IMAGE EVALUATION 
 TEST TARGET (MT-3) 
 
 7 
 
 // 
 
 / 
 
 
 / 
 
 <■' Co-, 
 
 Q- 
 
 &?/ 
 
 :/ 
 
 
 1.0 
 
 I.I 
 
 1.25 
 
 rrilM ilM 
 
 :;■ IIIIIM 
 
 ','. 1116 
 
 12.2 
 
 1- III. 
 
 2,0 
 
 1.8 
 
 U iil 1.6 
 
 h^/A 
 
 ^^. 
 
 ^h 
 
 '^ 
 
 ■<rA 
 
 ^^ c^ 
 
 w/ <>' 
 
 
 O 
 
 7 
 
 Photographic 
 
 Sciences 
 Corporation 
 
 :1>^ 
 
 '% 
 
 >> ^^ 
 
 \\ 
 
 «■• 
 
 ^•■,^^<^ 
 
 6^ 
 
 23 WEST MAIN STREET 
 
 WEBSTER, NY. 14580 
 
 (716) 872-4503 
 
 "^XF W^ 
 
 
CIHM/ICMH 
 
 Microfiche 
 
 Series. 
 
 CIHM/ICMH 
 Collection de 
 microfiches. 
 
 
 Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions Institut canadien de microreproductions historiques 
 
 1980 
 
Technical and Bibliographic Notes/Notes techniques et bibliographiques 
 
 The Institute has attempted to obtain the best 
 original copy available for filming. Features of this 
 copy which may be bibliographically unique, 
 which may alter any of the images in the 
 reproduction, or which may significantly change 
 the usual method of filming, are checked below. 
 
 □ Coloured covers/ 
 Couverture de couleur 
 
 □ Covers damaged/ 
 Couverture endommag6e 
 
 L'Institut a microfilm^ le meilleur exemplaire 
 qu'il lui a 6t6 possible de se procurer. Les details 
 de cet exemplaire qui sont peut-dtre uniques du 
 point de vue bibliographique, qui peuvent modifier 
 une image roproduite, ou qui peuvent exiger une 
 modification dans la mdthode normale de filmage 
 sont indiqu^s ci-dessous. 
 
 I I Coloured pages/ 
 
 Pages de couleur 
 
 Pages damaged/ 
 Pages endommagdes 
 
 D 
 
 Covers restored and/or laminated/ 
 Couverture restaurde et/ou peliiculde 
 
 □ Pages restored and/or laminated/ 
 Pages restaur^es et/ou pellicui^es 
 
 D 
 
 Cover title missing/ 
 
 Le titre de couverture manque 
 
 □ Pages discoloured, stained or foxed/ 
 Pages ddcolordes, tachetdes ou piquSes 
 
 ~7] Coloured maps/ 
 
 Cartes g6ographiques en couleur 
 
 □ Pages detached/ 
 Pages ddtach^es 
 
 □ Coloured ink (i.e. other than blue or black)/ 
 Encre de couleur (i.e. autre que bleue ou noire) 
 
 I I Showthrough/ 
 
 Transparence 
 
 □ Coloured plates and/or illustrations/ 
 Planches et/ou illustrations en couleur 
 
 □ Quality of print varies/ 
 Quality in6gale de I'impression 
 
 D 
 
 Bound with other material/ 
 Relid avec d'autres documents 
 
 □ Includes supplementary material/ 
 Comprend du materiel supplementaire 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 Tight binding may cause shadows or distortion 
 along interior margin/ 
 
 La reliure serree peut causer de I'ombre ou de la 
 distortion le long de la marge intdrieure 
 
 Blank leaves added during restoration may 
 appear within the text. Whenever possible, these 
 have been omitted from filming/ 
 II se peut que certaines pages blanches ajout^es 
 lors d'une restauration apparaissent dans le texte, 
 mais, lorsque cela dtait possible, ces pages n'ont 
 pas 6t6 filmfies. 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 Only edition available/ 
 Seule Edition disponible 
 
 Pages wholly or partially obscured by errata 
 slips, tissues, etc., have been refilmed to 
 ensure the best possible image/ 
 Les pages totalement ou partiellement 
 obscurcies par un feuillet d'errata, une pelure, 
 etc., ont 6X6 film6es 6 nouveau de fapon 6 
 obtenir la meilleure image possible. 
 
 D 
 
 Additional comments:/ 
 Commentaires suppl6menta''es: 
 
 r~7| This item is filmed at the reduction ratio checked below/ 
 
 Iv I Ce document est filmd au taux de reduction indiqui ci-dessous. 
 
 10X 
 
 
 
 
 14X 
 
 
 
 
 18X 
 
 
 
 
 22X 
 
 
 
 
 26X 
 
 
 
 
 SOX 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ! 
 i 
 
 
 
 12X 
 
 
 
 
 16X 
 
 
 
 
 ;<Qx 
 
 
 
 
 24X 
 
 
 
 
 28X 
 
 
 
 
 32X 
 
ails 
 
 du 
 
 )difier 
 
 une 
 
 nage 
 
 The copy filmed here has been reproduced thanks 
 to the generosity of: 
 
 National Library of Canada 
 
 The images appearing here are the best quality 
 possible considering the condition and legibility 
 of the original copy and in keeping with the 
 filming contract specifications. 
 
 L'exemplaire film6 fut reproduit grdce d la 
 g^n^rositd de: 
 
 Bibliothdque nationale du Canada 
 
 Les images suivantes ont 6X6 reproduites avec le 
 plus grand soin, compte tenu de la condition et 
 de la nettet^ de l'exemplaire filmd, et en 
 conformity avec les conditions du contrat de 
 filmage. 
 
 Original copies in printed paper covers are filmed 
 beginning with the front cover and ending on 
 the last page with a printed or illustrated impres- 
 sion, or the back cover when appropriate. All 
 other original copies are filmed beginning on the 
 first page with a printed or illustrated impres- 
 sion, and ending on the last page with a printed 
 or illustrated impression. 
 
 Les exempiaires originaux dont la couverture en 
 papier est imprimde sont film^s en commenpant 
 par le premier plat et en terminant soit par la 
 dernidre page qui comporte une empreinte 
 d'impression ou d'illustration, soit par le second 
 plat, selon le cas. Tous les autres exempiaires 
 originaux sont film^s en commenqant par la 
 premidre page qui comporte une empreinte 
 d'impression ou d'illustration et en terminant par 
 la dernidre page qui comporte une telle 
 empreinte. 
 
 The last recorded frame on each microfiche 
 shall contain the symbol —^(meaning "CON- 
 TINUED"), or the symbol V (meaning "END"), 
 whichever applies. 
 
 Un des symboles suivants apparaitra sur la 
 dernidre image de cheque microfiche, selon le 
 cas: le symbole ^^ signifie "A SUIVRE", le 
 symbole V signifie "FIN". 
 
 Maps, plates, charts, etc., may be filmed at 
 different reduction ratios. Those too large to be 
 entirely included in one exposure are filmed 
 beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to 
 right and top to bottom, as many frames as 
 required. The following diagrams illustrate the 
 method: 
 
 Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent dtre 
 filmds d des taux de reduction diffdrents. 
 Lorsque le document est trop grand pour §tre 
 reproduit en un seul cliche, il est film6 A partir 
 de Tangle supdrieur gauche, de gauche d droite, 
 et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre 
 d'images ndcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants 
 illustrent la mdthode. 
 
 irrata 
 to 
 
 pelure, 
 n d 
 
 n 
 
 32X 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
GEOGRAPHY 
 
 OF 
 
 CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND 
 
 GRE SWELL 
 
 n 
 
HENRY FROWDE 
 
 Oxford University Press Warehouse 
 Amen Corner, E.G. 
 
 
 '$. 
 
GEOGRAPHY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE DOMINION OF CANADA 
 
 AND 
 
 NEWEOUNDLA 
 
 .0 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 THE EEV. WILLIAM ^^^.GRES^^L^i/^ 
 
 M.A. (OXON.), F.R^^^fe^^ if .-^ T" "^ 
 
 -Ca^c Scholar ofBrascnose College 
 Author of 'A History of the Dominior of Canada ' 
 
 UNDER THE AUSPICES OF 
 
 THE ROYAL COLONIAL INSTITUTE 
 
 AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 
 1890 
 
 [All rig Jits reserved'] 
 
I0 50S 
 
 Cjcforli 
 
 PRINTED AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 
 
 BY IIOKACF. HART, PRINTER TO THK i;MVERSrrY 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 
 The following geogra])hical study of the Dominion of 
 Canada and of the Island of Newfoundland is intended 
 to be supplementary to the short history of those 
 countries recently published by the Clarendon Press. It 
 has been compiled from the latest and most trustworthy 
 maps and statistics, and has been corrected throughout 
 by the same gentlemen of the Educational Committee 
 of the Koyal Colonial Institute, who have revised the 
 iiistory, viz. Lieutenant -General E. W. Lowry, C.B., 
 Dr. Rae, F.R.S., and Mr. Peter Redpath. Under the 
 ever-changing conditions of the Dominion, especially 
 in the West, it has been a somewhat difficult task to 
 obtain precise accuracy of details as to the increase and 
 distribution of population, trade, and native industries. 
 Even the boundaries of the older Provinces of Quebec 
 and Ontario, which we might have regarded as long 
 since fixed and permanent, have recently (May, 1890) 
 been undergoing revision on the North. The Province 
 of Quebec, once called Lower Canada, is no longer 
 contained in the Valley of the St. Lawrence, but, ac- 
 cording to the Honourable Honore Mercier's statement 
 on pp. 7-8 of *A General Sketch of the Province of 
 Quebec,' must be extended northwards across the height 
 
VI 
 
 Preface. 
 
 of lands to James' Bay, and to tho wutorshcds of the 
 Hudson's Bay Rivers. Further, the Province of Ontario, 
 once called Upper Canada, has long since ceased to mean 
 only that fertile peninsula and centre of British colonisa- 
 tion surrounded by Lakes Ontario, Erie, and Huron, hut 
 has been expanding northwards to the shores of Hudson's 
 Bay, and westwards along tho shores of Lake Superior to 
 the meridian of the Lake of the Woods, and to the 
 boundaries of Manitoba. 
 
 The geographical expression 'The North-West Terri- 
 tories' has also been undergoing recently some modi- 
 fication. Li Keith Johnston's ' School, Physical, and 
 Descriptive Geography,' 1884, tho term is said to mean 
 (P« 340) ''ill the vast region of North America through 
 which tho trading stations of the Hudson's Bay Company 
 are scattered. It extends from the boundary of the 
 United States away north to the Arctic Ocean, and 
 from the Inner Watershed of Labrador westward to the 
 heights of the Eocky Mountains.' It might have been 
 added that before British Columbia was created a Province 
 it was regarded as part of the North- West Territories. 
 
 Now, however, the term has been narrowed down to 
 the extreme northern parts of the continent north of 
 British Columbia and west of longitude 100'' W., and of 
 the boundaries of Manitoba and the Keewatin District. 
 It includes at present the judicial districts of Assi;iiboia, 
 Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Athabasca, the official and 
 governing centre of these vast domains being at Regina. 
 The Keewatin District, over which the Lieutenant- 
 Governor of Manitoba exercises jurisdiction, is a long 
 strip of territory lying directly north of Manitoba, with 
 an eastern boundary line extending from the north-east 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
Preface. 
 
 Vll 
 
 corner of Manitoba, at tho meridian of Lake Winnipeg, 
 to Fort Churchill on Hudson's Bay, and with n western 
 boundary lino following longitude loo'' W. northwards. 
 
 The North-Enst Territories is a recent geographical 
 term for the comparatively unoccui)ied regions lying to 
 the north of tht; Provinces of Que])ec and Ontario, and 
 })ound('d on the east by Labrador, tiie dependency of 
 Newfoundland. Unlike the North- West Territories, the 
 term ' North-East Territories ' has no political signi- 
 ficance. Meantime it may be noticed that, in a Bill 
 before the Parliament of tho Dominion of Canada to 
 amend the ' North-West Territories ' Act, a clause has 
 been inserted, at tho instigation of the Government, 
 changing the name ' North-West Territories ' to ' Th<* 
 Western Territories of Canada,' the reason given for this 
 change being that the use of the word ' North ' was u 
 misnomer, and conveyed a wrong impression to intend- 
 ing settlers. Ultimately, no doubt, these Territories, as 
 they are claimed by the nearest Provinces, or sopar.ately 
 occui^ied and inhabited, will lose their customary and 
 historical nomenclature. An unorganised and unoccu- 
 pied territory quickly becomes a judicial district, and in 
 due course of time a Province. In the future a series of 
 fair and fertile Provinces will arise upon the Prairies of 
 the North-West Territories, fully organised, surveyed, and 
 equipped with local and provincial autonomy. At present, 
 however, and perhaps for some time to come, tho geogra- 
 phical nomenclature adopted in the text may stand. 
 
 The orthography of certain names and places still 
 seems a matter of doubt and uncertainty, a fact which 
 may be explained by the presence of a French-speaking 
 community alongside of British colonists. Writers on 
 
Vlll 
 
 Preface. 
 
 Canadian lii-story have not yet adopted in every case 
 u uniform spelling. 1 have si)elt Mini's thus instead of 
 Minas, in accordance with the fashion sot by Mr. 
 Kingsford, the latest historian of Canada, although the 
 precedent of the poet Longfellow is against this. On 
 p. 37 I have suggested that the County of liichelieu, like 
 those of Charleroix, Montcalm, and Joliette in the Pro- 
 vince of Quebec, was so called to connnemorate a great 
 Frenchman. Ilayden and 8elwyn have remarked in 
 their 'Geography of North America,' p. 459, that it was 
 so named, like the County of Terrebonne I presume, to 
 denote simply the richness of the place. Canadian 
 Kivers also occasionally have two names, as the Daujihin 
 or Little Saskatchewan, the St. Charles or Assiniboine, 
 the Souris or St. Pierre, the Peace or Unjigah, a fact 
 which may sometimes puzzle the student. Moreover, 
 Canada would seem to be as famous for its patron saints 
 as Cornwall in our own country. St. John, for example, 
 is commemorated so often in the New "World that the 
 reader is apt to be puzzled. 
 
 Although many remarks have been made in the text 
 on the ocean currents, winds, rainfall, atmosphere, 
 climate, soils, and general physical conditions of the 
 country, there is no attemi)t made to arrange these 
 conditions under any general system. The first chapter 
 is simply a very brief and prefatory account of some of 
 the more striking features of the land. In the last 
 chapter a few remarks have been offered on the in- 
 dustries, wealth, and social progress of the country, taken 
 chiefly from * Agricultural Canada : a Record of Progress. ' 
 by Professor W. Fream, LL.D., and jaublished under the 
 direction of the Government of Canada (Department of 
 
 4 
 
Preface. 
 
 IX 
 
 Agriculture), 1889; also, from an ' Ofilcial Ilaiulhouk 
 of Infonnation relating to tho Dominion of Canada.' 
 published by the Government of Canada (Department of 
 Agriculture), 1890; and from 'British Columbia, its 
 Resources and Capabilities,' reprinted from 'Canada: 
 a Memorial Volume,' Montreal, 1889. For the para- 
 grai)hs on educational })rogress I am indebted to a pai)er 
 read by Mr. Henry F. Moore before the Fellows of the 
 lioyal Colonial Institute, April, 1889, entitled 'Canadian 
 Lands and their Development.' For gene»'al information 
 on the Dominion I have consulted the 1 "'owing papers 
 read before the Fellows of the Koyal Colonial Institute : — 
 ' The British Association in Canada,' read by Sir Henry 
 Lefroy, K.C.M.G., C.B., January, 1885 ; ' Newfoundland : 
 oui oldest Colony,' read by Sir Eobert Pinsent, D.C.L., 
 April, 1885; 'Recent and Prospective Development of 
 Canada,' read by Mr. Joseph G. Colmer, C.M.G., January, 
 1886; 'British Columbia,' read by the Kight llev. the 
 Bishoi) of New Westminster, March, 1887. 
 
 My object throughout has been to obtain the most 
 trustworthy information from official sources, and from 
 the accounts of those who have had the most recent 
 personal experience of the Provinces of the Dominion. 
 Occasionally there are disputed points in the geograi)hy 
 as there are in the history of the country. The clin)atc- 
 itself is often variously described by those who have 
 lived in the Dominion. This is only natural when we 
 consider the vast area and extent of the country, exceed- 
 ing, if we take into account the water surface of the 
 lakes, the w^hole area of Europe. To convey correct 
 ideas on this point, a few remarks have been offered 
 in the text on the climate of each Province. The 
 
X Preface. 
 
 climate of Iliulson's Bay has often been a vcxata quacsfio 
 with experienced sailors. Some years, no clou1)t, the 
 waters of this bay are navij^able for a longer time 
 than otliers ; and it is impossible to foretell with exact- 
 ness what kind of winter will prevail in the Arctic 
 regions, or the numljer of days in the year when any 
 particulai waters will be open. The nature and extent 
 of ice in Hudson's Strait cannot always be known before- 
 hand, but as the Hudson Bay route to the interior of 
 the continent is more generally used, the climatology of 
 these regions will be better known. On another point, 
 viz. the northern limit of the grains and grasses in the 
 Dominion, various ojnnions have prevailed, but periiaps 
 it is safer to put the wheat limit at 58^ N. As in other 
 countries so in the North-W(^st Territories of Canada, 
 there are, even at the same levels, both sheltered and 
 exposed places. In certain chosen localities, favoured 
 l)y soil and sun, wheat and l)arley may ripen at high 
 latitudes, oven beyond 6i"N. latitude, but it is not safe to 
 argue that at every spot along the same parallels of 
 latitude ecpially favourable results will bo oljtained. 
 The summer isotherms, however, of the Dominion are 
 deserving of very careful study before wo piiss judgment 
 or the climate of the Dominion, even under the Arctic 
 Circle. Further, with regard to the wheat-l)earing zone, 
 it nnist be remembered that some kinds of wheat, 
 notaldy the Onega and Saxonka varieties, will ripen more 
 (Quickly and more surely than the usual kinds. Generally 
 speaking, it must be assumed that there is no such 
 CeiSoipos iiiiovpa, to uso an Homeric phrase, as this in the 
 world. Nowhere is healthy colonisation and settlement 
 carried on so (piickly. In my ' History of the Dominion ' 
 
Preface. 
 
 XI 
 
 I havo pointed out, on p. 263, in a tablo quoted from 
 *Tlio Britisli Association in Canada' (Proceedings of 
 the Royal Colonial Institutis vol. xvi. 1884-5), that by far 
 the largest portion of the immigrants havo l)een recruited 
 from the British Isles, and latterly from Iceland and Scan- 
 dinavia. In 1888 the French and Belgian immigrants 
 only numbored J;-)5 out of a total of more than 28,000, 
 the Germans only numlx-ring 403. The lilling-up pro- 
 cess is going on, of course more especially in Manitoba 
 and British Columbia and theadjoining judicial districts. 
 The extraordinary trallic which passes down the Sault 
 Ste. Marie Canal, and promises to exceed greatly that of 
 thi> Suez Canal, is a remarkable proof of the growth 
 and wealth of the Far West. This canal i>asses through 
 United States Territory, but, as pointed out on p. 48, tlu' 
 Canadians are making a canal of their own. This will 
 be another and extremely important link in that system 
 of unrivalled waterways and canals which exists in tho 
 Dominion. On p. 321 of the ' History of the Dominion ' 
 1 have given a list of tho canals of the Dominion 
 with their mileage, gathered from 'Canada: a Statistical 
 Abstract and Record,' 1887. In addition to authorities 
 already cited I havo quoted, for the purpose of general 
 and descriptive accounts, from Sir W. Butha-'s 'Wild 
 North Land ' and ' The Great Lone Land ; ' from 
 ' Pictia-esque Canada,' edited by the Very Koverend 
 G. M. Grant, Principal of Queen's University, Kingston, 
 Ontario; from 'Ilocholaga,' by Sir F. Head; from 
 'Manitoba, its Growth and Present Condition,' by Pro- 
 fessor Bryce ; and from 'Canadian Pictures,' l^y the 
 Man^uis of Lome. With regard to the latter authority 
 I havo ventured to alter, in a (quotation on p. 48, 
 
xu 
 
 Preface. 
 
 the words Mf the ships bo of 1400 tons' to *a ship of 
 small tonnage,' some of the canals having only nine and 
 not fourteen feet of "water over the sills of the locks. 
 I have also quoted occasionally from Lord Dufterin's 
 speeches, and from the pages of Parkman, the well- 
 known historian of Canada. For kind supervision and 
 invalual)lo help I am indebted to my revisers and to 
 Mr. J. S. O'llalloran, the Secretary of the Eoyal Colonial 
 Institute. For special information on the subject of 
 Newfoundland I have to express my thanks to Sir Robert 
 Pinsent, and for the latest statistical and other infor- 
 mation on the Provinces of the Dominion, I am largely 
 indebted to the gentlemen of the High Commissioner's 
 Office in London. With regard to maps and geographical 
 nomenclature, it will be seen that I have not found 
 space on the maps for every place mentioned in the text, 
 but a sufficient number, perhaps, have been given for the 
 purposes of guidance and illustration. 
 
 WILLIAM GRESWELL. 
 
 DODINOTON, 
 
 Jam 17, 1890. 
 
 ill 
 
 n 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. PAGES 
 
 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion . . . 1-2S 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 The Province of Quebec 2S-41 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 The Province of Ontario 42-51 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 The Province of Nova Scotia o^-o^ 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 The Provinces of New Brunswick and Prince Edward 
 
 Island 58-66 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 The Province of Manitoba 67-77, 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 The North-West Territories *"3-S[ 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 The Province of British Columbia 81-93 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 The Island of Newfoundland 93-102 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 Industries, Wealth, and Social Progress . . 102-123 
 
 Appendices 1 26-141 
 
 General Index 143-154 
 
 I 
 

 I 'I 
 
 i I 
 
 .1 
 
^^ 
 
 ^VS iL.'/ifr^f^^.^ 
 
 
 
 ) 
 
 LIST OF MAPS. 
 
 I. General Map, showing tlio boundaries of the 
 Provinces, with Railways .... 
 
 II, Historical Map, showing Ancient Settlements 
 III. Physical Map, showing cultivable zone of 
 grains and grasses, sago country, region 
 of droughts, summer and winter isotlierms, 
 cold and warm ocean currents, the prairie 
 steppes 
 
 IV. The Province of Que])ec 
 
 V. The Province of Ontario 
 
 VI. The Provinces of Nova Scotia, New Bnniswick, 
 and Prince Edward Island .... 
 VII. The Province of Manitol)a, with southern 
 portion of the North-West Territories . 
 VIII. The Province of British Columbia . 
 
 IX. The Island of Newfoundland .... 
 X. The Townships of the North-West . 
 
 To face 
 
 PAGB 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 29 
 
 43 
 51 
 
 67 
 
 81 
 
 93 
 
 1X2 
 
i 
 
T(^ Wicv pa^;e 1 
 
 OA-ti'Vti f^l/l-^T.Vl't 
 
Lo ngitu de West 90 froriL Greenwich. 
 
 {'irin;i f'ni. ••r.vt'ry /'r.'.s\ . 
 
T(i Hii t' t'.iyjo 1 
 
 ii 
 
 Fr. ftt»r/j 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 R. 
 
 
 I 
 
 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. 
 
 (i) After its first discovery by Cabot (1497) the 
 continent of North America remained for many years 
 untenanted by genuine colonists and settlors. Time 
 alone could prove its complete adaptability to the nations 
 of Northern Europe, and convince French, English, 
 Germans, and Scandinavians, that here along the same 
 lines of latitude was the natural home for the develop- 
 ment of their energies. In the first place, the very nature 
 of the climate and its sea-coast was suited especially to the 
 life of a seafaring folk. The great island of Newfound- 
 land, the bulwark of the St. Lawrence Gulf, is indented 
 with numerous bays and inlets, and boasts of a larger 
 coast-line for its size than any other important island 
 in the world. Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince 
 Edward Island have peculiar attractions for fishermen 
 and adventurers. To explore them thoroughly from bay 
 to bay, from fiord to fiord, in the ardour of first dis- 
 coverers, must have been a fascinating occupation. And 
 these maritime provinces lay at the threshold of undis- 
 covered worlds beyond. The St. Lawrence was a grand 
 natural highway, which took the traveller into the very 
 heart of a country abounding in natural wealth. There 
 was nothing in the known world to equal the marvellous 
 chain of the great lakes. To those who had been ac- 
 customed to look with wonder and surprise upon the 
 small inland lakes of Great Britain, nestling amongst 
 picturesque hills, how noble these great inland seas, 
 fringed with forest wealth to their edges, must have 
 
 i » 
 
2 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 appeared ! As lake beyond lake was discovered, and this 
 splendid natural highway was opened up, the heart of the 
 colonist and trader rejoiced. In dry countries like South 
 Africa and Australia the main want is water and means 
 of transport : and places only a few miles distant from 
 one another are effectually cut off and isolated by a tract 
 of country where it is difficult, nay, impossible, to con- 
 struct a road. Before the days of railways, the colonists 
 in South Africa and Australia were debarred from all 
 the innumerable benefits which come from easy and 
 quick communication. The merchant needs speedy dis- 
 tribution for his produce, the farmer an easy road to his 
 market, and the politician, who guides the affairs of the 
 colony, needs to be as quickly as possible in touch with 
 all sections of the community. 
 
 (2) In Canada the great lakes give all classes the means 
 of communicating with one another, and out of this 
 natural advantage has arisen the extraordinary prosperity 
 of the Dominion. To gain an idea of the vastness of the 
 Lake Districts of Canada, we need simply refer to the 
 map and see how wide is the area they occupy. Lake 
 Superior is the largest sheet of fresh water in the world, 
 being 420 miles from east to west, with an average 
 breadth of 80 miles. The St. Lawrence and the Cana- 
 dian lakes are estimated to hold 12,000 cubic miles of 
 water, or more than half the fresh water on the globe. 
 The shores of the Dominion are not mere barren beaches 
 such as border the sea, but hundreds of miles of green 
 fir-clad banks along which vast and solemn pine-forests 
 grow, and the lumberer's axe finds ready and profitable 
 spoil. In spite of the rigour of the climate, the country 
 proved to be extremely healthy for Europeans, and here 
 more than elsewhere in the New World the stock has 
 thriven. For races dwelling in the north of Europe, 
 Canada is a natural habitat, especially for the Bretons 
 
 J 
 
I.] 
 
 The 2'>voccs8 of Settlement. 
 
 5 
 
 ami Scots. Stoam has como as a powerful auxiliaiy, and 
 has made the most of the advantages already at hand. 
 Without losing any of its native fibre and hardihood, 
 as it must do in tropical colonies, the British stock has 
 lived and i)rospered, and heaped up wealth. There ia 
 a greater e<{uality of wealth amongst all classes, and a 
 more evenly distri))uted population in the Dominion, 
 than in Australasia or South Africa. The lakes and 
 rivers are partly the cause of this. They have encouraged 
 dispersion by the facilities of travel and transport. 
 Especially during summer their oi)en waters have pro- 
 vided a cheap and easy transit. In the colonies of the 
 South Pacific we hear of congested towns and crowded 
 thoroughfares, and all the ills that, along with many 
 advantages, centralisation ever brings in its train. Many 
 railways exist there, and their mileage is constantly 
 being increased ; still they are narrow and expensive 
 arteries, compared generally with the placid lake and 
 broad river as a medium. There is, therefore, no such 
 town as Melbourne or Sydney in the Dominion. 
 
 (3) The industries of a new country also determine the 
 character of the population. The great mining centres of 
 Australia and South Africa localise trade, and cause a 
 divergence of population towards themselves. In Canada 
 the occupations of agriculture, of lumbering and of fishing, 
 which are the chief ones, spread the people abroad over 
 many country towns and villages. The purely rural 
 population of Canada is extremely numerous, and con- 
 stitutes a most healthy and substantial class. It is the 
 ' mascula proles docta ligonibus ' who so often have 
 proved the mainstay of a country. The seamen and 
 fishermen of Newfoundland, New Brunswick, and Nova 
 Scotia are the hardiest perhaps in the world, and re- 
 produce the stern and wholesome qualities of Scandi- 
 navian ancestors. 
 
 B 2 
 
4 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 (4) As useful waterways in connection with the St. 
 Lawrence we must consider the Ottawa, St. Maurice, 
 Saguenay on the left, and Eichelieu, St. Francis, Chau- 
 diere on the right hank. To the north lie the vast 
 inland waters of Hudson's Bay stretching 600 miles 
 from east to west, and 1 300 miles from north to south, 
 and providing a watenv.ay for five months of the year to 
 the very heart of the continent. Port Nelson, the trade 
 entrepot on the west shores, is only 2941 miles distant 
 ^om Liverpool, being 100 miles nearer than New 
 York \ Thence by river, lake, and portage, for hun- 
 dreds of miles the way lay open to the utmost bounds 
 of ^Le Great West. For 200 years fur-traders have ex- 
 plored the continent and planted their 7orts. From Hud- 
 son's Bay Franklin undertook his land journey to the 
 Polar Seas, and from Hudson's Bay the Selkirk colonists 
 started to found the Prairie Province of Manitoba. 
 
 (5) From the mouth of the St. Lawrence, and from 
 Hudson's Bay, explorers could press westward to solve 
 the geographical problems of a new continent, till 
 beyond the sources of this great river and the latitude 
 of Lake Superior, they found the ground rise steppe 
 above steppe'^, and so reached the huge barrier of 'the 
 Pocky Mountains.' This mountain chain runs down the 
 whole continent for 3000 miles from north to south. 
 Once this range and its subsidiary elevations were passed, 
 the European found a more genial land and milder hill- 
 sides abutting on the great Pacific, and fjicing the eastern 
 world with its countless nations and peoples. Here, too, 
 was found an island — Vancouver — guarding the entrance 
 to this northern land on one coast, just as Newfoundland 
 guards it sentinel-like at the entrance to the St. Lawrence 
 on the other. On these two islands floats the British 
 
 * SoG p. 317 of Haydon and Solwyn's ' North America.' 
 ^ Appendix I. 
 
 4 
 
[Ch. 
 
 I.] 
 
 The beginnings of ' Canada.' 
 
 from 
 
 flag, and at either erxd, at Halifax and Esquimault, is 
 stationed a squadron of British men-o'-war, keeping watch 
 over the ocean patlis, and over that vast limb of England s 
 empire, which has grown so mighty since the day when 
 the sailors first crept cautiously into the St. Lawrence, 
 hoping, perchance, to find that North-West Passage 
 which had filled the imagination of Columbus when he 
 dreamt of Cipango and Prester John. Here in truth is 
 the true North-West Passage, not a permanent sea-way, 
 but a quick communication by shi}/ and rail. 
 
 (6) The term Canada is said to have been an Indian 
 word, Kamatha, meaning a collection of huts, which the 
 French discoverers applied to the country around the 
 St. Lawrence. At the present time it is used somewhat 
 loosely to express the whole of the Canadian Dominion, 
 but Canada Proper was originally the geographical 
 expression for the watershed of the St. Lawrence from 
 its mouth to the Lake of the Woods, a distance, roughly 
 speaking, of 1 300 miles from east to west. It was not 
 so used by Cartier in io34» being limited more precisely 
 by him to the central part of the territory between 
 Montreal and Anticosti '. In the French annals of coloni- 
 sation it may be regarded as the northern part of New 
 France, distinguishable on the east from the Island of 
 Newfoundland and Nouvelle Bretagne or Labrador and 
 the regions included under the term Acadia, on the south 
 from French Florida and Louisiana. According to Sir W. 
 Logan's report, dated May 1863, Canada Proper, njeaning 
 the basin of the St. Lawrence, has an area of ."530,000 
 square miles, being nearly five times as largo as Great 
 Britain. 
 
 (7) In the early history of North America charters 
 and grants given by both French and English kings to 
 companies and individuals were constantly altering and 
 
 ' Kingsforcl, vol. i. p. 3. 
 
TT 
 
 6 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 upsetting previous boundary lines and landmarks. In 
 the first instance there was a grand simplicity al)out 
 Pope Alexander's bull (May 1493), the year succeeding 
 Columbus' discovery of the Bahamas, in which he drew 
 an imaginary line from the North to the South Pole, a 
 hundred leagues west of the Azores, assigning to Spain 
 all that lay to the west of that boundary, while all to 
 the east of it was confined to Portugal. This was 
 virtually handing over to Spain by papal sanction the 
 whole of North and South America, excepting that 
 small part of the latter which lies, roughly speaking, to 
 the east of the mouths of the Amazon, and is contained 
 in the Eepublic of Brazil. This imaginary geographical 
 definition was not accepted by other nations. Francis I 
 of France exclaimed, ' What ! shall the kings of Spain 
 and Portugal divide all America between them, without 
 suffering me to take a share as their brother ? I would 
 fain see the article in Adam's will that bequeaths this 
 vast inheritance to them.' So in 1524 Verrazano, com- 
 missioned by the king, conducted a series of explorations 
 along the sea-board from Cape Fear to the Bay of New 
 York and Narragansetts, and called the country Nctv 
 France. In 1534 Cartier set up on the Peninsula of 
 Gaspe both the cross and the arms of his country 
 claiming the valley of the St. Lawrence, a river so 
 named by him on August lo, 1535, the martyr's anni- 
 versary. 
 
 (8) Further north it must be remembered that Cabot, 
 by his discovery of Labrador and Bacalaos (Newfound- 
 land, 1497), had given England a prior claim to the 
 continent of North America by right of discovery, 
 although it was not till 1583 that Sir Humphrey Gilbert 
 unfolded the flag of England on the Island of New- 
 foundland and exacted homage from the fishing fleet. 
 The Spaniards and Portuguese, it will be seen, left this 
 
I. [Ch. 
 
 cs. In 
 al)out 
 leeding 
 e drew 
 Pole, a 
 
 Spain 
 B all to 
 lis was 
 ion the 
 iig that 
 king, to 
 )ntained 
 raphical 
 ''rancis I 
 of Spain 
 
 without 
 I would 
 ^ths this 
 no, com- 
 lorations 
 y of New 
 itry New 
 insula of 
 . country 
 river so 
 yr's anni- 
 
 lat Cabot, 
 fewfound- 
 m to the 
 discovery, 
 ey Gilbert 
 
 1 of New- 
 [ling lleet. 
 1, left this 
 
 i 
 
III'!: 
 
 I 
 
 HISTORICAL MAP SHO^VING AXCIENT SETTLEMENTS. 
 
 To face page 7. N° U 
 
 W of Greenwich ■ 80 
 
 I'ar/bfd. IMyersi^ Press 
 
"^Sjl 
 
 MENTS. 
 
 70 
 
 ^6 
 
 ^i^H 45 
 
 lilba/S' 
 ' ■Bartfitrd. 
 
 40, 
 
 °'^A 
 
 '"^"^ 
 
 eo^ 
 
 ,jjle SaunA 
 
 tctaJ 
 
 \.FloriAa 
 
 f^ 
 
 35 
 
 30 
 
 4 
 
 M 
 
 TAe 0?(Z Charters. 
 
 jxart of North America almost entirely to France and 
 England. Cortereal, the Portuguese sailor, reached in 
 1 50 1 the Gulf of the St. Lawrence and explored the 
 North American coasts up to 50° N. He is said to have 
 freighted his vessels with more than fifty Indians whom 
 he sold as slaves. As the historian Bancroft remarks, 
 Labrador (from Laboratores or slaves transferred from the 
 territory south of the St. Lawrence to a more northern 
 coast) is a memorial of his voyage and the only per- 
 manent trace of Portuguese adventure within the limits 
 of the North American continent, just as Portugal Cove 
 is said to have been the only sign of their fishing expe- 
 ditions in the neighbouring island of Newfoundland \ 
 
 (9) In 1540 Francis de la Koque, Lord of RobeiTal, 
 obtained from the French king a commission as Lord of 
 the unknown Norumbega (comprising the littoral and 
 mainland of New Brunswick) and Viceroy, with full 
 regal authority over the immense territories and islands 
 which lie near the Gulf and along the river of St. Law- 
 rence. This clashed with the Cabots' Charters, given them 
 by Henry VII and Henry VIII, and assigning them all 
 lands that might be discovered with sole right to trade. 
 In June 1578 a Royal Charter was given to Gilbert with 
 ' licence to discover . . . such remote and barbarous lands 
 not actually possessed of any Christian Prince or People, 
 as to him, his heirs and assigns . . . shall seem good, and 
 the same to have, hold and occupy and enjoy to him, his 
 heirs and assigns for ever, with all commodities, jurisdic- 
 tions and royalties both by sea and land ; ' also, according 
 to the Charter of March 1584, Walter Raleigh obtained 
 even greater concessions by sea and land. He had a 
 monopoly of all commodities, jurisdictions, royalties and 
 privileges by sea and land, and power to repel all intruders 
 
 * According to some authorities Labrador ia so named after La 
 Bradoro, a Spanish captain. 
 
 7S 
 
 J 
 
H 
 
 ]' \ 
 
 li! 
 
 ! !.^ll 
 
 8 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 that came within 200 leagues of his settlement or dwell- 
 ings. In July 1584 his captains, Amadas and Barlowe, 
 took possession of Roanoke, an island of fifteen or sixteen 
 miles in length, and a beginning of colonisation was 
 made. Virginia meant all the country between the French 
 dominion of Canada and the Spanish dominion of Flo- 
 rida. Here was the beginning of the power that wedged 
 itself firmly between the northern and southern parts of 
 New France and held the seaports and littoral of the 
 east. The Virginia Patent discarded Verrazano's barren 
 proclamation along the coast, but did not touch Cartier's 
 acquisitions to the north. 
 
 (10) In 1606 the Virginian settlements which had 
 failed at first were revived. They received the right, 
 according to King James' Patent, to have and hold all 
 the land from Cape Fear to the St. Croix River. This 
 territory was divided into two districts : (i) the north 
 part, controlled by the Plymouth Company, and taking 
 in all land from east to west between latitude 41*^ N. and 
 45"^ N., thus including the coast-line from the mouth of 
 the St. Croix to the Hudson River, and embracing the 
 Lake country in the interior ; (2) the London Company 
 included the littoral from the mouth of Cape Fear River 
 to the mouth of the Potomac, lying between latitude 
 34*^ N. to 38° N. Jamestown was founded by the London 
 Company in 1607, and the two capes at the entrance of 
 the bay were named after Henry and Charles, King James' 
 two sons. This was the first permanent settlement of 
 Englishmen in the continent of North America. It 
 may be remembered that the first permanent French 
 colony had been settled at Port Royal (Annapolis) 
 by De Monts in 1604, three years previously. In 
 1620 the Plymouth Company was reorganised as the 
 Council of Plymouth for New England, and included 
 within their boundaries the whole North American coast 
 
 4 
 
[Ch. 
 
 I.l 
 
 Extent of New France. 
 
 from latitude 40° N. to 48*^ N., thus embracing the whole 
 of Canada from Tadousac along the valley of the 8t. 
 Lawrence to the interior. 
 
 (11) It must be borne in mind that in 1598, more 
 than fifty years after Eobei-val and Cartier, a charter 
 was given to De la Roche by the French king. He was 
 Viceroy of Canada, Acadia (meaning Nova Scotia, New 
 Brunswick and part of Maine) and the adjoining ter- 
 ritory, with sole right to carry on the fur-trade. In 
 1603 an exclusive Patent was given to Do Monts from 
 40^^ N. to 46''N. latitude. To this territory and more 
 beyond it the Plymouth Company laid claim in 1620. 
 Thus one charter is constantly overlapping and including 
 anothei', and the confusion of rights could only be 
 settled by the strong arm. It may be however some 
 help to notice here what New France meant at different 
 dates, before the name disappeared altogether from the 
 North American continent. 
 
 (12) In 1655 New France meant, according to French 
 claims, Newfoundland, Labrador, Acadia and Canada, 
 and the countiy beyond as far as it was discovered to 
 the west and south by the Jesuits and others. It also 
 meant French Florida \ This was a tract of country 
 wedged in between Virginia on the north and Spanish 
 Florida on the south. The Cape Fear River on the 
 north and the Altamaha River on the south formed 
 definite geographical limits. It was a tract of country 
 including the watershed of the Savannah, Santee, and 
 Great Pedee Rivers. Between the St. Croix River and 
 Cape Fear River, that is between Acadia and French 
 Florida, lay New England, from St. Croix to the Con- 
 necticut and Hudson, New Netherlands along the Hudson 
 and Delaware, Maryland and Virginia from the Sus- 
 quehanna to Cape Fear River. Along the interior the 
 
 ^ See Labberton's ' Historical Geography.' 
 
10 The Geognqyhy of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 Alleghanies formed a boundary between New France and 
 the Coast Settlements. 
 
 (13) In 1 713, by the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht. 
 New France lost the Atlantic sea-board she possessed in 
 Newfoundland, Hudson's Bay, and also Nova Scotia and 
 New Brunswick ; but she still retained the valley of the 
 St. Lawrence, Cape Breton, St. John's Island, (Prince 
 Edward Island), and the vast region lying on either 
 side of the Mississippi from the Lakes to the Gulf of 
 Mexico, known as Louisiana, claimed for Louis XIV by 
 De la Salle (1682)'. 
 
 Louisiana was an emj^ire in itself, bounded by Oregon 
 territory on the north-west and New Spain on the west. 
 After February 10, 1763, New France disappeared 
 entirely. The settlements comprised in the St. Lawrence 
 valley, the Lake region, the Great North-West with its 
 vast hunting j^reserves, and the command of the whole 
 country southwards as far as the Gulf of Mexico, with 
 the Mississippi as the western boundary, had fallen into 
 English hands. This was the land Voltaire said was 
 • not worth fighting for, because, after all, it only con- 
 sisted of a few acres of snow.' 
 
 (14) After September 3, 1783, the United States Terri- 
 tories appear upon the map, and the dividing inter- 
 national line is shown from St. John's Kiver and the 
 coast to longitude 95" W. or about the meridian of the 
 Lake of the Woods. In 1803, Napoleon sold Louijiana 
 to the American Government for £3,000,000, more than 
 doubling the area of the Republic. The international 
 boundary line then appears (lat. 49°) upon the map, 
 twenty degrees further west, as far as long. 1 1 5^ W. 
 up to the Oregon territory. This boundary line was 
 completed to the Pacific coast after the acquisition of 
 Oregon territory from Great Britain in 1846. 
 
 ^ Appendix II. 
 
I. [Ch. 
 ee and 
 
 trecht, 
 ised ill 
 :ia and 
 
 of the 
 Prince 
 
 either 
 InU of 
 ilV by 
 
 Oregon 
 le west, 
 ppeared 
 iwrence 
 *vith its 
 a whole 
 o, with 
 en into 
 aid was 
 ily con- 
 
 !S Terri- 
 g inter- 
 and the 
 ti of the 
 louijiana 
 ore than 
 national 
 he map, 
 ii5^W. 
 line was 
 sition of 
 
 I.] 
 
 Present Boundaries and Area. 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 There were two minor disputes, already alluded to, 
 between Canada and the United States on the question 
 of boundaries ; (i) that touching an area of 1 2,000 square 
 miles between the Province of New Brunswick and the 
 State of Maine, settled in 1841 by the Ashburton Treaty ; 
 (2) that touching the possession of the island of San 
 Juan, decided in favour of the United States. Alaska 
 was bought from Russia by the United States in 1868. 
 It was not till 1873 that the present boundaries of the 
 Canadian Dominion appeared upon tlio map. 
 
 (15) The Southern boundary line, as it now exists 
 between British America and the United States, follows 
 the 49*^ north latitude from British Columbia to the Lake 
 of the Woods, thence in a wavy line along Eainy River 
 to Thunder Bay on Lake Superior. Thence to the east 
 through Lakes Superior, Huron, Erie, Ontario till the 
 45^ line is touched upon the St. La vrence. The State of 
 Maine is thrust northwards, forming a rough-shaped 
 triangle, with New Brunswick on its eastern side. The 
 45^ line is again touched at the Bay of Fundy. At the 
 extreme north-west, British North America is separated 
 from Alaska along the 141'' of west longitude. The 
 Dominion of Canada comprises, therefore, the whole of 
 the continent north of the United States frontier, with 
 the exception of Alaska, stretching up to the Arctic 
 regions, bounded on the east by the Atlantic and on 
 the west by the Pacific oceans. It includes the following 
 Provinces and Territories : — Quebec, Ontario (Canada 
 Proper), Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward 
 Island, Manitoba, North-West Territory, British Columbia. 
 
 (16) The Area of the Dominion, not including the Lakes, 
 is 3,470,253 square miles, the greater pait being in the 
 North- West Territories. This is nearly equal to that of 
 the United States, which with Alaska is 3,585,900 square 
 miles, while that of Europe is computed at 3,800,000. 
 
12 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 
 The following list shows the estimated population of 
 the most impoi-tant cities in the Dominion (1890) ' : — 
 
 Montreal 
 
 • 
 
 202,000 
 
 Halifax (N. S.) . 
 
 . 40,000 
 
 Toronto 
 
 • 
 
 172,000 
 
 Loudon 
 
 . 27,000 
 
 Quebec 
 
 • 
 
 65,000 
 
 Winnipeg 
 
 . 22,000 
 
 Ottawa (capital) . 
 
 . 
 
 44,000 
 
 Kingston 
 
 . 1 7,000 
 
 St. John (N. B., 
 
 witli 
 
 
 Victoria (B. C") . 
 
 . 14,000 
 
 Portland) 
 
 , 
 
 44,000 
 
 Charlotte Town . 
 
 . 13.000 
 
 Hamilton . 
 
 • 
 
 43,000 
 
 Brantford 
 
 . 1 3,000 
 
 Compared with Australia the urban, as distinguished 
 from the rural, pojiulation is far less in proportion. For 
 instance, the city of Melbourne, the capital of the colony 
 of Victoria, is now said to contain a population of 410,000 
 out of a total of 1,000,000 ; and the city of Sydney, the 
 capital of New South Wales, contains 351,000 out of a 
 total of about a similar number. Mr. Macfie, an Austra- 
 lian colonist, has recently pointed out that this crowding 
 of one-third of the populations of New South Wales and 
 Victoria in Sydney and Melbourne respectively is an un- 
 healthy sign. * How striking is that abnormal and un- 
 I)roductive concentration of an excessive proportion of the 
 inhabitants of Australia in a few towns, compared with 
 the wholesome distribution of population in the most 
 prosperous countries of Europe and America where land 
 culture is properly held to be the chief industry. In 
 the United States in which agriculture and horticulture 
 take their rightful place, less than one-seventh of the 
 total population is diffused over twenty-four cities, each 
 containing inhabitants exceeding 70,000. Some idea of 
 the importance of American agriculture may be formed 
 from the fact that it produces an annual yield of nearly 
 .£800,000,000, and employs on 5,000,000 farms 10,000,000 
 persons. Sweden and Norway, with 6,000,000 industrious 
 people, have only half a million living in towns, the 
 
 * See ' Official Handbook,' published by the Government of 
 Canada, January, 1 890. 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
n. [Ch. 
 ntion of 
 
 40,000 
 27,000 
 2 2 ,000 
 1 7,000 
 14,000 
 13,000 
 13,000 
 
 iguished 
 )n. For 
 iG colony 
 410,000 
 Iney, the 
 out of a 
 I Austra- 
 3rowding 
 i^ales and 
 is an un- 
 and iin- 
 on of the 
 ired with 
 the most 
 lere land 
 ;try. In 
 ■ticulture 
 of the 
 ties, each 
 idea of 
 e formed 
 of nearly 
 0,000,000 
 dustrious 
 Avns, the 
 
 •nment of 
 
 I.l 
 
 5^ 
 
 Dlsjyersion of Population. 
 millions being thrifty. 
 
 13 
 
 hard-working 
 
 remanung 
 peasants '.' 
 
 The population of the Dominion of Canada was dis 
 tributod thus, according to the last Census : — 
 
 
 Mulfs. 
 
 Fi-mali:^. 
 
 Ontario .... 
 
 976,461 
 
 946,767 
 
 Quebec .... 
 
 678,109 
 
 680,918 
 
 Nova Scotiii 
 
 220,538 
 
 220,034 
 
 New Brunswick 
 
 164,119 
 
 157.114 
 
 Prince Edward Island 
 
 54.729 
 
 54,162 
 
 Manitoba .... 
 
 37.207 
 
 28,747 
 
 The North-West Territories . 
 
 28,113 
 
 28,333 
 
 British Columbia 
 
 29.503 
 
 19.956 
 
 2,188,779 
 
 2,136,031 
 
 4,324,810 
 It is now (1890) calculated to exceed 5,000,000. Wo 
 may argue, therefore, that a very large proportion of the 
 colonists are agriculturists, fishermen, and farmers. This 
 is a more wholesome sign of a country's wealth, a pros- 
 perous rural population being regarded at all times as 
 the 'backbone of a country.' In the question of the 
 distribution of the population, it must be remembered 
 that Canada's unrivalled lakes and rivers have helped 
 largely to create many points of industry in all quarters \ 
 The growth of the town populations has been remark- 
 able nevertheless. For instance : — 
 
 In 1 80 1 the population of Toronto was 
 
 .. 1830 
 
 M 1845 
 
 „ 1851 
 
 
 1881 
 
 >. 
 
 ») 
 
 336 
 
 2,860 
 
 19,708 
 
 .30,775 
 86,445 
 
 In 1816, Quebec contained 14,880 inhabitants; in 1851 
 it contained 42,052 ; in 1881, 62,446. Montreal, fifty 
 years ago, held less than 30,000 with suburbs ; it is 
 now the largest city. Winnipeg provides us with a 
 
 ' Extract from Paper entitled ' Aids to Australian development,' 
 read before the Fellows of the Royal Colonial Institute, December, 
 1889. a Appendix III. 
 
14 ^^tc Geofira2>ly of the Canadian Doinilnion. [Cu. 
 
 more recent example of (juick growth. In 1888 its 
 population numbered 25,000, in 1870 it was only 200. 
 Contrasted w^ith Cai)e Town, the capital of a country 
 wliich has been colonised for 300 years by Europeans and 
 only numbers 30,000 white inhabitants, this growth in 
 Canada, although it does not touch the rate of the 
 Australian cities, is very remarkable. It is calculated 
 that British North America could easily support a popu- 
 lation of 140,000,000 at the rate of 40 to the square mile. 
 The population of England is 450 to the square mile. 
 
 (17) Physical Features. — River Systems.— The Cana- 
 dian Dominion is pre-eminently a land of wide lakes and 
 long rivers. There is no such water^vay as that of the St. 
 Lawrence in the world. From Belle Isle to the head of 
 Lake Superior, a distance of 2400 miles, there are only 72 
 miles of canal. Ocean-going steamers can steam 1 300 miles 
 up its course into the country. At its mouth (usually 
 placed between Cape Chatte on the southern bank and 
 Pointe des Monts on the north) the St. Lawrence is 20 
 miles across. There are four main river systems in the 
 Dominion: (i) That of the St. Lawrence; (2) the Nelson 
 River with Lake Winnipeg, into which the Saskatchewan, 
 Assiniboine, Red, and Winnipeg Rivers find an outlet ; 
 (3) Mackenzie River — each of these draining a basin 
 of half a million of square miles on the average ; (4) the 
 Eraser River, in British Columbia. For purposes of in- 
 land communication these systems are invaluable, but in 
 addition the Dominion has deeply indented shores on the 
 Atlantic and Pacific sides, and a coast-line of many 
 thousand miles, along which are the most profitable sea- 
 fisheries in the world. The products of the fisheries, 
 both exported and used for home consumption, were 
 calculated (1888) to be worth J6,ooo,ooo\ 
 
 (18) Plains and Mountains. — On the east there are 
 
 » 'Official Handbook,' 1890. 
 
 I 
 
[Ch. 
 
 I.] 
 
 Ri'vern, Mountains, and Laken. 
 
 15 
 
 a series of plains, divided from one another l)y com- 
 paratively low ranges. In the centre is the northern 
 slope of the great central plain of North America, st> 
 flat and even that for many miles it seems possible to 
 drive a carriage straight ahead without natural barriers. 
 A small tumulus seems a hill on the vast unbroken 
 level. Near Winnipeg, a small rising called 'Stony 
 Mount,' of 60 to 80 feet high, is the only elevation 
 along an immense river valley. The Idizzards, or 
 sudden and severe snowstorms, which are one of the 
 drawbacks of the American continent along its interior 
 plateaux, are much less frequent north of 49* of latitude. 
 No doubt the lower the plateaux the less liable are the 
 inhabitants to this terrible scourge. It is in the United 
 States Territories that blizzards are chiefly felt. 
 
 On the extreme west is a rough mountainous country, 
 including the northern portion of the Rocky Mountains 
 and Cascade Mountains. The geographical features of 
 British Noiih America are simply a continuation, al- 
 though under very important variations of climate and 
 latitude, of those of the United States. As there are 
 plains in Texas, Montana, Kansas, Dakota, Nebraska, so 
 there are in the prairies of the Great North-West. As 
 there is a Pacific slope in United States Territory dis- 
 tinguishable in features and climate from the interior 
 plateaux, so there is a Pacific slope, only of greater width, 
 in British Columbia. The Rocky Mountains are the 
 Great Divide, the high wall cutting off one part of the 
 continent from the other. Mount Brown and Mount 
 Hooker are the highest peaks in the Dominion, and reach 
 the altitude of 16,000 and 15,690 feet respectively. 
 
 (19) Lakes. — It is however its magnificent lake system 
 which is the peculiar characteristic of British North 
 America. There are three main lake systems lying upon 
 the surface of the country almost in a straight line from 
 
1 6 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 south-east to north-west. Confining our attention simply 
 to the largest sheets of water, under Group I we may 
 place Lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron, and Superior ; 
 under Group II, Winnipeg and Winnipegosis, and 
 Manitoba ; under Group III, Lakes Keindeer, Athabasca, 
 Great Slave, and Great Bear. The extent of countiy 
 through which this chain of lakes stretches is from 
 latitude 40" N. to the Arctic Circle. The minor lakes 
 and lakelets of the Dominion may, in each system, be 
 counted literally in thousands. For the sportsman, 
 fisherman, and naturalist, they provide, in many cases, 
 a most picturesque and productive recreation ground. 
 If we except, perhaps, the newly discovered lakes of 
 Equatorial Africa, there are no lake systems anywhere 
 in the world approaching those of North America. In the 
 account of the Provinces the lakes will be treated more 
 particularly. Michigan, of course, lies outside Canada. 
 
 (20) Climate and Products. — The Canadian Dominion 
 extends from the latitude of Kome to that of the North 
 Cape in Norway, and has consequently a great variety of 
 climate. Generally speaking, it is much colder in winter 
 and warmer in summer than in the British Isles. The 
 average summer temperature of England is about 60-62*^, 
 that of Canada between 60° and 70°. Taking a few points 
 from east to west, we shall find that the heat is greatest 
 in the interior plateaux, as we might expect in a con- 
 tinental climate. The average summer temperature of 
 Halifax is 60", of Fredericton 64°, of Quebec 69°, of 
 Montreal 70°, of Winnipeg 65°, and of Vancouver 61°. 
 In the United States, further south, we shall find the 
 summer hotter than at any of the above places. Central 
 Illinois has an average summer temperature of 74*^, 
 Ohio of 70-74°, Iowa of 72-78°, Kansas and Missouri are 
 hotter still. These latter temperatures are ten degrees too 
 high for wheat, which ripens best at 60-65°. With a 
 
4 
 
 
 k 
 
 si 
 
 <iS 
 
To face pa-tfe 17 
 
 O.rf'offl Ifntifrsily frpsn . 
 
Physical Map 
 
 C AK AD A 
 
 ENCLISH MILtS 
 ino 200 
 
 ExplaujatLon. . 
 
 I 1 OiiUimhle 'lone of GraiMS 
 
 iiitd. Grasses. 
 [ I Hetiiori of Sumirwr Droughts. 
 ' ■— Sumrnerlsutherma (FaJir.) 
 «__ Wintrr „ „ 
 
 Warm Currents. 
 
 ~1\ ' 
 
 (Kff'vt'd {MiyrrsiLy fresn 
 
TW^ 
 
 To f; 
 
 pa-g^ 
 
 ace page 1/ 
 
T 
 
 I.] 
 
 Climate and Products. 
 
 temperature above 70° it withers up, and ripens pre- 
 maturely. Although situated further south, Kansas, 
 Nebraska, Dakota, and Minnesota, in the United States, 
 are often colder in winter than the Canadian provinces of 
 Quebec, Ontario, and Manitoba. The apparent anomaly 
 of a milder climate further north in winter may be ex- 
 plained by the fact that the interior plateaux of North 
 America are very lofty in Mexico, and retain their ele- 
 vation through the United States till they reach the 
 Canadian frontier. They then sink to 800 and 600, and 
 even 400, feet. It is well known that one mile in height 
 (5280 feet) means a difference of fifteen degrees in tem- 
 perature. The variation of temperature within a space 
 of twenty-four hours is great in Canada, but it is more 
 remarkable in the desert areas of the United States. 
 There the thermometer will drop from 80' or 90^^ during 
 the day to freezing point at night. This is prejudicial 
 both to plants and animals. The country to the west of 
 the 98th meridian in the United States Territory is chiefly 
 a desert, owing to the absence of summer rains. The 
 soils also are deeply impregnated with salts and alkalies 
 destructive of vegetation. The great central prairies of 
 the Canadian Dominion have, therefore, many climatic 
 advantages over the United States to the south. The 
 temperature is more even, the soil is richer, the alkalies 
 disappearing as you travel north across the border, and 
 the rainfall in summer is more plentiful. Here is the 
 best wheat area in the world, extending over 1,400,000 
 square miles of country. Grasses and the coarser 
 grains can be raised over more than 2,000,000 square 
 miles. In the warmer parts maize, quinces, melons, 
 tomatoes, apricots, and grapes ripen easily. 
 
 At Toronto in 1876 the spring and summer rainfall 
 was about 1 2 inches ' ; at Winnipeg this rainfall reached 
 ' See Haydon aud Selwyu's ' Nortli America,' p. 467. 
 
 
 
 I 
 
1 8 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 ■':! 
 
 I 
 
 more than 15 inches. This copious moisture is of the 
 gi'eatest importance in quickening vegetuiion when the 
 temperature is high, and everything shoots up with mar- 
 vellous rapidity. In the treeless regions of the United 
 States there are excessive droughts, where the artemisia, 
 or sage of the desert, is the only form of vegetation. 
 It would seem as if the Great North-West were meant 
 by nature to be the wheat granary of the continent. 
 
 (21) The following are the official tables of crop aver- 
 ages for six years, 1 882-1887, in Ontario, compared with 
 those of New York and Ohio in the south ^: — 
 
 
 Ontario. 
 
 New York. 
 
 Ohio. 
 
 Fall-Wheat per acre 
 
 20 bushels. 
 
 14 bushels. 
 
 12-8 bushels 
 
 Barley ,, 
 
 26.1 „ 
 
 22.6 „ 
 
 24 n 
 
 Oats ,, 
 
 35-7 „ 
 
 2S.6 „ 
 
 31-3 „ 
 
 )» 
 
 >J 
 
 M 
 
 )> 
 
 )) 
 
 )> 
 
 ?) 
 
 JJ 
 
 Another table of statistics proves the fertility of the 
 Province of Manitoba : — 
 
 Spring WJieat. 
 Manitoba , . . . ,40 bushels per acre. 
 
 Minnesota (best wheat area of United States) 20 
 Wisconsin . . . . . i2'2 
 
 Pennsylvania . . . . 123 
 
 Ohio . . . . .12.8 
 
 In evidence before the Canadian House of Commons 
 on agricultural matters, it was elicited that no less than 
 60 bushels of spring wheat had been raised to the acre. 
 
 Hay also is very cheap and plentiful, and prairie grass 
 when cut and dried averages 2 tons per acre. What 
 is left out does not rot quickly, but is preserved rather 
 than destroyed by the light dry snow, and the animals 
 find winter sustenance by pawing away the snow and 
 eating it. 
 
 The northern limits for grains and grasses reach a 
 
 ' Seep. 18 of 'Agricultural Canada,' by Professor Fream. Pub- 
 lished under the direction of the Canadian Government, 1889. 
 
m\ 
 
 1.] 
 
 Lhnits of Grains and Grasses. 
 
 19 
 
 r 
 
 Ls 
 d 
 
 la 
 
 very high latitude in the Canadian Dominion. Rye, 
 barley, and roots can be grown nearly as far north as 
 latitude 65°. The whole available area for grasses and 
 coarser grains is calculated at 2,300,000 square miles. 
 Maize, a tropical plant, sometimes ripens at latitude 54" 
 on the Saskatchewan. At Vermillion (latitude 53^ 24''') 
 eveiy kind of garden stuff can be grown. Barley sown 
 on the 8th of May is ready to be cut within three months' 
 time. At Fort Chippew5\an, at the entrance to Lake 
 Athabasca, good samples of wheat and barley can be grown. 
 At Fort Simpson, in latitude 61'^ N., l)arley always ripens, 
 and wheat is sure four times out of five. At Fort Liard 
 in latitude 61^ N. there is the warmest summer tempera- 
 ture in the whole region, and it is said by those who 
 live on the Yucon that barley sometimes ripens under 
 the Arctic Circle in longitude 143° W.' At the Forks of 
 the Athabasca, garden produce will grow well, and it was 
 here in 1787 that the explorer Mackenzie found a garden 
 cultivated by a European, who grew all kinds of 
 European vegetables. These are facts elicited from Pro- 
 fessor Macoun by a Committee on Immigration to Canada. 
 The following assertion also on the climate was then 
 made : * It will be seen that about the 20th of April 
 ploughing can commence on Peace River, and from 
 data in my possession, the sfime may be said of the 
 Saskatchewan region generally. It is a curious fact that 
 spring seems to advance from north-west to south-east at 
 a rate of about 250 miles a day, and in the fall winter 
 begins in Manitoba first and goes westward at the same 
 rate.' 
 
 (22) The summer isothermal of 70° crosses Long 
 Island in latitude 41*^, passes Chicago at 42°, and then 
 rises on the Saskatchewan to latitude 52° in longitude 
 
 * See p. 83 of * Guide Book for Settlers.' Published at Ottawa by 
 the Government of Canada, 1882. 
 
 a 
 
20 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 Ill 
 
 hi: 
 
 110°. It sinks again at the desert areas of the United 
 States to latitude 35*^ in longitude 105°, and rises to lati- 
 tude 47'^ in Oregon. The isothermal of 65° which, on the 
 Atlantic coast, is off Boston, in latitude 42°, rises throu'' 
 Canada to north of Quebec, crosses the Red River at la 
 tude 50'^ on the 97th meridian, and Mackenzie River near 
 the 60th parallel. This gradual advance northward of 
 the isothermal line in proceeding from east to west, is 
 a fact of the utmost significance with reference to the 
 vegetation of the country. 
 
 The following table represents the mean temperature 
 of Toronto and Winnipeg : — 
 
 August 
 
 September 
 
 October . 
 
 November 
 
 December 
 
 January . 
 
 February . 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 This second table illustrates the average July to August 
 temperature, 
 tudes* : — 
 
 Toronto. 
 
 Winnipeg 
 
 66-38 
 
 67-34 
 
 58-18 
 
 52.18 
 
 45-84 
 
 .^5-84 
 
 36-06 
 
 30-66 
 
 25-78 
 
 n-97 
 
 22-80 
 
 6-10 
 
 22-74 
 
 12-32 
 
 28-93 
 
 14-14 
 
 40-72 
 
 39-10 
 
 51-74 
 
 53-13 
 
 61.85 • 
 
 63.20 
 
 67-49 
 
 68-19 
 
 fit for ripening cereals, at various lati- 
 
 Lat. N. Summer. Spring. Autumn. 
 
 Cumberland House 
 Fort Simpson 
 Fort Chippewyan . . . 
 Fort Will iam 
 
 Montreal 
 
 Toronto 
 
 Temiscaminguo . , . 
 Halifax 
 
 5.3-37 
 61-51 
 
 58-42 
 
 48-24 
 
 45-31 
 
 43-40 
 47.19 
 
 44-39 
 
 62^ 
 
 59° 
 
 58° 
 
 59° 
 6f 
 
 64° 
 
 65° 
 61" 
 
 . 3.f . 
 
 - 32° ... 
 
 . 26^ . 
 
 . 27° ... 
 
 . 22° . 
 
 - 31° - 
 
 . 39° - 
 
 - 37° - 
 
 . 39° - 
 
 • 45° - 
 
 . 42° . 
 
 . 46° ... 
 
 - 37° . 
 
 - 40° -.. 
 
 - 31° - 
 
 - 46° -.. 
 
 July and 
 August. 
 
 64° 
 62" 
 60° 
 60^ 
 68" 
 66^ 
 66° 
 66" 
 
 See p. 83 of ' Guide Book for Settlers,' 1882. 
 
I.] 
 
 The Trees and Forests. 
 
 21 
 
 It will be noticed that altliough there are many 
 degrees of latitude between Fort Simpson and Toronto, 
 there is, according to the table, a difference of only four 
 degrees of heat during the ripening months of July and 
 August. 
 
 (23) The Forests. — There is a great variety of trees 
 in the Canadian forests, some of very large dimensions. 
 The black walnut (Jitglans nigra) has an average height 
 of 120 feet, the chestnut attains a height of 100 feet'. 
 The climate of the Dominion is a peculiarly suitable 
 one for large trees. They require a large rainfall 
 and a high summer temperature as well, of 65" to 
 67" F. Such a tree as the sugar-maple will not flourish 
 in Europe, the summer temperature being too low. 
 The deciduous trees are the most numerous in Canada. 
 Of the 114 known species of pines, twenty-one are 
 natives of Canada or of the Hudson's Bay Territory. 
 Alluding to their evergreen appearance in the midst of 
 the Canadian winter, Humboldt has said, ' They proclaim 
 to the inhabitants of the northern regions that, although 
 snow and ice cover the land, the internal life of the 
 plants, like the fire of Prometheus, is never extinguished.' 
 The Pinus halsamea, or balm-of-Gilead-fir, and the 
 spruce-hemlock are veiy beautiful trees. The Pinus 
 alba or white-spruce is well known, with its height of 
 140 feet and long feathering branches. The king of the 
 pine forests is the Pinus strohus or Weymouth-pine, so 
 called from the attention given to its cultivation in Eng- 
 land by Lord Weymouth. This tree attains the height 
 of 200 feet. * Some attain a green old age, vigorous to 
 the last, but are prostrated suddenly by the storm which 
 has swept harmlessly over younger heads. Others that 
 have outlived the eagle, sheltered from their earliest 
 youth in some sequestered glade, but now tottering to 
 ' See Article in the ' Quarterly Review,' No. 217. 
 
22 Tlic Gcofjraphy of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 
 their fall, stand bald, spectral, and desolate, waiting only 
 
 for 
 
 " Some casual shout tliat breaks the silent air, 
 Or tho unimaginable touch of Time," 
 
 to bow their heads to the earth. Then geraniums, honey- 
 suckles, wood-lilies, fox-gloves, and fine flowers shoot up 
 around them, and cover for a short time the prostrate 
 trunks with a gorgeous pall, while they collapse and 
 crumble into dust. The tints of the autumnal woods 
 have always excited the astonishment and enthusiasm of 
 travellers. Even in cloudy days the hue of the foliage is 
 at times of so intense a yellow that the light thrown 
 from the trees creates the impression of bright sunshine. 
 Each leaf presents a point of sparkling gold. But the 
 colours of the leafy landscape change and intermingle 
 from day to day, until pink, vermilion, purple, deep indigo 
 and brown, present a combination of beauty that must 
 be seen to be realised, for no artist has yet been able 
 to represent, nor can the imagination picture to itself, 
 the gorgeous spectacle.' The exports of the produce 
 of the forests are worth to the Canadians more than 
 double the combined value of the exported jjroduce of 
 the fisheries and mines'. In 1888 
 
 The produce of the Mines was $4,110,000 (^^822, 000). 
 „ Fisheries „ §7,793,000 (jf 1,558,000). 
 
 „ Forests „ $24,719,000 (^4,943,000). 
 
 11 
 
 The following is a description of the Canadian climate 
 during the various seasons : — 
 
 ' In the summer the excessive heat— the violent 
 paroxysms of thunder— the parching drought — the occa- 
 sional deluges of rain — the sight of bright-red, bright- 
 blue and other gaudy-plumaged birds — of the brilliant 
 humming-bird, and of innumerable fire-flies that at night 
 
 ^ See 'Official Handbook of Information,' 1890. 
 
^m. 
 
 1] 
 
 The progress of the Seai^ons. 
 
 23 
 
 appear like the reflection upon earth of the stars shining 
 above them in the heavens, would almost make the 
 emigrant believe that he was in the tropics. 
 
 'As autumn approaches, the various trees of the forests 
 assume hues of every shade of red, yellow and brown, of 
 the most vivid description. The air gradually liecomes a 
 healthy and delightful mixture of sunshine and frost, 
 and the golden sunsets are so many glorious assemblages 
 of clouds — some like mountains of white wool, others of 
 the darkest hues — and of broad rays of yellow, of crimson, 
 and of golden light, which, without intermixing, radiate 
 upwards to a great height from the point of the horizon 
 in which the deep red luminaiy is about to disappear'.' 
 
 As winter approaches the birds migrate south ; first 
 the humming-birds, then the pigeons, and next the 
 geese, wild ducks, and plovers, all returning from their 
 breeding haunts in the far north. Those descriptions of 
 scenery and climate painted so often and so vividly by 
 our Arctic explorers along the Polar Seas do not apply to 
 the cultivable zones of grains and grasses further south. 
 The eternal winter night, and the brilliant coruscations 
 of the Aurora Borealis, are reserved for those who ad- 
 venture deep into the realms of the Ice King. In the 
 latitudes of 50-60'' winter is shorn of the extreme 
 terrors of the Arctic Circle, and the colonist enjoying 
 the same amount of daylight as in England, forms for 
 himself regular occupations and regular amusements. 
 The cold, though severe, is dry and conducive to health. 
 In some places cattle graze out all winter, and early in 
 April ploughing begins, and both seeding and i^loughing 
 can go on together. 
 
 (24) The climate of British North America is determined 
 by great physical causes. The greater extremes in the 
 interior can be explained by the fact that a * continental ' 
 * Extract from ' Tlie Emigrant,' by Sir F. B. Head. 
 
 i 
 
 ii 
 
24 The Geofjraphy of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 as opposed to a ' maritime ' or ' insular ' climate is always 
 subject to great variations. The oc(;an is able to store 
 heat for a longer time than land, and on the sea-coast or 
 on islands temperature is more uniform. In England, 
 surrounded by water, our average temperature ranges 
 from 40" to 60^, in corresponding latitudes in Central 
 Asia the average is from o'' in winter to about 70'^ in 
 summer. The ocean currents also play a great part in 
 determining the climate of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts 
 of the Dominion. The coasts of Labrador and Newfound- 
 land and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, are chilled and frozen 
 by the icy current down from Davis's Straits and Baffin's 
 Bay, bringing with it floes and icebergs down into the 
 Atlantic almost to the latitude of Malta. The Gulf 
 Stream, escaping from the Gulf of Mexico, just misses 
 Newfoundland, and flows in a north-easterly direction 
 past the British Isles into the Arctic Gulf, between 
 Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla. It thus happens that 
 the water which reaches the North Cape of Norway 
 in 71*^, is of nearly the same temperature as that of the 
 harbour of New York on the opposite side of the Atlantic 
 in latitude 4o\ 
 
 The vast expanses of the North American lakes have 
 an effect upon the climate and keep it more uniform. 
 The waters of the deeper lakes do not freeze in the winter 
 except for a few miles out from shore, because the storage 
 of heat gained during the summer months does not 
 quickly escape from these immense inland seas of vast 
 depth. In a small way they perform, as at Toronto, the 
 functions of the seas, and reproduce, if we may so term 
 it, an inland maritime climate on a modified scale. 
 
 As the Canadian Dominion is a land of forests, the 
 trees make a great difference to the climate. If the 
 surface of a land is stripped of trees and herbage by fires 
 or other destructive agencies, it becomes more quickly 
 
 t 
 
1.3 
 
 The EffecU of Climate. 
 
 25 
 
 hcntod by the sun, and evaporation goes on more speedily. 
 The immense forests of Nortli America have materially 
 assisted the rainfall in the country. At the same time 
 they have contributed to its richness. For centuries the 
 rotting leaves and foliage from deciduous trees have been 
 accumulating, until the surface of the earth is covered 
 with a fruitful and reproductive soil which the axe of the 
 lumberer discloses to the light. 
 
 The action of snow upon the land is ])eneficial. It 
 acts as a covering and protection, and prevents the 
 earth being frozen down to any great depth. As a rule 
 the earth in Canada is not frozen to a greater depth than 
 twelve or eighteen inches. When the snow melts 
 beneath the thaws of spring, the husbandnmn, especially 
 in Manitoba, finds the fertile soil which he has ploughed 
 in the autumn easily worked, thus saving him much 
 labour. From another point of view the ice and snow 
 are beneficial. For purposes of traffic and communication 
 they open up the whole country. King I lost is the great 
 Macadam of the country, providing an easy way for 
 wagon and sleigh through the most inaccessible districts. 
 The lumberer carries on his most active operation.s in 
 the winter months. 
 
 The question of soils is most important to husband- 
 men who have to make their living on them and from 
 them. The extreme richness and variety ' of the Prairie 
 soils have only recently been fully known, as the re- 
 sources of the North-West have been more scientifically 
 analysed. Moreover, in the absence of agues and fevers 
 these soils are especially healthy to live upon. 
 
 (25) Dr. Philpot, Surgeon to Her Majesty's Forces, 
 1871, writes as follows: — 'Canada is an exceptionally 
 healthy country. I do not hesitate to make the state- 
 ment after seven years in the country, engaged in an 
 
 ' Appoiulix IV. 
 
26 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 extensive medical practice. As ,: race, the Canadians 
 are fine, tall, handsome, and powerful men ; well built, 
 active, tough as pine-knot and bearded like pards. The 
 good food upon which they have been brought up (with 
 the invigorating climate\ appears to develop them to the 
 fullest proportion of the " genus homo ".' 
 
 On the sea-coast and along the shores of Newfoundland 
 and Nova Scotia a hardy population of sailors and fisher- 
 men have been reproducing for generations the skill and 
 daring of the old stock : if there were a Transatlantic wing 
 of an Imperial fleet, here would be the material to recruit 
 from. The Newfoundland ' Jack Tar ' is as loyal as his 
 compatriot at home, and perhaps he has more skill and 
 experience in practical arts of seamanship. His is a 
 coast that tests to the uttermost his native courage. Al- 
 though chilly and extremely rigorous at times, the climate 
 of Canada is not so trying, by sea or land, as that of 
 England, and it gives a new vigour. There is a dis- 
 cern i1)le difference between the Canadian and American 
 types, and it is thought that the northerners contrast 
 very favourably with the southerners. They are living 
 as a nation in a home which is more like that of Northern 
 Europe, from which they sprang. In the valley of the 
 St. Lawrence we may expect a hardier stock than in the 
 valley of the Mississippi. The low readings of the ther- 
 mometer during the Canadian winters, which at first 
 sight seem extremely prejudicial to health, are not really 
 so. The Prairie air is extremely dry, and 'enveloping 
 the body in a medium, conserves its animal warmth, 
 offering no facility for escape*.' The frames, therefore, 
 of the Canadian colonists are hardy and robust. Their 
 national courage remains the same, prompting to great 
 enterprises. 
 
 On more than one occasion Canadians have desired to 
 ' See p. 33 of ' Agricultural Canada,' 1889. 
 
; 5^1 n 
 
 1.1 
 
 Mil itary rga n im t ion. 
 
 27 
 
 share the perils and l)urclens of the mother-country. 
 The most recent and i)erhaps the most nota)>le instance 
 'if this was during the Soudan campaign, when a number 
 of Canadian roi/acicurs took part in the Nile Expedition 
 under Lord Wolseley. 
 
 (26) The Canadian army. — The Canadian Eeserve 
 nominally consists of all male British subjects between 
 eighteen and sixty, numbering about 700,000 men'. 
 
 The following was the disjiosition of the active force, 
 January i, 1888 : — 
 
 Cavalry 
 Fii'kl Artillery 
 Garrison Artilk-rj'. 
 Engineers . 
 Infantry and Rifles 
 
 1,987 
 1,440 
 
 3,479 
 179 
 
 31,506 
 
 3^.591 
 
 The Dominion is divided into twelve military dis- 
 tricts : — 
 
 Ontario . ... 4 
 
 Quebec . . . .3 
 
 Nova Scotia .... 1 
 
 New Brunswick . . i 
 
 Prince Edward I^iiiud . . i 
 
 British Colunil>ia . . .1 
 
 Manitoba . . . . i 
 
 I 2 
 
 The different provinces of the Canadian Dominion 
 have, in each case, their geographical and climatic pecu- 
 liarities, as may be gathered from a study of the general 
 features of the continent. The maritime provinces of 
 Nova Scotia, Nnv Brunswick and Prince Edward Island 
 dift'er from the river and lake provinces of Quebec and 
 Ontario. Manitoba and the districts of the i)rairies 
 naturally dilfer from both, and when we cross the Kocky 
 Mountains we find in the province of British Columbia 
 
 ' See Ilayden and Selvvyn's • North Aniericji," ji 54,?. 
 
28 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 distinctive and peculiar features. The range of country 
 is vast, running for a distance of 3000 miles through 75"^ 
 of longitude, i. e. from 5-,° to 130 , from Newfoundland to 
 Queen Charlotte's Island. At each step westward we are 
 brought face to face with new revelations of nature on a 
 grand and colossal scale. The sky is bluer, the mountains 
 higher, the rivers larger, the forests bigger, the plains 
 broader, than in the Old World. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Qvehec. 
 
 (1) The Province of Quebec, the first important centre 
 of French colonisation, is traversed by the St. Lawrence, 
 and has the advantages both of a maritime and a con- 
 tinental country. It extends from east to west between 
 57° 50' and So'^ 6' W. longitude and from south to north 
 between 52"^ and 45° N. latitude \ Its shape resembles 
 that of a triangle with its base to the south-west and its 
 apex at L'Anse au Sablon, just inside the Straits of 
 Belle Isle. Its greatest length from the north-west 
 corner to the Straits of Belle Isle is about i3-,o miles; 
 its greatest width along the 71st and 72 nd degrees of 
 W. longitude about 500 miles. It is bounded on the 
 
 ' See p. 7 of ' General Sketch of tlie Province of (Quebec,' by the 
 Hon. Honon^ Mercier, Premier of tlie Province, 1889. 
 
r^j't ' 
 
 IM: 
 
 I 
 
 ' 1 
 
^^^ 
 
 in 
 
 Quebec. 
 
 29 
 
 east, south-east, and south by the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
 the Bay des Chaleurs, the river Restigouche, and tlio 
 interprovincial line which divides it from New Bruns- 
 wick, thence by the international line dividing Canada 
 from the United States to the JIall Jiiver ; thence by the 
 45th degree of N. latitude to its intersection with the 
 middle of the river St. Lawrence at Point St. Regis ; to 
 the south-west, west, and north-west by the middle of 
 the river St. Lawrence from Point St. Regis to Point a 
 Beandct ; thence by the interprovincial line which sepa- 
 rates it from Ontario to Point Fortune on the Ottawa ; 
 thence along the middle of the Ottawa and Lake Temis- 
 camingue to the northern extremity of that lake ; thence 
 by a meridian line to James' Bay ; to the north-west and 
 north by James' Bay as far as the mouth of the East 
 Main River ', l)y the right shore of this river from its 
 mouth to its source ; thence going north by a line strik- 
 ing the most northern waters of the great river Esqui- 
 maux, thence in a circular line till the 52nd degree N. 
 latitude is struck, and thence to the St. Lawrence 
 River. 
 
 (2) The area of this Province is 258,634 square miles. 
 Deducting the surface of the inland waters and those of 
 the River and Gulf of St. Lawrence, the land amounts to 
 188,688 square miles or 120,764,651 acres. The whole 
 area exceeds that of France by 54,000 square miles. The 
 perimeter of the whole province is about 3000 miles, of 
 which 740 miles are sea-coast and 2260 miles land-frontier. 
 If we count the north and south shores of the St. Law- 
 rence as an interior develoi)ment of coast along which 
 steamers can pass we get an extra distance of 11 50 miles. 
 The Islands of Anticosti and Brion, the Bird Rocks, the 
 Magdalen Islands, a barren group about fifty miles north 
 of Prince Edward Island, and all the islands near Gaspe 
 
 ' See p. 8 of llonoiv Moreior's 'Sketch of the Province of Quebec' 
 
n 
 
 M . 
 
 30 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 belong to the province of Quebec. Anticosti is an un- 
 cultivated island about 145 miles long and 30 miles broad, 
 dividing the St. Lawrence Gulf into two channels. It is 
 chiefly used as a fishing station in the summer. Montreal 
 Island and the Isle of Orleans are in the St. Lawrence, 
 Allumet and Calumet in the Ottawa '. 
 
 The province of Quebec is chiefly made up of that great 
 basin, whose waters flow towards the St. Lawrence. The 
 valley of the Kichelieu forms a kind of inner triangle 
 with its head at the entrance of Lake St. Peter and its 
 base at the international boundary on the south. The 
 area is 1400 square miles, and the surface is level with 
 the exception of a few eminences. From one of these 
 eminences called 'Beloeil,' about 1400 feet high, a mag- 
 nificent view of this fertile plain can be taken in. To 
 the north Montreal and the great Victoria Bridge can 
 be seen, to the south Lake Chami)lain, fifty miles 
 distant. 
 
 (3) Mountains.— Quebec has two mountain systems, 
 (i.) The Laiircntian with a general trend from north-east 
 to south-west. From Labrador on the east to the neigh- 
 bourhood of the Saguenay these mountains form a com- 
 pact barrier only broken through by the large rivers 
 which cut them transversely. In approaching the Sague- 
 nay the chain separates into two distinct ranges : (i) that 
 of the ' height of lands ' which describes a great curve to 
 the no th in the direction of Lake St. John; (2) that 
 of the Laurentides, properly so called, skirting the north 
 bank of the St. Lawrence River and receding gradually 
 from it to a distance of thirty miles in rear of Montreal, 
 forming the southern watershed of the basin of Lake St. 
 .John and the Ottawa River. Along this whole distance 
 the average height is about 1600 feet. Near Lak(.' St. 
 John the principal crest of the mountains is 4000 feet. 
 ■ See Ilonon'' Mercier's ' Sketch of tlie Province of Quebec' 
 
II.] 
 
 Quehec. 
 
 31 
 
 Cape Toiirmcntc, just below Quebec, is 19 19 feet ; St. 
 Anne's Mount, twenty miles ])elow, 2687 feet. It is the 
 presence of these mountains which adds to the romantic 
 beauty of Quebec. In the county of Argenteuil, north 
 of the Ottawa River, the highest summit is that of * the 
 Trembling Mountain,' eo6o feet. The average elevation 
 of the interior plateau of the province in which the })asin 
 of Lake St. John and the Upper Ottawa is situated is 
 about 600 feet above the sea. Lake St. John is 293 feet 
 above the sea. Amongst these mountains there are dense 
 forests of conifers and hard woods. The valleys espe- 
 cially abound in pine, spruce, and cedar. 
 
 To the geologists, the Laurentian Rocks, extending 
 over an area larger than France, have been extremely 
 interesting as throwing light upon their science and 
 opening out an older leaf of the world's history than any 
 hitherto known. Amongst the limestone beds of the 
 Laurentian range a fossil was discovered and named the 
 Eozoon Canacknsr, the oldest relic of life which has been 
 found upon the globe. 
 
 'The Laurentian Rocks must have been separated by 
 a vast lapse of time from the next formation which suc- 
 ceeds them. For during that intei-val they had been 
 changed from the state of sand, mud, and gravel, into 
 gnarled crystalline gneiss, schist, and quartz-rock, and in 
 that altered state had been anew exposed to denudation. 
 It is beyond that immense gap that Sir William Logan's 
 discovery enables us to throw back the beginning of 
 life. . . . Whilst chronicling this Canadian discovery — 
 which marks an epoch in the history of geology — Sir 
 Roderick Murchison has shown that a representative of 
 the Laurentian rocks exists in Great Britain, and the 
 whole of the Scottish Highlands has been brought into 
 relation with the rocks of the rest of the island '.' 
 ' 'Quarterly Review,' No. 249. ' Siluria,' by Sir Roderick Murchison. 
 
32 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 (ii.) The Alleghany system. This chain is simply a 
 prolongation of the Appalachians. Beginning from the 
 east end of the Gaspo Peninsula they skirt the southern 
 shores of the St. Lawrence, and only begin to trend 
 away from it at Kamouraska. The first principal axis 
 bends towards the river and runs to the north-west in 
 the direction of St. Ann's Mount, and then inclines 
 towards the south-west to form the heights between the 
 Cape Chatte and Matane Kivers, diverges in the direction 
 of the Chaudiere River opposite Quebec, beyond which 
 the principal ridge runs south-west and then southward 
 into Vermont territoi'v, where it is known as the Green 
 Mountain. From Gaspe to Quebec this mountain chain 
 forms the watershed between the basin of the St. Law- 
 rence to the north and the Bay des Chaleurs and Bay of 
 Fundy on the south. It gives a veiy imposing appear- 
 ance, especially at Cape Chatte, to the St. Lawrence 
 River. Some of the peaks in the region between St. 
 Anne and Matane Rivers attain a lofty height. Mount 
 Logan is 3768 feet high. These mountains are known 
 generally as the Notre Dame Range. 
 
 (4) Lakes. — The small lakes of Quebec province are 
 very numerous and can be counted in hundreds, espe- 
 cially on the north side of the St. Lawrence amongst 
 the Laurentian Mountains, between the Ottawa and 
 Saguenay Rivers, but as a rule they are comparatively 
 small. Lake St. John has a superficies of 360 miles ; 
 Ch-and Ldlie, latitude 48 and longitude 77 W., one of 
 550 miles. Lake Crossways lies at the sources of the 
 St. Maurice, Lakes Kempt, Manouan, and La CoUotte 
 form a group further south. Lake Tcmiscamingue lies at 
 the sources of the Ottawa, Lake Shecoubish at those of 
 the Saguenay, Mistassinnie at those of the Rupert. 
 Lakes Edward and Kajoualwang are south of St. John's 
 Lake. Lake St. Peter is formed by the St. Lawrence. 
 
II.l 
 
 Quehec. 
 
 33 
 
 (5) Rivers. — The St. Lawrence rises in a small lake 
 in Minnesota, which discharges its waters into Lake 
 Superior by the Kiver St. Louis. It is designated by 
 different names ; St. Mary's between Lake Superior and 
 Lake Huron ; St. Clair or Detroit between Lake Huron 
 and Lake Erie ; Niagara between Lake Erie and Lake 
 Ontario ; and lastly, St. Lawrence, from the latter lake 
 to Pointe des Monts, which is regarded as the line of 
 separation between the river and the gulf. 'The total 
 length of tlie St. Lawrence is 2180 miles. Its ordinary 
 width varies between one and four miles in its upper 
 course, increasing below Quebec to twenty and thirty 
 miles at its mouth. It is navigable for ocean vessels to 
 Montreal, which is 833 miles from the Straits of Belle 
 Isle ; and from Montreal to the head of Lake Superior, a 
 distance of 1398 miles, can be navigated by vessels of 700 
 tons with the aid of canals built to overcome the rapids. 
 The smallest locks of these canals are 270 feet long, 45 
 wide, with 9 feet of water \' The tidal current is felt on 
 the St. Lawrence as far as Three Kivers, half-way between 
 Montreal and Quebec. 
 
 The Ottawa is the largest tributaiy of the St. Lawrence. 
 It is about 600 miles long, and drains an area of 80,000 
 square miles. It rises in the west of the province, and 
 forms a boundary line between Quebec and Ontario for 
 400 miles. It is navigable for 250 miles, the rapids and 
 falls being avoided by canals. The Ottawa is a picturesque 
 river, and is fringed by the noblest forests in the world. 
 It is on the Ottawa and its tributaries that the lumberer 
 finds the best timber. The Ottawa is described as * a 
 'ong succession of reaches studded with islands, narrow 
 I '^s, fair lakes, impetuous rapids, and magnificent falls. 
 The oyage on its water, day after day, is a succession 
 of charming surprises. At one time a wide prospect of 
 
 '■ See p. 43 of Ilonore Mercier's 'Sketch of the Province of Quebec' 
 
\jr 
 
 34 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 open lake reaches almost to the horizon ; at another, you 
 look over an endless undulating extent of hill and dale ; 
 then you are shut up within a narrow gorge without 
 visible escape. To increase the feeling of exhilaration 
 which variety gives, the traveller is compelled to change 
 perpetually his mode of conveyance — from steam to stage, 
 from boat to ferry, from car to scow. At some intervals 
 the traveller may have to walk ; for instance, where a 
 narrow platform, thirty feet high, crossing a rocky valley, 
 has been burnt by a fire in the woods.' The tributaries 
 of the Ottawa are — 
 
 River du Moino ■ 
 
 So 
 
 „ Noire 
 
 115 
 
 ,, Giitineau 
 
 • 250 
 
 „ du Lifevre 
 
 170 
 
 ,, Petite Nation . 
 
 50 
 
 ,, Rouge . 
 
 120 
 
 ,, du Nord 
 
 60 
 
 The Sagucnay is a tributary of the St. Lawrence, and 
 flows from Lake St. John. It is a stern and gloomy river 
 of immense depth, and has been described as * a tremen- 
 dous chasm cleft in a nearly straight line for some sixty 
 miles.' It brings down the waters of Lake St. John, 
 which receives the inflow of fourteen streams. Like the 
 Ottawa, it boasts of magnificent scenery and forests. 
 Thirty-five miles from its mouth are two lofty capes, 
 some 2000 feet high, called Capes Trinity and Eternity. 
 At the mouth of the Saguenay is Tadcusac, 134 miles 
 from Quebec, one of the first posts occupied by the French 
 with the purpose of securing the fur-trade. Some distance 
 up the river is Chicoutimi, an Indian word meaning 
 ' deep water,' where the navigation ends. 
 
 The Montmorency joins the St. Lawrence 8 miles below 
 Quebec. It is noted for its famous Falls, where a stream 
 of water 50 feet wide rushes over a steep precipice 250 
 
 ' Sec p. 15 of Honore Mercier'a 'Sketch of the Province of Quebec' 
 
g 
 
 II.] Quebec. 35 
 
 feet high. It is one of the many ' sights ' of Canada, and 
 
 its appearance in winter when a solid dome of ice 200 
 
 feet high is piled up is wonderful. These Falls, being 
 
 near Quebec, are often visited by ' sleigh ' and * toboggin ' 
 
 parties. Close by is Haldimand House, where the Duke 
 
 of Kent, Queen Victoria's father, once lived. 
 
 Other important rivers on the north side of the St. 
 
 Lawrence are : — 
 
 Length. 
 
 St. Maurice 280 miles 
 
 Batiscan 93 >> 
 
 Portnouf 80 ,, 
 
 Betsiamite 112 ,, 
 
 Outardes 234 ,, 
 
 Manicoiiagan 224 ,, 
 
 St. John's 150 ,, 
 
 Dcs Esquimaux 100 ,, 
 
 On the south side the chief rivers are : — 
 
 The liichclicu, flowing from Lake Champlain on the south 
 side into the St. Lawrence. It has a course of 50 miles. 
 
 The St. Francis rises in Lake Memphramagog, and 
 after a course of roo miles flows into Lake St. Peter. 
 The Yamaska is about the same length. 
 
 The Chaudierc flows from Lake Megantic, and enters 
 the St. Lawrence nearly opposite Quebec. This river is 
 noted for its beautiful Falls. 
 
 (6) Counties and Districts, — The province of Quebec 
 is divided into sixty counties : — 
 
 1. Argonteuil. 10. Champlain. 
 
 2. Bagot. II. Charlevoix. 
 
 3. Beauce. 12. Chateauguay. 
 
 4. Beauharnois. j Chicoutimi. ) 
 
 5. Berthier. * ( Saguenay. / 
 
 6. Bonaventure. 14. Compton. 
 
 7. Belle Chasse. 15. Dorchester. 
 
 8. Brome. / Drummond. ) 
 
 9. Chambly. ' ( Athabasca. J 
 
 D 2 
 
 
36 The Gcofjraphy of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 17- 
 
 Ga.sp<^. 
 
 40. 
 
 Pontiac. 
 
 18. 
 
 Hocholjiija. 
 
 41. 
 
 Portnouf. 
 
 19. 
 
 Himtins'don. 
 
 
 ( Quebec, C \ 
 
 ( „ w. ) 
 
 20. 
 
 Iberville. 
 
 42. 
 
 21. 
 
 Jacques Cartier. 
 
 
 22. 
 
 Joliette. 
 
 
 Que])ec Co. 
 
 23- 
 
 Kamouraska. 
 
 43- 
 
 ( Kichmond. ) 
 ( Wolfe. i 
 
 24. 
 
 La Prairie. 
 
 25. 
 
 L'Assoinption. 
 
 44. 
 
 Richelieu. 
 
 26. 
 
 Laval. 
 
 45- 
 
 Rimouski. 
 
 27. 
 
 Levis. 
 
 46. 
 
 Rouville. 
 
 28. 
 
 L'Islet. 
 
 47- 
 
 St. Hyacinthe. 
 
 29. 
 
 Lotbiniere. 
 
 48. 
 
 St John's. 
 
 30. 
 
 Maskinonge, 
 
 49. 
 
 St. Maurice. 
 
 31- 
 
 Megantic. 
 
 50. 
 
 Shefford. 
 
 32. 
 
 Missisiquoi. 
 
 51. 
 
 Sherbrooke. 
 
 33- 
 
 Montcalm. 
 
 52. 
 
 Soulanges. 
 
 34. 
 
 Montniagny. 
 
 53- 
 
 Stanstead. 
 
 35- 
 
 Montmorency. 
 
 54- 
 
 Temiscouata. 
 
 
 ( Montreal, C. \ 
 
 I „ w. ) 
 
 55- 
 
 Terrebonne 
 
 36. 
 
 56. 
 
 Three Rivers. 
 
 
 57- 
 
 Two Mountains 
 
 37- 
 
 Napierville. 
 
 58. 
 
 Vaudreuil. 
 
 38. 
 
 Nicolet. 
 
 Z9' 
 
 Vercheres. 
 
 39- 
 
 Ottawa. 
 
 60. 
 
 Yamaska. 
 
 In these 60 counties there are 65 electoral districts, 
 the difference being caused by Montreal having 3, and 
 Quebec 4 electoral districts. 
 
 The total area of these counties is calculated to be 
 130,000,000 acres. This is distributed as follows : — 
 
 Acres. 
 Conceded in fiefs .... 10,678,981 
 In full and common socage (townsliips) . ^1950,9153 
 Surveyed in Town Lots . . . 6,400,000 
 
 Awaiting Survey .... 103,970,066 
 
 130,000,000 
 
WW 
 
 II.] 
 
 Quebec. 
 
 37 
 
 (7) Towns and Cities.— Quebec has an historical 
 interest of its own, which makes it difl'erent from all 
 otliers. The French language, laws, and customs, are 
 perpetuated amongst its inhabitants. A recapitulation 
 of the names of its counties and towns alone would 
 be a proof of its history. Such names as Champlain, 
 .Tacques Cartier, Montcalm, Montmorency, Kichelieu, St. 
 Ilyacinthe, St. Maurice, St. John's, Vaudreuil, recall 
 vividly the cliief epochs of the history of what was once 
 called New France. Of the whole population 80 per 
 cent, are of French extraction \ 
 
 Each coimty has a county-town, and next to Montreal 
 and Quebec the most important are : — Richmond, the 
 county-town of Richmond ; Sherbrooke, of Sherbrooke ; 
 Three Rivers, of Three Rivers ; St. John's, of St. John's ; 
 St. Hyacinthe, of St. Hyacinthe. 
 
 Quebec (65,000) is the provincial capital of the immense 
 province )f Quebec. It is a very old and interesting 
 city. In 1608, Samuel Champlain, the great French 
 explorer, founded Quebec at the confluence of the St. 
 Lawrence and St. Charles Rivers. It occupies a most 
 magnificent site, and was formerly so strongly fortified 
 that it was deemed to be impregnable. Here, on the 
 'Plains of Abraham,' the decisive battle for the possession 
 of Canada was fought in 1759, and here Wolfe and Mont- 
 calm fell. It is 360 miles from the mouth of the St. 
 Lawrence, and 180 miles from Montreal. 
 
 * Let the spectator stand on the Flagstaff Battery 
 within the lines won by Wolfe's gallantly, but which he 
 could not live to enter. Below lie the steep narrow 
 streets of a city as French as Havre or Calais. Yonder 
 is an open market-place, with groups of women sitting at 
 their stalls with kerchiefed heads. At a distant corner- 
 house you may see a shrine to Our Lady, newly white- 
 ^ Honor»5 Morcier s ' Sketch of the Province of Quebec' 
 
 II 
 
38 The Geograjjhy of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 washed by the piety of the inmates. The first stone 
 block adjoining the Cathedral is the celebrated Eoman 
 Catholic College, the Laval University, named in honour 
 of the first Bishop of Quebec. Another great pile of 
 stone is the Parliament House for the provincial legisla- 
 ture. . . . Then, still below, the shores are lined with 
 warehouses and quays and masses of shipping. All the 
 surrounding waters are filled with sails ; the scene is one 
 of sunlight and life. Steamers with their filmy lines 
 of smoke pass up and down the river, or rapidly across. 
 At Point Levis, opposite the citadel, lie stranded or 
 lazily floating incalculable masses of timber, waiting 
 for transit to the British Isles, South America, or 
 Australia. 
 
 'Quebec sits on her impregnable heights a queen 
 amongst the cities of the New World. At her feet flows 
 the noble St. Lawrence, the fit highway into a great 
 empire, here narrowed to a mile's breadth, though lower 
 down the water widens to a score of miles, and at the 
 Gulf to a hundred. From the comi)ression of the great 
 river at this spot the city derives its name, the word 
 signifying in the native Indian tongue a strait. On 
 the east of the city, along a richly fertile valley, flows 
 the beautiful St. Charles, to join its waters with that of 
 the great river. The mingled waters divide to clasp the 
 fair and fertile "Isle of Dreams." 
 
 'The city, as seen from a distance, rises stately and 
 solemn, like a grand pile of monumental buildings, clus- 
 tering houses, tall, irregular, with high-pitched roofs 
 crowd the long line of shore and climb the rocky 
 heights. Great piles of stone churches, colleges, and 
 public buildings, crowned with gleaming minarets, rise 
 above the mass of dwellings. The clear air permits of 
 the use of tin for the roofs and spires, and the dark 
 stonework is relieved with gleaming light. Above all 
 
II.l 
 
 Quebec. 
 
 39 
 
 rise the long dark lines of one of the world's famous 
 citadels'.' 
 
 (8) Montreal has a population of more than 200,000. 
 It stands on Montreal Island, and was founded on the 
 site of Hochelaga in 1642. This is a description by 
 Parkman of the first founding of Montreal. It was in 
 its beginning a religious enterprise, conducted by enthu- 
 siastic men and women of France. * Maisonneuve sprang 
 ashore and fell on his knees. His followers imitated 
 his example ; and all joined their voices in enthusiastic 
 songs of thanksgiving. Tents, baggage, arms, and stores 
 were landed. An altar was raised on a pleasant spot 
 close at hand, and Mademoiselle Nance, with Madame 
 de la Peltrie, aided by her servant Charlotte Barre, 
 decorated it with a taste which won the admiration 
 of the beholders. Now all the company gathered 
 before the shrine. Here stood Vimont in the rich vest- 
 ments of his office. Here too were the two ladies 
 with their servant, here Montmagny, no very willing 
 spectator, and Maisonneuve, a warlike figure tall and 
 erect, his men clustering round him. They kneeled 
 in reverent silence as the Host was raised aloft, and 
 when the rite was over the priest turned and addressed 
 them. " You are a grain of mustard seed that shall rise 
 and grow till its branches overshadow the earth. You 
 are few, but your work is the work of God. His smile 
 is on you, and your children shall fill the land.'" 
 
 In addition to the above may be mentioned the follow- 
 ing cities and towns ^: — Levis, 12,175; Hull, 6,890; 
 Sorel, 5,791; Valley Field, 3,906; Nicolet, 3,764; 
 Joliette, 3,268; Lachine, 2,406; Longueil, 2,335; 
 Frazerville, 2,291; St. Jerome, 2,032; Chicoutimi, 1,935; 
 Farnham, 1,880; Iberville, 1,847; Beauharnois, 1,499; 
 
 ' Marshall's ' Canadian Dominion.' 
 * Mercier's 'Handbook,' 1890. 
 
 I'll 
 
40 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 Kimoiiski, 1,417; Terrebonne, 1,398; Louisville, 1,381 ; 
 L'Assomption, 1,313; Berthier, 1,039. According to the 
 statement of the Honourable Honore Mercier, Premier of 
 Quebec, the rural population constitutes 76-29 per cent. 
 He also observes that from 1871-1881 the Eoman Catholic 
 population showed an increase of 150,866 or 14-79 P^r 
 cent. Supposing the progression to continue in the same 
 ratio, the present decade will give an increase of 173,149, 
 which will bring the number of Koman Catholics in 1891 
 to 1,343,867, or 87-97 per cent, of the total population 
 of the Province. 
 
 As regards callings the Census of 1881 grouped the 
 Quebec population as follows : — 
 
 Agricultural 
 
 Industrial 
 
 Commercial 
 
 Domestic 
 
 Unclassified 
 
 201,963 or 48-68 per cent. 
 
 81,643 „ 19.67 
 34,346 „ 8.27 „ 
 24)267 „ 5.85 
 
 72.635 ,. 17-50 ,. 
 
 (9) The Eastern Toivnships are a peculiar feature of the 
 province of Quebec. They lie close to Vermont and the 
 United States frontier on the parallel of 45*^ N., in the 
 vicinity of Lakes Memphramagog, Megantic, and Mas- 
 sawippi, which are of surpassing beauty. The soil is 
 very fertile, and the forests are full of timber. It is a 
 purely agricultural district. These townships were ori- 
 ginally settled by United Empire Loyalists, who adhered 
 to England at the time of the American War. It is 
 regarded as the * English ' portion of the province of 
 Quebec. 
 
 (10) There are five main centres of colonisation in the 
 province of Quebec^: (i) The Valley of the Saguenay, 
 where the extent of disposable land is 616,600 acres, 
 valued at lod per acre; (2) The Valley of St. Maurice, 
 
 • See p. 140 of Silver's ' Handbook to Canada ' (1881). 
 
T M 
 
 II.] 
 
 Quebec. 
 
 41 
 
 with 440,000 acres, for sale at 15. ^d. per acre; (3) The 
 Valley of the Ottawa, with 1,358,000 acres, at is. 3^/. per 
 acre ; (4) The Eastern Townships, with 850,000 acres, at 
 2s. 1(1. or 2,9. 6d. per acre; (5) Gaspe, where there are 
 491,100 acres, at the rate of lod. to is. ^d. per acre. 
 Besides these centres, there are i^ million acres dis- 
 posable in the var y of the Lower St. Lawrence. An 
 emigrant, therefo may find abundance of room in the 
 province of Quebec which, although it is the oldest of all, 
 does not hold on the average six persons to the square 
 mile. Elsewhere in the Dominion the space is abso- 
 lutely unlimited. 
 
 (11) The shipping of the province of Quebec in 1886 
 was as follows : — 
 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tonnage. 
 
 Amherst . 
 
 .^3 
 
 1,092 
 
 Gaspo 
 
 44 
 
 2,347 
 
 Montreal . 
 
 • 1,007 
 
 136,286 
 
 Perc^ 
 
 3 
 
 133 
 
 Quebec . 
 
 . 856 
 
 101,481 
 
 1,975 
 
 232,556 
 
 This is exclusive of the fishing fleet '. At the close of 
 1885 more than 160 vessels were afloat, and 7,949 boats 
 giving employment to nearly 11,322 men. 
 
 In 1888 the total shipping of the Canadian Dominion 
 was 1,089,642 tons. 
 
 ' yee Uiggar's ' Canada,' 1889. 
 
 tf 
 
r 
 
 42 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Ontario. 
 
 ; 
 
 (i) When Champlain first explored the St. Lawrence, 
 beyond Montreal, he came to a lake which for beauty 
 and size seemed to surpass all others. The Indians 
 called it Ontario, meaning in their language *The 
 Beautiful Water,' and the explorer accepted the name. 
 The Province of Ontario is the province of great lakes, 
 as Quebec is the province of the great river which drains 
 them. Formerly Ontario was called Upper Canada, and 
 it received its present name and meaning in 1867. 
 In contrast again with Quebec, Ontario is almost a 
 purely British colony in population, customs, and tradi- 
 tions. Quebec and Ontario, although they are near 
 neighbours occupying conterminous territories, are to all 
 intents and purposes distinct French and British colonies. 
 That they should be so completely in accord on common 
 subjects, and so loyal to a common centre of government, 
 proves the power of Federal principles. 
 
 Area. — The area of Ontario is calculated to be about 
 181,800 square miles', one and a half times the size 
 of Great Britain and Ireland. No less than 25,000,000 
 acres have been surveyed. The boundaries of the Pro- 
 vince are the River Ottawa and Quebec on the north- 
 f-a&t, the St. Lawrence and the Lakes of Ontario and Erie 
 on the south. On the west, it is bounded by Manitoba 
 and the North- West Territories. The Western Peninsula, 
 
 ' See p. 7 of ' Official Handbook,' 1890. 
 
[Ch. 
 
 Bnce, 
 jauty 
 Jians 
 'The 
 lame. 
 akes, 
 rains 
 , and 
 1867. 
 ost a 
 tradi- 
 near 
 to all 
 onies. 
 timon 
 inent, 
 
 about 
 e size 
 
 )0,O0O 
 
 ) Pro- 
 tiorth- 
 d Erie 
 nitoba 
 nsula, 
 
I 
 
 ■ 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
1 T-] 
 
 III.] 
 
 Ontario. 
 
 43 
 
 i!| 
 
 extending from Toronto to Lake St. Clair, has been 
 called the ' Garden of Canada.' 
 
 (2) Surface. — The highest mountains in Ontario are 
 the Blue Mountains, on the south of Nottawasaga Bay. 
 They do not exceed 1 000 feet. As a rule the country is 
 flat or gently undulating, thus differing from the sister 
 province of Quebec. 
 
 The physical features and characteristics of the Pro- 
 vince of Ontario are comparatively easy to understand. 
 A glance at the map will show that Nature has given it 
 a commanding position. Bordering on United States 
 territoiy on the south and south-west, and reacliing in 
 its furthest north-west limits to the Manitoba lake 
 system, it seems fitted admirably by nature to be a dis- 
 tributing centre for the north and south parts of the 
 continent. The traffic Ijy the Sault Ste. Marie is said 
 already to be equal to the tonnage that passes through 
 the Suez Canal. Its railway system connects with that 
 of the United States at half a dozen different points : the 
 markets throughout the province are within easy range 
 of the farmer in every settled district, the highways are 
 kept in good repair, the towns and villages are thickly 
 dotted over the country, being seldom more than five to 
 ten miles apart, and, excepting in the new and far northern 
 settlements, almost every farm is within fifteen miles of 
 a railway station, shotvlng a healthy distribution of rural 
 population. 
 
 (3) Soil and Products. — The country has many varieties 
 of soil, nearly all of which are fertile and easy of cultiva- 
 tion. The farms yield a good return if cultivated with 
 a view to stock-raising or dairy farming, fruit and mixed 
 farming, the branches which promise in the future to be 
 the leading features of agricultural industry in Ontario. 
 Means of transport are ample, and freights are low. 
 
 An Agricultural Return, collected by the Bureau of 
 
44 Tlie Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 I 
 
 Total yield. 
 
 Per acre. 
 
 18,071,142 . 
 
 . 16.7 
 
 9.518,553 . 
 
 • 17-5 
 
 19,512,278 . 
 
 26.1 
 
 58,665,608 . 
 
 • 35-4 
 
 1,106,462 . 
 
 • 15-4 
 
 16,043,734 . 
 
 • 20.5 
 
 1,678,708 . 
 
 21'2 
 
 482,072 . 
 
 • 23-5 
 
 16,012,358 . 
 
 • 144-7 
 
 8.7«7.743 • 
 
 . 467.0 
 
 3,4/8,751 • 
 
 • 338-3 
 
 47,061,053 . 
 
 . 420.9 
 
 2,994,446 . 
 
 .88' 
 
 Industries for the Province of Ontario, gives the follow- 
 ing average production of field crops per acre for the 
 whole Province of Ontario in 1888, together with their 
 yields : — 
 
 Fall-wlieat (busliels) 
 
 Spring „ 
 
 liark-y 
 
 Oats 
 
 Rye 
 
 r»-as 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 Bdans 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 Mangolds 
 
 Carrots 
 
 Turnips 
 
 Hay and clover (tons) 
 
 (4) Towns. — The first town that claims attention in 
 Ontario is Ottawa (44,000), the seat of the Federal 
 Government. It is the centre also of the Ontario lumber 
 trade. The Ottawa is the river by which, it will be 
 recollected, the early explorers journeyed to the West 
 across Lake Nipissmg and French Kiver, when the 
 Niagara route on the south was closed against them by 
 the hostility of the Iroquois. The city is in easy and 
 quick communication with the St. Lawrence. It is thus 
 described by the Marquis of Lome in his 'Canadian 
 Pictures ' : — 
 
 'The city is placed on the banks of a broad stream, 
 which narrows at one spot above the town and pours 
 over a steep ledge of rock to expand immediately after- 
 wards to flow on in a channel navigable except at one 
 place where there are rapids, until it empties itself, about 
 80 miles away, into the St. Lawrence. Forty miles to 
 the south, the last named mighty river is the boundary 
 
 ' Extract from ' Official Handbook,' published by the Canadian 
 Government, Oct. 1890. 
 
 '1 
 
III.] 
 
 Ontario. 
 
 45 
 
 between Canada and the State of New York. To the 
 north-west the Ottawa stretche.s on far into the wilds, 
 having its head-waters at the heiglit of hmd which 
 divides the basin of the St. Lawrence from that of 
 Hudson's Bay.' 
 
 Kingston (17,000) is described by the same writer as 
 one of the pleasantest of Canadian towns. It lies in one 
 of the oldest settled districts of Ontario and is situated 
 on the Cataraqui River, being connected with Ottawa by 
 the Rideau Canal. The Grand Trunk Railway j^asses 
 through it, and the steamei's from Toronto and Montreal 
 call at the port. ' Picturesque Martello towers rise from 
 the waters and are posted along the environs of the town 
 to where Fort Henry, on the hill to the southward, 
 dominates the landscape. The streets of the lime-stone 
 built city are well planted. Ship and boat-building with 
 the several manufactories and the stir at the wharves 
 caused by the transhipment of grain, keep a good deal of 
 life in the locality, deserted as it is by troops and 
 politicians. The traces of the old French fort built by 
 Frontenac are yet visible . . . From Kingston the so- 
 called thousand isles may be seen by taking the steamer 
 down to Montreal . . . The width of the stream near 
 Kingston is about seven miles and the whole area for 
 many miles down is a labyrinthine maze of water, the 
 rocky wood-clad group of islets separating the deep, 
 strong-running channels.' 
 
 (5) At the west end of Lake Ontario is Toronto, 
 meaning 'the meeting place of the tribes,' once called 
 Yorh (172,000). It is the seat of the Provincial Govern- 
 ment, and has many important manufactories. Toronto 
 is as near Liverpool, by the St. Lawrence and the 
 Straits of Belle Isle, as New York is by the ordinary 
 sea-route. It is called the ' Queen City of the West ' 
 with its * array of dome and turret, arch and spire, and 
 
46 The Geof/rcqjhy of the Canadian Dominion. [Cii. 
 
 the varic'd movement of its wnter-frontn^o is one that 
 cannot fjiil to evoke pleasure and create surprise . . . 
 The city, which covers an area of eight or ten square miles, 
 is built on a low-lyinp plain with a rising inclination to 
 the upper or northern end, where a ridge bounds it, 
 prob.ibly the ancient margin of the lake. Within this 
 area there are close upon 120 miles of streets, laid out 
 after a rigid chess-])oard pattern, though monotony is 
 avoided by the pi'evalence of Boulevards and ornamental 
 trees in the streets and avenues. What the city lacks in 
 picturesqueness of situation is atoned for ])y its beautiful 
 harbour and by its private gardens and public parks. 
 The Custom House, with its adjacent examining ware- 
 house, is perhaps one of the most striking instances of 
 the new architectural regime. The business done here 
 rates the city as second jiort of entry in the Dominion'.' 
 
 Mr. Marshall remarks in his work on * The Canadian 
 Dominion,' that 'the University of Toronto is perhaps 
 the only piece of collegiate architecture on the American 
 continent worthy of standing in the streets of Oxford ^' 
 
 Niagara. The Falls of Niagara have been a theme of 
 wonder ever since Father Hennepin first saw them and 
 described them in his travels. No description can do 
 them justice. Sir Charles Lyell calculated that 1,500,000 
 cubic feet of water pass every minute. The waters are 
 gradually wearing the rock away and tlie shape of the 
 Falls has changed much since the Jesuit I'xplorer saw 
 them. The height of the American Falls is said to be 
 164 feet, of the Horseshoe Falls 158 feet. To Hennepin 
 they seemed 600 feet high. It is said that the only Falls 
 to be compared with them are the Victoria Falls of the 
 Zambesi in South Africa. Charles Dickens in his 
 
 ' ' Picturesque Canada,' edited by the Very Reverend G. M. Grant, 
 Principal of Queen's University, Kingstf)n, Ontario. 
 
 * This beautiful structure was destroyed by fire, Feb. 14, 1890. 
 
III.I 
 
 Ontario. 
 
 47 
 
 ' American Notes ' has pourtrayed the * wreathing waters 
 in the rapids hurrying to take their phi nge,' then 'the 
 giant leap ' and the ' rainbows spanning them a hundred 
 feet below,' and that 'tremendous ghost of spray and 
 mist which is never laid, arising from its unfathomable 
 grave.' The Indian says that this rising mist is the 
 'incense of the world rising to the Great Spirit.' 
 
 Sf. Catharine's (ii,ooo) is situated on Twelve Mile 
 Creek, and is the principal point on the Welland Canal. 
 ' The country in its neighbourhood is like that of a great 
 part of the peninsula between Lakes Erie and Huron, 
 very fertile and originally covered with a fair growth of 
 maple and other hard wood. It has now been carved 
 out into excellent farms, occupied by people mainly Scots 
 and English in descent.' 
 
 (6) London (27,000) in Middlesex is one of the most 
 enterprising and prosperous of the Canadian cities. It is 
 built on a little stream called the Thames ; her bridges 
 are named Blackfriars and Westminster ; her principal 
 church is St. Paul's ; her streets are Piccadilly, Oxford 
 Street, Regent Street, and Pall Mall. On the east on 
 Lake Erie is Port Dover. Amongst other important towns 
 are InyersoU in the county of Oxford; GucJph (11,000) 
 famous for its Agricultural College; WoodsfocJc (8,314) 
 in the county of Oxford ; Strafford (9,000) with an adjacent 
 village of Shakespeare in Pertli ; WaUccrfoicn in the county 
 of Bruce on the river Saugeen ; Hamilton (43,082) near 
 Niagara, sometimes called ' the ambitious ' with a desire 
 to rival Toronto; Brantford (13,000) which is brought 
 into communication with Lake Erie by a canal. The 
 name of Milton is commemorated in County Halton. 
 Along Lake Ontario, on the northern shore, there is a 
 Scarborough and Whitby. There is another Chatham 
 in County Kent, and not far off a Colchester, Rochester, 
 Maidstone, and Windsor, and Sandwich. The very 
 
4^ The Geograj^hy of the CanatVuni Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 I 
 
 namos of tho counties and towns of Ontario hotray their 
 English orif^in. 
 
 A Journoy by steamer from Montreal to the extreme 
 end of tht; great Province of Ontario is thus sketclied by 
 the Marquis of Lome: — 
 
 'But here (at Montreal) if she be a ship of small ton- 
 nage her journey need not be terminated. Kai>id waters 
 tlash over the rocky ledges in the stream above, and the 
 continuation of these rapids, which are often almost 
 cascades, bars her direct progress ; but at these she finds 
 magnificent canals constructed with 9 and sonuitimes 
 14 feet of water over tho sills of the locks, and she can 
 proceed until the majestic waters of Lake Ontario allow 
 her again for 150 miles to proceed upon her coarse. 
 Then, wln.n the steam of \t;e Falls of Niagara rises above 
 the plains which seem to shut out further advance, she 
 slips quietly into the Welland Canal which carries her 
 over 30 miles, until she passes out again upon the 
 shallowest of the great lakes. Lake Erie. Onwards for 
 another 140 miles, and then through similar works she 
 reaches Lake Huron. Through a wonderful archipelago 
 of islands, scattered on tho water on its northern shore, 
 she wends her way until the old French post called 
 the Rapids of St. Mary is seen upon the low and wooded 
 shores. Here for the first time in her long inland voyage 
 she has to leave Canadian territory, the canal which 
 takes her onwards being built on American ground '. 
 And now at last she will have arrived at the ultimate 
 stage of her wanderings, for before her stretch the 400 
 miles of the deeps of Lake Superior, 600 feet above the 
 level of the sea.' 
 
 (7) The Lakes. — Besides Lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron, 
 and Superior, many lesser lakes may be noticed in 
 
 ' A new canal is being constructed in Canadian territory. 
 
"T^P 
 
 III.] 
 
 Ontario. 
 
 49 
 
 Ontario. Tlicro is Lnlc St. Clair, placod as a link botweon 
 Lak«'.s Eli*' and Huron. 
 
 Ldh' Sitnror, tho scono of oarly missionary ofTorts 
 amongst the Ilurons. 
 
 Lah'cIs'ipissiHf/, on tlu' ol<l canoo routo to tho Wt'st, now 
 on tho track of the railway which i)oints westward to 
 Saiilt St(<. Mario. 
 . Lake CourliirhiHci, tho * Lako of many Winds.' 
 
 Lale MusJioka, described as a lovely sheet of water 
 dotted with picturesque islands with steep winding banks. 
 
 Lal'C Jiossrait, a lake of irregular sha})o and filled with 
 picturesque islands and fringed with nol)le forests. 
 
 The greater Georgian Bay, an eastern arm of Lake 
 Huron, may be regarded almost as a lake in itself. 
 
 Lake NipUjon, called by some 'the most beautiful of 
 all lakes.' 
 
 Lake of the Woods ami IlaUiy Lake, which feed first of 
 all the great St. Lawrence River. 
 
 (8) Divisions. — Ontario is divided into 46 counties, 
 which may bo grouped as follows : — 
 
 I. Five in Lake Erie District, viz. Essex, Kent, Elgin. 
 Norfolk, Haldimand. 
 
 IL Three in the Niagara District, viz. Monck, Welland. 
 Lincoln. 
 
 IIL Three in Lake Huron District, viz. Lambton. 
 Huron, Bruce. 
 
 IV. Seven in the Inland District, viz. Middlesex, 
 Perth, Oxford, Waterloo, Wellington, Card well. Brant. 
 
 V. Two in the Georgian Bay District, viz. Grey and 
 Simcoe. 
 
 VI. Three in the Northern District, viz. Victoria, 
 Haliburton, Peterborough. 
 
 VII. Seven in the Lake Ontario District, viz. Went- 
 worth, Hatton, Peel, York, Ontario, Durham, North- 
 umberland. 
 
50 The Geogra'phy of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 ! J 
 
 VIII. Four in the Quinto District, viz. Hastings, 
 Lennox, Addington, Prince Edward. 
 
 IX. Six in the St. Lawrence River District, viz. Fron- 
 tenac, Leeds, Grenville, Dundas, Stormont, Glengariy. 
 
 X. Five in the Ottawa River District ; viz. Renfrew, 
 Lanark, Carleton, Russell, Prescott. 
 
 In addition to these there is the great Manitoulin Island 
 on the north of Lake Huron, which is rapidly being settled. 
 
 In the above counties there are 88 electoral districts. 
 The power of self-government is carried out in the 
 Dominion. Any village with 750 inhabitants may be 
 incorjiorated under the Municipal Acts. If such a vil- 
 lage increases to 2000 it acquires the status of a town, 
 and if it reaches 15,000 it gains the full dignity of a city. 
 
 (9) The sbii>ping of Ontario is on a great and in- 
 creasing scale. The chief ports are as follows : — 
 
 Names. 
 I. Ottnwa . . 
 -'. Brockville 
 
 Cornwall . . 
 
 Kingston . . 
 
 Morrisbiirg . 
 
 3. Belleville . . 
 Cobourg . . 
 Hamilton . . 
 Napanu . . 
 Oakville . . 
 Port Colborne 
 Port Hope 
 Pictoii . . . 
 Toronto 
 Whitby . . 
 
 4. Niagara . . 
 St. Catherine's 
 
 5. Vmhcrstburg 
 Dunville . . 
 Port Burwell 
 Port Dover . 
 Port Rowan . 
 Port Stanley . 
 
 County. 
 Carleton 
 Leeds 
 Stormont 
 Frontenac 
 Dundas 
 Hastings 
 Northumberland 
 Wentworth 
 Lennox 
 Halton 
 
 Nortliumborland 
 Durham 
 Prince Edward 
 York 
 Ontario 
 Lincoln 
 Welland 
 Essex 
 Monck 
 Elgin 
 Norfolk 
 Norfolk 
 Elgin 
 
 Lake or River. 
 on the Ottawa. 
 
 on the St. Lawrence. 
 
 y on Lake Ontario. 
 
 on the Niagara. 
 
 y on Lake Erie. 
 
[Ch. 
 tings, 
 
 Fron- 
 
 •ly. 
 
 frew, 
 
 sland 
 ttled. 
 ;ricts. 
 I the 
 ly be 
 a vil- 
 own, 
 city, 
 i in- 
 
 ence. 
 
 
 ! , (I 
 I' 
 
 $S.' 
 
 ;: f 1 
 
 I 
 
I; II 
 
 i il 
 
 I'l 
 
M 
 
 
 Nova Scotia. 
 
 
 Names. 
 
 Countij. 
 
 6. 
 
 Chatham . . . 
 
 . Kent 
 
 
 Windsor . . . 
 
 Essex 
 
 "• 
 
 Goodrich . . . 
 
 Huron 
 
 s. 
 
 Collingwood . . 
 
 . Simcoo 
 
 
 Sy<lonham . . 
 
 . Groy 
 
 9- 
 
 Sault Ste Mario 
 
 
 51 
 
 Lake or River. 
 <»n Lake St. Clair, 
 on Lake Huron. 
 
 on Gt'f)rgian Bay. 
 on Liike Superior. 
 
 Of those the most important are — 
 
 Arrivals <ni'l Departures. 
 
 Kingston, with a tonnage of 1,066.592 
 
 Toronto, „ ,, 906,704 
 
 Ottawa, .. ., 7^7)79^ 
 
 St. Catherine's, ., ., 413,231 
 
 Hamilton, 
 
 • 29,175 
 
 including coasting trade '. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Kova Scotia. 
 
 (i) Of all the Provinces of the Canadian Dominion, 
 Nova Scotia has the most interesting and I'omantic histoiy. 
 Around its stormy coasts and Ijleak capes, the great 
 struggle between the French and British was being 
 incessantly carried on in the seventei-nth and rigliteenth 
 centuries. The ruins of Luuisl)urg, on the north of 
 (iabarus Bay, are memorials of the l^rokt-n Power 
 which aimed at exclusive dominion in Ni»rth America, 
 I'rom the St. Lawrence to the Lakes and Western 
 
 ' See General Mai> No. 1, with list of Shipping and Population. 
 
 £ 2 
 
nv 
 
 52 The GeograjyJiy of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 Pr.iiries. By tho twelfth article of the Treaty of Utrecht, 
 ' All Nova Scotia or Acadia comprehended within its 
 ancient boundaries, as also the city of Port Koyal, now 
 called Annapolis, were yielded and made over to the 
 Queen (Anne) of Great Britain and her Crown for ever.' 
 Much of the romance of early colonisation has taken 
 place in Nova Scotia. Those 150 adventurers styled The 
 Knights Baronets of Nova Scotia, created l)y Charles I, 
 give us a specimen of that determined s})irit of colonisa- 
 tion of the New World in the wake of the Elizahethan 
 heroes, which was characteristic of Englishmen. Little 
 by little the British advanced, and fought many a 
 sanguinary battle for the possession of Port Koyal, Canso, 
 and Cape Breton, the key of the St. Lawrence in those 
 days. At last the struggle closed with tlu; exi>ulsion of 
 the Acadians from their country. The poet Longfellow 
 has, with deep pathos, made the village of Grand Pre, 
 Blomidon and the Basin of Mines historical. 
 
 Nova Scotia, as the principal Maritime Province, has 
 its peculiar and distinct features. The colonists who live 
 there are chiefly fishermen and toilers of the sea, like 
 those of Newfoundland. But mining and lumbering are 
 carried on also to a largo extent, and the coal trade is 
 steadily growing. 1,576,692 tons being sold in 1888, while 
 very much less than half was sold ten years ago \ 
 
 (2) Boundaries. — Tho Province of Nova Scotia is 
 situated between 43° and 47" N. latitude and 60" and 67° 
 W. longitude, comprising the Peninsula of Nova Scotia 
 and the Island of Capo Breton. It is l)ounded on the 
 north by Northumberland Strait and tho Gulf of St. 
 Lawrence, on the east and south by the Atlantic Ocean, 
 on the north-west by the Bay of Fundy and tho Bay of 
 Chignecto. It is long and narrow in shape, running in a 
 north-easterly and south-westerly direction. 
 
 * See p. 4S of * Official Handbook,' iSgo. 
 
IV.] 
 
 Xova Scotia. 
 
 53 
 
 Area. — Nova Scotia is about 3C0 miles loncf and 100 
 miles broad. Its coast-lino is 1200 miles, and tho whole 
 area is 20,000 square miles, of which one-fifth is covered 
 with lakes and small rivers. It is about one-ninth the size 
 of Ontario. 
 
 (3) Surface. — There aro no very high mountains in 
 Nova Scotia. Tho central watershed extends down the 
 whole length, giving a northerly and southerly slope. 
 The highest mountains are found along Cape Breton in 
 latitude 46° N. Tho South Mountains are iji Annapolis 
 and King's counties, and form the western part of the 
 central ridge. The North Mountains run parallel with 
 them and border on the Bay of Fundy. Between them 
 flows the Annapolis Kiver, along a most sheltered and 
 fertile valley, which was the home of the Acadian 
 peasantry, celebrated l)y the jtoet Longfellow in 'Evange- 
 line.' The Cobequid Mountains lie in the county of 
 Colchester, north of the Basin of Mines. The boldest 
 scenery is found in Cape Breton from Inganischo to St. 
 Anne's Bay. 
 
 (4) Coast. —Nova Scotia and Cape Breton, which are 
 divided by the narrow Gut of Canso, have a very long 
 coast-line, deeply indented with innumerable bays, 
 especially on the Atlantic sea-l)oard. It is, therefore, 
 especially adapted for a seafaring and maritime popula- 
 tion. Tho Bay of Fundy is remarkable for its tides, 
 especially on its eastern arm, which terminates in the 
 Bay of Mines. At the Equinoxes the tides rise some- 
 times to the height of fifty feet, and form a bore similar 
 to that seen in the Bristol Channel. 
 
 Rivers. — There are no long rivers in the peninsula, 
 owing to its natural configuration. No river exceeds 
 fifty miles in length. The largest are the Shuhoiacad'ic, 
 flowing into the east corner of Mines Basin. Fjist lilvcr of 
 Pictou into Pictou Harbour, St. Marijs La Have, Mersey 
 
54 The (1 cog rtipliy of tJie Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 into the Atlantic on the south, Annapolis into Annapolis 
 Basin, and CormvaUis into Minos Basin. 
 
 Lakes. — TIutg are many lakes, ])ut none exceed twelve 
 miles in length. The chief are : Darhics, Iiossi<fnnl, 
 Mal(if/a in the south ; Shij) Ilarhour Lalcc and Lalcc Ainslie 
 in Cape Breton. Bras iVOr is the great lake in the inte- 
 rior of Cape Breton. 
 
 (5) Islands. — Isle 3Iaclamr, near the Gut of Canso, is 
 sixteen miles long, and has a large fishing population. 
 Boulardcrie is a long-shaped island north of Cape Breton, 
 and forms part of Victoria County in Cape Breton. 
 Sable Island lies 100 miles south of Cape Breton where 
 La Koche's convict colony was starved in 1598, and 
 St. raid's Island lies beyond Cape North. Amongst 
 others are Pictou, Seafarif Cariboo, Tancoch, Long Island, 
 Briar Island. 
 
 Capes. — The principal capes are : Chignecto, Split, 
 nOr, Blomidon, Midagash, St. Lawrence, St. George, Eg- 
 mont, Granbji, Dauphine, Sambro Head, Breton, Sable. 
 
 Bays. — On the Bay of Fundy : St. Mary's Bag, Grand 
 Passage, B'lgbg Gut, Annapolis Basin, Mines Basin, Cobc 
 quid Bag, Chignecto Bag, Cumberland Basin. 
 
 On the Northumberland Strait : Bale Verfe, Pug wash 
 Harbour, Pictou Harbour, George Bag. 
 
 On the Atlantic side : Chedabucto Bag, Milford Haven, 
 Torbag, Sheet Harbour, Miisquodoboit Harbour, Halifax 
 Harbour, Bedford Basin, Lunenburg Harbour. 
 
 Nova Scotia possesses unrivalled opportunities for 
 fishing, and the annual value of her fish exceeds i \ 
 millions sterling, a large portion of which is exported. 
 She also exports enormous quantities of tinned lobsters 
 to all parts of the world. Her best markets are the West 
 Indies, and then the United States. 
 
 (6) Climate and Soil. — The climate of Nova Scotia, 
 especially on the south and western portions, where it is 
 
IV.] 
 
 Nova Scotia. 
 
 55 
 
 sheltered by the high grouiul, is far miklor than that of 
 the inland provinces. The Gulf Stream sweeps up from 
 the Gulf of Mexico within a short distance of its southern 
 shores. The average temperature of Annapolis County 
 is 8'^ warmer than that of Cape Breton, which is a bleak 
 and stormy region, and 6° warmer than that of the 
 State of Massachusetts. The Valley of Annapolis is 
 famed for its beautiful orchards, and fruits of many 
 descriptions. 
 
 Although the peninsula is not an agricultural country 
 in any remarkable degree, its chief productions being those 
 of the sea, the mine, and the forest, still there are some 
 very rich tracts, especially in Hants, King's, and Anna- 
 polis counties'. The average production of the crops of 
 Nova Scotia are as follows : — 
 
 Wheat . . yield per aero 
 
 Ryo , ,, 
 
 Barley ... ,, 
 
 Oats . . . „ „ 
 
 Buckwheat . . ,, ,, 
 
 Indian Corn ^Maize) ,, ,, 
 
 Turnips . . . ,, ,, 
 
 Potatoes . . . ,, ,, 
 
 Mangold Wurtzel . ,, ,, 
 
 Beans . . . ,, ,, 
 
 Hay . . . „ „ 
 
 The ungranted lands in the different counties amounted 
 in 1887 to 2,116,811 acres, of which 236,000 were in 
 Halifax County, 475,000 in Victoria County, 202,000 in 
 Yarmouth County, 139,000 in Annapolis County, 136,000 
 in Shelburne County, 135,000 in Queen's County, 147,000 
 in Inverness County, 114,000 in Lunenburg County, 
 ioi,ooo in Guysborough County ^ 
 
 But it is impossible for Nova Scotia to compete with 
 
 18 bushels 
 
 21 M 
 
 35 .. 
 
 34 .. 
 
 33 M 
 
 42 ,. 
 
 420 „ 
 
 250 .. 
 
 500 M 
 
 22 
 
 2 tons. 
 
 ' Appendix V. 
 
 * See p. 53 of Official Handbook,' 18S8. 
 
m^ 
 
 56 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 tho great grain-producing region of the North-West. In 
 the future she will probably become a great manufactur- 
 ing centre. Her coal-fields at Pictou County, Cumber- 
 land County, and Capo Breton, combined with her iron, 
 gold, and other mineral wealth, must give her a leading 
 position. The Marquis of Lome has written: — 'If 
 wages were only as low in Nova Scotia as they are in 
 England and Scotland, one of her ports — tho port of 
 Pictou — would soon rival Glasgow or Belfast or London 
 as a great iron ship-building port. Near it are mines 
 almost as vast as those of Lanarkshire, close to the water 
 are great veins of coal of twenty to thirty feet in thickness.' 
 
 Her geographical position also is very fjivourable 
 for the distribution of her manufactures to all parts, 
 whether by sea or land. The railway across the isthmus 
 connects her with the whole Canadian system and the 
 Pacific coast. From Halifax to Vancouver, a distance of 
 about 3000 miles, there is uninterrupted communication. 
 
 (7) The following is the list of the counties and chief 
 towns of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton : — 
 
 Counties. 
 Annapolis 
 Antigonish 
 Colchester 
 Cumberland 
 Guysborough 
 Halifax 
 Hants 
 King's 
 Lunenburg 
 Pictou 
 Queen's 
 Shelburne . 
 Yarmouth 
 
 Chief Towns. 
 Annapolis. 
 Antigonish. 
 Truro. 
 Amherst. 
 Guysborough. 
 Halifax. 
 Windsor. 
 Kentville. 
 Lunenburg. 
 Pictou. 
 Liverpool. 
 Shelburne. 
 Yarmouth. 
 
IV.] 
 
 Nova Scotia. 
 
 57 
 
 Cape Breton. 
 
 Counties. 
 Capo Breton 
 Inverness 
 Riclimond 
 Victoria 
 
 Chief Towns. 
 Sydney. 
 Port Hood. 
 
 . Arichat. 
 Baddeck. 
 
 (8) Halifax, the capital of the Province, has a popula- 
 tion of 40,000', and occujjies the west side of what was 
 once called Chebucto Bay. It was called after Lord 
 Halifax, the President of the Board of Trade and Planta- 
 tions (1749). 
 
 It is one of tho two British combined naval and mili- 
 tary stations in British North America, and as an Imjierial 
 stronghold is of the greatest value. It lies on the high- 
 way to the East and the Pacific, Ijeing connected with 
 British Columbia by tho Canadian Pacific Kaihvay. It 
 l)ossesses one of tho finest harbours in the world. Sir 
 Charles Lyell, in an account of his travels in North 
 America, remarks that tho harbour of Halifax reminded 
 him more of a Norwegian fiord such as that of Chris- 
 tiania than any other place he had seen. 
 
 (9) Population. — The population of Nova Scotia is 
 about 500,000, well distributed over the counties ; nearly 
 three-fourths of them being Protestants, and the re- 
 mainder Roman Catholics. Their chief industry is in 
 their 'fisheries,' and Nova Scotians own more shipping in 
 proportion to their numbers than any other country in 
 the world. Along the deeply indented coast-lino there 
 is an admirable nursery for seamen. If there were a 
 North Atlantic squadron of a combined Colonial and 
 Imperial fleet. Nova Scotia would furnish a large con- 
 tingent. The number of vessels belonging to the port of 
 Halifax alone exceeds 1000. Yarmouth owns a smaller 
 number, but the tonnage is greater. 
 
 ' See p. 4() of 'Official Handbook,' 1S90. 
 
li 
 
 f)H The Geogra 2^1 y of the Canadian Dominion. [Ck. 
 
 In addition to tlio chiof towns already given, may be 
 jucntioned Barrington, Digby, Londonderry, Maitland, 
 Piigwash, Parrsborough, Port Ilawkcsbiiry, Port Med- 
 way, Weymouth. Many names and towns in the Province 
 remind us of historical events in and near the Peninsula. 
 Rossignol, now Liverpool, on the south-( t coast, was a 
 name given by DeMonts, 1604, to a place where ho found 
 a fellow-countryman trespassing on his patent. Lunen- 
 burg close by indicates the German immigration in 1753, 
 Liverpool on the Mersey marks on the coast itself tho 
 English occupation. Torbay, Dartmouth, and BridgAvater 
 recall the west-country names and probably indicate a 
 local migration. Cornwallis, named after the ill-starred 
 soldier, recalls less agreeable memories of surrender and 
 defeat in tho adjoining continent ; in Shubenacadio the 
 old French name for the Peninsula has been preserved, 
 and perhaps Canso, Chebucto, Chedabucto, Cobequid, 
 Chignecto recall the earlier nomenclature of the ab- 
 original Micmacs or perhaps of the Malicites. tribes of 
 the Algonkin family. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 New Brunsivick. 
 
 (i) Boundaries. — The Province of New Brunswick 
 is situated between the Restigouche River and Bay 
 Chaleur on the north, and the Bay of Fundy on the south ; 
 between the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Northumberland 
 Strait on the east, and the United States on the. West. 
 
1? 
 
 V.J 
 
 New Bntiwwick. 
 
 59 
 
 Area. — Its arou is 27,322 s({uiiro milivs, oqiml t«» 
 17,486,280 ncros. It is 210 miles in leiiytli uiiU 180 
 miles l)ron(l. 
 
 Surface. — New BnmHwick is connected with Novji 
 Scotia by the niirrow isthmus of Chi^^necto. It has a 
 coast-line of 500 miles, being deeply indented with 
 bays, harl)ouis, and inlets. On the north-east side there 
 are very few hills, and the most picturesque side is 
 towards the Province of Quebec, where the hills rise 
 to a height of 500 to 800 feet, covered with lofty forests 
 nearly to their summits, 
 
 (2) Rivers. — licstiyoKcltc, an Indian name, nn>aning 
 ' the broad,' or, according to others, the 'five-fingered' 
 rivi-r. It is 200 miles long. 
 
 The Nc2)isiffuit is eighty miles long and flows very 
 swiftly. It empties into Bathurst Bay, an arm of Chaleur 
 Bay. 
 
 The Mimmichi flows into Miraniichi Bay on the east 
 coast, and is navigable for some distance. 
 
 The Peticodiac flows into Shepody Bay on the south. 
 
 The St. John is the largest river in New Brunswick, 
 and is 450 miles long, being naviga1)le for large steamers 
 as far as Fredericton, a distance of eighty-five miles, and 
 for small steamers as far as Woodstock, a distance of 1 50 
 miles. The river is noted for its beautiful scenery and 
 for its magnificent 'Grand Falls,' seventy-four feet high. 
 Amongst its tributaries are the Oromocto, Madawaska. 
 Tobique, the Washademoak and the Kennebecasis in the 
 Province itself, and Aroostook and Allagash from the 
 State of Maine. The St. John rises in Lake Temiscouata, 
 close to the south bank of the St. Lawrence. 
 
 Amongst the smaller rivers on the east coast arc the 
 Kichibucto and Cocagne. The St. Croix is on the United 
 States frontier and flows into the Bay of Fundy. 
 
 Everywhere in this Province we shall find ri /ers and 
 
IMAGE EVALUATION 
 TEST TARGET (MT-3) 
 
 1.0 
 
 I.I 
 
 1.25 
 
 " m m 
 
 s. ill 31 
 
 IIIIM 
 
 2.2 
 2.0 
 
 14 IIIIII.6 
 
 
 'c-l 
 
 e. 
 
 ^2 
 
 
 ^<?^ el 
 
 W '->. 
 
 /a 
 
 
 m 
 
 //a 
 
 y 
 
 Photographic 
 
 Sciences 
 Corporation 
 
 ^ 
 
 4^ 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 6^ 
 
 a 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 "<b^ 
 
 23 WEST MAIN STREET 
 
 WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 
 
 (716) 872-4503 
 
 <^ 
 
Wx 
 
 ,w ^ 
 
 
WW" 
 
 i 
 
 j 
 
 i 
 
 i'/v 
 
 ,1 . I 
 
 
 l:i!| 
 
 j 
 
 ! 
 
 60 TAe GeogrcqyJiy of the Canadian Dominion, [ch. 
 
 streams affording easy access from one place to another. 
 They abound in every kind of fish useful for the purposes 
 of man. The value of the fish taken annually is cal- 
 culated to be £500,000. The Eiver Restigouche is con- 
 sidered to be one of the finest salmon-fishing rivers in 
 the world, although perhaps not equal in this respect to 
 the Cascapedia, further north in the Province of Quebec. 
 
 Lakes. — Although New Brunswick cannot boast of 
 such lakes and rivers as her sister provinces to the west, 
 she possesses, nevertheless, some very fine sheets of 
 water. 
 
 Grand LaJce in Queen's County, twenty-eight miles 
 long, with a width of six miles, and communicating with 
 St. John's Eiver. 
 
 Wasliademoak, also in the Queen's County. 
 
 Maqimpit and French Lake. 
 
 Temiscouata Lahe at the head of the Madawaska River. 
 
 Loon Lake, Eel Lake, and the Oromocto, form a chain 
 along the boundary in the county of York. 
 
 The Miramichi, Salmon, Ncpisiqiiit and Nidaux are in 
 the eastern division of the Province. 
 
 (3) Coast. — The Province of New Brunswick has a 
 veiy long coast-line, with many fine harbours on all sides. 
 Chaleur Bay extends along the north for about ninety 
 miles, and affords access far into the interior. It in- 
 cludes two minor bays, Nepisiquit and Caraquet Bay. 
 
 Miscou and Shippegan are two islands on its southern 
 extremity. 
 
 Miramichi Bay is on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and 
 facing Northumberland Strait are Shediac Bay and Baie 
 Verte. 
 
 On the south is the Bay of Fundy, noted for its 
 strong currents and tides. Amongst its bays are Cum- 
 berland Basin and Shepody Bay, St. John Harbour, and 
 Passamaquoddy Bay on the extreme south-west corner. 
 
v.] 
 
 Neiu Brunsivick. 
 
 61 
 
 (4) Population, —The population of New Brunswick 
 was in 18S1 computed at 321,000. Most of them are of 
 British and Irish descent, but there are many descend- 
 ants of the early French settlers. 
 
 The various Protestant bodies include about two-thirds 
 of the population, the Eoman Catholics one-third. The 
 capital, Fredericton, has a Cathedral of the Episcopal 
 Church, and is the seat of the present Metropolitan of 
 Canada. The date of the founding of the Bishopric is 
 1845. 
 
 The Indians number a little over 1000. Their re- 
 serves are found on the Tobique Eiver in Victoria 
 County, and on the St. John and Madawaska Rivers. 
 The Micmac Indians, whom we hear of in the early 
 history of the Colony, number 913, and the Malicites 
 500. 
 
 (5) Divisions and Counties. 
 
 St. Lmcrcncc Counties. 
 Eestigouche 
 Gloucester . 
 Northumberland . 
 Kent 
 Westmoreland 
 
 Baij ofFunchj. 
 Albert 
 St. John 
 Charlotte . 
 
 Inland Counties. 
 King's 
 Queen's 
 Sunbuiy 
 York . 
 Carleton 
 Victoria 
 
 County toivn. 
 Dalhousie. 
 Bathurst. 
 Newcastle. 
 Richibucto. 
 Dorchester. 
 
 Hopewell. 
 St. John. 
 St. Andrew's. 
 
 Hampton. 
 
 Gagetown. 
 
 Oromoeto. ' 
 
 Fredericton (capital). 
 
 Woodstock. 
 
 Grand Falls or Colebrooke. 
 
 I 
 
^wm 
 
 i ! 
 
 Ml iU 
 
 r 
 
 
 1 
 
 J] 
 
 
 i 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ,5 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 
 
 6a TAe Geog^^'ctphy of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 (6) Towns. — Frederkton is the capital, with a popula- 
 tion of 7,000. The largest city and most important port is 
 St. John, with a population of 50,000, including Portland. 
 The tonnage of its shipping is very large, the timber 
 from the State of Maine being shipped through its port. 
 This city has been called 'the Liverpool of British 
 America.' 
 
 Following the coast-lino east and north the following 
 are the most important jiorts. Hopewell and Dorchester 
 at the head of the Bay of Fundy, Shediac, Chatham, 
 Bathurst, Dalhousie, Campbelltown along Northumber- 
 land Straits and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Other rising 
 towns are Moncton (6,000), Sackville, St. Stephen, Harvey 
 and Bay Verte. 
 
 The fishing industry is very important in New Bruns- 
 wick, and in 1888 the number of boats and vessels was 
 calculated at 4863, employing 9840 men\ 
 
 (7) The chief wealth of New Brunswick lies in its 
 
 forests, as the following table of exports will show '^ : — 
 
 £ 
 
 Products of the Mines . . . 19,000 
 
 Fisheries ..... 157,000 
 
 Products of the Forests . . . 736,000 
 
 Animals and their produce . . 80,000 
 
 Agricultural .... 50,000 
 
 Manufactures .... 7 5, 000 
 
 Miscellaneous .... 10,000 
 
 (8) Railways. — The chief r.iilway in New Brunswick is 
 * The Intercolonial,' the first section of which was opened 
 between St. John and Shediac in i860. It was finished 
 in its entire length, between Halifax and the St. 
 Lawrence, in 1876. This railway enters New Bruns- 
 wick at Dorchester, and skirts the eastern coast to 
 Chaleur Bay and Campbellton. Thence it enters into 
 
 1 See p. 53 of 'Official Handbook,' 1890. 
 '^ See 'Official Handbook,' 1890. 
 
v.] 
 
 Neio Brunswick, 
 
 63 
 
 Bonaventiire and the Province of Quebec until it reaches 
 Kiviere du Loup on the St. Lawrence. On the south of 
 New Brunswick there is a branch connecting with St. 
 John and Fredericton, and with the United States 
 Railway system to the West. By means of this commu- 
 nication New Brunswick is on the high road to Quebec and 
 the Far West in one direction, and to the State of Maine 
 and the United States in another. The through distance 
 from Halifax to Riviere du Loup and Quebec is 561 miles. 
 
 This intercolonial railway, therefore, links the Naval 
 Station of Halifax with the old fortress of Quebec. 
 Those travellers who wish to reach the Far West may 
 either take their passage by steamer straight to Quebec or 
 to Halifax. It may be noticed that the Canadian Pacific 
 Railway Company has a line to St. John from Montreal, 
 running by way of Sherbrooke through the State of 
 Maine in a south-easterly direction. This is the most 
 direct of all routes, and saves several hours in reaching 
 the water on the Atlantic coast. 
 
 Those who wish for the shortest route between Europe 
 and America, advocate a line of communication from 
 Newfoundland at some point on St. George's Bay, to 
 Shippegan at the corner of Chaleur Bay in New Bruns- 
 wick. In this case, Newfoundland and then New 
 Brunswick will be on the main line of communication. 
 The distance by sea between the nearest point of the 
 Irish coast and Newfoundland is only 1640 miles, occupy- 
 ing less than four days' steaming, then comes the railway 
 journey across Newfoundland to St. George's Bay, and a 
 short run to New Brunswick, thus linking with the 
 present system at Bathurst. 
 
 (9) Immigration. — The following account has been 
 given of the immigration into New Brunswick : — ' The 
 position of New Brunswick is not favourable to immigra- 
 tion. The stream of immigrants from Europe divides into 
 
 
•I — — =^ 
 
 I ■! 
 
 If .M 
 
 64 T/fC Geo(jraphy of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 two main portions, passing respectively north and south 
 of the Province. The great river St. Lawrence, with the 
 wealthy and populous towns on its banks, and the great 
 chain of Canadian Lakes, with the rich north-west 
 prairie lands, attract emigrants to the north, while the 
 pushing industries and untiring enterprise of the United 
 States draw off others to the south, so that the really 
 valuable lands in New Brunswick have been too much 
 overlooked. However, according to official returns ( 1 890), 
 there are now aljout fifty free grant settlements in the 
 Province, settled by thousands of industrious men who 
 had no means of purchasing farms. 
 
 The available lands in the various counties of New 
 Brunswick amount to 6,000,000 acres, and are classified 
 as 'upland,' * intervale ^ ' and ' swamp.' In the future New 
 Brunswick may become a farming country, although at 
 present her main wealth consists of her magnificent 
 forests and fisheries. 
 
 Out of the total acreage of the Province of New 
 Brunswick (17,300,000 acres) about 10,000,000 have been 
 granted and located and 7,400,000 are still vacant. Of 
 this 1,900,000 are in the County of Noi-thumberland, 
 1,600,000 in Kestigouche, 820,000 in York, 630,000 in 
 Gloucester, and 550,000 in Kent. The proximity of 
 extensive coal fields must help to develop the manufac- 
 turing industries of the country. At present there are 
 four large cotton-mills in the Province giving employ- 
 ment to about 1300 people^. 
 
 Prince Edivard Island. 
 
 (10) This island is the most thickly populated Province 
 of the Dominion, and is traversed by a railway from end 
 
 ^ Appendix VI. 
 
 * Extract from * Official Handbook,' issued by the Canadian 
 Government, October, 1888. 
 
-Tiri 
 
 v.] 
 
 Prince Ediuard IdcnuL 
 
 65 
 
 lan 
 
 to end, from Georgetown to Tigiiisli. Its aro.i is 2,135 
 .square miles or 1,365,400 acres, and the population is 
 about 109,000. It lies between 46"^ and 47° N. latitude 
 and between 62° and 64'' W. longitude. Its length is 
 about 140 miles and its greatest breadth thirty-four 
 miles. It lies in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and is distant 
 nine miles from New Brunswick, fifteen miles from the 
 mainland of Nova Scotia, and thirty miles from Capo 
 Breton Island. 
 
 Climate. — Owing to its insular position, Prince 
 Edward Island enjoys a more equable climate than the 
 inland Provinces. The i)opulation, unlike that of Nova 
 Scotia and New Brunswick, is mainly agricultural, and 
 the most important products are oats, barley and potatoes. 
 A larger proportion of land is under cultivation here than 
 in any other province. Much of the produce is exported. 
 Ship-building is also carried on extensively, and the 
 fisheries round the island are very productive. A great 
 trade in canned lobsters is being carried on. The prin- 
 cipal coast waters are Kichmond Bay, Cardigan Bay, 
 Hillsborough Bay, Bedeque Harbour and Egmont Bay. 
 The surface of the island is low and undulating, and the 
 watershed runs east and west, co all the rivers are small. 
 The soil of the island is very fertile, being composed 
 largely of the * alluvium ' or deposit of the St. Lawrence 
 river '. For three months of the year ' — from December 
 to March — communication with the island is rendered 
 difficult by the ice round its coasts. It was called Prince 
 Edward Island after Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, and 
 came first into the possession of the British by the Treaty 
 of Paris. Its first name was St. John's Island. 
 
 (11) Early Settlements. — This island was first colonised 
 in 1 715, but immigration was slow, there being in 1752 
 
 * Appendix VII. 
 
 " See p. 12 of ' Agricultural Canada,' 1889. 
 
 F 
 
rr 
 
 66 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 only 1354 inhabitants. Tho first Governor was appointed 
 in 1780, the whole population not being more than 5000. 
 In 1803, Earl Selkirk, who colonised the North-West 
 Territories, settled about 800 Highlanders here. 
 
 Counties. — Prince Edward Island is divided into three 
 counties, Prince, Queen's, and King's. The first named 
 lies to the north, Queens in the centre, and King's on 
 the south. 
 
 (12) Towns. — The chief towns are Chaylotietown, the 
 capital, with a population of 12,000, lying about the 
 centre of the south coast of the island, with a fine harljour. 
 
 Georgetown lies about thirty miles east of Charlotte- 
 town. It is the chief port of the island, and has a mag- 
 nificent harbour, which remains open nearly all the year. 
 
 Summerside is the second town in trade and i)opulation, 
 and lies on Bedeque Bay. 
 
 Tignish is at the extreme north-west end of the island, 
 fifty-five miles from Summerside, where a large fleet of 
 fishing boats is employed in catching mackerel. 
 
 Soiiris is at the eastern corner of the island. At Alher- 
 ton, also, there is a busy trade carried on by a fishing 
 population. 
 
 There is quick and easy communication by boat and 
 rail between all parts of this prosperous little island. 
 It has 210 miles of railway in operation. The distance 
 between Bedeque Bay and Shediac Bay in New Bruns- 
 wick is short, and communication is gained there with 
 the Canadian Kailway system. 
 
[Ch. 
 
 inted 
 5000. 
 
 West 
 
 three 
 amed 
 rs on 
 
 ', the 
 b the 
 ■hour, 
 lotte- 
 mag- 
 year. 
 ition, 
 
 daiid, 
 iet of 
 
 Alhcr- 
 shing 
 
 t and 
 sland. 
 stance 
 »runs- 
 with 
 
¥ 
 
 til' If 
 
Jl il 
 
 VI.] 
 
 Manitobii. 
 
 CO' 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 «;;: 
 
 m\ 
 
 
 W 
 
 Hl?6 
 
 l.d 
 
 
 all 
 
 (i) Manitoba is n province carvod out of tho Doniain 
 <n'er which tho Hudson's Buy Conii>any used to exercise 
 their rights, the rest of tho country heing now called the 
 North-West Territories. It consists almost wholly of 
 prairie land, and the settler has no trouble to begin with 
 in tree-felling and log-burning in order to clear tho soil. 
 In Manitol)a are wide, open, and limitless plains, and. 
 in contradistinction to the Kiver and Lake Provinces of 
 Quebec and Ontario, it is called 'the Prairie Province.* 
 Before the Province was settled it was known as pai't 
 of the Hudson's Bay Territory, the Selkirk Settlement. 
 Red River Country, and Rupert's Land. As a home for 
 settlers its history dates from 1811-16, when Thomas 
 Douglas, Lord Selkirk, brought a number of Scotch- 
 men out under his own care and supervision. He 
 reached the Red River not by the KSt. Lawrence, but l»y 
 Hudson's Bay, during the few summer months when 
 navigation is possible. For a long time the Red River 
 Settlement was an isolated tract of country, the nearest 
 point to the head of Lake Superior being Port Arthur, 
 distant 43;" miles. 
 
 The word Manitoba is a contraction of two Indian 
 words ' nianitou ' (spirit), and ' waban ' (strait), and was 
 originnlly applied to a lake which seemed to the imagina- 
 tive Indians to be troubled by some god or spirit. It is 
 pronounced Manitoba. 
 
 (2) Boundaries. — On the east and north lie Ontario 
 
 F 2 
 
 '1 
 
 :| 
 
f i 
 
 114: 
 
 u 
 
 :•! - 
 
 t;! ■ 
 I; 
 
 ili ' 
 
 i!' ; 
 
 I! I 
 
 il I ! 
 
 68 The Geogra'phj of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 and the Keewatin district ; on the south tho Intornational 
 Bounchiry Line, on tho west the districts of Assiniboia 
 and Saskatchewan. It occupies a central position in tho 
 continent, being half-way between tho Pacific and Atlantic 
 ()ceuns. It lies between 49-53' N. latitude, and 90-101'' 
 VV. longitude. Its shaj)e is that of a parallelogram. 
 
 Area. — Its area is calculated to be 60, 520 square iliiles, 
 or as nearly as possible one-half the size of Great Britain 
 and Ireland. The slope of the country is towards the 
 north. The Riding Mountain and the Duck Mountain 
 to tho north, rising nearly 2000 feet, and the Turtle 
 Mountain to the south on the Boundary Line are the 
 (jnly elevated points in this province, its surface being for 
 the most part level or undulating. In tho words of the 
 Earl of Duff'erin (1877), 'From its geographical position 
 and its peculiar characteristics Manitoba may be regarded 
 as the keystone of that mighty arch of sister provinces 
 which span the continent from tho Atlantic to the 
 Pacific. It is here that Canada, emerging from her 
 woods and forests, first gazed upon her rolling prairies 
 and unexplored North-West, and it was hence that as a 
 prelude to future expansion she took a fresh departure.' 
 Winnipeg is 1423 miles west of Montreal, about 200 
 miles further than Madeira from London, and the crea- 
 tion of the Province of Manitoba at so great a distaijce 
 from the old province is another illustration of the im- 
 mensity of our North American domain. Yet, Manitoba 
 is only in the centre of the continent after all, and is 
 equidistant from British Columbia on the west and 
 Quebec on tho east. The prairies seem absolutely limit- 
 less, and they stretch to the base of the ' Rockies,' which 
 by their trend to the north-west make the central plateaux 
 of British North America wider than in the more southern 
 hititudes of the United States \ This immense region, for 
 
 ^ Appendix VIII. 
 
VI.] 
 
 Manitoba. 
 
 6y 
 
 hundreds of miles, is famed for its grains and grasses. 
 Acre for acre, t\w country here could support a tlueker 
 population than any similar tract on the globe. It is on 
 the wonderful capacity of Manitoha and the North- West 
 for producing grain and vegetables that the assumption 
 is based that British North America could sustain a 
 population of nearly 200,000,000 ; the northern limit for 
 wheat being placed by Ilurlbert at 58'" N. lat. 
 
 (3) Population. — The Province of Manitoba is in its 
 infancy. In 1870 the population was 11,965, of whom 
 only 1 614 wer'^ whites. Since then tho latter have 
 rapidly increase ' and Avere estimated in 1887 at over 
 112,000, of whom about three-fourths are British. The 
 city of Winnipeg alone is calculated to number 22,000 '. 
 
 Besides British there are a large number of Germans, 
 French and English half-breeds, and Icelanders. Of all 
 nationalities the Scotch have been perhaps the most 
 persistent and successful colonists of British North Am<'- 
 rica. The Mennonites or German makers form a pecu- 
 liar element in the population of Manitoba. They are 
 settled along both banks of the Red River in twenty-five 
 districts or reserves, embracing 512,000 acres, of which 
 300,000 are under settlement. 
 
 (4) Lakes. — Manitoba, and the country to the north 
 
 and north-west, is covered with a network of rivers and 
 
 lakes extending far north. It is calculated that the great 
 
 Lake Winnipeg drains a basin of 400,000 square miles, 
 
 an area of country almost equal to the St. Lawrence 
 
 Valley. Unlike Lake Superior and the others to thr 
 
 west, Lake Winnipeg is comparatively shallow, and is 
 
 nowhere more than 70 feet deep. Its elevation above 
 
 the sea is 710 feet. Its length is 28c miles, and its 
 
 breadth 57 miles ^ 
 
 1 See p. 68 of ' Official Handbook,' 1890. 
 ' See p. 416, Hayden and Selwyn. 
 
m 
 
 w 
 
 m 
 
 :i II 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 I- 
 
 1 ^:- 
 
 : . i 
 f 
 
 r 
 
 !,1 
 
 \i I 
 
 70 T/^c Geof] )'(! pity I >f the Canadian Dominion. [Cn. 
 
 iaA;c Winnipcgosis, or Little Winnipeg, is 120 miles 
 long, 27 miles broad, and covers 2000 s(|Uare miles. 
 This lake pours its superfluous waters through the Water- 
 Ilen River into Lahe Manitoba, which is 120 miles long, 
 about 24 miles broad, and covers 1900 sipiare miles. 
 This lake, in its turn, pours its waters into Lake 
 Winnipeg. 
 
 (5) The Rivers of this region are : — 
 
 V nnipcg lliccr, 16. -5 miles long, flowing north-west 
 t"ron> the Lake of the Woods, and gathering in its coursi* 
 the waters of many small lakes. 
 
 The Bed Iliuer, nearly Coo miles in leug 1, flowing 
 from the south, and entering Lake AVinniing. 
 
 The Assinil'oine, from the north-west, joining the Ked 
 Kiver at Winnipeg, and carrying the waters of the iSouris 
 from the south. 
 
 The Barens lUrer, draining some lakes from the east. 
 
 Through the Littte Saskateheivan the accuniulateil waters 
 of Lakes Winnipegosis and Manitoba flow into Lake 
 Winnipeg, the communication between the two smaller 
 lakes being by the Water-IIen River. 
 
 The waters of Lake Winnipeg, which are gathered 
 from so many different sources as far asunder as the 
 Lake of the Woods through the River Winnipeg on the 
 east, the ' Rockies' through the Great Saskatchewan on 
 tlie west, and the hills of Minnesota through the Souris 
 on the south, flow finally into Hudson's Bay on the 
 north by the great Nelson River. This river is 350 miles 
 K)ng, and passes through a largo number of small lakes. 
 Its course is rendered difHcult to navigate by the count- 
 less numbers of rapids. Its volume of water is enormous. 
 Communication with the north-west, via ILidson's Bay 
 and the Nelson River, is carried on with great difficulty, 
 the Hayes route from York Factory being the usual 
 inland route from Hudson's Bay. Ii\ the first place, 
 
VI.] 
 
 Manitoba. 
 
 the great bay itself is frozen over for six months in the 
 year ; and in the second phice, there is no navigable 
 river which can take the colonist and exploivr into the 
 heart of the continent from tlie l)ay during tlui brief 
 summer montiis. In Manitoba itself we have the key 
 to undt x'standing the drainage and slope of the country 
 surrounding Lake Winnipeg, for on the south the Winni- 
 peg Eiver opens up the route (eastwards by lake and 
 river to Thunder Bay, whilst on the north the Great 
 Saskatchewan is 'the high-road to the north-west.' In 
 course of time a railway may link Winnipeg with 
 Hudson's Bay. 
 
 (6) Climate. — There is no very marked diflVuHmce 
 between the climate of Manltol)a and that of Quebec 
 and Ontario, It is warmer in sununer an;l colder in 
 winter. Spring opens up at nearly the sanu^ time along 
 the country from Lake Superior to Athabasca :- 
 
 'The juncture of the seasons is not very noticeable. 
 Spring glides insensibly into summer, summer into line 
 autumn weather, which, during the equinox, breaks uj* 
 in a series of heavy gales of wind accompanied by rain 
 and snow. Thi'se are followed l»y that divine aftermath, 
 the Indian sununer, which attains its true glory only in 
 the north-west. The ha/inessand dreamy fervour of this 
 mvsterijus season have often l)een attributed to the 
 prairie fires, which rage over half a continent in the fall, 
 and evoke an enormous amount of heat and smoke.* 
 The winters avo also described : — 
 
 *Tlu* winters of the north-west, upon the whole, arc 
 agr eable and singularly steady. The mocassin is dry 
 and comfortable throughout, and no thaw, strictly speak- 
 ing, takes i>lace till the spring, no matter how mild the 
 weather may be. The snow, though shallow, wears well ; 
 and diffei's greatly from t'astt>rn snow. Its Hake is hard 
 and dry, and its gritty consistence resend)les white 
 
. j f ---^^B 
 
 m 
 
 
 m 
 
 W' 
 
 ill 1 1' 
 I ' i 
 
 1 
 
 • 1 
 
 ■ 1 
 
 1 
 
 i' ' 
 
 ■1 
 
 i 
 
 ! 
 
 72 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 slippery sand more than anything else. Generally speak- 
 ing, the further west the shallower the snow, and the 
 rule obtains even into the heart of the IJocky Mountjiins."" 
 In south-western Ontario the winter is milder, no doubt, 
 than at Eed River, but the soil beats the soil of Ontario 
 out of comparison ; and, after all, who would ciire to 
 exchange the crisp, sparkling, exhilarating winter of 
 Manitoba for the rawness of Essex in south Ontario ? ' ' 
 
 The mean winter temperature of Manitoba is 5"^ below 
 freezing point, and for the summer 65^. In the depth of 
 winter the atmosphere is generally calm and still, and 
 the cold is, therefore, not felt in the proportion we 
 should imagine in the raw, damp, and blustering climate 
 of the British Islands. Probably there is no weather 
 in North America so disagreeable as the cold raw 
 spring-weather of England when the winds blow from 
 the east. 
 
 (7) Divisions. — Manitoba is divided into four counties : 
 Selkirk, Proven cher, Lisgar, Marquette. These are sub- 
 divided into twenty-four districts or electoral divisions, 
 returning 38 members to the provincial assembly : — 
 
 Westbourne. 
 
 Portage la Prairie. 
 
 Poplar Point. ) 
 
 High Blufe. J 
 
 Baie St. Paul. 
 
 St. Fran?ois Xavier, W. 
 
 St. Francois Xavier, E. 
 
 Headingley. 
 
 St. Charl-es. 
 
 St. James. 
 
 Winnipeg. 
 
 Kildonan. 
 
 St. Paul's. 
 St. Andrew's, S. 
 St. Andrew's, N. 
 St. Clement's. 
 Rock Wood. 
 Springfield. 
 St. Boniface. 
 St. Boniface. 
 St. Vital. 
 St. Narbert. 
 St. Agathe. 
 St. Anne. 
 
 ' Extract from Bryce's * Manitoba.' 
 
IflF 
 
 VII.] 
 
 North- West Territories. 
 
 n 
 
 t, 
 io 
 to 
 of 
 
 )W 
 
 of 
 nd 
 we 
 ate 
 ler 
 aw 
 om 
 
 es : 
 iib- 
 )ns, 
 
 (8) Towns.— T'tw««/25r/7. In 1878 the first railway ran 
 into Winnipeg, and since then a new era began for the 
 North- West, and the jirosperity of the town commenced. 
 Standing at the confluence of the Ked Kiver and Assini- 
 boine it is the doorway to the great prairie region beyond, 
 and is a great distributing centre. In 1874 the assess- 
 ment of real and personal property was 2\ million dol- 
 lars ; in 1883 the assessment of the town had risen to 
 32 1 million dollars. The site of Winnipeg was occupied 
 originally by a post of the Hudson's Bay Company, and 
 was known as ' Upper Fort Garry. ' 
 
 Portage la Prairie ' (2500) is 56 miles west of Winnipeg 
 along the railway, and is becoming a mercantile and 
 manufacturing centre. Brandon is a rapidly rising town 
 further west, with a population of 3000. Amongst others 
 there is Selkirk (1000), Emerson (800), and other smaller 
 towns and villages. Gladstone, Minnedosa, Shoal Lake, 
 and Birtle are on the Manitoba and North-West Kailway, 
 which is opening up the Great Saskatchewan valleys. 
 
 •' 
 
 CHAPTEK VII. 
 
 Korth- West Territories. 
 
 (i) Under this general term may be included all the 
 land of the Canadian Dominion not contained in Quebec, 
 Ontario, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, New Bruns- 
 wick, the North-East Territories, Manitoba and British 
 
 See p. 69 of ' Official Handbook,' 1890. 
 
—Ti 
 
 I ! 
 
 m 
 
 ! » 
 
 h 
 
 ■ • fi 
 
 ■ !' !i 1 
 
 ' 1 
 
 i 
 
 ) 1 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i ' 
 
 i, ; . 
 
 74 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 Columbia. These territories ^ are the great unorganised 
 domain of North America, and stretch over a vast tract 
 of country far northward to the Arctic Ocean. On the west 
 they are traversed by the Rocky Mountains. The main cha- 
 racteristics of the climate and country have been already 
 described. Towards the extreme north the cold is more 
 intense, and Great Bear Lake is said to be frozen over for 
 eleven months in the yefu*. Near the Arctic Ocean trees 
 cease to grow, and the vegetation consists only of mosses 
 and lichen. In winter it seems to be perpetual night, and 
 in the shortest day there are only a few minutes between 
 sunrise and sunset. In the summer the sun seems 
 hardly to set at all, and this is the time when the 
 exploiter and traveller has to push his journey forward. 
 
 (2) Provisional Districts.— yl.s.s/;///^o/a contains about 
 95,000 square miles, and is l)ounded on the south by the 
 International Boundary, on the east by Manitoba, on the 
 north by a line drawn rear 52" lat., and on the west by a 
 line near ' lo"^ west lou"'. 
 
 The Qu'Appelle Valley is in the district of Assinil)oia. 
 and is one of the favoured parts of the North-West. 
 Here was the site of the famous Bell Farm, now partly 
 broken up, which covered an area of 100 square miles, 
 being managed by a Company. The original capital was 
 £120,000, and in 18S7 no less than 10,000 acres were 
 under cultivation. The Bell larm was one vast wheat - 
 held with furrows four miles long. To plough a furrow 
 outward and another returning was a half-day's work for 
 a man and team. The soil of this valley is very good, 
 and a rich black mould has been found to extend many 
 feet l)olow the surface. The general features of this 
 district, especially on the eastern side, resemble those 
 of Manitoba, but the land itself lies somewliat higher, 
 as the second plateau or steppe is reached with its 
 
 ' Api)ondix IX. 
 
'V 
 
 VII.] 
 
 North-West Territories. 
 
 75 
 
 average altitude of 1600 feet. It is to this Province that 
 a number of emigrants from Scotland and the East End 
 of London were sent in 18S3, 1884, 1885. Still later in 
 1888 and 1889 about 80 families of crofters from the 
 Hebrides were settled under a system of aided emigra- 
 tion, each family receiving an advance of .£100 to .£120 
 to start with. Progress is very marked in this district, 
 which will, sooner or later, attain to the dignity of a 
 Province of the Dominion. Within twelve months a 
 settlement can be formed and schools established on the 
 wild and unoccupied prairies. ' The Government allow- 
 ance is always liberal, and the arrangements are such 
 that directly a district becomes even sparsely settled 
 every child can find a school within two miles '.' To the 
 north of Assiniboia district, and on either side of the 
 Manitoba and North-West Kailway, the country is being 
 rapidly developed, especially in the neighbourhood of 
 Saltcoats and Yorkton. Here is a small colony con- 
 sisting principally of small farmers or farm labourers 
 from England, and numbering 340 souls, although the 
 first settlers did not come till September, 1887. In the 
 Saltcoats district there are also German and Icelandic 
 colonies. 
 
 Alberta. This district has an area of 100,000 square 
 miles. It lies west and north-west of Assiniboia, and is 
 bounded on the west by the Rocky Mountains. On the 
 south both Assiniboia and All)erta are terminated by the 
 49th parallel of N. lat., the International Boundary Line. 
 Alberta has, more than any other district of the North - 
 West, attracted English capital and become the scene of 
 English enterprise, for here the ranches are the best in 
 Canada. The great characteristic of the climate is the 
 
 ' Prof. Fream, * Agricultural Canada.' Publislu'd under the 
 direction oftlio Government of Caiuida, 1S89. 
 
 
1 'lij 
 
 ill '!'■ 
 I 'iiil 
 
 !l ) ;;!i 
 
 
 ■■:- ; 
 
 76 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 Chinook wind which blows from the west. ' The district 
 of the Chinook wind- the country of the great cattle and 
 horse ranches — extends from the International Boundary 
 on the south to the Red Deer Kivor on the north, and from 
 the Rocky Mountains on the west to Jibout 140 miles east. 
 The foot-hills stretching for about twenty miles east of 
 the mountains, are generally bare of trees, but in spring 
 they are soft and green with the verdure of innumerable 
 grasses, which, once the favourite food of the buffalo, are 
 now as eagerly sought after by the cattle that have taken 
 their place. This is the celebrated grazing countiy 
 where, in the latitude of Labrador, cattle and horses 
 range winter and summer without shelter. It is more 
 than probal^lo that the farmers on the east side of the 
 Rocky Mountains, especially those of Alberta, will find a 
 steadily growing market, particularly for meat and dairy 
 l)roduce, in British Columbia. From Calgary, the capital 
 f Alberta, through the Rockies, the Selkirks, and the 
 Cold Range to the Pacific coast is 36 hours' journey by 
 the Canadian Pacific Railway, which should act as a line 
 of distribution all along its route \' 
 
 The district of SasJcatcheivan coimprises about 114,000 
 square miles. It lies to the north of Assiniboia and 
 Albei-ta. As the branches of the great Saskatchewan 
 pass through its valleys it has many fertile tracts which 
 in course of time must be opened up and prove very 
 profitable. Emigrants are now able tc travel from the 
 Canadian Pacific Railway to Prince Albert by the Mani- 
 toba and North-West Railway, and a line is in course of 
 construction from Regina in Assiniboia, constituting two 
 profitable arteries of trade in the future. 
 
 The district of Athabasca has an area of 122,000 
 square miles. It is bounded on the south by the district 
 
 ' ' Agricultural Canada,' 1 889. 
 
 o 
 
■f 
 
 IT 
 
 VII.] 
 
 No rth- West Te rr 'dories. 
 
 II 
 
 
 of 
 two 
 
 ,000 
 strict 
 
 of Alberta, westward by the Province of British Columbia 
 along the 120th west longituile, on the north by the 
 60th parallel of latitude. The eastern boundary is. 
 roughly speaking, the Athabasca River from the nortlu'rn 
 boundary of Alberta to Athabasca Lake, and then the 
 Slave River to the point where it is intersected by the 
 60th parallel of latitude. 
 
 (3) Rivers. — The Mackenzie is the longest river in the 
 great North-West Territories, and following its tribu- 
 taries — the Peace River and Finlay — to the Rocky Moun- 
 tains its length is about 2000 miles. This is as long as 
 the St. Lawrence from its head -waters beyond Lake 
 Superior. This is a country indeed of ' magnificent 
 distances.' The Athabasca is also a tributary of the 
 Mackenzie, rising near Mount Brown in the Rockies and 
 flowing into Lake Athabasca. It is 900 miles long. 
 
 The Slave Hirer carries the waters of Lake Athabasca 
 to the Great Slave Lake and is 200 miles long. The 
 Pelly, Yukon, and Great Fish River also belong to the 
 Arctic system. 
 
 The Sasliatchcwan. which flows into Lake Winnipeg and 
 is connected with the Hudson's Bay system, has two 
 branches, North Saskatchewan and South Saskatchewan. 
 The north branch is 770 miles long, the south 800 miles. 
 The sources of the Saskatchewan are near those of the 
 Athabasca, not far from Mount Brown and Mount Hooker 
 in the Rocky Mountains. The Bow River also, which is 
 an affluent of the Saskatchewan, rises near a tributary of 
 the Missouri which flows southward into the Mississippi. 
 Within a short distance different waters rise which flo'SN 
 northwards through the Mackenzie into the Arctic Ocean, 
 westwards through the Saskatchewan into Lake Winnipeg, 
 and thence by the Nelson into Hudson's Bay, and, south- 
 ward, through the Missouri and Mississippi into the Gulf 
 of Mexico. 
 
r^ 
 
 78 Til e Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 The Churchill Hirer risos in Saskatchewan Province 
 and flows into Hudson's Bay a little north of the Nelson. 
 Its length is 11 00 miles. 
 
 The Coppermine liivcr rises in Point Lake and flows north 
 into the Duke of York Archipelago and the Arctic Ocean. 
 
 The Assinihoine rises in latitude 52'' N., longitude 103" 
 W., and after flowing southerly about 120 miles winds 
 to the East and, joining the Red River, flows into Lake 
 Winnijieg, and so into Hudson's Bay. 
 
 The Albany and Moose Rivers flow into the south-west 
 side of Hudson's Bay. The Albany River is fully 450 
 miles long. 
 
 On the east shores of Hudson's Bay there are a few rivers 
 flowing from the direction of Quebec and Ontario pro- 
 vinces, such as the Rupert, East Main Rivers — of no 
 great size and length. To the north is Great Whale 
 River, but the interior of the country does not resemble 
 the great North-West. There is a large tract of country 
 called the ' Barrens ' stretching across the northern parts 
 of the continent. 
 
 (4) Lakes. — TFo/?as/ow Lair. This lake is on the 
 watershed and sends part of its waters northerly to Lake 
 Athabasca and to the Mackenzie River, and part to Deer 
 Lake on the south and so through Churchill River into 
 Hudson's Bay. 
 
 Ijiike Athabasca is 200 miles long. 
 
 Great Slave Lake is situated between latitude 60° 40' 
 and 63"^^ N., and longitude 109° 30' and 117° 30' N., its 
 greatest length from East to West being 280 miles, and 
 its greatest breadth 50 miles. It is frozen over for six 
 months of the year. 
 
 Great Bear Lake. Here in the north is almost per- 
 petual winter, the line of grasses and grains has been 
 passed at about 65° north latitude, and this lake is partly 
 within the Arctic Circle. 
 
VII.] 
 
 North- Wed Territories. 
 
 79 
 
 40 
 its 
 land 
 six 
 
 I V^^' 
 been 
 
 irtly 
 
 Thoro arc many smaller lakes, such as Trout Lake on 
 the river Deor, a tributary of the Severn. 
 
 Severn LttJce, on the Severn. 
 
 Scttind Lake and Knee Lake on the Hayes River, flow- 
 ing into Hudson's Bay near the Nelson. 
 
 South Indian or Big Lake, and North Indian or Sandy 
 Lake on the Churchill River basin. 
 
 Baker Lake and Doohannt Lake are connected with the 
 Chesterfield Inlet on Hudson's Bay. 
 
 Becchj Lake, Lake Velbi, and Lake Maedovgall are in 
 the Groat Fish River Valley. 
 
 In the vicinity of Great Bear Lake and Great Slave 
 Lake there are numberless lakes such as Lakes Tjiche, 
 Gravelin, Sequin, Rey, Fabre, Aylmer's Lake, Artillery 
 Lake, and many others, affording means of communi- 
 cation through the country from Hudson's Bay to the 
 Rocky Mountains. 
 
 In fact, the whole vast region of the North- West is 
 a network of lakes and rivers through which hunteis and 
 roTjaijeurs have, little by little, found their way by well- 
 known routes and ' portages. ' 
 
 (5) Towns. — In the North-West Territories there are 
 few towns or villages except along the line of the Canadian 
 Pacific R'lilway, from the Manitoba frontier to the Rocky 
 Mountains. 
 
 Baitleford (Saskatchewan District) on the Battle River, 
 near its junction with the North Saskatchewan, was 
 formerly the capital of the North-West Territories, but 
 its place has been taken by Begina in the Assiniboia 
 district. Battleford is 300 miles distant from the Pacific 
 Railway. The city of Begina is 356 miles west of 
 Winnipeg. In 1882 the only sign of human occupation 
 was three large canvas tents. Regina owes its sudden rise 
 and importance to tiie Canadian Pacific Railway. It is the 
 home of the Lieutenant-Governor of the North-West 
 

 i^! 
 
 ! : 
 
 SI n 
 
 
 \ ' 1 
 
 
 i'{ . ' 1 
 
 
 ■ 1 
 
 ii 
 
 II i 
 
 lit 
 
 11 
 1 
 
 i, 
 it ' 
 
 (So The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 Territories, and the meeting place of his council, and the 
 head-quarters of the Mounted Police. The city contained 
 in 1 886 300 houses and about 1000 i)eoi)le. It now 
 contains 9540 inhabitants. Here Louis Kiel, who headed 
 a rebellion of Indians and French half-castes, was executed 
 in 1885. The region round Regina and along the 
 Qu'Appelle Valley was a favourite haunt of the buffalo 
 in former times. The surrounding prairie is flat and for 
 the most part treeless. 
 
 Moose Jaw, Assiniboia, is 42 miles west of Regina, and 
 bids fair to rival the capital itself. 
 
 Medicine Hat is a station 300 miles from Regina and 
 2083 miles from Montreal. 
 
 Lethhridge is on the Belly River in the south-western 
 part of Alberta district. It is a busy town of 1000 in- 
 habitants. From this point, 100 miles away, the great 
 range of the * Rockies ' is visible, rising up from the 
 immense level plains as land from the ocean. Near Leth- 
 hridge the hills are crossed, dividing the watersheds of the 
 north and south. Within a few hundred feet the waters 
 here flow in opposite directions. Near Lethhridge, which 
 is connected by a branch line with the Canadian Pacific 
 Railway, extremely valuable coal mines have been dis- 
 covered, of immense advantage to the Dominion. 
 Formerly coal had to be brought to the districts of the 
 North-West from Pennsylvania. 
 
 Banff is a celebrated sanatorium in the midst of a ^reat 
 National Park in the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 Calgary, in Alberta, is 2262 miles west of Montreal, 
 and is the great western outpost of the North-West 
 Territories. Its beginnings do not date further back 
 than four or five years. It is the rising town of the pro- 
 visional district of Alberta, the great ranching division 
 of the North-West. 
 
 Other important towns are Saltcoats, Broadview, 
 
[Ch. 
 
 id the 
 ;ainecl 
 now 
 oucled 
 icuted 
 g the 
 )iiffalo 
 nd for 
 
 a, and 
 
 la and 
 
 lU 
 
 western 
 300 in- 
 ; great 
 >rn the 
 L' Leth- 
 j of the 
 waters 
 which 
 Pacific 
 en dis- 
 ninion. 
 , of the 
 
 a ^reat 
 
 antreal, 
 ii-West 
 jr back 
 :he pro- 
 division 
 
 adview, 
 
II I 
 
 I I 
 
 llti 
 
 i .':l 
 
 
 
 ■' ' 1 
 
 11 
 
 
 '1' 
 
 1m III ! 
 
 i 1; 
 
VIII.] 
 
 British Colmnhia. 
 
 8i 
 
 Ml 
 
 Sunimeraborry and Indian Iload, Dunmoro in Assinihoia, 
 Edmonton in Albortii north of Calvary, Prince Albert 
 in Saskatcliownn, soon to be connected by rail with the 
 main i-oute. 
 
 (6) In addition to the abov(^ we mnst notice the Forts 
 and Factories of the Hudson's Bay Company. The most 
 important of these are: — (i) York Fort, Severn Faetori/, 
 Halle's Factor)/, RuperCs Far fori/. Main Factory, and Moose 
 Fort on Hudson's Bay and James's Bay. (2) Carlton House, 
 Fort Edmonton, Fort Pitt, Cumberland House, Fort Mac 
 Lead, Hamilton, Calgary in the Saskatchewan Basin. (3) 
 Fort Simpson, Besolution, and Chippcwyan on the Mac- 
 kenzie. The latter Fort was the starting-i)oint of the great 
 explorer, Mackenzie. (4) Fort Belly and Fort Flliee nut 
 far from the trading post of Qu'Ai)pelle, in the valley of 
 the Assiniboine. 
 
 A tract of country in the North-West which will 
 probably be opened up shortly is the Peace River Valley. 
 The navigation of the river opens and closes about the 
 same time as the Ottawa. In course of time the Mac- 
 kenzie River Valley, with its vast forests and other 
 wealth, may be opened up and brought into commu- 
 nication wuth the rest of the Dominion. 
 
 it 
 
 1 
 
 \9. i 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 British Columbia. 
 
 m 
 
 (i) Until recently British Columbia, which is the 
 most remote of the seven Confederated Provinces of the 
 Dominion, seemed to be cut off by the huge barrier of the 
 
 o 
 
I ■ 
 
 I- 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 ] 1 
 
 ; 1 
 
 f'' 
 
 1 i ''1 
 
 ; 1 
 1 
 
 1 ' 
 
 Sz The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 Rocky Mountains, but it has now been linked to the rest 
 by the Canadian Pacific Railway. In natural features 
 this Province differs from the others in a remarkable 
 degree. Once past the Rockies, a different climate is felt 
 on the slope of land which trends to the Pacific Ocean. 
 Warm currents of air and ocean from the west come to 
 the coast and keep the climate, especially in the maritime 
 districts, mild and equable \ The northern limits of the 
 grains and grasses extend up to Fort Liard and to the 
 Yukon, almost under the Arctic Circle. South of the 
 Boundary Line a region of summer droughts is reached. 
 The tropic currents perform for British Columbia the 
 same service which the Gulf Stream does for the British 
 Isles and Norway. They enable vegetation to flourish 
 at high latitudes. Lieutenant Maury has described 
 the physical conditions which prevail along the western 
 shores of North America. There are, he observes, two 
 large currents of warm water, having their beginning in 
 the Indian Ocean. One of them is the well-known 
 MozambiqiT^ current, called at the Cape of Good Hope 
 the L'Agulhas current. Another of these warm currents 
 from the Indian Ocean makes its escape through the 
 Straits of Malacca, and, being joined by other warm 
 streams from the Java and China Seas, flows out into the 
 Pacific, like another Gulf Stream, between the Philip- 
 pines and the shores of Asia, Thence it takes the great 
 circle route for the Aleutian Islands, tempering climates 
 towards the north-west coast of America. The winds 
 also passing over its waters carry warmth in winter far 
 inland to the Rockies. Between the physical features 
 of this * the Black Stream ' of the Pacific, and the Gulf 
 Stream of the Atlantic, there are several points of re- 
 semblance. Sumatra and Malacca correspond to Florida 
 and Cuba, Borneo to the Bahamas. The coasts of China 
 
 1 See p. 83 of ' Guide Book for Settlers,' Ottawa, 188 a. 
 
VIII.] 
 
 British Columbia. 
 
 «3 
 
 answer to those of the United States, the Philippines to 
 the Bermudas, the Japan Islands to Newfoundland. As 
 with the Gulf Stream, so also with this China current, 
 there is a counter current of cold water between it and 
 the shore. The climates of the Asiatic coast correspond 
 with those of America along the Atlantic, and those of 
 British Columbia, Washington and Vancouver resemble 
 those of Western Europe and the British Isles. 
 
 (2) The climate of British Columbia may be classified 
 as insular, semi-continental, and continental. The first 
 variety is found in Vancouver, Queen Charlotte Islands, 
 and along the broken coast-line ; the second between the 
 Cascade Eange and the coast ; and the last on the plateaux 
 between the Cascades and the Rockies. The climate of 
 the coast regions is like that of the British Isles. Here 
 the southern wind prevails, laden with moisture from 
 the ocean currents, resembling the Gulf Stream winds 
 which sweep over England from the south and south- 
 west. East of the Cascade Range, which is the lesser 
 division of the country, the variations of heat and cold 
 are greater, and droughts frequently prevail. But British 
 Columbia is naturally free from the extremes of the 
 North-West Territories, and also from the fogs and the 
 cold mists which descend on the eastern shores of North 
 America from Baffin Bay, and make the exposed parts 
 of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia cold. On the Pacific 
 side of Nt)rth America there are no great reservoirs for 
 ice and icebergs as in Baffin Bay on the east. Behring's 
 Strait is a comparatively shallow and narrow outlet com- 
 pared with Baffin Bay, and the drift of the ocean currents 
 is toivanis, rather than from, the Arctic Circle. Moreover, 
 the long projecting shores of Alaska, which are con- 
 tinued for a long distance by the broken Aleutian group, 
 form a natural breakwater to shield the coasts of British 
 Columbia from the rigours of the north. 
 
 G 2 
 
84 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch, 
 
 f 
 
 (3) The fishing grounds of the North Pacific are espe- 
 cially prolific off Queen Charlotte Islands, the Skeena 
 River and Stikeen River, and testify to the fact that the 
 cold currents, which are best suited for fish, prevail here '. 
 Following the line of the coast, the climate of Victoria in 
 British Columbia has been described as being beyond 
 comparison the best suited to the taste of the English on 
 the Pacific coast. * It has all the sun and none of the 
 evening fogs of San Francisco ; the blue sky without the 
 rain of Portland ; snow close in sight on the tower- 
 ing Olympia range, and yet it is never cold ; hundreds 
 of miles of inland navigation, fish at all seasons, sea 
 and land otter, deer, elk, beaver, mink, marten, silver 
 and sable fox, and the finest grouse shooting in the 
 world.' 
 
 (4) Boundaries and Area. — British Columbia is 
 bounded on the north by the 60th parallel of latitude, 
 west by Alaska and the Pacific, south by the 49th parallel 
 or United States boundary, and east by the Rocky Moun- 
 tains. In virtue of a well-known decision, the line 
 between Vancouver and Washington runs through the 
 Haro Channel and the San Juan Archipelago. This 
 archipelago breaks up the main channel into three straits. 
 (i) The Rosario Strait on the east ; (2) the Douglas 
 Channel in the centre ; (3) the Haro Strait on the west. 
 The United States, therefore, gained the control of the 
 coast and islands from the east to the Haro or Western 
 Channel. 
 
 The area of this Province is 341,305 square miles, or 
 nearly three times the size of the British Isles ^. 
 
 (5) Mountains. — The main mass of Vancouver Island 
 is a partially submerged mountain chain, the highest 
 peak of which, Mount Arrowsmith, rises to the height of 
 
 ' Appendix X. 
 
 ^ yue p, 7 of ' Official Handbook,' 1890. 
 
VIII.] 
 
 British Columbia. 
 
 i^S 
 
 nearly 6000 feet. It is continued to the south in Wash- 
 ington Territory and to the noith in Queen Charlotte 
 Islands. The range is precipitous and descends abruptly 
 to the coast. On the mainland there are four ranges ', 
 (i) The Coast or Cascade Range, which is in reality a 
 prolongation of the Sierra Nevada of California. It com- 
 mences above New Westminster, and extends jDarallel 
 with the coast as far as Mount Elias. (2) The Gold 
 Range. (3) The Selkirks, with their extensions north 
 and south. (4) The vast range of the Rocky Moun- 
 tains. 
 
 At certain intervals there occur the following well- 
 known gaps through the Rockies: — 
 
 Twenty miles north of the Bouiv^ ry Line the Koo- 
 tenay Pass traverses the Rocky Mo ains. The waters 
 of the Belly River upon the cast and those of the 
 Wigwam River upon the west have their sources in this 
 valley 6000 feet high. 
 
 Fifty miles north of the Kootenay, the Kananaskis 
 Pass cuts the three parallel ranges which traverse the 
 Province running north and south. The height of land 
 is 5700 feet. 
 
 Thirty miles to the north is the Vermillion Pass, 
 4900 feet. 
 
 Twenty miles further still the Kicking Horse Pass, 
 5210 feet'^, utilised by the Canadian Pacific Railway. 
 
 The Howse Pass, 4500 feet. 
 
 The Leather Pass (Jasper's House, or Yellow Head), 
 3760 feet. 
 
 The outflow of all these passes, with the exception of 
 the Yellow Head, seeks on the east the river system of 
 the Saskatchewan and on the west the Columbia and its 
 tributaries. The Yellow Head on the other hand sends 
 
 Hi 
 
 ' Appendix XI. 
 
 ^ See p. 342 of Hayden and Sohvj'n's ' North America.' 
 
i .l 
 
 K I 
 
 I:: ! 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 1 
 
 , 
 
 li 
 
 !i 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1- 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 86 The Geography of the Canadian Bomiinion. [Ch. 
 
 its dividing waters into the Athabasca on the east and 
 into the Fraser Kiver on the west '. 
 
 (6) Rivers. — In the Island of Vancouver there are no 
 navigable rivers, those that exist resembling \\ inter 
 torrents flowing with great velocity from the mountains 
 and high ground of the island. On the mainland the 
 most important rivers are : — 
 
 The Peace River, formed by the waters of the Findlay 
 and Parsnip Rivers in the Rocky Mountains, near the 
 sources of the Skeena. It finds its way through the 
 gorges of the mountains eastward by the defile known 
 as Peace River Pass, and flows across the great North 
 American plains until it reaches Lake Athabasca. It 
 was along the valley of this river that Mackenzie, the 
 intrepid explorer of the Mackenzie River Basin, found 
 a route to the Pacific Ocean over the Rocky Mountains. 
 Gold is said to be found in the Peace River Valley, at 
 Omineca and along the western slopes of the mountain 
 range, and the whole course lies within the grain and 
 grass-bearing zone, which reaches its highest latitude 
 here. 
 
 Of this river Sir W. Butler has written : ' Unlike the 
 prairies of the Saskatchewan, the plateau of Peace River 
 is thickly interspersed with woods and thickets of pine 
 and poplar. Its many lakes are free from alkali, and 
 the willows affords sustenance to the moose.' The river 
 is sharply furrowed and so deep that sometimes it 
 seems to fill up the entire bottom of a narrow valley 
 through which it runs. More frequently a wooded ter- 
 race lies between the foot of the ridge and the brink 
 of the water. The soil is a dark sandy loam, the rocks 
 are chiefly lime and sandstone, and the numerous slides 
 and huge landslips along its lofty shores render visible 
 strata upon strata of many coloured earths and layers 
 1 Butler's ' Wild North Land.' 
 
i^^ 
 
 VIII.] 
 
 British Columbia. 
 
 87 
 
 of rocks and shingle, lignite and banded clays in rich 
 succession. A black bituminous earth in many places 
 forces its way through rock and shingle and runs in 
 long dark streaks down the steep descent. Even when 
 April comes the river lies in motionless torpor solid 
 with its weight of ice four feet in thickness. Then 
 comes the sudden break up and the irresistible rush 
 of waters. Where the Peace River passes the Rockies 
 the valley is about two miles wide, the river 250 to 
 300 yards wide. The gorge is one of magnificent beauty, 
 with the 'glittering crowns of snow' 8000 feet above 
 and the 'wide beautiful valley almost filled by the 
 river, tranquil as a lake and bearing on its bosom, at 
 intervals, small inlets of green forest.' The scenery is, 
 perhaps, more beautiful than the dizzy glory of Shasta 
 and the precipices of Yosemite. 
 
 The Skeena flows westward into the Pacific, and is 
 ascended for some distance by steam vessels from Na- 
 naimo, in Vancouver Island. It is one of the routes to 
 the Omineca gold mines. 
 
 The Nasse is at the extreme north, near the Alaska 
 boundary, and flows out at Observatoiy Inlet. It is 
 navigable for twenty- five miles, and its valleys are be- 
 lieved to abound in gold. The shortest route yet sketched 
 out to the Pacific is by the Yellow Head Pass, along the 
 valley of the Eraser River and thence northward to the 
 Skeena Valley, and down that valley to Port Essington, 
 or crossing over to the Nasse Valley and down to Eort 
 Simpson near its mouth on the sea. The route of steamers 
 would then be along Dixon Channel, north of Queen 
 Charlotte Island, and in the future such an alternative 
 route may be adopted. 
 
 The Findlay Biver, called after a fur-trader, has many 
 large tributaries. It is something like a huge right 
 hand spread out over the countiy, of which the middle 
 
88 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 ■I 
 
 ii 
 
 finger would be the main river and the thumlj the 
 Omineca. ' There is the North Fork which closely hugs 
 the main Kocky Mountain Range. There is the Findlay 
 itself, a magnificent river, flowing from a vast labyrinth 
 of mountains, being unchanged in size or apparent 
 volume 1 20 miles above the Forks we had left. . . . The 
 Omineca lay before us stretching to the westward amid 
 cloud-capped cliff's and snowy peaks, known to the gold 
 seeker but not accurately. It is but one of that score of 
 rivers which 2500 miles from these mountains seek the 
 Arctic Sea through the gateway of the Mackenzie'.' 
 
 The Frascr llivcr rises near the Yellow Head Pass, 
 not far from Mount Hooker and Mount Brown and the 
 sources of the Athabasca, and flows northward first of 
 all, until it breaks through the Cariboo mountains near 
 Fort George. Turning suddenly to the south, it passes 
 through that part of British Columbia which lies be- 
 tween the Cascades and Gold and Selkirk Ranges, and 
 is the chief river of the district. The Cariboo plain is 
 a promising agricultural district '". 
 
 Great Columbia Hirer. The Canadian Pacific Railway 
 crosses the Rocky Mountains at 'the Kicking Horse 
 Pass.' At the summit of this pass is a lake, whose waters 
 drain in two directions, eastward by the Bow River 
 into the South Saskatchewan and then into Hudson's 
 Bay and ultimately the Atlantic, and also westward 
 to the Columbia River, and so to the Pacific. Here, in 
 these Alpine regions, are the sources of the Columbia 
 River, which, after a great bend round the Selkirk Range, 
 flows south into the Pacific in Oregon (United States) 
 territory. It is deserving of note that the Yukon in 
 Alaska, the Fraser, the Skeena, the Colorado, and the 
 Columbia, are the only considerable rivers in North 
 
 1 Butler's ' Wild North Land.' 
 '^ Appendix XII. 
 
^T 
 
 VIII.] 
 
 British Columbia. 
 
 89 
 
 America west of the Rocky Mountains whicli find their 
 way over the western plateaux through the gorges of 
 the intermediate mountain ranges to thi3 Pacific Ocean. 
 The great loop of this river round the Selkirk Range 
 has been called the 'Big l)end of Columbia.* The region 
 thus included is rich in minerals, timber, game, and 
 fish. Out of its district no less than £10,000,000 worth 
 of gold has been procured. The Canadian Pacific Riiil- 
 way, instead of following the course of the Columbia 
 River, cuts across the Selkirk Range by some very skilful 
 engineering. 
 
 The Tliompson liivcr, a tributary of the Fraser, upon 
 which the town of Kamloops, meaning in Indian lan- 
 guage ' the junction of the waters,' is founded, is a note- 
 worthy river. In crossing the Rocky Mountains and 
 traversing British Columbia, the railway engineers have 
 made use of a series of deep canons. At the summit 
 of the Eagle Pass begins the Eagle River, and the rail- 
 way follows it down till it reaches the Shuswap Lake. 
 ' This is a most remarkable body of water. It lies 
 amongst the mountain ridges, and consequently extends 
 its long narrow arms along the intervening valleys like 
 a huge octopus, in half a dozen directions. These arms 
 are many miles long, and vary from a few hundred 
 yards to two or three miles in breadth, and their high, 
 bold shores, fringed by the little narrow beach of sand 
 and pebbles, give beautiful views. The railway crosses 
 one of these arms by a drawbridge at Sicamous Nar- 
 rows, and for fifty miles it winds in and out the bending 
 shores. This lake, with its bordering slopes, gives a 
 fine reminder of Scottish scenery \' The Eagle lUver 
 flows into the Tliompson River and the Thompson into 
 
 * See p. 41 of 'A Canadian Tour,' by the London 'Times' Cor- 
 respondent, 1886. 
 
J I 
 M 1 
 
 t f"m 
 
 I; ' 
 
 I ; 
 
 90 The Geogra2)hy of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 the Eraser, and it is along the valleys of these rivers that 
 the railway is constructed. 
 
 (7) Coast-line.— The coast-line of British Columbia, 
 owing to its broken character and the number of islands 
 that adjoin the continent, is unusually long. It measures 
 no less than 7000 miles, a distance equal to twice that 
 of the British Isles, and is most beautiful and pic- 
 turesque. This is the description given by the Earl of 
 Dufferin in 1876 : — 
 
 ' Such a spectacle as this coast-line presents is not to 
 be paralleled by any country in the world. Day after 
 day, for a whole week, in a vessel of 2000 tons, we 
 threaded an interminable labyrinth of watery reaches, 
 that wound in and out of a network of islands, promon- 
 tories, and peninsulas for thousands of miles, unruffled 
 by the slightest swell from the adjoining ocean, and pre- 
 senting at every turn an ever-shifting combination of 
 rock, verdure, forest, glacier, and snow-capped mountains 
 of unrivalled grandeur and beauty.' 
 
 (8) Lakes. — In the south Lakes Kootenay, Okanagan, 
 Upper and Lower Arrow, Shuswap, Harrison, and Lilloet. 
 In the centre Quesnelle, Horse Fly, Cariboo, Cross, 
 Babine, Tacla ; in the north Stuart, Thutage, Dease. But 
 of course the lake and river system of this country cannot 
 compare with (i) the St. Lawrence ; or (2) the Mani- 
 toba ; or (3) the Mackenzie. However, from its natural 
 harbour advantages and diversified coast-line there is an 
 easy access from one end to the other, which compensates 
 for the difficulties of travel in the interior. 
 
 (9) Forests and timber. - The great currents of 
 westerly winds blowing across the Pacific, strike upon the 
 coasts of British Columbia and Alaska. These winds are 
 laden with moisture gathered in their course over the sea, 
 and discharge it in copious showers upon the land. 
 Wherever they touch North America we find magnificent 
 
VIII.] 
 
 British Columbia. 
 
 91 
 
 woods antl forests. More than half the area of British 
 Columbia is covered with the finest trees in the world. 
 For hundreds of miles the valleys are densely wooded, and 
 gigantic pines and huge cedars clothe the sides of the 
 mountains, even up to the regions of eternal snows. The 
 king of the British Columbian pines is the Douglas fir, 
 which rivals the Weymouth species of New Brunswick, on 
 the east coast of North America. Under the name of the 
 Oregon pine it is a most valuable article of commerce. 
 It frequently grows 300 feet high with a diameter of eight 
 to nine feet. The white-cedar is a well-known forest 
 giant of the Fraser Valley, and on Vancouver a species 
 of oak grows plentifully. Amongst other trees are the 
 hemlock, maple, and arbutus. Burrard Inlet is the centre 
 of the British Colum])ian timber trade, and is only a few 
 miles distant from New Westminster. It is nine miles 
 long, and is fep vvA safe. The total annual produce is 
 estimated at 200,000,000 feet of timber. 
 
 (10) Population. — The population of British Columbia, 
 including Vancouver Island, is calculated to be 100,000, 
 including 25,000 Indians and 7000 Chinese. However, 
 the country is filling fast, and in 1888 no fewer than 
 11,000 fresh immigrants settled there. In the cities of 
 the coast large numbers of Americans are to be met 
 with, and the dollar is the usual currency. The Chinese 
 immigrants are more numerous here than elsewhere in 
 Canada, and the character of a Pacific seaport is semi- 
 oriental. In the interior chiefly arc found the 25,000 
 Indians, who are kept in ' reserves ' or ' locations.' 
 
 European settlers must recollect that the mainland of 
 British Columbia, apart from the sea-board, is divided 
 into three sections, each differing from the other two in 
 its climatic and geological features, (i) From the Fraser 
 Eiver to Yale Eapids is the 'New Westminster,' or 
 settled district ; (2) from Yale to Alexandria, the Simil- 
 

 
 ! 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 t 
 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 t 
 1 
 
 II 
 
 9 3 The Geog7\q)hi/ of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 kameen district ; (3) from Alexandria to the Kocky Moun- 
 tains, called the Lilloet-Clinton district. 
 
 (i 1 ) Towns.— The principal cities on the mainland 
 are Vancouver (12,000), the terminus of the Canadian 
 Pacific Railway, and New Westminster (5000). Kamloops 
 has a population of about 700, and is the entrepot of a 
 fine ranching district. 
 
 Yale is a settlement of about 1000, and is built on a 
 comparatively level place amongst the mountains. Just 
 here the railway, which has j^assed over 600 miles of 
 mountain work since it entered the 'Rockies,' comes into 
 the more fruitful and level valley of the Fraser River. 
 
 Lytfon is a small town built by gold-miners at the 
 junction of the Fraser and Thompson Rivers. 
 
 Amongst other towns and settlements on the mainland 
 are Pemberton, William Creek, a gold centre, Hoj)e, 
 Quesnelly, Barkerville, Okanagan. 
 
 Before this country, which has been called, not inaptly, 
 the 'England of the Pacific,' a great future is opening 
 out. With its wealth derived from rich gold mines, 
 forests, and fisheries, it must become rich and attract 
 from all quarters an enterprising population. 
 
 fi 
 
 i|j{i:ii 
 
 Vancouve7' Island. 
 
 (12) Divisions. — i. Victoria; 2. Saanich Peninsula; 
 3. Tooke ; 4. Cowicham ; 5. Salt Spring Island ; 6. 
 Nanaimo ; 7. Comox and Nelson. 
 
 The area of the island is about 16,000 square miles, 
 or 10,000,000 acres. Of these divisions Victoria and 
 Cowicham and the Saanich Peninsula are best suited for 
 farming purposes. 
 
 (13) Towns. — Victoria, situated at the extreme south- 
 east of Vancouver Island, originally the depot of the great 
 Hudson's Bay Company, has a population of 1 5,000. It is 
 
l. [Ch. 
 Moun- 
 
 [liiiland 
 iiiadian 
 amloo2)S 
 »ot of a 
 
 It on a 
 
 Just 
 
 iiiles of 
 
 les into 
 
 iver. 
 
 at the 
 
 ainland 
 , Hope, 
 
 inaistly, 
 
 opening 
 
 mines, 
 
 I attract 
 
 ninsula ; 
 xnd ; 6. 
 
 ■e miles, 
 aria and 
 uited for 
 
 le south- 
 the great 
 50. It is 
 
 mm 
 
 \m 
 
To ftico patfe 9;i 
 
 m IX. 
 
 Oxford l/niveraity -Press. 
 
IX.] 
 
 Nevifoundland. 
 
 93 
 
 distant 70 miles from Now Wostminstor, and hotwccn 700 
 and 750 mllos from San Francisco. ' Its narrow harhour, 
 which is scarcely so largo as Huskisson Dock, Livorpool, 
 is rock bound, and surrounded by the most charming 
 miniature bays, exhibiting grassy knolls, and lusro and 
 there evergreens in all the luxuriance of tropical foliage. 
 A river opening out above the town invites the visitor to 
 a boating excursion ; the fresh green of the grassy reaches 
 which stretch into the bay, the rocky promontories, the 
 snow-covered mountains, combine to form u landscape 
 which deeply impresses itself upon the stranger fresh 
 from the waves of the ocean or the sombre fir-hills of 
 Oregon and Washington.' 
 
 Eaquiniaitlf is noted for its nuignificent harbour, 
 and is distant three miles from Victoria. This har- 
 bour is thirty-six feet deep, and almost land-locked, 
 and is an imperial naval station of the North Pacific 
 squadron with a magnificent graving-dock for refit- 
 ting. 
 
 Nanaiwo (5000), sixty-five miles from Victoria, has 
 also a good harbour. It is the headquarters of the deep- 
 sea and whale fisheries, and is a thriving coal-mining 
 town. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 I^eiifoundland. 
 
 (i) Newfoundland is an island off the North American 
 coast, lying between the parallels of 46" 36' 50'' and 
 
T"^ 
 
 94 The Geograpliy of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 51° 39' north latitude, and the meridians of 52° 37' and 
 59° 24' 50'' west longitude. 
 
 Boundaries. — It is bounded on the north-east and 
 south by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by the Gulf of 
 St. Lawrence and the Straits of Belle Isle. 
 
 Extent. — Its length from Cape Kay to Cape Norman 
 is 317 miles, and its breadth from Cape Spear to Cape 
 Anguille is 316 miles. With it must be reckoned the 
 dependency of Labrador, eitending from Anse Sablon 
 in the Straits of Belle Isle to Cape Chudleigh, latitude 
 60- 37'. 
 
 Population. — In 1884 the population was found to 
 number i;;7.539, of whom nearly 100,000 lived in the 
 Peninsula of Avalon. 
 
 (2) The following is a description of the island given 
 by a recent writer in the 'Nineteenth Century' Magazine, 
 December, 1888: — 
 
 ' The island is larger than Ireland ; the greater portion 
 of it is covered with thick and almost impenetrable 
 forests of spruce and pine-trees, interspersed with birch, 
 larch, and poplar. The forests give way occasionally 
 to open spaces known locally as Barrens. They are 
 covered with a dense carpet of mosses, which, in places, 
 attain a depth of from one to two feet. There is a great 
 variety of mosses, and some of them are of much beauty. 
 Long trails of stag's-horn moss strike the eye amongst 
 the velvety greens and deep olives, and the delicate grey 
 and intricate tracery of the reindeer-lichen gives a pleas- 
 ing contrast of colour and form. Besides mosses the 
 barrens are rich in l)ilberries or hurts, partridge-berries, 
 swamp-berries, and berries of various other kind:i m 
 extraordinary abundance . . . Innumerable lakes, or as 
 they are called in Newfoundland ponds, are thickly 
 dotted over the country, and though there is nothing 
 that can be called a mountain in the island (the highest 
 
 m ! 
 
IX.] 
 
 Neiofoundlan d. 
 
 9.^ 
 
 gi'ey 
 
 elevation being only 2400 feet), there are hills from onv 
 of which no less than ^80 lakes or ponds have been 
 counted. Large rivers traverse the island in various 
 directions, but none are navigable for any distance, for 
 craft larger than a canoe, as they are broken by falls 
 and rapids and soon become shallovv\ The two principal 
 rivers are the Humber, running west into the Bay of 
 Islands, and the Exploits, which falls into Notre Dame 
 Bay, to the north-east.' 
 
 (3) General features. — The geography of Newfound- 
 land is almost entirely the geography of a sinuous and 
 broken coast-line. Everywhere this coast-line is deeply 
 indented with bays and inlets of the sea, and there is 
 scarcely a village in the island which has not a close 
 access to the sea. Perhaps no country in the world has 
 such a coast-line in proportion to its size. In the inte- 
 rior there are several hills stretching across the island 
 in a north-easterly and south-westerly direction, at whose 
 bases are low and undulating valleys full of lakes and 
 ponds. Here and there are isolated peaks or ' tolts ' 
 rising up to a height of 2000 feet. The highest land 
 is on the south and west. The poorest land is on the 
 east and south, and the best nearer the north, where 
 the largest lakes and finest timber are found. 
 
 (4) Climate. The clinuite of Newfoundland varies very 
 much. At St. John's, on the extreme east, where the 
 Peninsula of Avalon stretches far out into the Atlantic, 
 the weather is cold and chilly, being affected by the 
 Arctic curnnit flowing down laden with ice from Batlin's 
 Bay. As this icy current meets the warm waters of the 
 Gulf Stream, it meets and creates vapour which lies ui)on 
 the eastern sea-board in a dense and thick fog, making 
 the navigation off the Newfoundland banks diflicult and 
 dangerous. The fogs rarely extend inland for a distance 
 of more than fifty miles, and the climate on the west 
 
 i 
 
i 
 
 ■ ^ 
 
 i i 
 
 ;ii: 
 
 !i 
 
 96 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 coast is fnirly equublo, far more so than in most portions 
 of the Canadian Dominion. The thermometer in Avinter 
 seldom falls below zero, and rarely rises to 80'^ in summer. 
 The mean temperature for the whole year is about 43', 
 the mean height of the barometer about 29'^ 40' \ 
 
 (5) Soil. — The best soil is found at the heads of the 
 bays and inlets, as Gander Bay, the Bay of Exploits, on 
 the shores of Red Indian Lake, the Bays of St. George 
 and Port-a-Port, and in the valley of the Humber River, 
 where the best timber grows. The Laurentian system is 
 the lowest and oldest, and spreads over two-thirds of 
 the island ; the Carboniferous is the highest series, and 
 is found on the western side, and here and there are 
 seams of coal. The primordial Silurian rocks are found 
 only in isolated i)atches ; the Huronian system prevails 
 on the eastern part of the island. The following is the 
 order of the formation : — (i) Carboniferous, (2) Devonian, 
 (3) Middle Silurian, (4) Lower Silurian, (5) Huronian, 
 (6) Laurentian. Although it does not exist in large 
 (quantities, still there is gold, found in quartz veins, and 
 associated with iron ore ; silver, both native and asso- 
 ciated with galena, copper ores, coi)per in various forms, 
 galena, plumbago, iron ores of great variety, marble and 
 limestone, slates, and building stones of every material. 
 Copper is perhaps the most plentiful metal. 
 
 (6) Capes. — On the east Cape Primavista, said to have 
 been first sighted in 1497 by Cabot ; Cape Francis, once 
 called Cape de Portogesi, showing by its name, as well as 
 that of Portugal Cove, that the Portuguese had fisheries 
 here. Cape Spear, in the Peninsula of Avalon at the en- 
 trance of the magnificent harbour of St. John, on the east ; 
 Cape Race, so well known as one of the first points of 
 land seen by outward-l)ound steamers, Cape Pine on the 
 
 ' St'o paper by tho Ilonouniblo Mr. Justice (now Sir Robert) 
 Pinsent, road before the Royal (joloiiial Institute, April, 1885. 
 
 
IX.] 
 
 Nei vfoundlan d. 
 
 97 
 
 have 
 once 
 ell as 
 leries 
 le en- 
 east ; 
 ts of 
 n the 
 
 south ; Capes Ray and Anguille at the extreme south- 
 west ; Cape Norman on the north at the entrance of Belle 
 Isle Strait, and on the eastern side of Pistolet Bay, Cape 
 Bauld. In such an island as Newfoundland, with its 
 unparalleled coast-line, the minor heads and promontories 
 are almost innumeral)le. 
 
 Peninsulas.— (i ) That of Avalon, with a veiy irregular 
 coast-line, joined by a very narrow isthmus of a few 
 miles in width, with Placentia Bay on one side and 
 Trinity on the other. (2) The Northern Peninsula or 
 Petit Nord of the French. (3) Port-a-Port on the w^est. 
 
 Bays. — On the eastern side, Conception, Trinity, Heart's 
 Content, Bonavista, Goose, Freshwater, Hall, Green, 
 Canada and Griguet Bays. 
 
 On the north. Sacred, Ha Ha, and Pistolet Bays. 
 
 On the south, Trepassey, St. Mary's, Placentia, For- 
 tune, Connaigre, Hermitage, Despair, and White Bear 
 Bays. 
 
 On the west, St. George's, Port-a-Port, Bay of Islands, 
 Bonne, St. John's, St. Margaret, St. Barbe Bays. 
 
 (7) Islands. — On all sides of Newfoundland there are 
 a large number of snuiU islands, especially in Bonavista 
 and Notre Dame Bays on the east, St. John's and the 
 Bay of Islands on the west, and Fortune and Placentia 
 Bays on the south. Belle Isle is the most northerly ; 
 and St. Pierre, Great and Little Mi(|uelon, which latter 
 belong to the French, and are used as depots for their 
 fishing fleet, are the most southerly. 
 
 The Cabot islands are a barren group on the west 
 side, to which a name has only been recently given by 
 the Newfoundland Legislature, on the occasion of the 
 erection of a lighthouse. This is the only place in 
 Newfoundland where the name of tlie great explorer 
 has been preserved. 
 
 St. John's Harbour, lying to the north of Cape Spear, 
 
 u 
 
1!" 
 
 h 
 
 98 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 is the neiirest port of call from Europe, and must be 
 distinguished from St. John at the mouth of the St. 
 John River, New Brunswick, with its population of 
 44,000. This patron saint was popular in Canada, as 
 Prince Edward Island was originally called St. John, 
 and north of the city of Quebec there is a St. John 
 District. 
 
 (8) Straits and Channels are veiy numerous in New- 
 foundland, and they are called by many different names, 
 e. g. tickle, gut, sound, run, passage, reach, partly accord- 
 ing to their size, the ' tickle ' or ' run ' signifying the 
 narrow, tortuous channels through which the tides run 
 swiftly. 
 
 On the east coast the Baccalieu Tickle is between 
 Baccalieu Island and the mainland ; Chandler's Reach 
 is at the entrance to Clode Sound, Willis Reach between 
 Willis and Cottel's Islands, Trinity Gut between Lewis 
 Island and the mainland in Bonavista Bay, Dildo Run 
 between New World Island and the mainland, Long- 
 Island Tickle between Long Island, Triton and PilleyV; 
 Island in Notre Dame Bay. 
 
 On the south, Colinet Passage between Great Colinot 
 Island and the mainland. Eastern Passage and Western 
 Passage between Dead Islands and the mainland. 
 
 On the west, Main Gut, St. George's Bay, and Belle 
 Isle Straits between the Great Northern Peninsula and 
 Labrador. 
 
 Isthmuses. — (i) Avalon, between Trinity and Pla- 
 centia Bay. (2) New Bay, between Bay of Exploits and 
 New Bay. (3) The Gravels or Isthmus of Port-a-Port, 
 connecting the Peninsula of Port-ii-Port with the main- 
 land. 
 
 Bivers. — The rivers of Newfoundland are very nume- 
 rous, but none of very great importance. The Gander 
 and Exploits rivers empty into Notre Dame Bay ; St. 
 
 Si'l!: 
 
IX.] 
 
 Newfoundland. 
 
 99 
 
 I5olle 
 and 
 
 s 
 
 Pla- 
 and 
 Port, 
 iiain- 
 
 lume- 
 ander 
 
 St. 
 
 John's into the harbour of that name ; the Diklo and 
 Black Brook into Trinity Bay ; the Humber Eivor into 
 the Bay of Islands. It has been said that to enumerate 
 all the rivers and lakes in the island would fill a book, 
 the number being prodigious. One quarter of the surface 
 of Newfoundland is covered by fresh-water lakes and 
 ponds. Much of the interior of the island is still un- 
 known. It is a paradise for the fisherman and sportsman. 
 
 (9) As afield for emigration Newfoundland offers room 
 for farm-labourers. Her soil is fertile enough to keep 
 an agricultural population. As a mineral-bearing coun- 
 try she is rich and capable of development. The deposit 
 of gypsum is enormous, and building slate, granite, lime- 
 stone and marble abound. At the heads of the great 
 lakes in the interior there is said to be 3,000,000 acres 
 adapted for settlement and cultivation, where there are 
 large areas of fine timber land. There are many ways 
 in which the fishing industries can be made more pro- 
 ductive even than they now are, and employment found 
 for more fishermen. For fishermen, miners and agri- 
 culturists Newfoundland is a country which, only 1 700 
 miles distant from the nearest shores of the British 
 Islands, holds forth many attractions. Hitherto the 
 great stream of emigrants bound for more distant Trans- 
 atlantic abodes have passed it })y. 
 
 (10) Newfoundland is useful to us as a nursery for sea- 
 men. Her rough weather and difficult coast navigation 
 call into play the best kind of seamanship. The number 
 of able-bodied fishermen is about 30, 000 \ The number 
 of sailing vessels cleared at their ports in 1882 was 1 107, 
 their crews numbering 7200 ; the number of steamers 
 cleared during the same year was 176, with crews num- 
 bering 6568. Amongst such a population as this would 
 
 ' See Paper by Sir Robert Pinsont, 1885. 
 H 2 
 
100 The Geografly of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 m ; 
 
 ii 
 
 
 ! •' 
 
 bo found a nucleus of a strong naval force ready, in case 
 of emergency, to defend their own or British shores. 
 
 The average annual value of the fisheries is as 
 follows ' : — 
 
 Cod fishery 
 Seal fisliory 
 Herring fishery 
 Salmon fishery 
 Lobster fishery 
 All other fish 
 
 §6,034,242 
 
 1,026,896 
 
 581,543 
 
 J 14.505 
 
 104,184 
 
 40,000 
 
 l7. 901,370 
 (or ^1,646,118). 
 
 (11) Government. — Responsible, ( i) with a Governor at 
 the head appointed by the Crown. (2) Executive Council 
 of seven members. (3) Legislative Council or Upper 
 House of fifteen members, chosen for life. (4) House of 
 Assembly of thirty-one members, elected every four 
 years by the people. The judges are generally appointed 
 for life. 
 
 Electoral Districts are ten in number. 
 
 In the centre, (i) District of St. John's, (2) Ferryland. 
 
 In the north, (3) District of Conception Bay, (4) Trinity 
 Bay, (5) Bonavista Bay, (6) Twiilingate and Fogo. 
 
 In the south, (7) District of Placentia, (8) of Burin, 
 (9) Fortune Bay, (10) Burgeo and Lapoile. 
 
 These districts are not mapped out with any regu- 
 larity, and little account is taken of the interior, which 
 is virtually unoccupied. The Newfoundlanders are de- 
 prived of the control of over one-third of their coast- 
 line on the west and north by the claims of the French. 
 The * French shore ' is the great and open grievance of 
 the colony, and interferes greatly with the progress of 
 the island '. 
 
 (12) Religion. — There are of the (i) Church of Eng- 
 
 ^ Paper by Sir Robert Pinsent, 1885. 
 ' Appendix XIII. 
 
IX.] 
 
 Neivfoundland. 
 
 lOI 
 
 land, 69,000 ; (2) Wesleyan Methodists, 3;l,ooo ; (3) 
 Church of Eome, 64,000. Tho iiuinbor of churches is 
 about 250 \ 
 
 Education is purely denominational, and is repre- 
 sented (i) by five Higher Schools or Academies, (2) Com- 
 mercial and Elementary Board Schools, (3) Colonial and 
 Continental Church Society Schools, (4) Institutions of 
 the Christian Brothers. 
 
 The Public Debt of Newfoundland is very small, and 
 does not exceed £.2 per head of the population ^ Direct 
 taxation is unknown, and even the municipal works of 
 St. John's and the large towns are under the Board of 
 Public Works. 
 
 (13) Telegraph. — Newfoundland is noted as being the 
 first place where the project of the submarine cable was 
 conceived and carried out. The first idea was not a 
 Transatlantic cable, but a short line connecting New- 
 foundland with Cape Breton, and so reducing by tuo or 
 three days the period of communication between England 
 and New York. The first section of the designed cable 
 lay across the island between St. John's Harbour and 
 Cape Race before it entered the sea. Just at this time 
 (1852) a United States naval expedition was surveying, 
 by means of deep-sea soundings, the bed of the Atlantic 
 Ocean, and between Newfoundland and Ireland they dis- 
 covered the existence of a plateau which seemed expressly 
 designed for the wires of a sulmiarine cable. After four 
 repeated trials, the oceanic cable was successfully laid 
 down by the Great Eastern, in 1866. The shore end of 
 it is situated in Heart's Content Bay, a small inlet in the 
 wider reaches of Trinity Bay, on the eastern coast. This 
 was the beginning of the system of ocean telegraphy 
 which, spreading in every direction over the world, and 
 
 ' Seo Paper by Sir Robert Pinsent, 1885. 
 ^ Ibid. 
 
i B 
 
 t 
 
 I03 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 bringing eveiy nation within sper distance, is effect- 
 ing a revolution, not only in ,.,'neral ideas of the 
 day, but also in the operatic . war, commerce and 
 diplomacy. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Industries, Wealth, and Social Progress. 
 
 (i) The above are in brief outline the bare geographi- 
 cal details of the Canadian Dominion, and of Newfound- 
 land, but they fail naturally to convey in themselves an 
 adequate idea of the wealth and enterprise of the 
 5,000,000 people who have made these countries their 
 home. A brief glance at the results already gained in 
 the various dei)artnients of industries will show that 
 the Canadians have already developed in a remarkable 
 way the resources of their country. In other colonies, 
 such as Natal and the Cape Colony, the presence of an 
 ovenvhelming native i)opulation brings with it a large 
 number of responsibilities and many administrative 
 problems. In Canada there is now no native question 
 to embarrass the politician, nor has the country to 
 grapple, as the Republic on the south, with the negro 
 difficulties. For in the more Southern States of the 
 Union emancipation has brought in its wake a kind of 
 social revolution which threatens in course of time to 
 be of a serious nature and introduce class animosities 
 in a free Republic. Happily for themselves the Cana- 
 dians can boast of a comparatively unembarrassed poli- 
 
X.] Indudries, Wealth, and Social Progress. 103 
 
 tical existence. The pioblems they have to face are not 
 those of a struggling and anxious comnumity, hut re- 
 late chiefly to the development of the land and its 
 wealth. 
 
 (2) Agriculture is a leading industry of Canada, and 
 to prove how much the colonists grow in excess of their 
 own requirements we learn that in 1887 they exported 
 i; 8, 600, 000 worth of farm produce. During this year 
 the number of cattle alone exported was 1 16.274, of which 
 63,622, valued at £1,000,000, were shipped to Great 
 Britain. There is no cattle disease in Canada, largely 
 tln-ough the precautions of the Department of Agri- 
 culture. The cattle themselves are of good pedigree stock 
 from the old country and show no signs of deterioration. 
 The herds of Shorthorns, Jerseys, and Herefords will 
 bear comparison with those of England, which of all 
 countries on the globe is rightly considered to be the 
 best adapted for cattle rearing. In dairy-farming ', a very 
 important branch of industry, great progress has been 
 made of late years in Canada, and the best American 
 cheeses are admittedly Canadian. Poultry raising has 
 gradually been developed by a thrifty farming population, 
 more numerous and more widely dispersed than in any 
 other colony, as has already been pointed out, and it is 
 calculated that poultry to the value of .£21,780 and 
 thirteen millions of eggs were exported in 1887 to the 
 United States. The fruit and vegetables of the Dominion 
 are too well known to need noticing here, and whilst 
 the climate is singularly adapted to English fruits, such 
 as peaches, apples, strawberries and currants, it is also 
 favourable to many crops which are raised with diffi- 
 culty in England. Melons ripen as a field crop, and 
 tomatoes are so plentiful that they sell for less than 2.9. 
 a bushel, while in various localities, such as County Essex 
 
 ' Appendix XIV. 
 
1 
 
 I, ■' 
 
 1 1' 
 
 1 ;■■ 
 
 104 The Geograjyhy of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 on tho shores of Lake Erie, there are vineyards resem- 
 bling those of France. The account given of the common 
 cereals shows that the Dominion is par excellence the 
 country for them up to high latitudes. 
 
 (3) Generally speaking, mixed farming is carried on, 
 the growing of grain and fruit, stock raising and dairy 
 farming being all combined in a greater or less degree. 
 The best immigrants undoubtedly for Canada are small 
 farmers, with a small amount of capital ranging from 
 £500 to .£1000. There exists also in the Dominion a 
 special Department of Agriculture, with a member of 
 the existing Cabinet at its head; and, in 1887, legisla- 
 tive authority was obtained for the establishment of five 
 government experimental farms in various parts of the 
 Dominion to test the capacity of soil and climate— one at 
 Ottawa, for the convenience of the Provinces of Ontario 
 and Quebec, a central institution, one at Nappan(N. S.) 
 for the maritime Provinces, one at Brandon for the 
 Prairie Provinces, one at Indian Head for the North- 
 West Territories, one at Agassiz in British Columbia, 
 from which the most profitable results may be obtained. 
 The Agricultural College at Guelph in Ontario has long 
 been known as the Canadian Cirencester, and there have 
 not been wanting men like Principal Sir W. Dawson and 
 Professor Macoun, and others, who have by their world- 
 wide learning contributed largely to the science of agri- 
 culture. The meeting of the British Association at Mon- 
 treal in 1887, in itself a kind of Pan- Anglican conclave 
 for the advancement of science, afforded abundant proof 
 that the range and application of modern science, espe- 
 cially with reference to agricultural chemistry, was being 
 indefinitely advanced in the Dominion. Sir Charles Lyell 
 has written in his ' Travels in North America,' p. 5 : — 
 
 * In the course of this short tour I became convinced 
 that we must turn to the New World if we wish to see 
 
 I ll 
 
X.] Indudries, Wealth, and Socud Progre.ss. lo.', 
 
 in perfection the oldest monuments of tiie earth's history, 
 so fjir at least as relates to its earliest inhabitants. In 
 no other countiy are these ancient strata developed on a 
 grander scale or more plentifully charged with fossils. 
 and, as they are nearly horizontal, the order of their 
 relative position is always clear and unequivocal.' 
 Moreover, as if to show that the wonderful prairies of the 
 North are practically inexhaustible for the uses of man. 
 it has been pointed out by Professor Macoun that even 
 those plains where alkali is found, and for a long time 
 regarded as i)rofitless, will become the most valua)>le of 
 the wheat lands as settlement progresses, the alkali 
 being converted into a valuable fertiliser ])y the ad- 
 mixture of barn-vard manure '. 
 
 (4) Forestry. — In connection with agriculture anti 
 husbandry comes the science of Forestry. To conserve 
 the existing forest wealth of the Dominion, to thin out, 
 plant, and exi)eriment should be one of the chief tasks of 
 the Department of Agriculture. Nowhere in the world 
 has Nature been more prodigal in her gifts of the forest 
 than in the Dominion. Although there are many durabh' 
 woods in South Africa and Australia, still they require 
 protection. In the settled parts of Australia, and in 
 Cape Colony tree-planting has gradually jjecomo a state 
 necessity. In the latter country, European occupation 
 has too often been followed by veldt fires, which have 
 destroyed in a short time and with terrilic destructive- 
 ness the scanty growth of hill and valley. Consequently 
 the surface of the earth has been exposed to the dis- 
 integrating action of sun and rain, the hills have been 
 quickly denuded, and, literally speaking, the ribs of the 
 earth seem to be exjiosed. Evaporation takes place 
 quickly and the rain clouds become scarcer and scarcer, 
 
 ' See ' Official Handbook,' published by the Department of Agri- 
 culture, Canada, October, 1S88. 
 
I 1 1 '5 ' 
 
 lit 
 
 !l! 
 
 i ! 
 
 Ml 
 
 )i 
 
 106 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 and the increased radiation from the earth is destructive 
 to natural orj^anisnis. The water-courses run diy and 
 drou^lits set in with all their concomitant miseries. In 
 Canada the earth is sheltered and screened from the heat 
 of the sun by means of its forests, rivers never run dry 
 there, and the accumulated mould of ages lies numy 
 fathoms deep upon the surface. Rarely do poisonous 
 and deadly malarious exhalations arise from the earth 
 which are so fatal in more southern latitudes of North 
 America and other Colonies, and the Canadian Dominion 
 seems like a providential and beneficent extension of 
 the temperate zone for the welfare of the northern races 
 of Europe. 
 
 At the same time the Canadian forests are a very 
 rich mine of wealth, always encouraging a whole- 
 some and vigorous occupation for lumberers and axe- 
 men. It is estimated that Canada exports 700,000,000 
 feet of timber for the United States market — a significant 
 fact in itself — and a similar amount for England, South 
 America, and Australia. To carry on this trade an army 
 of 30,000 men are employed at the rate of 5s. a day. 
 In the Quebec Province there are 100,000 square miles of 
 timber territory awaiting purchase. To the North-West, 
 and esjiecially beyond the Forks of the Saskatchewan, 
 immense areas of forests are still to be opened up as the 
 tide of immigration rolls forward, and the means of 
 cheap transit are provided. The Government holds a pro- 
 prietary right over these timber lands, and leases them 
 for a general term of twenty-one years to the highest 
 bidder. The conservation of forest wealth should be 
 one of the first cares of Canadian statesmen. 
 
 (5) Fisheries. — Passing on to the fisheries we shall 
 find that here too the Canadians have at hand an im- 
 portant supply of wealth which they are developing 
 with increasing perseverance. From the Arctic regions 
 
 e 
 t 
 
X.] Tiuhidrics, Woilth, and Social I'l'otjrenn. 107 
 
 le shall 
 an im- 
 
 ^eloping 
 regions 
 
 the currents are always bringing down a food-supply for 
 tlio fish, especially along the eastern coasts. This is 
 described as ' living slime formed of myriauls of minute 
 creatures which swarm in the Arctic seas, and are 
 deposited in vast and ever-renewed (quantities upon the 
 fishing grounds.' In addition, the fresh-water iisheries 
 in a country so com})letely honeycombed with lakes as 
 the Canadian Dominion, ar<^ of gn^at importance. It is 
 approximately estimated that the value of the home 
 consumption in 1887 was worth £2,600,000, which to 
 £3,400,000 worth exported and sold on the Dominion 
 markets, gives a total of .£6,000,000. 
 
 (6) Further, it is calculated that the Canadians posseas 
 a fleet of 7294 vessels, 1198 steamers with a total net 
 tonnage of 1,217,766. Assuming tlie average value to 
 be £6 per ton, the value of the registered tonnage 
 would be £7,300,000. It must be noted that about 
 seventy per cent, of the sea-borne trade was under the 
 British flag. On the Pacific sea-board there are not 
 wanting signs of a growing traffic, and of trade com- 
 munication with the countries of the east and with the 
 Australasian colonies. This trade carries with it great 
 opportunities of expansion. 
 
 As in agriculture proper, and in forestiy and lumber- 
 ing, this shii)ping industry re-acts most favourably upon 
 the physique of the nation. It is different indeed from 
 the existence of a South African and Australian miner, 
 and in some respects is hard and i)erilous ; but there is 
 a healthfulness in the sea breezes, rough as they are at 
 times, which toiler and digger in search of gold jilong a 
 malarious belt of country can never realize. The moral 
 effect also of Canadian industries, compelling as they do 
 the colonists to live apart, and in widely sei)arated 
 regions, is healthy and sound. 
 
 (7) Manufacture. — Since 1878 the development of 
 

 \ 
 
 i III 
 
 f! 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 J 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 1 08 f-'ie Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 manufactures has been more marked tLan dur'nr any 
 previous period in the industrial history of Canadu The 
 statistics of the increase in the capital invested show the 
 advance that took place in the decade from 1871-1881 '. 
 
 1871. 18S1. 
 
 Capital invested . . . .£1:;. 500,003 i'33. 000,000 
 
 Hands employed , . . 187,000 ^54,000 
 
 Amount of yearly wages . . £8,170,000 «,i;! ,000,000 
 
 Total value of articles produced £44,100,000 £61,000,000 
 
 A partial investigation made in 1884-5 indicated that 
 in the older provinces there had been an estimated in- 
 crease of 75 per cent, in the number of hands employed 
 (over the 1878 estimate), in the amount of wages paid, 
 and in the capital invested, while the value of the goods 
 l)roduced had just doubled itself. Yet these manufac- 
 tures are only in their infancy. For considering the 
 prospect of their development it is necessary to glance 
 at the resources Nature here again has i)laced at the 
 disposal of the Canadians. In nearly eveiy Province iron 
 has been discovered and coal-fields of immense area are 
 being worked in Nova Scotia — most conveniently placed 
 on the Atlantic highway — in the North-West Territories, 
 and also in British Columbia, here again placed most 
 conveniently on the Pacific highway and the road to the 
 east and the native markets. Whether for purposes of 
 coaling war vessels or for the more peaceful object of 
 HUi)plying merchant steamers, the fields are equally useful. 
 In addition petroleimi is known to exist in several 
 parts of the Dominion, and wells have been worked most 
 profitably in Ontario where the production is very large. 
 It is stated that in the North-West very extensive 
 sources of petroleum have been discovered, and a railway 
 is projected to connect them with the Canadian Pacific. 
 What were formerly considered to be the gloomy regions 
 ' See p. 19 of Official Handbook,' 1890. 
 
X.] Industries, Wealth, and Social Progress. 109 
 
 of the north, therefore, may be gradually illuminated by 
 light and fuel, and Nature provide for men a suitable 
 compensation. In the North- West Territories anthracite 
 and in all the provinces excellent peat is found. With 
 reg.ard to another motive power useful for the purposes 
 of mankind, viz, that of water, it is evident that the 
 Dominion is more favourably situated than any other 
 colony. In the first place, perhaps no country has, from 
 its natural configuration and extensive coast-line, greater 
 facilities for utilising tidal action, the rise and fall of the 
 tidal wave being, especially in the Bay of Fundy, a most 
 remarkable phenomenon. The water-power aiforded in 
 the interior is absolutely limitless, and a glance of the 
 mighty rush of Niagara conveys an idea of the storage of 
 force beyond and above the Falls. The Falls of Niagara 
 are a symbol of that Titanic and ever-present power, 
 which can be made to subserve the services of man in 
 the smallest as well as the greatest things. The 
 Canadian saw-mills are at once the most extensive and 
 best ai>pointed in the world. It is a wonderful sight to 
 see a log taken out of the water by an automatic process, 
 placed in position under the saws, and speedily reduced 
 to inch boards. This summary process of reducing to 
 boards in a few minutes a giant pine which has taken 
 more than a century to grow is a triumph of the 
 mechanical skill of mankind. 
 
 (8) Eevemie and Expenditure. — The consolidated 
 revenue for the year ending June 30th, 1888, was 
 made up as follows ' : — 
 
 Customs 
 Kxciso 
 Other sources 
 
 X4,42 2,ooo 
 1,216.000 
 1,746,000 
 
 £7,384,000 
 
 the expenditure for the same period being £7.343,000, 
 ' See p. 17 of 'Official Handbook,' 1890. 
 
 11 
 
 i 
 
WF' 
 
 ii 
 
 I 
 
 I ' 
 
 no The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 leaving a slight balance in hand. It will be noticed that 
 considerably more than half the whole Revenue was 
 derived from Customs. Taxation as represented by 
 Customs and Excise amounted in 1888 to i:^, 635,000, or 
 23s. 3f?. per head, as compared with 405. 6d. in the United 
 Kingdom, 2 7.9. 8(/. in the Cape of Good Hope, and 
 6 IS. Sd. in Australasia. The public debt on July ist, 
 1888 was l'56,902,ooo : and deducting the assets of 
 .£9,996,000 this sum is reduced to £47,006,000, or about 
 £9, 13,9. 1 cr?. per head of the population. It may be re- 
 marked that at the time of the Confederation of the Pro- 
 vinces (1867) the net debt was only £ 1 5, 1 45,000. Within 
 twenty years, therefore, it has been more than trebled. 
 But this fact need not cause any apprehension when we 
 consider that the debt has been mainly incurred for the 
 sake of facilitating communication between the Provinces 
 by means of liailways, and for the general improvement 
 of the country by reproductive public works. The 
 country which the Canadian Pacific Railway has thrown 
 open to colonization is practically limitless, and the new 
 townships and settlements carry with them the germs of 
 a greater prosperity. England has l)een the money market 
 from which the colonists have l)orrowed, and the total 
 amount of debt payable in England on June 30th, 1888, 
 was .£35,320,000, and the several investments for sinking 
 funds amounted to about .£4,198,000. That the Cana- 
 dian Dominion investments are considered safe and 
 secure is evidenced by the comparatively low rate of 
 interest on which the Government can borrow. The 
 average rate of interest paid on the gross debt in 1888 
 was 3-12 percent.' At the time of Confederation the 
 Provincial debts were taken over by the Dominion 
 Government. The result of this simple transfer of 
 liabilities to the Central Government was very satis- 
 ' Suo p. 17 of 'Official Handbook,' 1890. 
 
X.] Industries, Wealth, and Social Progress. iii 
 
 factory, this Government being able to exchange the 
 high interest-bearing bonds of the provinces for their 
 own bonds at a lower rate. 
 
 (9) The accumulated wealth of the country may be 
 
 shown in the statistics relating to banking. The increase 
 
 in business in twenty-one years, between 1868- 1889, 
 
 will be found to be very large \ 
 
 1868. 188i». 
 
 Assets . . . jf 15,500,000 ^51,153,000 
 
 Liabilities . . 8,700,000 35,012,000 
 
 Deposits. . . 6,500,000 24,731,000 
 
 Notes in circulation 1,600,000 6,441,000 
 
 Discounts , . 10,000,000 37,891,000 
 
 In 1868 there was no reserve fund, but in 1889 it 
 reached the sum of .£3,993,000. Altogether the paid-up 
 capital invested in banking on May 30th, 1889. was 
 £12,000,000. 'In addition to the ordinary chartered 
 banks there are the Post Oifico and Government Savings 
 Banks, the deposits in which have increased from 
 .£300,000 in 1868 to .£8,000,000 in 1888, the number of 
 depositors l)eing now estimated at 120,000, an undeni- 
 able sign of the prosperity of the working classes in 
 Canada since Confederation. These estimates do not 
 include the deposits in one or two chartered Savings 
 Banks or investments in the various Loan, Friendly 
 and Building Societies, all of which show great develop- 
 ments ^' 
 
 The condition, however, of a country which l)<)asts of 
 13,000 miles of railway, an unrivalled system of canals, 
 a mercantile marine ranking fourth in the world, and a 
 growing poi)ulation of 5,000,000 cannot but be prosperous 
 in the highest degree. 
 
 (10) With regard to immigration, it is a well-known fact 
 
 ' See p. 27 of ' Official Handbook," 1890. 
 
 * An' Official Handbook of Information,' published by the Govern- 
 ment of Canada, 30 October, 1888. 
 
Ill' 
 
 I '\i 
 
 I b 
 
 :i i 
 
 r 
 / 
 
 1 
 
 fl 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 ( 
 1 
 
 lii 
 
 kL 
 
 i 
 
 112 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 that Manitoba and tlio North-West Territories ?re being 
 • [uickly filled up both l>y immigrants from England and 
 settlers from the Eastern Provinces. To get on quickly 
 many colonists from the older and more cultivated regions 
 of Canada follow the well-known advice, and 'go 
 west and grow up with the country.' The Government 
 themselves have aided and systematized immigration by 
 every means within their power. Lands are surveyed, 
 official descriptions given, and full information l>oth in 
 England and Canada supplied to the intending settler. 
 
 The township in Manitoba and the North-West Ter- 
 ritories presupposes a complete and accurate survey of 
 the country from the International Boundary Line 
 northwards. The unit of the townshii)'s survey is the 
 statute mile or section of 640 acres, all the townships 
 being made six statute miles or sections square. The 
 section of 640 acres is divided into half-sections of 320 
 acres, and quarter-sections of 160 acres. A settler may 
 obtain a grant of 160 acres of land free on condition of 
 three years' residence and cultivation, and payment of 
 an office fee amounting to .£2, or otherwise at the upset 
 price of 'S>s. or 10.9. per acre. 
 
 The townships are arranged in their running from 
 south to north, and starting from the southern frontier 
 which is on the International Boundary Line. These 
 tiers are marked on the map with ordinary numerals, 
 thus, I, 2, 3, 4, &:c. Further these townships are grouped 
 in certain ' ranges ' or large sections, running from east 
 to west, divided by lines called ' principal meridians.' 
 The first })rincii)al nu'ridian starts from a point on 
 the International Boundary Line about eleven miles 
 West of Emerson between 97^ and 98" W. longitude, 
 and is extended northwards. The second starts from 
 102° W. longitude, the third from 106" W. longitude, 
 the fourth from no" W. longitude, the fifth from 
 
EST. 
 
 N9tO. 
 
To face pag'e WZ 
 
 THE TOWNSHIPS OF THE 
 
 103 Lontfitude West IQg of Creetiv 
 Oxfbrd Uni.versUy Prrs 
 
HIPS OF THE NORTH-WEST. 
 
 N9lO. 
 
 ude West IDS of Oreenwich. 101 
 
 Oxfbrd, University Press . 
 
w 
 
 i ■ 
 
 I 
 
X.] Industries, Wealth, and Social Progress. 113 
 
 ii4°W. longitutle. &c., &c. These ranges include tlioiv- 
 foro four degrees of longitude in each case. From the 
 first principal meridian, which is a kind of Greenwich, 
 and the point from which to calculate, the ranges 
 naturally fall into two hemispheres, those on the 
 East and those on the West. The advantages of this 
 simple method of division, aided so materially by the 
 level surface of the country and a wide unobstructed 
 horizon for hundreds of miles, are numerous. In the 
 first place there is no danger of confusion and encroach- 
 ment, so often arising in new countries from the shifting 
 and alteration of cairns and beacons. In the North- West 
 Territories the surveyor having been beforehand with 
 the occupier, the ordinary course of events has been re- 
 versed. The occupier can at once recognise by a reference 
 to the map the nature and limits of his little freehold 
 of 160 acres'. The surveyed lines are marked on the 
 ground itself by iron and other kinds of monuments or 
 posts at the corners of the divisions and sub-divisions: 
 and as soon as the settler makes himself acquainted with 
 these, he \vill instantly understand the position and ex- 
 tent of his own farm on the prairie, or of any other in 
 the country. Or, when travelling in any part of the 
 countiy, these posts will tell him at a glance exactly 
 where he is, so that he cannot get lost upon any surveyed 
 district. The Government surveyor has in fact left an 
 accurate and trustworthy sign-post behind him, wherever 
 the scene of his operations has been laid. Moreover, 
 distances on the map may be calculated with very 
 fair accuracy by the simple method of counting the 
 number of six-mile townships East or West, North 
 or South. The boundaries of these six-mile townships 
 are all laid out according to the cardinal points of the 
 
 *■ See Map of the North-West Torritorios with Land Regulations, 
 published by the Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, 1886. 
 
 I 
 
If; 
 
 1 14 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 P 
 
 I' 
 
 ill 
 
 m 
 
 W 
 
 \i I 
 
 
 1 ' m 
 
 ' 1 
 
 compass, North, South, East, and West. The section can 
 therefore be divided and described as having a North- 
 East, North-West, South-East, or South-West quarter. 
 
 (11) Tlie transfer of property, it is needless to say, is 
 made with the utmost speed and simplicity. There aro 
 no mouldy parchments to unfold, no ancient title-deeds 
 to consult, no greedy lawyer's fees to pay. A Deeds' 
 Eegistry Office does the transfer for the colonist, and the 
 expense of transfer to the first holder is only nominal. 
 The emigrant does not need a very large amount of capital 
 to begin with. The German Mennonite families began 
 life in the North-West on an outfit of only ^£54 each. A 
 sum of ^£150 is calculated to carry the emigrant family 
 through the first year with a moderate degree of comfort, 
 but they ought to be accustomed to farm work. There 
 is no better opening in the world than here for the 
 agricultural colonist who desires to be a freeholder as 
 quickly as possible. With respect to the population that 
 a townshii^ of six square miles is supposed to carry, it is 
 clear that under the favourable conditions of soil in the 
 North-West it will in the future be very large, even if we 
 allow the low average of 100 persons to the square mile. 
 
 The township is a kind of parish in itself, and is the 
 unit of colonial society. Public provision is made in 
 these sections for the purposes of education, and natu- 
 rally the section will be utilised for all purposes of local 
 and municipal rating. It will be noticed that the prin- 
 cipal meridian lines do not exactly tally with those of 
 the Provinces, such as Manitoba, and those of the judicial 
 districts, as Assiniboia ; but in course of time for the 
 sake of exactness and clearness tlie Provinces may pos- 
 sibly have their boundaries determined in the North- 
 West by these meridian lines. Thus, the double divi- 
 sion of boundaries, namely, that adopted to separate the 
 Districts and Provinces and that adopted to organise and 
 
X.] Industries, Wealth, and Social Progreaa. 115 
 
 IS 
 
 , it is 
 
 11 the 
 
 if we 
 
 mile. 
 
 is the 
 
 ftde in 
 
 natu- 
 
 locate the constant supply of settlers, may disappear from 
 the map altogether. The township of the Far West is 
 in itself a wonderful example of orderly colonisation, and 
 of nineteenth-century enterprise. It may seem uniform 
 and stereotype, and slightly h eking in the elements of 
 picturesqueness, but it secures comfort and plenty to 
 the homes of thousands. 
 
 (12) Unlike the early settlements along the Alleghaniea 
 and the coasts of Maine, the victims often of religious 
 
 Township Diagram. 
 
 640 Acres. N. 
 
 1 Mile 
 Square 
 
 ...3'i... 
 — ] — 
 
 ...30... 
 
 ...32... 
 
 ...33.-- 
 ...28... 
 ...21... 
 ...i'6... 
 
 ...34... 
 
 ■ ■■ip--- 
 
 ...S6... 
 
 
 Scliool 
 ...29... 
 Lands 
 
 ...27... 
 
 H.B. 
 
 ...26... 
 Lands 
 
 ...25... 
 
 W, 
 
 ...19... 
 ...18... 
 
 ...20... 
 
 ...22... 
 
 ...23... 
 
 ...24... 
 
 ...17... 
 
 H.B. 
 
 ... 8 ... 
 Lands 
 
 ...15... 
 
 ...14... 
 
 ...I3..- 
 
 
 ...7... 
 
 ...9... 
 ...4... 
 
 • 
 
 .. 10... 
 
 School 
 ...II... 
 Lands 
 
 ... 2 ... 
 
 ...12... 
 
 
 ..6... 
 
 ... 5 ... 
 
 ...3 ••• 
 
 ... I ... 
 
 E. 
 
 persecution at home, and the victims oftener of French 
 reprisals and cruel Indian outrages, the township of the 
 North-West grows up in peaceful and undisturbed pros- 
 perity, the x>rotcg6 of two paternal governments. Unlike, 
 again, the homestead of the Virginian planter, with its 
 dark defilement of slave labour, and the gloomy memories 
 of the Middle Passage, the North-West township grows 
 up with clean hands, and an untarnished heritage. No 
 
 I 2 
 
I 
 
 H S'l 
 
 1 2'i 
 
 II ' 
 
 
 ii6 The Geograj)hj of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 cruelty has stained its annals, no native war defaced its 
 growth, no revolution marred its fortunes, no class hatred 
 and religious higotry made coarse or bitter the passions 
 of the occupants ; it rises as a full-grown community 
 upon the level plains, full of promise and a rich prairie 
 instinct with destiny ; a second Acadia with an un- 
 encumbered heritage, and an assured i)osition in the 
 world. 
 
 (13) No question of naturalisation arises in connection 
 with the emigration of British subjects to Canada, and 
 settling in the Dominion makes no more change than a 
 removal from York to London, Kent to Suffolk. But if 
 an emigrant removes to the United States he has to take 
 two oaths, one of intention and one of fact, the latter 
 after five years' residence. The effect of these oaths is 
 to renounce allegiance to the Queen, and surrender the 
 British birthright. The postal system of Canada extends 
 to every village and hamlet in the land, and is remark- 
 ably cheap. In course of time there may be a universal 
 penny postage between the mother-countiy and her co- 
 lonies, and a link of union created between the poorer 
 emigrants and their relations which does not exist at 
 present. The Money Order system is similar to that in 
 operation in England, and the price for orders locally 
 ranges from 2 cents (id) for ids. to 50 cents (2.9. id.) for 
 £20. The Telegraph system is worked at a veiy moderate 
 rate, some of the wires being in the hands of Govern- 
 ment, and the telephone is used perhaps more in the 
 Canadian than in English cities. Newspapers are to bo 
 found in almost every village of considerable size, and 
 they are supplied with full telegraphic reports from all 
 parts of the globe. All important news that transpires 
 in the United Kingdom and Europe is instantly published 
 in Canada ; and, in fact, owing to the difference in mean 
 time, an event which takes place in London at 5 p.m. 
 
X,] I i\<h(8tvi€8, Wealth, and Sociid rrogreftx. ii 
 
 oderate 
 I overn- 
 111 the 
 to be 
 
 L-om 
 
 all 
 
 n mean 
 5 P'i»- 
 
 may bo known in Canada at 12 noon the same day. It 
 cannot ])o said, thcrcforo. that the (-(donist of the Nortli- 
 West, if ho is within range of a village centre and tele- 
 graph wire, is out of the range of civilisation. 
 
 (14) With n^gard to other matters the c(donist will 
 find that there is a very perfect system of Municipal 
 Government throughout the Dominion. Botli the counties 
 and townships have their Local Councils, which regu- 
 late taxation for roads, schools, and other purposes. 
 The biu'ning questions of education and religion 
 seem to have been satisfactorily adjusted in the Domi- 
 nion. With regard to education every townsiiip is 
 divided into sections sufficiently large for a school. 
 Trustees are elected to manage the affairs, and the ex- 
 penses are defrayed by local rates and grants from the 
 Provincial Legislature. Where mixed schools, for ex- 
 ample, of Protestant and Roman Catholic children are 
 not possil)le, the law enables separate ones to bo pro- 
 vided. Teachers are trained at normal schools at the 
 public expense. The State assists both primary and 
 secondaiy education, and there are colleges and uni- 
 versities open to students prepared in the lower schools. 
 There are Schools of Medicine at Toronto and Montreal, 
 and elsewhere, and Theological Colleges for students of 
 Divinity. In no country in the w^orld is general education 
 more generally diffused than in Canada, and the highest 
 prizes the country offers are open to all, rich and poor 
 alike. Throughout the land the utmost religious liberty 
 prevails, and colonists will find in most places churches 
 and chapels already erected by men of the same per- 
 suasion with themselves. The clergy are nominated, as 
 a rule, by the various congregations, and their stipends 
 paid out of endowments, pew-rents, and collections. 
 There are no tithes or church rates excepting in the 
 Province of Quebec, where the Roman Catholic Church 
 
'tr- 
 
 il . 
 
 
 
 iiH The Cil<'(>!)r(ij)/iy of the CiDKiduin Domluion. [Cn 
 
 holds u power ov«'r p«*rMons prol'cssinj^: its fiiilli. Tim 
 prinoipnl roli^jfiotis (Icnoiuiiiiilioiis or(*im:i(lji iiro — 
 Iv'oinnn ('iitltolics nuiiilx'riii}^ about \,'ji)\,i)^2 
 
 Clinrcli of Eii^ 
 
 and 
 
 
 r)')o.r..n 
 
 MclhodislH 
 
 
 
 7(.H/)O.S 
 
 I'rcshylorijuis 
 
 
 
 6()7,.jf»o 
 
 IJnptisls 
 
 
 
 29i,i.;0 
 
 Cou^ropilioMiil 
 
 isis 
 
 
 27,000 
 
 Tho lu»iiian Calholic, hcIiooIh o\v<^ llu>ir cxisloiicc l(» llic 
 ijonorosily ol'llio Koiiian Calliolic clor^y. Tlio professors 
 arc nearly all eccleHiusiics, ami are <'onieii(, lo rectMve as 
 reiiiniieratioii I' 10 per atiiiiiin. This explains (lie low 
 lees paid )>y pupils lor l»(»ar<l ami luilion. auiouiilin^ lo 
 ahoul .I'jo per aiiiuini. The iutinaii Calholit" Univei'sily 
 ol" I^aval was founded in \'^~^^\ l»y (he Seminary (»f (,Juel>e(' 
 (i'»7H), and is maintained hythal Itody wiih(»u( help from, 
 the State. Tin* two K''<'«'>t keynotes of Canadian hist(U'y 
 are piditical liJK'rty and relij;ious toleration, and it is the 
 <arryin^ old thes(« principles to tluMr utmost under the 
 British ila^ that has mad«« the Dominion prospiM'ous in 
 privai<« and puhlie departments. 
 
 (if,) Mducalion for the professions is carried out very 
 <-ompl(>leIy and thorou^ddy in the Dominion. In the 
 Military C'olle>;e at Ivinfjjslon, the Canadian Sandhin'st, 
 tiM^ <'adets r«*ceiv«i a careful and accurate training; in 
 accordance with tin* spirit of a conidry which in the |)ast 
 has proved how strong' and true the martial character of its 
 sons can he. 'IMiere are still some vetei-ans of the \>>\2 war 
 aliv<» in the conidry, an<l dining the American (-ivil War 
 the niimher of (yanadian siihstiliitcs found in th(< Northern 
 arini«>s proves the aptitude of lh(M'olonists for arms, even 
 when their services are not impressed. 'I'Iim supply of 
 sailors for \i «'olonial navy, hoth on the east and west 
 coasts, is practically unlimited, iind in due cours<i (»f lime 
 this nrm of defence will priihahly he slri'ii^theiuul and 
 
[Cm 
 
 T\ 
 
 »o 
 
 very 
 
 mrsl, 
 
 MK ill 
 pnst 
 
 .' WMI" 
 
 VVm 
 (licni 
 
 »l>ly of 
 
 \V('s{ 
 
 (iiMc 
 
 I iin«l 
 
 Xl I ii(/i(f<lr!t>i. Wrii/l//.<iih/Si)tiit/ /'/v)(//r.s.s'. 119 
 
 roHicrcd l>y nnviil (l('|t(»ls, iirs«>nals. jiud IriiiiiiiiL!; Hlii|>s. sr* 
 (lull hyscii iis well .Msliy I.Mini lln< ('jiiDHli.iii colitiiiMls will 
 iiinl<>i'I.Mk<> I ln« dill it's (if s««ir-<l««t'(«iic('. if iHM«d(>d. mikIiT lli<> 
 miid.'iMcc (tf skilled ;in<l rdiioilcil coloiiiul oIVkmm's. liin 
 <M»nM<ry wIhtc it is ji law lliiil inililiiry servico can Im> 
 di'iiiiiiidrd ol" i\\\ llu' inlmhilmds liolwccu llic Ji.i^'rs of 
 <"iHli|,M.ii iiiid sixly, it is no| likely llial lioiioiiraMe iiiili- 
 lary I radii ions will l>e allowed lo di(« out. To prove jilso 
 liow valiialde I lie lisliiiiL;^ indnslry is n>urarded as a 
 inirMery I'or a navy, il is well known lliai llit> I-'rencli 
 (Jovernnienl have always <M««'onrap'd llie Newloiindland 
 lisjiiiitr |1(.<'|. imdei' tlie conviclion llial an occnpalion 
 (•ari'ied on I'ar IVoin ln»ine. in a Iryinij and H<>vei'e (dimale. 
 imisl L^ive urealer skill and hardihood lo Iheirsaihtrs, and 
 kee|> lip Iheir an«'ienl spiril. l''iom siniilai' inolives. Ihe 
 Adniiraliy al home have encoin'ai^tMl in pasl, times llie 
 Polar expedilions ;md llie search for Ihe Norlh-W'esf 
 i'assa^e. 
 
 It is. p(>rhaps. (o Ihe more peaceful arts of hnshaiidry in 
 all its hranches I ha I IheCanadiati ()ovennn(>iil have lur'iiod 
 Iheir <hief allenlion, realisinu^ Ihe faci Ihal, sooner or 
 laler, Ihe Dominion ninsi become, hy virliie (d" ils natural 
 advanlai^cs. one of Ihe ^realesl, if nol Ihej^reatesl. ai^ri- 
 cnll llial coiinlry in Ihe world. The Onlario Agricultural 
 ('ollei;e al (Jiielph. eslahlished lif|eei\ years a.u'o, isli-ain- 
 inn and sending; oiil ye;ii' hy y»>ar lar;j;e niimhers of 
 (*aiiadian pupils, who hy means of Iheir careful iuu\ 
 special ediicalion keep up Ihe name of Ihe (/anadian 
 farmers. In addilion lo lliis ('ollep> there is Ihe central 
 experinit>nlal farm at Ollawa, as well as I hose already 
 in(>idioMed ai Nap|>an in Nova Scol ia : itiandon in 
 Manilolta : Indian Head in Ihe Norlh West Terrilory ; 
 A^^Missi/ in Mrilish Columhia. In I'lii^land we have 
 such cenh'es as ('ir<>nc«>sler and Downltui ('olle;4es, where 
 Ihe [M'nctici^ and th<<ory ol farmin^^ are taught, and piipilH 
 
 m 
 
 
TF 
 
 !f 
 
 iiiir 
 
 1^ 
 
 120 The Geogvaj)hy of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 are prepared for the careers they may h.ave before them 
 in the c(»lonies. At Hollesley Bay CoHege in Suffolk, 
 great stress is laid upon ' Home training for Colonial 
 life,' but it is im})ossil)le that a pujul can be equipped 
 for his task so completely in England for Canadian 
 farming as he would be in Canada itself. Perhaps 
 the best plan would be, by means of some reciprocity 
 between the Colleges at home and in the colonies, to 
 unify the system throughout and make the curriculum 
 and the examinations as far as possible identical, so 
 that a pupil beginning his work in England might 
 continue it in Canada where he left off and without 
 loss of time. Some kind of afliliation of the Home and 
 Colonial Agricultural Colleges for common purposes 
 would be advantageous to all. The ground covered by 
 the experimental farms in Canada is a wide one, as the 
 following objects enumerated by a Canadian committee 
 on the whole subject of agricultural teaching prove : — 
 
 (a) To conduct researches and verify experiments 
 designed to test the relative value, for all purposes, 
 of diflt'erent Jjreeds of stock, and their adaptability 
 to the varying climatic or other conditions which prevail 
 in the several })rovinces and in the North-West Terri- 
 tories. 
 
 (6) To examine into scientific and economic questions 
 involved in the i)roduction of butter .ind cheese. 
 
 ((') To test the merits, hardiness, and adaptability of 
 new or untried varieties of wheat or other cereals, and of 
 field croi)s, grasses, and forage-plants, fruits, vegetables, 
 plants, and trees, and to disseminate among i)ersons 
 engaged in farming, gardening, or fruit-growing, upon 
 such conditions as are prescribed by the Minister of 
 Agriculture, samples of such surplus products as are 
 considered to be especially worthy of introduction. 
 With regard to this field of enquiry, it may be noticed 
 
[Ch. 
 
 X.] ImJustries, Wealth, and Social Progress. i2t 
 
 |jil)les, 
 
 upon 
 tor of 
 IS are 
 
 jtion. 
 
 )ticod 
 
 thftt most valiiu])le experiments are now being made on 
 the experimental farms to ascertain what kind of early- 
 ripening wheat is best adapted to the North-West. If a 
 sharp frost should occur on an August night, as it does 
 occasionally in the higher latitudes, before the grain is 
 'out of the milk,' the sample l)ecomes shrivelled and is 
 deteriorated. The result of experiments is to prove that 
 a Russian variety, called Ladoga wheat, a hard spring 
 wheat obtained from the territory north of Riga in about 
 60' N., about 600 miles north of the latitude of Winni- 
 peg, was the best, as it rii)ened with fewer summer days 
 than tlie other varieties. Further, boreal types of cultiv- 
 able plants have been extended to the Mackenzie Basin, 
 where, besides Ladoga si)ring wheat, parcels of Onega 
 si)ring wheat, Saxonka wheat, Petchora l)arley. Polar 
 ])arley, Polar winter rye, and Onega oats are under 
 cultivation \ 
 
 (d) To analyse fertilisers, whether natural or artificial, 
 and to conduct experiments with such fertilisers, in order 
 to test their comjiarativo value as applied to crops of any 
 kind. 
 
 (c) To examine into the composition and digestibility of 
 foods for domestic animals. 
 
 (/) To conduct experiments in the planting of trees for 
 timber and for shelter. 
 
 (//) To examine into the diseases to which cultivated 
 plants and trees are subject, and also into the ravages of 
 destructive insects, and to ascertain and test the most 
 useful preventives and remedies to be used in each case. 
 
 (h) To investigate the diseases to which domestic 
 animals are subject. 
 
 (?) To ascertain the vitality and purity of agricultural 
 seeds. 
 
 ' ' Agricultural Canada,' p. 42. By Professor Frcani. 
 undiT the direction of the Dei)artment of Agriculture. 
 
 Pul)lishcd 
 
 
 hi 
 
 if 
 
 '1' ':• ' i 
 
 'I 
 
 i: 
 
 It 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 % 
 
m 
 
 iri 
 
 ,i.t 
 
 m 
 
 122 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. [Ch. 
 
 {k) To conduct any other experiments and researches 
 bearing upon the agricultural industry of Canada which 
 may be approved by the Minister of Agriculture '. 
 
 (r6) With regard to the question of general education 
 in Canada, it may bo gathered from what has been 
 already said that it is cheap and popular, and admirably 
 adapted to meet the wants of the colonist, whether living 
 in a prairie district or in one of the crowded centres of 
 the Dominion. The following brief sketch of the whole 
 system will however give in outline its chief aspects : — 
 
 ' In the early days of the Provinces of Ontario and 
 Quebec, the Government set aside largo areas of Crown 
 lands, the money accruing from the sjiles of which have 
 })een and are applied to educational purposes. Com- 
 mencing with the primary schools, which in those 
 Provinces at any rate are free, we find them maintained 
 partly by a school-tax levied on the lands situated in the 
 school sections, and partly from gi'ants from the Govern- 
 ment which are given out of the funds .above alluded to. 
 
 ' These schools furnish a good English and commercial 
 education, while recently agriculture has been added to the 
 list of sul>jects taught. For this a veiy good text-book 
 has been adopted. Besides these there are the high, or as 
 we should call them, the grammar schools, in which the 
 classics and modern languages are added to the course 
 taught in the primary schools. Then there are the 
 various colleges, which in a large degree were fostered by 
 the various denominations. Each Province has several 
 such institutions, which are officered by men of noted 
 talent in their particular l)ranches, and many of them by 
 men of world-wide reputation. Some evidence of the 
 work done by these institutions may be found in the 
 great spirit of religious toleration which is evident in all 
 
 ' Soe ' Canadian Lands and their Development.' Proceedings of 
 the Royal Colonial Institute, vol. xx. 
 
[Ch. 
 
 X.] Industries, Wealth, and Social Progress. 123 
 
 X have 
 Com- 
 those 
 tained 
 in the 
 overn- 
 edto. 
 lercial 
 to the 
 t-book 
 or as 
 h the 
 ourse 
 the 
 ed by 
 veral 
 noted 
 m by 
 f the 
 the 
 in all 
 
 ugs of 
 
 parts of Canada. The Toronto University is composed 
 of the various sectarian colleges, including the Catholic 
 one, and the same is the case at Winnipeg University, 
 which is also an amalgamation of all the sectarian 
 colleges of Manitoba, all of which work together as one 
 University under the Presidency of the Bishop of 
 Rupert's Land. In the Arts Faculty of Toronto no fees 
 of any kind are exacted, and in most of the colleges of 
 the Dominion (as in the case of the high schools where 
 fees are exacted) they are only nominal. The Faculties 
 in connection with Toronto University, and those of 
 M^Gill University at Montreal, will compare favourably 
 with those of the old Universities of the older world. 
 Sir Daniel Wilson is the President of the Toronto Uni- 
 versity, Sir William Dawson of the M^Gill University, 
 and Dr. G. M. Grant of the Queen's University at 
 Kingston ; and it is sufficient to mention their names 
 to show that too much has not been claimed for tlu- 
 institutions over which they preside '.' 
 
 ' ' Canadian Lands and their Development.' 
 Uoval Colonial Institute, vol. xx. 
 
 Proceedinss of tlu 
 
 1 .i 
 
 '% 
 
I'i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 lll^ii i 
 
APPENDICES. 
 
 6. 
 
 7. 
 
 8. 
 
 iJ. 
 10. 
 11. 
 12. 
 13. 
 14. 
 
 Tlie three Prairie Steppes of the North-West (p. 4). 
 Louisiana and de hi Salle (j). 10). 
 
 "ZfofT'^f :• "' ^'""^ °' "^^ ^^^P«^^-" -^ Con,n.,a 
 tionofPopuhation in Colonies (p. 13). 
 
 The Prairie Soils (p. 25). 
 
 The Dyked Lands of Nova Scotia (p. 55). 
 
 The Intervale Lands of New Brunswick p. 64). 
 
 The Farms of Prince Edward Island (p. 65). 
 
 The Rocky Mountains (p. 6S). 
 
 Districts and Sub-districts of the North-West ,p. 74) 
 
 Fish and Fisheries of British Columbia (p. 84) 
 
 Mountain Ranges of British Columbia (p. 85). ' 
 
 Agricultural Districts of British Columbia (p. 88) 
 
 The French Shore in Newfoundland (p. loo). 
 
 Dairy Farming in Canada (p. 103). 
 
Wr 
 
 APPENDIX I. 
 
 li'^ 
 
 I'l 
 
 
 !i 
 
 Bl!H 
 
 w 
 
 The three Prairie Steppes of the North -West. 
 
 The following is a more particular account of the three 
 roniarkable prairie steppes reaching from Winnijieg to the 
 Rocky Mountains, and causing the ground to rise slowly west- 
 wards : — 
 
 'The lowest and most eastern prairie level is that which 
 includes the Red River Valley and Lake Winnipeg with its 
 adjacent lands on the west. The average altitude of the plain 
 is about 800 feet, the surface of Lake Superior being 627 feet 
 above the sea ; its width on the 49th parallel is only 52 miles, 
 but its average breadth exceeds 100 miles, and its area is about 
 56,000 square miles of which one-fourth is water. A great part, 
 of it is more or less densely wooded, particularly that part 
 adjacent to the lakes. The southern part, extending southward 
 from Lake Winnipeg, includes the prairie of the Red River with 
 an area, north of the 49th latitude, of about 6,900 square miles. 
 This steppe is bordered on the east by the Laurentian plateau, 
 and on the west by the first escarpment which is ascended in 
 the neighbourhood of Macgregor, 80 miles west of Winnipeg. 
 This escarpment, where it crosses the 49th parallel, is known 
 as Pembina Mountain, and, trending north-west, its line is 
 marked by the Duck, Riding, Porcupine, and Basquia Hills 
 which lie to the west of Lake Winnipegosis. The superficial 
 deposits of the first stejipe are chiefly those of a former great 
 hike, called Lake Agassiz, in the deeper waters of Avhich was 
 accumulated the fine silty material now covering the Red River 
 Valley, and constituting a rich loamy soil of unsurpassed 
 fertility. The valley itself is about 40 miles wide, and extends 
 along either side of the river froiu north to south of the 
 Province of Manitoba. Its surface is perfectly flat and un- 
 diversified, " the most absolutely level prairie region of 
 America." 
 
 •When the summit of the first escarpment is reached, in the 
 
 
Appendix I. 
 
 12' 
 
 I, in the 
 
 neighbourhood of Macgregor, a vast open country called tlif 
 Great Plains, forming the second prairie steppe, is entered 
 upon. On the 49th latitude this second steppe is 230 miles 
 wide, while further north its width is not more than 200 miles. 
 The surface of the second prairie steppe is not so even as that 
 of the Red River Valley and is covered with thick deposits of 
 drift, consisting chiefly of detritus worn from the soft under- 
 lying rocks, but mingled with other mineral rubbish trans- 
 ported from a distance. From the prairie level there arise in 
 certain localities low hills, such as Turtle Mountain and the 
 Touchwood Hills, composed of accumulation of drift materials 
 similar to those of the Missouri Coteau on the west, the latter 
 being a huge glacial moraine. Turtle Mountain nowhere at- 
 tains a height of more than 500 feet above the prairie. It is 11 
 region of broken hilly ground about 20 miles squan?, is thickly 
 wooded, and hence presents a marked contrast to the general 
 features of the prairie. The average elevation of the second 
 stepi)e is about i6oo feet, and it is bounded westward by the 
 remarkable physical features known as the Grand Coteau or 
 hill-slope of the Missouri, which is chiefly a great mass of 
 glacial detritus and ice-travelled blocks, resting upon a sloping 
 surface of rocks of Cretaceous age, and extending diagonally 
 across the central region of North America, from south-east to 
 north-west, for a distance of about 800 miles. On the 49th 
 parallel, near the 104th meridian, the Coteau is 30 miles wide, 
 and it broadens out somewhat as it is traced northward, east of 
 Old Wives Lakes, to the South Saskatchewan. It is then con- 
 tinued to the north by a range of high lands, of which the 
 Eagle Hills constitute a part, to the elbow of the North 
 Saskatchewan .... The Coteau belt is particularly destitute of 
 drainage valleys, hence the waters of its pools and hikes are 
 charged with salts, particularly magnesium and sodium sul- 
 phates. The western part of the Coteau contains deej) valleys 
 with tributary coulees which are mostly diy, or else occupied by 
 chains of small lakes which dry up in summer, and then leave 
 large white patches of efllorescent salts .... The Missouri 
 Coteau, which is perhaps the most remarkaljlo monument of 
 the Glacial Period now existing in the western plains, is about 
 400 miles west of Winnipeg and fringes the eastern margin of 
 
1 2^ TJie Geography of the Canadian Dominion. 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 
 li!! 
 
 tho third and highest prairie stoppo, which extends with a 
 j^entle ascent westward, to the base of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 'The third steppe, lyinjr west of the Cotean, has a much 
 thinner covering of drift deposits, a good deal of which consists 
 of fragments of quartzite from the Rocky M(»untains. Its 
 (!astern part presents in places thick deposits of true tilt or 
 boulder clay. Its surface is more worn and diversiHed than is 
 the case with the first and second steppes, and, as the Rockies 
 are approached, it is found to consist of fragments of quartzite 
 with softer shaly and slaty rocks and limestone. In various 
 localities boulders are numerous, and some of these have been 
 used in modern times by the buffalo as rubbing-stones, and are 
 surrounded by basin-shaped depressions formed by the feet of 
 these animals. The average altitude of the third stejipe is 
 about 3000 feet, though its eastern edge is generally a little 
 over 2000 feet, whilst it attains an elevation of over 4000 feet at 
 the base of the Rocky Mountains. Its area, including the high 
 land and foot hills along the base of the mountains, is about 
 134,000 square miles, and of this by far the greatest part, 
 or about 115,000 square miles, is almost devoid of forest, the 
 wooded region being confined to a small area of its northern 
 and north-western extension near the North Saskatchewan 
 River and its tributaries. Its breadth, on the 49th parallel, 
 is 465 miles, but it narrows rajiidly northwards. The total 
 area of prairie country between the parallels named, including 
 that of all three steppes, may be estimated at 192,000 square 
 miles. Underlying nearly the whole of the prairie region are 
 clays, sandstones, and limestones of Cretaceous age or (in the 
 more western jiarts) shales and sandstones of the Lignitic 
 Tertiary group, the age of the latter being probably inter- 
 mediate between that of the Cretaceous and of the Eocene of 
 England. The nearest panillel to be found at home is afforded 
 by the greater part of the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk, 
 where Cretaceous rocks (chalk in this case) are overlaid by 
 glacial detritus or drift.'^Extract from ' Agricultural Canada,' 
 by Professor Fream. Published under the direction of the 
 Department of Agriculture, Canada, 1889. 
 
 -»♦- 
 
Appendix II, III. 
 
 T29 
 
 APPENDIX II. 
 
 Louisiana and de la Salle. 
 
 Louisiana was so named after Louis XIV of France, by 
 tie la Salle the French explorer, who in 1682 descended the 
 Mississippi to its mouth. De la Salle returned to France after 
 his discovery, and with the help and countenance of the French 
 Court arranged the details for a French colony on the coast of 
 the Gulf of Mexico. In July, 1684, a fleet of four vessels with 
 280 persons, of whom icxj were soldiers, 30 volunteers, 6 priests, 
 set sail from Kochelle. The fate of this colony was a miserable 
 one. The store ship was wrecked— a great loss in those days 
 when infant settlements depended on the mother country for 
 supplies— de la Salle failed to find the mouth of the Mississippi, 
 and the settlement, after lingering out a miserable existence 
 for two years, came to an end, do la Salle losing his life at the 
 hands of his associates. In spite of its splendid beginnings, 
 the colony was neglected by Louis XIV, who was engrossed at 
 homo in that miserable policy which led to the Revocation of 
 the Edict of Nantes (1685). Moreover the French enteiiirises 
 in the Gulf of Mexico had always incurred the enmity of the 
 Spaniards, who regarded this sea as a mare claustim. It has 
 been suggested that if any considerable number of French 
 Huguenots had been allowed to settle in the valley of the 
 Mississippi, with leave to worship God in the way they wished, 
 a great French Empire might have arisen in Louisiana and 
 Texas. 
 
 APPENDIX III. 
 
 Herman Merivale and causes of the Dispersion and 
 Congregation op Population in Colonies. 
 
 Mr. Herman Merivalk, in his lectures on Colonisation and 
 Colonies delivered before the University of Oxford (1839,40, 
 41), has pointed to several natural causes which make for 
 
T 
 
 I ! 
 
 i 
 
 
 130 The Geo(j7\(phy of the Canadian Dominion. 
 
 concentration in new countrieH, p. 276. 'The causes which 
 increase to its niaxinmni the natural tendency to dispersion 
 are, a wide extent of fertile soil, a wholesome climate, the 
 absence of dc^nse forests, and other natural obstacles, and the 
 want of navigable rivers, upon the banks of which men are 
 usually inclined to settle themselves in communities.' In 
 North America it has been the presence of so much fresh water 
 that has helped dispersion of poj^ulation. It has been com- 
 paratively an easy task for the wandering colonist or pioneer 
 to shift his home westwards, and the nature of the occupations 
 both of fur hunter and lumberer have taken them to distant 
 parts of the Provinces. It is a curious fact that Quebec, which 
 commands a nuignificent position on the St. Lawrence, and is 
 the oldest city of the Dominion, should number only 65,000 out 
 of a population of 5,000,000. Montreal (202,000) has of course 
 largely taken her place, but the population is not centred 
 there to the extent we might have supposed. 
 
 i 
 
 APPENDIX IV. 
 The Prairie Soils. 
 
 ' A SOMEWHAT common error made in this country, concerning 
 Manitoba and the North-West, is to su])pose that the soils 
 covering that vast area are all alike. Such is not the case. 
 In the Red River Valley may be seen one of the finest soils in 
 the world, whose fertility is beyond all question. Along the 
 route of the Canadian Pacific Railway, between Moose Jaw and 
 the Saskatchewan River, there is a large tract of land which 
 does not seem to offer much inducement for arable cultivation, 
 although I was informed that it resembles the extensive sheep 
 runs of Australia ; and it is not unlikely, therefore, that it may 
 become utilised for summer sheep-grazing, as the herbage is 
 undoubtedly veiy nutritive. The area of which I speak is, in 
 fact, the northern limit of what are called the " bad lands" of 
 the United States ; in other words, the Great American Desert. 
 This region extends over considerable portions of the States of 
 
Appendix IV. 
 
 131 
 
 Nebraska, Colorado, Wyoiiiinf:^ and Utah between the latitude 
 of Santa Fe (36" N.), and that of Cheyenne (41 T N.), and 
 between the meridians of 99° and 1 11° W. Much of it is 
 occupied with the " bad lands ; " 11 nd it is these, with their arid 
 climate and scant vegetation, which impart the desert character. 
 They also extend around the Uinta Mountains, in latitude 41°, 
 due east of Salt Lake; City, and in this locality were traversed 
 by the orif^inal settlers in that city befont their eyes were 
 gladdened with a sight of the " promised land." It is these 
 " bad lands " — so extensive in the States— that cross the inter- 
 national boundary south of the track under notice, and, rapidly 
 decreasing in breadth, at length die out altogether as they are 
 traced northward. But, indejjendt'ntly of this region, there are 
 oceans of land of excellent fertility awaiting cultivation, and I 
 proceed to refer to the composition of some of the prairie soils 
 of Manitoba, the remarkable richness of which arises from the 
 accumulation for ages pa.st of the excreta of animals, the ashes 
 of prairie fires, and the decaying remains of plants and animals 
 in a loamy matrix, resting upon a retentive clay subsoil. In 
 1884, Sir John Lawes, F.K.S., and Dr. Gilbert, F.R.S., the famous 
 agricultural investigators of Kothamstead, Hertfordshire, i)ub- 
 lished the results of some analyses they had made of four 
 sami^les of Manitoba soils which they comi)ared with typical 
 English soils. The samples came respectively from Niverville, 
 44 miles west of Winnipeg; from Brandon, 133 miles west of 
 Winnipeg ; from Selkirk, 22 miles north-east of Winni]>eg, and 
 from Winnipeg itself. These soils showed a very high per- 
 centage of nitrogen ; that from Niverville nearly twice as high 
 a percentage as in the first six or nine inches of ordinary 
 arable land, and about as high as the surface soil of pasture- 
 land in Great Britain. That from Brandon was less rich, still 
 the first twelve inches of depth is as rich as the first six or nine 
 inches of good old arable lands. The soil from Selkirk showed 
 an extremely high percentage of nitrogen in the first twelve 
 inches, and in the second twelve inches as high a peicentage 
 as in ordinary pasture surface-soil. Lastly, both the first and 
 second twelve inches of the Winnii)eg soil were shown to be 
 veiy rich in nitrogen, richer than the average of old pasture 
 surface-soil. Commenting on their results, Sir John Lawes 
 
 K 2 
 
132 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. 
 
 and Dr, Gilbert state that, whilst official records show that the 
 rich prairie soils of the North-West are competent to yitdd large 
 crops, yet, under present conditions, they do not give yields 
 commensurate with their richness compared with the soils of 
 (jireat Hritain, which have been under aral)le cultivation for 
 centuries. This is due partly to scarcity of labour, absence of 
 mixed farming, burning the straw, and deficiency of manure. 
 Three other surface-soils were examined by Sir John Lawea 
 and Dr. (Jilbert. No. I was from Portage la Prairie, 56 miles 
 west of Winnipeg, and had probably been under cultivation for 
 several years, the dry mould containing 0*247 1 V^^ cent, of 
 nitrogen. No. 2, from the Saskatchewan district, about 140 
 miles from Winnipeg ; its dry mould contained 0'3027 per cent, 
 of nitrogen. No. 3, from a spot about 40 miles from Fort 
 Kllice, might be considered a virgin soil : the dry mould con- 
 tained 0*2500 per cent, of nitrogen. In general terms, these 
 soils are about twice as rich in nitrogen as the average of the 
 Rothamstead arable surface-soils, and, so far as can be judged, 
 are probably about twict; as rich as the average of arable soils 
 in Great Britain.' — Extract from 'Agricultural Canada,' by 
 Professor Fream. Published under the direction of the Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture, Canada, 1889. 
 
 APPENDIX V. 
 The Dyked Land.s of Nova Scotia. 
 
 'The climate of Nova Scotia, and its extraordinary grass- 
 growing capacity, at once indicate its adaptability both to 
 grazing and dairying purposes. Its wonderful salt marshes 
 merit a brief notice. Much of the soil along the Bay of Fundy 
 consists of rich iMurine alluvium. The configuration of this 
 bay is such that it pn^scnts, southwards to the open ocean, two 
 coast-lines, those of Nova Scotia and the mainland, receding 
 from each other at an acute angle ; consequently, when the 
 north-flowing tidal wave enters the bay it finds its lateral 
 extension gradually contracted, and so its waters get piled ur 
 
Appendix VI. 
 
 ^33 
 
 Farmers along the lower reaches of the Severn Valley in 
 Gloucestershire (and it niifrht bo added along the banks of the 
 Parrett in Somersetshire), will be familiar with a similar 
 phenomenon, which there, however, occurs only with the 
 spring-tides and produces the Bore. The tides of the Bay 
 of Fundy spread themselves out over the adjacent coast-lands, 
 and have there dejiosited marsh-soils of inexhaustible richness. 
 In some of these saline swam{)s marsh grass grows abundantly 
 and yields a heavy crop. But large areas of the salt marshes 
 have been reclaimed by means of mud dykes, so built as to 
 prevent the irruption of the tidal water, and it is these dyke 
 lands which constitute so interesting and peculiar a feature in 
 Nova Scotia along the Bay of Fundy and around the Basin of 
 Mines, and on the adjacent shores of New Brunswick. The 
 eastern dykes are strong and broad, six to eight feet high ; and 
 the land within them is hard and dry, and produces an abund- 
 ance of coarse but nutritious herbage. Year after year will 
 these reclaimed marsh lands give upwards of two tons of hay 
 per acre, and show no signs of running out. The Salt Hay, 
 as it is termed, costs about ^i per acre to make, and is worth 
 from £^ to £6 per ton in the market. The cost of reclaiming 
 and dyking tho..e salt marshes varies between £i los. and £4 
 per acre .... In no country of America is fruit-growing better 
 understood or more successfully practised than in Nova Scotia. 
 The magnificent apple orchards of the Annapolis Valley stand, 
 perhaps, unrivalled.' — Ibid., pp. 9, 10. 
 
 grass- 
 )oth to 
 narshea 
 Fundy 
 of this 
 an, two 
 ceding 
 i(>n the 
 ateral 
 ilcd ur 
 
 APPENDIX VI. 
 
 The Intervale Lands of New Brunswick. 
 
 ' One of the most interesting natural features of the Province 
 of New Brunswick is afforded by the intervale lands, that is, 
 lands lying between the slopes of the valleys. Respecting 
 these Professor Sheldon writes: "The inteiralc lands are, as 
 the name suggests, found in the valleys. The name is pecu- 
 liarly appropriate and expressive. In England we should call 
 

 134 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. 
 
 them bottom-lands or alluvial soils. They are, in fact, alluvial 
 soils to all intents and i^urposes, with this peculiarity— they 
 are still in process of formation. In some cases these intermle 
 lands consist of islimds in the rivers, and there are many such 
 in the magnificent river St. John ; but for the most part they 
 are level banks on each side of the river, in some cases several 
 miles wide and reaching the foot of the hills, which form the 
 natural ram2iart3 of the valley they inclose. These intervale 
 lands are rich in quality and the grass they produce is very 
 good."' — Ibid., p. II. 
 
 His I 
 
 
 U 
 
 APPENDIX VII. 
 
 The Farms of Prince Edward Island. 
 
 'The most recent agricultural statistics relating to Prince 
 Edward Island are those obtained in the Census of 1881, in 
 which year there were 16,663 owners of land, 13,629 occupiers 
 of land, 1,126,653 acres occupied, and 596,731 acres improved. 
 The live stock comprised 31,335 horses, 90,722 cattle, 166,496 
 sheep, and 40,181 pigs. The population at the time was 
 108,891, and is now about 119,000. The agricultural produce 
 in 1881 included 3,538,219 bushels of oats, 540,986 of wheat, 
 119,368 of barley, 90,458 of buckwheat, 3,169 of peas and beans, 
 15,247 of timothy and clover seed, and 143,791 tons of hay; 
 also 1,688,690 lbs. of butter, and 196,273 lbs. of cheese. There 
 is a considerable export trade in horses, cattle, and sheep to 
 other parts of Canada and to the New England States. Perhaps 
 the most peculiar feature in the fafming of the island is the 
 extent to which the mussel mud of the rivers is used as manure. 
 The mud is obtained by a dredging machine, worked by horse- 
 power on the ice over the beds of nearly all the rivers where 
 oyster and mussel deposits occur. These deposits are from ten 
 to thirty feet thick, and are made up of oysters, nmssels, 
 decayed fish, and sea-weed. Used as a fertiliser, this material 
 acts promptly and effectively and produces very large crops of 
 hay. Improved f.rms can here be bought at ^4 per acre. 
 
 ! I' 
 
A^^pendix VIII. 
 
 ^35 
 
 Professor Macoun, naturalist to the Geological and Natural 
 History Survey of Canada, writes thus : " Prince Edward Island 
 is a lovely spot and resembles very much an P^nglish landscape, 
 as instead of the log fences used in Ontario there are hedges of 
 English and Canadian hawthorn along the roadsides and round 
 the farms. The houses, too, resemble the English farm houses. 
 The soil is of sandy clay or sandy loam, red in colour. The 
 farmers never have droughts on the island, but the seasons are 
 very late. The ice in the Gulf of St. Lawrence during April 
 and May renders the spring late, while the autumn is long in 
 consequence of the heating of the Gulf waters during summer. 
 Growth starts late in spring, is slow in summer, and has a long 
 time to mature in autumn. As a result, there are no absolute 
 failures of crops. The island has the best pasturage land on 
 the continent of America." '—Ibid., p. 12. 
 
 APPENDIX VIII. 
 
 The Rocky Mountains. 
 
 ' The western boundary of the Prairie Region is formed by 
 the magnificent natural rampart of the Rocky Mountains, which 
 often present to the east almost perpendicular walls of rock, 
 though the junction of plateau and mountain is usually flanked 
 by foot hills, such as those to the south or west of Calgary, 
 among which the cattle ranches of Alberta have been estab- 
 lished. In this superb mountain range the loftiest peaks are 
 clad with peipetual snow, thrown into bold relief by the dark 
 green hues of the pine trees which clothe the lower slope. 
 The spectacle of this steep straight line of snowy peaks is said 
 to surjiass the view of the Alps from the Milan Cathedral, 
 or that of the Pyrenees from Toulouse. The range seems to 
 culminate between the 51st and 52nd parallels about the 
 head waters of the North Saskatchewan, and to the north 
 gradually decreases in elevation till on the borders of 
 the Arctic Ocean it is represented by low elevations. A 
 common impression is that the whole of the mountainous 
 
1 36 The Geography of the Canadian Dominion. 
 
 I 'I I 
 
 fin 
 
 region between the western boundary of the prairie tand the 
 coast of the Pacific is constituted by the Rocky Mountains. 
 Such, however, is not the case, the Rocky Mountains being 
 only the eastern portion of this region. Parallel with them 
 run the Gold Range, and, further west, the Coast Range. 
 From the western edge of the prairies to the Pacific, between 
 the 49th and 56th parallels, the average breadth is 400 miles. 
 The Rocky Mountain range of Canada is narrower than it is 
 further south, in the United States the average breadth near 
 the boundary line is about 60 miles, which further decreases 
 near the Peace River to 40 miles. True glaciers appear only 
 about the head waters of the Bow, North Saskatchewan, and 
 Athabasca. On the western, or Pacific, side the Rockies are 
 defined by a very remarkable and straight and wide valley, 
 which can be traced uninterruptedly from the 49th parallel to 
 the head waters of the Peace River, a distance of 700 miles. 
 
 'The Rockies therefore must be distinguished from the Gold 
 Ranges, which include the subsidiary ranges called the Selkirk, 
 Purcell, Columbia and Cariboo Mountains. The Selkirks also 
 have more rounded and flowing outlines, but are very diflicult 
 to penetrate, the forests being extremely dense and tangled. 
 It has been said that the younger Verendrye was the first 
 European traveller to see the Rocky Mountains, but his 
 description of the mountains he saw is hardly glowing enough, 
 and certainly not what we should have expected, if his eye 
 really rested on those magnificent ramparts. Others have 
 claimed the honour for Clark and Lewis (1806).' — Ibid., p. 23. 
 
i — 
 
 Appendix IX, X. 
 
 ^37 
 
 APPENDIX IX. 
 
 Districts and Sub-districts of the North -West. 
 
 The following is a Census of the three provisional districts of 
 the North- West Territories (August 24, 1885) :— 
 
 District. 
 
 Assiniboia 
 
 Suh-rliiilrict. 
 , Broadview 
 
 Qu'Appello and Rogina 
 
 Moose Jaw 
 
 Swift Current . 
 
 Maple Creek 
 ' Medicine Hat . 
 
 i Carrot River . 
 Prince Albert . 
 Battleford 
 i Edmonton 
 Calgary . 
 M-'Leod . 
 
 Ibid., p. 39. 
 
 Popxiation. 
 
 9.540 
 2,616 
 
 465 
 
 732 
 1.770 
 5.373 
 3.603 
 5,616 
 
 5.467 
 4.450 
 
 48,362 
 
 APPENDIX X. 
 
 Fish and Fisheries of British Columbia. 
 
 'The fishery products of the Province are already remarkable 
 considering the small population yet engaged in the trade The 
 exports of fish and of fish products from Victoria alone, in the 
 year ending June, 1888, were ^279,000 in value, and the total 
 yield, including the consumption by Indians, is over ^1,000.000 
 The salmon of British Columbia are famous. There are twenty- 
 one factories for making canned salmon, twelve of them being 
 on the Fraser, and their annual out-put is from 150,000 to 
 200,000 cases (each containing forty-eight i lb. tins), with 4000 
 to s.ooo barrels of salt salmon. The take of salmon from the 
 Fraser is over 8,000,000 lbs., exclusive of what the Indians 
 
FTTT 
 
 J 38 The Geogrcqjinj of the Canadian Dominion. 
 
 ml 
 
 \^t- 
 
 procure. Fresh salmon, as well as tinned salmon, are now 
 l)ein<^ shipped frozen to the markets of Eastern America and 
 En<,'land. A remarkable British Columbia fish is the oolachan, 
 or candle fish. It is smaller than a herring, and so oily that 
 when dried it will burn like a candle. They are caup^ht chiefly 
 in the Nasse and Fraser Rivers. The fish begin running in the 
 Nasse about the last day of March, and enter the stream by the 
 million for several weeks. Another fish destined to be of great 
 commercial value is the skil or black cod, which is caught in 1 50- 
 300 fathoms of water and at some distance from the shore. It is 
 found in countless numbers between Vancouver and Queen 
 Charlotte Island. The sealing industry is productive, the catch 
 of seals in 1887 being valued at ;/^47,ooo. There are disputes 
 however between the Canadian sealers and the Alaska Com- 
 mercial Company.'— See 'Canada, a Memorial Volume,' Montreal, 
 1889. 
 
 y i 
 
 APPENDIX XI. 
 
 b M 
 
 fiiiil) 
 
 Mountain Ranges of British Columbia. 
 
 ' After the ramparts of the Rocky Mountains are passed 
 there are the Gold Ranges, known more particularly as the 
 Selkirk, Furcell, Columbia, and Cariboo mountains. The width 
 of the Gold Range is about 80 miles, but north of the Cariboo 
 district, above the head waters of the Peace River, it dies away. 
 Between the Gold and Coast, or as they are sometimes called 
 the Cascade Ranges, is the interior plateau of British Columbia, 
 with an average width of 100 miles and an elevation of 3500 
 feet. Its height increases southward, but declines northward 
 at the sources of the Peace River. It is dissected by deep and 
 trough-like valleys. In the north it is closed at about latitude 
 55° 30' ^y several intercalated mountain ranges. 
 
 'The Coast, or Cascade Range, have an average width of 100 
 miles. These mountains are extremely rugged, and receive on 
 their seaward slopes the moisture from the sea, and have a very 
 luxuriant vegetation. Vancouver Island, and the Queen Char- 
 lotte Islands to the north-west, are constituted by another 
 
Appendix XII. 
 
 '.39 
 
 parallel series of mountains, the Vancouver Ranpfc which is 
 continued southward in the Olympic Mountains, and northward 
 in the peninsular portion and islands of Alaska. The highest 
 mountain in Vancouver Island is 7844 feet.' — 'Agricultural 
 Canada,' by Professor Fream, pp. 52-53. 
 
 APPENDIX XII. 
 
 Agricultural Districts op British Columbia. 
 
 * British Columbia cannot be called an agricultural country 
 throughout its whole extent, and the province will probably 
 be svipplied with produce for some time from Alberta and 
 Assiniboia. Its forests are very valuable, and in 1888 the 
 exports of timber were valued at ;^"ii 5,000, as compared with 
 ^30,000 in 1 88 1. Yet the agricultural resources are very great. 
 In the Cariboo district there is a plain 150 miles long and 60- 
 80 miles wide, and between the Thompson and Fraser Rivers 
 there is an immense tract of arable and grazing land. The 
 hills and plains are covered with bunch grass, on which the 
 cattle and horses live all winter, and its nutritive qualities are 
 said to exceed the celebrated blue grass and clover of Virginia. 
 Between 5000 and 6000 square miles of the F«>ace River prairie 
 land is within this province. Besides the mainland, there are 
 on Vancouver Island about 1,000,000 acres of land well suited 
 to agriculture, and on Queen Charlotte Islands about 100.000 
 acres, most of this being now covered with dense forests. 
 Further, it should be mentioned that from 1 858-1 885 about 
 ten millions of pounds sterling was yielded by the Gold mines, 
 also that extremely rich coal deposits exist on Vancouver 
 Island, and at Burrard Inlet and Nicola Valley in the main- 
 land.* — Proceedings of the Royal Colonial Institute, vol. xviii. 
 p. 195, 1886-7. Paper by the Bishop of New Westminster. 
 
w^ 
 
 ttii.. 
 
 140 The Geography of the Canadian DominioTi. 
 
 APPENDIX XIII. 
 
 The French Shore Kiohts in Newfoundland. 
 
 ill 
 
 II! 
 
 
 By the Treaty of Ryswick, in 1697, various places on the 
 south coast, of which Phicentia was the French capital, wen; 
 kept in the possession of the French. In 1702 they held nearly 
 the whole island in their own hands. Placentia was almost as 
 firm a stronghold of the French as Port Royal in Nova Scotia. 
 The Treaty of Utrecht secured the complete sovereignty of 
 England, but it conceded certain Fisheries Rights which have 
 been a continual source of trouble. The French sailors were 
 allowed the right of catching fish, and drying them on land 
 from Bonavista to the eastern shores of Newfoundland, and 
 thence northward to Point Riche on the western shore. These 
 rights have been left much as they were then defined. The 
 Treaty of Versailles in 1783 and the Treaty of 1814 touched 
 them, but did not alter them materially except in changing the 
 limits, so that they now commence at Cape St. John on the 
 east coast on latitude 50°, and extend north and west to Cape 
 Ray, the south-west point of Newfoundland. The anomaly 
 still remains that, although England's sovereignty is acknow- 
 ledged, the French claim exclusive rights of Fishery along that 
 shore. 
 
 APPENDIX XIV. 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 f.- 
 
 Dairy Farming in Canada. 
 
 'The value of the cheese exported has more than doubled 
 within recent years, Canadian cheese being now recognised as 
 the best made in America ; and of late years it has competed 
 successfully with the English-made articles. The following 
 figures tell the progress of this trade in eleven j-^ears : — 
 
 Quantity Exported. Value. 
 
 1874 . , 24,050,982 lbs. . . .£700,000 
 
 1884 . . 69,755,423 „ , , 1,400,000 
 
 1887 . . 73,604,448 „ . . 1,400,000 
 
 1888 . . 84,173,267 „ . . 1,800,000 
 
 " 
 
Appendix XIV. 
 
 141 
 
 J Such a rapid development in the cheese trade has naturally 
 had the effect of limiting the production of butter: but 
 nevertheless 4,415,381 lbs., of the value of ^,60,000, were 
 exported in 18.S8. 
 
 'In September, 1888, there were in the Province of Ontario 
 niore than 750 cheese factories, using up the luillc of 250,000 
 cows. At the same time there were 40 creameries at work. 
 Ihere are throe associations, called the (i) Dairymen's Associ- 
 ation of Western Ontario, (2) of Eastern Ontario, (3) the 
 Creameries Association of Ontario. The average quantity of 
 milk used per annum in the factories is 661,147,200 lbs 
 yielding about 28,660 tons of cheese, the value of which is 
 ^1,247,300, or 485 pence per lb. The farmers who send milk 
 to the factories are called -patrons." The average annual 
 number of patrons was 24,207, and of cows 148,560, the average 
 per factory being 56 patrons, and 341 cows. Short-horns and 
 their grades predominate in Western Ontario, but the Ayrshire 
 18 the favourite along the St. Lawrence.'-Extracts from 
 Professor 1 ream's 'Agricultural Canada,' and Official Hand- 
 
 I'i i 
 
 
II 1' 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Acadia, 5, 9, 52, 116. 
 
 Africa. Equatorial, 16. 
 
 • — South. 46, 
 
 Agassiz, 104. 
 
 Agriculture, Canadian, 103, 121, 
 
 Ainslio Lake, 54. 
 
 Alaska, n, 83, 84, 87, 88. 
 
 Albany Rivor, 78. 
 
 Albert County, 6r. 
 
 Alberta District, 75, 76, 80. 
 
 Alberton. 66. 
 
 Aleutian Islands, 82, 83. 
 
 Alexander, Pope, 6. 
 
 Alexandria, 91. 
 Algonkins, 58. 
 Allagash, 59, 
 
 AUeghanies, the, 10, 32, 115. 
 Alluniet Island, 30. 
 Altamaha River, 9. 
 Amadas, Captain, 8. 
 Amazon, 6. 
 America, .South, 38. 
 Amherst, 56. 
 Anguilh', Cape, 94, 97. 
 Annapolis, 8, 52, 56. 
 
 — County, 55, 57. 
 
 — River, 53, 54. 
 Anne, Queen, 52. 
 Anse Sablon, 28, 94. 
 Anticosti, 5, 29,30. 
 Antigonish, 56. 
 Appelaehians, 32. 
 
 Arctic Circle, the, 16, 19, 78, 82, 
 83- 
 
 — Current, 95. 
 
 — Ocean, 74, 77, 78, 88. 
 Argenteuil County, 31, 35. 
 Arichat, 57. 
 
 Army, Canadian, 27, 
 Aroostook, 59. 
 Arrow Lake, go, 
 Arrowsmith, Mount, 84. 
 Artillery, Canadian, 27. 
 
 — Lake, 79. 
 
 Ashburton Treaty, 11. 
 Asia, 82. 
 
 — Central, 24. 
 
 Assiniboia District, 68, 74 81 
 
 AssiniboineRiver, 14,70, 73,78. 
 Athabasca District, 71, 76. 
 
 — Lake, r6, 19, 77, ^g, 86. 
 
 — River, 77, 86, 88. 
 
 Atlantic, the, ir, 20, 24. 52, 53- 
 
 83. 88, 94, 95, 
 Aurora Bin-alis, 23. 
 Australia, 12, 38, 105. 
 Avalon Peninsula, 94, 95. 97, 98. 
 Aylmer's Lake, 79. 
 Azores, 6. 
 
 B. 
 
 Babine Lake, 90. 
 
 Baccalieu Tickle, 98. 
 
 Baddeck, 57. 
 
 Baffin's Bay, 24,83,95 
 
 Bagot County, 35. 
 
 Baio St. l>au'l, 72. 
 
 Baie Verte, 54, 60, 62. 
 
 Baker Lake, 79. 
 
 Banff, 80. 
 
 Banks, Savings, in. 
 
 Barens River, 70. 
 
 Barkerville, 92. 
 
 Barley, Canadian, 18, 19. 
 
 Barre, Charlotte, 39. 
 
 Barrens, the, 78. 
 
 Newfoundland, 94 
 
 f 
 
 !1! 
 
 -■f1 f 
 

 
 IMAGE EVALUATION 
 TEST TARGET (MT-3) 
 
 
 // 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 .^ WJ 
 
 
 i' ^ 
 
 y. 
 
 Va 
 
 U. 
 
 I.G 
 
 I.I 
 
 ||28 
 
 IIIIM 
 
 116 
 
 M 
 
 III 2.2 
 
 1.8 
 
 
 1.25 
 
 1.4 .6 
 
 
 -• 6" 
 
 ► 
 
 Wa 
 
 <? 
 
 /a 
 
 /y 
 
 '^A 
 
 m 
 
 oy, -N 
 
 m. 
 
 
 e. 
 
 a 
 
 O 
 
 7 
 
 ///, 
 
 Photographic 
 
 Sciences 
 Corporation 
 
 23 WEST MAIN STREET 
 
 WEBSTER, NY. 14580 
 
 (716) 872-4503 
 
 f' 
 
 q"- 
 
 \\ 
 
 ^9> 
 
 V 
 
 ;v 
 
 % 
 
 i> m 
 
 n? 
 
 6^ 
 
 
b' m?.. 
 
144 
 
 General Index. 
 
 1 i 
 
 m\ 
 
 Barrington, 58. 
 Bathurst, 61, 62, 63, 
 
 — Bay, 59. 
 Batiscan River, 35. 
 Battle River, 79. 
 Battleford, 79. 
 Bauld. Cape, 97. 
 
 Bear Lake, the Great, 16, 78, 79. 
 Beauce County, 35. 
 Beauharnois, 39. 
 
 — County, 35. 
 Bedeque Harbour, 65, 66. 
 Bedford Basin, 54. 
 Beechy, Lake, 79. 
 Behring's Strait, 83. 
 Belfast, 56. 
 
 Bell Farm, 74. 
 
 Belle Chasse County, 35, 
 
 — Isle Straits, 14, 28, 33, 45, 94, 
 
 97, 98. 
 Belly River, 80, 85. 
 Beloeil Mountain, 30. 
 Bend of Columbia, 89. 
 Bermudas, 83. 
 Berthier, 40. 
 
 — County, 35. 
 Betsiamito River, 35. 
 Big Lake, 79. 
 
 Bird Rocks, 29. 
 Birds, migratory, 23. 
 Birtle, 73. 
 Black Brook, the, 99. 
 
 — Stream, the, 82. 
 Blackfriars, Ontario, 47. 
 Blizzards, 15. 
 Blomidon, 52. 
 
 — Cape, 54. 
 
 Blue Mountains, 43. 
 Bonaventure County, 35, 63. 
 Bonavista Bay, 97, 98. 
 Bonne Bay, 97. 
 Boston, 20. 
 
 Boularderio Island, 54. 
 Bow River, 77, 88. 
 Brandon, 73, 104. 
 Brant County, 49. 
 Brantford, 47. 
 Bras d'Or Lake, 54. 
 Briar Isla.id, 54. 
 Bridgwater, 58. 
 Brion Island, 29. 
 Bristol Channel, 53. 
 
 British Association, the, 104. 
 — Isles, 16, 24, 38, 83, 84. 
 Broadview, 80. 
 Brome County, 35. 
 Brown Mountain, 15, 77, 88. 
 Bruce County, 49, 
 Bureau of Industries, 44. 
 Burgeo District, 100. 
 Burin District, 100. 
 Burrard Inlet, 91. 
 Butler, Sir W., 86. 
 
 Cabot, I, 6, 7. 
 
 — Islands, 97. 
 Calais, 37. 
 Calgary, 76. 80, 8r. 
 California, 85. 
 Calumet Island, 30. 
 Camatha, 5. 
 Campbellton, 62. 
 
 Canada, Dominion of, 11, 16, 25, 
 27. 
 
 — Bay, 97. 
 
 — Proper, 5, 9, 11. 
 
 — Upper, 42. 
 Canadian people, 26. 
 Canals, 33, 48. 
 Canso, 52, 58. 
 
 — Gut of, 53, 54. 
 
 Cape Breton, 10, 52, 54, 57, lor. 
 
 — Colony, T02, 105, no. 
 
 — of Good Hope, 82. 
 Capes of Nova Scotia, 54. 
 Capetown, 14. 
 Caraquet Bay, 60. 
 Cardigan Bay, 65, 
 Cardwell County, 49. 
 Cariboo Island, 54. 
 
 — Lake, 90. 
 
 — Mountains, 88. 
 
 — Plain, 88. 
 Carleton County, 61. 
 Carlton House, 8r. 
 Cartler, Jacques, 5, 6, 9, 37. 
 Cascade Mountain, 83, 85, 88. 
 Cascapedla, 60. 
 
 Cataraqui River, 45. 
 
 Catholics, Roman, 40, 57, 61, loi, 
 
 117, 118. 
 Cavalry, Canadian, 27. 
 Census of Quebec, 40. 
 
General Index. 
 
 14.5 
 
 lOI. 
 
 )I, toi, 
 
 Chalcurs, Bay des, 29, 32, 58, 59. 
 C'hambly County, 35. 
 Champlain, Saimiel, 37. 
 Chauiplain County, 35. 
 
 — Lake, 30. 35. 
 ('handler's Reach, 98. 
 Charles I, 52. 
 Charlevoix County, 35. 
 Charlotte County, 61. 
 Charlottetown, 12, 66. 
 Charters, Royal, 7, 8. 
 Chateauguay County, 35, 
 Chatham, New Brunswick, 62. 
 
 — Ontario, 47. 
 Chatte Cape, 14. 32. 
 Chaudiere River, 4, 32, 35, 
 Chedalmcto Bay, 54. 58. 
 Chesterfield Inlet, 79. 
 Chicago, 19. 
 Chicoutimi, 34, 39. 
 
 — County, 35. 
 Chignecto Bay, 52, 54, 59. 
 
 — County. 54, 58. 
 China Seas, 82, 83, 
 Chinese, the, 91. 
 Chinook winds, 76. 
 Chippewyan Fort, 19, 20, 81. 
 Christiania. 57. 
 Chudleigh Cape, 94. 
 Churchill River, 78, 79. 
 Cipango, 5. 
 
 Cirencester, 119. 
 Climate, Canadian, 16, 23. 
 
 — of British Columbia, 83. 
 
 — of Manitoba, 71. 
 Clode Sound, 98. 
 
 Coal Mines, Canadian, 52, 56, 80, 
 
 108. 
 Cobecpiid Bay, 54. 
 
 — Mountains, 53, 58. 
 Cocagne River, 59. 
 Colchester, Ontario, 47. 
 Colebrooke, 61. 
 Colinet Island, 98, 
 
 — Passage, 98. 
 Colorado River, 88. 
 Columbia, British, 11, 13, 14, 27, 
 
 68. 76, 77. 81. 
 
 — River, 88. 89. 
 Columlnis, Christopher, 5, 6. 
 Comox, 92. 
 
 Company, London, 8. 
 
 Company, Plymouth, 8. 
 Comjiton County. 35. 
 Conception Bay, 90, loi. 
 Connaigre Bay, 97. 
 Connecticut River, 9. 
 Coppermine River, 78. 
 Cornwallis, 58. 
 
 — River, 54. 
 Cortereal, 7. 
 Cottel's Island, 98. 
 Couchichinu Lake, 49. 
 Council of Plymouth, 8. 
 Councils, Local Canadian, 117. 
 Counties of Cape Breton, 57. 
 
 — of Manitoba, 72. 
 
 — of Nova Scotia, 55, 56. 
 
 — of Ontario, 49. 
 
 — of Quebec, 35, 36. 
 Cowicham, 92. 
 Crop averages, 18. 
 Cross Lake, 90. 
 Crossways Lake. 32. 
 Cuba, 83. 
 Cumberland Basin, 54, 60. 
 
 — House, 20 81. 
 Currents, ocean, 23, 24. 
 
 D. 
 Dakota, 15, 17. 
 Dalhousie. 61, 62. 
 Darkies Lake. 54. 
 Dartmouth, 58. 
 Dauphine, Cape, 54. 
 Davis's Straits. 24. 
 Daw.son, Sir W., 104, 123. 
 Dead Island, 98. 
 Dease Lake, 90. 
 Debt, Canadian, no. 
 
 — of Newfoundland, lox. 
 Deer Lake, 78. 
 
 — River, 79. 
 
 De Monts, 8, 58. 
 De la Peltrie, 39. 
 
 — la Roche, 9. 
 
 — la Roque, 7. 
 
 — la Salle. 10. 
 Delaware River, 9. 
 
 Deserts of United States, 17, 20. 
 
 Despair Bay, 97. 
 
 Des Esquimaux River, 29 35. 
 
 Detroit, 33. 
 
 Dickens, Charles, 4C. 
 
!;:':• 
 
 146 
 
 DiRby. 58. 
 
 — Gut, 54. 
 Dildo Run, 98, 
 Dixon Channel, 87. 
 Doobaunt Lako, 79. 
 D'Or Cape, 54. 
 Dorchester, 61, 62. 
 Douglas Channel, 84. 
 
 — fir, 91. 
 
 — Lord Selkirk, 67. 
 Dover Port, Ontario, 47. 
 Downton, 119. 
 
 Duck Mountain, 68, 
 Dufferin, Lord. 68, 90. 
 Du Lievre River, 34. 
 
 — Moine River, 34. 
 
 — Nord River, 34. 
 Dunmoro, 81. 
 
 Durham County, Ontario, 49. 
 
 E. 
 
 Kagle Pass. 89. 
 
 — River, 89. 
 
 East Main River, 78. 
 
 — River, 53. 
 Edmonton, 81. 
 
 Education in Dominion, 118, 121, 
 122. 
 
 — in Newfoundland, loi. 
 Edward Lake, 32. 
 
 Eel Lake, 60. 
 Egmont Bay, 65. 
 
 — Cape, 54. 
 
 Electoral Districts, 36, 50, 100. 
 Elgin County, 49. 
 Elias, Mount, 85. 
 EUice. 81. 
 Emerson, 73, 112. 
 Engineers, Canadian, 27. 
 England, 16, 24, 83. 
 
 — of the Paciiicr, 29. 
 Eo/oon Canadense. 31. 
 
 Erie Lake, 11, 16, 33, 42, 47, 48. 
 Esquimault. 5, 93. 
 Essex County, 49. 72. 
 Essington. Port, 87. 
 Eternity, Cape, 34. 
 Europe, ii, 21. 
 Evangeline, 53. 
 Exploits Bay, 95, 96. 
 
 General Index. 
 
 F. 
 
 Fabre Lake. 79. 
 
 Factories of the Hudson's Hay 
 
 Company, 81, 
 Falls of the Chaudiero, 35. 
 
 — of Montmorency, 34. 
 
 — of Niagara, 46. 
 
 — of St. John, 59. 
 Farnham, 39. 
 Fear, Cape. 6, 8. 
 Ferryland Countv, 100. 
 Findlay River. 77, 86, 87. 88. 
 Fish River, Great, 77, 79. 
 Fisheries, Dominion, 14, 22. 106, 
 
 — Now Brunswick, 62. 
 
 — Newfoundland, 100. 
 Florida, 83. 
 
 — French, 5, 9. 
 
 — Sfianish, 8. 
 Fogo, 100. 
 
 Forests, Canadian, 21, 22. 23. 105. 
 
 Fort Garry, 73. 
 
 Fortune Bay, 97, 100. 
 
 France, 31, 119. 
 
 Francis I, 6. 
 
 Francis, Cape, 96. 
 
 Franklin, 4. 
 
 Eraser River, 14, 86, 87, 88. 89. 
 
 90, 91. 92. 
 Frazerville, 39. 
 Fredericton, 59, 61, 62, 63. 
 French Lake, 60 
 
 — River, 44. 
 
 — Shore, the, 100. 
 Freshwater Bay, 97. 
 Fi'ontenac, 45. 
 
 Fundy. Bay of, 11, 52, 53, 58, 59. 
 60, 61, 62, 109. 
 
 Gabarus Bay, 51. 
 Gagetown. 61. 
 Gander Bay, 96. 
 Garden of Canada, 43. 
 Gasp«5 County, 36. 
 — Peninsula, 6, 29, 32, 41. 
 Gatineau River, 34. 
 George Bay, 54. 
 Georgetown, 65, 66. 
 Georgian Bay, 49. 
 Germans, the, 58, 69, 75. 
 
General Index. 
 
 147 
 
 Hav 
 
 !, 106. 
 
 !3- I OS- 
 
 SB. 89, 
 
 58, 59> 
 
 (Tilbort, Sir II., 6, 7. 
 (Iladstone, 73. 
 (Glasgow, 56. 
 
 (Jloiuiostcr County, Now Bruns- 
 wick, 61. 
 Gold Riingi', 76, 85, 88. 
 Goose Bay, 97. 
 <ifrains and (.Jrassts, 18. 
 (Jranby County, 54. 
 <Jrand Falls, New Brunswick, 61. 
 
 — Lake, New Brunswick, 60. 
 
 — Lake, 32 
 
 — Passage, 54. 
 
 — Pre, 52. 
 
 Grant, Dr. G. M., 123. 
 Gravel in Lake, 79. 
 (xreat Bear Lake, 74. 
 
 — Britain, 10. 
 
 — Eastern, the, loi. 
 (irvien Bay, 97. 
 
 — Mountain, 32, 
 Grey County, 49. 
 Griguet Bay, 97. 
 Guelph, 47, 104. 
 
 Gulf Stream, 24, 55, 82, 95. 
 Guysborough, 56. 
 
 H. 
 
 Ha Ha Bay, 97. 
 Haldimand County, 49. 
 
 — House, 35. 
 Haliburton County, 49. 
 Halifax, 5, 12, 16, 20, 56, 57, 62, 
 
 63- 
 
 — Harbour, 54. 
 
 — Lord, 57. 
 Hall Bay, 97. 
 
 — River, 29. 
 Hamilton, Fort, 81. 
 ■ — Port, 12, 47. 
 Hampton, 61. 
 
 Hants County, Nova Scotia, 55. 
 
 Haro Channel, 84. 
 
 Harrison Lake, 90. 
 
 Harvey, 62. 
 
 Hatton County, 47, 49. I 
 
 Havre, 37. 
 
 Hay, Canadian, 18. 
 
 Hayes Factory, 81. 
 
 — River, 79, 
 
 — route, 70. 
 
 Heart's Content, 97, loi. 
 
 Hebrides, 75. 
 Hennepin. Father, 46. 
 Henry, Fort, 45. 
 Ilerefords, 103. 
 Hermitage Bay, 97. 
 High Bluff, 72. 
 Highlanders, 66. 
 Hillsborough Bay, 65. 
 Hochelaga, 39. 
 llollesley Bay College, 120. 
 Hooker, Mount, 15, 77, 88. 
 Hope, 92. 
 Hopewell, 61, 62. 
 Horse Fly Lakt', 90. 
 Howse Pass, 85. 
 Hudson River, 8, 9. 
 Hud.son's Bay, 4, 10, 70, 77, 78. 
 79, 81, 88. 
 
 — Company, 73, 92. 
 
 — Territcjry, 67. 
 Hull, 39 
 
 Humber, the, 95, 96, 99. 
 Humboldt, 21. 
 Huntingdon County, 36. 
 Hurlbert, 69. 
 Huron County, 49. 
 
 — Lake, 11, 16, 33, 47, 48, 49. 
 Huskisson, 93. 
 
 I. 
 
 Iberville, 39. 
 
 — County, 36. 
 Icelanders, 6g, 75. 
 Illinois, 16. 
 
 Immigrants to New Brunswick, 
 
 63. 
 Immigration, 112. 
 Indian Head, 81, 104. 
 
 — Ocean, 82. 
 Indians, the, 47, 6r, 91. 
 Indies, West, 54. 
 Infantry, Canadian, 27. 
 Inganische, 53. 
 Ingersoll, 47. 
 
 International Line, 10, 11, 74, 75. 
 
 Iowa, 16. 
 
 Ireland, loi. 
 
 Irish, the, 61. 
 
 Islands, Bay of, 95, 97, 98. 
 
 Isle Madame, 54. 
 
 — of Dreams, 38. 
 Isotherm summer, 19. 
 
 L 2 
 
iM 
 
 148 
 
 General Index . 
 
 1 ; 
 
 S If 
 
 !i^ 
 
 3 r 
 
 fit ( 
 
 .11 c 
 
 i 
 
 J. 
 
 
 Jacquos Cartior Oninty, 36. 
 James I, King, 8. 
 James' Hay, 29. 
 Jamestown, 8. 
 Jasper's House, 85. 
 Java Seas, 82. 
 Jerseys, 103. 
 Jesuit, 46. 
 Joliette, 39. 
 
 — County, 36. 
 
 K. 
 
 Kajouahvang, 32. 
 Kamloops, 89, 92. 
 Kamouraska, 32. 
 
 — County, 36. 
 Kananaskis, 85. 
 Kansas, 15, 16. 
 Keewatin District, 68. 
 Kempt Lake, 32. 
 Kennebecasis, 59. 
 Kent, Duke of, 35, 65. 
 Kent County. England, 116. 
 
 — New Brunswick, 61, 64. 
 
 — Ontario, 47, 49. 
 Kentville, 56. 
 
 Kicking Horse Pass, 85, 88. 
 King's County, Nova Scotia. 55. 
 
 — Prince Edward Island, 66. 
 Kingsford, the historian, 5. 
 Kingston, 12, 45, 118. 
 
 Knee Lake, 79. 
 
 Knights of Nova Scotia, 52. 
 
 Kootenay Lake, go. 
 
 — River, 85. 
 
 L. 
 
 L'Agulhas current, 82. 
 
 LAssomption, 36, 40. 
 
 Labrador, 5, 6, 7, 9, 24, 30, 76, 94, 
 
 98. 
 Lachine, 39. 
 La CoUotte, 32. 
 Ladoga wheat, 121. 
 Lakes, Canadian, 2, 15. 
 
 — of British Columbia, 90. 
 
 — of Manitoba, 69. 
 
 — of New Brunswick, 60. 
 
 — of Nova Scotia, 54. 
 
 — of Ontario, 48. 
 
 — of Quebec, 32. 
 
 Lakes of the North-West, 78. 
 
 Lanarkshire', 56. 
 
 Lajmile District, 100, 
 
 La Prairie County, 36. 
 
 Laui'ontides, 30. 
 
 Laurentian Mountains, 30, 31, 96. 
 
 Laval, Bishop, 38. 
 
 — County, 36. 
 Leather Pass, 85. 
 Lethbridge, 80. 
 Levis, 39. 
 
 — County, 36. 
 Lewis Island, 98. 
 Liard, F., 19, 82. 
 Lilloet-Clinton District, 92. 
 Lilloet Lake, 90. 
 
 Llsgar County, 72. 
 L'Islet County, 36. 
 Liverpool, 4. 45, 93. 
 
 — Nova Scotia, 56. 58. 
 Logan Mountain, 32. 
 Logan, Sir W., 5, 31. 
 London, 12, 56, 68, 116. 
 
 — Ontario, 47. 
 Londonderry, 57. 
 Longfellow, 52. 
 Long Island, 19. 
 
 — Newfoimdland, 98. 
 
 — Nova Scotia, ^4. 
 Longueil, 39. 
 Loon Lake, 60. 
 
 Lome, Marquis of, 44, 48, 56. 
 
 Lotbiniere County, 36. 
 
 Louis XIV, 10. 
 
 Louisburg, 51. 
 
 Louisiana, 5, 10. 
 
 Louisville, 40. 
 
 Loyalists, United Empire, 40. 
 
 Lumbering, 25. 
 
 Lunenburg, 54, 56. 
 
 Lyell, Sir Charles, 46, 57, 104. 
 
 Lytton, 92. 
 
 M. 
 
 Macdougall, Lake, 79. 
 
 Macfie, Mr., 12. 
 
 Mackenzie River, 14, 20, 77, 78, 
 
 81, 87, 88, 89. 
 Mackenzie, Sir J., 19, 86. 
 MacLeod, Fort, 81. 
 Macoun, Professor, ig, 104, 105. 
 Madawaska, 59, 60, 61. 
 
General Index. 
 
 149 
 
 o. 
 
 h 78, 
 
 05. 
 
 Madeira, 68. 
 Magdalen Island, 29. 
 Maidst<Mie, Ontario. 47. 
 Main Factory, 8r. 
 
 — (4ut, 98. 
 
 Maine River, East, 29. 
 
 Maine, State of, 9, 11,59,62.63. 1 15. 
 
 Maisonneuve, 38. 
 
 Maitland, 58. 
 
 Maize, 19. 
 
 Malacca, Straits of, 82, 83. 
 
 Malaga, Lake, 54. 
 
 Malicites, 58, 61. 
 
 Malta, 24. 
 
 Manicouagan, 35. 
 
 Manitoba Lake, 16, 43, 70, go. 
 
 — Province, 11, 13, 18, 19, 25. 27, 
 42. 67, 79. 
 
 Manitou, 67. 
 
 Manouan, 32. 
 
 Manufactures, Canadian, 107. 
 
 Maquapit Lake, 60. 
 
 Marquette, 72. 
 
 Marshall, 46. 
 
 Maryland, 9. 
 
 Maskinonge County, 36. 
 
 Massachusetts, 55. 
 
 Massawii)pi, 40. 
 
 Matano River, 32. 
 
 Maury, Lieut., 82. 
 
 M<^Gill University, 123. 
 
 Medicine Hat, 80. 
 
 Megantic County, 36. 
 
 — Lake, 35, 40. 
 Melbourne, 3, 12. 
 Memphramagog, Lake, 35, 40. 
 Mennonites, 69, 114. 
 Morcier, HonorO, 40. 
 Mersey River, Nova Scotia, 53. 
 Metropolitan of Canada, 61. 
 Mexico, Gulf of, 10, 24. 55, 77. 
 
 — Plain of, 17. 
 Michigan, Lake, 16. 
 Micmacs, 58, 61. 
 Middlesex County, Ontario, 49. 
 
 — Ontario, 47. 
 Milford Haven, 54. 
 Military Districts, 27. 
 Milton, 47. 
 
 Mines, Basin of, 52, 54. 
 Mines, Canadian, 22. 
 Minnedosa, 73. 
 
 Minnesota. 17, 18. 33, 70. 
 Miquclon Island, 97. 
 Miraniiclii Ray, 60. 
 
 — Lake, 60. 
 
 — River, 59. 
 Miscou Island, 60. 
 Missisiquoi County, 36, 
 Mississippi, 10, 26, 77. 
 Missouri, 16, 77. 
 Mistassinnio Lake, 32. 
 Monck County, 49. 
 Moncton, 62. 
 
 Money Orders, 116. 
 Montana. 15. 
 Montcalm. 37. 
 
 — County, 36. 
 Montmagny, 39. 
 
 — County, 36. 
 Montmorency, 34. 
 
 — County, 36. 
 
 Montreal, 5, 12, 13, 16, 20, 30. 33, 
 39, 45, 48, 68, 80, 117. 
 
 — County, 36. 
 
 — Island, 30. 
 Moo.se Fort, 81. 
 
 — Jaw, 80. 
 
 — River, 78. 
 
 Mozambique current, 82. 
 Mulagash, Cape, 54. 
 Municipal Government, 117. 
 Murchison, Sir R., 31. 
 Muskoka, Lake, 49. 
 Musquodoboit Harbour, 54. 
 
 N. 
 
 Nanaimo, 87, 92, 93. 
 
 Nance, Mademoiselle, 39. 
 
 Napiorville County, 36. 
 
 Napoleon I, 10. 
 
 Nappan, 104. 
 
 Narragansetts, 6. 
 
 Nasse River, 87. 
 
 Natal, 102. 
 
 Native question, 102. 
 
 Nebraska, 15, 17. 
 
 Nelson County, Vancouver, 92. 
 
 — River, 14, 70, 77, 78, 79. 
 Nepisiguit River, 59, 60. 
 
 New Brunswick, 7, 9, 10, ir, 13, 
 
 27, 29, 58, 91. 
 Newcastle, 61. 
 New England, 8, 9. 
 
 il 
 
m 
 
 150 
 
 General Index. 
 
 liyl 
 
 li'l' 'i^^ 
 
 
 Ki'W Franco. 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 37. 
 Newfoundland, 4. 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 
 
 24. 26, 28, 63, 83. 93. 
 Nt!vv Nothcrlands. 9. 
 Now Houtli Walis, 12. 
 Nt!w Spain, 10. 
 Now York, 4, 24, 45. 
 
 — County, 18. 
 
 New Wostmiiistor, 8s. 91, 93. 
 Now World Island, 98. 
 Niagara, 33, 46, 47, 109. 
 
 — routo, 44. 
 Nicolot, 39. 
 
 — County, 36. 
 Nile Expedition, 27. 
 Nipigon Lake, 49. 
 Nipissing Lake, 44, 49. 
 Noire River, 34. 
 
 Norfolk County, Ontario. 49. 
 Norman County, 94, 97. 
 North Cape, 16, 24. 
 North Indian Lake, 79. 
 North Mountain, 53. 
 Northumberland County, ( )ntario, 
 49. 
 
 — New Brunswick, 61, 64. 
 
 — Strait, 52, 54, 58, 60, 62. 
 North-WoHt Territories, 11, 13. 73. 
 Norumbega, 7. 
 
 Norway, 12, 16, 24, 82. 
 Notre Dame Bay, 95, 97, 98. 
 
 — Mountain, 32. 
 Nottawasaga Bay, 43. 
 Nouvelle Bretagne, 5. 
 
 Nova Scotia, 9, 10, 11, 13, 26, 27. 
 
 51, 83. 
 Nova Zembla, 24. 
 
 0. 
 Oats, Canadian, 19, 
 Obs' rvatory Inlet, 87. 
 Ohio, 16, 18. 
 Okanagan, Lake, 90, 92. 
 Olympia, Mount, 84. 
 (hnineca, 86, 87, 88. 
 Onega wheat, 121. 
 Ontario, Lake, ir, 16, 33. 4:2. 47. 
 
 — Province, 11, 13, 18, 27, 42. 
 
 49. 53. 78. 
 Oregon, 10, 20, 88, 93. 
 
 — pine, 91. 
 Orleans, island of, 30. 
 
 Oromocto. 59. 60, 61. 
 Ottawa, city of. 44, 119. 
 
 — County, 36. 
 
 — River, 4, 12, 29. 30. 32. 33. 41, 
 42, 45, 81. 
 
 Outardos River, 35. 
 Oxford. 46. 
 
 — County. Ontario. 47. 49. 
 
 — Street, Ontario. 47. 
 
 Pacific, the. 4. ir. 14. 24, 82, 84, 
 
 87, 88. 90. 
 Paciiiic slope, the. 15. 84. 
 Pall Mall, Ontario. 47. 
 Park, a national. 80. 
 Parliament House, 38. 
 Parrsborough, 58. 
 Parsnip River, 86. 
 Passamaquoddy Bay, 60. 
 Passes, mountain. 85. 
 Patent, King James's. 8. 
 Peace River, 19, 77, 81. 86. 
 Pedeo River, Great, 9. 
 Peel, 49. 
 Polly, Fort. 81. 
 
 — Lake. 79. 
 
 — River, 77. 
 Pemberton. 92. 
 Pennsylvania, 18, 80. 
 
 Pertli County, Ontario, 47, 49. 
 Petchora barley, 121. 
 Peterborough, 49. 
 Petit Nord Bay. 97. 
 Petite Nation River, 34. 
 Petroleum, 108. 
 Philippines, the, 82. 
 Philpot, Dr., 25. 
 Piccadilly, Ontario, 47. 
 Pictou, 53. 54, 56. 
 Pilley's Island, 98. 
 Pine, Cape, 96. 
 Pines, Canadian, 21. 
 Pistolet Bay, 97. 
 Placentia Bay, 97. 
 
 — County, 100. 
 Plains of Abraham, 37. 
 Point h Beaudet, 29. 
 
 — Fortune, 29. 
 
 — Lake, 78. 
 
 — Levis, 38, 
 
 — St. Regis, 29. 
 
General Index. 
 
 i5i 
 
 Pointe (log Monts, 14. 33. 
 Polioo, Mounted, 80. 
 Pontine County, 36. 
 Popliir Point, 72. 
 Port Iliiwkosbury, 58. 
 
 — Hood, 57. 
 
 — Mudway, 58. 
 
 — Nelson, 4. 
 
 — Koyal, 8, 52. 
 Portage la Prairie, 72, 73. 
 Port-ii-Port P>ay, 96. 97. 
 Portland, 12, 62, 84. 
 Portn«!uf County. 36. 
 Portncuif Kivt'r, 35. 
 Ports of Ontario, 51. 
 
 — of Quebec, 41. 
 Portugal Cove, 7, 96. 
 Portuguese, 6. 
 I'otonuic, 8. 
 Prairie, the, 25, 26. 
 Primavista, Cape, 96. 
 Prince Albert, 70, 81. 
 
 — County, 66. 
 
 Prince Edward Island, 10, 11, 13, 
 
 27, 29, 64, 65, 98. 
 Protestants, 57, 61, loi, 117, 118. 
 Provencher County, 72. 
 Provinces, the, 27. 
 Pugwash Harbour, 54, 58. 
 
 Q- 
 
 Qu'Appelle Valley, 74, 80, 81. 
 Quebec, Province of, 11, 13, 28. 
 35. 63, 78. 
 
 — city, 12, 13, 16, 27, 31, 34, 37. 
 
 — County, 36. 
 
 Queen Charlotte Island, 28, 83, 84. 
 
 85. 87. 
 Queen's County, New Brunswick, 
 61. 
 
 — Prince Edward Island, 66. 
 Quesnelle Lake, 90. 
 Quesnelly. 92. 
 
 R. 
 
 llace, Cape, 96, loi. 
 Railway, Grand Trunk, 45. 
 
 — Canadian Pacific, 76, 79, 80. 81, 
 88, 89, no. 
 
 — Intercolonial, 62, 63. 
 
 — North-West, 75, 76. 
 Railways of New Urunswick, 62. 
 
 Riiinfall of Canada. 17. 
 Rainy Lake, 49. 
 
 — River. 1 1. 
 Raleigh, Sir W., 7. 
 Ray, Cape, 94, 97. 
 Red Deer River, 76. 
 Red Indian Lake. 96. 
 
 Red River, 14, 20, 67, 69, 70. 73. 
 
 78. 
 Regent .Street. Ontario, 47. 
 Regina, 76, 79, 80. 
 Reindeer Lake, 16. 
 Religious sects, 1 18. 
 Reserves, Canadian. 27. 
 Resolution, Fort, 81. 
 Restigouche, 29, 58, 59, 60. 
 
 — County. 61, 64. 
 Revenue, Dominion, 109. 
 Rey, Lake, 79. 
 Richelieu County, 36, 37. 
 
 — River, 4, 30, 35. 
 Richibucto River, 59, 6i, 
 Richmond, 37. 
 
 — Bay, 65. 
 Rideau Canal, 45. 
 Riding Mountain. 68. 
 Riel, Louis, 80. 
 Rifies, Canadian, 27. 
 RiniDuski, 40. 
 
 — County, 36. 
 Riviere du Loup, 63. 
 Roanoke, 8. 
 
 Roberval, Lord of, 7, 8. 
 Rochester, Ontario, 47. 
 Rockies, the, 68, 70, 72, 74, 75, 76, 
 
 77.79,80,81,82,84,85,88. 
 Rockwood, 72. 
 Rosario Strait, 84. 
 Rossignol Lake, 54. 58. 
 Rouge River, 34. 
 Rousseau Lake, 49. 
 Rouville County, 36. 
 Rupert River, 32, 78. 
 Rup(^rt's Factory. 81. 
 
 — Land, 67. 
 Russia, II. 
 Rye, 19, 121. 
 
 S. 
 
 Saanicli Peninsula, 92. 
 Sable, Cape, 54. 
 
 — Island, 54. 
 
n 
 
 i< I 
 
 l.-,2 
 
 General Index. 
 
 Siurkvilli'. 62. 
 Sacred Bay, 97. 
 Sa«u<'nay County, 35. 
 — River, 4, 30, 32, 34. 40. 
 St. Agatlic. Maiiitnha. 72. 
 St. Andnw's, Manituba. 72. 
 St. Andrew's. 61. 
 St. Aiiiie'ss Bay, 53. 
 St. Anne's Mountain. 31, 32. 
 St. Anne, Manitoba, 72. 
 St. liarbt* Buy. 97. 
 St Boniface, Manitoba. 72. 
 St. Catlierine's, 47. 
 St. Charles, Manitol)a, 72. 
 St. Charles Kiver, 37. 
 St. Clair, 33, 49. 
 St. Clement's, Manitoba. 72. 
 St. Croix, 8, 9, 59. 
 St. Francis Kiver, 4, 35. 
 St. Franvuis Xavier, 72. 
 St. George's Bay, 63, 96, 97. 
 St. George, Cape, 54. 
 St. Hyacinthe, 36, 37. 
 St. .lames, Manitoba, 72. 
 St. Jerome, 39. 
 St. John, city of, 12. 
 St. John's County, Ne\v Bruns- 
 wick, 61. 
 St. John's Ilarhour. 60. loi. 
 St. John's Island, 10, 65. 
 St. John's Lake, 30, 31, 32, 34. 
 St. John, New Brunswick, 61, 62, 
 
 63, 98. 
 St. John's Countjs Newfoundland. 
 
 100. 
 St. John's, Newfoundland, 95, 96, 
 
 98. 
 St. John's County, Quebec. 36, 37. 
 St. John's River, lo, 59, 60, 6) . 
 St. John's Kiver, Quebec, 35. 
 St. Lawrence, Cape, 54. 
 St. Lawrence, Gulf of, 7, 24, 52. 
 
 94. 
 St. La>vrence River, i, 4, 5, 7, 14. 
 
 28, 32, 33, 34, 35, 37, 45, 49. 
 
 52, 77. 90. 
 St. Lawrence Valley, 10, 26. 
 St. Louis, 33. 
 St. Mary's, 33. 
 St. Mary's Bay, 54, 97. 
 St. Mary's La Have, 53. 
 St. Margaret Bay, 97. 
 
 St. Maurice County, 36. 
 
 St. Maurice River, 4, 32. 35, 37, 
 
 40. 
 St. Narl)ert, Manitol)a, 72. 
 St. Paul's Island, 54. 
 St. FauTs, Manitolia, 72. 
 St. Faid's, Ontario, 47. 
 St. Peter's Lake, 30. 32, 35 
 St. Pierre Island, 97. 
 St. Stei)hen, 62. 
 St. Vital, Manitoba, 72. 
 Salmon River, 60. 
 Saltcoats, 75, 80. 
 Salt Spring Islaiul, 92. 
 Sambro Head Cape. 34. 
 Sandhurst, a Canadian, 1 18. 
 Sandwicii, Ontario, 47. 
 Sandy Laki', 79. 
 San Francis(!o, 84. 93. 
 San Juan Archipelago, 84. 
 Santee River, 9. 
 Saskatchewan District, 68. 76. 78, 
 
 8r. 
 
 — River, Little, 70, 76. 
 Saugeen River, 47. 
 Sault Ste. Marie, 43, 48. 
 Savannah River, 9. 
 Saxonka wheat, 121. 
 Scarborough, Ontario, 4.7. 
 Scatari Island, 54. 
 Scliools, Canadian, 122. 
 Scots, the, 3, 47, 69, 75. 
 Selkirk Colonists, 4, 67. 
 
 — Earl, 66. 
 
 — Mountains, 76, 86, P8, 8g. 
 
 — town of, 72. 
 Sequin Lake, 79. 
 Setting Lake, 79. 
 Severn Factory, 81. 
 
 — Lake, 79. 
 
 — River, 79. 
 
 Shakespeare, Ontario, 47. 
 Shasta, 87. 
 Shecoubish Lake, 33. 
 Shediac, 62. 
 
 — Bay, 60, 66. 
 Sheet Harbour, 54. 
 Shelburne, 56. 
 Shepody Bay, 59, 60. 
 Sherbrooke County, 36, 37, 63. 
 Ship Harbour Lake, 54. 
 Shippegan Island, 60. 
 
General Index. 
 
 15;^ 
 
 76. 78, 
 
 63. 
 
 ShippinjT, Ciinadian, 107. 
 
 — (Quebec, 40. 
 Shoal Lake. 73. 
 Sliortlidrns, 103. 
 SliulHiiacadif Uiwr, 53. 58. 
 ShuHwap Lake, 89, 90. 
 Hicamous Narrows, 89. 
 Sierra Nevada. 85. 
 Simeoe Comity, 49. 
 
 — Lake, 49. 
 Similkaineen, 91. 
 Simpson, Fort, 19, 20, 8r, 87. 
 Skeeiia Kiver, 84, 86, 87, 88. 
 Slave Lake, the Great, 16, 77, 78, 
 
 79- 
 
 — Kiver, 77. 
 Soils. Canadian, 25. 
 Sorel, 39. 
 Soudan, the, 27. 
 Soiilanges County, 36. 
 Souris River, 66, 70, 
 South Indian Lake, 79. 
 
 South Mountain, Nova Scotia, 53. 
 
 Spain, 6. 
 
 Spear, Cape, 94, 96. 
 
 Spitzbergen, 24. 
 
 Split, Cape, 54. 
 
 Springfield, 72. 
 
 Stan.stead County, 36. 
 
 Steppes, Prairie, 4. 
 
 Stikeen River, 84. 
 
 Stony Mountain, 15. 
 
 Stratford, Ontario, 47. 
 
 Stuart Lake, 90. 
 
 Suez Canal, 43. 
 
 Suflblk, England, 116, 120. 
 
 Sumatra, 83. 
 
 Sumniersberry, 81. 
 
 Summerside, 66. 
 
 Sunbury County, 61. 
 
 Superior, Lake, 4, u, 14, 16, 33, 
 
 48, 71. 
 Susquehanna, 9. 
 Sweden, 12. 
 Sydney, 3, 12. 
 
 — Cape Breton, 57. 
 
 T. 
 
 Tdche, Lake, 79. 
 Tacla, Lake, 90. 
 Tadousac, 9, 34. 
 Tancock Island, 54. 
 
 Telegraphs, lor, ri6. 
 Temiscauiingut'. 20, 29, 32. 
 Tiiuiscouata County, 36. 
 
 — Lake, 59. 60. 
 Terrebonne, 40. 
 Texas, 15. 
 
 Thames River, Ontario, 47. 
 Tiiompson River, 8g, 92. 
 Three Rivers. 33, 37. 
 
 — County, 36. 
 Thunder J5ay, u, 71. 
 Thutage, Lake. 90. 
 Tidal action. 109. 
 Tignish, 65, 66. 
 Tobique, 59, 60. 
 Tooke, Vaneouver, 92. 
 Torl)ay, 54, 58. 
 
 Toronto, 12, 13, 17, 20, 24, 45, 
 
 47. 117- 
 Tourniente, Cape, 31. 
 Townships, Quel)ee, 40, 41. 
 
 — of the North-West, 112. 
 Trees, Canadian, 25. 
 Trepassy Bay, 97. 
 
 Trinity Bay County, Newfound- 
 land, 100. 
 Trinity, Capo, 34, 97, loi. 
 
 — Out, 98. 
 Triton Island, 98. 
 Trout Lake, 79. 
 Truro, 56. 
 
 Turtle Mountain, 68. 
 Twelve Mile Creek, 47. 
 Two Mountains County, 36. 
 Twillingate, 100. 
 
 United States, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16, 
 
 20, 29, 43, 54, 58. 83, 84. 
 Universities, Canadian, 123. 
 Utrecht, Treaty of, 10, 52. 
 
 Valley Field, 39. 
 
 Vancouver Island, 4,' 16, 56. 83, 
 
 84. 86. 87, 91. 
 Vaudreuil County, 36, 37. 
 Vercheres County, 36. 
 Vermillion, Fort, 19. 
 — Pass, 85. 
 Vermont, 32, 40. 
 Verrazano, 6. 
 
Ih 1- 
 
 154 
 
 General Index. 
 
 i'. I 
 
 ;; 
 
 1!^ 
 
 u 1 ■ ■ 
 
 f 
 
 Vi(!oroy of Caiiadu, 9. 
 Victoria, Colony of, 12. 
 
 — Ilridgo, 30. 
 
 — County, New Brunswick, 61. 
 Nova Scotia, 54. 
 
 — — Ontario, 49. 
 
 — — Vancouver, 7, 92. 
 
 — Falls, 46. 
 Vinjont, 39. 
 Virginia, 9, 115. 
 Voltain;, 10. 
 Voyageurs, Canadian, 27. 
 
 Walkorton, 47. 
 Washadomoak, 59. 
 
 — Lake, 60. 
 
 Washington Lakes 83, 84, 85. 93. 
 Wat(a--Hen Kiver. 70. 
 Waterloo County, 49. 
 Wealth, Canadian, in. 
 Welland Canal, 47. 
 
 — County, 49. 
 Wellington County, 49. 
 Wentworth County, 49. 
 Weatbourne, 72. 
 Westminster, Ontario, 47. 
 Westmoreland County, Now 
 
 Brunswick, 61. 
 Weymouth, 58. 
 
 — pine, 91. 
 
 Whale River, Great, 78. 
 Wheat averages, i8. 
 Whitby, Ontario, 47. 
 White Bear Bay, 97. 
 Wigwam River, 85. 
 
 William, Fort, 20. 
 
 — Creek, 92. 
 Willis Reach, 98. 
 Wilson, Sir Daniel, 123. 
 Windsor, Nova Scotia, 56. 
 
 — Ontario, 47. 
 
 Winnipeg, city of, 12, 13, 15, 16. 
 17, 20, 68, 69, 73. 
 
 — Lake, 14, 16, 69, 77, 78. 
 
 — River, 14, 70, 71. 
 Winnipegosis Lake, 16, 70. 
 Wisconsin, 18. 
 
 Wolfe, 37. 
 
 WoUaston Lake, 78. 
 
 Wolseley, Lord, 27. 
 
 Woods, Lake of the, 5, 10. 11, 49. 
 
 Woodstock, Ontario, 47, 59, 61. 
 
 Yale County, 92. 
 
 — Rapids, 91. 
 Yamaska County, 36. 
 
 — River, 35. 
 Yarmouth, 56. 
 
 Yellow Head Pass, 85, 87. 
 York, Ontario, 45. 
 
 — Archipelago, 78. 
 
 — County, New Brunswick, 61 
 64. 
 
 — Factory, 70, 81. 
 Yorkton, 75. 
 Yosemito Valley, 87. 
 Yukon River, 19, 77, 88. 
 
 Z. 
 
 Zambesi Falls, 46. 
 
 
 
 THE END. 
 
 H 
 
 
 K; 
 
 
 Wv 
 
 m- 
 
By the same Author. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 DOMINION OF CANADA 
 
 UNDER THE AUSPICES OF 
 
 THE ROYAL COLONIAL INSTITUTE 
 WITH ELEV^ ' MAPS 
 
 AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 
 LONDON: HENRY FROWDE 
 
 OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE, AMEN CORNER, E.G. 
 
 OPINIONS OP THE PRESS. 
 
 ' Mr. GreswcH's handbook marks, we may liopo, tho beginning 
 of a new era in the historieal studies pursued in British educa- 
 tional establishments .... As for tlie spirit in wliieh the work is 
 written, it eould hardly bo improved upon .... Thi! maps which 
 accompany tlie text are admirably illustrative of tho steps by which 
 Canada has attained her present position.'— C«»«f//aft Gazette. 
 
 ' A most acceptable service in the cause of public enlightenment 
 is being rendered by the Educational C(mimittee of the Royal 
 Colonial Institute in promoting the issue of a series of works illus- 
 trative of the history of our self-governing Colonies Mr. (ireswell 
 
 has discharged his task in a very careful and competent manner, 
 putting into it the results of a great amount of research .... Several 
 map.s and appendices add to tho value of the book, which may 
 be cordially recommended.'— Sco^^'.s/t Leader. 
 
 ' This scholarly volume, published by the Clarendon Press, and 
 issued under tho auspices of the Royal Colonial Institute, is, we 
 understand, one of the first productions brought out under the 
 
 [p. T. o. 
 
GresivelVs Ilisfm'y of Canada. 
 
 m 
 
 k 
 
 P 
 
 H,l: 
 
 systom recently inaugurated by the Council of the Institute, to 
 which we referred not long ago, and that body is to be con- 
 gratulated on its sliare in introducing to the public so excellent 
 a work .... The volume is full of interest, pithy and concise, and 
 as a clear and readable history of the political growth of Canada 
 we cordially recommend it to our readers.' — InqKriul Federation 
 LiMjiia Jiiunvd. 
 
 * It has distinct merits. The story is told clearly from the verj* 
 beginning of French colonisation in Canada up to tlu* granting 
 of the Federal Constitution, and the creation of the Provinces of 
 Manitoba and Briti h Columbia .... As supplying a shorter ac- 
 count than Mr. K ^sford's " History of Canada," we hope that 
 the book will Ite widely read.' — Miiiraij's Macjazine. 
 
 ' Far too little is known by most of us about the history of our 
 Colonies, and it is a subject which, wo fear, is seldom taken up, 
 even in our best schools It is strange that it should be so ... . 
 Probably the chief cause of this too general neglect of our Colonial 
 history is that it is not often brought before us in books at once 
 trustworthy, interesting, and f)f moderate size. This seems no 
 longer likely to be the case : for the volume before us answers 
 these requirements .... Mr. Greswell has done his work well.' — 
 Jimrmd of Education. 
 
 ' Mr. Greswell's " History of Canada " is excellent, and is illus- 
 trated by good maps.' — Athenaeum. 
 
 ' It is just such a h -story as many a reader among the intelligent 
 classes has often desired — and that long after his education was 
 '' completed." It is trustworthy, scholarly, and brief, displaying 
 great skill in the .-larration of the concurrent movements of a 
 different character which matle up the early histoiy of the North 
 .\merican Colonies.' — Scotsman. 
 
 'A carefully written history well up to date.' — Colonies and India. 
 
 ' Altogether a book to be commended for its purpose, and the; 
 ability and lucidity with which that pur2)ose is accomplished.' — 
 sitcffidd Telegraph. 
 
 111 ■< 
 
 AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 
 LONDON : HENRY FROWDE 
 
 OXI-'OHD UN1VEU8ITY TRESS WAREHOUSE, AMEN CORNER, E.C. 
 
CLARENDON PRESS, OXFORD. 
 SELECT LIST OF STANDARD WORKS. 
 
 DICTIONARIES . . . i 
 
 LAW 
 
 HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY. ETC. 
 PHILOSOPHY, LOGIC, ETO. . 
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE, ETC, . 
 
 page 1 
 
 l> 2 
 • > 4 
 
 .. 
 
 1. DICTIONARIES. 
 
 A NEW ENGLISH DICTIONAEY 
 
 ON HISTOmCAL PEINCIPLES, 
 
 Founded mainly en the materials collided by the Philological Society. 
 
 Imperial 4to. 
 
 EDITED BY DR. MURRAY. 
 
 Present State of the Work. 
 
 By Dr. Murray llalf-morocco 
 
 By Dr. Murray Half-morocco 
 
 By Dr. Murray and Dr. Bradley Ilalf-iudrouco 
 
 Bj' Dr. Bradley Ilalf-morocco 
 
 By Dr. Murray Ilalf-morocco 
 
 / L-Lap 
 
 Vol. 
 
 I. 
 
 A 
 
 B 
 
 Vol. 
 
 II. 
 
 
 
 
 Vol. 
 
 III. 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 Vol. 
 
 IV. 
 
 F, 
 
 G 
 
 Vol. 
 
 V. 
 
 H- 
 
 -K 
 
 Vol. VI. L— N By Dr. Bradley 
 
 Vol. VII. O, P By Dr. Murray 
 
 Vol. VIII. Q— S By Mr. Craigie 
 
 £ 
 
 8. 
 
 d. 
 
 a 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 a 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 o 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 6 
 
 O 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 O 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 6 
 
 o 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 o 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 
 Lap-Leisurely . . . 
 Leicureness-Lief . . 
 Lief-Lock .... 
 Lock-Lyyn .... 
 M-Maudragon . . . 
 .O-Onomastic . . . 
 Ononia.stical-Outiiig . 
 Outjet-Ozyat . . 
 P-Pargetpfl .... 
 
 (^ 
 
 - R-Reactive .... 
 
 (Reactivcly-Ree . . 
 
 The remainder of the work is in active preparation. 
 
 Vols. IX, X will CDUtain S-Z with some supjilemeiital matter. 
 
 Ortlers can be given through any bookseller for the delivery of tiie rcmaiudor of 
 the work in comj)lete Voliunes or in Ilalf-vulumcs or in Section-^ or in I'artit. 
 
 lIALF-YOLUMEy. Tiie price of half-volniiies, bmuid, with straight-gniiied 
 persian leatlier back, cloth sides, gilt top, is ^i '^n.Od. eacli, or/Ci^ 15.9. lor the teu 
 now ready, namely, A, B, »_'-Comm., Comm.-Czecli, D, E, F, G, H, IK. 
 
 (SECTIONS. A single Section of 64 pages at 2S. 6d. or a double heclion of 1 28 
 pages at 5s. is issued quarterly. 
 
 i'AIlTS. A Part (which is genei'ally the equivalent of five single Sections 
 and is priced at 12.1. 6d.) is issued wlienever ready. 
 
 Nearly all the Parts and Sections in which Volumes I-V were fir.st i-sued are 
 still obtainable in the original covers. 
 
 FORTHCOMING ISSUE, JANUARY i, 1905. A p-ation continuing P, ]>y 
 Dr. MuRiiAY. 
 
 Oxford; Clarendon I'lcss, Luuduii : IIiiNuv Piiowdk, Aiiru Conior, E.C. 
 
 D. 4000, 
 
ENGLISH AND ROMAN LAW. 
 
 V'A' 
 
 )■;■ 1 
 
 XV- 
 
 hS' 
 
 
 
 ,L ! 
 
 A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament, with 
 an Appendix containing the Biblical Aramaic, based on the Thesaurus 
 and Lexicon of Gesonius, by Francis Brown, D.D., S. R. Driver, D.D., 
 and C. A. Briggs, D.D. Parts I-XI. Small 4to, 2s. 6d. each. 
 
 Thesaurus Syriacus : collcc^erunt Quatremere, Bernstein, Lorsbach, 
 Arnoldi, Agroll, Field, Roediger: edidit R. Payne Smith, S.T.lr. 
 Vol. I, containing Fasciculi I-V, sm. fol., 5?. 5s. 
 Vol. II, completing the work, containing Fasciculi VI-X, .S7. Ss. 
 
 A Compendious Syriac Dictionary, tuuiidcd upon tlie above. 
 Edited by Mrs. ]MarL,'olii'nth. Sm;dl ^to, coni])lotG, C.^s. net. Part IV, 
 
 15.S. mi. 
 
 Parts I-III can no longer he suirplied. 
 
 A Dictionary of the Dialects of Vernacular Syriac as spoken 
 by tlie Fastorn Syrians of Kurdistan. Norfh-V/tist Persia, and the Plain 
 of Mosui. By A. J. Maclean, M.A., F.K.G.S. Small 4to, 15s. 
 
 An English-Swahili Dictionary. By A. C. Ahulan, M.A. Second 
 
 Edition, liccised. Extra fcap. 8vo, 7s. 6d. net. 
 
 Swahili-English Dictionary. ]iy A. C. Madan, M.A. Extra fcap. 
 8vo. 7s. dd. net. 
 
 A Sanskric-English Dictionary. Etymologically and Pliilologically 
 arranged, with special reference to cognate Indo-European Languages. 
 By Sir M. Monier- Williams, M.A., K.C.I. E. ; with the collaboration of 
 Prof. E. Leumann, Ph.D. ; Prof. C. Cappeller, Ph.D. ; and other scholars. 
 New Edition, greatly Enlarged and Improved. Cloth, bevelled edges, 3?. 13s. 6d. ; 
 ' half-morocco, 4?. 4s. 
 
 A Greek-English Lexicon. By II. G. Liddell, D.D., and 
 
 Robert Scott, D,D. Eighth Edition, lieviscd. 4to. il. i6s. 
 
 An Etymological Dictionary of the English Language, 
 arranged on an Historical Basis. By W. W. Skeat, Litt.D. Third 
 Edition, ^io. 2I. 4s. 
 
 A Middle-English Dictionary. By F. H. Stiatmann. A new 
 edition, by H. Bradley, M.A., Ph.D. 4to, half-morocco, il. lis. 6d. 
 
 The Student's Dictionary of Anglo-Saxon. By H. Sweet, M.A., 
 Ph.D., LL.D. Small 4to. 8s, 6d. net. 
 
 An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, based on the MS. collections of the 
 late Joseph Bosworth, D.D. Edited and enlarged by Prof. T. N. Toller, 
 M.A. Parts I-III. A-SAR. 4to, stiff covers, 1 -,s. each. Part IV, § i, 
 sAR-SWIdRIAN. Stiff covers, 8s. 6d. Part IV, § 2, SWfj?.SNEL- 
 YTMEST, iSs.6d. 
 
 An Icelandic-English Dictionary, based on the ]\IS. collections of 
 the late Richard Cleasby. Enlarged and completed by G. Vigfusson, 
 M.A. 4to. 3^. 7s. 
 
 2. LAW. 
 
 Anson. Principles of the 
 
 English Law of Contract, and of Agency 
 in its Relation to Contract. By Sir 
 W. R. Anson, D. C. L. Tenth Edition. 
 8vo. los. 6rf. 
 
 Anson, Law and Custom of 
 
 the Constitution, a vols. 8vo. 
 Parti. Parliament. Third Edition. 
 
 I2S. 6d. 
 Part II. The Crown. SecondEd, i^s. 
 
 Oxford : Clarendon Fress. 
 
LA W 
 
 it, with 
 lesaurus 
 sr, D.D., 
 
 n'sbacli, 
 
 Ss. 
 
 above. 
 Part IV, 
 
 spoken 
 he Plain 
 
 Second 
 
 bra fcap. 
 
 logically 
 ^nguagcs. 
 ration of 
 scholars. 
 . 1 3s. 6d. ; 
 
 D., and 
 
 iguage, 
 
 . Third 
 
 A new 
 
 >t, M.A., 
 
 IS of the 
 'J. Toller, 
 t IV, § I, 
 t?-SNEL- 
 
 ctions of 
 igfusson, 
 
 sto'in of 
 
 vo. 
 
 •d Edition . 
 
 id Ed. 148. 
 
 Bryce. Studies in History and 
 
 Jurispnirlencp. 2 Vols. Svo. Bytho 
 Riglitllon. J. Bryco, M. P. 25.S. net. 
 
 Goudy. Von Jheri n(jf< Lav 
 
 In Ikti'ij Life. TranslattVl hy II. 
 GoLOYjD.C.L. Crown Svo. ■;,s.(>d,net. 
 
 Digby. An rntroduction to 
 
 the History of the Law of Real I?ioptirl\f. 
 By Sir Kcnelm E. Digby, M, A. Fijih 
 Edition. Svo. 1 2s. 6rf. 
 
 Grueber. Lex Aquilia. By 
 
 Erwin Grueber, Dr. Jur., M.A. 
 Svo. I OS. 6d. 
 
 Hall. Lntemational Laiv. 
 
 ByW. E. Hall, M.A. Fifth Edition. 
 Revised by J. B. Athiy, M.A. Svo. 
 21S. net. 
 
 ' A Ti 'ca t Ise on the Foi 'c ign 
 
 Powers and Jurisdiction of the British 
 Crown. Svo. los. 6d. 
 
 Holland. Elements of Juris- 
 prudence. By T. E. Holland, D.C.L. 
 
 Ninth Edition. Svo. los. 6d. 
 
 ' Studies in International 
 
 Laio. Svo. los. 6d. 
 
 Gentilis, Alherici, De 
 
 lure Belli Libri Tree. Small 4to, 
 half-morocco. 21s. 
 
 The Institutes of Jus- 
 tinian, edited as a recension of 
 the Institutes of Gaius. Second 
 Edition. Extra fcap. Svo. 5s. 
 
 The European Concert 
 
 in the Eastern Question, a collection 
 of treaties and other public acts. 
 
 Svo. I2S. Gd. 
 
 Holland and Shadwell. Select 
 
 Titles from the Digest of Justinian, By 
 T. E. Holland, D.C.L., and C. L. 
 Shadwell, D.C.L. Svo. 14.5. 
 Also sold in Parts, in paper covers — 
 Part I. Introductory Titles. 2s. 6d. 
 Part II. Family Law. is. 
 Part III. Property Law, 2s. 6d. 
 Part IV. Law of Obligations (No. 1), 
 3s. 6d. (No. 2), 4s. 6d. 
 
 Ilbert. The Government of 
 
 India. Being a Digest of the 
 Statute Law relating thereto. 
 With Historical Introduction and 
 
 Illustrative Documents. By Sir 
 Courtonay Ilbort, K. C.S.I. Svo, 
 half-ro;m. 21s. 
 
 Ilbert. Lcciidoilve Forms and 
 
 Methods. Svo, half- roan. ifis. 
 
 Jenks. 31 idem Land Law. 
 
 By Edward .Tcnks, M.A. Svo. i^x. 
 
 Jenkyns. British JhiJe and 
 
 Jurisdiction heijond lite Seas. By tho 
 Into Sir Ihuiry Juiikyiis, K.C.B. 
 Svo, half- roan. i6.s. net. 
 
 Markby. Elements of Law 
 
 considered with reference to Pri7iciples oj 
 Oetieral Jurisprudence. By SirWilliam 
 Markby, D.C.L. Fifth Edition. Svo. 
 1 2s. 6d. 
 
 Moylo. Imperatoris lus- 
 
 tiniani Institutionum Lihri Quatluor, 
 with Introductions, Commentary, 
 Excursus and Translation. By J. B. 
 Moylo, D.C.L. Foioih Edition. 2 vols. 
 Svo. Vol. I. 1 6s. Vol. II. 6s. 
 
 Contract of Sale in the 
 
 Civil Law. Svo. I OS. 6d. 
 
 Pollock and Wright. An 
 
 Essay on Possession in the Common Law. 
 By Sir F. Pollock, Bart., M.A., and 
 Sir R. S.Wright, B.C.L. Svo. Ss.6d. 
 
 Poste. Gaii Institutionum 
 
 Juris Civilis Commentarii Quattuor ; or. 
 Elements of Roman Law by Gaius. 
 With a Translation and Commen- 
 tary by Edward Poste, M.A. Third 
 Edition. Svo. iSs. 
 
 Radcliffe and Miles. Ccises 
 
 lUusiratiixj the Vrinciph-fi of lite Law of 
 Torts. By F. R. Y. Kadclhi'i;, K.C, 
 andJ.O.MiMM, M.A. Sv(>. \2s.(nl,vet. 
 
 Sohm. Tlie Institutes. A 
 
 Text-book of tlio History and 
 
 System of Roman l'riva(o Law. 
 
 By Rudolph Solan. Translated by 
 
 J.C. Lodlie, B.C.L. Second Edilion, 
 
 revised and enlarged. Svo. iSs. 
 
 Stokes. The Anglo-Indian 
 
 Codes. By Whitley Stokes, LL.D. 
 
 Vol. I. Substantive Law. Svo. 30,9. 
 
 Vol. II. Adjective Law. Svo. 35s. 
 First and Second Supplements to 
 
 tho above, 18S7-1S91. Svo. 6s. 6d!. 
 Separately, No. I, 2s.6d.; No. 2,4s.6d. 
 
 London 1 Hbnrt Frowdb, Amen Comer, E.G. 
 
HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, ETC, 
 
 3. HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, ETC. 
 
 1 ■ 
 
 % 
 
 
 !' 
 
 ¥ 
 
 ¥■ 
 W 
 
 Sjij 
 
 
 
 Asser. Life, of King Alfred, 
 
 together witli the Annals of St. 
 Noets, orronoously ascribed to 
 Asser. Edited witii Introduction 
 and Commentary hy W. II. Steven- 
 son, M. A. 2 vols. Crown 8vo. I2s.nef. 
 
 Aubrey. ' Brief Lives,' chiefly 
 
 oj Conleniporarief;, set down hy John 
 Anhrey, hehoeen the Years 1669 and 
 1696. Edited from the Author's 
 MSS.,byAndrowClark,M.A.,LL.D. 
 With Facsimiles. 2 vols. Svo. 25.S. 
 
 Ballard. Tlie Bomcadai/ Bor- 
 
 3 • ' /s. By Apot,piiusBallakd, B.A.. 
 LL.B. Svo. With four Plans. 6s. 6(/. 
 nd. 
 
 Barnard. Compan Ion to Eiu/- 
 
 lifih History {Middle Ages). With 97 
 Illustrations. By F. P. Barnard, 
 M.A. Crown Svo. 8s. 6d. net. 
 
 Boswell's Life of Samuel 
 
 Johnson, LL.D. Edited by G. Bix'k- 
 beck Hill, D.C.L. In six volumes, 
 medium Svo. With Portraits and 
 Facsimiles. Half-bound. 3?. 3s. 
 
 Bright. Chapters of Early 
 
 English Church History. By W. 
 Bright, D.D. Tliird Edition. Revised 
 and Enlarged. With a Map. Svo. 12s. 
 
 Bryce. Studies in History 
 
 and Jurisprudence. By J. Bryce, M.P. 
 2 vols. Svo. 25s. net. 
 
 Butler. TliC Arab Conquest 
 
 of Egypt and the last thirty years of the 
 Eoynan Dominion. By A. J. Butler, 
 D.Litt., F.S.A. With Maps and 
 Plans. Svo. i(^s. net. 
 
 Chambers . Tli e Med iaeva I 
 
 stage. By E. K. Chambers. With 
 twoillustrations. 2 vols. Svo. 25s.»!ei'. 
 
 Clarendon's History of the 
 
 Rebellion and Civil Wars in England. 
 Re-edited by W. Dunn Macray, 
 M.A., F.S.A. 6 vols. Crown Svo. 2L 5s. 
 
 Earle and Plummer. Tiuo of 
 
 the Saxon Chronicles, Parallel, icith 
 Supplementary Extracts from the others, 
 A Revised Text, edited, with Intro- 
 duction, Notes, Appendices, and 
 
 Glossary, by C. Plummer, M.A.,on 
 
 the basis of an edition by J. Earle, 
 
 M.A. 2 vols. Cr. Svo, half-i-oan. 
 
 Vol. I. Text, Appendices, and 
 
 Glossary. lo.s. 6d. 
 Vol. II. Introduction, Notes, and 
 
 Index. I2S. Gd. 
 
 Fisher. Studie>^ in JS^ipuIe- 
 
 onic Statesmanship. — Gcrmani/. By 
 II. A. L. Fisher, M.A. With four 
 Ma]i3. Svo. 1 2s. 6d. net. 
 
 Freemaii. The History oJ 
 
 Sicily from the Earliest Times. 
 
 Vols. I and II. Svo, cloth. 2^.28. 
 Vol. III. The Athenian and 
 
 Carthaginian Invasions. 24s. 
 Vol. IV. From the Tyranny of 
 
 Dionysios to the Death of 
 
 Agathokles. Edited by Arthur 
 
 J. Evans, M.A, 21s, 
 
 Freeman. The Heign of 
 
 William Rufus and the Accession of 
 Henry the First. By E. A. Freeman, 
 D.C.L. 2 vols. Svo. il. i6s. 
 
 Gardiner. The Constitutional 
 
 Documen'.s of the Puritan Revolution, 
 1628-16 lo. ByS.R. Gardiner,D.C.L. 
 Second Edition. Crown Svo, los. 6(/. 
 
 Gross. The Gild Merchant; 
 
 a Contribution to British Municipal 
 History. By Charles Gross, Ph.D. 
 2 vols. Svo. 24s. 
 
 Hill. Sources for Greek 
 
 History between the Persian and Felopon- 
 nesian Wars. Collected and arranged 
 byG. F. Hill, M.A, Svo. 10s. 6d. 
 
 Hodgkin. Italy and her In- 
 vaders. With Plates & Maps. 8 vols. 
 Svo. ByT. Hodgkin, D.C.L. 
 Vols. I-II. Second Edition. 42s. 
 Vols. III-IV. Second Edition. 36s. 
 Vols. V-VI. 36s. 
 Vol, Vll-VIli {completing the 
 ivork). 24s. 
 
 Johnson. Letters of Samuel 
 
 Johnson, LL.D. Collected and Edited 
 by G. Birkbeck Hill, D.C.L. 2 vols, 
 half-roan. 28s. ■■ 
 
 Johnsonian Miscellanies. 
 
 2 vols. Medium Svo, half-roan. 28s. 
 
 Oxford : Olarendon Press. 
 
HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, ETC. 
 
 , M.A.,nn 
 J. Earle, 
 alf-roan. 
 ices, and 
 
 otcs, and 
 
 JWipoIc- 
 
 ami. By 
 Vith fuur 
 
 lory oj 
 
 s. 
 
 th. 2^.28. 
 
 nian and 
 5ns. 24s. 
 yranny of 
 Death of 
 by Arthur 
 
 ign of 
 
 iccessio7i of 
 Freeman, 
 :. 1 6s. 
 
 tutional 
 
 Revolution, 
 ier,D.C.L. 
 0. 10s. 6d, 
 
 '■reliant ; 
 
 Municipal 
 [)ss, Ph.D. 
 
 Greek 
 
 nd Pelopon- 
 arranged 
 10s. 6d. 
 
 her In- 
 
 S vols. 
 L. 
 
 wn. 42s. 
 Uion. 36s, 
 
 kting the 
 
 Samuel 
 
 nd Edited 
 L. 2 vols. 
 
 llanies. 
 
 oan. 28s. 
 
 )S 
 
 Kitchin. A History of France. 
 
 By G. W. Kitchin, D.D. In three 
 Volumes. Crown 8vo, each los. 6d. 
 Vol. I. to 1453. Vol. II. 1453- 
 1624. Vol. III. 1624-1793. 
 
 Kyd. The Works of Thomas 
 
 I'-id. Ediiod from the original 
 Texts, with Introduction, Notes, 
 and Facsimiles. By F. S. Boas, 
 M.A. Svo. 15s, net. 
 
 Lewis {Sir G. Cornevmll). 
 
 An Essay on the Government of De- 
 pendencies. Edited by C. P. Lucas, 
 B.A. Svo, half-roan. 14s. 
 
 Lucas. Historical Geography 
 
 of the British Colonies. By C. P.Lucas, 
 B.A, With Maps. Cr. Svo. 
 
 T/te Origin and Gioivlli, of the 
 English Colonics and of their 
 System of Government (an Intro- 
 duction to Mr. C. P. Lu(!as' 
 Historical Googniphy of the 
 Colonies). By H. E. ]\uori:on. 
 25. Gd. Also in ))indii)<'' unil'orm 
 with the Series. 3s. Gd. 
 
 •Vol.1. The Mediterranean and 
 Eastern Colonies (exclusive of 
 India). 5s. 
 
 Vol. II . The West Indian Colo- 
 nies. 7s. 6d. 
 
 Vol. III. West Africa. Second 
 Edition, revised to the end 0/1899, 
 hy H. E. Egerton. 7s. 6d. 
 
 Vol. IV. South and East Africa. 
 Historical and Geographical. 
 9s. 6d. 
 
 Also Vol. IV in two Parts — 
 Part I. Historical, 6s. 6d. 
 Part II. Geographical, 3s. 6d. 
 Vol. V. The History of Canada 
 (Part I, New France). 6s. 
 
 Ludlow. The Memoirs of 
 
 Edmund Ludlow, Lieutenant-General of 
 the Horse in the Army of the Common- 
 wealth of England, 1625-1672. Edited 
 by C. H. Firth, M.A. 2 vols. 36s. 
 
 Lyly. TJieWorhs of John Lyhj. 
 
 Collected and edited, with facsim- 
 iles, by R. W. Bond, M.A. In 3 vols. 
 Svo, uniform with Kyd. 42s. net. 
 
 Machiavelli. II Principe. 
 
 Edited by L. Arthur Burd, M.A. 
 With an Introduction by Lord 
 Acton. Svo. 14s. 
 
 Merriman. Life and Letters of 
 
 Tliomas Cromwell. Witli a Portrait 
 and Facsimile. By II. B. Merriman, 
 B.Litt. 2 vols. Svo. iSs. 7ict. 
 
 Morris. The Welsh Wars (f 
 
 Edward T. With a Maji. By J. E. 
 Morris, M.A. Svo. ys. 6d. ntt. 
 
 Oman. A Hidory of tlic Penin- 
 sular War. 6 vols. Svo. Witli Ma])s, 
 Plans, and Portraits. By C. Oman, 
 M.A. Vol. I, 1807-1809. i.\s. net. 
 Vol. II. Jan. -Sept., iSoy (from the 
 Battle of Corunna to iW. end of tlio 
 Talavera Campaign). 14s. net. 
 
 Payne. Hidory of the Neiu 
 
 World called America. By E. J. 
 Payne, M.A. Svo. 
 
 Vol. I, containing The Discovert/ 
 
 and Aboriginal America, i8s. 
 Vol. II, Aboriginal America (con- 
 cluded), 14s. 
 
 Plummer. The Life ct^nd Times 
 
 of Alfred the Great. By Cliarles 
 Plummer, M.A, Crown Svo. 5s. 
 net. 
 
 Poole. Hidorical Atlas of 
 
 Modern Europe from the decline if the 
 Roman Empire. Edited by 11. L. 
 Poole, M.A. e^l. i^s.Cd. net. Each 
 Map can now bo bought separately 
 lor IS. 6d. net. 
 
 Prothero. Select Statutes and 
 
 other Constitutional Documents, illustra- 
 tive of the Reigns of Elizabeth and 
 James I. Edited by G. W. Prothero, 
 M.A, Cr, Svo, Edition 2. los. 6d. 
 
 Ramsay (Sir J. H.). Lancaster 
 
 and York. (a.d. 1399-1485), 2 vols. 
 Svo, With Index. 37s, 6d. 
 
 Ramsay (W. M.). The Cities 
 
 and Bishoprics ofPhrygia. 
 
 Vol.1. PartL The Lycos Valley 
 and South-Westorn Phrygia. 
 Royal Svo. 18s. net. 
 
 Vol. I. Part II. We&t and West- 
 Central Phrvgia. 21S, ne^ 
 
 London ; IIenry Frowde, Amen Corner, E,C, 
 
PHILOSOPHY, LOGIC, ETC. 
 
 m 
 
 
 III ' 
 
 I-"- 
 
 m 
 
 Ranke. A History of Eng- 
 land, principaUy in the Seventeenth 
 Century. By L. von Ranke. Trans- 
 lated under the superintendence of 
 G. W. Kitchin, D.D., and C. W. 
 Boase, M.A. 6 vols. 8vo. 63s. 
 Revised Index, separately, is. 
 
 Rashdall. lite Universities of 
 
 Europe in the Middle Ages, By Hast- 
 iuga Ratshdall, M.A. 2 vols, (in 3 
 Parts) 8vo. With Maps. 2I. 5s. net. 
 
 Rh;^s. Studies in the Arthur- 
 ian Legend. By John Rhys, M.A. 
 8vo. I2S. 6d. 
 
 ' Celtic Folklore: Welsh and 
 
 Manx. By the same. 2 vols. 8vo. 21s. 
 
 Rogers. History of Agricul- 
 ture a^ul Prices in England, A. I). I25Q- 
 I793' By J- ^- Thorold Rogers, 
 M.A. 8vo. 
 Vols. I, II ('i2(;9-i40o\ 42s. 
 Vols. Ill, IV (1401-1582), 50s. 
 Vols. V, VI (1583-1702), 50.S. 
 Vol. VII, 2 Parts (i 703-1 793). 
 By A. G. L. Rogers, M.A. 50s. 
 
 Sanday. Sacred Sites of the 
 
 Gospels. By W. Sanday, D.D.' With 
 many illustrati(ms,includingdraw- 
 ings of the Temple by Paul Water- 
 house. 8vo. 13s. 6d. net. 
 
 Scaccario. De Necessariis 
 
 Observantiis Scaccarii Dialogus. Com- 
 monly called Dialogus do Spaccario. 
 
 By Richard, Sun of Nigel, Treasurer 
 of En!.:land and Bishop of London. 
 E'lited hy Arihur Hughes, C Ct. 
 Crnm)), and C. Johnson. 8vo, 
 I 2.S. fid. net. 
 
 Smith's Lectures on Justice., 
 
 Police, Revenue and Arms. Edited, 
 with Introduction and Notes, by 
 Edwin Cannan. 8vo. lo.s. 6(^«e^ 
 
 Wealth of Nations. 
 
 With Notes, by J. E.'Thorold Rogers, 
 M.A. 2 vols. Svo. a IS. 
 
 Stubbs. Select Charters and 
 
 other Illv.strations of English Constitu- 
 tional History, from the Earliest Times 
 to the Reign of Edward I. Arranged 
 and edited by W. Stubbs, D.D. 
 Eighth Edition. Crown Svo. 8s. 6d. 
 
 The Constitutional His- 
 tory of England, in its Origin and 
 Development. Library Edition. 3 vols. 
 Demy 8vo. 2I. 8s. 
 Also in 3 vols, crown Svo. 1 2s. each. 
 
 Seventeen Lectures on 
 
 the Study of Mediaeval and Modern 
 History and kindred subjects. Cro*vn 
 Svo. Third Edition. Ss. 6d. 
 
 Eegistrum Sacrum 
 
 Anglicanum. Sm. 4to. Ed. 2. ios.6(i'. 
 
 VinogradofT. Villainage in 
 
 England. Essays in English Medi- 
 aeval History. By PaulVinogradoff. 
 Svo, half-bound. 16s. 
 
 4. PHILOSOPHY, LOGIC, ETC. 
 
 Bacon. Novum Organum. 
 
 Edited, with Introduction, Notes, 
 &c., by T. Fowler, D.D. Second 
 Edition. Svo. 15s. 
 
 Berkeley. The Works of 
 
 George Berkeley, D.D., formerly Bishop 
 of Cloytie ; including many of his vyrit- 
 ings hitherto unpublished. With Pre- 
 faces, Annotations, Appendices, 
 and an Account of his Life, by A. 
 CampbellFraser, Hon.D. C.L., LL. D. 
 New Edition in 4 vols., cr. Svo. 24s. 
 
 The Life and Letters, 
 
 with an account of )tis Philosophy. By 
 A. Campbell Eraser. Svo. i6s. 
 
 Bosanquet. Logic; or, the 
 
 Morphology of Knowledge. By B. 
 Bosanquet, M.A. Svo. 21s. 
 
 Butler. The Works of Joseph 
 
 Butler, D.C.L., sometime Lord Bishop 
 of Durham. Edited by the Riglit 
 lion. W. E. Gladstone. 2 vols. 
 Medium Svo. 14s. each. 
 
 Campagnac. llie Camhridge 
 
 Plafonists: being Selections from the 
 writings of Benjamin Whichcote, 
 John Smith, and Nathanael Culvor- 
 wel, with Introduction by E. T. 
 Campagnac, M.A. Cr.Svo. 6s.6d.ne«. 
 
 Oxford : Clarendon Press, 
 
PHYSICAL SCIENCE, ETC. 
 
 
 Fowler. Logic; Deductive and 
 
 Inductive, combined in a single 
 volume. Extra fcap. 8vo. 7s. 6rf. 
 
 Fowler and Wilson. The 
 
 Principles of Morals. By T. Fowler, 
 D.D,, and J. M. Wilson, L.D. 8vo, 
 cloth. 14s. 
 
 Green. Prolegomena to Ethics. 
 
 By T. II. Greon, M.A. Edited by 
 A. C. Bradley, M.A. Fourth Edition. 
 Crown 8vo. 7.s". 6rf. 
 
 Hegel. The Logic of Hegel. 
 
 Translated from the Encyclopaedia 
 of the Philosophical Sciences. With 
 Prolegomena to the Study of Hegel's 
 Logic and Philosophy. By W. Wal- 
 lace, M.A. Second Edition, Revised 
 and Augmented. 2 vols. Crown 8vo. 
 ios.6d. each. 
 
 Hegel's Philosophy of Mind. 
 
 Translated from the Encyclopaedia 
 of the Philosophical Sciences. With 
 Five Introductory Essays. By Wil- 
 liam Wallace, M.A., LL.D. Crown 
 8vo. I OS. 6d. 
 
 Hume's Treatise of Human 
 
 Nature. Edited, with Analytical 
 Index, by L. A. Selby-Bigge. M.A. 
 Second Edition. Crown 8vo. ^s. net. 
 
 Enquiry concerning 
 
 the Human Understandinrj. Edited 
 by L. A. Solby-Bigge, M.A. Second 
 Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s. net. 
 
 Leibniz. The Monadology and 
 
 other Philosophical Writings. Trans- 
 lated, with Introduction and Notes, 
 by Robert Latta, M.A., D.Phil. 
 Crowu Svo. Ss, 6d. 
 
 5. PHYSICAL 
 
 Chambers. A Handbook of 
 
 Descriptive and Practical Astronomy. 
 By G. F. Chambers, F.R.A.S. Fourth 
 Edition, in 3 vols. Demy 8vo. 
 Vol. I. The Sun, Planets, and 
 
 Comets. 2 IS. 
 Vol. II. Instruments and Irac- 
 
 tical Astronomy. 21s. 
 Vol. III. The Starry Heavens. 14s. 
 
 Locke. An Essay Concern- 
 
 ing Human Understanding. By John 
 Locke. Collated and Annotated 
 by A. Campbidl Eraser, Hon. 
 D.C.L., LL.D. 2 vols. Svo. 1/. las. 
 
 Lotze's Logic, in Throe Books 
 
 — of Thouglit, of Invo>Li;jat ion, and 
 of Knowledge. Eiiglisli Transla- 
 tion; edited by B. Bosauquet, M.A. 
 Second Edition. 2 vols. Cr. Svo. 12s. 
 
 Metaphysic, in Three 
 
 Books— Ontology, Cosmology, and 
 Psychology. English Translation ; 
 edited by B. Bosanquot, M.A. 
 Second EdiHoyi. 2 vols. Cr. Svo. 12s. 
 
 Martineau. Types of Ethical 
 
 Theory. By Jam* s Martineau, D.D. 
 Third Edition. 2 Vols. Cr. Svo. 15s. 
 
 A Study of Religion : 
 
 its Sources and Contents. Second Edition. 
 2 vols. Cr. Svo. 15s. 
 
 Selby-Bigge. British Morcd~ 
 
 ists. Selections from Writers prin- 
 cipally of the Eighteenth Century. 
 Edited by L. A. Selby-Bigge, M.A. 
 2 vols. Crown Svo. I2.s. net, uni- 
 form with Hume's Treatise and En- 
 quiry and the 4 vol. crown Svo 
 edition of Berkeley. 
 
 Spinoza. A Study in the 
 
 Etiiics of Spinoza. By Harold H, 
 Joachim. Svo. los. dd. net. 
 
 Wallace. Lectures and Essays 
 
 OM Natural Theology and Ethics. By 
 William Wallace, M.A., LL.D. 
 Edited, with a Biographical Intro- 
 duction, by Edward Caird, M.A. 
 Svo, with a Portrait. 12s. 6d. 
 
 SCIENCE, ETC. 
 
 De Bary. Cotnparative Ana- 
 tomy of the Vegetative Organs of the 
 Phanerogams and Feryis. By Dr. A. 
 de Bary. Translated l)y F. O. 
 Bower, M.A., and D. H. Scott, M.A, 
 Royal Svo, half-morocco, 246'. net.; 
 cloth, 2 IS. net. 
 
 Co'niparative Morpho' 
 
 logy and Biology of Fungi, Mycetozoa 
 
 London : Hknby Frowde, Amen Corner, B.O, 
 
8 
 
 PHYSICAL SCIENCE, ETC. 
 
 11' 
 
 i 
 ■pi- 
 
 
 t-. ■ 
 
 and Bacteria. By Dr. A. de Bary. 
 Translated by H. E. F. Garnsey, 
 M.A. Revised by Isaac Bayley Bill- 
 four, M.A., M.D.,F.R.S. Royal Svo, 
 hali-morocco, 24s, vet ; clotli, 2 is. net. 
 
 Lectures on Bacteria. 
 
 By Dr. A. d j Bary. Second Improved 
 Edition. Translated and revised by 
 the same. Crown Svo. 5,s. nd. 
 
 Ewart. On the Physics and 
 
 J'hysiolofjy of rroUqilasmic Streaming 
 in Plants. By A. J. Ewart, D.Sc, 
 Ph.D.jF.L.S. With seventeen illus- 
 trations. Royal Svo. ?^s. 6d. net. 
 
 Fischer. The Structure and 
 
 Functions of Bacteria. By Alfrt d 
 Fischer. Translated into English 
 by A. C. Jones. Royal Svo. With 
 Twenty-nine Woodcuts. 7s. 6d. not. 
 
 Goebel . Outl ines of Classifi- 
 cation and Special Morphology of Plants. 
 By Dr. K. Goebel. Translated by 
 H. E. F. Garnsey, M.A. Revised by 
 I. B. Balfour, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. 
 Royal Svo, half-morocco, 2.2s. 6d. 
 net; cloth, 20s. net. 
 
 Organography of Plants, 
 
 especially of the Archegoniatae and Sper- 
 maphyta. By Dr. K. Goebel. Autho- 
 rized English Edition, by I. B . Bal- 
 four, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. Part I, 
 General Organography. Royal Svo, 
 half-morocco, 1 2s. net; cloth, ios.net. 
 [Pt. II in the Press. 
 
 Miall and Hammond. The 
 
 Structure and Life-History of the 
 Harlequin Fly {Chironomus). By L. C. 
 Miall, F.R.S., and A. R. Hammond, 
 F.L.S. Svo. With 130 Illustra- 
 tions. 7s. Crf. 
 
 Pfeffer. The Physiology of 
 
 Plants. A Treatise upon the Metabolism 
 and Sources of Energy in Plants. By 
 Prof. Dr. W. Pfeffer. Second fully 
 Revised Edition, translated and 
 edited by A. J. Ewart, D.Sc, Ph.D., 
 F.L.S. Royal Svo, Vol. I, hall- 
 
 morocco, 26s. net; cloth, 23s. net. 
 Vol. II, 16s. net ; clotli, 14s. net. 
 
 Prestwich, Geology — Chemi- 
 
 calj Physical, and Stratigraphicol. By 
 Sir Josei)h Prestwich, M.A., F.R,S. 
 In two Volumes. Royal Svo. 6 is. 
 
 Sachs. A History of Botany. 
 
 Translated by H. E. F. Garnsey, 
 
 M.A. Revised by I. B, Balfour, 
 
 M.A.,M.D.,F.R.S. Cr.Svo. los.^ic^ 
 
 Schimper. J^/(/n/- Gcof/mphj 
 
 upon a riiysioliijical Basis, By Dr, 
 A. F, W. Schimper. The Author- 
 ized English Translation, by W. 11. 
 Fisher, M.A. Revised and edited 
 by Percy Groom. M.A., and I. B. 
 Ilalfour,'^ M.A.. M.D., F.R.S. Royal 
 Svo. With a photogravure portrait 
 of Dr. Sehimiier, fivo collotypes, 
 four maps, and four liundrcd and 
 ninety-seven other illustrations. 
 Half-morocco, 42,9. net. 
 
 Solms-Laubach. Fossil Bot- 
 any. Being an Introduction to Palaeo- 
 phytology from the Standpoint of the 
 Botanist. By H. Graf zu Solms- 
 Laubach. Translated and revised 
 by the same. Royal Svo, half- 
 morocco, 17s. net; cloth, 15s. «t/, 
 
 OXFOEDHISTOEY or MUSIC, 
 
 8vo. Edited by W. H, Hadow, M.A. 
 
 The Poll/phonic Period. Part I 
 
 (Method of Musical Art, 330-1330). 
 
 By H, E. Wooldridge, M.A. 1 5s. net. 
 Hie Seventeenth Century. By Sir 
 
 C. H. H. Parry, M. A. , D. Mus. i cs. net. 
 Tlie Age of Bach and Handel. By 
 
 J. A. Fuller Maitland, M.A." 15s. net. 
 
 IN PREPARATION. 
 The Poll/phonic Period. Part II. 
 
 By H.'E. Wooldridge, M.A.' 
 TJie Viennese School. By W. II. 
 
 Hadow, M.A. 
 I'he liomantic Period. By E. 
 
 Dannreuthei-, M.A. 
 
 OXFORD 
 AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 
 LONDON, EDINBURGH, NEW YORK, AND TORONTO 
 HENRY FROWDE 
 
•lot]), 23s. nef. 
 til, i^s. net. 
 
 jy — Chemi- 
 
 igraphtcpl. By 
 1, M.A.,F.R.S. 
 
 oya) 8vo. 6 is. 
 
 f of Botany. 
 
 . F. Garnsey, 
 '. B. Balfour, 
 
 r. 8vo. 10s. net. 
 
 Gcofiraphy 
 
 ?«s/.s'. By Dr. 
 
 The Author- 
 tion, by W. 1?. 
 id and edited 
 A., and I. B. 
 F.R.S. Royal 
 ivure portrait 
 TO collotyi^cs, 
 hnndred and 
 
 illustrations. 
 t. 
 
 Fossil Bot- 
 
 ction to Palaeo- 
 ndpoint of the 
 af zu Solms- 
 l and revised 
 al 8vo, half- 
 [h, 15s. net. 
 
 OF MUSIC. 
 
 Hadow, M.A. 
 nl. Part I 
 
 rt, .^30-1330). 
 M.A. is,s.net. 
 inj. By Sir 
 ). ftlus. is.s.nd. 
 Handel. By 
 M.A."i5s. ?zt^ 
 ION. 
 I. Part II. 
 
 M.A.' 
 
 By W. H. 
 
 I. By E. 
 
 )NTO