^//j IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) /. z« 1.0 I.I .25 |jo ""^^ MiaaB u> lU 12.2 £ !ii |2.0 U 11.6 %. •^ ^;; V 1^./ 1^ O^A Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ,-\ ib ^ Technical and Bibliographic Notes/Notes techniques et bibliographiques The Institute has attempted to obtain the best original copy available for filming. Features of this copy which may be bibliographically unique, which may alter any of the images in the reproduction, or which may significantly change . the usuaf method of filming, are checked below. D Coloured covers/ Couverture de couleur r~7( Covers damaged/ n n n n Couverture endommagde Covers restored and/or laminated/ Couverture restaurde et/ou pelliculde Cover title missing/ Le titre de couverture manque Coloured maps/ Cartes giographiques en couleur Coloured ink (i.e. other than blue or black)/ Encre de couleu (i.e. autre que bleue ou noire) □ Coloured plates and/or illustrations/ Planches et/ou illustrations en couleur Bound with other material/ Relii avec d'autres documents Tight binding may cause shadows or distortion along interior margin/ Lareliure serr^e peut causer de I'ombre ou de la distortion le long de la marge int6rieure Blank leaves added during restoration may appear within the text. Whenever possible, these have been omitted from fii.ning/ II se peut que certaines pages blanches ajouties lors d'une restauration apparaissent dans le texte, mais, lorsque cela 6tait possible, ces pages n'ont pas 6t6 filmies. Additional comments:/ Cornmentaires suppldmentaires: L'Institut a microfilm^ le meilleur exemplaire qu'il lui a 6t6 possible de se procurer. Les details de cet exemplaire qui sont peut-dtre uniques du point de vue bibliographique, qui peuvent modifier une image reproduite, ou qui peuvent exiger une modification dans la m^thode normale de filmage sont indiquis ci-dsssous. I I Coloured pages/ Pages de couleur Pages damaged/ Pages endommagdes □ Pages restored and/or laminated/ Pages restaurdes et/ou pellicul^es I l/Pages discoloured, stained or foxed/ I M Pages d6color6es, tachef^es ou piqu6es □ Pages detached/ Pages ddtach^es [^ Showthrough/ Transparence I j Quality of print varies/ D Quality indgale de I'impression Includes supplementary material/ Comprend du matdriel supplementaire Only edition available/ Seule Edition disponible The to th The POS! of tl filmi Orig begi the sion othe first sion or il The shal TINI whi< Map diff( entii begi righ reqt met Pages wholly or partially obscured by errata slips, tissues, etc., have been refilmed to ensure the best possible image/ Les pages totalement ou partiellement obscurcies par un feuillet d'errata, une pelure, etc., ont 6x6 film^es i nouveau de facon d obtenir la meilleure image possible. This item is filmed at the reduction ratio checked below/ Ce document est filmd au taux de reduction indiqu6 ci-dessous. iuX 14A ISA JU.rK £aK JUA y 12X 16X 20X 24X 28X 32X The copy filmed here has been reproduced thanks to the generosity of: National Library of Canada L'exemplaire filmd fut reproduit grSce d la gdn^rcsitd de: Bibliothdque nationale du Canada The images appearing here are the best quality possible considering the condition and legibility of the original copy and in keeping with the filming contract specifications. Les images suivantes ont dt6 reproduites avec le plus grand soin, compte tenu de la condition et de la nettetd de l'exemplaire filmS, et en conformity avec les conditions du contrat de filmage. Original copies in printed paper covers are filmed beginning with the front cover and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, or the back cover when appropriate. All other original copies are filmed beginning on the first page with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impression. Les exemplaires originaux dont la couverture en papier est imprimde sont filmds en commengant par le premier plat et en terminant soit par la dernidre page qui comporte une empreinte d'impression ou d'illustration, soit par le second plat, selon le cas. Tous les autres exemplaires originaux sont filmds en commenpant par la premidre page qui comporte une empreinte d'impression ou d'illustration et en terminant par la dernidre page qui compcrte une telle empreinte. The last recorded frame on each microfiche shall contain the symbol ^^> (meaning "CON- TINUED "), or the symbol V (meaning "END"), whichever applies. Un des symboles suivants apparaitra sur la dernidre image de cheque microfiche, selon le cas: le symbole — ^ signifie "A SUIVRE", le symbole V signifie "FIN". Maps, plates, charts, etc., may be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagram^i illustrate the method: Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent dtre film6s d des taux de reduction diffdrents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul clichd, il est filmd d partir de Tangle supdrieur gauche, de gauciie d droite. et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images ndcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mdthode. 1 2 3 32X 1 2 3 4 5 6 «« '■%% iim JAMES L. WILLSON. GHAKLES BOBB. 53 St. Francois Xavibr Street, MONTREAl;^, Intimate that tkey Mve opened ati Office for the tramactwn of all bimness connected mth Mining in Canada; including the direction of Mxphrations for Metals and other useful MineraU ; Testing and As- sajfing of Ores ; Consultations and Reports in regard to the Value of Mining Property ; Surveying^ and furnishing Plans and Estimates for working the same, ^c. -<(♦- UEEEREHCES. Sir William B. Logan, F. R. S., F. G. S., Geological Commission of Canada. T. Sterry Hunt, M. A., F. B. S., Geological Commission of Canada. Profsbsor B. J. Chapman, University College, Toronto, Thos. C. Keeper, Bso., Civil Engineer, Toronto. f^. 1 1 I '1 .1 M m PR JAl B. D THE METALS IN CANADA. MANUAL FOR EXPLORERS; COKTAININO PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS IN SEARCHING FOR AND TESTING THE VALUE OF HMU #v^s, WITH SPECIAL EEFEEENCB TO CAI^ADA. BT JAMES L. WILLSON AND CHARLES ROBB, lUNIKa BNOIITEEBa. MONTREAL: B. DAWSON & SON, No. 23 GREAT ST. JAMES STREET. 1861. ] ma I der tise Mil thei and the tha ing I esp< mm wea thei cite hei^ a si exci are the tain trea insti geo] wbi< INTRODUCTION. In introducing this short essay to public notice, it may seem presumptuous to expect a favorable consi- deration for it, when so many able and learned trear tises have already been published on the subject of Mining. But, for the wants of the Practical Explorer, these are for the most part too bulky and expensive ; and pre-suppose a more intimate acquaintance with theoretical science than usually falls to the lot of that useful class, who act as the pioneers in develop- ing the metallic resources of a country. In every civilized country where the useful and especially the more precious metals are found, a large number of persons, stimulated by the hope of sudden wealth, spend much time and money in searching for them. This is especially the case during mining ex- citements, which occur periodically, and are often heightened, if not wholly caused, by the discovery of a single rich deposit of ore. During such periods of excitement, many individuals and often whole families are materially injured, if not ruinrrl, by abandoning the farm or workshop for a neighbo.iring hill or moun- tam, in pursuit of some hidden or imaginary metallic treasure. These explorations are undertaken, in most instances, by persons totally unacquamted with the geological position and various forms and modes in which the metallic ores have been deposited ; and are iy INTRODUCTION. prosecuted without system, and often without the know- ledge of the color or characteristic appearance of more than one or two of the most common ores of a smgle metal. ° In this class, Canada is as fully represented as any other country ; and at the present time, a variety of circumstances combine to give an impetus to minina: enterprise in this country. The recent discovery of valuable deposits of copper and lead in the Eastern part of the Province; the contmued and greatly increased yield of the former metal in the Lake bupenor region, and its proportionably diminished production in Cornwall, taken in conjunction with the daily mcreasing demand for this article ; the removal of government restrictions on explorations,* and greater liberaHty in regard to grants of land for mming purposes ; the recovery from recent great commercial depression; and the unusual attention which has lately been directed in England to the de- velopment of the resources of this Province. In view of all these considerations, this short treatise, which has been compiled with express reference to the cir- cumstances of Canada, is now submitted to the public in the hope that it may prove useful- as a guide to intending explorers, by furnishing them with such iirformation as will enable them to direct their labors with system and intelligence. *hnT v' '1r\ * ""''''' °'^'' ^^^°* *•»« CJovernor in Council, abohshmg the fee of one hundred dollars, hitherto charged for pernussion to explore, previous to applications for mininllocL t^ons on the public lands ; and offering various other enco Ja^" meats to mining enterprise. ** t the know- ice of more )f a single ted as any variety of to mining icovery of Eastern d greatly the Lake iminished 1 with the > removal •ns,* and land for 5nt great attention io the de- In view Je, which the cir- le public guide to ith such r labors Council, arged for ling loca- icourago- INTRODUCTION. y To those who m .y be inclined to take shi*re8 in mining property in Canada, it may be instrumental in directing the application of capital and checking un- necessary and foolish expenditure. The spirit of reck- less speculation which too often accompanies such enterprises is not only productive, in many instances, of individual ruin, but tends more than anything else to bring discredit on what might otherwise prove an excellent investment. While emphatically disavowing any attempt or intention to encourage undue specuia- tion on the one hand, it shall be our aim on the other to pomt out the localities and circumstances in which, from the results of experience in other countries, suc- cess in mining might reasonably be expected in this; provided a proper system of subsequent working were adopted. In carrying out these objects, we propose to de- scribe, in a concise and thoroughly practical manner, the geological position and form of deposit of some of the most important mines in the world, especially such as bear any analogy to the conditions of Canada; the localities and circumstances m which ores of the useful metals have been actually discovered, or may reasonably be expected to exist in Canada. We propose further to give directions for surface explorations, and for testing and estimating the most useful metallic ores found or likely to be found in Canada ;— excepting those of iron, which we have expressly excluded, both as leading to too wide a field of research ; and because this metal is so abundant all over the world, and so cheap in our markets, that it is doubtful whether, in VI INTRODUCTION. steSir^"^^ '^ ^''"•^' '^^ oy^"' ^0 have kept abridged foi, fro^ rS D^0.f o' " " Whitnpv ar^ri Ti V ^* ^^^f Overman, Montreal, 27th April, 1861. old repay bave kept thaa Mij ^e availed al writers >ly in an )ver!nan, the verj al Geolo- Jstimable 'ting out - e found, apital in TABLE OP CONTENTS. \' CHAPTER I. ON THE FORMS AND MODES OF DEPOSIT. p^gjj True or Fissure Veins, 10 Segregated Veins, 12 Gash Veins, 13 Veins of Contact, 15 Reticulating Veins,— Deposits in Beds of atified Rock,.. 16 Bunches and Concretions, 1^ Superficial Deposits, — General Remarks on the Ooodr- EBNOB OF Metallic Ores in Canada, 19 CHAPTER II. BZPLORINa FOR METALLIC ORBS. Various Ores,— Simple Minerals, 22 Gossan, — Surface Indications, 23 Field Explorations, 24 Valuation of Ores, 2T CHAPTER ni. GOLD. Occurrence of Gold,— Alloys of Gold found in Nature, .... 29 Geological Position of Gold, 31 Gold in Canada, 32 CHAPTER IV. SILVER. Silver Ores, , 35 Argentiferous Lead Ores, 3q Silver in Canada,— Varieties of Silver Ores, 37 viii CONTENTS. CHAPTER V. Geological Position, Ac ''""''^' copPKK XK o....,;.7: f^^g-s Copper in the Lake Region, v.; 40 „ |a Lower Canada, .. . 41 62 CHAPTER VI. 66 66 67 69 60 CHAPTER Yu W». ZINC. mCKEL. cob//: 62 64 66 Mi-ra.scon.tu„toyv.^:;;„-:: :,' CHAPTER VIII. TheBiow.pipe,..;;;;;;;; ,, BW-p,pe Teste on tMioo/o,;;- ' ' ; ; " " ' .; U ' ' 81 39 40 41 46 seds, Ac. 48 63 66 66 67 • 69 60 62 64 66 ■ •-.. 67 es,.. 68 70 71 n 72 A MANUAL luR EXPLORERS. •er. 73 74 75 76 77 79 79 80 61 CHAPTER I. ON THE FORMS AND MODES OF DEPOSIT. The prevailing impression on the public mind in regard to discoveries of valuable ores or metallic de- posits seems to be, that they are for the most part due to fortuitous circumstances. No doubt in some instances fortunate discoveries have been accidentally made ; but in the greater number of cases it may truly be said of this, as of the more important and valuable inventions and discoveries in the arts and sciences, that they are the direct result of patient in- dustry and intelligent enquiry. In entering upon the work of searching for the ores of the more valuable metals, the intending Explorer should avail himself of the experience which has been acquired in past times, and in other parts of the world. One of the first and most essential requisites in order to the systematic and successful prosecution of his labors is, that he should make himself ac- quamted with the geological positions and modes of occurrence of the various metallic deposits hitherto discovered ; whether in vems, bunches, belts of the B 10 IBB MEWIS m CANADA. 11 ; •wik, or in a particular strah.m e . older crystalline formation. ;rr ! ™*- ^ «■« m veins, either tr^H 'l? ^'^r^"* '«'^« ~<"»Ted recent iL niationrtL or.T^?'' '' '^'''^^ ^ *e more deposited in bedjSir/tKra;: •*'''' '""'*''-* and gash veins. Some exnll.T ' , " '««^egated the various terms Td 3e7<^"" ""' "'**» "^ nocessa^, in order t^ ZZIITTT "^^ •>« each of these systems oft^?' "'^ «"--'- of an aggregation of mineral T^ . n-* ''*'" "'" "^^ « ringinaplaneofwhSe^l ^'f "^"^^^ <"'«"- fa unknown ; as thTw , T T ''"«"■ ^^-^ <'«f * '««=tion too s jrJXtr ^^"'''""'^*'* ''^''«»°- tte latter is frequeiV teat t' Z^'Zu'' '*'' ''' "^-^ est mines. These veL . *^ **' "^ *« deep- have originateST cZ W d f":' '^ ^^"'■'^«'' ^ -anally accompanied by >itrTr/ ^""^ ™''^'' relative levels of the Ji£ " f "^^'^ances of the <» have been caJd T^tZ' " *" "'^'^^ ' ''»'» and movements of the earth' * T """ "^ '«'*•"•« -ote ages; the space ttafo'^'eThr'T '" '" sequently filled up with 1 , ™« ''"*'' S"!" P«>bab,y through iuTots 7^00^7 ^ '"^' ence of elect^^hemicaJ tZ \'^^"' '^'. ^^'^^ the theory of the fr.^.,- T' ^ discussion of cupy too much sptce^ndT^ f'TT""'' '"'^'^ ^- of this nature ; Ld wel,! ""' f P'*"* '" '^ ''eatise enumeration of'sle'tfel::?; """«'-' *° ^ bj which they are dist,W T?/'"'""^ Peculiarities <«d modes ofVccui^nce ' """ ''" "*«^ «>"»» A MANUAL FOB EXPLORERS. 11 5cJf- In the lave occurred 3 in the more the most part n segregated llustration of nee may be character of n or Zode is tiers occur- h and depth ^^ysL con- low it, and the deep- ologists to the rocks, 'es of the icks ; and )f nature ig in re- een sub- nd ores, he influ- 3sion of and of )uld oc- treatise 3 to an liarities ' forms s'l ;•* True veins, whether occurring in igneous or sedi. mentary rocks, are continuous in depth, and traverse indiscriminately all formations lying in their course, cutting the lines of stratification usually at a high angle. They have generally one prevailing direction, subject to slight irregularities and curvatures, both in length and in depth ; it is not at all certain that the same vein has ever been traced for more than a mile in length. They are rarely found singly, but in groups, often in a complicated net-work ; but confined to a limited district, and the leading veins in a district present a general approach to parallelism. The larger portion of the vein-fissure is usually occupied by the Q-angue or vein-stone, consisting of various non-metallic minerals, chiefly quartz, calc-spar, fluor-spar, barytes or heavy spar, and dolomite or bitter spar, — generally in a crystallized form. Every mineral district seems to have certain vein-stones, as well as ores, peculiar to itself; and the locality of an ore may frequently be recognized by a simple inspection of a fragment of the accompanying gangue. The mass of the vein-stone is commonly separated from the walls by thin bands of clayey matter, and the walls themselves are frequently smoothed and scratched as by friction. The metallic portions of the lode usually occur in hunches^ or patches of various sizes and shapes, — not in continuous lines, as many imagine ; and the proportion which these bunches of ore bear to the unprofitable parts of the vein is by no means so great as is usually supposed. The ores or metallic contents of true veins are not found to be exhausted, or sensibly and permanently 12 PI! THE METALS IJf CABTADA. impregnated wil ore lr.hou Z"""^'', ''""'^^ In passing from one kind „f l* r**"'' *^*''"'- mmeral character ^ ^ ^ ^^^'^ importance, since I? L i' f*!^^' »*«-* '"d the useful metals and Lr^ , '^ "'^'^ '""™«'' »f working in^o ves tTe^r development and system of Pi<».l. ItisttLS„rttlTth?7\f ^''""'^- of Cornwall in En^Z t . u '^'''PP"^'^"*^ centuries, mo"l/S:'' *"' '*" '^^" ^"^^-^ ^'r Sometimes veins of this kind n.. % ^ P""'" remarkably rich in mlm" ol"' ^ %''"'' ^"' berg, in Germany, was found T" k "" ^'"™"'^ thickness, over o'n^XnS ^d ^fet ?r it3 iength se;en\^S 'r^?; Tt ''^Sr-^ contained in this mass ir^ nK- « "^ T, "^^^ ^^®s -nc, lead and cop^r lit ™'f "?*« "^ -"^ gan^e Thp^ • *'"'™'y destitute of cieaf^^e of tt ::rs T '"" "^ p^*' -* *« f ■«: 1 attained hy irily equally ?hoIe extent, ier, thej fre ill as their liferous ores interest and sources of i system of ill and ca pper mines ivorked for ited on all Jit both in ^rp point, ftent, and Rammels- greatest , and in of eight ntj, and Phe ores of iron, itute of vith the ratificor ain, but [ic and A MANUAL FOR EXPLORERS. 18 mineral substances of which they are composed have been produced by a gradual elimination of their com- ponent particles from the surrounding formation. Sir Charles Lyell remarks, that " such segregation, as it is called, can sometimes be shown to have clearly taken place long subsequently to the original consolidation of the containing rock." Practically the most important feature of this class of deposits is that they cannot be depended on as true veins ; as they seem almost always to be richest near the surface, and frequently termi- nate altogether at no very considerable depth. Nor is the ore or metallic matter distributed through them with so much regularity as in the true veins ; forming often a series of nests and pockets ranged in a general linear direction, and connected by mere threads of ore or barren vein-stone. Srd. O-ash Veins. — Veins of this class are usually limited to a single member of the geological formation in which they occur ; and terminate, or are cut off by a change in the mineral character of the rock, though sometimes re-appearing below the intermediate rock. A remarkable instance of this singular phenomenon was found to occur in the silver mines of Chanarcillo, in Chili, as related by Whitney, in his " Metallic Wealth of the United States." The veins were found to be cut off by a stratum of tough and horny lime- stone. At first the miners gave up in despair, but one man, more persevering than the others, sunk two hun- dred and sixty-six feet through this unproductive rock, when on the other side a rich mass of silver was found. ^Subsequently seven of these intercepting belts have 14 THE METALS IN CANADA. hk been pierced through, and it has invariably been found that the veins are rich between them, and that the ore is richest and in greatest abundance near the planes of contact between the limestone and adjoin- ing rock. The origin of this class of veins is supposed to be due to long exposure of the rock to a very high heat, after the cessation of which, certain strata might, in cooUng under peculiar circumstances of texture and thickness, be more liable to be fissured than others. Some rocks are known to contract through one axis and expand through the other, when under a high heat, and to remain in that condition on cooling ; and this hypothesis may account as satisfactorily as the more generally received one for the origin of tMs description of veins. Gash veins chiefly occur in the partially altered sedimentary rocks, when they have undergone so little change as not to have assumed a thoroughly crystal- line texture, and have retained the original lines of stratification which, in the fully altered rocks, are for the most part obliterated. As regards their economic value, m comparison with true veins, tJie same remarks we have already made on veins of segregation, are apphcable j but gash veins are still less reUable than segregated veins, and are usually soon worked out in depth, while on the other hand their number frequently makes up for their want of individual continuity, so that a region where they abound, may furnish for a time a large amount of ore. The well kno^.-n deposite of galena in the Mississippi valley in the States of A MNUAL FOR EXPLORERS. 15 riably been )m, and that ice near the and adjoin- )posed to be J high heat, ta might, in ;exture and ihan others, gh one axis ier a high n cooling ; factorily as igin of this Uy altered •ne so little Jy crjstal- lal lines of b, are for : economic e remarks ation, are iable than :ed out in requently inuity, so aish for a a deposits States of 4 ^^ Iowa and Wisconsin, may be referred to as a good illustration of this class of veins. 4ith. Veins of Contaet. — These veins lie on the plane of junction between two formations of different geo- logical ages, or of dissimilar geological and mineral characters. They are sometimes developed on so large a scale as to be of great importance, but do not possess that persistence in depth, which is the characteristic of true veins. The interesting copper ores of Mont<3 Catini, in Tuscany, occur in contact deposits, being developed along the line of outcrop of the gabbro, a rock resulting from the metamorphic action of serpentine upon strata of the Cretaceous formation ; and in this case, contrary to the usual rule, the ores have been found to grow richer the deeper they have been worked. The iron ores of the Hartz in Saxony, lie between the eruptive rocks and uplifted slates. This class of veins is of frequent occurrence on the north shore of Lake Superior, but are not productive of much metal. At Pointe aux Mines, a vein of con- tact was worked by the Quebec Minmg Company, but resulted m great loss. The ore is a gray and varie- gated sulphuret of copper, and the vein lies between a quartzoze granite on one side, and granular compact trap and amygdaloid trap on the other. Sixty miles further west, near Dora River, another vein occurs on the line of contact between greenstone and granite ; this vein is from eight to twelve feet wide, and chiefly composed of calc-spar, containing traces of copper, but its richness has not yet been tested by working. It 16 MB METALS IN CAHADA. appears to the writer that veins of this class and of that oomang next in order, are those most likely to occur m Lower Canada. ^ ornW ^'if"'!"" f'*'''«-SmaIl veins of metamc ores, from the s.ze of a thread up to two or three jnches m thickness, interlacing each .ther thrl hou and have been worked to pro8t in various parts of the - Sw? , „ '^"P"'*' '' "^^"^'^ ^^ "■« Germans ^toc/cwerke ui allusion to the fact that they are worked m different stages or stories, one Ze Z other, owmg to their great extent. Such dcpol 7, r?, P^P"":^"-^ poor in ores, on the a eC ot the whole work to be executed ^ The celebrated Carchae tin mine near St. Austell's m Cornwall ,s a remarkable example of the stock'erke form of deposit. It was worked, until recentiv i^! decomposed feldspathic granite, 'as ope T^;,"; The ore occurs in a net-work of small veins, i3' mg with each other, the whole of which, toget Jft he rock included between them, had i b^ removed a^d the ore afterwards separated by hand-pS' sta^ipmg and washing. There are oLr stockwerke' mines in Corn^^all, most of which have been worked S and abandoned. The tin mines of Altenberi„ g^ ony furmsh another good example of this mode of t:zz\ f " f' •'""'-'"s ^<-^ ■- ^- rich m. Meponts in Bed, of Stratified Jtoeks. -Ores of coppe,, lead and i™„ have bcenextensively wXd I A MANUAL FOR EXPLORERS. 17 ;lass and of 3st likely to of metallic vo or three throughout :>ccurrence, 3arts of the le Germans they are above the h deposits le average . Austell's tockwerke mtlj, in a n quarry. , i.'iterlac- »th2r with removed, 1-picking, )ckwerke )rked out ; in Sax- mode of tlso rich ■eet from -Ores of worked in Europe in belts of the rock, or subordinate to the stratification. In sue ^ cases the metal is disseminated through the rock in small particles, and sometimes so thoroughly intermingled with it as to be hardly distin- guishable from it ; clearly indicating, of course, the contemporaneous origin of the rock and its metallic contents. When such deposits occur on an extensive scale they become an important source of mineral wealth, even although the percentage of metal may be small. Of such nature are the copper-bearing schists and sandstones of Mansfeldt in Prussia, where mming operations have been successfully carried on for cen- turies. Here the copper-bearing stratum is very thin, varymg from two inches to two feet in thickness, and carrying not more than two per cent, of metal ; but it stretches for over eighty leagues in length with wonderful regularity ; and its value is enhanced by the fact that the slates in which the metal occurs are bituminous, and thus afford material for the reduction of the ore, which contains a small proportion of silver associated with the copper. The great lead mines of Spain, the enormous production of which in 1827 re- duced the price of lead all over the world, are in a limestone, compared by Le Play to an immense amyg- daloid, in which the paste is limestone, and the amyg- dules galena. On the south shore of Lake Superior, many of the mines are worked for native copper, in a belt of volcanic ash or tuffa. In many instances these beds or Fahlbands, as they are called by the Germans, are traversed by fis- sure veins, bearing rich ores, the metallic contents of 18 THB MVTALB W CANADA. ^eale««« -tals, hut the Mclra:? id^f rl '"' ^"^ vocal ; and the iron ores of tl . ^""^ ""^1"'- hereaft^r "ndonbtedrbecl^^f ^'^T ''P''"'*"^ '^^l TheHuronian System 7. ?'''^' >™Portance. about 400 miles on «^ ^^ ^-^^^ ^ '™'"- o^t^nt of and parts of Lake SpeTo^Tn^" "'.^''•^^«"- sandstones, altered limestone,' . """"'''"^ ^'^^'^'^s- ciated with trap rocks-rwT """"'""'^■•ates, asso- appear also to be in the fo™ of f" "'^^■" "''' ''^^^ have as yet been only ^'t™ /erfrerT'' "^^ ""■* "•ust ultimately heoJm7 ^7" V'^'^^P^'^' ^^^ wealth. These'^have bTen di t • ,"',^''''''' '"^*^'' copper-bearing rockl of ?,t 'f "^ "' '^' '"'^» Jhe upper cfppetal^trTntr"' «"^""- tnown rich deposits of t^r "^""f ',""='"dmg the well A MANUAL FOR EXPLORERS. 21 actual dis- 'n we come 'refer. In have been ;hest value tid igneous •mation to ined. The ists, occu- ortions of 'g to this ing these for the unequi' ially will iance. 3xtent of e Huron f slates, 3s, asso- 8 which I which 3d, and metallic lower luron. 3 well Supe- equi- aebec i and disturbed limestone and sandstone strata, belonging to the Lower Silurian system ; and extending in a belt varying from twenty to sixty miles wide, from the bor- ders of Lake Champlain eastwards to nearly the ex- treme point of Gasp^. This band of rock is pronounced by Sir Wm. Logan, Mr. J. D. Whitney and other eminent geologists, to be a portion of the great metal- liferous formation of North America ; to which belongs not only the rich ores of Lake Superior, but the gold, silver, lead, zinc, copper, cobalt, nickel, chrome and titanium, found along the Appalachian chain from Canada to Georgia, as also in Missouri and Tennessee. Although this fact has only recently been recognized, many valuable discoveries of copper have already been made in the Eastern Townships, and at other points comprised within the region specified. Nearly all the remaining portions of the Province, with the exception of the western peninsula, belongs to the Lower Silurian system ; being that in which the extensive deposits of lead in Wisconsin and Iowa oc- cur, and where positive discoveries of valuable ores have already been made in Canada, as will be seen by reference to the Reports of Progress. CHAPTEB II. EXPLOEIM m METALLIC ORES. the5i!:eafZ7'''^"f ''"^"'''"'^'^ "---'f with the ri IT^"/*^"- f"™" of deposit of with the color harrpri Z u ' ''™'''^ ''^^a'' of the variouT'o'elt ^"^.^r""'*™'''' ^earance the suJphurets carbonic ^. ^"oounter, especially petals ?o™i„,' :h:ic;fr IS i:r -^ tf happens that the ores of f w. frequently the san,e district, and evenTn ir' "'"'^ ""''"' *" foM Of deuosit Tn . ? ? ^'""* ^in »'■ »ther or -tal'ht tn'^oSTir 1' ^T "^ ^'"^'^ - unusual occurrence thT ' . " ^^ "" ™«»« »» i*src:t'irit^r---'^ also find abundant simple minerals of whi h he t-^ """" posed; namely, quartz f ',.'"' T ™*8 are com- y, quartz, feldspar, mica, hornblende, A MANUAL FOR EXPLORERS. 23 mself with ■ deposit of be taken If familiar ppearanee especially tes of the 'requently 3 occur in 1 or other angle ore means an has been Jge. In give the and dis- also find )rm, ap- he most re com- blende, and carbonate of lime, and of their more simple and frequent combinations. The minerals commonly con- stituting the gangue or vein-stone of the ores (see page 11), should also be studied, so far at least as to enable him to distinguish them from each other. A knowledge of these cannot be acquired from books, but requires personal inspection and the aid of a teacher. There are frequently combinations in which it is difficult for the most experienced to determine the identity of some of these minerals ; but with these minor combi- nations the explorer has nothing to do, as they are limited in extent, and will not affect his operations. There is also a description of veins in which the fis- sures have been filled by mechanical agencies, such as the falling in of fragments of the wall-rock, the crush- ing of the rocks by friction of their adjacent sides against each other, or filling up with sedimentary mat- ter, or with igneous matter injected from beneath (the latter being called dykes). These mechanical deposits possess no interest to the miner. It is not to be sup- posed that all the veins we find contain metallic ores ; on the contrary, not more than one half exhibit even traces of ore, and not over one in fifty or a hundred will contain sufficient to be remunerative to the mmer. Q-ossan. — Many metallic ores, especially the sul- phurets, decompose by exposure to the atmosphere ; and the oxides, carbonates and sulphates produced by this decomposition, being either reduced to fine powder or soluble salts, are easily washed away by rains and disappear. When the ore is combined with iron or man- ganese, and associated with quartz or any permanent 24 THE METALS IN CAKABA. gangue, a brown or black oxido of iron or manganese wiU remain m the vein-atone, which will then be found m a porous or spongy form. This oxide is known to the miners under the name of Gosmn, and it is uni- vcrjally regarded as a favorable indication of valuable ores at some depth below. Gossan, however, occurs on the top of veins of pvri- tous u-on as frequently as on those of copper ; it is therefore necessary to sink below it in order to ascer- tam the true character of the sulphuretted ore be- neath ; even where the gossan consists principally of iron oxide, its occurrence is regarded as a favorable sjrmptom m copper countries. If the ore is in a slate or femeiss, it gives to it a rotten appearance,-ca]led by the German miners Fahlbands, or rotten belts. As a general rule, we must not expect to find ores on the surface,-excepting iron and oxide of tin. If copper or lead is suspected, blastmg must be resorted to and the surface of the rock removed Field Mplorations—The attention of the explorer IS naturally directed to the hills and mountains, where the rocks outcrop, or are nearest to the surfaee. Should It be in a district where ores have been found m a bed or belt of stratified rock, he should carefully observe its relative position, direction and dip. If i„ a vein, its course should be accurately taken, for all the vems of the same age in a district have the same general bearmg According to PhiUips,"it seldom happens that an isolated vein is found in any particular locality, and with but few exceptions, where one has been discovered others may safoly be inferred to be at no considerable distance." or manganese then be found ! is known to md it is uni- •n of valuable veins of pyri- 3opper; it is rder to ascer- )tted ore be- principally of I a favorable * is in a slate nee, — called en belts. ; to find ores e of tin. If be resorted the explorer tains, where he surface, been found Id carefully dip. If in Lken, for all i'^e the same "it seldom Y particular sre one has erred to be A MANUAL FOR EXPLORERS. 25 V In searching for veins, if by trenching, the trenches must be cut at right angles to the suspected vein. On entering a lot or location for the purpose of exploring it, the first thing that should be done is to examine the hills for any perpendicular ranges of rock ; if these are at right angles to the course of the veins of the district, then by walking at the foot of the cliff with a pick, and carefully examining the face of the rock, removing any moss or mould that may be in the way, they will be readily discovered ; if this examina- tion has been continuous across the lot, and no veins found, it is safe to infer that there are none on it. But if there are no cliffs, and the hill rises with a gentle slope, the rocks should be examined wherever they outcrop. If no vein is found, and any stream is near, it should be examined for specimens of ore or vein-stone ; if any are found, the stream should be fol- lowed up until they disappear ; we may then infer that the deposit is a little way further up than where we found the last specimen ; it may be in the bottom of the creek or nearest hill, and must be searched for there. It should be remarked, however, that if such stray specimens are found in regions which cannot contain the native beds of the metal in question, it is a waste of time to search for a vein of it. When there is no stream near, the valleys must be searched for loose pieces of vein-stone ; if any should be found, they must be examined whether they are hard or friable — if hard, and much rounded or water- worn, they may have come from a good distance, and there is no use looking for the vein ; but if soft or an- c Of} THE METALS IN CANADA. shaft should be sun'k a mrj 1";! rn^ll "^ the rock, the deposit will be near Ztf T "'^ few feet above it tl,<. ^. f f, ''^"'^' •>»' "f a better way he„ tSl !« """ '' ''^'"'^ o«"- Th« the hill, a^d rit:hTft"T; '"'"; '"^^^ "^ we may infer that the d pt" ii ' kT '' ^°"""^ *«^«' and the first; and if theli „ ., ''''" ^^^ '^^ toodeep,atr'ench Lib dS,:":.",*^ "^ -' the direction of the fil ,' ^T *"'""'**« « found. In deep iluvlt' th" laV' 'T'' '^'" ^« by sinking inter^ediatrsha t w! T u l^'"^"^'^ <« far up hill as possible Sout^ost^""^ f"''' «» stray specimens, before trening ° ''^'" "^ '^^ i^^ieaS^^^^^^^^ 2n::^:rth:rrdf-^^^^^^^^^ of a vein, reference should I? T« "P *l>o ''obris «on of this dri^ ;£h taSn'i' ^''^ '^^'*''- Canada from north to north^Z If T . *""* "^ •^guJar specimen near a hiU ^ ^„T.^'' \^'''^ we may conclude that it .»„ / *''^ "orth side, -f y, the de;:tt:rrir iS '-' '^^ hJl to the north or north-east o7 it "'"'''' -^hrve~st''':eEr™f^--. "ges of the stratification. If it is in limeston^ A MANUAL FOR EXPLORERS. 27 nearest hill, le is found, a he hill in the laft and near nd, but if a er off. The e farther up found there, 1 this shaft 5ts are not ast shaft in >sit will be 5 lightened always go ?ht of the always an vein; it ^y glacial tie debris ;he direc- parts of a sharp rth side, but if in nearest or ores, of the the up- lestone resting on slate, on arriving at the slate we know we are below the belt we are in search of; and if sand- stone rests on the limestone and we are on it, we know we are too high up. It sometimes happens that one or all of these formations thin out, and disappear over a great extent of country, and then re-appear in their regular order ; or sometimes one or two of them only may re-appear, and the ore may then be deposited in a diiferent formation. Valuation of Ores. — After striking the vein or de- posit, its value must be tested approximately by pene- trating into it a few yards, say three or four, which will generally be sufficient to enable the explorer to ascertain, by the aid of the distinguishing marks which we have pointed out in our first chapter, the character of the deposit as regards form. The quality of the ore must be determined by carefully assaying upon samples which shall represent the average value of the whole mass of ore ; or still better, where circumstances admit, by smelting several tons of it, especially in the case of iron, lead, copper and zinc. The value of the ores of the precious metals can be ascertained with sufficient accuracy by assaying on a small quan- tity, for which we give some simple rules and pro- cesses in a subsequent part of this treatise ; but in both cases, it is desirable, on arriving at this stage, to obtain professional advice and assistance. <^- CHAPTER III. GOLD. It has been already remarked that by far the great- est proportion of the gold furnished to commerce is derived from superficial or alluvial deposits. In ex- ploring for gold, therefore, it must be looked for in the soil and in ravines and banks of streams ; and in coun- tries contiguous to mountains of the older crystalline or metamorphic rocks. Sir William Logan remarks, that " it appears certain that the metal will be most concentrated in the valleys and the channels of streams, and the larger the stream, the more frequently it has broken down its banks, the oftener and more exten- sively it has changed its course, — the more important the auriferous deposit is likely to be ; and it is proba- bly only in some such situations, if anywhere, that it will be worked to advantage." * If the soil be sand or gravel and the particles of gold fine, they will be found on the clay or rock be- neath it ; after removing the sand or gravel, the top of the rock should be scraped for the gold ; or if clay, a thin slice should be taken oflf and carefully washed. / ♦ Report of Progress for 1850-51, page 10. A MANUAL FOR EXPLORERS. 29 / / If the gold is heavy enough to remain in the pan or shovel after the clay and sand are removed, it may be worked to profit ; but if it floats off in the water, it is of no use. It should be remarked that the heaviest and most valuable particles will always, as might natu- rally be expected, be found the deepest seated ; and where the edges of the slatey rock which usually under- lies the gold-producing regions come up to the surface, the fine particles of gold gradually work themselves down between them, reaching sometimes as deep as three feet. Gold occurs in nature in the following forms, which are all alloys, this metal being never found in combmar tion with other non-metallic elements. Native Gold. — An alloy of gold and silver ; with traces of iron, copper and other metals. PoRPiziTE. — Gold and palladium. Rhodium Gold. — Gold a'^d rhodium. Gold Amalgam. — Gold and mercury, with a little silver. Graphic Tellurium. — Telluride of silver and gold. Of the above named substances, the first, native gold, is that form of combuiation in which almost the whole amount of this metal obtained in the world is found ; of the others, graphic tellurium is the only one which exists in sufficient quantity to be of economical importance, and that only in one district. Native Gold is easily distinguished from all other metals by its splendid yellow color, malleability and density, when compared to water. It cuts like pure r. 30 THE METALS IN CANADA. lead, and is unacted on by simple acids. 11. = 2.5 — 3. G. == 15.6 — 19.5. * Graphic Tellurium. — Lustre metallic ; streak and color, pure steel-gray to silver-white, and sometimes nearly brass-yellow ; fracture uneven ; very sectile. H. = 1.5 — 2. G. = 5.7. Id the ores called auriferous pyrites, gold occurs either in a visible or invisible form, and though invisible in the fresh pyrites, becomes visible by its decomposi- tion, as the hydrated oxide of iron allows the native gold particles to shine forth in their reddish-brown ground, even where the precious metal may constitute only the five-millionth part of its weight, aa at Ram- melsburg in the Hartz. In that state it has been ex- tracted with profit, most frequently by amalgamation with mercury ; provmg that the gold was in the native state, and not in that of a sulphuret. Gold exists among primitive strata disseminated in small grains, spangles and crystals. Brazil affords a * The passages descriptive of the physical properties of the various minerals and ores, are abridged from Dana's Mineralogy ; it should be remarked that they refer to the pure crystallized varieties. The abbreviation H. signifies the relative Hardness : G. the Specific Gravity compared with an equal bulk of water, = 1. The relative hardness of minerals is ascertained either by attempting to scratch the one with the other, or by trying each with a file. Mineralogists have adopted the following Table of Hardness, to which the numbers appended to the letter H. in the text refer. 1. Talc (the softest.) 2. Gypsum. 3. Calc-spar. 4. Fluor- spar. 6. Apatite, (Phosphate of Lime.) 6. Feldspar. T. Quartz. 8. Topaz. 9. Sapphire. 10. Diamond •.^q(pj«e-;9q'j) A MANUAL FOR EXPLORERS. 81 r / remarkable example of this species of gold. Beds of granular quartz, or micaceous specular iron, in the Sierra di Cocaes, 12 leagues beyond Villa Rica, which form a portion of a mica slate district, include a great quantity of native gold in spangles, which in this ferruginous rock replace nuca. Gold has never been observed in any secondary for- mation ; but pretty abundantly in its true and primary locaUty among the trap rocks of igneous origin, im- planted on the sides of fissures, or disseminated in the veins. The auriferous ores of Hungary and Transylvania, composed of tellurium, silver pyrites, or sulphuret of silvcx and native gold, lie in masses or powerful veins in a rock of trachyte, or in a decomposed feldspar, subordinate to it. It would seem, however, that the primary source of the gold is not m these rocks, but rather in the syenites and greenstone porphyries below them, which in Hungary and Transylvania are rich in great auriferous deposits. Whitney tells us after carefully examining the table of geological formations, that gold is entirely confined to the two lowest groups, the Azoic and Palseozic. And he further remarks that " the general facts in regard to the mineralogical character of the gold-bearing rocks are very nearly the same all over the world ; whatever may have been their original structure or composition, they have, by the agency of a long chain of similar geological events, been brought to exhibit a striking resemblance to each other. They consist most fre- quently of slatey rocks,more generally talcose, although I 82 THE METALS IN CANADA. I occasionally chloritic andargillacious. It is in these rocks that the gold-bearing quartz, which forms almost in- variably the gangue or accompanying mineral of this metal, is found to be the most productive. Those veins which occur in the hypogene, or eruptive rocks, are rarely of m\ich value." The auriferous quartz veins, which arc themselves worked for gold in various parts of the world, and in which that obtamed from washings originated, seem almost invariably to belong to the class of segregated veins. The masses of quartz rock of which they are com- posed have the same dip and strike as the slatey rocks in which they are enclosed, and they exhibit no ap- pearance of occupying a pre-existing fissure. Where the palaeozoic rocks remam in nearly the same condition in which they were originally deposited, there is but little probability of finding gold. In the Ural Mountains, the metamorphosed strata represent the whole palaeozoic series, from the lower Silurian up to and including the carboniferous. The Australian rocks associated with auriferous quartz, contain fossils of Silurian age, while the flanks of the Sierra Nevada in California may probably be referred to the palae- ozoic epoch, though further evidence is needed on this point. Gold in, Canada.— Discoveries of gold have been made at several localities, and in fair quantity m East- ern Canada, chiefly in the valleys of the rivers Chaudiere and Du Loup, and their tributaries, and on the St. Francis, all in the Eastern Townships. In all cases it has been obtained by a laborious process of 4! A MANUAL FOR EXPLORERS. 88 washing or stream-^orh, the material subjected to this process consisting rf drift clay and gravel, the debris of the rocks, on which thc^ .opose. These rocks consist of clay-slates, and interstratified grey sandstones associated with conglomerates, talcose slate and serpentine, and with various ores of iron ; and it seems probable from recent observations, that the gold- producing regions will have the same geographical limits as those assigned to the Quebec group of rocks (See page 21). The gold has nowhere been found in place, with the exception of a mere trace discovered m a quartz vein near Sherbrooke. The size of the largest nuggets varies from two to four ounces. The result of the washings on the Du Loup and Chaudi^re in 1851-52, when the process was vigor- ously and systematically pursued during a whole season, was about 1900 dwts. ; and the proceeds shewed a yield of about double wages. The quar- tdty obtained was not so great, nor the results, as far as regards profitable working, so satisfactory as to give much encouragement to the gold seeker in Ca- nada ; but it is fair to infer that since the rocks of the country are rww ascertained to be identical with those which, m the neighbouring States, have yielded a consi- derable amount of the precious metal, explorations will 1)6 undertaken and prosecuted with greater vigor and ^eater prospects of success. On the whole, how- ever, it may not be considered out of place to repeat the caution given by Sir William Logan, that m all pro- bability, " the deposit will not in general remunerate UNSKILLED labor, and that agriculturists and others 34 THE METALS IN CANADA. engaged in the ordinary occupations of the country y wmld only lose their labour, by turning gold hunters:'^ * See Report ,: Progress for 1851-52, pp. 21-2t, where a detailed account of the process used for obtaining the gold i* given. See also the Reports for 1850-51, pp. 6-11, and for 1852-53, pp. TO-'72. The discovery, related by Sir William Logan in the last named Report, of an unworn crystal of gold in a crevice of a quartz vein, seems to afford positive evidence that the rocks of the Quebec group are the native bed of the gold found in the Eastern Townships. r e a di» for iaia jold snce CHAPTER IV. SILVER. The silver of commerce is derived from three sources ; — 1st. Silver ores proper. 2nd. Argentiferous lead ores. 3rd. The native alloy of gold and silver; these metals being almost invariably associated. Silver Ores. — The ores of silver have a wide range in the geological series, occurring in true fissure veins in the oldest crystalline rocks, as at the celebrated mines of Freiburg in Saxony and Kongsberg in Norway. The great bulk of the silver ores of South America have however been derived from limestone rocks, forming segregated veins and masses parallel with the stratification. The silver mines of Peru are by some writers stated to be in the carboniferous, and by others, in tertiary strata. In Chili they are chiefly developed in the cretaceous, where, as we have before remarked, those of Catini in Tuscany also occur. The geological position of the celebrated silver mines of Mexico has not yet been accurately ascertained, though it is known that the principal workmgs occur on true 36 THE METALS IN CANADA. veins. The silver of Mexico and of the American conti- nent in general is mostly derived from the ores proper, but all of this metal which is produced in England and a very large proportion of that of the contment of Europe is separated from lead. Argentiferous Lead Ore. — Galena almost invariably carries a certain proportion of silver associated with it. The percentage of silver is variable even in the same locality. In England the average quantity contained in the lead which is worked for silver is seven or eight ounces per ton ; the richest galena occurs in Devon- shire where it sometimes yields as much as forty ounces per ton of smelted lead. In Sp^n the propor- tion is sometimes as high as one hundred and eighty ounces. It is considered that a smaller yield than six ounces to the ton will not pay to separate. Deposits of lead ore are not generally rich in silver, unless the formation in which they occur has been altered and rendered crystalline. Thus the lead mines of the Mississipi valley being in the unalter- ed Lower Silurian strata are found to contain only a very small proportion of silver. The silver-bearing or,es are mostly in the older rocks ; and although not so abundant near the surface as the deposits in the unaltered stratified rocks, often make up by their rich- ness in silver for their smaller yield of lead. If the lead ore is rich in silver, this metal is often found near the surface in its native state, in stringy bunches and spongy masses, somewhat resembling dark colored wool : having been evidently separated and concentrated from the galena during the process of its decomposition. ♦ -■VK*!^ 'A *V 1 A MANUAL FOR EXPLORERS. 87 t -%M^. Silver in Canada. — With reference to the occur- rence of this metal in Canada, we are not aware of the ^^ existence of any silver ores proper; and the lead ores which have been hitherto discovered are for the most part exceedingly poor in silver. Mr. Hunt however, in the Report for 1853, page 370, gives details of assays made by him upon samples of galena from Meredith's location (Maimanse) on Lake Superior, and from the Rapids of the Chaudi^re in Lower Canada, the former yeilding thirty ounces, and the latter twenty-five ounces per ton of metallic lead. This result aiFords the strongest encouragement to the prosecution of the search for argentiferous lead ores in these districts, which, as we have before remarked, although widely separated geographically, have been lately ascertained '^ to belong to the same geological epoch. On the north shore of Lake Superior, and in Michi- picoten Island, considerable amounts of native silver have been obtained associated with copper veins and native copper. At Prince's location, towards the western extremity of the Lake, 15 miles west of Sturgeon bay, a bunch of four cwt of ore containing about four per cent of silver, with traces of gold, has been found. On the south shore in Michigan, which is considered to be in the same geological formation, a considerable amount of native silver is frequently met with, in the workings for copper ; but in most instances it is stolen, or deemed a ^ perquisite by the miners ; one nugget is mentioned by Whitney which weighed 96.8 oz. Varieties of Ores. — Native silver is sectile and 38 THE METALS IN CANADA. malleable like gold, and is easily distinguished from all odier metals by its bright white color. The com- binations of silver with other substances are very numerous. Subjoined we give a list of the more important of these. Silver Glance. —Sulphur et of /Silver. —Lustre inetaUic; streak and color blackish-lead gray, cut- ting nearly like pure lead ; streak shinmg ; fracture sub-conchoidal, uneven. H. = 2 — 2.5. G. 7 — 7.3. Contains of silver 87.1 per cent. Ruby Silver. — Lustre metallic — adamantine; co- lor black, sometimes approaching cochineal-red ; streak cochineal-red; fracture conchoidal; sectile, yielding readHy to the knife. H.= 2 — 2.5. G. =5.7. When pure it contains 58.98 per cent of silver. An important ore in the Mexican mines. Brittle Sulphuret of Silver— Lustre metaUic ; color and streak iron-black, and giving an iron-black powder; fracture uneven; sectile. H. = 2 — 2.5. G, =^6.2. Silver 70.4 per cent. Horn SiLvm.— Chloride of jSilver. —Luatre resi- nous ; color pearl-gray, greenish, whitish, rarely violet- blue ; streak shining ; translucent ; fracture somewhat conchoidal ; sectile. It resembles a dark-colored gray or greenish wax, and cuts like wax ; occurs in veins of clay-slate, accompanying other ores of silver. H. =1 — 1.5. G. =: 6.S, Silver 75.3, per cent. -> <• ic CHAPTER V. COPPER. I ^ ^S G-eological Position. — Copper, occurring as it does in so many forms of combination, and so extensively dis- tributed geographically, is, as might be expected, a metal which has a wide range in the geological forma- tions. There are, however, two characteristic positions in which these ores are found, and to one or other of which most of the great mining districts may be refer- red. These are : 1st. Veins in the older crystalline rocks, especially the altered palaeozoic, and the igneous formations asso- ciated with them. Such is the character of the great mining districts of Cornwall and Australia, and also of the Lake Superior copper region, as well as of most of the localities in the Atlantic States. These vems belong either to the class of segregated, or to that of fissure-veins. Some of the segregated masses are of immense extent, and have produced large amounts of ore ; but the districts in which the workings are upon true veins, are those m which the yield is of a more permanent character, and where the mining interest has attained the greatest development. 40 THE METALS IN CANADA. 2nd. The cupriferous ores are largely distributed through certain strata, which in the geological series belong to the epoch between the carboniferous and the period of the lias. In such cases the ore is not in veins, but is disseminated through beds of the rock, which are usually sandstone and slates ; the metallife- rous substance being usually in fine particles, although occasionally concentrated into bunches. The most characteristic localities of this form of deposit are those of the Kupferschiefer of Mansfeldt and the Pernuan strata of the Ural Mountains, which are quite analo- gous to each other, both in the mode of occurrence of the ores, and the geological age of the rocks in which they are found, which is that of the magnesian lime- gtone,— they lie next beneath the Triassic group. The ores of copper cannot be said to be limited to a few countries ; they are scattered all over the world and no one country can be considered to be far in ad- vance of all others m their development. Nor is this a metal in whose yield there have been, or are likely to be, great fluctuations ; new cupriferous regions are discovered from time to time, but the increased supply thus afforded does not more than keep pace with the growing demands of the arts. Copper in Canada. It would be out of place m this short treatise and would lead us far beyoi.d our limits, were we to attempt to discuss at greater length the form and manner in which the ores of this most important metal are distri- n A MANUAL FOR EXPLORERS. 41 buted in other countries. We shall confine ourselves to a general notice of the most remarkable discoveries of copper which have hitherto been made in Canada ; for the details of which we refer our readers to the various able Reports of our Provincial Geologists, to whom is due much of the merit of initiating and directing the development of what seems destined to become an im- portant branch of the national industry. Although iron ores are most extensively distributed, and lead veins have been detected in the Laurentiaa rocks, we are not aware of any discoveries of copper in tfce region occupied by the great mass of this forma- tion. This region has, however, been so Httle explored that It would be altogether premature to assert the absence of this metal. At various points along the hnes of junction or contact between the Laurentian and the next succeeding formations, namely the Huronian m the west and Lower Silurian in the east, important discovenes of copper have been made. Lake negion.—ln the lake region the disturbances - are so great, and the amount of exploration hitherto accompHshed so Umited, that it is unpossible to indi- cate accurately the geographical boundaries of the formations ; but the recent observations of Mr. Murray seem to point to this geological horizon as a promising field. In his Report for 1856 (page 188), he says, referrmg to districts overlying this point in the series, " The existence of the ores of copper and iron, which are known to be more or less characteristic of the Huronian series of rocks, invests the geographical dis- tribution of the formation with much economic impor- 42 THE METALS IN CANADA. tance. These ores were repeatedly observed in the region explored last season, and although nowhere seen in large amount or to a great extent, the indica- tions were sufficient to establish their pretty general distribution. Small specks and patches of the yellow sulphuret of copper was frequently found in the black- ish and dark grey slates on the lower lakes of the Maskinongi ; and at the southern turn of these lakes there is a quartz vein of from six to eight feet wide, with copper pyrites cutting slate conglomerates, and an intrusive mass of compact flesh-red feldspar. In the feldspathic dyke, small narrow veins of specular iron ore occur, which appear to run parallel with the dyke or slightly oblique to it, and the quartz vems and its subordinate droppers cut across both. Were this vein as conveniently situated as those of somewhat similar character on Lake Huron, it is fully as well worthy of trial as many that were selected by explorers there some years ago upon which to found claims for mining locations." In the Report for 1857 (page 24), he says, " Cop- per pyrites is very generally disseminated through the masses of greenstone wherever they were examined, and it occdsionally appears in quartz veins in sufficient abundance to constitute metalliferous lodes. The most favorable indications known of this description in the area are on the south side of Echo Lake, and in the hills north of the mouth of Root River, both of which localities have been taken up for the purpose of mining, but have not hitherto been worked to advantage." Again, in the Report for 1858, Mr. Murray gives, \ A MANUAL FOR EXPLORERS. 43 (page 225), a list of all the localities where copper ores were found on the River Mississagui ; and in refe- rence to it sta OS that " though the quantity of the ore does not in the case of any of the veins appear very encouraging, they may become the means of leading to the discovery of veins of a more promising charac- ter in the neighbourhood." A useful hint to the ex- plorer will be found embodied in a further statement made by Mr. Murray in reference to the same locality, "The examination of the area connected with the Mississagui has not yet been sufficiently extended to determine the relation between the copper-bearing veins of the Grand Portage and the physical form to which they are subordinate. The veins of the lower part of the river are evidently related to the anticlinal existing there.* Those of the south part of Echo Lake also belong to an anticlinal ; so do those of the Bruce and Wellington mines; and it would almost appear as if the importance of the metalliferous indi- cations rose with the sharpness of the fold. But what- ever be the cause of the dislocations in which metalli- ferous minerals are secreted, it would seem to be a probable supposition that in a metalliferous district the greater the dislocations, the greater the chances of valuable metalliferous lodes." (Page 100). The Huronian system itself occupies the whole nor- • The term Anticlinal is applied to strata which dip in oppo- site directions from a common ridge or axis, like the roof of a house. Synclinal refers to strata which dip in opposite directions inwards, like the leaves of a half-opened book ; inclining to a common centre so as to form a trough or basin-shaped hollow. i 44 THE METALS IN CANADA. them flank of Lake Huron and parts of Lake Superior, and constitutes the lower copper-bearing rocks of the Lake region, — consisting of white and often vitreous sandstone or quartzite^ passing into a jasper conglome- rate and interstratified with heavy masses of trap. The deposits exist in the form of true veins, although it is said that some of the lodes have become rather poor and thin on penetratmg to a comparatively small depth. The ores are entirely sulphurets, — yellow, variegated and vitreous,— no native copper being found in this region. The Wallace, Bruce and Wellington mip'^s have been worked in this formation for many years ; of these the Bruce mines are the most important, ana have been worked by the Montreal Mining Company with tolerable success ; and had proper skill and discre- tion been exercised from the first in their management, they would undoubtedly have proved an excellent in- vestment. These are truly valuable mines, and should produce largely. The important copper deposits at Maimanse, Michi- picoten Island, and the more western localities of the north shore of Lake Superior, in all probability belong to the upper copper-bearing rocks ; being the same as are exposed on the south shore, and have produced such extraordinary results. The promontory of Maimanse consists of thick masses of quartzose sandstone and conglomerate, associated with amygdaloid trap and volcanic ash or tufa. The copper occurs in the amygdaloid trap both in the native state and as ore, the vem-stones being jprincipally calc-spar and quartz ; the deposits seem to A MANUAL FOR EXPLORERS. 45 partake of the character of segregated veins, and are both very thin and do not hold out in depth, though exceedingly rich in some places. In 1855, at the depth of eighteen feet, a mass of native copper, weigh- ing 630 lbs. was extracted, and the whole yield of a shaft twenty-seven feet deep and without galleries was about three tons of metallic copper. On Michipicoten Island, where copper mining has been carried on for many years, the metal is deposited in the native state in beds of amygdaloid trap and volcanic ash, overlaid by compact trap and underlaid by a coarse red quartzose sandstone ; the cupriferous bed proper being from one to two feet thick, and suffi- ciently rich to pay for working. The metal also per- vades to some extent the rocks lymg above and below the copper-bearing belt, being distributed through the former in bunches, and through the latter disseminated in grains. It occurs also in veins traversing the beds at nearly right angles. It seems that when a metalli- ferous belt has been broker, up by the intrusion of igneous rocks and re-arranged under metamorphic action, rich deposits of ore may be expected. At the western locations on Lake Superior, the rocks consist of argillaceous shales or slates overlaid by a flow of trap ; both formations being cut by numerous parallel trap dykes, and by transverse veins of quartz, barytes and calc-spar, carrying ores of copper and native copper. We are not aware of the extent to which these veins have proved productive. The amazing development reached by the copper workings on the south shore, situated in corresponding positions, 1 1 I! M f|i 46 THE METALS IN CANADA. will be best judged by the fact that in 1850 the aggre- gate value of exports was $266,000, while in 1860 it had attained the sum of 13,000,000. Masses of nearly pure native copper have been there discovered weighing from 300 to 400 tons. Copper in Lower Canada. — We have already re' marked that the Quebec group of rocks are the equi- valents of the upper copper-bearing rocks of Lake Superior ; and accordingly we find them characterized by similar features, as regards their metallic contents. Towards the line of junction between the Laurentian rocks and the Quebec group of the Lower Silurian system a few discoveries of copper ore have been made and recorded by the Provincial Geologists. In the Report for 1852-53 (page 69), Sir William Logan states that in the seigniory of La-Norraye, in the county of Berthier, on the north side of the St. Law- rence, a point situated in the above geological horizon, a vein of calc-spar and pearl-spar occurs carrying >««s-yenow; subject to tarnish, H _?," ""/T"'' '■■'"*"" "=-«''»WaI, unev n qn fy. q;^ ■"" ^•^* *^en pure yields moli "r "'",' "^ ""PP^'' ''"' *^« ores most^cr monly found rarely yield more than 12 per cent. ilusorecontams nearly as much iron as Conner A bnght-yeUow color and softness indicate rXre-t d^orpale-yellow and great hardness are infe^e'cf LrLrpyri^rirr^.^' r^^ '^^^■ out with a Zijlt or 1"^ S"" ' " ""'' •>« so^^thatit;..k?£':rr;^r^^^ :f^^:rviorjrie2n^^^^^^^^^ A MANUAL FOR EXPLORERS. 53 / G. = 4*4 — 5. When pure yields 60 per cent of copper. Copi'ER Glance. — Vitreous Copper. — Lustre me- tallic ; color and streak blackish lead-gray, often tar- nished blue or green; streak sometimes sliining. H. = 2.5 — 3. G. == 5.6 — 5.8, Contains 74 to 80 per cent of copper. Gray Copper. — Lustre metallic ; color between steel-gray and iron-black ; streak sometimes inclin- ing to brown. H. = 3 — 4.5. G. = 5.11. Usu- ally contains about 40 per cent of copper. Red Oxide of Copper. — Lustre adamantme to earthy ; color red of various shades, particularly cochi- neal-red ; occasionally crimson-red by transmitted light ; streak several shades of brownish-red. H. = 3.5 — 4. G. = 5.85 — 6.15. Contains from 88 to 91 per cent of copper. Black Oxide of Copper. — Color dark steel-gray in crystals to black or greyish-black when massive ; streak shining. H. = 3. G. = 6.25. Contains 70 to 79 per cent of copper. Green Malachite. — Carbonate of Copper. — Lus- tre adamantme, inclining to vitreous; color bright green ; streak and powder lighter green ; admits ofa high polish. H. == 3.5 — 4. G. =3.7 — 4. Contains 70 per cent protoxide of copper. Blue Malachite. — Azurite, — Lustre vitreous; color various shades of azure blue ; streak lighter blue ; H. = 3.5—4. G. = 3.5 — 3.8. Contams about 68 per cent protoxide of copper. i i I 54 THB MBIAL8 IN CANADA. .nlnT'T'^-"^''-^'^ GVe«t._Iustre vitreous; wlien pure , it la an ore of common occurrence but ia notusuaUy found in I„ge quantities. ItTa vl" We ore and easy of reduction. of Sr r T^ "*''■ °"' "^ ~PP«'' but they are of Me interest m comiection with our present obieot as they occur only in smaJl quantities Lciated S iZ. r''^'?"*'" ™ "■« «'^<' metaffifero^ Jjtect, and many of them occ,«ionally in the same n CHAPTER VI. LEAD. Lead m rarely found in the native state, but usually in combmation with one of the non-metallic elements, particularly sulphur ; it also occurs with oxygen, sele- nium, arsenic, tellurium and various acids. The veins producing galena, (sulphuret of lead), occur in granite, limestone, argillaceous and sandstone rocks ; but most frequently they are, all over the world, associated with limestone ; they frequently yield ores of copper, silver and zinc, as well as lead. The matrix on which this ore has been deposited is, in most cases, either quartz, calc-spar, fluor-spar or heavy-spar. Lead is not often discovered on the surface of the ground or embedded in the soil ; freshets, indeed, may expose a vein of galena, and carry portions away from the general deposit ; but this is an exceptional case. Galena is easily decomposed by the atmosphere, and aifl the resulting products, whether sulphate, car- bonate or oxide, are very light and in the form of pow- der, they are easily carried away by currents of water. Deposits of galena must be looked for in steep hills and rapid currents ; in limestone rocks and primary slates, gneiss and porphyry ; but in all stratified rocks 'W i " '» 56 THE METALS IN CANADA. I I ■ of the carboniferous series and above it, this metal wiU be sought in vain. The extensive deposits of galena in Illinois, Iowa and Wisconsin occur in what is caUed the Cliff limestone, the geological position of which is at the summit of the Lower SOurian system. In that locality they are not found in any of the formations either over or under this geological horizon. The ore occurs associated with calc-spar, lining irregular shaped fissures m the rocks ; no regular minmg operations have ever been instituted, although vast quantities of the ore has been raised. The diggings seldom exceed 25 to 30 feet m depth, and the deposits appear now to be nearly exhausted. They seem to come under the descnption of gash-veins, and consequently can never agam attain the importance they once possessed. In general it may be said of the ores of lead, with more positiveness even than of those of other metals, that the nearer the approach of the deposit to a true vem m character, the more persistent are its metaUic contents in depth, and the greater is the chance of its bemg profitably wrought. Hitherto, the larger part of the lead furnished to commerce has been obtained from irregular deposits and segregated and gash veins, of extraordinary rich- ness near the surface, but not holding out in depth ; as they are gradually worked out, the number and impor- tance of the mines in the older rocks increase. LEAD IN CANADA. ^ The Geological Survey report the occurrence of lead m many locaUties in Canada. The following extracts r -^^ A MANUAL FOR EXPLORERS. m t.m from Sir William Logan's Reports of Progress will conclusively show to any one at all acquainted with the subject, that rich and persistent deposits of lead maybe looked for in the townships of Bedford and Lansdowne, counties of Frontenac and Leeds. In the Report for 1858, pp. 48-60, he says under the head : '* Q-alena. — This ore of lead is another of the minerals that are to be looked for in connection with the lime- stones of the Laurentian series, but it is not yet deter- mined whether it specially characterises one or more of the bands. None of it was met with in the calcare- ous exposures in the district of the Rouge ; but I have been informed that several veins holding galena have recently been discovered in the township of Bedford, not very far removed from those lodes which have already been discovered by Mr. Murray, in the twenty-first lot ; and near the line between the eighteen, and nineteen lots of the eight range of the township." In the Report for 1851-52, Mr. Murray makes men- tion of the occurrence, in the second lot of the eighth range of Lansdowne, of a vein of heavy-spar and calc- spar cutting rocks of the Laurentian series, and holding disseminated crystals of galena, which had been unsuc- cessfully tried as a lead mine. Subsequently to his visit to the locaHty, a lode was discovered on the third lot of the same range, from which specimens were ob- tained in 1855 for the Paris Exhibition. A trial shaft was sunk on it to the depth, it was said, of fifty feet, and a sufficient quantity of ore obtained to pay the expenses of smking. The specimens showed a E €8 THE METALS IN CANADA. i I thickness of between two and three inches of pure ga- lena, associated with calc-spar. It was said that other Jodes existed in the sme neighbourhood, but their posi- tion was kept secret. " The bearings given by Mr. Murray to the three lodes examined by him in Bedford are N. 15 W N 32 W, and N. 85 W., the la^t being the course of the lode traced and tested farthest. The distance be- tween the Bedford and Lansdowne lodes k not much over twenty miles ; and considermg the differences that may be aUowed for the gentle windings which usually exist m the courses of metalliferouR veins, it appears not at all improbable that the lodes of the two localities may be identical or belong to one group, the bearing of the two positions being about N. 68 W. and S. 68 E. of one another. If a line from the Bedford to the Lansdowne lodes were continued twenty-five miles far- ther,it would cross the St. Lawrence and strike Rossie m Lawrence County, New York ; where a group of well known veins of lead ore exists, some of which, though just now abandoned, are not supposed to be' exhausted, and two of which are known at one period to have yielded a great quantity of ore. " The rock cut by the lodes at Rossie is of the Lau- rentian series ; but a line between Rossie and Lans- downe would mtersect the outcrop of the Potsdam sandstone, which Kes between Rossie and the St. Law- rence. It haa been ascertained that a vein of lead ore cuts through this sandstone at Redwood, which would not be far from the position of the line to Lansdowne. it is thus not improbable that there is a group of lead A UsmiAi. FOR EXPLORERS. 69 running from Rossie to Bedford, and this metalli- ferouB lino appears well worthy the attention of ex- plorers in search of lead ores. The dislocations m which the lodes exist are of course thus proved to be of more recent age than the Potsdam sandstone, but this by no means establishes that the older rock may not be the source of the metal." Bammy Lead Mine, — In 1853, Mr. Richardson ascertained the existence of a vein of galena on the third lot of the sixth range of Ramsay, in the county of Lanark. The rock which the vein intersects is an arenaceous limestone, the fossils of which prove it to belong to that division of the Lower Silurian series known as the Calciferous sandrock. Mining operations have been prosecuted with some success, and have es tabhshed beyond a doubt the important facts that the galena occurs in true veins which may be depended on for persistence in depth, and that its quality is most excellent, producing eighty per cent, of metidlic lead. *' There appear," says Sir William Logan, " to be in- dications of other lodes with nearly t'\e same bearing as the one opened at Ramsay, not far removed from it, and it may belong to a group which, running parallel with the Bedford and Rossie group, would be about forty miles distant from it to the north-east." * Sir William in 1848 discovered traces of galena at Bay St. Paul, on the north bank of the St. Lawrence, about 90 miles below Quebec. Although in unworka- ble quantity, the mode of occurrence of the ore gave * Report of Progress for 1858, page 51. eo THE METALS IN CANADA. unmistalcoablo evidence of its being in a true vein ; and, from the well known valuable characteristics of t,uch deposits, this circumstance invests the discovery "With some importance. Galena of an excellent quality is known to exist at several points in the Quebec group of rocks, stretching from Lake Champlain to Gasp<5, but the fects have not yet been accurately ascertained by the compilers of this trea je. Ores of Lead.-^LeSid is found in nature in a great variety of forms, but nearly the whole supply is fur- nished to commerce from one ore, the sulphuret; a description of some of the rarer ores is given, as they sometimes lead to the discovery of the more abundant and valuable ; many of them resulting from the de composition of galena. ^ QALm A.— Sulphuret of Lead.—This may be con- sidered the matrix of all other load ores ; where they exist we are sure to find galena. It is always crystallized, however minute the crys- tals may be. The form of the crystal is a cube com- posed of rectangular plates. The color of the ore is gray, similar to that of the polished metal, which it also resembles in lustre. It forms a gray metallic powder when rubbed. H. = 2.5 — 2.75. G = 7.3 — 7.7. It consists of 86.66 per cent of lead and 13.34 of sulphur. Cerusite.— White Lead Ore.^A carbonate of lead. Containing carbonic acid 16.4 and oxide of lead 83.6 per cent, or 77.7 per cent of metallic lead.—This is a valuable ore, and is not unfrequently found in some •^1 ^ I X A MANUAL FOR EXPLORERS. 61 quantity in the lead-bearing veins near the surface, as one of the products of decomposition of the sulphuret. Color white or gray. il. = 3 — 3.5. G = 6.5. Lead Ochre. — Lustre dull ; color between sulphur and orpiment-yellow ; streak lighter than the color, opaque, does not soil ; melts readily before the blow- pipe, and is easily reduced on charcoal to the metallic state. G. = 8.0. Lead 92.8 per cent. Minium. — Ited Lead. — A powder ; color, vivid red, mixed with yellow ; usually associated with galena, G. = 4.6. Lead 90.6 per cent. Cr'^coisite. — Oltromate of Lead, Red Lead Ore. — Lustre adamantine — vitreous ; o-olor various shades of bright hyacinth-red ; streak jrang > yellow ; translu- cent ; sectile. H. = 2.5 — 3. ' >. --■" ^>. Anglesite. — Sulphate of I,-ead- Lustre highly adamantine in some specimens, m others inclinmg to resinous and vitreous; color white, tinged yellow, gray, green and sometimes blue; streak color- less ; fracture conchoidal ; very brittle. H. = 2.75. G. = 6.16. Lead 73.6 per cent. Phosphate of lead. — Lustre resinous ; color green, yellow, and brown, of diflferent shades, some- times fine orange-yellow, owing to an intermixture with chromate of lead ; streak white, sometimes yellowish ^ fracture sub-conchoidal, uneven; brittle. H. = 3.5. G,==6.6 — 7. CHAPTER VII. TIN. ZINC. NICKEL. COBALT. MERCURY. Having, in the preceding chapters, discussed the more important metals which have already been dis- covered in Canada in considerable abundance, we shall now shortly treat of such as have either been traced in small quantity, or from geological and other cftuses may naturally oe expected to occur. Of some metals such as chromium, titanium, &c., which are known to exist in Canada in combination with the iron ores, we omit all notice, as their practical utility in the arts is very limited. ^ Tin.— This is a beautiful metal ; it is white and of a high Justre, similar to silver. It is softer than gold but harder than lead. The chief deposits of tin ore are in Cornwall (Eng- land), the East Indies, Germany, Russia and South America. The United States have not afforded suffi- cient tin ore for smelting, although it has been obtained in limited quantities in the New England and Southern States. It has not hitherto been found in Canada, but Mr. Hunt remarks (Report for 1853, page 371). « The ^ A MANUAL FOR EXPLORERS. 68 we /] r frequent presence of tin ore in the auriferous gravel of different countries should encourage us to search for that valuable metal in our own gold-bearing region." The oxide of tin has been found in some quantity at the town of Jackson, New Hampshire, in three or four small veins in mica slate ; yielding 30 per cent of metallic tin. Ore% of Tin. — There is but one tin ore which is of practical use, and that is the oxide of tin. The sulphuret of tin is another valuable species, but so scarce as not to be available for smeltmg. Oxide of tin occurs in small veins traversing granite, gneiss, mica or clay slates, or porphry ; it also occurs in the alluviums of the primitive formations as the Stream Tin of Cornwall. This ore is always crystal- ized, frequently in twin crystals ; it is of a high ada- mantine lustre, a dark-brown or black color, and forms on being crushed a grayish brown powder ; it is brittle, opaque, also nearly transparent when of a light color, and very heavy. Cassiterite. — Oxide of Tin. — Lustre adamantme, and crystals usually splendent ; color brown or black, sometimes red, gray, white, or yellow ; streak white, grayish, brownish ; fracture sub-conchoidal, uneven ; brittle. H. = 6.7. G. == 7. Tin 78 per cent. Tin Pyrites. — Sulphuret of Tin. — Lustre metallic ; streak black, color steel-gray to iron-black, sometimes a bluish tarnish, often yellowish from the presence of copper pyrites ; opaque ; fracture uneven ; brittie. H. = 4. G. = 4.5. Tin 27.2 mx cent. H THE METALS IN CANADA. Zinc— Zinc being of less commercial value than any of the preceding meUls, the deposits must be large and favourably situated, to be worked with profit. Blende, or sulphuret of zinc is an ore of not infrequent occurrence in Canada associated with galena, &c. It is abundant in the Lake. Superior copper region, and it is only important from the circumstance of its being usually associated, in other countries, with the more valuable ore. Calamine. The most important ores are as follows : Blende.— Sulphuret of Zinc, Black JacL—Lmtre resmous to adamantine, color brown, yellow, black, red, green ; white or yellow when pure ; streak white to red- dish brown ; transparent; fracture conchoidal ; brittle. H.= 3.5-4.G. = 3.9-4.2. Zinc 6T per cent. On account of the difficulty of removing the sulphur, this ore cannot be profitably worked. CALAmm.—SUicious Oxideof Zinc— Lustre vitre- ous, sometimes adamantine ; color white ; sometimes blue, green, yellow or brown ; streak white ; transpar- ent ; fracture uneven ; brittle. H. = 4-5 — 5. G. = 3-16 — 3-9. Oxide of zinc 67-4 per cent. This is the only important ore of zinc m a commercial sense. Nickel.— Pure nickel is of a trilliant white color resembUng silver ; it is maJleable, both hot and cold. Nickel is the least abundant of the useful metals. Its commercial value is due to its ductility and non- corrosive or non-oxidating ^ roperties ; and when alloyed with copper and zinc, as forming a substitute for silver, under the name of German sUver or argentine. Its •' Ev fi ' 1 A MANUAL FOR EXPLORERS. 65 ores are usually found associated with those of silver, copper, zinc and cobalt. Nickel has been found in a number of localities in Canada. In the Geological Report for 1853-6, page 388, Mr. Hunt speaks of it as of frequent occurrence, traces being found in many of the serpentines, and other magnesian rocks of the Silurian series, and also among the Laurentian rocks. Mr. Hunt thus describes two specimens of nickel ores assayed by him, from Michipicoten Island, Lake Super- ior. " The first of these is associated with quartz, aijid is a massive mineral, with an impalpable structure, a shining metallic lustre, and color varying from reddish- white to bronze-yellow ; brittle ; fracture uneven, sub- conchoidal. H. = 5. G. = 7.35-7.40. The other oc- curs in the gangue of native copper and native sil- ver, which are disseminated through it in grams. The mineral is amorphous ; color greenish-yellow to apple green; lustre waxy; sub-translucent; fractui n- choidal ; very soft, polishes under the nail, and ialls to pieces when immersed in water." These specimens in various assays gave from 17 to 37 per cent of nickel. It is said that a large quantity of this ore was thrown away at the mine, the miners not being aware of its value. It is reported that tlds metal has been found at Kettle Point on Lake Huron. The ores of nickel are few in number and rarely found. The following are the most important : Nickel Glance. — Lustre metallic; color silver- white to steel-grey ; streak greyish-black ; fracture un- even. H. = 5.5. G. = 5.6-6.9 ; contams about 30 per 66 THE METALS IN CANADA. cent of nickel. This ore occurs at the Wallace mine, north shore of Lake Huron, associated with pyritous copper, iron, cobalt and arsenic. Ullmannite. — Nickeliferoui Ghray Antimony. — Lustre metallic ; color steel-gray, inclining to silver- white; brittle. H. = 5-5.5, G. = 6.2-6.51. Nickel 25 to 29 per cent. Copper Nickel. — Araeniuret of Nickel. — Lustre metallic ; color copper-red, with gray tarnish ; streak pale brownish black ; opaque ; fracture uneven ; brittle. H. = 5-5.5. G. = 7.7 ; nickel 44 per cent. This is the most important of the ores of nickel. Cobalt. — Cobalt is a metal similar to nickel ; its alloys are more brittle. It is never used in the arts in its metallic state ; but its oxide has been extensively used on account of the rich blue color which it im- parts to glass and the glazes of porcelain and stone ware. Cobalt when pure, is of a greyish white with a tinge of copper red. It is very commonly found associated with nickel, and where the latter metal has been dis- covered in Canada, traces of cobalt have always been found in it. The most important ores of this metal are the arse- nical and the sulphurets. Smaltine. — Gray cobalt. — Lustre metallic ; color tin-white, inclining when massive to steel-gray ; some- times iridiscent, or grayish from tarnish ; streak grayish- black ; opaque ; fracture granular and uneven ; brittle. H.=5.56. G.=6,5 — 7.2. This ore generally contains arsenic, iron, copper and nickel as well as cobalt. / V A MANUAL FOR EXPLORERS. 67 CoBALTiNB. — Cohalt O-lance — Lustre metallic; color silver-white, inclined to red ; also steel-gray with a violet tinge, or grayish-black when containing much iron ; streak grayish-black ; fracture uneven and lamellar ; brittle. H.=5.5. G=6.— 6.3. Cobalt 85.6 per cent. Wad — Black Oxide of Cohalt. — This is a kind of bog ore and very impure ; is sometimes sufficiently abim- dant to be valuable ; often loosely aggregat-ed and feeling veiy light to the hands ; color dull, black, bluish or brownish-black. G.=3 — 4.26 ; sometimes contains 33 per cent of cobalt. \ Mercury. — On a minute examination of some of the specimens of gold found on the Chaudi^re, in Lower Canada, Mr. Hunt has detected traces of mercurial amalgam, which have occasioned the remark that *' as no mercurj' had been used on the ground, it leads to the supposition that some ore of mercury may possibly be one of the mineral products of the country, though not a grain of cinnabar, the commonest form of the ores of mercury, has been observed in the gravel." * The only valuable ore is Cinnabar, the sulphuret of mercury. Lustre adamantine, inclining to metallic when dark colored, and to dull in friable varieties. Color cochineal-red,'often inclining to brownish red and lead-gray ; streak scarlet ; fracture uneven ; sectile ; powder always red. H.=2 — 2.5. G.=9. Quick- silver 86.2 per cent. Report of Progress for 1851-52, page 26. "mmspm 6,8 THE METALS IN CANADA. The hepatic cimabar or liver ore is an impure variety, sometimes affording a brownish streak; it is occasionally slrt-^^/, though comiaonly granular or im- palpable m struciure. Cinnabar occurs in slate rocks, and rarely in granite or porphyry ; also frequently m beds traversmg gneiss. The cliief sources of supply are Spain and California. Wiien pure it is identical with the manufactured Vermillion of commerce. There are also native quicksilver, gold amalgam and silver amalgam, and some other unimportant com!)inations. Physical Properties of some Minerals conniitutrng Vein-htoncs. As it is of impo.'hncc for reaf^ons which we have already adduced, (sec mde, page 11), that the explorer should be able to recoguise the various non-metallic nunerals constituting ihe gangue or vein-stone of ores, we add the physical properties of a few of the more important of these. Q,\jkmz.—S'dex, Flint.— Lustre vitreous, sometimes inclining to resinous; splendent, colorless when pure ; often varipus shades of yellow, red, brown, green, blue, black ; streak white in pure varieties ; if impure often the same as the color, but much paler ; fracture conchoidal. H.===7. G.=2.5 — 2.8. QalC'Btah.— Carbonate of Lime.— Lustre vitre- ous ; color usually white ; also various pale shades of gray, red, green or yellow ; brown and black when impure; streak white or grayish; fracture usually conchoidal, but difficult to be obtained. H.=2.5 — 3.5. G.=2.5— 2.8. A MANUAL FOR EXPLORERS. 69 Yuioii-^VAii.—Fluate of Lime. — Lustre vitreous ; color white , yellow, green, rose and many other varieties ; streak white ; brittle ; fracture conchoidal and splin- tery. H.==4. G.= 3.14—3.2. Barytes. — ffeavi/ Spar. -^-Lastre vitreous, inclin- ing to resinous ; sometimes pearly ; streak and color •fhite ; also inclining to yellow, gray, blue, red or brown ; sometimes fetid when nibbed. H.=2.5 — 3.5. G.=4.3— 4.7. Dolomite. — Bitter-Spar. Magneaian Limestone. — Lustre vitreous, inclining to pearly in some varieties ; color white, reddish or greenish white ; also rose-red, green, brown, gray and black ; brittle. H. = 3.5—4. a. = 2.85 — 3. 11 CHAPTER VIII. TESTS FOR METALS AND MINERALS. The Blow-pipe Test.— In exploring for metallic ores, minerals are often met with which, although known to be of a metallic nature, it will be impossible Tom mere mspection to identify with their respective metaUic bases. In such cases we should be provided with some suitable test. The blow-pipe is the most convenient, as it may be used on the most minute quantity with per- fect certainty as to the result. The foUowmg materials necessary to make a test with the blow-pipe, and by which a trialou a mineral maybe made at any time and place, can be put up so compactly as to be carried in the pocket ; viz. : a candle, a piece of charcoal, the blow-pipe, a Uttle borax and carbonate of soda, a pair of pincers, a platina wire loop, a lens, a smaU hammer and a very small glass or agate mortar. If a magnet, knife, file, a porcelain dish, a glass test tube and a Uttle nitric acid are added to the apparatus, it will be more complete. In all instances a Uttle pure metalUc lead and a little tin should be at hand. The whole coUec- tion may be fitted into a smaU box, which renders it portable and convenient. A MANUAL FOR EXPLORERS. 71 metallic h known )le Tom metallic ith some venient, nthper- est with I maybe mpactly piece of >nate of / lens,, a rtar. If est tube J, it will netallic collec- iders it % The directions for using the blow-pipe, and for iden- tifying the color of the test specimens, are abridged from Overman's Treatise on Metallurgy. It will, however be necessary for an inexperienced hand to be shewn a few experiments, and acquire a little prac- tice, before he can rely on his own manipulations ; after that, with ordinary attention, he will not be at a loss to determine most of the metals. The Blow-pipe. — The flame produced by the blow- pipe and candle may be made to turn in any direc- tion ; the current of the blast directs the flame in its course. Within the cone of the flame thus produced there is an excess of oxygen, and the flame itself is hardly visible ; the exterior of the cone having little oxygen is often reddish ; but always free from white light, when the flame is properly conducted and the candle in good trim. The extreme end of the blue interior flame is hottest, and is in some measure a reducing flame ; here is an abundance of carbon which is inclined to combine with more oxygen. Metallic oxides therefore, in being held in this part of the flame, are often reduced to metals. The tip of the flame, that is, that part where all the oxygen from the atmosphere is concentrating, has an excess of oxygen ; the temperature is here very high, and metals held in this extreme part of the flame will oxidize. The tip of the flame is, therefore, called the oxidizing flame, and the part near the base of the cone where tere is hless oxygen, the reducing flame. He-Agents. — Charcoal is a powerful re-agent, assist- ing in the detection of substances, which cannot be 72 THE METALS IN CANADA. found without its aid. It is therefore not an indifferent matter to see what kind of charcoal we employ as a mattrass or support for the specimens to be operated on. Good charcoal made of young wood will hnbibe ■the slags which may be formed by the operation, and reject the metal; bad c^"' • ^rtan coal will absorb both metal and slag. Carbonate of Soda^ is an invaluable material in vitrifying the foreig^i admixtures of a metallic ore ; it absorbs silex, alumiia and other earths, which tend to impede the process of reduction. '^S r:^ir,,._ ,es these bodies from contact with the oxides which are to be reduced and oxposes the latter to the influence of carbon, which takes away their oxygen. Cyanide of Potassium. — This is a valuable re-agent in operations with the blow-pipe; it reduces, and at the same time fluxes the test. This substance, when used somewhat to excess, will reduce the most sensi- sitive metals, sucli as antimony and arsenic. It re- duces oxides and sulphurets with equal facility. When this flux is pure, it fuses readily, but when im- pure it is more refractory, and must be mixed with carbonate of soda, or in some instances with borax. Borax. — This substance shews a strong affinity for metallic oxides, and it dissolves their either singly or in combination. It dit^ ^es r Jphun ^ to d( compose in order to combine with their metallic oxides. It is the most important substr u- for testir:^ the nat ;re of a mineral. When the common borax of the shops is heated, it forms at first a white, spong na**? ; and if we continue to heat it, pressing i' ^^wn "nto a clay or A MANUAL FOR EXl'LORiaS. 78 Hessian oniclble, it melts at a browr ^4 heat into a clear transparent glass. This glass wli pounded fine is the substance which we make use of in blow-pipe experiments. Platiwim Loop. — A single wire of platinum does not form a large globule. We bend, therefore, the end of the wire, and form a loop ; this loop when heated aiiJ dipped into ground borax, is covered with melted borax when heated again, forming a perfectly clear pane of glass over the loop. If sufficient borax is not obtained at the first dip, the operation is repeated until the area of the loop is covered ; after which it is to be detached from the wire in the form of a small bead. This globule is broughi in contact with the hot specimen to be tested, (which neo^. be no larger than a mustard seed), either on platinum foil or charcoal as the case ma;- be, and the flame being applied, it will now absorb some of the hot specimen, dissolve it and show by its color, what kind of mineral is under examination. This test is best made by means of the * spirit laiiip or alcchoHc flame. In very many cases a decisive test of the kind of metal operated on is obtained t)y ob? -vin- - the color of the glass formed when cold or Wi. warm , when in the oxidizing part of the flame, or in the reducing flame ; also if it forms metal *n the reducing flame, or merely changes its color &c. Roasting. — To perform these - Derations properly, the ore should be roasted ; this a a be done with the blow-pipe. The mineral, for this operation, is finely powdered and then moistened a little so as to fo^ n a ••'^ **: 74 THE METALS IN CANADA. 11 thick paste, and placed in a very shallow cavity upon the face of a piece of hard coal ; the extreme point of the blow-pipe flame is now directed upon it, thus per- formmg the process of oxidation. All the sulphur and arsenic are not expelled by this method ; a part remains in the metal in the form of an acid, and is still com- bined with the mineral. Whin the smell of sulphur ceases, the reducing part of the flame is directed on the mineral, in which operation most or all of the arse- nic in the form of metal is evaporated. The sulphur being once more reduced, may be now partly expelled m the oxidizing flame. When this operation has been repeated seveml times, and the mineral is well oxi- dized on one side, turn it over and expose it again to the same operation. After repeated heatings it is put into a mortar and rubbed fine, and exposed again to a similar process of oxidation juid reduction. Koastmg or oxidizing requires some care, and should always be done when there is more than one met.il in the spe- cimen ; and it is essential when the oxides are to be examined. Sulphureta, Chlorides, and other combinations of metals and volatile substances, are frequently found in nature ; and as they all, more or less, form wliite, faint- yellow or gray films of precipitate on the coal, we should be cautious in deciding on the nature of a spe- cimen, until we are convhiced of the purity of the me- tallic evaporations above described. These combina- tions ; are characterized by their film being farther from the specimen, and if brought under the direct influence of a strong reducing heat, they evaporate A MANUAL FOR EXPLORERS. 75 ''ity upon > point of thus por- ihur and remains till corn- sulphur ected on the arse- sulphur expelled las been 7e]\ oxi- in to the t is put ;ain to a ioasting tvayg be he spe- re to be without the slightest change of color. In all cases it is the surest way to produce metals first and then eva* porato them. Blow-pipe Tests on various Metallic Ores, fc. Gold. — Seldom requires a tost in order to be re- cognized ; but if we are doubtful of the identity of the metal, we may melt ^*^ with borax in the oxidizing flame, in which all other metals but gold will be al- tered. If silver be mixed with the gold, it will remain in combination with it. Silver. — With borax in the outer flame forms a milkey opaque glass and is partly reduced to metal ; with soda is readily reduced. Copper. — This metal is very easily recognized if present in a specimen. The specimen is first exposed to roasting in the oxidizing fiame on charcoal, and then melted with borax in the same fire ; the resulting glass will show the green color of the oxide of copper. After the glass has been cooled, and melted again in the re- ducing flame, it assumes a red color and becomes opaque if no metallic copper is formed ; on the contrary wb^ :/ it is formed, the glass is transparent or colored with oxides which cannot be reduced. This test for reducing the oxide is a safe and sure one, but it is sometimes difficult to produce it. When other metals are present, it is advisable to roast the specimen and expel all the volatile metals. The changing color in the borax glass may now be observed to more or less perfection. When a large quantity of copper is pre- i: #■■ ! 76 THE METALS IN CANADA. sent, it is the quickest operation to reduce the oxide by melting it with soda and producing metallic globules, which in most cases are formed in the reducmg flame by the aid of borax. Dr. Muspratt says, " Before the blow-pipe copper pyrites fuses with the evolution of sulphurous acid, into a black globule which from the presence of iron becomes magnetic. "With carbonate of soda on char- coal it readily yields a metallic button." Lead.—K test on lead is very easily made ; it is recognized in very small quantities in its pecuUar oxide, which spreads m a fihn over the coal when treated m the oxidizing flame, and colors the borax glass yellow when hot, but is nearly colorless when cold. If mixed with zinc or antimony, it may cause the color of the oxide of lead to be more faint than it otherwise would be, but it never is blended with other substances so as not to be recognized. If lead is combmed with vola- tile matter such as sulphur, and other metals at the same time, it is melted with a httle borax in the re- ducing flame ; but if the imneral contains lead, com- bined with strong acids, such as sulphuric acid or chlorine, it must be smelted with carbonate of soda; this will show the film of oxide on the coal. If metal is formed it may be evaporated under the oxidizing flame. Tm.— This metal is soon detected in minerals which contain tin chiefly; but not so in those which contain other fusible metals. Sulphuret of tin when melted on the coal support under the influence of the oxidizing flame, evaporates the sulphur first, which is recog- A MANUAL FOR EXPLORERS. 77 nized as sulphurous acid; subsequently the metal evaporates, and fonns a white film on the coal, which cannot be removed by the fire, and is characteristic of tin. When any compound of tin and refractory me- tals, such as copper and iron, is melted with borax, the tin will form metal in the reducing flame, which may be recognized with the aid of a lens. Zinc. — The oxide before the blow-pipe on charcoal with borax forms a transparent glass which becomes milky by an intermittent flame ; in the reducing flame it forms metal which is quickly evaporated. With soda a coating of white oxide is formed. Nichel. — The test is first roasted to remove arsenic and other volatile substances. Melted with borax it shows the peculiarity of the oxide of nickel, which is dark violet when hot, and changes to red brown in coohng. If u-on or cobalt, besides nickel, should be in the mineral, portions of the glass will of course be colored by their oxides ; if the roasted mineral is melted with soda and borax, and contains arsenic, a compound of arsenic and nickel is formed. Nickel is attracted by the magnet, and the globule of metal may be tested by that means. Cobalt. — When a mineral containing cobalt is oxi- dized and melted with borax, a blue glass is formed, which if the quantity of cobalt is large, often appears to be black ; this color is equally distinct in the oxi- dizing flame and in the reducing flame. With carbonate of soda it is easily reduced to the metallic state, and like nickel is magnetic. Iron, (^Peroxide of ^.— -With borax in the oxidizing 1 ' f ! 78 THE METALS IN CANADA. flame forms a bright red glass when hot, which changes to a pale dirty red when cold. In the re- ducing fl^me, it forms a bottle-green, often black-green glass ; with soda, a magnetic powder. Iron is found in most minerals, and in testing them we should al- ways be prepared to meet with it and examine for it particularly. Any specimen which is to be tested for iron should be well roasted before melting with the flux in order to remove all volatile substances. Iron cannot be reduced to the metallic state by the blow- pipe, while all other metals (except manganese) can ; which circumstance forms a distinguishing mark. It is to be remarked that the foregoing methods of operating with the blow-pipe afford little more than a comparative test. The actual quantity of metal pre- sent in a specimen can only be found in this way with much labor, and there must always be a degree of uncertainty in the result, because the test is made on such a minute quantity. In order to make an assay at the same time as to quality and quantity, we must have recourse either to cne crucible assay, or to the analysis in the moist way. Into the details of these processes our limits will not admit of entering ; and indeed without some practice and the aid of a teacher they could scarcely be made available. For an exact estimate of the kind referred to, it will always be prudent to consult some competent person who is experienced in such matters. • i» i A MANUAL FOR EXPLORERS. 79 We add some blow-pipe tests on minerals forming the gangue of metallic veins. Barytes, (heavy-spar). — "When melted with car- bonate of soda on charcoal forms a fluid glass which is absorbed by the coal with constant ebullition. lAme, (calc-spar; fluor-spar). — Clear colorless glass when pure; if with gypsum, heavy-spar, or stron- tia, the bead is opaque. Carbonate of lime or hme- stone is easily recognised by forming quicklime under a powerful heat, evolving a brilliant light. When melted with borax it dissolves with efiervescence, caused by the hberation of carbonic acid gas. Magnesia, (dolomite). — Acts like lime. When a salt of magnesia that has been heated is moistened with nitrate of cobalt, it acquires a pale red color. It is not acted on by soda. To identify magnesia with certainty requires the moist analysis. Silex, (quartz). — With soda fuses readily, forming a clear glass if in certain proportions, but opaque if these are not preserved. Alumina. — Treated with nitrate of cob' on char- coal a fine blue color is communicated to the; assay. Test of Ores in the Moist Way. — Although the blow-pipe test is the simplest, and will generally be found sufficient for all practical purposes, in so far as the mere identification of the specimens is concerned, it is inadequate, as we before remarked, to the deter- mination of the exact composition of an ore or mine- ral. For this purpose it is in manymslances necessary to have recourse to the analytical process, or Moist Assa^, as it is sometimes termed. 80 THE METALS IN CANADA. On this department of the subject, involving as it does a competent knowledge of chemistry, we shall not enter into any details ; but shall simply direct the attention of our readers to the accompanying Table, in which we have noted some of the more striking re- actions produced between the metallic ores previously treated of, and a few simple chemical tests. It is hoped that this may be found useful as an auxiliary to, and confirmatory of, the method with the blow-pipe. The operations are such as can be performed with ease and at little expense ; the materials employed for the tests are such as can be procured from any druggist. Sulphuretted hydrogen gas is most readily prepared by heating sulphuret of antimony in a glass flask with four or five times its weight of strong mu- riatic acid. Preparation of Ores, ^c, for Ohemir^^ Tests. — To prepare the ores for the tests in th : subjoined Table : First, pulverize the ore in a mortar ; then, if a sulphuret, roast over a gentle fire, gradually bring- ing the heat up to a cherry-red ; this may be done on a fire shovel or piece of sheet-iron. When roasted put the specimen into a florence flask, and cover it with nitric acid ; if gold use two parts muriatic to one of nitric acid. Then boil .gently to dryness ; add about a wine-glassful of distilled or rain water ; shake the flask well and filter. It is now ready for any of the tests, — Carbonate of Potash, &c. -^ -i s. i Experimenter to identify them with ease. 1 i ^" tiirc. GOLD, rcoat- SILVEKa in a COPPEI) both staliic all its LEAD. I a ptallic TIN. with lydro- ZINC. NICKER. COBALl. IRON (. oxid: BARYT,. LIME. .. MAGNl., ALljMI. OBSEEVATIONS. Protochlonde of tin gives a deep purple color and precipitate; sulphate of iron throws down the gold, which distinguishes it from most other metals. Muriatic acid throws down a white precipitate? insoluble in acids but soluble in ammonia . which distinguishes it ft-om all other sub- stances. Salts of copper can be easily distinguished from other salts by their behaviour with ammonia and potash. Solutions of lead give a precipitate with sul- phunc acid, and may thus be distinguished from most other metals. Muriatic acid also precipitates lead, but water dissolves the pre- cipitate. Nitric acid oxidizes tin, but does not dissolve the oxide. The solution in potash is precipitated by hydro- sulphate of ammonia, which distinguishes it from earthy salts, and may easily be separated from the metals by ammonia. Distinguished from Cobalt by ammonia and potash ; and from other substances in the same way as Cobalt. Easily distinguished from all other salts by i^s behaviour with hydro-sulphate of ammonia. Distinguished and separated from protoxide by red prussiate of potash and ammonia. Edsily distinguished by forming a white preci- pitate with sulphates and carbonates. Not acted on by the acids. Distinguished from baryta by giving no precipi- tate with sulnhates rvheu diluted. Acids pro- duce a brisk efferveseuce. Easily distinguished bv the precipitates being all soluble in muriate of ammonia. Disti Jiguished from the alkalies bv giving a white pre- h-iiau with ammonia; and may bo sepa- rated t'r jiii most other substances by caustic poi-asih. TAELE OF CHEMI' ^ i FOR SOME OF THE MORE IMPORTANT MI N. B.— The action of the Metals &c. in the Vertical column with the Tests in the Horizontal ar GOLD. SILVER. COPPER. LEAD. TIN. ZINC. NICKEL. COBALT. IRON (Pee- oxide). BARYTA. LIME. MAGNESIA. ALUMINA. CAEBONATE OV POTASH. CAEBONATB OB AMMOBTIA. No precipitate. A white precipitate, soluble in ammonia. i green precipitate which boiling ren- ders black. A white precipitate, insoluble in excess but soluble in am- monia. A white precipitate, insoluble in excess. A white precipitate, insoluble in excess, but soluble in mu- riate of ammonia or caustic alkalies. A light green preci- A green precipitate itate. soluble in excess, forming a bluish solution. A red precipitate so- luble in muriate o." ammonia. A yellow precipitate if neutral. A white precipitate soluble in excess. A green precipitate soluble in excess; deep purple solut'n. The same. The same. A white precipitatti soluble in excess. A red precipitate which boiling ren- ders blue. A light brown preci- pitate. A white precipitate soluble with efferve- sence in free acids. Same as Baryta. A white precipitate soluble in muriate of ammonia. A white precipitate soluble in caustic potash. The same. Tho same. The same. The same. The same; carbonic acid is evolved. SiriiPHUEETTEP HYDEOGEN, A black precipitate in both acid and neutral solutions. A black precipitate in both neutral and acid solutions. A black or dk, brown precipitate in both neutral and acid so- lutions. A black precipitate in both neutral and acid solutions. No immediate preci- pitate, but shortly a yellow one. A white precipitate if neutral, but none if acid. No precipitate, but solution turns darker. Same as Nickel. A milk-white preci- pitate of sulphur; solution then con* tains protoxide. No precipitate. No precipitate. No precipitate. No precipitate in any solution. OXALIC ACID. A dark color ; and shortly the gold is precipitated. A white precipitate soluble in ammo- nia. A greenish precipi- tate. An immediate white precipitate. No precipitate. A white precipitate soluble in free acids and alkalies. No immediate preci- pitate, but a slow deposit. A slight disturbance, and shortly a pale red precipitate. No precipitate; so- lution turning yel- lowish. PH No precipitate unless A left for some days. { s N( P II A Tl A s g A V t 1( An immediate preci- pitate soluble in ni- tric o»' muriatic acids. No precipitate unless ammonia be added. No precipitate. Sa A F n jE of chemical tests E MORE IMPORTANT METALS AND EARTHY BASES. h the Tests in the Horizontal are so characteristic as to enable the Experimenter to identify them with ease. but OXALIC ACID. PHOSPHATE 01? SODA. A dark color ; and shortly the gold is precipitated. A white precipitate soluble in ammo- nia. A greenish precipi- tate. An immediate white precipitate. No precipitate. A white precipitate soluble in free acids and alkalies. No immediate preci- pitate, but a slow deposit. A slight disturbance, and shortly a pale red precipitate. No precipitate; so- lution turning yel- lowish. No precipitate. A yellow precipitate soluble in ammonia. A greenish-white precipitate, soluble in ammonia. A white precipitate soluble in potaih. A white precipitate. The same. A white precipitate slightly tending to green. A blue precipitate. A white precipitate which ammonia turns brown and at length dissolves- No precipitate unless A white precipitate left for some days. soluble in free acids, An immediate preci- pitate soluble in ni- tric 0.' muriatic acids. No precipitate unless ammonia be added. in No precipitate. Same as Earyta. A white precipitate, particularly if am- monia be added. A white precipitate soluble in acida or potaNh. METALLIC ZINC. A brown bulky coat- ing. Is precipitated in a metallic state. Zinc and Iron both precipitate metallic copper from all its solutions. Precipitates in a crystalline metallic state. A white jelly, with evolution of hydro- gen gas. OBSEEVATIONS. Protochloride of tin gives a deep purple color, and precipitate; sulphate of iron throws down the gold, which distinguishes it from most other metals. Muriatic acid throws down a white precipitate' insoluble in acids but soluble in ammonia, which distinguishes it from all other sub- stances. Salts of copper can be easily distinguished from other salts by their behaviour with ammonia and potash. Solutions of lead give a precipitate with sul- phuric acid, and may thus be distinguished from most other metals. Muriatic; acid also precipitates lead, but water dissolves the pre- cipitate. Nitric acid oxidizes tin, but does not dissolve the oxide. The solution in potash is precipitated by hydro- sulphate of ammonia, which distinguishes it from earthy salts, and may easily be separated from the metals by ammonia. Distinguished from Cobalt by ammonia and potash ; and from other substances in the same way as Cobalt. Easily distinguished from all other salts by its behaviour with hydro-sulphate of ammonia. Distinguisiheci and ^ parated from protoxide by ro.l T ;'?sslate of potash and ammonia. Easily dis;i-.gui.sb.ed by forming a white preci- pitate with sulphates and carbonates. Not acted on by the acids. Distinguished from baryta by gi v in? no precipi- tate with sulphates wlieu diluted. Acids pro- duce a brisk effervesence. Easily distinguished by the precipitates being all soluble in muriate of ammonia. Distinfruished from the alkalies bv giving a white precipitate with ammonia ; and may be sepa- rated from most other substances by caustic potash. m'B^ ai"-- H OHAB.LES ROBB,