ; but there are diBtinci remains of seven churches, among which Um cathedral and St Kevin's kitchen are the most entire. Loughs Dan and Bray Book I. IRELAND. 4S» I ol Portland stone, ■ituated in the boMm of the wildest mountains, and cnclosnU d v dark and lofty rocks, present nature under an aB[>€ct the most rudely sublime. Wicklow uom veins of copper ana lead : gold was collected in one year to the value of 10,000/. ; hut the vein was soon exhausted. The towns of Wicklow and Arklow, though well built, are inconsiderable; yet the latter, at the mouth of the Ovoca, has a little trade, and was once the residence of the kings of Ireland. It was tho ii^^ scene of a memorable action in 1798, when the iiw , m^'^''^f^' Powoncuurl WalerrBll Qlendalouih surgents, above .)n,000 strong, wore defeated by a small British detachment. Wexford, to thi south of V\ icklow, is separated from it by a range of mountains ; but tho interior contains a great deal of level land, in which agriculture is pursued with greater diligence, and the tenantry are more comfortable, than in most other parts of Ireland. Barley is a prevailing crop. Tho woodlimda also are extensive and valuable. Wexford is a place of some consequence, with a harbour much obstructed by sand ; yet it carries on some traffic. Some wof .' "re made both ai Wexford and Enniscorthy. New Ross, in the western part of th( county, a flourishing t4>wu, on the Barrow, which admits of large ships coming up to its quay. Kilkenny, a h and exteiisiive county, separated from Wexford by the Barrow, is watered not only by that river, but by iU tributaries the Nore and the Suirc. These streams carry off the superfluous m usture, and prevent the formation of bog or marsh to any extent. Kil- kenny, bring chitil 'jvel, or intersected only by hills of moderate height, is composed almost entirely cither of aralilc or fine pasture land. The latter is employed in extensive dairies, but the system of ciilt ation is still imperfect Kilkenny, the capital, advantage- ously situated on the Nore, ii? , rtly built of the marble of the surrounding quarries. Its cathedral is one of the finest ii Ireland, and the castle, with its remaining gates and bastions, exhibits indications of that strength which enabled it to hold out against Cromwell longer than any other city in Ireland. At present Kilkenny flourishes by inland trade, and by a manufactory of blankets and other woollens. The foreign trade of the county is carried on by Watcrford. Carlow is encompassed by mountains, which however enclose a champaign tract of great beauty and fertility, equally fit for tillti^e and pasture, and producing the best butter in Ire- land. The town of Carlow is a considerable place, distinguished by an abbey and castle, both of great antiquity. The town has a manufactory of coarse woollens, and carries on r considerable trade Gown the Barrow. An extensive Catholic seminary has lately been founded here. Queen's County and King's County form a table-land of moderate elevation. Part of the Sreat chain of bogs crosses these counties, and renders a large proportion of them unpro- uctive, though it supplies them with cheap and ab idant fueh The remaining surface m highly fertile. Queen's County is situated along the heads of the Barrow and the Nore ; Kings County reaches to the Siiannon; and both communicate by canals with Dublin. Portarlington, on the borders of the two counties, is a well-built place, with good schools, and the residence of a considerable number of gentry. Tullamore, on the great canal, and Birr or Parsonstown, are the most thriving towns in King's County. Kildare, with the exception of about a sixth part of bog, forms a plain of the finest arable soil, well cultivated, and whence the capital is chiefly supplied with grain. The Grand taoA Royal Canals, which both cross its northern border, aSom the means of ready conveyance to Dublin. Kildare-town, presenting a lofty round tower and some other vestiges of past importance, is only supported by the mces heid on the curragh of Kildare, an expanse of several thousand acres of the very finest turf. Naas and Atiiy are larger towns, and tho castle of the former bears testimony to the period when it was the residence of the kin^ 4M DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY. Pabt L of Leinator. In this county ia Mavnootti, a ainall town containing the coUug* Mtabliik«d by ffovonunent tor tho education ot the Roman Catliolica. Moath ia ono of tho moat fkvouroil cuuntioH of t}io kingdom in reapoct to aoil. Ita rich po»> turea aupport vast herda of black cattle, which aupply tho markuta of tho capital, and are ex- ported to England. The prcMlucts of Uto dairy are abundant, though not of very aiiperior quality. Trim, where the aaaizoa are hold, ia a amuU town ; Navan and Kolla are larger. Loutli, though tho amalleat in area of any Iriah county, ia ono of tho firat in point ot natu- ral find acquired advantages. An active apirit of improvement has brought almoat every part of ita excellent soil under cultivation. Ita linen manufacture produces chiefly dowlu and ahootinga, with some cambric. Louth preaenta many aamploa of the earthen mounds called rathi. Dundalk, the capital of tho county, ia ancient, populous, and flouriahing. It has been tlio theatre of important hiatoriciil uventa; but its lofly towers and castles are now demolished, and have given place to copitbrtablu dwellings. The town consists chietly of ono large and brood street, whence many lanoa are seen diverging. It ia the only place in Ireland where the cambric manufacture has been introduced, and continues to nouriah. Droghcda, at the mouth of the Boyne, was of still greater importance as a military station, being conaidered ono of the keys of Ireland. In the great rebellion of 1041, it stood a long siege, but was afterwards taken by Cromwell, who punished ita roaiatance by a moat barba- rous massacre of tlie garrison. In 1000, two miles abovn Droghedo, was fought tho battle of the Boyne, that memorable field which cstublitihed Uie civil and religious liberties of the empiro. The fortiticationa are of ol)Holotn Htructure, and are commanded on several sidoa. The place has an excellent harbour, and extenaive commerce in grain brought down tho river m considerable quantities for exportation ; in return for which, coals and other commo- dities are imported. Wcstmeatti and Longford, reaching westward as far as the Shannon, consist chiefly of a very extensive plain considerably encumbered with lakes, bogs, and morasses, and subject in part to the overflowing of the Shaiuion, but including fertile tracts of great extent Ath- tone, tho largest inland town of Ireland, is situated partly in Westmeatn and partly in Ros- common. It is memorable for itH rcaiatance to General Ginkle in 1091, previous to the battle of Aughrim, and is still considered an important military station. It ia divided by the Shan- non into two parts united by a bridge. With this exception, theso provinces contain only small country towns and large villages. Mullingar, in Westmeath, has a considerable trade, Longford is tho capital of the county of that name. SuBSKCT 2. — Munater. Munster includes the south and south-west of Ireland, and, though not the most extensive division of the kingdom, is one of those which presents the boldest and most striking fea^ tares. Most of the great mountain chains of Ireland traverse Munster ; among which are conspicuous the Galties and the mountains of Kerry, which encircle Killamey ; so that, not- withstanding tho almoflt boundless plains of Limerick and Tipperary, and the level character of a great part of Cork, it may be considered as a mountainous region. It has manufactures, though not on so great a scale as those of the north ; and its commerce is very considerable, chiefly in the export of salted provisions. The Catholic religion prevails, with little inter- mixture of that of the English church. Munster is divided mto larger and less numerous portions than Lcinster ; its counties are Tipperary, Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Limerick, and Clare, Tipperary, extending over almost the whole frontier of Leinster, ia crossed by a long chain of mountains called variously Slieve-Bloom, the Devil's Bit, and other uncouth names; and on the south it includes port of the Galties. On the north a small portion of the great central bog extends across the county ; but one district, along the upper course of the Suire, boors Uie appellation of the Golden Vale. The sheep ana horned cattle are of excellent quality. There ore manufiictures, chiefly for domestic use ; and some coal, similar to that of Kilkenny. Clonmel, the county town, is one of the most considerable in the interior of Ireland : it stood a long siege against Cromwell, who afler its reduction demolished the strong walls and castles bv which it was defended. It is a well-built town, with four streets cross- ing each other, and carries on a brisk inland trade. Cashel is a large and handsome city, the seat of an archbishop, to whose residence a considerable library is attached. In ancient times, it was the capital of the kings of Munster, of whose palace some remnants may still be traced. Noble fragments remam of the ancient cathedral, majestically seated on the summit of a precipitous rock. The choir and nave, 210 feet long, are strewed with the re- mains of its rich ornaments. Here was deposited the Lia Fale, or fatal stone, on which the kings of Munster were crowned. The structure is now abandoned to decay, and modern cathedral of fine Grecian architecture has been substituted. Cashel contains remains of other monastic edifices, of which Here Abbey, on the same rock with the catliedrul, is a magnificent specimen, still ahnost entire. WaterfoFu m a uiouuiainous county, and only a small portion is under cultivation ', tht Book I. IRELAND. >r cultivation; th« ehiof branch of rural induitry ia the dairy, and great quantities of butter are aaltod for ex> yortation. Watorford, ita capital, one of tho principal aoa-portH of tho nmj,H()l/. ; of which bacon waa 547,000/. ; buttor. n:)8,(MH)<.; wheat and flour, MO.OOO/. ; oata, 12H,(NN)/.; live pin, 117,000/. Tho wuthorn piickei communication with Kn^land ia carried on tVom Watcrtord to Milford Haven Within thcHo tnw yearn, aeventy veiablH have been fitted out for the Newfoundland flahery Watorford nnjoya tho benefit of a deep and apacioui harbour, and a flno quay half a milo ]on(^. Ita occlcaiaatical monuments aro of considerable mafl^itude, and it haa an elegant modem cathedral, with other fine public edifices. Twenty miles to the west, on a small bay, ia Oun Lord Perry, and bearing his name, they are spacious and regular; and the houses, though only of brick, built in the most handsome modem style. The assembly-rooms, theatre, a^d other modern structures, are elegant and commodious. Clare county is a wild, hilly, romantic district, abounding with fine creeks and har' a, but without commerce, and with muies of lead, iron and coal, which have not b'" "» turnc i W account More than half the surface consists of mountain, bog, and waste; u. ; '■--. hoW' ever, support numerous flocks of sliccp, the wool of wuich is of superior quality , " icics on the banks of the Shannon and the Ptrgua vie in fertility v/ith any in the kingi; < > Jnnis, the capital, is situated on the bonks of tlie last-mentioned river, by which it coi nii< icates Railltt'i Crae. ;';-.T-^-wjp^;);i >^r^ir^i^;-^i^ ' Part. III. i of Macfjfiilinuddy'a >f which rises to 8400 itoinia Island, a lon([ rho Boonery soon in SDot is at tho Eaf^lo'g ).;, a stupendous and rliicli bursts suddenly rising in a pyramidal water. Throughout f Killarney, but here ly, the effect of echoes 111 and striking. The 10 least extensive but no, exhibits all the lof- 8 under tho most im- viow. Its shores ore roried with numerous rocky sides contrast ant- green of the ar £ccnt of tho highoal ngerton to the north, 'ful ranges of rugged an astonishing view bo Atlantic, and the I some branches ihim its of a fertile plain, te exuberant. That runs along the whole nd Its situation, in t an extensive trade; tho great marts for n 18dl, having oeen ind, and has always ircU's lieutenant, re- 160O-1, it stood two he " capitulation of of tho Stuarts. At is protest? it. The irrow, crowded, and refully widened. In id regular ; and the 'he assembly-rooms, reeks and hai' a, not b' '^ turncifo iste; ,u. :■ '•^. how- juality, " icics 19 king I. <> Jnnis, h it coi "'ill icates Book I. IRELAND 457 with the Rhnnnon. It is considerable, thougii irregularly built ; and its abboy, in tho purest 4tyle of Gothic arohitooturo, is considered the finest in Ireland. SuBSKcrr. 3, — Connaught. Connaught forms a groat peninsula, tho most westerly part of Ireland, extending iVom the Shannon to tho Atlantic. This division is of ull others the most decidedly Irish, having continued unsubdued long after the English kings claimed tho proud title of lonls of the island. It still contains fewer English inhabitants; tho religion is more universally Catholic, industry and manufactures have inudo less nrogress, and all the imperfect igriculturaj im- plements and processes ore in more general uso. Disturbances, hoMover, have never taken Slaco hero to so great an extent as in Munstor and Leinstor. Its shores are penetrated by eep and extensive bays, forming some of tho finest harbours in tho world. The countiei io Connaught are (klway, Mayo, Sligo, Roscommon, and Loitrim. Oalway presents to the soa ranges of stoop clifls, which, with tho waves of the Atlantic dashing against them, exhibit a grand spectacle. Tho interior contains two exton!>ivo lakes, and ib (livorHifiod with hills, though tlioro are few which are not fit for pasturage. The cattle are of goinl cpiality, and tho flocks of sheep are more extensive than in other parts of Ireland. The flshcrios of horring and salmon are considerable. Galway hr% always been a consideif- ablo town, and is still supported by some inland and foreign commerce, by a coiiHiderablo fishery, liy tho resort of the gniitry to it for sea-bathing, and as the only scone of gay society to bo found in Connaught. It was onco very strongly fortified both by nature and art; and to obtain tho protection of tho walls, tho streets wero made narrow, and the houses high, massive, and gloomy ; but tlioy have of lato been considerably opened, and suburbs built, of a more gay and elegant description. Tuam is an ancient, handsome town, of considerable extent, tho seat of an archbishopric. Ballinasloc, on the eastern border, holds tlio greatest cattlo fair in Ireland, whore tho oxen and shcoi) of tho pastoral counties of Galway and Mayo are mustered for tho capital. At the mouth of tho bay of Galway are tho bold and rocky islands of Arran, Mayo is chiefly elevated and rugged ; some of the mountains rising to upwards of 2600 feet; but mnny of their sides are verdant, and tho valleys rich and well watered; so that Mayo is a fine pastoral county. The estates are large, but tho farms small, and much sub* livided. M'lyo contains no town of sufficient importance to return a member to parliament. Castlebar, the county town, is well built, with a linen hall ; and tho linen manufacture flourishes. Killala, a straggling village, on a bay of the same name, is chiefly noted for the landing effected in 1798, oy a body of French troops under General Humbert, who pene- trated to Castlebar, but wore finally obliged to surrender to Marquess Comwallis. Sligo contains a considerable quantity of bog ; but the remainder consists of a sandy gravelly soil, well adapted to tho production of barley and oats ; so that pasturage is not so exclusively tha employment here as in the two last-mentioned counties. Salmon is caught in large quantities. The linen manufacture has made considerable progress, and is extend- ing. Sligo, the capital, at the mouth of the river and the head of the bay of the same name, was in early times a considerable place : it has suffered severely in civil contention ; yet, by the advantage of a ^cod situation and harbour, it has attained considerable imp> rtance ana trade. In the vicinity is a remarkable circle of stones, called the Giant's Grave, somewhat resembling Stonehenge. Roscommon is mosUy level, finely watered, and celebrated for rich pastures ; but tho in- crease of population and manufactures has caused a great part of them to be lately brought into tillage ; it contains some pretty little lakes, among which Lough Key is particularly admired. Roscommon is ancient, a.id marked by some ecclesiastical antiquities, but it is not now so important as Boyle, pleasantly situated on a river of the same name, over which there are two fine bridges ; in its neighbourhood are the ruins of a stately abbey, founded in 1512, tho arches of which, forty-six feet in height, are deemed models of Gothic architect- ural gra.ideur. Elphin, the seat of a very ancient episcopal see, is only a village. Leitrim is filled with high mountains, presenting nature under bold features, often height- ened by the ruined castles which crown their summits. There are veins of iron, lead, copper, and coal, the last of which has been wrought. There are good pastures in the valleys, and on the sides of the hills ; and pretty large quantities of oats are raised. The linen manu- &cture is extending, and there are some considerable potteries. Carrick on Shannon, the county town, and Leitrim, which gives name to it, are only villages. Sdbsect. 4. — Vliter. This part of Ireland presents i.i many respects a superior character to the other three, its population being more industrious, better instructed, and in more comfortable circuttistdnces. The Presbyterian form of worship, introduced by the SeottiBn settlers under the reign of James I., is the prevailing one. The linen manufacture, the staple of the country, has here '.ts jhief seat, and is carried on almost in every village. The harbours of Belfast, London- ferry, and Lough Swilly, are sufficient for the wants of commerce. The coast of Antrun, i'OL. I 89 3H ■. J, /I! 468 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part TIL in tlie boldnwiss and peculiar character of its rock scenery, is witliout a match in any other part of the world. The counties of this province are, f^rmanagh, Donegal, Jjondondeny, .Antrim, Down, Armagh, Tyrone, Monaghan, Cavan. Fermanagh is a somewhat rough county, comprising a large proportion of mountain and bog, but wiSi fertile valleys, in wnich, besides the usual producta of oats and potatoes, flax is cultivated to the extent of about 5000 acres. The waters of all the high grounds flow down into Lough Erne, a noble lake, upwards of twenty miles in length. It is studded with numerous islands, covered with fine woods ; long wooded promontories are seen stretching &r into the waters ; and, tliough the immediate borders of the lake are not mountainous, .ofty distant eminences form the general background to its prospects. Cistle Caldwell, BeU turbet, and Belleisle are the spots in which its beauties are peculiarly concentrated. The chief town is Ennlskillen, delightfully situated on an island, accessible only by two opposite bridges; this site enabled it to make its noble stand agamst the army of James II. Donegal includes a great extent of the north-western coast of Ireland, full of deep bays and fine harbours. In its interior, however, it consists almost entirely of mountain, moss, and moor, with only a few productive valleys. It is often called, with some adjoining dis- tricts, " the black north of Ireland." Distillation forms an active branch of its industry. Liflbrd, its small county town, stands on the Poyle, upon the borders of Derry. Ballyshan- non, almost at the opposite extremity, is a thriving town, beautifully situated on the channel by which Lough Erne pours its waters into the Atlantic. Raphoe is a celebrated episcopal Bee, but now only a decayed village. Derry, or Ijondonderry, a large and fine county, is crossed by a ran^e of mountains, whose principal peak* are fi'om 1000 to 1500 feet high, and a considerable part o.. whose surface consists '/f heatii and bog. TJiere are, however, fine valleys, and extensive plains, which are cultivated witfi some diligence, but according to that system rf minute subdivision which is the bane of Irish agriculture. The linen manufacture flourishes in full vigour, chiefly according to the Irish system, among tho little farmers and cotters, who combine it with the cultivation of a few acres. Londonderry is a fine city, situated at the point where the Foyle, after traversing a great part of this county and that of Tyrone, falls into the broad basin of Lough Foyle. It is ancient, being the theatre of remarkable events even in the time of the Danes. In 1608, after the attainder of O'Neale, it was granted by James I. to the citizens of London, whence it derived the first part of its name. But its chief distinction was fi-om the siege sustained by the city in 1690-1, against the united forces of Ireland under James II. Londonderry is composed of four main streets crossing each other at right angles, and surrounded still by its old walls in full repaii, serving rather for ornament than defence. It has an ancient Gothic cathedra!, and some handsome modern edifices. It is now supported by an extensive commerce, for which Lough Foyle, though its entrance is somewhat impeded by a bar, affords a spacious and secure harbour. Its chief intercourse is with the United States and the West Indies, to which it exports the linen manufactured in this part of the country. Coleraine is a well-built town on the Bann, which flows fi-om Lough Neagh, and on which is the most extensive salmon fishery in the island ; but the rapidity of the stream obstructs the navigation upwards, Antrim, occupying the north-eastern corner of the kingdom, opposite the coa3t of Scotland, is one of the most remarkable districts of Ireland, in regard to natural features as well as to commerce and industry. A great part of the surface consists of rugged mountains, com- posed chiefly of rock and moss, and even its best soils are scarcely available for agricultural purpost'H till improved by the use of the lime with which the country abounds. The moun- tains, where they fee the ocean, are broken into vast perpendicular precipices, exhibiting the basaltic columnar form on a grander scale than exists in any other part of the world. Of these objects, the Giant's Causeway (Jig. 221.) is the most celebrated and magnificent oj»| Three natural pijers or moles, 400 feet ** in height, here stretch out into the sea, and are visible above the water for about 300 yards. The walls are composed of dark basaltic columns, of the most regular form, and so closely united, that only the blade of a knife can be thrust between them. Each column is distinct from the others, and divided into jointed portions, as per- fect as if art had formed them ; there being in each part a projection, which IS lodged in a corresponding concavity or socket of the one contiguous. The coast eastward of the causeway is composed of a succvission of capes, presenting the most sublime scenery; dark precipitouB clifS, rising regularly in gradually retiring strata, and formed into various faroken colonnades which might suggest the idea of palaces overwhelmed in ruins. Other striking features distuiguisli the coast of Antrim. Conspicuous above all othere is The Oiaot'i Causeurar. Part III a match in any other tonegal, Ijondondenry, tion of mountain and ats and potatoes, Qa:c le high grounds How th. n is studded with 3 are seen stretching are not mountainous, C istle Caldwell, Bel- y concentrated. The ! only by two opposite of James II. land, full of deep bays ly of mountain, moss, h some adjoining dis- iranch of its industry, af Derry. Ballyshon- ituated on the channel a celebrated episcopal e of mountains, whose part Ok vvhose surface itensive plains, which nute subdivision which in full vigour, chiefly ho combine it with the point where the Foyle, nto the broad basin of even in the time of the fames I. to the citizens jf distinction was from f Ireland under James er at right angles, and nent than defence. It It is now supported is somewhat impeded with the United States is part of the country. JNeagh, and on which " the stream obstructs the coajt of Scotland, features as well as to jged mountains, com- lilable for agricultural labounds. The moun- precipices, exhibiting part of the world, rated and magnificent. " jrs or moles, 400 feet stretch out into the Jiible above the water lards. The walls are |k basaltic columns, of form, and so closely the blade of a knire letween them. Each }t from the others, and ited portions, as per- formed them; there . a projection, which The coast eastward lost sublime scenery; formed into various led in ruins, is above all others is Book I. IRET.AND. Curiick-a-Rode. Fairhead, called also Benmore ; a promontory which forms nearly the north-eastern pt'uit of Ireland. It consists of a vast mass of columnar greenstone, coniposing a mural precipice rudely colunmar, and 250 feet high. At its feet lies a chaos o huge masses of rock, heaped togemer in the wildest confusion, and forming a scene of ruin the awful grandeur of which has scarcely a parallel. Against this the sea heaves in a solemn majestic swell, the peculiar attribute of the At- lantic waters. Carrick-a-Rede (Jig. 222.) is a small island composed of a mass of basalt, imperfectly formed into columns, separated from the continent by a chasm of sixty feet. The fishermen, however, have occasion to resort to it with the view of placing nets to intercept the salmon ; to reach it, therefore, they have constructed a daring and singular bridge, formed of two strong parallofcables fixed to each side, with planks ir.8erted between them. This slight pontage is subject to violent movements, and, if not judiciously trodden, may precipitate the passenger into the abyss ; but the fishermen, accustomed to tread it, carry great loads across without the slightest apprehension. Several of the precipitous cliffs are adorned with the ruinp of ancient castles, the grandest of which is Dunluce (Jig, 223.), whose extensive area covers the long ridge of ogg - an almost ii.sulated rock, which presents ^ its perpendicular face to the ocean. The walls enclose the entire surface of the rock, and rise up as a continuation of its precipitous sides. In one place, the rocky base having given way, the apartment above actually overhangs the sea. Belfast, the grand emporium of the north Ui Ireland, has risen to greatness by rapid steps. Carrickfergus, by means of peculiar privileges, monopolised all the trade of this part of^ Ireland, till these privileges were bought up by the Earl of Strafford. The career of competition was then opened to Belfast, and she gradually outstripped all her rivals. In 1660, the town contained about 6500 inhabitants. At present the population is 53,000, exclusive of a large suburb m the county of Down. The linen manufacture is very flourishing a! Belfast, and that of cotton is rapidly extending ; besides which there are various minor fabrics. Com- merce, howevei", is the main source of its wealth. The linen fabrics of the north arc largely exported, along with oats, oatmeal, and salted provisions ; the entire value of which, in 1810, amounted to 2,900,000/. The duties of customs, which in 1801 were 182,314?., had risen in 1829 to 259,000/. Belfast Lough forms a noble and secure bay, and the ^ii.*nnel at the mouth of the Lagan has been so deepened by art that vessels drawing chirtetp feet water can come close to the wharves. Belfast is mostly built of brick ; but several public et'-lces, recently erected, the Commercial Buildings, the Museum, St. George's Church, &c., are ornamented with pillars of freestone. Belfast has several commercial and literary institu- tions ; and in 1810, the Royal Academical College, a seminary on an extensive scale, was founded. The other towns of Antrim can boast little more than names known in history. Antrim itself has lost ita former importance, though beautifully situated near the great body of water called Lough Neagh, which covers about 100,000 English acres, and borders on five coun- ties, — Armagh, Tyrone, Londonderry, Down, and Antrim. Its flat shores possess liHle ot interest or beauty ; and its overflowings have converted into bog about 60,000 ac re j round it. Carrickfergus, at the mouth of Belfiist Lough, is a very ancient town, once the emporium and key of northern Ireland, but it has yielded the palm of commerce entirely to Belfast, and is supported only by being the county town and resorted to as a watering-place. Lis- hurn is a prosperous town, with a manufacture of damask. Down is a fine county, penetrated b; several large lakes, as those of Strangford and Car- lingford. The latt of these receives the Newry, which communicates by a cpnal with Lough Neagh. The Mourne mountains, on the southern border, exceed 2600 feet in height, and form a conspicuous object ; but a large extent of the county is level, and a g-eater propor- tion is under tillage than pasturage. The combination of farming and weaving exists in a femaf kable degree ; and the linen fabrics are not only extensive, but some of them very fine. Of late, however, those of cotton have gained a pr^ ix\->nce in many districts. Down, or Downpatrick, celebrated in tradition as the burial-place ci the patron saint, iu cf moderate Dunluee Castle. 460 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part ITT. '< . * dimensioiu, and its puMic buildings respectable. Newry ia larcrer anil more flourishing. These advantages are owing to its situation in the bay of Carlingrord, and its canal commu> niofttion with Lough Neagh, which enable it to export the linen manuikctures and provisions produced in an extensive district It is ancient, but in 1689 was reduced to ashes by Mar- shal Berwick ; so that it is now quite a new town. Donaghadee, a considerable port, with a large substantial quay, is chiefly remarkable for the ferry between it and Portpatrick, the shortest sea communication with Britain, and by which packets are despatched and live stock m very great quantities conveyed over. Armagh is also a fine ana tigreeable county. In general it is only pleasingly diversified with litUe hills, the bogs are no more than requisite tor supplying fuel, and only a small part is left unproductive. Both culture and manufacture are prosecuted with great activity. The linens produced in 1824 were reputed at 568,0002., exceeding a fifth of the produce of the whole kingdom. Armagh, the capital, was celebrated in the early history of Ireland as one of its most extensive and populous cities, and has always been the ecclesiastical m- tropolis of the kingdom. The Augustine monastery, and the college attached to it, ranked for a long time among the most celebrated institutions in Europe for religion and learning; the latter, it is said, could once boast of 7000 students. Armagh sunk, however, under suc- cessive ravages by the Danes, tlie English, and, finally, the Irish insurgents under O'Ncale, and fell into decay ; but by good fortune had for its primate Dr. Richard Robinson, to whose munificent exertions is ascribed its revival and its having become one of the prettiest little cities in Ireland. To him Armagh is indebted for the repair of its cathedral, for a library, and an observatory. The linen market is well supported by the flourishing state of tin manufacture in Armagh. The only other place of consequence is Lurgan, a Uiriving maou- Picturing town. The fijree counties of Tyrone, Mona^kan, and Cavan occupy a great proportion of the interior of Ulster, and present a very uniform afpect; a considerable extent of mountain and bog, fertile plains, rude cultivation, and the linen manufacture. O'Neale, Earl of Tyrone, was long one of the most formidable enemies of the English power. Omagh is the county- town of Tyrone, but is not so considerable as Dungannon, a large, populous, and handsome place, once the chief seat of the O'Neales ; but this powerful castle was demolished by the parlianr.entary forces. Strabane is also a populous place, finely situated on the Foyle. Moiiaghan and Cavan are both tolerable county-towns, which alone possess any importance in their respective shires. FINANCES OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. L Income for the year 1834. Customa XS1,118,OJ20 Excise . 16,7»,718 Stampi and Hackney Coachea, 4cc 7,468,735 Taxes 4,667,330 Fost Office 3,319,980 Mieccllaneous - 436,118 East India Company 60,000 Balance on hand , ».- 1,907,190 Bepayments ..»■..-. 618,731 H. Expenditure for the year 1884. jes3,456,5;: Pttymenta out (if the groaa Reeenue. DrawbackK, Repayments, &c JCS,%4,S96 Charges of Collection, &c 3,583,635 Miscellaneous 738,810 Paid at the Exchequer, Interest and Management of Pormanont Debt . Terminable Annuities Interest on Exchequer Bills Bussian Loan, raised in Holland. . , Civil List . 6,52.'i,741 34,158,879 3,653,9!W 6914!E4 190,810 510,000 Civil, Naval, Military and Judicial Annuities and Pensions 503,310 Salaries and Allowances , 168,930 Diplomatic Balarieit and Pensions 181,448 Courts of Justice 433,610 Mint. 14,850 Army • 6,403,985 Navy 4,503,910 Ordnance 1,00(>.S9) Miscellaneous 3,335,iKl0 Advances for Public Works S,014,5U Total Expenditure... £S3,mfi^ in. Public Debt— January ieM. Oftorge for 1888 37,000,900 Funded Debt Unflinded Debt Totalf ..>. .^.....r779,565,763 779,780 X38,501,8BS TRADE OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. jr and more flourishing, 'd, and its canal commu- lufactures and provisions educed to ashes by Mar- considerable port, with a n it and Portpatrick, the lespatched and live stock ily pleasingly diversiiled el, and only a small port tod with eteai activity, a fifth of me produce of early history of Ireland in the ecclesiastical me- ;e attached to it, ranked r religion and learning; nk, however, under sue- surgents under O'Neale, hard Robinson, to whose me of the prettiest litUe cathedral, for a library, flourishing state of tlie iurgan, a tiiriving manu* great proportion of the 3 extent of mountain and I'Neale, Earl of Tyrone, , Omagh is the county- populous, and handsome e was demolished by the situated on the Foyle. ! possess any important I Account of the Ofllcial ■nd of the Real or Declared Value of the principal Articlee of Britiib Produce and Manun>cturo exported in 1833, 1833, and 1834.— (From the Annual finanei Book fur 1809, pp. 131—138.) ArUclM. gnu uil eoppar nunufiic^ura^ I'^tloi iitatiuucturn ....■• , j-arn • UudwvM and cuUerf liMuid itMl, «n>u^tuiln» wrousW • • • (iiWQ iiL-inubetuifli ••-•>■• ._- yarn .••«.-•••-•• Wl • • • ■ • • Hlk gunuhctum SoipOIkl OlIldiM- > • - Sopr, KfiiMd Til, wrought ukd unwroiigfat • Wool, ihaep^ WoolleD uA wonted jtn - - - Woollen manuCutunw Ill other utidea ToWe Whereof from Omt BritilQ • - tma livlaud oeSciil Vilue.* 8,408,183 47^186 IJI&489 149,991 4,«^r- ,981 I 6 65,021,708 II 64,582,007 9 7 2 8 6 4,7K7I>4 3 6 1,434,431 7 II 1,190,747 12 10 1,774,728 13 « 8,106 7 I4?,«78 I 6 629,690 10 10 316,644 16 3 l,(ni^789 16 SM^OM 9 8 219,650 I taaof 7 6 6,244,658 II 8 6,632,890 II 9 36,444,684 18 7 36,046,(87 II 6 388,497 7 8 1803. I. I. i. 881,149 4 9 I3,782,:l76 17 6 4,704,024 9 I I,4ti6,3ei 12 11 1,406,034 19 8 8,167,023 7 I 72,006 6 184,176 10 8 737,409 17 10 301,284 19 ge3,0M 4 369,162 333,603 17 246,204 6,294,432 3 6,097,113 39,667,347 6 6 38,305,612 19 8 361,934 8 9 1834. L. I. i. 961,823 8 II 16,308,611 7 I 6,211^14 IT 8 1,486,233 I 1 1,406,878 8 1 8,443^ 18 7 13^12 II » 152,186 14 10 637,196 6 4 863,978 4 11 916,381 6 6 370368 II 6 198,176 14 I 238^ 16 9 6,736,870 II 6,194,368 I 6 41,649,191 9 6 41,286,564 6 8 362,697 4 n. Account of the Real or Declared Value of the various Articles of the Manufacture and Produce of the United Kingdom, exported to Foreign Countries during tlie eight years ending with 1834 ; specifying their Value, the Countries to which exported, and the Value of those annually shipped for each.— (Fapcrj publiiktd by Board tf TVaife, vol. iv. p. 287.) Countrla to which exported. Snden ..-..■■....•. Norwajr Dumarlc FrwU Oonaoy Hollind Idfluin fnj^e* ■•.■.■.*.■... Mii|il, rroper Xmxx% Madeii* lain and llie Balearic Iilasda • umff lilauJl Oilmllar lUraed the Ilaliao Uaada • • lUra Mila Iwlan Iihndi Turtav aud Contloental Oreaoe (ex- diutve of the Morm) More* nnd Greek h \% Enpi(h>ri> 01, ... Medilemnean) Tripoli, narbary, .-uid Morocco • • • Weitcni Ccut of Africa ....... CipeofGtxKt llopo C«i» Verd Islaodl SI. Heltna [lleof Ilourbon Miurlliui irabia Cut !nd'.. Con.)niiy>i Territoriea , ud r.;yion ..iiiua Sumitra and Jaw PfallipplDu lilandi Hew South Wain, Vrji Dlement Und, and Swan River - Haw Zcal.ind, and South Sea lalanda Pwtl of Siara British North American Coloniee ■ • Briliih Wifit Indiea H'.tll Uutia and other (ireln West Indiea ''ailed Slatea of Amenea Meiico Guatemala Colombia Brull Statu of the Rio de la Plata Chili ram .................. tilei o( Ouernaey, Jeiacy, AUentej, and Man Expurla. 1827. 1828. L. 1,406,970 46,731 39^129 104,916 174,338 4,654,618 8,104,661 446,953 39916 835,414 48,lj2l 1,045,868 1,942,762 200,949 37,196 631,704 63,684 8,201 165,769 816,568 41,430 187 196,713 Totala- 3,662,018 610,637 120,747 178 1,387,350 3,683,882 ^7,931 649,378 7,018,278 608,800 1,943 8l3,r2 8,318,109 ^64,696 400,134 <>88,466 320,969 37,181 ,336 L. IJI8,936 411,699 63,682 111,680 179,146 4,394,104 8,143,736 498,938 946,016 27,940 38,802 301,153 38^152 l,038,eS5 8,176,149 836,458 41,078 186,942 335 36J02 13,746 191,452 818,049 6,856 31,362 35,188 185,978 1829. L. 1,433,606 38,232 626 118,813 171,923 4,463,605 2,022,468 475,884 1,106,695 23,629 38,444 607,068 42,620 29^760 3,25lil9 189,135 66,1.63 1,139,616 9,694 110,221 1,138 252,123 330,006 1,710 38,916 10,042 161,029 1831. L. 1,191,665 67,127 68 680 92.294 192,816 3,648,962 8,082,536 ei»,688 975,991 41,638 38960 697,848 33,282 367,285 2,490,376 134,519 60^883 1832. 3,885,630 1(8,102 71,220 314,617 1,396 10,467 1,857,133 2,838,448 321,783 6ltS029 6,132,316 978,441 216,751 8,453,103 632,172 640,626 344,036 38,871,597 10,446 122^832 426 234,768 857,246 215 39,431 148,476 3,377,412 2(13,296 3^1,t 398,471 4,752 2,089,327 81681.949 31KI0a 663,531 g,053,5K) 728,868 Z. 1,687,250 ^4,932 34,528 93,396 2Si>,356 6,068,997 8,189,398 614,791 640,792 77,920 28,038 442.926 21,053 461,470 Si6l,772 96,994 65,725 916,319 10,149 113,109 751 890,061 292,406 21,236 163,191 3,514,779 160606 118,284 466,238 1,576 248,260 l,C»^ 339,870 65l,£;' 409,003 384,634 87,164,878 2,075,723 2,439,l«9 643,.04 633,100 6,468,278 199,881 8K1.368 8,l-U),168 106,193 876,610 317,496 86,460,604 L. 1^31,002 66,549 55,008 99,961 144,179 4,356,548 2,181,893 886,420 848,333 967,091 64,430 31,411 442,837 30,607 386,460 2,316,260 135,438 38,916 1,019,604 25,914 145,647 2,350 329,210 346,191 146 30,041 83,424 3,496,301 411,113 186,398 658,313 896 2,082,650 8^,689 ^1638 6H,22« 1,519,699 421,481 &700 127,826 8,676,680 iXhjm. 81(C8I7 387,524 335,931 30,667,347 '■fe 94,596 136,423 4,647,166 8,470,867 160,06e 1,116,888 1,600,188 63,876 38,456 325,901 30,688 460,719 3,282,717 ^^,696 84,498 1,207,941 37,178 168,871 14,833 386,483 304^83 fan 31,616 1,091 149,319 850 8,578,669 842,862 410,273 76,618 116,014 19,148 1,611,068 8,680,024 351,897 913,006 6,844,968 459,610 3^366 198,896 8,460,879 831,664 360666 41,649,191 * The rate at which all articles of export and import ere offlcially valued wait fixed in 1606, but an account of Ine reil or declared value of the exports is also prepared ; th?re is, however, no such account of the imports, ant) (Mnlbre tneir ofllcial vatuo alone can be giv(jn. 88* 4A2 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. pabt rn, IIL Account of the QuanlitieR of the Principal Articloi of Foreign and Colonial Mcrchandiie imported into, exported flroitii and retained for Connumption in the l/nitod Kingdom, with the Nuit Revenue accruing theroaa during the Yean ended 8th January, 1834, and ie05.—{ruper§ pubttilud by Board of T^ade, vol, iv. pp. 1^19.) Dncriptkm a( Met thaadlM. Adw, iMul udpot, eini. BtrllU uxl >lluai 1^% fr lunint or .^yi'ji — Q tt u, »U. I— Briilih 111- uullo, Ibi. Eul luia and Muiritliu — Iteeiga plutttioa — ToUU Co«a Ibi. Hi»k».iirl.hc:u — Cotton wool from fbrelgn cnunlriM, rihisi ."(ilnof Anurin — tr«U • ■ - Tiirk'V Jid E(Tpl — Othor 6ialxn countries — Co'toa wool from BrItUli pmnnlnni, nr. 1— EaM I idiei and MiurMiia . • • • — H'l iih Wett lodiei, U» |rov >•••■-• chests Raiiioa ,...,.-.. cwts. Hats of straw No. Waiting of straw lie. Hemp undrened ■ • ■ • cwts. Hijes, unlauned, Til.1— BulnUo, bull, ox, cow, or horse bides cwta. Hides, tanned, Tis. :— Bulrslo, bull, OK, cow, or bone hides lljs. Leather gloves pain Molasses • cwts. Oil- Olive galls. Palm cwts. Train, spermaceti and blubber > • tuns Saltpetre and cubic nitre cwl^ Flax and Linseed • • • bushels Silk- Haw lbs. Waste and knubbe ........ — Cassia Liguea — I^I-jier — Pimento .— Susar, Ti7. :— VVeil India . - cwts. East India and Mauntius — Foreign •. — Tallow — Tea — Timlier, vi ■. :— Battens and battea ends — Deal and deal end great bund. Masts tj and under 8 inches in dia* n-eter No. Kfssls 8 and under 12 inches in dia> meter - — Masts 12 inches and upwards * • Ids. (Mk plants - Staves gt, hund. Fir, S inches B(;u-«re and upwartls,loads Oak, ilitto — Unenumcrated, ditto Wainscot lofs, ditto . . - • . « • — Tobacco, via. i — Unmaiaifacturat* ......... lbs. Manufacturei* or segars — Snuff — Wool, ibeep end lambe* — Wine, viz. i — Caps Imp. galls. French Fnrtu^ ^-" SMnish ftladeirm .- Other iorti Quantities Imported. IBS3. I<»,7il9 iHfOi wi,ni 18,831,830 9,373,1)80 34,4.1«,l(» 4,eu39 3J1,%I 158,324 25,723 iixa M7,4i9 296,300 65,702 1,436,472 717,034 1,891,918 267,194 32,K76 iat,746 2,170,13a 2,7SS,I09 649,451 1,297,710 8,729,552 4,844,973 3,&5i,e3l 737,653 340,018 1,115,427 32,057,832 10,597 65,798 9,169 3,130 4,416 2,381 63,896 466,(194 32,484 22,082,579 386,609 3,864 38,046,087 454,394 275,366 2,226,733 3,368,530 301,057 817,761 7,443,841 1834. 94,134 193,971 849,300 22,089,123 9,951,141 9,824,847 41,i«5,in 1,984,694 404,039 269,203,073 19,291,396 855,167 2,260,852 32,930,8eS 1,672 211 326,875,4ii 4,155,296 708,939 21,054 72,004 80,297 811,722 192,786 266,323 213,729 16,550 4.5,372 673,811 437,291 80,262 I 697,944 678,382 2JI18,142 270,6611 25,334 359,488 2,210,23- 3,e43,6"2 1,012,951 2,068,636 7,875,340 1,396,773 3,644,243 697,141 202,C3a 1,397,407 33,643,980 13,360 67,103 10,223 3,853 4,470 2,719 e6,8i5 48»,466 20,494 41,769 3,031 38,517,861 939,882 164 46,45E,232 484,298 oKI,376 4.213,427 3,446,563 372,098 8K3,754 9,766,116 Quantities exported. 1833, ll,3» 2,458 364 194,980 3,996,097 11,158,501 15,349,578 2,351,877 17,363,882 8,664,814 52,811 7,045 756 27 10,554 5,294 36,127 56,093 2,l«l 32,170 29,366 10,450 '"l'332 397,367 19,738 2,093 20,7,17 652 I 66,187 1,341,546 8,997,027 2,810,384 Ha ) 366,550 )■ Refin ) 245,608 39,-245 254,400 60 21,1 465 19 3,081 810 42 eo 1831. a,ii« 3,233 1,132 168,046 6Ja3,5ta 8ri77,972 15,250,480 8,903,316 24,461,963 3,928,226 8S<,234 4^18 1,527 Quintilies retained for Consumption. 166,422 219,503 8M,27« 20,941,194 1,799,319 1,471 22,741,084 1,268,287 449,168 8,060,562 210,914 2,359 442,686 16,436 99,540 243,577 732,306 209,194 312,245 1,613,298 19,569 12,967 1,460 27,635 23,956 2,832 19,672 66,127 4,964 22,638 2,078 234330 20,412 3,727 68,2:6 7,523 207,007 1,680,350 6,391,247 1,799,143 698,744 401,044 19,068 1,181,005 210 86 I 2,634 624 32 34 ed. 12,980,951 273,360 10,303 807,U62 6Ji69 128J06 29C,53a 688,024 173,910 346,575 1,639 121 293,682,976 2,323,300 435,572 17,595 72,1»6 60,549 1,112,190 140,443 319,147 137,692 21,469 22,079 612,623 2t»,E61 48,578 1,411,213 643,886 1,368,217 216,225 31,242 160,235 2,222,1167 4,417,027 267.472 77,067 2,228,393 330.245 V 3,651,804 I 1,000,769 31,829,619 12,384 57,291 8,756 3,209 4,833 2,549 69,480 481,523 27,236 33,111 20,602,971 143,856 IW 39,066,620 645,191 232,550 2,596 530 2,246,085 161,04!) 426,372 6,207,770 89,960 180,490 849,301 82,^4,073 1.966,604 2,418 23,785,095 1,173,795 443,786 Nell Revenue. L. 1,909 16.703 Drawbacks k repayments 86,674 «91,I4I 18,086 302,83i,«5'.- 8,447,827 303,474 14,026 70,951 75,271 794,278 163,523 8.34,783 147,467 11,487 2.5,470 666,096 342,718 40,339 1,003,828 607,980 2.223,227 264,(06 21.462 213,963 2,211,968 100,182 2,437,020 323,751 3,741,579 I,l'i0,l80 34,969,631 13,560 62,M8 6,593 3,618 3,791 2,616 83.186 493.200 26,854 40352 3,269 21,048,324 145,385 161 40,840,271 524.031 260,690 2,780,303 2,279,853 150,369 485,308 473,011 29,781 1,170 3,498 14.730 3,721 4,'^28 311,063 69,392 149,195 6,092 18,768 2,110 49,743 27,043 1,761 4,1m 13,923 15,900 292 1,778 111,174 6,S94 4,414,302 171,603 3,444,102 116,215 521,494 • 10,449 .J,I49 43,386 437,629 33.775 8,308 ' 3,140,085 137,859 75,975 63,169 I. 1,491,079 6,480,^4 1,629,219 1834, I. 1,32( Gross rsv, 17,754 j 4>tfO 13,193 28,2;( 6I4,«3( 11,779 373,811 32,as« l,aS7 2,943 7W 1,8S3 9,«H t^ltO 57,U4 122,271 3,ua 20,-;itm>i,jf'flj5->'nTT"7] Book L DENMARK. 468 Merchandiw imported into, Revonua accruing tliereon Trade, vol. iv. pp. 13-19.) ncd (or „„, R„„u^ 8,S36,<6',- 473,011 IV. Account of the Shipping employed in the Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom in 18M; ipeciiyini the Number and Tonnoge of Voiieli entering Inwardi and dealing Outwardi (including their repeated Voy. agei), and the Number of their Crewe ; loparatlng UriiMh from Foreign Veawli • and diitinguiihing the Navi- gation with each Country. CouDtrlM. Norwijr < IVjonurk I rtimta Genmnv Hollud • Balfium fruoe Foitu|tl, Propor A7or«i --...-. Nhdelrt - Inda uid Um Balevlc Iduib C*iunr lilauli OlbnJtir Iblt ami Italian lilaBli ■ • . MalU IodIu hlanda ••••.... Turkey k Continental Oraace Murea and Greek lalanda • * Tripoli, Barbary, ft Morooeo Ccttt or Africa,(mm Momcoo to the Cape of Good Hope Capa of Good Hope Eaaten Coaal from tha Cape of Good Hone la Babel Mandel lileof Bourimn - - • Cape de Vci lalaoda > - > - St. Helena and Aaoenaioo • • Mauntlua Alabla Ettt India Company^ Terrl- torifla, Hln|apor« ft Ceylon Soautra China Jaia PhitippinD Iilanda forttcfSiam Naw Soiilli Walea Brilifh Norttierii Colonlee* ■ Briti>h Weit IndlM H«li Cum, and other I'oivlgn Weat InJi Dnilnl Statea Mexico Guatemala Colombia -■>.-•-.•-• Brazili SlateaofRiodelaFlata ChUI Fen The Whale Fisheriea * . • • lilei of Guenuey, Jeiacy, and Man Oreeniaiid (Ice) Fcmicn |nrta (not diatio* Tolab- luwarda. Britlali. ShM, lfi» m 69 47 IM 701 114 ie> 14 427 a* » S87 8 n 134 16 6 as 137 27 188 4a 1,905 «I9 13 as 281 35 a 36 140 S2 27 15 107 2,380 7 8)7,013 lt,363 6,403 6,6111 •2,021 115,278 137,546 40,875 128,017 6>J,0 5 11,331) 2,475 45,254 3,830 8,720 88,142 1,063 8,469 18,688 2,311 1,124 4,014 32,313 362 20,909 75,461 29,308 1,801 1,586 12,400 624,606 846,(i03 1,928 7,152 84,658 6,893 272 7,459 29,371 10,120 6,341 2,768 34,161 146,543 802 13,908 2,298,263 Mr-.. I3,5J8 764 398 270 1,506 5,502 6,684 3,265 18,168 3,492 753 160 2J>88 I9S 207 3,218 67 4S2 1,018 121 67 209 1,763 330 19 1,073 4,638 2,649 89 672 23,270 13,387 113 359 4,078 3«6 17 414 1515 626 358 167 10,103 61 Foreign. >a» 183 618 657 557 544 648 371 1,4(18 36 i 402 2 37 186,727 , 6,894 58,166 35,910 98,303 53,282 118,111 45,471 67,230 43,683 74,382 4,538 8,882 T04 I4J80 7m 298 458 684 372 1J67 204,129 490 608 5,652 Mm. 2,72} 1,731 ^I38 3,138 5,081 ifitt 3,607 2J60 9,207 788 8 S4 8,417 83 65 833,905 I 45,897 101 44 835 155 719 877 878 1,574 V» 185 80 84! 84 94 473 80 42 140 10 24 20 ISl 47 87 387 29 18 176 48 9,141 2 BriUah. 7on«. 217,375 15,^8 4,ln 56,703 25609 117,964 190,584 34,061 I3IJI4I 61,lll8 12,493 vsa 86;7t8 3,711 11,734 71,076 12,022 5,753 20,789 1,158 6,067 2,634 35,633 9,143 8,158 0,198 587 99,833 279 t,887 2,766 728 337 29,r>e7 609,383 246,609 7,728 16,755 133,754 6,502 3,820 41,164 9,906 6,632 2.178 33,014 122,365 831 1,169 13,639 I 8,29f>,325 9,941 770 283 2,667 1,218 5,668 5,847 8,888 13,361 3,ld2 848 197 2,178 198 648 8,948 645 308 1,168 68 299 141 2,091 630 14 39 119 490 29 21 632 161 46 20 1,756 23,316 13,836 454 6,217 314 203 2,101 613 385 136 4,275 8,841 16 Tonign. fit 125 641 817 425 586 597 332 1,202 To 2 62 1 8 60 8 7Vm<. ,'18,826 2J,I74 lin,B09 H6,TA) t>8,386 48,l!«5 64,214 M,m) 6l>,4r<9 ie,i>33 261 8,499 ti2 1,151 12,947 984 292 260 322 640 1,476 1,623 11 3,236 648 80,!II3 2 490 854 820 164 20,61 129 ,604 I 6,823 [ 852,827 1,731 1,061 5,408 4>88 3,817 2,721 3,881 1,888 '•S 806 it 600 8 84 708 81 148 9,981 ^4 14 918 45,929 CHAPTER V. DENMARK. Denmark is an ancient kingdom, formerly very powerful, hoW.ing sway over the surround- ing regions, and, as a predatory state, the terror of all Europe. Though now reduced to the secondary rank, her situation renders her of importance in the general system of the Continent. Sect, I. — General Outline and Aspect. Denmark consists mainly of an extensive peninsula, shooting out from the north-west comer of Germany, and a cluster of large islands to the east of the peninsula. The northern fihores of Denmark approach close to the southern point of the Scandinavian peninsula, bounding the great interior sea of the Baltic. She commands the only channel by which tlie countries around this sea can transmit their products to the rest of Europe ; a circum- stance which gives her some consideration as a maritime state, at the same time that the toll she imposes on ships passing and repassing the Sound, is productive of revenue. The Danibh peninsula is termed Jutland ; and the islands in the interior of the Baltic, interposed be- tween Jutland and Scandinavia, are Zealand, Funen, Odensee, and a few othera of smaller note. Denmark holds also the German territories of Sleswick and Holstein ; with Iceland, the Faroe Islands, and some settlements on the coast of Greenland, remnants of her former maritime power. Tie extent of the dominions of a country broken into such a variety of detached portions can with difficulty be estimated. The only compact mass consists of Jutland, Sleswick IHH M ^^^^^^^^^^Vi VI ^^^^^HHf H '^il ^HS^^^^I 'IsBhI^^b ^■^B^Pn {I^^^^I^B ^HR|^i^ '7i|PRP' ^■S^HuT^^^ ^ '^IHliv ■^■^n^^^M ,t i LQ^^^Bl 1 1 ^^H 'ifl ^ Hm ^^^^^^^lyi 'l■!■'^■■^- -^ 4M MAP OF DENMARK. Fia. 22a Book I ^ DENMARK. 465 «p Mmbttt ^ H«I1«»J» ■ and HolHtein; bounded on the west and north by the North Sea or German Ocean ; on the east by the sounds which form the entrance of the Baltic ; on the soutli by the Elbe, lliia tract lies generally between 53^° and 57^° north latitude, and 8° uid 11° east longitude. We have thus a length of 280 miles, and a breadth of 120. The total area of Uie Ltenish monarchy, is about !^,000 square miles. The surface of Denmark is nearly flat ; forming, > the exception of Holland, the lowest part of the great plain of Northern Germany. Tho i (iinds, in particular, in mory places, rise only a few feet above the level of the sea. The soil, as in the rest of this plain, is fre- quently sandy and marshy ; the climate humid, though not liable to those severe frosts which prevail in the interior of Scandinavia. Hence it affords good pasturage, and its soil is favour- able to the growth of the coarser species of jfrain. The waters of Denmark consist chiefly of its numerous sounds and bays ; the Skagbrrack, which comes in from the Nortli Sea, and separates Jutland from Norway; the Categat, which, runnuig southward nearly at right angles to the Skagerrack, separates that peninsula firom Sweden ; the Sound, a narrow strait at the extremity of the Cattegat, between Zealand and Sweden, and which forms the main entrance into the Baltic. The insular and penin- sular character of her territory gives Denmark an extent of coast wnich certainly does not fiill short of 600 miles ; and there is said to be no part of the land more than ten miles distant fh)m the sea. This structure leaves no room for thu formation of eny riven of the least consequence, except the Eyder in Holstein, and the canal of Kiel, by which an important communication is formed between the ocean and the Baltic. Jutland contains a number of shallow but extensive lakes, closely bordering on the sea, witli which they ia many places communicate, and may hence be regarded as bays. ,- , . v 1ft ' r/^T»pN»l Sect. II. — Natural Qeography. , SuBSEOT. 1. — Geology. Denmark. The geology of this low and flat country ha? not been completely ascertained. As far as is known at present, it contains neither primitive nor transition rocks: the only secondary deposits are Weald clay, and the various members of the chalk formation ; both oif which are generally covered up with tertiary soils ; which, in their turn, are as deeply covered lU Z°«., Sl<*l«il»l ' 90 40 E^lUk MIlH NORTH PART. 1. L)rkenahuua i Hiorinc 3. Hanihius 4. Toorited 5. Skaien 6. AalEok 7. Flailtttand 8. Bobyo 9. Bottergaard IO.BIokhuui ll.TnUtnip liThuw n. Bnlet 14. Bientod llVaar 16. Alti 17. Ulited 18. Hab 19. Bundbre 29. Aalborft !1. LoMtor n. Kollecup Z).KiorupFrB- itegaard Si Kolbye Horru- 96. Forbye 97. Agger 98. Viibye ». Bundbr SaRwtetl 31. Nykiobinc S. Hierk 33. Btrnndbyo 34.Malle 33. Gunderalad 36.Aara ■37. Bialejr %. Ellethoy 39. Kongiley 40. Biem 41. Vivo 43. Bodringholm 43. Mariager 44. Hobroa u. Ininduin 46. Boldrup 47. Ulbierg 49. Kaai 50. BorbeiM 51. Lonvig Vol. I. 59. Harbos Ore SLNeei 54. Ulborg 55. Vringalberi 50. Hohtbros 57, Hodiagoi 58. Sorup 50, KnuditrupOTer 60. Wiborg 61. Bkiems (>3. Laiirberg 03. Random 04. Hotninji 05. Oented 60. ClMrup 07. Gierild 68. Greenaae 09. Alboge 70. Ebeltoit 71. Helfenaea 73. Agrie 73. Thoraaget 74. Hornilet 75. Skeibya 76. Aaihuui 77. Dover 78. Dallerup 70. Midatrup 80. Agerakuv 81. F.ngiivaog 82. Bunda 83. Arenburg 84. Noromme 85. Sondervang 86. Rinkioping 87. Dubenilund 88. Herningaholta 89. Fanrgaard SO, Branaholm 01. Snee !)S,GiT« 93, Grendatrup 94, Seanderborg 95, Tranitrup 96, HaMrup 97, Honeni 9a Aaatrup IH), Engum 100, Veile 101. RioggiTo 10?. Greene 103. Oddam •04. Prsitrjpsas.-d 105. Luodago Reference* to the Map of Denmark. 10R, North Bork 50. Tnnningnn 107. Haureig 51. Woalingbuven 108, Kiergaard 53. 1'cllingitedt S3, Rendaburg SOUTH PART. 54. Barloch 1. Hoe 55. Schnelm 2. Varde .J6. Kiel 3. Jorne 57. Rumor 4. Hodde SB. Reewlorr 5. Giording 59. Preela B. Folding 60. Ploen 7. Vatrban 61. Steten 8. Odated 63. Kiokan 9. Bmioatrup «3, Dmnann 0. Froderica 64. Lutgcnburg ll.CaUnng 65. Halendorf 13. Chriitianafelde 66. Oldenburg 13. Aaroo 67. Burg 14. Haderaleben 68. lloihgenhareo 15. Gram •''■I. Gromniz 16. Hyam 71). Nc-'adt 17. Hiortland 71. Kutin 18. Ripen 73. Sarau 19. Reiabye 73. Bchameradorf 20. Dailum 74. Noumnnaler 21. Hoyer 7.5. Wildenacbaren 23. Lygum Kloater 76. Oiitnraled 23. Hoiat 77. Gribbom 24. Bchrudijtrup 78. Meldorf 25. Apenrade 79. Murno 26. Gravenatein -80. Brunabuttel 27. Holebul 81.ltzcliuu 28. Ucke 83. Krcmpe 29. Tonder 83. Gluckauull 30. EmbtbuU 84. Ueteraen 31. Imkk 85. Barmitedr 33. Ockkolm 86. Hohenhorat 33. Brrdatodt 87. Oldealnh 34. Modelburg 88. Bedgberg 35. Jorl 89. Travemuode :«. Arenholt 00. Lubeck 37. Flcnaborg OI.Labonz 38. Sleerup 92. Sierley oiling 03. (iudow nppel ^l-t. Groven — /indemark 95. Boilzenburg 43. Gckernford* 96. Laurnnurg 43. Bleawick 97. Stunau 44. Holliogawio 98. Wolhom 45. Treya 09. L->maal 46. Huaum 100, Pinneberg 47. Mildaled 101. Wedel 43. rhnsnciaiadi Jiri. Hamburg 40. Garding 103. Betgedor ■an. oieerv 39, Gcllin 40, Knpp< 41, Wind _ Rivert. S3, Olteatrup glite' SiSax""" Widaw S5. Giumaoa d Eyder 96, Ringated e Olor Soroe f Elbo g Trave •u;. *ntvor(koT %. ilagelae : ihielakioT I.AAI.AND. I., f- ' lealot I, Frederickadai 33. Vh.onkebye MOEN. 7. Nyborg 1. Mondemaik 8. Belling^ 2. Sleege 9.0denH 3. Phanefiord 10. Broebye ll.Huubye ZEALAND, 12. Oeraieil 1. Tomnaerup 13. Aaaana 3. Raroloa 14. " -naletle 3. Gillelye 15. :.igp 4, Elainore 16. Kiaiing 5. Fredoniborz 17. Gudbier 6. Blangerup 18. Svec bolt 7. Lyngb™ IS Faaborg R. Copenhagen 9. GoTstrup AL9EN. 10. Ballerup 1. Noidburg 2. Auguatenhmg 11. Gy'ling 13 Krobbeaholm 3. Sondert ug 13. Holbek 14. Nyckioping ARROE. 1.5. Egemxrk 1. Boebye 16. Cal'.i. S. Kiopmg 17. Gloria 18. Unrtloa. LANGELAND 19. Aagerup ao. Kiiiinhiia ^•«L1.«, 31,Ki0C8 t. UMMO 31 M6 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paet m '■H with diluvium of sand, atvt calcareous loam ; which latter are occasionally conccnl*-»»/onr, and its orcop'pimyinjf rocks, and t'lfrt//, with its associutcd tufTiiH ^k- loids. &.C. Uf all the rocV , of the trap scries, amygdaloid is that which contains t> .test varieiy of minerals; and of tlieso the zeolites and calcareous spars are the most intercstina and bcautiftil. Tho volcanic rocks oxliibit the usual characters, and in Iceland are spreu ■round in vast abundance. Faroe hlanda. This small insular ^up consists of seventeen large inhabited islands, and of many smaller, with and without inhabitants. In none of the inhabited islands ore the most elevated summits lower than KKX) fc'-t; the highest land is in the island of Osteroe, which rises to fiilly 2,8(H) feet above the level of tiio sea. The two prevailing rocks are greenstone (dolerite) and clauttone. The greenstone is sometimes basaltic, Homutinies per- phyritic, or amygdaloidal. The claystone is rod, yellow, brown, and green. It olternates with the greenstone, in beds of varying tliickness. The beds of grecnstono and claystone of the group all incline or dip towards a central point of the group, rendering ii probable that the islands are but portions of one whole. The upper surface of the j,rrtA nstone 's slaggy, showing tliat the mass had been in a state of igneous solution. Tliero are two principal varieties of ^ecnstone; one porphyritic, with crystals of glassy felspar, tlie otiitr without the porphyritic structure. In some of the islands there are beds of pitrhcoal, asso- ciated with nre clay, slate clay, and sphoirosiderito, resting upon the trap, and covered by it. The beds of greenstone and slate clay are oflen traversed by veins or dikes of basn i , and porphyritic greenstone, which, however, do not appear to occasion any change in tluMii ; but tho greenstones ore changed in position and direction by the invasion from below of a conglomerated rock, a kind of trap tuftii. Tho trap rocks of tho Fi'^oes have been long celebrated, on account of the splendid zeolites they afford : some species of this beautiful fiimily appear to be daily forming. The chloropccritc, peridote, and precious opal are also productions of this insular group. Si'DSECT. 2. — Botany. Denmark and Sweden, Norv-ii/ nnd Lapland, the Faroe Islands, and Iceland, — the latter {::iv :!i;T a name, indeed to a plant equally common in tlic other 224 _^ . M, criijit.-ies, Lichen islandicus, or Iceland Mosp, (Jig. 224.),— tnav '^8 considered under one head, so far as regards their '.•'^f.table productions; for it is difficult to draw an exact line of demarcation, and even of these tho very nature of our v.O' k does not allow us to treat much at large : this is the less to be regretted, because the classical works of Linnsus and Wahlenbcrg are in the hands of every botanical student; and they contain a mine of valuable information in the Flora Lapponica and Suecica of both these authors, and a fund of interesting and delightful narrative in the Tiachesis Lajr ponica of the great Swedish naturalist. The various writings of (Eder, Vahl, and Hornemann afford much useful matter relative to the plants of Demnark. The vegetation of a great portion of these countries may be considered the same as that of the more northern ttnd mountainous parts of Great Britain. Yet as the northern regions of the continent of Europe pre- sent an alpine and arctic vegetation, in a much more perfect degree than islands, we should scarcely do justice to our subject, did we not offer some ^^ marks on the distribution of the vegetable productions of a portion of that more interesting and extreme northern European territory; namely Lapland. The natural boundaries of this country are formed by some low mountains, about 500 feet in height, at a distance of from five to eight Swedish miles from the extremity of the Gulf of Bothnia. They present no naked summits, but are covered with forests of Spruce Fir* (Jig. 225.1 : these may be con- sidered as the last subalpine range in northern Europe. Commencing in the south-east, a little bcrond the lake Kemistrask, in lat. 67°, it tends towards Upper Tomea, and utftt to Ofover Calix in the west ; stretches south to Edifers, in Lulea ; and reaches its soutnermost point at the Tafvelsjon, in Umean Lapland, lat. 64°. This mountain chain exhibits Calla palustris (J!g. 226.), (a plant of a poisonous family, closely allied to the Arum maculatum or Wake-roUn, and to the Caladium esculentum of the tropics ; and, as with them, a kind of brcii4 called Missenbrfid, or the bread of famine, is made by the Laplanders from the roots); Sweet gale*, common Speedwell*, Ox-eye*, Meadow Fescure-grass*, and Carex stellulata*. The Bueh* th»e produces its leaves in the beginning of June. * Tbe naaei marked with au aiteriik are thoie of pUnti found alio in Britain, leelind How. Book I. DENMARK. m Tlio infbritr and woody dintrict of lApland has itw upper limit at BotKlankyla in Komcan Lapland, botwoon Kungfia and Munoniska in Tornea, al Jocrkmnck in Lulea, and atFalatrak, in Umean Lapland; and it yiolds, besidoH the Hpruce Fir, the Meadow Trefoil, the Lvaima* chia thyraiflora*, Lily of the Valley*, and White Water Lily*, which (prew abundantly Some plants which are peculiarly tiubalpine begin to appear, aa Tofidldia palustria* and tier ratula alpina*. 22fi Spruce Fir. Rein-deer Mom, The upper woody district is distinpfuished by the absence of the last-mentioned plants; but the fuiests of spruce still abound. Where the Spruce ceases, in places of warm exposure, the upper limit of this region is indicated. Its boundary in Kemean, Tornean, and Pitean Lapland, is more distinctly marked, because the country is flatter, and destitute of deep valleys ; but in such situations, in Lulea and Umea, the Spruce Fir approaches nearer to the Alps, and the sides of the mountains are covered with it. There its utmost northern limits are found to be at Kyro, near the great lake of Enare, in lat. 60° north. Here, too, is the most northern boundary of many well-known plants, such as Trifolium repens*, Festuca rubra*, Rumex aquaticus*, the Yellow Water Lily*, and several other aquatics. Many alpine plants commence, as Salix glauca*, extending south to the middle of this region, Salix hastata* confined to the north, and Bartsia alpina*, with Lychnis alpina*, on the banks of the streams. The culture of barley still succeeds ; but scarcely beyond this line. The Btibalpine mountains in this region are very dry and remarkably gravelly and stony ; abounding in that plant which Linnmus has so beautifully described, in his Flora Lapponica, as the main support of the Rein-deer, and consequently of the Laplander, Lichen Rangife- rinus* (Jifr. 227.), or Rein-deer Moss. Ill could the liplander subsist without the supplies afforded by that useful animal ; it is his sole wealth. Almost the only winter food of this ser- viceable animal is the moss, which the deer are so fond of, that though it is commonly buried at that season under a great depth of snow, yet, by scratching with their feet, and digging with their antlers, they never fail to get at it In short, without this lichen, both the rein- deer and the Laplander must perish. " Thus," adds Liimseus, " things which are often deemed the most insignificant and contemptible by ignorant men, are, by the good providence of God, made the means of the greatest blessings to his creatures." Linneeus assures us that this lichen grows so luxuriantly in Lapland, as to be found sometimes a foot in height But as the hills scarcely rise to the limits of perpetual snow, about 200 or 300 feet higher than the woods are found, they are fertile in such plants as flourish in a dry and barren soil , viz., Menzicsia zmren (Populua tremv.y), were no more to be seen. A little before the Birch ceases, we miss the Mountain Ash*, which for some time had not presented us with any fruit; the Arctip Bramble* (Rubua arcticut) was already likewise barren ; the Ling* (Erica vulgaris), Aconitum Lycoctonum, &c. Where the birch fore.'': becomes thmner, the reflection of the heat from the sides of the mountains ia the strongest Here, in many spots, we find the vegetation of Sonchus alpinus*, Struthi- optcris, and Aconitum Lycoctonum remarkably luxuriant Tlie drver spots now become covered with the Iceland Moss* (Lichen rangiferinua) : Tussilago irigida and Pedicularis sceptrum-carolinum extend to the utmost boundary of the Birch. Thus &r only the Char (Salmo alpinus) is found in the lakes, and higher up all fishing ceases. (4.) All mountains above this limit are called Fjall (alpO. Near rivulets, and on the margin of bogs only, is found a little brushwood, consisting of S;und in Europe between latitude 63° and 65° : in size it is higher than a horse ; and, to support the enormous weight of its horns, sometimes nearly fifty pounds, its neck is short thick, and very strong. Its movements are rather heavy : it does not gallop, but t f !:JH^HDKBnfl^H^^ ambles along, the joints cracking so much at every step, that the sound is heard to some distance. During winter it chiefly resides in hiliy woods ; but in summei it frequents swamps and the borders of lakes ; often going deep into the water, to escape the stings of gnats, &c., and to feed without stoopmg. With its enormous horns it turns down branches of trees, to feed upon the bark, with great dexterity ; and these are also used M ji^2ik. shovels, to get at pasture when covered with snow. The young are so simple and fearless, that they will " ■^;/^'V)'-h?ty7'.r'^^^^'-''''*^'^?'"'4'»?7:i'^1IFP^''^' ■"■' Pa«t in, ndromeda polifolia''' in mountains, where the a*, Pteria crispa*, and ine of perpetual snow, ries of the Cloudberry ata* is not a&ore two umbler inrowth. The round. The hills are id A. lapponica, which precipices, where the iniflorum"', Astragalus a alpina*, Carex ustu* however, which ripen igrum)i but these aie The upper boundary planders scarcely ever very little way above lat never melt. The B the Crowberry*, des- . Diapensia lapponica. zure tints of Gentiana yellow Draba alpina. :e Pedicularia hirsuta, [imits of perpetual and B soon arrive at a pomt kes place on the alps the highest ridge, and r plants with succulent Lh, where the reflected re Saxifraga stellaris*, paex digynus*, Juncus uy of perpetual SDow, nuch tempered, that a and then be found m even to the height of led, though some uin< endicular irocks, even tremes of vegetation, Bunting {EnAerixa ibly illustrated by the kingd(nns is macb me. The total num- \mong these we find together with fbnr le rein-deer, and the Mooee-deer of Ame* een latitude 53° and orse ; and, to support IS, sometimes nearly ck, and very strong, t does not gallop, but so much at every ie distance. During oods; but in summer ders of lakes ; often I the stings of gnats, With its enormous es, to feed upon the ese are also viRed H covered with snow. less, that they will BookL .VHM; DENMARK. ':i^i 471 The Mockinc Jar. lufllbr themselves to be taken by the hand. An unusually largo elk, kilTed in Sweden, ia laid to have weighed 1200 Iba. These animals do not now appear to be employed in any domestic office. The Wolverine, or Glutton, is one of those animals whose history has long been shrouded in fiction and romance. It is only now that its true habits have been given to the world, oy that enterprising traveller, Dr. Richardson. The Wolverine of America, generally consi- dered the same with the European Glutton, feeds fhiefly upon beasts that nave been acci- dentally killed ; but it will hunt smaller animals, as meadow-mice, marmots, &c. and occa* sionally attack disabled animals of a larger size. In its gait it resembles the bear; and, ilthough not fleet, is very industrious. Mr. Graham observes, that it docs more damage to die small lur trade than all the other rapacious animals conjointly ; as it will follow the martin-hunter's path round a line of traps extending sixty miles, and render the whole unserviceable, merely to get at the baits. Yet it flies from the face of man, and may be killed with a stick. Its total length is not more than two feet and a half. The Birds, according to Mailer, amount to 232 species: tlie greater part of these are common to the northern countries of Europe; but the Mocking Jay (Owuus ij\fmistu$ Lin.) (Jig. 232,), and the Nutcracker {Nvc\fraga caryocatactes) are unknown in Britain and more southern latitudes : the bill of the latter is shaped much like that of a woodpecker, and is said to be used for brcakinjr the shells of nuts : whence its name. The species of fish, from the maritime nature of the region, are numerous. Domestic animals. It appears that the breeds caP^d the lesser and greater Danish Dogs are much more com- mon in other countries than in that from which they have been named. The horses and cattle are of very large-sized breeds, generally called the Holstein. The greatest number of oxen seem to be bred in Jutland : they are fattened, during summer, in the rich marshes of Holstein, and driven, in the autumn, to Hamburg. Sect. HI. — Historical Oeoffraphy. During the early period of the middle ages, the swarms of pirates sent forth by Denmark spread desolation and terror to the remotest extremities of Europe. Canute king of Den- mark even ascended the English throne in 1017. Denmark, at the same time, carried on frequent wars against Ihe contiguous districts of Germany and Poland, and often held sway '■"• large portions of them. But her most brilliant era was the reign of Margaret of Wal- -, sumamed the Semirainis of the North, who, by her courage, popularity, and address, eded in effecting the union of Calmar, which placed on her head, and on that of hex ntjpiiew Eric, the crown of the three northern kingdoms of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. The decline of Denmark began in the thlrteentti century, under tiie violent and tyranni- cal reign of Christian I. The sanguinary course by which he sought to punish an insurrec- tion of the Swedes roused all the dormant spirit of that brave people, who found a deliverer in Gustavus Vosa, and were finally fVeed fi'om the Danish yoke. During the two following centuries, Sweden, led to victory by a succession of heroic monarchs, rose to the highest pitch of military glory ; while Denmark, always defeated, was stripped of many of her most important territories, and sunk into the rank of a secondary state. Still she successfiilly cultivated maritime commerce and shipping, and obtained some valuable possessions in the East and West Indies. In the great crisis produced by the conquests of Napoleon, Denmark was thrown into an uidfortunate predicament Placed, as it were, at the point of collision between France and Russia, she could with difficulty escape being crushed between them. Circumstances of peculiar hardship threw her into the arms of ^nce, to whose cause she adhered, and at the great contest which ended in the down&ll of Napoleon, she became a victim. First, she was deprived of Norway, that it might be ceded to Sweden, and that Russia might retain Finland. Denmark received in return Swedish Pomerania as an inadequate compensation. Next, she was required to exchange Pomerania for Lauenbur^, a territory of still inferior extent and value ; but, as it borders on Sleswick and Holsteui, it has rendered her dominion more compact, and extended henr firontier to the Elbe, so that she is perhaps rather a j^er qy me cxcnange. ^ ^ ;-^ r.,,,:,.; ,; J;, ,1 :,.„;*..: ..■;:«:;!:■> «*a..x» .-•*;+ ^^i-'^ ..»ih*^!F!fij? Smt. IV. — Productive Industry. The agriculture of Denmark is conducted under considerable disadvantages both of cli- mate and soil. The climate, though not subject to severe flrost or intense cold, is chill and damp ; and the land consists in a great measure of sand and marsh. Ever/ pnrt of the king- dom, however, is capable of some cultivation, and occasional tracts of uxuriant fertility occur Such are the islands of Zealand Laaland, and Falster ; and, in a still greater degree, ^w DESCRIPTIVE QEOQRAPHY. Pabt III the MaFCOMt of Sleswick and holatein; tot the faiterior u arid end HUiidv. The induatry of the peaaont in Denmarlc Proper suffprs manjr aevere checka; he haa been but recently emancipated fh>m personal bondage, and ia atiU subjected to roan;^ feudal usages. Life. leaaes, under which toe payment is made in produce or personal services, are common. The proprietors are generally embarraaaed, and unable to expend much on the improvement of their lands. The fiumen of Hbbtein and Sleswick oar^ on the process of cultivation with ffntX skill and activity. The chill moisture of the climate ia less favourable to the cultiva> tion of wheat than of barley, rye, and oats; all of which aflbrd a large surplus for exporta* tion. The rearing of cattle is tJm an extensive branch of industry, though too little atteii< tion haa been paia to the improvement of the breeds, unless on the west coast of Sleswick, on whose moist and rich m^ovni is produced what bears a high reputation under the name d£ " Hamburg bee£" Over all Denmark, the produce of the dairy forma the basia of a krge export trade. The manu&cturea of Denmark are extremely rude, and consist chiefly in working up the flax and wool of the country in a coarse form ror domestic use. A great proportion auo of the wool ia exported. Government have employed ^freat efforts to raise Denmark to the rank of a manu&cturing country ; and some fabrics m the different kinds of cloth, brandy, ■ugar-refinin|[, Sui,, have, under its patronage, been set on foot in the large towns ; but these are all languishing, and with difficulty support foreign competition. The commerce of Denmark is in a more active state than the other branches of industry; though it is still not such as to give her a prominent place among the powers of Europe. The oasis consists in the exportation of its raw produce. The grain exported firom Jutland and the islands, at an average of seven years to 1827, amounted to 29,000 quarters of wheat; 141,000 quarters of rye; 190,000 quarters of barley; 43,000 quarters of oats. The rye was chiefly exported to Norway, to be used as bread-«om, and the barley to be employed in distillation. The value of these articles amounted, in 1825, to $2,300,000. That of butter and cheese exported was, in the same year, $1,300,000. Holstein and Sleswick, called the duchies, exported at an average also of seven years, 78,000 quarters of wheat; 55,000 of xye ; 75,000 of barley ; 130,0(M of oats. The value of butter, cheese, and salted meat, ia still ffreater. Denmark, from its situation between the northern and middle states, has a considerable carrying trade of the bulky articles produced by the former ; and ha^ also a good deal of ship-buuding. Both the whale and herring fisheries are likewise carried on to a(»ne extend ■\uii :jm-Vhif' : ; ii' r SKrr.y.— Political Geographff.'''^ The constitution of Denmark, originally founded on the basis of the most complete feudal independence, to the e:<:tent of rendering the monarchy itself elective, underwent a com- plete cliange in 1660, when Frederick III. had the address to obtain an act by which the crown was declared hereditary, and himself invested with supreme and absolute power. The sway of the Danish princes has, however, been exceedingly mild and populoi', and their despotic power exerted m a manner beneficial to the people, as it limited the oppressive rights exercised by the nobles. These, however, continue to be extremely obnoxious; and it is only within a very few years that the body of the people were emancipated from a state of personal slavery. The nobles are few in number, consisting only of one duke, nineteen counts, and twelve barons. The king himself presides at the supreme national tribunal. The revenue amountstofrom about lljn',500,000 to $8,000,000. There is a nominal debt of $75,000,000 ; but the interest paid upon it is small. The military and naval establishments are on a scale suited to a greater country thai what remains of Denmark. The army is kept up to nearly 40,000 regular troops and 60,000 militia. The navy has not recovered fixnn tlie severe shock which it received during the last war : at present it consists of six ships of the line, six frigates, and four corvettes, besides smaller vessels. The sailors being all registered, no difficulty is ever found in manning the navy. ■W* ;?^s, ■:/-'*/•■ Sacr. \L— Civil and Social State. The population of the Danish dommions in 1832, amounted to 2,049,000; of which 1,5^,000 were in its ancient domain of the islands Jutland and Sleswick ; 404,000 in Hol- atein; ^(OOOinLauenburg; 51,000 in Iceland ; 14,000 inCireenland and Uie Faroe Islands.* Naiiotud character. The Danes are generally quiet, tranquil, and industrious. The inhabitants of the towns, who are chiefly engaged m trade, have a great share of the patient, thrifly, and persevering habits of the Dutch. The peasantry, poor and oppressed, are begin* ning, however, to raise their heads ; and the nobles, no longer addicted to those rude and , I I II I II -* • The Danish coloniet are Chriitlaniborg and other itationi in Guinea, with 44,000 inhabitant* ; Santa Cms ■l. Thomai, and St. John in the Weit Indiei, with 47,000 ; and Tranquabar and Aetoriei on the Coiomandel eoai^ in tte Bait Indie*, with 60,000.-Aii. Eo. Pabt KL ndv. The induitry Ls been but recently ludal ungea. Life- I, are conunon. The the improvement of I of cultivation with urable to the cultiv»i surplus for exporta* )ugh too little atten- It coast of Sleswick, tion under the name I the basis of a large ly in working up the it proportion auoof lise Denmark to the nds of cloth, brandy, rge towns; but these iranches of industry ; te powers of Europe, cported firom Juthind O quarters of wheat; B of oats. The r^e ey to be employed in 000. That of butter Sleswick, called the of wheat; 65,000 of 1, and salted meat, is middle states, haii a irmer ; and has also a likewise carried on to lost complete feudal f, underwent a com- an act by which the and absolute power. ind popular, and their united the oppressive |xtremely obnoxious; ire emancipated from [ only of one duke, le supreme national \ is a nominal debt of .reater country thai ■lar troops and 60,000 Ireceiven during the aur corvettes, besidet bund in manning the 1,049,000; of which ck; 404,000 in Hoi- die Faroe Islands.* industrious. The I share of the patient, oppressed, are begin* ' to those rude aud jihabUanta ; Sanu Cm Ion tbe Coromandsl eouti Book I. DENMARK. 478 daring pursuits which rendered them once so formidable, live much in the style of opulent nqpnetors in other European countries. The Lutheran religion was early and zealously adopted in Denmark, to the extent, indeed, of granting toleration to no other ; but the liberal principles now difiiised throughout Europe, have made Uieir way Ailly into that country. Science was at one era somewhat brilliantly patronised in Denmark. The observatory at Orienbaum was the theatre of many of the moet important modern observations; anid Tycho Brahe ranks as one of the fatliers of modem astronomy. (Elenschlager and other writers have introduced a school of poetry and dramatic literature, founded upon that of the modem German. The government has bestowed a laudable attention on the general education of its people, and has even passed a hw, requiring every child, of a certain age, to be sent to school. The schools, on the plan of mutual instraction, amounted, in 1^, to 2500, and more were in progress; there are also SOOOgrammar and parish schools. .,;,_. „^ ^ ^i, ..^ , < ;;;./4 Skct. Vn.— Local Geography. The local divisions of continental Denmark present little variety in consequence of the uniformity of its sur&ce, and the small number of considerable cities. Its divisions are Zeop land and the other islands; Jutland, Sleswick, Holstein, Lauenburg ; with the remote terrir tories of Iceland, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands. Zealand is a flat, fertile, and extensive island, separated fl-om Funen bf the Great Belt, and from Sweden by the Sound. Including the capital, and chief seats of trade, it forms the moet important part of the Danish dominions. Copenhagen, (Jig. 233.), (in Danish, Eiobenha&, or the "merchant port,") the capital of Denmark, is situated on the east coast of Zealand, with the island of Amak oppposite to it, and seve ral little lakes in its vicinity. Its walls enclose a circuit of five milesb a great part of which, however, is covered with open spaces, and with the harbour and doclu. Thehousei^ with a few exceptions, are built of brick, plastered over, and painted in different colours. The number of inhabitants is about 115,000; the houses are lofly, and contain many families in each. The city is divided into three parts; the old town, which contains the greater part of the population; the new town, in which are all the finest edifices; and the port, or Christian's Havea In the midst of the principal square is the bronze statue of Frederick V., weighing 45,000 lbs. This square, with the adjoining one called the King's Mark Place, surrounded by the palace of Chaxlottenborg, the uieatre, the principal hotel, and other stately buildings, forms the handsomest part of Copenhagen. The cathedral was destroyed during the bomlnrdment by the English, and is left in ruins ; but the Frue Kirke is an elegant Grecian edifice, 215 feet by 180, with a Doric portico, and for which Thorwaldsen is preparing statues of the apostles uid evangelists. The palace of Rosenborg, though now unoccupi^, contains an extraor^ dimry display of jewels, precious stones, and porcelain. The collections in science and art are equal to those of the greatest capitals. The king has a library of 400,000 volumes, with numerous manuscripts illustrative of the history and literature of uie NorUi, as well as those bought by Niebuhr fh>m the East ; an extensive museum of northern antiquities : a gallery of pictures, comprisingsome fine specimens of the greatest masters, and a numerous collec- tion of engravmgs. The University of Copenhagen, a highly respectable institution, has a valuable library of about 100,000 volumes, and an excellent collection of northem manu- scripts. The arsenal is said to equal that of Venice in beauty, and to surpass it in extent The mint throws off 200 pieces in a minute. The other towns in Zealand and the islands are of ccHnparatively small magnitude. Roe* child, the ancient capital of Denmark, which contained once thirty convents and thirty churches, is now remarkable only for its Gothic cathedral, in whose vaults are deposited the remains of the kings of Denmark. Several of the monuments are fine. Elsinore, with its castle of Cronborg, is important from its situation on the Sound, which being command^l by the castle, the government is enabled to levy what are called the Sound dues. The pas> Mige to Helsinborg, in Sweden, may be made in half an hour. Elsinore, from its fevourable aituation and good roadstead, carries on a considerable commerce, and contains, among its inhabitants, many British, Jews, and even Mahometans. It has a handsome cathedral, with mne fine tombs. Population 7000. At Cronborg is shown the chamber in which the anfortunate Matilda was ooifined. This castle commands a noble view over the sea, the VouL 40* SK Copaakaccn. DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY PASTlIt falands, and the oppmite coast of Sweden. The terrace firom which these are viewed recalls to the English reader the first scenes of Hamlet, the tradition of whoso story is still prevalent here. Soroe, in the interior, surrounded by a fine country, has a noble academy ; and contains the tombs of Eric, Canute, and other princes. Odensee, the capital of Funen, has a college, and is rather a thriving town, with manufactures of woollen and soap. Nye* borg, in Funen, and Corsoer in Zealand, derive some importance ftom their situation on the passage of the Great Belt; and Middelikrth, in the former island, ihun the passage of the Little Belt The towns of Jutland are of small interest, and have been little observed, with the excep> tion of those Which lie on the high road fl-om Hamburg to Copenhagen. Aalborg, near the northern extremity, is the seat of one of the four bishoprics; and, bemg situated on a narrow arm of the sea, with a good harbour, carries on some trade. Aarhuus, on the eastern coast, is the seat of another bishopric ; and, being in the midst of a fertile country, exports some grain. Population, 5,000. Colding derives some importance from its vicinity to the passage of the Little Belt Wiborg and Ripen are also deserving of mention. In Sleswick, the city of Uiat name is agreeable, though irregularly built Its cathedral, with uTimerous monuments of ancient dukes, is viewed with interest Flemsborg, on a deep and winding haqf, or bay, with an excellent harbour, possesses a much greater commercial importance, while it carries on the communication with the Baltic : it has 15,000 inhabitants. Tonningen, on the other side, near the mouth of the Eyder, communicates with the coud< tries situated round the German Ocean ; and, by the canal of Holstein, it has now a water communication with the Baltic. Holstein, the most southern province of Denmark, ranks as a part of the German empire, to which it once belonged, and gives to the king of Denmark a vote in the diet. Reaching to the Elbe, and being more in the commercial circle, it has a considerably brisker trade than the northern or peninsular territory. Altona, a few miles below Hamburg, is a repetition of that city on a smaller scale ; having 25,000 inhabitants, busily employed in the commerce of the Elbe, in ship-building, and in several manufactures. Gluckstaidt, about twenty miles lower, though inferior in extent, is a handsome and regular town, with considerable naval establishments. Kiel, on the eastern or Baltic coast, has an excellent harbour, and derives importance from its situation at the extremity of the canal which connects the eastern and western seas. It contains an university. Lauenburg, a level tract, intenected with several small lakes, though it rounds the Danish borders, does not possess much importance, either in itself or its little capital, with 3,000 inhabitanti. Iceland, on appendage of the Danish crown, unimportant in a political view, but interest* ing from its physical and moral aspect, is situated in the Northern Ocean, on the border of the arctic circle, and at the farthest verge of the civilized world. It is a large island, 220 mUes in length, and 210 in breadth; containing about 40,000 square miles. Iceland belongs, by its situation, to the polar world ; and the mountain chains, from 3000 to 6000 feet high, with which it is everywhere intersected, give it a still more severe and stem character. Barley is the only grain that can be raised and this only in patches ; cabbages, and a few other imported vegetables, may be produced, but bv no means in perfection. The dependence of the inhabitants is chiefly upon the abundance of fish which ^le surrounding seas afibrd ; so that the interior, comprising about half of the island, is a desert of the most dreary character. The mountain phenomena of Iceland are very striking. According to Glieman, the jokuls, or hills covered with ice, rise to the following heights : Oerefe, 6240 feet ; Snafell, 4672; Findfall, 5368; Hecla, 5210; Eya- 234 ^^U^^ ^'^^^ Oester, 5794. AH these mountains are, at the same time, glaciers capped with ice which never melts; but these Sflaciers consist not, like those of Switzer> and, of great mosses sloping down firran upper regions of the mountains to the vol- leys ; they ore the snows of winter melted and frozen where they fall. Beneath this mantle of ice and snow bums a perpetual fire, which in every part of the island burets forth in the most strange and fear* fill phenomena. Hecla (fig. 234.), with its flaming volcano, is the most celebrated ; but its cmptions, of which six have occurred in the course of a century, are at present suspended. There are six other volcanoes, which, in the course of a century, have emitted twenty eruptions. The Geysers form a phenomena strikingly characteristic of Iceland, and rank with the moat extraordinary that are produced on ony part of the globe. They consist erf* fountains, which throw up boiling water, spray, and vapour, to a great height into Uie air. The ernp* tioos are not continuous, but announce their approach by a sound like that al BttbterraneMU Heola. pABTin. 1 theae are viewed f whoBO Btory is ■till u a noble academy ; the capital of Funen, len and soap. Nye* their situation on the n the passage of the ved, with the excep* . Aalborg, near the situated on a narrow on the eastern coast, mntry, exports some cinity to the ] Book I. DENMARK. »^''*i»< m built. Its cathedral, Flemsborg, on a deep 1 greater commercial 18 15,000 inhabitants, icates with the coun- , it has now a water the German empire, the diet. Reaching bly brisker trade than irg, is a repetition of ed in the commerce t, about twenty miles th considerable naval harbour, and derives nects the eastern and ersected with several :h importance, either al view, but interest- ean, on the border of B a large island, 220 les. Iceland belongs, 00 to 6000 feet high, and stem character. cabbages, and a few }n. The dependence mding seas afford ; so lost dreaiy character. ing to Giieman, tbs ,6240 feet; Snafell, ;HeclB,5210;Eya- All these mountains ne, glaciers capped er melts; but these ike those of Switzer* sloping down from nountains to the val- )ws of winter melted , fall. Beneath this w bums a perpetual part of the island )st strange and fear* celebrated; but its present suspended. ,ve emitted twenty y t and rank with the consist erf* fountains, the air. The erap* lat of BubterraneooB GrMt Sqn«r> thunder ; immediately after which, a column of water, accompanied with prodigious volumes 286 of Bteam, bursts fortli, and rushcB up to the height of fifty, ■izty, ninety, or even a hundred and fifty feet. The water ■con ceases ; but tlie spray and vapour continue to play in the air ibr several hours, and, when illuminated by the suiii produce the meet brilliant rainbows. The largest stonee, when thrown into the orifice, are instantly propolled to an amazing height, and remaining often for some minutee within the iimuence of the steam, rise and M\ in singular alternation. Stones thrown into the fountain have the remarkable effect of acting as a stimulus to the eruj^ tion, and causing it to burst from a state of tranquillity. The basin of the Great Geyser (Jig. 235.), is of an oval fimn, witii diameters of fifty-ei^ht and sixty-four feet Every spot around the Geysers is covered with vario^^ ted and beautiful petrifactions. Leaves, grass, lushee, are converted into white stone, preserving entire every fibre. The Sulphur Mountains, with their caldrons of boilmg mud, present another phenomenon which the traveller be* holds with the utmoat astonishment These consist chiefly of clay, covered with a crust, which is hot to the touch, and of sulphur, f^om almost eveiy part of which, gas and steam are perpetually escaping. Sometimes a loud noise guides the traveller to a spot where cal- ^^ drons of black boiling mud (Jig. *80 ^ 236.), largely impregnated with this mineral substance, are throw- ing up, at short intervals, their eruptions. That on the Krabla, observed by Mr. Henderson, had a diameter equal to that of the Great Geyser, and rose to the height of thirty feet The situation of the spectator here is not only awful, but even dangerous; standmg, as Sir George Mackenzie observes, " on a support which feebly sustains him, over an abyss where fire and brim< ^ „ . „ , stone are in dreadful and incessant Caldroo of Bolllos Mod. action " The civil and social state of Iceland presents features no less interesting. It was dis* covered about the year 840, by Nadod, a Danish pirate. After its settlement it became a little independent republic ; and the arts and literature, driven before the tide of barbarism, which then overwhelmed the rest of Europe, took refiige in this remote and frozen olime. Iceland had its divmes, its annalists, its poets, and was for some time the most enlightened country then perhaps existing in the world. Subjected first to Norway, in 1261, and after- wards to Denmark, it lost the spirit and energy of an independent republic. Yet the difiiision of knowledge, even among the lowest class, which took place during its pros* perous period, still exists in a degree not paralleled in the most enlightened of other nations. Men who seek, amid the storms of the surrounding ocean, a scanty provision for their families, possess an acquaintance with the classical writings of antiquity, and a sense of their beauty. The traveller finds the guide whom he has hired able to hold a conversation with him in Latm, and on his arrival at his miserable place of rest for the night, is addressed with fluency and elegance in the same language. "The instruction of his chil- dren," says Dr. Holland, " forms one of the stated occupations of the Icelander ; and whilA the little hut which he inhabits is almost buried in the snow, and while darkness and deso* lation are spread universally around, the light of an oil-lamp Ulumines the page from which be reads to his family the lessons of knowledge, religion, and virtue." The Faroe Islands compose a group in the Northern Ocean, between 61° 15' and 62" 20' N. lat., to the N.W. of Shetland, which they resemble. The principal are Stromsoe, Osteroe, Suderoe, and Norderoe, with the smaller islands of Nalsoe, Vagoe, and Sandoe. Their only wealth is produced by the rearing of sheep, fishing, and catching the numerous birds whioi cluster round the rocks. With the surplus of these articles they supply their deficiency at grain. Thorsham, on Stromsoe, is the only place that can be called a town. -i \ •' ■(>:. »«*-!'■ titf DESCRIPTIVE UEOORAPHY Ifi^iut^.i ** V.v.»/»»(\»-«lljiH»>-V»H>t«**, ' CHAPTER VL ■WEDKN AND NORWAT. W' pAkT ni Bwbdhi and Nokwat, now united into one kin^om, form an extonaive region, ■trotchiag from the utmoat verm of the temperate zone fkr mto the flrozen ranife of the arctic circle. Along the north ana west itmtch the wide shores of the Frozen Ocean, ao far aa yet known. The ■outh*weat point of the kingdom bordera on the North Sea or German Ocisan. The Baltic and the Gulf of Bothnia enclose it on the south and east; so that it fbrms an immense peninsula. The isthmus by v/hich it is joined to Russia is above 200 miles broad, but lo closely barred by mountains and flrozen plains, that the kingdom is nearly inaocossible, incept by sea. SacT. I. — Oeneral Outline and A$peet. ■■ This kinffdom is of vast extent Its length, flrom the extreme point of Scania to the North Cape, is 1800 miles. Its breadth, flrom the extreme points of the provinces of Stockholm on the east, and Bergen on the west, will little exceed 800 miles. Its area is 297,000 square miles. Of this large territory, scarcely a half can be considered aa belonging to the civi* lized world. The Laplander, who derives his whole subsistence from the rein-deer, can hardly be included witnin the pale of civilized society. Even the southern districta have a ruggea and repulsive aspect, when compared to almost any other European state. ForesU of tall and gloomy pine stretch over the plains, or hang on the sides of the mountains ; the ground for nve months in the year is buried under snow ; cultivation appears only in scat- tered patches, and was long c^uite insuflScient to fiimish bread to the inhaDitants. The mountains consist chiefly of the dark and lofty chain of the Dofrines, which were ibr ages a barrier between the two separate and hostile states of Sweden and Norway, but are now included within the united Kingdom. It commences near Gottenburg, on a low scale, and becomes much more elevated in passing through Norway, where some of its pin nacles exceed 8000 feet Chains of secondary elevation run tluough Lapland ; but, in approaching the North Cape, they again rise as high as before, and fkce the polar seas with clifb of pr«ligious magnitude. Tlie rivers are numen us, Sweden being a country proflisely watered ; but, as they rise h the Dofirines, and traver se the divided breadth of the peninsula, thev seldom attam any material length of course. The larfrest is the Dahl, which crosses Dalecarlia, and fiills into the sea at Geflle, after a course of 260 miles. The most important as to navigation are those which form the outlet to the lakes, particularly the Gotha, reaching fhnn uie lake Wener to Gottenburg. The Glomme and tne Dramme are pretty consic^rable rivers, rumiinff fh>m north to south, and down which considerable quantities of timber are floated. Laplana pours a number of large streams into the head of the Gulf of Bothnia ; but these are usually chained in ice, and at no time can be subservient to the purposes of agriculture or navigation. Lakes form the grand depository of the surplus waters of Sweden. The Wener bean almost the character of an mland sea, and the completion of the canal of Trdlli&tta, by enabling ita coasto to communicate by the Gotha with Crottenburg, has given them almost the fbll advantages of a maritime site. The Wetter, though equal in length, covers not nearlv so great an extent of ground. Mftler, or Malar, is a narrow, winding loci:, or, more strictly, a bay, running sixty miles into the interior flrom Stockholm, to whose environs its variegated and rocky shores give a beautiful wildness. Small lakes, enclosed between hills^ are of very fbequent occurrence, both in Norway and Sweden. '- ■■ . ".f ■', . ■•; •■ •. .iff Smt. n. — Natural Oeography, ^ ' a; SoBraor. 1.— C?eo2o^. (1.) GaoLooT OF SwEDBN. — ^I. Primitive rocks. Granite occurs in the mountains of J&mtland, in Herjeadalen, in Lulea Lappmark, in Pitea Lappmark. It occurs also in the plains, without any covermg of other rooks, as in Upland, Westmanland, Sudermanland, and a part of East and West Crothland. It passes into gneiss and syenite. Gneiss occurs in many places in Sudermanland, East Gothland, &c., with beds of copper and iron ore. Mica ■late aoounds not only in the principal, but also in the subordinate chains, and contains the greater number of the metalliferous beds met with in Sweden. It often alternates with vast beds of primitive limegtone, quartz, &c. In the high mountain ridges, the strata of this nek are generally disposed at an angle of 45° ; while in the subordmate chains they aie vertical. In many places it abounds m garnets, when it is known under the name noorftji, or murkstein, Uie garnet rock of geologists. Clay slate occurs sparingly : tak slate, in several quarters, occurs m considerable abundance. Porphyry occurs only in Smaland, where the basis is a ^uartzy homstone (hallejtinta) with embedded crystals of felspar, and grains of quarts. Pnmitive limestone occurs generally in the secondiiiy mountain chain% Book L SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 4T7 but Boldom in the neighbourhcMxl of the central chaini. It is mixed up with hornblende tremolite, quartz, nrpentino, gamot, ma^piotic ironatono, and mica. It ia often metalliferous containing onlena, copnor, and iron pyrites. Serpentine, with the exception of masses in lome metalliferous beds, seldom occurs pure : it is oflen mixed with limestone, when it occun< in primitive limestone. Quartz rock occurs cither pure, and in whole mountains, as in Dahlsland, Smaland, and many other places; or it altomatos with mica slate, as in DahL»> land, and also in the motalliferuus beds of Persborg and Klacko. The limestone of Dane- mora contains mica slate. It alxo occurs in veins in granite and mica slate, &.c. Porphyri- tic quartz, a granite rock, with embedded grains and crystals of felspar, occurs in Smaland, Tomea Lappmark, &e. Primitive trap. Of this interesting group of rocks, the following kinds are met with ; viz. hornblende rock, hornblende with felspar, and hornblende witn mica. II. TVansJtton rockt. Conglomerate and sandstone, which, in some places, are covered with transition limestone, occur in Jilmtland, Tomea Lappmark, Anf^ermanland, Dalecarlia, SchOncn, islands in the Lake Wetter, East and West Gothland, Nenka, Dalarnia. Transi- tiou porphyry : in the parish of Elfdal, in Dalarnia. The basis is of the nature of horn- itonc. it rests upon transition sandstone, and is covered by syenite, porphyry, and transition ffreenatone. Oreywacke slate lies upon sandstone, and is covered by transition limestone, ft sometimes contains coal, and then passes into a kind of shale. It also contains fossil remains of marine animals. Transition limestone occurs in Gothland, CEland, Sch&nen, East and West Gothland, Nerika, Dalarnia, and J&mtland. In the regular succession, it lies immediately upon alum slate, but in Gothland directly upon sandstone. It is seldom covered oj other rocks, excepting in West Gothland, where it is covered by clay slate and green* atone. It contains many different petrifactions, as orthoceratitcs, ammonites, anomites, echi* nites, corallites, and entrochites. Its colour is commonly gray, or bluish gray, and reddish brown, oflen varied with veins of a green colour. Transition trap is the youngest rock of ihe transition class in Sweden. In Elfdal it rusts upon porphyry ; upon transition clay slate and alum slate in Kennekulle, Billengen, the Hunne and Halleberge, and others, in West Qothland. ni. Secondary roek$. The mountain chain around Helsingborg, in SchOnen, is composed of secondary sandstone. It contains beds of slate clay, bitummous shale, and black bitumi* Dous coal. This sandstone, which belongs to the black bituminous coal formation, is covered with other secondary deposits, as limestone, the age of which is not well known. The only one of these newer secondary deposits, the geognoetical history of which has been made out, is Chalk. This interesting ixirmation occurs at Limhamn, near to Malmo. It encloses balls of common flint, and, at its lower part, passes into a more solid chalk and secondary limestone. TV. Tertiary rockt. The tertiary deposits seem to occur in some pomts of the land not fir distant from the sea^oast ; but they have not been carefully explored. V. Alluvia/ rock$. Many tracts more or less deeply covered with gravel, sand, and clay, occur in Sweden. Minet. The mines of Sweden have been long celebrated all over the world, and have been frequently described by travellers. Oold ana silver mines. The Adelfors mine, which formerly yielded thirty or forty marks of gold annually, now fbmishes only three or ibur ; those of Fahlun, where copper predominates, return annually four marks cif r.rld and fifty marks of silver. The silver mine of Sahla, which, during the reign of Q-.oen Christina, fielded annually 20,000 marks of silver, does not at present afford annually more than 2000 or 3000 marks. Copper mines. The most considerable copper mines are those of Fahlun, which is also known under the name of Kopparberg. The mines of Atwidaberg, in East Gothland, furnish about a sixth part of all the copper which the Swedes obtain annually from mines ; those of Fahlun jrield more than the half of the copper raised in Sweden. llie ore at I^hlun is copper pyntes, disposed in an immense irregular-shaped mass, in mica slate : 10,200 quintals of copper are yielded by it annually. Iron mines. The greatest iron mines are those in Uie province of Upland : of these the most important are uiose of Skebo, of (Esterby, not far from Danemora, of Gimo, of Ronaes. Iran is mined as far north as Gell- vara, which is 200 leagues to Uie north of Stockholm. The island of Uto, on the east coast (^ Upland, also afibrds a considerable quantity of iron. The whole mmes afford annually 1|800,000 quintals of iron. Cobalt mines. Tlie principal mines of this metal arc those of Timaberg, near to Nykdpin^, and at Awed, in East Gothland. These mines affi>rd excel- lent cobalt, but the quantity is not great Coal mines. Coal mines have been worked for eome time in Scania, two leagues from Helsinborg, and are afibrding a considerable return. Sulphur and vitriol. The pyritical minerals of Dylta afford annually 1050 quintals of sul- phur, and those of Fahlun about 100 quintals of the same substance. The vitriolic watem of Fahlun afford annually about 600 quintals of green vitriol, or sulphate of iron, and a small quantity of blue vitriol, or sulphate of copper. Alum. The annual produce of alum in about 42,600 quintals. Quarries. Sweden possesses, besides its regular mine^^also vsIiuf die qvarries of granite, porphyry, and marble. The pcrphyiy quarries of Eliuul are tfaa 47R MAP OF SWEDEN AND NORWAY. Flo. W OiMvrtik M Fio. -JSt BuokI 8W£0£N ANU NORWAY 47V ■ ■ NMkCtfa Sr4 •< 1%' r » I.; ■ •' tfl H c.i''-' 'jiiui*™** '»mni m H^iiuir c Rli> 6 pbnif " ItrffMt and mUMiy ur Nokwat and LAM.Ain>.— I. Primitivt nek: Theie wild but highly interoitiriK countrinM are principAJlv compoaed of primitive and tranaition rooka; aeoondary roolia occur but mrul^, niul alluvial depoaita are not ao abundant aa in many other Iom exton« mvc rntfiotu. (iramu ia a rare ruck In Norway and Lapland, and may be eoaaidorod one of tho TuuMt ahumlaiit rookH in Huandinavia. Tne granite freauently appears in veina tra> veraing t)io primitivo atralAfiod rocka, or ninning parallel with oeda or atrata; and aumotimoe it can DO Mon Hproad over tho aurikce of mica alato, aa at Forvig, or irregularly aiwooiated with clay itlatn and diallage rock, aa in the iiiUnd of Magoroo. UneUi aoenia to be by litf the moat fVequent ond abundant rock in Scandinavia, all tJio otlior primitivQ rockii appearing to be in ooino ilogreo lulxMrdinate to it. Mica ilalt reata upon and alUtrnatoii with tho gneiaa, but ia fiir IVoni boiiig ao gonoraliy diatributed aa tluit rock. Clay iluln along with tho nika •lato ia not of fVnqiiant occurrunco. i^artt rock, variouK hornblende rocki, und limeitone, occur in bcda Mulwrdinatn to thn gnoiaa and mica alatn. OaMtro, or dinUaae rock, otio of the moat benutitlil of thu okler rocka, occura in great quantity, connuctud with clay alato, in th (gland of Matrorofl, and othor parta of Norway. II. TraniUhn rocki. Thin cloaa containa, boiidea greyieacke, alum $late, and limeitone (which contniim iinich tromolitu), and oUior rocka witll known to minoralogiMta aa ninmbora of thia claHN, tho following : — 1. Granite, which oomotimoH containa homblondo. 2. Syenite, which containa a boautiful Laliradorio variety of common felipar, and numoroua cryitalt of the gem namud zircon. 3. Porphyry, and, aaaociatod with it, varioua trap rocka allied to banlt and amygdaloid. III. Secondary rocki. Tho groat primitive land of Scandinavia continues onward to the extreme northnrn point of Norway ; but in thia high latitude aome new formationa make their appoarancu among the older. Tho aandatono mmrtz of Alton has boon known since tlie publication of tho travels of Von Duch. On tho Koat, towards tho Rusaian dominions, there ia a conaidorablo tract which difTora more from tho primitivo formations than tho sond- itone quartz of Alton does. Sand»tnne and conglomorato extend acroas the sahjaccnt gnoisa in a horizontal poaition. Thoae rocks probably Imlong to the old red Bandttone. IV. Alluvial rocka. Old iiUuvium occurs on the coost, and in the interior in numy of the rtllnys, and tho new ovorywhero in greater or less quantity. Mtnet. The only gilverminet in Norway are those of KAngsberg, aituated in mica slate, which formerly afTordod rich returns, but of late have yielded no profit. The gold mine of Edswold, and the mines of lead and ailver in Jarlaberg, have been but feebly worked. The jopper minei are principally situated in the northern division of the kingdom. The most onsiderable, near Koiroas, were discovered in 1044. They have afforded considerable quan« ities of topper : in 1805, tho annual return was 7860 quintals of copper. Tho other mines •f copper are from Vi to 20 leagues of Drontheim, at Quikne, Laskken, Selboo, and in tho dis- trict of Chriatiimia, ut Frederic kagave or Foledal. Tho principal tron mines are those of Aren- M and Kragoroe, in southern Norway. The mine of Laurwig, near tho town of tliut name, NOHTH PAUT. i- »!''•'.• 9. Niawbir •I. Tiina 3. Ldbiibijff . Hammi'rftint O. AlinnnBinl 7. Joktby 'elvlMknnUi (■utoknino \llllnj.tUTM urrarsarA atiivurt s Ilefereneti to the Map ^f Sweden and Norway. 1d«pio« iiWtd oiiholm .•rn* Bont'le Ar»l
  • HB. Hormlal, H7. Dronthalm m. UiiHvif 80. Qarbari 00. Hevne BOUTH PART. '. Bundawtll , Rracka . J, Jwia !Oaddc^a(t . Poldaraid . Btrom . OlderiMaa . Honatad . Hnlmiet , UndonalMr . KalWon . jfoHnca . Btfom . Anla . Juiaela . Amund . Nardmaliiig , Parrikcn . Nordincra M'*n!OSssd iFoiii M. Mm ^. nuhan aji CMvaa no. Blirf en 40. Aaravif 41.(2dd«o . 49, TuMuntdal iX Nora 44. Chriitiania 4.V Frf iiaando 40. Nar* na 47. Nnrrbarko 45. Tuna Jedniora Jrolle SI. Eniedal Si Aabjrn deib Jamranfe 38. ai!fle 99. Fahlun 30. Mora 31. Malunf 22. Danb/ 33. Giuael orata U'na Waddo ' Jpaal atoeknnim M. Mariafral §1 fossils so. Qrehrn 00. Philipalad Al. Carlatad flS. Holmedal fl3.Moaa 64. Tonaberi 6.1. Oramen 68. Ranlaod (ft. gflboe 70. ChriiUananad 71. Lancoa 79.Valle 73. Mokland 74. AreiKjai 75. Baoda 'rederjekalad ' ndertekali Ideralla .idkoplDi Ikara lopinf ^.kopinr . eaierwick iinkoplof abir jAonio lonkopiog Ijo ,1 n.C>rerTd 04. parehcm "". uottenburt ilaiinarad Votiebaek Hortundo tialeriralt v'ubj Jaaa JlurapakolU , Calmar loffholai ^araenMiB partohamm . Landacrona . I. Chriatianalad Horum raliterbo dalfflo River*. I lana Iton anneiw i>rria * idelven - eina Okunmao m IJiiane n fTiian o Indal p AoKermaaa JWTnSd !& ' U JIM T [aliz I .ainio J Muonio , „Laka. a" Horn b» Slora /;.;, c* A»e d* ITmea e* Walfomaa R* Btora Tnemand flonen .. .Hater !• H>lmai m* VVellet n* Wener o* BoUnen n' BIO m "If"' «90 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part 111 tllbrds nnnually 26,000 quintals of bar-iron and OOflO quintals of cait-iron. The ostabliih* mont of tiio sauio kind at Moss aiTords annually 10,000 quintals of iron in bars and cast The samo annual quantity is afforded by the mines of Bnrum, Bolvig, Ulfbss, Kidfoss, Ego- land, NacB, Dikkomarken Fossum, and Oudnlcn. lAstly, tlie mines of Haseel, Frooland, Lessee, nnd Mostmarkon, fbmish fVom 30()() to fiOOO quintals of iron annually. Tho annual (roduco of the iron mines of Norway is estimated by a well-known statistical writer at about B0,00() quintals. The mines of cobalt, whicli are worked at Modum and Fossum, are extensive but not deep. In tho year 1702 they yielded 2817 quintals of ore. There is a mine of plumbwfo and black lead at Enf|[ledal. The mines of alum, which are worked in the mountain of Egeberg, near to Christtanio, ailbrd not only a sufficiency for tho consump* tk>n of tlu) Danish states, but also a considerable quantity fbr exportation. Norway possoasot Juarries of granite, marble, miU$ttcr with Iak)ur and milk; and, when dead, every part becomes serviceable, the skin for clothing, and fbr boots; the horns to make utensils ; the sinews for thread, and the flesh for food : the intestines ore also used ; and the tongue is a well-known article of commerce. The Birds are not numerous, and, with few exceptions, differ not from those of Denmark and the other northern kingdoms. The Iceland Falcon {Falco islandictu)(^g.239.) rarely wanders to more temperate climes; and a gigantic Owl (Strix lapponica Lin.) is a peculiar inhabitant of the dreary solitudes of Lapland : to these we may add two other species ; the large Ural Owl, and the Great Snowy Owl. These formidable birds prey upon numerous ptarmigans and grouse, great numbers of which inhabit the confines of uie arctic circle. The Curruca suecica Sw. or Blue-throated Reed Warbler, one of the most elegant birds of Europe, is m t peculiar, as its name would im- ply, to Sweden, being common in Irance and Switzerland. The insects of Sr/eden, during its short summer, are very numer- ous; and many, enumerated oy Acerbi, verjr beautiful; but, in autumn, nearly the whole country is terribly infested by Musqui- toes, these tormenting little anKniLls being beyond calculation more numerous in high northern latitudes than in the woods of tropica) America. lln Bein-D«er. iMkod FoIeoM Part III iron. Tho oBtabliah* ■on in ban mid cut , Ulfiwa, KidfuflB, Ego. of Uamel, Frooland, nnuallv. Tho annual tiitical writer at about um and Foflsum, are la of ore. There is a which are worked in ency for the consump* n. Norway pooaenw Granite is exported to nark. icuB, is no well known bject \» familiar. Nor hat of Denmark. The TO has denied the rich grazing animals, are, lalities are bcautifiUly the sole riches of the I almost his only ocou- season, ho migrates nine, or tho mountains, 20(X) head; and the .00. The adult male, argor than a stag ; but re somewhat smaller: se creatures are aston* ith wonderful precision )UB passes and in tho an arctic wjnter. To er trusts his life with rarely happen : they ich amazing rapidit^ brm a journey of 100 , evince an excessive )y a species of gad-fly; then devouring them, [tiastcr witii labour and othing, and for boots; the intestines are om those of Denmark celand Falcon {Falco temperate climes; and peculiar inhabitant of may add two other Snowy Owl. These ns and grouse, great 3 arctic circle. The Warbler, one of the its name would im- Switzerland. mer, are very numer- ry beautiful; but, in y infested by Muequi- end calculation mors the woods of tropical QOOK I. SWEDEN AND NORWAY 401 :''' '"" Sbot. III. — Hiitorkal Ucography ' ' ' *i. Tho early history of Scandinavia is deeply involved in rhblo and unoortainty. Ptolemy tnd Pliny, the best informed of ancient goographors, soom tocliatinguish it fVom '' Great Qer* manv," oft' tho coast of whicii tlioy repronont fiasilia, or Daltia, ni> u largo isiand, though not noarlv approaching to the roal dimensions. Tho Uoths wore found in early posHomtion of 8wo(fon, and its southern provinces have been denominated Gothland ; but tlio question, whether tlioy woro the native possessors, oi entered it as con(iuen>ni, is ono wfiich can Karcolv bo now decided. Scandinavia has been called the " storehouse of nations ;" and * till itiuu-eyod myriods iVom the Italtio coast" are supposed to have been among tho most numerous ot thnso who spread war and desolation throuf^hout Europo. Dr. Clarkn ridiculoM this idea, as inapplicublo to a country of unbroken furcsts, and a slowly advancing (N)pula- tion, making tho first esHays of agriculture ; yet, though tho |X)pulation could nover bo groat, the Bin?')lo and pastoral habits of tho people might dispose emigrants to Boek subsistonco with tho sword in happior climates. Scandinavia, first, by a series of formidable expeditions, moilo a figure in history at tho end of tho ninth century. Harold HarHiger, or tho Fair-hairod, the first of the groat sea-kings of the North, having united the formerly independent districts of Norway undor his sway, undertook triumphant expoditions against Shetland, Orkney, and the Hebrides. For several centuries tho Danes and Norwegians hold full possession of thoso islands ; gc vo a king to Engliiiul, and fbrmod a permanent eHtablishmont in Normandy. Tho defeat of llaco in Scotr land, ami of Harold III. in England, during tho eleventh century, put an end to this maritime dominion: and tho northern nations, notwithstanding tlieir immenso mipply of nx^al stores, have n(!Vor since iittainod to more than a secondary rank among tlio maritime po veni, Tho union of the kingdoms of Scandinavia, in i:)88, under Margaret, called the bemiramis of tho Nortli, forms a memorable era. Immediately, however, aflor the death of that able princess, the Swedes began to struggle for indeirandenco. But their repeated attempts to establish a separate kingdom were always defbated, till the cruel and tyrannical roign of Christian II. drove matters to extremity, and brought on a now revolution. Gustavus Vasa, in 1520, hoisted again tho national standani in the province of Dalecarlia, and, in three yeara'subsoquontly, entered Stockholm in triumph. Afler a long struggle, tho Danes were conipelled to recognise tho independence of Sweden. Tho reign of Gustavus Adolphus formed a glorious era for Sweden. Tho Protestant reli- gfion having been ostablished under (lUHtavus Vasa, Swoden began to bo looked to as its nuf- port when assailed by a fbrmiduble confederacy. In 1030, Gustavus took the field at tlio head of only ten thousand Swedes ; but around this gallant band rallied all tho Protestant powers of Uermany. The splendid victory of Brcitenfbld humbled tho house of Austria, and re-establislied tho civil and religious lilierticsof theempire. P>cn afler his fall, in tlio glori- ous field of Lutzen, his generals continued to wage that desperate war of thirty years, which was necessary to compel the Catholic league finally to renounce its pretensions. Sweden, at the peace, obtained Pomerania, and otTier important possessions in Germany ; and con- tinued, till the end of tho seventeenth century, to exercise a powerful influence on the afiiiira of Europe. The victories and reverses of Charles XII. threw a wild and romantic lustre around Sweden, which terminated, however, in tho loss of her station and greatness. Being de- feated at Pultowa, by the Czar Peter, and driven to seek shelter from the Turks at Bender, he was obliged to purchase peace by the sacrifico of Livonia, and others of his finest nrovinces. The influence of Sweden was thenceforth confined within its own barren limits, an(l it ranked with difficulty as a jiowcr of tho second order. Tho only remarkable change in the course of the century was produced by tho revolutions of 1772 and 1760, when Gustavus III. suc- ceeded in converting tho government into an absolute monarchy, though in other respects his reign was advantageous to Sweden. The election of Bemodotte, one of Bonaparte's commanders, to fill tho throne, lefl vacant through the rash conduct of the legitimate monarch, made a great change in the relations of Sweden. To conciliate his new subjects, he restored in fbll plenitude the representative constitution, which liad been reduced to a mere shadow. Having joined the confederacy against his former master, he received Norway in compensation for the loss of Finland, and had thus a more compact and defensible territory. The Norwegians exclaimed, not without reason, against this compulsory transference ; yet Denmark had deprived them of their free constitution, which they now regained, and hod in so many reapects depressed the country, vith the view of concentrating every thing at Copenhagen, that the connection now tormi- oated has been considered the bane of Norway. Sect. FV, — Political Oeography. The constitution of Sweden is one of the few in Europe, which has always preienrad BODie portion ot that representative system which had been formed in remote age*. Towuda 'he close, indeed, of the last century, it was reduced by Gustavus IIL to little more than a Vol 1 41 8L 4(0 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part IIL form. Bernadotte, however, an elected monarch, without any national claim, was obliged to court the favour of the nation, and, with that view, to re-establish the rights of its ancient diet This is now rather an antique and cumbrous form of legislature, consisting of four ciders; the nobles, the clergy, the peasants, and the burghers; who sit and vote in separate houses. Of these houses, that of the nobles consists of about 1200 members ; the head of eacK &mily being, by inheritance, its legal representative. They are divided into three classes :-< herra, counts, barons, &c. ; reddar, knights ; and rivena, or gentlemen who, though without any title, have received letters patent of nobility. The house of clergy consists of the arch- bi^op and all the bishops; while the rest of the ecclesiastical body is represented by depu< ties. The burghers are chosen by the towns, every freeman who pays taxes having a vote : *hey form an independent body, partly, porhaps, because the honour of a seat is not eagerly contested. The peasants do not exactly correspond to our idea of that term : they consist sf a body of little propfietors, or lairds, who cultivate their own ground, and who are numei> ous in Sweden. Their allowance of a dollar a day is provided by a subscription among their constituents ; and, in some cases, two or three districts must combine to furnish out one deputy. The nobles have bestirred themselves much to keep down the attempts made by this class to rise in society. They have procured regulations, according to wliich no person could sit in the house who allowed himself to be called Herr (or Mr.),or who wore acoatof fine cloth. Notwithstanding all their efforts, however, this house, and that of the burghers, are daily increasing in strength. In the division of powers, the royal prerogative is ample. The king appoints to all offices civil and military, and he is obliged to convoke the diet only once in five years, and to coa< tinue its sittings three months ; but he may make tlie meetings more frequent, and longer. He has also a negative upon the laws proposed by the diet In regard to the diet itself, the division rests wiUi a majority of the houses ; but if they be two against two, the balance is struck by the committee of state, a body composed of a certain number of members from each. No tax can be levied, or loan obtained, without the consent of the diet The storthing of Norway, restored by Bernadotte, is possessed of much higher privileges than the Swedish diet It assembles more frequently, and at its own time, without any con- trol fiom the king ; and it allows to him only a suspensive veto, obliging him to accept any project whicii has been three times presented by the storthing. These rights havmg been once granted, Bernadotte, who found them pressing somewhat hard against his prerogative, has in vain mode several attempts to abridge them. A highly republican spurit prevails in Norway, and the influence, and almost existence, of the nobles is nearly annihilated. The revenue of Sweden arises from a poll-tax ; the poduce of tlie royal demesnes, duties on exports and imports, mines and forges, distilled spirits, and some monopolies. The whole E reduce is about $5,000,000 a year, exclusive of lands assigned to soldiers and sailors, and y which these classes, in time of peace, ore chiefly supported. The niUitary force, is at present, — Sweden. Norway. Total. In&ntry 26,221 .... 9,642 - - - 35,863 Cavalry 4,580 .... 1,070 . . . 5,650 ' Artillery .... 2,400 .... 1,278 . - - 3,678 Landwehr .... 83,368 .... 10,000 . - . 93,368 The troopd are raised by conscription : they only receive pay when on actual service ; re- maining, at other times, in the provinces, where they employ themselves in cultivating lands assignol to them for their support Sect. Y,— Productive Industry. Sweden seems doomed by nature to be a poor country. Her most southern districts are beyond the limits of that zone, in which alone the finer and more valuable kinds of grain, and the richer fruits, come to maturity. Her scanty harvest consists solely of rye, bigg, and oats, scarcely accounted as food in more favoured clunates. Scandinavia is described gene- rally as one unbroken boundless forest,' varied only in its aspect by little patches of cultivated Agricultural industry till of late had not done much to remedy natural deficiencies. Ao cording to the valuable statistical details collected by Dr. Thomson, the arable land in Swe- den amounts to 1,818,450 English acres, which is only a sixty-second of the entire surface, «c, throwing out the Norrlana deserts, a thu1;y-second. Of this, 1,363,000 acres are returned as under cultivation. But the average size of a Swedish farm is only twenty-seven and a half; the annual average of grain sown on each farm does not amount to a Winchester uBshei ; and the annual pfuduce of the whole country was only 5,700,000 spanns, or about 7I4OOO quarters. Hence Sweden was obliged to import grain to a great extent ; arid such is ciw aeucity, that the peasantry oilen griml the bark or even wooa of the fir-tree into flour pakt m. Claim, was obliged rights of its ancient 9, consisting of four and vote in separate I ; the head of eack into three classes :-• ivho, though without consists of the arch- represented by depu" xixea having a vote : a seat is not eagerly t term : they consist and who ore nume^ , subscription among ne to furnish out one le attempts made by g to wliich no person , or who wore a coat of that of the burghers, appoints to all offices ive years, and to con< frequent, and longer, to the diet itself, the at two, the balance is ber of members from the diet luch hi§[her privileges iroe, without any con- ig lum to accept any je rights having been Etainst his prerogative, ican spirit prevails in ly annihilated, ■oyal demesnes, duties mopolies. The whole [diers and sailors, and niUitary force, is at Total. . 35,803 . 5,650 - 3,678 - 93,368 on actual service ; re> es in cultivating lands Isouthem districts are .luable kinds of grain, llely of rye, bigg, and |via is described gene- patches of cultivated _al deficiencies. Ac- le arable land in Swe- lof the entire surface, dd acres are returned ly twenty-seven and a Aunt to a Winchester 1,000 spanns, or about 1; extent ; and such is he fir-tree into flour Rook L SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 483 Bwediah Mode of lackuurc. H nutriment equally scanty and unwholesome. These stateir -, are given in 1812; since which time we find it mentioned that acricuUurB has mode l very rapid progress ; that im- proved processes have been introduced m>m other countries ; and that, in the most southern provinces, a great extent of moving (and before entirely barren) sand has been rendered solid, and covered with plantations and grain. The consequence has been, that in 1827, Sweden oven exported 39,000, and, in 1828, 164,000 tons of grain of every description. Every form has a tract of forest of about 1000 acres attached to it, on which cattle are fed : these are reported as only amounting to 403,000 horses, 1,475,000 cows, and 1,212,000 sheep. The most valuu* ble product of land is formed by the vast forests with which nature has covered the whole 240 country. The trees over all Scandinavia are ■ Btnall, and consist chiefly of the birch, the pine, the spruce and Scotch firs. Wooden in- closures (Jiff. 240.) of a peculiar form, ore uni- versally employed. The poplar and the willow are also indigenous. The timber of these 'trees, as well as the tar, pitch, and turpentine, drawn from them, forms the chief objects of Scandi- navian exports. Those on the hills of Nor- way are in much demand for masts. Accord- ing to M. Hegelstamm, not more than the 115th part of the surfoce of Norway is under cultivation, chiefly in oats; a space which misfht be greatly extended ; yet the annual production is stated at 2,650,000 tons. The manufecturcs of Scandinavia are inconsiderable, unless we should class their mines as such. Even in the common trades the work is lazily and ill performed, and charged at a high rate, which renders this the most expensive country in Europe for those who live luxuriously. It is a curious foct that some great merchants in the western towns send their linen to be washed in London. The mines of Sweden are peculiarly rich in important products. Its iron, found chiefly in primitive rocks, is the finest in the world, and is widely diflTuscd. In 1812, there were 176 mines; 624 smelting-houses; 764 forges; producing in all 1,293,411 cwt. of iron. The exportation, in 1821, amounted to 340,000 skippund, and in 1824 had risen to 373,000, of which 346,000 were in bars, and 28,000 in ruder forms. There are also some valuable mines in the southern provinces of Norway. A most extensive deposit of copper occurs in the province of Dalecarlia, particularly at Fahlun. Gold occurs at Adelfors, in Sweden, to no great amount ; but the silver mines of Kfingsberg, in Norway, are the richest in Europe. The metal occurs in masses, of which there was once found one weighing 600 lbs. There are also lead mines of some importance at Scola, and in other parts of Sweden. Fishery appears a pursuit peculiarly appropriate to tlie extensive coasts of Scandinavia. Yet the Swedes are not much addicted to it, probably because the Baltic during a great part of the year is frozen. Gottenburg had once a herring fishery, now nearly lost, the shoals having taken another direction. The Norwegian fishery is considerable, though bearing only a small proportion to the almost unlimited opportunities afforded by its wide seas, and its deep and commodious bays. Its cliief thentre is for to the north, off the Isles of Ijjffoden. The season lasts only for seven or eight weeks in the year, when fishermen crowd thither from all quarters. Codfish is the chief object : it is cut into pieces, and spread on the rocks to dry, whence it receives the names of stockfish and clipfish. According to Mr. Brooke, the number taken in a year was 700,000, which may be worth nearly #600,000 ; they are sent chiefly to Germany, Spain, and Italy. The roes are also salted and barrelled for exportation also the fish oil to the amount of about 30,000 barrels. The commerce of Scandinavia is greater than its unimproved agriculture and total want of manufoctures might lead us to suppose. But nature has gifled these bleak regions with an almost inexhaustible store of timber and iron, two of the prime necessaries of human life; the main implements in ship-building and in the construction of houses, machinery, and famiture. These articles are indeed also the produce of North America ; and Britain, which affords the best market, has lately sought to favour her colonies in that quarter by a great inequality of duties. Yet the superior quality of the Scandinavian commodity always secures it a sale. The entire exports of Norway are estimated by Dr. Clarke at 1,800,OOOZ. sterling ; but we believe that this is very much beyond the mark. The commerce of Sweden is not on so great a scale ; her surplus timber being not nearly so ample, though her iron is superior. She has suffered much injury firam the absurd prejudices of tne peasantry, who obtained the prohibition of colonial produce, and of almost all foreign articles of consumption ; and though these were regularly imported, and in daily use, the trade was greatly fettered by being carried on only as contniuanu. In 1828, however, commercial trei^ies were concluded on a more liberal footmg. The total number of merchant vessels belonging to the diflferent towns of Sweden, in 1820 was 1178, of the burthen of 61,000 tons. 1 Xi^WiJH' 184 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. P-v«T III. Sect. VI. — OivU and Social State, The population of Sweden, according to the latest census, inade in 1825, amounted to 2,771,252 ; of whom 20,490 were nobles ; 13,077 ecclesiastics ; 66,604 citizens ; the remain- der belonged to the class of peasants. Of tiiese, 1,332,070 were males, and 1,438,382 females; 2,489,973 resided in the country, 281,279 in the cities. This was a rise of 186,562 since 1820.* The population of Norway, by a census made m November 1826, amounted to 1,050,182; of whom 105,021 inhabited cities, 934,414 the country. This was a rise of 164,662 since 1815. The national character of the Swedes is usually painted under favourable colours. Their honesty is described as proverbial ; and Dr. Clarke considers the contrast between them and the Russian people, in this respect, as most striking. Highway robbery, though it has b::en known, is exceedingly rare ; and charity boxes, which are oi\en set up on the public roads, have never been plundered. " The nation," says Mr. James, " has its singularities : there exists something of a reciprocity between the moral and political constitution of Sweden. Rigidly ceremonious, they make tlieir stiff and measured courtesies the essentials rather tiian the forms of life ; and seem, in a sti-anger's eye, a people cold in their nature as the very snows they dwell upon. Their characteristics, a passive courage, not unmixed with indolence ; a pride not free from ignorance ; a disposition that is not ill-humoured, from hav- ing no humour at all, from indifTurence, from apathy. But a Swede is never in extremes ; even these traits are not deeply marked ; and if we review the more favourable side of his character, we shall find in him an undaunted spirit of perseverance, and an honest love of freedom, to which the feelings of every one do homage." The same writer mentions a cold-blooded obduracy, connected, perhaps, with a sanguinary turn of mind, displayed in those frequent assassinations which have stained the pages of Swedish history. The man- ners of the higher ranks, in consequence, perhaps, of political connexion^ have been studi- ously formed on the French model, which does not accord very hoppily with the somewhat rude simplicity of the Swedes, who find it easier to imitate the frivolity and dissipation of tiiat people, than their easy and careless grace. Several habits are enumerated as preva- lent even amon^ the higher classes in Scandinavia, which seem to negative its pretensions to any high pitch of refinement Among these are, spitting even on handsome caq>ets, blow- ing the nose with the fingers, and recording games on the table with chalk. The religion of Sweden is Lutheran, and the church Episcopal. This countnr, whicii stood long at tlie head of the great Protestant confederacy, is animated with an ardent zeal for the reformed religion. The Catholics, till of late, scarcely enjoyed common toleration, and they are still excluded from the diet and the higher otfices of state. The Swedish peopi, are commended for their regularity in performing the duties of their religion : at 'he same time it has been remarked that the dissenters from the established church are much fevrar than in other Protestant countries ; which has been imputed to the wont of any peculiar fervour upon the subject. The wide extent and thin population of the northern districts must oflen render the provision for their religious instruction very defective. The diocese of Tornea, in Lapland, is 750 miles in circumference ; and, what is more blameable, the small number of clergy employed are not required to understand the language of tlie natives. The income of the largest bishopric in Sweden is about #5000 a year. In science, the Swedes, considering their poverty and remote situation, have made a very distinguished figure. Gustavus Adolphus favoured the interests of literature with a degree of ardour not generally known. Of the spoils of places conquered by him, he set a particular value upon books which he transmitted to Sweden, in order to form the foundation of several large libraries. The Swedes cultivated with peculiar ardour botany and mineralogy, which some of their countrymen mainly contributed to raise to the rank of sciences. In botany, the name of Linnoeus is yet without a rival ; and Cronstadt and Bergman were in their day little inferior, though they now yield to Werner and other great names which have arisen in other countries. &rgman and Scheele made also large contributions to chemistry, which is still ably pursued by Ekeberg, Berzelius, and Afzelius. Although history and poetry have been cultivated, they have not produced any writers whose reputation has spread tiiroughout Europe. From the limited sphere of the Swedish language, few works of science are written in it, or translated into it : hence Uie literati of Sweden are particularly well versed in the languages of foreign nations. One of the subjects in which Sweden may most ju8t}y exult is, the general spread of education among the lower orders, which seems to equal or exceed that which Scotland enjoys ; and to this may probably be in a great measure ascribed Uieir generally meritorious conduct Norway is not nearly so literary a country as Sweden; Dr. Clarke even states that there is not m the whole country a single bookseller's shop. This was in a great measure owing to the jealousy of Denmark, whicii would not aiiow an university to be founded even in Christiania, which used to be a rival to that of Copenhagen. • The only Sn-cdiali colony is St. Bartbolomew in the W. Indiei, with about 9000 inhabitanti.— Ail.Ei). Rook I. SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 4»5 Yet Norway can boost of literary names ; Holberg, Pontoppidan, Vahl the botanist, Torficiis, and Snorro Sturleson, the old historians. A vein of bold and rude poetry is cultivated with peculiar ardour ; and Dr. Clarke exhibits a roll of names unknown to Europe, whose claims to diatmction appear to be somewhat justified by a specimen given to us by Mr. Wilson. Of the learned establishments of Sweden, the most eminent is the university of Upsal, the chief nurse of all the great men who have distinguished her literary records. This cele- brated seat of northern learning was founded in 1478, by Steno Sture, was enlarged by Gustavus Vosa and Gustavus Adolphus, but reached its highest eminence in the last century, when it was adorned by Linnoeus, and all the men of science who have been distinguished as reflecting gloiy on Sweden. Since that time its lustre has been somewhat diminished, though statements on this subject vary considerably. The professors have salaries of about 1500 a year ; and are left thus almost wholly dependent on their students, who live in private lodgings. They attend what and whom they please ; and their exertions are not stimulated or tried W any public examinations. The mineralogical collection is one of the most com- plete in Europe ; and the library contains 50,000 volumes. Its most precious treasure is the Codex Argenteus, a manuscript of the four Gospels, wn-itten in silver characters, and sup- ooaed to date os for back as the fourth century. The garden of Linnteus has been neglected lor a larger one lately founded, but which scarcely corresponds to the botanical fame ofUpsal. The royal library at Stockholm is still more extensive. It is particularly rich in manuscripts, in sagas, and otlier historical works, and in original drawings by the great masters. This collection is open to the public. The Swedish academy of sciences, founded in 1739, by learned private individuals, has published above 100 volumes. It is considered one of the most distinguished in Europe, and the greatest men in other countries have viewed it as an honour to 1^ enrolled among its members. In the college of mines are preserved copious specimens, drawn from a country so rich in metallic productions. The cabinet of models, presenting the various mechanical contrivances employed through the different parts of Swe- den, is also considered very interesting. The fine arts in Sweden have been cultivated amidst considerable difficulties. The opera is conducted with splendour and taste ; Lergell, as a sculptor, has been ranked second to Canova, and even called the Michael Angelo of the North. Breda in portrait, and Fulerantz in landscape, enjoy reputation. The habitations of Scandinavia are very simple and uniform. " Having," says Dr. Clarke, "once figured to the imagination a number of low red houses, of a single stoir, and each covered with turf and weeds, a picture is presented of the oppidan scenery of Sweden." The houses, however, are well finished within, and elegantly furnished ; and by means of stoves, double windows, and close doors, they are kept comfortably warm, even during the most rigorous winter. Swedes have even complained tliat they suflfered much more &ova cold in London than in their native city. The dress is described by Dr. Clarke as equally uniform with the habitations. " A skull- cap, fitting close to the crown, edged with a little stiff lace, the hair being drawn as tight and straight as possible beneath the cap from all parts of the head, as if to start from the roots; add to this, a handkerchief thrown over the cap when they go out; a jacket; short petticoat ; stockings of coloured or white woollen ; and high-heeled shoes :" this is the „ . . . .^ general costume of the Swedish women. Mr. Wilson thus ■Hi- -v.i*« .*», describes the dress of the representatives of that class of peasants : — " White worsted stockings, half-boots extend- ing above the calf of the leg, yellow leather small-clothes with knee-buckles, a short brown coat and waistcoat, and a plain handkerchief tied round their necks." The an- nexed cut (fff. 241.) may give an idea of the attire and aspect of the Norwegian peasantry. In winter these gar- ments must be reinforced to the utmost ability of the wearer, as a fence against the excess of the cold. The peasantry wear a sheepskin cloak, with the wool towards the body, and close fur caps. Dr. Clarke mentions as a travelling dress, thick yarn stockings covered by stout lea- ther boots, and over these again toots made of the hides of rein-deer, with the hair on the outside, and doubly lined . with sheepskin covered with black wool. The people wear, Norwegmn peaianti. besides, fur caps on the head, bearskin pelisses over the body, besides several flannel waistcoats, and on the hands, gloves of sheepskin covered by double gloves of fur and wool. Yet these accumulated guards are insufficient to prevent the feeling of the most intense cold, which, in those not duly fenced against it, sometimes produces d«ath, and firequently a frost-bitten limb. 41* inhabitantL-AM. Eo. Km DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pabt hi ' ' Sect. VII. — Local Oeography. This section naturally dividoa itsolf into tlireo Bubonlinate parta : — 1. Sweden ; 2. iVorvay and 9. Lapland ; which, though accountod partly Swodiah and partly Norwegian, haa a dis- tinct character of its own. . ^ SuBSECT. 1. — Sweden. Sweden is formed into throe great divisions : Svealand, or Sweden Proper ; Gotaland, or Gotliland ; and Nordland, or Norrland. In the following statistical tabhi, the extent and arable produce are from materials collected in 1812, since which time cultivation hns been ffreatly extended ; but the population is IVom the census of 1826. NorrlHitten Vi'iiturbottaii ■■•■ Vaatcr Norrland . Jniutland Swtitn. Stockholm Upaala Veituros Nykopiiig Orohro Cirlitadt Stnrn Kapparberg Ocfleborg aothlatid. LinkApiiig Calinar Jonkiipinit Kronnncrg Blekingo Skaraborg Elhborg Gottenborg IJnIiuitadt Chrlatiaiiitadt . ■ . Malmnhui Gothland Stockholm city. . . Total. . Arabia Qmund, 'ruimlaiiiU. B,oeo 10,530 83,780 IO,rjO S3,U0 71,410 M,nU4 55,315 5'l,0U 40,933 84,473 .M,547 Ufi,307 473,!I10 104,061 no,i>.>i 63,0M 37,«lt5 31,715 143,ltl3 73,eoa 43,458 43,083 8»,344 SS3,«00 30,064 928,734 1,451,700 Btlni 10 Iht whiile u \ 8,151 1,4U5 330 017 015 S3 13 37 »! 30 43 ISO 140 45 31 34 40 48 27 13 37 33 S3 13 4 SO 20 NumUr of I'una. 539 0U4 1,5U3 1)45 3,794 4,050 3,548 3,853 3,370 8,774 1.708 1,708 2,080 S3,000 5,458 3,347 3,005 3,837 1,08U 4,804 4,900 3,783 8,023 3.003 4,033 1,098 39,487 65,309 Oiwniltv* 81,834 83,870 30,819 90,381 103,787 58,049 48,657 49,003 S«,7»l 61,730 63,599 79.313 50,034 490,809 04,194 8:1,404 70,115 56,010 31,533 80,910 103,715 66,400 47,485 70,331 05,037 17,500 840,363 1,443,858 OnUn pmducf d in AnaniM. (l«lk UuM.) 37,570 56,676 103,500 48,348 845,000 316,067 985,356 911,100 935,006 108,979 377,514 940,781 153,996 9,009,017 360,044 930,£06 933,346 175,380 139,143 435,864 334,388 915,757 107,190 306,087 548,334 83,583 3,304,184 5,703335 fttmUUa*. 40,034 44,911 30,133 195,804 103,005 ei,8B7 88,618 106,71)3 109,954 103,373 130,388 06,736 870,153 183,380 160,790 130,906 103,709 85,314 150,614 187,031 146,001 85,657 145,380 193,190 38,151 1,635,0,13 70.473 8,771,358 Sweden Proper occupies the centre of the kingdom, and includes the capital, and the great mining districts. It consists of an immense plain, covered by almost boundless forests, intermixed with patches of cultivation ; only a few hills of moderate height breaking its vast uniformity. Three great lakes, like inland seas, the Wener, the Wetter, and the Malar, form almost a continuous chain across its centre. Besides these, there is an immense num< ber of smaller lakes, especially towards the north, communicating hy river channels with the greater. These lakes do not display the grandeur which belongs to those of Switzer- land ; but their wide and winding shores, broken with rocks, and fringed with a profusion of wood, present many romantic scenes. The division into provinces, of Sweden Proper, as well as of Gothland, as given in the preceding table, was mod^ recently by government, and is the only one upon wnich statist!- cal details have been collected. But there is another and earlier division, which remains still fixed in the Swedish mind; and corresponds, in fact, both to the aspect of nature and to the peculiarities in the people. These are Sudermanland, the province which contains the capital, and is situated on the south side of the lake Malar ; Upland, a high territory on the northern side of that lake ; Westmanland, to the west of Upland ; Nerike, a beautiful little region, completely enclosed between the three great lakes ; W^armeland, to the north of the Vvener, covered with a multitude of little lakes ; and, lastly, Dolecarlia, called also Dalarne, or the Plains, a province which, of all others, presents the most striking and peculiar fea- tures. It is, above all, distinguished by the energetic character of its peasantry, whose exertions at one time reared the fallen monarchy, ai^ who continue to form its uiost power* fui uf ftmce. They still hold as a maxim, that one Dalecarlian is equal to two of any other Swedes. Their diet is poor in the extreme, consisting in a great measure of bnrk-bread . yet their health and vigour do not suffer ; and a number of them, who were quartered as troous at Stockiiolm, were affected with fbvers in consequence of the repletion caused bj Past in 8»eden ; S. iVorway Norwegian, has a dis< Book I. SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 4»7 Proper; Gotalond, or ab]i}, the extent and cultivation hns been Onln pnductd in AranM. fmUUHL (I'MUl iHUlWl.) 37,570 40,094 Kjm 44,«11 io3,ioe nm 48,348 30,139 iMS,«)e 18S,8»4 3]e,oe7 103,Of>S 98j,aw 8I,8B7 811,100 88,618 995,008 100,7ft) 108,979 100,951 377,514 10.1,379 940,781 190,388 ]S3,9Ue 06,736 8,000,017 870,153 360,044 188,980 930,£06 100,730 933,346 1S»,906 175,980 i09,n& 139,143 85,314 495,804 150,614 334,389 187,031 915,757 146,601 107,190 85,657 300,087 145.380 548,334 102,ll» 83,593 38,151 3,904,184 1,635,6.-H 79,473 5,709339 8,T71,9S» the capita], and the ost boundless forests, height breaking its etter, and the Malar, is an immense num< river channels with to those of Switzer- with a proiiiaioD of nd, as ffiven in the upon wnich statisti- ion, which remains ect of nature and to which contains the igh territory on the :e, a beautiful little to the north of the ailed also Dalarne, and peculiar fea- peasantry, whose m its uiusi power- two of any other ure of bark-bread . were quartered ai !pletion caused b; Btookholm eating whoaton bread. The memory of the groat Gustavus Vasa, the founder of the Swe- dish monarchy, is cherished in this province with the utmost warmth; and mai y memoriala of him arc preserved in different places. Stockholm (Jig. i242.), witii which we shall commence our details, is finely situated, at tho junction of the extensive and beau- tifhl lake of Malar, or MUer, with the sea. It stands partly on some small islands, and two peninsulas, presenting a view as beautiflil and diversifled as imagination can con- ceive. Innumerahle craggy rocks rise flrom the water, partly covered with houses, and partly planted with wood ; while vessels of all fbrms and doscriptions arc seen passing to ond fro. Wmte edifices, consisting of public and private pnlnccs, churches, and other buildings, rising t'rom an expanse of waters, produce an effect of incompnrable grandeur. When tho lake and sea are fivzen, thev are covered with sledges of all kinds, and exhibit one of the gayest scenes imaginable. If external appear- ance were alone to bo relied on, Stockholm might be deemed the most magnificent city in the world. This impression is not sustained by any beauty Or convenience in the interior. Except the grout square of Norden Malm, tiio streets, though of very considerable length, are neither broad nor handsome. There is no foot pavement ; the houses are lofly, all white- washed, and tho shops are extremely poor. The different fhmilies reside in separate floors or stories, one above another, the ground-floors being usually occupied as shops. The royal poluco, however, begun by Charles XI., and finished by Gustavus III., may vie with any structure of tlio kind in Europe. It is in tho Grecian style, quadrangular, four stories high, built of brick only, but faced witli stone-coloured cement. Its situation, facing the quay, and commanding a view of all parts of the city, adds greatly to its beauty. It contains some fine specimens of sculpture and painting, curiosities connected with Swedish history, and a range of small apartments embclliahod by Gustavus III. in a fanciful manner. This Silacc, with the finest buildings of the city, stands on one of the islands. The kings of wodcn have in the country other palaces : that of Drottningholm is a handsome stuccoed building, roofed with copper, and having side wings; but the gardens are barbarously laid out in tiie old fashion, with trees and hedges clipped into fanciful shapes. NykOping is tho only tract of Sweden Proper which is south of the lakes. The town of that name, though small, has an air of magnificence. The houses are of wood painted yellow. The provincesof Westeros, Orebro, and Corlstadt, along the north side of tlie lakes, reach across the kingdom. Enkdping, on a branch of the Malar, is the first town which occurs westward fhim Stockholm, but it js not of great consequence. Westeras, on the same lake, has more commercial importance, as a link between the capital and the northern and western provinces. There is oniy one principal street, about two miles in length ; Uie houses are only of one story, and often roofed with turf. It is the see of the richest bishopric in Swe- den. The cathedral is a simple edifice ; but one of the most elegant in Sweden, adorned with a very elegant porphyry monument erected to Eric FV., who died by poison in 1577. Next comes Kftping, small and poor ; but celebrated as having been the residence of Scheele. It lies at the extreme interior pioint of the Malar. Quitting that lake, and proceeding south- west, we come to Arboira, a beautifiil little town on a river which falls into that lake, and near a canal which connects it with the lake Hjelmar. A steam-packet, established by an Englishman, now enables it to communicate with the capital. Nearly due west is Orebro, a more considerable town, and the occasional place of meeting for the Swedish diet. It is reckoned the fiflh town in Sweden, containing about 4000 people, and the streets are broad and spacious, though the houses, as elsewhere in Sweden, are low, and of painted wood. The stodthub, or governor's residence, which includes also the prison, is a huge shapeless edifice. The church, which forms also the place of meeting for tne diet, is an ancient struc- ture, originally Gothic, and built of stone, but patched with brick, and in various styled. Proceeding westward, we enter Carlstadt, or, as anciently called, Warmeland, a region entirely of mines, forests, and lakeletSL and bounded on the south by the extended shores of the Wener lake. Carlstadt is situated near tho point where this lake receives the Clara, a considerable river, which traverses these wooded regions, and down which immense quanti- ties of timber are floated ; advantage for this purpose being taken of the floods to which i is occasionally subject. One company from Gottenburg has saw-mills, at which are annually cut upwards of K),000 planks. Carlstadt is a place of from 2000 to 8000 people, presenting the ordinary aspect of Swedish towns. It collects the vast produce of the mines ana forests of Warmeland, and transmits them across the Wener to Wenersberg, whence they find their way to Gottenburg. Considerably in the interior is Philinstadt, in thp very heart of the iron mines, by which it is supported. 48B DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part ia Pcnberc Mine. The moflt remarkable are those of Persberff {Jig. S43.)t a few miles to the eaflt> ward. They are thirteen in number, dug into a mountain entirely composed of veins and beds of iron ore. Dr. Clarke, ailer having, in the couise of ten years' travei, inspected many of the principal works of tb's kind in diflerent countries, declares, that he had never beheld any thing equal to this for crandeur of eflect, and for the tremen* douBly striking circumstances under which human labour is hero perfurmcd. In the wide and open abyss suddenly appeared a vast prospect of yawning caverns and prodi gious machinery. Immense buckets, sus- pended by rattlmg chains, were passing up and down ; ladders were scaling all the in- ward precipices; upon which the work- people, reduced by their distance to pigmies, were ascending and descending. The clank- ing of chains, the groaning of the pumps, the hallooing of the miners, the creaking of the bloclu and wheels, the trampling of horses, the beating of the hammers, and the loud and frequent subterraneous thunder from the blasting of the rocks by gunpowder, in the midst of all this scone of excavation and vapour, produced an effect that no stranger could witness unmoved. Dalecarlia, or Dalarne, extends to the north-east of Warmeland. It is covered with an extraordinary proRision of mosses and fungi, so that it is termed by Dr. Clarke the supreme court of the cryptogamia. We have already remarked the peculiar character of the people, who preserve entire the dress, habits, and the daring energy of the ancient Swedes. The most important branch of productive industry consists in the mines, particularly the great copper mine at Fahlun (Jig. 244.). It is immediately adjoining to the town, and consists of an enormous conical mass with the top downwards. The bottom of the cone, be- ing the top of the mine, was the first worked; and the galleries being made through it without due precaution, the whole fell in, producing on immense open crater which still remams. Regular stair- cases of easy descent traverse this im- mense crater or basin, from its outer lip to the lowermost point, whence arise vast volumes of smoke and vapour, giving it the appearance, on a greater scale, of the Neapolitan Solfatra. It is divided into no less than 1200 shares or sections, among which tlie ore is divided immediately on being brought up, and it is then smelted on a small scale by the different indivi- duals. The ore is not rich. In 1600, this mine is said to have yielded 8,000,000 pounds of copper ; in 1650, 5,500,000 ; but at present only 1,120,000 pounds. The workmen have now reached the bottom, or the sur- face of the cone, and are still working through the ground, in the fond hope of coming to the top of another cone, reaching downwards. Unless mis chimera should be realised, the mine, it is said, will, in a few years, cease to be productive. Fahlun is a regularly built but old- foshioned and dirty town, subsisting solely by the mine. It has two churches, one covered with copper, but this has not a handsome appearance, the colour of that metal being converted into a whitish green soon afler exposure to the weather. Near Fahlun is the house where Gastavus Vasa lay concealed, the proprietor of which has studied to preserve in its pristine state this asylum of the Swedish kmg. His chamber, bed, and clothes are still shown; hia shirt of worsted mail fitted similar to those made by the Circassians, and his other weapons. Sala, which is properly in Westmanland, may be mentioned here as another mining town on a smaller scale, neat, regular, but ill-paved. The only important mine is one of galena, which yields 2000 marks of silver, and 32,000 pounds weight of lead. There is also u cop* Fablun Mine. Part III miles to the east- een in number, dug ly compoeed of veins Dr. Clarke, oflcr of ten years' travel, I principal works of untriea, declares, that ly thing equal to thia and for the tremen* stances under which perfurmed. In the suddenly appeared a ng caverns and prodi mense buckets, bus< lins, were passing up re scaling all the in- n which the work- r distance to pigmies, sending. The clank- aning of the pumps, niners, the creaking els, the trampling of :he hammers, and the bterraneous thunder I rocks by gunpowder, ffect that no stranger t is covered with an . Clarke the supreme iracter of the people, icient Swedes. The urticularly the great town, and consists of mass witli the top ttom of the cone, be- mine, was the first nlleries being made due precaution, the ng an immense open lams. Regular stair- traverse this im- n, from its outer lip it, whence arise vast id vapour, giving it greater scale, of the It is divided into no or sections, among ided immediately on it is then smelted the different indivl- rich. In 1600, this yielded 8,000,000 .650, 5,500,000; but 3 bottom, or the sur- jpe of coming to the 3 realised, the mine, ularly built but old- urches, one covered ital being converted is the house where iserve in its pristine ire still shown ; his his other weapons, iother mining town le is one of galena, There is also u cop- DooK L BWEDEN AND NORWAY. 4(0 Upiala. per mine, which produces little ; aud one of iron, which is not considered worth the expense of working. Upland, coinciding nearly with the modem Upsala, is an interesting province, exSendinff firom a part of the lake to the river Dal. It is flat, but diversified with numerous little round knolls, which, with the small lakes and the numerous fine forests, render it picturesque. It contains Upsala, the seat of the great northern university, and Danemora, the most valuable of the iron mines. Upsala, or Upsal 0^^. 245.), is the place in Sweden most venerable for its antiquity. It was long the residence of the kings, 245 and has always been the chief seat of religion and learning. Even in pagan times it was the residence of the highpriest of Odin ; and in 1026, Everinus, a bishop from England, was placed there, for the purpora or converting the natives to Christiani- ty. The cathedral is the largest and finest ecclesiastical monument in Sweden, a country not eminent for such structures. The exterior is in- deed only of brick, and there is an injudicious mixture of the Gothic with the Doric towers. But the in- terior is very striking, adorned with a double row of fourteen fluted columns, a magnificent altar, and above all by many monuments of the kings and heroes of Sweden. Particular notice is attracted by that of Gustavus Vasa, and the three Sturcs, successively regents of the kingdom, who, in that station, earned the title of fathers of their coimtry. Tho shirt dl mail of Margaret, the Semiramis of the North, is also kept as a warlike relic. Upsala con- tains also a palace founded by Gustavus Vasa, now half burnt down. It is at present sup- ported solely by the university, of which an accotmt has already been given. It is destitute of all trade or industry. It is therefore small, but very regular and neat, having a large square in the centre, where all the streets converge. The mine of Danemora ia situated near the small town of Osterby. Swedish iron is the best in the world, and the iron of Danemora is the best in Sweden. Dr. Thomson was told at Shefiicld, that cast steel could not be made with any other. Danemora was first wrought as a silver mine, but this was soon exhausted. The iron chen began to be wrought, and soon established the high character it now holds. The great opening is fifty fathoms deep, and the mine has been wrought thirty fathoms lower down. The ore is blasted with gunpowder. At short intervals are heard tremendous explosions, like the discharge of the heaviest artil- lery, which are echoed tlirough the caverns, and shake the earth like a volcano, while volumes of smoke burst forth after each crash. From the mouth of the cavern enormous masses of iron are raised up by machinery. The mine belongs to a number of private indi- viduals, who have erected a steam-engine at an expense of 36,000 rix-doUars. The produce is estimated at 4000 tons. There are twenty-seven other mines in the province of Upsala. Gothland, or Gotaland, the southern division of the kingdom, forms a large peninsula, with a wide circuit of shores. It enjoys a considerably milder climate, and is the only part of the kingdom where wheat is raised in any considerable quantity. It is here also that the recent improvements in agriculture have been chiefly observable. There is thus more land in cul- tivation, and trees will not grow in the immediate vicinity of the coasts; so that Gothland is not so thoroughly covered with wood, as the provinces to the north of the lakes. If we except Uie capital, this division contains almost all the sea-ports and naval arsenals ; and consequently engrosses nearly all the foreign commerce of the kingdom. The modem and official divisions of Gothland have been exhibited in the statistical table. The ancient divisions are into Elastem and Westem Gothland, divided from each other by the long line of the lake Wetter ; Smaland, an extensive but barren tract, to the south of that lake ; and Scania, or Schdnen, the southern peninsular extremity of Sweden, a better peopled, and better cultivated district than any other in the kmgdom. Eastern Gothland comprises chiefly the modem provinces of NykSping and Link5ping. The town of Nykdping is agreeably situated at the extremity of a small oay of tho Baltic, and though small has an air of magnificence ; but it carries on little or no trade. It is now much outstripped by Norkfiping, the largest of all the kdpinga (i. e. markets), and the fourth town in Sweden. Norkdping lies upon the large river Motala, which communicates between the lake Wetter and the Baltic, and which is here broken into numerous rocky channels. The chief branch of induBtry consists ir the manufecture of broadcloth, which is produced so fine as to sell at twenty-seven shillings per ell, of one yard and three quarters broad. The breed of sheep in the neighbourhood has been considerably improved by the introduction of merinos. The town is regularly built, of neat wooden houses. Linkdping is another pro* Vol. I. 3 M 400 DESCRIPTIVE QEOQRaWIY. PabtIH vincial capital, handsomer in its aspect, thougfh much smaller, than NorkOpingf. The catitedral, rebuilt four hundred years ago, is one of the tinost ecclesiastical structures in the kingdom, and near it is a very handsoino theatre. The district of Smaland has for its chief town JonkOpinff, situated at the extremity of the Wetter, and commanding grand and beautiful views over that immense lake, which has here a wide border of low but nnely wooded rocks. The town has been entirely rebuilt since 1700, when it was burnt to the ground. Though built chiefly of wood, like other Swedish towns, it contains many good and commodious nouses, the residence of wealthy inhabitants, who have been attracted by the amenity of the site. A high court of appeal for this part of Sweden is established here. About ton miles distant is Tuberg, a long round-backed hi.1, composed wholly of one unbroken mass of flne magnetic ironstone. It presents such a colossal mass as in Hauamann's opinion must continue to afford a source of riches to the remotest posteritjr. The upper bed, 370 feet thick, has been wrought for 250 years. It is merely blasted with gunpowder, when the fragments fall to the bottom, and are conveyed to neighbouring furnaces. The ore is not very rich, the proportion of pure iron varying from 21 to 32 per cent. ; but it is very tractable, and iVco from any hurtful ingredients. The iiiil, though only 400 feet high, commands an almost boundless view over the vast wooded flats of Smaland. This district contains also a considerable quantity of bog iron ore of inferior quality, and some copper mines. The sea-coast of Smaland, consisting of the modem provinces of Calmar and Bleking, la of . naked and unpromising a8pcc^ but contains some havens of importance. Calmar is noteu in Swedish history os a strong fortress, and still more because in one of the opartmLnts of its castle was signed the celebrated treaty which united the three crowns of the north on the head of Margaret. Carlscrona is tiie chief naval orscnal and one of the largest towns in Sweden. It is built on three small islands connected with each other and with the coast by long wooden bridges, while other islands serve for the erection of works for the defence of the harbour. These are square batteries of stone, well mounted with ordnance, which appear formidable enough, though probably not capable of coping with a ship of the line. Separate establishments exist for the large vessels, and for the flotilla; but one of the most remarkable features consists of tiie covered docks, partly excavated out of the vast masses of solid rock, The want of tides in the Raltic is supplied by sluices, which open into the port, and are emptied again at pleasure. Carlshamn is a smaller town, romantically situated, like a cluster of nests, on the tops of cHAb, During war it enjoyed a considerable proportion of the neutral trade, which it has since lost. Christianstadt is a fortress of considerable celebrity, the cap- ture of which formed the first military achievement of Gustavus Adolphus. Some fragments of the fortifications remain, and the approach to them is defended by an extensive swamp which surrounds the place. Scania begins here, a flat and fertile peninsula, forming the most southern part of Sweden, There are numerous German residents in Scania, supposed to have sought refuge there during the Protestant persecution in Germany ; and some Scotch fkrmers have also sought to introduce an improved system of agriculture. In the centre of Scania is Lund, the seat of the second university in Sweden, containing 30,000 volumes, a good observatory and botanical garden, anu a noble cathedral in the Norman style of architecture, Malmo, formerly one of the Hanseatic towns, is the chief seat of trade, Helsenving and Ystadt, neat little ports, are the chief places of embarkation for Denmark and Germany. All these to^\•ns command magnificent views of the Sound, enlivened by the crowds of shipping that are continually passing. Having turned the southern point of Sweden, we come to the coast of West Gothland, situated on that great gulf of the German Ocean called the Cattegal. Being the part of the kingdom nearest to the great states of Europe, it carries on a principal part of the commerce of Sweden. Laholm and Halmstadt are ports of some consideration, in the gloomy and heathy province of Hollaid, but almost the whole of the western commarce of Swedan centres at Gottenburg. Gottenburg is built in the interior of a bay set round with rugged and naked rocks, and the whole country round is sterile and desolate. It is supported by its situation at tiie mouth of the Gotha, the broadest and most navigable of the rivers of Sweden, which by means of the cfinal of Trdlhiitta affords a fiill communication with the great interior lake of Wener, and the opportunity of bringing down those immense stores of wood and iron produced around its shores. The prosperity of Gottenburg was also greatly promoted by the French anti- commercial system, under which this port remained one of the few channels by which British goods could force their way into the Continent. It is a very handsome city, built entirely of stone, the use of wood having been prohibited since the last great conflagration, the second which had occurred in the course of ten years. A magnificent church, lately built, is con- structed, in a great measure, of stone imported fiwm Si'-otlnnd, The principal street, which js long and wide, has a canal running through it ; the others strike off^ fivm it at right angles. The principal merchants are Scotch, who live in a style of great magnificence. West Gothland presents still some other spiking features. Among these rank foremost PartIIL han NorkOpinif. The tstical BtnicturcB in the at the cxtromity of the 80 lake, which has here I entirely rebuilt since lod, like other Swedish of wealthy inhabitants, f appeal for this port of ong round-backed hk.1, e. It presents such a source of riches to the lit for 250 years. It is xn, and are conveyed to pure iron varying from inpredients. Tlie hill, r the vast wooded flata og iron ore of inferior Palmar and Bleking, is mportonce. Calmar is 1 one of the apartments crowns of tlie north on of the largest towns in r and with the coast by rks for the defence of ordnance, which appear ) of the line. Separate ! of the most remarkable ist masses of solid rock. 1 into the port, and are y situated, like a cluster Toportion of the neutral •able celebrity, the cap- phus. Some fragments by an extensive swamp luthem part of Sweden, sought refuge thero ers have also sought to is Lund, the seat oi' servatory and botanical ilalmo, formerly one of , neat little ports, are lose towns command that are continually ast of West Gothland, Being the part of the part of the commerce jn, in the gloomy and jrce of Swedan centres and naked rocks, and situation at the mouth in, which by means of erior lake of Wener, iron produced around by the French anti- mels by which British city, built entirely of Hagration, the second h, lately built, is con- rincipa! street, which 5 off from it at right eat magnificence. these rank foremost Book I. SWEDEN AND NORWAY, «; Uio cataracta and canal of TroMtto. Above the former the river is a mile broad ; but being contined between two lofly rocks, it pours down its waters with prodigious force. The de- scent, however, is only a hundred feet in ttio course of two niilos, making thus a rapid rather than a fall ; the water rushing along with inconceivable rapidity, boiling up, and covered with foam. The noise is prodigious, and clouds of vapour are thrown up. These cataracts opposed a complete obstruction to the navigation of the Qotha, which the kings of Sweden expended iminoiiao sums in endeavouring to overcome ; but Uieir works were too imperfect to resist the impetuosity of the current At length, in 1708, the enterprise was taken up by a company of private merchants, who in seven years brought it to a happy completion. The canal is twoiity-fbur feet wide, and eight feet deep. It extends only two miles ; but being cut through a granite rock, sometimes to the depth of one hundred and filly feet, it proved a work of very great labour. Wenerborg, at the junction of the Gotha with the Woner, is the channel by which the products of the interior are brought down the river ; yet it does not derive from this trade much prosperity or importance. Uddevalla and Stron- atadt, are small sea-ports, with some trade and fishery, but thev have suffered since the herrings deserted the coast Bkara and Fahlkoping are places of some consequence in the interior of West Gothland. Norrland forms a third division, which, if considered as including Lapland (and it is so considered politically), would be much more extensive than all the rest of the kingdom put together. It is, however, our intention to reserve for a particular section Uie vast and peculiar region known under the name of Lapland. Norrland, in a restricted sense, com- JriHos the four provinces named in tlie table, but is better known under tlie divisions of anitland, Angermanland, Medelpad, and Hclsingland. Jamtland, where it borders on Norway, includes some of the highest mountains, several of them rising to 6000 or 7000 feet. The rest of Norrland is flat, and the climate moist and variable, Tike that of Jamt- land, but colder. Wheat scarcely ripens beyond Sundswall ; near to the northern border, barlev and rye ripen witli difficulty. Almost the only fruits are cherries and gooseberries. The land under cultivation did not in 1812, exceed 52,000 acres, which is, in proportion to tlie whole, only as 1 to 915. Yet the people are industrious ; and Von Buch observed a greater air of prosperity here than in the rest of the kingdom. The woods which cover almost the whole country, are infested by numerous herds ofwolves. Of the entire population, amounting to 159,1(M), only 6318 live in the towns, which of course must bo very unimportant Sunds- wall and Ilemosand are, however, sea-ports of some little consequence, oa is Umea; but this last properly belongs to Lapland. SuBSECT. 2. — Norway. This extensive portion of the Swedish monarchy, recently, by compulsion, but in all like- lihood permanently, united, comprises a very long line of maritime territory, facing the boundless expanse of the Northern Ocean. Throughout its whole length, in an oblique line parallel to the sea, runs the chain of the Dofrines, presenting many bold and lofly summits covered with perpetual snow. Sneehatta, the highest, is 8100 feet These moun- tains throw out numerous chains, sloping downwards to the sea, which form romantic valleys and deep and winding bays. Norway produces some corn, not nearlv sufficient however, for its own consumption ; but exports large quantities of timber and fish, receiving, in return, ' those commodities of which it stands most in need. Tiie southern Norwegian provinces of Aggerhuus, Christiania, and Christiansund, include a considerably greater proportion of level territory than the other?. They have the great range of mountains to the north and west, and are not separated from Sweden by these natural barriers. Through these provmcea flow southward into the bay of Christiania the Drammen and Uie Glommen, Uie two greatest rivers of the North, and bring with them an immense quantity of timber, which 246 is cut into deals, and exported to all parts of Europe. The export of iron 13 also considerable. • Christiania, (Jig. 246.), capital of all this district witli a population of 20,581, now ranks as the capital of the whole kingdom. It is situated at the head of a long interior bay or fiord, and enijoys a situation which Von Buch considers as altogether wonderful. The bay, its islands, the crowds of sails spread among them, with the view of majestic hilla rismg over hills in the distance, appeared to him equalled only on the lake of Geneva, which, however, has not the vessels and islanda Christiania is chiefly supported by the trade in deals ; and those cut in its saw-mills are considered, by the traders in this article, to be UbritUuia. «n DESCRll'llVr GEOGRAPHY. I'aut III. ■upetior to all others. Scmu merchanta, pu'lmlffrly tiie Ankera, nwinUiii thn Mtato of princes, ami tn aiidorod < '< and liberie vie w4 to any in Europe. Clirir tiania comoa mon into -• "tact i. ,. m ith the morr oon witn Sweden, it hnn rpceived an university, with iwu profcHon, who have moderate les, cliiefly derived from ({ruin. There aro other hav. aa of soniu importance in this , ithem tract of Norway. On the western coast of Christinnin fiord, the two, Bragenes and .Stromaoe, unite in fbrmmg what Li called Drammen, at the ut!t of the n/iportant river of that nani' Tonsborg, at the bottom of the same side, is a town ome ancient celebrity, but now a good deal decayed. On the eastern side of the same bay i.^ Moss, watered by a stream, turningtwenty saw-milli, by which an immense quantity of deabi are prepared for exportation. Fredericiuhall, an ancient and still important fi-ontior town, is beautit\illy situated in an interior bay, winding among mountains. Near it is the strong fortress of Frcderickstadt, the scene of the death of Charles XII. The pass of the Swinsund C/^. 247.), on the imnicdiato firontier, presents one of the most romantic and picturesque scenes in Scandinavia. Christiansund, the most southern province of Norway, haja a capital of the same name, the fourth town in the kingdom, which, fVom its situation on the Skagerrack, is visited for shelter and supplies by nume« rous vessels entering and leaving the Baltic. The interior firom Christiania, Bwiniund F.rry. though it includes Hedeinarkon, and other largo pastoral valleys, and though its communications are Ikcilitatcd )n the large lake of Mioeen, does not contain a single town. That of Hammer atteste its former magnificence, by the remains of a palace, and of several churches now restored. The whole of this terri- tcry is hemmed in on tlie west and north by the gigantic ranges of the Doverfield and Fillefield, which separate it from Drontiioim and Bergen. The province of Bergen is rude, rocky, and mountainous, consisting of ihe slope down- wards to the sf". ii the highest part of the DofViiio range. The town of Bergen, (/^' . 248.), at the head of a long interior bay, was formerly ac> counted the capital, and contains a population of 18,511. Its commerce, which is considerable, is founded on the exportation, less of the produce of the country behind it, than of the northern fishery at Daffoden, of which the produce is brought to Bergen by J, II r. . numerous barks, its merchants hod long the monopoly of this, and still retain much the greatest share. They are chiefly Dutch, and send a vessel weekly to Amsterdam for a supply of the garden stuflTs which their own soil does not yield. Bergcu is built of largo masses of wooden houses, amid rocks, and has sufiered st , rely by fire. ,, The province of Drontheim, to the north of Bergen and Christiania, and separated from them by vast mountains, cor- !(Mli<: I ' J^ responds in latitude with the Swedish Jamtland. The capital (Jig. 249.), of the same name, is situated on the shore of & winding fiord, but subsists less by foreign commerce than by the internal c ttollv of wood, and has in cofis<;i]uoncj h»oii seven times burnt to the ground; yet thohouM'- ore nandouin ind ornament r<] with taste. There is a spacious palace, built wholly of thn laterial, and partaking its im^xirfoction. Drontheim also contauis the remains of a cathedral, the largest edifice in the country, and to which the whole population of the North came oncn in pil> grimage. Tho environs are very beautiAil, with numerous country-seats, and lofty sm v- crowned hills in tho distance. Chriatianstmd is also a small sea-port and fishing town in this province. Beyond Drontheim commences Norrland, a district rather than a province, the name being vaguely applied to all tho north o** Hci> "linuvia. Relatively to Norway, it is marked by an increasing mtonsity of cold ; *]w .< j lU. r j, even at 3000 feet high, being capped with perpetual snow, and vast table-pie ..i> >i. Idi maining covered with it during the whole summer. Grain, even of tho c'< .^oh^ (» its, ripens only in a fow fkvoured spots. The ipruco fir gradually disappia'. J, and shelter i.' necessary to allow the Scotch nr and thp tnrch to spring up. The Aimt' h or, is somewhat milder than that of regions under the same latitude on th *(. Hie; so Uii ii, while the ports of Stockholm and Carlscrona are ihut during seveiil m- iii >f the year, those of Norrland remain continuaily open. Yet in this dreary regic.i j. \..i, a busy scone of human action ani' existence. TIio numerous islands, and tho deep bays between *hem and the land, ofibrd spots to which shoals of fish come from the tarthest depths nf the North Sea to deposit their spawn. During the whole year, the hnrring affords a regular occupation to the Norrland boatman ; but frran February to April, tJK! shnils, migrating fVom thenco, and from all the surroundinff coasts, crowd to the LofTodon Islands, the central seat of the northern fishery. These islands form a chain narallel to the land, and separated by narrow channels through which the tides of the Northern Ocean rush with tremendous rapidity. The sea flows asm the most rapid rivers, and the name of stream is employed : — Malstrdm, the famous whirlpool, GrinutrAm, SundstrAm, which, when the tide is high, produce the cflTect of a mighty cataract Waves are seen itrugglinff against waves, towering aloft, or wheeling about in whirlpools; the dashinff and roaring of which are heard many miles out at sea. The produce of the fishery, which has been rendered much more abundant by the introduction of large nets instead of hooks, i'' conveyed to Bergen in a great number of little barks. The Danish government endeavoure*"* to form at Stromsoe a commercial dep6t for the produce of Norrland ; but in this bleak situa tiin it has not flourished. The Russianb come with numerous vessels ftom Archange, bringing meal and provisions, which they give in exchange for the fish caught SuMBOT. 3. — Lapland. The vast region of Lapland is divided from the rest of Scandinavia by a line drown acros» it nearly coinciding with the Polar Circle, so as to render it almost entirely an arctic region. It consists partly of great chains of mount*'"" "ome of which are 4000 feet high, while other extensive tracts are level. Througt wmsae roll the Tornea, the Lulea, the Pitea, and other rivers of long course, and navigable for the few boats which have any occasion to pass along them. The Laplanders are a peculiar race, short stout, brov'-n, with black hair, pointed chin, and eyes render*, d weak by exposure to the smoke and snow. They are divided into the mountain or wandering l^planders, and those who dwell in what are ccdled villages ; but Kautokeino, which forms a sort of Lapland capital, when visited by Acerbi, was found to contain not more than four families and a priest The swift-footed rein-deer, which they train to draw thrm in sledges over the snow, form their riches ; tlie flesh and milk of these animals coo^pose their food, and the skins their furniture. The tents of the Laplanders (Jig. 250.) are formed by six beams of wood meeting nearly at top, covered with cloth, a flap of which, left between two of the beams, serves as the door. The floor is spread with rein-deer skins, having the hair upwards, and which thus serve for either lying or sitting, the tent being too low to stand in, except in one place. A stone ftame is made in the middle, for the fire ; and there is a hole at the top, to which the smoke Vol. I 42 MNDlais LaplMdw'i T«aU 404 OESCHIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pakt III Lapliinilcn Travailing. muBt find its why ; but this it does not efTect till it has thickly impreffnated the whote tent v'ith its flimes; which, however, are valued as afTording a protection in winter o^inat the c*' '.in summer against the cwarms of musquitoes witli which, during a period of short and eA.ireme heat, the air is in^ted. The herds of rein-deer vary from 300 to up- vnrda of 1000, accordinj|[ to the wealth of the possessor. All day they wonder over the hills, and in the evonmg arn driven, not without some occasional resistance, into an en- closed park, where they are milked. Each yields only about a tea-cupful of milk ; but rich, aromatic, and of exquisite taste. Linmeus mentions nineteen farms in which milk is pre- paror pfround at the mill, and on bread when it came from the oven ; on butter, and fish, and fruit ; on income and legacies ; the sale of houses ; and, in short, almost every article either of nec?ssity or convenience. Sir Vi^illiam Temple mentions that in his time — 4nd taxes were greatly increased afterwards — one fish sauce was in common use, which directly paid no fewer tlmn thirty different duties of excise ; and it was a common saying at Amsterdam, that every dish of fish brought to the table was paid for once to the fisherman, and six times to the state. " In consequence principally of the oppressiveness of taxation, but partly, too, of the excessive accumulation of capital that had taken place while the Dutch engrossed the carry- ing trade of Europe, profits in Holland were reduced towards the middle of the seventeenth century, and have ever since continued extremely low. This circumstance would of itself have sapped the foundations of her commercial greatness. Her capitalists, who could hardly expect to clear more than two or three per cent, of net profit by any sort of undertaking carried on at home, were tempted to vest their capital in other countries, and to speculate in loans to foreign governments. There are the best reasons for thinking that the Dutch were, until very lately, the largest creditors of any nation in Europe. It is impossible, indeed, to form any accurate estimate of what the sums owing them by foreigners previously to the late French war, or at present, may amount to; but there can be no doubt that at the former period the amount was immense, and that it is still very considerable. M. Demeunier {Diclionnaire de FEconomie Politique, tome iii. p. 720.) states the amount of capital lent by the Dutch to foreign governments, exclusive of the large sums lent to France during the American war, at seventy-three millions sterling. According \o the author of the Richesse de la Hollande (ii. p. 292.), the sums lent to France and Engl tnd only, previously to 1778, amounted to 1,500,000 livres toumcis, or sixty millions sterling. And besides these, vast sums were lent to private individuals in foreign countries, botl regularly as loans at interest, and in the shape of goods advanced at long credits. So grea'. was the difficulty of finding on advantageous investment for money in Holland, that Sir V^i'liam Temple mentions, that Book I. HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. tne payment of any part of the national debt was looked upon by tho creditors as an evil of the first magnitude. ' They receive it,* says ho, * with tears, not knowing how to dispoae of it. to interest with such safety and ease.* " Among the subordinate causes which contributed to the decline of Dutch commerce, or which have, at all events, prevented its growth, wn may reckon the circumstance of the commerce witli India having been subjected to tho trammels of monopoly. De Witt expresses his firm conviction, that the abolition of the East India Company would have added very greatly to the trade with the East ; and no doubt can now remam in the mind of any one mat such would have been the case. The interference of the administration in regulating the mode in which some of the most important branches of industry should be carried on, seems also to have been exceedingly injurious. Every proceeding with respect to the herring fishery, for example, was regulated by the orders oi government, carried into effect under the inspection of officers appointed for that purpose. Some of these regulations were exceedingly vexatious. The period when the fishery might begin was fixed at five minutes post twelve o'clock of the night of the 24th of June ! and the master and pilot of every vessel leaving Holland for the fishery were obliged to make oath tliat they would respect the regulation. The species of salt to be made use of in curing difierent sorts of herrings was a^ fixed by law ; and there were endless regulations with respect to the size of the barrels, the number and thickness of the staves of which they were to be made ; the gutting and packing of the herring; the branding of the barrels, &c. &c. (^Histoire dea Piches, 4-0. dans les Mera du Nord, tom. i. chap. 24.) These regulations were intended to secure to the Hollanders that superiority which they had early attained in the fishery, and to prevent the reputation of their herrings from being injured by the bad fiiith of individuals. But their real efiect was precisely the reverse of this. By tying up the fishers to a system of routine, they prevented them from making any improvements; while the facility of coun- terfeiting the public marks opened a much wider door to fraud, than would have been opened liad gcvemmeut wisely declined interfering in the matter. " In despite, however, of the East India monopoly, and the regulations now described, the commercial policy of Holland has been more liberal than that of any other nation. And in consequence, a country not more extensive than Wales, and naturally not more fertile, con- quered indeed, in a great measure from the sea, has accumulated a population of upwards of two millions ; has maintained wars of unexampled duration with the most powerful mon- archies ; and, besides laying out immense sums in works of utility and ornament at home; has been enabled to lend hundreds of millions to foreigners." The French revolution produced a movement so great, and with which Holland was in such close contact, that it acted powerfiilly upon her political destinies. The revolutionary armies, after having defeated those of all the allied powers on the plains of Belgium, advanc- ed into Holland ; where, meeting with support from a powerful internal party, they had no difficulty in subverting the dynasty of the house of Orange. In its stead was formed the Batavian republic, virtually united to, and ruled by, the republican government of France. A vigorous attempt, made in 1799, by Britain and Russia, to re-establish the old order of things, was baiSed ; and no sooner had Napoleon been made emperor of France, than he bestowed Holland, formed into a kingdom, on his brother Louis. This prince, of a mild and amiable temper, was disposed to promote the welfare of the Dutch ; but he was allowed only to act as viceroy to his brother, and was obliged to assist in forwarding those measures by which Napoleon, in the vain hoire of ruining Britain, endeavoured hermetically to seal all the ports of the Continent against foreign commerce. This system was most distressing to all countries subjected to it; but to Holhnd it was peculiarly ruinous: that maritime com- merce on which hbr whole greatness had rested, received a blow firom which, perhaps, it will never recover. The kingdom of the Netherlands grew out of the measures adopted by that great coalition which, after a long series of triumphs, totally overthrow the colossal fabric that had been raised by the genius of Napoleon and the bravery of the French. After its fall, Austria might have advanced a claiQi to the Netherlands, so long n portion of her extended dominion. Bemg, however, so remote, and so much detached from her other territories, it was likely to* prove a dependency inconvenient and difficult to defend. She therefore consented to accept indemnification in another quarter, and to allow Belgium, with Holland, to be formed mto a representative kingdom, under the house of Orange ; believing it might serve as a barrier against any future encroachment of France. The kingdom of the Netherlands, thus formed, was divided into two distinct ports, Holland and Belgium ; but the latter, differing in religion, language, and manners, was always discontented at this union, and considered itself as a subject state. Inspired by the example of France in 1830, the people rose in arms, and, after a short but desperate struggle, succeeded, with the ultimate consent of ths CTeat powers, in forming themselves into a separate kingdom, under the name of Belgium. It comprises the provinces of South Brabant, East and West Flanders, Antwerp, Hainaalt, Namur, Liege, the greater part of Limburg, and a emM part of Luxemburg. Holland, m DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY PiUiTni oeaidea the ten United Provinces, has nearly all Luxemburg, and a nnall part of Linibur(r, containing, however, Maeatricht, its largest town. v.* ■ .f.Vfciil-'. ''; ^5 ti •. Sect. IV, — Political Oeography. ,;,'i).', ; / A limited monarchy was the constitution established for the new kingdom of the Nether- lands, and continued, with some modifications in Belgium, in both tlie parts into which it has been aeporated. The leffislative power in Holland is vested in the State»-General ; a popular assembly, modified, however, somewhat differently from those either of Britain or Fiunce. Each pro vince, as under the ancient Dutch system, has an assembly of its own, which regulates locai aflkirs, and hoa even the power of imposing local taxes. It cannot, however, injure com- merce by imposing heavier duties on the produce of other provinces than its own. The members of these provincial assemblies are chosen by electoral colleges formed in ever}' great town ; not by public meeting, or open election ; but by the police officers going from house to house, and collecting billets signed and sealed. The members of the second chamber of the States-General arc chosen for three years, one-third of the number being annually renewed. The upper chamber does not consist of hereditary nobles, but of s council of from forty to sixty, named by the king for life. [The Belgian chambers are both elective ; the Senate or upper house being chosen for the term of eignt, and the Represent- ative chamber for that of four years. — Am. Ed.] The revenue of the kingdom of the Netherlands amounted to about $35,000,000, raised by the usual expedients of land-tax, excise, customs, stamps, post-office, and by a tax on fatenta. These are required to be taken out by all persons exercising trades or professions ; and partake of the character of an income tax, inasmuch as their magnitude is determined by the extent of the sales made by the parties during the preceding year. Fndnoe of lbs principal bnachet of the ReveQue or llw Netheriaadi . lu rioriat. Wrecl Turn Stiinin, Regjitntlop, fcc. • • ' Imprwt and Export DuUeiud ICnM Warranty on Gold and Silver ' Von UMwj of the NetborliDdf • ■ Lotlerv cf Bniaeli ' Ui(h thnda 1816. I3,9 The total average annual produce of the revenue, during this period, was 88,044,153 florins. • The article finances means chiefly the interest of the public debt This amounted, in 1826, to upwards of four per cent, on a capital of 832,334,500 florins. The debt was almost wholly contracted by the Dutch, principally during their protracted and glorious struggle for mdependence, and partly during the period that Holland was connected with France. The total annual average expenditure, during the above-mentioned years, was 98,106,820 florins. Sit has been settled that Holland should assume six-thirteenths of the Netherlandish debt, Belgium the remaining seven; but the latter has not hitherto paid any part of the interest The expenditure of the Dutch kingdom in 1833 was 49,385,849 florins, exclusive of 44,000,000 for extraordinories on account of the war establishments. The former sum includes the interest on the whole debt amounting to 21,621,484 florins. The expenditure of Belgium was 73,000,000 francs, comprising no charges on the debt; but nearly three-fiflhs of this sum was absorbed by the military, which it has been necessary to keep on the war establishment. — Am. Ed.] The military force of the kingdom of the Netherlands was in a somewhat large propor- tion to its resources. This was supposed to be rendered necessary by the proximity of so great a power as France, whose attack, or at least whose dictation, there might be roon»t(i apprehend. The army, before the late changes, amounted to about 62,000 men. The Belgic provinces, having been long the principal theatre of hostility between France and Austria, were guarded by a line of strong fortresses. These had been allowed to fall some- what into decay ; but the allies, having brought their contest with France to a triumphant conclusion, determined to strengthen them as a barrier against the future encroachments of that power ; and the large contributions levied upon her were, in a great measure, employed in restoring the fortresses to their original condition. Several of these, however, by an agrefiment made between the French and English governments, have been recently dismantled. Both powers have kept up large forces since the revolution ; but will soon re- * The ezponaes of canals, iirkea, and navigation in general. t Tlie cliarges for education are now included under the head of ' interior." PaktIII mall part of Limburg, ngdom of the Netlior- parts into which it hu ; a popular assembly, >r France. Each pro. which regulates loca! however, injure com- 9 than its own. The eges formed in evei)- ce officers going from mbers of the second of the number being ary nobles, but of a an chambers are both t, and the Represent- t #35,000,000, raised Bee, and by a tax on trades or professions ; nitude is determined a. Book I. HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. 508 tureortlwNalbalanih. 1816. 1896. 9,100,000 9,191,049 S,IM,249 1,337,311 1,631,413 79,OI9t 18,444^} 2,600,00t •37,898 3,394,511 ]» 1,3»%I7« a3l4,'^ CJ4,S3I 27,128,074 od, was 88,044,162 This amounted, in uis. The debt was ractcd and glorious ivas connected with lars, was 98,106,820 Netherlandish debt, id any part of the 19 florins, exclusive The former sum arges on the debt; has been necessary ivhat large propor- the proximity of so might be roon»t(i 52,000 men. The tween France and lowed to fall some- e to a triumphant encroachments of neasure, employed lese, however, by ive been recently but will soon re- r." duce them to f>. regular peace establishment, of which it is impossiblb at proaont to give any account In naval aflkirs, Holland, no longer the maritime rival but the close ally of Britain, made only faint attempts to raise her navy fVom the low state to which it was reduced by the disasters of tho rovolutionarv war. [It consists, at present, of six ships of the line, sixteen large class and seven nnall claM frigates, thirty corvettes and brigs, four steam vessels, and about eighty armed barks, of five guns, for the defence of the interior waters. — Am. Ed.] The foreign possessions of Holland, after being entirely wrested from her during the war, were, with tiie e.xception of Ceylon, the Cape ofGood Hope, Demerara, and Berbice, restored in 1814. In the East Indies, she possesses the Moluccas, the extensive and fertile island of Java, with settlements on Sumatra, Celebes, and Borneo ; and some factories on the coast of Malabar and Coroniandel. In Africa, she retains £1 Mina, and otlier factories on the Gold Coast. Her West India colonies are not, and never were, very considerable, unless as com* morcial depdts. Both the navy and the colonial possessions, in the separation of the two kingdoms, remain with Holland. Sect. V. — Productive Induxtry. . ""!. ." ''. There is no country, perhaps, which in proportion to its extent and original resources, produces so great an amount of valuable and useful commodities as Holland and Belgium. Tho agriculture of the Belgic provinces, though, contrary to the usual course, it was founded upon their manufactures and commerce, being exempted from the vicissitudes which befell them, continues to form the most amplo source of wealth. The whole territory of Flanders is cultivated like a garden. A great proportion consisted originally of harsh, barren sands, producing nothing but heath and fir ; yet by the application of manure these wore gradually reclaimed, and brought into their present state of high fertility. The culture of artificiu grasses, and especially of clover, is tho characteristic process of Flemish husbandry, which It has taught to the rest of Europe. The care of the Flemish farmers in collecting manure was early conspicuous, and as naturally grew out of the use of artificial grasses, and conse- quent stall-feeding. The use of liquid manure, collected in largo reservoirs, is common to Uiis country with China, and not known in any other part of Europe, except, perhaps. Norway. Turf ashes, especially those imported from Holland, are in high estimation, and are said to produce an almost magical eflect on the vegetation of clover. In general, the Flemish agriculture is conducted on a careful, economical, antique practice ; the farmers not having adopted many modem improvements in tho arrangements of husbandry, such as the crossing of the breeds of cattle, and tho use of machinery, which have been adopted in England with such happy effect But this system of agriculture, after supplying the most dense population in Europe with the standard productions of the soil, yields sevenil articles, such as madder, rape, clover, and mustard-seeds, hops, &c., for exportation. The objects of culture in the Dutch provinces, in consequence of their humid climate, and of the demand for animal food for the great cities, are almost entirely connected with pasturage. Holland is as it were one great meadow, intersected by canals, and traversed by rows and groups of trees. The cattle are stalled in the winter, and fed on hay, turnips, &c. ; but in summer they are kept constantly grazing in tho open air. The produce of the dairy has been orought to such a state of improvement as to be an object of export- ation ; Dutch butter enjoys a high reputation, and the cheese is in good repute over a.11 Europe. Horticulture, which elsewhere is only a recreation, has in tlie Netherlands attained such unportance, as to become a national object Besides amply supplying its own markets with culinary vegetables, Holland exports them in large quantities to Norway, and other districts, where the growth is prevented by the rigorous climate. Ornamental gardening has been cultivated with peculiar ardour, especially in its floral department. When the tulipo-mania reigned in Holland, it was carried to such an excess, that lots of 120 tulip-roots sold, in 1637, for 100,00Q florins ; and particular specimens have brought from 8,000 to 10,000. In point of foct, however, these roots formed a kind of imaginary currency, or medium for a sys- tematised species of gambling. They were never actually transferred from one individual to another ; but were a sort of stock whose whole value was derived from caprice. The government at length put down this species of gambling, and the prices of tulips fell to their natural level. — Careful enquiries carried on by the government of^ the Netherlands are con- sidered as having proved that the agricultural capital of the whole country amounted to 10,395,000,000 francs. The following estimate was made of the growth and produce : — Hedsm. Tftlne In Tnnet, Whent 350,000 154,000,000 Rye 700.000 IfiSOOOflnn Buckwneat 300,000 33,000,000 Barley 980,000 84,000.000 Pulac 110,000 48.000000 ISotaloes 131,000 41,000,000 Oati 300,000 84,000,000 Heetarei. Orchard 94,000. VegetHbles ■•., = !. ..-..= 93,800. Hemp and flax 310,000. Madder 30,000. Cattle and animal! Value m Tnne*, 3,000,000 Kb AAA AAA • U«/,UvU,UlfV . 136,000,000 ■ 31,000,000 . 150,000,000 (06,000,000 B04 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY Part III Maniifkctuhnjj induitrv is tho branch in which the Belffic province* formerly niott excelled, &nd in which tli( universally acknowledged. The refining of sugar, and the manufacture of snuff, are continued on a great scale, chiefly in Amsterdam and Ilottordam, and the making of tobacco-pipes at Gouda u said to employ 6000 persons. Silk, leather, and woollens, are still manufactured, though not to such an extent aa formerly, nor muoh with a view to exportation. The ffencral value of Dutch and Belgian manufactures has been estimated as follows: — Iron, 46,000,000 francs; copper, 5,000,(KX); woollens, 80,000,000; linens, 05,000,000; lace, 25,000,000; cottons, 60,000,000; refined sugar, 14,000,000; salt, 10,000,000; spirits, 40,000,000; beer, 110,000,000; tobacco, 28,000,000; nil, :)0,000,000 ; soap, 10,000,000; leather, 28,000,000; earthenware, 4,000,(X)0 ; bricks, 6,000,(KK); books, 15,000,000; bleach Jig, 10,000,000; dyeing, 10,000,000; paper, 8,000,(KX): in all, fl7r),0(MMHK) francs. The commerce of tho Netherlands has declined, both absolutely and relatively, but in a less remarkable degree. The causes have appeared in the historical survey. The total 8U9> Knsion of all maritime intercourse with other countries during the subjection of Holland to ance, and the conquest of tlie Dutch colonies by England, rendered it necessary, as it were, to begin every thing afresh at tho restoration of peace in 1815. But the largo capi- tals in the hands of the Dutch mercliants, their commodious situation in tho centre of the most improved states of Europe, the recovery of some of the most valuable of their foreign possessions, and the considerable surplus of native commodities which their country affords for exportation, secured for them, as soon as the ports were open, a considerable trade. Since tho peace, it has been continually increasing ; and, previously to the late revolution, was more equally distributed than before among tho Belgic as well as the Dutch ports. Holland exports, of its own produce, butter, cheese, geneva, tobacco-pipes ; of the produce of its fishery, herrings, stockfish, whalebone, whale oil ; from its foreign possessions, cofiTee, sugar, rum, cotton wool, cloves, nutmegs, mace, pepper ; with linens, wool, and various articles from Germany and the Baltic. Belgium exports madder, vegetable oils, lace, lawn, and fine linen. There are no official returns of imports and exports published ; but a very able writer in the Foreign Quarterly Review, to whose researches we have been mucn indebted, has given from original sources the following account of the importation of the principal articles of merchandise into the Netherland ports during the year 1827 : — AETICLK. CofTee, bales Ditto, tons Bulbar, clieiu Ditto, inau Ditto, tons Tobacco of America, torn. Rice, bale* Ditto, tons Cotton, bales Indigo, chests Ditto, seroons Tea, quarter cbests Bliins, pieces Pepper, bales Wheat. lasU Rye, ditto Barlejr, ditto Potash of Russia, puds*. .. Linseed Oil of do. do. . . . Tallow of ditto do.... Hemp of ditto do> .. PORTS. Amsterdam. 111,0.50 3,G03 13,inO 2,987 18,053 15,305 1,080 8,412 13,003 06 138 15,134 9,971 31 13,494 7,835 878 50,583 1,340 9,416 19,110 Rotterdam. Antwerp. 97,307 1,079 7,508 8.145 3,H29 13,riew of drainin|; oflT the superfluous water of the Khinc, by which a great extent of ground was converted into a marsh. It is two miles long, and 200 feet below the level of tho seo, the waters being received into three different sets of sluices. It is considered a master- piece, and completely answered its object. Another, on a most magnificent scale, connect- ing Amsterdam with the Helder, was commenced in 1819, and finished in 1825, at an expense of 10,000,000 florins. It is 60 miles long, 125 feet wide at the surfiice, .36 feet wide at the bottom, and 21 feet deep. It is calculated to admit ships of war of 46 guns, and merchantmen of 1000 tons burden. It was constructed to avoid the troublesome navigation to and fVom Amsterdam tiirough the Zuyder Zee, and the necessity of lightening large ves- sels before crossing the Pampus. The canals in Belgium are spacious and commodious, connecting all the great cities, though not nearly in equal number, nor uniting every village, as in Holland. Sect. VI. — Civil and Social State. The population of the kingdom of tho Netherlands, though not comparable, as to absolute amount, with that of any of the great states, is superior to them all in one highly important particular, that the country contains a greater density of population on the same surface than any other in Europe, or perhaps in the world. This, in the Belgic provinces at least, ia the more remarkable, as they are inhabited, not by a manu^cturin^ population, drawing subsistence from agricultural countries, but by a population subsisting exclusively on the produce of Uie land itself. The census of 1816 gave a total population of 5,491,945 : 2,476,159 for the northern provinces ; 3,249,841 for those of Belgium ; and 225,945 for the duchy of Luxemburg. This gives an aggregate average density of about 212 to the square mile ; but the rate rises much higher in certain provinces. Throughout Belgium the pro- portion is 296 10 the square mile ; in the province of East Flanders, however, it is as high ns 560. In the United Netherlands the average density is only 180 per square mile ; and in Luxemburg, which has much of a German character, it is as low as 66. The census of 1825 gives a population of 6,013,578 ; and some further augmentation has taken place 5ince.f *rin 1837, only one ship sailed to the whale-flihery (Vom Holland, which in 1680 had out 360 ahipi manned by i4,000 lailors, engaged in that branch of industry.— Am. Ed.J tlVhe population of the two liin(dams in 1833, was 0,536,000, of which 3,791,000 belonged to Belgium, ana il 745,000 to IIoUand.-AM. Eo.J Vol I 43 30 Aoe DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. PahtIIL Thfl following dotnili with rPBjKJct to llio population of the Nethoilanda sro extracted (Vom the publicutions of M. Quetelot, ono of the al)!c8t itatittical writers of the Continent: — Table qftke Movement qfthe Population in Holland and Belgiu m/or Ten Yeare, tntimm hfuhllo*. MitlA DmiH. HtnUtm. DlTwcn lilt. ■Mi. Zenlnnd 111,108 2(M,097 291,087 378.287 38H.006 107.917 170,884 m^ia 138,043 46,489 287,013 368,186 104,400 2I3..VJ7 48H.093 441.649 618.CH9 816,324 291,868 189,389 8»l,3<->3 326,017 39:»,91fl 4:».2()2 117.408 202,830 160,937 186,045 83,368 321.240 331,101 189,393 298,610 &16,I■••■•■•••■ Nurlli liralnnt North Holland Hijiilh llulland Uirecht Frtdlantl ........■>>■••••* OvfirviBol ...■>...■■■■•••■• rtrcnlhi) ....■■■■■■•■•>■••■• Iiimtiiinr ...•■>•■■•■■■ IJ^iro ......>>••■■••■. Naniur Liiiemburff South Hrabflnt Eiut Flanden Went Klanden AntwoFD ...• ••.. ■■>• •■•■ 5,484,.'M2 6.013,478 8,016,040 1,481,600 430.247 The births and marriajros in the Nctiicrlands are proportionally more niimcroiiB, while the deaths are about e^iual to those of France, and exceed those of Great Britain in the ratio of throe to two. The account stands thus : — NatlwrluHtb rnncf, 0ml nrlUI* lOObirth* to S.HOT inhahitanti 3.108 XKU inOdonthi 3.ttHl 4,U00 3.TH) 100 marriagoi 13,190 13,400 13,UU3 There has boon a very material increase in the healthiness of the people of the Nethe^ lands, and particularly of Holland, during the last thirty or forty years. The provision for the support of the poor of the Netherlands is prci ty ample, and it ii applied witli great economy and skill; forminjEr, indeed, an important b'ancli of the public administration. The following table, compiled from authentic sources, by M. Quetelct, cannot fail of being interesting : — Charitable Institutions of the Netherlands Nitara of Imlihiltoa. Administmtiom for relievinf; the Poor pt home Commissioiu for distributing Food, &c Socinties of Matprnal Chanty Hospitals Fiindx fbi Militaiv Service Royal Hospital of Messine* Poor Schools , Workhouses of Charity Depots of Mendicity Societies of Beneficence for the Colonies.. .. Establishments for the Deof and Dumb Monts de Pi^l^. Savings Banks. ■ Totals. Numbgr of lulitutiont. 5,129 36 4 724 1 1 883 34 8 2 4 6,228 184 60 InilivlduaU nllflved. 745,662 82,056 1,448 41,172 2,277 186 147,2% 6.169 2,598 8,.'553 239 977.616 18,0.15 of Rclirf. FInriM. 6,448,710 82.424 13,493 4,091,157 110,943 23,290 247,176 406,7M 829,887 333,.W9 41,994 11,049.030 4,208.068 2,771,608 Ript'iiN for eacli ludividuiJ. rinrlni. 7.31 3.73 9.33 99.37 48.73 149.30 1.67 65.92 88.37 41.33 175.70 Average 11.30 AvcmsGl83.93 The national character of tlie Dutch has been long moulded into the form natural to a highly commercial people ; solid, steady, quiet, laborious, eagerly intent on the accumulation of wealth, which they seek rather by economy, steadiness, and perseverance, than by speculation. They carry the virtue of cleanliness to an extreme. Outward decorum of manners, at least, is better observed than among the neighbouring continental nations. Yet the spiel houses in the great towns, where the most respectable citizens used to mingle with persons entirely destitute of character, presented in this respect a strange anomaly. But at present these can hardly be said to exist ; and are frequented only by the very dregs of the populace. A traveller in Holland will rarely meet with a drunken person ; or with a man, womanj or child, in Tagv. Every class of people seems comfortable, the result of their great frugality and unwearied industry. Were a young sturdy beggar discovered teasing passengersfor * In West Flanders, for the dauehters of soldiers Invalided or killed in service IVx)i I. HOLLAND AND BELGIUM 007 r Ten Ytar: «lH«. Ditwm lO.fi-JB 87 i'j.:i:n 13 2(),:tMo 1 34.78<) 209 34.U-J2 118 H.'IW 30 18,;!27 4n 11, (WJ 13 11,»'j2 87 3/J04 3 sa.oro a 2l,:iK7 24 l'J,5'.ni 8 1H,710 1 3U,.'.'J1 87 3f.,t23 & 4:t,l'.20 37.8H2 6 a3,076 8 30,247 1 COS I Eiixnn for uch IiKlliUul. rinrlM. 10 7.31 !4 3.73 )3 9.38 )7 90.37 12 48.73 W 149.30 G 1.67 4 C5.92 7 88.37 9 41.33 >4 6~ 175.70 Average 11.30 U — 8 'AvornRel53.93 tian- woniaHi or aim*, he would inirtantly be lont to the workhotiie ; where, if he rcAiwM. to peHbrm hit allot- tml tuk, he would bo compelled to nve himeclf fironi drowning by working at the pump! Holland in, and alwoya hoa been, a country of abort credit Iknkruptcy ia rare. Notwitn- atandinff the invaaion of the French in 1790. and the rnnii«<]uent intemiption to all aorta of biminnaa, tlio bankniptciea were not comparatively ao numfroua aa in England in ordinary yoarn. Tlio nuliflc provincoa, lonjr aubjocted to a foreii,'n yoke, and in conatant intcrcourae with foreigner*, Deem to have loat m a groat measure tlixclii8ive privilcjfo of uning boils. They amount to about 1600, and ore all paid and appointed by government, which, however, respects the wishes of the leading parishioners. Thoir salaries aro very moderate; 3000 florins m the great cities; 800 to 1000, witli house and glebe, in the country. They are divided into moderate and high Calviniatic parties ; the former, which are snid to be the moat numerous, having the command of the university of Utrecht, while that of Leyden ia attached to the oppoeito interest There are about 300 or 400 Catholic congregation?, in general very small. Tho Armenians or Remonstrants, who originated in Holland, have onlv about forty or fifty ministers; but their tenets are preached in many of the preebyterian churches. The Anabaptists, called here Mennonists, have about 100 con- gregations, composed of many opulent and respectable members. The Lutherans have fifty or sixty churches ; and the French Protestants about thirty. [By the budget of 1838, 1,8^0,000 florins were voted for tho support of the Protestant worship, and 400,000 for the Catholic. — Am. Ed.] In Belgium, the Catholic clergy have shown a very rooted spirit of intolerance, with tho bishop of Ghent at their head, and vehemently objected to the indulgent treatment of the other sects. The bishop was imprisoned for two years bv Napoleon, on account of hia obstinacy in this particular. The great possessions of tho church, however, have been for- feited, and tho clergy receive very moderate salaries from government The monasteries have been rooted out, and generally also the nunneries, though that of Ghent still retains all its pomp. [There is an archbishop of Mechlin with a salary of 21,000 francs, and the five bishops have each 14,700 francs a year. These, with 64 vicara general and canons, 240 curates, and 4,288 inferior officers, form the body of the Catholic clergy. There are only about 6000 Protestants in Belgium, with 10 ministers, clerks, &c., who are paid by government — Am. Ed.] Learning in the Netherlands no longer boasts such names as Erasmus, Grotius, and Boer- liaave ; but the institutions for its diffusion continue to be very ample. Holland retains its two famous universities of Leyden and Utrecht Tho former, which, under Boerhaave, had once the reputation of the first medical school in Europe, is still highly respectable. Tho professors, who are twenty-one in number, receive salaries of 3000 florins, independent of fees ; and this being a better income than any of the ecclesiastical livings, the university draws from the church its most learned members. The medical education, however, can- not be completed unless at Amsterdam, which afifords the advantage of hospitals and other accommodations peculiar to a large city. The university of Utrecht is not so considerable as that of Leyden ; and that of Groningen is still inferior. In 1833, the number of students was, in Leyden 684 ; in Utrecht 476 ; in Groningen, 284. The universities of Belgium, of which the most celebrated were Ghent and Louvain, were partially stripped of their ample endowments, first by Joseph IL, and tlien by the French. who in their room substituted lyceums, which are now continued nearly on the same footing, under the name of colleges. Only the languages, and some general branches, are taught ; education for professional purposes being received in separate appropriate seminaries. Ghent and Brussels have the highest reputation ; but the salary of professors in tho fomer does not exceed 1500 francs. The three universities of Louvain, Lidge, and Ghent have lately been restored ; and in 1827 the first was attended by 678 students ; the second by 506 ; and the third by 404 students. Besides Rthen«euins, which are only colleges on a smaller scale, Holland has primary schools in every village, by which the benefits of education are com- inimicated to the lowest ranks. Belgium is at present very deficient in institutiona for BOS DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part HI popular education.* But at an average of the Netherlands, the proportion of children at school to the entire population, in 1827, was as high as 1 to 9.5 ; a proportion not exceeded in any European country, with the exception, perhaps, of Prussia. The fine arts were cultivated with zeal and success in both parts of the Netherlands. Wealthy mer<>^ ats liberally patronised the arts of design; and the gentry and landholders being inducou uy tlia constant wars, of which ttie Low Countries were the theatre, to live much in towns, acquired more refined tastes than could have been formed in a country resi- dence. Antwerp, during its prosperity, became, in some measure, a Belgic Athens. Yet the Flemish and Dutch painters never attained tliat grandeur of design, and that pure and classic taste, which were formed in Italy, by the study of Uie antique, and the rofined toste of its nobles. The Flemish school, under its great masters Rubens and Vandyke, displayed, however, may excellences in a degree not inferior to any other in modern times ; splendour of colo'.'.ring, grandeur of composition, and force of expression. The Dutch school has been eminently successful in a lower sphere. Under Rembrandt and his disciples, subjects of common life and vulgar humour were treated with a native force, which, oeing aided by brilliant eflects of light and shade, have rendered this school exceedingly popular, though it has failed in all attempts at high and heroic delineation. The landscape painters have seldom employed their pencils upon the grand scenery delineated by Claude and Poussin ; but Berghem, Cuyp, Ruysdael, Hobbima, Vandevelde, and others, have represented, in the most natural and pleasing colours, the pastoral scenery of their country ; its meadows, its woods, and the banks of its seas and rivers. Amusement is far from being a primary object with the Dutch. They have most of the diversions of the neighbouring nations, though they do not follow them with much ardour. A great portion of their time is passed in smoking ; the Dutchman having seldom the pipe out of his mouth. The rivers and canals passing through the streets, afibrd the opportunity of fishing ftom the windows. The great Flemish kermes, or &irs, though no longer sub- servient to commerce, exist still as festivals, at which there is a great display of humour and character, such as we find happily illustrated in the works of the Flemish painters. There seems nothing peculiar in the Dutch style of cookery. The peasantry both of Holland and Flanders have their peculiar local costume ; as the huge breeches of the men, and the short jacket of the females; but the higher classes dress in the French or German style. Sect. VII. — Local Geography. The following, according to recent official statements, are the extent and population of Belgium and Holland, respectively : BELGIUM. ProviDCM. Entenl in Hcctam. PoputaUnn in iSu. INT. Principal Towm. South Brabant. Antwerp Eaat Flandnra . West Flundcra Hainault Namur LiSite 338,000 383,000 388,000 316,000 373,000 347,035 388,000 460,000 499,788 3,T8,3fl4 708,705 .W.'S.PO? 507,300 104,845 347,625 338,334 Bruuels 73,800 Louvain 18,S80 Antwerp 63,000 Mechlin 16,000 Ghent 81,041 St. Nicholai.... 10,080 nrucos 36 000 Oitend 10 500 Ynrci 15 150 Mnns 18 400 Wnmur 15 100 Vorvien lOflTD Sna 3000 I.iJiffB 45nno Limburg Tongrei 4,000 3.876,000 3,500,538 HOLLAND. Rotterdam ... 63 033 Hnirue 4.1 144 Levden SO 045 Holland, South Holland, North Zealand Utrecht North Brabant Guclderland ... Dreiithe Friesland Overyswl Oroniugen .... Limburg, j part oj'. ... 1 Luxemburg.... 1 287,000 345,000 158,000 133.000 501,000 509.000 336,000 963,000 338,000 904,000 uncei 650,000 433,«j]t) 391,586 133,0.13 133.313 333,551 393,306 59,015 300,:a3 165,936 153,983 tain. 398,655 Dort 18,400 Delft 13 385 Gouda 10,568 Amsterdam.. 901,000 Haarlem 18.453 Zaandam 0,016 Alkmaar .... 8.4:15 Hoorn 8 1.15 Middlehurg.. 30,800 Fluahing 6,380 Utrecht 34,087 Amenfoort .... 9,395 Boil lo Due . . 13.340 Breda 13 000 Berfffln-OD>Zoom Nimegucn... 13,780 Arnheim 10,050 Assen 1,100 Leuwarden . . 18,380 Deventer.... 9,530 Groningen . . . 38,851 Maeatricht... 31,000 Luxemburg . . 10,350 3,654,000 9,676,000 3,606,000 3,500,538 6,330,000 6,166,354 • [Tn ISStiiere were 5,390 primary schoola in Belgium, with 370,906 puplli, beiide 1,318 In the Atbaneeumi.ind 1.78a ID the onivenitiei. Annual cxpenM, 7434100 franca.— Am. Bo.'J Part III. irtion of children at lortion not exceeded of the Netherlands, itry and landholders the theatre, to live ed in a country resi- Jelgic Athens. Yet , and that pure and id thp rr fined taste Vandyke, displayed, rn times; splenuour itch school has been isciplos, subjects of lich, oeing aided by iy popular, thoueh it scape painters have Dlaudo and Poussin ; represented, in the y; its meadows, its sy have most of the n with much ardour. fing seldom the pipe fiord the opportunity DUgh no longer sul>> it display of humour 16 Flemish painters, intry both of Holland of Uie men, and the or German style. t and population of Louvain 18,580 YprcB 15,150 Bpa 3,000 Leyden S9,04S louda 10,568 Saandam 0,016 3ergen-op-Zoom in the AtlieiiKainf,Wi< fiooK I. HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. SuBSECT. 1. — Belgium, 600 Bruiwli. South Brabant, which nearly coincides with what was formerly the Austrian part of that largo province, forms a rich plain in the heart of Belgium, and is the seat of the nnest manu- factures carried on in that country. Brussels (Jig. 358.) is the capital of Belgium. Considered as such, it is small, yet it is one of the gayest and most elegant cities of Europe. Its situation is fine, in a valley watered by the Senne anil the canal to Antwerp. The Alice Verte, con- sisting of three rows of trees bor- dering the canal, makes a beauti- ful approach. The market-ploco and the park are the two great ornaments of Brussels. The former is of great extent, and surrounded by the town hall, one of the most elegant Gothic structures in Eu- rope, adorned with a tower, 848 feet high, and by the old halls of the different corporations. The park forms an extensive range of pleasure ground, inter- spersed with rows of lofly trees, and pleasing lawns, ornamented with fountains and statues , and it is surrounded by all the most spacious and sumptuous edifices. The church ond chapel of St. Gudule are also distinguished for the elegance of their ornaments. Brussels has' an academy of painting, attended by 400 or .'iOO students ; and in the palace there is a library of 12,000 volumes, and a small but valuable collection of paintings. It was on the plains of Brabant, near the little villages of Quatrc Bras, St. Jean, La Belle Alliance, and Waterloo a few leagues from Brussels, that the fate of Europe was decided in 1815. Another ancient and important city is Malines, or Mechlin (now in the province of Ant- werp), still retaining traces of the prosperity derived from the lace bearing its name, which is considered the strongest, though not the finest, made in the Netherlands. Another branch of industry consists in the making of excellent brown beer. The houses are ancient, and very spacious, often constructed in a curious and grotesque manner, and most nicely white- washed. The tower of the cathedral is highly fmished, and rises to the height of 348 feet The other churches contain many of the masterpieces of Rubens and Vandyke. Louvain is equally fallen fVom the period when its extensive cloth manufactures and its university, one of the first in Europe, gave it a population of 150,000. It is a large ill-built town, whose bulky walls, seven miles in circumference, are now falling to decay. Its Catholic university, an attendance on which was once required as a qualification for holding any ofiice under the Austrian government, perished in the French revolution, and was replaced by what could only be called a lyceum ; but the ancient institution has since been restored. The town hall, enriched by numerous carved figures, and the collegiate church, whose spire, before its fall, at the beginning of the seventeenth century, rose to the height of 500 feet, are the chief ornaments of Louvain. Antwerp (fig, 359.), formerly the port of Brabant, has now a province, to which it gives its name. This territory is situated along the Lower Scheldt, and is covered to a great extent with pleasure-grounds and houses, erected by the rich mer- chants during the period when Antwerp was in its glory. That city, down to the close of the fif- teenth century, was almost with- out a rival among the commercial states of Europe. In the great struggle which then arose, Ant- werp embrpced with ardour the reformed muse, in support of which it suffered the most dread- ful calamities. In 1570 it was lacked by the Spaniards ; and being afterwards wrested from them, surrendered on fiivour- able terms, after being besieged for more than a year, to the Prince of Parma. Subjected to the bigoted and tyrannic sway of Spain, and oppressed by the active rivalry of Holland, it lost all its commerce, and presented the mere shadow of its former greatness. Its renewed prosperity dates from its occupation by the French. Bonaparte made it one of his grand naval arsienals, and erected immense works, in the vain hope of creating a fleet which might rival that of Great Britain. Since the peace, Antwerp, having been placed on an equal footing with the ports of Holland, has availed itself of the advantages of its situation, and regained in a portion of ♦heir former prosperity. Bruges, formerly the residence of the counts of Flanders, and one of the factories of tlie Hanseatic league, was the greatest commercial city in the Low Countries, and perhaps in the north of Europe, till it was first surpassed by Antwerp, and then, from the same cause:=, shared its fall. Its situation in the midst of so fertile a country, and its communications by spacious canals with the sea and with the interior, still secure to it a considerable trade. Bruges has the character of an old town, the streets being narrow, and the houses lofly. The town hall is its most conspicuous edifice, and it is adorned also with many noble churche.s containing some of the finest works of the great Flemish painters. The invention of paint- ing in oil has been ascribed to this city. Ostend is an ancient town, early celebrated for its forUfications. The sie^e by Spinola, which began in 1601, and lasted two years, was one of the most memorable in modern his- tory; and upon its issue the destiny of the Low Countries was considered to depend. But though it ultimately fell, the exhaustion of the Spanish army, and the time which had been afforded to Holland for collecting her energies, prevented its capture from having the ruinous effects anticipated. Under Austrian sway, Ostend, which has one of the few good harbours in Flanders, became the chief theatre of the limited trade of the Belgic provinces. Napo» leon restored its fortifications, which were still farther strengthened by the allies. It lias not now above a third of its former population, but still carries on a brisk intercourse with England, and has almost the appearance of an English town. In 1828, 574 vessels entered its port Other largo fortified places, celebrated in the military annals of Europe, are found in West Part [II. ncd by nature to be jssels. Antwerp is and public, whicli he cathedral, which set long, 230 wide, i summit is obtained 8 of Ghent, Malincs, abens and Vandyke, !rou8 fine specimens (tte mansions. Ant- bens, Vandyke, Jor- bestowed upon the gratuitously taught: il candidates. Tliis as yet, to rival the in which culture has a luxuriant fertility, )urneying along tiie 1, while beyond the lost fertile district ia ;ies of Europe. That d contain all Paris ist of them bordered Rtreets, with a few rchoa : but the great , though the interior Tliis and the other )ld Flemish masters, still one of the most 'as sorted lace; but e fabrics have been residence of the old h families, ng place, which liaa Tokerem, two large Vaes, flourishing by Client is the centru •y can be laid under irliich has now been the blighting inflii- aspect of the Pays traordinary number the factories, of tlie es, and perhaps in m the same causes, communications by considerable trade. the houses lotly. any noble churches invention of paint- sie^e by Spinola, ble m modern his- id to depend. But ne which had been having the ruinous few good harbours provinces. Napo- the allies. It lias k intercourso with )74 vessels entered , are found in West Book I. HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. 511 Flanders. Courtray, Ypres, and Menin have the usual character of Flemish towns. They ore large, rather well built, with handsome churches and town halls ; fallen from their ancient prosperity, yet retaining considerable manufactures of linen and beer ; and having, in the long course of the Low Country wars, been repeatedly taken and retaken. Courtray is noted for tiie very fine flax grown in its neighbourhood. Oudenarde, the scene of one of Marlborough's victories, Dixmuide, and Furnes, present the same characters on a smaller scale. Nieuport is rather a noted fishing and trading town, surrounded by sluices, by means of which the country can be inundated. Hainault, to the east of Flanders and the south of Brabant, presents a long range of mili- taiy frontier to the once hostile border of France. It is watered by the upper courses of the Scheldt and the Sambre; and, instead of presenting the same dead level with Flanders, is varied by gentle undulations, still highly cultivated, yet not with the same extreme care or ample expenditure. In this province are rich mines of coal, a mineral not found in any other part of the Low Countries ; and though Hainault never formed any of the great seats of manufacture, it is by no means deficient in this branch of industry. Mens, Toumay, and Charleroi are the chief towns of Hainault. The description given of the secondary cities of Flanders may apply to them. Mons, called once Hannonia, is very ancient ; it is well built, but appears often almost buried under the smoke of the steam- engines employed in working the neighbouring coalmines. It has a very extensive found- ling hospital. Toumay, a fine large, old city, with a handsome cathedral, has stood many sieges. Charleroi, besides its military reputation, has that of making very fine nails, with which it supplies all Belgium. In front of Mons is Gemappe, and eight miles east of Char- leroi is Fleurus, both celebrated for signal victories gained by the French during the revolu- tionary war. Tlie large and strong cities of Conde and Valenciennes are now annexed to France. Namur, to the east of Hainault, presents a striking variety from the tame and flat surfiice which covers the greater part of the Low Countries. Consisting of the valley of the Meuse, which traverses the whole province from north to south, it contains numerous rugged emi- nences, which give to it a varied and picturesque character. The banks of the rjvcr, from Namur to Li^ge, overhung by wooded rocks, and opening into deep valleys, abound in the most romantic scenes. Among the cities, Namur is one of the most ancient in the Low Countries, its origin being traced to the time of the ancient Germans. It lies in a beautiful valley bordered by high mountains, at the confluence of the Sambre and Meuse. The castle, on a high rock, was formerly considered almost impregnable, and stood many sieges, till Joseph II. dismantled, and the French afterwards almost demolished it. The cathedral and the Jesuits' church are fine edifices, and, unlike the other churches of the Low Countries, of Grecian architec- ture. Namur has in its neighbourhood extensive iron mines, which employ many of the inhabitants ; the manufactures of tlie city consist in working up this metal into fire-arms, cutlery, &c. Ascending the Meuse towards the French frontier, we come to the small forti- fied towns of Dinant and Charlemont. The provinces of Liege and Limburg, which are much intermingled with each other, form the eastern frontier of Belgium. They run from north to south along the Meuse, front- ing Germany, and are, indeed, half German. On the banks of the Meuse, and in some par- ticular districts, the territory is broken and rooky; but most of it consists of an extended and highly cultivated plain. The eastern district is distinguished by the peculiar richness of its pastures, which produce butter and cheese of great value. Its manufactures, also, especially those of fine woollens, are very flourishing. Of the cities in these two provinces, Liege, once the seat of a sovereign bishop, is ancient and large, but upon the whole ill built and gloomy ; and though some of its buildings are large, they do not display the taste conspicuous in other Belgic cities. The church of St. Paul is, however, admired, as was that of St. Lambert, till it was destroyed during the revo- lution. Liege has a manufacture of fine woollen cloths, which sell at a high price. The town of Limburg, now included in Liege, has lost much of its population and industry; and a great part of its precincts is in ruins. Spa, situated amid romantic rocks, is one of the most celebrated watering places in Europe. The resort, though much diminished, is still considerable, and composed of persons of distinguished rank. The inhabitants work tha beechwood, which grows in the neighbourhood, into a variety of toys, for which they find a ready sale among the visiters. St. Tron and Tongres are ancient towns, the former having a celebrated Benedictine abbey. Eupen, like Verviers, has flourishing manufactures of cloth. Herve is the chief market for the Limburg cheese, which goes by its name. Stavelot is noted for its leather. SuBSECT, 2.— Holland. The province of Holland is of paramount importance, including all the great cities and Erincipal scats of commerce; so that its name was most usually given to the vhole republic. t forms a long narrow strip, alniof/t everywhere enclosed and penetrated by water ; on one 619 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part HI. side it is washeJ by the North Sea ; on the other, by the Zuyder Zee ; in its centre it has .he larjre lake called Hoarlem-Meer ; while the Rhine and the Lech intersect its numerous channels. The whole country is so low, that it is habitable only by means of enormous dikes, which exclude the sea : when these give way, the waters rush in, and inundate the whole territory. The country forms, in fact, one vast well-watered meadow scarcely any w'.ere subjected to the plough, though extensive gardens are cultivated, both for use and ornament. But the chief products are cattle, butter, axu* cheese, for the supply of the popu- lation of the cities, and for export Amsterdam (Jig, 860.), the capital of the province and kuigdom of Holland, is situated at the point of confluence of the river Amstel with the Y, an arm of the Zuyder Zee. It was jQQ f a considerable tx)wn in ttm fourteenth century; but it was not until the sixteenth cen- *ury, when the persecutions 1 e Duke of Alva. It has a magnificent church ; and the rens around it have b(;en so com- pletely drained, as to render the air no long -! unwholesome. Amheim is a large and beau- tiful town, at the foot of the hills of Yeluwe, and forming a great thoroughfare into Ger- many. Deventer, in Overyssel, is an ancient member of the Hanseatic league, and has a venerable cathedral. Zwoll, on tho Yssel, is strong, large, and well built. Assen, though capital of the new province of Drenthe, is only a village. In Friesland, Leuwarden, on the Ee, is a large and populous town, in a country surrounded and intersected with canals, which enable it to communicate with the sea, and to carry on a considerable trade. Cam- pen, an ancient Hanse town, has lost its importance, the harbour being now choked up. Harlingen, Franeker, Dokkum, Bolsward, are ports on the Zuyder Zee, and manufacturing places of some importance. Groningen, capital of the provinces of the same name, is tho most important of all the towns east of the Zuyder Zee. It is well built, and adorned with noble edifices ; and its university was once distinguished anong Dutch seminaries. Large vessels can ascend the Hunse from the Zuyder Zee. Luxemburg, an extensive province, though political revolutions attached it to the Nether- lands, and now to Holland, forms part of Germany, entitling the king to a vote in tho Ger- manic diet Its character is every way in decided contrast to the rest of Holland and Bel- gium. Instead of a dead, rich flat, traversed by navigable streams and canals, Luxemburg presents almost throughout high mountains and woods, forming scenes of savage grandeur, similar, though on a smaller scale, to those of Switzerland. The country is destitute of water communications, is imperfectly cultivated, a; id does not contain a population of more than sixty-six to the square mile. Its breeds of cattle and sheep are of smal. size ; but, as usual in mountain pastures, of delicate f'^iom. The horses are active and hardy ; and the tract which borders on the Moselle pi/duces valuable wine. The cities and towns are by no means on the same scale as those in the rest of the king- dom. Luxemburg, the capital, situated on two rocks, whose steep sides form a glpcis, while the river Else, at their feet, serves as a wet ditch, is (,?« of the strongest fortresses in Europe. The horse and cattle markets are considerable. Th^^ux has in its neighbourhood mines of a beautiful black marble. Maestricht, the principal tov^n of Limburg, has, along with all the part of that province east of the Mouse, been assigned to Holland. It is large, handsome, and well fortified. Ruremonde and Venlo, also neat towns of some strength, are included in the same district i ....,„...,.' i 616 MAP OP FRANCE— wwr part. Fra. 200 tl* 6 Loaftliiilt WmI 4 ba> Qimwicb 1 LoBfltuits Eut Pw. a» I Ito. 2fl9. MAP OF FRANCEr-cm past. 817 ^\ ,11 R"iWt- I.isi La Plaeha 133. Chateau de Itfili'nl? mfa3 i:i8. Ju«i(na 14|. Prei en PaU 149. frenar 143. Mamera 144. La Ferle Dei^ 14S, 75.1 79 Juingamp 'tioipol Lannloo Bell« ' )war(iiMnt>. . Lo - , . Lower Belna /I. Eure /{|. Oma JLII.Calvadoa ~. Tha Channel. (La Manche.) 18. Vernon 17. Andehiira 18. Goumay 10. Neufchatel |u.BlanfJa 91. Eu Uieppe 3l.Vah)ry K.Feeamp 95. Havre de Grace 96. Bolbeo 97. Yvelot 98. Rouen 9». ElboDuf 30. Louviera 9). Brionne St. Pont Andemar tPnnt I'Evequa Liaieuz Caen 36. Bayeux 3S. Carentan 40. Valoinea 41. Barfleur 49. Cherbourc 43. Lea Pieux 44. Bameville 45. Creanca 46. Coutancea 47. Granville 48. ViUedieu 4». Vira 90.Thoriiinr. 51. St.Oormain !».Pantd'OuU)r 5.1. FalaiM !t4. Arteotan 55. Gaee 56. Oibee 57. Bernay 58. Ruglea 50. Evreuz eo. »vry 61.VeriMttU JIa lie .orlalx 60. Lannilia 81. Breil 83. Landemeau 83. Chateaulin 84. Andierna 85. Quimper 80. Quimperle 87. Uourln 88. Carhaix 80. Roatienen W. pzel 01. Loudeao 03. Broona 03. Montfort e4.Hede 05. Rennea 06. Bl. Aubin 07. Fouffcrea OaVitre 00. La Guercha 100. Chateaubriant 101. Cerin 108. Carenloiro 103. Rcdon 104. Maletroit 105. Ploeroral 106. Band 107. Pontivr 108. Hennnbon 100. L'Orient 110. Vannei 111. Roche-Bernard II3.Nozay UX Ancenia 114. Nantea 1 15. Savenay liaGuerraiide 117. Paiuibouf 118. Boamnauf 110. Cliaaon Province of ANJOU. Z}ci>ar(ia«i((. XVIII. Eure and Loir XIX.Loirat XX. Ixiir and Cher. 140. Brou 147. NogenI le Ro- lrg-aTlMtKl of XXI. Indre and Loire. 106. Chateau Rag- naull 167. Toura 168. Savigne 160. Langeaia 170. Chinnn 171. La Haya 178. Montbaxon 173. Locbea 174. Beaulieu Province of BERRI. Dnartmenl cf XXII. Indre. 175. Chatillon aur Indre 176. Levroux 177. Valencay 178. Valan 170. Chateauroux 180. La Chatra 181. Arienton IKi. Bt.lElenoit 183. Le Blanc Province of POITOU. XXIir. Vienne XXIV. Two Savrei XXV. Vendee. 181. Lit Roehe I'oaar 185. Chalelleraull 1^. Louduo 187. Moneontoni i(J8. Thouara 180. Breaaura 100, Ciiatirian iur Bevra 101. Pouianga 103. MonlalKU 103. Hoauvvir 104. Si. Gillea aur Vie lOS.Sablead'Olonnt IM. TalmonI 107. Bourbon- Ven- dee 196. Lucon 190. Fnntcnay 900. Ohataiiineraye ani. Parihenay 903. Vivonne 9U.1. Poitlora 904. St. Savin Sfl.1. Montniorillon ai6. L'lile Jourdain 907. Ctvr >y 808. Melle 90n. Niort ' 910. Mauxe 911. Sauxe SOUTH PARI. 33. ITxaroha rrelgnao Tulle Tutanna 37. r VII. Tarn and Ga- ronne VIII. Lot and Oa- IX. Doidogna X. Bordeaux 38.Thiviara 3D. Nonlion 40. Branlonn 1i&'a'l!u"Il" iberac lucidaa ilbouma Air* MontueMaiwt I. Sever onftirt It.Vlneenl rrahorada Eapiil -'aiielnan 53.1 Bueh Province of SAINTONOE AND AUNIB. 54. Caairea 55. Bordeaux 56. Creon 57. La Reolle inda It. I layonne '.JeanPMd* ,'orl Jaulaon \\% Oleron NavarraiiM 114. Orlhea IllPa-i"- Province of B%^^AND XV. .^eg* 0. T»l>ea ^, , rgellei J9I. Lux 198. Bagnerta 193. BarraDcolin 194.1 195.1 lagnerea du ichor /> urvey. 01. AIra Mont ila MuMi 1. B«ver lanft)rt l«.Vln««i« I. Eipilt iironae \ Inn fMit ituboD 07.1 <«. 00. lai jron Niyantiu 1 14. Otlhei "and 118. XI m^.ni. ne« . Arriec* rirbai XV. m-i }io.A„.iiM 191. Lui ISS. Bagnem 183. gairagcolin 134. Bagiwrea du Luchon 133. BtGiroiM 'araaooa iSi. Pamien Provinea of LANQITEDOC. X^ffl'pWa. XVII. ffi li?:?f.Sfft;?&'' 33. BirSulpiee 34. Orenads «vaur 35. Tonlaiia* Murat 36. U: 9. Canrea 0. Sl Oauden 41. St. Beat Sner$, I S«!ne I Divea Ouro Vire Ouit Vilaine I^ire I Mayenne Baitha Loiro BeauTron LcCher ■Indro 1 Cti I Vii lenna 'ha rente 'roniw lie lordogne ezcre ^ot Qarcnna .TejroD am aatwdePtu 4" Ti DOOK I. .tmtJ FRANCE. M .fe-.;ui Aiy Sbot. I. — Oeneral Outline au* /jipeet. EVance is bounded on the North by the Channel, whicli ^oparates it fVoro England, and NORTH PART. J). Youtl*™ Proviiii'« 111' pLANnKRH. Ucpartment of I. The Nuilh. 1. Mauliniive 8. Aviwiaa 3. LnnilrnciP i. Le Cnteau . I 'anibnii 0. Valcnclennoa ", bouiiy , It. Ainanu .ill« Rtferencei to the Map qf Prance.— EaU Part jaaobrouck ;iitwl tunkirk Uravelinoi. Prnvinrn of ART019., Pttinrt menl of tlU II.HtrniliirCulam. 14. Arili-ca 15. Bl. Oinor 1(1. Aim 19. Sl. Pnl 80. Batliuno 81. Airai 98. Bapaume. Prnvinro of PlCAllDY. Dnnrtmrnt of HI. Summo. 33. Douleiia 34. Amioni . Pcrnnno 71. AltiRnr 73. Airaiii 74. Khelirn 7.t. Oourtainon 77'. 81. MAnehoud 7H. Chalona 7It. Rpernay 8(1. Ilorinant HI. Mniiiiniiail m': Vilry'Iur Marne !'£ V^^^sTal M. Sl Rtmr |,|fl. (),„„„, HI. Kainaiii 1,17. Hajunnon m. Arcliiur Aube ,m. llui„guy HH. Mnnilly 1B9. Pule Hit. Npaonl lui nn i>,,ii,n. XX. Douba XXI. Jura. I.M. Lure IM. Luxeuil MA. Jumiy 1I»I.V«uul 557. tjhamplilte 3t), Uainpiarre ISU. «ruy ino. (!y IHI. lliiumo 108. Muniliclinrd 1113. Hl.ilyixilila IA4. 1.0 r.uMuy ProvincB of THR \S\A'. OP FRANCE. Dtv(irtm$ntt. IV. Oinu V. Peine Vl.Smneandpiioiii. Mil VII. Bflino and j yi, Ne Mame "" ~ VIII. Aiino. 89. Breteull 30i Beauvaia 31. Clermont a. Nuyoii 33. Compiogno 34. Cn»pir 35.8anliB 36. Moru 37. Pontoiw 38. |t. Donie 39. Luzarchoa 40. Dammailin 41. Mcaux 48. Coulommier 43. Marullea 44. Paria 45. Sceaux 4A. Veraallica 47. Ciirbeil 48. Ktanipea 49. Mrlun 50. Fontainebleau Vemoure Heine no, Triiyoe 01. Chaouree 98. Bat lui tieine It). (!!luirvau< (M. Bar lur Aube US. Muntieieiwui nn. VaMr 97. jiiinvilla IN. Chaumonl Oil. Auberlve inu. Iianirea 101. FuyloBillnt 108. Biiurbi>nne loi Hnlni 109. Bourmont. Province ol' I.ORKAINB. Dtpartmcntt. XIII Voegos XVI. Mowllc. 104. Signeville lUS. Plombleroa 100. F.pinai 107. Romiromont IIH. Oernrdmer 1011. 8t. niu no. Rcmbervillor ,jrec«urt eufchntoau 113. Gondreeouit 114. Bar le Duo 115. Vaocouleura 1 16. Cnmmoic/ 117. Toulon IIB. Nuncy 110. Luniiville 180. Raon 181. Sarrubnum 8;KI. Hnncrm 8:4. Vidrn>n 8:I.V n.iumri lEIH. Chiiiiiaiinnnf 3J7. Chateau Mvil- lant 8:«. Bl. Amend S30. Tllnl WO. Hanoerguaa. Province of NIVERWAIB. Department of XXVIII. Nievie. Sll. Novnri 84'». I .a Charlie U4!l. Come 941. Clnmecy 845. (/'hninpliiml 940. (,'oiliivny 947. t^hiileauCliinxn 848. Miiulinn un Uil- Imrt 940. Doi'izo 48. Riom 4i 'I'l ■«, 170. Pu Igny 171. B»iiiii ir.1. Kdflhrjuan 173. Nouvd 174. (JIttirnvnux ^^„ ^ - „. , 17.5. LuniluSaulnicr »«). Su Piorro lo 176. Ooriun Mouiicr. 177. Bt. Cluudo. PrnvincB of BURtJUNDY. Dtpartmtiilt, XXII. AIn XXItl. Baonnnnd Lniru XXIV. Cole (I'Or XXV. Yonne. 17H. Nanliia -„ ,,, 179. Korl.lul'Ecluio5.:>Q. Coiwl 180. Bovnel 8.57. (Janjiat 181. Uulivy 1H9. Piincin ]8'.l. Mount Luol 184. 1'rovoux IRS. ChalBmont Prnviiipft of BOI/UnONNAIB. J)n/nrtinrnt of XXIX. Allier. 851. Uourbnn-l'Ai- chnmlmull 8.Vi. Moiilina S.U Donjon 8.14. Vaicnnoa a.'i.S. l.a Paliiao a-'ia St. Pourcain 9.51). Hnriiwin 8U0. ...ont Lucon. 186. Buurg 187. Macon 188. Port du Vmx 180. Cluny 100. Bemur un Bri- onnoia 101. Charollee 198. Bourbon- La ncy 103. M.Bl. Vincont 104. TournuB JOS. Kumenay r • • IM. Irfiuhnna 107, (/'halonno 108. Chiiluna 100. Nolay 9IX). Monicenia 901. Antun 808. Baulieu BOIirH PART. ProvlnP.H tti' MARCHB. JD»ar(iiini( erfsction all the ind commodious. 9mal navigation; sts. The Loire, >ws for some time m opposite direc* equal stream has irse, which it fol- till after a course of Nantes. The imid the eternal 9t course beneath It now expands enters France, )ringing down an Tho Rhone, a rapid course In this course, its entire length notion as flowing due north till it west and north- from the north, Paris it is navi- some ext. nsive fmg those of the into an estuary, a course of still [it plain, the most importance. It assumes a steady he Lot, and the ^. capable of re» i}r for somewhat and have most :heldt, also rises ■a. here the older Normandy, with BnoRl. PRANCE. 631 Britany and Anjou; the northern aide of the Pyrenees; the ''"partmenta of the Lower Alpi. Upper Alps, and par* of the Mre ; Central France, or th j table-land of France ; central part of the Voeges ; and the Ardennes. (1.) We$tem Normandy, Britony, and Atyou. In this region the rocks are partly Nep- tunian, partly Plutonian: the Neptunian strata are gneiss, mica slate, clay slate, grey< wacke, quartz rock, and limestone; the Plutonian rocks are granite, syenite, greenstone and poTDnyrv. (2.) Northern rde ./ the Pyreneei. On the French side of the Pyrenees the central rocks are nf primitive formation, and consist of mici slate, clay Hlate, •limestone, or marble; reposing upon these, and forming the great body jf the range, are rocks of the transition class; viz. clay slate, grey wacke, and transition 'imestone. (8.) Departmente efthe Lower and Upper Alp$, and part qfliire. In this mountainous region there are magnificent displays of many of the more interesting formations of the primitive and transition classes. (4.) Central table-land or plateau qf France. The centre of France is occupied by a vast table-land or plateau of old rocks, in general granite, which forms the mountains of Burgundy, tlie Limousin, Aveyion, Arddche, and the Cevennes. It is more than eighty leagues m breadth fVom the heights of Limoges ; but in proceeding towards the south, it grv dually ihiiio off, and terminates in a point which connects it with the Montagne Noire. This latter group of old rocks forms a kind of peninsula, which is separated from the Pyrenees, by a longitudinal basin of secondary ana tertiary formations. The acclivities of this central granitic table-land, and some of its hollows, are covered more or less densely with newer rocks of various descriptions. Besides these, there occurs on its eastern part a splendid diitplay of volcanic rocks. The primitive and transition rocks of this table-land are tne following; viz. granite, porphyry, talc slate, serpentine, gneiss, clay slate, grey wacke, and limestone. (6.) Central part q/* the Votge$. The oldest rocks in this range of mountains, and which are said to belong to the transition class, are the following : granite, syenite, hornblende rocks, ^eenstone, red quartziferous porphyry, augitie porphyry, dolomite, diallago rock, serpentme, talc slate, clay slate, greywacke, with anthracite, granular and compact marble or limestone. (6.) Ardennes. That part of this range of mountains included within the limits of France, which belongs to the older part of the goognostical series, is composed of various clay slates, with greywacke, all of which seem to belong to the transition class. Secondary districta. The lower and flatter parts of France which extend from the primi* tive and transition districts, are composed of secondary and tertiary depo^'it.q, more or less covered with alluvial matters; and in some quarters intermingled w't' ,lcaii rocks. The secondary formations are arranged in the same order, and exlii' inilar relations with those already described in our account of Britain. The mountain limestone and coal forma- tions form, when contrasted with their abundance in Britain, bi ' a amall portion of the sur- &ce of France ; while the new red sandstones, with the sones of the Jura limestone, in- cluding the oolites, form great tracts of country. Chalk, or jpperimostrock of the secondary series, occurs in vast abundance, forming two basins, the >ne the northern, extending in length from the northern extremity of Artoistothesouth»'rn limit of Touraine, and in breadth from Havre de Grace to near Bar le Due. The northern side of Uie southern basin extends fVom Rochefbrt to Cahors, and the southern side ranges along the northern face of Uie Pyrenees. Tertiary diatricte. France is remarkable on account of the great extent of its tertiary deposits ; of these the following may be considered as the principal onc<; : — 1. That of which Paris forms the central point ; which extends towards the north as high as Laon, and south- ward to Blois ; while it stretches across from Pontoise on the west to Epemay on the east 2. The great southern deposit, which extends from the south side of the river (rironde to the south bank of the river Adour. 3. The south-eastern deposit, which covers part of the De- partments of Herault, Gard, Mouths of the Rhone, Var, and Vaucluse. 4. The deposit in the vallny of the river AUier, and that in the upper part of the course of the Lbire. 5. The great deposit in the course of the Rhine and Sadne, extending from about Valence to Dijon. 6. The tract along the Rhine, extending fVom Basle to the neighbourhood of Carlsrhue. Volcanic districta. True volcanic rocks occur in France only in the great central table- land or plateau ; in the Departments of Loire, Upper Loire, Cantal, and Puy de Ddme. The volcanic rocks are basalt and basalt tuflk ; trachyte with its tuflk ; and lava, with its tuths, scorite, &c. The newest of these rocks are the lavas ; while the basalt and trachytes appear of more ancient date, altliough still not very old, as we find them breaking through rocks of the tertiary class. Attuvial districts. Alluvia of every description occur in France. Diluvium or the olij alluvium ferms extensive tracts iu many quarters of the kingdom, where it contains remains of extant species of animals, of which the most characteristic are those belonging to the order pachyderma. as the elephant, rhinoceros, &c. Diluvium is also found in caves alocjr Vou L 44* 8 5i2 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. PAnrin with bones of extinct animola, particularly of the carnivorous genera : and rents and (lasureii ill RtratA are sometiinoa filled up with a diluvium also containing remains of extinct animals, ot whioit the most ciiaracteristic are the small herbivora. Bono caves and bone breccia occur at St Antonin and St Julien near Montpelier; at Billar^cs, Vendar^ucs, and Pezo< naa-Uorault ; at Anduze and St Hippoly to, in Gard ; at Aix, in the department of the Mouths of the Rhone ; at Villcfrancho and Lauraguais, in the Upper Garonne ; and at Per- Signan, in the Eastern Pyrenooa. Tiiis diluvium is covered, to a (greater or leas depth, with ifl Torious well-kno^n kinds of modern alluvium and of vegetable soils. WA'V * . ' t.'iN/; fe. Mines and Quarries, Coal mines. Coal of various descriptions, as glance, bituminous, and brown coal, are vined in the followins departments in France, oAbrding annually but a small return for so vast a country : — Auier, Aveyron, Mouths of the Rhone, Calvados, Gard, Ilorault, Isdre, Upper Loire, Lower Loire, Mayeniio and Loire, Moselle, Nitivro, Nortli, Pas do Calais, Puy do D6mo, Upper Rhine, Lower Rliine, Lower Sa6no, and Tarn. Iron mines. Iron mines, some of them of considerable importance, occur in tho following depiirtineiits : — Ardennes, Cliarente, Cher, C6te d'Or, Dordoffnc, Doubs, Euro, Euro and Loir, Forets, Indre, Indro and Loire Is^rc, Jura, liowcr Loire, Upper Marnc, Moselle, Niovro, North, Orne,UpperRliine, Lower Rhine, Upper Saflno, Sadne and Loire, and Vosges Mines of silver and lead. The principal lead mines and silver mines are tiio following :— Minn* nf Qulittnli of I.A111I Marcii of Silver .- Flnisterre Pniilliuicn obaut R,nnO ISOO . , . ' Litto lliK'lvoRt :i,(HIO IVUO . Liiiire Villefort IP.OdO 1500 " Isiro Viuimo 1,31K) — Copper mines. These are situated in the following departments : — Upper Alps, Rhone^ Rliinc and Moselle. Mines qf manganese. This metal is mined at Roman^chc and St Micaud, in the depart* mont of the Sa6ne and Loire ; at Suquet in Donlogne ; in the mountain of Tholey in Mo- selle ; at Laveline, near Saint Dier, in the Vosges ; and at Saint Jean de Gardoncnque in the Covennes. Mines of antimony. Antimony occurs in the provinces of Charente, Upper Loire, La Vendee, Cantal, Allier, Gard, and Puy de D6me. Mines of vitriol and alum. Tho principal mines of sulphate of iron or vitriol arc those of Saint Julien de Valgargue, near Alais, which furnishes annually 80,000 quintals ; and tliat of Bccquet and of Goincourt, near Beauvais, which in some years affords 15,000 quin- tals ; tliat of Ural, in the department of Aisne, and of Gersdorf, in the department of Lower Rhine. There are celebrated manufiictories of alum at Montpelier, and at Javelle near Paris. Some considerable beds of rock-salt have been discovered at Vic, in the department of Meurtlic. One of these is upwards of fourteen yards thick, and another has not as yet been cut through. Although cobalt arsenic, nickel, and tin also occur in France, nc consi- derablc mines of those minerals have been established. Quarries. Tho most extensive quarries are those of marble, building-stone, slate, gyp. sum, millstone, and flint Different kinds of marble are raised at Givet Brabantjon, Mods, Namur, Boulogne sur Mer, Caen, Troyes, Montbar, Cosne, Toumus, Narbonne, Aix, Mar- seilles, Tarb, and in many valleys in the Pyrenees. There are quarries of excellent building- stone in tlie departments of Iji Manche, Calvados, Moselle, Cdte d'Or, Yonne, Oise, Seine, Loire, Dordogne, and in many departments in the south. Vast slate quarries are worked in tlie departments of La Manche, Meuse, Ardennes, Maine and Loire, and at tho foot of the Pyrenees. In many other places, and particularly in Champagne, &c., there are quarries and pits of clay for brick and tile-making. The gypsum of the neighbourhood of Paris, the chalk of the departments of Marne and Seine, the talc named chalk of Briancon, the mill- stone or buhr-stone of Ferte sous Jouarre, are objects of considerable commercial importance. The departments of Yonne, Cher, and Lower Charente, supply all France and different foreign nations with gun-flints. Among the clays met with m France, that of Forges les Eaux, was formerly in great r mte in Holland for the manufacture of pipes; the clay or earth of Belkeuf, near Rouen, considered an excellent material in the purifying of sugar; and tlie potters* clay of the vicinity of Beauvais and Montereau, and the porcelain earu or kao-lin of Saint Yrieix, near Limoges, are highly esteemed. SvBSECT. 2. — Botany. Having devoted already so great a portion of our space to preluninary remarks upon vegfr' table geography on its more extended scale, and to that of Great Britain in particular, we must content ourselves with a more limited account of the plants of other countries; other- wise we should greatly overstep the bounds prescribed to us by the nature of the present work. Following the plan here adopted for the arrangement of tlie diflerent countries, France comes next under our notice ; and a more interesting field for tlie geographical bota- nist does not exist in Europe ; not only because of its extent and vast variety of surface the TT-' ''^TPr»7'y'.^ Part in onts and fissureti oxtinct animal*, nd bone breccia gues, and Pezo* partRient of the ne ; and at Per* leas depth, widi H"' ■iit ■:' i, -Jt !«* brown coal, are ill return for so , Ilorault, Is^re, a do CalaiB, Puy in Iho followine Eure, Euro ana Marne, Moselle, )irc, and Vosges Iho following:— Mun of Silver 1300 imra 1300 per Alps, Rhonei id, in the depart* )f Tholey in Mo. ! Gardonenque io Upper Loire, La vitriol are those )0 quintals; and jrds 15,00() quin* rtment of Lower at Javelle near 1 the department er has not as yet iVance, nc consi- itone, slate, eyp- rabangon, Mens, onne, Aix, Mar- cellent building- no, Oise, Seine, are worked in the foot of the re are quarries kmI of Paris, the ancon, the mill- cial importance. :e and different t of Forges les s; the day or fyin^- of suMr; celain eorw or urks upon veg©' particular, we lun tries, otier- of the present rent countries, graphical bota- of surface tlie Book L FRANCE. i.lti' '•^.^M 628 ^at height of its mountains, and its geoloffical structure ; but oecause, by the .abouYs ol' its naturalists, especially Lamarck and De CandoUo, the vegetable productions of Franco have been better explored tlian those of almost any other country in the world. All that we can do here, however, is to notice in general those that |ire Uie most mteresting, flrom Uieir utility, their beauty, or some circumstances connected with their history ; or as diowing how vegetable forms or groups are situated, in regard to their distribution, upon the surfhco of the earth. France, extending, as it does, ftom lat. 42° 80' to 61° N., or nearly to the latitude of London, and flrom 9° east longitude, to 5° west, is bounded by the Mediterranean, and the RToat chain of the Pyrenees on the south; by the Atlantic on the west; by the British Channel and the Netherlands on the north ; and on the ejist by Savoy, Switzerland, and Ger- many, which form, for its entire length, a vast mountam barrier. Such an alpine region '.annot fail to exert a manifest influence on the vegetation of a country ; not only because *" its own peculiar productions, depending in part on their elevation, and in part on their soil and geological structure, but by their exposure even at the same elevation, on two oppo- site sides ; that of the south will be found to exhibit very different vegetable forms fVom that of the north ; and such mountains often exercise a more powerful influence in limiting the surrounding vegetation, t'lan even seas and rivers. Ijimarck onaDe Can/iolle, in a very interesting Botanical Map which accompanies their Flore Prangaige, 3d edit^ have divided France into five regions :— (1.) The region of ma'itime plants, which of course extends everywhere along the coast, from Ostond to Bayonno m the north and west, and from Pcrpignan to Oueille on the Medi- terranean ; together with the Salines of Dieuze and Chftteau Salins near Nancy, and those of Durkheim and Frankonsthal near Mayence in the interior. Thus we find that a vegeta- tion similar to that of the sea-shore exists in the interior, whenever that interior yields a sufficient quantity of marine salt. All the maritime plants of the north of Franco, accord- ing to M. de Candollo (and they have the greatest affinity with those of England), are eaually found in the south; but the reverse does not hold good; for a very large proportion of the French Mediterranean plants of the sea-shore grow very sparingly, if at all, upon the shores of the Ocean, principally indeed on the coast of Gascuny, and reach no higher than the mouth of the Loire, or at most to the middle of Britany. (2.) The region of mountain and alpine plantt. When the French, by their conquests^ included the Pyrenees, the Alp^, and Savoy within the range of the floras of their own country, this region constituted the very richest of any flora in Europe; for it included a country, not only of considerable extent, but mountains, and in very southern latitudes, monv of whose crests rise greatly beyond the line of perpetual snow. As France is now limited, the mountains of the Vosges near Strasburg, and of the Cevennes, and those of Auvergne, whose origin is volcanic, exhibit its most alpine scenery : among the latter, the Puy de Sasi, one of the Monts d'Or, rises to an elevation of 6300 feet above the level of the sea. The Plomb du Cantal is estimated at 6200, and tlie Puy de Ddme at 6000 feet. If the summits of the Pyrenees and of the Jura be considered as formi ,' the natural barrier of France, as constituting her line of separation from the adjacent territories, she will still possess an exceedingly rich alpine flora in the nortliern side of the former and the western side of the latter mountains. But the line of demarcation of this region is nevertheless not so distinctly marked as in the preceding region. The valleys exposed to the sun often pa:cicip:>^e in the vegetation of the soutiiern provinces, while the cooler valleys exhibit a growth which has more in common with the vast plain in tlio north and centre of France. However, it is undeniable that these same districts do contain a very considerable number of plants which arc peculiar to them, and found on almost all the more elevated mountains of France ; for whatever diflfbrences the chain of the Vosges and the Jura may present from those of Au- vergne, the Cevennes, and the Pyrenees in the south, it is allowed that the aepect of their vegetation offers considerable traits of similarity, and that the greater part of the mountain plants are alike found on the dififerent chains. (3.) A third region, and a very important and interesting one, is that of the Mediterranean plants: this, of course, is bounded on the south by the Mediterranean Sea, and stretches inland till you come to the foot of the mountains, or following the course of the Rhone, extending north as fiir as Montelimart on that river; or it may be said to occupy or constitute the great basin of the mouth of the Rhone. (4.) A vast region is occupied by the plains, whose vegetation is very uniform. This comprises more than one-half of France, and especially all the plain counti^ situated to the north of the chams of mountains. Many of these plants are found in other regions already mdicated ; but it wants the species which are peculiar to each of those respectively. (5.) and lastly — M M. Lamarck and De Canuulle indicate an intermediate region, which mcludes plants partaking of the nature of the plains of the north and the provmces of the south. This occupies a large portion of the south-west of France, and some districts up pie valley of the Rhone between Montelimart '•.nd Lyons. The map just alluded to has these diflercnt regions represented in diflerent colours, and AS4 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. is attended with this advantage, that, by the sligfhtest inspection, a general idea is conveyed of the prevailing nature of vegetation in any given district We see that Uie plants of the southern provmoes resemble more those of Uie north as you advance by the west side of ^nce than by the east; that tho floras of Mans on the border of Normandy, and of Nantes .pon the Loire, in lat 47° and 48''', scarcely differ firom those of Dax and Agen, between lat, 430 and 44" ; whilst on the east side of FVance, the productions of D^on and Strosburg vary considerably flrom those of Montpelier and Aix, situated at nearly similar relative distances from each other. All this is accounted for on the principles we have already laid down, namely, that the stations of plants are mainly influenced by temperature; and that the mean temperature of a place is greatly determined by distance fVom the equator, and elevation above the level of the sea. According to M. de Condolle, an altitude of 460 feet above the level of the sea aifocts the temperature nearly to the same extent as a degree of latitude nearer to the north in the eastern jiemisphere. By comparinff the western provinces of France with the eastern, we see that the surface of the former is but litUe raised above the level of the sea ; for, even at a considerable distance fh>m the coast, tiie hills scarcely exceed 300 feet; whilst, on the other hand, upon the western side, in tho midst of a mountainous region, the plain has generally an elevation of from 1300 to 1600 feet. This height dimini^es, it is true, on tho Belgian frontier; but there tlie temperature is sensibly affected by the second cause adduced, namely, the distance from the equator. Thus, there is nothing but what is conformable to physical laws, in the southern plants having a greater resemblance to those of the north upon the west, than on the east side of France. But even where the mean temperature is the same, the distribution of plants between these two parts of France may yet be very different, on account of the different degrees of temperature at particular seasons of the year. We have already stated that, the ktitudes being the some, maritime countries enjoy a more equal temperature than districts removed from the sea ; in other words, that the summers are less warm, the winters less cold : thus, the provinces of the west of France, which are all maritime, experience this degree of uni- formity ; which cannot take place in the east, being for iVom ihe sea, and in the vicinity of the mountains. Plants now, in what concerns climate, maybe divided into two classes: those which suffer from a severe winter cold, but which, during summer, do not require an excess of heat ; and those which can endure great severity of cold in winter, but, during summer, require a mat proportion of heat m the first class, M. de Candolle places all those tree; which, wiuiout being resinous, preserve their leaves, and consequently their sap, through the winter; in fact, the greater proportion of the trees of the south being found, whether indigenous or naturalised, towards the north in the maritime provinces ; such as the Live Oak, the Cork Tree, the Kennes Oak, the Strawberry Tree {Arbuttu), the Bay, the Fig, Dock I. HwOUtb. ThA Vina. the' Phillyrea, &e. On the other hand, in the second class, that is to say, among such as can brave a great degree of cold, and do so because the movement of the sap is interrupted 272 Book I. ""■■■'■ PRANCE. '"■'■''*' ^ by tho fall of tho foliage, ia tho Vine, &c., and thoso that avoid cold because the plants, or at leoet thoir stemB, are annual, such as Maize. It may bo readily supposed that the indi- riduuU belonging to tho second class will flourish better, and become more easily naturalised on tho cast than on the west coast of France. Let us applv this law to a peculiarity in regard to the cultivation of those most precious vegetable productions of France, namely, the Olive {Ag, 270.), the Maize, and the Vine {fig. 271.). Mr. Arthur Young, during his travels in France, paid great attention to agri- culture and the mode of cultivation adopted thore, and published a map of the countrv, in which he represented, by tliree nearly parallel lines, the northern limits of the three plants just alluded to, the Olive, tho Maize, and the Vine. It excited the surprise of many, that the linos should ascend most to the north on tho cast side 'f the country, or, in other words, that tho planfs in question should grow farther north in the eastern than in the western districttj ; directly the reverse of what takes place in regard to the aboriginal native produc- tions of the soil. Tliis apparent contradiction is reconciled by the twofold comparison of the physical nature of the cost and west of France, and of the character of the plants cultivated, as compared with the wild species. The nature of the cultivated productions in question forms a striking feature, which can- not fail to arrest the attention of a traveller while journeying through the districts thus appropriated, and forcibly to exhibit their agricultural riches. In the extreme south of France, between a line drawn from Narbonnc, in lat 43° N. and in the merdian of Parisi to a little below Grenoble, he will And the plains, parched and dry as they naturally are, rendered still more melancholy by the lurid green of tho olive-groves. Between that line and another drawn from the mouth of the Garonne rather below 46°, to near Strasburg, in the north-west, he will observe, together with the vine, which is by no means wanting in all the southern provinces, fields where the gigantic maize (Jiff. 272.) takes the place of what we usually term bread-corn ; again, between it and a line pxii! < ' ^'om the mouth of ue Loire to the Rhine, passing u> n equal distance between the Mouse and tho lilos i will find, intermingled with vuieycrds, fertile fitiub or com, wheat {fig. 273.), oats, and barley ; whilst, north of that line, there exists a most perfect simi- larity in agriculture with that which prevails throughout the greater part of England. Fruit trees of all the Kinds that are grown m Britam, here attain a much greater degree of perfection than in that country, because or the increased heat of the summers. Thus, in what concerns a great portion of the territory of France, its vegetable productiona much resemble those of the southern parts of Great Britain. It is not, perhaps, generally known that that most useful root, the Potato, was cultivated in almost every part ot Europe before its value was appreciated, and its culture became general, near the capital of France. To England is due the credit of first growing it upon a large scale. Upon the Continent it was introduced Mtween me years 1714 and 1724 into Swabia, Alsace, and the Palatinate ; and in 1730 to the vicinity of Berne. In 1774, potatoes were known on the mountams of the Cevennes, where they now constitute a main portion of the food of the people : but ° The HaiM. it is principally to the famous M. Parmentier mat France owes the general use of potatoes. The fbllowing anecdote may give some idea of the assiduity with which this philanthropic individual laboured to generalise their culture : it is well attested that he farmed some spots of ground in the vicinity of Paris for this sole purpose, though the prejudice against potatoes was tlien so strong, that few of the poor persona to whom he ottered the roots would accept of Jiem. However, M. Parmentier soon suspected that people occasionally stole his potatoes to eat them : he was well pleased at this, and continued to plant what he hoped would be piirlomed, rightly concluding that the experience of the thieves would contribute to diminish the established prejudice. Afler much trouble and many years, he had succeeded in propagating potatoes in several situations, when the dreadful scarcity, the consequence and effect of the revolutionary disturbances, suddenly rendered their cultivation universal; and now they form so constant an article of food, that the common people generally believe them to be aboriginal natives of the country. The mountains of France exhibit the British alpine plants, with many others that are peculiar to themselves, and which they possess in common with the higher Alps of Switzeiw nnd. Savoy, Germany, and the Pyrenees. Of the mtermediate region, as De CandoUe terms it, a great portion lyinv in the soath- 6i26 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pabt III, west of France, embraces a country called the Lande$, where the shepherd-poasantry whether walking, or at rest during the day, live upon rtUts {xcanguet, in the language o! '•• Vt '! 278 Wheat, Oati, and Barler. the country): thip custom gives them the opportunity of viewing the land around m starch of their sheep, for a great extent, of wading through the numerous shallow lakes of water; and by these means it is said they can tra- verse triple the space of ground they could do by the ordinary mode of walking ; wlien they stop, they support themselveb by a long stick behind. In this same district a vast extent of flat land near the ocean, and ex- tending from Bayonna in the south to the T^te de Budi in the north, and for a dis- tance of from four to twelve leagues inland, is occupied by forests of Pine {Pinus viari- tima) {jig. 274.) : these are called Pigna- das, and they give a remarkable feature to the Landes, in conjunction with the habits of the people and their dress, the latter consisting entirely of sheep-skins with the hair outwards, little different in outward appearance from the flocks which it is the great object of their lives to tend. The resinous substances of the pine are extract- ed in immense quantities ; in doing whicb one man takes care of 3000 trees, llie country being so dry, these pignadas arc liable to alarming conflagrations; one of them that took place in 1803, continued burning for two months. The motle adopt- ed for extinguishing them is remarkable : when one part of the forest is in flames, it is customarv tO set fire to another spot, at a greater or less distance, according to the magnitude of the evil; a current of air soon takes place between tlie burning masses, which drives the conflagration ^ from both sides on the intermediate trees; '''''* ^'"*' these are shortly consumed, the fire dies out fbr want of fuel, and the rest of the forest is preserved. But the Mediterranean region, which we have already mentioned, and whose vegetation partakes of what is found to characterize the whole shores of that vast inland sea, has many plants so different from those of the rest of France, that it would be unpardonable did we not particularise some of them. Almost everywhere in this region, the soil is described as consisting of the secondary limestone of the Jura, extending to the very brink of the sea, forming arid coasts, often utterly destitute of vegetation, or clothed with Wild Olives and the Aleppo Pine iPinui •••■v iiFwi^ip-T-^-;- Mij^uhTf Ji^iyw^." ' ' -: Part Hi. ipherd-poasantry the laof^uago oi Book I. FRANCE. 037 around in search V lakes of water; said they can tra- Ground they could of walking ; when jmeelvefa by a long me district a vast lie ocean, and ex- the south to the rth, and for a dis* ve leagues inland, ^ine {Pinus mari- ire called Pigna- irkable feature to with the habits dress, the latter ep-skins with the jrent in outward which it is the to tend. The pine are extract- in doing which mo trees. Ihe ese pignadas arc grations; one of 1803, continued The mode ndopt- is remarkable: st is in flames, it another spot, at according to the current of air en tlie burning ■le conflagration rmediate trees; id, the fire dies vhose vegetation \d sea, has many nable did we not f the secondary rid coasts, often po Pine iPinus halepetuii), with Evergreen Oal(, PiaU "hiivNut, Myrtles, and nmnerou9 species of Cistus. Here, too, is found one species of Palm, le » .iitt..'««ropB humilis {Palmetto or Dwarf Palm) ; but it grows principally ) the environs of Nice. Al the opposite extremity of the Medi- terranean region, namely, about Roussillon and Provence, and there only in the hotter parts, are seen the Indian Fig {Cactus Turux), and the American Aloe {Agave americana) : the mtro duction of these is due to the Spaniards, who brought them to Europe from the New World. Schouw regards the Mediterranean shores in general as the kingdom of the Caryophyllev and Labiutm ; this latter liimily especially abounds in the south of France, and particularly the genera Phlomls, Teucrium, Thymus, Lavandula, and others, remarkable lor their aro- matic qualities. In the same places, and always on very stony ground, the elegant Coria mnnspelicnsis excels the heaths of Britain in ber.uty. The mulberry is cultivated through- ^ ou* this territory ; and among other useful fruits, the Fig, the Jujube, the Pomegranate, the Date, and the Pistachio, all arrive at great perfection. The Orange can scarcely bo said to be cultivated without shelter in any part of France. It is grown, however, and somewhat extensively, at the Isles d'Hieres, and in the vicinity of Nice, that happy climate which is probably unequalled by any part of Europe. Com, which is but a secondary article of cul- ture, ripens at a very early period ; so much so that it is not unfrequent to carry barley which has been reaped on the coast into the mountains, where the seed is sown, and a second crop is produced the same year. Many plants may be here enumerated which this country pos- sesses in common with Greece and Italy, and even the Spanish peninsula, and which seem to accompany the Olive. Mirbel has drawn up the following list of woody kinds, which inhabit these provinces : — Pinus Pinaster, and Pinea, Juniperus phoenicea and Oxycedrus, Quercus Ilex, Suber and coccifera, Celtis australis, Ficus Carica, Osyris alba, Laurus nobilis, FVaxuius Ornus, Phillyrea la< blia and angustifolia, Jasminum fructicans, Vitex Agnus- castus, Nerium Oleander, Diospyroa Lotos, Styrax ofiicinale. Arbutus Unedo, Viburnum Tinus, Tamarix gallica and africona, Myrtus communis, Punica Granatum, Philadelphus coronanus, Cratmgus Azarolus, Mespilus pyracantha, Ceratonia siliqua, Cercis Siliquostrum, Rhus Cotinus and Coriaria; Pistacia liCntiscus, Terebinthus, and vera; Rhamnus Alater- nus, oleoides, and infectoria ; Zizyphus vulgaris, Paliurus australis, Capparis spinosa, Melia Azedarach, Acer monspessulanum, &c. Hitherto the attention of naturalists in the study of vegetable geography has been direct- ed to those plants that grow upon the surface of the earth : Humboldt alone, in his Carte Oeographique des Planles, has indicated the station of some subterranean Fungi, and in a 275 general way has marked the ocean us the habitat of Ulvte and Fuci (/,^. 275.). It remained fo- M. d'Orbiguy tc describe to a certain extent at least, the Zones and Bands inhabited by the marine Algte (Sea-Weeds). This he accomplished upon the coasts in the Gulf of Gascony, and particularly on the shores of La Vendee and the Lower Charente, partly by diving to consider- able depths i.i the sea, and partly by means of drag-nets fixed to graduated cords ; and the results of his observa- tions are given in tlie Memoires du Museum SHistoire Naturelle, vol. vi. With extracts from this, ua we shall scarcely have again the opportunity of touching on this beautiful and interest- ing trite of plants, we shall conclude tliis sketch, already too much extended, of the vegetable geography of France. Maritime 1»lants, says M. d'Orbigny, grow in the most opposite temperatures : every country, every tttitude, and every situation possessing some which are peculiar to itself. Still, climate and temperature appear almost alike to many of thfese productions, which are found by voyagers in every different ocean, whih) others require particular spots and climes : some few preferripf-' the mouths of rivers, and the brackish waters of salt marshes, where the bitterness of the sea is modified by the admixture of fresh water, and in such situations attaining to an enormous size, as IJlva lactuca var. altissima, while to the greater number of these plants, fresh water proves absolutely destructive. As for those kinds which grow indifferently everywhere in the sea, they seem to be increased without any attachment to soliJ bodies, as Fuciis natans, &c. Banks of great extent formed by this plant, are often found within the tropics of such dimensions as to retard the progress of navigation. Some individuals among these groups may frequently be seen which bear the appearance of having been originally fixed to rocks, their flattened, disc-like stem yet retaining a portion of such substance. There seems to be ground for the supposition that, though those sea-weeds are capable of living and growing in tlie water, Ulvm and Fuci. 528 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY PaktIH Book I. unattached to any soil, yet that they must primarily spring from some lolid body, as no young plants of this kind are ever found between the tropics. Some of the Algn prefer the southern sides of rocks, others affect an eastt ., western, or northerr exposure ; but they change their position according to the difierence of latitude : those which are found on the southern side in cold climates, being generally seen on the northern in thb warm or temperate regions. Certam species live near the eurtace, and close to the sea-beach: others, at -arious decrees of depths: the first would seem to enjoy the regular exposure to light abl heat which they experience during the turnings of the tide; the second, on the contrary, shun the influences of the atmosphere ; and, growing and fructi- fying in depths whsre the light can scarcely ever penetrate, they bear, without receiving any injury, both the enormous column of water which constantly presses upon them, and the severe cold which exists in those regions. There are even parasitical Alga, which grow indifibrently upon all the others, and some which only affect peculiar species. Many sea-weeds prefer such spots as are exposed to the fury of the waves and the action of the currents, where they are perpetually floating in an agitated medium : othen dwell in the hollows of rocks, or m marme gulfs, where me water is generally calm. The lapse of a few da3rs puts a period to the existence of some kinds, whilst the tempests of successive winters fiiil to destroy others. The general aspect is apt to change in several individuals, 80 tiiat, were it not for more stable characters, derivable frY)m their fractification, texture, &c. they might be mistaken for novel species. A number of the more delicate marine plants are quickly destroyed by a removal from their native place of growth ; but the greater proportion, being coriaceous, and insoluble in salt water, live for a length of time in difierent situations ; and it is not uncommon to find, upon our own shores, the Alga of the most distant regions, which have traverbed the ocean, and yet remain unchanged in their general appearance. We must thence necessarily infer that it is not all the Alga that are found in any country that may be said to belong to that country. The proportions of marine plants are as variable as those of terrestrial ones. Some ore barely discoverable with the highest magii.fiers ; while others rise from the various depths - 'the mighty ocean, and, forming at its surfitce an angle of greater or less acuteness accord- ' . 'o the force and velo^i^ of the currents and the tides, then suflbi tbeir long summits to ' "1 on the waves, and receive the benign influences of atmospheric lignt and heat. During the great equinoctial floods, the sea often forsakes, periodically, certain rocks, which ore only uncovered at such times. If, during that interval, the sun shines forth, or the north ivind blows, many of the minute and delicate Alga, thus exposed, dry up and die; while othersj though equally circumstanced, revive immediately upon the return of the genial fluid. A certain proportion of marine plants are natives of the Prenoh seas, while we must refer the accession of many species to the force of the winds, waves, and currents, especially to that which generally goes under the name of Chty Stream, and is called by the French the Mexican Current. Ahnost all the northern Alga grow in the Gulf of Gascony. It is not so with those from the Mediterranean and Southern Ocean ; a very small number of them are there seen in a living state, and their almost northern limit never exceeds the mouth of the Loire, or at farthest the rock of Morbihan. Independently of the influence of teni' perature, this circumstance may be attributed in a measure to the current, which, generally setting in on these shores from north to south, brings the seeds and plants themselves of northern seas to these rocks, while those of southern growth are waflcd by the same current to Africa and the Atlantic. But few are the kinds of sea-weed which prefer any peculiar spot, or show a predilection for one substance above another whereon to fix. Deriving no nutriment from their roots or points of attachmejit, they need nothing farther than a temporary support ; thus, they cling mdiscriminately to any solid marine body, equally to granitic and calcareous rocks, to floating or sunken piecesof wood, to the bones of terrestrial or marine animals, to shells, polypi, &c. Notwithstanding that many highly respectable naturalists have averred that the growA of these plants proceeds with most vigour on such and such substances, on some or other peculiar rock, in the vicinity of rivers, or in the open sea ; it has been fully ascertained, by a great number of observations, that marine weeds do grow with equal vigour, though planted upon rocks or substances of very difierent natures; and that, if we except some few Viva, which affect brackish water, those which vegetate in situations where fresh water mingles with the salt, are generally bleached, produce little or no fructification, have a thin and weak texture, and contain but little soda. The qualities requisite for the different uses of which I shall treat hereafter, are only found united in such sea-weeds as grow in pure sea-water, where they have found a spot which is sufficiently tenacious to fix them in that zone of habitation which thev prefer. Some kinds certainly prefer sand or mud ; but then their roots become elongated, and strike deep, till they meet with some stone or shell or other body which may serve them ss a point of attachment, and offer the requisite degree of resistance. If the nature of the bottom appears indifferent, in a great measure to maritime plants; it is not so with the level which they select in the ocean, or with the distance of their birth- olace from the surface. Every species of maritime vegetable appears to affect, to as great 276 Voi^L Book I. FRANCE. 82U Ml extent as the terrestrial kinds, certain zones or regions of difTerent depths in the sea ; olacos where the superincumbent weight of water, and the relative proportion of light and caloric are adapted to its peculiar organs. Those individuals which are found towards the centre of their proper zone contain all the elements requisite for their perfect dnvelopement, and generallv show an active state of vegetation; they are vigorous, they fhii.tify at the season suitable to their degree of immersion, while those which grow at the extreme limit, or out of the bounds, of this same zone, prove languishing, fructify imperfectly, are always covered with marine animals which destroy them, and live but a short time m comparison with their well-situated conveners. The seeds which escape fh>m these plants would appear, by their various specific weights, to gain an eq^uilibrium equivalent to the column of water which they displace, or, in other words, to float m that peculiar zone which the future Alga would prefer to inhabit Those which become developed either above or below it, ore uie< vitably driven from their spot of nature or of election, by the agitation in the waves at the vicinity of the coasts. Lower down than a hundred feet irom the surface of the sea, (taking a medium between the high and low tides,) it is rare to find living sea-weeds in the Gulf of Gascony. and even these are attached to portions of rock severed from more elevated rocks, and before long they inevitably perish. It may be observed that the lower we investi^te the sea, the fewer will the number of plants appear, and the more numerous the polypi. For instance, below forty feet from the surface of the water, but very few Ulvce are found ; beyond sixty feet, no living Ceramium ; and after having descended to the depth of a hundred feet, not a Fucua is to be seen, and the vegetable kingdom wholly ends. 1st Zone, extending from one foot above the medium height of the sea to twenty feet below, is inhabited by Ulva compressa var. |3 ; U. intestinalis, ventricosa, Lactuca var. a ; Fucuspygmeeua,amphibius, &.c. 2d Zone, fi-om five feet below tlie medium height to thirty feet : — ulva articulata, Nostoc, bullata, fistulosa, Lactuca var, 3, umbilicalis, lanceolata, purpurea, Linza, contorts, serrata, dichotoma, crispa, pavonia, atomaria (1) ; Fucus vesiculosus, spiralis, ceranoides, serratus, canaliculatus, ceespitosus, laceratus, hybridus, longissimus, pinnatifidus, viridis, arbuscula festigiatUB, tenuiseimus (]), confer voides ; Ceramium spongiosum, rupestre, Mertensii.peni- cillatum, fucoides, nodulosum, gracile, linum ; Zostera marina and mediterranea ; Diatoma rigidum, flocculosum, &c. 3d Zone, from fifteen to thirty-five feet below the medium surface. Ulva ocellata, pal- mata,lingulata,polypodioides,caulescenB; Fucus longifructus, lumbricalis,bifurcatus,ericoides, barbatus, abrotwirolius, vermicularis, norvegicus, obtusus, asparagoides, Wigghii, verrucosus, helminthocortos ; Ceramium simplicifolium, casuaruia, cancellatum, coccineum, incurvum, elongatum, polymorphum, forcipatum, filum, capillare, glomeratum, elegans, &c. 4th Zone, from twenty to forty feet below the medium surface : — Ulva Phyllitis, saccho- rina, digitata, bulbosa, ciliata, edulis; Fucu3 nodosus, uvarius, fiircatus, ciliatus, alatus, plocamium, plumosus, comeus, gigartinus, aculeatus, plicatus; Ceramium verticillatum, equisetifolium, sericeum, scoparium, &c. 5th Zone, from thirty to sixty feet : — Fucus siliquosus var. o, purpurascens, ligulatus, pistillatus ; Ceramium coccineum, eegagropilum, &c. 6th Zone, from forty to a hundred feet : — The flattened Fuci ; F. siliquosus var. 3, loreus, sanguineus, fibrosus, coronopifolius, &c., and Ulva tomentosa, which is, in &ct, a polypus. SuBSECT. 3. — Zoology, The zoology of France assimilates less to that of central than of southern Europe. Not- withstanding the narrowness of its separation from Great Britain, it possesses many animals unknown as natives, or even as visiters, of that island. With re^rd to quadrupeds, this circumstance is not surprising ; for any channel of the sea, however narrow, forms an insur- mountable obstacle to the wanderings or migration of purely terrestrihl species: while others, of a semiaquatic nature are too small and feeble to effect the passogo. These con- siderations, however, are msufficient to explain the limited range of the smaller birds, hitherto found only upon the Continent. The distribution of insects is dependent, in a great degree, upon that of plants; and the numbers of both common in France, but unknown in Britam, are nearly proportionate ; on the calculation that has been made of six species of insects to one of plants. Amorg the wild quadrupeds of France is the wolf (Jig. 276.), which is still not uncommon in the wooded and monntninous districts: when pressed by hunger, it de- scends to the fiirms, and even attacks the inhabitants. The Wolf " The beaver is said still to exist in the southern parts , and probably the wild boar may not be wholly extirpated ToiU L 45 3 R ^ I»0 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. Book I. from tiie exifltrnff forests. Bears were once conunon, while three or four of tho smaller quad' "upeds appear peculiar to France. Several interesting and beautiftil birds, unknown or but rarely met with in Britain, arn here not uncommon ; such as the wood-chat {fig. 2T7.), shrike (Laniiw rufiu T.) the gross- beak or hawfinch, tho blue-throated warbler, and several others of the same famnv. In short, from the coni.ection of this country with the central and southern kingdoms of ifurope, the ornithologist might probably discover in France more than tliree-fourths of all the conti- nental birds. The marine productions of those provinces bordering on the Channel, as may be expected, do not offer any marked difference from those of the British coeets ; but on tlie warm shores of Nice and Marseilles the natu* ralist meets with numerous productions, indicative of the rich stores of the Mediterrarean Sea. The ento- mology of these southern provinces, in like manner, presents us with many of those more striking insects, which properly belong to the fauna of Italy. The beau- tiful Papilio Podaliriua {fie. 278.) so rare m England t!i8t its existence there is still doubted, is here a common insect. France hajs long stood foremost in prompting and illustrating the -■♦udy of nature; and a society comprising some of her most able zoologists is at this moment engaged in publishing a F^una Oallica, An abie and inde&tigable naturalist, M. Risso, has particu- cularly illustrated the fishes and Crustacea of Nice. It was near this place that one of tbs 278 The Wood- Mitn ZoDtla. Fapilio Fodaliriui. rarest and most beautiful shells of Europe, the Mitra xonata (Jig. 279.) was fished up by the anchor of a vcsael ; only one specimen is known to exist in collections. Among the domestic animals, the French horses are not very excellent ; yet those used in the public stages are strong, active, and compactly made ; nor ha:ve their masters copied the ridiculous and barbarous custom of disfiguring these animals, by cutting off their tails or ears. The stallions of England are much prized, and have been judiciously used to im- prove the native breeds. Tho oxen are of two races ; the one called bczufa de haul crii are of a middle or small size, with a fierce look, thick hide, and coarse hair ; they are principally bred in the moun- tainous provinces of Gascony, Auvergne, &c. The others are called baufs de nature, and are larger, with a mild aspect, tliin hide, and soft hair : they fatten easily, and belong to the plains. The native breeds of sheep, not in themselves good, have been of late sedulously and successfully improved. The Flemish breed, common both to Prance and the Netherlands, is generally hornless, with long legs, and is derived from an intermixture with those of Barbary. The Solognot are mostly without horns, and the wool is curled only at the ends. The Berichonne are likewise hornless, but are known by their long neck : the iice is covered with n"X)i; thpt on the body being fine, white, close, short, and curled. The RoustUlonne le mermo race; and has very fine wool, the filaments of the piles being Tjastly, the Ardennoise is homed, and bears a very fine fleece : this breed ver part of the Netherlands. (Ham. Smith.) »gant variety of the Domestic Cat is very common in some parts of France; ' e size of the common cat, and is bearded much in the same manner as is denvni twidtetl i.'pi. likewif ^ ext Al - . it is n^i^. the lynx. ^ECT. ni. — Historical Geography. Tho Gauls, the ancient inhabitants of France, and uie chief among the Celtic nations, were an active, powerful, and ambitious people. Their emigrant hordes repeatedly crossed the Alps, poeso'saed the whole north of Italy, once sacked the imperial city, and even pene- trated into Greece and Asia Minor. Both Switzerland and Belgium were then included as port of Gaul. The people, though still barbarous, had made some steps toward civilisation. paat m. smaller quad- in Britain, arn r T.) tho gross, no family. In oms of Europe, )f all the conti* nces bordering > not offer any ish coasts ; but lilies the natu< I, indicative of so. The ento- 1 like manner, triking insects, ily. The beau- are in England here a common udy of nature ; jnt engaged in 30, has particu- that one of the as fished upb; yet those used masters copied r off their tails sly used toim- niddle or small in the moun- de nature, and id belong to the sedulously and le Netherlands, with those of ly at the ends, facfl is covered RoussUlonnt the piles being ece : this breed arts of France; ame manner as Celtic nations, Batedly crossed nd even pene« Hen included aa rd civilisatioa Book L FRANCE. 631 The nobles and Druids enjoyed high power and influence, and had reduced the body of the nation almost to a state of vassalage. They combated with obstinacy, and made a long resistance to the progress of the Roman arms ; but being opposed to Cesar, the greatest of the Roman captains, after a war of twenty years, they were entirely and permanently subjected. The conversion of Oaul into a Roman province, though it humbled the chiefs and quelled the martial spirit of the people, was attended with many beneficial changes. Peace waa established ; cultivation and industry promoted ; Roman and even Greek literature intnr duced ;. and the people finally converted to the Christian tkith. The irruption of the Teutonic tribes, on the declino of tho Roman empire, waa early felt in Oaul, where the Goths, the Heruli, the Burgundians, and the confederacy called the Franks, overwhelmed and ravaged the whole kingdom, and drove the Celtic population and language into its remote and mountainous corners. Fi'om amid a chaod of convulsions, the vigorous hand of Clovis established the undisputed supremacy of the Franks, and founded the monarchy of France, The reign of Charlemagne, son and successor to Pepin, who from mayor of the palace had occupied the throne, formed the most brilliant period m French history. That eminent and powerful prince not only placed on his head the iron crown of Lombaray, but reduced to his dominion, aflcr a. long and obstinate resistance, the intractable tribes of Germany, who hod defied the utmost efforts of the Roman eagle. He penetrated also into Spain ; but the fierce encounter of the Saracens, and the disastrous adventure of Roncesvalles on his return, com- pletely stopped his career in that direction. Charlemagne, though himself illiterate, made some eflbrts to rekindle the declining light of science and letters in Europe. The contests among the successors of Charlemagne were attended with the most violent and bloody convulsions, and with continual changes in the position of the three great king- doms which composed his empire. At length it fell entirely to pieces. Germany retained the title of empire, an^l the claim to the dominion of Italy ; and m France the Carlovingian dynasty, or that of Charlemagne, having become extinct under Louis Outreme •, the throne was seized by the Capets, the most powerful among the noble French families. Hugh Capet, having in 987 assumed the title of king, the real power attached to which had already been exercised by his fkther, Hugh the Great, founded the present dynasty. The administration, however, was long marked by a strong feudal character, and a high spirit of independence among the great nobles, of whom the counts of Provence and Britany . and the dukes of Burgundy, ranked al^ jgether as separate and often hostile princes. The feudal age of France was also marked ,iy chivalric and eventful ware with England, which long held several of the finest provinces, and whose king, Henry V., was crowned at Paris; but from that seemingly approaching downfall, the monarchy, through the romantic exploits of the Maid of Orleans, suddenly revived, and became more mighty than before. The establishment of monarchical power in its plenitude was chiefly effected by the pro- found and insidious policy of Louis XI., favoured by the circumstances of the age. All France was united under the sway of the kings, who were thus enabled to form great armies, which, under Charles VIII. and Louis XII., overran nearly the whole of Italy. But it was under the gay and enterprising reign of Fnmcis I. that its energies were fuUv developed. It then, however, came into collision with the house of Austria, whoce extensive possessions in Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Italy, wielded by a powerful hand, secured to it during this period a decided, though not overwhelming, ascendant. The civil wars arising out of the persecution of tho Protestants agitated France ffar a very long time, and produced scenes of the most bloody and calamitous description. They lasted for a hundred years ; for the popular reign of Henry IV. could scarcely be considered as more than a truce. At length Richelieu, by the reduction of Rochelle, terminated the long strug- gle of the Protestants for religious liliertv, which in France alone, of all the countries where It was maintained upon a great scale, had this fatal issue. At the same time, this daring and despotic minister finally crushed the power and pretensions of the nobles, and formed l^Vance into a simple monarchy. The reign of Louis XIV., during which a single hand wielded all the energies called forth during the prior struggles, exhibited France more powerfiil than she had been since Charlemagne. The house of Austria, now divided into the German and Spanish branches, of which the latter had become weak and inert, was humbled b^ repeated blows, which at length almost threatened her existence. Franco seemed advancing in the career of univer- sal monarchy, when the interposition of England and the victories of Marlborough turned the tide of success, and rendered the lost days of Louis humiliating and disastrous. The final issue, however, by which a Bourbon was placed on the throne of Spain, and the conse- quent fiimily alliance, gave to France an increased weight, especially in the maritime con- cerns of Europe. The French revolution was an event attended with awful and mighty vicissitudes, so fresh in the memory of the world, ^hat it would be quite superfluous to attempt to enumerate them. Afler tearing up France by the roots, and holding all Europe in chains; after exhibiting 533 DRaCRIFTIVE QEOORAPIIY. Pam ni during twonty yetn the viciHitudoi of ropublicaniim, total anarchy, and pure deipotiam ; at length, by a mtffhtr re-action, it tenninatcd nearly at the noint Irotn which it cointnencnd. France, however, obtained checkn on the arbitrary power or her monarchs, which, notwith- ■tanding their oppoaition, ahe rendered more and more eiToctive. At lenc^th Charlca X., hdvinff rashly attempted to break throtigh nil tho limitN placed on bin authority, was driven ftom Ilia throne, which waa til'od by Louis-l'liilippe, head of tho collateral lino of Orloaoi, under the title of King of the French. Shot. W, — Political Oeography, Tho political conatitution of France, prior to the Revolution, was n I most purely doapotio The prwilegea of the noblea conaiHtod iionrly altogether in unjust exemntiona lyotit taxation, and in eorvie$, or iniquitous and oppressive claima upon the labour of the peasantry. Tho only very salutary limi' to the royal authority consisted in the parliumonts, hereditary bodies, by whom the laws were very fairly and honourably administered ; and tho parliament of Paris had even the imprtant privilege of registering every new tax before it could become legal. The exorbitant powers veHted in tho ouvcroign being however inconsistent with the growth of national intelligence and the augnicnteu force of the tiers etat, a collision took place, the most terrible on record, which ended in the temporary sii)>v<pt away in tho Ir.te con\ ulHioP" iind h-fl no heretlitary aristocracy out of which an upper Iiounc could be composed. A ('hanilxir of Peers was formed, by the royal appointment, of a body of individuals, many diHtinguishod rather by talents and influence than by birth ; and in tho number were included some of tlie most distinguished of Napoleon's generals. Pensions were assigned to support the dignity of the Peers, which waa at firat hereditary, but by a recent enactment is to continue only tor life. The Chamber of Deputies, corresponding to tiie House of Commons, is choeen by clecton united in certdn bodies called electoral colleges. These include all persons paying a certain amount of direct taxes; which limits the right of voting to the middling class, and to an entire number throughout France scarcely exce^ing 130,000. The numMV of Deputies is 430. The functions of the French chambers are high. Their annual vote grants all the supplies of the year, and the expenditure of the preceding one is submitted to their rigorous examina- tion. No taxes can bn imposed, or loans contracted for, without their concurrence. Their debates ore regularly made public, and an arrangement is enacted by law for the convenienca of the reporters. Yet the chambers want some of the functions of a British parliament They caiuiot fix the amount o( the army, unless by limiting the funds to be employed in its maintenance ; nor can they call in question the engagements held by government with foreign powers, unless by withholding the funds necessary to fulfil them. The liberty of the press was professedly granted by the charter ; but tlierc has been much fluctuation in its exercise ; it was even repeatedly made subject to a censorship : even since the last great change, its freedom has not been established on as ample a basis as in Britain. The administration of justice in France, which, before the Revolut'un, was still more com- plicated than in England, has been simplified in a very remarkable degree. Tho National Assembly early applied themselves to form a new series of codes, which might supersede tliose vast and voluminous reconls in which the law was formerly contained. They pro- jected five codes, respectively referring to civil law, civil procedure, commerce, crimuial aw, and penal infliction. These were completed under Bonaparte, who gave to the whole the name of Code Napoleon : it is comprised in a moderate volume, sola for a few francs. All the ancient parliaments and seigniorial authorities being swept away, a new system of jurisdiction has been formed. Of the judicial authorities, the lowest class are the juges de paix, who amount to nearly 3000. They have salaries of 800 to 1000 francs, and decide finally on all cases where the question at issue does not exceed fifly francs. Immediately above them are the tribunals de premiire instance, before whom all questions and charges come in the first instance, and who judge finally respecting any property not exceeding lOOO irancs. There are 360 of these courts, and tiie judges are supposed little short of 3000. To them are attached the tribunal of correctional police, which has cognizance of all mmor oflTcnces. Above these rank the cours royales, sometimes called cours d'appel, because an appeal lies to them from the inferior courts. They are twenty-seven in uumber, attached to the chief cities in the kingdom. They consist, in populous towns, of twenty, thirty, and in Paris of fifty members; who, in that case, are divided into several chambers. Attached to them are the cours d'assise, or, as we would call them, jury courts, to which all criminal ca^es of importance are referred by the cours royales. A French jury consists of twe've, and a simple majority decides. From the decisions of the cours royales an appeal lies to the court of cngsatiofii the highest tribunal, which also exerciBes a genera! jurisdiction over the other judicial bodies. All the judges ars app(>inted by the crown, but hold their offices for life Part III lure doitpotiam ; at ch it cuiiiinnncnd. I, which, notwith- ongth Charloa X., Iiority, waa driven &1 lino of Urloani, t purely deipotic ona f>oii) taxation, peasantry. Tho hereditary bodies, ho parliament of it could becomo msistent with tho i(, a coliision took lion of the throne, 'ere warned, tlmt they bcNtowod by and. Tho nnblci litionK and li'fl no 1 'hanibor of Peers tinpfuishod rather some of the most tho dignity of the ;inue only tor life. :hoeon by clccton i paying a certain )H, and to an entire ' Deputies is 430. \\\ tho supplies of rigorous oxamina'- currence. Their ir the convenience ■itish parliament e employed in its government with The liberty of I fluctuation in its ice the last great in. 18 still more com' ). Tho National might supersede ined. They pro- imerce, criminal ivo to the whole for a few francs, a new system of ure the juge» de ones, and decide 8. Immediately ons and charg^ '. exceeding 1000 e short of 3000. nee of all minor ipel, because an umber, attached enty, thirty, and bew. Attached lich all criminal isists of twe've, ppeal lies to the diction over the their offices for Book I. FRANCE sas [The following tables flrom ofRcial documont« contain important data illustntirfl not loM of the moral history of mankind, than of tho state of society in Franco. L Buumtnt of lh« Numbtr o( I'araoni chtifed with CrIinlnnI OAbncM bafbrt Ih* Courti of AhIm, Ib each ytar, (Viim IHliM til IHai. Orimi a#«liM( tkt Pttn, Aeaiiiil thn Htnlfl ■ml riihllo Offleen . Mfurdflr and MaiKlauibtor Parrirlile IntkntlcMs ■ Cuttlni and Wnundlnt AmiuIIi upon Woman '• OhIMren , Parjnry and Buboinatlon or Ptrjury . Bltamy Oiner t'rimta Tolah. Crimtt agaitul Propntf, Coining Fnrgfry nf Cnminarclal Papari . ■ nthHr Korierliia Rubliory anil Theft in Chiirchci . ■ " " iin lllihwayi . " " by Domcillea . Othflr klnili of Rnhhary Frailiilnnt Bankruptcy Incenillnrliini Other C'rIinM Total! General Totali. ISIH. 1,844 M 383 47 188 fm 3,51)9 80 06 133 5,559 7,396 lasB. 178 StH 14 Ul 456 184 130 79 11 04 1,791 78 :•*» 339 07 185 1,313 3,345 05 88 175 5,889 7,373 1830. 305 400 4 100 300 136 107 71 7 80 1,666 48 90 981 *7 135 1,010 3,3H) 84 138 1T7 5,996 6,969 1831. 618 005 15 86 340 lis 103 79 9 54 9,046 105 73 301 35 193 CO 3,481 67 199 314 5,560 7,806 1800. 1.088 041 93 88 349 131 111 104 63 9,644 81 8H 397 38 108 058 3,359 70 m 343 5,503 8,937 II. Statoikent ihowing tbo Degree of Initructlnn of Pnriona chargml with Crimea befbm the Courta of AaalM, tn each year, IVum 1898 to 1839. Tau. Uiublt to FMd or wrilo. Able to ntd or write Inperlbellr. | Crlnm >(*lial renoia. Crlma anlial Proi«rir. Totil 4-.aMd. Acquitted. CoiKrlelad. Crimee ti^lut Venooe. CrlmeeuilMt Totel Acquitted. CoiiTlcted. 1,143 1,160 1.060 1,047 1,394 1818 189U 1830 1831 1839 1,000 1,063 000 1,144 1,333 3,157 3,460 3.339 3,450 3,416 4,100 4,533 4,310 4,000 4,749 1,530 1,606 1,654 1,048 1,883 3,097 3,W7 3,0«IS a.n.w 505 406 405 508 850 1,353 1,431 1,301 1,479 1,000 1,858 1,947 1,886 9,047 8,450 715 787 706 1.000 1,109 rin yon. 1888 1830 1830 1831 1839 5,839 915 185 174 934 31)3 10,818 Alili to raai. 505 544 514 833 583 S3,3J7 and write t 780 789 688 707 775 8,730 «IL 343 32.'5 3:10 430 373 13,037 438 404 358 341 403 3,884 Beceiradedei 30 40 37 98 109 7,350 Tee of loetrudloi 83 134 03 98 88 10,134 eliqtaadiM 118 170 lao 100 357 4,4X rereedUifu 77 80 89 139 103 5,704 idwrlllH- 41 81 47 58 98 Total In rifaytan. 1,100 3,030 3,739 1.790 1,043 386 478 864 542 399 Financud tyttem. During the period of the Revolution, France shook off the heavy burden of debt which had been a main iustrument in bringing on that catastrophe. Yet the amount of taxes had not exceeded 550,000,000 livres, and tht nation was crushed rather \rj the arbitrary and injudicious modes of levying the imposts, than by their actual amount Napoleon, to support his continual wars, laid on large additional taxes, chiefly in the form of land assessment, and contracted, a debt of 3,000,000,000 firancs. This was augmented by the events of 1815, and the occupation of the French territory by the allied armies at the expensp of France. The debt is now expressed in the form of rentes or annuities, which in the budget of 1830 amounted to 249,496,000 livres: this, with other funds for which govcm- fflent were responsible, was considered as representing a capital of 4,988,738,000 franctL The statement of receipt and expenditure for the year 1830 is as follows : — EXTEHDITORE. Truce. Civil Lilt 37,666,666 Chamber of Peera 799,990 BECEIFT. Fnuiee. Dirret Taxea, chiefly on Land 200,905,819 Registration Btampa, and Domalna 187,335,038 Ctntomhousca anfl Salt 154,331,103 Liquors. Sundry Duties, Tobacco and Gun- powder.... 193,081,583 Port Office 33.469,030 Falls of Timber 84,060.697 Balt.worka 1,900,000 Oaming-housei 4,338,888 Hoyal Lottery 10,042,799 Colnaue..... 141,381 Sundry proceeds 11,885,418 Ettraordinary resoureea 48,403,341 Deductions on Becalpts 35.900,000 983,044,060 45* Chamber of Deputies 600.000 Legion of Honour. 3,655,309 Sinking Fund 41,663,050 Debt 376,350,668 Justice 19,566,030 Foreign Afflilra 8,778,000 Religion and Public Instruction 38,961,500 Interior 136.129,'na War ,,,.:= 233,3S3,a7 Marine 38,537,474 Finance 93,877,"«7 Administration ofRevenue 130,073,351 RepaymeoU ■ 4fl.300,l»M 1,064,388.445 8M DESCRirTIVK OECXmAPIiy. Pabt in Tho army of France ia no lonKor Uiat vaat ami terrible maM, which for n many yoarn hold tho whole of continental Europe in thriill. The oventa of IHIA having proven too •loarly tho attachnouit ut' tho old tnmpa to tlxtir tbrinnr master, they were nearly all dia- bandud, and thuir placu Muppiicd by IVomIi cunHcription. The ffuvornmont Iikh the power of Ifvyiriff 60,0(M) men in tho year. l)y a roffuiatiun, broalliin^f atill tho republican xpirit, one* tliinl of tho ofllieera inu«t be raiaod fVuni tho rankii. The anny in the year 18:)'^ waa on a very formidable f(x)tin(f. It amounted in nil, includin(( 19,(KWI offlcent, and HTM children of ■uldiora, to 411,H1U men. Uf theao, tho intlmtry conaiatcd of UIV)5 offlcorH and 204)141 men; the cavalry of UHOA officera and &1,33& men ; tlio artillery of 1100 ofBceni and 9ifi0i men, boaidoa ffondarmorio, oni^inoora, &.c. Tho French navy, which, in 17H1, amounted to aeveiKiy-four aail of the line and aixty-two friffatoR, lost half durinfr ti < wur; and thoee which rrnmmed, having norer ventured for many years to atir out of p4 children of 1201,141 men; nd 3:^504 men, B and aixty-two ir ventured for H;nt, it coniiista ateain-veiiNclH, efficiency, and mriihinjr coun- a Nolhorlandn , of thoM great ato as in Orcn tho abolition ot then broken >ronrintorfi and d domains. It id tlio division : it perpotunlly 30 or four pro- ar ^rdon cul. artition ^oGms ;ho proprietor'j [rgo proprietor, veil-fed cattle than it would scovorinjf any 'asses, and the 1; and an old In short, all int in Prance. 1 to his normal I and southern y of the finer ea ; while the luth, the dis« ustrious; the >em. uch diligence ce with food, aws a supply ii nor is it an Df Europe to , or in tracts Chaptal has 800 to 1812, m til W7 Ml ), makes the s of wheat, of French m cliniates. Book I. PRANCE. vt generally accounted the nwat delicate in the world. Those of Burgundy and Champagno U9 without a rival, if wo except a few raro specimens of Tokay. Tho winns of thragu annual amount of :)A,(yNMN)U lioctulitres. The table, how* evor, given bv tho duke, ot the produce of each dupartment docs not exceed U1,(KM),()00 hectolitres. The difforenco as to value is still more remarkable, (/hantal, aflor leaving out a sixth, as made into brandy, ostiinatos the romaindnr at 078,(NN),')ancs; thoso of the Marno, Yonno, and C6to d'Or (burgundy), 20 to 24 ; of tho Uironde, and Lot, and Uaroiine (chirot). It) to 21 ; tho rcHt from 17 to 9. His estimate, however, sooms too low; since M. Dupin {Fttrces I'ro- ductives, 4t. ilf. la Francf:) calculates the value, according to tho tax paid to government, at r)4!},ir>r),07H tVancs. Tho brandy into which one-sixth of tho above produce is made, ia, like the wine, tho finest in the world, and a grand staple of French trade, ('haptul estimates tlie value dJNtillod at 40,000,(MN) fi^ncs. M. Dupin states the quantity at 409,817 hectolitres; that of ot liur spirits at 90,000. Ho calculates also 8,808,218 hectolitres of cider, and 2 00,%023 hectolitres of strong beer. Live stock does not form the most approved part of French husbandry. Chaptal 'tonciders that tho animals are too few, whothor for culture, for use, or for Uio pror>0,(K)0. Ot ttioso it was reckoned that 3(M),000 wcro employed in riding, posting, the artillery, &.c.. Tho stock requires to be kept up by an importation, which in 1809 to 1812 was valued at .S,.'>11,(M)0 francs annually, but according to M. Senac had risen, in 1822 to 1825, to 7,5(M),(MMi. In return, there is an exteuHivo brooding of mules on the Pyrenean frontier, and they are exported to Spain to tho value of 1,400,000 francs. France had in 1812, 214,000 bulls, 1,7()1,(K»0 oxen, 3,W)9,0(X) cows, 850,(K)0 heifers. The importation at that time amounted to only 2,.360,000 francs, but in 1825 it \v;is 7,(J8(),000. The exportation is, however, considerable. Sheep aro a speciea of stock very considerable in amount, particularly in tho departments bordering on the Alp* and Pyreneos, in those which compose the mountain district of Auvergne, and on tho pastoral banks of tho Euro and the Cher. The number of sheep in 1812 was 766,310 mcrinoa, 3,578,000 mixed, and 30,843,000 native or unimproved. The first introduction of mcrinoa was in consequence of the treaty of Basic, which stipulated that 4000 of theso highly prized animals should pass into France. An experience of thirty years has shown that the breed might be preserved and extended in full perfection ; but the abovo statement will show that the diffusion of it is, as yet, very partial. Pure merinos are valued at thirty francs, mixed at twelve francs, and native sheep at only five francs. The number of swine in France is estimated by Baibi, in 1826, at 4,000,000. The ass is considered by M. Senac to bo, from the poverty of his owners, in an almost hopeless state of degradation ; and the fowls, the bees, and the pigeons to demand a thoroughly improved system of rearing. Chaptal has not attempted to estimate the winged species, but has guessed their entire value at about 51,000,000 francs. Among the materials of manufacture, tlie most important is silk, which was at first iniro- duced near Tours, but was soon found to be well suited only to thi most southern districts. The amount, according to Chaptal, is about 11,400,000 lbs., and the value 1.5,440,000 francs; but this is only about twcvfiflhs of the quantity consumed in the manufactures, so that a large importation is necessary from Lombardy. Hemp and flax are cultivated universally, but always on a small scale, every farmer having his little patch fbr domestic use. It is diffi- cult to estimate these ; but Chaptal guesses the value of hemp at 80,000,000 fVancs, and flax at 20,000,000 frnncs. Vegetable oib ore produced to the supposed extent of 1,300,000 quin- tals, worUi about 75,000,(N)0 francs ; vet so great is tlte quantity consumed in domestic use, and in the different manufactures, that they are imported to the value of nearly twen^> five millions. There are certain tropical and colonial productions which it was the eager wish of Napo- leon that France should cultivate, in order that she might be independent of commeroe. One of his favourite projects was the culture of the beet-root, for the extraction of sugar, an article of consumption with which Europeans can least dispense. The admission of colo- nial and foreign sugars, under reasonab.^ duties, after the overthrow of the continental sjSf 536 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. tem, gave a severe check to this spurious branch of industry. To prevent its decline, heavy additional duties were laiH on colonial and foreign sugars in 1816 and 1822; and, in conse* Junnce of tliis encouragement, the production of beet-root sugar has been rapidly increasing uring the last five years, and is now supposed to amount to about 8000 tons, or 8,060,000 lbs. The art has been a good deal improved ; and it is 8up|)osed by many that it will, at no dis- tant period, be so much ameliorated that the beet-growers will be able to withstand the competition of the WeRt India planters under the same duties : but any such expectation seems to us to be quite visionary. The entire consumption of sugar in France amounts, at preoent, inclusive of that from the beet-root, to about 72,000 tons a year ; being not much more than a third part of the consumption of Great Britain and Ireland, which amounts to about 190,000 tons. Tobacco, after the removal of the regie or royal monopoly, rose to 50,000,000 Ibe. ; but since the restoration of the regie in 1812, it has &llen to 5,000,000. Wood is an important article, especially in a country which is nearly destitute of any other fuel. Ghaptal estimated the woodlands at 7,072,000 hectares (about 17,500,000 acres); but ccording to a more recent memorial in 1824, *»y M. Herbin de Halle, sub-administrator of the forests, it is only 6,521,000 hectares (about 19,000,000 acres). Of this, 1,122,000 hectares belong to the state, 1,896,000 to the communes, 65,969 to the crown, 192,000 to princes of the royal family, and 3,243,000 to private individuals. Woods thus occupy a little more than an eighth part of the soil. The greatest proportion exists in the departments bordering un the Alps and the Pyrenees, and along the Rhine, the Moselle, the Sadne, the Marne, and other eastern rivers. Chaptal estimates the value of the annual cuttings at about 141,000,000 francs ; but if this be reduced according to M. de Halle's estimate, it will give only 130,000,000. Fruit trees are also of importance, especially chestnuts, cultivated on a large scale in several provinces, and valued by Chaptal at about 10,000,000 francs. He estimates the fhiit growing open in orchards at 22,500,000 francs, and that on walls, or in rows as single trees, at 68,750,000. He is afraid tliat this last will be thought too low ; we should rather apprehend an opposite error in this instance, as well as in that of reckonuig the herbs which grow in 323,000 hectares of garden ground, at 200,000,000 francs. On the whole, Chaptal calculates that in the 52,(X)0,000 hectares cf which France con- sists, twenty-three are arable; ten woods, vines, fruit-trees; seven pasturage; the rest waters, roads, buildings, waste. He makes the annual average produce of an acre 28 francs. By this and other estimates, the annual territorial produce comes to about 1,500,000,000 francs, '"he entire agricultural capital he estimates at 37,500,000,000 francs. M. Dupin, in 1627, reckons the territorial revenue at 1,626,000,000 francs. The manufactures of France, though they do not present the immense results of those of England, are considerably more productive than those of almost any other nation. Colbert, the celebrated minister of Louis XIV., finding this branch in a very depressed state, com- pared with its prosperous condition in some neighbouring countries, bestowed on it almost an exclusive attention. Chaptal calculates, that during the Revolution it made still greater progress than agriculture. He regards as almost miraculous the advance made in the cotton and other fabrics. The miracle, however, was wrought solely by the rigid exclusion of British goods ; and amid all the boasted proofs of French ingenuity, he is obliged to confess, that when, as minister of the ulterior, he sought eagerly the means of introducing new manufactures, he could find no efiectual expedient, except that of allurmg English manu- fecturers into France, and of copying their processes. However, these prohibitions, which have been continued to a great extent under the royal system, have in fact forced a number of manufactures which could not otherwise have withstood British compef.ition. Silk has been long one of Uie most prominent objects of French manufacture. Even the revocation of the edict of Nantes, though it drove many of the mt^t industrious citizens out of the kingdom, lefl that branch of industry still very nourishing. It suffered more from the dreadful calamities which befell Lyons, its chief seat, during the height of the revolutionary mania. The 15,000 establishments that existed in 1788 for the manufacture of silk, were reduced in 1800 to 3500; but amounted, in 1831, to about 15,000, employing above 21,000 workmen. It is chiefly in cloths that this city excels all others, both as to the brilliancy of the dyes, and the richness and beauty of the stuffs. Nismes excels in tafietos, mixed silk and cotton stuffs, gauzes, and crapes ; Tours in furniture stuffs ; Avigiion in satins, levan- tines, &c. The Cevennes are femous for bonnets, while almost all the silk ribands ore fiibri- cated in the department of the Loire. The entire value of the manufacture is estimated at 125,000,000 francs, of which 30,000,000 is exported. The woollen manufiicture is still more extensive and valuable than thnt of silk. The woollens of France are either very coarse or very fine ; the former are established chiefly in i.he hilly tracts of the southern border, where the sheep yield abundance of coarse wool, and the shepherds spend the leisure of winter in working it up into serges, friezes, and Rimilar stuira. On the other hand, at Sedan, Louviers, Abbeville, are manu&ctured finer cloths tlian any of those of Britain, though the latter produces a much larger quantity of good and sub- stantial cloth. Although France produces 84,000,000 lbs. of wool, she yet imports to the value of 12,000,000 or 14,000,000 of francs: Chaptal estimates the whole unmanufactured Part III. ecline, heavy nd, in conse* ly increasing B,90O,OOOlb8. ill, at no dia- vithstand the I expectation ! amounts, at ing not much h amounts to )poly, rose to j,000,000. ititute of any 0,000 acres); administrator lis, 1,122,000 n, 102,000 to ccupy a little ! departments le Sadne, the 1 cuttings at imate, it will ts, cultivated 0,000 francs, t on walls, or ight too low ; of reckoning incs. I France con- ge; the rest crc 28 francs. 1,500,000,000 . M. Dupin, :s of those of an. Colbert, d state, corn- on it almost still greater in the cotton exclusion of id to confess, xlucing new glish manu- itions, which ed a number Even the citizens out lore firom the evolutionary )f silk, were bove 21,000 brilliancy of mixed silk atins, levan- ids are fabri- estimated at silk. The sd chiefly in e wool, and and similar finer cloths ood and sub- ports to the anu&ctured Udok I. PRANCK m wool at 93,000,000 francs, and the finished work at 238,000,000, of which the export* amount to about 25,000,000. The making of linen is as widely scattered as the culture of hemp and flax. The coarse cloths art) chiefly fabricated by the peasantry, each out of the produce of his own little patch of land. ^ There are, however, large manufactures of plain useful cloUi in Normandy and Dauphine, the latter from hemp ; and great quantities of sailcloth are made in the maritime countries. In the departments along the Belgic border ±ere are extensive fabrics of lawns, cambrics, and lace ; which last, though not of equal reputation with that of Brussels and Mechlin, forms yet an important object of trade. We may reckon the raw material of hemp at 37,000,000 fruncs; the finished manu&cture at nearly 110,500,000; flax, raw material, 20,000,000, tlio finished &bric, 75,000,000. The exportation is about 37,500,000, almost wholly of the finest kinds of the manufacture. The cotton manu&cture was established in France during the continental system ; and has been propped up since the restoration of the Bourbons by the prohibition of importation fix)m abroad. In 1810 the imports of raw cotton amounted to above 25,000,000 lbs., and during the next ten years they were more than doubled. But- the high price of machinery in France, the scarcity of coal, and ^he want of skill on the part of the workmen, seem to oppose almost ii superablo obstacles to the further progress of the manufacture. It is at pre sent in a very depressed state, and the following account shows that it has been nearly Bta> tionary during the last ten years :— Imports of Cotton Wool into France. Urn. 1833 61,758,300 1833 50,053,300 1834 75,388,200 1825 01,371,600 1836 :.... 00,053,800 1837 87,185,100 1838 61,830,600 1880 78,669,000 1830 84,835,600 1831 65,517,000 and in 1835, to 314,350 Jin 1834, it again rose to 279,674 bales, or about 73,250,000 lbs. es, or about 94,000,000 lbs.— Ah. Ed.] Of the secondary oWects of manufacture, that of leather is perhaps the most extensive, though not peculiarly French. It is supposed that in France the annual product amounts to 857,000 cow-hides; 110,000 horse-hides, and 2,032,000 calf-skins. There are 31,000 shoe- makers in Paris, who make upwards of eight millions of pairs of shoes yearly, not only for the city itself, but the provinces, and even foreign countries. Chaptal reckons the whole produce of tanning, currying, shoemaking, ana all processes connected with leather, at 143,000,000 francs. Hard soap was formerly supplied by Marseilles to alJ France and the colonies, but its produce of 225,000 quintals is now reduced by a third ; owing partly to the reduction of the colonial demand, and partly to the more general difiusion of the manufacture. It is thought still to amount to 30,000,000 francs. Starch, including hair-powder, may amount to 18,000,000 pounds. There are sundry little matters of jewellery, trinkets, fiimiture, per- fumery, scented waters, volatile salts, which elsewhere are only petty trades, but which taste and fiishion in France raise to the dignity of manufactures, the whole produce of which is reckoned at upwards of 100,000,000 firaiics. Crystal, glass, and pottery are branches in which the French have recently made great progress; and, fiwm being dependent on foreigners for these articles, are now able to export them. The first two branches are esti- mated at 21,000,000 ; porcelain made at Sevres and other places, at 5,000,000 ; pottery in imitation of English, a little more; coarse pottery for the lower ranks, 15,000,000. Mineral kingdom. France yields in abundance the most solid and useful of all metals, iron. There are about 400 forges in the kingdom, chiefly in the Pyrenean and Alpine de- partments, and along tiie heads of the Mame, the Moselle, and the Sadne. The produce which M. Chaptal reckoned only 81,000,000 kilogrammes, had, according to M. Dupin, risen in 1825 to 161,000,000 (about 161,000 tons), the value of which would be tbout 75,000,000 fhmcs. Chaptal supposed the workmanship bestowed even on the smaller quantity produced in his time suflScient to raise the valuo to 200,000,000 fitincs. Nearly all ^e copper and lead employed in France is imported from abroad. Salt is extracted on the southern coast from sea-water evaporated by the heat of the sun, and in the north from brine-springs artificially evaporated. During the period when salt, relieved from the old oppressive monopoly, was left entirely free, its production and use rose to the extraordinary height of upwards of 20 millions of quintals. Since the re-establishment of the tax, it has fellen to not quite two millions ; upon which there is paid a duty of 45,000,000 francs. This astonishing diminution seems chiefly owing to the disuse of it in agriculture ; a circumstance however very injurious to tliat branch of industry. Other mineral products, with their sup- posed value, are, alum, 2,500,000; saltpetre, 3,000,000; nitric acid, 6,000,000; muriatic The total value of the products of the mines and manufactures of France is estimated at 2,000,000,000 francs. The particulars are about 450 millions of home raw materials ; 226 millions of foreign raw materials; 900 millions of workmanship ; 225 millions of general ex* Vol. L 3 S 688 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part in pense, as impiemunts, repairs, lighting, interest of fixed capital ; 200 millions for the profit of the manufacturer. The commerce of France, while all the other branches of industry were thus advancing, has perceptibly declined. It was reduced, indeed, to a state of temporary annihilation by the violent policy of Napoleon, who absolutely lined the coast with troops, that not a single vessel might enter. Thus all the commercial ties of France were broken, every channel closed by which she was accustomed to exchange her commodities with those of foreign countries. Indeed, the anti-commercial spirit seems to have become rooted in the mind of the notion ; and when we find even the enlightened mind of Chaptal extolling the prohibi- tory system, and considering every thing as a source of loss to France which she imports from abroad, there can appear little prospect of any amendment. That writer considers the year 1780 as the most flourishing period of French commerce ; when the exports amounted VA 18,200,0002. sterling, and the imports to 26,d00,000{. This extraordinary excess of imports, a result, according to old ideas, considered so disastrous, he explains by observing, that the imports include ten millions from the colonics, while tlie exports thither were only four, and also two millions and a half in gold and silver. Whether this explanation be sound or otherwise, we have no idea that there could be any permanent or extensive difference be- tween the two branches. Chaptal has, with grief, declined to give any record of the feeble efibrts at revival made by the French commerce. Since the appearance of Chaptal's work, however, it has considerably improved. In 1827, the import trade was carried out by 3350 vessels, under the French flag, tonnage 853,000, value of cargoes 2;}0,140,000 francs ; and by 4439 foreign vessels, tonnage 474,000, value of cargoes 136,041,0(K) francs. There were, besides, imported by land, goods to the value of 199,621,000 francs; making the imports in all, 565,802,000 francs. In the same year the export trade was carried on by 3522 French vessels, tonnage 846,000, value of cargoes 235,120,000 francs ; and 4141 foreign vessels, tonnage also 846,000, value of cargoes 167,728,000 francs. The exports by land amounted to 156,767,000 francs ; making in all, 559,615,000 francs. The following was the value of Uie leodbg articles of import and export:— IMPORTS. Francs. Baw hides 8,70(1,000 Wonig 11,140,000 Feather* 1,560,000 Silks 32,270,000 Tallow 8,500,000 Fruiuto plant 1,220,000 Tobacco 7,850,000 Vegetable-Juicei 2,270,000 Oils, not for food 21,430,000 Medicines 2,130,000 Wood 17,0(10,000 —.ornamental 8,000,000 Hemp 4,210,000 Flax 36,000 Cotton 51,^10,000 Gems 8,200,000 Bulphur • 1,290,000 Coal 8,080,000 Cast-iron 1,170,000 Copper 0,110,000 Tin 2,130,000 Potash 3,420,000 Indigo 14,880,000 Horses 3,360,000 Sheep 0,400,000 Horned cattle 2,520,000 Butter 1,060,000 Eggs 3,830,000 Grain 7,150,000 Cheese 3,140,000 Fruits 10,900,000 Sugar 30,000,000 Coffbe 10,000,000 Straw -hats 4,550,000 liincn, orhempstuflli, v 1S.<>80,000 Mercery 2,170,000 EXFORTS. /Hum. Dyostuflb 8,300,000 Gems 3,120,006 Horses 1,200,000 Mules 4,840,000 Bheep 1,420,000 Horned cattle 8,S20,0(X' Reflnedsugar 4,550,000 Wine, ordinary 41,510,000 , liqueurs 5,720,000 Brandies 22,070,000 etraw-hats 2,090,000 Porcelain 3,080,000 Glass..... 2,600,000 French books 3,140,000 Paper 3,060,000 Perf\imery 5,390,000 Cloths, wool 20,920,000 , silk 90,860,000 , ribands 24,380,000 , cotton 40,020,000 , linen 17,370,000 Cambric and lawn 16,580,000 Plaqui 3,170,000 Clock and watch-work 4,240,000 Tablrttrrie 3,790,000 Merc • 0,880,000 Modes 2,300,000 Madcclothes 6,480,000 Parisian articles 5,690,000 Mercantile navy. In 1827, the mercantile navy of France consisted of 14,530 vessels, of the burden of TO0,000 tons. Of these there belonged to — Shlpt. Bordeaux 431 •■ Marseilles 711. Havre 359. Tom* j Shtpit .77,000 Nante ...SSt. .65,000 Rouen 854. .62,000 I Dunkirk 289. Tmi. .56,000 .88,000 .17,50* The inieriof commerce must be very extensive, though it is difficult to estimate its amount, as, notwithstanding considerable advantages for navigation, the bulk of it is carried on by land. The old medium of fairs has been not only preserved, but greatly extended. M. Bottin, upon documents furnished by the minister of the interior, calculates that there are 20,814 PabtIII B for tho profit lus advancing, nnihilation by it not a single every channel ose of foreign in the mind of s the prohibi- n she nnports r considers the lorts amounted ary excess of i by observing, ;her were only lation be sound difference be- 1 of the feeble ihaptal's work, ;d out by 3350 )0 francs ; and . There were, the imports in ssels, tonnage tonnage also to 15(3,767,000 /•MM. 8,300,000 3,130,006 ],3!!0,000 4,840,000 1,430,000 S,53O,O0<' 4,530,000 41,310,000 5,730,000 33,070,000 3,080,000 3,680,000 9,600,000 3,140,000 3,060,000 5,300,000 30,030,000 00,860,000 34,380,000 46,030,000 17,.'170,000 16,580,000 3,170,000 4,340,000 3,790,000 0.880,000 3,300,000 6,480,000 5,600,000 ,530 vessels, Tom. . . .56,000 . . .38,000 17,500 its amount, rried on by M. Bottin, 1. are 26,814 BookL . >' PRANCE. • > 68U fairs in l,.. 50,696 ,600 100,463,000 The departmental roads, in 1828, extended 7704 leagues, of which 6040 had been opened, and to complete the remainmg 1664 would require an expenditure of 112,000,000 francs. 540 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pakt IIL There are several rail-roads in France, but of no great extent ; the principal are that of Andrezieux and Roanne, 60 milea in length ; that of St. Etienne and the Loire, 15 miles ; and that of St Etienne and Lyons, 45 miles. Of the bridges of France several are liandsome, as those over the Loire at Orleans, Tours, tvnd Nantes ; over tlie Seine at Paris, Neuilly, and Rouen ; over the Rhone ami Sadne at Lyons ; and over the Garonne at Bordeaux. Bridges of suspension have been con* structcd at Paris in front of the Hdtel des Invalides, and over tlio Rhone, between Tain and Tournon. These operations have been entirely in tlie hands of government. ' Sect. VI. — Civil and Social State. The population of France, which in 1780, by the enquiries of Necker, appeared to be 24,800,000, was found by the census of 1791 to amount to 26,863,000; by that of 1817, to upwards of 29,000,000; and by hat of 1820-21, to 30,616,000, including Corsica and the brmy. According to the royal ordonnance of March 15th, 1827, it amounted to 31,851,545. There were in that year 965,634 births; of which 898,329 were legitimate, and 67,305 ille- gitimate. The births consisted of 498,187 boys, and 467,447 girls. The marriages were 229,613, the deaths 772,428. At an average the proportion of male births in France to female births is as 16 to 15; the marriages are to the population as 1 to 133; the births are to the marriages nearly as 4 to 1 ; and to the population as 1 to 31.53 ; the deaths are to the popu- lation as 1 to 39.4. The extraordinary improvement since 1780 in the condition of the people is obvious irom the fact that at the last-mentioned period the deaths were to the whole popu- lation as 1 to 30.2 : so that while, in 1780, one individual died annually out of every 30 individuals, in 1832 one only died out of about 39.'" The French national character has very marked features, and has been the object of mingled admiration and contempt to the neighbouring nations. In the eyes of I*Venchmen, especially of the old school, la belle Prance is the centre of all that is refined and polished in human existence, and whatever lies beyond its sphere is marked with a deep taint of bar- barism ; while tlieir rougher neiglibours brand tliem as artificial, efl^eminate, and fantastic. The art of living in society seems certainly carried to greater perfection ^hon in any other country ; and the manners aro characterised by a peculiar gaiety, amenity, and courtesy. The polish of the higher ranks seems to have descended even to the lowest circles. " The man who breaks stones upon tlie road takes off his hat to the woman that leads her cow in a string; the tinker and the shoeblack whip off their hats to each other." A certain openness and kindness of disposition is certainly evinced in the custom of whole families, with married Bons and daughters, continuing to dwell under the paternal roof. The Frenchman lives as it were in puuic : his house, for a part of the day, is open to a large circle of acquaintance. He enjoys society without expense and ceremony. Ife resorts habitually to the theatre, spectacles, and scenes of public amusement In more serious points of view, the French possess estimable qualities. Intoxication is a vice confined to the lowest ranks; and swear- mg is repelled at least as a mark of barbarism. The I'Vench are ingenious, acute, active, and intelligent If they have not what can strictly be called patriotiem, they have at least a very strong national feeling. To exalt the glory and promote the influence of France, is the prevailing impulse which actuates the mind of almost every Frenchman. It is, however, alleged, that there is a want of hat sterling principle, that openness and integrity, which forms the boast of tlie English character. Dissimulatioi. and insincerity seem widely dif* fiised through the intercourse of the higher circles. I'he honesty of the lower classes is, however, remarkable; and the system of higgling in shops, is a consequence of the contracted state of commerce. The deportment of the feiuale sex, however embellisiied by tournure, and the graces, does not accord with our ideas of social and domestic propriety. The young ladies are strictly watched, and held in almcst monastic seclusion ; but the era of marriage is the signal, if not of positive irregularity, at least of a system of regular flirtation, which we cannot reco ':ile to the conjugal end matronly character. It is probable, however, that the im*)ressior. of the general dissoluteness of French manners has been chiefly derive'' fh)m tiiu opulent circles of the capital ; while, as a late writer has observed, Paris and the provinces form entirely separate worlds. Among the peasantry, and even among the trading class in the cities, there appears to be much Uiat is respectable and amiable. The great activity and prominent station of the female sex are everywhere conspicuous: they are seen managing the shops, carrying on great manufactories, and joining in the hardest toils of the loom and the field. It is not at all uncommon upon a mm to see the master sowing, his wife guiding the plough, and a fine girl filling the dung-cart. Such avocations divest the fair sex in we provinces of any great portion of beauty. Indeed, the gay hilarity of the French character does not seem quite so universal as is generally supposed. Travellers in singular gravity that a ve^ con- the south, from Arthur Young to those of later date, complain rather of a end tacitamify. Mr. Matthews remarks in his " Diary of an Invalid," Book L eiderablo rank hav Diary r* The population in 1833 wai 3>,S00,000.-Am. EpJ jBk. '::i Part IIL 1 are that of re, 15 miles ; at Orleano, ! Rhone and ve been con* sen Tain and peared to be t of 1817, to sica and the ) 31,851,545. 1 67,305 ille- rriages were nee to female hs are to the to the popu- oftlie people > whole popu- t of every 80 he object of ' Frenchmen, and polished I taint of bar- md fantastic, in any other md courtesy, vies. "The her cow in a tain openness with married iman lives aa cquaintance. the theatre, the French and swear- active, and ve at least a Vance, is the is, however, ^ity, which widely dif* classes is, contracted )y tournure, The young of marriage fttion, which )wever, that efly derive^ iris and the the trading The great ey are Keen toils of the sowing, his divest the irity of the ravellers in liar gravity very con- Book I. FRANCE. Ml Biderable change of manners has taken place since the Revolution. All the distinctions of rank have been cut down like the old trees of the forest, and the new generation, like the soppicc, are all on a level. " You will seek in vain," he says, " for that high-bred polish of manners, wliich has been so much boasted aa peculiar to the haut-ton of Franco. A re- publican spirit prevails, and shows itself in an independent roughness of manner, savouring; of sans-culottistn." The Roman Catholic haa been the ruling religion in France, ever since the fetal issue of the long struggle for religious liberty. Previously to the Revolution, however, a general scepticiBm pervaded all the well-informed classes, both as to the Catholic tenets, and as to religion in general. This was doubtless one great cause both of the Revolution and of many of tlie fatal and disastrous aspects which it as8um3d. A furious anti-religious fanaticism reigned ; all form of public worship was suspenucd, and even prohibited ; the churches were rifled and defeced in a barbarous manner. At this time the vast domains of the church, by which so many dignitaries and so m^iny convents were supported in splendour, were voted the property of the nation, and sold at a low price to supply its necessities. Napoleon had the merit of re-establishing religious worship, and on a very liberal footing ; an allowance being made for the support of the Protestant clergy, proportioned to the number who still hold that faith, and who amount to about 1,50U,U(X). As all the former funds however had disappeared, the establishment is supported out of the public revenue, and is frugal, and even scanty, both as to numbers and salary. In 1831, there were four cardinals, ten archbishopB, and sixty-six bishops. After the intermediate classes of vicars and canof.s come the cures, or parish priests, amounting to 3000, with incomes of 1000 or 1500 francs ; but the chief labour devolves upon 23,0(R) desservans, or rcting curates, who itarvo upon 400 or 600 francs a year with the addition of only some small rees. The whole church expenditure, in 1823, amounted to 1,575,000 livrcs, but in 1832 was reduced by a third ; and the church has been in a somewhat unsettled state. The Bourbons were supposed to aim at restoring it to all its former power, splendour, and privilege; a course viewed with extreme jealousy by the republican party. The high church party endeavoured to remedy the deflciency of the establishment by sending sound missionaries who were listened to by the people with enthusiastic deliffht. The author of " Four Years in France" mentions one w ho in depart- ing from a city liad his cassock torn off hi!> back, and cut into pieces to be distributed aa relics. The liberals deride them as ignorant fanatics ; but some travellers who cannot be charged with superstition, report them as displaying a good deal of natural eloiiuence, and that their doctrmes appeared really yery edify ing, since many persons who had been guilty of thefts, even at remote periods, were mduced by them to come forward and make confession and restitution. The intellectual character of the French has been brilliant, and since the age of Louis XrV. has hod a powerful influence, in mutters of taste, on the general literature of Europe: that prince;, ambitious of glory in every form, extended a munificent patronage to letters and arts. The French Academy, though its endowments were not vei7 splendid, and though intrigue often influenced its admissions, gave a fixed and high place in society to men of letters ; who, amid all the frivolity of French character, were received even among the highest ranks with a distinction not accorded to them in any other modern country. The aim of Louis to make the French a sort of universal language was in a great measure euccessfbl ; it became the established dialect at all the courts, and the chief medium by which the different nations communicated with each other. The departments in which the writers of that age excelled, were chiefly pulpit eloquence, poetry of a light and satirical character, and the drama in a somewhat fettered and artificial form. I'he writers of the follpwing age took a bolder and more varied flight, and sought to turn the opinion of mankind into new channels upon all subjects. The wit and varied talent of Voltaire, the eloquence of BufTon and Rousseau, the comprehensive views of Montesquieu, and the science of D'Alembert, gave a new turn to the ideas of the thinking world throughout Europe. These writers, with th r successors of the same school, had a powerful influence in bringing on this revolution, in the ruins of which several of them were buried. Learning was for some time almost extinguished in France ; but as soon as the revolutionary frenzy abated, the National Assembly constituted a new body called the National Institute, round which, under the changed appellations of Imperial and Royal, all the highest names in science have since continued to rally. The French during this period did not shine in poetry or general literature ; but in mathematics, physics, and chemistry, the labours of Lavoisier, Laplace, Lalande, Chaptal, and a number of others, have, notwithstanding the powerful rivalry on the other side of the Channel, raised them perhaps to the very first place. Recently France has produced some very emuient historians, and popular poets of a peculiar character ; there has been also a remarkable exten- sion of the habits of readiner. The periodical sheets printed were in 1814 only 45,000 ; in 1826, they were 144,000. ^he most solid and useful branches also are those which hifiT6 most increased, as appears fh}m the following table, formed by M. Dupin :— Vou 1. 46 Mi DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY, Paiii ITT. \r Th«i1of»... Lnnlilatlva . 8cii!iir(! Phlloanphy ,. IPulitirnl fVnnomy. No. ■ nm^rlM. 16K. 4,074.000 l,a74.00O S,.'l'|ti,(V)0 74;i.(MH) l,n.-H,(xio iil ■.18,000 jf.uos.oon i!i,win.O(io 3,u;itt,ooo 9,007,000 Mlllury Biil^evti Fiiio ArtH Ih-llvii Lettrc ■ lllitory, Travolri, &!■ I VnrlntinH, Aliiif iiara, Ac. No. of SheMi iirinM. IHU. 441,000 773,000 I3,XV.i,000 lU,!»»,(H)fl :i,IKMI,(KHI IHSO, 1,44.1,000 i,'o denartinents. All tiioso are open d to the puMic in the mo. ♦ liberal manner. The prcvincjal coi'octions are also rospectahi. , though tiicy . specie.) of treasure. Amon^ the dstablishi.x.i'.tj for public education in Fnmce, the universitie,*, which rr^? twenty-six in number, hohi !.ho first rank. That of Paris is perhr.ps the most cek btatc.! s, Europe, and was, even : > tho dark agree, the pund thentro of tliose di.i) ctic combau^ whiih then usurped the honours oi' v Sgnce. Thou|fh destroy i during the fury of the Revolutio/i, it has been re-cstabli;''ic'l qp r. great scnlf^j ."«vi with u hirs^er oppointuiout of professors tluM any other in Europe; it ittraci'^ fi(ndei;u tku/ uvcry pa»t of the kingdom, as none of tli'j rest enjoy equal repute, and indctii teinn' ; rr nat > nh t!io namo of acudemies. The Lycecs, now called royal collejjoa, are in inst.itulio. -.^ /Var*.: ii; the ix-vonse of board and educa- tion is from IHtO to 75() franci a year; but they fi/ijuv » vefy iin^tturantablo monopoly of tho right to teach Latin; thev wore fiit?nde '\''^l!S, by KMHK) pupiis. Primary schools intended for tho general instruftirr of the ptor.:'^- amouni ;u in 1825 to 22,000, and were ftttended by 116,000 schohiro. frfiriciisteriai! sciiool!? have since been introduced, und annunted in 1820 to 8'y% tttteniV.'i by SC.lHK) Hchc.lars. M. Dupir remarks striking local differeruos in this n^apect In the innh, l;l,000,0(K) of inhabitant? send to school 740,(K)0 cliildren: while in t!ie south, 18,0(M»,0tH) ucnd only 875,000: eveii in the south, tho propor- tion is Itivsrost in tho districts loaat thvonred by nature, the Upper Alps and tho Upper Pyrenees; vhile in Tourame, eiTi;>! atioally called the garden of France, it is only one in S29. All thes>^ ratahlisinnenta are uiuli r the patronogo and control of the government, which grania annuallv about 5,000,000 franc? for their support.* The fine urtl-i \<-.'nj zealously promotoii by the regent duke of Orleans, and by Louis XIV- ; and though they never reached the splondojr of the Italian or even of tha Flemish schools, yet they could boaiii: sovcral masters of the first chws; the Pouss.is and Claude Ix)rrainc, having fixed their rcfliu< !« o and even found their scenery in Italy, became half Italian. Le Brun and I^e Sueur weu^ me chief artists decide24, of wlioin about tUO.UOO attimdcd inftint Bchool» : of those between six and fifteen years, there were 4,'.iS7.2()I. of which 2,44i),725 a teid'-d t/ie primary scliools; '. : f persons iibove fifteen, there wore 22,frt ' ■, cf whom 14,355,P5fi could neither read nor write;— so tha* thor<' nearly 10,400,000 persona •bove the as' ': two yean, who received no instruction at all. The same pn, .-. /e the following atatcmenti of the «'. (xiiung, anJ of the number required to educate the whole po :. — Inflint Scltnoli 1,000 actual number. Primarydo 30.407 " nnmikijk Wcrhins do •••*■ 3 CGG ** Aduulio , aiaoi •* 40,000 required numbor. «,284 " 20,000 " 64,840 " a dire advance Venus, Antwer wnsoemf liowovc. CO>T)',iviK( Totals 34328 160,134 Am. Es.] Pari III. o( ShMM iirliM. . 1H90. 000 (H)0 (NK) (100 (MK) l,44S,0(IO i.imii.iKK) S7,701,()(Ht 7,iiiiii,mH) )po : tlio royal of ongraviw^H, ris, contaii!.i "f Bsaro oquii'ly k ill tlio mat y (1(1 not equal in tir's Bpcciej ie.*, which nm '. cckbtntcil ti ombaus wiiii'h le Revolutii>;i, rofepsors tl:i(,i IS nono of th';; . The Lycei'K, :d and cduca- inopoly of the imnry schools [KtO, and were troduced, and Btrikinp; local chool 740,000 th, tlic propor- i\A the IJpjwr is only one in nmcnt, which Louis XIV.; mish sciuiolt), ude Ijorruinc, Italian. liO irmor enjoyed ittor has been prcatly, nnd ritiiin the last det, and their nodels. Tiic of Desnoyers, :s, or perlmpa ssed throiijrh ily. During; the entire minor col- the Nothcr- and carried and Italian ly of all that rivalled. But of two and sii een yearn, there were 32,ri ; ' \ bove the asf .} Book I. FRANCE. MS ■ dire rovcrse awaited the nation. Tho allied armicn who conquered at Waterloo, and thonco advanced to occupy Paris, determined to exact full restitution of all thia brilliant booty. The Venus, Apollo, and Transflfruration wero sent off for Rome ; the Descent fVom tho Cross for Antwc>- i and numberless other muterpicces wore restored to then- ancient possessors. The lusoemfy irnps thus left wore fillod up bv native productions and others taken from the i>niacosi iiii'i !ho (gallery presents e. coup d ail almost as brilliant as ever ; the intrinsic value, Jiowovti, is \.ri''tiy *;::iiiniphed; though since the purchase of the Borghese collection it still cmn.rtiscs sonio of J/, finest specimens of ancient sculpture. rSi homit!^ «r Ktiui;c under tho former regime presented a j^eat variety ; for while th« ma;:ni )n8 of tho nol'!i'> -isnlayed a f refuse splendour and luxury, and might be characterised an paiir. h, Mr a o* {'<■< ! ..dy oi" the people, compared with tlie English, wero very deficient ill nciif.ic-js ahd co-n.- 1 ; the room i being dark, the passages strangling, tho floors of stone, the doora ond wiiHto'.va by no means well finished. Tho palaces, however, can no longer I ri maintained as such by their impoverished owners ; and all the fine old chftteaus throughout Franco are converted into barracks, prisons, or manufactories. On the other hand, the habitOF tiona of tho peasantry, a» well as their general condition, appear to bo sensibly improved. r various I Shis 1 Tho I'nri' inns go tVom 'tome in search of amusement much more than their neighbours ; almost ail thcii i ire in r-pt-ri in places of public resort, which are open on terms that render them ac<'>«»il)lc U. all clooSfts. Dancing is an exercise peculiarly French, in which, as to agility, «nil J) ;riiaps grace, they excel most nations. Much of their time is also spent in the open air ; and the extensive ranges of gardens in Paris are provided with every recreation suited to the tastes of its citizens. Although many improprieties doubtless minglo with these enter- , tainmcnts, especially in Paris, there is less of intoxication, turbulence, or quarrelling, than in the amupoments of the lower orders in England : bo far, even as concerns the public places, there are fewer open violations of decorum. Dress is a particular in which the French long claimed, and were allowed to give the law to tho rest of Europe. Paris has been for ages the grand maffaain det modes. In that capital Rccnis to have originated the system which is termed fashion, and which consistj in the continual change, according to a prescribed model, of the form and conetruction of every part of the human attire. Such light and constant changes, however, while they indicate an inordinate attention to the object, seem as inconsistent with the formation of a pure and elegant taste, as the immutable costumos of our ancestors and of the East. The empire of Paris seems considerably shaken by the extinction of its brilliant societies, and its long separa- tion by War from the other countries ; but its influence remains still very considerable in this department. In tho jjreparation of food, tho French equally boast of a refinement and recherche supe- rior to that of the other European nations. Instead of plain joints presented in their natural form, French cookery delights in what are called made dishes, stews, fricassees, and rogodts, which rotiin few traces of the original material. On the merits of this system various opin- ions have been entertained ; but at present the fashion of this cookery out of France is on the decline, and the time seems past when it was considered a matter of state that the tables of the great should be covered with French disheb. Sect. VII. — Local Oeographtj. The local divisions of France, prior to the Revolution, were provinces, thirty-two in nam- ber, most of which lad formed independent states, and even little kingdoms, when they were merged into tlie mass of the French monarchy. The Nationol Assembly, however, super- seded this division by one much more minute, into departments; which has been retained by the Bourbons, and is the basis of all administrative operations. It is indeed very convenient, being founded upon natural divisions of rivers and mountains: all the departments are toler- ably equal as to magnitude, and each had its : nt of .nlministrat n nearly in the centre. All the exclusive privileges and restraints upci. tjun^i Ciimniut'vation, which were attached to the arrangement into provinces, hav u happily reriioved. Yet these divisions must Hvill be kept in view, not on)} because l:u_,- are necessary for Ki.o understanding of history, ()!it because they remain rooted in the . md of the nation, and often mark striking diff rencea f race, of manners, and even of laiu^uage. It would not consist with our ■ nits, or be interesting to readers out of France, to enter into a detailed description of each uepartmcnt; but the following tables will exhibit a very comprehensive view of their respective statii- tical details. The first °xh liits the departments m their relation to the ancient provinces, their extent according U, the report of the cc-nmission of the Cadastre, their populatioa according to the census of 1827, nnd their chief cities and towns. The sqv us French Ic .'^-uo may be reduced to the square English mile by multiplying by 8, or more closely, 7.84. The following t'sble exhibits both the provinces and the departments as nearly as |V,ssible in their relation to each other, with their extent i ;; jijuare leagues, and the population of the capi Jil and principal towns according to the esti".c ionned by the French government, in IPfT ' p*-i? 644 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. UtWK Flnndvri... Artoii Picardy...' Normandy . ' Moor France . Ctatmpagne PiovImm ud DqaftniMli. Nont Lorraine AUace . . . 1 Britany. Maine ond Pcrclio. .. Anjoii Touraine ■ ■ Orlianais. Berri NIvornais . Burgundy. Francho- couitu . Poitou. Poi do Calais . Piunmi) Lower Boino . . Cnlvadoi Manche Urne , Rare Bulne Seine and Oiio Oiw Seine and Marno . Aiaue Marne Ardennei Aub« Upper Marne ■ • . MuiliH) Mowllu Mcurtlio Viiagoi Upper Hliino... ■ Iiiiwer Rhine . .. tile and Vilaine. COteaduNord... .'iniatorre «Iorbitinr Lower Ijoi.'o... . Mayvnne Hart ho Maine and Loire Indre and Loire. Loire! Eiire and Ixiiro . Loir and Cher. . . Indre Cher Nifivre ' Yonne Coted'Or Badne and Loire Ain Upper Bafine. . . . D>iubi Jura 983 338 31)3 300 381 3U4 8H3 !«)3 S4 277 9«7 301 375 MarcheJ inoiisiii Aunia.Sain. tonge. An- \ goumois . . ) Auvergne . i Iiyonnaia..- Vendue Two SevTcn... Vienna Creuzo Upper Vienne. CorrSze Charente Ijowcr Charente Puy de Dome ■ • . Cantal Dauphiny. Ouiep.ne . . . < Bourbonnaia Gaacony 1 and Beam | Rh6ne Loire laSre Upper Alpa .., Drome Dordogne .... Oironde Lot and Garonne Lot Avcyron Tarn and Ga- j ronne Allicr Landes Gen Upper Pyronuaa 336 306 313 303 •.m SHS 939 IIM 910 Mil :i75 :uu 3i;o :toH 91)1 ;w:i :itui 391 33A 304 3111 :i54 3«0 334 364 440 900 293 909 870 934 341 900 340 203 200 978 380 307 400 974 141 934 420 975 331 470 517 949 9ai 443 114 Foix Roussillon . Longuedoc. ■ ProTenee . Lower Pyreneei. Arriige EaHtern Pyreneei ' Upper Garonne . Aude Tarn Herault Card Lozire Upper Loire . . . . Aniecfae Lower Alps Mouthi or the { Rhone < Var Vaucluae Corsica 439 312 233 386 987 203 339 306 900 313 303 937 230 977 273 936 368 167 PDlwIitlna. CIlin ud TowH, with Ihtir PoiHiUlkxi la IH7. UCJ,048Lille 00,800 048,060 Arraa 83,173 396,989 Ainiona 49,WH 088,91)3 Rouen 00,000 800,U3«>Caen 38,161 011,30(!8t.Lo 8,3011 434,379 Alenfon 14,071 421,(163 Evrcux ".rJB 1,013,373 I'aria 890,531 440,H71 Vcraallle 99,79! 383,134 Boauvaia 19,863 318,900 MAlun 7,199 489,3410 Laon 7,:<34 393,043 Chfilona 19,410 381,694 Mezierca 4,139 341,709 Troyca 23,387 344,833 Chaumont.... 6,037 300,3:ig Rar le Due . . . 13,.520 409,133 Metz 4,970 403,038 Nancy 39,123 37f).839 Kpinal 7,931 408,741 (.'ohimr 1,340 S:l5,4»7 »l ruHhiirg .... 40,708 •WIMSH Ronnea 39,377 .Wl.dmHt. Ilrlfiix.... 9,903 !-A)-i,M\ (tiiiinper 10.039 427,454 Vnniiea 11,389 457,9110 Nanlca 71,730 :i.VI,i:iH Liivnl 15,840 4111.510 L« Mana 19,477 4.18.(174 A n ge ra 99,978 890,100 Tuura 90,990 304,998 Orlcana 40,340 977,782 Chnrtrea 1.1,703 2.10.IHm Hlola 11,337 9:17,(198 Ohntcauroux . 10,010 248,.'!89 Ilourgea 19..'M)0 971,977 Novcra 15,789 349,116 Auxerre 19,348 370,943 Dijon 93,843 313,776 Maf on 10,963 341,098 327,041 234,312 310,982 Uouny Diiiikirit ... Iloulogno.. . Ht, Omvr . . . Ahhovllle .... Havre Baycux Chnrlmiirg.. .. Argcntan . .. • Iiouviora BcAaux Elainpea Coinpligne . . . Funtainebloau Bt. Quentin ■ . Rheiina Sedan 19,880 34.317 19,314 10,010 10,390 31,040 10,000 17,006 0,044 0,843 1,390 7,807 7,309 7400 17,661 34,803 13,00e Valviiclennea. Cambral . . • Calala Bl.Quenttn Dieppe Faialae Cuutancea.. ToiSTi 17,031 e,eM 19,381 17,077 10,303 0,039 Bt.Dinii 8,731 Moaux.. Boiatona Kpernay . Uocroy... 329,896 988,960 267,670 339,939 976,331 384,882 333,653 424,147 560.373 262,013 410,373 369,208 593,984 123,329 385,701 464,074 ,'t.-)8,151 336,886 380,515 350,014 341,586 285,302 905,309 307.601 Langret 7,180 Verdun Thionvillo ... 3,891 Lunevillo 19,:r78 Toul SI. Die ?,.130 Baton 4,803 Saverne 4,003 Weiaaemburg. Bl. Malo 0,838 Dinant 7,173 Hreat 30,655 Morloix L'Oriont 15,310 Mayenno 0,790 Bnumur 10,314 Choraon 4,400 Montargia — 6,633 Dreux 0,947 VondAmo .... 6,803 Isaoudun 11,333 Bnna 8,688 Bcmur 4,930 Autun 0,936 Chftloni 7,830 7,483 3,080 3,500 7,507 6,140 0,701 Gray Puntarlier.... j Fontcnay t I le Conite { 7,903 4,340 rZ'aar.i «.^84 Vosoul 3,2.59 n<<8an{on .... 38,793 Lona Ic Saiilnier 7,864 Bourbon-Vendie 3,130 Niort 13,790 Poitiera 31,503 Guerct 3,448 Limogea 33,613 Tulle 8,470 Angoulume... 13,300 Cognac 3,017 Rochelln 11,073 Baintea 10,300 Rochefort — 7,403 Ch&tellerault . 9,341 Clermont Auriilac j Lyona,with ) ) auburba j Montbriaon ■ • Grenoble ... . Gap Valence Pirigueiix .... Bordeaux .... Agen Cahor* Rhodez 30,010 Rinm 13,736 Thiers . 0,370 St. Flour 6,040 170,875 Trevoux 3,459 3,156 St. Etienne. . . 30,615 39,149 Vienne 13,780 7,015 Embnin 3,300 10,283 Montelimar . . 7,580 8.588 Borgerac 8,418 93,340 11,971 Villoneuve... 9,495 13,413 7,747 Villcftanche. . 9,531 13,009 11,613 Montauban -. 36,466 Moisaac 10,115 Moulina 14.523 Mont de Maraan 3,088 Auch 10,844 Oax. 8,045 322,059 Tarbes 8,713 Bajnere 7.037 ' Bayonne ■ . ■ 13,498 Orthes . Oleron 6,433 413,469Pru. 11,761 || 347,g39Foix 4,038 131,378 Pcrpignan.... 15,357 407,016 Tnulouae 33,310 865,001 Carcassonne.. 17,773 327,665Alby 10,093 339,360 Montpelier . . . 35,842 347,530 Niamea 39,068 138,778 Mende 3,445 985,673 Le Puy en Vefay 14,998 328,419 Pri vaa 4,100 153,063Digne 3,055 396,303 Marseilles .... 115,043 311,095Toulon 30,171 333,048 Avignon 31,180 185,079 AJsccio INV Narbonne.... 10,097 Caatrcs 15,663 Bcziers 16,813 Boden . Alai 10,333 Argentiire ... 8,797 Biateron 3,!;90 Aix 33,133 Aries Draguignan • . 8,010 Graaae Orange 8.8 4 w* ' lyji I V, yav "''■ ■ ■- PiiRT III. lencloniiei. ]0,H4i inbral .. . 17,031 lain e,RM Qiicntin . . 13,nst 51>|>o n,(>77 IbIio ]U,:i03 utoncei.... 0,038 Dinii S, •aux 7,83B uoni 7,4^ cniny S.OHO croy 3,S(» rdun 0,i 111 7,i lincmburg. 6,140 rlaix 0,701 D«)OK I. FRANCE. 54A iloni hefort .... 12,009 »» 11,613 Tin following Btatistical table exhibits a compurative view cf tbo state of culture and pro- duction in the iTifferont dopartmonU of Franco. Tho amounts of grain, cattle and wool are furnislied by Chaptal. The wine is drawn from the report prcHcntod to the peers by the Due de Dodcouvillo, and the foresto from tiio memorial ot the sub-administrator, M. Horbin de Halle. Tlio entire annual amount of land revenue is derived from an estimate of tlie aver- age produce of tlio arpent in oucli department, founded upu tho Cadastre or generai aurvey ot tlio kingdom. It is furnished b/ Chaptal : — ' ) Dtpartminti. Alller Alps Uppw — — Ijjv/eT . • . ' Ardeclid ' Jinlennc* ...... Arriofa Aul» Awl Areymn Bouchet du Rlwna > Calvadu* Canlil Chiuvnte ■ • > - • Lower • Char Correie ...•.• Corsica Cole (l'l)r ■ • . . Colet (lu Nord • Creuze Doitloftie ■ • > . Uoubi DroDie Eure Eura and Loir • rinliterre * . - . Oard OAivnne, Upper Oere Olmnde • Henult lie tod Vllaloe ■ • Indra lodre and li>ire leeni Jun Laulet Loir and Cher . - Loire Loire, Upper - . - — — Lower Lolret Lot Lot iind Oironiw • • Loiere • • Maine and biln - • Maocbe - Mame Upper - - - M.-irenno «le ivtlie .4euiie • Mortiitian ..---• Mniclle NIevra Nord OIm Orne Pa* de Calais • ■ . . Plljr de Dome - ■ - . Pyrenees, !>iwer . . •^— — . Upper - - Eaatem • Rhine, Lnn'er Upper • • • Rhone ■ Saono, Upper - - • S-ione and Loire ■ • Bsnhe Seine ....•••. Lower - . - . Seine and Mame > • Seine and Oise < > . Sevra, Two - - - . Somme ....... Tarn Tain and QaroniM • Var Vaucluso .--.*. Verdee Vlenuio --.-Upper Vosga ToDoe Wh»l. 074,000 l,4M,i»0 888,000 IH),000 1119,000 m,oai M3,ono iHooo 4ei),ooo t,auu,ono 3ii,nuo 387,000 1,152,000 «i,oon 8»I,(XX> 708,000 40^000 loilooo 104,000 m,ooo 410,000 9,000 6M,oao 311.1,000 >i9,000 l|3M,000 l,A3i,000 8Mi,000 851,0110 l|l»7,OI l,OII,OC>. 4IS,000 eo4,ooo aio,ooo 457,000 737000 737,000 439,000 866,000 634,000 157,000 iiro,ooo 6»/,000 618,000 000,000 t»5000 87,000 810,000 '■M,000 535,000 480,000 1|IOO,000 700,000 611,000 860,000 8V4000 1,536,000 iSlT^OOO 640,000 8,019,000 euooo 306,000 128^000 120,000 602,000 600,000 160,000 nafioo 800,000 487,000 88,000 1,491,000 1,361,000 i,9e6;ooo 38&000 mooa 840^000 780,000 438,000 879,000 663,000 617,000 76L00O 607,000 401,000 R;e. «SB,000 1,040,000 7411,000 m,m 108,000 9114,000 458,000 189,000 631,000 183,000 433,000 13,000 328,000 678,000 34l,0('O 34,000 9eo,ooo 630.000 14,000 61 1,000 623,000 8'i5,<)00 !m,uon I38,0<^ 323,000 621,000 162,000 479,000 tu/loo 47,000 llhOOO 3^000 87,000 4.50,000 8(5,000 015^000 1,036,000 Il7,m 864,000 379,000 33^000 630,000 267 JMO 827,000 159,000 118,000 33,000 1,186^000 1^000 1,118,000 134,000 930,000 71,000 32,000 600 000 310,000 331,000 501,000 756,000 l.''>2,000 307,000 1,022,000 17,000 88,000 130,000 166,000 109,000 817,000 194,000 697,000 377,000 79,000 188,000 244,000 335,000 373,000 1^67,000 650,000 844,000 13,000 130^000 370,000 397,00» 666,000 168,000 439,000 HfMol. 148,000 666,000 1,721,000 13,000 786,000 39,000 8,000 884,000 147,000 30,000 «7I',000 120,000 2411,000 12.5,000 902,000 1,311,000 1,501,000 185,000 3,046,000 120,000 34,000 22,000 42,000 30,000 377,000 802,000 e9o!5oo 444,000 79,000 76)000 116,000 46,000 73,000 6)8,000 376,000 343,000 810,000 148,009 16,000 868,000 89,000 108,000 88,000 853,000 40,000 SLOOO 16^000 144,000 184,000 661,000 686,000 446,000 11,084,000 456,000 884,000 600,000 830,000 1,178,000 1,147,000 1,497,000 136,000 59,000 82,000 66,000 651,000 36,000 297,000 421,000 n^ooo 62,000 300,000 189,000 84,000 243,000 364,000 60,000 60,000 1,030,000 728,000 28,000 23,000 304,000 ' 7» ■0!, ' CtlU*. Wool M*, 93,000 84,000 IIIJIOO 3S,\J0O 11,000 64,000 80,000 6<,000 46,000 36,000 71,000 8,000 99,000 100,000 70,000 67,000 42,000 86,000 104,000 163,000 95,000 |30,000 I04,UOO 10,000 43,000 66,000 900,000 -,000 tiooo 88,000 7,000 164,000 llBlOOO uaifioo iia.000 S),0«O 69,000 78,000 60,008 133,000 78,000 64,000 68,000 33i)00 161,000 I60.0CO 63,000 81,000 139,000 79,000 174,000 76,000 98,000 172,000 74,000 101,000 146,000 104,000 102,000 49.000 15,000 107,000 49,000 44,0(X) 90,000 1I3.00O 108,000 13,000 60,000 78,000 117 000 63,000 86,000 60,000 39,000 11,000 4,000 04,0110 2,000 4,000 iooo 37,000 Kilo- inraiDfa, ll'tm Its. siflh. 68,000 1,107,000 147,000 638,000 384,000 667000 3»,000 168,000 1.443,000 too 000 686,000 aoifloo 425/100 256,000 311,000 ba4,000 21.1,000 104,000 240,000 136,000 331,000 4W,000 63,000 963,000 413,000 917,000 40,000 701000 660,000 1(10,000 438,000 W\00O 88,000 816,000 226000 268,000 64,000 836,000 661,000 144,000 330,000 259,000 t33,000 482,000 185,000 72^ffi0 tlT^n 300,000 936,000 159,000 172,000 136,000 68,000 166,000 87,000 744,000 832,(100 453,000 602,000 846,000 486,000 348,000 648,000 86,000 182,000 83,000 121,000 76,000 193,000 68,000 640,000 1.196,000 1,082,000 390,000 778,000 634,000 351,000 SlifiOO 498,000 896,000 661,000 Wine. Hsrioll. MMnl- lo«s secb. Avsrsft rneae !■ Vraaes. 873,000 991,000 888,000 101,000 08,000 77,000 86,000 117,000 678,000 601,000 891,000 690,000 4,000 1,830,000 1,701,000 333,000 620,000 417,000 139,000 361,000 65,000 1, 0(14,000 467,000 1,094,000 8,5«5,000 1,713.000 8,000 383,000 665,000 153,000 308,000 418,009 647,000 876,000 880OO 710,000 693,000 240,000 401,000 14,000 493,000 432,000 600,000 688,000 646,000 360,000 33,000 86,000 657,000 819,000 284,000 COO 433,000 264,000 693.000 306,000 39^000 436,000 81,000 101,000 007,000 18 91 17 18 16 18 80 16 17 10 14 14 10 ilU 16 18 18 38 20 10 14 8 18 10 13 13 10 II 17 12 13 18 14 10 16 17 81 18 16 86 14 13 16 17 80 36 33 17 II 16 18 <4 16 30 18 16 6 17 13 20 13 8 II 18 10 II 17 18 86 rortilt. Und Revenue. Use. laise. 64,000 103,000 106,000 74,000 60,000 28,000 160,000 66,000 77,000 60,000 4.5,000 64,000 32,000 30,000 32,000 38,000 150,000 13/100 65,U« 228,000 18,000 80,000 67/100 119,000 92,000 87,000 44,000 12/no 81,000 60,000 11,000 90,000 70,000 20.00 102,000 73,000 IfO^OOO 138,000 126.000 66,000 36,000 33,000 37/I0O 85,000 35,000 8% 36/100 318/XlO 180,000 18,000 132/100 IRi/JOO 57,000 8N000 69,000 46/100 66,000 112,000 68,000 49/100 166,000 169,000 160,000 131.000 88,000 4,000 84,000 73,009 74,000 39,000 66,000 42,000 11,000 118,000 67,000 19,000 S7.0CO 32,000 316,000 168,000 fintt. 10,063,000 17,441,000 8,23lL00O 3,604/100 4,664,000 11,767,000 12,206,000 11,618,000 I«,6a6/I00 17,203^000 13,461/100 PJ63,000 43,637/100 10,012 000 17.333,000 30,358^ 8^130,000 27.396,000 l9/IK3,0nO camfioo 14,431,000 14,464,000 20,748/WO 18,811^ 13,6t8/)C0 18,213/100 18/lat/lOO ■8,l8a/]0O ii,6eg/»o 16,451,000 6,438/100 16,178/100 33/134/100 83,474/100 16.986 O'V' l6,337,.Vj ll,36«/)09 16,760,000 15,968,000 8,743/100 7,936/100 17,688/100 6,679,000 88^36/100 37,650,000 8,991/nO 12,626,000 19,414/100 13,161/100 lO/MS/ICO I6,63LOOO 21,776/100 10,189/100 32,M!o!ln 28,9Ri/WI 9r,)66/100 9 J, 1 17,000 31,665/100 14,729,00(1 9,831/100 8,587,000 16,148/100 9,730,000 10,08I/»D 19,137,000 23,784/10(1 18,770,000 65/101,000 34,200,000 37,388/100 32J48,0Oa 18.741,600 88,047.000 12,343,000 IO,8<5,aOO 81,883/100 ■0.971,000 10,868/Xn 8,630/100 8,677/X» 7,H)«,00O 86,444,000 10,868 HJ I9,7ia intraa... O.TJil ITie Jile of France, now . vided into several departments, claims priority of notice as con- tai,,i'i0' the capitaL It in not, strictly spcakino^, an island: but being situated near the June* tic . of the Oise, Uie Mame, the Aisne, and the Seine, i? intersected' by very numerous river channels. It is in general level, fertile, and !• jrhly cultivated ; and beneath the surface are quarries of gypsum so copious, that the substanc is commonly designated " plaster of Paris.* Vol. L 46 3T Mb nHSCIUl'TIVK GEOflUAl'HY Part 111. Paria, tho capital of Fmnco, haa uIno nmuo [wtonaiona U) bo conaidorcd aa tlio ^mnernl capital of tho civilizml world, l^)ndon can, in fact, alono liiMputu ita c!iiiin, JKinL mora extondivc, inoro wcaltliy, ind tho anat of u much moro rxtended commerce; y»vt tjio ti'iitral aituation of Paris, tho peculiar attractiona rcnderinff it tho crowded resort of striinjfer.;. and ita brilliant ami polished society, especially under the old monarchy, jjavo to this city ii K>-y8r as]K!ct, nnd remlorcd it a moro conspicuous object in lun oyca of Kunjno. Paris is not only less jH)i)uiouH than Ixmdon, but in nroportion to ita popu'rMi n 't "ovorh loss jjround. It Ibrnw on both iHiiikH of tho Heino iin ellipso of about fuf ir '"i. 'i and throe in lircadtli. The principal streets nro Ion?, narrow, bonlcriMl 1.> hifjli .. u ■ , vvhicli, like those! of Kdin- burfrji, uro each occupio of .iiops are further cncmidmrcd by tho exhibition of the mcrchandiso in from of iho dtwrs, a pructirc only tolerated in tho most obficuro districts of British cities. Purif hus presents (jenerally a more ifloomy and confused as|)ect than I.ond(m; nor has it any siriicturo which ran match th(> grandeur of Ut. Paul's, or perhaps tiio beauty of Wostminsier Abbey ; yet some of its quarte^rs contain long ran{(es of superb and stately edifices, which London cannot rival. The palarcs of Paris, in particular, fiir excel those of the rival tnitroiwlis. The most distinjf'tisheil i- •' l only injureil by the want of BiNico boforo it. The Louvre is not now occupied us a palace, but as a ^^rand (i(>|)6t of tlio oujecta of taste and ort Tho gallery, which is more than a (piarter of a nule lopfj, and tho walla of which aro entirely crov^till adorned witli eome of the llncst specimens of ancient sculpture. Tho Tuileries, which is tho present ro -il residence, w.is be- fun at an ea. or periiMl than the lOuvrc, and carried on at successive times ; whence it exhibits varied and sometimes discordant features, but is on tho whole a noble and venerable edilicc, surrounded with fmo gar- dens and avenues. The imlncoof tho Imxembourg (/i^. 280.), on the south of I'aris, and the Poliiis Bourbon on the west, are etlilices of frreat taste and beauty. Tho former, now strip- ped of tho famous series of paint inga by Rubena, which has been tninsferred to the Louvre gallery, affords in one part a place of aaaembly for the Chamber of Peers, and in another apartments for tlie exhibition of paintings by living artists ; while the Palais Bourbon is in part occupied by the Chamber of Deputies. 281 , v^ The Pallia Roynl (fir. 291.) is no longer ^ " exclusively a palcce, but is in part leased out to sundr , perKiis, for purposes partly of business, but much nn re of pleasure: it is filled with shops, r(> ii-e-houscs, tav- ■M , garni" .-tables, oi very l()riii of gi..oty and dissipation wli .li can find ac- p . . P ceptance in such a city. Notre Dame, the ""■ ancient catliedral of Paris, is somewhat Heavy and massive, but tho interior is richly decoratrd. "', he modern church of St. Gei,. vi^ve, called during the Revolution tho Pantheon, was hijflily extolled during its erection Pi! destined to eclipse both St. Peter's and St. Paul's; ami such was tho (vpectation enter lain.,.; in France, till, the scafTolding being removed and tho front thrown oh'^m, its inferi- ority became aj ,. 'ent. '■ 'Wevcr, it is still an edifice of i Mgh cln-< (Jifr. 282.) St. Sulpice is m • modi ru structure. Paris has no fin ts, m any of those ample squares wi'ich are ,- grrcat an or- nament of London, It boa.-'s, however, of ita places, which, without having the regular form or dimensions of a square, command admiration by the ranges of noble buildings that surround them. In particular, the Place Louis Quinze standing in a central situation among the . ijaiaces, presents one of the most brii- liant points of view to be found in any city. This capital possesses also great advantages ip Tha LuxembourR. Churrh of Bt Gens?is?c. Part III. iR thn (rniiernl II, l)< iiib mora yoi tlio luntrel Btninj^or.:, nnd m city ii ((uyer arm in not only ouiul. It tbnim ■00 in iiri'iKltli, tliosf! of I'Min- or <'iir.iiinlHTiiii(l(!nr of St. rH contain lonj; :<'s of I'liriM, ill '• •' l/)uvro, .OUia.'.'V. "■. Oil by tlio want lul (lojidt of tlio t! lonjr, nnd tlio t n niiijjniticent tinim of ancient pries, which is lonce, Wiis bc- criixi than the n at micc(!ssivo ibilH vnriod nnd f(MitnrcH, but is iinil vrncrnblc \ilh fine gar- ic palncoof tho I.), on the Houth lli^^ Bourbon on I of pront taste ner, now strip- ioH of paintings iiirt a place of )n of paintings ?r of Deputies. ) is no longer in part leased urposes partly of pleasure: n-houscp, tav- very form of 1 can find nc- jtrc Dame, the is somewhat of St. Gei.; • its erection ctation enter 'n, its inferi- wevcr, it is a structure, any of those ffreat an or- ir'H, however, lit liaving the of a square, ho ranges of nd them. In ouis Quinze on among the le most brii' advantages Id BookL FRANCE. tho wide ornamented opnii ipacoi \< hicli lie i thn very Imart of the city. The < mlcvardi, tho ancient ruinpart at I'ariN, wIumi it woh circumRcriDud within a much narrower conipaM, aro now convortud into a walk adoriKid with rowH of tfoea, and filled with numorouH o.hi- bitorH and vondnrH of overv thing that can conduce to public amuaement. Tho gardoni o^ tho TuilorioH, and tho oinbellirihed aiKit calloil the Champa Elyiiti, are aim open to th« public. The stntiHticH of Pari* have been carefully illiiatratod in a aoriea of intorosting worki by tho (Jount do Clmbrol. Tho jwpulation, in 1821, amounted to 713,WJfl, but haa now rinen to 81H),4:U. Tho birtliH, in tho throe yearn ended 1821, averaged 24,7(H); tho deaths 22,tlH0; leaving thim 2n(K) an the annual oxceiw of birtha. A third of all the birtha were illegiti- mate, and of tlioMo (dily a third were acknowledged by tho parents. Tho atill-born childron wero averaged 1;U1.">. 'I'he average of marriogea in tho three years was about (KXH). In tho throe yeara 7;)vJ died of small-|xjx, and only one child out of twenty-fivr, was vaccinated. The violent deaths average, being considered ' a long blockade, nd regularly built, nsiderable variety literature and the Dmo celebrity as a of three collegen, from all the three id celebrated city, m of the Franks, wnfall of Venice; haps the name is It ranks still as a one of those held le peace of Paris, ancient bulwark the allies in 1793, derive any advan- me fine manufac- lie of France bor- e and flourishing ■ated for its manu- es, plush, velvets »e linens. Here between Britain 4.) is one of the nented in France ted as one of the 3ry fine woollen ish; it deals most ind other coarse uentin, the scene joys a more hum he most thriving ts manufactures ng of cotton ; all The citizens ol Jromising branch Oise to that of ' T stately cathe- L'cond to that of B0*M I FRANCE. Calau Hsrbour. Rhouns, the right of crowning the king of France. It docs not now present any striking fettures. Beauvais ia thriving and industrious. The ports of IMcardy and ( rench FlandurM are also very deserving of notice. DunkirK, being tlie only one which opens into the North tioa, was always cimsidorod of great import* ance. Louis XIV. having definitively obtained this place m UW2, made it one ot tiie strongest harbours in Europe. It soon became so annoying to British trade, that oil vantage was token of the triumphs of the war of succession, to require, at the treaty of Utrecht, its entire demolition. By canals and other means, the French contrived always to replace it in an effective state ; but by successive treaties, the demolition of the fortifications on the side of the sea was again and again stipulated, till the circumstances of the peace of 1783 obliged England to cease from exacting it. From ttiat time Dunkirk became the main centre of the privateering system. It has also a considerable share of fishery and of the Baltic trade. A memorable era in its history was its siege by the British in 1793. They were compelled abruptly to raise it, and this formed the commencement of a long series of reverses sustained by the allied arms. Dunkirk has a good harbour in the centre of the city, entered by a canal of a mile and a half; it is rather well built, but for want of springs the inhabitants are obliged to use rain-water. The neighbouring territory is low and marshy, only preserved from the inundation of the sea by a ridge of downs, and only cultivated by means of numer- ous draining canals. Calais is well known as the point of communication with England, which so long held it as tiie key of France, even atlcr her aims at the entire conquest of that monarchy had ceased. At present, it is chiofiy supported by the packet intercourse, its indifferent harlx)ur {fiff. 285.) unfitting it for any commerce on a great scale. Calais is in a very flat country, intersected by canals, by which it might be even inundated. Boulogne has more maritime importance ; though its port, choked with sand, will no longer receive vessels of any size, unless at high tide. It has lost altogether the forced consequence given to it by the construction of the grand flotilla, des- tined to subdue the British empire, but now abandoned to rot Its proximity, h wover, to the coast has rendered it a great resort of English fiimilies, who inhabit it to the amount of several thousands. The fishery of herring, mackerel, &c. varies in value firom 1,()(X),0(X) to 2,000,000 francs. The cities of Normandy are larger and more important than those already described. Rouen is one of the noblest m France. Its manu- factures are, perhaps, the most enterprising and indus- trious in the kingdom, and from their vicinity to Eng- land have had peculiar facilities in borrowing her pro- cesses. The main staple is cotton-spinning and weav- ing, which 8je supposed to occupy two-thirds of the 55,000 workmen, and so to constitute the same pro- portion of the two millions sterling of manufactured goods annually produced. The cathedral (Jig. 286.), conunenced by William the Conqueror, was considered one of the finest specimens of ecclesiastical architect ture in France, till the late disaster, which overthrew a great part of it. The streets are excessively narrow and dirty, though those adjoining to the Seine are agreeable. That river was long crossed only by a pontoon, composed of nineteen large barges, strongly moored together by iron chains ; but as this had many inconveniences, a handsome stone bridge has been lately substituted. At ElboDuf, near Rouen, is a manu* factory of fine cloth, almost equal to that of Louviers. Caen is a very ancient city, of great historical name^ the favourite residence of William the Conqueror, and the frequent head-quarters of the English armies. It is still a considerable place, rather unusually well built for a French town, contaming a handsome castle, the only remaining part of its fortifications, and some fine old churchea Its mar^ufactures are numerous-, but none of t.hpm very eminent, exceot that of lace, which gives employment to about 20,000 females in this place and the neighbourhood. It is of some eminence as a seat of literature, gave bir'h to Malherbe and Huet, and has a university of considerable '•eputation, which, though suppressed during the Revolution, has been restored Roum Cathedral. 650 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. PAaTin, in full lustre, Havre, at the mouth of the Seine, is the port of Paris, and one of the mort active eeats of French commerce. The custom duties, in 1824, amounted to somewhat above a million sterling, and its trade has since been greatly augmented. The chief febric of the town and neighbourhood is that of printed cottons. It is a gloomy town, the streets narrow, and the houses often built of a framework of wood filled up with mortar. Dieppe, StValery, Fecamp, and Honfleur are very active stations for fishing ; which is not, however, carried on witli the same energy and adventare as before the Revolution. The immense efforts made to render Cherbourg a naval station of the first rank, have proved nearly abortive. Tha French govemn.nibled. The glory of Blois has now entirely passed away : its streets are narrow, gloomy, and dismally dirty. Tours, equally ancient, is now much more flourishing ; its plain is pre-eminent, even among the other districts on the banks of the Loire. The silk manufacture, first introduced here, has been in a great measure transferred to Lyons, but it still employs 7000 or 8000 persons. Happily for the beauty of the city, a great part of it was consumed 50 years ago, and occasion was taken to build a new street, running its whole length, of fine hewn stone, broad, and on an elegant design; it is, perhaps, the finest in France. It is connected with a bridge of 14 arches, which till of late was considered equally unrivalled ; and also with a fine promenade bordered with trees. The metropolitan church was almost entirely demolished during the revolutionary excesses; only two of its lotly spires remain. The beauty and abundance of the country around Tours have attracted such numbers of English residents, that Mrs. Carey was asked on the road what great convulsion was agitating Eng- land, that her people were flying i'rom it in such crowds. Sau;^ur, once highly flourishing and industrious, lost two-thirds of its population by the revocation of the edict of Nantes. Angers is a large, old, steep, ill-built town, but has a considerable trade ; its monuments have been dreadfully shattered during the Revolution. Le Mans, capital of Maine, on the Sarthe, is very old, but large and clean, with a spacious market-place and some considerable manufactures. The provinces between the Loire and the Garonne, Poitou, Berri, Limousin, and the Marche, are of diversified and somewhat peculiar aspect: they present none of those bound- less plains which characterise France north of the Loire ; they are everywhere traversed by valleys and ridges of hills, never rising into mountains, but giving to the country a broken and variegated aspect. This, according to the nature of the soil, is sometunes rude and dreary, sometimes gay and smiling. Mr. Young ranks the Limousin as the most beautiful district in all France, such is the variety of hills, dales, streams and woods which compose its landscape. Mrs. Carey describes Marche, beyond Argonton, as singularly pastoral; the hills covered with "heep, goats, kids, and lambs, the last of which at evening come down bleating, and are received into the houses. Poitou, a part of which is so fatally celebrated under its new name of La Vendee, is a rough country, a great part of which is covered with a forest called the Bocage. All these districts are more productive of cattle than of grain, though tliey are cultivated by a simple peasantry with hardihood and vigour, but quite m the antique style, and with a strong antipathy to all modern improvements. In Poitou, the proprietors, being small, and residing much on their estates, excited feudal feelings and attachments, that were extinct in the rest of France ; hence the formidable war which they waged single-handed in defence of the ancient regime. The cities in this range of provinces, though ancient, are neitlier large, nor distinguished ■;y much industry. Poitiers is of high antiquity, and presents some interesting Roman re- riiMiiia: in modem times it is distinguished by the signal victory gained here by the Black Prince. Tha oily is of great extent, but comprises many empty spaces and gardens. Limogea 18 on ill-built to'vn, with many houses of timber, roofed with tiles, and projecting eaves, but Ir Kfi DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pajit III. there are several handsome squares and fountainn, and the public walks command a beautifu view of the Vienna flowing clown a charming valley. Its cathedral, said to have been built by the English during their temporary possession of this part of France, suffered much during the revolution, and has only one tower lefl standing. Bourges, the ancient Biturgiee, is very ill-built, but adorned with a fine cathedral, and distinguished for its university, and as the birth-place of fiourdaloue, and of the Jesuit, Father d'Orleons. Chftteauroux is gloomy, but has a large woollen manufacture. The two departments of the Charente, watered by the fine river of that name, form a region different in character from those now described ; level, and extremeljr fertile, though in some parts marshy and unhealthful. A great part of the produce of its rich vineyards is at Cognac converted into brandy, which bears an unrivalled reputation, though, probal ly, the name is applied with a fraudulent latitude to inferior liquors. The yellow tingd so generally given to brandy is the consequence of a local custom at Cognac. Saintes is ancient even as a French city. An ample theatre, an aqueduct, and a triumphal arch of white marble, attest its ancient importance as a Roman city ; and the cathedral is said to belong to the age of Ciiarlemagne. But the most conspicuous features of the Charente are Rochelle and Rochefort. The former is renowned as the grand and last bulwark of the Protestant cause ; and its reduction, effected by the almost incredible efforts of Cardinal Richelieu, fixed the downfiiU of civil and religious liberty in France. Thoug'h no longer a haven of tlie first magnitude, its colonial trade, prior at least to the late war, was very con- siderable. The town is handsome, with broad streets, many of the houses built on arcades, with shops beneath as in Chester. Rochefort has little trade, but is one of the principal French naval stations. It has a secure harbour, with very safe and extensive docks. Being one of the few towns in Prance that are not much more than a century and a half old, it is built on a reg(i!ar pl»«, with brood open streets. Angoul^me, in the interior, stands on a rock in the centre of a charming valley, through which winds the silver stream of the Charente. It is a clean well-built town, having a cathedral with five cupolas, and displaying other marks of historical importance. Tliere is a large manufacture of paper. Guienne is a most important province, which for !«»'veral ages formed an oppanage of the English crown. It conHistH of a magnificont and highly cultivated plaiUj watered by the Garonne, whose broatl stream here resnmblfjs an arm of the sea, and by its ample tributaries, the Tarn, the Lot, and the Dordogne. It is distinguished by various rich productions, but more especially by the wines bearing the name of claret, which, though not quite so rich and highly flavoured as some, are so light and agreeable thot a greater quantity is drunk at the tables of the opulent, than of any other. M. Frank, in a late work published at Bordeaux, estimatos the entire produce of claret at 250,000 tuns. The wines of the farms Laffitte and Ch&teau-Margaux are the most esteemed ; but much is sold under these names which has no title to them. Bordeaux (Jig. 287.), near the mouth of the Garonne, is one of the grandest emporia in France, and, indeed, in Europe. 287 Situated at the mouth of the Garonne, which here allows the largest vessels to ascend to its port, it exports all the vol liable produce of this great southern plain, of which the wines are said to amount to 100,000, and brandy to 20,000 pipes annually. It is engaged also in colonial trade, and in the cod and whale fisheries. Recent travellers re- mark a greater display of wealth and prosperity in this than in Borduaui. ^ly other of the French com- mercial cities. Every thing is on a ^nd scale, aijdJiyiildings are in progress which, when finished, will leave it without a rival m France. The theatre, designed after that of Milan, is considered a model of archi- tectural beauty. Many of the ecclesiastical structures were founded by the English. A very republican spirit is said to prevail at Bordeaux. The other towns of Guienne are not of the first mognitude. Montauban embraced witli ardour the Protestant cause, and had a distinguished university, which was suppressed, when the place was taken in 1629, by Louis XIII., and the fortifications razed. This seminary, however, was restored by Napoleon in 1810. Montauban is well-built, of painted brick, with wide and clean streets ; and an elevated walk, which commandH a most extensive view, reaching to the Pyrenees. Agen is a very dirty ill-built town, but famous for the plums raised in its vicinity, Cahors has some thnvmg manufactures, and its vicinity produces the Book I. FRANCE. m irin de Grave, which is held in high estimation. Rhodez, on the Aveyro.1, ia a gliomy old town, but the seat of a distinguished bishopric. Gascony is a large province, extending to Uie Pyrenees, and consisting c'iefiy of a wide Level surface, of peculiar character, called the landes. These are plains jf sand, in some places loose arid blowing, but mostly covered with pine trees, sometimes affording pasturage for sheep, and more rarely detached tracts fit for cultivation. The Gascons, long an inde- pendent people under their dukes, tire a peculiar race, fiery, ardent, impetuow, and prover- bially addicted to boasting ; hence the term gasconade. Bayonne, Uiough not very large, is one of the strongest and prettiest towns in France. Situated at the broad mouth of the Adour, it has a considerable trafiic in exportmg the timber of the Pyrenees and the Landes, and sends also vessels to the cod and whale ^heries. Mont de Marsan, the capital of the Landes, is but a small and poor place. The Pyrenean departments comprehend some interesting features ; Beam, the little ori- ginal principality of Henry IV., which he governed with ptemal kindness ; and Roussillon, which underwent several revolutions, alternately belonging to France and to Spain, before it was finally annexed to the former. Young gives a delightful view of the state of this mountain district. T« ig divided into a number of small properties, which are well enclosed, well cultivated, each comfortable cottage being surrounded by its garden well stocked with fruit trees ; the inhabitants snii^ly dre.ised, like Highlanders, in red caps. The subdivision of property, though great, seems not to have gone so far as to lead to misery. Pau is a con- siderable town, in a romantic situation, and celebrated as the birth-place of Henry IV., whose cradle is still shown in the ancient palace, now converted into a prison. It irakes a good deal of linen, and is nolcd for its excellent hams, which are exported from Bayonne. Tarbes, capital of the upper Pyrenees, and Bagneres, with its mineral hoi springs, a place of crowded and fiishionable resort, are delightfully situated, affording an approach to the fine valleys of the highest Pyrenees. The slopes of the neighbouring mountains are richly cul- tivated, and often well enclosed, lioussillon ia Spanish as to language and customs ; but the magnificent roads sfl^ected in defiance of natural obstacles, and the thriving industry of the people, mark tiie influence of a moie active and enlightened government. The extensive fortifications of Petpignan render it a barrier of the kingdom. It is g,ioomy and ill-built, but has some manulactures. Languedoc, the ancient Gallia Narbonensis, end afterwards the domain of the counts of Toulouse, is the pinle of France in regard to climate, soil, and scenery. The air along its coasts is generally ■considered the most salubrious in Europe. The plains of Languedoc are celebrated ; yet th( v ire encroached upon not only by the Pyrenees on the east, but by the Cevennes, which fou-'. their constant northern boundary, and in many places reduce them to a breadth of a few miles. But on the line from Beziers by Montpelier to Nismes, the plain is of much greater breadth, and displays a luxuriant fertility scarcely rivalled ia any other part even of this happy region. Every thing flourishes here, even what is most strictly denied to other provinces ; not only grain and the vine, but the silk-wonn and the olive. The cities of Tjanguedoc are not of the very first magnitude ; but they are handsome and finely situated ; and they present some interesting Roman monuments. Toulouse covers a great extent of ground, but it has suffered in consequence of the discontinuance of its par- liament, whicli was one of the most important in Franco. Tlie cathedral is very largo, but not very beautiful ; and many of the churches were destroyed during the Revolution. There is an university attended by 1500 students, and two large libraries open to me public, Castrcs is a well-built, hidustrious, large town, the birth-place of Rapin and Madame Dacier. Carcassonne still retains some of the bastions and towers of the custle on its hill ; but this ancient quarter is almost deserted in fiivour of the neat pleasant town built beneath. Beziers is ugly and dirty, but has a handsome cathedral, and is important from its site on the canal of Languedoc. Naibonne, though celebrated as a Roman capital, presents few monumenla of that people; these are said to have been taken down at the building of the walls. Mont- pelier enjoys an unrivalled fame for its mild and salubrious air ; but late travellers have declared themselves unable to discover on what that renown is founded. It is subject to alternations of heat and cold ; cloth pelisses must be worn the whole winter, ano fires can- not be discontinued till May. It ia, however, an agreeable residence ; the public walk crna. mands a view over the Mediterranean and the surrounding country, scarcely equalled in Europe ; there is a flourishing medical school, with good practitioners, and a library of 40,000 volumes. Montpelier is not uniformly well-built ; but it presents a noble Roman aqueduct a fine cathedral, and other public buildings. Nismes is one of the greatest and most flour- ishing cities in the south of France. The silk manufacture, as already noticed, flourishes there to a great extent. More than half the inhabitants are Protestant, who, as may be well remembered, were, on the restoration of the Bourbons, exposed to violent outrages on the part of their Catholic fellow-citizens ; but these disorders were disavowed by Uie French court, and have ceased. The city is ill-built, iil-pa.vcd, ill laid out ; but there is a fine bou- levard bordered with trees; and it is particularly illustrious for the magnificence of its Ro- man monuments. The amphitheatre is nearly entire, and, thcigh rather smaller than that Vox. I. 47 3U 654 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. Font dv. Gard. of Verona, from ita massive ^ndeur, and the enormous stones of which it is constructedr suggests the idea of an imperishable fabric. But the edifice called the Maison carree^ sup- posed to have been a temple of Augustus, is that which has excited the admiration of alt travellers, from ita extreme elegance and graceful proportions, which ren der it almost a perfect model of architectural beauty. It remains after so many ages quite entire, " as if savage and saint had been alike awed by its superlative beauty." Near Nismes is the Pont du Gard (Jiff. 268.), an ancient bridge, or rather aqueduct, forming one of the most remarkable monuments now extant of Roman grandeur. Provence is one of the most celebrated and interesting of the French provinces, first, as the earliest seat of wealth, civilisation, and poetry ; next, ns containing the ecclesiastical capital, Avignon, near which is Vaucluse, the favourite residence of Petrarch ; lastly, as including Toulon and Marseilles, the greatest naval and the greatest commercial city in the kingdom. The classic stream of the Durance, though it crosses the whole region from its alpine boundary to the Rhone, and too often overflows its banks, does not preserve the exten- sive tracts covered with rude calcareous hills from the evils of aridity. Although, there- fore, the products of this province are various, and many of tliem fine, it does not yield corn sufficient for its own consumption, nor can it boast of extensive manufactures, but dopendf chiefly upon commerce. The cities of Provence rank, in all respects, among the greatest and most interesting of ihe kingdom. Aix is not the largest, but 'a reckoned the capitr.l, and was formerly tiie seat of tha parliaments of Provence. Its name is contracted from that of Aquoe Sextim, given to it by the Romans from the copious warm baths, in whose vicinity numerous medals and inscriptions have been discovered. It is pleasant, airy, well built, in a fine plain encircled by lofty mountains. Th'i cours is very beautiflil, formed by two rows of trees, with hot fountains bubbling up, at which v/omen are seen washing clothes. Greater celebrity attaches to the name of A''ignon, for some time an ecclesiastical capital, and still more illustrious by tssociation witli the names of Laura and Petrarch. It is finely situated on the Rhone, with many hanrlsome houses; but the streets are crowded and ill-paved. In the centre rises an insulated rock, separated by the river from a rango of hills on the other side, and in which are the remains of the palace of the popes, now converted into barracks and prisons. The cathedral had accumulated immense wealth in silver and other offerings, of all which it was rifled at the Revolution ; an event more fatal to Avignon than to any other city, ex''*>pt Lyons. Avignon is surrounded by a wall built only for fiscal purposes, and the Rho is crossed by a handsome bridge built by St. Benezet in the twelfth century fi-om the produce of alms, and which yields .50,000 fi-ancs of annual toll. It would be profane for a traveller 289 Fountain of Vaucluie. to leai'e Avignon without visiting the tomb of Laura in the church of the Franciscans, and making an excursion to the beautiful fountain of Vaucluse (Jig. 289.), the scene of inspiration to Petrarch. Aries was, in early times, one of the most important cities in the south of France ; under the Romans it was the seat of the prmtorian prefect ; in the ninth century it was the capital of a separate kingdom, and afterwards the seat of an archbi- shop, and of thirteen successive councils. It is still a large city, and presents the vestiges of a Roman amphitheatre (of which the interior area is now built upon),ojice capable of containing 30,000 persons. Tarascon is still a flourishing place, above which rises the ancient castle of the counts of Provence, now converted into a priwn. On the opposite bank of the Rhone is Beaucaire, distinguished for its great annual fair, at which are still sold goods of vaiious descriptions to the value of about 7,500,000 francs. Digne and Car- pentras are of some importance as capitals of districts. Mai-seilles and Toulon, tiie two great southern havens, form now the most important fea- tures of Provence. The commercial fame of Marseilles dates from early antiquity, when it was a Greek colony, ond carried on almost all the commerce of Gaul. In modem times it has been the chief centre of the trade to *he Levant ; and though its prosperity suffered a total eclipse under the regime of Napoleon, it has since regained much of ita ft/rmef Part III. ; is constructed,, ion carree, sup- dmiration of all [treme elegance ions, which ren rfect model of y. It remains [uite entire, " aa had been alike lative beauty." ! Pont du Gard lent bridge, or ning one of the lonuments now andeur. ovinces, first, as le ecclesiastical arch; lastly, as ircial city in the ( region from its serve the exten- Mthough, there- ;s not yield corn res, but dcpendr st interesting ot jrmerly tlie seat Sextim, given to ous medals and ; plain encircled ' trees, with hot clebrity attaches )re illustrious by the Riionc, with ! centre rises an and in which prisons. The all which it was ler city, ex'*ppt nd the Rhc • is om the produce for a traveller vithout visiting in the church ind making an uitiful fountain 89.), the scene etrarch. Aries one of the most the south of Romans it was torian prefect; ry it was the kingdom, and of an archbi- ts the vestiges nice capable of hich rises the )n the opiwsite vhich arc still )igne and Car- important fca- ntiquity, when modom tim?? perity suffered of ita f(;rmer Book I. FRANCj:;. 506 splendour. The harbour is spacious and secure, but it is somewhat narrow at tho entrance, and shallow. It is bordered by extensive quays of hewn stone, with spacious warehouses ; and is filled with all the shipping peculiar to the Mediterranean, among which arc galleys, and beautiful pleasure-boats with silk awnings ; it is crowded with all the nations of that eea, Greeks, Turks, Jews, Spaniards, Italians, and loaded with the produce of Asia and Africa. It is compared by a late writer to Liverpool : the districts round the port are a nucleus ot trade and dirt ; but in the exterior, the streets are handsome, airy, and well built Among other fine public buildings is the hdtel de ville, with its magnificent marble staircase. The coMrs is formed by two rows of fine trees bordered by handsome houses, and the central walk is crowded like a fair. The neighbouring plain is finely cultivateo, but is bounded by bold and rugged mountains that rise above the range of vegetation. Toulon, though not a seat of commerce, is the chief naval station of France on the Medilerronean. It has two porta, the old and the new : the latter alone receives ships of war, and is bordered by most extensive arsenals, in which 5000 men are constantly employed. This port can contain 200 sail of the line ; and without is a very spacious and well-sheltered roadstead. It is defended by two strong forts, which, however, were occupied in 1793 by the British, who, at the end of the year, were obliged to evacuate the place. This was the first occision on which Bona- parte's military talents became conspicuous. Toulon is a clean, pleasant town, refreshed by streams of water, running through the streets. The adjacent country is wild and romantic, and interspersed with some cultivated valleys. QQQ - Dauphiny is a region completely alpine, the two depart- " * ments of the Upper and Lower Alps occupying the greater part of its surface. The mountains are chiefly calcareous, and broken into the most picturesque, peculiar, and ro- mantic forms. Young even considers the scenery of Dau- phiny, particularly along the Isere, as surpassing that ot any other part of the Alps. In one of the most awful re- cesses of these rocks and wilds, at a distance from all tho smiling scenes of earth, St. Bruno erected the monastery of the Chartreuse (Jig. 290.), of which Gray has drawn so sublime and imposing a picture. There are other scenes emphatically termed the wonders of Dauphiny; as the burning fountain, the grottoes of Sassenage, &c. Although this part of the kingdom cannot be considered as productive, yet great numbers of cattle and sheep are reared on its high slopes by a simple race of meii resembling the mountaineers of Switzerland ; and even the silk-worm is bred in its lower valleys. The cities do not require very particular notice. Grenoble is a considerable place, not ill built, with a library of 60,000 volumes, and some other literary establishments. It took a conspicuous part in promoting the commencement of the Revolution, and was also tlie first town that opened its ^ates to Napoleon on his return from Elba. Gap is a pretty large but poor old town, in _ ueep hollow, amid barren mountains. Vienne is a Roman city, and presents a temple, with several other interesting remains of that people. It has also a fine modern cathedral with a very lofty spire. Valence has a military school, at which Bonaparte was educated. Near Tain is produced the celebrated wine called Hermitage. The Lyonnais is a small territory, penetrated by branches of the Alps, in some places rough and stony, in olhers finely diversified with hill and dale. Its chief interest, however, cenlicc is tlie great city which is its capital. Lyons (Jig. 291.) is generally con- sidered £s the second city in France, and t'S foremost in regard to com- merce and industry. It is on the whole a noble city. The quays along the Rhone are superb ; the hdtel de ville is held to be second only to that of Amsterdam ; the cathedral is highly ornamented in the florid j^.^,^ Gotliic style ; and the squares, espe- cially the Place de Bellecour, witii its fountains and statues, are nowhere surpassed. On the other hand, the old streets are narrow, bordered by lofty and gloomy walls, and divided by a muddy stream. To turn into them fh)m the quays has been compared to entering subteiraneous passages, watered by tho sluices of Cocytus. Lyons suffered dreadfully under the sway of the jacobins, who made it a chief theatre of those atrocities that rendered them the horror of mankind. To say n' thing of the massacr,?a nernetratod under the appellatior. o^ fusillades and noyu ies, they studiously broke in pieces all the manufdctuviiig machinery, while with barbarous hands tney defaced all the ornaments of the city, fill^ up the .ountams, broke the statues in pieces, and Grande Cliatlreuae. sse DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pakt hi. cunous cave. demoliiihed the whole of the cathedral except the walls. Her citizens have made diligent offorts to restore her prosperity, and not without success ; still the want of capital and the etagnation of trade are serious obstructions, and cause the evils of poverty among a lurfre population to be severely felt. The Lyonnese have the propensities usually observed in manufacturing places : they dislike the Bourbons, and the sight of an Englishman is worm- wood to them. Auvergne, to tlie west of the Lyonnais, is the only mountainous and pastoral tract which France has peculiarly its own. It consists of a continuous rango of mountains which have evidently been in a state of volcanic action, tlie country being covered with lava, and the houses built of it. From an elevated and extensive plain rises the great Puy de D6me, nearly 5000 feet high, with about sixty attendant mountains, called in the country the ciantess and her children. The country is diversified with many rugged and precipitous rocks, having caatles and eveu i-'wns built on them. Yet Auvergne is not a barren country. The Puys are mostly covered with herbage, and have large level plains. The natives are labo- rious, and rear large herds of cattle, whicli ore almost wild ; they are oven said to beat off the wolf, the low of the animal attacked summoning all the rest to its assistance ; but, in return, they cannot be milked unless the calf be on the other side. The people are homely, and very republican , tlioy form themselves into a number of societies, of which the princi- ple is a common tatilu, attended however by the men only. In winter they take up their abode under the same roof with the cattle which occupy each end, and by their heat save fuel which is scarje. Clermont is a considerable town, perched on the top of a hill, and built of lavn. It is oxlremely dirty, and Mr. Young compares several of its streets to chan- nels cut in e dv-iTuill ; however, the mountain breezes purify the air. The cathedral, which was fine, wls ' iy destroyed during tlie Revolution. In the surrounding country are many etrifying wells, warm springs, cascades, &c. Aurillac also, Riom, and Thiers are elevated towns, com- manding striking views of the rocks and cones of this remarkable chain. Towards Puy en Velay, which na- turally belongs to Auvergne, the rocks become still more steep and romantic; and among the castles seat- ed in them, Mr. Young especially distinguishes that of Polignac (Jig. 292.), the form and site of which appears to him so striking, as to c«UoofPolig«.e. cause all the feudal ages, by a sort of magic influence, to rise before the mind. St. Michael's church, in the centre of tiie town of Puy itself, stands on the top of a very striking, almost precipitous rock, of tower-like form. Burgundy and Champagne, witli the small adjoining provinces of Bourbonnais and Niver- nais, form a vast plain extending north of the provinces last described. Burgundy, however, is traversed by branches from the Vosges, forming hilly tracts of moderate elevation. This is the great country of wine, producing the finest in France, and, with very few exceptions, in tho whole world. The surface of the wine-district is chiefly red sandstone rock, with very little soil. The vineyards are cultivated by small proprietors, who do not usually hold more than twenty or thirty arpents. It costs 500 francs ti plant an arpent in vines, and 30 annually to keep it in repair. Three years elapse before it yields any wine, and six before it yields good wine. Common vineyards sell at 1500 francs an acre ; and there are some that sell so high us 10,000. The precariousness of the crop, however, and the want ot capital, render this branch of industry a poor employment; and the cultivators of Burgundy are the least flourishing of any in France. Few new viney nrds are now laid down ; though the capital invested in tii'=- old ones is a tofficient r'>ason for keeping, them up. Of the chief towns, tlie first in dignity is Rheims, a no- ble and ancient city, the ecclesiastical capital of France, where the kings were crowned and anointed. The cathe- dral (Jig. 293.) has been considered the most splendid spe- cimen of Gothic architecture existing, though some of its ornaments are not in tlie purest taste. The H6tel de Villo is also fine; and the streets, unlike what is usual in old towns, arc broad, straight, and well built. Rheims is still the chief mart of that fovourite wine called champagne, CSttlicdnlat Bheimi. and from thence the connoisseurs of Paris take care lO |«o- cure their supplies. Troyes, once celebrated for its great Paiit III. 3 modo diliiTGnt capital amftho among a lur(i;e illy observed in ihman is worm- tral tract which lins which have th lava, and the ; Puy de D6me, he country the recipitous rnclo, country. The latives are kbo- said to beat off istance ; but, in pie are homely, hich the princi- jy take up their their heat save )p of a hill, and streets to ciion- athedral, which untry are many tlso, Riom, and d towns, i,om- ws of the rocks narkable chain, jlay, which na- Auvergne, the More steep and the castles seat- sung especially * Polignac (Jig. site of which striking, as to ages, by a sort itre of tlie town >wer-like form, nais and Niver- undy, however, levation. This few exceptions, one rock, with lot usually hold 500 francs h. eep it in repair. and six before at 1500 I'rancs gh us 10,000. the want ot employment; flourishing of lOW laid down ; is a &officient Rheims, a no- ital of France, The cnthe- t splendid spe- rh some of its Hdtel de Villo is usual in old Iheims is still champagne, ie care to pro d for its great id Book FRANCE. 55"? fairs, and noted as having given its name to the Troy weight, ranks as capital of Champagne, and is still a large and nourishing town on the Seine, Chftlons sur Marne is also consioera- ble, and, by a seemingly capricious choice, is the capital of the department of the Marne, instead of Rheims. Mezieres and Sedan are strong mntier towns ; the latter celebrated for its manufacture of fine woollen cloth, aa well as for one of arms. Rocroy is only distin- guished for the signal victory of 1643, which first established the superiority of tlie French arms. In Burgundy, Dijon {jSg. 294.), with its numerous and lofty spires, presents a noble appe&idnce to the approaching traveller , but it has lost much of its ancient impor- Autun Cathedral. Dijon. l&nce. Its churches, now too numerous for the place in its reduced state, were dreadfully detiiced and mutilated during the Revolution : one has been converted into a market for fish, another into one for corn. The streets, however, are wide and clean. Dijon has a distin- guished university, and can boast of giving birth to Bossuet, Bufibn, and Crebillon. Autun attracts notice by a temple and otlier remains, which indicate its importance as a Roman city, also by a fine modern cathedral (Jiff. 295.) Auxerre still flourishes by the excellent wine produced in its neighbourhood, and is adorn- ed with a cathedral and several lofly spires. Chfilons sur Sa6ne is a good country town. Sens, the see of an archbishop, and formerly the seat of scverol councils, presents still some noble monuments in decay. Moulins, capital of the rich plain of the Bourbonnais, though not hand- some, is busy and clieerful, having a considerable traffic upon the Seine. Nevers, m Nivemais, ia finely situated on the Loire, but is an ill-buUt and dirty town. The provinces of Lorraine, Pranche-comt^, and Alsace are less an integral part of France than a series of appendages obtained by conquest chiefly during the reign of Louis XIV. They remain still in many points connected with Germany. They are watered by the Meuse and the Moselle, tributaries of the Rhine ; they are traversed by the chain of the Vosge:?, connected with the Swiss Alps and the Black Forest ; their surface is rude and irregular ; their wines have the same agreeable acid quality as the Rhenish. Even yet Alsace, both aa to language and manners, is altogether German. The cities are, — Nancy, capital of the dukes of Lorraine, a race of gallant and accom- plished princes. It is said to be the most elegant city in France, especially the new town, built in the sixteenth century. The gates appear almost like triumplial arches ; the public buildings are numerous ; che place royale and the adjoining area are superb. The place is lighted in the English manner. Metz is a larger town, and now more important, being one of the strongest of the French fortresses, ft is nearly enclosed by the Moselle and the Seille, and entered by successive drawbridges. The usual complement of its garrison is 10,000 men. Metz is celebrated for its long and triumphant defence under the Duke of Gi'isp ngainst the army of Charles V. It is still a flourishing town, with numerous manu- fectures, and contains a library of 60,000 volumes. Luneville was fur some time the resi- dence of Stanislaus, the ex-king of Poland, who considerably embellished it ; and it was the scene of Bonaparte's first triumphant treaty in 1801. It is now rather a poor place, having few manufactures. Another strong fortress is Verdun, a name familiar to English ears, as the scene of the detention of their countrymen in 1803. It is well situated on the Meuse. SalLoa flourishes by means of the salt extracted from the brine-springs, which aie found also in other parts of this territory. Besan^on, in Franche-comte, was a city of the German empire till the treaty of Westphalia, when it was ceded to the Spaniards, from whom it was wrested by Louis XIV. It is a large and industrious place, particularly distinguished by a manufac- ture of clocks and watches, introduced towards the end of the last century, and empioving about 1800 persons. It has also valuable scientific and literary establishments. D61e ia likewise a very onciont town, once the capital of Franche-comte. Vesoul and Lons le Saul- DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. nier are pretty good towns, and capitals of departments. In approachinfi; Switzci.and, the country becomes elevated, and the towns occupy picturesque sites. Ornans lies in a deep dell, skirted by preen rocky hills, like Matlock. Pontarlior stands on a height having a strong castlp which guards tlio paE-sago into Switzerland. Nantua is placed in a nook between two ngg enormous mountains. On crossing the Vosges appears ~ ■ the rich and fruitful plain of Alsace, more highly cul- tivated than any other part of the kingdom except French Flanders. Here Coirnar, Ilaguenau, Saverne, Wcisemberg, are agreeably situated and rather thriving towns. But by far the most important place in Ihii part of France is Strasburg {fiff. 296.). It was early celebrated as an imperial city, enjoying extensive privileges, and enriched by the navi,gation of tiie Rhine. Its prosperity was still farther promoted in consequence of the zeal with which, along with tiic rest of Alsace, it embraced the reformed doctrines. Strasburg and Alsace suffered a severe misfortune, by being, in 1689, subjected to France by Louis XIV. Yet the city retained privileges beyond any other in France, and continued to be distinguished both by wealth and intelligence. Its schools were considered second only to those of Paris, till the Revolution, when siraiburj. thpy ^^ere severely injured, and have not yet been fully restored. Strasburg, however, has still valuable institutions, both literary and economical, and is one of the greatest and most flourishing cities of France. Its ancient importance ia attested by its cathedral or minster, one of the most splendid existing monuments of the Gothic. Its tower, 470 feet high, is said to be the most elevated structure in the world, with tlie exception of the Great Pyramid of Egypt. CHAPTER IX. SPAIN. Spain forms the principal part of a very extensive peninsula ; the most southern, and also the most western, portion of Europe. It ia only connected by an isthmus about a hundred niles broad, traversed by the Pyrenees, a chain liolding the second rank among Uie moun- dins of Europe. Spain is thus almost insulated from the rest of the continent. Sect. I. — Grncral Outline and Aspect. The boundaries of the Peninsuk in j^eneral are, on the north, the Bay of Biscay , on the west, the Atlantic; but this coast for more th.in half its extent is occupied by I'ortutffili whose interior frontier forms to that extent the western boundary of Spain. The most south- em point near Gibraltar is only separated by a narrow strait from the opposite shore of Africn. Eastward from this strait is the Mediterraneun, alon;,' which the coast wmds in a nnrtli- easterly direction, gradually receding from Africa, and facing at a great interval the western coast of Italy. From its termination, the Pyrenees stretch across to the Bay of Biscay, and form the lofty limit between Spain and France. The extent of Spain, north and south, is, from Tarifa Point in the straits, in 36° N. lati- tude, to Cape Ortegal in Galieia, 43° 46' ; about 540 English miles. From east to west, tiio extreme points of the peninsula are Cape Creus, in Catalonia, 3° 17' E. longitude, and Cape La Roca, 9° 30' W. longitude ; implying twelve and three quarters degrees, which, in f liis latitude, amounts to about 560 miles. Thus the Peninsula forms almost a square ; allownnro being made for the irregularity of its outline ; and, the entire extent of Portugal being taken off, Spain is reckoned to contain 183,600 square miles. The surface of Spain is strikingly irregular. It is traversed by long and lofly ranges of mountains, having plains of vast extent between them and the sea. These mountains may be considered as part of the great range which crosses Europe from the Black Sea to tlie Atlantic. The Pyrenees common to France and Spain, form a long continuous line of lolly summits, the most central and elevated,* of which is Mont Perdu near the source of the Cinc^, which the accurate measurements have fixed at upwards of 11,160 feet. Towards the sea, on both sides, the mountains sink into a more moderate elevation, and the barrier Detween the two kingdoms is less formidable. This great chain shoots lower branches into thi * [The hiKhest point of the Pyrenees ia now known to be La Maladetta, 11.434 feet in height. The highest peak nf thn ft'iprm Vavn/ln «' The structure of tho iiains of mountainfl corrrsiionda in pcnoral with their chief dirrrtion. Not only tho alternation of the dttforent rucics, but aloo tho direction c\t' the atrata, art- con- formablo with tho direction of the chainM: honce, in tho prroator part of Spain, the principal direction of thn Hlaty rocks is from S.W. to N.E., or VV.S.W. to E.N.E. But the inclina- *'?n uf the strata varies. In the PyrencoH, proporly so called, the din o** the strata is con- ' lable with tho two acclivities of tho range. In the Bomosierra and Uuadarraina ranj^es, ...■J principal mass of gneiss dipa S.E. towards tho granite lying before it. in tho Sierra Morena, the prodominatinj;; dip of the slaty strata in towards the N.W., so that they appear to rest oil the granite which breaks from under them. In tho Sierra Nevada, tho dip of tli strata is conformable with tho two acclivities of the chain. It is worthy of remark now Mte curvature of tho south coast of Spain obeys the direction of the strata, und ho 'he formation of tlie far-projecting southern point of the land also stands in connection wiili die luv' n of the strata. At the foot of the rock of Gibraltar, the slaty strata run nearly lort' south with a rapid dip towards the east The Gut of Gibraltar is therefore neary at ujj (piffles to the direction of tho strata. Tho rocky wall between the Mediterronr n a- Atlantic Seas, by this direction of tho strata, must have opposed the strongest rcsi^ the currents. The primitive and transition rocks, in very different places, are rid Tho present mines are confined principally to the south-west and south-east parts oi The .liglity lead-glance veins of Linares occur in granite; the colossal deposit of luae 5 lance in tlio Sierra do Oador, which afforded, in the year 1828, 600,000 cwt. of lead^ it, istribulod in masses (putzen), in a limestone which moy be referred to the oldest transition rocks, and the rich mercury mines of Ahnaden are contained in clay slate. The secondary r ' ks uInii assist in forming the principal Spanish mountain cliains, but in a diflcrcnt manner. '1 iiey ascend to a great height on the Spanish side of the Pyrenees ; "ven some of the highest summits are of secondary rocks. Tlie western continuation of tlie Pyrenean chain consists, in the Biscayan provinces, principally of secondary rocks; ond it is probable that the lofly limestone mountain ridges which separate Asturias from Loon are a continuation of the Biscayan secondary formation. On both sides of Somosierra the primitive rocks are NORTH PART. Oalicuu ]. CuiDArinu 9. Coniiina 3. Bemnzo* 4. Fertiil 5. Mera ?. Lugn , La Ontla 8. Snniiago 0. Yifo lO.Tuir ll.Kiknilavia IQ. Abahidci 13. Orenio U. La Rub. Asturias. iS. Illano 10. Ovicdo 17. Oijon in. Rivuilacella 10. Lanea. I,r/! Mancha, 67. 8. Lorenza 68. Almauro 60. Ciudad Real 70. Madridrjoi 71. MalaKon 79. Lehornia JIndaluiia. 73. Drmiicar 74. Andujur 7.1. Linaro* 76. liaeza 77. Hucacar 78. Ablox 70. Oullar 80. .lodar 81. Monaaterio 89. Jnen 83. Mnnlilla 84. Bujalanca 85. Cordova 86. OMuna 87. Carmona 88. EciJB 89. Araoena UO. Axiarcollar 91. Almpndro IK2. Ayamonta m. Huelva 04. Seville 05. S, Lucar 96. Rola 97. .- W. •* xl ":.¥J. % \ ^ ^^s^ ^ » ^ !k !-,'■■' >■" ■ am DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. PartIIL ■bitted by those of the ^'econdary class; but they are fiur fttmi the middle and higher parts •jt the tnountain chain. When we follow the road from Madrid to Andalusia, we meet with ■econdary rocks n^ar the transition clay slate of the passes of the Sierra Morena ; but we mast descend very low on the south side before we meet with similar rocks. The high mountains of Jaen are formed of secondary rocks. In the northern vorgebirge of the Sierra Nevada, between Granada and Guadiz, there are secondary deposits, which are not, how* ever, so considerable and extensive as to reach to the high ridges. Also in the vicinity of Itlalaga new seco:idary rocks lie on the foot of older mountain masses ; and the ridges ^ ■econdary rocks extend from the hills of Ronda towards the southern extremity of Spain. The wonderfbl isolated rock of Gibraltar is also principally composed of new secon^aiy rock. The distribution of the rock is not confined to the immediate vicinity of the higher moun- tain chains, but it extends firom the one to the other, rises or fidls in the intermediate spaces, ■nd forms in this way the widely extended high table-land. The most important of the Spanish secondary rocks are the following ; viz., variegated ■andstone and marl, gryphite limestone, and the white limestone or Jura limestone. The first of these exhibits the errne p-lations as in Britain, where it is known under the name of new red sandstone and red marl. The shell limestone, which, in Germany, is enclosed between Werner's variegatf;d sandstone and the younger marl formations, is wanting in Spain, as is also the case in England. The sandctone and marl is rich in gypsum and masses of rock salt At Vallecas, near Madrid, and in some other places, there rests upon it, in ■ingle hedu., that rare deposit consisting of meerschaum, with nests of siliceous minerals. It is to this formation, which occurs widely spread over the high table-lands of Old and New Castile, that these countries owe the reddish-brown colour of their soil, and the tiresome oniformity of their surface. The lias formation is widely distributed in the northern pro- vinces of Spain. It appears to reach a considerable height on the Spanish side of the PyreneeiL In the Biscayan provinces it exhibits the same characters as the gryphite limestone of the Weser, and is so widely distributed that nearly all the older rocks are covered by it. Here it is remarkably prolific in an excellent iron ore. The immense mass of sparry iron ore, con- verted by decomposition into brown and red iron ores of Sommorostro, near Bilboa, and which probably forms the ironstone hills mentioned by Pliny in the 34Ui book of his Natural Hit- tory, belongs to this formation. Probably also the vast beds of coal in the Astunas are sub- ordinate to it The white Jura limestone, wb'oh is one of the most widely distributed for- mations, is also of great geognostical importance in Spaiu. It forms, in most places, the immediate cover of the variegated sandstone and marl, and occurs in the north, and also m the south of Spain, in single ridges and great mountain masses. This formation is exhibited in its most characteristic forms in the narrow pass of Pancorbo in Old Castile, in the lacerated mountains of Jaen, and the isolated rocW wall of Gibraltar. Wherever it occurs, its presence is announced by the yellowish-browr. colour of the soil with which it is covered. Some members also of the chalk formation occur in Spain. The sandstone of the rocky ridge of the southern coast, between Caaiz and Gibraltar, and the limestone in the district of Los Barios, bring to our recollection the rocks of the Saxon Switzerland. The first agrees with the German quader-sandstein, the latter with the Saxon planer limestone, an equivalent for impure chali . Tertiary deposits occur in different parts of Spain. In the south, particularly near the sea-coast, there is a deposit, filled with marine organic remains, in which calcareous sand and pebbles occur, parUy in a loose mass, and partly more or less firmly compacted by means of calcareous cement Judging from the included petrifactions, among which are beds of oyster-shells, this deposit, on which Cadiz stands, and which, in some places, rises into hil- locks and low hills, belongs to the upper tertiary searwater formation. Probably the ter- tiary deposit mentioned by Brongniart as occurring in the neighbourhood of Barcelona belongs to the same deposit That fresh-water limestone occurs in Spain has been sufiiciently proved by the observations of Baron Ferussac. The deposit very much resembles that so generally distributed in Germany, and is found in different parts of Spain, both in the inte- rior and on the coast and at different heights. The calcareous breccia, generally with a ferruginous basis^ which occurs principally m the south-west, where it is widely distributed, belongs to the latest of the antediluvian deposits. It not only incrusts limestone rocks c^ difierent formations more or less thickly, but also fills up rents md fissures in them : thus it abounds among the calcareous rocks of Gibraltar, where it sometimes contains bones of quad- rupeds no longer met with there. The formation of the breccia is ascribed to a catastrophe which affect^ difierent parts of the coast of the Mediterranean sea. As Professor Haus- mann, to whom we owe the preceding details, had not an opportunity of travelling in Mur- cia, he was not able to confirm or reject the accounts of Spanish geologists, who maintain tliat it contains true volcanic rocks. The occurrence of other rocks, which are conjectured to have come fi-om below, has been noticed in but few places. Characteristic basalt occurs in Catalonia. The porphyritic and basaltic-looking rocKs extending firom CtLbo de Gata, and from Avila, on the north side of the Guadarrama range, are still problematical. Hypersthone rock iiBs bof n found by Professor Garcia in the vicinity of Salinas de Pcza, in Old Onstilc, BooeL SPAIN. sn^ in contact with Jura limestone. Profeflsor Hausmann found, in the mountains of Jaeu, near to variegated marl containing maasea of gjrpeum, rocks of greenstone. CoL Silv6ttop describes tertiary deposits in (nanada. It may not be improper, from Professor Hausmann, to point out the influence of soil and climate on the other departments of nature, as also on the peculiarities and occupations of man. A glance at the whole nature of Spain discovers a threefold principal difierence. The northern zone, which extends to the Ebro, differs entirely in its characters from the middle zone ; and this again is completely difierent ftom the southern zone, which is bounded on the north by the Sierra Morena, and a part of the Ostrandes. The northern zone, which includes Galicia, Asturias, the Biscayan provinces, Navarre, the northern part of Aragoik- and Catalonia, is a widely extended mountainous and hilly country. The snow-fields and- fflaciers of the Pyrenees on the one side ; and on the other the north and north-west winds, lave a marked influence in lowering the temperature of the atmosphere, and in increasing the supply of water. The increas^ humidity is favourable for vegetation, which, on the whole, very much resembles that of the south of France ; and the variety of rocks contain- ing lime, clay, and sand, and also their frequent alternations, operate beneficially on the soiL The soil everywhere invites to cultivation, and the Catalonians and Biscayans are active cultivators of the ground. The middle part of Spain, to which belongs Old and New Castile^ , a part of Aragon, Leon, and Estremadura, is not so &vourably circumstanced. In general, we rarely meet with either beauty or variety of aspect, The extensive and lofty table-lands, destitute of trees, are dull and tiresome ; their uniform and monotonous surfiice, ibrmed bjr vast deposits of horizontally disposed secondary strata, is swept across by the wind, and burnt up by the sun's rays. Whichever way the eye turns, it meets with scarcely any thing but wretchedly cultivated cornfields and desert heaths of cistus. Seldom, in general, more in the southern than in the northern districts, plantations of olive-trees affi>rd a meagre shelter, anJ vary the scenery, although in an inconsiderable degree. Nothing, certainly, has so great an influence on these properties of nature, with which many of the peculiarities and modes of life of man harmonise, than the high situation of the widely extended table-lands; and the uniformity of the rock which forms the support of the soil. It is owing principally to the horizontal stratification, and the want of water, that the great Spanish table-lands are so widely extended, and so little intersected by deep valleys. The rivers, in most cases, carry but little water in comparison with the magnitude of the land, and the number of C(hi- siderable mountain chains ; and it is fiirther surprising how insignificant the waters of most of the Spanish mountain groups are, even when the qualities of the rocks favour the forma- tion of springs. The cause^i of this great deficiency of water are principally the great dry- ness of the atmosphere, the inconsiderable cover of snow on the mountains, and its short continuance ; the absence of forests, and the want of great moors on the heights, and the comparatively inconsiderable breadth of the mountain ranges. The southern and south- western part of Spain, which comprehends Andalusia, with Granada and Murcia, is very difl^erent from that jiist described. On the opposite side of the Sierra Morena the whole land has a more southern and foreign aspect, a breathing of that African nature, which an- nounces itself not only by the world of plants, but also oy the animal world, and man him- self. The great difference of climate is produced hy the southern situation, the exposure of the acclivity on the south and south-west tc the African winds, and the strong reflection of the solar rays from the lofty, naked mountain walls. Tb'^ mountain ranges are more closely aggregated, the valleys more deeply cut : there is no room for very extensive table-lands, and the more limited ones that occur, as those of Gra.-iada, are more amply supplied with water than those in the middle of Spain. Along witli this arrangement, there is greater difference among the rocks, and also of their position. The south of Spain, therefore, pos- sesses not only a much higher temperature, one fit for the orange and the palm, but also a more varied and a more fiivourable soil for cultivation. But these relations would have acted more beneficially if the air had been more humid, and moisture had been everywhere more abundant The deficiency of moisture is the principal cause not only of the striking mea- greness of phenogamous vegetation, on most of the mountain acclivities, but also of the remarkable paucity of lichens and mosses on the mountains on the coast ; and in connection with this is the fact, that the weathering of the rocks, and the refbrmmg of the original sur- face of the mountams, assume there a somewhat different course firom what is otnerved in , place: which are moister, and provided with a more powerfiil vegetaticm. iv^, .m the Recherchet tur la DiMtribuHon Oiograpkiqve de» Yegiiaux Phanirogames dans VAncien Monde, already alluded to, by M. de Mirbel. This author considers the whole of this peninsuliL witli the exception of the northern part of Spain, which forms tho shores of the Golf of Qaacony, and which belongs to the temperate zone, as entering into the transition zone. If, therefore, its vegetation has any afilnity with that of France, it is only where its mountainous parts, especially the Pyrenees, resemble the mountains of France, and its warm districts are tike tbe extreme south of France. In East Valencia and Murcia, in the south of Andalusia and the Algarves, in Western Alemtejo and South Estremadura, the rich and varied vege* tation c^s to mind the fertile plains of Syria. In Andalusia, ^toata are unknown, and the snow, if it ever fUls, melts the moment it touches the soil : so that it is not surprising that, in the cultivated parts, the Spaniards, long fiunous for their voyages, should have introduced many veffetablea trom remote parts of the world ; thus giving a perfectly tropical appear- ance to the country. The Erytkrina CordUoiendron, or Coral tree, with its brilliant scarlet blossoms, the 8ckiHU$ AfoUe, with its gracefiilly pinnated foliage, and the Phytolacca dioka, are intro- duced, with many other plants, from South America. Even tiie bananas are conunon to the south of the Guadalquivir; as are also the Cayenne Pepper; and, in gardens, the Con^oivu- *QB Batatas, or Sweet Potato. Everywhere about the rural habitations of the Speiiish pea- santry, the Date, the Orange (Jig. 206.), the Lemon, the Olive, the Pomegranate, Uie Fig Boox {Jig. 209.), and the Mulberry, flourish nearlv as well as in the native soil Link notices the trees growing about Lisbon ; " they are chieny," he says, " Olive and Orange trees. Cypress, Judas trees: Elms and Poplars appear too. But of Oaks, Beeches, and Lime, there are Done, and very few Willows; so that one may instantly perceive how difl&rent is the char- acter of a Lisbon view from that of Grermany." The Onnge is the most striking of these . for there are many plantations in quintas, where they form compact groves, and also scat- tered in open spota These trees require much artificial watering, and they are propagated by seed, and afterwards by grafting upm those seedling trees. In December and January me fruit begins to turn yellow ; and at the end of January and in February, before tiiey arc ripe and sweet, they are gathered for exportation. Towards the end of March and April, the oranges are very good, but they are not in perfection till early in May. In July and August, Uiey are scarce, and over^ripe. At the end of April and May, the new flowers ap- pear, the firagrance of which extends fiur and wide, and at this time the quantity of glitteriiig flntit •mboaomed amid the dark foliage, ''like golden lamps in a green night,*^ relieved still 301 (Mfy. Book T. ■f\^^,^^(i^^'| SPAIN. S6S moro by the Bnowv blosMins, presents an object which continually excites new admiration, though it is one or daily occurrence. One single tree frequently bears ISOO oranges, ttui examples are not wantmg of their bearing 2000, and sometimes, though rarelv, 3m)0. In the provinces, they sell for half a fkrthing apiece. Figs are exported largely mm the cil/ of Furo; they are the most important pr^uce of the Algarve, and are brougnt down by the country people to the merchants in immense quantities. They are thrown in heaps in a building prepared for the purpose, where a syrup flows from them, which is used to advan- tage in makiiyf brandy. They are then spread to dry ib he sun, in an open situation, where they are left for a few days, in proportion to the heat of the weather; after which they oro paclced into small baskets made of the leaves of the Fan Palm, and exported. "Greece and the Alrarves," M. Link observes, " are the only countries where caprification is practised , for in the latter country are some varieties of Figs, and those very excellent, that fall to the ffround immature, unless punctured by gnats." Two ideas prevail respecting the effect of this operation; the general opmion being, that the little insect, on entering the Fig, (which is known by botanists to be a fleshy receptacle, including many, and often omy barren flowers,) carries with it, firom other figs that it has visited, and tnm which it comes loaded, the farina necessary for fertilisation : while others maintain, and among them M. Link, that the puncture caused by the insect gives a fresh stimulus and a new movement to the sap or juices of the fhiit, thereby not only preventing the fall of the fVuit, but rendering it sweeter and better flavoured ; and it is certam that many of our common fruits, when pierced by in- tora ; and branches of them are, at the proper season, broken off, and suspended over those intended to be fertilised, when the little animds come forth, alight upon the fruits, puncture them, and aid their ripening. , Formidable fences are made of the Cactus Tuna {Jig. 300.), and the Agave americona, gOQ or American aloe. The former is often mixed with the Pome- granate, but of itself it constitutes a hedge almost impervious to cattle. In Portuguese it is called, on account of its prickles, Fijo do ir\ferno: tl>e flowers are yellow ond the fhiit esculent; the latter is by no means unpalatable, and is regularly sold in Lisbon. Of the Agave americuna we have already spoken, and shall, therefore, simply mention here, that its leaves undergo a process by which a valuable thread is extracted, known in Por- tugal by the name of Filo da pita. The largest and most per- fect leaves are cut off, laid upon a board, and scraped with a square iron bar, which is held in both hands, until all the juices and pulp are pressed out ; the nerves only remaining, whep these are found easily separable into threads. Where pasturage is scarce, as in Algarve, the cattle eat the foliage of Uiis plant, if cut into thin transverse slices. In La Mancha grows the Esparto grele (Stipa tenacissima), of which cords are made, and the foliage is sent in large quan- tities into Portugal for this purpose. To prevent the careless destruction of these valuable plants, penalties are inflicted on any person who ventures to gather them before the month of May, when they ore in perfection. The Carob tree {fig. 301.) Link reckons the most beautiful of European trees. It attains 2Qi a considerable height, forming, with its large evergreen pinnated '"*** foliage, a head of considerablf. dimensions, and yielding a welcome shade. Among the foliage hang down the numerous long pods, which, when ripe, are used as fodder for cattle, especially the mules, and as meat for swine, though inferior to the acorns of the Evergreen Oak. Before the expiHsion of the Moors, the Sugar Cane was cultivated to a considerable extent, and lately it has been re-introduced, at San Lucar, into a garden "d'acclimation," to- gether with Coffee, Indigo, and Gum Arabic. A vast extent of country is covered by the Chamerops humilis (Dwarf Palm or Palmetto), growing in waste places. This vegetation, in port ex- otic, follows the coasts of the Spanish peninsula, to the east and to the west It is difiused in all its luxury in the delicious territory of Valencia, where the agriculture of the Moors is still held in respect With the species already named, are here cultivated tho Aloe perfoliata, Yucca aloifolia. Cassia tomentosa, Melia Azeda- OirobTrM. j^^j,_ rnany kjads of Mlmoso, Annoua, &c. In the environs w 41icant, tho Date harvest is very abundant This Palm there grows in large plantatiooi. VOL.L 48 Caottu Tana. «e DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Past HI •nd often attains the height of 120 feet It reaches along the entire coast, to the 40th de- gree, and perhaps higher. The Agave abounds in the environs ot' Tarragona, in the 4Ist r^gree ; and the Olive continues to the sliore of France. In general, the vegetation of the east of the Peninsula difibrs little ftom that of the other ■hores of the Mediterranean. The coasts of the Ocean, on the west, are less hot, according ; to M. Bory de St Vincent, than corresponding latitudes on the east sides ; so that the south- ern vegetation does not extend so far to the north. Be this as it may, the Date, the Lemon, the Orange, abound in Algarve and Alemtejo. The Orange grows plentifully in the envi< rona of Oporto, in 41° ; a^ the Olive extends to 42°. A great number of American plants, the seeds having been probably brought in ballast, are mingled, and, as it were, confounded, with indigenous species. Upon the whole, however, the vegetation may be considered as having more in common with that of the Atlantic than with the coasts of the Mediterra- . neaa Link thus pictures the climate of Portugal, and its effects upon vegetation : — " A heat, equal to 06° of Fahrenheit, is not uncommon in this country ; and, from comparative , observations, it appears that the climate is warmer here than in wazU, though the heat does not continue near so long. From Midsummer-dav to the middle of September, ram is ex- tremely uncommon, and even in the beginning of that month very scanty ; the drought often continues much longer. Immediately after the first rains, follow the autumnal flowers, the Meadow Saffixm (CS/cAtcff, two species but little known) ; Saffiron (Ooctw sativiu) ; the Autumnal Snowdrop {Leucqjum atitutnnale) ; the sweetpsmelling Ranunculus bullatus, and many others. These appear in the higher lands around Cintra, where the rains are earlier than in the low parts near Lisbon. Immediately after the autumnal flowers, come the ■pring plants, owmg to which the interval between spring and autumn is scarcely percep- tible. In October the young gross springs up, and Uie new leaves dioot out, rendering it the pleasantest month of the year. In November and December fall heavy rains, with ire- quont storms. Days of perpetual silent rain are very rare, for in general it comes down in torrents. The brooks round Lisbon, which it was a little while before easy to step over, and which wholly disappear in summer, now rush like torrents down the hills. This swelling of the streams renders travelling difficult at that season, and would retard the operations o? war as much in winter as the drought m summer. In January, cold, clear weather often prevails, but becomes milder in February, which is generally a venr pleasant month." The most common vegetables of the plains of Spain are tho dork tree (Jif[. 802.), the Ilex, and Kermes Oak (figt 808.), the Bay tree, the Myrtl^ii the Philyrea media imd angus- 302 i K .: ^. ,4UM 803 CoikTne. tifolia, JuniperuB Sabin:*. Celtis australis,PistaciaTerebinthus and Lentiscus; RhamnusAIop temus, and many other species of this genus ; Viburnum Tinus, Osyris alba, Paliurus aus- tralis, the Strawberry tree, the common and shrubby Jessamines, the Caper plant, and a great number of Cisti (Jig. 804.) with other shrubs, whose foliage is of an evergreen and coriace- ous nature. Immense plains are clothed with Lygeum Sportum, and the running streams are bordered with Bupleurum spinosum and Nerium Oleander. But it has been justly remarked, that no country in Europe presents a more sorrowful aspect than the interior of the Peninsula. " No man, perhaps, saving a botanist," says Link, "could travel with any pleasure in the barren tracts of Old Castile ; but this pursuit can render travelling both instructive and interesting, even in these apparently sterile wastes. Where forests luive existed there, they have yielded to the stroke of^the axe ; and the jaked •oU remains without any culture. Vast cliains of mountains spread out in all directions, and between them are extended the Parameras, more or less elevated plains, frequently as naked as ^e steppes of Siberia." M. Bory estimates at from 1800 to 2000 feet the elevation of the Potamera which divides the sources of the Douro and the Ebro. In the valleys formed by UiMe rivers and their tributary streams, a vegetation of grest beau^ is found, partsksg '.)'»« ••■ ^v-H,^-*v/Ki-^.» rt.'.ij t*m^ f''i>iMi''irniixi';ii>'it:!^'Mii,iim^''fi- ^^^g ^*-«.i.t(. (la.■ The threat mass of die fivesto which have escaped destruction are mostly fermed of Svatp snreen Oaks ; among which, besides the other species already enumeratdl, are found the Quercus Ballota, cp^ilopifolio, fegmea, prasina, crenata, rotundifolia, humilis, du;. The latter does not exceed six inches in height In the valleys and on the mountains also, grow Tilia europma (^platyphyttos?), Fagus ayl/atica, Castanea vesca (fig. S05.), Taxus baccata, Pinua sylvestris, Fraxinus, Omus, &c. The commonest forest tree on the plains of Uie temperate zone, nai^ly the Oak (Quemte Robur), inhabits the southern slope of the Pyrenees. It is ■aid that this tree occurs also in some puts of the Peninsula. The vegetation which prevails on the lofly mountains in the interior of Spain is almost wh'illy unlcnown to us. M. Ramond has made some interesting observations cm that of the Pic du Midi, one of the highest of the Pyrenees ; and has compared the plants of its most elevated summit, estimated at about 10,000 feet, with that of Melville Island, as described by Mr. R. Brown. The similarity is very striking. mLTILLK nLANS. Cryptogatma. sPMurr or the no du midi Cryplsgemtia. Fungi Licbeni SI HepaticiB 1 MnsHea • • Form 4 ■ '■' Phatu)gmuu$. (lyperaees S 1 Cicboracea 3 Corymbiftra 10 RubiaeeB S Papaveraeea J Orucifens • Caryophyllea 8 Pieoldim 4 BaxifVagea v"-" 4 Rotaeea 4 LegumlnoM 4 AmentaoM i_ Fungi 9 Licbeni IS^ Hepatic* ■ Monei. i^rnf .. Cyperaeec. Granea...! Junci FolygoDMa . 9 30 4 14 9 B hot '"ill- Serophulsrina i'lfiS^^lV ErtcMB. ■'^'^'"^ CampanulacflCM > 1 "fit- Cichoraeea • 1 i^i) Corymbiftna 4 ' ^ Ranuncalaeea 8 :M.fu Papaveraeec I CrueiflmB • CaryophyllMB i Baxifragea 10 Rosacea 4 LcguminoMB 9 AmenUeea 1 ■■• • ■ ■„ ■ ^ — « ' -' ■ .i ?> .A ■';.,,•:';,../ -V^::El : >. — 568 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. PiunUl EnropMii Ba»-E»tar. Of thf \ eight of the Melville Islands lickeiu and one of iU mot$«a are found on the (Mun* mit of wie Pic du Midi ; five othen of the Ueheof , and one of iti two *«pa(ica, and six of itc SMMMS, grow on the cng» of the peak, or in ita immediate vioinity. • SmnoT. 9. — Zoolo^. The native xoolo^ haa been ao little invettigated, that nothing beyond a meagre list could be fiimished of indi^noua animala. In the mountaina of Aaturiaa the Ibex ia not uncommon, and the Alpine Squurrel (Sciurtu alpinu$) ia onljr found in the Pyrenees. In the southem parts, bordering on the African shore, a few species of warblers have recently been found, whioh arp as yet unknown to the rest of Europe. The European Bee-eater (Jiir. 306.) fVe- ^9*^ ' •' '' 806' quents the vicinity of Gibraltar in large nocka during tne season of migration. Among the domesticated animals, the horse and sheep of Spain deserve particular notice, as having been long celelmted throughout Europe. The best horses are Encurally about four feet six or eight inches high ; they ve all the fire, docility, grace, and action of the beautifiil Ambians of Barbsjy (generally called Barbs), and there can be no doubt of these noble animals having been mtroduced by the Moors, and crossed with the native breed : those of Andalusia, Granada, and Estre- madura are the most distinguished. At Xeres are found two perfectly distuict races; the one, which possesses the fine qualities above mentioned, is still preserved in all its purity at Uie Chaurtreux. The other race ia larger, stronger, less elegant and used for common purposes. Latterly but little care has been bestowed in keep- ing up the more noble breed, so that fbie horses are not so common in Spain as formerly. The mule, in so mountainous a country, is particularly usefiil, and, with the ass, is prin- cipally used for conveying goods in the interioi- ; the breeds of the latter are very fine, and are hardly excelled by those of Egypt Spain ia still famous for its merino race of sheep (Jig. 307.). The flocks are kept constantly travelling during the greater part of the sum- mer, but are carefiilly pent up m winter. This race, subdivided into breeds, is extended over tiie greater part of Spain ; but those of Cavage, and Negrate, are the best A third breed, the Souan, appears more hardy, and pawes the winter in Estremadura, Anda- lusia, and New Castile : these three constitute the Transhit- tnante, or travelling race, to distinguish them from the Estante*, or those of a somewhat inferior breed, who do not migrate. The best fleeces are those which appear almost black on their surface, caused by the dust adhering to the peculiar greasy pile; for it is mvariably found that such Meiioo Siwep. fleeces are of the purest white beneath. The merinos, dis- persed by Georgo ill. over England, have incalculably im- proved the native races. By great care and expense on the part of the native, graziers, this valuable race has likewise been introduced in the distant regions of Australia with equal ■uccess. There is a very large breed of oxen in the countiy round Salamanca ; but the cattle of Spain have been much neglected ; the mountaineers deriving all their milk and butter frcHn goats. The spaniel appears to be a breed of dogs originating from this coimtiy; and the Spanish pointer is considered to have a greater acuteness m scent than that of Britaini ';., I •-. ....,fi,^;i.>-.., atfTt.UL— Historical Geography. •-•••.•--%.-. v.'^ ,. The earliest inhabitants of Spain, like those of Gaul and Britain, were of the Celtic race, and from the river Ebro (Iberus) were called Celtiberl The whole country was by the Greeks called Iberia, and sometimes, from its western position, Hesperia. The people, like those of the rest of Europe, were divided into a number of small tribes, hardy and warlike, who often showed a peculiar attachment to national independence, and obstmacy in ita defence. The Carthaginians were the flrst civilised people who occupied Spain, which, for several centuries, was considered as theirs. Thoy founded colonies on the most advantageous points^ worked its rich silver mines, and easily allured many of its brave but poor inhabitants into their mercenary armies ; they were fiir, however, from having thoroughly subdued the Pen- insula, the people of which, on the rise of the Roman power, endeavoured by its alliance to emancipate themselves fh>m the Punic yoke. The siege and fall of Saguntum seemed to have extin^fuished these hopes, and to have secured the ascendency of Carthage ; but the events which marked the close of the second Punic war completely humbled that proud republic, and put an end to its dominion over Spain. The Romans, by the capture of Numantia in b. o. 134, established tlieir supremacy over Spain, undisputed by any other nation ; but the complete subjugation of its inhabitants wax % kng and arduous task, to which the utmost exertions cf Cesar and his lieutenants were BooxL notfUUy tusinto Portuga Rome, s their I that pou The I fiillyest expelled in some destined The establish andopei theGotli the exc( shelter ; But Cha days, the Meantim in the m on the MUD* md six of it! rra lilt could i uncommon, he southern been found, g. 306.) fre- locks durinjf 'se and sheep ig been long I horses are 9 high ; they ;tion of the died Barbs), mals having 9d with Uie 1, and Estre- es are found lentioned, is Wronger, less fed in keep* brmerly. ass, is prin« iry fine, and .ce of sheep o( the sum* is extended lavage, and tan, appears dura, Anda> TVonsAt*. 1 from the who do not )ear almost ring to the that such lerinos, dis> culably im- uziers, this with equal ; but the milk and is coimtry; lan that of leltic race, rAB by the eople, like d warlike, acy in its or several )us points, itantsinto the Pen- .lliance to wemed to but the lat proud lacy over tants wa. ints were IIookL SPAIN. tW not ftilly adequate. Spain, however, wu at length reduced to a provinoe, divided by Augus- tus into three parts : — ^Tarraconensls, the north and east ; Betiea, the eouth ; and Lusituiii, Portugal. The Spaniards even became civilised and peaceable subjects; so that when Rome, sinking under its own weight, was unable to defend them, they could not resume their early independence, but fell a prey to the Vandals, Qoths, and other barbarous hordee that poured in from the nrarth of Europe. The Goths, in Uus terrible struggle, finally prevailed ; and in 418 a Gothic dynasty wai flilly established over Spain. These barbarous invaders appear here, as elsewhere, to have expelled or extirpated the native people, whose features ana language are recognised only in some of the higher mountain districts. After a sway of three centuries, the uoths were destined to yield to a new people, coming from a remote quarter. The Arabs, rendered invincible bv fimaticism, had over-run all the north of Africa, and established a powerful kingdom hi Fez. The vengeance of Count Julian invited them over, and opened the way for them ; their unmense host covered the plains of Andalusia ; Roderick, the Crothic king, was totally defeated. The invaders then over-ran the whole kingdom, witii the exception of some mountain recesses, in which a remnant of the Gothic chiefs found shelter ; they even passed the Pyrenees, and seemed about to over-run all western Europe. But Charles Mortel met them on the plains of Aquitaine ; and, after a dreadful battle of three days, they were siffn&lly overthrown, and never arain attempted to pass the Spanish frontier. Meantime Don Pelayo, and other chiefs of the GoUiic race, again raised the national standud in the mountains of the Asturias : then commenced a contest of 700 years, distinguished by numerous heroic achievements and memorable events, which gave to the Spanish character that romantic and adventurous cast which it has never wholly lost The Arabs or Moon ■tUl retained the finest provinces, and the courts of Cordova and Granada were the most splendid and polished in Europe. The Spaniards, however, under a succession of able chiefh and particularly of their great hero the Cid, gained ground : new kingdoms were successive!} founded ; which all merging into those of Castile and Aragon, comprehended the whole ot Spain, except the extreme southern kingdom of Granada.* Spain was a^in fi)rmed into one neat kingdom by the union of the crowns of Castile and Aragon, under Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1474, and by the final overthrow and expulsion of the Moors. From this period commences the most brilliant era of her annala The dis- covery of America, the conquest of the golden regions of Mexico and Peru, and of other dominions so extensive as to make it a plausible boast that the sun never set on them, threw an almost unrivalled lustre around the Spanish crown. Under Charles V. and Philip II., Spain continued the most powerful kuigdom, and her armies the most formidable, of any in Europe. The throne derived even an addition of apparent lustre from the subversion of the popular part of the government, and the conversion of a body of grandees, once the proudest in Europe, to the condition of humble vassals. The decline of Spain, though its causes had begun to operate, did not become perceptible till after the death of Philip if. A gloomy indolence and degrading superstition now marked her councils ; her armies were vanquished by the French imtler Conde and Turenne ; sho lost her place and rank in Europe. The trade with her ' ' colonies, fettered by absurd restrictions, became profitable only to the industrious natiobA v> nich supplied its materials. The war of the succession drew notice towards this country, a. id called forth some displays of national energy ; but the Bourbon dynasty, which it placed on the throne, soon relapsed into tlie characteristic indolence, and Spain became little more than a dependency of France. We know not whether to designate as an era, the train of remarkable events which have *The Arabs in Spain, lilce the Saxoni in Enfland, eitabliilied a lasting memorial of llieir dominion byennraft- inc tlieir own laniuage on that of the country which they aubdued. Of thii, the topography of the Peninnila exbibiii innumerable initancei. The namei of rivem, moiintaini, towni, and placet, were either totally or par. tially chanced, by the vlctorioui Invaden; and after the expulsion of their deacendania, thoae names were per* petuated, tliough with alterations in some instances as arbitrary as those which were made in the ancient topography of the country: thus, the Roman station. Pax ^fuita, was translbrmed by the Arabs into Bmtalh, and afterwards by the Spaniards into Baiajn ; OnarJtugvsta, by an abbreviation less violent, became Saragnn; and BmtHta Anfutti was contracted into Mtrida. The Arabic term JHMna (citv) survives in two eminent instances among the titles of the Spanish nobility: MtUna SeUm (the city of Selim) is recognised in the dukedom of JHM The great river. Ouad-al>higiara, now Guadalaxara, Theriver of rocks. FUm and FeUd are often coi^oined with proper names, r«{ ■pond to thia beginnini. Still, their rosiatanco, conaidered aa that of a people, wan, on Uta whole, obatinate and glorioua ; it even appeared that there had been formed a body attached to popular ffovemment, and eager to redrcsa the political grievance! under which Spain jibourod. Ultimately, however, the eagerness with which the majority of the nation acqui- •■oed in the syatem of absolute power, re-established by foreign mterforenco, tarnished ita inonour, and reduced it again to that imbecile and degraded atate in which it had existed fbr Mveral centuriea. Skt. TV,— Political OeograpKy. The constitution of Spain, ever aince the downfall of her liberties under Charles V., hfta been the moat despotic of any in Europe, except Russia and l\irkey. The Cortes, that powerAil asaembly, whoae privileges were greater than those of any other European repre< ■entative body, have aince that period been rarely assembled, and then only partially, on occasions of more form. The only two bodies which possess any influence, are the council of state and the council of Caatile ; but as these aio entirely under the appointment and direction of the monarch, they form little more of a check upon absolute power, than the Turkisii divan. Two attempta to restore a representative form of government have lately been made, under circumstancea which must oe familiar to our readers. Unluckily, the leading or liberal party were hurried, on thia occasion, into an opposite extreme ; adopting the system of uni« versaL sufthige, forming themselves into one house, and allowing onlv a temporary vote to the monarch. This system, which excluded the nobles and clergy, the most wealthy ond influential bodies, was iVom the first decidedly unpopular ; and Ferdinand found it easy, first without, and afterwards witJi, foreign aid, to subvert it, and to re-establish in fiill plenitude the despotic sway excreised bv his predecessors, [The Cortes were convoked anew in 1634, with some modifications of their ancient orga> nization. The body now consists of two houses ; that of procoresor peers, composed in part of hereditary members, in part of members named by the king fbr life, and the procurodores or deputies, elected by colleges of electors, who are chosen by the principal citizens. The Cortes have extensive legislative powers, but their existence and authority have emanated fctm the royal will. — Am. Ed.] The grandees and other privileged orders in Spain are distinguished for their pride beyond any others in Europe. Even Charles V. was baffled in his attempt to retrench the right of wearing the hat m the royal presence. The Spanish nobles imfmir their fortunes less by extravagance than those of the same rank elsewhere ; and as they mtermarry only with each other, the number of titles or hats, as they are called, continually accumulates upon single heads. The dukes of Medina-Celi, of Alba, of Infkntado, of San Estevan, of Ossuna, luid some others, hold possessions truly immense, covering whole provinces. They are adminis tered, indeed, in the worst possible manner, being kept in their own hands, managed by tribes of factors or intendants, of whom some nobles keep 300 ; so that it is truly astonishing that they should sometimes yield $25,000 or $40,000 a year. As these grandees, however, live not on their estates, but in the cities, in secluded pomp, they have lost all their feudal influence, and the ties which united them with the greater body of the people. The hidalgoi, elaiming nobility by descent firom the members of great femilies, are much more numerous, and form, in some provinces, a lar^e proportion of the inhabitants. They are often reduced to great poverty ; in which th^ display that union of pride and indolence which has been supposed characteristic of the Spaniard. Mr. White mentions a species of illustrious birth quite peculiar to tlis country, consisting in a pure Christian descent, wltliout any mixture of Jewish or Moorish blood, which last is supposed to produce so deep a stain, that no time can eflkce it The clergy, moreover, exercise a paramount influence over the minds aa- ticularly of the lower orders, and have been the main-spring in all the movements, good or bad, which for a long time past have taken place in the Peninsula. The revenue of Spain, though levied with little regard to the comfort and v/ell-being of the subject, has never risen to any great amount Yet she is the only power which ever derived any firom her colonies; as the quinta, or royal fifth of the mines of Mexico and Peru, after every deduction, brought home considerable treasure; but this souree of wealth is now withdrawn. The other taxes were the most ruinous to industnr and trade ever contrived by any government The alcavala, or impost upon each transference of commodities from one hand to another, seems expressly destined to impose fetters upon commerce ; while the royal monopolies of salt, lead, powder, tobacco, and other articles in general use, have the usual pernicious efTecta Combined with those prohibitory clauses, by which Spain endea* Tourea without success to prevent her industrious neighbours from supplying the wants of her American colonies, they gave rise to a vast contraband, carried on in almo^ open defiance of government Hence the taxation of Spain, though highly oppressive to the nation, yields Book L SPAIN. IRl very litlla to the crown ; being in a great meoauro abeorbed by the tupport of the (ndividuala employed in iti collection, who arc aaiU to amount to 16,680. Althougn, therefore, the entire ■um tal(en flrom tlio people haa boon luipected not to fUl ihort of 18,000,000/. itorlin^f, the receipt by (rovorument in 1828 did not exceed 6,960,000i. The expenditure in that year wtu tor the armv, 2,000,000/. ; navy, 400,000/. ; marine, 1,445,000/. : iiutice, 146,000/. ; itate, lOH.lHX)/. ; royal hoiiBchold, 005,000/. At the same time, Spain is burdened with a debt of 16(MKH),000/. sterling, of which the revenue would be whioUy inadequate to defray the inte* rest, had not mure tlian half consisted of the ro^al vaU>$, which do not bear any. Under the constitutional govcmmont a considerable addition of debt waa incurred, which, however, Ferdinand VII. cleared off by refusing to acknowledge it; while he himself ineffectually attempted to raise a loan to any amount The navy, at the commencement of the lato war, was at least respectable, and a formi* dablo auxiliary to France. Tho fatal days of St. Vincent and Trafalgar, and the fhiitleii expeditions to Soutli America, reduced it to a feeble state. In 1890 it consisted of ton shipe of tho lino, sixteen frigates, and tliirtv smaller vessels. The army of Spain, which under Charles V. and Philip waa the bravest and moat formi- dable in Europe, nos for a century and a half enabled her to rank very low among military nations. It is, however, at present the beat organised part of her establishment. According to tho author of " A Year in Spain," it consiste of S5,000 roval guards, and 55,000 troops of tho lino and provincial militia, which, being commanded by experienced officers, formed during a period of protracted warfare, poasesa a conaiderable degree of efficiency; and their discontent being an object of dread, every eifort ia mode to pay them regularly. The royaliat volunteers, amounting to about 300,000 men, formed a band of armed fanatics almoat entirely under the command of Uie priests and monks, and aeeking in their fkvour to lord it both over king and people. ' ' Skjt. V. — Productive Industry. In respect to industry and wealth, Spain, which had every opportunity within and without of becoming the foremost nation of Europe, is, in fact, the poorest and the moat uncultivated. The insecurity of property, and the multiplied restrainte imposed by an unenlightened govern- ment, appear to be the main causes which have paralyzed all branches of industry. The fiirioua bigotry of its monarchs, in particular, led to the most suicidal acts against the public weal. At the commencement of the fifteenth century, the country contained a numerous population of Jews and Moors, who formed ite most industrious and wealthy inhabitants, and rendered it the most flourishing kinjpfdom in Europe. The Jews, unleaa in the alternative of feigned conversion, were expelled from the kingaom by Ferdinand and Isabella, the Moon by Philip III. Although it appears to be upon exaggerated estimates that Spain has ever been suppoeed to have previously contained 20,000,000 of people, yet it cannot be doubted that the emigration of mercantile communities, with their capital and machinery, must have struck deeply at the root of the national prosperity. Spanish agriculture, it must be confessed, has some obstacles to struggle against The territory, bs we have had occasion to observe, is traversed in every direction oy chains of rugged, and often barren, mountains. Yet these elevated provinces being the seats of com ¥irative liberty and industry, are on the whole the beat cultivated and the moat populous he great extent and continuity of these chains certainly present aerioua difficulties to the transport of grain. Wua government were bringing a supply from Old Caatile to the capital, it was found that d0,000 beasts of burden were necessary to carry 2000 quarters. Another Sreat impediment to effective agriculture consiste in the habit, purtly oriental, partly formed uring a long internal war&re, which leads the fanners to crowd into towns, and thus live often at many miles* distance fh)m the fields which they cultivate. In many cases they merely piteh their tento during seed-time and harvest, and at other seasons pay only occa- sional visite. They are also very poor, destitute of capitel, and oppressed by the burden of tithes and other exactions. The grain produced in Spain ia of admirable quality ; the wheat of Andalusia bearing a price often or fifteen per cent higher than that of any foreign wheat brought to the maiw kets of Cadiz. But a deplorable defect appears, when it is stated that Spain, a country purely agricultural, does not grow com for her own use, but makes a regular importation. This, however, according to Bourgoing, amounte only to 2,000,000 fknegoa or 400,000 quar- ters ; a smallproportion of the entire consumption, which may be estimated at 12,000,000 of quarters. The agriculture of Spain, however, produces three valuable articles ; wool, wine, and barilla. The wool of the merino is of almost unrivalled fineness, though dearly purchased by the system upon which it is produced. Vast flocks, amounting to 20,000, 30,000, or even 60,00(^ tielong to the grandees, convents, and dignitaries of Spam. After being pastured, during summer, on the sides of the mountainb of Leon and Old Castile, they descend, in winter, chiefly to the plains of Estremadura. According to the rules of the powerfiil society of the metta, composed of the above high members, they must pass freely, and be allowed, en pay- 573 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III Booh I. iMnt of a vtn iMdoqiwto rent, to putura upon til tho unenoloMd Itndi, which forni th« bulk of thoM in Snua The entire number of aheep in nil theNo wandering flocki ii rcrkonnl ftt &,000,000( MM there are a ipreat numbur whion remnin ■utionary, and oi\joy privilu^fpi nearly aimilar. The annual ihoaring takoa place on a fffoat icaie, and with much cclobrv tion; and the wool ia careflilly aoitsd into three kinJa, acconlinif to the part of the body ftom which it ia taken. The winea of Spain are produced on tho fine plaina of the aouthem provincea. The moat important ia the Xerea or aherry, which haa como into auoh general uae with the Engliah nation. Mr. Jacob rookona that 40,()U0 pipea are produced in the plain of Xcrea; of which 15*000 are exported, almoat the wholo to Bnifland. Around Malaga ia mado wine atill more valued, tnough not in auch quantity ; which, when white, ia culled moun- tain, when red, ttnt (tinto). The northern and central provincea yield wine only of inferior value. Barilla, the ftneat known apeciea of aahea, and highly uaeAil in glaae>making, bleaching, and other procoaaea, ia procured bv burning varioua apeciea of aahne and aromatic planta in the provincea of Muroia and Valencia, and ia one of the fbw articlea which other iiutioni can nowhere elae procure of equally good quality. Silk and oil, in the Mediterranean pro* vincea, are only limited by the want of culture or demand. The manufticturei of Spain have been of little importance aince the expulaion of the Moora. That induatrioua people introduced the ailk manufacture ; a branch entirely suited to a country where the material ia produced in the greateat perfection ; but it ia now gene- rally decayed, unleaa in Valencia, where it waa auppoaed lately to employ SOOO people. The bladea of Toledo were once fiunoua over Europe, and the city haa atill a royal manu- fiustory of aworda, though of little importance. The Spanish government has devoted rather an extraordinary attention to manufactures, but unfortunately socks to promote them by the king becoming nimaelf tlie producer. He haa eatabliahed a great factory of broadcloth at Guadalaxara, which, having fino materiala at hand, ia rather thriving. Yet Spain does not ■upply herself with fine cloth. Other royal works are those of porcelain, at Son Ildefonso; paper, in Segovia ; cards and tapestry at Madrid : all rather for ahow than use. Commerce, for which Spain seemed to have monopolised the moat extensive materials, haa long been in a state at least as low and depressed as any other branch. It has suffered ■everely, indeed, fhim the immense importance attached to it by the government, which actually crushed it to pieces in the attempt to prevent any portion fVom escaping. To ab- sorb within their own circle the entiro treaaurea of Mexico and Peru, was the first pcJey of the Spanish aove-^igna. The gold and ailver of thoae regiona were to be brought exclu- •ively to Spain, never to be taken out of it, and only the prrauce and manufkcturea of that country to be sent in exchange. By a sad fktality, the commerce of the colonies was ca^ ried on almost entirely by French and Elngliah merchants ; nearly all the goods exported thither were foreign; and Spain, of all her neighbours, was the most doatitute of the wealth accruing fh>m this trade. These colonies, with the exception of Cuba and the Philippines, are now gone, and with them the greatness of Cadiz, which, by the absurd monopoly giunted to her, became one of the principal emporia of Europe. The trade of Spain consists now in the export of wines, fhiits, brandies, wool, silk raw and manufkctured, lead, quicksilver, barilla, and a few other articles, which, according to a very imperfbct document, issued by the Spanish government, amounted in 1626 to about 1,584,0007. Of tliis, 241,000/. was stated to be to the colonies. Her imports consist of sugar, cocoa, aalt fish, spices, wood, rice, butter and cheese, hides, cotton wool, and almost every species of manufkctured com- modity. They are stated for the same year at about 3,267,000{., of which 724,000?. wu flrom the colonies. Internal communication is a particular in which Spain actually labours under natural dis- advantages, firom the obstructed navigation of its rivers, and its long and steep chains of mountains. These obstacles the government has endeavoured to surmount by vast but ill- executed projects of improvement They had conceived the plan of a grand canal, which, passing through Asturias, Old Castile, aiid Aragon, might join Uie Mediterranean with the my of Biscay. Of this inighbr undertaking, only two small portions exist ; the canal of Aragon, running parallel to the Ebro from Saragosn, and that of Old Costile along the Pisuergai and Carrion by Placencia ; but as neither of them makes any approach to the sea, their benefit is very limited. The main roods maintained by government between Madrid and the other great cities are good, and the mails well conducted ; but moet of the other communications are mere tracfai worn by the feet of mules, which are chiefly employed in the conveyance of goods. Sbct. VL— Ctsfl and Social State. ""''' "">' "''' ' ''' '^ '*'' ^ The population of Spain, according to a census made in 1796, amounted to 10,851,000. It was generally undentood, however, that the jealousy of the people, and all the obstacles osually encounttted in such undeitakings, operated to a peculiar extent in d im inishi n g the Book I. SPAIN. m niea was ca^ tinount. The cenmii, in ITRT-^ (pivfl only 10,268,000, of which 1RR,600 w«« ihtiroh* men ; and nmtmg Uiom, 01,U0() wore iimnk*, aiul 8S,n00 nuns. Thora wan 480,000 hU dalgoo; 34,(N)U inerchanU; 40,000 manuflicturorfl i 371,0(N) artimnii; 007,000 peaMnte| 060,(100 dny-labourera ; 'i80,000 domoitic male lervanta. A cnnmin waH iindorUken in 1890, which waa not tUlly comploted, but carried to fkr as to prove tiint Iho nuii)bor of inhabitant! muat bo coniidorably greater than tho above : it ia oitimatod by Miimno at 18,782,000 , by Ilaaaul at 18,0S3,(X)0. Tho national character of the Spaniard ii marked by itriking featurea. The genuine Spaniard ia grove, proud, adventuroua, romantic, honourable, ana generous. It haa been inainuoted that thia ia tho Spaniard of the aixteenth century, of whom tho Spaniard of the [ireaont day is only, aa it wore, the ahadow. But though tne higher ranks nave cortalnlj oat the original stamp, and become firivolous and diaaipetod, the body of the people, and especially tho poamntry, form a very flno race. Even among the fbnner, the lato troublee brought forward nignal displavs of heroism, though, as too oflen happens in such casea, equally base examples of troachnry. In the virtue and wisilom of tho best Spaniards, there is apt to be immcthing speculative and theoretical, not applicable to the practical pnrpoaee of life ; a want of tho wisdom of action. In |)roflporn)is circumstances they readily give way to supinenoHs and false confidence ; but in sudden and overwhelming vicissitudes, which sink the spirit of others, tlieir latent energies arn rouncd, and they display unexpected and surprising resources. Although assasaination, which was once the reproach of Spain, is greatly diminished, yet a promptitude to fight and to shed blood, characteristic of all na< tioris imperfectly civilized, is still prevalent. It ia accompanied with a readiness to rise in tumultuary insurrections, and an unwillingness to submit to the restraints of discipline. The jealousy which was wont to dwell so deep and dark in the mind of the Spanish hua> band, has been superseded by a general laxity of morals. The custom ia ( i . to prevail, that every married lady should have a corttjo or gallant, corresponding to the Italian cicitbeo; and though tho usage mav not bo so decidedly criminal as it appears to strangers, it is cer* tainly inconsistent with those habits and feelings which form tne felicity of the matrimonial state. In this singular relation, fixed rules are observed, and a certain fidelity is exacted ; the jealousy of the husband ia assumed by the cortejo ; and the lady who changes, at least with any frequency, this object of attachment, loses eatte in the eyes of the public. The religious state of Spain need only be mentioned to suggest the dark and gloomy fea^ tures by which it is marked. That bif[otry and superstition which the Romish faith con- tracted during agea of darkness, and which in all other countries is so much abated, retaina nearly its fuU force in Spain. The Inquisition, that firightibl tribunal, the disgrace of modem Europe, which here helu its central seat, kept alive its fires against all who exercised their reason on a subject connected with the national faith. The order of Jesuits, who have been called the militia of the Romish church, originated also in this country. The Inquisition per'shcd in the lote struggle; yet a numerous body still call aloud for its re-establishment ^ and the most liberal rulers, whom the revolution raised to power, durst not attempt any ap> prooch to toleration, or to trench upon the " Catholic religion one and indivisible." Thu spirit of bigotry and superstition is deeply difllised through the nation, who, if they no longer demand that heretics snail be committed to the flames, never doubt at least of the future tortures to which they are destined. All the childish and absurd customs which marked ite prevalence during the dork ages, are preserved nearly unaltered ; the processions and ex- hibitions, in whi<3i the events of sacred history are represented, often in a fiuniliar and ludi- crous manner ; the endless festivals, which impoverish the nation, and fiivour its natural indolence ; and the zeal of multitudes, who are induced by mistaken piety to withdraw themselves iVom their families and the world. Mr. Blanco White haa given a striking account of the artifices by which the young female is led to make the irrevocable sacrifice ; the respect and importance attached to her during the period of noviciate ; the ceremooiefl, which resemble those of marriage, even the name of bride being given to her; and the die- grace attached to a retractation. Yet it appears evident, fi^m the same author, that this profession ia often deeply sincere ; that it aids in producmg that strong moral feeling which prevails throughout the nation; that many are even tormented by minute conscientiooa scruples ; and that, with such persons, absolution, founded on false pretensions to penitence, is considered as aggravating the guilt At the same time, there is a combination of deep devotion and diasdute conduct, which not only rapidly succeed each other, but actoalW co> exist, in a manner never seen in anjr Protestant society. It mav be Observed, that amid thie thick darkness which covers the nation, a body of men has lately arisen, of active and en- quiring mmds, who have discerned the errors of the national creed, and have possed to the opposite extreme. They are comparatively few in number, however ; and, as already ob- served, even in their greatest triumph, although they considerably reduced the conventual ettablishraents of Spain, they never durst attempt to introduce the toleration of any ibrm of worship different from the Catholic. ^ Spanish literatue, during the era of the national gloiy, supported itself at leeat on t 74 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III. lOTol with that of any other nation in Europe. Spain had, as it were, a literature to itself, ■carcely any of the productions of which, if we except the inimitable satire of Cervantes, became familiar to the rest of Europe. During the middle age, she was rich in chivalric 'X>mance, the taste for which, however, was banished by tiie appearance of Don Quixote, a change which some lament, as having led to the decline of the national spirit. The poetry of Spain, roused by so many vicissitudes of internal revolution and transmarine triumph, took a somewhat lolly flight. The Araucana of Ercilla, celbrating her conquests in the New World, is named together, though not on a level, with the best modern epics. Gar- cilasso de la Vega, Viilegas, Mendoza, and others, chiefly officers in the army of Charles V., introduced a style formed on the Italian model ; and, having the advantage of a noble and aoiiorous language, worked up their verses to the highest polish. But it is in the drama, that the Spaniards have been chiefly distinguislied. Lope de Vega and Calderon, indeed, construct their plots with an entire disregard of the unities, filled with extravagant incidents, and strained and artiflcial sentiments. But tliey display an inexhaustible fertility of inven- tion, and oilen strong traits of character ; so tliat, though they never could be transferred entire to any other stage, they furnished useful hints both to the French and English dra- matists. Mariana's History ot Spain ranks among classical productions; while Herrcra and Solis, though of inferior merit, have produced valuable histories of the Spanish transactions in the New World. To Don Antonio de Solis, the Spaniards are willing to ascribe that in- imitable satire on human character and manners, Gil Bias, which must, tliey say, have been written by a Spaniard and a courtier. As such, he might rejoice that it had amply fulfilied his intentions without compromising his security, and could very well afford to dispense with the fiimc which redounded to its reputed author, Le Sage. These writers belong to the classic age of Spain, which nearly expired with the seventeenth century ; but of late, the intellectual spirit which has spread so actively throughout Europe, has penetrated into Spain, and made vigorous struggles against the night of ignorance and prejudice in which that country' was involved. Canipomanes, Ustariz, Jovellanoe, and Arguelles, have endea- voured to trace the causes which have paralysed Spanish industry, and to discover tlie means of reviving it ; Feyjod has done much to rouse a spirit of reflection ; Yriarte, Isla, ond Me- lendez Valdez, have produced agreeable miscellaneous writings; and Moratin has adopted a more regular drama, farmed on the French model. There are extensive pulilic libraries ; one, the royal library in Madrid, consisting of 130,000 volumes, with valuable manuscripts, and a rich collection of medals ; and others in the great provincial towns ; but the preva- lence of monkish legends, and the prohibition of many of the most important standard woriiei, greatly limit their value. The universities are numerous, and that of Salamanca once per- haps the most celebrated in Europe ; but education being conducted upon obsolete and scho- lastic principles, and impregnated with the national bigotry, they have long ceased to attract students from any place out of Spain. Some of the younger members were supposed to have embraced novel ideas in regard to religion and government ; whence they have become objects of jealousy to ttic government, which will probably be little anxious to rescue them from that decay into which they were thrown by the events of the revolution. The fine arts, especially painting, could boast in Spain of adis- tihguishcd school, marked by featuics strikingly national and original. It is characterised by depth, force, great truth of nature, and a warm expression of devotional feeling. Murillo, Riteira (self-named Spagnoletto), and Velasquez, are those alone whose works are diffused throughout Europe ; but by those who have visited Spain, Cano, Juanes, Ribalta, and Morales are mentioned in terms of equal praise. The Escurial and other royal palaces are likewise adorned W some of the finest pieces of Raphael, Titian, and Rubens. This taste seems to have declined with that of literature ; and Townshend observed that the nobles set little value on the magnificent collections with which their palaces were adorned. Of late the efforts to revive painting have been considerable, but without producing any artists of much celebrity. The Spaniards are fond of music, but delight rather in detached airs for the serenade and ball, than in that higher class in which the Italians and Germans excel. The guitar (Jig. 808.) as an accompaniment for song, and the castanets for the national dance, arc characteristic Spanish instruments. The Spaniards have &vourite and peculiar diversions. They are most passionately attached to the bull-fight : a large space is enclosed, sometimes the great square of the city, around which the people sit as in an amphitheatre. The bull, ^ing introduced, is first attacked by the picadores, or horsemen armed with spears: a desperate conflict ensues; the horse is fi-equentiv killed or overturned with his rider, wlien persons on foot run in, and distract the animal, by holding up different kinds of coloured stuflb. He is next attacked by banderilleroM, or footmen armed with arrows ; and not only their skill, but ^eir dexterity in ^^ The Guitar. BooeI. SPAIN. ns escape, are the subjects of admiration SOO at last, when the animal ia completely covered with wounds, the matador or slayer appears, and closes the scene. Tumultuous applause or hisninfif from the populace accompanies evei^ part of this savage per- formance, according to the respective merits of the bull or his assailants. The comparative exoellenco of different matadores becomes often a party question, and the su^cct of keenly agitated discussion in tho circles of Madrid. Wounds frequently, and death sometimes, are the result to the actora in this exhi- bition, for whose benefit a priest with holy water is in regular attendance. Not less is the fondness for the dance, particularly under its national forms of the fandango (Jig. 309.), the bolero, and the guan- ackOf performed with the castanet in the hands ; and The Ftodinio. • jjjg j^^q former especially consisting chiefly in move- ments expressive of passion, but so little consonant to the rules of decorum, that the indul ■ ^ence shown to these amusements by the church cannot but be regarded as a matter of sur- prise. The dress of the Spaniards is antique, and varies much according to the different provinces ; that of the ladies consists chiefly of a petticoat and a large mantilla or veil, covering the upper part of the person. The grandees, and the opulent m general, display a profusion of jewels ; the dress of the men is slight, and closely fitted to the body, with the exception of a loose cloak thrown ov-ir the whole. The minister, Squillace, under Charles III., having conceived that these cloaks, by concealing the person, served as a cover to deeds of violence, stationed persons at the comers of the streets, who seized the passengers, and forcibly cut down this part of their dress to the legal dimensions ; but this measure raised so violent and general a clamour, that the king was forced to appease it by the sacrifice of the minister who had attempted such an obnoxious curtailment. Both in eating and drinking the Spaniards are temperate ; the only noted national dish ia the olla podrida, in which various meats, vegetables, and herbs are mixed together in a manner which even foreigners admit to be palatable. The pleasures of society are chiefly sougiit at tertulias or evening parties, where only slight refreshment is presented ; but refrescoa or dinner parties are given on a large scale upon very special occasioi.'ci. Sect. VII. — Local Geography. Of the divisions of Spain, tho most prominent is into kingdoms or principalities, each of which, ot some period of its eventful history, enjoyed an independent existence, though they are now merged unto one monarchy. More recently the country has been split into a number of smaller departments or jurisdictions; but the original distinction into kingdoms, being founded upon natural limits, and maintained by feelings and impressions derived from former independence, is still the most interesting. The kingdoms are New Castile, Estremadura, Old Castile, Leon, Galicia, Asturias, Biscay, Navarre, Catalonia, Aragon, Valencia, Murcia, Granada, and Andalusia. The following table exhibits the divisions and subdivisions of Spain, with the extent and population of each, according to Hassel : — (Madrid Toledo Oiiadalaxara . Cuenca La Mancha ■ . Eatremadura IBatfioa Old Castile )i?"j;,, 1 Segovia Leon Avila ■ Leon Palencia . . ■ Toro Valladolid . Zamora.... Salamanca. Squara 110 734 163 045 031 1100 643 341 900 SIS 403 14S 163 871 133 471 Pnpulltioo, 208,000 4R5.000 li3,m 363,000 357,000 556,000 013.000 367.000 331,000 153,000 311,000 153,000 136,000 343,000 03,000 273,000 Asturias . . Golicia ... Catalonia- Navarre . • ( Biscay . Biscay < Ouipiiacoa . ( Alava Arngon Valencia Murcia Granada (Seville Andalusia. . ■ < Jaen (Cordova ... Sqtura LMgua. 3083 1330 1003 SOS 100 53 009 13,333 643 650 80S 753 808 348 Fopulalloil. 565,000 1,585,000 1.116,000 388.000 145.000 1:10,000 0.^000 856,000 1,355,000 403.000 1,007,000 BTfl.OOO 377.000 335,000 With New Castile, the central and metropolitan province, we commence our survey ; it consists chiefly of an extensive plain enclosed between two of the long parallel mountain ranges, the Sierra de Guadarrama and the Sierra de Toledo. Along this plain, and parallel to both ranges, the Tagus flows in a deep rocky bed. Beyond the Sierra de Toledo, the district of La Mancha, which we include also in New Castile, extends to a third paralle mountn'n range, the Sierra Morena, dividing it from Andalusia and the southern provinces 819 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY Part III. The plain of Castile Proper is elevated and naked ; and being thus exposed to the sun's direct rays, presents a bare and parched appearance. It includes, however, fertile valleys, producingf wine, oil, grain, and fVuits of various kinds; but the inhabitants are extremely deficient in every species of indust^. Madrid (Jig. 310.), the capital of Castile, and of " all the Spains," stands on several low hills on the immense Castilian plain, which on the north appears bounded by the high distant range of tlie Guadarrama, but on every other side has no visible termination. A small rivulet, itie Manzanares, flows past the city, and falls into the Tagus. Madrid is a superb but some Madrid. what gloomy capital ; the houses are high, well built of good stone, not de&ced by smoke , the streets are well paved, and have broad footpaths. The main street of Alcala, long, spacious, and bordered on each side by a row of princely houses, attracts particular admirar tion. The Prado, a wide public walk, bordered by trees, and connected with gardens all open to the public, is equally conducive to ornament and pleasure. There are many public foun- tains, supplied with pure, light, and salubrious water, filtered through beds of gravel and sand, from a distance of seven or eight leagues. The gates built bv Charles III. are uncom- monly beautiful, particularly that of Alcala ; but in a miserable wall which might be battered down by a three-pounder in half an hour. The royal palace, built by Philip V., is a spacious and magnificent structure, though the taste displayed in it is a subject of controversy. It contains numerous fine paintings, which do not equal, however, those of the Escurial. The Retiro, with its fine gardens, was defaced b^ the French, who made it a military poet ; an extensive and costly menagerie is now formmg within its precmcts. The museum of sta- tuary and painting, a new and elegant building, has recently been enriched with some of the finest pictures from the royal palaces. The cabinet of natural history, supported by the government, is also a handsome structure, and its contents valuable. The environs of Madrid are not remarkable for beauty ; they are much broken into hills and hollows ; so that, of the 200 villages situated in them, only three or four can be seen at once. Population, 201,000. Toledo, even in its present decay, excites an interest equal or superior to Madrid. Once the proud capital of Spain, it has a commanding site on a lofty rock, almost insulated by tha Tagus. A position so strong rendered it a grand national bulwark during the long ages of internal warfare, but occasioned its desertion during peace, when it was felt as extremely inconvenient, the streets being so steep that a carriage can scarcely drive safely through them. Its manu&ctures of wool and silk, which are said once to nave employed nearly 40,000 men, have disappeared ; and government has in vain attempted to revive that of Bwords, of which those formerly manufactured at Toledo were valued above all others. Its population of 200,000 has been reduced to 25,000 ; and it presents a mere mass of narrow, deserted, winding, and dirty streets. Toledo, however, still exhibits two grand monuments; the Alcazar or palace, and the cathedral. The former is a noble and extensive pile, in a pure style of architecture, and the granite columns of the Corinthian order which adorn the mner court are particularly admired. The grand staircase and spacious gallery, no longer crowded with guards and courtiers, are now dirty, deserted, and silent The edifice, lliough neglected and decaying, still wears a stately and imposing aepect; "and its handsome front, immense quadrangle, and elegant colonnade, declare it to have been the pride and ornament of a happier peri(M." The cathedral is also one of the grandest edifices in the Peninsula. It was originally a mosque, built m a grand style ; but its simplicity has been much impaired by tasteless additions, and by the profusion of gilding, relics, and statues, with which its interior has been filled. It retained its wealth and splendour, however, till the late war when its treasures became the prey of the invader, and its six hundred ecclesiastics were dispersed, leaving only a few to perform the sacred functions. X wo other considerable towns in New Castile are Guadalaxara, to the east of Madrid, ea;iiu.I of a mountain district of the same name, interposed oetween Valencia and tlio plain of Castile. It is a small ancient city, distinguished by a cathedral and some other monuments. La Mancho, sometimes reckoned a separate province, is the most southern part of Castile from wliich it is separated by the Sierra do Toledo. It is an immense table-plain, inter- sected by different ridges of low hills and rocks, without a tree except a few dwarf evei- grecn oaks ; or an enclosure, except mud walls round the villages. AH this vas^ tract of open country is cultivated, and produces corn or vines: its wine, especially tliat of Val de Pefias, enjoys a high repute. Its name, however, is chiefly familiar to the public as having given an appellation to the celebrated here of Cervantes. The names of Don Quixote and Sancho Panza are familiar to the district ; and the dress of the peasantry presents still an exact model of that of the doughty squire. There are a number of large villages ; and Ciu- dad Real, the capital, is well built in a fine plain, though it has lost much of its former pros- perity. Almagro and Ocafia are also pretty considerable towns, Estremadura forms a continuation to the west of the same plain as New Castile, traversed like it by the Tagus, and bounded by the same ranges of mountains. It is a fine, wide, wild province, diversified by rugged mountains, deep valleys, and almost boundless plains. The depopulation generally complained of in Spain seems more remarkable here than m any other province ; and vast tracts may be passed without seeing a human habitation. This seems chiefly owing to the pernicious laws of the Mesta, whicn assign it almost entirely for the occupation of the merino flocks, when they descend from the mountains of Leon. Estre- madura, therefore, forms a vast pastoral district ; only a small proportion of its surface bemg necessary to furnish grain for its scattered population. Yet the Romans mode it one of the chief seats of their dominion ; and no part of the Peninsula exhibits more striking works and monuments of that great people. The Estremenos also retain much of the antique Spanish aspect and character ; and no province, during the late crisis, made more striking dis- plays of patriotic energy. Tije cities are no longer considerable. Badajos, the capital, a strange corruption of the Roman name Pax Augusta, is a considerable and strong town, but much shattered by the successive sieges it sustained in the late war from Soult and Wellington. Merida, the ancient capital of Lusitania, excites more interest, from the striking remains which it pre- sents of Roman magnificence. The amphitheatre, baths, a lofly triumphal arch, three votive altars, and a handsome stone bridge, are all magnificent monuments, and in wonderful pre- servation. Truxillo, an old city, of small extent, was the birth-place of Pizarro, whose splendid mansion is still to be seen, adorned with barbarous trophies of his conquest. Alma^ raz is distinguished chiefly by the very noble modern bridge adjoining to it. Talavera de la Rcyna, once splendid but now decayed, has acquired recent lustre from being the theatre of one of the greatest battles fought during the peninsular war. In the extensive plain north of the Tagus are the two pleasant little cities of Corio and Placencia ; the latter of which was the scene of the singular monastic retirement of Charles V. In the mountains separating this part of the province from Leon is a rocky region, of the most savage and desolate character, called Batuecas. Old Castile is situated on the opposite side of the chain of mountains which forms the nortliem boundary of New Castile. It presents a high variegated table-land, separated on the north by the Cantabrian chain from Asturias. Some parts are rugg^ed ; but it is, upon the whole, a fertile well-watered region, traversed by the Duero in its early course. There are many tracts of rich pasturage, and others equally fitted for the growth of com. It is, however, one of the provinces in which the marks of decay are most striking. The capitals are neglected and ruinous; large portions are left uncultivated; and of the fine manufactures of cloth from the merino wool, only a remnant is now supported by the aid of government Castilian pride and indolence have fixed here their old and central seat : the hidalgos belonging to Old Castile amount to 146,000, a much larger proportion than in any other province. Burgos, the once magnificent capital of the kings of Castile, and the highest in rank of any city in the kingdom, is dwindled into a poor place, not containing above 10,000 inhabit- ants. Amid its gloomy and decayed st'sets, however, towers the cathedral, one of the finest specimens of Gothic architecture existiv./ in Europe, and the form of which bears a con- siderable resemblance to that of York minster. The strong ancient castle, which had fa.llen into decay, was so far re-established by the French, that it successfiilly stood a long siege from the Duke of Wellington. Of the other towns of Old Castile, Segovia presents some interesting monuments of Roman and Moorish grandeur. Its aqueduct {fig. 311.), of 159 arches, nearly half a mil(» long, and in one place 94 feet high, is a stupendous Roman work, ranked by Swinburne above the Pont du Gard. The Alcazar, or royal castle, was erected by the Moors oiva •wk overlooking a wide range of country. After it came into the possession of the Chris- Vol. L 49 '^ 3X Km DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part 01 Eicarial. tians, it was employed as a state prison, and is now a military school. Five centuries affo, Segovia had very extensive manufactures of fine cloth; but these, notwithetanding tlie „,, honour of having the king for a part- •i** Itdi ner, have dwindled to a very small amount. Population 15,000. Avila, capital of a small province of the same name, is a city of ancient diB< tinction; and its mossy walls, itj towers, its Alcazar, and the dome of the old cathedral, render it imposing at a distance ; but it is in a state of wretched desertion. The attempt to establish manufactures of cloth and cotton has not been successful. Soria, near Uie site of the ancient Numantia, its source, is a tolerable country town, capital of one of the smaller provinces into which Old Castile has been subdivided. The palaces of the Escurial (^Jig. 312.) and San Ildefonso are striking objects in Old Cas< . .. ,. tile. The "royal monastery" of the "** Escurial was founded by Philip II. on a plan entirely congenial to his gloomy mind. It unites the characters of a palace and a convent ; and has the form of a gridiron, tlic instrument of the martyrdom of St. Lorenzo, to whom it is dedicated. Attached to it is the Pan- theon, a classic and somewhat profane structure, in which, however, are in- terred all the crowned kings and queens of Spain since Charles V. The wealth of the Spanish monarchs has been con- tinually employed in adding new ornaments to this favourite residence, which is considered by the nation as the eighth wonder of the world; and large volumes have been filled with descriptions of it. The church and the great altar have scarcely a rival for magnificence and grandeur of effect The librm is not extensive, but contains manuscripts, especially Arabic, that are of great value. The collection of paintings, it is probable, yields only to that which covers the walls of the Vatican. Besides select productions of Murillo and other masters of the Spanish school, it contains several of the greatest works of Raphael, Titian, and others of the first Italian masters. The environs are wild and naked in the extreme, witliout shelter from the cold blasts of winter, or the intense heats of summer. On the opposite declivity of the same mountains, looking towards the north, San Ildefonso, without any pretensions to equal magnificence, is finely surrounded by woods, gardens, and beautiful jets d'eau. Aranjuez stands in quite a different situation, on the lowest plain of Castile, at the junction of the Tagus and the Xarama. It is cliiefly admired for its mag- nificent woods and gardens ; the former carried in long and spacious avenues, the latter con- taining in profusion the finest native and exotic plants. Leon forms a continuation of the plain of Old Castile, along tl i' lower course of the Duero, and bounded by the same ranges of mountains. For several centuries it was the seat of a kingdom, comprising the chief Christian power in Spain, until it was united to that of Castile. It is almost entirely within the domain of the mesta, and thus devoted princi- pally to pasturage. The consequent depopulation has been very great; insomuch that, according to Townshend, the bishopric of Salamanca, which once contained 748 townships, is now reduced to 333. The vast extent of open plain which forms the centre of this pnv vince has been found highly favourable to an invader who possessed superior cavalry ; such as the Moors once, and more latterly the French. The cities of Leon are almost solely interesting from the traces which they present of ancient grandeur. Leon itself, by its highly ornamented cathedral, its nine convents, and its ancient palace, testifies the remote period when it was the seat of royalty ; but a hetero- geneous assemblage of dirty streets filled with beggars, splendid churches, and half-ruined Runily mansions, are all that it now presents. Salamanca, by its university, has acquired a much greater fame. This seminary, one of the first in Europe, was founded in 1200, and extended during the same century by Alfonso the Wise, celebrated for the progress which astronomy made under his auspices. From the medical knowledge of Avicenna, Averroes, and other Arabian sages, it derived a character superior to those of the other monkish univer- sities during the middle ages. Salamanca, however, remained stationary in the fourteenth century ; and, while sound science was spreading through the rest of Europe, continued tu BOOE ll occupy I Its studi crowde made < was alt streets i city; oil Saced til Ir. Wh| liberal French i or batteil must no| giving 1 "alh Book I. !"•' SPAIN. •'<•■.■■?.■.; j^jl, since 1752, has been made the chief naval station of Spain. Its harbour, besides being one of the safest and most spacious in Europe, has the advantage of being accessible only by a narrow wmding passage which can be rendered almost impassable by a chain efforts. A considerable city has been formed, and very extensive docks and arsenals built ; but since the extinction of the Spanish navy, these have of course fallen into considerable neglect, rcpuiatiun xo,uuu. The Asturias form a long narrow strip between the Bay of Biscay and the Cantabrian mountains, which extend along its whole length. It is celebrated in history as the sacred retreat in which the hero Pelayo raised again the national standard, after it seemed for ever trampled under foot by the Saracen invaders. Since the tburteenth century the Asturiu wo DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part 111. hiive ffivon the title of prince to tlio heirs of tho Spanisli throne. The province is approached only by narrow ravines and posses, througii wiiich torrents dasii, and whicii are ovorimn^ by Bteep clifls and luxuriant woods. There are, however, a number of valleys, and tlie whole Slain of Oviedo is distinguished both for fruilfulness and beauty. Instead of wine, a good eal of tolerable cider is made and exported : amber, jet, and coal abound, but tlio la^t strongly impregnated witli sulphur. Tiic Asturians ure brave and proud, boasting that their country was never conciuered, even by the Romans ; and more than a third part of the p<>,)u- lation IS composed of hidalgos. Oviedo, the only lar^e town, has mora magniiiccnce tlian its situation might lead us Ui expect: the cathedral m particular, long tho only shrine secure from the rage of tl>e invader, aflorded an asylum to many pious treasures scattered through the Peninsula. These, how- ever, consist chiefly of relics, valuable only to devout and believing eyes. Among them are the rod of Moses, the mantle of Elias, the olive-branch borne aloti m entering Jerusalem; thorns from the sacred crown ; the milk of the blessed Virgin, &c. Oviedo is still a con- siderable town, with a rich bishopric, and many religious houses, of which the principal is a convent of Benedictine nuns. Population 1U,0()0. Gijon, though with a costly and not very complete harbour, carries on all the little trade of the province. Avila and Santillana arc large villages, giving their name to districts. Siintander and Santona are sea-ports of some little consequence, in the district of Montana, on the borders of Biscay. Biscay is a small, high, rugged province, on the western slope of the Pyrenees. Streams descendmg from its numerous iieights, combine in forming the channel of the Upper Ebro. The Basques are a peculiar race, preserving tlio only remnant which revolutions have lelt in the Peninsula, of Celtic language and aspect. Under tlie name of Cantabria, this region presented a barrier even to Roman conquest ; and though the Saracens penetrated through It into the plains of France, it is still boasted tliat they never could reach the mountains of High Cantabria. The Basques, amid the geheral slavery of Spain, have still preserved some portion of their original rights. They have a cortes of their own; and the taxes, levied by provincial authority, are presented to the sovereign in the form of a free gitl. Every native Biscayan is an hidalgo or noble, scarcely owning a superiority of birth in the proudest Costilian. With all this they are excessively industrious ; tho mountain declivities are cul- tivated OS high OS the plough can reach ; and while the finest plains of Castile arc nearly a desert, Biscay's rude vales are covered with a numerous population. The cities in sucli a district cannot be large : yot Bilboa, the capital, situated on the Ybaizabal, which admits large vessels up to the town, is one of the most commercial places in Spain, with 15,000 inliabitants. Most of the merino wool from the plains of Castile in brought hither for exportation. Biscay Proper contains also Orduna, a neat little city, and numerous villages. Guipuscoa is another district, lying more to the east, and in closer con- tact with France. Its capital is St. Sebastian, an indillbrcnt port, but a neat, tolerably large city, and so strongly fortihed as to bo considered one of tho four keys of the kingdom ; the others being Pamplona, Barcelona, and Figucras. Fontarabia, close to tlie frontier, has a great name in history, but little else is now left. Tho small village of Irun stands on the immediate bank of the Bidassca, whose broad clear stream, descending from the Pyrenees, forms the boundary between two rival and long hostile nations. More in the interior, and on a lower level, is the district of Alava, having for its capital Vittoria, a somewhat well- built modern town, and celebrated as the theatre of the complete victory there gained by the Duke of Wellington over the French army under Joseph Bonaparte, which was thence finally expelled from the Peninsula. Navarre is a small province or kingdom, lying immediately beneath the highest and steepest Pyrenees. Eight very difficult passes penetrate through them into France, but scarcely any one passable for tiie artillery and train of an army. The principal is that of St Jean Pied de Port ; on the French side of which is Roncesvalles, or Roncevaux, cele- brated in history, and still more in romance, for the disaster which there befell Charlemagne and his knights. For many centuries it formed a separate littlo kingdom connected with France, until Ferdinand the Catholic succeeded in annexing to Spain all the part south of rhe Pyrenees. Navarre retains, however, privileges and customs peculiar to itself, and '*b governor bears the title of viceroy. The population is active, hardy, and brave. The banaa of guerrillas under Mina proved the most formidable irregular force with which the French had to contend in the Peninsula. Pamplona, or Parapeluna, the capital, the foundation of which is ascribed to Pompey, is one of the chief bulwarks of the Peninsula, and one of the strongest fortresses in Europe. It was reduced by the Duke of Wellington, and bv thi French, in their last invasion, after a long blockade. There are also Tudela and Calahorra, ittle towns on the Ebro. Pampeluna has 10,000 inhabitants. Aragon, south from Navarre, is an extensive province, extending along the greater part of the course of the Ebro ; whence it reaclies on one side to the Pyrenees, and on the other to the chains which shut in the Castiles and Valencia, A great part of it is rugged and barren ; though other tracts in the central plains, and along the rivers, are very suKceptib'r of culture. Aragon, during the middle ages, was a powerful kingdom, comprising Catalonia Book I. SPAIN. ':Oi- '1 661 and Valencia, forming the half of Christian Spain, then divided between it and Castile. Even after tlio union of the crowns under Ferdinand and Isabella, it still enjoyed its consti- tution and its cortes, which oxcruiscd lii};her prcrogntivi^B, and kept the power of the kings under stricter limitations, than any Bimiiar assembly in Europe. Of these it was deprived by the unfortunate issue of the civil war under Charles V., and more completely by the Ikiurbon succession, after Ara^on had espoused the cause of Charles of Austria. The pea> santry of this province are a hno body of men, stout, brave, and honest. Culture and popu- iation are generally in a backward state ; yet the canal of Aragon, conducted parallel to the course of the Ebro, though it has not yet reached the sea, according to its destination, has given a considerable impulse to the agriculture of the district thro gh which it is led. Saragossa, or Zaragoza, the capital of Aragon, is a large and celebrated city, situated amid a lino plain, on the banks of the Ebro and of the canal of Aragon. From Augustus, who enlarged and improved it, the city was called Ctesar- Augusta, corrupted into Sarogossa. It is not well built, the streets being narrow and crooked ; but tiiere are several open market- places, and some verv splendid religious edifices. The principal is that dedicated to the Virgin, under the title of " Our Lady of the Pillar ;" an object of the most profound venera- tion to the citizens, and enriched by offerings from every part of Spain. The church of St, Engnicia is also filled with relics and gifts ; and each of the forty convents of Saragossa has its peculiar boast, A stone bridge, and the finest wooden bridge in Europe, are thrown over the Ebro, The university has 2()0() students, but not much literature, Sarogossa has ei..med an immortal name by her heroic resistance against the unprincipled mvasion of Napoleon, in 1808. Without walls, except an old one of earth, which could not resist for an hour an attack conducted on modern principles ; without army, arms, or artillery, it maintained a long and finally successful conflict witli the French, in their first invasion. Afterwards, when assailed by an immense and overwhelming force, the flower of the French armies, without hope of relief, it made a mighty resistance ; and it was only by mining operations, blowing up successively house after iiouse, that the French finally became its masters, after having reduced it to a heap of ruins. Population 43,000. Aragon has some other small ancient towns, ranking even as cities; Jaca and Huesca on the northern firontier among tlie Pyrenees, both episcopal seats; Daroca and Calatayud in tlie plain bordering on Castile ; the former enclosed witli large ruined fortifications, the latter industrious, and surrounded by a smiling country. Catalonia, to the east of Aragon, is one of the finest and most extensive provinces of Spain. It presents a remarkable variety of surfiice, from the steep and rugged heights of the higher Pyrenees, to the elevated valleys of Upper Catalonia, and the luxuriant though not very extensive plains tliat border on the Mediterranean, The Catalans redeem to a great extent the Spanish national character, uniting with its loftiness and energy a spirit and au activity which are elsewhere wanting. They have been always commercial, industrious, and fond of liberty. After bearing successively the yoke of the Romans, the Gotlis, and the Sara^ cens, Catalonia was long ruled by counts of French descent, whose posterity extended their sway over Aragon, and finally over the whole Peninsula, in which this principality merged. The Catalans, however, bore more impatiently than other Spaniards the loss of their privi- leges ; and duruig the war of tiie succession, on receiving a pledge for their restitution, espoused with extraordinary ardour the couse of the Archduke Charles. Even after its unfortunate issue, when deserted by Britain and all the other powers, they made a last dread- ful struggle, which ended, however, in the loss of all those rights for which they had so nobly contended. In the last two wars, Catalonia acted a most conspicuous port ; maintaining an unremitted resistance to France, notwitlistanding the close vicinity of that kingdom, and in the late constitutional struggle making efforts, both for and against liberty, much greater than any other province. Barcelona is, after tlie capital, the largest city, and at the same time the most industrious and flourishing, of all Spain, containing 150,000 inhabitants. It is situated about the centre of the Catalonian coast, and draws its subsistence from a fertile and extensive plain behind. It is said to have been originally a Carthaginian town, founded by Hamilcar Barcas ; but rose to little distuiction under the Romans, who made Tarraco the capital of all eastern Spain. It was not till the twelfth century that Barcelona began to be distinguished for its commer- cial spirit. It suffered severely during successive wars, particularly that of the succession; but in the course of the last century, the exertions of its patriotic governor, the Marquis of Mina, enabled it to retrieve all its losses, and become more prosperous than ever. The port is artificial, formed by solid and convenient moles, but has a bar at its entrance, which excludes vessels drawing more than twelve feet of water. It carried on a great and various traffic ; had woollen, silk, and cotton manufactories, all on a considerable scale ; about a thousand vessels annually entered its port : and the whole amount of exports was reckoned by Laborda at 1,750,000^. According to the latest account, however, by the author of "A Year in Spain," the late disasters and misgovernment have caused a great declension in the ahovo branches of manufacture ; and instead of the ranges of tall masts assembled within 49* 668 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. PaiitIII its mole, thoro are to be seen only a paltry oiigeniblago of fishing-boata and feluccas. The ecclesiastical odiAcoa of Barcelona are handoonio, particularly the catliedral, thouffh not of ■0 grand a character aa those in some otlior parts ot Spain. The convent of the Dominicana has a singular series of ornaments, the sentonccs of tive hundred heretics decreed by the Inquisition, and under each sentence a representation of tlio suflbrer, whom the demons, in various shapes, are torturing and devourmg. The walls of Barcelona are strong, but its chief dependence is upon the citadel of Montjuich, which commands it, and is considered almost impregnable, though the Earl of l'ctcrborou|j;h took it by surprise. At the close of the war ot the succession, when Barcelona was besieged by the Duke of Berwick, a terrible and almost frantic rcsisLince was niude in the streets, not bv troop, but by priests, students, tradesmen, and even won en : the consoqiionccs were terrible. Bonaparte, m 1BU8, obtained by treachery and threats tno cession of this and the other keys of the kingdom ; but in the late invasion, its resistance against Moucey was most gallant. There are several ether largo, ancient, and strong towns in Catalonia. Tarragona, the Roman capital of the east of Spain, has fallen into groat comparative decay, ana has but 12,000 inhabitants. It is situated on a rocky peninsula, and presents many traces of Roman antiquity, as of the palace of Augustus, the amphitheatre, ana an extensive aqueduct. Mure recently, tlie harbour has been improved, and somo new streets built ; and in the war of 1808, the fortitications wore restored, and the city made a brave defence against Marshal Suchet, who at length carried it by storm, with circumstances of groat cruelty. Tortosa is also a considerable and ancient city near the moutii of the Ehro, which is there broad and navigable. It made a distinguished figure during the wars with the Moors, chiefly through the exploits of its heroines, to commemorate whoso valour a military order was instituted by Raymond Bercngcr. Its position on tlie river affords scope for a considerable trade ; and during tlie last war its fortifications were restored by the Spaniards. It contains 16,000 inhabitants. Between tlie two last-mentioned cities has arisen, within the last half centurr, Reus, a large, flourishing, industrious town, carrying on various manufactures, particularly of brandy and leather. Population 25,000. All these are on the coast west of Barcelona. To the east the chief place is Gerona, a largo gloomy town, in a fine situation. It is well fortified ; and its resistance, protracted for moro than half a year, to the unremitted efforts of Bonaparte's generals, formed one of the most glorious events of the peninsular war. Rosas, a little town, prettily situated in a fine bay, exports cork and other timber. In the interior, Lerida, distinguished as a Roman station under the name of Ilerda, is a large and strong town, situated in a most delightful country on the banks of the Segre. A consider* able stand was made here by tlie patriotic armies during the French invasion. Mequinenza, at the junction of the Segre with the Ebro, is also an important military post. Cervera, the seat of a considerable university, and Igualada, are pretty large interior towns, supported by the produce of the rich vales in which they arc situated. But the most striking feature in all Catalonia ia the single, lofly, and precipitous mountain of Montserrat {fig. 313.). It con* „.„ sists of a crowd of conical hills piled over ^^° each other, broken into steep walls of white and variously tinted limestone cliffs, the interstices of which are filled with ever- Sccn and deciduous trees and plants. The tncdictino monastery, an ancient and re- markable structure, stands on a cleft at the top of a high rock, where space is scarcely left for the edifice, while fer be- neath roars the Llobregat Numerous her- mitages pitched on the top of precipices, or in cavities hewn out of the rock, increase the singular and romantic appearance of the scene. Thin mountain, in tlie last war, was converted into an almost impregnable mili- tary position. On the highest of all the Catalonian vales, which is extensive, and rich in ^in, stands Urgel, a small episcopal see, and a strong military post, the roads being almost impassable to artillery. Valencia, beginning from the border of Catalonia and Aragon, occupies an extensive coast running from north to south, and is the first of the southern provinces. The plain ranks as the garden of Spain, and almost of Europe. The fields of com ; the yellow green of the mulberry plantations, the pale hue of the olive ; the woods, villages, and convents, thickly scattered over this great expanse, with numberless slender steeples, present, when united, an inimitable landscape. The country is finely watered by tlie Xucar, the Guadalaviar, and other rivers, numerous tliougii not of long course. A great extent of artificial navigation was formed bv the Moors, and is still kept up, though not in a very complete state. The orovince yields, in abundance, the usual products, com, wine, oil, silk ; with rice enough to supply the greater part of Spain, and barilla for exportatiui. The Valencians are very indua* Hontwrrat PAmTin luccas. The Jiouf^h not of Dominicans creed by the le demons, in trong, but its is considered t the cloHO of ick, a terrible ists, studontH, 808, obtained n ; but in the nrrnffona, the and has but :e8 of Roman educt. More in the war of linst Marshal . Tortosa is ro broad and iofly throuffh instituted by trade ; and ntains 16,000 half century, , particularly of Barcelona. 1. It is well mitted eflforts linsular war. fiber. In the s a large and A consider- Mequinenza, Cervera, the supportfid by icr reaturo in .). It con* 8 piled over rails of white no clifis, the with evcr- >lant8. The ent and re- a cleft at ire space is vhile iar be- imerous her- precipices, )CK, increase pearance of gnable mili- and rich in leing almost ensive coast nin ranks as ;reen of the nts, thickly hen united, alaviar, and navigation itate. The enough to very indu*> BooeI. ■ I I ■(.?•« SPAIN. i''ii,,»' y: triouB, and of a gay dispoiition. Colonies firom the south of Franco, introduced oy the flrst Christian conqueror, brought with them a portion of the spirit of that nation. Valencia, ot the mouth of the Guadalavinr, is one of the largest and most nourishing towns of the kingdom. It is of Roman origin, but its fame diitns from the clovonlh century, when it was conqui^rcd by the Cid from the Moors, and ruled as a fief by that greatest of the Spanish heroes. It was the scene, however, of a long-continued contest ; ond its final annexation to Christian Spain did not take place imtil a century and a half later. The IntVy walls and towers of Valencia aro now nearly demolished, and in the war of liberty neither it nor the province made any very conspicuous figure. The nilk manufacture is one of the most exten- sive in Spain, though cneckca by an absurd prohibition against the exportation of its produce. In a levy during the late war, exemption was granted to upwards of 3000 silk-weavers, that the tra(te might not be interrupted. There aro also manufhctures of woollens and paper. The Grau, or port of Valencia, is only an indifTorent roadstead, and the commerce not nearly equal to that of Alicant. The city, though large and rich, is not handsome ; the streets bebg narrow and winding, and bordered oy high old houses. The churches and convents are of course numeroiis, and many of them ricnly ornamented, but none very prominent in architectural beauty. They are adorned, however, with numerous pictures by some of the most eminent Spanish painters, natives of Valencia; Juanes, Ribalta, and others, whose works are unknown in this country, but are admired by those who have visited Spain. The religious festivals of Valencia are celebrated with a childish pomp, in some degree disused in other ports oven of this country. On these occasions, all the most memorable events and most illustrious characters in scripture history arc represented either by figures in wicker- work, or by citizens fantastically attired. The exhibitions of this kind, amounting annually to a hundred and fifty, give great occasion to idleness and dissipation ; yet the attempts to reduce their number have been hitherto unsuccessful. Population 66,000. Alicant, situated at the bottom of a bay on the southern frontier, ranks high as an indus- trious and commercial town. Its prosperity is modern, chiefly owing to the reftige which its lofty castle afforded from the dreadful irruptions of the Barbary corsairs. Even since this danger ceased, Alicant has continued to be a fortified town ; and none of the invading armiec in the late war were able to obtain possession of it. About 1000 vessels annually enter its port, and are laden with barilla, raisins, and a small quantity of wine and brandy. The import from England consists chiefly of salt-fish, the great article of consumption in Catholic countries. The herring and other fisheries are carried on with considerable activity on this coast. They aro encouraged by the government, but with an absurd limitation to a body of enrolled fishermen, amounting to about 16,000. Population 25,000. Among other important towns may be mentioned Elche and Orihuela, large and flourishing places, in the very finest part of the plain of Valencia. Segorbe and Liria are pleasant interior towno towards the frontier of Aragon. San Felipe, under the name of Xativa, made a distinguished figure in the war of the succession ; when, after being demolished, it waa rebuilt by Philip V, under its present name. Donia and Crandia in the south, and Pefliscola in the north, arc sea-ports on a smaller scale. But all thesie places yield in ancient fiimo to Murvicdro, occupying the rocky site of the ancient Saguntum, the siege of which formed the commencement of the career of Hannibal. The long resistance of this powerful and unfortunate city forms the first of the many remarkable sieges which have distinguished the Spanish annals, ancient or modern. The Romans restored and made it a great colony, and the Moors erected a range of fortifications on the summit of the hill ; so that its mountain site is now covered with ruins of various dates and descriptions. Half-way up the eminence, the outline of a theatre capable of containing 9000 persons may still be traced; and a lew ropemnkers plying their trade alone break the silence of this august ruin. Murvicdro is a small town still fortified, though the resistance made by it in the last war was not formidable. Murcia is a small province, partly bounded on the south-east by the coast, which here changes its direction from southerly to westerly. Its vale is almost without a rival for beauty and fertility, even in southern Europe, Its natural fruitfulness is greatly aided by the numerous canals of irrigation which the Moors drew from the river Segura. These advantages are little improved by the present inhabitants, who are noted as exhibiting, in a peculiar degree, all the blemishes of the Spanish character ; its pride, its bigotrv, and its laziness. Even the song and the dance do not inspire gaiety in its vales, as in all the rest of Spain ; almost the whole time of the people being spent in eating, sleeping, and making cigars. A sullen and vindictive spirit is said to lurk under this outward apathy. Few Murcians have made a figure in literature, in the arts, or in public ife. The cities of Murcia, if we except its port of Carthagena, do not merit particular notice The capital, bearing i*i name, is an irregular, ill-bi'ilt, ill-paved large town, with 36,000 inhabitants. Th • ecclesiastical edifices, however, are very costly, and the front of the cathedral, according to Mr. Townshend, produces a splendid efifect Tvith its sixteen Corinthian columns of marble, and thirty-two images as large as life. The interior does not possess equal elegance, but is chiefly distinguished by the proportion of gold, silver, and jewels, not bSI DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part in to mention the relics, which are accounted by Uio faithful as of much suporior value. Lorca J a large town, built with some eleg^ance, and Hurruunded by fine promonadcH. Popu>ation 814 4(M)0(). It hod extonoive fabrics of silk and aaltpetro, which woro reviving, when a 8in« gular accident nrrosted their progress. A speculative individual had collected all the waters of the neighbourhood into an immense reservoir, whence ho supplied tliom to the cultivators for purposes ot irrigation ; but thii receptacle, not being ftilly secured, burst at one point, destroyed part of the suburbs _. ^^^ ,^ IK,, Ml of Lorca, desolated a great extent of country, *-^^i^fcS*ajip!:S.'*<*^^ '" ' '■■ " and reached even Murcio. Totana, a popu- """"■ lous village, is enriched by the copious pro- duction of barilla in its neighbourhood. The castle of Almanza {fig. 314.), picturesquely seated on a height, is noted as tlie spot near which, in 1707, was fought tlie celebrated battle which decided the Spanish succession in favour of the house of Bourbon. Carthagena, situated in Murcia, though sca-cely belonging to it, forms one of the few freat Spanish emporia, and contains 87,000 inhabitants. This celebrated capital of ancient pain was foundeid by Asdrubal ; and when captured by Scipio, in the year of Rome 550, was considered one of the most opulent cities in the world. It was nearly destroyed by the Vandals, but was restored by Philip II., and has ever since continued to ffonrish. It enjoys one of the finest ports in Europe, consisting of a bay sheltered by high mountains from almost every wind. The staples are the same as at Alicant. The revenue, raised by a small though impolitic duty on the export of barilla, amounts to 25,000/. The fishery is also considerable. There are few Murcian residents, and the trade is carried on chiefly by English, French, and Italian houses. The streets are wide, and the houses agreeable, with terraced roofs, commandinGf a view of the sea ; but neither hero nor at Alicant are there any structures, even ecclesiastical, at all worthy of nolice, Andalusia, taken in its most comprehensive sense, is the largest of the Spanish provinces, and, we may add, the finest and most remarkable, both as to nature and art. The Guadal< quivir, with numerous and large tributaries, waters its whole extent Its mountains, covered in many places with perpetual snow, are tiie loflbcst, its valleys the most fruitful, in Spain. Andalusia, indeed, comprises four Celebrated kingdoms; Granada, Seville, Cordova, and Jaen, and contains great capitals founded by the conquering Moors, which were the eeata of science and splendour, when the greater part of Europe was plunged in rudeness and barbarism. Granada, which is sometimes called Upper Andalusiti, was the central seat of Moorish power and magnificence. Even amid the general decline of that power in Spain, Granada was still supported by the multitudes who resorted thither from the subdued provinces. Its fall, in 1492, was considered the most deadly blow which hlamism ever received ; and in all the mosques prayers are put up every Friday for its restoration. Granada presents a wonderful combination of all that is most wild and sublime, witli what is most sod and beautiful in natural scenery. South from the capital rises the Sierra Nevada, covered, as its name imports, with perpetual snow to a great depth. Mulhacen, the most elevated peak, is 11,660 feet above the sea ; while the line of perpetual snow begins at about 10,000 feet. The Alpujarras, a lower range, are cultivated with considerable diligence, by descendants of the Moors, a remnant of whom found refuge here, amid the general proscription of their race and nation. The Vega or plain of Granada, watered by numerous streams descending from the high regions, displays nature in her utmost pomp and beauty. The city of Granada is la th» heart of the Vega, beneath the lofliest heiglits of the Sierra Nevada. This city ^till displays ample monuments to attest the period when it was the great western capital of the Moslem world. Nothing can exceed the beauty of its approach. " The rich and populous country well supplied with trees, the clear rivulets descending from the mountains, and artificially contrived to intersect it in every part; the splendid city extending in a half^moon from the river, on the gradual ascent of a hill ; the streets rising above each other; the profusion of turrets and gilded cupolas; the summit crowned with the Alhambra ; the background composed of the majestic Sierra Nevada, with its summit covered with snow ; complete a scene to which no description can do justice." Mr. Jacob, who thus describes the scene, considers it not too much to have travelled two hundred miles of bad road to see it. The interior, as in most Spanish and especially Mohammedan cities, does not correspond to the approach. The streets are narrow, the walls high and gloomy ; many Quarters are no'.v deserted ; and marks of decay and splendid poverty are evervwlere visible, to population, once comprising 400,000 souls, is now reduced to 80,000. But the eye tion. It rctaina n rortain proportion of ita former immenao ailk manufocturca, with '^ >• < T Woollen mid loiitlior; and a conaidorablo nuinbor of nontona are employed in oxtr^L'tn t rj nitre with which the noij^hbourinjj soil ia copioualy improjynatod. Maliijrn haa in modnrn tinioa attained a ffroator inuMrtanco, and ia rockoi oil i ui thnt) port in tho kinpdoni, rimkiujf next to those dfCyodiz and Ilnrcclono. Tho chiff foi; ' \t * ita trade \» tho fine wino cnllod Mal(i{^ or niminlain, pnxlucod in the nun Tcia hilla htin nd it. It ia rnisod at very jfrcnt oxpcnao, and only upon tno declivitiob whir'i li'u • an cxpoaurn to tho 8un. Tho country producra also vory fine raiaina and other fhi'.j' ; a 1 iinchoviea, caught and curod on the coaat, have been aold to tho annual extent of 20,(X)0 (|uintala. M'^la^a is the only ;rrcat Spanish port of which the exports have alwaya exceeded tho imimrta. Malaf^ haa a vorv aecuro thouj^h not oxtcntiivo hnrbour, fonned by artificial moloa. It liea in a deep bay on a little plain overhung; by lofty and craf^r^fy clifft, which at a diatance appear quite naked, but on approachin(f, every crevice ia found to be filled with vines. This situation renders tho huat very severe, and has aided in expoeingf the inhabitants to tho destructive ravages of pestilential fever. The atreeta are cloae, narrow, and diriy ; hut the cathedral is a very noble pile, and containH paintin^TR ))y great Spanish masters. Population &2,000. Other very considerable towns occur in Granada. Five leagues to tho cast of Malaga is Velez-Malaga, most delightfully situated in a plain diversified by numerous gentle nills, clothed to the summit wiUi vines, while the plains below wave with luxuriant harvests of grain. Fartiier eai>t are the small ports of Motril and Almcria; the latter ancient, andccic* bratcd in the h\r\ •y of tho Moors, under whom it was highly prosperous and flourishing. Near it is the roc', jf Filabrea, 2000 feet high, composed of a single mock of white marble; and beyond it sivetchen into the sea the bold and huge promontory of Cabo de Gata. Guadix, Baza, nnd Piuchena, are considerable interior towns, in tho eastern part of this province, seated in valleys enclosed by the numerous ranges of hills which intersect it. Santa Fe, two leagues west of Granada, ia remarkably exposed to earthquakes, which have split ita cathedral in two, and laid open tho cells of ono of the convents; yet tho citizens still inhabit and keep it in repair. Alhnma is strikingly situated amid a circuit of ])recipitous rocks, through which dashes a rapid stream. It la frequented for the salubrity of its air, and for ita medicinal springs and baths. Antcquora is very ancient; filled with Roman and Moorish monuments, and still large ; tho adjacent country is very fertile, and distinguished for tho variety both of ita vegetable and mineral productions. Population 20,000. Ronda, (fy. 319.) capital of a wide mountain district, is sin- gularly situated on o rock with pcrpcndicu- !ir ''Ii th pcrpcndicu" hrougn a deep ow, u^.id sur- It is crossed }t in diameter, 8 of 350 Btepe gardens have jecting points untaincers of hardy race ; ighty.'^ The jy carry on in ng any impu* >s superior to id fhiits ; the I are, in whim BooiL '.)' SPAIN. 8K7 ■•vlll*. HeviUo (Jig.2S0.) is •ituat<^ in tho midat of a fertile and d(>lightl\il plain, and n< **■■ mcrly admitted vexwiia of lorjjo n\w : it won n ({riiut city tVom th« oailitiit pwiod, Jiy the Riirnuns it waa oelelirttti'l iiridnr tlio appellation ut Iliiipulia: itji fotindit. tiuu waH oMritwd to ll<7-^^^^^-'-'<4^^^f> ^'"' "•'*hbouring col ny of Ftnlicu, it ^k^SJI^H^HH^C^H^^^^^^HBfe formed lr*« capital of IJaitica. Under th«i Moon It became an indopomlcnl k'wr- dom; and if it be true thnt, on its im^ tiire by Ferdii\and the Cutholie, KHMHW Muors iiiarcl'i-d out ut one of its (^:itrH, It muat indeed have boon an immense city. Notwithstanding the de|N)pulation thiiH o< <:a- ■ionod by bigotry and treachery, it soon became more aplendid tlwn ever, in roiiMcqutttec at becoming tho emiwrium of tho wealth which llowcd in frotn the western homlMp^iere. It* manufUcturing induitrv was tlicn also very flouriMhing. By a return iniide to government in 1001, Hovillo was said to contain 10,000 silk Iwms, giving employment to 1<')(),IMM) work- men. It flrcquontly received an increase of splendour by becoming a roval reHidence. Hinco tho above period, Heville has not only declined with the graduul declino of H|)ain, I has auflbr.'d by tho filling up of the channel of tho Gua(l&l(|uivir, which has rendered it i viga- bio only fur small ships, and has transferred to Cadix tho uommercf- of America. 8f\ ilhi ia now a solemn, inert, gloomy city, with 01,(K)0 iiiliabitantri. Like odier Hpanish placcH, |Ktr« ticularly those of Moorish origin, its streets are narrow, vvirKiing, and dirty ; but it contains ■ome splendid public edifices. Foremost stands tho eutlu ul, tho largest ecclesiahtical ■tructuro in tho Peninsula, 4!20 feet long within, and 1)7:3 br> ul ; but tlio moat striking fea- ture is ita tower, originally erected bvtho learned GcImt or d lover, and used as an obiierva- tory, but raised by tlio Christiana to tne height of BTiO fcoU Mmiy of tho convents also am very splendid, a^d previous to tho late invasion by tho French > mtainod numerous works of the greatest Bpanisn artists, of whom Seville was tho chief nut •<. There wa.s, ubovo all, a splendid collection of tho works of Murillo, the prince of thot- artists, aii>I a native of Seville. Of these treasures tho city has been in a great mcasn e despoiled by the ravages of tho invader ; Marslial Soult, in particular, had in his collcctii n numerous mastorpi>K:es of Murillo, by which tho convents of Seville were formerly adorn d. Hevillo has still 'J."»00 ■ilk looms ; and government maintains a cannon foundery and a tut^occo marmfactory. The F about 60,000 pipes ; but this is of inferior quality, and chiefly consumed at home. Sheep are bred on the hills, to a pretty large extent; but not so abundantly as in. Spain, neither is their wool so fine. The manufactures of Portugal scarcely deserve to be named. Little is known beyond the working of their wool for domestic use by each family or neighbourhood ; all their finer fabrics are imported. According to a late observant traveller, ignorance, or at least an im- perfect knowledge of the commonest arts, is conspicuous among the Portuguese. Their carpenters are the most awkward and clumsy artisans that can bo imagined, spoiling every thing they attempt ; the wood-work even of good houses being finished in a manner that would scarcely be tolerated in the rudest ages. Their carriages of all kinds, their agricul- tural implements, locks, keys, &c. are ludicrously bad. Working in gold and silver plate forms almost the only exception ; cambrics also are well made in some places ; and a few other local objects might be enumerated. Of mines and fisheries, the former is not at all cultivated, though great materials for it are said to exist ; but in the absence of trial this may be only conjecture. Fish of the finest kinds, particularly tunny and sardinias, are caught in considerable quantity for immediate consumption ; but the salt which the kingdom so abundantly produces is not used for pre- serving them ; and a large import of salted fish is still necessary to meet the wants of a population so rigidly Catholic. The commerce, which formed the greatness of Portugal, when her ports interchanged the products of the East and the West, is now a mere .?hadow. The loss of her Indian posses- sions, and the separation of Brazil, have reduced her to the common routine of expon and import. The staple of the former is port wine, for which the market of England was secured first by fiivouring duties, and now seemingly by an established predilection. The wine is raised almost solely for the English market, and all of the best quality is bought up by English merchants residing at Oporto. Another staple export of Portugal is salt, evaporated by the heat of the sun in the bay of St. Ubes, or Setubal, which seems as if expressly fovnied for that purpose. It is carried off chiefly, by the English, to be employed in curing fish destined for the Portuguese market: the annual amount is estimated at 100,000 tons. There is also a considerable surplus of wool, of which 1,000,000 lbs. weight have been imported into England in one year; but as it is not so fine as that of Spain, the duty imposed by the British landholders has greatly checked the importation. In return, Portugal takes grain, salt-fish, and a variety of manu- fiicture.a, chiefly from Britain ; but as her imports cannot much exceed the exports, she can- not afford a very copious market The internal communications of Portugal consist of the jeveral noble rivers which tra* verse her territory, and which are navigable throughout. The interconrro by land is reii' dored very difficult by chains of mountains extending in the same direction. Nothing hM bee def to! moi mil exc met red Part (II ipanied by tic i the hidalgos, )f 30,000 men, cipline in the ilitnry systuui. ,000 men was Beresford ; and 1, in a niiinner lintained ; and influence, Por- imily to Brazil, lect during her ation. wiiich have be- pieces of wood heels. ThoujTh ;cessary for the ially by the in- n considerably and other fruit of the hills, in :kntly the port lus a market in rtugal produces, home. Slieep I.Spain, neither 3wn beyond the all their finer at least an im- guese. Their [, spoiling every a manner that , their agricul- id silver plate es; and a few materials for it Ish of the finest for immediate used for prc- Ithe wants of a jterchanged the Indian posses- I of export and England was lilection. The |y is bought up |un in the bay It is carried guese market : pe surplus of I year ; but as has greatly liety of manu- orts, she can- ers which tra- ly land is ren' Nothing hM BooeL PORTUGAL m Portufuefe FeUBDtry. been attempted on any important scale, either to improve these advantages, or to amend the defects; so that travelling is worse in Portugal than in any other European country. Sect. VI. — Civil and Social State. The population of Portugal, according to the lost census, which was taken in 1708, amounts to 3,683,000 ; calculatmg at the somewhat high estimate of five to a family. According to more probable estimates it now amounts to 3,530,000. Upon a surface of 38,800 square miles, this gives a density of about ninety-one to the square mile, which is remarkable, as exceeding that of Spain nearly in the proportion of three to two. The exemption from the mesta, and the high cultivation of the province of Entre Douro e Minho, appear to be the redeeming circumstances in her case. No nation, as to character, owes less to the opinion of the world, than the Portuguese. They are described as indolent, dissembling, cowardly, destitute of public spirit, and at the same time fierce and deeply revengeful. In Spain it is said, strip a Spaniard of his virtues, and he becomes a good Portuguese. From a late minute inspection, however, the peasantry 225 (.fig- 325.) have been pronounced to be a fine peo- ple ; and, on repeated occasions during the late war, they displayed energies not unworthy of their an- cestors, in an age when their glory resounded throughout both hemispheres. Almost all, however, that floats on the surface is base and degenerate. There cannot be a doubt that this may be greatly ascribed to priestcraft, to the stupifying influence of a sluggish and tyrannical government, and to the general corruption which has pervaded all the branches of administration. The established and exclusive religion is the Catholic, in its extreme and most degrading excess; and the body of the people are almost entirely under the thraldom of the priesthood. The burling of Jews continued till within the last half-century. The physiognomy of a large pro- portion of the people shows their descent from this hated, race, whose tenets many, it is pro- bable, still cherish in secret. There are, in Portugal, about 550 religious houses, of which 150 are nunnerie^ (fig, 326.). The number of two archbishops and thir- teen bishops is not so disproportionate. The literature of Portugal, during the period of its glory, was by no means contemptible. The genius and fate of Camoens spread his name throughout Europe, and entitled him to rank among the few modem epic poeta By the students of Portuguese literature, however, Saa Miranda and Antonio Ferreyra are reckoned scarcely second to him; and Rodriguez Lobo held the nation long enchanted by the sweetness of his pastorals. At the same time Di Barros, Castanheda, and Faria y Sousa, recorded, in magnificent though somewhat inflated historical narrative, the mighty exploits of their countrymen in the Afirican and Indian seas. The subjection to Spain gradually divested Portuguese literature of its manly and energetic character. The muse of history was silent ; poetry assumed the form only of the sonnet, and Gongora infected it wholly with a strain of false and meretricious ornament. The house of Braganza for some time did little for knowledge ; but in the beginning of the last century, the Conde de Ericeyra intro- duced the French literature, and founded a royal academy. In the course of the century, Barros Pereyra, Antonio da Lima, Manuel da Costa, a Brazilian, Correa Garcas, and Paulino Cabral, a bishop, made not unsuccessful eflibrts to revive the ancient Portuguese poetry, and to introduce that of Italy. Portugal has two universitiea That of Coimbra, founded at Lisbon in 1290, was transferred to Coimbra in 1308. It enjoys some celebrity, is divided into eighteen colleges, and is still attended by several hundred students ; but the course of study is of that obsolete description which prevailed during the middle ages. A smaller tmiversity was founded at Evora in 1578. For the minor particulars of amusement, dress, food, &c., reference may be made to Spain, as Portugal has no peculiarities that are more than provincial. Sect. VII. — Local Geography. Portugal is divided into the following six provinces, several of which, like those of Spain, in reference to events in their past history, are sometimes called kingdoms : — ^^^ Fiiii and Nun. Vol.. I. * [The religioui houiei, monaiteviei, and nunneries, were iupprened in 1834.— Am. Ed.] 50" 8Z «M DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paet m. B^Wiikaa. tapMkn. MMlpd TmM, wAh Owlr Psptftlloa. btremadura 5,*S0fiaa 896,860 Llibon, 900,000; ftitubol, 13,000; 8«nUrem,6,0W. Alemtejo 5,848,390 380.480 Elvai,10,000 ; Evora, 8,000 Alcarve 1,536,000 197,61.1.'. Faro, 8,000 ; Tavira, tl,0U0. Beira 4,904,600 1,191,505 Coimbra, 15,000; Lamefto, 0,000; ViMU, 0,000. BntreDouroeMinho 1,097.040 007,065 Oporto, 70,000 ; Braga, 14,000 ; Viana, 8,000. Traa on Montea.... 3,007,760 318,065 Braganaa, 4,000. Eatremadura occupies a great extent of coast, both to the north and south of the Taguu, without ever penetrating very deep into the interior. It presents a rocky, varied, and pic* tures^ue sur&ce. It is chiefly important, however, as containing Lisbon, Uie capital. Lisoon (Jig. S27.) is situated near the mouth of the Tagus, which may here be almost Qvj considered an arm of the sea, since not only the tide flows up, but the water ia salt, and the swell often tempestuous. The approach to it presents a moro magnificent spectacle than that of per- haps any other city of Europe. Lisbon rises direct from the water, crowning the sides and summits of several hills ; which, according to the Portuguese, are LUbon. seven in number, like those of Rome. The palaces, convents, and churches, which crown this amphitheatre of buildings; the dazzling whiteness of the houses; the light appearance of the windows and balconies ; the tastefiil arrangement of plants, shrubs, and flowers on their roofs and terraces ; the golden orange groves which adorn the suburbs, and the stately specimens of Indian or American botany which are scattered through the scene, produce an effect that cannot be described. The noble harbour, also, crowd^ with vessels ; the numerous pilot and flshing-boats, with their large, handsome lateen sails, as> cending or descending the river ; and, nearer the shore, hundreds of small neat boats, with white or painted awningn, finely vary the scene. The moment, however, that the stranger lands, and enters the place, he finds that he has been imposed upon by a brilliant illusion ; and the gav and glittering city is found to resemble a painted sepulchre. The streets are narrow and ill paved ; the houses gloomy, with here and there a latticed window ; filth and nuisances assault him at every turn. Lisbon does, indeed, appear to be the dirtiest and most noisome city on the face of the earthl In passing through the streets, a stranger encounters t every turn the most disgusting effluvia. Every species of vermin destined to punish in- dolence and slovenliness, the mosquito, the scolopendra, and a species of red ant, multiply to an extraordinary degree. Nor is Lisbon found, on inspection, to exhibit that architectural beauty which it promises on a distant view. It might have been expected, among forty churches and seventy-five convents, built by a superstitious people, that there would have been some signal display of this kmd ; but this is not found even in the cathedral. The defect seems partly owing to the mean taste of the Marquis of Pombal, who ordered them to be all built on a line with the street, to preserve a dull uniformity. Two handsome squares, however, have been fbrmed, the Commercial and the Roscio, which are connected by well-built streets ; but the absence of trees, or even shrubs, and the blinding sand that drifts through them, combine to produce a disagreeable effect Lisbon derives an awful interest from the ruins still left of the great earthquake of 1755, the most dreadful catas- trophe which ever befell a modem European city. Six thousand houses were thrown down, 30,000 inhabitants killed ; and a conffagration kindled which spread a still wider destructioa The ruins are the more dismal, as they portend similar disasters, which the earth, still heaving from time to time, perpetually threatens. Meantime, Lisbon displays one very grand feature ; the aqueduct, to the construction of which, though it conveys the water only half a mile, peculiar obstacles were presented. It is carried in one place through a tunnel, and in another over a defile 230 feet deep, by arches, which are said to be the highest in the world. The width of the centre arch is 107 feet. It was built in 1738, by Manuel de Maya ; and is of such solidity that it withstood the shock of the great earthquake, which only caused the Keystone to sink a few inches. The vicinitjr of Lisbon presents some beautifiil sites and palaces. Cintra is the most striking, consisting of an immense mountain, partly covered with scanty herbage, partly with broken, huge, and varied piles of rock, elsewhere presenting thick groves of cork, elm, oak, hazel, and other trees. It includes many lovely and fimtastic spots ; but the view Srom it is naked and dreary. The town, at the bottom, with its old palace, has nothing remark- able ; but th a sides are covered with delightful villas, one of which is notorious for the sig- nature of th e unhappy convention of Cintra. Mafra is a royal convent built by John V., m emulation cf the Escurial ; but tliough a stupendous pile, 700 feet square, and containing numberless luites of ill-fiirnished apartments, it ranks far below its model. Only five milfls below Lisbon, of which it is considered a suburb, is Belemi the site cf a palace and a veiy Pakt id. Icntuem, e,OM. riseu, 0.000. una, 8,000. [>f the Tagujj, Liicd, and pic* apital. ;re be almoet sea, since not t the water is tempestuous, sents a mora n that of per- irope. Lisbon ter, crownin^f several hills ; ortuguese, are lose of Rome, md churches, ) houses; the tlants, shrubs, n the suburbs, i through the crowd^ with teen sails, as- at boats, with t the stranger liant illusion ; he streets are low ; filth and tiest and most rer encounters [ to punish in* I ant, multiply architectural among forty would have hedral. The ordered them wo handsome ire connected ing sand that vea an awful readful catas- hrown down, destructicia e earth, still B very grand !r only half a unnel, and in in the world. Maya; and ly caused the u the most bage, partly of cork, elm, le view fix)m ling remark- 3 for the sig- ' John v., 1ft containing ly five milfis i and a veiy Book L PORTUGAL ^ IM magnificent monastery, founded by Emanuel, and in which many of the royal family have been interred. There are several other towns of some note in Portuguese Estremadura. St. Ubes or Retubal lies sixteen miles finm Lisbon, on the coast south of the Tagus, on a long interior bay, the waters of which, evaporated by the heat of the sun, leave the excellent bay-salt, one of the national staples. The town is considerable, having been well rebuilt since the earthquake of 1755, when it was almost totally overthrown. The mountain of Ursabida, here extending into the sea, forms a bold and striking promontory, covered with trees and various vegetation. Ascending the Tagus, we come to Santarem, a considerable and ancient town, the Presidium Julium of the Romans. It has an academy of history, established in 1747. Here the great French army, under Massena, remained long posted, unable to pene- trate to Lisbon. Abrantes, higher up, is an important military position, situated on a height whence it commands the passage of the Tagus. Leiria, to the north, is an ancient town, in a most productive territory, and where a great annual fair is held for the supply of the peasantiy of the neig^hbouring country round. At Batalha, is a church (fig. 32B.), and monaste^, which, united, form the finest structures in all Portugal It is 541 feet by 416, and is considered by Mr. Murphy to be one of the noblest existing specunens of the Nuncan 328 1 1 . 1 Cbureb of Batalba. Mittwleum of Kinc Jobo. Gothic. It is constructed entirely of marble, and the fi-ont appeared to him almost unri* Tailed in chaste and delicate ornament. Among the difibrent parts, the mausoleum erected in honour of King John, is pre-eminently beautiful (fig. 329.). Vimiero is only a village, but celebrated for the signal victory gained by the British over the army of Junot Three miles distant is Torres Vedras, a tolerable old town, but chiefly noted as the centre of the grand fortified lines formed by Wellington in 1810, which so completely baffled all the ma- noeuvres by which the French had hoped to reconquer Portugal. Alemtejo is an extensive province, comprising the greater part of Portugal south of the Tagus. The interior presents an extensive plain ; but the frontier towards Spain is finely diversified with hills, wooded mountains, and deep valleys extremely well watered, and very fertile. It contains some large towns. Evora is situated on an eminence in a fine country, and is of great antiquity. Its origin has even been dated seven centuries before the Chris- tian era. It is more clearly ascertained that the Romans made it a municipal town, and adorned it with some of their finest structures. There is a noble aqueduct, of which the piers are nine feet broad, and suppoUed by buttresses ; also a Temple of Diana built by Sertorius, ui which great elegance is displayed. Elvas, on the Spanish firontier, unme- diately facing Badajos, is the strongest fortress in Portugal, and designed as the barrier of the kingdom. The works were constructed under the directions of the celebrated Count Schaumburg-Lippe ; and the fort, bearing his name, is considered a masterpiece of the art In this neighbourhood are also Villa Vi^iosa, a pleasant town, and a fiivourite country resi- dence of the Portuguese monarchs, who have here a handsome huntmg-park ; and Portar legre, a handsome little town in a delightful country, with a good cathedral. Southward, in the interior, is Beja, a Roman colonv, and subsequently a strong Moorish fortress. After being nearly demolished, it was rebuilt by Alfonso Ul., and fortified by King Diniz, and is Btill a considerable town. Algarve forms the extreme south of Portugal ; and is a maritime province, bearing in au especial sense, the appellation of kingdom, since it long remained independenr, nna was a celebrated theatre of war between the Moors and the Christians. It is tolerably fertile in wine, firuits, and oil. Faro, the largest town, is also the principal seat of trade, and haa » DESCRIPTIVE OEOORAPHY. PaktIH Coimbii. regular packet to Gibraltar. Laffoa and Silvea are alao old little towni, the former on the ■ea-coast, with Bome shipplnff. Cape St. Vincent, the extreme point of Algarve, and the most south-westerly of the Peninaula, is celebrated for the signal victory gained by the British fleet over the Spanish, on the 14th of February, 1797. Boira is a very extensive province or kingdom, tilling nearly the whole centre of Portu> gal, between the Tagus and the Douro. Its surface presents considerable variety ; the in- terior part has the usual mountainous character of Portugal, being traversed by Uie great chain called the Sierra d'EHtrellu. On the sea-coast, however, there are plains of consider- able extent The province produces plenty of wine, oil, and chestnuts, and has extensive pastures ; but the grain is not sufficient for its consumption. Coimbra {fig. 2aO.\ the capital, is beautiiUUy situated on the declivitv of a hill, which rises above the Mondego; but the streets, as in other old Portueuese towns, are crowded, durty, ana very steep. In former times a residence of the kings of Portugal, it was strongly fortified, and has stood ob- stinate sieges; but the remains of its walls and towers are no longer sufficient to constitute it a fortress. It has been called the Athens of Por- tugal, from its extensive university, containiiuf eighteen colleges, with forty professors, and about eight hun- dred students. Attached to it is a library of nearly 40,000 volumes, including numerous MSS. ; but the actual value both of these and the p"mted works does not seem to have been fblly investigated. Beira has other towns of some importance. Among these is Almeida, the northern barrier of the kingdom and a fortress of consequence, thouffh not possessing the great strength of Elvas. It was twice taken in the last war, first by me French under Mossena, and then by the British under Wellington. Castello Branco, on the southern frontier, notwithstanding its commanding situation, retains little importance. Lamego, near the southern bank of the Douro, is an ancient city, and the cradle of the Portuguese monarchy. Here, in 1143, the ■tatos-geyeral for the first time met, recognised the fundamental laws, and acknowledged the sovereignty of Alfonso. Viseu, in the centre of the kingdom, is, like Lamego, an epis- eopai titiO, and has ihe greatest annual fair in Portugal. Entre Douro e Minho forms the maritime part of Portugal, north of the Douro. Though the smallest, it is considered the most valuable, populous, and productive of all the provinces. Its peasantry have done much to redeem the reproach of torpor and sluggishness generally urged against their countrymen. This district is entirely covered with mountains, partly rugged and barren, but generally separated by fertile and well-watered vallevs, cultivated to the utmost possible extent ; and which, besides oil, fruit, and flax, are made to produce most copiously the wine called port, for which so ample a market exists in England. Oporto, or Porto {fig. 331.), the ancient capital, and still the second city of the kingdom, is situated near the mouth of the Douro on the northern bank, thougli on the southern ore two extensive suburbs, supposed to have constituted the ancient city. The modem town is 331 Oporto. well built, especially when compared with most others in the peninsula. The river aifinda a tolerably secure harbour, without any artificial aid, except an elevated and walled quay, to which the ships' cables may be fastened during the uoous. These often come down with such force, that, without such a support, the vessels would be inevitably carried out into the Booi ■ea. amid I regull PamtTO. inner on ths ve, and th« ined by the BookL PORTUGAL 807 re of Portu- oty ; the in- by the f^eaX of consider- 18 extensive I hill, which ;o; but the Portuffuese ty, ana very I a residence gal, it was as stood ob> remains of e no longer t a fortress, ;hen8 of Por- e university, lieges, with t eight hun< g numerous to have been hem barrier strength of and then by vithstanding bank of the in 1143, the knowledged go, an epis- Though e provinces. !9 generally ains, partly cultivated to produce nd. e kingdom, )uthem are em town 13 aea. The chief dependence of Oporto is its trade with Englai. Uch remains unimjpaired amid the general duninution of that wiUi America. There are »jout thirty English houses regularly setUed here, besides a number of merchants who pay frequent visits to the place. The exportation of port wme, however, on which its trade rests, is generally cramiwd by the absurd policy of placing it entirely in the hands of an exclusive company,* who have adopted the pemicious practice of diluting the produce of the best vineyards with wme of those of an inferior quality, by which the character of the genuine port grievously suffers. Briga, ikrther north, ranks as the capital of the province ; and, though now far outstripped by Oporto, is of much more ancient ikme. Under the Romans it was the metropolis of an extensive district, and its former greatness is still attested by numerous antiquities. It has made a distinguished figure in the ecclesiastical history of Portugal, and is the see of an archbishop, who is primate of the kingdom. Braga is a handsome town ; well built, well paved, the streets spacious and clean. There is some industry, particularly a manufacture of small beaver hats, which supplies a great part of the kingdom. The adjacent country is hilly, but populous and pleasant Valcnqa is a small town, agreeably situated on the Minho, which separates it from Galicia. Troa 08 Montes, or the province beyond the mountains, is of ^at extent, occupying the whole interior of Portugal north of the Douro. The Cantabrian chain, after traversing Asturias and Galicia, throws out branches which not only separate the territory flrom the rest of Portugal, but cover almost its whole surface. They leave only deep valleys, through which considerable rivers, too rapid however to be navigable, pour down into the Donra It is much inferior to Entre Douro e Minho, both in populouaness and cultivation ; yet a con- siderable quantity of the port wine produced ^ws on the sides of its hills. The inhabitants are a race of active, hardy, and brave mountameers. They rose in great force against the French, and have since somewhat less happily distinguished themselves by the araour with which ihey fought in the cause of absolute power, and in resistance to every form of consti- tutional government The towns are small, and not re^larly fortified ; though, firom the nature of the country, they form defensible military positions. Braganza is a city of ancient note, and gave the title of Duke to the first nobleman in tiie kingdom, even before he was raised to the throne, fc^ the appellation of John IV. The kmgs of Portugal still retain the title of Dukes of Braganza. Chaves, the Aquee Flaviee of the Romans, still exhibits two baths and a magni- ficent bridge constructed by that people. Chaves gives the title of Marquis to a family, one of whom was the most active opponent of the French during their invasion ; while another has lately been at the head of the anti-constitutional army, of which the head-quarters were always in Tras os Montes. * [The Oporto wine company, which enjojred thii monopoly, wu aboliihed in 1834.— Ah. Ed.] I END OF THE FmST VOLUME veraffiirda d quay, to lown with it into the