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FOBUBBID ST BDWni BDirr. ^£s™SS.!' : ■w^ ''J*^>!J'J»*&'*i*f;-'' '¥n ^ V"i *■ II ■'^m - Publiahe Authorli Life of I lotroduci EnteradMCOidhstottie Aetof CongMM, ia the ycur 18U, by O- F. RobiiHMi ft Co., in no Clorek^ OiBce of ttie Dutiict Cowt of Coaii. i :.ia.. X 77 ; 'P5- V r.' 1- .'..J -'I % From the fiarb »'ffii.-!«fi>*!'i**auu y«>r ISn, by D. F Bt Cowt of Cobb. 9 CONTENTS OP VOLUME I. • It Introduction Chapx« I. 17 Pmm A T . Chaptbb II.— Period I. ^"■.2^"Sit„«:?a5*r,-„-s-j- ■ « '-«'-— orjs^;:;'-„"ri„. ^ '».p^<*^vSr.Ti~-rp"'^,3«. „. From Pom II«.j^ iSJI^'™' VI.-P,„« y. "' • • IW Pro- *^ *-L, ChA»™« Vn.-.p«.,OB VI ' ?..... ,.,,m CONTENTS OF VOLUME II. Pige. Chaptbk Vin — Pebiod VII. I IkA PMce of Wettphalia to that of Utrecht, A. D. 1«4S->1718. 9 CHAPTiim IX.— Period VIII. Fwm A« Pause of Utrecht to tiie French Revolution, A. D. 1718—1789, 57 , Chapter X Period IX. Ac commencement of the French ReTolution, to the dBwnM of Buontiwrte, A. D. 1789— 1815,. . > 140 Chapter XI. TIm MOituj Predominance of Fnnce, under the away of Napo- liMBBw>in|>arte,A.D. 1802— 1810 IM Chapter XII. I Decline and Downftll of the Empire of finonqmrte, A. D. imo— 1815 858 Appbrdix. I tlw Mcond Reetoration of the Bourbons, A. D. 1815, to the Frwch Rerolntion iB July. 1880. ..«. 808 BOTOliitioaLaBelKittm,A.D. 1880, U8 BMdUioB&Polaud.A.fi.lSao 9» i^5M6ti b OreMd, A. D. 1821— 1827, 841 WarbebreenRuMiau^Turitn.A. D. 1828aDdl889, 881 Ei^giua, ftom A. D: in8,m file paMihg of the Reibim Bill in 1882. 885 NMi^* ....... ii 877 Ti aelec whic tutio embi repri whic notb man also with with him I omm light! dwel dttcii laitt of a beib uaUc the I Men 1%^__,_ (E II. P«ge. ni. t,A.D. l«4B-'m8. » ni. n,A.D.17U-1789. 57 X. olution, to the .i 140 sway of Napo- • ••••••••••••••••• \9v inumite, A. D. rrrr. «» D. 1815, to the MM S» t» 841 11839 an fteibimBminl882. 865 , 8T7 t "'Ji PUBLISHER'S NOTICE. Thb Publither of the present edition of Kooh's Revolutions, hu selected the work for publication on accqunt of the- very high reputation which it has in Europe, and its general adoption there in Literal Insti- tutions, as the outline of instruction in the portion of Hiatoiy which it embraces. Its high merit would no doubt have obtained for it an eariier reprint from the American press, but for the errors and gallicisms with which the English translation abounds. These defects, it is hoped, will not be found in the present edition, which has been revised by a gentle- man who has endeavored not only to correct the fiiults of language, but also to strike from its pages all expressions of principles inconsistent with the liberal Apiiit of philosphical history. A 'practical acquaintance with the work as ja Mamtal of htatruetion in Hittory, has convinced him of its admirable adaptation to this purpose, and enabled him to rec- ommend it for its fidelity, impartiality, conciseness, dear argument, en- lightened spirit, and leamfd research- Omitting no important event, and dwellinK very Ailly upon tiiioee which have um great influence In pro- dttcing ue permanent changes which the civilized worid has undergone in Uie last fifteen centuriee, it may almost claim, he thinks, the united vlvantagei of a compendious and ait ebbonte Histoi^. In Aill confidence that it will be found deserving of iba U^ character it has sustained abroad, and a val- uaUe and fidthftd guide iu rendering the youdi of our countiv fiuniliar witii the HistoiT of Modem E\w)pe, it it now ofired to tho patronage of tiie friends of Useful Kmnkledne, by THE ASOEKICAN PUBLISHER. I T both tinof it w ofd king tiOBI nori WTM AUk fmn turn ilizal conf •ru •odi ■Wt) Tl rapt, •gim •mnl •Tan izitk Son It dicir «P« g«M W«i Tl llidd pnM MkN in on •1 AUTHOR'S PREFACE. Th« work hm praMotad to tha pnbUc, ii ■ mimmuv of tha ReralutloM, both ganend ud puticuliir, which bare happanad in Enrapa ainca tha n- tinction of dM Romap Enwjra in tha fifth eanhiiy. Aa an alamantaiv Book, it wUl IM fouiid uaAil to tfaoaa who wiah to hava a coadaa aiMlgaiiaral Waw of ttM aueeaaalTa reToiatfc»a that hara changad ttia aapaot a atataa and Idnadpma, ud gi?an Uith to tha aiiating poUev and aateblidiad oidar of ao- ciahrln modarn timaa. Without aena praUminaijr aemaintanca with tha annala of thaaa nvohi- iioBa,waeaiinaiaMratnd7tfMMa(or7of our owncountiy to advantaga, noraaprw^ tha influanoa which tha diiftrent atataa, tbrmad ft^flM wrack of Oe anciant Roman Empira, reciprooaUjr axaiciaad on aaoh olhar. AMWaalt ware by tha gaognfriUcalpoaidon of thair tanitoriaa. by • eon- Mmitir in thair rali^, bagui^a. and mannan, thaaa alatea oontraetad nMT aitachmnti in Oia tieo of mutual interaata, which tta prociaaa of dr- uization, commarea, and induativ, taadedmoM and mora to camant and conflnn. Manvof thamwhomfoItunahadalaTatadtothaanmmitofpow• "'^,.C!''^•3r.oa^^ad ttiairlawa, thair arta and inatitutiona, both ciiril and miUtarr,ftr beyond tha limita of thair own dcminiona. Theeztanair* y whiob the Romiah hiaranshy held for nearty a thooiand yean orar tfM -'- putof tha European kingdoma, ia wdl known to araiy loader of loontimiity of intoicouiae and relatiooaUp among 1h» powara of Eu- fl**' "^!5* ™ "*" "f *"»'■« ^>"» tato a kind of iwMMfc»nmlB« j it gara bMh to a national hw and conventional li^ta/fonndad o» tk« agra«nent of treatiao, and tha uai«aa of common piaetka. A tmtM* emnlati *•«»<* ■««»• •«» aiperieneadlndMlaipaof aomaiqrage8,ttiatrequintobedaTdopad in n eMmlvtow.auchaaliiBtwfaichpnftaMatobeflia object of flie pnoant Thoantkorhaahenranwddladhia "View of the Rarolutiona of tha Mddle Agea.*; (puMiahed In ITOO.) and aitandad or abikhad thadMbMBt pariodaaoeoitfngtodreumBluicaa. b continuing tUawoik down to the pnaanttiM.heliaa deemed neeeaaaiT to conclude at tha Fianch Rot«- !™*!J?.^ J*?"*?'^ '•■'*■ ^ *« V*^ •▼"«* «• too »»w* towhred in uneertyatgrtoba dearly or impartially eihiUted by oontenpotaiywitteia.* * b Aa adltioB of Itli, flroca which Urn pK-«at trawktlon la made, die jneMMM h^bjw cooliBuad lif tha Edlte/,j M. Schra, Awn to the »th ' < J .c^jwiimi^ mtiwii ■»i»^R^--gj; „ - M>> «» )A < n »w lawy* ftt Bo Aliae Hit i under place, the R Strmsl SchoB but h and tl art of Gtnet ciate compi and b that f at St famili his ti re«8 IMC Com asticc a pn whic ordin auth( emin Af 1762 most Royi pare( gagei tion I only the 1 who bequ TO k*t» 4 . -M-:^**! o-tl^MS. «■ ^*T- LIFB OF KOCH. l^ .,.,- -'T' ..V..;.. )fiitf>.'.tfMfr^^: CmitToriift WtLLiAM Koch, equally diatinguUhed M • lawTtr and a Uarned historian, was born on the 9tn of May 1737 at Bouxwiller, a small town in the seigniory of Lichtenberg in Alsace, which then belonged to the Prince of Hesse-Darmstadt. His father, who was a member of the Chamber of Finaoee under that prince, iient him to an excellent school in his nativa place, where he receired the rudiments of his education. At the age of thirteen, he went to the Protestant University of Strasbourg, w here he prosecuted his studies under the celebrated Schospflin. Law was the profession to which he was destined ; but he showed an early predilection for the study of history, and the sciences connected with it, such as Diplomatics, or the art of deciphering and verifying ancient writs and chartularks, Genealogy, Chronology., 5cc. Sch deliver lectures ; to the statutes of of merit but inca- r of youth in the >f ScWpflin were ead «.!" that diplo- he public so grc-at d him the chair of Itingen, which he I., who knew well I wiih the dignity lie between that o ut the same period asbourg, which he he French Revolu- nnts of Alsace sent the King and the ' their civil and re- •mer treaties. He ree of the 17th of , and declared that were not included f November prece- ,tion. The former I by an act, bearing vere approved ana the Be volution had semblage of youth, he natural beauties These disastrous time when he was vices to his country. blic affairs. Being e Assembly, he op- ion, and ultimately r the Committee of lintenance of peace ; e foretold the cala if war should bo in faction, by their Un OF KOCB. •• « eUmours, silencedjhe remonstruces of Koch, when, on th« 20th of April, he spoke in opposition to a measure which pwTed so fatal to France. An official letter which he addresMd, lUOi of August, to the constituted authorities of the Lower Rhine, sufficiently expressed the horro* with which that day's proceed- ings had inspired him. He procured, moreover, the concurrence of his fellow-citizens in a resistance, vnhich he had-then torn reason to hope would be made a common cause by the other provinces. This letter drew dovim upon him tha persecuuon of the ruling party. He was immured in a prison, where he languished for eleven months, and from which he had no pro8< pect of escape, except to mount the scaffold. The revoluUon of the 9th Thermidor restored him to liberty, when he was ap- pointed, by the voice of his fellow-citizens, to the Directory of their provincial department. He endeavoured by all means m his power to defeat the measures that were taken to mjure h» constituents; and had influence enough, it- is said, to prevent the sale of the funds belonging to manufactories and hospitals. He then resumed with pleasure those functions which he had unwillingly accepted; in 1795, he recommenced his proiefsorahip of public°law, and returned with new zeal to his literary lajours, which had been too long interrupted. Six years he spent m these useful occupations; from which, however, he was once more detached by a decree of the Senate, which nominated him a member of the Tribunal. This nomination Koch accepted, in the hope of being useful to his Protestant countrymen, and to the city of Strasbourg, in obtaining the re-establishment of the reformed religion, and its restoration m the Lniyersity. He did, in effect, exert himself much in behalf oj religion, a©- cording to the confession of Augsburg, as well as of the no- testant Academy at Strasboi'rj, which was suppressed at ttus *The Tribunal having been suppressed, Koch declined all pkeet of trust or honour which were offered him ; and only requested permission to retire, that he might have a short interralfor hin- self between business and the grave. A pension of 3000 franM was granted him, without any solicitation on his part. In ISm, he returned ta Strasbourg, where he continued to derote toa- self to letters, and in administering to the public good. AboM the end of 1810, the Grand-mister of the University of IfraiMl conferred on him the title of Hciorary Rector of the Academy of Strasbourg. His health, which had been prolonged by a lift of great temperance and regularity and the peace which resBltg from a good conscience, became disordered m 1812, *««»*« fell into a state of languor, which terminated hu hfe on fho 86th •^ IJP" It ura «r KocB. of October 1813. His eoUeagaes, the profeison of Strasbourg, •reeted to his memory a monument of white marble in the ckQico of St Thomas, near those of Schcepflin and Oberlin ; which was execnted by M. Ohnmacht, an eminent sculptor in Strasboarg. One of his biographers has pronounced the fol- lowing eulogium on Koch :— " A noble regard for justice and trudi, a penetration beyond common, a diligence unrivalled in lliatorical researches, a remarkable talent in arranging and illus- tntixig his subject, an incorruptible integrity of principle, and vnclouded serenity of mind, with a zealous desire of rendering hia researches, his information and activity, useful to his species —these were the prominent features of the mind and character of this amiable man." In addition to this, it has been remarked, that although Professor Koch had not the ert of a graceful or oven a fluent elocution, no man ever possessed in a higher de- me the talents and qualifications of a public instructor. Like Soetates, he had a manner peculiar to himself. He was not so much a teacher of sciences, as of the means of acquirng them. Ha could inspire his scholars with a taste for labour, and knew hmr to call forth their several powers and dispositions. Though • Hum of the most domestic habits, and a lover of children, Koch never married. Two lives of this celebrated professor have been written by fateigners. The one is by M. SchweighsBUser JKnior, a profes- aor at Strasbourg ; and the other is prefixed to the new edition of the Histoire^det Traitls de Paix, by M. Schoell, the editor and continuator of several of our author's works. This latter liographer has accompanied his sketch with a descriptive cata- kgae of all Koch's works, the principal of which are the fol- lowing : — 1. Tables Genealogiques des Maisovs Smireraines du MUi et de rOuest de VEurope. 2. Sanctio Pragmatica Ger- timnorum illuttrata. 3. Abrigt de I'Histmre des Traitis de Pmix entre les Puissances de VEurope. A new edition of this work appeared in 1818, enlarged and continued by M. Schall down to the Congress of Vienna and the Treaty of Paris, 1816. 4. Table des Traitts entre la Franee et Us Puissances Etran- gtret, depuis la Paix de Westphalie, 4-c. 6. Taileau des Revo- ArtjofU de VEurope, ^c. 6. Tables Genealogiques des Maisons Smtveraines de VEst et du Nord de VEurope. This work was naMished, after the author's death, by M. Scho?ll. Besides ttiwe, Koch left various manuscripts, containing memoirs of his o«rn life ; and several valuable papers on ihe ancient ecclesias- tienl history and literature of hia native province. j« m Dn of Strasbourg, te marble in the Sin and Oberlin; linent sculptor in onounced the fol- 'd for justice and ince unrivalled in ranging and illos* r of principle, and esire of rendering leful to his species lind and character as been remarked, t of a graceful or sd in a higher de- instructor. Like f. He was not so of acquirng them, labour, and knew ositions. Though r of children, Koch te been written by er junior, a profes- to the new edition Schaell, the editor orks. This latter a descriptive cata- which are the fol- nts Sotireraiius du Pragmafica Crer- ire des Traittt i» new edition of this lued by M. Schoell jaty of Paris, 1816. Puissances Etran- TtMeau des Revo- igiquts des Maisons t. This work was Schaell. Besides ling memoirs of his e ancient ecclesias- vince. A.C. OHAPTBB I IMTROPVCnOlf* lib ot o«o, aa •• »« "»•»»• 1""™' "™"' "^ "" "^ own misfortunes, or the misfortunes of others. Th«toowledg^ mom «oor.te,«iid more MmpWtt KT "» . j, j,^,„„ „ oairm i. ■ores, whiph ure often either miaundentood or not noperly i^ praciated by tlwir contemporariet ; and while men in^viduaUy, and from their pwn observation, can see great events as it were bat in part, history embraces the whole in all its various details. Thus, for example, we can see but imperfecthr all Uie bearings of that mighty revolution which is now 1793, passing before oar eyes ; and it will remain for posterity to perceive all its Inflaence and eflects, and to judge of its diflerent actors with' ovt feelinffs of irritation or party spirit. It is a feet universally admitted, diat all ranks and profes* •ions of men, find in history appropriate instruction, ana rules of conduct, suited to their respective conditions. In occupying the mind agreeably with sucn a vast diversity of subjects, it serves to form the judgment, to insnire us with the ambition of riory, and the love of virtue. Tnose especially who devote uemselves to the study of politics, or who are -destioed to the ■laaagement of public afiairs, will discover in history the struc> toM and constitution of governments, their faults, and their advantages, their strength and their weakness ; they will find thare the origin and progress of empires, die principles that hare raised them to greatness, and the causes which have pre- parod their fall. The philosopher, and the man of letters, will thtte trace tlw progress of the human mind, the errors and il- loaions that nave led it astray; the connexion of causes and ^EbctB ; the origin of arts and sciences, their changes, and their nflnence on society ; as well as the innumeraUe evils that kavei sprung from ignorance, superstition and tyranny. Hiatoiry, in short, avails more than all precepts to cure us of tlttae mistakes originating in self-love, and national partiality. HaWfao knows no other country than his own, easily persuades iiaaelf, that the government, manners, and opinions of the lit- ll»e«mier of the earth which he inhabits, are uie only ones con- aistmt with reason and propriety. Self-love, so natural to man, dmishes this preiudicoi and makes him disdain all other na- I, It is only by an extensive acquaintance with history, bjT familiarizing ourselves with the institutions, customs, biibits of diflerent ages, and of diflerent countries, that we I to esteem wisdom and virtue, and to acknowledge ta- iMMa wherever they exist. Besides, when we observe, that dioagh revolutions are continually changing the face of king< imauti nothing essentiallv new ever happens in the world, we • to be longer the slaves of that extravagant admiration, that credulous astonishment which is generally the charae> Mistic of ignorance, or the mark of a feeble mind. Th0 most important attribute of history is truth, and in order to find serve sound Aet9* ters, puUia viz. ai These from t Pul we cai ages, I tings, docun The a minati the sa distinj scienc It VI may s ments 1. • to tha These sible, and a in COD 2. of COI proof, the tn 3. to be after t 4. tion n dem I oltoge 6. memo ing, 01 writer 6. rior to \i r not jpraprly ap- men individuaUy. events as it wete its various details, y all the bearings 3, passing before perceive all its rent actors with- anks and profes* uction, ana rules IS. In occupying ity of subjects, it la the ambition of :ially who devote e -destined to the history the struc* faults, and their IS ; they will find he principles that i which have pre< an of letters, will the errors and il* Dn of causes and changes, and their leraUe evils that tyranny. }pts to cure us of rational partiality. I, easily persuades Einions of the lit- le only ones con- so natural to man, dain all other na- nce with history, itutions, customs, ionntries, that we acknowledge ta- we observe, that the face of king- 1 in the world, we agant admiration, lerally the charac- mind. iruth, and in order W***" INTBOBOOTWIlt Iv to find diia out, it is necessary to examine the niatflifals whiek serve as the elements and evidences of historjr* by the test of sound criticism. These materials are of two kindb : I. Pvikc Acts and Records, such as medals, inscriptions, treaties, char- ters, official papers ; and in general, ail writings drawn up at published by the established authorities. II. Frivate vrriUrtt viz. authors of histories, of chronicles, memoirs, letters, tec. These writers are either contemporary, or such as live remote from the times of which they write. Public acts and official records, are the strongest evidences we can possibly have of historical truth ; but as, in diflerent ages, there have been fabricators of pretended acts and wri* tings, it becomes necessary, before making use of any publie document, to be assured that it is neither spurious nor falsified. The art of judging of ancient charters or diplomas, and discri* minating the true from the false, is called .Diptomatiet ; ' in the same way as we give the name of Numunudia to the art of distinguishing real medals from counterfeit. Both of thea* sciences are necessary in the criticism of history. It will not be out of place to subjoin here some rules that may serve as guides in the proper selection of historical doeo- ments. 1. The authority of any chartulary or public act is preferaUe to that of a private writer, even though ne were contemporary. These public registers it is always necessary to consult, if pos- sible, before having recourse to the authority of private writers; and a history that is not supported by such public vouchers must in consequence be very imperfect. 3. When public acts are found to accord with the testimony of contemporary authors, there results a complete and decisive proof, the most satisfactory that can be desired, for establishing the truth of historical facts. 3. The testimony of a contemporary author ought generally to be preferred to that of an historian, who has written long after the period in which the events have happened. 4. Whenever contemporary writers are defective, great cau- tion must be used with regard to the statements of more mo- dem historians, whose narratives are often very inaccurate, or altogether fabulous. 5. The unanimous silence of contemporary authors on any memorable event, is of itself a strong presumption for suspect- ing, or even for entirely rejecting, the testimony of very recent writers. 6. Historians who narrate events that have happened ante- rior to the times in which they lived, do not, properly speaking ■■■** ' jl OBAfTBS I. ff,.„„ e-^f except i0 w far M they meke M«equ«inte4 witk T^i^^ to iad« of the lespectiw meriu of hi.ton«iy, J'ti; jSerinci Tought to pf -"• t'-'^^h'^ iSl '"ll'"^' . /■ 11 . Tk.t w« ouffht to distrust an historian mmmm ^in.t writers who allow their minds to be vwped Miae oy ST^iurws of their nation, their party, or their profession ; ? ^ 1^1, fo h« imniiial, the historian must form his judg- for. in order to »» "»P»^^^ '"J,^ ^ „g^ ^ the acrors: That meuarable body, f °J'l" Sf^JJtire „t the eanh i while mmtoe the ■""" °' £"SJ S,e»t di.i.ioi.. of the e«lh politie.1 geogtuphj ■""•""•" »? ^°J „.do,n., .tatee, eod pre which '«^^'^^^ZliJt2i"^>«^'r " ^ ""«•»' nmoiwotwita Vl ■k« na«eqauntdl with lir iafonnation. I meriu of biaiorians, ae beyond otben, it is racter of each, aa well ) placed at the time of 1 distrust an biatorian who is fond of fables, ind amuse bis readers, inpartiality is an essen- tirays be on our guard to be warped aside by ty, or their profession ; in must form his judg- jard to the actors : That cem in the transactions, Y describe, or who, wri- r government, have had iblic libraries, ought al- e not enjoyed the same •rians, he who has wril- e than those who have inasmuch as he has bad nformation, to avoid all is nredecessors. J which may be said to y ; and among these, geo- hold the first rank. In I, nor can any narrative nces relating to the times happened, as well as to I in them, be previously . It is obvious, therefore, lology, are the faithful in- I of history. ithematical, physical, and )bjects which it embraces, e earth, considered as a phy has for its object to icture of the earth ; while Brent divisions of the earth kingdoms, states, and pro- 1, relatively to the times of ge, and modern geography. Ancient eeogiaphy ia that«which explains the nnmitiTe italc of uSworirSd Its politic*! division, prior to tke •«b»»"»JJ.ff the Roman Empire in the west. By the geography of the middle a«8 is understood that which acquaints us with the political . state of the nations who figured in history from the fifth century to the end of the fifteenth, or the beginning of the sixteenth. Modern geography represente to us the state of the world and its poliUcS divifions, from the sixteenO^ century to the present ''"Antiquity has handed down to us the works of "veral very eminent geographers, the most celebrated of whom are Strabo, pTolemy, PompSnius Mela, Pausanias. and Stephanus of Byzan- Uum ^Among the moderns who have laboured in this depart- ment of geography, those more particularly deserving of notice, Te cSvier^CefiarVus. Briet. DlnviUe, Gosselin, Mannert, and ^ The geography of the middle ages is but little known ; and remains yei a sort of desert which demands culuvation. There does not W a single geographical work which g'ves a correct representation of that new order of things. w»l'ch the German nations introduced into Europe after the downfall of th« Roman Empire in the fifth century. The luerati of ?««" »"* Ger- many have thrown some rays of light on certain parts of these obscure regions ; but no nation in Europe can yet boast of having *^0f Sem Sors, Te most consnicuous as the restorer of geographical science, is Sebastian Munster. a G""™"". ''»« iubliahed a voluminous work on cosmography, towards he Sd e of the sixteenth century. The Flemings and the Dutch have been among the earliest cultivators of geography since £^ revivSlof leuers. Ortelius, Gerard Mercator, Varenius, Jans Z Bleau. and Fischer, are well known by the maps and learned works which they have produced. v .» *.» Among the number of celebrated French geographers are to be reckoned Sanson, Delisle. Cassini, D'Anville; and more recemly Z«inoni, Bauche, Mentelle. Barbie du Bocage. Ma Ito- Brun. L. Delisle is the first who submitted geography to the touchstone of astronomical observation. BuscEing, a German wrote a work on geography, which has been translated into reverafTansu^, and his received various addilionu and S?rlmST,;eciallv in the hands of t»- French tranak- tors. M. Bitter, a professor at Berhn, published a work m which he gives anew and scientific form to geography. h WM during the latter half of the eighteenth feni'wMg, dMatt^tion of the lw«M»d *" »««^ »»'* partKularly tow«i^ I IMgiaphy, wbcn a sniw of tlie meit doguit nuft appotnd in tH the pnncipal stttM of Europo. TIm wan that sprung from the lOTolation encouraged Mveral engineers and geographers, both foreigners and Frenchmen, to puolish those masterpieces of their art, the charu and plans of the countries that had served as the theatre of hostilities. , Connected with geography is the science of Statiitict, or the study of the constitution and political economy of states. Two Italians, Sansovino and'Botero, about the end of the sixteenth century, were the first that uttempted to treat this as a particular science, separate and distinct from geography. The Germans followed nearly in the footsteps of the Italian writers ; they introduced statistics into their Universities as a branch of study, and gave it also the name by which it is still known.* It was chiefly, however, during the course of the eighteenth century that the governments of Europe encouraged the study of this new science, which borrows its illustrations from history, and constitutes at present an essential branch of national polity. Gbnealoov, or the science which treats of the origin and descent of illustrious families, is not less important to the knowledge of history, than geography. It teaches us to know and distinguish the principal characters that have actiid a con> spicuous part on the theatre of the world ; and by giving us clear and explicit ideas of the lieH of relationship that subsist among sovereigns, it enables us to investigate the rights of succession, and the respective claims of rival princes. The study of Genealogy is full of difficulties, on account of the uncertamty and fabulous obscurity in which the origin of almost every great family is enveloped. Vanity, aided by flattery, has given birth to a thousand legendary wonders, that fall to pieces at the touch of sound criticism. It is by the light of this science that we learn to distinguish certainties from probabilities,' and probabilities from fables and conjectures. Few families who have occupied the thrones of former dynasties, or who now hold pre-eminent rank in Europe, can trace their genealogy beyond the twelfth century. The House of Capet is the only one that can boast of a pedigree that reaches back to the middle of the ninth century. The origin of the royal families of Savoy, Lorrain, Brunswick, England, and Baden, belongs to the eleventh century ; all the others are of a date posterior to these. A single fact in diplomatics has proved suflncient to discredit a multitude of errors and fables, that tradition had engrafted on the legends of the dark ages. From the examinations that have been made of ancient charters and records, thele is ahnn- dant evidence that, prior to the twelfth centoiy, tmmg fiuniliea •gant mapt appetrad in I wan that tprung from ineen and geographers, lish those roastei^ieces ountries that had served nee of ^atittici, or the sonomy of states. Two ;he end of the sixteenth treat this as a particular ^phy. The Germans le Italian writers ; they ies as a branch of study, 8 stiil known.* It was the eighteenth century raged the study of this itions from historvi and ;h of national polity, reats of the origin and less important to the It teaches us to know s that have acted a con- orld ; and by giving us elationsbip that subsist nvestigate the rights of r rival princeii. ifliculties, on account of r in which the origin of Vanity, aided by flattery, ry wonders, that fall to It is by the light of this linties from probabilities,' ijectures. Few families tr dynasties^ or who now n trace their genealogy ise of Capet is the only aches back to the middle if the royal families of nd Riden, belongs to the a date posterior to these, red sufficient to discredit tradition had engrafted m the examinations that d reeorda, thele is abiu- cmtoiyi amoiiK fiuDiliea MTMBVOTlOlf • ^ even the most illustriotts, the dntinetUm of sumMnM waa an* known. The greatest noblemen, and the presumption u much stronger that common gentlemen, never uaed any other signa- ture than their baptismal name ; to which they sometimes an- nexed that of the dignity or order with which they jvere invested. There was therefore little chance of distinguishing familiea from each other, and still less of distinguishing individuals of one and the same family. It was only towards the end of the eleventh century, and during the era of the crusades, that the use of family names was gradually introduced ; and that they began, in their public transactions, to superadd to their baptismal and honorary names, that of the country or territory they possessed, or the castle where they had their residence ; and it must have required nearly two hundred years before this practice became general in Europe. The Germans were the first, after the Reformation, who combined the study of genealogy with that of history. Among their most distinguished genealogists may be mentioned Rein- erus Reineccius, Jerome Henninges, Elias Reusner, Nicolas Rittershusius, James- William Imhof, and the two Gebhards of Luneburg, father and son. The work of Hennit.ges is much sought after, on account of its rarity ; but the genealogical labours of the two Gebhards are partiaularlv remarkable for the profound and accurate criticism they display. The principal writers on this subject among the French are, D'Hozier, Gode- froy, Andrew Duchesne, St. Marine, Father Ansclme, Chazot de Nantigny, and M. de St. AUais. Chbonologv, or the science of computing lime, represents facts or events in the order in which they have occurri?d. The historian ought by no means to neglect to ascertain, as nearly as possible, the exact and precise date of events ; since, without this knowledge, he will be perpetually liable to commit anachro> nisms, to confound things with persons, and often to mistake effects for causes, or causes for effects. This study is not without its difficulties, which are as perplex- ing as they are singularly various, both in kind and degree. These embarrassments relate chiefly, 1. To the age of the world ; 2. The difierent forms of the year ; 3. The number of years that elapsed from the creation to the birth of Christ ; 4. The variety of epochs or periods of reckoning lime. Many of the ancient philosophers maintained that the world was eternal. Ocellus Lucanus, a Greek philosopher of the Py- thagorean sect, attempted to prove this hypothesis, in a treatisa entitled De Vnii^erso, which the Marquis D'Argens and the Abb^ Batteuxhave translated into French. Aristotle followed ■M' h Am fMUMM of OmUm. His opinion u to tho otoraitjr of Some nwKioni phUoiophon, h Buffon, Hupikon, Dolomiou, SowSrorpISiVSt. Vond. fcc. hate m.^«I to our globe « eSSceUg Mte rior to the •>«. *hen hUtory commeBC.^ Tli> WMonln/thoy wppon by the conformttion of the globe uSf iniTl - A? time that mutt have nece.sanly elap^d Sfori Ae «rth! in the progr...i»e operation, of nature, could Im Min^aMd a ■oitable habitation for man. ^fhe SSt andem account that we hfve of the or.gm of the world, and of the human race, w dented f«>n» Jj""^ „* J * W» and lawiriver of the Jewish nation, hted about 1600 years bo^ Sirist7ind nearly 1000 before Herodotus, the most an- dXrofanl au"hor whL works have been h«d«d *own to STtimes. According to Moses and the J«*"J /""l'-*' hStoiT of the human race does not yet comprehend a per od of .2 oSwand years. This account seems to be m opposition to St ofTera\ ancient nations, such a. the EgypUan- Indmns. Sdeans. Thibetians, and Chinese, who carrv Wk theirchro^ nnWv to a verv remote date, and far beyond what Moses bas ;2?g?ed trth7h"uln race! Butit is sufficient at p«sen^^^ !.in»rk that this hifih antiquty, which vanity has led these na- puJely mylhLgical. founJed on a symbolical theobgy, whote mv«teries and alleKories have been but little understood. This SelaleDoJhs usually filled with gods and demigods, who Kleged^t^have reigned over these nations for so m«,y my- ""rraditLTio fabulous and chimerical will never de«troy the auSentcuJ of Moses, who independently of h« "'t'"'^. "J !k «.m«ta «ffe in which he lived, merits implicit credit from t, Sucit/of hil naiative, and from the circumst«.ce, th.t V Sl^i^M never vet been discovered on the surface, or in the 5u7n5" ructu're^of the earth, any organic evidence or work of intarnai »"«'=^" . , believe that the history of the ^""IH" f m^Je D?o JrW speaWnrof the human race, is ante- r^ent " Se agrSS trjewfsh legislator ha. assigned U With regard to the division of time, a ^""de'able period miMt, no dfubt, have elapsed before men began to reckon by i criculated according to astronomical observe ions. Two f or formrof computation have been successively m use lien M to th« ttoniit]r of omroontoriea on Phyiiei. m, Hupihon, Dolomitu, ve Mtignod to our globe rhen history commencea. mformetion of the globe have necessarily elapsed lerations of nature, could •"• . . , t. ave of the origin of the itrcd from Moses. This m, lived about 1600 years Herodotus, the most an< ve been handed down to the Jewish annals, the t comprehend a period of sms to be in opposition to s the Egyptians, Indians, rho carry l«clt their chro- beyond what Moses has ; is sufBcient at present to \i vanity has led these na- ■ altogether imaginary, or mbolical theology, whose It little understood. This , gods and demigods, who e notions for so many my- ical will never destroy the dently of his nativity, and nerils implicit credit from rom the circumstance, that i on the surface, or in the rganic evidence or work of !ve that the historjr of the f the human race, is ante- legislator has assigned it. line, a considerable period 5 men began to reckon by omical observations. Two J been successively in use e employed solar years, cal- sun ; others have made use sriodical revolutions of the present day adopt the solar iimoMieTioii. ■* year; while the lunar calculation is that followed by tho Map hometwis. The solar year consisto of 386 sent century of 1800; so that the Ist of January of dm di year, answers to the 13th of the new. VOL. I. 3 - - Th« Rtformed Ytar a CaUndar, m U ii ctlled, !• dUtlnct from lh« Oregoritn, aad •poliea to th« calculation of the year, which was made by a profewor at Jena, named Weiffe . It difftn from the Gregorian year, u to the method of calcnlnting the time of Easter, and the other movcnble feast* of the Chris- tian churches. The Protestants of Germany, Hollo.iil, Don- maric and Switzerland, adopted this new culen.Ur in 17Utl Their example was followed in 1762, by Great Bntn.n ; and m 17fi3, by Sweden; but since the year 1776, the I'rotcslonls of Germany, Switzerland and Holland, abandoned the reformed caUu^dar, and adopted the Gregorian ; ond there is. properly speaking, no nation in E'.rope ot this day, except the Russians and the Greeks, which makes use of the Julion calendar, or * Buf iTis not merely the variations thot have prevailed as to the form and computation of the yeor. that have perplexed the science of chronology ; the different methods of commencing it, have also been the source of much confusion. The Komans, from the time of Julius Ciesar, began the year on the first of January. The ancient Oieeks at first reckoned from the w.n- t«r solstice, ond afterwaids from midsummer; the Syro-Mace- donians or Seleucidm, commenced from the autumnal equinox. The sacred year of the Jews, began with the fi"tnew moon after the vernal equinox, that is, in the month of March ; and their civil year began with the new moon immediately follow- ing the autumnal equinox, that is, in the month of September. The same diversity of practice which we observe among the ancients, existed also'in tfie middle ages. The F'«"X"^" the Merovingian kings, began the year with the month of March. The Popes began it sometimes at Christmas, or the 25th ot lie- camber ; sometimes on the 1st of January ; and «o;n«7«7'» the 26th of March, called indiscriminately the day of the Annun- ciation or Incarnation. Under the Carlovmgian princes, two methods of beginning the year were generally Fev«lent m France,— the one fixed its commencement at Christmas, or tne 26lh of December, and the other at Easter ; that »• « Je day on which that moveable feast happened to fall. T^" >«"« custom prevailed also under the Capetian kings, and it was not alppresied until near the middle of »he sixteenth century. Cbarlea IX., by an edict published in 1664, ordered, that in France the year should henceforth commence on the "t ot Ja- Bouy. Previously to this edict, it sometimes happened, from the variable date of Easter, that the same month was «»»"* to •ecut twice in one and the same year. For e»™Pl£; *« yf" 1368 having begun on the Ist of Apnl, on which Jiaater oay U called, ia dMtinet alcuUtion of the year. «, named Weiflfel. It method of ralciilnting ble fenstA of the Chrin* rmany, HollomI, Don- 'w cutrndHr in 1700 Great Brilnin ; and in 776, the Protctiants of mndoned the reformed and there is, properly ,y, except the Rusftions he Julian calendar, or at have prevailed m to hat have perplexed the iGlhndfl of commencing nfusion. The Romans, the year on the first of reckoned from the win- immer; the Syro-Mace- I the autumnal equinox, rith the first new moon ! month of March ; and oon immediately follow- |ie month of September. ;h we observe among the rea. The Franks, under with the month of March. istma!(, or the 2fith of De- nary ; and sometimes on sly the day of the Annun- arlovingian princes, two I generally prevalent in lent at Christmas, or the aster ; that is, at the day ned to fall. This latter tian kings, and it was not )f the sixteenth century, n 1564, ordered, that m namence on the Ist of Ja- imetimes happened, from ime month was found to For example, the year il, on which Easier day ^ iimoMNrrMif. W happMied to fall, did not terminat* until the IXKh of April fol- lowing, that it, on the eT(< preceding Eattar. There were coa> iequenlly in this year, nearly two complete montha of April. Since the reign of Chnrles IX., if has continued the invariabU practice in France to begin thu yMf hi ih' 1st of January. In England, the year tixe d di commem-e i,,, 'he 25th of Marcht and the old style \va 'hero ohnfrwd Miitil 173^ ; when, by vir* tue of an act of Parlian^nt, passed in J 7,^2, the beginning of the year was transferred to tt)« 1st of Januar/- It wasdecreod also, at the Name time, that, in or'^er to accommodata the En> glish chronology to the new styU', ihe 3d of September l7ISf should be reckoned the 14lh of the !,uiiiu month. ' It is easy to conceive the perplexity and coiifiision that mast have been introduced into chronology, as much by the diflfar- ence of styles as by the different methods of commencing th« year. Nothing is more probable, than that we should hare find mistakes nnd contradictions which, in leality, have no ex- istence ; und (he more su, os the writecs or recorders of public acts, who employ these difTcrent styles, or date the beginnmg of the year Viirinusly, never ^ive us anv intimation on the sub- ject ; and nil reckon promiscuously from the year of Christ's nativity, without informing us whether they follow the old or the new stylo — whether they commence the year in the month of January or March, at Easter or at Christmas. Modern chronologists have fuund much embarrassment in calculating the nimiber of years that elapsed between the cra»> tion and the birth of Christ. Father Petau, one of the moat learned men in this science, admits, that this point of chrono* loffy is to be established rather by probable canjectures than so* lid arguments. There have even oeen reckoned, according to Fabricius, about a hundred and forty different opinions respect- ing the epoch of Christ's nativity. Some fix this era in tha year of the world 3616, while others carry it back to tha year 6484. This great discordance of opinions arises from the con- tradictions found to exist between the three principal texts of tho Old Testament. The Hebrew text, for instance, to which most chronologists gives the nreference, fixes the deluge in the year of the world 1656 ; while, according to the Samaritan text, it happened in 1307 ; and, according to the Septuagiiit, in 2S42. The system at present most accredited, is that of Archbishc^ Usher, an Irish prelate, who, founding his calculation on tha Hebrew text, fixes the date of Christ's nativity in the yaar 4^ the world 4000. A variety of epochs prevailed at diflerent times ; as moat wm' tioos, both ancient and DMdem, who had governments and Uwt m oHArntK I. of their own, adopted ckronological eras that were pecuhar to themaelves. The ancient Greeks had their Olympiads, and the Svro-Macedonians the era of the Seleucidas. The Romans calottlated by consulships, which became the era of their pubhc acts; and besides these, their historians used to reckon from (he foundation of the city, which goes back 762 years before Christ, or 3249 after the creation. The era of Diociesian, in- trodueed in honour of that emperor, and 8omet>™es aJso called the era of the martyrs, began in the year 284 after Christ, and Wor a long time used in the West. But, without stopping here to enumerate the different eras of antiquity, we shall rather reatrict ourselves at present to the pointing out of those that belong more properly to modern historv. viz. 1. The era of the modem Greeks. 2. Of the modern Jewc 3. Of .ne Spa- niards. 4. The Hegira, or Mahometan era. 5. Tne Uiony aian, or Christian era. , , The era of the modern Greeks is known by the name of the Mundane era of Constantinople. It begins 6508 years before the birth of Christ. The first year of the Incarnation thus falls in the yenr of the world 5609 ; and, consequently, the year 1823 of the Christian era answers to the year 7331 of the Mun- dane era of Constantinople. Under this system, tvvo kinds of years are in use, the civil and the ecclesiastical. The former commences with the month of September, the other has begun sometimes on the 21st of March, and sometimes on the 1st of AprU. This era is followed, even at this day, by the Oreek ehurch. The Russians, who adopted it from the Greeks, along with the Christian religion, made use of it even m their civil acta, untfl the reign of Peter the Great. That emperor, in 1700. ahjlished the Mundane era of Constantinople, and sub- stituted in its place, the Christian era, and the Julian calendar "'The'mSem Jews h-we likewise a mundane era ; as they reckon from the creation of the world. !{• <=°""™«"f ^ «» '^ 7th of October of the Julian year, and reckons 3761 years be- fore Christ. Tho year 3762 of the world, is the first, of the Christian era, according to the Jews ; and the current year (18B3) answers to the year 6583 of their mundane era. iTspain. the era bejan with the year of Rome 714, thirty- eight ySars before the birth of Christ ; being the time when the tnumvirate was renewed between Cassar Octavianus, Mark An- tony, and Lepidus. The Spaniards, wishing to give Octavi^ no/some testimony of their satisfaction on being comprehended wHhm his province, began a new era with this event,* which praT^ed not only in Spain and Portugal, but also m Afnca. fts that were peculiar to d their Olympiads, and leleucidffi. The Romans ne the era of their public ns used to reckon from 1 back 762 years before le era of Dioclesian, in- nd sometimes also called ear 284 after Christ, and But, without stopping antiquity, we shall rather inting out of those that lory, viz. 1. The era of •n Jewc 3. Of ihe Spa- tan era. 5. The Diony- nown by the name of the begins 6508 years before the Incarnation thus falls I, consequently, the year he year 7331 of the Mun- this system, two kinds of clesiastical. The former mber, the other has begun sometimes on the 1st of at this day, by the Greek 1 it from the Greeks, along J of it even in their civil 3reat. That emperor, in Constantinople, and sub- i, and the Julian calendar I a mundane era ; as they Id. It commences on the id reckons 3761 years he- world, is the first of the »s; and the current year iheir mundane era. year of Rome 714, thirty- ; being the time when the Bsar Octavianus, Mark An- I, wishing to give Octavia- ,ion on being comprehended ra with this event,* which ortugal, but also in Africt, UmOBVOTIM* ** ftnd tliose parte of France which were aubject to th« dominion of the VisSoAs. It is of great importance to ^J"!"^. »*«» *J; Spaniards and Portuguese constantly ••np^y** *Sk ~ i?« W Ss and public acte. so late as the l4th and 16th centuries, when they substituted the Christian era in its place. The era which the Mussulman nations follow is that of Ma- homet, caUed the Herira. or the Fbght of the Prophet. It hj- can on the 16th of July 622 A. C, and is composed of lunar SLJ hi order to find out in what year of the vulgar em any K year Sf the Hegira falls, it is necessary &«» »« r^luos Se lunar into solar yiars, and then add the number 622. Fg ^ple. the year 1^ of the Hepra. answer, to theyear 1^ ofthe vulgar, or Christian era. It began on the 18Ui of Sq^ ?embJr 18^, and ended on the 7th of the following September. DTonysius or Denys the Little, a Roman Abb^. who Jivedm the time of the Emperor Justinian, about the year of Christ fflO, WM Ihe author of tVe vulgar e^a. whi^V^"''"'*' "S:^* * more perfect form from the hwds of the venerable Bede^^ English monk, about the year 720. Before »!«» »;™«l*; *Jf»; or Christians of the West, employed the era of the Consuls, « that of Dioclesian. Denys the Little, }™«8™'?'S." ^^^ > more convenient for the dhri8t«ir.s to reckon Uieir uine from A. Krth of Christ, applied himself with great industry ^ calcukte the number of years that had elapsed firom the I'»«»"»;on to Ss own times. Modern chronoWs** have remaiked, thtf bith Denvs and Bede were mistaken in their calculations ; hot a Sffere/ce^f opinion prevdls on this suWect. a. may be leei in the learned worTk of Fabricius. There are some of JSse iUnolorists who date the birth of Christ tWrty-four ye«r« eaTeriS olhers find a difference of but one yo". or amort ?our Keen the true epoch of the nativity, and Uiat adopted by Denyr This disagre^ent of the modem ehronologj.;. hjj pWrisetothe distinction between the ''^.'f- "^ f « Jj^ Sf Christ, and Uie Vulgar or Dumynanen, which the general usase has . )w consecrated and established. In France, this era was not introduced until the eighth century. We find it employed, for the first time, in the acts of the Coun- Ss of GerZy! Liptines. and Soissons. »»eW ij '^e yjarj 742-3-4, undei- Pepin, surnamed the Short. The Kin« of FWnever used it in their public acts, unU the end of the ninth century; and the Poj^s only since »he oleventh. In order to compare the different eras, and to facilitate tta pri^ess of reducing the years, of one into those of «o^her, a Mheme has beeen proposed called the Julian period. The ra- ^nSn of tiiis is due to Joseph Scaliger, a professor at Leyd«», •.jgk 30 oHArrBE i»- ■nd w«U known by his chronological works. He eave it the nmne of Julian, because the Julian year served as the basis of h. It is composed of the several products of the cycles of the son, the moon, and the indictions multiplied by each other. The cycU of ike tun is a period, or revolution of twenty, eight solar years ; at the end of which the same order of years returns, by a kind of circle or cycle. Its use is to indicate the day* on which each year commences, and the Dominical Let* ters. These are the iirst seven letters of the alphabet, a, b, c, D, B, p, o, which are employed to indicate the seven days of die week, more particularly the Sabbath (diu Dominica.) At the end of twenty-eight years, of which this cycle is composed, thero returns a new order or series of years, so similar to the preceding, that the dominical letters again answer exactly to the same days. , , The cycfe o/fA« wioon comprises nmeteen lunar years, twelve of which are called common, and the remaining seven interca- hffy ; these yield a product of 6939 dnys 18 hours, according to the calculation of the ancients ;* and are equal to nineteen Jnlian or solar years. By means of this cycle always re- curring, the new moons fall again on the same days and the same honrs on which they had happened nineteen years before ; 80 that, for all the new moons, the cycle which is to come is entirely similar to the preceding. The cipher which indicates tlie year of the cycle, is called the golden 7iM»i»r, because they Med to write it in characters of gold in the ancient calendars, where it was employed to mark the times of the new moons. The eyde of indtctions is a cycle which recurs every fifteen years ; and which, like those already mentioned, was frequent- ly employed in charters and public records. The origin of tMN indictions is generally referred to a contribution or cess ■ppmnted, for fifteen years, by the Romans, and afterwards re- Mirod for the same period. They began in the reign of Con- atankine the Great, that is, about the year of Christ 313, and are distmguished into three kinds ; 1. That of Constantinople, which was employed by the Greek Emperors, and began on the 1st of September; 2. That which was termed the Imperial, or Cesarean indiction, the use of which was limited to the West, and which began on the 26th of September ; and, 3. The Roman or Pontifical indiction, whkh the Popes employed in their bulls. This last began on the 85di of December, or tha 1st of January, according as the one or the other of these dan was reckoned by the Romans the first of the new year. The cycle of the sun, comprising twenty-eight years, and Aat of the moon nineteen, when multiplied together, give a MT10DD0THNf« rorks. He save it the r served as the basis of Bts of the cycles of the ilied by each other, revolution of twenty- lie same order of years ts use is to indicate the ind the Dominical Let- )f the alphabet, a, b, c, le the seven days of die ies Dominica,) At the lis cycle is composed, rears, so similar to the in answer exactly to the een lunar years, twelve ;maining seven interca- ivs 18 hours, according 1 are equal to nineteen this cycle always re- the same days and the I nineteen years before ; le which is to come is cipher which indicates tn ?tM»tZ*r, because ihey a the ancient calendars, es of the new moons, ich recurs every fifteen lentioned, was frequent- ecords. The origin of a contribution or cess nans, and afterwards re- ran in the reign of Con- ar of Christ 313, and are hat of Constantinople, Smperors, and began on iras termed the Imperial, lich was limited to the of September ; and, 3. lich the Popes employed B S5th of 1)ecember, or ne or the other of these first of the new year, twenty-eight years, and Uiplied together, give a product of A38, which is called the Paschal cycle, beeanae it serves to ascertain the feast of Easter. The product of A39, multiplied by^ 16, the cycle of indictions, amounts to the num* ber 7960, which constitutes the Julian period. Within the com- pass of this period may be placed, as it were, under one view, these different eras and epochs, in order to coripare and recon- cile them with each other; adopting, as their ccmmon term, the nativity of Christ, fixed to the year 4714 of the Julian period. History has been divide'^, according to the different subjects of which it treats, into Oivil, Ecclesiastical, and Literary. Civil and political history is occupied entirely with events that relate to mankind, as distributed into societies, and united together by governments, laws, and manners. Ecclesiastical history is confined to those events that properly belong to reli- gion. Literary history treats more particularly of the origin, progress, and vicisnitudes of the arts and sciences. The His- tory of Philosop^, which is a subdivision of Literary History, illustrates the dimrent systems of philosophy that have flou- rished in the world, both in ancient and mmlem times. Another division of history, according to its extent, is that of Universal, General, and Particular History. Universal history gives a kind of outline or summary of the events of all the na- tions that have figured on the earth, from the remotest age^ to the present time. By general hfstory, is understood that which treats of the revolutions that have happened in the world, whether of great states or confederate powers, or of several nations combing to- gether, by various and complicated interests. Thus, there may be a general history of. France, or of Great Britain, a eeneral history of the United Provinces, a general history of Europe, 6k. Particular history embraces, in detail, the events of a par* ticular people, or province, or city, or illustrious individual. Finally, in regard to the time of which it treats, history is distinguished into Ancient and Modem, and that of the Middle Ages. Ancient history is that of the nations who flourished from the time of the creation to the fifth century ; while the history of the middle ages has, for its object, the revolutions that took place from the fifth to Uie end of the fifteenth century. What is now termed modem history, is that which retraces the events of the last three centuries. This division, whidt applies more particularly to the history of Europe, is founded on the great revolutions which this part of the world experienced in the fifth and fifteenth centuries. The revoiatioa of the fifth century ended in the subversion of the Roman empire in the West, and gave birth to the principal 1 1' V; .--V, sutw in mod«n Europe ; while Ui.t o^^^^^t^f^l SSS date, iu comSTocement from the d«!«»~2<'» .•' *« BMten empire, brought along with it the wnTal <»( j»f «»»" SihTfine^iru. end the renoTation of cm -o^'fj '»Jf7£ Ahhough ancient hiatory doea not enter mto »he plan of Ae folkSHM work, nevertheleaa it appeared necemry to give here 1 S C of it to the reader, with the view of connectmg Ui^Jnilr of time, and the chain of U»e great event, that hare Scurred from the remotest age. to the P«?«'[«**y- ^•^23? diwSd it il three periods, the first of which embrace. 3000. tk« aAcond 1000. and the third oOO year.. . . , . ThJ fi«t neriod. which comprises thirty centuries, is almost wh^Uy ?iS«Cu The notices of it that have been ^nsmitted ^ a. ire verv imperfect. The order of Ume cannot be estab- ^i^S^sSff foundation. Even the authenticity of the tol"pa"L miles, has been called in question .. spunoas ; aS Aere is no other chronology that can g««*f ««J "^P' thmuffh this dark labyrinth of profane history. The only lite- S^TonSSentl that^re left is of these "«•» "J "^-S: SSLare the book, of Mo.es and the Jews. Herodotus, the !SSLrtBrofane historian, wrote more than a thousand year. SiTioJS^S 450 before Christ. He had been prece- Sl?«3'^tlrie8 by Sanchoniathon the Ph«n cian ; but f^w^rk of thS Stir hfstorian is lost, and there exuit. only a fei^tWed fragment, of it in Porph^rry a-d Euwbm.. ■ TtwD^ therefore, that of the 4600 years that fa 1 wilhm theSIJ of Lient history, the first thirty centunes may, JXuXonvenience, be retrenched Amidst *« dj^ne.. o t^Mre. we discover nothing but the germs of societies, gov- tkoM f^^^^l^JV -rts The Egyptians, the Israelites, the •foments, sciences ana ana. ■;" „V^ • I ». PkaM»Anii Senicians, ihe Assyrians, the Babylomans, or Cm>««»«. Side She most cinspicuous figure among the nations of ^Th"Eg1p;Sis and Chaldean, were the first who cuUivat^ aateomimY Egypt was long the nursery of arts and sciences TtoEician?f without an} other guide than J^e -Jars. Wd^y iarersed unknown seas, anrfgave a vast extent of intercourse "their commerce and navigation. They fo^^^^J^ ""^ Slebmted colonies, such as Carthage in Africa, and Malaga and ^ Tt°LtytfZfo^rwhlch is utterly unknown during the fci to'^Snd year^begins to exhibit in tl- [ jfj'J^^^^^^ rSw slight notices of ancient Greece. A ™»»^'^"*« ®* ?*"; iiS hal then taken root; mo«t "f ''•'?'=\'» ^'«°»' ^'^^JJ MdThebes, had been founded by colonies firom Eppt. The Tf err r the fiftaenth centary, the deatruction of the he ra?iTal of literature civil society in Europe. ter into the plan of the neeesMury to give here the view of connecting great events that have present day. We hav* f which embraces 9000, lirty centuries, is almost it have been transmitted ' time cannot be estab- the authenticity of the in question as spurious ; aX can guide our steps history. The only lite- ese remote and obscure Jews. Herodotus, the than a thousand years ist. He had been prece- lon the Phcenician; but and there exists only a y and Eusebius. ...I years that fall within ret thirty centuries may, Amidst the darkness of le germs of societies, gov- yptians, the Israelites, the bylonians, or Chaldeans, ire among the nations of re the firat who cultivated rsery of arts and sciences, ruide than the stare, boldly vast extent of intercourse I. They founded many s in Africa, and Malaga and itterly unknown d,uring the hibit in the third millenary, ice. A multitude of petty f which, as Argos, Athens olonies lirom Egypt. The Z I INTMBVCnOR. W Greeks, in imitation of the PhoBnicians, applied themselves to arU, navigation, and comroeree. They established numerous colonies, not only on the coast of Asia Minor, but on thos^ of Italy and Sicily. That in lower Italy or Calabria, was known by the name of Magna Orsecia. It was during the second period of ancient history, or in the fourth millenary, that great and powerful monarchies arose; whicii contributed to the progress of arts and civilization, and the perfection of society. These are commonly reckoned five, viz. the Egyptian, the Assyrian, the Persian, the Macedonian, and the Roman ; all of which successively established them- selves on the ruins of each other. The history of the two first monarchies is enveloped in mystery and doubt. Of the ancient Egyptians, nothing now remains but their pyramids, their temples, and obelisks, — monu- ments which can only attest the power and grandeur of the ancient sovereigns of Egypt. As to the Assyrian antiouities, the c6ntradictions that we find between the narratives of Herodotus and Ctesias, cannot fail to make us reject, as fabulous, the details of the latter, respecting the magnificence of Ninus, Semiiamus, and Sardanapalus, the supposed monarchs of Assyria and Babylon. Nothing certain is known of this empire, or the conquests of these kings, beyond what we find recorded in" the annals of the Jews. Shalmaneser, King of Assyria, subdued the kingdom of Sama- ria or Israel, about the year of the world 3270 ; and Nebu- chadnezzar, one of his successors, conquered that of Judah and Jerusalem, abdkit the year 3403. The Persian monarchy was founded by Cyrus, who put an end to the dominion of the Assyrians and Babylonians, by taking the city of Babylon, abmt the year of the world 3463. The empire, when at its grei^test height, under Darius Hystaspes, comprehended all that part cf Asia which stretches from the Indus to the Caspian Sea, and from the Euxine to the shores of the Mediterranean. Egypt in Africa, and Thrace in Europe, v^ere subject to its laws. After a duration of nearly two centuries, it was finally destroyed by the Macedonians in the year 3672. Greece, which was at first divided into several petty king- doms, changed its condition towards the commencement of the fourth millenary ; when its principal cities, till then governed by kings; formed themselves into detached republics. An en- thusiasm for liberty spread over all Greece, and inspired every bosom with the love of glory. Military bravery, as well as arts, and talents of all kinds, were fostered and encouraged by public game*, the principal of which were the Olympic. Two cities, II aummu Atkant and Lacedamon, fixad upon thamaelyaa for a tima tha ayaa of all Oraeca. Solon wu lh« legislator of the former, and LyeurgUF of the latter. To these two repuUica all the rest sue* cumbea, either as allies, or by right of conquest. Athens has imdered herself immortal by the victories which she gained over the Persians, at the famous battles of Marathon, Salamis, and Plats ; fought a. m. 3612, 3632, and 3623. The ascendency which these victories procured the Athani- ans over the rest of the Greek states, excited the jealousy of the Lacedemonians, and became the principal cause of the famous civil war which arose in 3572, between these two repub- lics, and which is known by the name of the Peloponnesian war. This was followed by various other civil wars ; and these dis- asters contributed to greatly exhaust the Greeks, and to break that union which had been the true source of their prosperity and their glory. Philip, King of Macedon, had the address to turn these unhappy divisions to his own advantage, and soon made himself master of all Greece. The battle of Cheronea, which he gained over the Athenians about the year of the world 3664, completed the conquest of that country. Alexander the Great, son of Philip, afterwards attacked the Persian empire, which he utterly overthrew, in consequence of the three victories which he gained over Darius Codomannus, the last of the Persian kings, at the ppssage of the Granicus in 3668, at Isaus in 3669, and near Arbela in 3672. The monarchy founded by Alexander fell to pieces after his death. From its wreck were formed, among others, by three of his generals, the three kingdoms of Macedon, Syria and Egypt; all of which were conquered in succession by the Ro- laans, a. m. 3835, 3936, and 3972. Greece itself had been (educed to a Roman province, after the famous sack of Corinth, and the destruction of the Achen league, a. m. 3866, or 144 years before Christ. The empire of the Greeks was succeeded by that of the Bomans, which is distinguished from all its predecessors, not more by its extent and duration, than by the wisdom with which it was administered, and the fine monuments of all kinds which it has transmitted to posterity. The greatness of this em- pire was not, however, the achievement of a single conqueror, out the work of ages. Its prosperity must be chiefly ascribed to the primitive constitution of the Republic, which inspired the Romans with the love of liberty, and the spirit of patriotism — which animated Uiem to glory and perseverance, and taught theaa to despise dangers and death. Their religion, likewiae, aarved aa % jtowerful engine to restrain and direct tha multitud»i according to the viewa and designs of the irovammeat. emselyM for a time the fislator of the former, and repuUics all the rest sue* ' conquest. Athens has tories which she gained M of Marathon, Salamis, nd3683. es procured the Atheni- excited the jealousy of principal cause of the between these two repub- of the Peloponnesian war. ;ivil wars ; and these dis- the Greeks, and to break ource of their prosperity cedon, had the address to >wn advantage, and soon The battle of Chnronea, IS about the year of the )f that country. >, afterwards attacked the rthrew, in consequence of )ver Darius Codomannus, mssage of the Granicus in ;la in 3672. ier fell to pieces after his d, among others, by three 3 of Macedon, Syria and in succession by the Ro- Greece itself had been le famous sack of Corinth, eague, a. m. 3856, or 144 mcceeded by that of the (I all its predecessors, not than by the wisdom with ne monuments of all kinds The greatness of this em- tnt of a single conqueror, r must be chiefly ascribed ^public, which inspired the the spirit of patriotism — perseverance, and taught Their religion, likewiae, o and direct the multitudei f the iroyemment. "T-i?^-;7f The earlier part of the Roman histMjr may be divided mto three periods. The first of these represents Rome under the government of kings ; from the time of its foundation, about the year of the world 3249, to the expulsion of Tarquin the Proud, and the establishment of the Republic, in 34^. The second extends from the establishment of the Republic, in the year of Rome 245, to the first Punic war, in the year of the City 490, and of the world 3738. The third commences with the first Punic war, and terminates at the battle of Acthiin, which put an end to the Republican government, and re-estab- lished monarchy under Augustus, in the year of Rome 723. During the first of these periods, the Romans had to sustain incessant wars with their neighbours, the petty states of Italy. They subdued the whole of that peninsula in course of the second period ; and it was not till the third, that they carried their arms beyond their own country, to conquer the greater portion of the then known world. The first two periods of the Roman history, are full of obscure and- uncertain truditions. In those remote ages, the Romans paid no attention to the study of letters. Immersed entirely in the business of war, th^ had no other historical records than the annals of their pontiffs, which perished in the sack of Rome, at the time of its invasion by the Gauls, in the year of the City 365. The most ancient of their historians was Fabius Pictor, who wrote his Annals in the sixth century after the foundation of Rome, or about the time of the second Punic war. These Annals, in which Fabius had consulted both tradition and foreign authors, are lost; and we possess no information on these two periods of Roman history, except wiiat has been left us by Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and Titus Livius, who both wrote in the reign of Augustus, and whose narratives often re- semble a romance rather than a true history. The cultivation of letters and arts among the Romans, did not, properly speaking, commence until the third period ; and after they had had intercourse with civilized nations, as the Canhaginians and Greeks. It was not until 484 years after the building of the city, that they struck their first silver coinage ; and ten years afterwards, they equipped their first fleet against the Carthaginians. It is at this period, also, that truth j^gias to. dawn upon their history, and to occupy the place of faUe and tradition. Besides their native historians, Titus Liviits, Floras, and Velleius Paterculus, several Greek authors, as Po> lylnas, Plutarch, Appian of Alexandria, Dion Cassius, fce.~ (la*^ nmiiahed asefnl memorials on this period. The hiatonr of Palj^ua, especially, ia a work of the highest merit TIm ^ f I'M V If eiAmt I. ttAiMnum will then find l«uons on politics and government, uhI the ioldier instructions in the art of war. A long series of foreign wars put the Romans in possession of tlM isles of the Mediterranean, Spain, Northern Africa, Egypt, Gaul, Illyria, Macedonia, Greece, Thrace, and all Asia, as far as the Euphrates. The destruction of the powerful re- public of Carthage was the grand cast of the die that decided the empire of the world in favour of the Romans. Gartnage was a colony which the ancient Phenicians had founded on the coast of Africa, near the modern city of Tunis, in the year of the world 3119, and 130 before the founding of Rome. In imitation of their mother country, the Carthaginians rendered themselves . famous by their merchandise and their marine. The extent to which they carried their commerce, and the force necessary for its protection, rendered their arms every where victorious. They gradually extended their conquests idong the shores of Africa, in Spain, and the islands of the Mediterranean. The attempts which they had made to get possession of Sicily, was the occasion of embroiling them in a war with the Romans. For nearly two hundred years, Rome and Carthage disputed between them the empire of the world ; and it was not until these two mighty rivals had, more than once, made each other tremble for their independence, that the Carthaginians yielded to the yoke of the conqueror. Their capital, after a siege which lasted nearly three years, was completely laid in ruins by the famous Scipio iEmilianus, the scholar of Polybius. No monument of the Carthaginians now remains to point out the ancient splendour of that republic. Their national archives, and all the literary treasures they contained, perished with the city, or were destroyed by the Romans. The destruction Jti Carthage happened in the year of Rome 608, and of the world 3856, the same year that witnessed th6 sack of Corinth. The fall of Carthage, and more especially the conquest of Greece, Egypt, and the Asiatic kingdoms, occasioned a wonder- ful revolution in the manners and government of the Romans The Hches of the East, the arts and institutions of the van quished nations, brought them acquainted with luxuries they had never known, which soon proved the fatal harbingers of Yice. Their patriotism and love of liberty insensibly declined, aad became extinct : powerful and ambitious citizens fomented inaurrections and civil wars, which ended in the subversion of the republican government, and the establishment of monarchy. Two triumvirates appeared in succession. The first consisted of Pompey, Casar, and Crasaus, and \»a dissolved in conse- m f MO OO t tlM. lolitics and gowramcnt, )f war. le Romans in possestion Spain, Northern Africa, ce, Thrace, and all Asia, tion of the powerful re- of the die that decided he Romans. ancient Phenicians had le modern city of Tunis, D before the founding of ountry, the Carthaginians r merchandise and their rried their commerce, and endered their arms every extended their conquests 1, and the islands of the ide to get possession of I them in a war with the ears, Rome and Carthage if the world; and it was d, more than once, made ice, that the Carthaginians »r. Their capital, after a 8, was completely laid in 8, the scholar of Polybius. now remains to point out Their national archives, itained, perished with the lans. The destruction ^f tme 608, and of the world hd sack of Corinth, especially the conquest of loms, occasioned a wonder- vernment of the Romans id institutions of the van- ainted with luxuries they red the fatal harbingers of liberty insensibly declined, imbitious citizens fomented ended in the subversion of jstablishment of nionarchy. esaion. The first consisted d vos dissolved in conse* qotBM of the eivil war that arose amonff the triuniTin. Oi having eoaqnered Pompey at the batUe of Pharsalia, in the ytar of Borne 706, became master of the empire, under the title of perpetoal dictator. This new elevation of fortune he did not long enjoy ; he was assassinated in the senate bv a band of conspirators, at the head of whom was Brutus, in me year of Rome 710, and 4li before the birth of Christ. A second triumvirate was formed between Mark Antony, Caear Octavianus, and Lepidus. Many thousands of illustri- ous Romans, and among others Cicero, were at this time pro- scribed, and put to death by order of the triumvirs. Jealousy having at length disunited these new tyrants, Octavianus stripped Lepidus of his power, and defeated Mark Antony in the famous naval battle which tookplace near the promontory of Actlum, in the year of Rome 723. Antony having been assassinated in Egypt, immediately after his defeat, Cssar Octavianus became sole master of the empire, which he afterwards ruled with sovereign authority under the name of -Augustus. At this time the Roman empire comprehended the finest countries of Europe and. Asia ; with Egypt and all the northern part of Africa. It was iMunded on the west by the Rhine and the Danube, and on the east by the Euphrates. The succesaors of Augustus added the greater part of Britian to the empire. Trajan carried his victorious arms bej'dnd the Danube ; he con- quered the Dacians, who inhabited those countries known at present under the name of Hungary, Transylvania, MoldaTia, Watachia, and Bessarabia. In the East this prince extended tiie limits of the empire beyond the Euphrates, having subdoed Mesopotamia, Assyria, Armenia, Colchis and Iberia, (or GSeor- gia ;) but the conquests of Trajan were abandoned by his suc- cessors, and the empire again shrunk within the bounds pre- scribed by Augustus. This empire, which extended from north to south nearly six hundred leagues, and more than a thousand from east to west, viz. from the 24" to the 661° of latitude, comprised a total of 180,000 square leagues. The population, during its most flourishing state, may be estimated at about 120,()<)0,00()r~4 population which equals that of modem Europe, with the ex- ception of Great Britain, Denmark, Sweden, Russia and Turkey. The government which had been introduced, was an absoliMe monarchy, only clothed with the forms of the ancient repu^k. Under the popular titles of consul, tribune of the people, gene- ral, grand pontiff, censor, &c. the prince united in himself tj^ the various attributes of supreme power. The senate indaad enjoyed extensive prerogatives ; the legislative power, whieh voii. I. 4 ppjbi 'f i P*'?®*' . .- «»r..truetfld could not insure ihe welfire SlJSdeTt; £: livesTd foK. of the citizens; .nd .^t h. th. D"«l». •"'' S".*^ mcampeJ on .he bortei. of th«« S",;™." t ir^; «^SJ .ho I««« •■?•> -".i:'";* s^i:^»rr±uid^*;io"::•™=.T^^^ is?.rpeoVL.l;7{i;™o^^^^^^^^^^^ hi» sons, without regard to »''\P""';P]\^„ej ^u is true, this Mity which his P«<»f";j" ^„1S:^^^^^^^ ren;wed .iparation was not of !«"».*^"^'X^ J finally divided the ;^;;„rds by T^eodosms the Great who n„a.y^ ^ ^^ :SZXJS>^r^^^^^^^^^ of the empire. This rf A; WM aftOTWtids tnnt- r were whoUv ei^lMidmatt lit eommana • Binneroui atbority of the semte wai lunterpoiae to dwt of the Id not insure the welfare ider princes at humane as jan and the Antonines ; or igustus should be respect- ito arbitrary power, under Nero, and Domitian; and I servile instrument in the I to facilitate the means of on became the fashionable igan to teach publicly, that B people was transferred to the laws ; that his power : the citizens ; and that he wn patrimony. These en- tie instability of the imperial ,ne, the unbridled license of ;rps of barbarians in their the number of causes that empire. rst of the emperors that em- s established religion of the Rome, the ancient residence at Byaantium, in 330, which inopie. Anxious lo^provide le stationed the flowor of his frontiers on the Rhine and e provinces and towns, the ped on the borders of these id the peace and tranquillity time, a new vigour into the jreat mistake in giving the livision of the state between ociple of unity and indivisi- held sacred. It is true, this luance; but it was renewed eat, who finally divided the 3 year 395 ; Arcadius had the i part of the empire. This Uttar eomprthradtd Italy, Oaul, Britain, Ipain, Northern Aflri* ea, Rhatia, Vindelieia, Norieum, Paanonia, and lUyria. It waa during tha nign of Honoriut, and under the adminittration of hit mmitter Suilicho, that the mamortble invasion of the barbae riant liappened, which was followed shortly after, by the da* struction of the Western Bmpire. It it with this great event, which gave birth to a variety of new states and kingdoms, that the following History of the Ravo* lutiont of Europe commences. It it divided into nine lectiona or periods of time, according to the successive changes which the political system of Europe experienced from the fifth to the nineteenth century. In the Jirst, which extends to the year 800, the barbarians, who invaded the Western Empire, formed new states in Spain, Gaul, and Italy; and produced a complete revolution in tin Sovernments, laws, manners, letters, and arts of Europe. It was uring this period that the Franks gained the ascendency over the otTier European nations ; that the' Popes laid the ground* work of (heir secular power ; that Mahomet founded a new re* ligion in Asia, and an empire which extended through Africa into Spain. In the second period, which extends from 800 to 962, a vast empire was erected, and again dismembered, after enjoying • short-lived splendour. From its wteck were formed new king- doms, which have served as the basis for several states of mo- dern times. Others were established by the Normans, Rottiana, and Hungarians. In the third period, which terminates with the year 1072, Germany became the preponderating power, and began to de- cline, through the abuse of the feudal system. The House of Cap<>t ^ounted the throne of France ; and the Normans achiev- ed the conquest of England. The Northern nations, converted to Christianity, began to itiake some figure in history : the mo- narchy of Russia became great and powerful ; while the Greek empire, and that of the Romans, fell into decay. During the fourth period, which ends with the year 1300, the Roman Pontiffs acquired an immense tway. Thit it alto the epoch of the Crusades, which had a powerful influence on the social and political state of the European nations : The dark- nett of the middle agea began gradually to disappear ; the etta- blitbment of communitiet, and the enfrafichitement of the MtSh gave birth to new ideat of liberty. The Romaa juri^7rC~;' "j I™ . importwu di«:oTerie. prepMiJ the way f»'Jp« /[•■•'. imptOTemem* : Commeite begM to lloomh, end "»«»y» »"; UiSoone more widely: The Earopjeen «.te. •"""•J, Jj' prawnt form ; while the Tarlu, an Aeiatie race, eetabluhed their ^"t^M ^eSVrom 14fi3 to 1648. i, the epoch of A. IJ- Ti^lof the be^es lettre., and the fine arts ; and of he d.ieOY«7 aZL: It U also that of the R-fo^^^l"" "^ 'tCdeTov^ plbhed in Germany ; the influence of which has extended over Hthe countries in the world. It was likewise d"""? »h's Mfi^ that Europe was de«»lated by religious wars, which Sitaally must hJvc plunpd it again ,ntp a state oj jmrtar.^rn The peace of Wesl^li* became the basis of the political sjs- •Inlhf'JZh period, from 1648 to 1713 this federal .y^™ wu turned again^ France, whose power threatened to overturn S^JJirikulbalance of Europe. The peace of ^»^^^^J^ toniK to the ambition of its aspiriog monarchs, while that of m\% adiusted the contending claims of the ISorth. , The fiuropian states, delivered from the error of univem JiinMim benn to think the establishment of it an impossibility ; JStolSiS^of the system of political equinoise, they sub- •dtnled in ite place maxims of injustice and v'olence. ThTeSi* period, which comes down to 1789. « an epoch rf^JiteeM and corruption, during which the doaritb, and extend its in- an etates aiaumed their ktie race, cstabliahed their 9, is the epoch of the ft- irts ; and of the dieeovery nation of religion accom- which ha« extended over iraa likewise during this y religious wars, which into a state of barbarism, basis of the political sys- 1713, this federal system ver threatened to overturn he peace of Utrecht sot r monarchs, while that of of the North, om the terror of universal nent of it an impossibility ; ilitical equipoise, they sub- ice and violence, lown to 17S9, is an epoch which the do.trines of a the way to the downfall of order. hilosophy bring us to the jn» almost entirely roTow- linates with the year 181^ I revoltttionarjr epoch ; W only to posterity ] ▼iBw: REVOLUTIONS OF EUROPE. oHArram ii. riBioo I. Prom tht InvaiUm of tM* Jtommn Empin te th» Vgttha$ Barbarians, to the tm$ of CharUmagm. a. d. 406—800. Thi Roman empire had, for many yeara, been mdutUy tending towards its downfall. Ita eneigies wwe ezhaaated; and it required no great efforta to Wy proatrata that gigantte power which had dmost lost iu atraogth and acUvtty. Tha vices of the government, the relaxation of diaapHne, tha aai> tnositiea of faction, and the miseriea of the people, all amwaneed the approaching ruin of the empire. Divided br mvlaal jea- lousies, enervated by luxury, and oppressed by despotiam, tha Romans were in no condition to withstand the numerous •^*MnM of barbarians from the North, who, unacquainted with l«uninr« and despising danger and death, had ieanied to conquw m tha ranka of the Imperial armies. ... u Several of the Emperors, guided by a ahort-sighted pooN, had received into their pay entire battaliona of foreigjMta) aM to recompense their serf icies, had aniffned them aettlenentaw the fronUer provinces of the empire. Thus the Franks ^taiMi, by way of compensation, territoriea in BeLrie Gaul; wbUe ua»> lar granU were made in Pannonia and in Thrace, to the VamUa, Alana, Goths, and other barbariana. Thia liberality of the Be- mans, which was a true mark of weakneaa, together vnth tha vast numbers of these troops which they emploved in their wan, at length accustomed the barbariana to regard the omnire a* th^ prey. Towards the close of the year 406, the Vandals, the Buevi, and the Alans, sounded the tocsin of that famous inta- sion which accelerated the downfall of the Westttm en^>** The example of these nations waa soon followed by the Vian Sths, the Burgundians, the Alemanns,' the Franks, the H«aii B Angles, the Saxons, the Heruls, the Oatrogotha* and tha Lombards. All these nations, with the exception of the Haaa nvre of German origin. 4* ■ffe^- m ttutm n. Tb> Vanmu, it appeafs, ware originaHy Nttled in that part of northern Germany which lie* between the Elbe and the Via- tola. They formed a temnch of the ancient Suevi, as did also the Bargondians and the Lombards. After the third century, and under the reign of the Emperor Probus, we find them, with the Burgtiadians, engaged in warring against the Romans on the Rhine. In the time of Aurelian, (872) they established them- selves in the western part of Dacia, that is, in Transylvania, and a part of modem Hungary. Oppressed in these districts by the Goths, they obtained uom Constantino the Great, settlements in Pannonia, on condition of rendering military service to the Romans. They remained in Pannonia, until the commencement of the fifth century, when they set out on their emigration to- wards Gaul. It was on this occasion that they associated them- selves with the Alans, a people originally from Mount Caucasus, and ancient Scythia; a branch of which, settled in Sarmatia near the source of the Borysthenes or Dniepr, had advanced as far as the Danube, and there made a formidable stand against th« Ronums. In their passage through Germany, the Vandals and the Alans joined a body of the Suevi, who also inhabited the banks of the Danube, eastward of the powerful nation of the Alemanns. United in this rude confederacy, they entered Gaul, plundering and destroying wherever they went. Mayence, Worms, Spire, Strasbourg, and many flourishing cities of^Gaul, wnce pillaged by these barbarians. Thb Goths,* the most powerful of these destructive nations, began to rise into notice m the third century, after the time of the Emperor Caracalla. They then inhabited the country be- tween the Vistula, the Dniester, the Borysthenes, and the Tanais or Don. ,'>It is not certain whether they were originally .'rom dMse regions, or whether, in more remote times, they inhabited Scandinavia, from which, according to Jomandes, a Gothic au- -Ihw, they emigrated at an early period. It is however certain, that they were of German extraction ; and that, in the third and fovrth («nturies, they made the Cnsars tremble on their thrones. The Emperor Aurelian was compelled (874) to abandon the pro- vince of Dacia to their dominion. This nation, the first of the German tribes that embraced the Ohristian religion,' was divided, in their ancient settlements beyond the Danube, into two principal branches. They who iwabited the districts towards the east and the Euxine Sea. balween the Dniester, the Bor^'sthenes, aiid the Tanais, were called Ostrogoths ; th-) Visigoths were the branch which extend- ed westward, and occupied ancient Dacia, and the regions situ- between the Dniebter, the Danube and the Vistula. At- mlly wttled in thatptit en the Elbe and the Vi»- ncient Suevi, as did also AAer the third century, 'obus, we find them, wiUi against the Romans on 2) they established them- It is, in Transylvania, and d in these districts by the the Great, settlements in military service to the , until the commencement it on their emigration to- hat they associated them- ly from Mount Caucasus, lich, settled in Sarmatia r Dnieper, had advanced i formidable stand against A Germany, the Vandals tuevi, who also inhabited the powerful nation of the ieracy, they entered Gaul, ■ they went. Mayence, flourishing cities of Gaul, these destructive nations, century, after the time of inhabited die country be- arysthenes, and the Tanais they were originally from mote times, they inhabited to Jomandes, a Gothic au- td. It is however certain, , and that, in the third and rs tremble on their thrones, d (274) to abandon the pro- m tribes that embraced the their ancient settlements pal branches. They who east and the Euxine Sea. nes, and the Tanais, were e the branch which extend- )acia, and the regions situ- ube and the Vistula. At- nnoB I. >; A. B. 406—800. Iftf tadrad ia these vast eettntrirf by t(e Huns, (3!EC0 aome wen Mobjnfated, and.othen eoin|ieUed to abandon their haUtadons. A part of the Visigoths then fixed their abode in Thrace, in Maaia, and the frontiers of Dacia, with consent ef Hm emperors ; who granted also to the Ostrogoths settlemento in Fannonia. At length the Visigoths, after having twice ravaged Italy, sacked and plundered Rome, ended their conquests by estaUiahing themselves in Oaul and in Spain. One oranch of these Goths appean to have been the Tharingians, whom we find in the fiftn oentury established in the heart of Germany, where they eieeted ff'^ery poweiTul kingdom. Thb Fsanks were probably a confederacy which the German tribes, situated between the Rhine, the Maine, the Weser, and the Elbe, had formed among themselves, in order to mainiain their liberty and independence against the Romans. Tacitus, who wrote about the commencement of the second centnry, did not know them under this new name, which occura for the first time in the historians of the third century. Among the Oeman tribes who composed this association, vre find the Ghauci, the Sicambri, the Chamavi, the Cherusci, the Bructeri, the Catti, the Ampsivarii, the Ripuarii, the Salii, ke.* These tribes, though combined for the purposes of common defence, under the general name of Franks, preserved, nevertheless, each their laws and form of government, as well as their particular chiefs, and the names of their aboriginal tribes. In the fourth, and towards the beginning of the fifth century, the whole country lying within the Rhine, the Weser, the Maine, and the Elbe, was called Francia. Another confederation of the German tribes, was that of the Albmanns ; unknown also to Tacitus. It took its origin about the commencement of the third centnry. Their territories ex> tended between the Danube, the Rhine, the Necker, the Main, and the Lahn. On the east, in a part of Franconia and modem Suabia, they had for their neighbours and allies the Subvi, who, after having long formed a distinct nation, wera at length blended with the Alemanns, and gave their country the name of Suabia. The Alemanns rendered themselves formidable to the Romans, by their frequent inroads into Gaul and Italy, in the third and fourth centuries. The Saxons, unknown also to Tacitus, began to make a figure in history about the second century, when we find them settled beyond the Elbe, in modern Holstein, having for their neighbours the Anglbs, or English, inhabiting Sleswick Proper. These nations were early distinguished as pirates and free- booters ; and, while the Franks and the Alemanns spread them- <0 CBAITIB B. mItm ow 4m interior of Gaul, tho Smom ii^rtodUio eoMto, and OTAB «z«mdod their incanione into Bntnin. Tm Fnnks liaving penetrated into Gaol with their main forces, the Saxou passed the Elbe, and in course of time, ocenpied, or anited in Alliance with them, the greater part of ancient Francia, which took from diem the name of Saxony. There they subdiTided themselves into three principal branches; the OitoA«/Miu to the east, the Wett^aUans to the west, and the Angrimiu or Angrwariaiu, whose territories lay between the other two, along the Weser, and as far as the confines of Hesse. The Hums, the most fierce and sanguinary of all the nations which oTerran the Roman Empire in the fifth century, came from the remote districte of northern Asia, which were altogether nnknown to the ancient Greeks and Bomans. From the de* scriptions which the historians of the fifth and sixth centuries have given us of them, we are led to believe, that they were KftmiirlM or Monguls originally. The fame of their arms had begun to spread over Europe so early as the year 376 of the Christian era. Having subdued the Alans, and crossed the Tanais, they subverted the powerful monarchy of the Goths, and gave the first impulse to the great revolution of the fifth cea- tury, which changed the face of aU Europe. The Eaitem empire first felt the fury of these barbarians, who canied fire and sword wherever they went, rendered the Emperors their tributaries, , , and then precipitated themselves on the West under the conduct of the famous Attihu* Several of the nations we have now enumerated, divided among themselves the territories of Gaul. This province, one of th» richest and most impoDant in the Western empire, was repeatedly overrun and devastated by the barbarous hordes of the i¢ury. The Visigoths were the first that formed settle* nents in it. On their arrival under the command of King Atulf •r Adolphus, (412,) they took possession of the whole country lying within the Loire, the Rhine, the Durance, the Mediter- nntfan, and the Alps. ToiriousO became their cqiital, and the residence of their kings. . . n * Thb Borgondulns, a people, it would appear, oriffinallv from the countries situated between the Oder and the Vistula, fol* kiwbd nearly in the track of the Visigoths ; as we find thein, •bout the year 413, established on the Upper Bhine and in Swttcerland. After the dissolution of the empire, they suc- ceeded in estailisbing themselves in those parts of Gaul, known by the names of the Sequa^ois, Lyonnois, Vieunois and Nar- bonnois, viz. in those distriew which formed, in course of time, the two Burgundies, the provinces of Lyonnois, Danphiny and InliMtad ths eoMtfl, to Britun. The Fnnlu r main foicM, th* Saxoiu ), oceapifld, or nnited in ' nnciont rnnciat which Then they subdiTided hes; the Oi^MUau to •t, and the Angrunu ot between the other two, nfines of Hesse, gninaiy of all the nations n the fifth century, came jia, which were altosether Romans. From the de* I fifth and sixth centuries o believe, that they were he fame of their arms had ly as the year 376 of the 9 Alans, and crossed the lonarchy of the Ooths, and vvolution of the fifth cen- irope. The Eastern empire nrho carried fire and sword imperors their tributaries, he West under the conduct now ennmeraledt divided Qaul. This province, one 1 the Western empire, was the barbarous hordes of the the first that formed settle* the command of King Atulf ision of the whole country ihe Durance, the Mediter- came their cqiital, and the luld appear, orieinallv from Oder and the Vistula, foU isigoths ; as we find tbeni, the Upper Rhine and in I of the empire, they sue* those' parts of Gaul, known fonnois, Viennois and Nar* I formed, in course of lime, >f Lyonnois, Dauphiny and mwDi. A. ». 406— 800. H PrtTwee on this skU aal. While the Visigoths, the Burgundians, the Franks and the Alemanns, were disputing with each other the conquest of Uaul, the Vandals, the Suevi, and the Alans, turned their ambitious views towards Spain. After having settled some yean in Gaul, these tribes passed the Pyrenees (409.) to establish themselves in the most fertile regions of Spain. The Vandals seized B«. tica, and a part of Gallicia ; the Suevi seized the rest of Gal- Ucia; while the Alans look possession of Lusitania, and the province of Carthagena. The /^^^^^^^"^li^^^'Vr^.ll the sway of Gonderic, King of the Vandals (420.) while the Suevi preserved their native princes, who reigned in UaOicia and iJsitania ; this latter province having ^n abandoned by the Vandsls, (427,) when they passed into Africa. Meanwhile new conquerors liegan »<> make their appemnce in Spain. The Visigoths, pressed by the K«>"?«« '^ O"]' took the resolution of carrying their arms beyond the Fy»nee». Under the conduct of their Kng, ^^^^""^.^y^^^ ZJ^. ■elves masters of the city of Barcelona (in 416.) Euric, one of L .uccessors of this pAnce, took f«».»«^«.K»3«i*^M that yet remained of their possessions m Spam ; and heovxgAd, another of their kings, completwl the conquest of eU that coun- try (684,) by reducing the kingdom of the Suevi. The mo- niXof thi VUigotfe, which in iu flourishing .tate eompnsed. b^ the coat^ent of Spain, Septimaniaor Ungomloc m P iofthiad«fe«t. The Ale* th him the empiire of the 16,) at the tutnavm battle of ales, und toon after em* his new creed, and baciked [ the Visigoths, who were ed and killed their king, near Poitiers, (607,) and between the Loire and the degrees, the undisputed endants of CIotis added to Burgundians (634.) which ' possessions in the interior i powerful kingdom of the vast countries hetween the le Mulda, and the Danube ; e names of Saxony, Thu- late," &c. This kingdom tons, who obtained the nor Unstrut and the Saal. iians, the Franks and the other the conquest of Gaul, tns, turned their ambitious settled some years in Chiul, 19,) to establish themselves The Vandals seized Bd not exceed eighty thou- ■and persons, being resolved to maintain his authority by terror, caused, for this purposes a general massacre to be made of the ancient inhabitants of Africa. To these political severities were ad^d others on the score of religion ; being devoted with all his subjects to the Arian heresy, he as well as his successors became the constant and implacable persecutors of the oAodox Christians. This prince signalized himself by his maritime exploits, and hy the piracies which he committed on the coasts of Italy and the whole Roman empire. Encouraged, as is supposed, by the Empress Eudoxia, who wished to avenge the death of her bus* band Valeutinian III., he undertook an exjpedition into Itoly, (465,) in which he made himself master of Rome. The city was pillaged during fifteen days by the Vandals, spoiled of all ito riches and iu finest monuments. Innumerable statues, orna- ments of temples, and the gilded cupola of the temple of Jupiter CapitolinuB, were removed in oniar to be transported to Aficica; tgm^-' I tomdMr witk away thoaiuds of iUustiioiu en^. A Teml bttddl with th* moit pftcioof monammu of Room, periahcd *" TliiTOSiin of the Vwiddt in Africa luted about a hundred Man. Their kingdom was destroyed by the Emperw Justinian, WhTieunited AfSca to the empire of the E„t. GihrnerjAe lastkinir of the VandaU, was conquered by Behsarius, (fi34,) and coiSucted by him in triumph to Constantinople. Britain, inaccessible by ite situation to most of the invaders ihat owrran the Western empire, was infested, in the fifth cen- tury, by the northern inhabitants of that u^and.— the free Bntons, bSWby the name of Caledonians or Picts, and ScoU. TJe Eomansliaving withdrawn their legions from the island (446.) to employ them in Gaul, the Britons, abandoned to their own ■trength, thought proper to elect a king of their own nation, namAvortigern; but finding themselves still too weak to resist the incursions of the Picte and Scots, who, breaking over the wall of Severus, pillaged and laid waste the Roman province, thev took the imprudent resolution of caUing m to their succour the Angles, Saxons, and Jutlanders, who were already dis- tinffuished for their maritime incursions. A body of these An- ri<^Saxons arrived in Britain (460,) in the first year of the reign of the Emperor Mercian, under the command of Hengist and Horsa. From being friends and allies, they soon became ene- nies of the Britons ; and ended by establishing their own do- ' ninion in the island. The native islanders, after a protracted ■truffffle. were driven into the province of Wales, where they aaeeeeded in maintaining their independence against their new conquerors. A number of these fugiUve Briton8,^to escape from the yoke of the invaders, took refuge in Gaul. There Ihey were received by the Franks into Armonca and part of Ly- MiBois, to which they gave the name of Brittaiy. The Anfflo-Saxons founded successively seven petty king- domi^ Britain, viz. Kent, Sussex. Wessex, Essex, Northum- berland, East Anglia, and Mercia. Each of these kingdoms had severally their own kings ; but they were all united in a political association, known by the name of the Heptarchy. One of the seven kings was the common chief of the confede- racv; and there was a general convention of the whole, called mttenagemot, or the assembly of the wise men. Each king- dom WM likewise governed by its own laws, and had its sepa- nte assemblies, whose power limited *he royal anthonty. This federal system continued till the ninth centunr, ^^ ''B: belt the Great succeeded in abolishing the Heptarchy (827,) and raised himself to be King over all England. ""0^ xiooa eapUtn. A v«ssel aento of Rome, perished iea iMted about a hundred by ^e Emperor Justiniwn, r the East. Gilimer, the sred by Belisarius, (634,) iiJonstantinople. t to most of the invaders ; infested, in the fifth cen- t island, — the free Britons, r Picts, and Scots. The ma from the island (446,) , abandoned to their own ling of their own nation, Ives still too weak to resist , who, breaking over the tste the Roman province, ' calling in to their succour I, who were already dis- ins. A body of these An- i the first year of the reign command of Hengist and S3, they soon became ene- istablishing their own do- slanders, after a protracted nee of Wales, where they lendence against their new iigitive Briton8,s,to escape k refuge in Gaul. There ,0 Armorica and part of Ly- i of Brittairy. jssively seven petty king- Wessex, Essex, Northum- Each of these kingdoms , they were all united in a ) name of the Heptarchy, lunon chief of the confede- ention of the whole, called he wise men. Each king- wn laws, and had its sepa- aited the royal authority, le ninth century, when Eg- ng the Heptarchy (827,) and Sngland. miosi. A. 0. 406— 800. 40 In the midst of this general overthrow, there were still to be in Italy the phantoms of the Roman emperors, feebly sop* porting m dignity which had long since lost iu splendour. ThM fine country had been desolated by the Visigoths, the Huns, and the Vandals, in succession, without becomrag the fixed re- sidence of anv one of these nations. The conquest of that an* cient seat of the first empire in the world, was reserved for the Heruls and the Rugians. For a long time, these German na* tions, who are aenerally supposed to have emi^ated from the consu of the Baltic Sea, had been approachmg towards the Danube. They served as auxiliaries to the Romans in Italy, after the example of various other tribes of their countrymen. Being resolved to usurp the dominion of that country, Uwv chose for their king Odoacer, under whose conduct they seized Ravenna and Rome, dethroned Romulus Momyllus Augusto- lus, the last of the Roman Emperors (476,) and put an entin end to the empire of the West. The Heruls did not enjoy these conquests more than seven- teen years, when they were deprived of them in their tuTn fay the Ostrogoths. This nation then occupied those extensive countries on the right bank of the Danube, in Pannonia, DTy- ria, and Thrace, within the limits of the Eastern empire. They had rendered themselves formidable to the Romans in that quarter, by their frequent incursioAs into the very heart of the empire. The Emperor Zeno, in order to withdraw these dan- ¥>rous neighbours from his frontiers, encouraged their Icing heodoric, as is alleged, to undertake the conquest of Itaqf firom the Heruls. This prince immediately penetrated into toe country ; fee defeated the Heruls in several actions ; and at length forced Odoacer to shut himself up in the city of Ravenna {m,) where, after a sieffe of three years, he fell into the hands (^ the conqueror, who deprived him at once of his throne aAd bis lilik Theodoric deserves not to be confounded with the other hav* faarous kings of the fifth century. Educated at the court of Constantinople, where he passed the years of his youth, he had learned to establish his authority by the equity of his lawk, and the wisdom Of his administrations. He ruled an empiM which, besides Ital^i embraced a great part of Pannonia, Rh«h< Noricum, and lilyria. This monarchy, formidable as it was, did not exist beyond the space of sixty years : after a sanguinary warfare of ehAf teen years, it was totally subverted bv the Greeks. The Emp peror Justinian employed his ^nerals, Belisarius '* and Nar* ses, in recorering Italy and Sicily firom the hands of the God|i. This nation defended their possessions with determined olel|* I. I' 10 aurmts. «wy. Encouraged by Toiita. ^^^^['^i^f^^^'Si wS the UOIDS. *?"'"'". --«, V _j jje^ of ihe wounds which --^ .inm His dominions passed inlo the hands of the ureeKs, and slain, ms <»°'";"v""'' >™: f BUetia and Noricum which A new reTolulion hapl)«ned m Il.ly, (««8,) by .'M '»"■ ™ si ptStoS) after se«r.l «me. ch".g.nj •l«".>'»*'- iSrli'l,'" u"rr'oSlprtCor53S'l° *.y began, .kei. Sf.. ir IhT^LoS St tfeic King Alboin, i.ho, wttbout eomiDg lu icji' „„««K-, nf cities and provinces. ravWi Wdes Unner Italy, known more especialiy by »"« "»^' |" K«be. now extended their territories »«y«»J ^^f " "'^J t£ ^'mitive name, of tho^ "•^-"'l';^*^^^^!"^^^ 4to VWivion. and were lepUiced ^ those «?. °2,;';jJ,£^ CMfedeiatMiu, vi«. the Franka, Saxons, Unsians, akomuu^ r their kst kings, they It the Greeks, and with his war thai the city of ih (617,) dismantled by ete defeat at the foot of ted of the wounds which ccessor Teias was by no In a bloody battle which 563,) he was vanquished , the hands of the Greeks, itia and Noricum which ring the war between the lossession of the Fririks. ' y, (668,) by the invasion originally inhabited the Ibe, and formed a branch It length fixed themselves es changing their abode. Asiatic people, against the lominion in ancient Dacia, ^his stale was soon over- iwo nations, and the whole 5) under the dominion of ndoned to them their pos- quest of new settlements 568 that they began their :ing Alboin, who, without Ireeks, took from them, m sa and provinces. Pavia, h care, was the only town stance; and it did not sur- ra, in 872. The Lombard heir new dominions, which, especially by the name of isiderable part of the middle irobards gradually wrested I iuat now given a sommary ipe ; but it had a more par- clent Germany. The Ger. ries were the Rhine and the tories beyond these »>▼«"; ns, recorded by Tacitus, fell r those of five or six grana uons, Frisians, Alemanns, ratioD I. A. D. 406— -800. A Suabians, and Bavarians,'* which embraced all the regions 9§t terwards comprehended under the name of Germany. The Alemanns, and their neighbours the Suabians, oecupiad* along with the Bavarians, the greater part of what is called Upper Germany, on both sides of the Danube as far as the Alpa. The Franks, masters of a powerful monarchy in Gaul, preserved, under their immediate dominion beyond the Rhine, a piurt of ancient France, together with the territories of which they had deprived the Alemanns" and the Thuringians. In short, in all Lower Germany, no other names were to be found than those of the Thuringians, Saxons, and Frisians ; und as to the eastern part, situated beyond the Saal and the Elbe, as it had been deserted of inhabitants by the frequent emigrations of the German tribes, and by the total destruction of the kingdom of the Thuringians, it was seized in turn by the Slavi, or Slavo- nians, a race distinguished from the Germans by their language and their manners. This nation, different colonies of which still occupy a mat part of Europe, did not begin to figure in history until the fourth century of the Christian era. Jornandcs, a Gothic writer of the sixth century, is the first author who mentions theoi. He calls them Slact, or Slacina ; and distinguishes them into three principal branches, the Venedi, the Slavi, and the Antes, whose numerous tribes occupied the vast countries on the north of the Euxine Sea, between the Vistula, the Nicster, the Nie> per, &c. It was after the commencement of the sixth centUfT that theHe nations emigrated from their ancient habitations, and spread themaelves over the east and south of Europe. On the one side, they extended their colonies as far as the Elbe and the Saal ; on the other, they crossed the Danube, and penetnr ted into Noricum, Pannonia, and Illyria; occupying all those countries known at this day under the names of Hungary, Sclavonia, Servia, Bosnia, Cfroatia, Dalmatia, Carniola, Carina thia, Stiria, and the march of the Venedi. The history of the sixth century, present' nothing more memorable than the bloody wars wiiich the emperors of the East had to maintain againrt the Slavians of the Danube. Those colonies of them who first distinguished themaclvea on the Elbe, the Havel, the Oder, and in the countries situated to the north of the Danube, were the Czechi, or Slavi of B^ hernia ; the Surabians inhabiting both sides of the Elbe, be- tween the Saal and the Oder, in the countries now known ondw the names of Misnia, Saxony, Anhalt and Lower Lusace ; the Wilzians, or Welatabes, and the Abotrites, spread ever Biai^ denburg, Fomerania, and Mecklenburg proper ; and, lastly, the Mi W m H I oiArm o. T MmTi, or MowTiwM. •etiled in MoraTk, and in a part of mo- dam Hungary. We find, in the eefenth century, a cliief named SSnoTwh^rJled ofer many of these nations. He fought .uc SSSlly iSnst the armies'of King Dagobert. l\»;^TPonei Sat this^mn was a Frank merchant, whom several of the Sla- vian tribes bad elected as their chief. There is one thing which, at this period, ouriit abore al to fix our attention, and that is the influence whicTi the revolution of the fifth century had on the governments, laws, mannera, •eiences. and arts of Europe. The German tr.bes, in estabrish- SHhrmsXtin the proves of the We'tem empire .nlro- d?ced along with them the poliiicol institutions by which they £3 been governed in their native country. The governments of ancient Germany were a kind of '!»>""y^^«™«"""r' ""J" gMierals or chiefs, with the prerogatives of kings. AU matters S importance were decided in their general assemblies, com- poaad of freemen, having the privilege of carrying «""».«"« l^g to war." The succession to the throne was not heredi- Sn^? and though it became so in fact in most of the new Gentian !uL. still, on the accession of their princes, they were atten- STIi preserve the ancient forms, whfch evinced .he primitive light of election that the nation had reserved to itself. ^e political division into cantons (gaw,) long used "> ancient OermanV. was introduced into all the new conuueits of the Oer- mantrilis,to facilitate the administration of jus ice. At the he»l of every canton was a usticiary officer, called ^ar, in LaS. C«»m*», who held his court in the open air, assisted by a MTtodn number of assessors or sheriffs. This new division SSdatSchangeinthegeographyofEurope Theancien SSo. of the countries were every where replaced by new ones , Sd the alterations which the nomenclature o tl^es^j;^"'-"' Sderwent in course of time, created no «";';»;",!yy^"™f » m the study of the history and geography of the ™ f j« •S"- Among the freemen who composed tlie armies of he German n.tiZ 5e find the grandees anS nobles, who we« disUngui^ed Z the«iumber of men-at-arms, or freemen, whom they earned gthei/tmin.- They all followed the king, or common chie^ rfthe expedition, not as mercenar es or «»"l»V«W";";i"* " ^lunteere who had come, of their own accord, to accomP^y S„. The booty and the conquests which hey m^^^^^^^^ ^ iir'ffli liiiiiliiiiiny niioD I. A. D. 406— SOO. ria, and in a part of mo* th century, a eltief named lations. Ha fought sue- tftgobert. It is aunpojted ivhom several of the Sla- eriod, ouffht ahove all to nee which the revolution ernments, laws, manners, erman tribes, in estabrish- le Western empire, inlro- istitutions by which they mtry. The governments ilitary democracies, under res of kings. All matters general a38emblies, com- ge of carrying arms, and he throne was not heredi- n most of the new German princes, they were atten- hich evinced the primitive eserved to itself. [gaw,) long used in ancient new conijueats of the Oer- tration of justice. At the .ry officer, called Grav, in the open air, assisted by a sriffs. This new division y of Europe. The ancient lere replaced by new ones ; nclaturc of these divisions d no small embarrassment rfiphy of the middle ages. I the armies of the Glerman lies, who were distinguished eemen, whom they carried the king, or common chief, I or regular soldiers, but as own accord, to accompany s which they made in war, y, to which they had all an id grandees, in the division lortions than the other mill- be greater efforts thev had warriors who had followed These lands were given tbem m proMr^ iplM them to the field. in every respect free ; and although an obligation was'lmi of their concurring in defence of the common cause, yat it rather a sort of consequence of the territorial grant, and not im- posed upon them as a clause, or essential condition of the tenon. It is tnerefore wronir to regard this division of knds as having Eiven rise to fiefs. War was the favourite occupation, the only onourable rank, and the inalienable prerogative of a OermiD. They were soldiers not of necessity or constraint, but of their own free will, and because they despised every other employ- ment, and every other mode of life. Despotism was, therefor*, never to be apprehended in a govern/nent like this, where iIm great body of the nation were in arms, sat in their general aa* semblies, and marched to the field of war. Their kings, how- ever, soon invented an expedient calculated to shackle iIm national liberty, and to augment their own influence in tha pub- lie assemblies, by the number of retainers which they fbnnd means to support. This expedient, founded on the primitiv* manners of the Germans, was the institution of fiefs. It was long a custom among the ancient Germans, that th«r chiefs should have, in peace as well as in war, a numerous suits of the bravest youths attached to their person. Besides provi* sions, they supplied them with hordes and arms, and sharea wiUi them the spoil which they took in war. This practice subeisiad even after the Germans had established themselves in the pro* vinces of the Western Empire. The kings, and, after tneir example, the nobles, continued to entertain a vast number of companions and followers ; and the better to secure their alia- giance, they granted them, instead of horses and arms, the enjoy- ment of certain portions of land, which they dismembered uooi their own territories. These grants, known at first by the name of befujleer, and afterwards of Jiefs, subjected those who received them to personal servicea, and allegiance to the superiors of whom they held them. As they were bestowed on the individual possesyr, and on the express condition of personal services, it is obvious that originally fiefs or benefices were not hereditary; and that they returned to the superior, when the reason for which they had been given no longer existed. The laws and jurisprudence of the Romans were in full prao* tice through all the provinces of the Western Empire, when the German nations established themselves there. Far from super- seding or abolishing them, the invaders permitted the ancient inhabitants, and such of their new subjects as desired it, to Ufa conformably to these laws, and to retain them in their courts of 6* m H CKAPTM n> Udence. which accorded neither with the rudeneM of their SwneA. nor the imperfection of their ideu. t»iey took great «w, after their .etUement in the Roman P'«'Jf»«=f' »« *»■" j^.' Mci^nt cuitomt, to which they were so peculiarly attached, di- Mited and reduced to writing. . », • .l r .u- "The Codes of the Salian and Ripuanan Franks, those of the VUigoths,the Burgundians, the Bavarians, the Anglo-Saxons, Jm Frisians, the ATemanns, and the Lombords, were collected toto one body, and liberty given to every c us«n to .be governed M^^ing to that code oflaws which he himself might choose S^Aesf laws wore the impress of Use military spirit of the Oormana. as well as of their attachment to that personal liberty •Xideicndence. which is the true characteristic of human SfurJiits primitive state. According to these laws, every nmon was iudired by his peers; and the right of vengeance 5rws^r"erto*the individVals, or the whole family, of those Zho had received injuries. Feuds, which thus became hered.- 3, were not however irreconcilable^ <^ompromise was allow- 2Pfor all private delinquencies, which could be expiated, by MV^ng to tEe injured party a specified sum, or a certain number SSStle. MurJer itse7 uiight be expiated «« this manner ; and 0Tvy part of the body had a tax or equivalent, which was more TOs «vere. according to the different rank or condition of *^°verv fre'eman was exempt from corporal punishment; and inlubffu caZ the law obfiged the iud|es to refer the parties S abgle combat, enjoining them to Mo their quarrel sworf ta hand. Hence, we have the oririn of ihe Judgments of God, iwSl as of ChaUenge$ and Duds.*» These customs of the Slnnan nations, and their singular resolution in persistmg m £™ could not but interrupt the go«^ order of society, encou- S?barbarism, and stamp i>.e same character of rudeness on «1 S'r conquests New wants sprung from new enioyments; SSle rrence. and the contagion of example, taught hem to emmicC vices of which they had been ignorant, and which they SdS i^deem by new virties. Murders, oppressions, and rob teies multiplied every day ; the sword was made the standard jThonour th^e rule of justJeand injustice ; "uf X an^ pe'fid^^ became every where the reigning character of the court, th. ■tiU;Je; witrtaru and sciences, felt above all the bane- fclXts of this revolution. In less ^an * century after the tot invnsion of the barbarians. tb«re scarcely ""»»•»•* "'"jl; ««ee of the literature and fine arw of the Romans. Learning, T ig this •vit*m of jnrii' the rudeiMU of their ideM, ttk«y took great provincet, to hare their peculiarly attached, di- ian Franks, those of the ians, the Anglo-Saxons, ombords, were collected Y citisim to be governed > himself might choose, se military spirit of the t to that personal liberty characteristic of human ing to these laws, every the right of vengeance B whole family, of those kich thus became heredi- Compromise was allow- ;h could be expiated, by sum, or a certain number ated in this manner ; and livalent, which was more ent rank or condition of >rporal punishment; and judges to refer the parties ecide their quarrel sword of the Judgmenti of God, * These customs of the esolution in persisting in d order of society, encou* tiaracter of rudeness on all T from new enioyments ; example, taught them to I ignorant, and which they den, oppressions, and rol> ird was made the 8tandar pensable, were reserved for them ; and in this way their very name (clerieut) became as it wore the synonyme for a man of letters, or any person capable of handling the pen. The bish ops, moreover, held the first rank in all political assemblies, and in war marched to the field in person, at the head of their vassals. Another circumstance that contributed to raise the credit and the power of the clergy was, that the Latin language continued to be employed in the Roman provinces which had Feen sub* iected to the dominion of the German nations. Every thing was written exclusively in the Roman tongue, which became the language of the churcn, and of all public acts ; and it was long before the German dialects, which had become universally pre* valent, could be reduced to writing. The corrupt pronunciation of the Latin, and its mixture with foreign idioms and contsnic* ■J CHAVTSB II. tions, gave birth, in course of time, to new langnagei, which still retain evidence of their Roman origin, such as the Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French and English languages. In the fifth and following centuries, the Teutonic language, or that spoken by Uie conquerors of Gaul, was called 2tn;«a Francica; tfcs was distinguished from the lingua Romana, or the language spoken by the people ; ard which afterwards gave rise to the modem French. It appears, therefore, from what we have just stated, that the incursion of the German tribes into the provinces of the West, was the true source of all the barbarity, ignorance and superstition, in which that part of Europe was so long and to universally buried. There would have been, therefore, every reason to deplore a (evolution, not less sanguinary in itself than disastrous in its consequences, if, on the one hand, it had not been the instru- Btent of delivering Europe from the terrible despotism of the Bomans ; and, on the other, if we did not find, in the rude in- stitutions of the German conquerors, some germs of liberty, which, sooner or later, were sure to lead the nations of Europe to wiser laws, and better organized gove. -nents. Among the states which rose on the ro!. s of the Roman em- pire, that of the Franks acquired the preponderance ; and, for several ages, it sustained the character of being the most pow- erful kingdom in Europe. This monarchy, founded by Clovis, and extended still more by his successors, embraced the whole of Gaul except Languedoc, which belonged to the Visigoths.* 'ih» greater part of Germany also was subject to it, with the exception of Saxony, dnd the territories of the Slavi. After it had fallen into decay, by the partitions and civil wars of the descendants of Clovis, it rose again, solely however by the wis- dom and ability of the mayors of the palace, who restored it once more to its original splendour. These mayors, from being originally merely grand-masters of the court, rose by degrees to be prime ministers, governors of the state, and ullimately to be kings. The founder of their ?ieatness, was Pepin d'Heristal, a cadet of the dynasty of the !arIovingi!ini«, which succeeded that of the Merovingians, to- wards the middle of the eighth century. Under the Meroyin- eian princes, the sovereignty was divided between two principal kingdoms, viz. that of Austrasia, which comprehended East- em France, being all that part of Ganl situated between the Meuse, the Scheld, and the Rhine ; as well as the German pro- vinces beyond the Rhine, which also made a part of that mo- narchy. The whole of Western Gaul, lying between the Scheld, the Meuse and the Loire, was called Neustria. Burgundy, niaafS ^ssmm ■irr ?BBIOI> I. A. B. 406 — 800. tf i new langnaffei, which rigiii, such as the Italian, |rlish languages. In the lutonic language, or that i called ^tn^ua Franeica; Romano, or the language lerwards gave rise to the 5, from what we have just n tribes into the provinces 11 the barbarity, ignorance ' Europe was so long and every reason to deplore a self than disastrous in its had not been the instru- terrible despotism of the 1 not find, in the rude in* i, some germs of liberty, ead the nations of Europe ove. nents. le rol. s of the Bomnn em- i preponderance ; and, for er of being the most pow- narchy, founded by Clovis, ssors, embraced the whole elonged to the Visigoths." vas subject to it, with the :ies of the Slavi. After it i«ns and civil wars of the solely however by the wis- [)alace, who restored it once lly merely grand-masters of me ministers, governors of gs. The founder of their ;adet of the dynasty of the it of the Merovingians, to- ury. Under the Meroyin- rided between two principal rh'xch comprehended East- Ganl situated between ihe as well as the German pro- 5o made a part of that mo- 1, lying between the Scheld, led Neustria. Burgundy, Aquitain, and Provence, were considered as dependencies of this latter kingdom. , ... Dagobert II., King of Austrasia, having been assassmated, in 678, the King of Neustria, Thierry HI., would in all probability have reunited the two monarchies ; but the Austrasians, who dreaded and detested Ebroin, Mayor of Neustria, elected a mayor of their own, under the nominal authority of Thierry. This gave rise to a sort of civil war between the Austrasians and the Neustrians, headed by Pepin Heristal, Mayor of Austrasia, and Bertaire, Mayor of Neustria, who succeeded Ebroin. The battle which Pepin gained at Testry, near St. Quentin (687,) decided the fate of the empire ; Bertaire was slain, and Thierry III. fell under the power of the conqueror. Pepin afterwards confirmed to Thierry the honours of royalty, and contented him- self with the dignity of mayor, and the title of Duke and Prince of the Franks ; but regarding the throne as his own by right of conquest, he vested in himself the sovereign authority, and granted to the Merovingian Prince, nothing more than the mere externals of majesty, and the- simple title of king. Such was the revolution that transferred the supreme authority of the Franks to a new dynasty, viz. that of the Carlovingians, who with great moderation, still preserved, during a period of sixty- five years, the royal dignitjr to the Meravingian princes, whom they had stripped of all their power.*' Pepin d'Heristal being dead (714,) the partizans of the ancient dynasty made a last effort to liberate the Merovingian kings from that dependence under which Pepin had held them ao long. Thisorince, in transferring the sovereign authority to his grand- son Theodwald, only six, years of age, had devolved on his widow, whose name was Plectrude, the regency and guardian- ship of the young mayor. . . i- • A government so extraordinary emboldened the factious to attempt a revolution. The regent, as well as her grandson, were divested of the sovereignty, and the Neustrian grandees chose a mayor of their own party named Rainfroy ; but their triumph was only of short duration. Charles Martel, natural son of Pepin as is supposed, having escaped from the prison where he had been detained by the regent, passed into Austrasia, and then caused himself to be proclaimed duke, after the example of his father. He engaged in a war against Chilperic II. and his mayor Rainfroy ; three successive victories which he gained, viz. at Stavelo, Vinci near Cambray, and Soissons, in 716-17-18, made him once more master of the throne and the sovereign authority. The Duke of Aquitain having delivered up King Chilperic to him, he confirmed anew the title of royalty to that prmce ; and !f cturm n. After raiaed his glory to its highest jutch, hv the hriUiant ▼ictorfes which he gained over the Arabs (732-737,) in the plains of Poitiers and Narbonne. Pepin le Bref, (or the Short) son and successor of Charles Martel, finding hie authority established both within and with- out his dominions, judged this a favourable opportunity for re- uniting the title of royalty to the power of the sovereign. He managed to have himself elected Kin? in the General Assem- bly of the Franks, which was convened in the Champ-de-Mars, in the neighbourhood of Soissons. Childeric III. the last of the Merovingian kings, was there deposed {752;) and shut up in a convent. Pepin, with the intention of rendering his person sacred and inviolable, had recourse to the ceremony of corona- tion ; and he was the first King who caused himself to be aolemnly consecrated and crowned in the Cathedral of Sois- s'ons, by St. Boniface, first archbishop of Mayence."* The example of Pepin was followed soon after by several princes and sovereigns of Europe. The lust conquest he added to his do- minion was thje province of Languedoc, which he took (759) from the Arabs. The origin of the secular power of the Roman pontiffs com- mences with the reign of Pepin. This event, which had so peculiar an influence on the religion and government of the Euro- pean nations, requires to be detailed at some length. At the period of which we write, there existed a violent con- troversy between the churches in the East, and those in the West, respecting the worship of images. The Emperor Leo die Isaurian had declared himself against this worship, and had proscribed it by an imperial edict (726.) He and his successors persisted in destroying these objects of idolatry, as well as in persecuting those who avowed themselves devotees to this heresy. This extravagant zeal, which the Roman pontiffs blamed as excessive, excited the indignation of the people against the Grecian Emperors." In Italy, there were frequent rebellions against the imperial officers that were charged with the execution of their orders. The Romans especially, took occasion, froip this, to expel the duke or governor, who resided in their city on the part of the emperor ; and they formally erected themselves into a republic (730.) under the pontificate of Gregory II., by usurping all the rights of sovereignty, and, at the same time, reviving the ancient names of the senate and the Roman people. The Pope was recognised as chief or head of this new republic, and had the general direction of all affairs, both at home and abroad. The territory of this republic, formed of the dutchy of Rome, extended, from north to south, from Iiesi pitch, by the brilliant )8 (7^-737,) in the plains ind successor of Charles ed both within and with- irable opportunity for re- er of the sovereign. He Sin the General Assem- in tibe Charop-de-Mars, Childeric III. the last of )osed (7d2i) and shut up )n of rendering his person the ceremony of corona- ho caused himself to be n the Cathedral of Sois- liop of Mayence.* The fier by several princes and quest he added to his do- loc, which he took (759) the Roman pontiffs com- ?his event, which had so d government of the Euro- it some length, iiere existed a violent con- te East, and those in the iges. The Emperor Leo linst this worship, and had }.) He and his successors of idolatry, as well as in mselves devotees to this lich the Roman pontiffs ndignation of the people Italy, there were frequent s that were charged with Romans especially, took ! or governor, who resided peror ; and they formally 30,) under the pontificate ights of sovereignty, and, it names of the senate and ecognised as chief or head eral direction of all affairs, ory of this republic, formed rom north to south, from ruMioD u A. s. 406—800. Il' Viterbo as far as Terracina ; and from east to west, from Nami to the mouth of the Tiber. Such was the weakness of the Eastern empire, that all the effort "( the emperors to reduce the Romans to subjection proved tt-availing. The Greek vice- roy— the Duke of Naples, who had marched to besiege Rome, was killed in batUe, together with his son ; and the exarch him- self was compelled to make peace with the republicans. This state df distress to which the Grecian empire was re» dujed, afforded the Lombards an opportunity of extending their possessions in Italy. Aistolphus their king attacked the city of Ravenna (751,) where the exarchs or governors-general of the Greeks had fixed their residence ; and soon made himself master of it, as well as the province of the exarchate,** and the Pen* tapolis. The exarch Eulychius was obliged to fly, and took shelter in Naoles. . , , „ . , , ,. , . j This surrender of the capital of Grecian Italy, emboldenefl the Lombard King to extend his views still farther } he demanded the submission of the city and dutchyof Rome, which he con- sidered as a dependency of the exarchate. Pope Stephen II. became alarmed, and began to solicit an alliance with the Greek empire, whose distant power seemed tohim less formi* dable than that of the Lombards, his neighbours ; but being closely pressed by Aistolphus, and finding that he had no suc- cour to expect from Constantinople; he determined to apply for protection to the Franks and their King Pepin. The Franks, at that time, held the first rank among the na- tions of Europe ; their exploits against the Arabians had gained them a high reputation for valour over all the West. Slephea repaired in person to France, and in an interview which he had wUh Pepin, he found means to interest that prince in his cause. Pepin did not yet regard himself as securely established on a throne which he had so recently usurped from the Merovingiwi princes ; more especially as there still existed a son of Childeric ni., named Thierry, and a formidable rivalry in the puisswat dukes of Aquitain, who were cadets of the same family. He had no other right to the crown than that of election ; and this title, instead of descending to his sons, might perhaps serve as a pretext for depriving them of the sovereignty. Anxious to render the crown hereditary, he induced the Pope to renew tlM ceremony of his coronation in the Church of St. Denis ; and) at the same time, to consecrate his two sons, Charles and Car- loman. The Pope did more ; he disengaged the King from Uw oath which he had taken to Childeric, and bound all the nobUity of the Franks, that were present on the occasion, in the nwM of Jesus Christ and St. Peter, to preserve the toytl digaitjr m -i"-:-*'K:..v'>'. *'':*-'»i'^'." 'r_>.^A^,-^^yi^^'^j^:i'^^:'mX-iy>^,'J-*' m i 8t; >• gg inurm n. dM liiAt of P*p ^ "d hU dMcendMtoj Md lMUJ^ that he niahtdM more effectuaUy swjure the attachment of Pepin and BJfaMTand procuw for'^hiinMlf the tiUe of beingtheir pro- teetorriie pubUdy conferred on them the honour of bemg patn- "^sl tlSt^descension on the part of the Pope could not but excite the gratitude of Pepin. He not ouly promieed him buc- couragainJt the Lombards; he engaged to recoyer the exarchate fa>mto hands, and make a present of it to AeHo^y See; KTvTmade him a grant of it by antictaaUon. which.he sigiied at the Castle of Chiersi-sur-rOise, and wWh he likewise caused to te signed by the prince, his «ons.*» It was m fulfilment of SeM s^uUtiois that Pepin "ndertook (7^) two successive expeditions into Italy. He compeUed Aurtolphus to acknowledge himself his vassal, and deliver up to him the exarchate with the Pentapolis, of which he iromedmtely put hiS Hohness m possession: This donation of Pephi Mrved to confirm and to Sxtend the secular power of ihe Popes, which had already ^en augmented by various grants of a similar kmd. The original document of this singular contract no longer "ists; but Ae names of the places are preserved which were ceded to the '*In?£'condu8ion of this period, it may be proper to take some notice of the Arabs, commonly called Saracens." and of their irruption into Europe. Mahomet, an Arab of noble birth, and a native of Mecca, had constituted himself a prophet, a legisla- tor, and a conqueror, about the beginning of the seventh cenlunr of the Christian era. He had been expelled from Mecca (6^) on account of his predictions, but afterwards returned at the head of an army ; and having made himself master of Uie city, heVucceeded by decrees, in subjecting to his yoke the numerous tribes of Arabia. His successors, known by the name of Ca- Udis. or vicars spiritual and temooral of the prophet, followed ST ^e triumphant career. They propagated Aeir relwon wherever they extended their empire, and ovemn with their conquests the vast regions both of Asia and Africa. Syria, pffine. Egypt, Barca, Tripoli, and the whole northern coasts of AfcicJ^ wS?won from t£e Greek empire by vhe Caliphs; who at the same time (661) overthrew the powerful monarchy of the Persians ; conquered Charasm, Transoxiana, and the In- dies, and founded an empire more «t™"re ^''•'V**VrI ^ Romans had been. The capital of the Caliphs, which had on- SSSTbeen at Medina, and l^fterwards at Cufa. was .transfened Sei) by Uie Caliph Moavia L to Damascus >n Syria; and by Se Caliph AlmaLor, to Bagdad in Irak-Aiabia. (766) whwh was founded by that prince ^ ats; and iMtly, that he attachment of Pepin and title of beinff their pro- honour of oeing patri- if the Pope could not but only promised him sue* ' to recover the exarchate of it to the Holy See ; cnation, which he signed wnich he likewise caused It was in fulfilment of c (765-66) two successive Listolphus to acknowledge him the exarchate with itely put hiil Holiness in served to confirm and to I, which had already been lilar kind. The original 10 longer exists; but the which were ceded to the lay be proper to take some 1 Saracens,*' and of their I Arab of noble birth, and mself a prophet, a legisla- ling of the seventh century xpelled from Mecca (622) (terwards returned at the hioiself master of the city, { to his yoke the numerous aown by the name of Ca- ll of the prophet, followed ' propagated their reliffion !i, and overran with their Asia and Africa. Syria, the whole northern coasts i empire by ibe Caliphs ; iw the powerful monarchy , Transoxiana, and the In* ixtensive than that of the it Caliphs, which had ori- Is at Cufa. was transfened mascus in Syria; and by Ii^k-Arabia, (766) which »d& Mtios I. A. D. 40S— 800. •MltH m • ■y -^ tt-wai under the Caliphate of Walid (711.) that dw Araba first invaded Barope, and attacked the monarchy of the Visigoths in Spain. This monarchy had already sunk under the fteUe- ness of its kings, and the despotic prerogatives which the gran> dees, and especially the bishops, had arrogated to thamaclves. These latter disposed of the throne at their pleasure, having declared it to be elective. They decided with supreme authority in the councils of the nation, and in all affairs of state. Muxa at that time commanded in northern Africa, in name of the Ca- liph Wdid. By the authority of that sovereign, he sent into Spain one of his generals, named Taric or Tarec-Abenara, wno, having made a descent on the coasts of Andalusia, took his station on the hill which the ancients called Calp^, and which has since been known by the name of Gibraltar (Oibel-Tarie,) or the hill of Taric, in commemoration of the Arabian aeneraL It was in the neishbourhood of the city Xeres de la rrontera, in Andalusia, that Taric encountered the army of the Visigoths, commanded by their King Roderic. ' The battle was decisive, as the Visigoths sustains a total defeat. Roderic perished in the flight ; and Muza, the Arabian governor, having arrived to second the efforts of Taric, the conquest of all Spain followed as a consequence of this victory.* Septimania, or Languedoe, which then made a part of the Visigothic monarchy, pMsed at the same time under the dommiori of the Arabs. These fierce invaders did not limit their conquests in Europe to Spain and Laneniedoc ; the Balearic Isles, Sardinia, Corsica* part of Apulia and Calabria, fell likewise under their dominion : they infested the sea with their fleets, and more than once car- ried terror and desolation to the very gates of Rome. It is pro- bable even that all Europe would have submitted to their yoke, if Charles Martel had not arrested the career of their victoriet. He defeated their numerous and warlike armies in the bloody battles which were fought near Poitiers and Narbonne (79fl^ 737,) and at length compelled them to shut themsehia op within the province of Languedoe. The unity of the empire and the religion of Mahomet, did not long remain undivided. The first dynasty of the Calij^ that of the Ommiades, was subverted ; and all the princes of that family massacred bv the Abassides (749,) who seiied die caliphate." A solitary descendant of the Ommiades, named Alh dalrakam, grandson of the fifteenth Caliph Huscham, was saved rn Spain, and fixed his residence at Cordova ; and bahig acknowledged as Caliph by the Mussulmans there, he detaehad that province from the great empire of the Arabians. (768.) This revolution, and the confusion with which it waa i VOL. L 6 ^:jM^ at M' aUFTKtn. mnied, gave fresh courage to the small number of Visigoths, who, to escape the Mahometan yoke, had retired to the moun* tains of Asturias. Issuing from their retreats, they retaliated on the Infidels ; and towards the middle of the eighth century, they laid the foundation of a new Christian state, called after- wards the kingdom of Oviedo or Leon. Alphonso I., sur- named the Catholic, must be regarded as the first founder of this new monarchy." The Franks, likewise, took adrantage of these events, to ex- pel the Arabs from Languodoc. Pepin took possession of the cities of Nismes, Maguelonne, Agde, and Beziers (7ffiJ,) which were delivered up to him by a noWe Goth, named Osmond. The reduction of Narbonne was by no means so easy a task. For seven years he continued to blockade it ; and it was not until 769 that he became master of the city, and the whole of Languedoc. , , ., .. The loss of Spain, on the part of the Abassides, was soon after followed by that of Northern Africa. Ibrahim Ben-Aglab, having been sent thither as governor by the Caliph of Bagdad, Haroun Alrashid (800.) he found means to constitute himself sovereign prince over the countries, then properly termed Afri- ca ; of which Tripoli, Cairoan, Tunis, and Algiers, formed a part. He was the founder of the dynasiv ©f the Aglabites ^ While another usurper, named Edris, having conquered Numi- diaand Mauritania, called by the Arabs Mogreb, founded that of the Edrissites. These two dynasties were overturned (about 906) by Aboul Cassem Mohammed, son of Obeidallah, who churned to be descended from Ali, by Fatima, daughter of the prophet; he subjected the whole of Northern Africa to his yoke, and took the titles of Mahadi and Cahph. From him Were descended the Caliphs, called Fatimites, who extended their conquests to Earvpt. and laid there the foundation of Ka- heiah, or Grand Cairo (968,) where they estabhshed the seat of their "caliphate, which, in the twelfth century, was destroyed by the Ayoubides. „ . .. . •» .^. The irruption of the Arabs into Spain, disastrous as it was, did not fail to produce effects beneficwl to Europe, which owes Ha civiUzation partly to this circumstance. The Abassidian Caliphs, aspiring to be the protectors of letters and arts, begaii to found schoofa, and to encourage translations of the most eminent Greek authors into the Arabic language. Their ex- ample was followed by the Calipha of Cordova, and even by the Fatimites. who held the sovereignty of Egypt and Northern * Africa. In this manner a taste for learning was coromunicatea to aU the Mahometan states. From Bagdad it pwised to Lairo ; - I 11li«ri iiri~tiiriii^iiri«i all number of Vingothsi lind retired to the mouii* retreats, they retaliated le or the eighth century, rislian state, called after- jeon. Alphonso I., sur- d as the first founder of ge of these events, to ex* in took possession of the and Beziers (752.) which de Goth, named Osmond, no means so easy a task, ckade it ; and it was not he city, and the whole of the Abassides, was soon irica. Ibrahim Ben-Aglab, by the Caliph of Bagdad, eans to constitute himself hen properly termed Afri- is, and Algiers, formed a ynasiv of the Aglabites '?^ havmg conquered Numi- lbs Mogreh, founded that ies were overturned (about 1, son of Obeidallah, who J Fatima, daughter of the »f Northern Africa to his i and Caliph. From him Fatimites, who extended kere the foundation of Ka- they established the seat Ifth century, was destroyed tpain, disastrous as it was, ijal to Europe, which owes mstance. The Abassidian s of letters and arts, began ;e translations of the most abic language. Their ex- I of Cordova, and even by jnty of Egypt and Northern [earning was communicated \ Bagdad it passed to Cairo ; rsBioD n. A. D. 800 — 968. •• and from the banks of the Euphrates and the Nile, it tpw^ itself as far as the Tagus. Mathematics, * Astronomy, Che- mistry, Medicine, Botany, and Materia Medica, were the aci- ences which the Arabians affected chiefly to cultivate. They excelled also in poetry, and in the ai of embodying the fictions of imagination in the most agreeable narratives. Rhaaes, Aver- roes, Aviceiina, are among the number of their celebrated phi- losophers and physicians. Elmacin, Abulfeda, Abulpharagius, and Bobadiii, as hUtorians, have become famous to all posterity. Thus Spain, under the Mahometans, by culuvaling many sciences little known to the rest of Europe, became the semi- nary of the Christians in the West, who resorted thither m crowds, to prosecute in the schools of Cordova the study of learning and the liberal arts." The use of the numerical cha- racters, the manufacture of paper, cotton, and ffun-powder, were derived to us from the Arabians, and especially from the Arabians of Spain. Agriculture, manufactures, and naviga- tion, are all equally indebted to the Arabians. They gave a new impulse to the commerce of the Indies ; from the Persian Gulf thev extended their trade along the shores of the Mediter- ranean, and to the borders of the Black Sea. Tbeir carpets, and embroideries in gold and silver, their cloths of silk, and their manufactures in steel and leather, maintained for years a ce- lebrity and a perfection unknown to the other nations of Europe. CHAPT»"-R in. PERIOD II. From Charlemagne to Ottio the Great, a. d. 800—968. The reign of Charles the Great forms a remarkable epoch in the history of Europe. That prince, who succeeded his father Pepin (768.) eclipsed all his predecessors, by the superiority of his genius, as well as by the wisdom and vigour of his admin- istration. Under him the monarchy of the Franks was raised to the highest pinnacle of glory. He would have been an ac- complished prince, and worthy of being commemorated as the beuefactor of mankind, had he known how to restrain his im- moderate thirst for conquest. He carried his victorious arms into the centre of Gennany ; and subdued the warlike nation of the Saxons, whose tomtones extended from the Lower Rhine, to the Elbe and the Baltie sea. Alter a bloody war of thirty-three years, he coinpeUed them to receive his yoke, and to embrace Christianity, by tha |j,v • OIAPTSB m. BMM which he concluded with them (803) at Salts on the 8«bL The bishoprics of Monster, Osnaburg, Minden, Pader* bora, Verden, Bremen, Hildesheim, and Halberatadt, owe their origin to this prince. Several of the Slavonian nation*, the Abotrites (789,) the Wilaians (806.) the Sorabians (906.) the Bdiemians (81 1,) &c., acknowledged themselves his tributaries ; and by a treaty of pence which he concluded with Hemming, King of Jutland, he fixed Uie river Eyder, as the northern limit of his empire against the Danes. Besides these, the powerful monarchy of the Avars,' which comprehended all the countries known in modern times by the names of Austria, Hungary, Transylvania, Sclavonia, Dalmatia and Croatia, was compleiely subverted by bim (791 1) and he likewise despoiled the Arabians of all that part of Spain which is situated between the Pyrenees and the Ebro (796,) as also of Corsica, Sardinia, and the Balearic Isles. In Spain he established military com- manders under the title of margravn. Of these conquests, the one that deserves the most particu- lar attention is that of Italy, and the kingdom uf the Lombards. At the solicitation of Pope Adrian I., Charles undertook an ex- pedition against the last of the Lombard kings. He besieged that prince in his capital at Pavia ; and having made him pri- soner, after a long siege, he shut him up in con6netnent for the rest of his days, and incorporated his dominions with the mo- narchy of the Franks. The Dukes of Benevento, who, as vassals of the Lombard kings, then occupied the greater part of Lower Italy, were at the same time compelled to acknowledge the sovereignty of the conquerors, who allowed them to exer- cise their herediury rights, on condition of ih^-ir paying an annual tribute. The only places in this purt of Italy that re mained unsubdued, were the maritime lowns, of which the Givekii still found means to maintain the possession. In order to secure the conquest of this country, as well as to protect it against the incursions of the Arabians, Charles estab- liahed several marches and military stations, such as the marches of Frinli, Tarenio, Turin, Liguira, Teti, &c. The downfall of the Lombards, put an end to the republican govern- ment of the Romans. During the blockade of Pavia, Charles having gone to Rome to be present at the feast of Easter (774,) was received there with all the honours due to an Exarch and a Patrician ; and there is incontestable proof that he after- wards received, under that title, the rights of sovereignty over Bome and the Ecclesiastical States. The Patrician dignity, instituted by Constantino the Great, ranksd, in the Greek empire, next after that of emperor. It was •mUm 'W' I (803) at Salti on the inaburg, Minden, Padsr- 1 Halwrstadt, owe their Slavonian nation*, the he Sorabiane (S06,) the lemselres his tributaries ; tcluded with Hemming, Eiyder, as the northern es. Besides these, the ch comprehended all the f the names of Austria, ilmatia and Croatia, was lid he likewise despoiled rhich is situated between Iso of Corsica, Sardinia, istablishcd military com- t, iserves the most particu* ngciom of the Lombards. Charles undertook an ex- ird kings. He besieged d having made him pri- up in con6nement for the dominions with the mo- of Benevento, who, as :upied the greater part of )mpelled to acknowledge allowed them to exer- ition of llieir paying an this pun of liniy that re me towns, of which the the possession. his country, as well as to 1 Arabians, Charles estab- V stations, such as the Liguira, Teti, ice. The to the republican govern- ockade of Pavia, Charles the feast of Easter (774,) nours due to an £xarch (table proof that he after- •ights of sovereignty over y Constantino the Great, r that of emperor. It was mioD n. A. D. 80O— M9. 6f of such consideration, that even barbarian kings, the destroyers of the ancient Ronum empire in the West, became candidates for this honour at the Court of Constantinople. The exarchs of Ravenna were generally invested with it, and exercised under this title, rather than that of exarch or ffovemor, the authority which they enjoyed at Rome. Pope Stephen II. had, twenty years before, conferred the patriciate on Pepin and his sons ; although these princes appear never to have exercised the righti regarding it merely as an honorary title, uo long at least as the kingdom of the Lombards separated them from Rome and the States of the Church. Charles no sooner saw himself master of that kingdom, than he affected to add to his titles of King of the Franks and Lombards that of Patrician of the Romans ; and besan to exercise over Rome and the Ecclesiastical States those ri^ts of supremacy which the Greek emperors and exarchs had enjoyed before him. This prince returned to Rome towards the end of the vear 800, in order to inquire into a conspiracy which some of the Roman nobility had concerted asainst the life of Pope Leo III. The whole afllair having been discussed in his presence, and the innocence of the Pope clearly established, Charles went tO assist at the solemn mass which was celebrated in St. Peter's Church on Christmas day (800.) The Pope, anxious to show him some public testimony of his jgratitude, chose the moment when the prince was on his knees at the foot of the grand altar, to put the imperial crown on his head, and cause him to be pro- claimed to the people Emperor of the Romans. From this affair must be dated the revival of the Roman Em- Sire in the West, — a title which had been exriact for three hun« red years. The emperors of the East whi<, during that inter* val, had continued exclusively in the enjoyment of that title, appeared to have some reason for opposing an innovation which mi^ht eventually become prejudicial to thent. The contest which arose on this subject between the twt omperors, was at length (803) terminated by treaty. The Greek emperors recog- nised the new dignity of Charles (812 ;) and on these conditions they were allowed to retain those possessions, which they still held by a feeble tenure in Italy. In thus maintaining the imperial dignity against the Greek emperors, Charles added nothing to his real power ; he acquired from it no new right over the dismembered provinces of the Western empire, the state of which had, for a long time past, been fixed by specific regulations. He did not even augment his authority over Rome, where he continued to exercise th« e* H aurtu* ta. Mun« righu of superiority under the title of emperor, which he hitd formerly done under that of patrician. j m . This prince, whose genius soared beyond his age, did not Sir* merely as a warrior and a conqueror; he was wsp « !«• later, and a lealous potron of letters. By the laws which he pablished under the title of CapitiUaries, he reformed several iibases, and introduced new ideas of order and justice. Com- missioners nominated by himself, were charged to trevel through the prorinces, to superintend the execution of the laws, listen to the complaints of the people, and render justice to each without disUnction ^nd without partiality. He conceived like- wise the idea of establishing a unifdrmily of weights and mea- sures throughout the empire. Some of the laws of that great man. however, indicate a disposiUon tinctured with the "J™' nam and superstition of his age. The Judgments of God are expressly held by him to be legal tests of right and wrong, and the greater part of crimes expiable by money. By a general law, which hVpassed in 779, introducing the payment of eccle- siastical tithes, and which he extended to the vanquished Saxons (791,) he alienated thti affections of that people ; and the code which he dictated on this occasion, is remarkable for its atrocity ; which their repeated revolts, and frequent returns to paganism. **A* to htl'itronage and love of letters, this is attested by the numerous schools which he founded, and the encouragements he held out to them ; as well as the attention he showed in in- viting to his court, the most celebrated learned men from every country in Europe. He formed them into a kind of academy, or literary society, of which he was himself a member. When at an advanced age, he received instruction in rhetoric, logic and astronomy, from the famous Alcuin, an Englishman, to whom he was much attached. He endeavoured also to improve hw vernacular tongue, which was the Teutonic, or Itngm Francica, by drawing up a grammar of that language, giving German names to the months and the winds, which had not yet received them ; and in making a collection of the military songs of the ancient Germans. He extended an equal P'^'fction to the arts, more especially architecture, a taste for which he had imbibed in Italy and Rome. Writers of those times speak with admiration of the palaces and edifices constructed bvhis orders, at Ingelhiem, near Mentz. at Nimeguen, on the left bank of the Waal, and at Aix-la-Chapelle. These buildings were adorned with numerous paintings, as well as marble and mosaic vrork, which he had brought from Rome and Ravenna. The empire of Charlemagne, which may bear a comparison • of emperor, which ht lan. yood hit age, did not ■ueror ; he wan also a ie* By the laws which he •iest he reformed several der and justice. Com* harged to irvvel through ution of the laws, listen render justice to each ity. He conceived like* lity of weights and mea> >f the laws of that great inctured with the barba- B Judgmtnti of God are of right and wrong, and >y money. By a general ng the payment of eccle* to the vanquished Saxons lat people ; and the code Bmarkable for its atrocity ; uent returns to paganism, ers, this is attested by the and the encouragements attention he showed in in- d learned men from every n into a kind of academy, imself a member. When itruction in rhetoric, logic Icuin, an Englishman, to ideavoured also to improve the Teutonic, or lingua r of that language, giving i winds, which had not yet tction of the military songs ed an equal protection to ', a taste for which he had lers of those times speak edifices constructed by his ^imeguen, on the left bank e. These buildings were well as marble and mosaic ime and Ravenna, ch may bear a comparison iMaMUUb. viBioD u. A. 0. 800—969. ft as to its extent with the ancient empire of the West, embraced the principal part of Europe. All Oaul, Germany, and Spain as far as tne Ebro, Italy to Benevento, several islands in the Mediterranean, with a considerable part of Pannonia, composed this vast empire, which, from west to east, extended from the Ebro to the Elbe and the Raab ; and from south to north, from the dutchy of Benevento and the Adriatic Sea to the River Ey* der, which formed the boundary between Germany and Denmark. In defining the limits of the empire of Charlemagne, care must be taken not to confound the provinces and states incor- porated with the empire with those that were merely tributary. The former were governed by officers who might be recalled at the will of the prince ; while the latter were free states, whose only tenure on the empire was by alliance, and the contributions they engaged to pay. Such was the policy of this prince, that, besides the marches or military stations which he hadestablished on the frontiers of Germany, Spain, and Italy, He chose to retain on diflereht points of his dominions, nations who, under the name of tributaries, enjoyed the protection of the Franks, and might act as a guard or barrier (^inst the barbarous tribes of the east and north, who had long been in the habit of making incursions into the western and southern countries of Europe. Thus the dukes of Benevento in Italy, who were simply vas- sals and tributaries of the empire, supplied as it were a rampart or bulwark against the Greeks and Arabians; while the Scia- vonian nations of Germany, Pannonia, Dalmatia, and Croatia, though feudatories or vassals of France, were governed, never- theless, by their own laws, and in general did not even profess the Christian religion. From this brief sketch of the reign of Charlemagne, it is easy to perceive, that there was then no single power in Europe for- midable enough to enter into competition with the empire of the Franks. The monarchies of the north, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, and those of Poland and Russia, were not then m ex- istence ; or had not emerged from the thick darkness that still covered those parts of continental Europe. England then pre- sented a heptarchy of seven confederate governments, the union of which was far from being well consolidated. The kings of this confederacy were incessantly engaged in war with each other ; and it was not until several years after Charlemagne, that Egbert the Great, king of Wessex, prevailing in the contest, constituted himself King of all England, in 827. The Mahometan part of Spain, after it was separated from the great empire of tne Caliph's, was engaged in perpetual war- fare with the East. The Oinmiades, sovereigns of Cordova, 68 CHArriB in. far from provoking ihoir western neiglibours, whose valour they had already experienced, showed themselves, on the contr&ry, attentive to preserve peace and good understandins with them. The Greek emperors, who were continuallv quarrelling with the Arabs and Bulgarians, and agitated by factions and intestine commolions, could no longer be an object of suspicion or rivalry to the monarchy of the Franks. ... , v • Thus did the empire of Charlemagne enjoy the glory of being the ascendant power in Europe ; but it did not long sustain its original splendor. It would have required a man of extraordi- nary talents, to manage the reins of a government so extensive and so complicated. Louis-le-Debonnaire, or the Gentle, the son and successor of Charles, did not possess a single quahfi- cation proper to govern the vast dominions which his father had bequeathed to him. As impolitic as he was weak and super- stitious, he had not the art of making himself either loved or feared by his subjects. By the imprudent partition of his domi- Dions between his sons, which he made even in his lifetime, he planted with his own hand those seeds of discord in his family, which accelerated the downfaU of the empire. The civil wars which had commenced in his reign continued after his death. Louis, sumamed the German, and Charles the Bald, combined against their elder brother Lothaire,and defeated him at the fa- mous battle of Fontenay in Burgundy (841.) where all the flower of the ancient nobility perished. Louis and Charles, victorious in this engagement, obliged their brother to take refuge in Itdy. They next marched to Strasbourg, where they renewed their alli- ance (842.) and confirmed it by oath at the head of their troops. These princes were on the point of dividing the whole mo- narchy between them, when, by the interference of the nobility, they became reconciled to their elder brother, and concluded a treaty with him at Verdun (843,) which finally completed the division of the empire. By this formal distribution Lothaire retained the imperial dignity, with the kingdom of Italy, and the provinces situated between the Rhone, the Saone, the Meuse, the Scheld, the Rhine, and the Alps. Louis had all Germany beyond the Rhine, and on this side of the river, the cantons of Mayence, Spire, and Worms; and, lastly, all that part of Gaul which extends from the Scheld, the Meuse, the Saone, and the Rhone, to the Pyrenees, fell to the lot of Charles, whose division also comprehended the March of Spain, consisting of the pro- vince of Barcelona, and the territories which Charlemagne had conquered, beyond the Pyrenees. , t. It is with this treaty, properly speakinjp:, that modem !• ranee commences, which is but a department of the ancient empire of T wun, whon vilour they itelvet, on th« contr&ry. oderatMidinff with them, lally quarrelling with the ty (actions and intestine )ct of suspicion or rivalry ) enjoy the glory of being t did not long sustain its lired a man of extraordi* government so extensive aire, or the Gentle, the possess a single qualifi* ions which his father had lie was weak and super* himself either loved or ent partition of his domi* e even in his lifetime, he of discord in his family, jjmpire. The civil wars ontmued after his death, srles the Bald, combined id defeated him at the fa- 841,) where all the flower and Charles, victorious in ir to take refuge in Italy. )re they renewed their alii- the head of their troops.* r dividing the whole mo* iterference of the nobility, brother, and concluded a ich finally completed the mal distribution Lothaire I kingdom of Italy, and the le, the Saone, the Meuse, Louis had all Germany r the river, the cantons of istly, all that part of Gaul Aeuse, the Saone, and the of Charles, whose division ain, consisting of the pro- 3 which Charlemagne had ikinjp[, that modem France nt ofthe ancient empire of mn ■MMBlBaifB riiioD n. A. D. 800—968. •• the Franks, or monarchy of Chnrlomagne. For a long time it retained the boundaries which the conference at Verdun had assigned it ; and whatever it now possesses beyond thewe limits, was the acquisition of conouests which it hn« mnde since the four- teenth century. Charles tne Bald wns in fact then the first King of France, and it his from him thnt the series of her kings com- mences. It was moreover under this prince thnt the povern- ment of the Neustrians or Western Franks assumed a new aspect. Before his time it was entirely of a Frankisli orGermon constitution ; the manners ond customs of the conq-.terors of Gnul every where pretlominoted ; their language (the lingita Francica) was that of the court and the governuient. But after the dismemberment of which we have spoken, the Gauls im- ported it into Neuslria or Western France ; the customs and popular language were adopted by the court, and hnd no small influence on the government. This language, which was then known by the name ofthe Roman or Romance, polished by the refinements of the court, asiumed by 'degrees a new and purer form, and in course of time became tlio parent of the modern French. It vns therefore nt this period, viz. the reign of Charles tLe Bald, that the We.stern Franks began, properly speaking, to be a distinct nation, and exchanged their more ancient appellation for that of French; the name by which they are still known. At this same period Germany was, for the first time, embo- died into a monarchy, having its own particular kings. Louis the German, was the first monarch of Germany, as Charles the Bald was of France. The kingdom of Louis for n long time was called Eastern France, to distinguish it from the Western kingdom of that name, which henceforth exclusively retained the name of France. The empire of Charlemagne, which the treaty of Verdun had divided, was for a short space reunited (884) under Charles, surnamed the Fat, younger son of Louis the German, and King of Germany ; but that prince, too feeble to support so great a weight, was deposed by his German subjects (887,) and their example was speedily followed by the French and the Italians. The vast empire of the Franks was thus dismembered for ever (888,) and besides the kingdoms of France, Germany, and Italy, it gave birth to three new States — the kingdoms of Lorraine, Burgundy, and Navarre. The kingdom of Lorraine took its name frorn Lothaire II., younger son of the Emperor Lothaire I., who, in the division which he made of his estates among his sons (866,) gave to this Lodiairc the provinces situated between the Rhine, the Meuse. i eHAPTEft m. and the Scheid, kaown since under the name of Lorraine, Al- i»». Treves, Cologne, Juliers, Liege, and the Low Countries. mIb deaiu of Lothaire IL. who left no male or leptimate heirs, his kingdom was divided by the treaty of Procaspis (870.) i "o wo equal portions, one of which wa. assigned to Lou.s the Germa.", and the other to Charles the Bald.' By a subse- q«m treaty, concluded (879) between the sons ?f Lo»". «"• named the Stammerer, King of France, and Louis the Young. King of Germany, the French div sion of Lorraine was ceded to this latter prince, who thus reunited the whole of that king- dor Ii remained incorporated with Germany, at the time when the last dismemberment of that monarchy took place. (8»5,) on he deposition of Charles the Fat. Arnuph. King of Germany, and successor of Charles, bestowed the kingdom of Lorraine on Swentibald his natural son. who after a reign of five years, was deoosed by Louis, surnamed the Infant, son and successor of ArnuTph. \ouis dying without issue. (912.) Charles the Sun- Die Kins of France, took advantage of the commotions in Ger- many, to put himself in possession of that kingdom, which was at length finally reunited to the Germanic crown by Henry, surnamed the Fowler. , „ , Two new kingdoms appeared under the name of Burgundy, viz Provence or Ci.jurane Burgundy, and Tran.jurane Bur- Bundy. Tiie founder of the former was a nobleman named losoJ whose sister Charles the Bald had e«PO«f.«<'-. . ^leva jj by the king, his brother-in-law, to the highest dignities in the 2x1 he was created, in succession, Count of Vienna, Duke of Provence, Duke of Italy, and Prime Minister, and even obtained in marriage the Princess Irmengarde, daughter of Louis IL, Emperor and King of Italy. Instigated by this princess, he did not scruple to raise his amotions views to the throne. The death of Louis the Stammerer, and the troubles that ensued, afforded him an opportunity of attaching to his interest most of the bishops in those countries, intrusted to his government. In an assembly which he held at Mantai le in Dauphin^, (879.) he engaged them by oath to confer on him the royal dignity. The schedule of this election, with the signatures of the bishops affix- ed, informs us distinctly of the extent of this new kingdom, whiJh comprehended F'anche-Comtd, Ma,on Chalons-sur-Sa. one, Lyons, Vienne and its depandencies, Agde, Viviers, Usez, with their dependencies in Languedoc, Provence, and a oart of Savoy Boson caused himself to be anointed king at Lyons, by the archbishop of that city. He maintained P-""';;]! "^ his usurped dominions, in spite of the combmed efforts which were maTe by the kings of Prance and Germany to reduce him to Bubiection. the name of Lomine, Al« , and Ae Low Countries, eft no male or legitimate 5 treaty of Procaspis (870,) ch was assigned to Louis s the Bald.' By a subse- sen the sons of Louis, sur- jce, and Louis the Young, ion of Lorraine was ceded •d the whole of that king- Germany, at the time when irchy took place, (896,) on Lrnulph, King of Germany, lie kingdom of Lorraine on r a reign of five years, was fant, son and successor of le, (912,) Charles the Siin- of the commotions in Ger- if that kingdom, which was ermanic crown bji Henry, er the name of Burgundy, dy, and Transjurane Sur- er was a nobleman named d had espoused. Elevated lie highest dignities in the , Count of Vienna, Duke of Minister, and even obtained irde, daughter of Louis II., ated by this princess, he did I views to the throne. The i the troubles that ensued, :hirig to his interest most of sted to his government. In ttille in Dauphin^, (879,) he him the royal dignity. The gnatures of the bishops afhx- ttent of this new kingdom, >t^, Ma^on, Chalons-sur-Sa- encies, Agde, Viviers, Usez, doc, Provence, and a part of be anointed king at Lyons, le maintained possession of the combined efforts which and Germany to reduce him mioD n. A. ». 80O— 968. »t The example of Boson was followed soon after by Rodolph, governor of Transjurane Burgundy, and related by the female side to the Carlovingians. He was proclaimed kmg, and crown- ed at St. Maurice in the Valais ; and his new kmgdom, situa- ted between Mount Jura and the Penine Alps, contained Swit- zerland, as far as the River Reuss, the Valais, and a part of Savoy. The death of Boson, happening about this time, fur- nished Rodolph with a favourable opportunity of extending his frontiers, and seiaing a part of the country of Burgundy. These two kingdoms were afterwards (930) united into one. Hugo, king of Italy, exercised at that time the guardianship of the young Constantine, his relation, the son of Louis, and grand- son of Boson. The Italians, discontented under the government of Hugo, and having devolved their crown on Rodolph II., kmg of Transjurane Burgundy, Hugo, in order to maintain himself on the throne of Italy, and exclude Rodolph, ceded '<» h»m t^e district of Provence, and the kmgdom of his royal ward. 1 hus united in the person of Rodolph, these two kingdoms passed to his descendants, viz. Conrad, his son, and Rodolph 111., hia grandson. These princes are styled, in their titles, sometimes Kings of Burgundy: sometimes Kings of Vtenne or Aries ; sometines Kings of Prove?ice and Allemania. Jhey lost, in course of time, their possessions beyond the Rhone and the Saone; and in the time of Rodolph III., this kmgdom had for its boundaries the Rhine, the Rhone, the Saone, the Reuss, and Navarre, the kingdom next to be mentioned, known among the ancients under the name of Vasconia, was one of the pro- vinces beyond the Pyrenees, which Charlemagne had conquered from the A ' 3. Among the counts or wardens of the Marches, called by ihe Germans Margraves, which he established, the most remarkable were those of Barcelona in Catalonia, Jacca in Arragon, and Pampeluna in Navarre. All these Spanish Marches were comprised within Western France, and within the division which fell to the share of Charies the Bald, on the dismembwment of that monarchy among the sons of Louis the Gentle. The extreme imbecility of that prince, and the calami- ties of his reign, were the causes why the Navarrese revolted from France, and erected themselves into a free and indepen- dent state. It appears also, that they were implicated in the defection of Aquitain (853,) when it threw off the yoke of Charles the Bald. Don Garcias, son of the Count Don Gar- cias, and grandson of Don Sancho, is generally reckoned the first of their monarchs, that usurped the tide of Ktng of Pam^ pdmuh (868.) He and his successors in the kingdom of «a- If ettAfTKK tn. nure. possessed, at the 8«me time, the province of '«« in Anagon. The CounU of Barcelona were the onlv Spanish dependencies that, for many centuries, continued to acknowledge the sovereignty of the Kings of France. ... On this part of our subject, it only remains for us to point out the causes that conspired to accelerate the downfall of the em- pire of the Franks. Among these we may reckon the inconve* niences of the feudal system,— a system as unfitted for the pur- poses of internal administration, as it was incompatible with the maxims that ought to rule a great empire. The abuse of fiefs was carried so far by the Franks, that almost all property had become feudal ; and not only grants of land, and portions of laree estates, but governments, dukedoms, and counties, were conferred and held under the title of fiefs. The consequence of this was, that the great, by the allurementof fiefs or benefices, became devoted followers of the kings, while the body of the nation sold themselves as retainers of the great. Whoever re- fused this vassalage was despised, and had neither favour nor honour to expect.* By this practice, the liberty of the subject was abridged without augmenting the royal authority. The nobles soon became so powerful, by the liberality of their kings, and the number of their vassals they found means to procure, that they had at length the presumption to dictate laws to the sovereign himself. By degrees, the obligations which they owed to the state were forgotten, and those only recognised which the feudal contract imposed. This new bond of alhance was not long in opening a door to licentiousness, as by a natural consequence, it was imagined, that the feudal superior might be changed, whenever there was a possibility of charging him with a violation of his engagements, or of that reciprocal fidelity which he owed to his vassals. , ... j l i . A system like this, not only overturned public order, by plant- ing the germs of corruption in every part of the internal admi- nistration ; it was still more defective with regard to the external operations of government, and directly at variance with all plans of aggrandizement or of conauest. As war was earned on by means of slaves or vassals only, it is easy to perceive that such armies not being kept constantly on foot, were with difficulty put in motion ; that they could neither prevent intestine rebellion, nor be a protection against hostile invasion ; and that conquests made by means of such troops, must be lost with the same filci- lity that they are won. A permanent rtilitary, fortresses and ffi^sons, such as we find in modem tactics, were altogether unknown among the Franks. These politic insiitutions, indis- pensable in great empires, were totally repugnant to the genius 1 I. the province of Jaeca in la were the only Spanish I, continued to acknowledge ice. remains for us to point out te the downfall of the em> w may reckon the inconve* lem as unfitted for the pur« i was incompatible with the mpire. The abuse of fiefs hat almost all property had ts of land, and portions of [edoms, and counties, were jf fiefs. The consequence remenCof fiefs or benefices, ngs, while the body of the )f the great. Whoever re* md had neither favour nor !, the liberty of the subject the royal authority. The the liberality of their kings, (y found means to procure, ption to dictate laws to the he obligations which they and those only recognised This new bond of alliance lentiousness, as by a natural he feudal superior might be ibility of charging him with that reciprocal fidelity which amed public order, by plant- y part of the internal admi- e with regard to the external tly at variance with all plans As war was carried on by s easy to perceive that sucn foot, were with difficulty put prevent intestine rebellion, nvasion ; and that conquests ■X be lost with the same faci* lent niilitary, fortresses and lem tactics, were altogether sse pclitic insiitutions, indis- ally repugnant to the genius ■#■ :M f^ Flight (fMAmeU Fol. 1-f . 00. 1 1— f. 60. FU. I— p. M. riuoo n. A. 7>. 800—909. fS of the German nationt. They did net even know wliat is meant by finances, or regular systems of taxation. Their kings had no other pecuniary resource than the simple reVenuea of their demesnes, which served for the maintenance of their court Gratuitous donations, the perquisites of bed and lodging, finw« tlie tierce of which belonged to the king, rights of custom and »nd to the nobles the means rnnfbhts, and breaking, by lemagne had felt this in- nedy the evil, bv succcs- and dividing them into policy was not followed to the ancient practice of sducated and nurtured in themselves wholly under ics, who thus disposed of lequence was, that govern- will of the King, passed if those who were merely them. ince, had the weakness to ito a standing law, in the (877,) towards the close of principle generally to all of the crown, as well as to tical superiors. r the nobles, joined to the med, tended to sow fresh of the state, by exciting a : feuds, which, by a neces- I body-politic into a state of of the successors of Charle- iliating and distressing to with insurrections, devas- inii from the same blood, latoral vengeance, and ithority insulted and rrpvwHLUy at war with each lai^s, or aggrandize them- oors ; and, finally, the citi- km, reduced to misery and sibility of redress from the holy situation of the States >magne, when the irruption ■om the extremitiM of the North, wid the Hungariana from the b^k settUmMrt* of A«», exposed it afresh to U»e terrible scourge of foreign invasion. The Normans, of German origin, and inhabitmg ancient Scandinavia, that is to say, Sweden, Denmark, and modem Norway, began, towards the end of the eighth century, to cover the sea with their ships, and to infest succesaively all the man- time coasts of Europe.* During the space of two hundred years, they continued their incursions and devastations, with a fierce- ness and perseverance that surpasses all imagttiation. This phe- nomenon, however, is easily explained.if we attend to the state of barbarism in which the inhabitants of Scandinavia, in general, were at that time plunged. Despising agriculture and the arts, thev found themselves unable to draw from fishing and the chase, the necessary means even for their scanty subsistence. The comfortable circumstances of their neighbours who culti- vated their lands, excited their cupidity, and invited t^m to acquire by force, piracy, or plunder, what they had not sufficient skni to procure by iheir own industry. They were, moreover, animated by a sort of religious fanaticism, which inspired them with courage for the most perilous enterprise. This reckless superstition they drew from the doctrines of Odin, who was the god of their armies, the rewarder of valour and intrepidity in war, receiving into his paradise of ValhaUa, the brave who fell beneath the swords of the enemy j while, on the other hand, the abode of the wretched, called by them Helvete, was pre- pared for those who, abandoned to ease and efTemimicy, prefer- red a life of tranquillity to the glory of arms, and the penis of warlike adventure. i • • j This doctrine, generaUy diffused over all the north, inspired the Scandinavian youth with an intrepid and ferocious courage, which made them brave all dangers, and consider the sangui- narv death of warriors as the surest patn to immortaUty. Often did it happen that the sons of kings, even those who were already destined as successors to their fathers throne, volun- teered as chiefs of pirates and brigands, under the name of dea KingM, solely for the purpose of obtaining a name, and signato- inir themselves by their maritime exploits. ,. .. j These piracies of the Normans, which at first were limited to the seas and countries bordering on Scandinavia, won ex- tended over all the western and southern coaste of Europe. Germany, the kingdoms of Lorraine, France, Engtond, SScot- land, Ireland, Spain, the Balearic Isles, Italy, Greece, and even the shores of Africa, were exposed in their turn to the insults and the ravages of these barbarians." France more especially suffered from their wcurwons, und«r immimiammmmMmiDt mmmm^'r^' nurmm. the foeUe nignt of Charles the Bdd. and Charlea the Fat. Not content with the havoc which they made on the coasts, A0f ascended the Seine, the Loire, the Garonne, and the Rhone, carrying fire and sword to the very centre of the kingdom. Hantes, Angers, Toors, Blois, Orleans, Mons, Poitiers, Bour- deaox, Rouen, Paris, Sens, Laon, Soissons, and various other cities, experienced the fury of these invaders. Paris was three times sacked and pillaged by them. Robert the Strong, a scion of the royal House of Capet, whom Charles the Bald had created (861.) Duke or Governor of Neustria, was killed in battle (866,) wuile combating with success against the Normans. At length, the tenor which they had spreaaevery where was such, that the Flinch, who trembled at the verv name of the Normans, had no longer courage to encounter them in arms ; and in order to rid themselves of such formidable enemies, they consented to purchase their retreat by a sum of money; a wretched and feeble remedy, which only aggravated the evil, by inciting the inraders, by the hope of gain, to return to the charge. It is not however at all astonishing, that France should have been exposed so long to these incursions, since, besides the in« efficient state of that monarchy, she had no vessels of her own to protect her coasts. The nobles, occupied solely wiih the care of augmenting or confirming their growing power, offered but a feeble opposition to the Normans, whose presence in the kingdom caused a diversion favourable to their views. Some of uem even had no hesitation in joining the barbarians, when they happened to be in disgrace, or when they thought they had reason to complain of the government. It was in consequence of these numerous expeditions overall the seas of Europe, that the monarchies of the North were formed, and that the Normans succeeded also in founding several other states. It is to them that the powerful monarchy of the Russians owes its origin ; Ruric the Norman is allowed to have been its founder, towards the middle of the ninth century.' He and the grand dukes his successors, extended their conquests from the Baltic and the White Sea, to the Euxine ; and during the tenth century they made the emperors of the East to trem- ble on their thrones. In their native style of piratical warfare, they embarked on the Dnieper or Borysthenes, infested with their fleets the coasts of the Black Sea, carried terror and dismay to Ae gates of Constantinople, and obliged the Greek emperors to pay them large sums to redeem their capital from pillage. Ireland was more than once on the point of being subdued by the Normans, during these piratical excursions. Their first in- TMion of this island is stated to have been in the year 796. , and Charlea the Fat. My made on the coaats, Garonne, and the Rhone, centre of the kinedom. IK, Mons, Poitiers, Bour- issons, and various other vaders. Paris was three [obert the Strong, a scion tries the Bald had created wan killed in battle (866,) the Normans. At length, where was such, that the ne of the Normans, had in arms ; and in order to emies, they consented to money; a wretched and the evil, by inciting the n to the charge, that France should have ms, since, besides the in- ii no vessels of her own occupied solely with the ir growing power, offered 8, whose presence in the lie to their views. Some ling the barbarians, when lien they thought they had lerous expeditions overall ;hies of the North were id also in founding several owerful monarchy of the Gorman is allowed to have )f the ninth century.' He extended their conquests } the Euxine ; and during srors of the East to trem- style of piratical warfare, torysthenes, infested with , carried terror and dismay tliged the Greek emperors eir capital from pillage, point of being subdued by icorsions. Their first in< ave been in the year 796. riiioD II. A. D. 8(M>— 96B. ff Great ravages were committed by the barbarians, who eonqtiet- ed or founded the cities of Waterford, Dublin, ai Limenck, which they formed into separate petty kingdoms. Ohnstianitv was introduced among them towards the middle of the tenth century ; and it was not till the twelfth, the time of iu invasion by the English, that they succeeded in expelling them from the island, when they were dispossessed of the cities of Waterford and Dublin (1170) by Henry II. of England. Orkney, the Hebrides, the Shetland and Faroe Islands, and the Isle of Man, were also discovered and peopled by the Nor- mans." Another colony of these Normans peopled Iceland, where they founded a republic (874.) which preserved its inde- pendence till neariy the middle of Che thirteenth centunr, when that island was conquered by the Kings of Norway.' Norman- dy, in France, also received its name from this people. Charles the Simple, wishing to put a check on their continual incur- sions, concluded, at St. Clair-sur-Epte (892.) a treaty with Rollo or Rolf, chief of the Normans, by which he abandoned to them all that part of Neustria which reaches from the rivers Andelle and Aure to the ocean. To this he added a part of Vezin, situated between the rivers Andelle and Epte ; as also the ter- ritory of Bretagne. Rollo embraced Christianity, and received the baptismal name of Robert. He submitted to become a vas- sal of the crown of France, under the title of Duke of Norman- dy ; and obtained in marriage the princess Gisele, daughter of Charles the Simple. In the following century, we shall meet with these Normans of France as the conquerors of England, and the founders of the kingdom of the two Sicilies. The Hungarians, a people of Turkish or Finnish origin, emigrated, as is generally supposed, from Baschiria, a country lying to the north of the Caspian Sea, between the Wolga, the Kama, and Mount Ural, near the source of the Tobol and the Jaik, or modem Ural. The Orientals designate them by the generic name of Turks, while they denominate themselves Magiars, from the name of one of Uieir tribes. After having been long dependent on the Chazars,'* a Turkish tribe to the north of the Palus Maotis, they retired towards the Danube, to avoid the oppressions of the Patzinacites ;" and established themselves (887) in ancient Dacia, under the auspices of a chief named Arpad, from whom the ancient sovereigns of Hungary derive their origin. Amulph, King of Germany, employed these Hungarians (892) against the Slavo-Moravians, who pos- sessed a flourishing state on the banks of the Danube, the Morau, and the Elbe." While engaged in this expedition, they were attacked again in their Dacian possessions by the Patzina- 7* eilM, who laeeecdad at length in expelling them from ihoM tenitoriee.** Taking advantage afterwards of the death of Swiatopolk, king of the Moravians, and the troubles conse- quent on that event, they dissevered from Moravia all the coun- try which extends from the frontiers of Moldavia, Wallachia and Transylvania, to the Danube and the Morau. They con> quered, about the same time, Pannonia, with a part of Noricum, which they had wrested from the Germans ; and thus laid the foundation of a new state, known since by the name of Hungary. No sooner had the Hungarians established themselves m Pannonia, than they commenced their incursions into the prin* cipal states of Europe. Germany, Italy, and Gaul, agitated by faction and anarchy, and even the Grecian empire in the East, became, all in their turn, the bloody scene of tneir ravages and devastations. Germany, in particular, for a long time felt the eflfecU of their fury. AH its provinces in succession were laid waste by Uiese batDarians, and compelled to pay them tribute. Henry I., King of Germany, and his son Otho the Great, at length succeeded in arresting their destructive career, and de- livetvd Europe from this new yoke which threatened its in- dependence. , , u It was in consequence of these incursions of the Hunsarians and Normans, to which may be added those of the Arabs and Slavonians, that the kingdoms which sprang from the empire of the Franks lost once more the advantages which the political institutions of Charlemagne had procured them. Learning, which that prince had encouraged, fell into a state of absolute languor ; an end was put both to civil and literary improvement, by the dzstruction of convents, schools, and libraries ; the po- lity and internal security of the states were destroyed, and commerce reduced to nothing. England was the only excep- tion, which then enjoyed a transient glory under the memora- ble reign of Alfred the Great. That prince, grandson of Egbert, who was the first king of all England, succeeded in expellmg the Normans from the island (887.) and restored peace and tran- quillity to his kingdom. After the example of Charlemagne, he cultivated and protected learning and the arts, by restoring the convents and schools which the barbarians had destroyed; iMviting philosophers and artists to his court, and civilizing hia aobjects by literary institutions and wise regulations." It u to be regretted, that a reign so glorious was so soon followed by new misfortunes. After the Normans, the Danes reappeared in England, and overspread it once more with turbulence and desolation. . . , . c j During these unenlightened and calamitous times, we nnd tiling thatn from thut v«rds of the death of nd the troubles conae- n Moravi* all the coun- f Moldavia, Wallachia he Morau. They con- with a part of Noricum, lana ; and thus laid the y the name of Hungary, ablished themselves m ncursions into the prin- f, and Qau I, agitated by :ian empire in the East, ine of their ravages and for a long time felt the in succession were laid ed to pay them tribute, son Otho the Great, at tructive career, and de- irhich threatened its in- sions of the Hunnrians those of the Arabs and irang from the empire of tges which the political ured them. Learning, 1 into a state of absolute nd literary improvement, s, and libraries ; the po- ;es were destroyed, and land was the only excep- ory under the memora* ince, grandson of Egbert, I, succeeded in expelling 1 restored peace and tran- xample of Charlemagne, ind the arts, by restoring irbnrians had destroyed; I court, and civilizing his vise regulations.'^ It is IS was 80 soon followed ms, the Danes reappeared lore with turbulence and ilamitoas times, we find FBBIOD III. A. D. 960 — 1074. 7f the art of navigation making considerable progress. The Nor> mans, traversinj^ the seas perpetually with their fleets, learned to construct thoir vessels with greater perfection, to beeoma better skilled in wind and weather, and to use their oars and sails with more address. It was, moreover, in consequence of these invasions, that more correct information was obtained re- 5arding Scandinavia, and the remote regions of the North, 'wo Normans, Wolfstane and Other, the one from Jutland, and the other from Norway, undertook separate voyaoes, in course of the ninth century, principally with the view of mak* ing maritime discoveries. Wolfstane proceeded to visit that part of Prussia, or the Eithonia of the ancients, which was re* nowned for its produce of yellow amber. Other did not con* fine his adventures to the roasts of the Baltic ; setting out from the port of Heligoland, his native country, he doubled Cape North, and advanced as far as Biarmia, at tho mouth of tne Dwina, in the province of Archangel. Both he and Wolfstane communicated the details of their voyages to Alfred the Great, who made use of them in his Anglo-Saxon translation of Oroeiaa. Besides Iceland and the Northern Isles, of which we have alre&dy spoken, we find, in the tenth century, some of the fuffi* tive Normans peopling Greenland ; and otners forming settle- ments in Finland, which some suppose to be the island of Newfoundland, in North America.^ CHAPTER IV. FBRIOD UI. From Otho the Great to Gregory the Great, a. d. 962—1074. While most of the states that sprang from the dismembered empire of the Franks, continued to be the prey of disorder and anarchy, the kingdom of Germany assumed a new form, and for several ages maintained the cnaracter of being the ruling power in Europe. It was erected into a monarchy at the eiace of Verdun (843,) and had fnr its first king Louis the erman, second son of Louis the Gentle. At that time it comprised, besides the three cantons of Spire, Worms, and Mayence, on this side the Khine, all the countries and pro- vinces beyond that river, which had belonged to the empire of the Franks, from the Eyder and the Baltic, to the Alps and the confines of Fannonia. Several of the Slavian tribes, also, were its tributaries. From the first formation of this kingdom, the royal authority -vmmh eiumt If. T WM limited ; and Loud UieO«nn»ii, in m uMmbly held tt Menme (8fil,)h»d formally ennged to mainttin thtu^m in thnr rightt and prMUgu ; tofMa thrir ermiml mnd tdviu ; M femtider them o$ ki$ tnu eoOngtut and eoadfutw in M tht mffmn of government. The iUiet, however, eoon found metnt to veet in thcmiel?ee the right of rhoosing their kings. The Ant Carloringian monarcht of Germany were hereditary. Louie the Oerriian even divided hi» kingdom among hu three sona, VII. Carloman, Louie the Young, and Char lee the Fat ; but Chariee having been depoeed in an arnmbly held at Frank- fort (887,) the itatee of Germany elected in hie place Amalpli,a natural eon of Carloman. This prince added to his crown both Italy and the Imperial dignity. . . , -, . The custom of election has continued in Germany down to modern times. Louie rEnfnnt, or the Infant, son of Amulph, succeeded to the throne by election ; and that prince havinof died very young (911,) the slates bestowed the crown on a French noUeman, named Conrad, who was duke or governor of France on the Rhine, and related by the female side to the Carlovin- gian line. Conrad mounted the throne, to the exclusion o. Charles the Simple, King of France, the only male and legiti- roato heir of the Carlovingian line. This latter pnnce, how- ever, found means to seiie the kingdom of Lorrain, which Louis the Young had annexed to the crown of Germany. On the death of Conrad I. J919,) the choice of the states fell on Henry I., surnamed the Fowl«r, a scion of the Saxon dynasty of the kings and emperors of Germany. It was to the valour and the wisdom of Henry I., and to his institutions, civil and military, that Germany was indebted for its renewed grandeur. That monarch, taking advantage of the intestine troubles which had arisen in France under Charles the Simple, recovered possession of the kingdom of Lorrain, the nobility of which made their submission to him in the years 933 and 925. By this union he extended the limits of Germa- ny towards the west, as far as the Meuse and the Scheld. The kings of Germany afterwards divided the territory of Lorrain into two governments or dutchies, called Upper and Lower Lor- rain. The former, situated on the Moselle, was called the dutchy of the Moselle ; the other, bounded by the Rhine, the Meuse, and the Scheld, was known by the name of Lothiers or Brabant. These two dutchiee comprised all the provinces of the kingdom of Lorrain, except those which the emperors judged proper to exempt from the authority and jurisdiction of the dukes. The dutchy of the Moselle, alone, finally retained the name of Lomin; and passed (1048) to Gerard of Alsace, in an MMmbly held tt lutintuin th» tftm in their ermniel mnd mdmet; ..nd and eomdfutari in all the Dwever, toon found meani XMing their kings. The rmany were hereditary. ngdom among hit three ng, and Charlee the Fat ; aasemUy held at Frank- ed in hi* place Amalph, a :e added to hie crown holh ued in Qermany down to le Infant, son of Amnlph, nd that prince havinff died Ithe crown on a French uke or governor of France nale side to the Carlovin- rone, to the exclusion o. the only male and legiti* This fatter prince, how- ngdom of Lorrain, which I crown of Germany. On hoico of the slates fell on [ion of the Saxon dynasty my. im of Henry I., and to his Qermany was indebted foi ch, taking advantage of the [) France under Charles the ! kingdom of Lorrain, the ssion to him in the years ended the limits of Qerma* [euse and the Scheld. The ed the terrilorv of Lorrain lied Upper and Lower Lor- ! Moselle, was called the Munded by the Rhine, the by the name of Lothiers or prised all the provinces of nose which the emperors itbority and jurisdiction of lelle, alone, nnally retained 048) to Gerard of Alsace, ntioD lit. A. o. 968—1074. M descended firom the dukes of that name, who, in the eujhteenth century, succeeded to the Imperial throne. As to the outehv of Lower Lorrain, the Emperor Henry V. conferred it on Ood> frey. Count of Louvain (1106,) who«e male descendants kept possession of it, under the title of Dukns of Brabant, till 19M, when it passed by female succession to the Dukes of Burgun- dy, who found means also to acquire, by deffrees, the greater part of Lower Lorrain, commonly calleu the Low Countries. Henry I., a prince of extraordinary genius, proved himself the true restorer of the German kingdom. The SlavonitAi tribes who inhabited the banks of the Saal, and the country be- tween the Elbe and the Baltic, committed incessant ravages on the frontier provinces of the kingdom. With these he waged a successful war, and reduced them once more to the condition of tributaries. But his policy was turned chiefly against the Hungarians, who, since the reign of Louis 11., had repeatedly renewed their incursions, and threatened to subject all Qerma- ny to their yoke. Desirous to repress eflectualfy that ferocious nation, he took the opportunity of a ninu years truce, which he had obtained with liicm, to construct new towns, and fortify places of strength. Ho instructed his troops in a new kind of tactics, accustomed them to military evolutions, and above all, he formed and equipped a cavalry sufficient to cope with those of the Hungarians, who particularly excelled in the art of managing horses. These depredators having returned with fresh forces at the expiry of the truce, he completely defeated them in two bloody battle5i, which he fought with them (933) near Sondershausen and Merseburg ; and thus exonerated Ger- many from the tribute which it had formerly paid them.' This victorious prince extended his conquests beyond the Eyder, the ancient frontier, of Denmark. After a prosperoua war with the Danes (931,) He founded the margravate of Sles- wick, which the Emperor Conrad II. afterwards ceded beck (1033) to Canute the Great, King of Denmark. Otho the Great, so:* and successor of Henry I., added the kingdom of Italy to the conquests of his father, and procured also the Imperial dignity for himself, and his successors in Ger- many. Italy had become a distinct kingdom since the revolu- tion, which happened (888) at the death of the Emperor Charlea the Fat. Ten princes in succession occupied the throne during the space of se venty-three years. Several of these princes, sucn as Guy, Lambert, Arnulf, Louis of Burgundy, and Berenger I., were invested, at the same time, with the Imperial dignity, Be- ranger I. having been assassinated (924,) this latter dignity ceased entirely, and the city of Rome was even dismemMred from the kingdom of Italy. ■I oiAnsK IV. ^ The soTereigQty of that city was seiied by the famouc Maro- aia, widow of a oobleman named Alberic. She raiwd her son to the'pontificate by the title of John XL ; and the better to es. tablish her dominion, she espoused Hugo King of Italy (982,) who became, in consequence of this marriage, master of Rome. Bui Alberic, another son of Murozia, soon stirred up the people against this aspiring princess and her husband Hugo. Having driven Hugo from the throne, and shut up his mother in prison, he assumed to himself the sovereign nuthbrily, under the title of Patrician of the Romans. At his death (954,) he transmit- ted the sovereignty to his son Octavian, who, though only nine- teen years of age, caused himself to be elected pope, by the title of John XII. This epoch was one most disastrous for Italy. The weak- ness of the government excited factions among the nobility, gave birth to anarchy, and fresh opportunity for the depredations of the Hungarians and Arabs, who, at this period, were the scourge of Italy, which they ravaged with impunity. Pavia, the capital of the kingdom, was taken and burnt by the Hunga- rians. These troubles increased on the accession of Berenger II. (950,) grandson of Berenger I. That prince associated his son Adelbert with him in the royai dignity; and the public voice accused them of having caused the death of King Lothaire, son and successor of Hugo. Lothaire left a young widow, named Adelaide, daughter of Rodolph II., King of Burgundy and Italy. To avoid the impor- tunities of Berenger II., who wished to compel her to marry his son Adelbert, this princess called in the King of Germany to her aid. Otho complied with the solicitations of the distressed ?[ueen ; and, on this occasion, undertook his first expedition into taly (941.) The city of Pavia, and several other places, having fallen into his hands, he caused himself to be proclaimed King of Italy, and married the young queen, his protegee. Berenger and his son, being driven for shelter to their strongholds, had recourse to negotiation. They succeeded in obtaining for them- selves a confirmation of the royal title of Italy, on condition of doing homage for it*to the King of Germany ; and for this pur- pose, they repaired in person to the diet assembled at Augsburg (953^) where they took the oath of vassalage under the hands of Otho, who solemnly invested them with the royalty of Italy ; reserving to himself the towns and marches of Aquileia and Verona, the command of which he bestowed on his brother the Duke of Bavaria. In examining more nearly all that passed in this a/f^ir, it ap- pears that it was not without the regret, and entn contrary to J led by the ftmoat llwo- trie. She raised her soa [I. ; and the better to es. ugo King of Italy (932,) arriage, master of Rome, ocn stirred up the people husband Hugo. HaTing it up his mother in prison, nuthority, under the title death (964,) he transmit- 1, who, though only nine- s elected pope, by the title lis for Italy. The weak- tions among the nobility, tunity for the depredations at this period, were the d with impunity. Pavia, and burnt by the Hunga- the accession of Berenger 'hat prince associated his dignity; and the public le death of King Lothaire, led Adelaide, daughter of taly. To avoid the impor- to compel her to marry his I the King of Germany to [icitations of the distressed lok his first expedition into leveral other places, having lelf to be proclaimed King n, his protegee. Berenger r to their strongholds, had teded in obtaining for them- ie of Italy, on condition of lermany ; and for this pur- iiet assembled at Augsburg vassalage under the hands 1 with the royalty of Italy ; : marches of •Aquileia and estowed on his brother the passed in this affair, it &p- egret, and er.m contrary to -rsRioD m. A. D. M8— 1094. flB the wish of Adelaide, that Otho agreed to enter into terms of accommodation with Berenger, and to ratify the compact which Conrad, Duke of Lorrain, and son-in-law of the Emperor, had mode with that prince. Afterwards, however, he lent a favour* able ear to the complaints which Pope John XII., and some Italian noblemen had addressed to mm against Berenger and his son ; and took occasion, on their account, to conduct a new army into Italy (961.) Berenger, too feeble to oppose him, re- tired a second time within his fortifications. Olho marched from Pavia to Milan, and there caused himself to be crowned King of Italy ; from thence he passed to Some, about the com- mencement of the following year. Pope John XII., who had himself invited him, and again implored his protection against Berenger, gave him, at first, a very brilliant reception ; and re- vived the Imperial dignity in his favour, which had been dor- mant for thirty-eight years. It was on the 2(1 of February 962, that the Pope consecrated and crowned him Emperor ; but he had soon cause to repent of this proceeding. Otho, immediately after his coronation at Rome, undertook the siege of St. Leon, a fortress in Umbria, where Berenger and his Queen had taken refuge. While en- gaged in the siege, he received frequent intimations from Rome of the misconduct and immoralities of the Pope. The remon- strances which he thought it his duty to make on this subject, oiiended the young Pontiff, who resolved, in consequence, to break off union with the Emperor. Hurried on by the impe- tuosity of his character, he entered into a negotiation with Adel- bert; and even persuaded him to come to Rome, in order to concert with him measures of defence. On the first news of this event, Otho put himself at the head of a large detachment, with vfhich he marched directly to Rome. The Pope, however, did not think it advisable to wait his approach, but fled with the King, his new ally. Otho, on arriving at the capital, exacted a solemn oath from the clergy and the people, that henceforth they would elect no pope without his counsel, and that of the Eniperor and his successors.' Having then assembled a coun- cil, ne caused Pope John XII. to be deposed ; and Leo VIII. was elected in his place. This latter Pontiff was maintained in the papacy, in spite of all the efforts which his adversary made to regain it. Berenger II., after having sustained a hmg siege at St. Leon, fell at length (964) into the hands of the con- queror, who sent him into exile at Bamberg, and dompel|ed his son, Adelbert, to take refuge in the court of Constantinople. All Italv, to the extent of the ancient kingdom of the Lorn- buds, fell under the dominioa of the Germans ; only a fow : i' It;. H eiumft IT. maritime towns in Lower Italy, with the greater toart of Apulia and Calabria, still remained tO'the power of the ureeks. This kingdom, together with the Imperial dignity, Otho transmitted to his successors on the throne of Germany. From this time the Germans held it to be an inviolable principle, that as the im> perial dignity was strictly united with the royalty of Italy, kings elected by the German nation should, at the same time, in virtue of that election, become kings of Italy and Emperors. The Sractice of this triple coronation, viz. of Germanv, Italy, and tome, continued for many centuries ; and from Otno the Great, till Maximilian I. (1608,) no king of Germany took the title of Emperor, until aAer he had been formally crowned by the Pope. Tne kings and emperors of the house of Saxony, did not terminate their conquests with the dominions of Lorrain and Italy. Towards the east and the north, they extended them be- yond the Saal and' the Elbe. All the Slavonian tribes between the Havel and the Oder; the Abotrites, the Rhedarians, the Wiizians, the Slavonians on the Havel, the Sorabians, the Dale- minicians, the Lusitzians, the Milzians, and various others ; the dukes also of Bohemia and Poland, although they often took up arms in defence of their liberty and independence, were all re- duced to subjection, and again compelled to pay tribute. In order to secure their submission, the Saxon kings introduced German colonies into the conquered countries ; and founded there several margravates, such as that of the North, on this side of the Elbe, afterwaalBi called Brandenburg ; and in the East, those of Misnia and Lusa'ia. Otho the Great adopted measures for promulga- ting Christianity among them. The bishopric of Oldenburg in Wagria, of Havelberg, Brandenburg, Meissen, Merseburg, Zeitz; those of Posnania or Posen, in Poland, of Prague in Bo- hemia ; and lastly, the metropolis of Magdeburg, all owe their origin to this monarch. His grandson, the Emperor Otho III., founded (in 1000) the Archbishopric of Gnesna, in Poland, to which he subjected the bishoprics of Colberg, Cracow, and Breslau, reserving Posen to the metropolitan See of Magdeburg. The Saxon dynasty became extinct (1024) with the Emperor Henry II. It was succeeded by that of Franconia, commonly called the Stdic. Conrad II., the first emperor of this bouse, united to the German crown, the kingdom of Burgundy; or, as it is sometimes called, .the kingdom of Aries. This monarchy, •itoate between the Rivne, the Reuss, Mount Jura, the Soane, the Rhone, and the A^, had been divided among a certain nhmbeir of counts, or governors of provinces, who, in conse- ioence of tho weakness of their last lungs, Conrad and Rodolph [I., had converted their temftivy jurisdictioM irU) hereditsury he gmiter jMrt of Apulia rer of the Greeks. This iignity, Otho transmitted rmany. From this time e principlei that as the im- the royalty of Italy, kings at the same time, in virtue kly and Emperors. The of Germany, Italy, and and from Otho the Great, Germany took the title of ally crowned by the Pope, douse of Saxony, did not ominions of Lorrain and h, they extended thembe- Slavonian Uibes between ites, the Rhedarians, the a, the Sorabians, the Dale* 8, and various others ; the (though they often took up independence, were all re- led to pay tribute. In order kings introduced German and founded there several 1, on this side of the Elbe, in the East, those of Misnia id measures for promulga- te bishopric of Oldenburg lurg, Meissen, Merseburg, n Poland, of Prague in Bo- Magdeburg, all owe their on, the Emperor Otho III., ; of Gnesna, in Poland, to of Colberg, Cracow, and tpolitan See of Magdeburg. It (1024) with tho Emperor It of Franconia, commonly rst emperor of this house, igdom of Burgundy ; or, as of Aries. This monarchy, s8. Mount Jura, the Soane, 1 divided among a certain ' provinces, who, in conse- kings, Goovad and Rodolph {urisdicUoiia irU> hereditary Henry IV., Eimptrw of Oentmmi, aubmitting to Pom Gregory VU. FoL I— p. 106. Peter the HermnUnreaekmg to the Cnum den. FoL I— p. 118. PERIOD m. A. D. WSt — 1074. and patrimonial offices, after the example of the French nobUjtjTi who had already usurped the same power. The principal and most puissant of these Burgundian nobles, were the Counts i)t Provence, Vienne, (afterwards called Dauphins of Vienne,) Sa- voy, Burgundy, and Montbelliard ; the Archbishop of LyetM, Besancon, and Aries, and the Bishop of Basle, ice. The ooii' tempt in which these powerful vassals held the royal authority, induced fiodolph to apply for protection to his Kinsmen the Emperors Henry II. and Conrad II., and to acknowledge them, by several treaties, his heirs and successors to the crown. It was in vjrtue of these treaties, that Conrad II. took possession of the kingdom of Burgundy (1032) on the death of Rodolph DL He maintained his rights by force of arms against Kudfls, Count of Champagne, who claimed to be the legitimate aoo- cessor, as being nephew to the last king. This reunion was but a feeble addition to tho power of tiK German emperors. The bishops, counts, and great vassala of the kingdom they had newly acquired, still retained the an* thority which they had usurped in their several departments; and nothing was left to the emperors, but the exercise of their feudal and proprietory rights, together with the slender remains of the demesne lands belonging to the last kines. It is even probable, that the high rank which the Burgundian nobles en- joyed, excited the ambition of those in Germany, and emboldened them to usurp the same prerogatives. The emperors Conrad II. (1033) and Henry III. (1038,) were both crowned Kings of Burgundy. The Emperor Lothaiie conferred the viceroyalty or regency on Conrad Duke of Zak> ringen, who then took the title of uovemor or Regent of Bur- gundy. Berthold IV., son of Conrad, resigned (llfiS,) in favonr of the Emperor Frederic I., his rights of viceroyalty over that part of the kingdom situate beyond Mount Jurau Switzerland, at that time, was subject to the Dukes of Zahringen, who, in order to retain it in vassalage to their government, fortified Morves, Mouden, Yverdun, and Berthoud ; and built the cities of Fti> bourg and Berne. On the extinction of the Zahringian dukes, (1191,) Switzerland became an immediate province ofthe empire. It was afterwards (1218) formed into a repuhlic ; and the other parts of the kingdom of Burgundy or Aries were gradually united to France, as we shall see in course of our narrative. The Hungarians, since their first invasion under Louis i'En> fiuit, had wrested from the German crown all its possessions in Pannonia, with a part of ancient Noricum ; and the borndariea of Germany had been contracted within the river Ens in Baim* ria. Their growing preponderance afterwards enabled the Gsf^ vok L 8 OHAPTBt IV. ..zftMa msM to recover from th« Hungarians a part of *«« conquests. Th«y aucceeded in expelling them, not only .from Nor.c^m, but ei^from that part of Upper P»""°r. '"'"J^^Hp "rtvI^Leita Mount Cetius, or Kahlenberg as it is called, and the "ver Le ta. Hpnru III secured the possession of these territories by the S^"7o peace which he^oncluded (1043) with Samuel, sur- Sd aL. King of Hungary. This part of Hungary was annexed to the eastern Margravate. or Austria, which then be- can to assume nearly its present form. f,v.r«mnr. ^ Such then was the progressive aggrand.zement of the Germar empire, from the reign of Henry I. to the P^J^^J. Under its most flourishing stale, that is, under the Emperor Henry 111., irembraced nearly two-thirds of the monarchy of Charlemagne. AH Gennany betweeiA the Rhine, the EyJer. t^e Oder, the Leita, and the Alpl; all Italy, as far as the confines of the Greeks .n Apulia and^Calabria; ^Gaul. from the Rhine to the Scheldt he ffeuse. and the Rhone, acknowledged the supremacy of he emperors The Dukes of Bohemia and Poland, were their tri- butaries a dependence which continued until the commotions whS agitJted^Germany put an end to it in the thirteenth century. GermaC, at this period, ranked as the ruling power m Europe and this pr;ponderSnce was not owing so muck to he extent o Kr possessions, as to the-vigour of her g°'«"'"«"\';I'l^,,'J'" maintained a kind of system of political unity. The emperors may £ regarded as true monarchs, dispensing, at their pleasure. SrJignitS civil and ecclesiastical -possessing very large do- main? in all parts of the empire-*nd exercising, mdivulually, TZusbninJhes of the sovereign poxver ;-onIy. in aflairs of SJS Tmportance. asking the advice or consent of ^he gramlees this greatness of the German emperors gave rise to a system of ility which the Popes took great care to supper with aU SeKSit and authoritV- According to this system, the whole * ChSendom composUas ^^ ^^ * -'f ^ 'l!!?J „nd t"he republic, of which thTPope was the spiritual head, and the EmiKiror the secular. The duty of the latter, as head and patron St^e Church, was to*Jce W^'* f^'chrisSy " twj's aone contrary to the general welfare of Christianity. It was irp.^ to Fotect the^atholic Church, to be the guardian of its n^atioS, to convocate its general councils, and exercise such ?;^s as the nature of his office and the interests of Christianity T:L I trJf this ideal system that the emperors enjoyed a JSncy over other monarchs. with the exclusive right of elect- KZT and that they had be.io«^d on them the title of mas- u£ ofSe world, and sbveieign of sovereigns. A more impor- rsRioD ni. A. D. 903—1074. 87 part of their conquests, only .from Noricum, but ia which lies between led, and the river Leita. hese territories by the 043) with Samuel, sur- pnrt of Hungary was Austria, which then be- dizement of the German he year 1043. Under jie Emperor Henry III., narchy of Charlemagne, rder, the Oder, the Leita, jnfines of the Greeks in thine to the Scheldt, the 1 the supremacy of the J Poland, were their tri- ;d until the commotions in the thirteenth century, ruling power in Europe ; so much to the extent of government, which still Ell unity. The emperors lensing, at their pleasure, )0S8essing very large do- exercising, individually, wcr ; — only, in affairs of consent of the grandees. )rs gave rise to a system care to support with all to this system, the whole , a single and individual ; spiritual head, and the I latter, as head and patrcm e that nothing should be of Christianity. It was 1, to be the guardian of its ouncils, and e::ercise such le interests of Christianity tat the emperors enjoyed a the exclusive right of elect- 1 on them the title of mas- rereigns. A more impor- tant prerogative was that which they pqasessed in the election of the Popes. From Otho the Great to Henry IV., all the Roman Kintiflfs were chosen, or at least confirmed, by the emperors, enry III. deposed three schismatical popes (1046,) and sub* stituted in their place a German, who took the name of Clement II. The same emperorafterwardsnominated various other popes of his own nation. However vast and formidable the power of these monarchs seemed to be, it was nevertheless far from being a solid and durable fabric ; and it was easy to foresee that, in a short time, it would crumble and disappear. Various causes conspired to accelerate its downfall ; the first and principal of which necessa- rily sprang from the constitution of the empire, which was faulty in itself, and incompatible with any scheme of aggrandizement or conquest. A great empire, to prolong its durability, requires a perfect unity of power, which can act with despatch, and com- municate with facility from one extremity to the other ; an armed force constantly on foot, and .capable of maintaining the public tranquillity; frontiers well defended against hostile inva- sion ; and revenues proportioned to the exigencies of the state. All these clmracteristics of political greatness were wanting in the Geman empire. That empire was elective; the states co-operated jointly with the emperors in the exercise of die legislative power. " There were neither permanent armies, nor fortresses, nor taxation, nor any regular system of finance. The government was without vigour, incapable of protecting or punishing, or even keeping in subjection, its remote provinces, consisting of nations who differed in language, manners, and legislation. One insurrec- tion, though quelled, was only the forerunner of others ; and the conquered nations shook on the yoke with the same facility as they received it. The perpetual wars of the emperors in Italy, from the first conquest of that country by Otho the Great, prove, in a manner most evident, tba strange imbecility of ihe government. At every change of reign, and every little revo- lution which happened in Germany, the Italians rose in arms, and put the emperors again to the necessity of reconquering that kingdom ; which undoubtedly it was their interest to have abandoned entirely, rather than to lavish for so many centuries their treasures and the blood of their people to no purpose. The climate of Italy was also disastrous to the Imperial armies; and many successions of noble German families found there a foreign grave. An inevitable consequence of this vitiated constitution, was the decline of the royal authority, and the gradual inciease of m the power of the noWlity. It is importmt, however, to remark, that in Gennany the progress of the feudal system had been much less rapidfthan in France. The dukes, counts, and roar- naTes, that w, the jfovernors of promces, and wardens of the SLhes, continued for long to be regarded merely as imperial officers, without any pretensions to consider their governments Mhereditary, or exercise the rights of sovereignty. Even fiefs nmained for many ages in their primitive state, without being perpetuated in the families of those to whom they had been °"i' wta1[ STani^,* however, took place towards the end of the eleventh century. The dukes and counts, become formidable by the extent of their power and their vast possessions, by de- 0^8, constituted themselves hereditary officers ; and not content Imth the appropriation of their dutchies and counties, they took advantage of the weakness of the emperors, and their quarrels with the popes, to extort from them new privileges, or usurp the merogatives of royalty, formerly reserved for the emperor. Sone: The aristocracy, or landed propnelors, followed the •xample of the dukes and counts, and after the eleventh century, they all began to play the part of sovereigns, sty ing them- selves, in their public acts, By the Grace of God. At length hefs oocame also hereditary. Conrad 11. was the first emperor thut permitted the transmission of fiefs to sons and grandsons; the succession of collateral branches was subsequently introduced. The system of hereditary feudalism became thus firmly esla- Wished in Germany, and by a natural consequence, it brought on the destruction of the imperial authority, and the ruin oi Not2iB«i however, was more injurious to this authority than the extravagant power of the clergy, whom the emperors of the Swion line had loaded with honours and benefactions, either from a xeal for religion, or with the intention of using them ns • eounierpoise to the ambition of the dukes and secular iiobility. It was chiefly to Otho the Great that the bishops of Germany were indebted for their temporal power. That prince bestowed on them large grants of land from the imperial domains ; he oave them towns, counties, and entire dukedoms, with the pre- roiratives of royalty, such as justiciary powers, the right of coin- W money, of levying tolls and other pubhc revenues, &c. These riAts and privileges he granted them under the feudal Uw, and on condition of rendering him military »"y>t«de. Nevertheless, as the disposal of ecclesiastical dignities belonged then to the crown, and fiefs had not, in general, become heredi- taiy, the Emperor atill ratained pouession of those which h» nt, however, to remark, eudal syBtem had been lakes, counts, and roar- ces, and wardens of the rded merely as imperial sider their governments overeignty. Even fiers ive state, without being I whom they had been towards the end of the unts, become formidable vast possessions, by de- r officers ; and not content I and counties, they took erors, and their quarrels V privileges, or usurp the erved for the emperors >roprietors, followed the 'ter the eleventh century, jvereigns, styling them- s of God. At length fiefs vas the first emperor thut ions and grandsons ; the subsequently introduced, became thus firmly esta- 1 consequence, it brought ithority, and the ruin of 9US to this authority than irhom the emperors of the J and benefactions, either itention of using them as ukes and secular nobility. I the bishops of Germany r. That prince bestowed he imperial domains; he dukedoms, with the pre- powers, the right of coin- ler public revenues. Ice. led them under the feudal hinv military servitude, iastical dignities belonged m general, become heredi- «8sion of tbos« which h» T^ ntioo 111. A. D. 969^1074. li conferred on the clergy ; these he bestowed on whomsoerw h« judged proper ; using them, however, always in conformity with his own views and interests. The same policy that induced Otho to transfer to the bishops a large portion of his domains, led him also to intrust them with the government of cities. At that time, there was a distinction of towns into royal and prefeetorial. The latter were dependent on the dukes, while the former, subject immediately to the king, gave rise to what has since been called imperial cttiet. It was m these royal cities that the German kings were in the practice of establisning counts and burgomasters or magistrates, to ex* ercise in their name the rights of justice, civil and criminal, the levying of money, customs, tee. as well as other prerogatives usually reserved to the King. Otho conferred the counties, or governorships of cities where a bishop resided, on the bishops themselves, who, in process of time, made use of this new power to subject these cities to their own authority, and render them mediate and episcopal, instead of being immediate and royal as they were originally. The successors of Otho, as impolitic as himself, imitated his example. In consequence of this, the possessions of the crown were, by degrees, reduced to nothing, and the authority of the emperors declined with the diminution of their wealth. The bishops, at first devoted to the- emperors, both from necessity and gratitude, no sooner perceived their own strength, than they were tempted to make use of it, and to join the secular princes, in order to sap the imperial authority, as well as to consolidate their own power. To these several causes of the downfall of the empire must be added the new power of the Roman pontifls, the origin of which is ascribed to Pope Gregory VII. In the following Period, this matter will be treated more in detail ; meantime, we shall proceed to give a succinct view of the other states that figured during this epoch on the theatre of Europe. The dynasty of the Ommiades in Spain, founded about the middle of the eighth century, was overturned in the eleventh. An insurrection having happened at Cordova against the Ca- liph Hescham, that prince was dethroned (1030,) and the caliph- ate ended with him. The governors of cities and provinces, and the principal nobility of the Arabs, formed themselves into independent sovereigns, under the title of kings ; and as many petty Mahometan States rose in Spain as there had been prin- cipal cities. The most considerable of these, were the king- don.s of Cordova, Seville, Toledo, Lisbon, Saragossa, Tortosa, Valencia, Murcia, &c. This partition of the caliphate of Cor- dova, enabled the princes of Christendom to aggrandize their 8 * m 10 OHAfTM IV. Sower at the expense of the Mahometans. Besides the king:' oms of Leon ond Navarre, there existed in Spain nt the com- mencement of the eleventh century, the county of Castillo, which had been dismembered from the kinedom of Leon, and the county of Barcelona, which acknowledged the sovereignty of the lungs of France. Sancho the Greot, King of Navarre, had the fortune to unite in his own family all these different sovereignties, with the ex- ception of Barcelona ; and as this occurred nearly at the same time with the destruclion of the caliphate of Cordova, it would have been easy for the Christians to obtain a complete ascen- dency over the Mahometans, if they had kept their forces united. But the King of Navarre lell into the same mistake that had been so fatal to the Mahometans ; he divided his dominions among his sons (1035.) Don Gnrcias, the eldest, hod Navarre, and was the ancestor of a long line of Navarrese kings ; ihe last of whom, John d'Albert was deposed (1512) by Ferdinand the Catholic. From Ferdinand, the younger son. King of Leon and Cnstille, were descended all the sovereigns of Custillc and Leon down to Queen Isabella, w' o irausl'erred these kingdoms (1474,) by marriage, to Ferdinand the Catholic. Lastly, Don Bamira, natural son of Sancho, was the stem from whom sprung all the kings of Arragon, down to Ferdinand, who by his mar- riage with Isabella, happened to unite all the different Christian States in Spain ; and put an end also to the dominion of the Arabs and Moors in that peninsula. In France the royal authority declined more and more, from the rapid progress which the feudal system made in that king- dom, after the feeble reign of Charles the Bald. The Dukes and the Counts, usurping the rights of royalty, made war on each other, and raised on every occasion the standard of revolt. The kings, in order to gain over some, and maintain others in their allegiance, were obliged to give up to them in succession every branch of the royal revenue ; so that the last Carlovin- gian princes were reduced to such a state of distress, that, far from being able to counterbalance the power of the nobility, they had hardly left wherewithal to furnish a scanty subsistence for their court. A change of dynasty became then indispensable ; and the throne, it was evident, must fall to the share of the moat Cwerful and during of its vassals. This event, which had long en foreseen, happened on the death of Louis V., surnamedthe Slothful (9S7,) the last of the Carlovingiai s,who died childless at the age of twenty. HuirU Cupet, great-grandson of Robert the Strong, possessed atthartinie the central parts of the kingdom. He was Count nsioD III. A. D. 96S) — 1074. 91 IS. Besides the king* d in Spain at the com- Dunty of Castillo, tvhich dom of Leon, and the ged the sovereignty of ind the fortune to unite ereignties, with the ex- red nearly at the same te of Cordova, it would itain a complete ascen- kcpt their forces united, same mistake that had divided his dominions he eldest, hnd Navarre, f Niivurrese kings ; ihe id (1512) by Ferdinand nger son. King of Leon •ereigns of Custille and sferred these kingdoms Catholic. Lastly, Don stem from whom sprung inand, who by his mar- I the diflerent Christian to the dominion of the id more and more, from Item made in that king- the Bald. The Dukes if royalty, made war on n the standard of revolt. and maintain others in ip to them in succession that the last Carlovin- tate of distress, that, far >vver of the nobility, they a scanty subsistence for !ime then indispensable ; to the share of the most is event, which had long ^ Louis v., surnamed the pw %f who died childless rt the Strong, possessed ngdom. He was Count of Paris, Duke of France and Neustria ; and his brother Henry waa master of the dutchy of Burgundy. It waa not difficult for Hugh to form a party ; and under their auspices he got himself proclaimed king at Noyon, and crowned at Rheims. Charles Duke of Lorrain, paternal uncle of the last king, and sole legiti- mate heir to the Carlovingian line,' advanced his claims to the crown ; he seized, by force of arms, on Laon and Rheims ; but being betrayed by the Bishop of Laon, and delivered up to his rival, he was confined in a prison at Orleans, where he ended his days (991.) Hugh, on mounting the throne, restored to the possession of the crown, the lands and dominions which had belonged to it between the Loire, the Seine, and the Meuse. His power gave a new lustre to the royal dignity, which he found means to ren- der hereditary in his family ; while at the same time he per- mitted the grandees to transmit to their descendants, male and female, the dutchies and counties which they held of the crown, reserving to it merely the feudal superiority. Thus the feudal government was firmly established m France, by the hereditary tenure of the great fiefs ; and that kingdom wus in consequence divided among a certain number of powerful vuhsuIs, who ren- dered fealty and homage to their kings, and marched at their command on military expeditions ; but who nevertheless were nearly absolute masters in their own dominions, and often dic- tated the law to the sovereign himself. Hugh was the progeni- tor of the Capetian dynasty of French kings, so called from his own surname of Capet. England, during the feeble reigns of the Anglo-Saxon princes, successors to Alfred the Great, had sunk under the dominion of priests and monks. The consequence was, the utter ruin of its finances, and its naval and military power. This exposed the kingdom afresh to the attacks of the Danes (991,) who imposed on the English a tribute or (ax, known by the name ofDonegeit. Under the command of their kings Sueno or Sweyn I., ond Ca- nute the Great, thevnl length drove the Anglo-Saxon kings from their thrones, and, made themselves masters of all England (1017.) But the dominion of the Danes was only of short con- tinuance. The English shook ofTtheir yoke, and conferred their crown on Edward the Confessor (1042) a prince of the royal blood of their ancient kings. On the death of Edward, Harold, Earl of Kent, was acknowledged King of England (1066 ;) but he met with a formidable competitor in the person of William Duke of Normandy. This prince had no other right to the crown, than that founded on a verbal promise of Edward the Confessor, and confirmed by an '1 m «»timi IT. otih which Harol() had gi«en him while Earl of K«nt. William landod in England (Oct oU'r 14th 1066,) at tho head of aconiida* rablo army, nnd having oflTered bottle to Harold, nuar Haaiingt in Sussex, ho gainud a complete victory. Harold was killed in the action, and the conquest of all England was the reward of the victor. To secure himself in his new dominions, Willism constiuctcJ a va.'*t number of caailes and fortresses throughout all parts of the kingdom, which he took care to fill with Nor* man garrisons. The lands and places of trust of which ho had deprived the English, were distributed among the Normans, and other foreif;ners «vho were attached to his iortunes. He intro> duced the feudal l.iv',and rendered fiefs hereditary ; he ordered the English to be dibarir."!. and forbade them to have light in their houses after eight o'clock in the evening. He even at< tempted to abolish the language of the country, by esta>;lishing numerrjfi schools for teaching the Norman-French; by pub- lishing ihe laws, and ordering the pleadings in the courts of jusMce to be made in that language ; hence ii happenv doininioni, Wlliem fortresses throughour rare to fill with Nor- trust of which ho had long the Normans, and J lurtunes. He intro- ereditary ; he ordered them to have light in veniiig. He even at> )U0try, by establishing man-French J by pub- lings in the courts of ice 11 happenr^d that the lan, formed a new sort jrn English. Willir»m he Icings of Ernqfland. I him, and founded on d England, another co- e kingdom of '.he two ich this kinsdom was ' the eleventTi rentury, d Arabians,* who were ■. A band of nearly a irar and glory, landed in services to the Lombard . The bravery which le these princer Josirous a a3 gunrdians of their IS. The Greek princes iheir services ; and the ing them to his interest, B they built the city of 'he emperor Conrad II. Investiture of which he I. icred conducted a new !. Their arrival is gen- ■adition has assigned to 1 1. Duke of Normandy. moMsmS^ CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHIVI/ICIVIH Collection de microfiches. \ Canadian Inatltuta for Historical Microraproductlona / Inititut Canadian da microraproductlona liistoriquaa rauoDiu. A. ». 968— 1074. • These new adventureM undertook the conquest of Apuli* (1041,) whkh"hry formed into a county, the investiture of which they Sned f?om Henry III. Robert Guiscrd, one of *• »o" »[ ToScred. afterw«rd.'(1047) completed the conquest of thjj mo- vince; he added to it that of Calabria, of which he had aUo deprived the Greeks (1059.) and assumed the title of Duke of Aoulia and Calabria. „ .u^.. ^To secure himself in his new conquests, as well " •« ;J«f ? which he yet meditated from the two empires. Robert concluded rVreatv the same year with Pope Nicholas II., by which that pintS^confirmed hJm in the possession o the dutchies of Apulia and Calabria ; granting him not only the investiture of these, bu momSg him also that of Sicily, whenever he should expel fhe G eeks and Arabians from it. Robert, in his turn, acknow. edged himself a vassal of the Pope, and engaged '« pay him an annual tribute of twelve pence, money of Pavia, for every Mir of oxen n the two dutchies.' Immediately after this treaty, fflr called in the assistance of his brother Roger, to rescue Sy fro.n the hands of the Greeks and Arabs.« No sooner had h^ccomplished this object, than he conquered in succession fhe prSalities of Bari, Salerno, Amalfi. Sorrento, and Bene- vento ; this latter city he surrendered to the Pope. . Such is the origin of the dutchies of Apuba and CahAria . which, after a lapse of some years, were formed into a kingdom under the name of the Two Sicilies. , , , . , As to the k?ngdoms of the North, the light of historjr scarcely began to dawn there until the introduction of Chrstianity. whicK happened about the end of the tenth or beginning of the eleven^ century.' The promulgation of the Gospel opened a way mto Jhc North for the'^diffusion of arts and letters. Jho Scand na- vian states. Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, which tefore that time were parcelled out among independent chie.s, !>«&*'» J*" to form plans of civil government, and to combine into settled monarchies. Their new religion, however, did not inspire these nations with its meek and peaceable virtues, nor overcome their invincible propensity to wars and rapine. Their heroism wiu a wUd and 8av\ie bravery, which emboldened them to face idl dangers, to undertake desperate adventures, and to achieve sud- den conquests, which were lost and won with the same rap ditv. H«3d. suriamed Blmtand, or Blue teeth, was the first aole monarch of the Danes, who with his son Sweyn received bap- S^"M?erUri v*»qui»hed by Othothe Great (9^.) Swevn MkiJed to pSanism; but his son Canute the Great, on his SSSon to Krone 1014.) made Christiwiitv the established Su^ 9f hi. kingdom. He sent for monks from other coun- M OHARBR IV. tries, founded churches, and divided the kingdom into diocesses. Ambitious to distinguish himself as a conqueror, he afterwards subdued England and Norway (1028.) To these he added a part of Scotland and Sweden ; and conferred in his own life- time on one of his sons, named Sweyn, the kingdom of Nor- way, and on the other, named Hardicanute, that of Denmark. These acquioitions, however, were merely temporary. Sweyn was driven from Norway (1035;) while England and Scotland also shook oiT the Danish yoke (1042,) on the death of Hardi- canute ; and Magnus King of Norway, even made himself mas- ter of Denmark, which did not recover its entire independence until the death of that prince (1047.) The ancient dynasty of Kings who occupied the throne of Denmark from the most remote ages, is known by the name of Skioldiings, because, according to a fabulous tradition, they were descended from Shiold, a pretended son of the famous Odin who, from being the conqueror, was exalted into the deity of the North. The kings wlio reigned after Sweyn II. were called Estritkides, from that monarch, who was the son of Ulf a Danish nobleman, and Estrith, sister to Canute the Great. It was this Sweyn that raised the standard of revolt against Mag- nus King of Norway (1044,) and kept possession of the throne until his death. In Sweden, the kings of the reigning family, descended, as is alleged, from Kegner Lodbrok, took the title of Kings of Upsal, the place of their residence. Olaus Skotkonung rhnngnd this title into that of King of Sweden. He was the first monarch of his nation that embraced Christianity, and exerted himself to propagate it in his kingdom. Sigefroy, Archbishop of York, who was sent into Sweden by Ethelred King of England, bap- tized Olaus and his whole family (1001.) The conversion of the Swedes would have been more expeditious, had not the zeal of Olaus been restrained by the Swedish Diet who decided for full liberty of conscience. Hence the strange mixture, both of doctrine and worship, that long prevailed in Sweden, where Je- sus Christ was profanely associated with Odin, and the Pagan goddess Freya confounded with the Virgin. Anund Jacques, son of Olaus, contributed much to the progress of Christianity ; and his zeal procured him the title of Idoat Christian King. In Norway, Olaus I., surnamed Tryggueaon, towards the end of the tenth century, constituted himself the apo'^tle and mis- sionary of his people, and undertook to convert them to Chris- tianity by torture and punishment. Iceland and Greenland * were likewise converted by his efforts, and afterwards became bis tributaries (1029.) One of his successors, Olaua II.| called PBBioD in. A. D. 902 — 1074. kingdom into diocesses. conqueror, he aAerwards To these he added a nferred in his own life- I, the kingdom of Nor< inute, that of Denmark, ely temporary. Sweyn e England and Scotland ) on the death of Hardi- even made himself mas- its entire independence occupied the throne of s known by the name of Tabulous tradition, they ided son of the famous as exahed into the deity d after Sweyn II. were who was the son of Ulf to Canute the Great. It d of revolt against Mag- possession of the throne ■ family, descended, as is I title of Kings of Upsal, kotkonung changed this was the first monarch of and exerted himself to jy, Archbishop of York, 1 King of England, bap- II.) The conversion of iditious, had not the zeal ih Diet who decided for strange mixture, both of id in Sweden, where Je- th Odin, and the Pagan irgin. Anund Jacques, trogress of Christianity ; fott Chriitian King, guaon, towards the end >lf the apo'^tle and mis- convert them to Chris- celand and Greenland ' and afterwards became essors, Olaua II., called the Fat, and also the Saint, succeeded in extirpating paganism from Norway (1020 ;) but he used the cloak of religion to es- tablish his own authority, by destroying several petty kings, who before this time possessed each their own dominions. Christianity was likewise instrumental in throwing some rays of light on the history of the Sclavonian nations, by imparting to them the knowledge of letters, and raising them in the scale of importance among the civilized nations of Europe. The Sclavonians who were settled north of the Elbe, had been sub- dued by the Germans, and compelled to embrace Christianity. The haughtiness and rigour of Thierry, Margrave of the North, induced them to shake off the yoke, and to concert a general insurrection, which broke out in the reign of Otho II. (982.) The episcopal palaces, churches and convents, were destroyed ; and the people returned once more to the superstitions of pagan- ism. Those tribes that inhabited Brandenburg, part of Pome- rania and Mecklenburg, known formerly under the name of Wilzians and Welatabes, formed themselves into a republican or federal body, and took the name of Lnitizians. The Abo- trites, on the contrary, the Polabes, and the Wagrians," were decidedly for a monarchical government, the capital of which was fixed at Mecklenburg. Some of the princes or sovereigns of these latter people were styled Kings of the Venedi. The result of this general revolt was a series of long and bloody wars between the Germans and Sclavonians. The latter defended their civil and religious liberties with a remarkable courage and perseverance ; and it was not till after the twelfth century, that they were subdued and reduced to Christianity by the continued efforts of the Dukes of Sa.xony, and the Margraves of the North, and hj means of the crusades niuj colonies which the Germans despatched into their country.'" The first duke of Bohemia that received baptism from the hands, as is supposed, of Methodius, bis^hop of Moravia (894,) was Borzivoy. His successors, however, returned to idolatry ; and it was not till near the end of the tenth century, properly speaking, and in the reign of Boleslaus II., surnamed the Pious, that Christianity became the established religion of Bohemia (909.) These dukes were vassals and tributaries of the German empire ; and their tribute consisted of dOO silver marks, and 120 oxen. They exercised, howeyer, all the rights of sovereignty over the people ; their reign Kvas a system of terror, and they seldom took the opinion or advice of their nobles and grandees. The succession was hereditary in the reigning dynasty ; and the system of partition was in use, otherwise the order of suc- cession would have been fixed and permanent. Over a number fl OBAmt IV. of theM tttftitionary princes, one was vested with cert»in rights of superiority, under the title of Grand Prince, according to a custom found very prevalent among the half civilized nations of the north and east of Europe." The greater proportion of the inhabitants, the labouring classes, artisans, and domestics, were serfs, and oppressed by the tyrannical yoke of their mas- ters. The public sale of men was even practised in Bohemia ; the tithe, or tenth part of which, belonged to the sovereign. The descendants of Borzivoy possessed the throne of Bohemia until 1306, when the male line became extinct. The Poles were a nation whose name does not occur in his- tory before the middle of the tenth century ; and we owe to Christianity the first intimations that we have regarding this people. Mieczislaus I., the first duke or prince of the Poles of whom we possess any authentic accounts, embraced Christianity (966,) at the solicitation of his spouse Dambrowka, sister of Boleslaus II., duke of Bohemia. Shortly after, the first bish- opric in Poland, that of Posen, was founded by Otho the Great. Christianity did not, however, tame the ferocious habits of the Poles, who remained for a long time without the least progress in mental cultivation." Their government, as wretched as that of Bohemia, subjected the great body of the nation to the most debasing servitude. The ancient sovereigns of Poland were hereditary. They ruled most despotically, and with a rod of iron ; and, although they acknowledged themselves vassals and tributaries of the German emperors, they repeatedly broke out into open rebellion, asserted their absolute independence, and waged a successful war against their masters. Boleslaus, son of Mieczislaus I., took advantage of the troubles which rose m Germany on the death of Otho III., to possess himself of the Marches of Lusatia and Budissin, or Bautzen, which the Em- peror Henry II. afterwards granted him as fiefs. This same prince, in despite of the Germans, on the death of Henry II. (1026,) assumed the royal dignity. Mieczislaus II., son of Bo- leslaus, after having cruelly ravaged the country situate between the Oder, the Elbe, and the Saal, was compelled to abdicate the throne, and also to restore those provinces which his father had wrested from the Empire. The male descendants of Mieczis- laus I. reigned in Poland until the death of Casimu the Great (1370.) This dynasty of kings is known by the name of the Piasts, or Piasses, so called from one Piast, alleged to have been its founder. ; « , . • j a.- Silesia, which was then a province of Poland, received the light of the Gospel when it first visited that kingdom ; and h«d fcr ite apostle, as is supposed, a Romish priest named Geofirjr, who is reckoned the first bishop of Smogra (966.) ! L ntioD III. A. o. 96^—1074 «ted with certyin rights Prince, according to a half civilized nations le greater proportion of artisans, and domestics, nical yoke of their mas- n practised in Bohemia ; i to the sovereign. The throne of Bohemia until ict. does not occur in his- ntury; and we owe to we have regarding this or prince of the Poles of ts, embraced Christianity se Dambrowka, sister of trtly after, the first bish- nded by Otho the Great. le ferocious habits of the rithout the least progress ment, as wretched as that of the nation to the most rereigns of Poland were ically, and with a rod of id themselves vassals and hey repeatedly broke out solute independence, and masters. Boleslaus, son he troubles which rose in possess himself of the Bautzen, which the Em- liim as fiefs. This same fi the death of Henry II. Aieczislaus II., son of Bo« le country situate between compelled to abdicate the Qces which his father had » descendants of Mieciis- ath of Casimir the Great lown by the name of the le Piut, alleged to have i of Poland, received die d that kingdom ; and had sh priest named Geoffiy, nogra (966.) In Rasaia, Vladimir the Great, great-grandson of Rnrie, wm the first grand duke that embraced Christianity, (968.) He wm baptized at Cherson in Taurida, on the occasion of his marriaoB with Anna Romanowna, sister of Basil II. and Constantine VIlI., Emperors of Constantinople. It was this prince that introduced the Greek ritual into Russia, and founded several schools and convents. The alphabet of the Greeks was imported into Rat- sia along with their religion ; and from the reign of Vladimir, that nation, more powerful and united than most of the other European states, carried on a lucrative commerce with the Greek empire, of which it became at length a formidable rival. At the death of that prince (1015,) Russia comprehended those vast regions which, from east to west, extend from the Icy Sea and the mouth of the Dwina, to the Niemen, the Dniester, and the Bug ; and southward of this last river, to the Carpathkn Mountains, and the confines of Hungary and Moldavia. The city of Kiow on the Dnieper, was the capital of the empire, and the residence of the Grand Dukes. This period also gave rite to those unfortunate territorial partitions which, by dividing ths Russian monarchy, exposed it to the insults and ravages of the neighbouring nations. Jaroslaus, one of the sons of Vladimir« made himself famous as a legislator, and supplied the NovogiK rodians with laws to regulate their courts of justice. No leM the friend and protector of letters, he employed himself in tran»> lating Greek books into the Sclavonian language. He founded a public school at Novogorod, in which three hundred children were educated at his sole expense. His daughter Anna married Henry I., King of France ; and this princess was the commoa mother of all the kings and princes of the Capetian dynasty. Hungary was divided, in the tenth century, among severel petty princes, who acknowledged a common chief, styled the Grand Prince, whose limited author! .y was reduced to asimpl* pre-eminence in rank and dignity. Each of these princes as- sembled armies, and made predatory excursions, plundering and' ravaging the neighbouring countries 'at their pleasure. Tfai East and the West suffered long under the scourge of these atro- cious pillagers. Christianity, which was introduced among them about the end of the tenth century, was alone capable of soft- ening the manners, and tempering the ferocity or this nation. Peregrine, bishop of Pa6sau, encouraged by OUio the Om^ and patronized by the Grand Prince Geisa, sent the first mu^ sionaries into Hungary (973.) St. Adelbert, bishopof PngiMi had the honour toMiptise the son of Geirn, called Waic (Wlj^ bat who received then the baptismal name of Slej^n. This latter prince, having eueceeded his father (997,) ehaagii TOL. I. 9 i IP MUniK IV. MttMlv the asDMt of Hunmry. He aaeumed the royel dignity. 3a L comSS of PoJT^ylvester II.. who sent fiim on this ^^ni^AngJl &.'^M it i. called ; the same, accord. S to T«dition.%hich the Hungarians use to this d«y m the S?on.uW of their kings. At once the aposUe "jd the law- iri»er of his country, Stephen I. combined politics with justice Sideroplojed both severity and clemency in reforming his sub- iit. iKund^d several bishoprics, extfrpated idolatry, banish S anarchy and «ve to the auLrity of L --re^n. a vi^ou and efficiency which it never before possessed. To him like- "self generally ascribed the political division 0/ Hungary in o Tountilsfas a Jthe institution of palatines, and great o|^^^^^^ of the crown. He conquered Transylvania, about lOW-J, ac SX toThe opinion 3f most moder\ Hungarian authors, and Sef it into a\listinct government, the chiefs of which, called Vaivodes, held immediately of his crown. „„,>,;„„ Thehistory of theGreek empire presents, at this t'™e. n?;»''"| out a tissue of corruption, fanaticism and perfidy. The throne -insecure as that of the Western empire had been, was filled "t«Sy by a Vuccession of usurpers; most of whom rose £ theVwest conditions of life, and o^ed their eleva on JSdy to the perpetration of crime and parricide. A supersti- Sn «088 in Us nature, bound as with a spell the minds of the SeeS and paJdyzed heir courage. It was carefully cherished Who monkrwh^o had found means to Po«X' jJ^^^S;; ife government, by procuring the exclusion of ^e '.ec«larxl«gy from the episcopate; and directing the attention of pnnces t» SSL Iheologic^ controversies, oft^n exceedingly frivolou. Whlcfc were oroduced and re-produced almost without inter- 2«tenT iSencHriginated those internal commotions «id STrliuons. Uiose schisms and sects, whch more than once AiwiAtA the emoire, and shook the throne lUeU. ThVse Srickl dispiites. the rivalry between the two pa- triiShrof RTe'Td Con'Lt.nUnople." an5 the contests respect- inTfhe Bulmrian converts, led to an ineparable schism between Z S«kK "he Ea,t aid the West This controversy was TJkSn\y agitated under the pontificate of Jf^n VI I., «^^ »k«n the OTlebrated Photius waa patriarch of Constantinople , 2? Ate of Sreffort. whi,J. .e^ral of *e Greek empsrojj SS pitiWh. afterward, made to effect a union 7»«J »^«;^^^ Sl^c animosity of both only grew more implacable, ana SidrtliSTl final rapture litween the two chu'ches. A JSS^J^wSwoA ao capricious as that of Constantinople, ^^* th«HMn»i Ostrogoths, AT«M,Baigwi«MiK««««»^ imed the royal dignity. , -who sent him on this led ; the same, accord« use to this day in the apostle and the law* politics with justice in reforming his sub- pated idolatry, banish the sovere^n, a vigour isRSsed. To him like- vision of Hungary into les, and great officers nia, about 1002-3, ac- iungarian authors, and ! chiefs of which, called 1. nts, at this time, nothing d perfidy. The throne, ire had been, was filled ; most of whom rose 1 owed their elevation parricide. A supersti- X spell the minds of the was carefully cherished possess themselves ot ion of the secular clergy i attention of princes to 1 exceedingly frivolous, d almost without inter- [iternal commotions and which more than once ne itself. airy between the two pa- and the contests respect- reparable schism between t. This controversy was Scate of John VIII., and iarch of Constantinople ; il of the Greek emperors t a union with the Romish iw more implacable, and m Uie two churches. A as that of Constantinople, to the inroads of foreign iza, Bulgarians, Ruasiins, FBiioD m. A. D. Ml— 1074. M Hungarians, Chanrs, and Patzinaeites, harasiM the empin on the side of the Danube ; while the Persians** were ineessihdy exhausting its strength in the East, and on the side of the Bii> phrates. Ail these nations, however, were content with merely desolating the frontiers of the empire, and imposing frequent contributions on the Greeks. It was a task reserved for the Lombards, the Arabs, the Normans, and the Turks, to detach from it whole provinces, and by degrees to hasten its downAill. The Lombards were the first that conquered from the Greeks the greater part of Italy. Palestine, Syria, and the whole pos- sessions of the Empire in Greater Asia, as well as Egypt, Nor- thern Africa, and the Isle of Cyprus, were seiied in the seventh century by the Arabs, who made themselves masters of Sicihf, and three times laid siege to Constantinople (669, 717, 71K) They would have even succeeded in taking this Eastern capital, and aniiiliilaiing the Greek empire, had not the courage of Leo the Isaurian, and the surprising effects of the Gregeois, or Greek Fire,'^ rendered their efforts useless. At length, in the eleventh century, the Normans conquered all that remained to the Greeka in Italy ; while the Seljuk Turks, who must not be confounded with the Ottoman Turks, deprived them of the greater part of Asia Minor. Turk is the generic appellation for all the Tartar nations, ^ mentioned by the ancients under the name of Scythians. Their original country was in those vast regions situate to the north of Mount Caucasus, and eastward of the Caspian Sea, beyond the Jihon, or Oxus of the ancients, especially in Charasm, Tran- soxiana, Turkestan, &c. About the eighth century, the Arab* had passed the Oxus, and rendered the Turks of Charasm and Transoxiana their tributaries. They instructed them in the re- ligion and laws of Mahomet ; but, by a transition rather extra- ordinary, it afterwards happened, that the vanquished imposed theyoke on their new masters. ^ llie empl'>-e of the Arabs, already enfeebled by the territorial losses which have been mentionei', declined mure and more, from about the middle of the ni Jth century. The CaKphs of Bagdad had committed the mistake of trusting their persona to a military guard of foreigners,** viz. ^he Turks, who, taking ad- vantage of the effeminacy of these princes, soon arrogated to themselves the whole authority, and abused it so far, as ti a >« the Caliphs entirely dependent on their will, and to vest \\ , , "^ < selves the hereditary succession of the government. Thu w the very centre of the caliphate of Baj^ad, there rose a multi- tude of new sovereignties or dynasties, the heads of which, under the title of Emir or Commander, exercised die sapreoM IT. ffdionity. and that rather of a spiritual than a temporal nature. BMidet the external marks of homage and res|>ect which were mid him, hia name continued to be proclaimed in the mosques. Snd inscribed on the coined roorey. By him were granted all Uttera-patent of inrestiture, robes, swords, and standards, accom- DMiifld with high-sounding titles ; which did not, however, pre- tmt these usurpers from maltreating their ancient maolers, inanlting their person, or even attempting iheir lives, whenever it might serve to promote their interest. A general revolution broke out under the caliph Kahdi. Iha prince, wishing to arrest the progress of usurpaiion, iho.ighi ot Ming a new minister, whom he invested with the title of Emir-^-Omra, or Commander of Commanders ; and ronferred on him powers much more ample than those of his vizier. I hi« minister, whom he selected from the Emirs, officiated even iii th« nand mosque of Bagdad, instead of the caliph ; av.d his rime was pronounced with equal honours in the divine service th ^uffhout the empire. This device, which the cnliph employ- «i tore-establish his aulhoriiy, only tended to accelerate its : instruction. The Bowides, the most powerful dynasty among the Emirs, arrogated to themselves the di(,milv of Lhicl Coin- mander (945,) and seized both the city and the sovereignty of Burdad. The Caliph, stripped of all temporal power, was then only grand Iman, or sovereign-pontiff of the Mussulman religion, luader the protection of the Bowidian prince, who kepi him as his prisoner at Bagdad. Such was the sad situation of the Arabian empire, fallen from its ancient glory, when a numerous Turkish tribe, from the centre of Turkestan, appeared on the stage, overthrew the dominions of the Bowides ; and, after imposing new fetters on the cnlipha, laid the foundation of a powerful empire, known by the nanie of the Seljukides. This roving tribe, which look its MUne from Seliuk a Musaulman Turk, after having wandered for some time with their flocks in Transoxiana, passed the Jihon to seek pasturage in the province of Chorasan. Kein- fisrced by new Turkish colonies from Transoxiana, this coali- tion became in a little time so powerful, that Togrul Beg, arandsoo of Seljuk, had the boldness to cause hirnself to be Unclaimed Sultan in the city of Niesabur," the capital of Cho- nMUi. and formally announced himself as a conqueror {10«») This prince, and the sultana hit successors, subdued by do- meea most of the provinces in Asia, which formed the caliphate hi Baadad." They annihilated the power of the Bowides, leducml the Caliphs to the condition of dependenU, and at length attacked aleo the possessions of the Greek empire. ph thui t pre^minene* than a temporal nature, jid respect which were laimed in the mosques, y him were granted all I, and standards, accom- \ did not, however, pre- their ancient maolers, ig their lives, whenever the caliph Rahdi. Thai usurpation, ihotighl ot rested with the title of nanders ; and conferred those of his vizier. Thi« imirs, ofRcialed even in of the caliph ; and hia irs in the divine service ■hich the cnliph employ- tended to accelerate its lowerful dynasty among di^mity of Chief Com- f and the sovereignty of nnporal power, was then the Mussulman religion, iiince, who kept him us Arabian empire, fallen >U5 Turkish tribe, from he stage, overthrew the imposing new fetters on iverful empire, known by ■ing tribe, which took its , after having wandered Pransoxiana, passed the ice of Chorasan. Rein- Transoxiana, this coali- etful, that Togrul Beg, to cause himself to be ibur," the capital of Cho- f as a conqueror (1038.) cessors, subdued by de- hich formed the caliphate power of the Bowides, » of dependents, and at f the Greek empire. ratioD IV. . D. 1074—1300. M AIp«AnUn, the nephew and immediate sueceate.- of Tofnil Beg, gained a signal Tictory in Armenia, over the Emperor Romanua Diogenes (1071) who was there taken prisonert The confusion which this event caused in the Greek empire, was favourable to the Turks, who aeiied not only what re* mained to the Greeks in Syria, but also several provinces ia Asia Minor, such as Cilicia, Isauria, Pamphylia, Ljrcia, Piaidia, Lycaonia, Cappadocia, Galatia, Pontus, and Bythinia. The empire of the SeUukides was in its most flouriahinff state under the sultan Malek Shah, the son and successor oi Alp-Arslan. The caliph Cayem, in confirming to this prince the title of Sultan and Chief Commander, added also that of Commander of the Faithful, which before that time had never been conferred but on the caliphs alone. On the death of Ma- lek (1092,) the disputes that rose among his sons occasioned a civil war, and the partition of the empire. These vast territoriee were divided among three principal dynasties descended from Seljuk, those of Iran, Kerman, and Roum, or Rome. Thla latter branch, which ascribes its origiVi to Solinian, great-grand- son of Seljuk, obtained the provinces of Asia Minor, which the Seljukides had conquered from the Greeks. The princes of this dynasty are known in the history of the Crusades bj^ the name of Sultans of Iconium or Cogni, a city of Lycaonia, where the sultans established their residence after being de- prived by the crusaders of the city of Nice in Bythinia. The most powerful of the three dynasties was that of the Seljukidea of Iran, whose sway extended over the greater part of"^ Upper Asia. It soon, however, fell from its grandeur, and its states were divided into a number of petty sovereignties, over which the Emirs or governors of cities and provmces usurped the supreme power.** These divisions prepared the way for the conquests of the crusaders in Syria and Palestine ; and fur- nished also to the Caliphs of Bagdad the means of shaking off the yoke of the Seljukides (1152,) and recovering the sove- reignty of Irak- Arabia, or Bagdad. CHAPTER ▼. PERIOD IT. From Pope Gregory VII. to Boniface VIII. a. d. 1074— 1300t A NEW and powerful monarchy rose on the ruins of the Ger- man empire, that of the Roman Pontiffs ; which monopolized both spiritual and temporal dominion, and extended its influ* B^ \» emAmt ▼• SLhitlDn InJ^iSant at the depraylty of lh« age, which wa. «!-Tto WDlaca Sie government of kin^s. which had totally ?.*T.d of . kS" ".mily. had p...d .1". «.y «■"<''"" Sl^Lid a vassal of the Holy See Taking advantage, hke- wJe of the minority of Henfy IV.. he caused, this same year, fo a council held at Rome. L famous decree to be passed whkh bv eservingthe election of the pontiffs pn"«^'P,^"y '" 5e oadYnJls coivSr^^ the elective privileges wliich the em. STrorsformerlv enjoyed in virtue of their crown, rights, into a Prrnaf SvoJr gJaJlted by the Pope, and emanatmg from the "onle^dTaS; of Pope Nicolas II.. Cardinal Hildebrand pro- cured the election of Alexander II.. without waking for the or- diror concur ence of the Imperial court; and he succeeded m iailiS h m in the apostolical chair against Pope Honorius n who m ?he7eigning empress had destined for that honour. Ai'irn-"h leing raisel himself to the pontfical throne scarce- W had he'obu"id the Imperial confirmation, when he put m execution "he uoiect whic'h he had so long been concerting and S ns. viz the erecting of a spiritual despotism,^ extend- Co Ssts as well as kings ; making the supreme pont ff the S^r-;;; all affairs, both ci?il and -clesiastical--the bestower Of favours, and the dispenser of crown.. The basis of this 1 niloo IT. A. B. 1074 — 1900. 108 om. ThU tuprentMy, sm is itill an object of jns, was the work of it undertnkinga, m re- im above h\» timet, aa boundless reach of his of the age, which was I the gross immorality oth laymen and ecclesi- reformer of morals, and this project, it was ne- ngs, which had totally iitnority, whose salutary d the low, might restore iousness, and impose a origin. This authority e, of which Gregory was . the son of a carpenter , or according to others, ed the way to its future whose counsels he had debruiid. While Cardi- enter into a treaty with that brave Norman as an Taking advanUge, like- caused, this same year, us decree to be passed, le pontifls principally to irivileges which the em- heir crown* rights, into a and emanating from the Cardinal Hildebrand pro- 'ithout waiting for the or- mrt ; and he succeeded in »ir against Pope Honorius destined for that honour, pontifical throne, scarce- rmation, when he put in } long been concerting and itual despotism,^ extend- ng the supreme pontifTthe clesiastical— the bestower )wa«. The basis of this dominion wh, that the Vicar of Jeaua Christ on^t to be la* Crior to all human power. The better to attain nie object, be gan by withdrawing himself and hia clergy from the autho- rity of the secular pnnces. At that time the city of Rome, and the whole ecelesiaatical states, aa well aa the greater part of Italy, were subject to the kings of Germany, who, in virtue of their beinc kings of Italy and Roman emperors, nominated or confirmed the popes, and installed the prefects of Rome, who there received the power of the sword in their name. They sent also every year commit' sioners to Rome, to levy the money due to the royal treasury. The popes used to date their acts from the years of the empe- ror's reign, and to stamp their coin with his name ; and all the higher clergy were virtually bound and subject to the secular power, by the solemn investiture of the ring and the crosier. This investiture gave to the emperors and the other sovereigns the right of nominating and connrming bishops, and even of de- posing them if they saw cause. It gave them, moreover, the right of conferrinff, at their pleasure, those fiefs and royal pre- rogatives which the munificence of princos had vested in the Church. The emperors, in putting bishops and prelates in poRttcssion of these fiefs, used the symbols of the ring and the crosier, which were badges of honour belonging to bishops and abbots. They made them, at the same time, take the oath of fidelity and allegiance ; and this was the origin of their depen- dence, and their obligation to furnish their princes with troops, and to perform military service. Gregory VII. prohibited, under pain of excommunication, all sovereigns to exercise the rights of investiture, by a formal de- cree which he published in a council assembled at Rome in 1074. There was more than the simple ceremony of the ring and the crosier implied in this interdict. He aimed at depriving princes of the right of nominating, confirming, or deposing prelates, as well as of receiving their fealty and homage, and exacting military service. He thus broke all those ties by which the bishops were held in allegiance and subordination to princes ; making them, in this respect, entirely independent. In suppressing in- vestitures, the pontiff had yet a more important object in view. It was his policy to withdraw both himself and his successors, as well as the whole ecclesiastical state, from the power of the German kings; especially by abolishing the right which these princes had so long exercised of nominating and confirming the ropes. He saw, in fact, that if he could succeed in rendering the clergy independent of the secular power, it would follow, by a natural consequence, that the Pope, ab being supreme head of J.'.\ 104 cRA?nii r. the clevgy, would no longer be dependent on the emperors ; while the emperor, excluded from the nomination and mvesti- ture of bishops, would have still less right to interfere m the election of pontiffs. This afltoir, equally interesting to all sovereigns, was of the utmost importance to the kings of Germany, who had committed the unfortunate error of putting the greater part of their domains into the hands of ecclesiastics ; so that to divest those princes of the right to dispose of ecclesiastical fiefs, was '•y fact to de- prive them of nearly the half of their empire. The bishops, vainly flattering themselves with the prospect ol an imaginary liberty, forgot the valuable gifts with which the emperors had loaded them, and enlisted under the banners of the Pope. They turned against the secular princes those arms which the latter had imprudently trusted in their hands. There yet subsisted another bond of union which connected the clergy with the civil and political orders of society, and gave them an interest in the protection of ihe secular authority, and that was, the marriages of the priests ; a custom in use at that time over a great part of the West, as it still is in the Greek and Eastern Churches. It is true, that the law of celibacy, al- ready recommended strongly by St. Augustine, had been adopted by the Romish Church, which neglected no means of introducing it by degrees into all the churches of the Catholic communion. It had 'net with better success in Italy and the south of Europe than in the northern countries ; and the priests continued to marry, not only in Germany, England, and the kmgdoms of the North, but even in France, Spain, and Italy, notwithstanding the law of celibacy, which had been sanctioned in vain by a multiiude of councils. , . , , » i Gregory VII., perceiving that, to render the clergy completely dependent on the Pope, it would be necessary to break this powerful connexion, renewed ihe law of celibacy, in a council held at Rome (1074;) enjoining the married priests either to quit their wives, or venounce the sacerdotal order. Ihe whole cleray murmure.l against ihe unfeeling rigour of this decree, which even excited tumult and insurrection in several countries of Germany ; and it required ail the firmness of Gregofv and his successors to abolish clerical marriages, and establish the law of celibacy throughout the Western churches.* In thus dissolving the secular ties of the clergy, it was far from the in- tention of Gregory VII. to render them independent. His designs were more politic, and more suitable to his ambition. He wished to make the clergy eutirely subservient to his own elevation, and even to employ them as an instrument to humble and subdue the power of the princfis. J ent on the emperors; lominetion and invest!* ight to interfere in the sovereigns, was of the (ly, who had committed er part of their domains o divest those princes iefs, was .'i fact to de- smpire. The bishops, spect ot an imaginary ich the emperors had lers of the Pope. They arms which the latter union vhich connected orders of society, and of the secular authority, its ; a custom in use at as it still is in the Greek the law of celibacy, al- ustine, had been adopted no means of introducing le Catholic communion. ind the south of Europe he priests continued to and the kingdoms of the d Italy, notwithstanding ianctioned in vain by a ler the clergy completely necessary to break this of celibacy, in a council narried priests either to iotal order. The whole g rigour of this decree, :tion in several countries irmness of Gregory and iages, and establish the rn churches.' In thus f, it was far from the in- ndependent. His designs is ambition. He wished to his own elevation, and t to humble and subdue mioD IT. A. D. 1074 — 1300. 106 The path had already bsen opened up to him by tha FaUt Decretalt, as they were called, forged about the beginning of the ninth century, by the famous impostor Isidore, who, with the view of diminishing the authority of the metropolitans, advanced in these letters, which he attributed to the early bishops of Rome, a principle whose main object was to extend the rights of the Romish See, and to vest in the popes a jurisdiction till then unknown in the church. Several Popes before Gregory VII. had already availed themselves of these Faltie Decretals;'^ and they had even been admitted as true into different collec- tions of canons. Gregory did not content himself with rigidly enforcing th*^ principles of the impostor Isidore. He went even farther ; he pretended to unite, in himself, the plenary exercise both of the ecclesiastical and episcopal power ; leaving nothing to the archbishops and bii^hops but the simfle title of his lieu- tenants or vicars. He coiripletely undermined the jurisdiction of the metropolitans and bi.shops, by authorizing in nil cases an appeal to the Court of Rome ; reserving to himself exclusively the cognizance of all causes termed viajor — including more es- ftecially the privilege of juJging and deposing of bishops. This alter privilege had always been vested in the provinckal councils, who exercised it under the authority, and v.'ith the consent of the secular powers. Gregory abolished this usage ; and claimed for himself the power of judging- the bishops, either in person or by his legates, to the exclusion of the Synodal Assemblies. He made himself master of these assemblies, and even arroga- ted the exclusive right of convocating General Councils. This pontiff, in a council which he held at Rome (1079,) at length prescribed a new oath, which the bishops were obliged to take ; the main object of which was not merely canonical obedience, but even fealty a^d homage, such as the prelates, as lieges, vowed to their sovereigns; and which the pontiff claimed for himself alone, bearing that they should aid and defend, against the whole world, his new supremacy, and what he called the royal rights of St. Peter. Although various sovereigns maintained possession of the homage they received from their bishops, the oath imposed by Gregory nevertheless retained its full force ; it was even augmented by his successors, and ex- tended t(' all bishops without distinction, in spile of its incon- sistency with that which the bishops swore to their princes. Another very eflectual lueans which Gregory VII. made use of to confirm his new authority, was to send, more frequently than his predecessors had done, legates into the different states and kingcbma of Christendom. He made them a kind of gov- ernors of provinces, and invested them with the most ample - ,;•! IM OBArnt V. nowen. These legates soon obtained a knowledge of all the Sairs of the provinces delegated to their care ; which «ea ly^ impaired the authority of the metropolitans and provincial coun- castas well as the jurisdiction of the bishops. A clause was alsd inserted, in the form of the oath imposed on the bishops which obliged them to furnish maintenance and ""PPOrt >«' these legatls ; a practice which subsequently gave place to fre- Quent exactions and impositions on their part. While occupied wiih the means of exlendmg his power oyer the clergy. Gregory did not let slip any opportunity of making encroacSments on tie authority of pmces and sovereigns, wh ch he represented as subordinate to that of the Church and the Pone. As supreme head of the Church, he claimed a right of inspection over all kings and their governments. He deemed himself authorized to address admonitions to 'hem, as to the method of ruling their Wng^o'^^J ^"^ t° "il lUtTn tS account of their conduct. By and by, he presumed to listen to the complaints of subjects against their princes, and claimed the riffht of being a judge or arbiter between them. In this capacity h! acted towarJs fienry IV., emperor of Germa«Xi «;ho ff" joyed the rights of sovereignty over Rome and the Fope. He iummoned him to Rome (1076,) for the purpose of answenng before the synod to the P-inc'Pa\ recusations which the nobles of Saxony, engaged in disputes with that prince, had referred to the Pope: The emperor, burning with indignation, and hurried on by t^e impetuosity of youth, instantly convoked «» ««8«™Wv of biihops atVorms. and there caused the pontiff to be deposed. No sooner was this sentence ?°»l«y«V\'^r^' '"'tliri^J presence of the Pope in a council which he had assembled, than Gregory ventured on a step till then quite unheard of. He im- mediately thundered a sentence of excommunication and depo- sition against the Emperor, which was addressed to St. Peter, and couched in the following terms :— , • , .j- , r,„™ " In the name of Almighty God, I suspend and interdict from governing the kingdom of Germany and Italy, Henry, son of the emperor Henry, who, with a haughtiness unexamined. Jas dared to rebel against thy church. I absolve all Christians whatever from the oath wWh they have taken, or 8h«»ll here- after take, to him; and henceforth none shall be If/'n»"«d todo hh^ homie or service as k-ng; for he who would dwjbey Je authority of thy Church, deserves to lose the dignity with whwh he is iivested.^ And seeing this prince has "f-^J !« ««J»>^ as a Christian, and has not returned to the Lord whom he l»th forsaken, holding communion with the excommunicated, and dmpuing the aSice which I tender«i him for the safety of bu riBioD nr. a. d. 1074 — 1300. m a knowledge of «11 the leir care ; which 8T«»t'y^ tans and provincial coun-"* bishops. A clause was imposed on the bishops, lenance and support for uently gave place to fre- sir part. xtending his power oyer f opportunity of making les and sovereigns, which : of the Church and the ch, he claimed a right of irernments. He deemed itions to them, as to the 1 to demand of them an he presumed to listen to • princes, and claimed the n them. In this capacity or of Germany, who en- tomc and the Pope. He he purpose of answering isations which the nobles ml prince, had referred to h indignation, and hurried tly convoked an assembly the pontiff to be deposed, ed to Rome, and read in h he had assembled, than [uite unheard of. He im* sommunication and depo- i.s addressed to St. Peter, luspend and interdict from and Italy, Henry, son of ghtiness unexampled, Jias I absolve all Uhristians have taken, or shall here- ne shall be permitted to do he who would disobey the ose the dignity with which ince has refused to submit to the Lord whom he hath the excommunicated, and d him for the safety of bit soul, I load him with curses in thy name, to the end that peo- ple may know, even by experience, that thou art Peter, and that on this rock the Son of the living God has built his church ; and that the gates of hell shall never prevail against it." This measure, which seemed at first to have been merely the effect of the pontiff's impetuosity, soon discovered of what im- portance it was for him to persevere, and what advantage he might derive from it. In humbling the emperor, the most pow- erful monarch in Europe, he might hope that all the other sovereigns would bend before him. He omitted nothing, there- fore, that might serve to justify his conduct, and endeavoured to prove, by sophistries, that if he had authority to excommuni- cate the emperor, he might likewise deprive him of his dignity ; and that the right to release subjects from their oath of allegi- ance was an emanation and a natural consequence of the power of the Keys. The same equivocal interpretation he aflerwards made use of in a sentence which he published against the same prince (1080,) and which he addressed to the Apostles St. Peter and St. Paul, in these terms : " You", fathers and princes of the apostles, hereby make known to the whole world, that if you can bind and unbind in heaven, you can much more, on earth, take from all men empires, kingdoms, principalities, dutchies, marquisates, counties, and possessions, of whatsoever nature they may be. You have often deprived the unworthy of patri- archates, primacies, archbishoprics, and bishoprics, to give them to persons truly religious. Hence, if you preside over spiritual aflairs, does not your jurisdiction extend a fortiori to temporal and secular dignities? and if you judge the angels who rule over princes and potentates, even the haughtiest, will you not also judge their slaves ? Let then the kings and princes of the earth learn how great and irresistible is your power ! Let them tremble to contemn the commands of your church ! And do you, blessed Peter, and blessed Paul, exercise, from this time forward, your judgment on Henry, that the whole earth may know that he has been humbled, not by any human contingencies, but solely by your power." Until that time, the emperors had exercised the right of confirming the Popes, and even of deposing them, should there be occasion ; but, by a strange reverse of preroga- tives, the popes now arrogated to themselves the confirmation of the emperors, and even usurped the right of dethroning them. However irresalar this step of the pontiff might be, it did not fail to produce &e intended effect. In an assembly of the Im- pend Statea, held at Tribur (1076,) the emperor could only obtain their consent to postpone their proceeding to a new election, and that on the express condiuon of his sabmitting 108 CBArntt V. himself lo the judgment of the Pope, and bemg thsoWed imme- diately from the excommunication he had mcurred. Inconse- quence of this decision of the States, Henry crossed the Alps in the middle of winter, to ohtain reconciliation with the Fope, who then resided with the famous Countess Matilda, at her Castle of Canossa, in the Modenese territory. Absolution was not granted him, however, except under condilions the most hu- miliating. He was compelled to do penance in an outer court of the castle, in a woollen shirt and barefooted, for three suc- cessive days, and afterwards to sign whatever terms the pontifl chose to pr" scribe. This extraordinary spectacle must have spread conste.-nation among the sovereigns of Europe, and made them tremble at the censures of the Church. After this, Gregory VII. exerted his utmost influence to en- SBse all sovereigns, without distinction, to acknowledge them- selves his vassals apd tributaries. " Let not the emperor imagine," says he, in a letter which he wrote to the German nation, " Uiat the church is subject to him as a slave, but let him know that she is set over him as a sovereign." From that time the pontiff regarded the empire as a fief of his church ;. and afterwards when setting up a rival emperor to Henry IV., in the person of Hermann of Luxemburg, he exacted from him a formal oath of vassalage. Gregory pursued the same conduct in regard to the other sovereigns of Europe. 'Boleslaus II., King of Poland, having killed Stanislaus Bishop of Cracow, who had ventured to excommunicate him, the j^ontiff took oc- casion from this to depose that prince; releMing all his sutj- iects from their oath of fidelity, and even prohibiting the Polish bishops henceforth to crown any king without the express con- sent of the Pope. j j .l- This aspiring pontiflf stuck at nothing ; he regarded nothing, provided he could obtain his object. However contrary the customs of former times were to his pretensions, he quoted them as examples of authority, and with a boldness capable ot imposing any thing on weak and ignorant minds. It was thus that, in order to oblige the French nation to pay him the tax of one penny each house, he alleged the example of Charlemagne, and pretended that that prince had not merely paid this tribute, but even granted Saxony as a fief to St. Peter ; as he had con- quered it with the assistance of that apostle. In writing to Iliilip I. of France, he expressed himself in these terms : " Stme to please St. Peter, who has thykingdom as well as thy soul in his power ; and who can bind thee, and abMlve in Imtven as well as on «arth." And in a letter which he addressed tt Ae Princes of Spain, he attempted to persuade them, that the 1 being tbsolved imme* ad incurred. Inconse- lenry crossed the Alps :iliation wilh the Pope, unless Matilda, at her itory. Absolution was conditions the most hu- lance in an outer court refooted, for three suc- atever terms the pontiff y spectacle must have reigns of Europe, and he Church. utmost influence to en* ,, to acknowledge them- " Let not the emperor e wrote to the German im as a slave, but let him reign." From that time fief of his church ; and (iperor to Henry IV., in , he exacted from him a irsued the same conduct Europe. * Boleslaus 11., laus Bishop of Cracow, lim, the pontiff took oc- e ; releasing all his sub- ren prohibiting the Polish without the express con- ng ; he regarded nothing, , However contrary the s pretensions, he quoted ith a boldness capable of rant minds. It was thus lion to pay him the tax of example of Charlemagne, t merely paid this tribute, St. Peter ; as he had con* t apostle. In writing to himself in these terms : I thy. kingdom as well as bind thee, and abeolve in I letter which he addreseed to penuade them, that the riBioD IT. 4> D. 1074 — 1300 ktegilom of Spain, being originally the property of die Holy See, thev could not exonerate themselves from paying him a tax on all the lands they had conquered from the Infidels. He affirmed to Solomon, King of Hungary, that Stephen L, on receiving his crown at the hands of Pope Silvester IL, had surrendered his kingdom as free property to the Holy See ; and that, in virtue of this donation, his kingdom was to be considered as a part of the domain of the church. He wrote in exactly the same style to Qeysa his immediate successor. In one of his letters to Sueno, King of Denmark, he enjoins him to deliver up his kingdom to the power of the Romish See. He reftiaed (1076,) to grant the royal dignity to Demetrius Swinimir, Duke of Croatia and Dalmatia, except on the express condition, that he should do him homage for his kingdom, and engage to pay the Pope an annual tribute of two hundred ofolden pieces of By- zantium. This pontiffhad the art of disguising his ambition as dexterously, under the mask of justice and piety, that he pe> vailed with various other sovereignr to acknowledge themsMves his vassals. Bertrand, Count of Provence, transferred to him his fealty and homage, to the prejudice of those feudal obliga- tions he owed to the Empire. Several princes of Italy and Gwr- many, influenced by artifice or intimidation, abandoned the emperor, and put themselves under submission to the P<^. His eflbrts were not equally successful with William the Con- queror, King of England, whom he had politely invited by letter, to do him homage for his kingdom, afler the manner of his nr^al predecessors. That prince, too wise to be duped by papal mi^^ position, replied, that he was not in a humour to perform hom^[e which he had never promised, and which he was not aware had ever been performed by any of his predecessors. The successors of Gregory VII., followed in the path he had opened up ; giving their utmost support to all his maxims and pre- tensions. In consequence, a very great number of the prince* of Christendom, some intimidated by the thuoders of ecclesias- tical anathemas, others with a view to secure for themselves the protection of the Holy See, acknowledged these usurped S>wers of the Popes. The Kings of Portugal, Arragon, Enghmd, Gotland, Sardinia, the two Sicilies, and several others, became, in course of time, vassals and tributaries to the Papal See; and there is not a doubt, that the universal monarchy, the schera* of which Gregory VII. had conceived, would have been com- pletely established, if some of bis successors had been endowei with his vast amUdon, and his superior geiuas. In every other reject, cirevmstanees were such as to hasIM and facilitate the progress of this new pontifical tapremacy. H"- VOL. I. 10 had commew«d in a btrterous a«. when the whole of 4e wiSTworld was covered with the darkneee of ignorance . InrXniSankind knew neither the Just ngfht. of •ovcre.gnty. !«r tK«^und» which reason and equity should have set to the monarchs that put them in practice. An "t"'««^" "Km ♦!«« the inseoarable companion of ignorance, held all Europe • • l?rjr„n^[he Pones were reverenced with a venerauon ',;imGftat whKC onl V to the Deity ; and the whote -IJld trembled at the utterance of the single word Excommw SitT Kings were not sufficiently powerful to oppose any rSul Sn^e to the encroachments of Rome ; the. J^^ Sority was curtailed and counteracted by that of their vassals, who LSed with eagerness every occasion which the Popes Sered lhem,To aggrfndi.e their oin prerogatives at the expense ^'itr^^^r oTaerany, who was alone aWe^o co"^--!! 5S^anr?t;remXr8.and excited intestine wars agamst him rh^tSUvenwe^so^^^^^^^^^ Sri ^wS ' the Empi.rSii the^P^cy, under the reign of H^y IV ,««i which Jgitated both dermany and taly to a Other to pieces with inconceivable furv. ».^:„.ted the Henrv V son and successor of Henry IV., terminatea tne pa^dTdiU^^^^^ the invesUtures f f VwS.^ (Ul^'S S« thB Concordat which he concluded at Worms (ll-a) witn pin? cSrfi he Mnounc^l the ceremony of the ring and Sw^Sd wanting to the churches freefiberty of elecUpn, bJ^vU^JtS wLim^lf. exce,,t the Prijjl«««; "J^SI SnS.ioner.to the election., and fP''«'°:^^J^l,''SM, Z;T:^^S^^-^^^' bishV with the empe- 1 ntno IT. A. D. 1074—1300. Ill len the whole of the irkiMM of ignorance; rights of lovereignty, ^hould have aet to the >f Rome was then the ind the Popes the only 1 extravagant supersti- ance, held all Europe ;ed with a veneration Deity ; and the whole ingle word Excommu- lowerful to oppose any Us of Rome ; their au- y that of their vassals, sion which the Popes rogatives at the expense lone able to countervail var with his grand vas- to repress ; while thev, e, and consulting only ir, blindly seconded the ror, however, did all in torrent of ecclesiastical )ry became so extrava- h spiritual weapons, he stine wars against him ; to aron the sons againat in of the contests which pacy, under the reign of rermany and Italy for a re birth, also, to the two nes, die former Imperial, sourse of time tore each • inry IV., terminated the the ring and the crosier, d at Worms (11^) with nemony of the ring and »s free uberty of election, the privilege of sending ring to the newly elected are of the legalian t'^^* e ring uid crosier. The I bishops with the eoipe* Ton, were still preserved by this transaction, contrary to the iii> tenlions of Gregory VII. ; bat the emperors being obliged to approve of the persons whom the Church should hereaAer pr*- sent, lost their chief influence in the elections, and were no loitffer entitled, as formerly, to grant or refuse investiture. These broils with the court of Rome, the check which they gave to the Imperial authority, joined to the increasing abuses of the feudal system, afforded the princes and states of the Em- Sire the means of usurping the heritable succession of their utchies, counties, and fiefs ; and of laying the foundations of a new power, which they afterwards exercised under the name of territorial superiority. Frederic 11., compelled by the pretisure of events, was the first emperor that sanctioned the territorial rights of the states by charters, which he delivered to several princes, secular and ecclesiastic, in the years 1220 and 1338. The Imperial dignity thus lost its splendour with the power of the emperors ; and the constitution of the Empire was totally changed. That vast monarchy degenerated by degrees into a kind of federal system ; and the Emperor, in course of time, became only the common chief, and superior over the numerous vassals of which that association was composed. The extra- ordinary efforts made by the Emperors Frederic I. and II. of the house of Hohenstaufen,* to re-establish the tottering throne of the empire, ended in nothing; and that House, one of the most powerful in Europe, was deprived of all its crowns, and perae- cuted even to the scaffold. The empire thus fell into gradual decay, while the pontifical power, rising on its ruins, gained, day by day, new accessiona of strength. The successors of Gregory VII. omitted nothing that policy could suggest to them, in order to humble more and more the dignity of die Emperors, and to bring them into a state of absolute dependence, by arrogating to themselves the express right of confirming, and even of deposing them ;* and com- pelling them to acknowledge their feudal superiority. Bcdng thus no longer obliged to submit their election to the arbitration of the Imperial court, the ambitious pontiffs soon aspired to absolute sovereignty. The custom of dating their acts, and coining their money with the stamp and name of the emperor, disappeared af^ the time of Gregory VII. ; and the authority which the empa- ron had exercised at Rome, ceased entiraly with ^e loss of the prafeeture or government of that ci^r > which Pope Innocent III. took into hit own hands (1196,) obliging the prefiKt of Rome to swear die usual oath of homage to the ApoatoUc See, which that magistrate owed to the emperor, firom wh«wi he receivad' I AavM&etoM. Htoce U happened, thiitUifchiefc of the Em- SfoSiSitocomproini«i with .power whwhthe^hi^JeMned ffXSThld no longer any difficulty in recogniiing the enure ^dependence of the Popes; even formdly renouncing the SIKr high iovereignty which iheur predecewor. had enjoyed, SSTonW ofer Bon>e,l)ut over the Eccleeiwitical ^States. The diss of the church were likewiee con.,deraWy mcreaaed WthracQuUiUons which Innocent III. made of ihe March 3 aSsmS and the dutchy of Spoleio ; as well as by the per- the BiSr* Frederic II. ceded to Hononus W. (1220.) and iSkkW successors in the Apostolic chair formed into the pro- S?£own by the name of the Patrimony of St. Peter. One rf the grand means which the Popes employed for the •imneementof their new authority, was the ™"lt'P>'«=«»"«» "^ BeESus Orders, and the way in which they took «="«'«•"»»■ Mthese coroorktions. Before the time of Gregory VII.. the SwoZ known in the West was that of the Bened.cl.nes. JSdi into several families or congregat ons The rule of St. Bewdict, prescribed at the Council of Aix-la-Chapelle (817) to STonks^within the empire of the F""^,^' «'" ^Basif w^ allowed by the Bomish Church ; just as that of St. Basil was. «3 sU^l is. the only one practised in the East by the Greek Ctoih. The first of these newly invented orders was that of oSSm^nt in Limosin (1073,) authorized by P«>P« G'^g^y ^I . xETwas followed, in the same century, by the order of Char- iSl. «d that of St. Antony.' The Mendicant orders took Slirrise under Innocent III., near the e«d of the twelfth, and btSnJig of Se thirteenth century. Their number increased SKS tie so prodigiously, that, in 1274. they could reckon ?!._L iuthVnn orders The complaints which were raised on this SStZ Ju Pu of Christe^ndom. obliged Pope Gregory to SS iem. at the^Council of Lyons, to four orders, viz. the £^!t. orSt WUliam or AugusUnes. Carmelites, the Minor STiiJcilcan fri«.Zd the lre«:hing or Dominican friars. TTie pSSirjBrcSving that they might convert the monastic «£« Md Tore parficularly the mendicants, into a powerful SjS fo^-SeTgtKlg the^ own authority, and k^p.^ the ^S^ clenrv in subjection, granted by degrees to these frater- STimSiS. 2d exemptions tending to withdraw hem SjT'JT-SSion of the Lhops. ^ to e»!»«P»2J^SS ftan evwT other authoii'y. except that of their Heads, and th« SL^toT evS conf/rUTthtm various. privileges, such Z hSZ SeWrtlilSy me». to augment their ciedit and tbeu ntioD IV. A. D. lOVi— 1900. Itt ; Um ehieb of tke Em* which thej had iMTMd I recogniaing the entire mally lenouncinp; the KleceMors had enjoyed, niaatical Statea. The considerahly increased I. made of the March as well as by the per- tnteu Matilda^ which Miorius III. (1220.) and air formed into the pro- wmy of St. Peter. Popes employed for ihe as the multiplication of I they took care to man- ne of Gregory VII., the tat of the Benedictines, ations. The rule of St. Aix-la-Chapelle (817) to ranks, was the onlv one u that of St. Basil was, the East by the Greek ented orders was that of id by Pope Gregory VII. y, by the order of Char- Mendicant orders took e end of the twelfth, and Their number increased 1 1274, they could reckon which were raised on this obliged Pope Gregory to s, to four orders, viz. the it, Carmelites, the Minor ing or Dominican friars. ;ht convert the monastic ndicants, into a powerful uthority, and keeping the )y degrees to these frater- snding to withdraw them and to emancipate them tt of their Heads, and the tn various privilegas. such d iaatructiog the young; rment tkeir credit and their iniamee. The eonaeqoenee waa, that tha monks wmv ft** <^u«ntl^ employed by the Pope* in quality of legilee uid ini*> sranariea ; thev were feared and respected by aeTefelns, ahi* gularly revered by the people, and let slip no occasion ofezalting a power to which alone they owed their promotion, their re* apectability, and all the advantages they enjoyed. Of all the successors of Gregory VIL, he wno resembled him moat in the auperiority of his geniua, and the extent of hia knowledge, was Innocent III., who waa of the family of the Counts of Segni, and elevated to the pontificate a| the aoe of 37. He was as ambitious as that pontiff, and eqnailv nrtile in resources ; and he even surpassed him in the holmess tit his plans, and the success of his enterprises. Innocent an* nounced himself as the succeuor of St. Peter, nt up ijf Ooi to govern not only the Church, but th* whole world. IX waS this Pope who first made use of the famous comparison aboat the sun and the moon : Am God, says he, hat placed turn great lumiTuiries in the firmament, the one to rule the day, aiul tkt other to give light by nig^, lo hat he established two grand powers, the porUifical and the royal; and as the moon receivet her light from the sun, so does royalty borrow its tptendmn from the Papal authority. Not content to exercise the legislative power as he pleased, bv means of the numerous decretals which he dispersed over all Christendom, this pontiff was ^e first that arrogated to him* self the prerogative of dispensing with the laws themselves, in virtue of what he termed the plenitude of his power. It is to him also that the origin of the Inquisition is ascribed, that terrible tribunal which afterwards became the firmest prop of sacerdotal despotism ; but what is of more importance io re- mark, is, that he laid the foundations of that exorbitant power, which his successors have since exercised in collating or pre* senting to ecclesiastical dignities and benefices. The secular princes having been deprived of their rights of nomination and confirmation, by the decrees of Gregory VII. and his successors, the privilege of electing bishops was re- stored to the clergy and congregation of each church, and to the chapters of convents ; the confirmation of the elected pre* lates belonged to their immediate superiors ; and collation to the other ecclesiastical benefices vias reserved for the bishope and ordinaries. All these regulations were changed towMoS the end of the twelfth century. The canons of cathedral churches, authorized by the Court of Rome, claimed to them- selves the right of election, to the exclusion of the clergy an4 the people ; while the Popes, gradaally interfering with elec- ■MMHMi HI tmATtn V. flf that iurixiiction u often as he may judge proper. t£ oSSe of a conjunct auihorlty, funii.hed a very plau- aiWe OfiSxf ffthe Pope, to interfere In collation to benefice.. TW.'cXi>n" ««ordirg to the canon »«*'^'nf ."'^jj "» ir iuriadiction of bLhops, it seemed natural that the rope, who wncSin the juriUiction. .hould al.o concur .n tjte MiXTsTriv^d from\t. namely, induction or colat.on to be- prwieges H« " concurrence, therefore, Innocent 111. «t:.'dad tiXu,^^^^^^^^ the first pontiff that made SrST He exercised that right. ^-P^-^'^'ly^^f.lfS^lV; S2.TR« « iSL, which he dispersed over the different '^irth. Sghi'^^^^^^^^^^^^ were derived the provisional SSui letters granting promise of church livings before they SSieva^l.^ TheVopes not having legates every where, iSHrisWr besides, to treat the bishops with some respect, JSan bv aSdressing to them letters of recommendation m fa- JS^of WeT»on» for whom they were anxious to procure Wefices. These letters becoming too frequent and importu- SSs the bishop, ventured to refuse their compliance ; on which ffpZsbegJn to change their recommendations into orders „r^-tP« • and aoDointed commissioners to enforce their 2ac«Uon bV means^S? ecclesiastical censures. These man- SSs were sue™ eded by the GrAce, Expectatives, which, pro- S2S riak ng we,e nothing else than mandates issued for be- SSeJ^hosf titulars or incumbents were yet alive. Lastly «f Rome This was introduced by Pope Clement IV . in M^Torder ti exclude for ever the bishops from Uie right of Sncirrence and prevention in benefices of that kind. I 7BBI0D lY. A. D. 1074—1300. 116 p th« nomination and iMi. The principl* of Use decMtaU ; tecord* Bn emnnntoi from tht ^ouree. It is from tht that portion of authori- of wnich he does not ting it to them; but is th them in the exercise udge proper. furnished a very plan* . collation to benefices. law, being essential to natural that the Pope, uld also concur in tne ction or collation to be- , therefore, Innocent III. le first pontiff that made pecially with regard to int by the death of their me; in which cases it of the bishops. In the in remote dioceses, by persed over the different derived the proviiional , (reversionary granU or urch livings before they ing legates every where,, tops with some respect, f recommendation in fa- were anxious to procure frequent and importu- 3ir compliance ; on which fnmendations into orders isioners to enforce their censures. These man- iixpectativet, which, pro- 1 mandates issued for be- were yet alive. Lastly re distinguished into ge- reservation was that of onbents dying at the Court y Pope Clement IV. in bishops from the right of es of that kind. This first raaerfation wu the foreronnor of MTtral othon, •ueh aa the reaervatioo of all eadiedral ehurchet, abbeyi, and priories ; at also of the highest dignities in cathedral and colle* ffiate churchei ; and of all collective beneficea, becoming vacant during eight months in the year, called th« Pop$'i manthi, so that only four months remained for the ordinary collators ; and these too, encroached upon by mandates, ezpectatives, and re- servations. The Popes having thus seixed the nomination to episcopal dignities, it followed, hy a simple and natural process, that the eenn/brmation of all prelates, without distinction, was in like manner reserved for them. It would have even been reck- oned a breach of decorum to address an archbishop, demanding from him the confirmation of a bishop nominated by the Pope ; so that this point of common right, which vested the confirma- tion of every prelate in his immediate superior, was also anni- hilated ; and the Romish See was at length acknowledged over the whole Western world, as the only source of all jurisdiction, and all ecclesiastical power. An extraordinary event, the ofTspring of that superstitious age, served still more to increase the power of the Popes ; and that was the Crusades, which the nations of Europe undertook, at their request and by their orders, for the conquest of Palestine or the Holy Land. These expeditions, known by the name of Holy Wars, because religion was made the pretext or occasion of them, require a somewhat pal-ticular detail, not merely of the circumstances that accompanied them, but also of the changes which they introduced into the moral and political condition of society. Pilgrimages to Jerusalem, which were in use from the earliest ages of Christianity, had become very frequent about the beginning of the eleventh century. The opmion which then very generally prevailed, that the end of the world was at hand, induced vast numbers of Christians to sell their possessions in Europe, in order that they might set out for the Holy Land, there to await the coming of the Lord. So long as the Arabs were masters of Palestine, they protected these pilgrimages, from which they derived no small emoluments. But when the Seljukian Turks, a barbarous and ferocious people, had con- quered that country (1075) under the Caliphs of Egypt, the pil- grims saw themselves exposed to every kind of insult and op- pression.^ The lamentable accounts which they gave of these outrages on their return to Europe, excited the general indigna- tion, and gave birth to the romantic notion of expelling these Infidels from the Holy Land. Gregory VII. was the projector of this grand scheme. He addressed circular letters to all the sovereigns of Europe, and lli OBAfTIt T. -^- — inTitml tlMin to mdi* • |«>t»l cnii«dU ilWMt Ae TuAy. MMntime, howew, mow DNMinff initwtto, tad hfa qurrtU with tbo Emperor Henry IV^, obliged him to defcr the proieetwl •nierpriM ; but hi* »ttention was eoon recalled to it by the re- preeentation of a pilgrim, called Peter the Hermit, a natiw of Amient in Picardy. Fumithed with letteh from the Patriarch of Jerusalem to the Pope and the princee of the West, this ardent fsnatie trayer»ed the whole of Italy, France, and Germa- ny ; preaching every where, and repreaenting. in the liTehett coloun, the profanation of the sacred placee, and the mi«erable condition of the Christians and poor pilgrim* in the Holy Land. It proved no difficult task for him to impart to othera the fanati- ciam with which he was himself animated. His nal was pow- erfully seconded by Pope Urban II., who repaired in person to France, where he convoked the council of Clermont (1096,) and pronounced, in fuU assembly, a pathetic harangue, at the close of which they unanimously resolved on the Holy War. It was decreed, that all who should enrol their names in this sacred militia, should wear a red cross on their right shoulder : that they should enjoy plenary indulgence, and obuin remission of all their sins. • . • u v From that time the pulpits of Europe resounded with exhor- tations to the crusades. People of every rank and condition were seen flocking in crowds to assume the signal of the cross ; and, in the following year, innumerable bands of crusaders, from the different countries of Europe, set out, one after another, on this expedition to the East." The only exception was the Ger- mans, who partook but feebly of this universal enthusiasm, on account of the disputes which then subsisted between the Em- peror and the court of Rome." The three or four first divisions of the crusaders, under the conduct of chiefs, who had neither name nor experience, inarched without order end without disci- pline ; pillaging, burning, and wasting the countries through which they passed. Most of them perished from fatigue, hun- ger, or sickness, or by the sword of the exasperated nations, whose territories they had laid desolate." To these unwarlike and undisciplined troops succeeded regu- lar armies, commanded by experienced officers, and powerful princes. Godfrey of Bouillon (1096,) Duke of Lorrain, accom- panied by his brother Baldwin, and his cousin Baldwin of Bo«irg, with a vast retinue of noblemen, put himself at the head of the first body of crusaders. He directed his march through Uer- many, Hungary, and Bulgaria, towards Constantinople, and was soon followed by several French princes, such as Hugh the Great, brother of Philip I. King of France ; Robert Duke of ?BBIOD IT. A. 0. 1074—1300. IIT U •iBioat Um TuA*. ttttt, umI Ut qoarrtU 1 to d« first that took the title e for the Hospitallers ; his rule (1120,) divided The nobles, called the profession of arms, tecting pilgrims. The he respectable citizens, cclesiastical ; while the class, were charged with to act in the capacity of mown by the name of JeriaaUm, and were dis- cross on a black habit, id, this order established om this they passed into rom the Infidels (1310.) of till 1522 ; and being ley obtained (1530) from • ts\e of Malta, under the e Infidels. Of this place aparte in 1798. ' irly that of St. John. Its ch gentlemen ; the chief I Geoffrey de St. Omer. )ws before , the Patriarch ves the special charge of nduct for the pilgrims to erusalem, assigned them erople, whence they took nd Templart. They ob- I rale, with a white habit ; 8S octagon. This order« hes, especially in France, leir muitary exploits for uppreated by the Council TKiioD IV. A. p. 1074—1300. Ml The Teutonic order, according to the most probable opinion, took its origin in the camp before Acre, or Ptolemais. The honour of it is ascribed to some charitable citisegs of Bremen and Lubec, who erected a hospital or tent with tbe sails of their vessels, for the relief of the numerous sick and wounded of their nation. Several Oerman gentlemen having joined in this esta- blishment, they devoted themselves by a vow to the service of the sick ; as also to the defence of the Holy Land against the Infidels. This order, known by the name of the Teutonic Knights of St. Mary of Jerusalem, received confirmation from Pope Calixtus III. (1192,) who prescribed for them the rule of the Hospital of St. John, with regard to their attendance on the sick ; and with regard to chivalry or knighthood, that of the order of Templars. Henry Walpott de Passenheim was the first grand master of the order ; and the new knights assumed the white habit, with a red cross, to distinguish them from the other orders. It was under their fourth grand master, Hermann de Saltza (12.30,) that they passed into Prussia, which they conquered (1309.) They fixed their chief residence at Marien* burg ; but having lost Prussia in consequence of a change in the religious sentiments of their grand master, Albert de Bran- denburg (152S,) they transferred their capital to Mergentheim, in Franconia. A fourth order of Hospitallers founded in the Holjr Land, was that of St. Lazarus of Jerusalem, who had for their principal object the treatment of lepers ;** and who, in process of time, from a medical, became a military order. After having long resided in the East, where they distinguished themselves in the Holy wars, they followed St. Louis into France (1254,) and fixed their chief seat at Boigny, near Orleans. Pope Gregory XIII. united them with the order of St. Maurice, in Savoy; and Henry IV. mth that of Our Lady of Mount Carmel, in France. On the model, and after the example of these four military orders, several others were founded in succession, in various kingdoms of Europe." All these institutions contri- buted greatly to the renown of chivalry, so famous in the Middle Ages. The origin of this latter institution is earlier than the times of which we now speak, ard seems to belong to the tenth, or the beginning of the eleventh century. The anarchy of feu- dalism being then at its height, and robberies and private quar- rels every where prevailing, several noble and distinguished individuals, devoted themselves, by a solemn vow, accordiiag to the genius of the times, to the defence of religion and its minis- ters ; as also of the fair sex, and of every person sufiering from distress or oppression. From the end of the eleventh century, i HWMW.m iii in w iw ' H' '" CHA?TBB T. to the time when the crusades bemin, we find chiydry, with its Mmp and its ceremonies, establislied in all the pnnci«a suites JfSirope. This salutary institution, by inspmng Oie minds S men with new energy, gave birth to ">•»][ «>X"trrevl; laeters. It tended to repress the disorders of anarchy, to revive ^er and law, and estafclish a new relationship among the na- ^Z ISSTmay be said, that these ultra-marme expeditions. proiSted with obstinacy for nearly two hundred ye«". Jj^ «"' JdAe progress of arts and civilization in Europe. .The cru- saders, journeying through kingdoms better organized than SeHwii. and observing greater refinement in their laws and SJnnZwere necessaSly led to form new ideas, and acqujre MW information with regard to science and pol'lif?- f""*; vestiires of learning and good taste had been preserved in Greece, Md Tven in the extremities of Asia, where ^iters had bec-n Scoured by the patronage of the Caliphs. The ciy of Con- JSn^le, w\ich Ld not yet 8uff«ed f'«>™ »»»' TT" U t barbarians, abounded in the finest monumenU of art. It pre- Sited to the eyes of the crusaders, a speclacle of grandeur anJ Sficence that could not but excite i^eir ad"..rat.on, and ca forth a strong desire to imitate those models, the sight of wh b a° once pleas! d and astonished them. To the Italians especially, it nu«t We proved of great advantage. The continued nter- coSS wSiey maintained with the East and the city ol cSinUnople, Xded them the means of becoming familiar ISthe kngu^ge and literature of the Greeks, of communica- S? (he sime teste to their own countrymen, and m this way adnmcing the glorious epoch of the reviva of letters. Ahout the same time, commerce and navigation were making conJderaUe progress. The cities of Italy, such as Venice, gSS! pSI End others, in assisting the Crusaden. in their ope- w^ which they furnished them, continued to secure for them- IStos Snportant privileges and establishments m the seaports S Ai Lev^t, Jd othir port, in the Greek emP««^^Jheir example excited the industry of several "»"'f"«« ^^^f.'" FranJe, and taught them the advantage of applying their gten- Uonto Eastern commerce. In the North, the cities of Ham- tah a^d Lubec. formed, about the year 1241. as is generally SSosed, their first commercial association, which afterwards SSme s^ formidable under the name o the. «"!«2l j^^" iS^taDle articles of these latter cities, consisted m manne ^..aJdot"er productions of the North, which they e«ha^^^ for"he spicerios if the East, and the manufactures of Itoly and Ihe Low Countries. , find chivaliy. with its all the principal states ly inspiring the minds many illustrious cha* rs of anarchy, to revive ionship among the na- tra-marine expeditions, hundred years, hasten- in Europe. The cru- better organized than ment in their laws and new ideas, and acquire ._ and politics. Some een preserved in Greece, where letters had been iphs. The city of Con- from the ravages of the luments of art. It pre- )eclac]e of grandeur and heir admiration, and call Ddels, the sight of which 'o the Italians especially, !. The continued inler- le East and the city ol ns of becoming familiar J Greeks, of communica- .rynien, and in this way ivival of letters, navigation were making f Italy, such as Venice, le Crusaders in their ope- risions, and warlike stores inued to secure for them- ishments in the seaports e Greek empire. Their reral maritime towns in [e of applying their atten- iforth, the cities of Ham- rear 1241, as is generally ciatioR, which afterwards of the HanseaticLtaguf.** ities, consisted in marine rth, which they exchanged manufacturas of Italy and PIRIOD lY. A. o. 1074—1900. The prognta of indiutry, the protection which ■overaigna extended to it, and the pains they took to check the disorders of feudalism, contributed to the prosperity of towns, b^ daily aag' menting their population and their wealth. This produced, about the times we ore speaking of, an advantageous change in the civil and social conaition of the people. Throughout the principal states of Europe, cities benn, after the twelfth centu* ry, to erect themselves mto political bodies, and to form, by de* ffrees, a third order, distinct from that of the clergy and nobilit]r. Before this period, the inhabitants of towns enjoyed neither civil nor political liberty. Their condition was very little better than that of the peasantry, who were all serfs, attached to the soil. The rights of citizenship, and the privileges derived from it, were reserved for the clergy and the noblesse. The Counts, or governors of cities, by rendering theur power hereditary, had appropriated to themselves the rights that were originally at- tached to their functions. They used them in the most arbi trary way, and loaded the inhabitants with every kind of oppres sion that avarice or caprice could su^^st. At length, the cities which were either the most oppressed, or the most powerftil, rose in rebellion against this intolerable yoke. The inhabitants formed themselves into confederations, to which they gave the name of Communes or Free Corpora- tions. Either of their own accord, or by charters, obtained very often on burdensome terms, they procured for themselves a free government, which, by relieving them from servitude, and all impositions and arbitrary exactions, secured them personal liberty and the possession of their effects, under the protection of their own magistrates, and the institution of a militia, or city guard. This revolution, one of the most important in Europe, first took place in Italy, where it was occasioned by the frequent inter- regnums that occurred in Germany, as well as by the distur- bances that rose between the Empire and the priesthood, in the eleventh century. The anathemas thundered against Henry IV., by absolving the subjects from the obedience they owed their sovereign, served as a pretext to the cities of Italy for shaking off the authority of the Imperial viceroys, or bailiffs, who had become t3rrants instead of rulers, and for establishing free and republican governments. In this, they were encoura^ ged and supported by the protection of the Roman pontiffi, whose sole aim and policy was the abasement of the imperial authority. ^ Before this period, several maritime cities of Italy, such M' Naples, Amalfi, Venice, Pisa, and Genoa, emboldened by the advantages of their situation, by the increase of their population MRMaMMMfmMMWlHMM m OBArn* V. Md Uieir commerce, had already emancipated t"*'"""*;;" ' '»" the ImMiial voke, and erected themselves mto repuWlcs. Their SLilffSi fXwed by the cities of Lombardy and the Vene- SrSJri^y especially Milan, Pavia, AsU, Cremona, Lodi. Sii^pS Placentia. Verona, Padua, fcc. All those cities, SitJd w"S rhJenthn'siaam of liberty, adopted ;bo«taieb.- Zianinff of the twelfth century, consuls and popular forms ot STeiment They formed a' kind of military force, or city K2d?wd vested in themselves the rights of royalty, and the Sower of making, in their own name and au hority, al lances, ™ a^dTrS of peace. From Italy, this revolution ex- S2d"o Fmnce and 6erm,ny, the Low Countries and Eng- Umd In aU these different states, the use of Communes, or bSiighs. was established, and protected by the 'overe.gns who 2pl?yed these new institutions as apowe'ftil check against the encroachments and tyranny of the feudal lords. In France, Louis the Fat, who began his re'gn,'" ""'=*'7" thifimkinii that granted rights, or constitutional charters, to SJtSn ciU?s within his domain, either from pol.t.cal moUves. SXal urement of money. The nobUity, after h.s example, •Lnrlvsold liberty to their subjects. The revolution became SSfthe cVy L liberty was raised every where, and .nle- Sited every mind. Throughout all the provinces, the iiihabi- SSTof cTtfes sScited charters, and sometimes without waUjng SrAem thev formed themselves voluntonly into communities, SLun^nu^^K^ of thrown choice, establishingcompan.es JfSufia aSd taking charge themselves of Oie Jj'^^^^^^^^^^^^ mvdenship of their cities. The magistrates of free cities in MT^ern /ranee, were usually called mayors, sheriffs, and hv- SJmen : w^le, n the south of France, they were called synd^s STcon ub It soon became an established pr nc.ple. tha kings lioac had the power to authorize the erection of corporate towns. Kis VIII declared that he regarded all cities in which these mrpomtions were established, as belonging to his domain. They 3 military service directly and personally to the ^ing ; whi e S cities as had not these'rights or charters, were obliged to iWlow their chiefs to the war. .u. .„„,» nnlirv In Germany, we find the emperors adopting the same pohcy «Ae kings o France. The resources which the frogressoi Smmerceand manufactures opened »<> '^e mdustry of the m- bdbitants of cities, and the important succours wh^ch>he empe mn Henrv IV. and V.. had received from them in their quar- S'wiS, tL Popeand'the princes of the E'npi'«.i«ractice, what had been oriL'inally e.ttiiljlished but for one pin and for purliculur cii.seH. lie published his collection (12!W) under the name of Decreinl!<, with nn injunction, that it .should be employed both in the iribiiiials and in (ho schoolx. If tins new system of juri.>*pru(lenie served to extend the juris- diction, and strengthen the tcniporal power nf tlie Popes, it did not fuil at the same time to miidiice h ilutary effects on the governments and manners of liiirope. T/ie peace, or truce of (rod, which some bishops of France, in the eiovonth century, had instituted us a check on the unbridled fury of private quar- !■►•!« and civil discord, wns estnbli.'ihed, by the Decretals, into n >,'enerul law of the church.'* T/ie jiirlirinvuls of God, till then u.>ed in the tribunals of justice, trial by siiiirje combat, by hot iron, hot ond cold water, the cross, &c. were gradually abolished. The restraints of the Canon law, added lo ilie new information which hail difTused its light over the limnun mind, were instru- mental in rooting out practices which served only to cherish .md protract the ancient ferocity of manners. The spirit of order ond method which prevailed in the new jurisprudence, soon communicated itself to every branch of legislatiiui among the nations of Europe. Tlie feudal law was reduced to syste- matic order; and the usages and cu-toms of the ja-ovinces, till then local and uncertain, were colhvied and organized into a regular form.*' Jurisprudence, having now b«!come a complicated science, demanded a long and laborious course of study, which could no longer be associated with the profession of arms. The sword was then obliged by degrees to abandon the courts of justice, and give place to the gown. A new class of men thus arose, that of the law, who contributed by their influence to repress the overjjrown power of the nobility. The rapid progress which the new jurisprudence made, must be ascribed to the recent foundation of universities, nnd the en* couragements which sovereigns granted these literary corpora- tions. Before their establishment, the principal public schools were those which were attached either to monasteries, or cathe- dral and collegiate churches. There were, however, only a few mmmmmm 139 CRArrSR V. Thi .£r, V ™ much coveted .nd e«eem.d «» «"«»"» Bologna to the different ncademies of Europe. ^J«°'"jy ."L, was foon admitted, as well as n.ed.c,ne ; «"* ^'^ese "tnptete^ tKe four faculties as th^y^ -" :;;;t; jtVw\^^^^^^^^^ century." cities, sach u Borne, ,. Tne sciences there liberal arte, viz. Gram- tietic, Geometry, Music, known by the name of ke part of mathematics, ogy and Jurisprudence, cademic sciences ; and ;o that of Salerno— the ered, towards the end of it, by any means, be put ; which differ from them ciences which are pro- leged bodies, enjoying a n peculiarly their own. uvaljwith the revival of ion of academic degrees, icknovvledged as the re- was also the first that certain solemnities, doc- diplomas to those who ^. Pope Eugenius III. of Graiian into the aca- confer the same degrees tomary in the Civil law. i esteemed on account of ives which the sovereign ever contributed more to e privileges and immuL'i- )arossa conferred on them called HeUfita.) The ex- )llowed by the other so- issed from the school of Europe. Theology also ne; and these completed lied, of which the univer- B was the first which com- pleted under the reign of tained its earliest charter, there- an only the univer- iouse, Sidamanca, Coirobra, sir origin in the thirteenth ntioB vr. A. D. 1074— ISOO. Tim downMl of the Imperial avthority, and of the house of Hohenstaafen, and the new power uaurp«d hj the princes and Sutes of the Bmpira, occasioned a long senes of troubles in Germany, and that frightful state of anarchy, known by the name of the Crrand Interregnum. Strength then triumphed over law and right; the government was altered from its basis; and no other means were found to remedy this want of public security, than by forming alliancies and confederations, such as that of the Rhine,** and the Hanseatic League, which began to appear about this time (12S3.) The election of the Empe- rors, in which all the princes and slates of the empire had for- merly concurred, became then the privilege solelv of the great officers of the crown, who, towards the middle or the thirteenth century, claimed for themselves exclusively the right of elect- ing, and the title of Electors.** The princes and states of the Empire, anxious to confirm their growing power, souffht to pro- mota only the feeblest emperors, who were incapable of sup- porting the riffhts and prerogatives of the crown. The electors, in particular, had no other object in view, than to derive a lucra- tive traffic from elections ; bargaining every time with the can- didates for large sums, and obtaining grants or nortgi^es of such portions of the Imperial demesnes as suited their con- venience. One only of these weak emperors, Rodolph, Count of Hapsburg in Switserland, (1273) disappointed the expecta- tions of his electors. He repressed by force of arms, the dis- orders of anarchy, restored the laws and tribunes to their pristine vigour, and reconquered several of the Imperial domain* from the usurpers who had seised them. In consequence of the revolutions which we have now detailed, we find very important and memoraUe changes accomplished in the different provinces of the Empire. The princes and States of the Germanic body, regarding as their own patrimony the provinces and fiefs with which they were invested, thought themselves further authoriaed to portion them out among their sons. The usage of these partiUons became general after the thirteenth century ; and this wrought the downfall of atfme of the most powerful fimulieri, and tended to multiply almost to infinity the dntdiies, principalities, and earldoms of theBmpiic. The Emperors, fiur from condemning this practice, whiidi by no means aceoided with the maxims of the fendal law, on the con- trary gave it their countenance, as appearing to utenf a proptt instrument for hnmUing the power of the graadeei, and acqi^ ring for theaMolves a preponderating acthority in the Empiitt. The ancient dotchies of Bavaria and Sazonr o^eneed a new fvvoltttion on the fall of the powerful hofiae of th9 VOL.!. 12 ;'».:■■■-■■« m CHArriB ▼ Guelph*. wWch was deprivwl of both Uiew datehiw by the Mn- 2lJ?ofiro»cription Xh the Emperor F^dfic I. P™nou«ced MHdnst iSenry the Lion (1180.) Duke of Barena end Saxony. lK first of these datchie8.whichhadformerlybeendi8mero^^^^^^ from the Margrarate of Austria by Fredenc I. d^SJ') ""f erected into a lutchy and fief holding immediately of the Em- 5iJJ, was exposed ti new partitions at the time of which tve Sow s^ak. The bishoprics of Bavaria. Sliria. Carinthia, Car- niola.rnd the Tyrol, broke their alliance with Bavarm; and the S of RatisbonJe, which had been the «!«de»",«>f «»>« »°"«" dukes, was declared immediate, or holding of the crown. It was when contracted within these new limits that Bavaria was TonfeT^" by Frederic I. (1 180.) on Otho, Count of W.ttelsbach, Sn of thLriginal ho,»eof Bavaria. This house aaerward acquired by marriage (1215) the Palatinate of the Rhine It wa« subsequently divided into various branches, of which the two principal were the PabUne and the Bavarian. As to the dutchy of Saxony, which embraced, under the Guelphs. the greater part of Lower Germany, it completely changed its circumstances on the decline of that house. Ber- nard of Asqjiersleben, younger son oi Albert named the Bear, first Margrave of Brandeoburff, a descendant of the Ascanian line. hadlJeen invested in the lutchy of Saxony bv Frederic I. (1190.) but wfs found much too feeble to support the high rank to which he had been elevated. In consequence, the title, or quSSion to the dutchy of Saxony and the Electorate was restricted, under the successors and descendants of that pnnce, to an inconsiderable district, situated on both sides of the Elbe , ciied since the Electoral Circle, of ^hich Wittenberg was the Mpitol. The princes of Pomerania and Mecklenbarg, tlie Counts 7ho stein and Westphalia, and the "ty of Lubeck. took advan- tttre of this circumstance to revoU from the authority of the Duke •TSaxony. and render themselves immediate. A P«t of West- vhalia was erected into a distinct dutchy. in favour of the Arch- Eshop of Cologne, who had seconded the Emperor m his schemes Svengeance^nst the Guelphic prmces TJt« »*tgr h»use, whose vast po^ssions had extended from the AdnaUc Sea to the Sdtic and (STNorthem Ocean, retained nothing more of Us •neient tplendoor than the free fauida which >tpo«»~!»* " ^T'l s£^y. W which the emperor Fredwie It (1836) converted fatoaiutchy, and immed&te fief of the empire, m fcvour of SSo £ Intot. grvidson of Henry the Lion, and the new fiMmdcr of dw Hooae of Branawick. , . . _ . The eitiaction of the House of Hohenetwdw having oeca- arMttey io the datchiea of Suahia and Franconia. the mm»m,iieaiiMmmw3smsas'.mi^ fmm t T ji m^ . dntchiet liy the aen* r Frederic I. pronounced of Baveria and Saxony. merly been dismembered Frederic I. (1156.) and immediately of the Em- the time of which we Stiria, Carinthia, Car- ;e with Bavarin ; and the residence of the ancient ding of the crown. It limits that Bavaria was 10, Count of Wittelsbach, This house afterwards itinate of the Rhine. It I branches, of which the kc Bavarian. ch embraced, under the Germany, it completely ine of that house. Ber- Albert named the Bear, cendant of the Ascanian of Saxony by Frederic I. e to support tne high rank :onsequence, the title, or and the Electorate, was escendants of that prince, on both sides of the Elbe ; vhich Wittenberg was the 1 Mecklenburg, the Counts ity of Lubeck, took advan- n the authority of the Duke nediate. A part of West- :hy, in favour of the Arch- he Emperor in his schemes rinees. This latter house, rom the Adriatic Sea to the kined nothing mors of its rhich itpoasessed in Lower lerie IT. (1836) converted ' the em^re, in fiivour of y the Lion, and the new [ohenatavliin having oeea- Sualm and Ftanconia, the naioD !▼> A. D. 1074 — 1300. 186 difieient statea of these provinces, both secular and eccleaiaatt* cal, found means to rentier themselves also immediate, (12681) A number of cities which had belonged to the domains of the ancient dukes, were raised to the rank of free and imperial cities; and the Houses of Baden, Wurteraberg, Hohen-2SoQem, and Furstenberg, date their celebrity firom this period. The death of the anti-emperor, Henry le Raspon (1247,) last land- grave of Thuringia, gave rise to a long war between the Mar- graves of Misnia and the Dukes of Brabant, who mutually contested that succession. The former advanced an Expecta- tive, or deed of Reversion of the Emperor Frederic II., as well as the claims of Jutta, sister of the last'landgrave ; and the others maintained these of Sophia, daughter of the langrave Loui^i elder brother and predecessor of Henry le Raspon. At length, by a partition which took place (1264,) Thuringia, properly so called, was made over to the house of Misnia ; ana Henry of Brabant, surnamed the In&nt, son of Henry II. Duke of Bra- bant, and Sophia of Thuringia, was aecured in the possession of Hesise, and became the founder of a new dynasty of landgraves — those of the House of Hesse. ' The ancient dukes of Austria, of the House of Bamberg, hav- ing become extinct with Frederic the Valiant (1346,) the suc- cession of that dutcby was keenly contested between the niece and the sisters of the last duke ; who, though females, could lay claim to it, in virtue of the privilege granted by the emperor Frederic Barbarossa. Ottocar II., son of Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia, took advantage of these trot;bles in Austria, to possess himself of that province (1251.) He obtained the investiture of it (1262) from Richard, son of John king of England, who had purchased the title of Emperor at a vast expense ; but Rodolph of Hapsbourg, treating him as a usurper, made war upon him, defeated and slew him in a battle which was fought (1278) at Marchfeld, in the neighbourhood of Vienna The dutchies of Austria, Stiria, Carinthia, and Carniola, being then detached from the kingdom . :' Bohemia, were declared vacant, and de- volved to the Empire. The investiture of these the Emperor conferred (1282) on Albert and Rodolph, his own sons. Al- bert, the eldest of these princes, who was afterwards Emperor, became the founder of the Hapsbourg dynasty of Austria. In Italy, a great number of republics arose about the end of the eleventh, or beginning of the twelfth century. These re- publics, though they Iiad cast off the Imperial authority, and claimed to themselves the rights of sovereignty, protested, never- theless, their fealty to the Emperor, whom they affieed to recog* niae as their supreme head. The Emperors, Henry V., Lo T— die Sum, ud Connd lU., mw ihenMlvw sompsUed to tslMSte aa nninNUioa which they were too feoble to reprau. Bat Frederic BeiterooM being detennined to reatote the royalty •ritdy to its eneient sj^endoor, led • powerfaj my into that Unodom (llfiB ;) end in a diet which be MaemMed on Uie plains of Roncafflia, in the territory of Placentia, he cauaed a strict in- Toatiffation to be made by the lawyers of Bolopia, into the rights on which he foanded his pretensions to the titla of King of Italy. The opposition which the execution of the decrees of that diet met with on the part of the Milanese, induced the Emperor to undertake the siege of theircity. He made himself master of it in lie2,ra»ed it to the foundation, and dispersed the inhabitants. This chastisement of the Milanese astonished the Italians, hot without abating their courage. They afterwards took ad- ▼antage of the reverses of the Emperor, and the schism which had arisen in the Romish Church, to forma league w.ih the eincipal cities of Lombardy (1167,) into which they drew the ing of the Two SiciUes, as well as Pope Alexander III., whom the Emperor treated as a schismatic. The city of Milan was rebuilt in consequence of this league ; as also that of Alexan- dria, called della Paglia. The war was long protracted ; but the Emperor being abandoned by Henry the Lion, Duke of Ba- Ttria and Saxony, the most powerful of his vassals, received a defeat at Lignano, which obliged him to make an accomrooda- Uen with Pope Alexander III., and to sign, at Venice, a treaty of six years with the confederate cities (1177.) This treaty was afterwards converted, at Constance, into a definitive peace (1183;) by virtue of which, the cities of Italy were guaranteed in the forms of government they had adopted, as well as in the exercise of the regalian rights which they had acquired, whether hv usage or prescription. The Emperor reserved for himself ?^e investiture of the consuls, the oath of allegiance, which was to be renewed every ten years, and all appeals, in civil cases, wfawe the sum exceeded the value of twenty-five imperial livres, (■bout IfiOO franca.) ,r. j • , au • The Emperor Frederic II., grandson of Frederic I., and heir, m right of hia mother, to the kingdoin of the Two Sicilies, made new efforts to restore the orerogatives of the Empire m Italy. But the cities of Lombardy renewed their league, into which Htn drew Pope Oregory IX. (1286.) whose dignity and power weald be endangered if the Emperor, being poeaessor of the Two Sicilies, should succeed in conquering the cities of Lorn- btodv. The war which enmied (1336,) was long and Woody. *nie Popea Oregory IX. and Innocent IV., went so far as to pmA up a enaaade against the Emperor, ai if he had been •■ -. — . ■..^.^.....^..^ -J.^.». t.^^*/Knf.iit^m^' leuMlvM eomp«ned to too feoUe to reproM. to mtoro the royalty iworfol amy into that asaembied on the plains ia, he cauaed a strict in- Bologna, into the rights ' e titio of Kine of Italy. the decrees of that diet nduced the Emperor to ade himself master of it ispersed the inhabitants. astonished the Italians, ley afterwards took ad- and the schism which form a league with the to which they drew the le Alexander III., whom The city of Milan was as also that of Alexan- as long protracted ; but y the Lion, Duke of Ba- i his vassals, received a to make an accommoda- rtign, at Venice, a treaty (1177.) This treaty was into a definitive peace of Ital V were guaranteed dopled, as well as in the ey had acquired, whether eror reserved for himself of allegiance, which was 11 appeals, in civil cases, irenty-five imperial livres, i of Frederic I., and heir, f the Two Sicilies, made I of the Empire in Italy, their league, into which whose dignity and power , being poMessor of the wring the cities of Lom> I,) was long and bloody. It IV., wont so far as to Tor, as if he had been m mwD vr. A. o. 1074 — 1900. Wf infidel ; i^ile that unfortonate prince, aAar the moat conrageow and indefatigaUa eflbrts, had the mortification to aee hia troopa once more mseomfited by the forces of the League. The cities of Italv were no sooner delivered from the tenor of the Emperors, tnan they let loose their fury against each other ; impelled by the rage of conquest, and torn by the inter- nal factions of the Guelphs and the Ohibellines, as well as by the contests which had arisea between the noblesse and the free cities. The partisans of the nobles in these cities, were strength- ened by the very measures which had been taken to humble them. The chartered towns by destroying that multitude of seignories, earldoms, and marquisates with which Lombardy swarmed before the twelfth century, and by incorporating them with their own territories, obliged the deserted nobles and gran* dees to seek au establishment within their walls. These latter* finding their partisans united and powerful, soon attempted to seize the government ; and hence arose an interminable sourcn of civil discord, which ended with the loss of liberty in the p< ater part of these communities. To arrest these evils, and put a check to the ambition of the powerful citizens, they adopted the plan of intrusting the gov- ernment to a single magistrate, to be called the Podeita, who should be chosen in the neighbouring cities. This scheme was but a palliative rather than a remedy ; and in order to guarantee themselves from the oppressioa of tbe nobles, the corporations of several cities graduuly adopted the plan of conferring a sort of dictatorship on one of the powerful citizens, or on some prince or nobleman, even though he were a stranger, under the title of Captain ; hoping, in this way, to succeed in re-establishing peace and order. These chiefs or captains contrived, in process of time, to render absolute and perpetual, an authority which at first was temporary, and only granted on certain conditions. Hence the origin of several new independent sovereignties which were formed in Italy during the course of the fourteenth century. Venice and Genoa at that time eclipsed all the republics of Italy, by the flourishing state of their navigation and commerce. The origin of the former of these cities is generally dated as far back as the invasion of the Huns under Attila (452.) The cru- elty of these barbarians having spread terror and flight over the whole country, many of the inhabitants of ancient Venetia, took refuge in the isles and lagoons on the borders of the Adriatic Gulf ; and there laid the foundation of the city of Venice, which, whether we regard the singularity of its construction, or the splendour to which it rose, deserves to be numbered among the wonders of the world. At first its government was popular, and 12* ■ill nil nUPTBB V. Mf. dtauoisteNd W « b«nch of tribane* whote poww wm arnintl. Thb iittaioM which mom among theie yowly •Apninwtwtow, oc^iooed Um .lecUon of a chief (697.) who took *• ud. of i^ko or Dogo. Thia dignity was for hfe, and depmided on the Mfirases of the community ; but he exercised noTerthelesa the riffhu of Borereignty, and it was not till aftwr a long course ot time that his authority was gradually abridged ; and the gorern- ment. which had been monarchical, became again democratical. Venice, which from its birth was a commercial cit^ enjoyed in the middle ages nearly the same renown which Tyre had among the trading cities of antiquity. The commencement of it! ffiandeur may be dated from the end of the tenth century, and uuder the magistracy of the Doge Peter Urseolo I ., whom the Venetians regard as the true founder of their state (»TO.) From the Greek emperors he obtained for them an entire liberty and immunity of commerce, in all the ports of that empire ; and he procured them at the same time several very important ad- vantaires, by the treaties which he concluded with the emperor Otho III. and with the Caliphs of Egypt. The vast increase of their commerce, inspired these republicans with a desire to ex- tend the contracted bounds of their territory. One of their first conquests was the maritime cities of Istna, as well as those of Dalmatla : both of which occurred under the magistracy of Peter Uweolo II., and in the year 997. They were obliged to make a surrender of the cities of Dalmatia, by the emperors of the East, who regarded these cities as dependencies of their empire ; whUe the kings of Croatia and Dalmatia also laid claim to ihem. Croatia having passed into the hands of the Kings of Hungary, about the end of the eleventh century, these same cities became a perpetual source of troubles and wars between the Kings ol Hunrary and the Republic of Venice ; and it was not till the fifteenth century that the Republic found means to confirm its authoritv in Dalmatia. . ■, r t The Venetians having become parties in the famous League of Lombardy, in the eleventh century, contributed by their ef- forts, to render abortive the vast projects of the Emperor t rede- ric I. Pope Alexander III., as a testimony «/ his gratitude, granted them the sovereignty of the Hadnatic (1177,)«and thw Srcumstance gave rise to the singular ceremony of annuaUy marryini; this sea to the Doge of Venice. The aggrandizement ol this republic was greatly accelerated by the crusades, espe- eially theWwA (1204,) which was followed by the dismem- berment of the Greek empire. The Venetians, who had joined diis crusade, obtained for their portion several cities and ports in DaUnatia* Albania, Greece and the Morea ; as also the Islands M poww wia annaal. yMurly adminutnitON. who took the title of , and depended on the deed nevertheleae the after a long course ot dged ; and the gorem- ne again demoeratical. mmernial city, enjoyed own which Tyre had he commencement of of the tenth century, eter Urseulo II., whom » of their state (992.) r them an entire liberty >rt8 of that empire ; and sral very important ad- uded with the emperor The vast increase of ins with a desire to ex- tory. One of their first tria, as well as those of the magistracy of Peter V were obliged to make by the emperors of the dencies of their empire ; 1 also laid claim to ihem. the Kings of Hungary, hese same cities became rs between the Kings of and it was nut till the nd means to confirm its 8 in the famous League contributed by their ef> B of the Emperor Frede- imony of his gratitude, idriatic (1177,)** and this ir ceremony of annually s. The aggrandizement d by the crusades, espe- tUowed by the dismem- sneticms, who had joined I several cities and ports [orea ; as also the Islands miOD IT. A. o. 1074—1300. df Corfu, Cephaloaia, and Candia or Crete. At length, towaida the end of t&e thirteenth rentuir, this republic aaainaed the pe< euUar form of govenunent which it retained till the day of ita deatrOction. In the earlier ams ita constitation was democratic, and the power of the Doge fimite^. by a jjfiand council, whkh was chosen annually from among the diiierent classes of the citiiens, by electora named by the people. As these forms gave occasion to troubles and intestine commotions, the Doge Pietro Qradenigo, to remove all cause of discontent in future, passed a law (129i9,) which abrogated the custom of annual elections, and fixed irrevocably in their office all those who then sat in the grand council, and this to descend to their posterity foi ever. The hereditary aristocracy thus introduced at Venice, did not fail to excite the diswontent of those whose families this new law had excluded from the government ; and it was this which afterwards occasioned various insunections, of which that of Tiepolo (1310) is the most remarkable. The partisans of the ancient government, and those of the new, attempted to decide the matter by a battle in the city of Venice. Tiepolo and his party were defeated, and Querini, one of the chiefs, was killed in the action. A commission of ten members was nominated to inform against the accomplices of this secret con- spiracy. This commission, which was meant to be but tem- porary, was afterwards declared perpetual; and, under the name of the Council of Ten, became one of the most formida- ble supports of the aristocracy. The city of (>enoa, like that of Venice, owed her prosperity to the progress of her commerce, which she extended to the Levant, Constantinople, Syria, and Egypt. Governed at first by Consuls, like the rest of the Italian states, she afterwards (1190) chose a foreign Podesta or governor, to repress the vio- lence of faction, and put a check on the ambition of the nobles. This governor was afterwards made subordinate to a Captain ox the people, whom the Genoese chose for the first time in 1267, without being able yet to fix their government, which ex- perienced frequent variations before assuming a settled and permanent form. These internal divisions of the Genoese did not impede the progress of their commerce and their marine. The crusades of the 12th and 13th centuries, the powerful suc- cours which these republicans gave to the crusaders, and to the Greeks, as well as the treaties which they concluded with the Moorish and African princes, procured them considerable esta- blishments in the Levant, and also in Asia and Africa. Cafla, a famous seaport on the Black Sea, and the port of Azoph, the ancient Tanais, at the mouth of the Don, belonged to them ; MM I HQ aurrtB v. ud •erred m entwpoU for their commerce with China end the SdiJ,rSmyma iTA-ia Minor. -..Iw the itttarb. of Pe~ and Geleu at Con.tantinople. and the lelet of Scio. Metelin Sd Tinedo^ in the ArclSpeWo, were »«»•*.? .^f^JSji^ Omk emperors. The kinge ofCypnu were Aeir mhutanee. The Greek end German emperors, the kings of SieUy, Ces- UUe ^rArragon. and the S«>n. of Egypt, mloudysooght Seir alliance7and the protection of their muine. Encouraged bl twTuwesses. they form«l a con.iderrf,le territory on Ae cJntiJent of Italy, after the 12th century, of which nothing but a fnurment now remains to them. • j.v-..-u««ii . oSoa h«l at that time, in it- immedmte "•^J»«A«^;^ danirerous rival of u power and greatness. Ihis rival was pSP a flourishinir repubUc on the coast of Tuscany, which Sr^ iu pr^^X eSfrely to the increase of iu commerce a..d mrini '^Thrproiimity o'f these two states-Ae ''""l^ »f SeS J^ew. anS their Interest—the desire of conquesl-and he command of the sea. which both «f ^J£m Sl^'aS id marked jealousy between them, and made them the n'tuf «^^ S«affenemies of each other. One of the pnnc'PJ »«ii ecS of dispute was the possession of Corsica and SardiniajJ' ffih the two rTublics contested at the point of the »word. dter having, by means of their combined force, expe led Ae Mows, towSd the middle of the e eventh centurv. Pisa, on- SnalW superior to Genoa in maritime •"•"K*' .fXwrtho L the empire of the Mediterranean. ^^\^;^^''^Xj^^^^ Genoese to appear within those seas with their ships of war. Thr, va Iry nourished the animosity o the two '«?««'"• •»J indered i/implacable. Hence a <=<>"^X" J AHnileTSo hnatiHties which were renewed incessantly for the space oi -wu irs. ^d onlTtermina^ in 1290 ; when, by the conqu^t of BbL and the destruction ef the ports of Pisa and Leghorn, Ae Genoese effected the ruin of the shipping and commerce of *'LolT£Co3-sedby the Norman p^^^^^^^ of Dutehv and Comt^,bec«me the seat of a new kingdom in the e eventh centurv-that of the two Sicilies. On the extinction of Ihe Dukes o^f Apulia and Calabria, descendants of Robert 1 s^rd. Roger son of Roger, Count of Sicily, and sovej.gn S-hSrd! united the dominions of the two branches of the ?Iormin d^nisT 1127 ;) and being desirous of procunng for himTeinhe rS d gnity he attached to his interest the W none Anaclelus II., who invested him with royalty by a bul fl^trwtch. however, he too^"- .^^rr'J^i^ir'?;;^ right and an annual tribute to the Church of Rome. Ihw I « with China and the > the sobarbe of Fere ilea of Scio, Metelin ceded to them by the were their tributaries, kings of Sicily. Cas- ypt, jealously sought marine. Encouraged erable territory on the , of which nothing but iate neighbourhood, a DOSS. This rival was ut of Tuscany, which se of its commerce and ates — Uie similarity of isire of conquest — and them desired, created a e them the natural and e of the principal sub- Corsica and Sardinia," be point of the sword, led force, expelled the ith century. Pisa, ori- Btrength, disputed with id haughtily forbade the ?ith their ships of war. r the two republics, and inual source of mutual iitly for the space of 200 rhen, by the conquest of of Pisa and Leghorn, lipping and commerce of in princes, under the title of a new kingdom in the ilies. On the extinction I, descendants of Robert of Sicily, and sovereign ■ the two branches of the lesirous of procuring for to his interest the Anti- i\ with royalty by a bull c to reserve the territorial Church of Rome. This mioo IV. A. n* 1074—1300. 141 ■rinee reeflived the crown of Pklenno from the hands of a car- dinal, whom the pope had deputed for the exprees purpoee. On the death of the Emperor Lothaire, he succeeded in dispoesess- ing the Prince of Capua, and subduing the dutchy of Naples (1139 ;) thus completihg the conquest of all that is now deno- minated the kingdom of Naples. William II., grandson of Roger, was the principal support of Pope Alexander III. ; and of the famous League of Lombardy formed against the Empe- ror Frederic Barborossa. The mole line of the Norman princes having become extinct in William II., the kingdom of the Two Sicilies passed (1180) to the House of Hohenstaufen, by the marriage which the Emperor Henry IV., son of irredenc Bor- barossa, contracted with the Princess Constance, aunt and here- trix of the lost king. Henry maintained the rights of his wife against the usurper Tancred, and transmitted this kinadom to his son Frederic II., who ocquired by his marriage with Jolande, daughther of John de Brienne, titular King of Jerusalem, the utles and arms of this latter kingdom. The efforts which Fre- deric mnde to annihilate the League of Lombardy, and confirm his own authority in luily, drew down upon him the persecution of the court of Rome, who taking advantage of the minority of the young Conradin, grandson of Frederic II., wrested the crown of the two Sicilies from this rival house, which alone was able to check its ambitious-projects. Malnfroi, natural son of Frederic II., disgusted with playing the part of tutor to the young Conradin, in which capacity he at first acted, caused him- self to be proclaimed and crowned, at Palermo, King of the Two Sicilies, (1258.) The Popes Urban IV., and Clement IV., dread- ing the genius and talents of this prince, made an offer of that kingdom to Charles of Anjou, Count of Provence, and brother of St. Louis. Clement IV. granted the investiture of it (1265) to him and his descendants, male and female, on condition of his doing fealty and homage to the Holy See, and presenting him annually with a white riding horse, and a tribute of eight million ounces of gold. Charles, after being crowned at Rome, marched Sninst Mninfroi, wi h an army chiefly composed of crusaders, e defeated that prince, who was slain at the battle of Bene- vento (1266,) which was soon after followed by the reduction of the two kingdoms. One rival to Charles still survived, the young Conradin, the lawful heir to the throne of his uceetors. Charfes vanquished him also, two years afterwards, m the plaina of Tagliacoxao ; and having made him prisoner, together with his Touna friend Frederic of Austria, he caused both of these nrii^ to be beheaded at Naples (20th October IMS.) Chariea did not long enjoy his new dignity. White be waa oumi r. wouriag to nndwtdc* « t nii^le agunst Michael Pfctaologo* KSSSllS princ who h»l expelW the UUn. from Cooeun rin^pSrhe h.^ the mortification to we b mwlf {JVO."-;^» Sicily, on the occasion of the famous Sici/wn l'«V«'» (™j Thii eront, which is generallv regaled as the w««l« of •con- spiracy, olinned with «eat aadres. by a JwUeinan of S«Jen.o, nWXhnde ProrlSa, appears to hare been but the sudden effect of an insurrection, occasioned by the arersion of the S ci- Hans to the French yolce. During the hour of Tespers, on the rond day of Easter (30th March.) when the inhabitants of pSmo were on their way to the Church of the Holy Ghost situated at some distance from the town, it h»PP«n««» that a Frenchman, named Drouette, had offered a P"'«^„"»f;° » Sicilian woman : hence a quorrei arose, which drew on a gene- «1 insunection at Palermo. All the French who were in he citv or the neighbourhood were massacred, with the exception ofUe gSntleman from Provence, called Will am Porcellet. who had conciliated all heorts by his virtues. This revol tgrodual V extended to the other Sicilian cities. Every where he French were put to death on the spot. Messina was the last tha cangh the infection; but there the revolution d.d "oMake plnceul thirty days after the same event o» Palermo, (29ih April l-to-«.) It is therefore not true, that this massacre of the F^nch hap- pened at the same hour, and at the sound of ihe 'e»pe' beUs, iver all parts of the island. Nor is it more jprobable, that the plot had been contrived by Peter III., King of Arra^on ; since the Palermitans displayed at first the bonner of the church, having resolved to surrender to the Pope ; but being driven from this resolution, and dreading the vwneeance of Charles, hey despatched deputies to the ICing of Arragon, who was then cruising with a fleet off the African coast, and made him an offer of theif crown. This prince yielded to the invitation of the Palermitans; he landed at Trapani. and thence passed to Pa- lermo, where he was crownecf King of Sicily. The who e island submitted to him; and Charles of Anjou was obliged to raise the siege of Messina, which he had undertaken. Peter . Stored and took possession of the p^ace. and from that time ; Sicily remained under the power of the Kings of Arn^n , it became the inheritance of a particular branch of the Arragonese princes ; and the House of Anjou were reduced to the single kingdom of Naples. . ... v .v r»i.-:- Spain. whieh was divided into several sovereigntoes, both Chris- tiatiand Mahometwi. presented a continual specUcle of commo- tion and carnage. The Christian States of Castdle "d Arragon, were gradually mcreased by the conquests made ofer the Malto- z Michael Pkltologaa, <«Una fVoin CoiwUin- na«lf diapouMwd of Utan Vapm (1980.) the mult of • con- rentlenon of Salerno, been but the sudden aversion of the Sici- ur of Tespers, on the I the inhabitants of of the Holy Ghost, n, it happened that a a private insult to a irhich drew on a gene- ench who were in the >d, with the exception Villiam Porcellet, who This revolt gradually ery where the French ras the last that caught lid not take ploce till no, (29ih April 1282.) ■6 of the French hop- id of the vesper bells, lore probable, that the ing of Arragon ; since Imnner of the church, ; but being driven from iance of Charles, they rragon, who was then , and made him an ofier Q the invitation of the 1 thence passed to Fa- f Sicily. The whole f Anjou was obliged to id undertaken. Peter :e, and from that liroe Kings of Arragon ; it inch of the Arragonese reduced to the single vertfignties, both Chris* lal spectacle of commo* if Caatilie and Arragon, ts made over the Suho- Hi niioi) IV. A. D. 1074—1900. matani ; whilt the kingdom of Navarre, less exposed to coo- quest bjr its local situation, remained nearly in its original slate of mediocrity. This latter kingdom passed in succession to female heirs of diflerent houses. Blanche of Navarre, daughter of Sancho VI., transferred it to the Counts of Champasne (lst34.) On the extinction of the male line of that house, in Henry I. of Navarre (1274,) Joan I., his daughter and heiress, conveyed that kingdom, together with the Coint^s of Champagne and Brie, to the crown of France. Philip the Fair, husband of that prin- cess, and his three sons, Louis le Hulin, Philip the Long, and Charles the Fair, were, at the same time, kings both of France and Navarre. Finally, it was Queen Joan II., daughter of Louis le Hutin, and heretrix of Navarre, who transferred that kingdom to the family of the Counts d'E vreux, and relinquished the Comt^s of Champagne and Brie to Philip of Valois, suc- cessor of Charles the Fair to the throne of France (1336.) The family of the Counts of Barcelona ascended the throne of Armffon (1137,) by the niarringe of Count Rnymorid-Bereii- f:uicrIV. with Donna Petronilln, daughter and heiress of Rainira I., King of Arragon. Don Pedro Tl., grandson of Raymond- Berenguier, happening to be at Rome (1204,) was there crowned king of Arragon by Pope Innocent III. On this occasion ho did homage tor his kingdom to that pontiflT, nnd engaged, for himself and successors, to pay an annual tribute to llie Holy See. Don James I., surnanied the Conqueror, son of Don Pedro )L, gained some important victories over the Mahometans, from whom he took the Balearic Isles (1230,) and the kinodom of Valenlia," (1238.) Don Pedro II., eldest son of Don James I., hud dispossessed Charles I. of AnJou and Sicily, which drew down upon him a violent pernecution on the part of Pojw Martin IV., who was on the eve of publiiihing a cru.tade against him, and assigning over his estates to Charles of Valoi.-<, a younger brother of Philip called the Hurdy, king of France. Don James II., younger son of Don Pedro III., succeeded in making his Biaco with the Court of Rome, and even obtained from Pone oniface VIU. (1297) the investiture of the Isknd of Sardinia, on condition of acknowledging himself the vassal and tributary of the Holy See for that kingdom, which he afterwards obtained by conquest from the republic of Pisa. The principal victories of the Christians over the Mahome- taas in Spain, were reserved for the kings of CaaUUe, whose history is axtremely fertile in great evenu. Alohonso VI., whom some call Alphonso I., alter having taken Mbdrid and Toledo (1065.) and subdued the whole kingdom of Toledo, wa« on the point of altogether expelling the Mahometans from Spain mf- 11^ '*^ eaAmi v. wktn • ltf»laUon which htM-nad |«^*}<* •a^^j'ji forcM Vy fcwh nnmbcn. md ihau arrMttd th« progrtM of Um Th« aJ!rid.i,'tn Awb dynMty, '•••^•"^•i'^.*S";„'2l' Mounad, wlgntd ih«n ow »h«t pwt of AS?** *'*"]' f?!?'^ hendt A Wc. pwwrly m called {rii. Tripoli, Tunta, wd Alrien.) •nd the MogibJcomprehending Fe« .nd Morocco,) whicR thoy hS conqumd Irom'th. Fatimile "»?»»• «f«Ei-.k.rS poncd ihit a new apottle and conaueror, ^*^*^.^^^p^,[^? of Omer. collected .ome iribe. of Arab. »n «^e vicmity j^Si^ meeta. ocity in the kingdom of Fea,and got himwlf proclaimed Smandefof thePalthful. Hi. -dher^.!. tc«k tfie name o Morabelkin, a term which .igniBe. xealfmdi, *«^«^ '« "j'f*?*' and whence the Spaniard, have formed |«e "•"••^'"f «!«*f, and ManOaHth. Having made hunwlf "r»*' "f, jj* Wj Sugulme.n, thia warlike Emir extended hi. conq««»t« '" Jj Mogreb, a. well a. in Afrirn Proper, whence h« «pen«d the ZeiHde.. Hi. .ucce..or, You.uff, or Jo.eph, the .on of Ta.- chefin. completed the conque.t of the.e countne. ; and built the city of Morocco (1069.) which he modo the capiul of the Mogreb. an J the .eat of his new empire. Thi. P'|n5rHff , ?• jj*! homeian. of Seville, to whose aid ^!>rr^»rchtd Tj,*^ .Ji- "gJJJJ' troops, defeated the king of Castille at the battle of Badajo. (1090.) and .ubdued the principal Mahometan .tate. of Spam. >uch a. Grenada and Seville, fcc. . ,„.iai. The empire of the Almoravide. was -ubverted in the twelfth century by another Mahometan sect, called the Mf-^*^*"*' »' AlmJadei a word signifying Unitarian.. An upstart fanaUc, nnmea Abduln^otimeu, wa. the founder of «.»»» "ct. He waa educated among the mountain, of Sou., in Mauritania, and assumed the q«litv of Emir (112^,) and the .un.«ne o Jfo- hadi, that i.. Ae ciuf-the ^ader •J'' ^irecto of the fcithfaL Hav ng .ubdued Morocco, Africa, and the *»?ol»»/,^Mogreb^ he annihiliate d the iy«'^X°{'^^ ^^'^'^':!^; ^^^J^^^'^^ul the nme Ume vanqui.hed the MahomeUn .ttje. m Spain. He took alM (lieO) froTm the Norman. T«mj. Mohadie, wd ^i»h. of which they had taken poawasion. One of hU auccewor., na^ed N.sef.Mohammed,7ormed the project of '•^,«|q'»ri»f the whoto continent of Spdn. '^Z:SSZWvS^o7c^- he made for this purpoae, alarmed AlffcoMO Viu., king oikj^m- SeTXimmedUfnirmed «> ^^j;^ ftjiSTm^ nson and Nawine, vaA evwi ensagwl Pope »»«*»*"»• »» S!Sim.cni..de'.g«nrt th. >S*««°«^^^ £££,?' Eurqw and Africa mrt on the conto of Ci^ (WW;) nad In the enTlnma of ike city Ubeda wm foagfat a J VltlOD IT. A. D. 107i<— 1300. \m rica tofmraiMl ikdr d the pffOfTM* of Um led flrom Seiri, ton of Africa whkh compre- i,Tunk,Md Alffien,) Morocco,) which they IS of Egypt. It hap- amed AmMibeker, son the viciaity of Sugul* ot himself proclaimed snts took the name of 1^ dtvotei to religion ; le names Almoravidei ' master of the city of I his conquests in the lence he expelled the seph, the son of Tas* ouniries ; and built the ! capiul of the Mogreb, >rince joined the Ma- hed with his victorious the battle of Badajos imetan states of Spain, ubverted in the twelfth lied the MoaAedint, or I. An upstart fanatic, of this sect. He was us, in Mauritania, and [id the surname of Mo- director of the faithful, le whole of the Mogreb, loravides (1146,^ and at sn states in Spam. He I, Mohadie, and Tripoli, One of his successors, iroject of ra-conquering Base preparations whicK OMoVlU..kiiigofCas> ce with die kiags of Ai^ . Pop* laaoeaiit m. to letans. Tha amiiea of >f Caatila and Andahwia ity Ubada was feo^t a bloody battle, whkh so crippled the power of thcr Almohadoe, aa to occasion in a short time the downfall and dismembermeat af their empire." About this period (1200,) the Mahometans of Spain rerolted afresh from Africa, and divided themselves into several petty states, of which the principal and the only one that existed for several centuries, was that of the descendants of Naser, Kings of Grenada. Ferdinand III., King of Gastille and Leon, took advantage of this event to renew his conquests over the Ma- hometans. He took from them the kinirdoms of Cordova, Mur- cia, and Seville (1236, et seq.,) and left them only the single kinffdom of Grenada. These wars against the Mahomets' j were the occasion of several religious and military orders beinff founded in Spain. Of these, the most ancient was that founded and fixed at Alcan- tara (1156,) whence it took its name; having for its badge or decoration a green cross, in form of the lily, ot Jkur-de'lis. The order of Calatrava was instituted in 1 168 ; it was confirmed br Pope Alexander III. (1164,) and assumed as its distinctive mart the red cross, also in form of the lily. The order of St. James of Campostella, founded in 1161, and confirmed by the same Pope (1176,) was distinffuished by a red cross, in form of a sword. Finally, the order of Montesa (1317,) supplanted that of the Templars in t\:» kingdom of Arragon. The Kings of Castillo and Arragon having conquered from the Artbs a part of what is properly called Portugal, formed it into a distinct government, under the name of Portocah, or Po^ tugal. Henry of Burgundy, a French prince, grandson of Ro- bert, called the Old, Duke of Bui^ndy, and great-grandson of Robert II., King of France, having distinguished himself by his bravery in the wars between the Castillians and the Mahome- tans, Alphonso VI., King of Castillo, wished to attach the young Erince to him by the ties of blood ; and, for this purpose, gave im in marriage his daughter the Infant Donna Theresa ; and created hiii^ Count of Portugal (1090.) This State, including at first merely the cities of Oporto, Draga, Miranda, Lameoo, Viseo, and Coimbra, began to assume its present form, in toe reign of Alphonso I., son of Count Henry. The Mahometans, alarmed at the warlike propensities of the young Alphonso, had marched with a si^arier foice to attack him by surprise Par from being intimidated by tha danger, this prince, to animate the eoaraga of his troops, pretended that an apparition from hatp ven had anthoriaed him to procbdm himself King in tha fcce of the anav, in Tirtae of an express order which he said ha hai lecaiTea flrom Ohritt * He then aaarehad against the anamv VOL. I. 19 IM eSAFRB V. and totally routed them in the pWns of P""*" ("^'i JJ," !^^ry, famous in the annal./PoTtug.^,.I«ved Ae way fw Ae conqSt of the cities Leiria, Santarem, Lubon, Cmt«, ^c^r do ial, Evora, and Elvas, situated on *« ^» "^ ^^'^ ^!. Moreover, to secure the protection of the Court of Rome against KS of Leon, who disputed with him the mdependence of hS nXl, Alpbonso to& the ^g^'^S^V^f ^^^^^^Jfte htaiself vassal and tributary to the Holy See (1142.) He after- wSS convoked the estates of his Vingdom at Lamego, and Ae^ decked his independence by a fundamental ^^^^^f SMreffulated the order of succession to the throne. Sancho I., Sn aXuccessor of Alphonso, took from the Mahome^ns Ae town of Silves in Algarve; and Alphonso III., soon after, ri249 ) comnleted the conquest of that provmce. ^ m firsTCgs of Portugal, in order to gain the protection of the Court of Rome, were obliged to grant extensive Vjenefices to Ihe erclesiastics. with regalian rights, and the exemption of the ctrS frorthe I^culiar>ri8diction. Their successors, how- ever findSg themselves firmly established on the throne, soon c Wd S policy, and manifested as much «f indifference for tHergf ^ Tphonso I. had testified of ^^ ^'^'^ ^^^^^1 ment to them. Wee originated » 1°"« «^^/,^'t J^J nuarrpls with the Court of Rome. Pope Innocent IV. deposea Jancho ir{1246,) and Appointed Alphonso IH. m his place. ri„ys!sonLd successorTthis »»»»«' f™*?' '^^Swi^*; cTtel for the same reason, and compelled to sign a feajy (1^0 bvwhich the clergy were re-estabUsW m all their former rights. ^rFmn^the^holepoUcyof the Kings was directed ag^tnM theS Dowerfal vas«ib, who shared among them the finest pro- ^nis'^TSS kingdom. Th. Duke* of Burgundy^ Norm^dy. and Aauitaine ; the Counts of Flanders, Champame, and Tou- Sfse • ArDuke. of Bretagne, Ae Counts ofToitiers. ^, BhS An?ou and Maine, Al^n^on, Auvergne, Angoulfime, Pe- ri^^d.S^onne,» tec. foLed so many petty sovere^ps, equal in some respects to Ae elector? and pnnces of Ae Oer- Xic empire, ^eral ciicumstance.. however, contnbuted to mS^nSThalance in fiiTOur of royalty. The crown was he- SS!ind Ae demesne lM»d.bek»ging to Ae king, whjch. bSagV;^ exton«ve. gave him a power which fiur outwe^ Att of any individual vaswl. Besides, Aese same dmeanes Mnff situate in th« centre of Ae kingdom, enaWed Ae sovereign to SSSve Ae conduct of hi. va-d^ to ditide Aejr fon«j wd SS A^elSloJerTEr dependwit^ «id Ae enhghlen. iqae(1139.) This paved die way for the liabon, Cintra, Alcazar banks of the Tagus, ourt of Rome against the independence of ion of acknowledging ~ (1142.) HeaAer- iom at Lamego, and iidamental law, which he throne. Sancho I., the Mahometans the konso III., soon after, irovince. o gain the protection of it extensive benefices to id the exemption of the Their successors, how- led on the throne, soon much nf indifference for sf kiiii'e Innocent IV. deposed konso III. in his place, prince, was excommuni- 3 to siffn a treaty (1289,) In all meir former rights. Dgs was directed against long them the finest pn>> f Burgundy, Normandy, s, Chfunpagne, and Tou- 3ounts of Poitiers, Bar, ergne, Angouldme, Pe* many petty sovereigns, ind princes of the uer- however, contributed to ty. The crovm vras be- ing to the king, which, sr which fiur outweig^ied 8, thfiM same demesnes m, enabled the sovereign » diTide their forces, and rer another. The per- sach other, the tyranny ants, and the enbghten- "n mioD nr. a. d. 1074—1900. W cd policy of several of the French kings, by degrees re-estab> lished the royal authority, which had Men aknost annihilated under the last princes of the Carlovingian dynasty. It was at this period that the rivalry between France and En^f- land had its ongin. The fauh that Philip I. committed, u making no opposition to the conquest of England, by William Duke of Normandy, his vassal, served to kindle the flame of war between ihese princes. The war which took place in 1087, was the first that happened between the two nations ; it was renewed under the subsequent reigns, and this rivalry was still more in- creased, on occasion of the unfortunate divorce between Louis VII. and Eleanor of Poitou, heiress of Guienne, Poitou, and Gascogne. This divorced Princess married (lldS) Henry, sur- named Plantagenet, Duke of Normandy, Count of Anjou and Maine, and aflerwards King of England ; and brought him, in dowry, the wh'^le of her vast possessions. But it was reserved for Fhilip Augustus to repair the faults of his predecessors. This great monarch, whose courage was equal to his prudence and his policy, recovered his superiority over England ; he strengthened his power and authority by the numerous acces- sions which he made to the crown-Iands, ^' (1180-1220.) Be- sides Artois, Verniandois, the earidoms of Evreux, Auvergne, and Alenfon, which he annexed under diflferent titles, he took advantage of the civil commotions which had arisen in England against King John, to dispossess the English of Normandy, An- jou, Maine, Lorraine, and Poitou (12Q0;) and he maintained these conquests by the brilliant victory which he gained at Bou- vines (1214,) over the combined forces of England, the Empe- ror Otho, and the Count of Flanders. ^ Several of the French kings were exclusively occupied witl^ the crusades in the East. Louis VII., Philip Augustus, and Louis IX. took the cross, and marched in person to the Holy Land. These ultra-marine expeditions (1147, 1248,) which re- quired great and powerful resources, could not hut exhaust France ; while, on the contrary, the crusades which Louis VIII. undertook against the Albigenses and their protectors, the Counts of Toulouse and Carcassonne, considerably augmented the royal power. Pope Innocent III., by prochiiming this crusade (1208,) raised a tedious and bloody war, which desolated Languedoc ; and during which, Ainaticismperpetrated atrocities which make humanity shudder. Simon, Count Monfort, the chief or general of these crusaders, had the whole estates of the counts of Tou- louse adjudged him by the Pope. Amauri, the son and heir of Simon, surrendered his claims over these forfeitures to Loait VIIL King of France (1S86 ;) and it was this ciicuoMtanee that Bu-^ jodaccd Lotti* to much in penon at the bMd of the enuaden, agdnst the Coaot of Toulouse, hk Tassel and couaia. He died at the close of this expedition, leaving to his son and successor, Loois IX., the task of finishing this disastrous w»t. By the peace which was concluded at Paris (1229,) between the King and the Count, the greater jpait of Laaguedoc was allowed to r«< r m[tt in the possession of Louis. One arrangement of this treaty was the marriage of the Count's daughter with AI- phonso, brother to the King; with this express clause, that adling heirs of this maniage, the whole territory of Toulouse ahould revert to Uie crown. The same treaty adjudged to the Pope the county of Venaissin, as an escheat of tne Counts of Toulouse ; and the Count of Carcassonne, implicated also in the cause of the Albigenses, was compelled to cede to the King all right over the viscounties of Beziers, Carcassonne, Agde, Sodes, Albi, and Nismes. One consequence of this bloody war was the establishment of the terrible tribunal of the In- quisition,^ and the foundinff of the order of Dominicans.^ Henry II., a descendant of the house of Plantagenet, having mounted. the throne of England, in right of his mother Ma- tilda, annexed to that crown the dutchy of Normandy, the coun- tries of Anjou, Touraine, and Maine, together with Guienne, Oascogne and Poitou. He afterwards added Ireland, which he subdued in 1172. This island, which had never been con- quered, ei^er by the Romans, or the barbarians who had deso- M^d Europe, was, at that time, divided into five principal sovereignties, viz. Monster, Ulster, Connaught, Leinster, and Heath, whose several chiefs all assumed the title of Kings. One of these princes enjoyed the digniu of monarch of the island ; but he had neither authority sufficient to secure inter- lud tranquillity, nor power enough to repel with success the attacks of enemies from without. It was Uiis state of weakness that induced Fionry to attempt the conquest of the island. He obtained die sanction of Pope Adrian IV., by a bull in 1155, and nndertook, in a formal engagement, to subject the Irish to the iwisdiction of the Holy See, and the [wyment of Peter't pence.^ ithe enulaion of Dermot, king of Leinster, who had rendered himself odious by his pride and his tyrannjr, furnished Henry with a pretext for sending troops into that island, to assist the dethroned prince in recovering his dominions. The success of die Englisn, and the victories which they gained over Roderic, King of Connaught, who at that time was cbjief monarch of the Mbnd, determined Henry to undertake, in person, an expedition jMo Ireland (in October 117S.) He soon radueed the provinces tl hmmm and Mnniiitr to mkmiasiMi ; and cAer having cm- tttaK.: ntioo IT. A. 9. 1074—1300. 140 tMMl of Um cruMden, and cowio. He died hi* eon end auceessor, utrou* WM. By the 129,) between the King DC wes allowed to re- anraoffement of this B daughter with AN expreu clause, that territory of Toulouse treaty adiudged to the leat of the Counts of ne, implicated also in ed to cede to the King , Carcassonne, Agde, Buence of this bloody e tribunal of thf In- r of Dominicans.^ >f Plantagenet, having bt of his mother Ma- f Normandy, the coun- Deelher with Guienne, Ided Ireland, which he had never been con- barians who had deso- ed into five principal naught, Leinster, and ed the title of Kings, ily of monarch of the fficient to secure inter- repel with success the i this state of weakness est of the isUtnd. He ,hy a bull in 1155, and ubject the Irish to the nent of Peter's perux.^ ler, who had rendered lony, furnished Henry Bt island, to assist the dons. The success of y gained over Roderic, B chief monarch of the 1 penon, an ai^edition I ledncad the provinces and aftar haring coa* stnieted several forts, and nominated a viceroy and othar crawa officers, he took his departaie without completing the conanett of the island. Soderie, King of Co. * lught, aubimtted in 1175 ; but it was not till the reign of Quee.i Elizabeth that the entire reduction of Ireland was accomplished. In England, the rashness and rapacity of John, aon of Henry II. occasioned a mighty revolution in the government. The discontented noUes, with the Archbishop of Canterbury at their head, joined in a league against the King. Pope Innocent III. formally deposed him, made over his kii^om to the -Crown of France, and proclaimed a crusade against him in every coon> try of Europe. John obtained an accommodati«[>d. his bro- ther and successor, met with a fate still more melancholy. Hav- ing been taken prisoner by Edward, he was condemned to death, •1^ executed like a traitor (1283.) The territory of Wales was annexed to the crown; the king created his eldest son fcdward, Prince of Wales ; a tiUe which has since been borne by the eldest sons of the kings of England. At this period, the kingdoms of the North presented, in gen- end, little else than a spectacle of horror and carnage. Ihe warlike and ferocious temper of the Northern nations, the want •f fiaed and specific laws in the succession of their lung"' ?»^*» MM to innumerable factions, encouraged insolence, and foment- •d troubles and intestine wars. An extravagant and supersU- tioas devotion, by loading the church with wealth, aggravated ■dll more the evils with which these kingdoms were distracted. The bishops and the new metropolitans," enriched at the ex- pense of the crown-lands, and rendered bold by their power, •nd the strength of their castles, domineered in the senate and tlM assemblies of the states, and neglected no opportunity of •ncroaching on the sovereign's authority. They obtained, by compulsion, the introductif>n of tithes, and the immunity of the ecclesiastics ; and thus more and more increased and cemented the sacerdotal power.* This state of trouble and internal com- motion tended to abate that ardour for maritime incursions which had so long agitated the Scandinavian nations. It did not. however, prevent the kings of Denmaric and Sweden from andertaking, from time to time, eiqieditions by sea, under tne name of Crusades, for the conversion of the Pagan nations of Ae North, whose territories they were ambitious to conquer. The Slavians, who inhabited the coasts of the Baltic, were *Mi constantly committing piracies, in imitaUon of the ancient ■•rofIlaMryni.,M btd bMD waalt aad dt tlhd made his oame of the prineqwlity of ntiquity, wm raleil by ancient Brituh kings, iitaries of the kings of rights of sovereignty of Wales, having ee- e reign of Henry III., >m the Tassalage of the r against him (1282;) Lewellyn was defested iwers. Darid, his hro- lore melancholy. Hav- es condemned to death, ) territory of Wales was his eldest son Edward, nee been borne by the lorth presented, in gen- tor and carnage. The rthern nations, the want on of their kinss,* gave I insolence, and foment- Ktravagant and supersti- ivith wealth, aggravated ngdoms were distracted. IS,'' enriched at the ex- ed bold by their power, lecred in the senate and ected no opportunity of ity. They obtained, by ind the immunity of the increased and cemented rouble and internal com- rol- maritime incursions lioavian nations. It did imark and Sweden from itions by sea, under the o{ the Pagan nations of ambitious to conquer. ists of the Baltic, were imitation of die ancient li&%r, naioo IT. A. ». 1074—1900. 4M1 Notiiuuw, nlandaring and i&Yagiog the jprovineM ud islanda •f Dwunaw. Valdamar I., wisoiiw to put an ead to these de- vaadations, and thiiating moreover wt the glory of converting to Chriatianity those nations against whom all the eflTorts of the Oermans had failed, attacked them at different times with his numeroos flotillas. He took and pillaged several of their towns, such as Arcona and Carentx or Gartz, in the isle of Rugen (1168,) Julin, now called Wollin, and Stettin, two seaports in Pomerania (1176-6.) He made the princes of Rugen his vas- sals and tributaries, and is generally regarded as the founder of Dantsie (1165,) which originally was merely a fort constructed by the Dunes. Canute Vl., son and successor of Vddemar I., followed the example of his father ; he reduced the winces of Pomerania (1183) and Mecklenburg (1186,) and the Counts of Schwerin (1201,) to a state of dependence ; he made himself master of Hambure and Lubec, and subdued the whole of Hoi- stein. Valdemar II. assumed the title of King of the Slavians, and Lord of Nordaibingia. He added Lauenburg, a part of Prussia, Esthonia, and the Isle of Oesel, to the conquests of his predecessors, and became the founder of the cities of Stralsund and Revel (1300 and 1222.) This prince, master of nearly the whole southern coast of the Baltic, and raised to the summit of prosperity by the superiority of his commercial and marit;n;e power, commanded for a time the attention of all Europe ; but an unforeseen event eclipsed his glory, and deprived him of all the advantages of his victories and his conquests. Henry, Count of Schwerin, one of the vas- sals of Valdemar, wishing to avenge an outrage which he pre- tended to have received from him, seized that prince by surprise (1223,) and detained him for three years prisoner in the castle of Schwerin. This circumstance aroused the courage of the other vanquished nations, who instantly took to arms. Adol- phus, Count of Schauenburg, penetrated into Holstein, and subdued the princes of Mecklenburg and Pomerania, with the cities of Hamburg and Lubec. Valdemar, restored to liberty, made several eSbrts to reconquer his revolted provinces ; but a powerful confederacy being formed against him, be was defeat- ed in a battle fought (1227,) at Bornhoevet, near Segeberg, in Holstein. Of all his conquests, he retained only the Isle of Rugen, Esthonia, and the town of Revel, which, in course of time, were lost or abandoned by his successors. Sweden, which had been governed in successiun by the dy- nasties of Stenkil, Swerkar, and St. Eric, was lung a prey to internal dissensions, which arose principally from the two dif- ferent forms of worship professed and authorized by the state. m^^' m OaATTIB T. The whole B»Uon, diyided in their religioot sentinieiite, tbemMlvet anviged into two Actions, wid under two reigung fiuniUes, mutually htting end ezasperktMl eguntt each other, for noMly half a century. Two, and someUmea more, pnnces were aera reigning at once from 1080 liU 1138, when the throne becan to be occumed ultimately by the deacendanU of Sweyn and St Eric. During all this time, tiohoce usurped the place of ri^t, and the crown of Sweden was more than once the prin of assassination and treason. « j a. q«4.. In the midst of these intestme duorders, we find the Swedes even attempting foreign conquests. To these they were msti- irated both by the genius of the age, which encouraged crusades ind military missions, as weU a^ by the de^ of atengma the piracies wUcl* the Finlanders, and other Pagan tnbes of the North, committed from Ume to time on the coasts of Sweden. St. Eric became at once the apostle and the conqueror of tin- land (1167 ;) he established also a Swedish colony in Ny and, and subdued the provinces of Hel""?!"^ and J^W^f • Charles I., son of Swerkar, united the kmadom of Gothland to Sweden, and was the first that took the Utle of theae two kmg- doms. Eric, surnamed Laspe, or the Lisper, resumed the cru- sadinir system of warfare ; and, in the character of a missionary, conquered Tavastland and the eastern part of 'oUinia- Birger, a prince of the Folkungian dynasty, who ascended the throne of Sweden in 1260, conquered, under the same pretext, Carelia and Savolax, and fortified Viburg. «« «?"P«"«t *^« T±*: .ants of these countries to embrace the Christian religion (12IW,) and annexed them to Finland. We find, idso, several of the Swedish kings undertaking missionary expeditions against their Pamin neighbours the Esthonians, who, from time to time.com- miUbd dreadful ravages on the coasts of Sweden. Ihese ex- peditions, which were always esteemed sacred, served as an ^use for the sovereigns of the North m avoiding the crusades to the Holy Land, in which they took no part.* Prussia and the Prussians are totally unknown in history be- fore the end of the tenth century .« The author of the Life ot St. Adelbert of Prague, who suflered martyrdom in P'"/"'* >«» the reign of Otho III., is the first that mentions them under this new name (997.) Two hundred years after, the Abb< of Oliva, J^Lmed the Christian, became the apostle of ^^e P""««». and was appointed by Pope Innocent III. the first bishop of Prussia (1216.) This idolatrous nation, haughty and indepen- dent, and attached to the reigning superstition, having repulsed all the efibrts that were repeatedly made to convert them to Christianity, Pope Honorius III., in the true spint of his age, mioDiv. A. D. 1074— 1300. 18S iotts Mndmeiiit, mw d under two reigning ■gainit each other, Mtimea more, princes 138, when the throne Mcendanta of Swejm ice asurped the place more than once the we find the Swedes ihese they were insti- - encouraged crusades lesire of aVenginv the r Pagan tribes of the he coasts of Sweden, he conqueror of Fin- ish colony in Nyland, land and Jamptland. Qffdom of Gothland to itle of these two king* iper, resumed the cru- iracter of a missionary, rt of ^olhnia. Birger, ascended the throne 3 same pretext, Carelia compelled the inhabit- iristian religion (1293,) d, also, several of the xpeditions against their from time to time, com- f Sweden. These ex- 1 sacred, served as an [) avoiding the crusades > part.* unknown in history be- le author of ihe Life of lartyrdom in Prussia in entiODS them under this ifter, the Abb< of Oliva, lostle of the Prussians, III. the first bishop of , haughty and indepen- stition, having repulsed ide to convert them to 3 true spirit of his age, toUished a CraiMle against them (1218,) to proselytlie them y force. Annies of crusaders were poured into Prussia, and overran the whole country with fire and sword. The Prusaians took cruel vengeance on the Polonese of Masovia, who had made commda cause against them vith the crusaders of the East. At length, Conrad, duke of Mauovia, finding himself too weak to withstand the fury of the Prussians, called in the Teu- tonic knights to his aid ; and, anxious to secure for ever the a.t- sistance and protection of that order, he made them a grant of the territory of Culm ; and moreover, promised them whatever lands he might conquer from the common enemy (1226.) This contract having beep sanctioned by the Emperor Frederic II., {he knights speedily came into possession of their new domin- ions (1^.) They extended themselves by degrees over all Prussia, ofter a long and murderous war, which they had car- ried on against the idolatrous natives. That country, which had been peopled by numerous German colonies in succession, did not submit to the yoke of tli^ Teutonic order, until the greater part of its ancient inhabitants had been destroyed. The Knights took care to confirm their authority and their religion in Prussia, by constructing citios and forts, and founding bishoprics and oonvents. The city of Koninsberg " on the Pregel, was built in 1255; and that of Marienburg on the No- gat, which became the capital of. the Order, is supposed to have been founded in 1280. The Teutonic knights completed the conquest of that coun- try (1283,) by the reduction of Sudavia, the last of the eleven provinces which composed ancient Prussia. We can scarcely conceive how a handful of these knights should have been able, in so short a time, to vanquish a warlike and powerful nation, inspired with the love of liberty, and emboldened by fanaticism to make the most intrepid and obstinate defence. But we ought to take into consideration, that the indulgences of the court of Rome allured continually into Prussia a multitude of crusaders from all the provinces of the Empire ; and that the knights gained these over to their ranks, by distributing among them the lands which they had won by conquest. In this way, their numbers were incessantly recruited by new colonies of cruse- ders, and die nobles flocked in crowds to their standard, to seek territorial acquisitions in Prussia. The increase of commerce on the Baltic, in the twelfth cen- tury, led the Germans to discover the coasts of Livonia. Some merdttnts from Bremen, on their way to Wisby, in the island of ^thland, a seaport on the Baltic very much frequented at that time, wnre thrown by a tempest on the coast near the mouth MM mum IH •V OHAFTSR V> -r Ik. n»{M ailB.^ The dwiiie of gwn induMd them to •ntor ?nt^a^«ond?nce ^U the netKi of the ceantry ; jnd Km a^TS'e .tebility to • brwch of commerce which oTristian relirion Into Li»onm. A monfc of Se«berg m Ho ■tein. named Mtinard, undertook this mission. He was the hrst rhopTuvoni.(1192.).nd fixed his^««^^^^^ well as to avoid the dangers to wnicn nw m»»iuu «i~--- • Tnied the Pope to publish a crusade against the Livonians. TrzeSju^TeC Wished sword - hand JglU^g ^^Jt the people whom he intended to convert. The ?"««»»•■«" this were either massacred or expelled from Livonia; but, in a l';Time. a nVwTmv of crusa^rs "-^^d ijto ^--n r^^^ under the banner of Albert, the third bishop, who *>?'"»»«!?"/ of Riga. (1200) which became the sealof his bishopric, and after- wa^ihe inelropolitan see of «" ?'«»?'• ;"J£T'!;J^;, same prelate founded the military order of the f ««^A » £^3 or StLd^arers, to whom he ceded the third of all the coun- Uies he had conquered. This order, ^^fi'^^^^J, ^^slthe cent III. (1204,) finding themselves too '«*« Jo oppose the Pwms of Srinia, agr^ to unite with the Teutonic prde al?^ who, at that" t^e. nominated the f-"^ ^'^Srand masters in Livonia, known by the names of Heermeuter and 'iZZaUr. Vo^ Gregory'lX.,in ^fi^-^^-X;/ these two orders, exacted the surrender of the d«t^^^^^^^^ Wesemberg, Weisenstein, and HapsiU, to Valdemar 11., wh'ch 'he kniirhts, w?h consent of the Bishop of Dorpat, had taken from him dS hrcaptivity. This retrocession was made by an act pass- ediJItrensby, (1238.) Several documents which still exist in the private archives of the Teutonic order at Kon.ng^berg. and esLSy two, dated 1249 and 1264, prove that, at this period, tKshoS Riga still exercised superiority, lK.th temporal and spiruSover these Knights Sword-bearers, although tW were unUed M the Teutonic order, which ««« independent of these bishops. The combination of these two orders rendered Uiem so powefful, that they gradually extended their conquests over all KussJft, Livonia. Courlandf and Semigallia; but they could ne^er sicciedfaAher thanto subject these nation, to a rigorous servitude, under pretence of conversion. . • <• Core we speilk of Russia and the other Eastern counmes of Europe, it wilfbe necessary to turn <»«' /^nuon for aht le to the lloiul.. whose conque/te and depjedauon. e^d^m Ae thirteenth century, from the extremity of northern Am, oret raiioo nr. a. o. 1074—1300. IM n indncfld Umu Io mt«r of the country ; and, h of commerce which ipted to introduce the mic of SMeberg in Hol- ission. He was the first isidence at the castle of ications. Berthold, his «s of Christianity, as Is mission exposed him, against the Livonians. hand, fighting against 'ert. The priests, after from Livonia ; but, in a arched into the country, shop, who built the city f his bishopric, and after- issia and Livonia. The of the Knights of Chritt he third of all the coun- onfirmed by Pope Inno- too itHkk to oppose the nrith the Teutonic order lie generals or provincial imes of Heermeuter and confirming the union of r of the districts of Revel, to Valdemar II., which the lorpat, had taken from him was made by an act pass- ments which still exist in rder at Koningsberg, and prove that, at this period, riority, both temporal and irers, although they were was independent of these orders rendered them so 1 their conquests over all nigallia; but they could lese nations to a rigorous n. >ther Eastern countries of ar attention for a little to redations extended, in the y of northern Asia, orer Russia and the greater part of Europe. The native country of this paople u found to m those same regions which they still inhabit in our day, and which are situated to the north of the neat wall of China, between Eastern Tartary and modern Buk* nana. They are generallv confounded with the Tartars, from whom they diflTer essentially, both in their appearance and man- ners, as well wi in their religion and political institutions. This nation is divided into two principal branches, the Eluths or (Mots, better known by the name of Calmucs, and the Moguls, properly so called. These latter, separated from the Calmucs ov the mountains of Altai, are now subject to the dominion of Uhina. The Moffuls, scarcely known at present in the history of Eu« rope, owe their greatness to the genius of one man — the famous Zinghis Khan. This extraordinary person, whose real name was Temudgin, or, according to Pallas, Damutschin, was born in the year 1163, and originally nothing more than the chief of a particular horde of Moguls, who had settled on the banks of the rivers Onon and Kerlon, and were tributary to the empire of Kin. His first exploits were against the other hordes of Mo- guls, whom he compelled to acknowledge his authority. Em- boldened by sucoMs, he conceived the romantic idea of aspiring to be the conqueror of the world. For thin purpose, he assem- bled near the source of the river. Onon, in 1206, all the chiefs of the Mogul hordes, and the generals of his armies. A certain pretender to inspiration, whom the people regarded as a holy man, appeared in the assembly, and deciared that it was the will of Ood that Temudgin should rule over the whole earth, — that all nations should submit to him, — nnd tiiiit \ (..iceforih he should bear the title of Tschinghis-Khan, or Mont [treat Emperor.*^ In a short time, this new^onqueror subi! ued the two great empires of the Tartars ; one of which, called aUo the empire of Kin, embraced the whole of Eastern Tartary, i^nd the northern part of China ; the other, that of Kara-Kitai. t>r the Khitans, ex- tended over Western Tartary, and had its capital at Kaschgar in Bukharia.^ He afterwards attacked the Carismian Sultans who ruled over Turkestan, Transoxiana, Charasm, Chora- san, and all Persia, firom Derbent to Irak-Arabia and the Indies. This powerful monarchy was overturned by Zinghis-Khan, in the course of six campai^s ; and it was during this war that the Moguls, while marching under the conduct of Toushi, the eldest son of Zing^is-Khan, vainst the Kipiaes or Capchacs, to the north of tM Caspian »ea, made their first inroad into the Russian empire. Zinghis, after having subdued the w^le of TtdfMtt, died in the sixty-fifth year of his age ( 1227.) His- mm wsmm M&L' Mumiv. toriiM hkf NOMurlMd in him the trait* of • fiwi mra, bom to eominaBd othtra, bat whoM noblo qualitiot won taraisliod bjr tho ferocity of hia mturo, which took dolight in camogo, j^un* doTi nnd doTUtation. Humanity dladdora at tho recital of the inexpretaible horrors exercised ay this barbarian, whose maxim was to exterminate, without mercy, all who ufleied the least re* sistance to his Tictorious arms. The successors of this Mogul conqueror followed him in his career of victory. They aehioTed the conouest of all China, OTertumed the caliphate of Bagdat, and rendered the sultans of Iconium their tributaries ** Octai-Khan, the immediate succes* sor of Zinghis, despatched from the centre of China two pow* erful armies, the one against Corea, and the other against the nations that lie to the north and north-west of the Caspian Sea. This latter expedition, which had for its chiefs Gayoult. son of Octal, and Baton, eldest son of Toushi, and grandson of Zinghis- Khan, after having subdued all Kipzak, penetrated into Russia, which they conquered in 1237. Hence they spread over Poland, Silesia, Moravia, Hungary, and the countries bordering on the Adriatic Sea; they plundered cities, laid waste the country, and carried terror ana destruction wherever ibey went.^ All Europe trembled at the sight of these barbarians, who seemed as if they wished to make the whole earth one vast empire of desolation. The empire of the Moguls attained its highest point of elevation under Cublai, granuson of Zinghis, towards the end of the tenth century. From south to norui, it extended from the Chinese Sea and the Indies, to the extremity of Siberia ; and from east to west, from Japan to Asia Minor, and the fron* tiers of Poland in Europe. China, and Chinese Tartary formed the seat of the empire, and the residence of the Great Khan ; while the other parts of the dominions were governed by princes of the family of Zinghis Khan, who either acknowledged the Great Khan as their supreme master, or had their own particular kings and chiefs that paid him tribute. The principal subordi- nate Khans of the race of iSnghis, were those of Persia, Zagatai, and Kipxac. Their dependence on the Great Khan or emperor of China, ceased entirely on the death of Cublai (1294,) and the power of the Moguls soon became extinct in China.* As for the Moguls of Kipiae, their dominion extended over all the Tartar countries situated to tha north of the Caspian and tha Buxine, as also over Buasia and the Crimea. Batou-Khan, eldaat aon of Tou^i, was the founder of thia dynasty. Being addicted to a wandering life, the Khans of Kipnc enounped on the banks of the Wolga, passing from one place to another with their tents and flecks, acewrding to the custom of theJjepd and afMU nwa, liM w«ra lariiialMd by 7hi in cmnttg9, piun* •t th« recital of the iriwi, whoie maxim lo uflerad the leaai n* •r followed him in hia tnoueat of all China, maered the sultana of ;he immediate auccea* 'e of China two pow* the other against the It of the Caspian Sea. hiefa Gayoulc. son of grandson of Zinghis* enetrated into Russia, ey spread over Poland, lies bordering on the d waste the country, ver they went.* All rbarians, who seemed th one vast empire of tained its highest point nffhis, towaHs the end >rth, it extended from extremity of Siberia ; a Minor, and the fron- 'hinese Tartary formed e of the Great Khan ; re governed by princes Iter acknowledged the ad their own particular The principtal subordi- lose of Persia, Zagatai, treat Khan or emperor Cublai (1294,) and the t in China.* minion extended over rth of the Caspian and Crimea. Batou-Khan, tbia dynasty. Being r KipMc encamped on I placa t« aaotharwkh itomoflkaJfapriaad riKioD IT. A. ». MV4— 1300. Wf Tartar nations.*' The principal aecl of thooe Khaaa was ealM the Orani or CMtn Honh or the HortkafKnne, which ' long an object of the greatest terror to toe Russians, Poles, Lithuanians and Hungarians. Its glory declined towards the end of the fourteenth century, and entirely disappeared under the last Khan Aehlnet, in Iwl. A few separate hordes were all that remained, detached from the ffnmd horde, such as ihoer of Cassan, Astraean, Siberia and the Crimea ; — all of which were in their turn subdoed or extirpnted by the Russians.* A crowd of nrinces, descendants of Vlademir the Great, had shared among mm the vast dominions of Russia. One of these princes invested with the dignity of Grand Duke, exercised cer^ tain rights of superiority over tne rest, who nevertheless acted the part of petty sovereigns, and made war on each other. The capital of these Grand Dukes was Kiow, which was also reganU ed as the metropolis of the empire. Andrew I. prince of Suidal, having assumed the title of Grand Duke (llfi?,) fixed his resi- dence at Vlademir on the river Kliazma, and thus gave rise to a kind of political schism, the consequences of which were most fatal to the Russians. The Grand Dutchy of Kiow, with ita dependent principalities, detached themselves by degrees from the rest of the empire, and finally became a prey to the Litho* anians and Poles. In the midst of these divisions and intestine broils, and when Russia was struggling with difficulty against the Bulgarians, Polowzians,* and other barbarous tribes in the neighbourhood, she had the misfortune to be attacked by the Moguls under Zinghij Khan. Toushi, eldest son of that conqueror, having marched round the Caspian, in order to attack the Polowzians, encountered on his passage the Princes of Kiow, who were allies of that people. The battle which he fought (1223,) on the bunks of the river Kalka, was one of the most sanguinary recorded in history. The Russians were totally defeated ; six of their princes perished on the field of battle ; and the whole of Western Russia was laid open to the conqueror. The Mo- guls penetrated as far as Novogorod, wasting the whole country on their march with fire and sword. They returned by the same route, but without extending their ravages farther. In 1S37 they made a second invasion, under the conduct of Baton, sob of Toushi, and governor of the northern parts of the Mogid empire. This prince, aAer having vanquished the Polow^ lians and Bulgarians, that is, the whole eonntry of Kipaact entered the north of Rnssia, where he took Rngen and Moseoaf, and cut to pieces an army of the Russians near Kolomiia. Severat'bther towns in this part of Russia were sacked by tin VOL. I. U mi. eiAivn ▼• MomU. in th« comm«ncein«nt of th« followmg ye«. TU SSEy of Ihe G«nd Duk«. Juri II., per Uhed in lb. ..ck of VI*. Zmi?; wd he hlm.elf fell in ihe beltle which he fought w th UMMoguU neer ihe rirer Site. Baton eilended hie conqueeU « NortLn Ru..i. a. far a. the city Tor-hok. in the territory of Norofforod. For .ome yenr. he continued hit ra»«ge8 over the whole of We.tem R«"'V,''»""'Tu^ !* k" p!„TihU Je Kaminiec in Podolia. Vlademir and Halitjch. F'O'" '^'" *^ may date the fall of the Grand Dutchy o .Kiow, or Western RuMia. which, with its dependent prmcipahtiee in the ffowmg century, came into the possesBion of the tiihuanians and Poles. As for the Grand Dutchy of Vlademir. which comprehended sLtern and Northern Russia, it was subdued by the Mogul. or Tartars, whose urrible yoke it wore for more than two **"A„"exCo"drnary person who appeared at this disastrou. criZ preserved that' part of Russia from s.nkmg into olal ruin. This was Prince Alexander, son of the Grand Duke, Jaroslaus II., who obtained the epithet or surname of Netctkt, from a victorv which he gained over the Knights of Livonia nZ the Neva. 0241.) Elevated by the Khan Baloti. to the dignity of Grand Duki (1245.) he secured by his prudent con- duct, {is punctuality in paying tribute, and P'"".^'^ ^i'' ^^J leiriance to the Mogul emperors, the good will of tiH«se new Zters of Russia, during h^ whole reign When this gre. prince died in 1261, his name was enrolled in their calendar of Ks Peter the Great built, in honour of bis memory, a con- Tent on the banks of the Neva, to which he gave the name of Alexander Newski 5 and the Empress Catherine I;- 'n^t^tuted an order of knighthood that was also culled after the name of '^Po?w!d? which wa. divided among several princes of the PiMt dyi^asty, had become, at the time of which we speak, a prey to Intestine factions, and exposed to the incursions of the JSJhbouring barbarians. These divisions, the principal source ;? 5ll the evils that afflicted Poland. conUnued down to the death of Boleslaue II. (1138,) who, havmg portioned hia es- STamong hi. son., ordered that the eldest should retain the diiteict of Cracow, under the Utle of Monarch, and that he Sd exercise the right, of .uperior ty orer the prov.nci|il Ske. and prince., hi. brother.. Thi. clause, which m^ht S»e prevented the dismemberment of the .tate. "wved only to Undle the fUme of di^ord lunong thew collegatory pnacM. UUdiaku., who i. gwiemlly cowidered a. the •»«>;-' «f»w^ MM, bATii^ .ttempS^ to di.po«««" ^ ^"**»«" ^"^^ ^*^ llowing year. Th« i in IM Mck or Vla> bich h« fought with tended his conquest* ok, in the territory of his ravRges over the others, he took Kiow, tM-h. From this we f Kiow, or Western lities in the following ithuanians and Poles. which comprehended xlued by the Moguls e for more than two ed at this disastrous >m sinking into total of the Grand Duke, ' surname of Newtki, e Knights of Livonia c Khan Batou, to the id, by his prudent con> ind preserving his al* ood will of those new gn. When this great ed in their calendar of ' of bis memory, a con- I he gave the name of Catherine I., instituted lied af\er the name of several princes of the of which we speak, a I the incursions of the ns, the principal source ontinued down to the ving portioned his es- Idest should retain the Monarch, and that he ty over the provincial a clause, which might le state, served only to M collegatory princM. aa the eldest of the** brother* (1146,) thcf nitoD IT. A. p, lOVi— 1900. Ml lott in arm*, axptlled him from Poland, and oblifid hi* d»> ■eendanu to content thamaalve* with Sileeia. Hi* aon* founded, in that country, numerou* familiea of duka* and princes, wIm introduced German colonies into Silesia; all of which, in count of time, became subject to the kings of Bohemia. Conrad, aon of Cnsimir the Just, and grandson of Bolealaus III., wa* thf ancestor of the Dukes of Cujavia and Maaovia. It was this prince who called in the assistance of the Teutonic Knighta against the Pagans of Prussia, and established that order in the territory of Culm (1230.) The Moguls, aAer having vanquished Russia, took possea* sion of Poland (1340.) Having gained the victory at the battle of Schiedlow, they set fire to Cracow, and then marched to Lignils in Silesia, where a numerous army of crusadera were assembled under the command of Henry, duke of Breslau. This prince was defeated, and slain in the action. The whole of Sil«»ia, as well as Moravia, was cruelly pillaged and deso- lated by the Moguls. Hungary, at this period, presented the spectacle of a warlike and barbarous nation, the ferocity of whose manners cannot be better attested than by the law* passed in the reigns of Ladia- laus and Coloman, about the end of the eleventh and beginning of the twelAh century. Crimes were then punished either with the loss of liberty, er-ff some member of the body, Nuch as the eye, the nose, the tongue, dec. These laws were published in their general assemblies, which were composed of the king, the great officers of the crown, and the representatives of th« clergy and the free men. All the other branches of the execu- tive power pertained to the kings, who made war and peace at their pleasure ; while the counts or governors of provincea claimed no power eith«v personal or hereditary." Under a goTemment M despotic, it was easy for the kinga of Hungary to enlarge the boundaries of their states. Ladi*- laus took from the Qreeks the dutchy of Sirmium HOdO,) com- prising the lower part of Sclavonia. This same prince extend- ed hi* conquests into Croatia, a country which was governed for several age* bv the Slavian princes, who possessed Upper Sclavonia, and ruled over a great part of ancient Illyri^and Dalmatia, to which the^ gave the name of Croatia. Dirclluaa waa the first of these prices that took the title of king (in 964.) Demetriu* Swinimir, one of hi* succe**ors, did homage to the Pope, in order to obtain the protection of the Holy See (1076.) The line of these king* having become extinct aome time after, Ladialaos, whoae eiater had been married to Demetriua Swini- mir, took adTuitage of the commotion that had ariaen io Croatia, MK •ad eoneawed a gn$x part of that Idngdom (1001,) and ••• Sially Upper SelaTonia, which was one of it« dopendeneies. omaa completed their conqoeat in llOfi, and the aame year 1m was crowned at Belorade king of Croatia and Dalnmtia. In «e«rae of a few years, he sabdacd the maritime cities of Dal- ■atia, such as Spidatro, Trau, and Zara, which he took from the republic of Venice." The kingdom of Rama or Bosnia, Ml at the same time under his power. He took the title of King of Rama (1109;) andBelall., his successor, made over the dutchy of Bosnia to Ladislaus, his younger son. The so- vereignty of the Kingv of Hunsary was also occasionally ac- knowledged bv the princes andlcinjpfs of Bulgaria and Servia, and even by the Russian princes of Halitsch and Wolodimir. These conquests gave rise to an abuse which soon proved teal to Hungary. The kings claimed for themselves the right «f disposing of the newly conquered provinces in favour of their Toonger sons, to vvbom they granted them under the title of datchies, and with the rights of sovereignty. These latter made uae of their supreme power to excite foctionn and stir up civil wars. The reign of King Andrew II. was rendered remarkable by a revolution which happened in the government (1217.) This wrince having undertaken an expedition to the Holy Land, which be equipped at an extravagant and ruinous expanse, the nobles availed themselves of bis absence to augment their own power, and usurp the estates and revenues of uie crown. Corruption had pervaded every branch of the administration ; and the king, after his return, made several ineffectual efforts to remedy the disorders of the sovemment, and recruit his exhausted finances. At length he adopted the plan of assembling a general Diet (1S22,) in which was passed the famous decree or Golden Bull which forms the basis of that defective constitution which pre- vails in Hungary at this day. The property of the clergy and the noblesse were there declared exempt from taxes and military ««ss ; the nobles acquired hereditary .possession of the royal Sants which they had received in recompense for their services ; ey were freed from the oUigation of marching at their own expense on any expedition out of the kingdom ; and even the right of resistance was allowed them, in case the king should iiuHbge any article of the decree. It was this king uso (An- drew IL) that conferred several important privileges and immu- aities on the Saxons, or Germans ot Transylvania, who had been invited thither fay Oeiaa II. dwut the year 1148. Under the reign of Bala IV. (1841,) Hungary waa saddealy UHudated with an army of Mogula, commanded bv aaveral chiefii, dM principal of whom were Baton, the son of Tooshi, and Cb* 1^' Ion (1091.) and ea- of its dcpeiKieBeies. \, and the Mine year itia and Dalmatia. In laritime cities of Dal* which he took from of Rama or Bosnia, He took the title of successor, made over |oanger son. The so- also occasionally ac- Bulgaria and Servia, itsch and Wolodimir. se which soon proved )r themselves the right inces in favour of their lem under the title of ty. These latter made Id and stir up civil wars. idered remarkable by a irnment (1217.) This > the Holy Land, which us expanse, the nobles ment their own power, le crown. Corruption stration ; and the icing, il efforts to remedy the his exhausted finances. imbling a general Diet decree or Golden Bull constitution which pre- lerty of the clergy and from taxes and military ossession of the royal [wnae for their services ; marching at their own dngdom ; and even the in case the king should tras this king uso (An^ It privileges and immu- isylvania, who had been ar 1148. Sungary was auddanly anded hv aevaral chiefii, son of TsasU, and G«i> ntwDiT. A. B. 1074^1900. M youk, son of the gnat Khan Octai. The Hangamnsi soak ia efleminacy and living in perfect saeiirity, had Mgleeted to pro* vide in time for their defence. Having at Itegth rallied round the banner of their king, they pitch^ their camp very nesli* Sently on the banks of the Saio, where they were surpnsed iiy le Moguls, who made terrible havoc of them. Coloman, the king's brother, was slain in the action ; and the king himself succeeded with difficulty in saving himself among the isles of Dalmatia. The whole of Hungary was now at the mercy of the conqueror, who penetrated with his victorious troops into Sclavonia, Croatia, Dalmatia, Bosnia, Servia, and Bu^faria; every where glutting his fury with the blood of the people, which he shed in torrents, lliese barbarians seemed determine ed to fix their residence in Hungary, when the news of the death of the Khan Octai, and the accession of his son Ghiyouk to dM throne of China, induced them to abandon their conquest in less than three years, and return ro the East loaded with immense booty. On hearing this intelligence, Bela ventured from his place of retreat and repaired to Hungary, where he assembled the remains of his subjects, who were wandering in the forests, or concealed among the mountains. He rebuilt the cities that were laid in ashes, imported new colonies from Croatia, Bohe- mia, Moravia, and Saxony; and, by degrees, restored life and vigour to the state, which had been almost annihilated by the Moguls. The Empire of the Greeks, at this time, was gradually verg- ing towards its downfall. Harassed on the east by the Selju- kian Turks, infested on the side of the Danube by the Hunga* rians, the Patzinacites, the Uzes and the Cumans ; *> and torn to pieces by ^^-.tious and intestine wars, that Empire was making but a feebk lesistance to the incessant attacks of its enemies, when it was suddenly threatened with entire destruction by the effects of the fourth crusade. The Emp»»» iaooBjvae« OositantiiM^*. Thev immedMtely pdled the orarper, ana restored isMC to liOB with hii eon Alexias. . , i. Scarcely bed the CroMdere quitted Constuitiiiople, when a Mw revoIaUon happened there. Another Alexius, sumamed Ji9uraott/b, excited an insurrection among the Greeks; and karinir procured the death of the Emperors Isaac and Alexius, ha mwirhimself master of the throne. The Cruaaders imme- 4iately returned, again laid siege to Constantinople, which they took by assault ; and after having slain the usurper, they elected a new Emperor in the person of Baldwin, Earl of Flanders, and MM of the noble Crusaders. « This event transferred the Greek Bmpire to the Latins (1204.) It was followed by a union of Ae two churches, which, however, was neither genejral norper- ■lanent, as it terminated with the reign of the Latms at ton- "^Sme, the Crusaders divided among themselves the pro- Tinces of the Greek Empire,— both those which they had al- ivady seized, and those which yet remained to be conquered. The greater part of the maritime coasw of the Adriatic, Greece, the Archipelago, the Proponlis, and the Euxine ; the islands of the Cyclades and Sporades, and those of the Adriatic, were ad- judged to the republic of Venice. Boniface, Marquis of Mont- farrat. and commander-in-chief of the crusade, obtained for his share the island of Crete or Candia, and all that belonged to the Empire beyond the Bosphorus. He »!"'?'!'"^»»®l*^ ,?»"'*•* 1° the Venetians, who took possession of it in 1207. The other chiefs of the Crusaders had alao their portions of the dismem- bered provinces. None of them, however, were to possess the aountries that were assigned them, except under the title of vas- sals to the Empire, and by acknowledging the sovereignty ol InThe midst of this general overthrow, several of the Greek princes attempted to preserve the feeble remains of their Js.m- nire. Theodore Lascaris, son-in-law of the Emperor Alexius III., resolved on the conquest of the Greek provinces in Asia. He had made himself master of Bithynia, Lydia. part of the coasts of the Archipelago, and Phrygia, and was crowned Em- peror at Nice in 1206. About the same period, Alexius and 6«vid Commonus, grandsons of the Emperor Andronicus 1., having taken shelter in Pontus, laid there the foundation of a new Empire, which had for its capital the city of Trebizond. At length Michael Angelus Commenus took possession of Duraazo, which he erected into a considerable state, extending kom Durazzo to the Gulf of Lepanto, and comprehending Epi- ItiM* to the cityt n* Ve taront, id eoBjvno- osuuitiiiople, whea a ir Alexius, surnamed ng the Graeka; and n Isaac and Alexius, ^he Crusaders imme- iDtinople, which they usurper, they elected Earl of FlaDuers, and transferred the Greek lowed by a union of iither general nor per- of the Latins at don- g themselves the pro- se which they had al- ned to be conquered, the Adriatic, Greece, uxine ; the islands of the Adriatic, were ad- ace, Marquis of Mont- isade, obtained for his ill that belonged to the rwards sold Candia to t in 1207. The other anions of the dismem- it, were to possess the t under the title of vas- ing the sovereignty of r, several of the Greek » remains of their £m- the Emperor Alexius eek provinces in Asia, lia, Lydia, pari of tba and was crowned Em- e period, Alexius and nperor Andronicus I., »re the foundation of a e city of Trebizond. ms took possession of lerable state, extending id comprehending £pi> nuoD nr. A. D. 1074—1300. Mi roa, Acamank, Etolia, and part of Theaaaly. All theae princaa aaaumed the rank and dignity of Emperors. The most power- ful among them waa Theodore Lascaria, Emperor of Nice. Hia ■accesaors found little difficulty in reaaraing, by degrees, their soptrierity oTer the Latin Emperors. They reduced them at last to the single city of Constantinople, of which Michael Fa- leologus. Emperor of Nice, undertoolc the siege ; and, with tha assistance of the Genoese vessels, he vtmI^ himself master of it in 1261. Baldwin U., the last of the lta.m Emperors, fled to the Isle of Negropont, whence he pass ■'i'. into Italy ; and hia conqueror became the ancestor of all the Emperors of the House of Paleologus, that reigned at Constantinople until the taking ot that capital by the Turks in 1463. It now remains for us to cast a glance at the revolutions of Asia, closely connected with those of Europe, on account of the crusades and expeditions to the Holy Land. The Empire ik the Seljukian Turks had been divided into several dynasties or distinct sovereignties ; the Atabeks of Irak, and a number of petty princes, reigned in Syria and the neighbouring countries ; the Fatimite Caliphs of Egypt were masters of Jerusalem, and part of Palestine, when the mania of the crusades converted that region of the East into a theatre of carnage and devastation. For two hundred years Asia was seen contending with Europe, and the Christian nations making the most extraordinary efforts to maintain the conquest of Palestine and the neighbouring states, against the arms of the Mabometans. At length there arose among the Mussulmans a man of su- perior genius, who rendered himself formidable by his warlike prowess to the Christians in the East, and deprived them of the fruits of their numerous victories. ^ This conqueror was the famous Saladin, or Salaheddin, the son of Ayoub or Job, and founder of tho dynasty of the Ayoubites. The Atabek Noured- din, son of Amadoddin Zenghi, had sent him into Egypt (1168) to assist the Fatimite Caliph against the Franks, or Crusaders of the West. While there, he was declared vizier and general of the armies of the Caliph ; and so well had he established his power in that country, that he effected the substitution of the Abassidian Caliphs in place of the Fatimites ; and ultimately caused himself to be proclaimed Sultan on the death of Noured- din (1171,) under whom he had served in the quality of lieu- tenant. Having vanquished Egypt, he next subdued the dominions of Noureddin in Syria ; and, after having extended his victories over this provirice, as well as Mesopotamia, Assyria, Armenia and Arabia, he turned his arms against the Christians in Palestine, whom he had hemmed in, as it were, with his 1^' t^ cuArm ▼. conqaeitt. Thewt princes, sepuated into petty MTwrngntiat, dirided by mutual jealouay, and • pwy to the dittnctione of •mrehy, Boon yielded to the Telonr of the heroic Musjutawn. Siebattle wh&h they fought (1187.) et HitUn, neu Tibene. (or Tabaria.) wa. decisiye. The Chriatiana sastained a totol defeat ; and Guy of Lueignan, a weak prince without talente, and the last Kiii of Jerusalem, fell into the hands of the con- queror. All the cities of Palestine opened their gates to Saladin, either voluntarily or at the point of the sword. J«"»8alem8jtt- rendered after a siege of fourteen days. This defeat rekindled the zeal of the Christians in the West ; and the most powerful sovereigns in Europe were again seen conducting innuroeraWe armies to the reUefof the Holy Land. But the talenu and bravery of Saladin rendered all their eflTorts unavaUing ; and it was not till after a murderous siege for three years, that they succeeded in reuking the city of Ptolemais or Acre ; and thus arresting for a short space the total exterminaUon of the Chris- tians in the East. i, i • nu • On the death of Saladin, whose heroism is extolled by Ohns- tian as well as Mahometan authors, his Empire was divided among his sons. Several princes, his dependants, and known by the name of Ayoubites, reigned afterwards in Egypt, Syna, Armenia, and Yemen or Arabia the Happy. These princes quarrelling and making war with each other, their territories fell, in the thirteenth century, under the dominion of the Mame- lukes. These Mamelukes (an Arabic word which signifies a sUve) were Turkish or Tartar captives, whom the Syrian mer- chants purchased from the Moguls, and sent into Egypt under the reign of the Sultan Saleh, of the Ayoubite dynasty. That prince bought them in vast numbers, and ordered them to be trained • . t\d exercise of arms in one of the maritime cities of Effvpt '■" v'rom his school he raised them to the highest offices of trus* in the slate, and even selected from them his own Iwdy jruavd. in a very short time, these slaves became so numerous ind so powerful, that, in the end, they seized the government, after haVing assassinated the Sultan Touran Shah, (son and successor of Saleh,) who had in vain attempted to disentangle himself of their chains, and recover the authority which they had usurped over him. This revolution (1260) happened in the very presence of St. Louis, who, having been taken prisoner at the battle of Mansoura, had just concluded a truce of ten years with the Sultan of Egypt. The Mameluke Ibeg. who was at first appointed regent or Atabek. was soon after proclaimed £>ul- %he doSilion of the Mamelukes existed m Egypt for the ntioD Y. A. o. 1300— 14fi3. 168 » petty MveMigntiM, the distractions of heroic Mussulman. littin. near Tiberias lans sustained a total ince without talents, le hands of the con- their gates to Saladin, rord. Jerusalem sur- This defeat rekindled nd the most powerful ndttcting innumerable But the talento and rts unavailing ; and it liree years, mat they lis or Acre ; and thus nination of the Chris* mis extolled by Chris- Empire was divided pendants, and known d» in Egypt, Syria, _ jpy. These princes other, their territories lominion of the Mame- irord which signifies a whom the Syrian mer- sent into Egypt under oubite dynasty. That id ordered them to be f the maritime cities of m to the highest offices ■cm ihem his own body !s became &o numerous seized the government, roumn Shah, (son and ttempted to disentangle le Buihorily which they 1 (1260) happened in the ; been taken prisoner at led a truce of ten years eluke Ibeg, who was at m after proclaimed SuU isted in Egypt for the space of 263 yMurs. Their numbers being constandy recruited byTurkish or Circassian slaves, they disposed of the throne of Egypt at their pleasure ; and the crown generally fell to the share of the most audacious of the sang, provided he was a na- tive of Turkistan. These Mamelukes had even the courage to attack the Moguls, and took from them the kinsdoms of Damas- cus and Aleppo in Syria (1210.) of which the latter had dispos- sessed the Ayoubite princes. All the princes of this latter dynasty, with those of Syria and Yemen, adopted the expedient of submitting to the Mamelukes ; who, in order to become mas- ters of all Syria, had only to reduce the cities and territories which the Franks, or Christians of the West, still retained in their possession. They first attacked the principality of Antioch, which ihey soon conquered (1268.) They next turned their arms against the county of Tripoli, the capital of which they took by assault (1289.) The city of Ptolemais shared the same fnte ; after an obstinate and murderous siege, it was carried sword in hand. Tyre surrendered on capitulation ; and the Franks were entirely expelled from Syria and the East in the year 1291. CHAPTER VI. PERIOD V. Prom Pope Boniface VIII. to the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, a. d. 1300—1453. At the commencement of this period, the Pontifical power was in the zenith of its grandeur. The Popes proudly assumed the title of Masters of the Worid ; and asserted that their author- ity, by divine right, comprehended every other, both spiritual and temporal. Boniface VlII. went even farther than his pre- decessors had done. According to him, the secular power was nothing else than a mere emanation from the ecclesiastical ; and this double power of the Pope was even made an article of belief, and founded on the sacred scriptures. " God has in- trusted," said hb, " to St. Peter and his successors, two swords, the one spiritual, and the other temporal. The former can be exercised by the church alone ; the other, by the secular princes, for the service of the church, and in submission to the will of the Pope. This latter, that is, the temporal sword, is subordi- nate to the former ; and all temuorul authority necessarily de- pends on the spiritual, which judges it; whereas God alone can fudge the spiritual power. Fmally," added he, " it is absolutely OBArrai ▼!• to the Popeof Borne." ^^'•JSZ«L% ll\ who should visit Jubilee (IMOO with Plenwy h^«l|enw fc^^^^ S;"wIrrn''to^r.nd fiUed its tnnuury with theu pious '•?JJ"sSt'«al power of the Pope- -J^J^^^^^^^^^^ the cle4 W.8 moreo^r -J^h J Sip^red\Ce^ dienosed in U.e m^^^^^^^^^^^ Jj^^Jr pUre on establi8hed%y them, who f"P«"" «"J±7„,Sde of dif- dues they hai found -eans" ^Xto^s we*re"empowered. by fvrent denominations. ^ ''^^f J , „ "...pej nj»in8t those who means of ecclesiastical censur^. to Pjo^ed «»a. ^^ ^^ should refuse to uay. .^J«X^"%^XSiical provinces, and of the legates wlio resided in '^^^to '^^j^^^^ of seized with avidity every occasion to «i«n'» 'J« "^ ^^„ed a the Pope. Moreover, in «3° V/2*';„\* ffi &d in r eTeroft-?r ; dp^ o^f monhs dispersed authority over the temporalities of pnnces. je mm ^^ terferin/in »» ^^^^.'l^^'t^i^fnf somS o lay ?own their all without distinction-^njoining some toiy^ ^^^ arms-receiving others ""^e' J^henrprote^tum r ^b^^^.^ annulling their acts and proceedi„g8_8U« ^^ court, and acting " "^''"V J l"ropr They assumed the the Popes is the history of all t-u'ope. V*^y ^jf privilef of legitimating '*»« ^f"' «/ Jj^^^;;:^^^^^^^ to ?ax th^ Them for the f P«"'°%;„*S7 /Srity o^^^^^^ exer- clergy; *«y <^^"'««1,^ J'"„tbe^^^^^ royalty on cised it over a very great ^'^y'l'J-^^-' A^ released subjecte those who were ambitious of ^w nS Jomeigns at their from their oath of a^^ie«ance ; dethtone^^^^^^ m" Yiuos ▼. A. D. 1300—1463. i«r nan eiMtare be anlnsci ipe published the first for all who should visit It Rome. An immense locked to this capital of jury with their pious d their jurisdiction over very day. by means of multiplied exceedingly of Gregory IX. They of the dignities and be- es at thei. pleasure on tors or treasurers were ded the levying of the nder a multitude of dif- »r8 were empowered, by oceed against those who pported by the authority esiaslical provinces, and extend the usurpation of these legates appeared a icant Orders, founded m ;ion8 of monks dispersed he influence of the papal inces. We find them in- ssing their commands to some to lay down their irotection— rescinding and -summoning them to their disputes. The history of rope. They assumed the kings, in order to qualify Mide sovereigns to tax the sriority over all, and exer* they conferred royalty on er ; they released subjects [jfoned sovereigns at their empires under interdict, to ind them disposing of the 18 well as those of bef**^* cingdoms newly dUcovered ; atics; and even of embolics lent tyrwiny of the Popes. Thus, it is obvious that the Court of Rome, at the time of which we speak, enjoyed & conspicuous preponderance in the political system of Europe. But in the ordinary course of human af- fairs, this power, vast and formidable as it was, began, from the fourteenth century, gradually to diminish. The mightiest em- pires have their appointed term ; and the highest stage of their elevation is often the first step of their decline. Kings, be- coming more and more enlightened as to their true interests, learned to support the rights and the majesty of their crowns, against the encroachments of the Popes. Those who were vassals and tributaries of the Holy See, gradually shook off the yoke ; even the clergy, who groaned under the weight of this spiritual despotism, joined the secular princes in repressing these abuses, and restraining within proper bounds a power which was making incessant encroachments on their just prerogatives. Among the causes which operated the downfall of the Pon- tifical power, may be ranked the excess of the power itself, and the abuses of it made by the Popes. By issuing too often their anathemas and interdicts, they rendered them useless and contemptible ; and by their haughty treatment of the greatest princes, they learned to become inflexible and boundless in their own pretensions. An instance of this may be recorded, in the famous dispute which arose between Boniface VIII. and Philip the Fair, King of France. Not content with constituting him- self judge between the King and his vassal the Count of Flan- ders, that Pontiff" maintained, that the King could not exact subsidies from the clergy without his permission ; and that the right of Regale (or the revenues of vacant bishoprics) which the Crown enjoyed, was an abuse which should not be tolera- ted.' He treated as a piece of insanity the prohibition of Philip against exporting either gold or silvor out of the king- dom ; and sent an order to all the prelates in France to repair in person to Some on the 1st of November, there to advise measures for correcting the King and reforming the State. He declared, formally, that the King was subject to the Pope, as well in temporal as spiritual matters ; and that it vvas a fool- ish persuasion to suppose that the King had no superior on earth, and was not dependent on the supreme Pontiff*. Philip ordered the papal bull which contained these ex- travagant assertions to be burnt ; he forbade his ecclesiastics to leave the realm ; and having twice assembled the States-Ge- neral of the kingdom (1302—3.) he adopted, with their advice and approbation, measures against these dangerous pretensions of the Court of Rome. The Three Estates, who appeared for the first time in these Assemblies, declared themselves strongly oum» VI. io hfovt of the Kingi wad the independence of the crown. In consequence, the exeomraunicition which the Pope had threat* ened egminet the King proved ineflectuel. Philip made hia inpeal to a Aiture aasembiy> to which the three orders of the State adhered.* The Emperor Louis of Bavaria, a prince of superior merit, having incurred the censures of the Church for defending the rights and prerogatives of his crown, could not obtain amolu- tion, notwithstanding the most humilintinff condescensions, and thb :'ff"t which he made to resign the Imperial dignity, and surrender himself, his crown and nis property, to the discretion of the Pope. He was loaded with curses and anathemas, after a series of various proceedings which had been instituted against him. The bull of Pope Clement VI., on this occasion, far surpassed all those of his predecessors. " May God (said he, in speaking of the Emperor) smite him with madness and disease ; may heaven crush him with its thunderbolts ; may the wrath of Ood, and that of St. Peter and St. Paul, fall on him in this world and the next ; may the whole universe com* bine against him ; may the earth swallow him up alive; may his name perish in the first generation, and his memory disap- Cear from the earth ; may all the elements conspire against im ; may his children, delivered into the hands of nis enemies, be massacred before the eyes of their father." The indignity of such proceedings roused the attention of the princes and states of the Empire ; and on the representation of the Electo* ral College, they thought proper to check these boundless pre* tensions of the Popes, by a decree which was passed at the Diet of Frankfort in 1338. This decree, regarded as the fundamen* tal law of the Empire, declared, in substance, that the Imperial dignity held only of Ood ; that he whom the Electors had chosen emperor by a plurality of suffrages, was, in virtue of that election, a true king and emperor, and needed neither confirma- tion nor coronation from the hands of the Pope ; and that all persons who should maintain the contrary, should be treated as guilty of high treason. Among other events prejudicial to the authority of the Popes, one was, the translation of the Pontifical See from Rome to Avignon. Clement V., archbishop of Bordeaux, lutvinsr been advanced to the papacy (1305,) instead of repairing to Ilorae, had hia coronation celebrated at Lyons ; and thence he trans* ferred his residence to Aviffnon (1909,) out of eomjplaisance to niilip the Fair, to whom he owed his elevation. The sac* ceaeors of iJiia Pope continued their court at Avignon until 1367, when Gregory XI. again removed the See to Borne. ee of the erowa. In the Pope had thtvet- '1. Philip made his three onlen of the ice of superior merit, |rch for defending the Id not obtain aMolu* J' condescensions, and mperial dignity, and rty, to the discretion s and anathemas, after had been instituted VI., on this occasion, •a. " May Ood (said im with madness and ts thunderbolts; may and St. Paul, fall on whole universe com* >w him up alire ; may ind his memory disap- nents conspire against le hands of nis enemies, nther." The indignity ion of the princes and pentation of the Electo* ck these boundless pre- 1 was passed at the Diet arded as the fundamen* tance, that the Imperial hom the Electors had es, was, in virtue of that eeded neither confirroa- the Pope ; and that all ry, should be treated as authority of the Popes, cal See from Rome to Bordeaux, liavinff been of repairing to Some, ; and thence he trana- t,) oat of complaisaoce is eloTation. The sac* court at Arignoa until red the See to Borne. nRioD V. A. Ik 1300—1453. IM This lojonm at Avignon tended to weaken the authority^ of the Popes, and diminish the respect and veneration which till then haa been paid them. The prevailing opinion beyond the Alpe, admitted no other city than that of Rome for the true capital of St. Peter ; and they despised the Popes of Avignon as alien*, who, besides, were there surrounded with powerful princes, to whose caprice they were often obliged to yield, ana to make condescensions prejudicial to the authority they had usurped. This circumstance, joined to the lapse of nearly seventy yean, caused the residence at Avignon to be stigmatized by the Italiaas, under the name of the Babyhniih Captivity. It occasioned alto the diminution of tbepapal authority at Rome, and in the Be* clesiastical States. The Italians, no longer restrained by the presence of the sovereign pontiffs, yielded but a reluctant obe- dience to their representatives ; while the remembrance of their ancient republicanism induced them to lend a docile ear to those who preached up insurrection and revolt. The historian Riena informs us, that one Nicolas Qabrini, a man of great eloquence, and whose audacity was equal to His ambition, took advantage of these republican propensities of the Romans, to constitute himself master of the city, under the popular title of Tribune (1347.) He projected the scheme of a new government, called the Good Estate, which he pretended would obtain the accepta- tion of all the princes and republics of Italy ; but the despotic flower which he exercised over the citizens, whose liberator and awgiver he affected to be, soon reduced him to his original in- significance ; and the city of Rome again assumed its ancient form of government. Meantime the Popes did not recover their former authority ; most of the cities and states of tie Ecclesi- asticai dominions, after having been lone a prey to faction and discord, fell under the power of the nobles, who made an easy conquest of them ; scarcely leaving to the Pope a vestige of the sovereign authority. It required all the insidious policy of Alexander VI., and! the vigilant activity of Julius II., to repair the injury which the territorial influence of the Pontiffs had su^ fared from their residence at Avignon. Another circumstance that contributed to humble the papal authority, was the schisms which rent the Church, towards the end of the fourteenth, and beginning of the fifteenth century. Gregory XL, who had abandoned Avignon for Rome, being dead (1378,) the Italians elected a Pope of their own nation, wIm> took the name of Urban VI., and fixed his residence at Rome. The French cardinals, on the other hand, declared in fitvour of the Cardinal Robert of Geneva, known by the name of Clement VII., who fixed his capital at Arignon. The whole of Olu^ yoi.. I. 16 ji 11, I*' h: m oiurriA ▼!• tendom wm di»id«d betwwn ihete two Popes ; and thu grand •ehism conlinued from 1078 till 1417. At Rome, Urban VI. waa iucceeded by Boniface IX., Innocent VII., and Gregory XIL; while Clement VII. had Benedict XIII. for his succcMor at Avignon. In order to terminate this schism, every expedient was tried to induce the rival Popes to give in their ubdication ; but both having refuaed, several of the Cardinals withdrew their allegiance, and assembled a council at Pisa (1409.) where the two refractory Popes were deposed, and the pontifical d'gn'ty conferred on Alexander V., who was afterwards succeeded by John XXIII. This election of the council only tended to in- crease the schism. Instead of two Popes, there arose three ; and if his Pisan Holiness gained parti.sans, the Popes of Kome and Avignon contrived also to maintain each a number of sup- porters. All these Popes, wishing to maintain their rank and dignity with that splendour and magnificence which iheir pre- decessors had displayed before the schism, set themselves to invent new means of oppressing the people ; hence the immense number of abuses and exactions, which subvened the discipline of the church, and roused the exasperated nations against the court of Rome. ,,.-,. /ni,4\ A new General Council was convoked at Constance (1414) by order of the Emperor Sigismund ; and it was there that the maxim of the unity and permanency of Councils was established, as well as of its superiority over the Pope, in nil that pertains to matters of faith, to the extirpation of schism, and the relor- mation of the church both in its supreme head, and m us subor- dinate members. The grand schism ^yas here terminated by the abdication of the Roman pontiff, and the deposition of those of Pisa and Avignon. It was this famous council that gave their decision against John Hubs, the Reformer of Bohemia, and a follower of the celebrated Wickliff. His doctrines were condemned, and he himself burnt at Constance ; as was Jerome of Progue, one of his most zealous partisans. As to the mea- sures that were taken at Constance for effecting the reformation of the Church, they practically ended in nothing. As their main object was to reform the court of Rome, by suppressing or limiting the new prerogatives which the Popes for several cenumes had usurped, and which referred, among other things, t« the subject of benefices and pecuniary exactions, all those who had an interest in maintaining these abuses, instantly set thtmteives to defeat the proposed amendments, and elude re- drasa. The Council had formed a committee, composed of the deputies of different nations, to advise means for accomplishing thu nfonaation, which the whole world so nrdenUy deaired. •• ; and thia grand .t Rome, Urban VI. VII., and Gregory III. for his Auccetsor liam, every expedient in their abdication ; linaU withdrew their [sa (1409,) where the le pontifical dignity wards succeeded by :il only tended to in- there arose three ; I, the Popes of Rome ich a number of sup- intain their rank and snce which their pre- m, set themselves to hence the immense bverted the discipline 1 nations against the at Constance (1414) 1 it was there that the incils was established, e, in all that pertains ichism, and the refer* lead, and in its subor* is here terminated by ;he deposition of those >us council that gave Reformer of Bohemia, His doctrines were tance ; as was Jerome Sana. As to the mea- ecting the reformation n nothing. As their Rome, by suppressing the Popes for several I, amon^ otlier thinga, ry exactions, all ihoae e abuses, inatantly set imenta, and elude re« ittee, compoaed of the ana for accompliahing so ardently deaired. riKioD ▼. A. D. 1300— 14A3. wn Thia committee, known bv the name of the Colkgt of Eifimmrt, had already made considerable progreae in their taak, when a question was started. Whether it waa proper to proceed to any reformation without the consent and co-operation of the viaible Head of the Church 7 It waa carried in the negative, through the intrigues of the cardinals ; and, before they could accompliah this salutary work of reformation, the election of a new Pope had taken place (1417.) The choice fell on Otho de Colonna, who assumed the name of Martin V., and in conformity with a previous decision of the council, he then laid before them a scheme of reform. This proceeding having been disapproved by the difi'erent nations of Europe, the whole matter waa remitted to the next council ; and in the meanwhile, they did nothing more than pass some concordats, with the new Pope, as to what steps they should take until the decision of the ap- proaching council. This new council, which was assembled at Basle (1431) by Martin V., resumed the suspended work of reformation. The former decrees, that a General Council wus superior to the Pope, and could not be dissolved or prorogued except by their own free consent, were here renewed ; and the greater part of the reserves, reversions, annats, and other exactions of the Popes, were regularly abolished. The liberty of appeals to the Court of Rome, was also circumscribed. Eugenius IV., successor to Martin V., alarmed at the destruction thus aimed at his author- ity, twice proclaimed the dissolution of the Council. The first dissolution, which occurred on the 17th of December 1431, waa revoked, at the urgent application of the Emperor Sigismund, by a bull of the same Pope, issued on the loth of December 1433. In this he acknowledged the validity of the Council, and annulled all that he had formerly done to invalidate its au- thority. The second dissolution took jplace on the 1st of Octo- ber 1437. Eugenius then transferred the Council to Ferrara, and from Ferrara to Florence, on pretext of his negotiating a union with the Qreek church. This conduct of the Pope oc- casioned a new schism. The prelates who remained at Basle, instituted a procedure against him ; they first auapended him for contumacy, and finally deposed him. Amadeua VIII., Bx- duke of Saxony, was elected in hia place, under the name of Felix v., and recognised by all the murtisans of the Council as the legitimate Pope. Thia latter schiam laated ten yeara. Fe- lix V. at length gave in hia demiaaion ; and the Council, which had withdrawn from Baale to Lauaanne, terminated its aittinga in 1449. The French nation adopted several of the decrees of the in euAmt VI. 1- Ooaacil of BmI« in the famous PragoMlic Suction, which Cktrloa VII. cauud to be drawn up at Bourgee (1438;) and vHhoae stipuiatione eerved aa the Muie of what ia called the Idktrtiti oftht OaUkan Church. The example of the French WM speedfilv followed by the Oermane, who acceded to the»e ^•creet, at the Diet of Afayence in 1439. The Court of Rome M length regained a part of those honourable and liicrnlive rights of which the Council of Basle had deprived them, by tho con- cordats which the Germans concluded (1448) with Nicholas V., and the French (1516) with Leo X. The Councils of which we have now spoken, tended materially to limit the exorbitant power of the Roman pontifls, by giving sanction to tlie princi- ple which establibhed the superiority of General Cmincils over the Popes. This maxim put a check to the enterpi Mug ninbi* tton of the Court of Rome ; and kings availed lhemMel\c.vhile inveiitigatinglhe Popes, had the courage nons, to enligliten the 8, nnd to examine with ;al authority- Among f Paris, a famous Do- 'hilip the Fair, King of is example was fullow- •i, who took the part of s Court of Rome. Mar- m Ockam, Leopold de f the Italian poet ; and sd themselves after the rticularly distinguished Clemange, and John ttl applause. Most of R characterized by bad died in Arabic transla- ities, reigned in all the a raind, and nearly ex< tiBftdihad cfwy veitif* of umAiI knowkdft. TIm bslUt l«i- traa wn qnii* nag leetad, and m yet bad iMd no lattra oa th* ■eimieea. SonMUmet, howaver, gmiua broke with • tnoaiant aplmdour throofh tb« darkneaa of thii moral boriion ; and aevonl ettraordinary p«non8( deapiaing th< vain cavila of the oehools, began to atuoy truth in the volume of natura, and to copy afier tne beautiful modela of antiquity. Such was Roger Becon {1964,) an Engliahman, and a Franeiacan fHar, who hae become so famous by nia discovrriea in chemistry and mechani- cal philosophy. Dante (1931f) nurtured in the spirit of the an- cients, was the fint that undertook to raflne the Italian language into poetry, and gave it the polish of elegance and grace in his compositions. He was succeeded by two other celebratad authors, Petrarca and Boccacio (1374-5.) The period of which we speak gave Urth to tevenl new in- ventions, which proved useful auxiliaries to men of genius, and tended to accelerate the progress of knowledge, letten, and arts. Amon^ the principal of these may be mentioned the invention of wriung pafier, oil-painting, printing, gunpowder, and the ma- riner's compass ; to the eflects of which, Europe, in a jgfieat measure, owes its civilixation, and the new order of tmnga which appeared in the fiHeenth century. Before the invention of paper from linen, parchment was gen- erally used in Europe for the transcribing or books, or the draw- ing out of public deeds. Cotton' paper, which the Arabs brought from the East, was but a poor remedy for the scarceness and dearth of parchment. It would appear, that the invention of paper from linen, and the custom of using it in Europe, is not of older date than the thirteenth century. The famous Mont- faucon acknowledges, that, in spite of all his researches, both in France and Italy, ne could never find any manuscript or char- ter, written on our ordinary paper, older than the year 1270, the time when St. Louis died. The truth is, we know neither the exact date of the invention of this sort of paper, nor the name of the inventor.' It is certain, however, that the manufacture of paper from cotton must have introduced that of paper from linen ; and the only question is, to determine at what time the use of linen became so common in Europe, as to lead us to sup- pose they might convert its rags into paper. The cultivation of hemp and flax being originally peculiar to the northern coun- tries, it is probable that the first attempts at making paper of linen rags were made in Germany, and the countries abounding in flax and hemp, rather than in the southern provinces of Eu- rope. The most ancient manufactory of paper from linen to be met with in Oermany, was established at Nuremberg (1390.) 15 * 1 IH muPTiH n. *Th» InvtQliion of oil-punting is genenlly tseribed to the two kntbon Van-Eick, the younger of whom, known by Uie name of John of Bruges, had gainra ccmsiderable celelwity about the end of the fourteenth century. There is, howerer, reason to bdJere that this invention is of an older date. There are two antkors who have carried it back to the eleventh century, viz. Thoophilus and Eracllus, whose works in manuscript have been neserved in the library at Wolfienbiittel, and in thar of Trinity College, Cambridge ; and who speak of this art as already known in their tiroes. According to them, all sorts of colours could be mixed up with linseed oil, and employed in painting; but they agree as to the inconvenience of applying this kind of painting to image* or portraits, on account of the difficulty in drying colours mixed with oil. Admitting the credibility of these two authors, and the high antiquity of Uieir works, it would appear, nevertheless, thai uiey made no great use of this invention ; whether it may be that painters preferred to retain their i'or- mer mode, or that the difficulty of drying oil colours had dis- cooraged them. It is, however, too true, that the finest inven- tions have often languished in unmerited neglect, long before men had learned to reap any adequate advantage from them. Were the Van-Eicks the first that practised this style of paint- ing < Or did John of Bruges, the younger of the brothers, and who carried it to the highest degree of perfection, invent some mixture or composition for increasing the exsiccative qualities •f linseed or nut oil ; especially with regard to colours not easily dried ? It belongs to connoisseurs and artists to examine these questions, as well as to decide whether the pictures, alleged to have been painted in oil-colours before the time of the Van- Eicks, were executed with any degree of perfection in that style of painting.' This invention totally changed the system and the principles of the art of painting. It gave birth to rules as to light and shade, and procured modern painters one advantage over the ancients, that of rendering their works much more durable. One of the- most important inventions is that of printing ; which was borrowed, it would appear, from the art of engraving on wood ; while this latter owes its origin to the moulding or imprinting of common cards, which seems to have suggested the first idea of it. The use of cards was borrov/ed from Italy ; though we find this custom established in Germany soon after die commencement of the fourteenth century, where card- makers formed a distinct trade, about four and twenty years be- fore the invention of printing. It is probable that the Germans were the first who designed models and proper casts for the im* •m, y ueribad to the two known by the name le celebrity about the I, howerer, reason to Idate. There are two lermth century, viz. maniucript have been nd in that or Trinity art as already known irts of coloun could be in painting; but they this kind of painting e difficulty in drying redibility of these two orks, it would appear, ise of this invention ; ed to retain their i'or- \g oil colours had dis- , that the finest inren- id neglect, long before tdvantage from them, sed this style of paint- er of the brothers, and terfection, invent some le exsiccative qualities ird to colours not easily rtists to examine these the pictures, alleged to ; the time of the Van- ' perfection in that style lianged the system and : gave birth to rules as painters one advantage leir works much more is is that of prioting; )m the art of engraving gin to the moulding or is to have suggested the borrov/ed from Italy; in Germany soon after century, where card- ir and twenty years be- bable that the Germans proper casts for the im- ■"1? nuoo V. A. 0. 1900—1.453. Iff pivssion of cards.' Ths desire of gain, suggested to these caidHnakers the idea of engrtving on wood, after the same manner, all kinds of figures or scenes from Sacred History, accompanied with legends, or narratives, intended to exphun their meaning. It was fr«>m these legends, printed in smgle folios, and published also in die form of books, or rather of im- pressions from engravings on solid blocks of wood, that the art of typography took its origin.^ This wonderful art, to which Europe owes its astonishing progress in the sciences, consists of two distinct inventions, — that of the moveable typet, and that of the font. The former belongs to John Gutenl>erg, a gentle- man of Mayence, who made his first attempt in moveable types at Strasburg, in 1436 ; the other, which is generally attributed to Peter Schcefier of Gemsheim, took place at Mayence in 14fi2. Gutenberg resided at Strasburg, from 1424 till 1446. Being a noble senator of that city, he married a lady of rank ; and during the twenty years of his residence there, he cultivated all sorts of occult arts, especially that of printing.. It was chiefly in re- ference to this latter art that he contracted an acquaintance with several of his wealthy fellow-citizens, one of whom, named Andrew Drizehn, having died, his heirs brought an action against Gutenberg on account of some claims which they laid to his charge. The magistrate ordered an inquiry to be instituted, the original copy of which, drawn up in 1439, was discovered by Schoepflin (1745) in the archives of the city, and is still preserv- ed in the public library at Strasburg. According to this au- thentic document, it appears, that from the year 1436, there existed a printing-press at Strasburg, under the direction of Gutenburg, and in the house of Andrew Drizehn, his associate ; that this press consisted of forms, that were fastened or locked by means of screws ; and that the types, either cut or engraved, which were enclosed within these forms, were moveable.' Gutenburg, after his return to Mayence, still continued his typographical labours. While there, he contrpcted an acquaint- ance with a new associate in the exercise of his art (1445) — the famous John Faust, a citizen of Mayence. This second alliance continued only five years ; and it is within this interval, as is generally supposed, that the invention of the font, or ca^^ting of types, should be placed ; as well as that of the die and the mould or matrix, by the help of which the art of typography was brought nearly to its present state of perfection.!" Some disputes, which had arisen between these new assobiates, having dissolved their partnership, Faust obtained the press of Guteni^rg, with all its printing apparatus, which had fallen to him by sequestration. Gutenberg, however fitted up another press, and continued to \n eBJomn. Brint till the time of his deeth, i» 1468. Not one of the booh* which issued from the prau of this celebrated m|D, either at StTMburg or Meyence, bears the name of th« »Tentof,wthe date of the unpression ; whether it was that Oittenberi: made a aeciet of his invention, or that the prejudices ^ dM cast to which he belonged prevented him from boastmg of his discovery. Faust, on the contrary, no sooner saw himself master of Outen- berir's presses, than he became ambitious of notoriety, an ex- ample of which he gave by prefixing: his name and that of Peter SchoBffer to the famous Psalter, which they published in 1467. The arts of which we have just spoken, in all probahility, suggested the idea of engraving on copper, of which we con discover certain traces towards the middle of the fifteenth cen- tury. The honour of this invention is generally ascribed to a goldsmith of Florence, named Maso Finiguerra, who is supposed to have made this discovery about the year 1460, while engrav- ing figures on silver plate. Baccio Baldini, another Florentine, Andrew Montegna, and Mark Antony Raimondi, both Italians, followed in the steps of Finiguerra, and brought this art to a high degree of perfection. There is, however, some cause to doubt whether Finiguerra was exactly the first to whom the idea of this sort of engraving occurred ; since, in diHerent cabi- nets in Europe, we find specimens of engraving on copper, of a date earlier than what has been assigned to Finiguerra. It, however, the glory of this invention belongs in reality to the Italians, it is quite certain that the art of engraving <>]» copper, as well as on wood, was cultivated from Us infancy, and brought to perfection, in Germany. The first native engravers m that country who are known, either by their names or their signa- tures, in the fifteenth century, were Martin Schoen, a painter and engraver a'. Colmar, where he died in I486; the two Israels Von Mechein, father and son, who resided at Bockholt, in West- phalia; and Michael Wolgemuth of Nuremberg, the master of the celebrated Albert Durer, who made so conspicuous a figure about the end of the fifteenth and begmnmg of the sixteenth ^NeSto the invention of printing, there is no other that so . much arrests our attention as that of gunpowder, which, by in- troducing artillery, and a new method of fortifying, attacking, and defending cities, wrought a complete change in the whole art and tactics of war. This invention comprises several disco- veries which it is necessary to distinguish from each other. 1 The discovery of nitre, the principal ingredient in gunpowder, and the cause of its detonation. 2. The mixture of nitre with sulphur and charcoal, which, properly speaking, forms the in- I r^^AV*^"^'. '-'■^•:''^t, ot OB* of the books Icbnted man, either f thtiBTentor,orthe t Qnttobng made a at the caat to which of hia discovery. " ilfmaster of Oaten- of notoriety, an ex- e and that of Peter published in 1467. in all probability, ir, of which we con ! of the fifteenth cen- enerally ascribed to a lerra, who is supposed r 1460, while engrav- li, another Florentine, imondi, both Italians, brought this art to a wever, some cause to le first to whom the ince, in different cabi- raving on copper, of a id to Finiguerra. If, longs in reality to the engraving on copper, s infancy, and brought live engravers in that names or their signa- ) Schoen, a painter and 486; the two Israels I at Bockholt, in West- emberg, the roaster of 9 conspicuous a figure ining of the sixteenth 'te is no other that so powder, which, by in- ' fortifying, attacking, I change in the whole mprises several disco- 1 from each other. 1 redient in gunpowder, mixture of nitre with eaking, forms the in* n>ioD T. A. o. 1900 — 1453. IT7 vention of gunpowder. 3. The application of powder to fire- works. 4h. Its employment as an agent or propelling power for throwing stones, bullets, or other heavy and combustible bodies. 6. its employment in springing mines, and destroying fortifications. All these discoveries belong to diflerent epochs. The know- ledge of saltpetre or nitre, and its explosive properties, called detonation, is very ancient. Most probably it was brought to us from the East (India or China,) where saltpetre is found in a natural state of preparation. It is not less probable that the nations of the East were acquainted with the composition of gunpowder before tho Europeans, and that it was the Arabs who first introrluced the use of it into Europe. The celebrated Roger Bacon, an English monk or friur of the thirteenth century, was acquainled with the composition of powder, and its employment in fire-works and public festivities ; and according to all appear- ances, he obtained this infonmuion from the Arabic authors, who excelled in their skill of tlie chemicul sciences. The em- ployment of gunpowder in Enmpe as an agent for throwing balls and stones, is ascertained to have been about the commencement of the fourteenth century; and it was the Arabs who first avail- ed themselves of its advantages in their wars against the Span- iards. From Spain the use of gunpowder and artillery passed to France, and thence it gradiially extended over the other States of Europe. As to the application of powder to mines, and the destruction of fortified works, it does not appear to have been in practice before the end of the fifteenth cen- tury.'^ The introduction of bombs and mortars seems to have been of an earlier date (1467.) The invention of these in Europe, is attributed to Sigismund Pandolph Malatesta, Prince of Rimini ; but in France they were not in use till about the reign of Louis XIII. Muskets and matchlocks began to be in- troduced early in the fifteenth century. They were without spring-locks tdl 1517, when for the first time muskets and pis- tols with spring-locks were manufactured at Nuremberg. Several circumstances tended to check the progress of fire- arms and the improvement of artillery. Custom made most people prefer their ancient engines of war; the construction of cannons was but imperfect ;" the manufacture of gunpowder bad ; and there w«u> a very general aversion to the newly in- vented arms, as contrary to humanity, ^nd calculated to extin- guish military bravery. Above all, the knights, whose science was rendered completely useless by the introduction of fire- arms, set themselves with all their might to oppose this invention. From what we have just said it is obvious, that the common m CBAPTBR Vi. tradition which ascribes the invention of gunpowder to a certain monk, named Berthold Schwartz, merits no credit whatever. This tradition is founded on mere hearsay ; and no writers agree as to the name, the country, or the circumstances of this pretended inventor ; nor as to the time and place when he made this extraordinary discovery. Lastly, the mariner's compass, so essential to the art of navigation, was likewise the produc- tion of the barbarous ages to which we now refer. The ancients were aware of the property of the magnet to attract iron ; but its direction towards the pole, and the manner of communica- ting its magnetic virtues to iron and steel, were unknown even to all those nations of antiquity vvho were renowned for their navigation and commerce. This discovery is usually attributed to a citizen of Amalfi, named Flavio Gioia, who is said to have lived about the beginning of the fourteenth century. This tra- dition, ancient though it be, cannot be admitted, because we have incontestable evidence that, before this period, the polarity of the loadstone and the magnetic needle were known in Europe ; and that, from the commencement of the thirteenth century, the Proven9al mariners made use of the compass in navigation. " It must be confessed, however, that we can neither point out the original author of this valuable discovery, nor the true time when it was made. All that can be well ascertained is, that the mariner's compass wns rectified by degrees ; and that the English had no small share in these corrections. It is to this polar virtue or quality of the loadstone, and the magnetic needle, that we owe the astonishing progress of commerce and navigation in Europe, from the end of the fifteenth century. These were already very considerable at the time of which we speak, although navigation was as yet confined to the Mediter- ranean, the Baltic, and the shores of the Indian ocean. The cities of Italy, the Hanseatic towns, and those of the Low Countries, engrossed, at that time, the principal commerce of Europe. The Venetians, the Genoese, and the Florentines, were masters of the Levant. The Genoese had more espe- cially the command of the Black Sea, while the Venetians laid claim exclusively to the commerce of India and the East, which they carried on through the ports of Egypt and Syria. This rivalry in trade embroiled these two republics in frequent dis- putes, and involved them in long and sanguinary wars. The resuh turned in favour of the Venetians, who found means to maintain the empire of the Mediterranean against the Genoese. The manufactories of silk, after having passed from Greece into Sicily, and iront Sicily into the other parts of Italy, at lengdi fixed their principal residence at Venice. This city FBSIOO V. A. D. 1300 — 1453. 179 Ifunpowder tu a certain ■ no credit whatever. irsay ; and no writers circumstances of this place when he made mariner's compass, likewise the produc- )w refer. The ancients et to attract iron ; but inner of communica- were unknown even •e renowned for their ry is usually attributed a, who is said to have th century. This tra- admitted, because we his period, the polarity I'ere known in Europe ; thirteenth century, the mpass in navigation. '•* can neither point out very, nor the true time ill ascertained is, that degrees ; and that the rections. It is to this ne, and the magnetic jress of commerce and ' the fifteenth century. : the time of which we mfined to the Mediter- Indian ocean. wns, and those of the the principal commerce ie, and the Florentines, noese had more espe- hile the Venetians laid tia and the East, which fypt and Syria. This iblics in frequent dis- anguinary wars. The , who found means to m against the Genoese. g passed from Greece other parts of Italy, at at Venice. This city came at length to furnish the greater part of Europe with silk mercery, and the productions of Arabia and India. The Italian merchants, commonly known by the name of Lombards, ex- tended their traffic through all the diiierent states of Europe. Favoured by the privileges and immunities which various sovereigns had granted them, they soon became masters of the commerce and the current money of every country where they established themselves ; and, in all probability, they were the first that adopted the practice of Letters or Bills of Exchange, ofwhichwemay discover traces towards the middle of the thirteenth century. The Hanseatic League, which the maritime cities on the Baltic had formed in the thirteenth century, for the protection of their commerce against pirates and brigands, gained very considerable accessions of strength in the following century, and even became a very formidable maritime power. A great number of the commercial cities of the Empire, from the Scheld and the isles of Zealand, to the confines of Livonia, entered successively into this League ; and tiiany towns in the interior, in order to enjoy their protection, solicited the favour of being admitted under its flag. The first public act of a general con- federation among these cities, was drawn up at the assembly of their deputies, held O. Cologne, in 1364. The whole of the allied towns were subdivided into quarters or circles ; the most ancient of which were the Venedian quarter, containing the southern and eastern coasts of the Baltic ; the Westphalian, for the towns on the western side ; and the Saxon, compre- hending the inland and intermediate towns. A fourth circle or quarter was afterwards added, that of the cities of Prussia and Livonia. The boundaries of these different circles and their capital towns varied from time to time. The general assem- blies of the League were held regularly every three years, in the city of Lubec, which was considered as the capital of the whole League ; while each of the three or four circles had also their particular or provincial assemblies. The most flourishing epoch of this League was about the end of the fourteenth and the early part of the fifteenth cen- tury. At that time, the deputies of more than fourscore cities appeared at its assemblies ; and even some towns who had not the privilege of sending dej)uties were, nevertheless, regarded as allies of the League. Having the command of the whole commerce of the Butic, their cities exercised at their pleasure the rights of peace and v.ar, and even of forming alliances. They equipped numerous and powerful fleets, and offered bat« tie to the sovereigns of the North, whenever they presumed to ,i> m m onmiiK VI. iaterfore with their monopoly, or to restrict the privilegee and exemptions which they had the weakness to grant them. The productions of the North, such as hemp, flax, timber, potash, tar, com, hides, furs, and copjper, with the produce of the large and small fisheries on the coast of Schonen, Norway, Lapland, and Iceland,'' formed the staple of the Hanseatic commerce. They exchanged these commodities, in the west- ern parts of Europe, for wines, fruits, drugs, and all sorts of cloths, which they carried back to the North in return. Their principal factories and warehouses, were at Bruges for Flan- ders, at London for England, at Novogorod for Russia, and at Bergen for Norway. The merchandise of Italy and the East was imported into Flanders, in Genoese or Venetian bottoms, which, at that time, carried on most of the commerce of the Levant and the Mediterranean. Extensive as the trade of the Hanseatic cities was, it proved neither solid nor durable. As they were themselves deficient in the articles of rr.w materials and large manufactories, and entirely dependent on foreign traffic, the industry of other na- tions, especially of those skilled in the arts, had a ruinous effect on their commerce ; and, in course of time, turned the current of merchandise into other channels. Besides, the want of union among these cities, their factions and intestine divisions, and their distance from each other, prevented them from ever forming a territorial or colonial power, or obtaining possession of the Sound, which alone was able to secure them the exclu- sive commerce of the Bailie. The sovereigns of Europe, per- ceivhig at length more clearly their true interests, and sensible of the mistake they had committed in surrendering the whole commerce of their kingdom to the Hanseatic merchants, used every means to limit and abridge their pri^leges more and more. This, in consequence, involved the confederate towns in several destructive wars with the Kings of the North, which exhausted their finances, and induced one city after another to abandon the League. The English and the Dutch, encouraged by the Danish Kings, took advantage of this favourable oppor- tunity to send their vessels to the Baltic ; and by degrees they appropriated to themselves the greater part of the trade that had been engrossed by the Hanseatic Uomn. But what is of more importance to remark, is, that this League, as well as that of Lombardy, having been formed in consequence of the state of anarchy into which the Empire had &Uen in the middle ages, the natural result was, that it should lose its credit and its influence in projportion as the feudal anarchy declined, and when the administration of the Empire had assumed a new form, and "%H nj :t the privilegw and to grant them. The flax, timber, potash, the produce of the )f Schonen, Norway, lie of the Hanseatic nodities, in the west- rugs, and all sorts of rth in return. Their at Bruges for Flan- od for Russia, and at of Italy and the East or Venetian bottoms, the commerce of the ic cities was, it proved :e themselves deficient jre manufactories, and industry of other na- ts, had a ruinous effect ne, turned the current Besides, the want of ind intestine divisions, ented them from ever r obtaining possession |ecure them the exclu- jreigns of Europe, per- interests, and sensible urrendering the whole seatic merchants, used ir pri^leges more and he confederate towns in j8 of the North, which le city after another to i the Dutch, encouraged ' this favourable oppor- ! ; and by degrees they r part of the trade that rnion. But what is of League, as well as that »nsequeace of the state id mien in the middle Id lose its credit and its rchy declined, and when isumed a new form, and PBRIOS ▼. A. D. 1300—1469. the landed nobility, emboldened by the iccesaiona which tlw seventeenth century had made to their power, had found means to compel their dependent cities to return t*^ iheir allegiano0| after having made repeated efforts to throw off their authority, encouraged as they were by the protection v hich the League held out to them. In this manner did the famous Hanseatic Jjeague, so formi- dable at the time of which we now speak, decline by degrees during the course of the seventeenth century, and in the early part of the eighteenth ; and during the Thirty Years War it be* came entirely extinct. The cities of Lubec, Hamburg and Bre« men, abandoned by all their confederates, entered into a new union for the interests of their commerce, and preserved the an> cient custom of treating in common with foreign powers, under the name of the Hanse Towns. The cities of Italy and the North were not the only ones that made commerce their pursuit in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Ghent, Bruges, Antwerp, and other towns in the Netherlands, contributed greatly to the prosperity of trade by their manufactures of cloth, cotton, camlets, and tapestry; arti* cles with which they supplied the greater part of Europe. The English exchanged their raw wool with the Belgians, for the finished manufactures of their looms, while the Italians furnish- ed them with the productions of .the Levant, and the silk stufft of India. Nothing is more surprising than the immense popu- lation of these cities, whose wealth and affluence raised their rulers to the rank of the most powerful princes in Europe. The city of Bruges was, ns it were, the centre and principal reposi- tory for the merchandise of the North and the South. Such an entrepot was necessary, at a time when navigation was yet in its infancy. For this purpose, Flanders and Brabant were ex- tremely proper, as these provinces had an easy communication with all the principal nations of the Continent ; and as the great number of their manufactories, together with the abimdance of fish which their rivers afforded, naturally attracted a vast con- course of foreign traders. This fjuperiority, as the Cv«mmercial capital of the Low Countries, Bruges retained till nearly the end of the fifteenth century, when it lost this preponderance, which was then transferred to the city of Antwerp. The intestine diasehsions with which the cities of Flanden and Brabant were agitated, the restraints which were incessant- ly imposed en their commerce, and the frequent wars which desolated the Low Countries, induced, from time to time, a great many Flemish operatives about the fourteenth century, and the nign of Edward III., to take refuge in England, ^ere they VOL. I. 10 .3 eHArriB n. Mtabluhed their cloth manufactories under the immediate pro taction of the crown. One circumstance which more particn* larly contributed to the prosperity of the Dutch commerce, was the new method of saltmg and barrelling herring, which was discovered about the end of the fourteenth century (or 1400) by a man' named William BeukeUzoon, a native of Biervliet, near Stuys. The new passage of the Texel, which the sea opened up about the same time, proved a most favourable accident for the city of Amsterdam, which immediately monopolized the Erincipal commerce of the fisheries, and began to be frequented y the Hanseatic traders. We now return to the history of Qermany. The Imperial throne, always elective, was conferred, in 1308, on the princes of the House of Luxembourg, who occupied it till 1438, when the House of Hapsburg obtained the Imperial dignity. It was under the reign of these two dynasties that the government of the Empire, which till then had been vacillating and uncertain, began to assume a constitutional form, and a new and settled code of laws. That which was published at the Diet of Frank- fort in 1338, secured the independence of the Empire against the Popes. It was preceded by a League, ratified at Rensd by the '^.lectors, and known by the name of the General Union of the Electors. The Golden Bull, drawn up by the Emperor Charles IV. (1356,) in the Diets of Nuremberg and Metz, fixed the order and the form of electing the Emperors, and the cere- monial of their coronation. It ordained that this election should be determined by a majority of the suffrages of the seven Elec- tors — and that the vote of ihe Elector, who might happen to be chosen, should also be included. Moreover, to prevent those electoral divisions, which had more than once excited factions and civil wars in the Empire, this law fixed irrevocably the right of suffrage in the Principalities, then entitled Electorates. It forbade any division of these principalities, and for this end it introduced the principal of birthright, and the order of suc- cession, called agnate, or direct male line from the same father. Finally, the Golden Bull determined more particularly the rights and privileges of the electors, and confirmed to the electors of the Palatinate and Saxony the viceroyalty or government of the Empire during any interregnum. The efforts which the Council of Basle made for the reforma- tion of the church excited the attention of the Etates of the em- pire. In a diet held at Mayence (1439,) they adopted several mereea of that council, by a solemn act drawn up in presence of the ambassadors of the council, and of the kings of France, Castille, Amgon, and Portugal. Among these adopted decroea. the immediate pro which mure particn* )utch commerce, was herring, which was century (or 1400) by ive of Biervliet, near which the sea opened vourable accident for ely monopolized the egan to be frequented many. The Imperial I 1308, on the princes >ied it till 1438, when lerial dignity. It was lat the government of illating and uncertain, ind a new and settled 1 at the Diet of Frank- of the Empire against le, ratified at Rensd by the General Union of n up by the Emperor mberg and Metz, fixed mperors, and the cere- hat this election should ages of the seven Elec- rho might happen to be eover, to prevent those in once excited factions IV fixed irrevocably the en entitled Electorates, alities, and for this end and the order of suc- e from the same father. « particularly the rights rmed to the electors of ty or government of the le made for the reforma- of the Etates of the em- ^) they adopted several t drawn up in presence of the kings of France, g these adopted decrees, ntioD T. A. D. 130(^1403. which were not afterwards altered, we observe those which establish the superiority of eoancils above the Popes, which prohibited those appeals called ammo medio, or inmeiiatet md enjoined the Pope to settle all appeals referred to his court, by commissioners appointed by him upon the spot. Two concor- dats, concluded at Rome and Vienna (1447-48,) between the Papal court and the German nation, confirmed these stipulations. The latter of these concordats, however, restored to the Pope deveral of the reserves, of which the Pragmatic Sanction had deprived him. He was also allowed to retain the right of con- firming the prelates, and enjoying the annats and the alternate months. The ties which united the numerous states of the Germui empire having been relaxed by the introduction of hereditary feudalism, and the downfall of Imperial authority, the conse- Sience was, that those states, which Avere more remote from e seat of authority, by degrees asserted their independence, or were reduced to suhjection by their more powerful neighbours. It was in this manner that several provinces of the ancient kingdom of Burgundy, or Aries, passed in succession to the crown of France. Philip the Fair, taking advantage of the dis- putes which had arisen between the Archbishop and the citizens of Lyons, obliged the Archbishop, Peter de Savoy, to surrender to him by treaty (1312) the sovereignty of the city and its de- pendencies. The same kingdom acquired the province of Dan- phiny, in virtue of the grant which the last Dauphin, Humbert II., made (1349) of his estates to Charles, grandson of Philip de Valois, and first Dauphin of France. Provence was likewise added (1481) to the dominions of that crown, by the testament of Charles, last Count of Provence, of the House of Anjou. As to the city of Avignon, it was sold (1348) by Joan I., Queen of Naples, and Countess of Provence, to Pope Clement VI., who at the same time obtained letters-patent from the Emperor Charles IV., renouncing the claims of the Empire to the sove- reignty of that city, as well as to all lands belongfing to the Church. A most important revolution happened about this time in Switzerland. That country, formerly dependent upon the king- dom of Burgundy, had become an immediate province of the Empire (1218,) on the extinction of the Dukes of Zahringen, who had governed it under the title of Regents. About the beginning of the fourteenth century, Switzerland was divided into a number of petty states, both secular and ecclesiastical. Among these we nnd the Bishop of Basle, the Abb^ of St. Gall, the Counts of Hapsburg, Toggenburg, Savoy, Gruyeres, Neuf- ehatel, Werdenberg, Buchecu, fcc The towns of Zurich, So- 1 HBAVriM YU Imuv, BmI*, Berne, and others, had the nmfc of free end unperml eMee. A part of tlie inhabitanta of Uri, Schweili, and Under- walden, who held unmediatelv of the Empire, were governed bjr their own magistrates, unaer the title of Cantons. They were placed by the Emperor under the jurisdiction of governors, iriio exercised, in his name and that of the Empire, the power of the sword in all these cantons. Such was tne constitution vi Switzerland, when the Emperor Albert I. of Austria, son of Rodolph of Hapsburg, conceived the project of extending his dominion in that country, where he already had considerable Essessions, in his capacity of Count of Hapsbui^, Kyburg, iden, and Lentzburg. Beinp: desirous of forming Switzerland into a principality, in favour of one of his sons, he made, in course of time, several new acquisitions of territory, with the view of enlarging his estates. The Abbeys of Murbach, Ein- aiedel, Interlaken, and Discntis, and the Canons of Lucerne, sold him their rights and possessions in QIaris, Lucerne, Si-hweitz, and Underwalden. He next directed his policy against the three immediate cantons of Uri, Schweitz, and Underwalden ; and endeavoured to make them acknowledge the superiority oi Austria, Vy tolerating the oppressions which the governors exer- cised, whom he had appointed to rule them in the name of the Empire. It was under these circumstances that three intrepid in- dividual, Werner de Stauflach,a native of the canton of Sch weiiz, Walter Fiirst, of Uri, and Arnold de Melchlhal of Underwalden, took the resolution of delivering their country from the tyranny of a foreign yoke." The conspiracy which they Turmed for this pur- pose, broke out on the 1st of January 1308. The governors, surprised in their castles by the conspirators, were banished the country, and their castles razed to the ground. The deputies of the three cantons assembled, and entered into a league of ten years for the maintenance of their liberties and their privileges ; reserving however to the Empire its proper rights, as also those claimed by the superiors, whether lay or ecclesiastical. Thus a conspiracy, which was originally turned only against Austria, terminated in withdrawing Switzerland from the sovereignty of the German empire. The victory which the confederates gained over the Austrians at Morgarten, on the borders of the canton of Schweitz, encouraged them to renew their league at Brunnen (1315;) and to redder it perpe'.ual. As it was confirmed by oath, the confederates, from this circumstance, got the name of Eidgenouen, iriueh meana, bound hy oath. This league became henceforth the basis of the fedend system of the Swiss, who « ore not long in strengthening their cause bv the accesaion of other cantons. The city of Lucerne, havin^^ shaken off the yoke of Hapsbuif, 1 - «_ I of Are* and imperwl chweilit and U nder- pire, wera governed of Cantona. They diction of governora, • Empire, the power waa the constitution I. of Austria, son of |ect of extending his idy had considerable Hapsburff, Kyburg, forming Switzerland is sons, he made, in of territory, with the ■ys of Murbach, Ein- mons of Lucerne, sold , Lucerne, Sihweitz, lis policy against the [z, and tJnderwalden ; idge the superiority ol ch the governors exer- sm in the name of the a that three intrepid in- the canton of Schweitz, hlhal of Underwalden, itry from the tyranny of hey rurmed for thie pur- 1308. The governors, itors, were banished the l^round. The deputies red into a league of ten es and their privileges ; per rights, as also those ir ecclesiastical. Thus id only against Austria, from the sovereignty of the confederates gained borders of the canton of leir league at Brunnen as confirmed by oath, the ;he name of Eidgenouen, gue became henceforth riss, who « jre not long eaaion <^ other cantons. 'the yoke of Hapabuif, ratioD ▼. A. B. 1300—1463. W$ j«iatd the Lotfue of Brunnon in 1339, Zurich in 1301, Okurli ud Zug 1303, and Berne in 13M. These formed the etght ancient cantons. The situation of the confederates, however, could not fltil to be Tery embimraasing, ao lon^ as the Austrians retained the TMt posaessiona which they had in the very centre of Switierland. The proscription which the Emperor Sigismund and the Coun- cil of Constance, iaaued againat Frederic, Duke of Austria ( 1410,) as an adherent and protector of John XXIIL, at len^h fur- nished the Swiss witn a favourable occasion for deprivmg the house of Austria of their possessions. The Bernese were the first to set the example ; they took from the Austrian Dukea, the towns of Zofflngen, Aran, and Bruck, with the counties of Hapsburg and Lentsburg, and the ^eater part of Aargua. Ky- burg fell into the hands of the Zurichers ; the Lucernese made themselves masters of Surs^e ; and the free bailiwicks, with the county of Baden, the towns of Mellingen and Bremgarten, were subdued by the combined forces of the ancient cantons, who, since then, have possessed them in common. In the kingdom of Lorraine a new power rose about this time (1363,) that of the Dukes of Burgundy. Philip the Hardy, younger son of John the Good, King of France, having been created Duke of Burgundy by the K'laa his father, married Margaret, daughter and heiress of Louis IIL, last Count of Flanders. By this marriage 'he obtained Flanders, Artoia, Frenche-Comt^, Nevers, Bethel, Malines, and Antwerp, and transmitted these estates to his son John the Fearless, and his grandson Philip the Good. This latter prince increased them still more by several new acquisitions. The Count of Namar sold him his whole patrimony, (1428.) He inherited from his cousin Philip of Burffundy, the dutchies of Brabant and Lim- bourg, (1430.) Anotner cousin, the famous Jaqueline de Ba« varia, made over to him by treaty (1433) the counties of Hainault, Holland, Zealand, and Friesland. Finally, he acquired also the dutchy of Luxembourg and the county of Chiny, by a compact which he made with the Princess Elizabeth (1443,) niece of the Emperor Sigismund. These different accessions were so much the more important, as the Low Countries, especially Flandera and Brabant, were at that time the seat of the most flourishing manufactories, and the principal mart of European commerce. Hence it happened, that the Dukes of Burgundy began to com- pete with the first powers in Europe, and even to rival the Kings of France. Among the principal reigning families of the Empire, several revolutions took place. The ai.cient Slavonic dynasty of the 16* am CB'Tuvi. Ookta and Kings nf Bohcmi« became extinct with WeRcenlaM v., who wot UMaaimted \u 1906. The Emperor Henry VII., of the hou«e of Luxembourg, aeiied thia opportunity or trana* ferring to his own family the kinsdom of Bohemia, in whrch be inreated his aon John (1309,) wno hud married the Princess Blixaboih, sister to the laat King of Bohemia. John, having made considernble acquisitions in Bohemia, was induced to cede by treaty with Poland, the sovereignly of that province. The Ediperor Charles IV., son of John, incorporated Silesia, as also Luaaiia, with the kinj^iiom of Bohemia, by the Pragmniics which he- publiahet! in 1356 and 1370. The war with the Hua- aitea broke out on lht> death of the Emperor Wencealaun, King of Bohemia (1418;) kcau*': the followers of John Huss, and Jerome of Prague, hud refused to acknowledge, an successor of I it, that prince, the Emperor Sigismund, his brother and heir, whom they blarnfd for the martyrdom of their leaders. This war, one of the most banguinary which the spirit of intolerance aud fanat'u-ism ever excited, continued for a lon][^ series ui yeirs. John ite Trocxnova, surnamed Ziska, general-in-chitif of the Hussites, defeated several times those nuiiitrous armies of cru- saders, which were BenX against iiim into Bohemia ; and it was not till long after the death of tiiat extruordinarv man, that Si- gismund succee'leii in alluyinf; the tempest, and re-establishing hia own authority in that kingdom. The house of wiitelsbach, wiiirh possessed at the samfi time the Palatinate and Bavaria, was divided into two principal branches, viz. that of the Electors Palatine, and the D tkes of Bavaria. By the treaty of division, which was entered inlo at Favin (1329,) they agreed on a reciprocal succession of the two bratkches, in cn^e the one or the ulher should hajppcii to fail of heirs-male. The direct line of the Electors of Saxony of the Ascanian House happening to become extinct, the Emperor Sigismund, without paying any regard to the claims ut the younger branches of Saxony, conferred that Electorate (1423,) •a a vacant fief of the Empire, on Frederic the Warlike, Mar- gravs of Misnia, who had rendered him signal assistance in the war against the Hussites. This Prince had two grandsons, Ernest and Albert, from whom are descended the two principal branches, which still divide the House of Saxony. The Ascanian dynasty did not lose merely the Electorate of Saxony, as we have just stated ; it was also deprived, in the preceding century, of the Electorate of Brandcnburjr. Albert, surnamed the Bear, a scion of this house, had transmitted this latter Electorate, of which he was the founder, to his descend* ants in direct line, the male heira of which failed about the be* 'Z net with Wer.cMUm ?inp«ror Henry VII., opportunity of inau- ioneroia, in which h« narried the Princes* emit. John, huviiiji; , wai induced to cede that province. The orated Silesia, as also , by the Pragmatics rhe war with the Hus- ror WenceslauH, Kins rs of John Huss, and riedge, an successor of rolher and heir, whom ' leaders. This war, irit of intolerance aud long series of yeirs. lenernl-in-chief of the iiKTOus armies of cru ■ Bohemia ; and it war. irdinary man, that Si- !8t, and re-establishing Bssed at the samfi time ed into two principal ine, and the D iVes of ch was entered inlo at ,1 succession of the two liould happen to fail of ctors of Saxony of the extinct, the Emperor I to the claims, oi' the that Electorate (1423,) eric the Warlike, Mar- signal assistance in the ce had two grandsons, ended the two principal )f Saxony. nerely the Electorate of as also deprived, in the Brandenburg. Albert, ise, had transmitted this founder, to his descend- iiith failed about the be- IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) Photographic Sciences Corporation ^-~, =^i"-*ai.-. - CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHIVI/ICMH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historicai Microreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques ' '^^l^iS^SST--' ntios V. A. B. 1800—1453. isr ginning of the fourteenth centurv. The Empem Louis of Bavaria then hestowed it on his eldest son Louis (1324.) to the exclusion of the collateral branches of Saxony and Anhalt. The Bavarian Princes, however, did not long preserve this Electo- rate; they surrendered it (1373) to the fimperor Charles IV.. whose son Sigisround ceded it to Frederic. Burgrave of Nu- remberg, of the House of HohenzoUern, who had advanced him considerable sums to defray his expeditions into Hungary. Ihis Prince was solemnly invested witli the electoral dignity by the Emperor, at the Council of Constance (1417.) and became the ancestor of aU the Electors and Margraves of Brandenburg, as well as of the Kings of Prussia. The numerous repubUcs which had sprung up m Italy, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, were torn to pieces by contend- ine factions, and a prey to mutual and incessant hostilities. What contributed to augment the trouble and confusion in that unhappy country was, that, during a long series of years, no Emperor had repaired thither in person, or made the smallest attempt to restore the Imperial authority in those states. 1 he feeble efforts of Henry VII., Louis of Bavaria, and Charles lY., only served to prove, that in Italy the royal prerogative was without vigour or effect. Anarchy every where prevailed ; and that spirit of liberty and republicanism which had once anima- ted the Italians gradually disappeared. Disgusted at length with privileges which had become so fatal to them, some of these republics adopted the plan of choosing new masters ; while others were subjected, against their inclinations, by the more powerful of the nobles. The Marquises of Este seized Modena and Reggio (1336.) and obtained the ducal dignity (1462) from the Emperor Frederic III. Mantua fell to the house of Gonza- ea, who possessed that sovereignty first under the title of Mar- Iraves, and afterwards under that of Dukes, which was confer- red on them by the Emperor Charles V. in 1530 But the greater part of these luilian republics fell to the share of the Visconti of Milan. The person who founded the prosperity of their house was Matthew Visconti, nephew of Otho Visconti, Archbishop of Milan. Invested with the titles of Captain and Imperial Viceroy in Lombardy, he continued to make himsell acknowledged as sovereign of Milan (1315,) and conquered m succession all the principal towns and republics of Lombardy. His successors followed his example : they enlarged their terri- tories by several new conquests, till at length John Galeas, great erandson of Matthew Visconti, obtained, from the Emperor Wen- ceslaus (1395,) for a sum of a hundred thousand florins of gold which he paid him, the title of Duke of Milan for himself and 18B »\, •BAmtKVI. •U his dMcendwta. The Visconii fiunily mgned at Biitan tOl 1447, when they were replaced by that of Sforia. , the fourtwnth century, the in«wt conspicuou. "ert thowB of Florence, Genoa and Venice. The city of Florence, hke tJl the others in Tuscany, formed itself into a "P-"*^ •^«» *• end of the twelfth century. lu government «"«»?'*« "i3"»* changes, after the introduction of a democracy about the middle of thi thirteenth century. The various factions which had ag- tated the republic, induced the Florentines to elect • W»;«»« (1292.) calfed GanfaUmiere de Justice, or Captain of Justice , nvTsted with power to assemble the inhabitants under h". Btand- ard, whenever the means for conciliation were insufficient to i^ess faction and restore peace. These internal agita^mns, however, did not prevent the Florentines from enriching them- selves by means of their commerce and manufactures, iney succeed^, in course of time, in «"*'ir,V"» »If oTp S Chich the free cities of Tuscany, and especially that of£»s»' ^J'^J they conquered in 1406. The republic of Lucca ^J »''««» y one thantiaintained its independence. ,n spite of » t^« ««J;^ which the Florentines made to subdue it. The repubhcan form of government continued in Florence till the y«" If 0'J>»«" the family of the Medici i^surped the sovereignty, under the 'r::^:l^:lr^^^'^'^ ^he Genoese to quarrel with liL^srilxasSei^^'ai^ Svant and the Mediterranean. This gave rise to a long and dfslstrous series of wars, the last and most memorab e of which was that of Chioggia (137&-82.) The Genoese^fler a signd ^tory which they obtained over the Venetians, hjpfoie Pola in the Adriatic Gulf,'penetrated to ^he very midst of the ^^^^^ of Venice, and attacked the port of Chioggia. Peter Dona made himseK master of this port ; he would have even surprised Ve- SS tad" he taken ad'van age of the Brst consternaUon of the Venetians, who were already deliberating T'f^J^' ^JfX Ti^e abandon their city and take refuge in the '^^^ «f f "»^'*;,,„\^^^^ tardiness of the Genoese admiral gave ^^em time to recover hemilves Impelled by a noble despair, they made extraordi- ra,;^?ffort8 to eq'ip a n'ew fleet, with which they attacked Ae Genoese near Chioggia. This place was retaken (24th June iSoTand the severe check which the Genoese there received, mlv'be "aid to have decided the command of the sea in favour of the Venetians But what contributed still more to the down- tui the G noese, was the instability of their government, and T niioD V. A. s. 1300^1453. 18» lily reigned at Hilui till or Sfem. B«ped the catutrofAe of ipicuoua were thoM of ty of FloTence, like all to a repnblic about the nent underwent fret^uent locracy about the middle I factions which had agi- nes to elect a magistrate , or Captain of Justice ; abitants under his stand* ;ion were insufficient to 'hese internal imitations, les from enriching them- id manufactures. They fCting the greater part of ally that of Pisa, which ic of Lucca was the only in spite of all the efforts it. The republican form till the year 1630, when B sovereignty, under the I Genoese to quarrel with inst the Venetians. The ted each other, both in the s gave rise to a long and most memorable of which le Genoese, after a signal Venetians, before Pola in irery midst of the lagoons ioggia. Peter Doria made 1 have even surprised Ve- first consternation of the iting whether they should 1 the is«le of Candia. The jave them time to recover 5 pair, they made extraordi- h which they attacked the :e was retaken {24th June he Genoese there received, nmand of the sea in favour lied still more to the down- ly of their government, and the internal commotions of the repubric. Agitated by continual diTisions between the nobles and the common citiaens, and in- capable of managing their own affairs, they at length surrender- ed themselves to the power of strangers. Volatile and incon- stant, and equally impatient of liberty as of servitude, these fickle republicans underwent a frequent change of masters. Twice (1396-1458) they put themselves under the protMtionof the Kings of France. At length they discarded the French, and chose for their protector either the Marquis of Montferrat or the Duke of Milan. Finally, from the year 1464, the city of Genoa wasconstanUy regarded as a dependency of the dutchy of Milan, until 1628, when it recovered once more its ancient state of independence. , „ j i- • .u . While tlie Republic of Genoa was gradually declining, that of Venice was every day acquiring new accessions of power. The numerous establishments which they hod formed in the Adriatic Gulf and the Eastern Seas, together with the additional viirour which they derived from the introduction of the heredi- tary aristocracy, were highly advantageous to the progress of their commerce and marine. The treaty which they concluded with the Sultan of Egypt (1343.) by guaranteeing to their re- public an entire liberty of commerce in the ports of Syria and Ervpt, as also the privilege of having consuls at Alexandria and Dunascus, put it in their power gradually to appropriate to themselves the whole trade of India, and to maintain it against the Genoese, who had disputed with them the commerce of the East, as well as the command of the sea. These successes en- couraged the Venetians to make new acquisitions ; the turbu- lent state ofLombardy having afforded them an opportunity of enlariring their dominions on the continent of Italy, where at first they had possessed only the single dogeship of Venice, and the small province of Isiria. They seized on Treviso, and the whole Trevisan March (1388.) which they took from the pow- erful house of Carrara. In 1420 they again got possession of Dalmalia, which they conquered from Sigismund, King of Hun- oarv. This conquest paved the way for that of Friuli, which Fhev took about the same time from the Patriarch of Aquileia, an ally of the King of Hungary. At length, by a «>cce88«onof Bood fortune, they detached from the dutchy of Milan (1404) the cities and territories of Vicenia, Belluno, Verona, Padua, Brescia, Bergamo, and Cremona (1464,) and thus formed a con- siderable estate on the mainland. j v . Naples, during the course of this period, was governed by • daaceSdant of Charles, of the first House of Anjou •»* yo-g^ brother of St. UuU. Queen Joan L, daughter of Robert, Kiag M 190 CBAPTBK VI. of Naples, having no children of her own, adopteo a yoanger nrince of the AngeTine family, Charles of Dununo, whom she destined as her successor, after having ^iven him her niece in marriage. This ungrateful prince, in his eagerness to possess the crown, took arms against the Queen his benefactress, uid compelled her to solicit the aid of foreign powers. It was on this occasion that Joan, after rescinding and annulling her former deed of adoption, made another in favour of Louis I., younger brother of Charles V., King of France, and founder of the second House of Aniou. But the succours of that prince come too late to save the Queen from the hands of her cruel enemy. Charles < having made himself master of Naples and of the Queen's per- son (1382,) immediately put her to death, and maintained him- self on the throne, in spite of his adversary Louis of Anjou, who obtained nothing more of the Queen's estates than the single county of Provence, which he transmitted to his descendants, together with his claim on the kingdom of Naples. Joan II., daughter and heiress of Charles of Durazzo, having been at- tacked by Louis III. of Anjou, who wished to enforce the rights of adoption which had descended to him from his grandfather Louis I., she implored the protection of Alphonso V., King of Arragon, whom she adopted and decLired her heir (1421 ;) but afterwards, having quarrelled with that prince, she changed her resolution, and passed a new act of adoption (1423) in favour of that same Louis of Anjou who had just made war against her. Rcn« of Anjou, the brother and successor of that prince, took possession of the kingdom of Naples on the death of Joan II. (1436 ;) but he was e*p«lled by the King of Arragon (1446.) who had procured from Pope Eugenius IV. the investiture of that kingdom, which he transmitted to his natural son Ferdi- nand, descended from a particular branch of the Kings of Na- ples. The rights of the second race of Angevine princes, were transferred to the Kings of France, along with the county of Provence (1481.) , . , • .• u .u Spain, which was divided into a variety of sovereignties both Christian and Mahometan, presented at this time a kind of sepa- rate or distinct continent, whose interests had almost nothing in common with the rest of Europe. The Kings of Navarre, Cas- tillo, and Arragon, disagreeing among themselves, and occupied with the internal affairs of their own kingdoms, had b^t little leisure to attempt or accomplish any foreign enterprise. Of all the Kings of Castille at this penodi, the jnost famous, in the wars against the Moor., mm AlphoB«> XL The Mahometan kings7f Morocco and CtosodUt hatittgr^nited thaw forces, laid ^iB^ to the city of T«»iflh i» AxdiAvtm, whew AlphoDsoi *•• T ration V. A. D. IdOO— 1463. 191 wn, adopieQ a yonoMr of DuituBO, whom sne ^iven him her niece in us eagerness to possess his benefactress, and powers. It was on this annulling her former ur of Louis I., younger nd founder of the second that prince came too late 3r cruel enemy. Charles and of the Queen's per- th, and maintained him* iry Louis of Anjou, who I estates than the single itted to his descendants, m of Naples. Joan II., )urazzo, having been at- hed to enforce the rights lim from his grandfather >f Alphonso v.. King of red her heir (1421 ;) but prince, she changed her iption (1423) in favour of It made war against her. sssor of that prince, took on the death of Joan II. i.ing of Arragon (1446,) us IV. the investiture of ;o his natural son Ferdi- mch of the Kings of Na- if Angevine princes, were ilong with the county of iety of sovereignties both it this time a kind of sepa- sts had almost nothing in le Kings of Navarre, Cas- themselves, and occupied kingdoms, had but little >reiga enterprise. Of all , thejnoat famous, in the ID XL The Mahometan f waited dieir forces, kud UM, whew Alphonaot «>• ■iited by the Kins of Portugal, ventured to attack them in the neighbourhood oflhat place. He gained a complete victory oror the Moors (1340 ;) and this was followed by the conquest of various other cities and districts ; among others, Alcala-Real, and Algeziras. While the Kiujpfs of Castille were extending their conquests in the interior of Spain, those of Arragon, hemmed in by the Castillians, were obliged to look for aggrandizement abroad. They possessed the country of Barcelona or Catalonia, in virtue of the marriage of Count Raymond Berenger IV. with Donna Petronilla, heiress of the kingdom of Arragon. To this they added the county of Rousillon, and the seignory or lordship of Montpelier, both of which, as well as Catalonia, belonged to the sovereignty of France. Don James I., who conquered the king- dom of Valencia and the Balearic Isles, gave these, with Rou- sillon and Montpelier, to Don James his younger son, and who was a descendant of the Kings of Majorca, the last of whom, Don James III., sold Montpelier to France (1349.) Don Pedro III., King of Arragon, and eldest son of Don James I., took Sicily, as we have already seen, from Charles I. of Anjou. Ferdinand II., a younger son of Don Pedro, formed a separate branch of the kings of Sicily, on the extinction of which (1409,) that kingdom reverted to the crown of Arnigon. Sardinia was incorporated with the kingdom of Arragon by Dun James II., who had conquered it from the Pisans. Finally, Alphonso V., King of Arragon, having deprived the'Angevines of the king- dom of Naples, established a distinct line of Neapolitan kings. This kingdom was at length united with the monarchy of Arra- gon by Ferdinand the Catholic. In Portugal, the legitimate line of kings, descendants of Henry of Burgundy, had failed in Don Ferdinand, son and suc- cessor of Don Pedro III. This prince had an only daughter named Beatrix, born in criminal intercourse with Eleanora Tellez de Meneses, whom he had token from her lawful hus- band. Being desirous to make this princess his successor, he married her, at the age of eleven, to John I., King of Castille ; securing the throne to the son who should be born of this union, and failing him, to the King of Castille, his son-in-law. Fer- dinand dying soon after this marriage, Don Juan, his natural brother, and gmnd-maater of the order of Aviez, knowing the aversion of the Portuguese for the Castillian sway, turned this to his own advantage, by seizing the regency, of which he had deprived the Queen-dowager. The King of Castille imme« diatflly laid nMt to Lisbon ; but having miscarried in this en* terpriie, the StatM of Portugal assembled at Coimbra, and eKATttftVl. conferred ihe crown o^^'>Ji,J^»"\^'''^!^,^^!!'!Z!i!t^ wune of John the Boitard. This prince, aided with troop from EnJlwid, en«ged the Castillians and their all « the French, ft tWamouftattle fought on the plains of A^jubarota (14th Auffust 1386.) The Portuguese remained masters of the Held, and John the Bastard succeeded in maintaining himself on the Throne of Portugal. The war however, contmued sever, vears between the Portuguese and the Castilhans, and did not ferminVte till 1411. By the peace which was then concluded, HeZlII. onof John^.. £ng of Castillo, agreed never to uro« the caiir-) of Queen Beatrix, his mother-in-law, who had 3h&et"john7he Bastard founded a newd^nasty^f kmgs, who occupied the throne of Portugal from 1386 to 1580. In FraSce. the direct line of kmgs, descendants of Hugh Cait. havini become extinct in the sons of Philm the ^r Ae crown passed to the collateral branch o Valo.s (1^) which fumisW a series of thirteen kings, during a period of two hundred and sixty-one years. u- u u j .»..,«» The rivalry between France and England, which had sprung r/tiffc?^^^^^^ "S'th: x nuarrels of Uie two nations had bee'n limited to some particular Jerrtory. or province; but now they dsputed even the suedes- Sn to the thVone of France, which the kings of England claimed as "heir rS Edward III., by his mother, Isabella of France, was nephew to Charles IV., the last of the Capet.an kings ma direct line. He claimed the succession in opposition to Ph lip V . surnamed de Valois, who being cousin-gjman to Charies. was one dejrree more remote than the King of England. Ihe rmo?Ed'w«d was opposed bv the SaHcUwh^h excluded fpmales from the succession to the throne ; but, according to the inl^metSn of that prince, the law admitted his right, and mus? £ understood L referring to females nersonatly. who were excluded on account of the weakness of their sex, and not^otSmaledescendanU. Granting that his mother, Isa- Kui cou d not herself aspire to the crown, he maintained that ^iarU the^ight o^^^^^^ ^l SdedTnTvSof'ptl^Xp^^^^^ fcomaire to that prince for the dutchy of Guienne ; but he laid 5rcWm'oSl??own«ntil 1337. 4en he assumed the titte lUHs of the King of France. The '^^ ''^.'^'^.^f » /J 1338. was renewed daring several reigns, for the »?«• «» JJ Sri yews, and ended with the entire expulsion of theBng- lish from France. mn in history by th« aided with troops from their allies the French, 18 of Aljubarota (14th led masters of the field, itaining himself on the tet, continued several yastillians, and did not ;h was then concluded, istille, agreed never lo nother-in-law, who had a new dynasty of kings, om 1385 to 1580. , descendants of Hugh ins of Philip the Fair, ranch of Valois (1328,) igs, during a period of jland, which had sprung d a more hostile charac- Valois. Till then, the mited to some particular isputed even the succes- ings of England claimed )ther, Isabella of France, r the Capetian kings in a 1 in opposition to Philip (usin-german to Charles, King of England. The alic l«w, which excluded me ; but, according to the admitted his right, and females personally, who ikness of their sex, and ing that his mother, Isa- :rowD, he maintained that which qualified him for ice, however, having de- f England did fealty and of Guienne ; but he laid lien he assumed the title rhe war which began in reigns, for the space of a itire expulsion of dieEng- / * r" Zengkii KKan, the Mogul Prinee. Vol. I— p. 166. Detth of Ckmstantine XV. in dtfending Contlun- tmapu. FW.i-p.aoe. -Jt JiMt.ti. ■■<■—•>.-. Vol. I— p. 1S5. ^ending Cotutan- -JL^w niioD V. A. D. 190O— 14A3. M Nothinff could be more wretched then the flituation of this kingdom during the reign of Charles VI That prince having fallen into a state of insanity in the flower of his age, two pnr* ties, those of Burgundy and Orleans, who had disputed with each other about the regency, divided the Court into factions, and kindled the flames of civil war in the four corners of the kingdom. John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, and uncle to the king, caused Louis, Duke of Orleans, the King's own brother, to be assassinated at Paris (1407.) He himself was assassinated in his turn (1419) on the bridge of Montereau, in the very presence of the Dauphin, who was afterwards king, under the name of Charles VII. These dissensions gnve the Endish an opportunity for renewing the war. Henry the V. of England gained the famous battle of Agincourt, which followed by the conquest of all Normandy. Isabella of Btt- varia then abandoned the faction of Orleans, and the party of her son the Dauphin, and joined that of Burgundy. Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, and son of Jv'>hn the Fearleas, being determined to revenge the death of his father, which he laid to the charge of the Dauphin, entered into a negotiation with England, into which he contrived to draw Queen Isabella, and the imbecile Charles the VI. By the treaty of peace con* eluded at Troyes in Champagne (1430,) it was agreed that Catharine of France, daughter of Charles VI. and Isabella of Bavaria, should espouse Henry V., and that, on the death of the King, the crown should pass to Henry, and the children tit his marriage with the Princess of France ; to the exclusion of the Dauphin, who, as an accomplice in the murder of the Duke of Burgundy, was declared to have lost his rights to the crown, and was banished from the kingdom. Henry V. died in the flower of his age, and his death was followed soon after by that of Charles VI. Henry VI., son of Henry V. and Cathanne of France, being then proclaimed Kins: of England and France, fixed his residence at Paris, and had for his regents his two uncles, the Dukes of Bedford and Gloucester. Such was the preponderance of the English and Burgundian party in France at this period, that Charles VII., commonly called the Dauphin, more than once saw himself upon the . i>oint of being expelled the kingdom. He owed his' safety en* tirely to the appearance of the famous Joan of Are, called the Maid of OrleaiiB. This extraordinary woman revived the drooping county of the French. She compelled the Bng^iah to raise the siege of Orleans, and brought Ae Khtg to he crowned at Rheimi (1429.) But what contribnted st^ more to retrieve the party of Charlea VII., was the reeoaeiliatioii et thut VOL. I. 17 SM CHArTM VI. mince with the Duke of Burgundy, which took piece «t the K^e o7 Arm (1435.) The Duke having then united We K : th r.o tf tic King the Engl..h -r* ;;.;»»-^7i expelled from France (14fi3.) the smgU city of Cnla.t being ell that remnined to 'hem of their former .onqueBt.. An important '-o'^tion happened in th g"vern--t^.of St?el^g:u7'?y\he?x^^^^^^^^^^ En/li^h. and the fe onriUat on o?va ious narliei that took place i" con»cquonce TTeSdKy^tem. .hicl; till then ^^^ r v» JJ 'n F-" fd^^ ho feudal n ode of warfare. This prince also 'nst.tuted Ur - Mra. augmented '" 5"""%°J '^'^,';; of the«« estiblishments, tagenets, those of Lancaster ??« * Yv ihe first king of the time the right to the crown. "«"'y/;-J,' „r 0-*. |)uke of House of V«^«r„^oX°aVilltgo&^^^^^^ Lancaster, and grandson of Edward "J^ '^'"K ^ « ^^ . ^.^ Trt tlTamT But " .t"d ^f enforcing the rights of Parliament UJww.J »»» iiibw»« ,„^_ jfi,.Up, he rested ihich he inherited from hi. father and ^»dfath« Ji* ^^ his claims enUrely upon those which J'.'^'^S"" °" » g„nd. to him in right o/hi. '"<'^»'"' ^tlc^^^^^^^^^ daughter of Edward. """•'"^^^""SJr^ ^as the eldest son ThiS prince, according to a W^" ^rJ^^J e«^^^^^^^^ f"™ ^« of Henry III., who. it *" »;'|'.5^d l! on"S of his de- throne hy hie younger bfother tawaro i., »« »»- T ich took place at the aving then united bin liih were in their turn city of Calais being «ll nquesti. in the government of The royal authority f the English, and the Ik place in consequence. prevailed in France, fell |he first king who estab* is succcsaorx to abandon nee oIno institulpd Cot't' riiy the expense of their thority, a certain impost *-d'armes. This stand- V to six thoii!fand men, Kile the royal finances of these establishments, y over their vassuU that iion to prescribe laws to le feudal system. The ttle resistance against I'hiie the kincs, imposing )enRed with tne necessity ; same prince secured the St the encroachments of ing several of the decrees lused to be passed in the 1 published under the title igning family of the Plan- >rk, contested fpr a long IV., the first king of the John of Gaunt, Duke of II. King of England. He whom he deposed by act of enforcing the rights nd grandfather, he rested he sdleged had devolved of Lancaster, great grand- :hback, Earl of Lancaster, adition, was the eldest son been excluded from the d I., on account of his de- e mioD V. i. D. 1300—1453. 100 fonnity. This tradition prored useful to Henry IV. in rveludinf the rights of the House of Clarence, who preceded him in *b« order of succession. This latter family was descended from Lionel, Duke of Clarence, and elder brother of John of Gaunt. Philippine, daughter of Lionel, was married to Edward Morti- mer, Dy whom she had a son, Roger, whom the Parliament, by an act passed in 1386, declared presumptive heir to the crown. Ann Mortimer, the daughter of Roger, married Richard, Duke of York, son of Edward Langley, who was the younger brother of John of Gaunt, and thus transferred the right of Lionel (o the Royal House of York. The Princes of the House of Lancaster are known in Eng- lish history by the name of the Red Rose, while those of York were designated by that of the White Rose. The former of these Houses occupied the throne for a period of sixty-ihree years, during the reigns of Henry IV., v., VI, It was under the feeble reign of Henry VI. that the House of York began to advance their right to the crown> and that the civil war broke out between the two Roses. Richard, Duke of York, and heir to the claims of Lionel and Mortimer, was the first to raise the standard in this war of competition (1462,) which continued more than thirty years, and was one of the most cruel and san- guinary recorded in history. Twelve pitched battles were fought between the two Rosesi eiffhty princes of the blood pe- rished in the contest, and England, during the whole time, pre- sented a tragical spectacle of horror and carnage. Edward IV., son of Richard, Duke of York, and grandson of Ann Mortimer, ascended the throne (1461,) which he had stained with the blood of Henry IV., and of several other Princes of the House of Lancaster. In Scotland, the male line of the ancient kings having become extinct in Alexander III., a crowd of claimants appeared on the field, who disputed with each other the succession of the throiit.' The chief of these competitors were the two Scottish families of Baliol and Bruce, both descended by the mother's side from the Royal Family. Four princes of these contending families reigned in Scotland until the year 1371, when the crown passed from the House of Bruce to that of Stuart. Robert II., son of Walter Stuart and Marjory Bruce, succeeded his uncle David II., and in his family the throne remained until the Union, when Scotland was united to England about the beginning of the seventeenth century. Under the government of the Stuarts, the royal authority acquired fresh energy after being long re- strained and circumscribed by a turbulent nobility. Towards the middle of the fiAeenth century, James I., a very accomplished , J , i .tUiS7^%*iif^SMilfff^ prince, gate the first blow to the feudal system «* /^ •"'«• SwJpower of the grandees. He depnved them of several of S CTOwn-lands which they had usurped. '"^ confiscated the Sllirty of some of the most audacious whom he had con- nJ?/to eLution. James II. followed the examrie of his SSer. He strengthened the royal authontv, by humbling the Swerful family of Douglas, as well as by t^e wise law, which ha nrevailed with his Parliament to adopt. . . ^ , ^ -fieThie kingdoms of the North, after h^^S . «^» j^«;"f agitated by internal dissensions, were at length united into a SemonarchybyMargaret.caUedtheSemiram.sofA^^^^^^ This princess was daughter of Valdemar III., the last King of Denmark of the ancient reigning family, and widow of Haco A^ Kinir of Norway. She was first elected Queen of Den- Sik. ^1 Aen of /orway. after the death of her «on Olaus V whom she had by her marriage with Haco, and who died wiUirutTeaving any posterity (1387.) The Swedes, d.scon- JILted US thfir If in|, Albert of Mecklenburg, likewise be- C2l7ht Iwn upo^r: this princess Albert was^n^ and made prisoner at the battle of Fahlekoeping (1389- ^j^« whole of Leden, from that time, acknowledged the authority Soaeen Marearet. Being desirous of uniting the three king- SiSSoSSebody^iUic-sheassem^^^^^^^^^^ Estates at Calmar (1397.) and there caused her g«f -J1«P;«^- Brie, son of V^Uislaus. Duke of Pomerania, and Mary of Mecklenburff, daughter of Ingeburg, her own sister, to be re- KTndcrowJef as her successor. The act which ratified Ae Jer^tual and irrevocable union of tJ^i^^'^^-^f^ITJ^S •DDrovJd in that assembly. It provided, that the united states SJSd in future, have but one and the same king, who should £ cbo en with the common consent of the Senators and Depu- SL. ofXThreeWngdoms, that they should always give the i^fere^e to Sie dXndants of Eric, if there were any ; that ^ ZTkingdoms should assist each other with their combined ^c«Sainsfall foreign enemies; that each J^JJ^^ j^^J^^ preserve its own constitution, its senate, and national legiMa fure. and be governed conformably to its own laws. This unioJ, how formidable soever it inight apneu at drst riirwas by no means firmly consolidated. A federal system Kree monarchies. divid«l by mutual jealousies- a^^^ M>J •imiUritv in their laws, manners, and mstitutious, could preMnt SSSgUher «»Ud or durable Thej«e«WecUo^^ Whkh the kings of the union who succeeded Margaret showea ftTthe DaS the preference which they g^^. t»je» ^ J* ^triWtioa of fiivouis and places of trust, and U»e tone of sa •ystem and the exorbi- ved them of MTeral of and confiscated the loua whom he had con- wed the example of his horitv, by humbling the by the wise law^ which lOpt. after haTing been long at length united into a Semiramis of the North. Aar III., the last King of ily, and widow of Haco St elected Queen of Den- death of her son, Olaus with Haco, and who died .) The Swedes, discon- ecklenburg, likewise be- Albert was vanquished hlekoeping (1389.) The cnowledged the authority of uniting the three king- assembled their respective caused her grand-nephew Pomerania, and Mary of her own sister, to be re- The act which ratified tf the three kingdoms, was ided, that the united states he same king, who should of the Senators and Dcpu- ly should always give the ic, if there were any ; that t other with their combined hat each kingdom should late, and national legi'ila- > its own laws, sr it might appear at first lidated. A federal system ual jealousies, and by dis- I institutions, could present The predilection, besides, icceeded Margaret showed ;h they gave them in the ' trust, and the tone of su FKBioD y. A. 0. 1300 — 1453. 107 periority which they affected towards their allies, tended natu- rally to foster animosity and hatred, and, abore all, to ezaapente the Swedes against the union. Eric, after a very turbulent reign, was deposed, and his nephew, Christopher the Bavarian, was elected King of the union m his place. This latter prince having died without issue, the Swedes took this opportunity of breaking the union, and choosing a king of their own, Chairles Canutson Bonde, known by the title of Charles YIII. It was he who induced the Danes to venture likewise on a new elec- tion ; and this same year they transferred their crown to Chris- tian, son of Thierry, and Count of Oldenburg, descended by the female side from the race of their ancient kings. This prince had the good fortune to renew the union with Norway (1450;) he likewise governed Sweden from the year 1437, when Charle» VIII. was expelled by his subjects, till 1464, when he was' recalled. But what deserves more particularly to be remarked, is the acquisition which Christian made of the frovinces of Sleswick and Hoistein, to which he succeeded 14%,) by a disposition of the States of these provinces, after the death of Duke Adolphus, the maternal uncle of the new King of Denmark, and last male heir of the Counts of Hoi- stein, of the ancient House of Schauenburg. Christiax. I. was the progenitor of all the Kings who have since reigned in Den- mark and Norway. His grandson lost Sweden ; but, in the last century, the thrones both of Russia and Sweden were occupied by princes of his family. Russia, during the whole of this period, groaned under the degrading yoke of the Moguls and the Tartars. The Grand Dukes, as well as the other Russian princes, were obliged to solicit the confirmation of their dignity from the Khan of Kip- zack, who granted or ref ised it at his pleasure. The dissen- sions which arose among the^o northern princes, were in like manner submitted to his decision. When summoned to appear at his horde, they were obliged to repair thither without delay, and often suffered the punishment of ignominy and death." The contributions which the Khans at first exacted from the Rus- sians in the shape of gratuitous donations, were converted, in course of time, into regular tribute. Bereke Khan, the suc- cessor of fiatou, was the first who levied this tribute by officers of his own nation. His successors increased still more the load of these taxes ; they e 'en subjected the Russian prince* to the performance of military' service. The Grand Ducal dignity, which for a long time belonged exclusively to the chiefs of the principalities of Vladimir and Kiaso, became common, about the end of the fourteenth cen- 17* tm, to Mverd «rf the othet piincipditiw, who Awed wioBf SS the dsminion of Russia. The onnce. •/ »«^' T'^J SZo^endco, Md seToral others, took the utle of <*«"* D™: ?Sga sh themselves from the petty muices who were e^ iiSshed within theirprincipaliues. These *»▼••«»»»' *^3 iSh the internal broihi to which they gave nse. emboldened SLLUhuin ians and Poles to carry their victorious arms wto ifess^rT and fy degrees they dismembered the whole western ^tH ythSlTwho ^ supposed to have been of Jjhe J^ race with the ancient Prussians, Lethomans. Liron ans. wd Esthonians, inhabited originally the banks of the rivers Niemen and Wilia; an inconsiderable state, comprehenchng Samoeitia and a pan of the ancient Palatinates of Troki and Srana After haVing been tributaries to the Russians for a SgUmeX prince? of Lithuania shook off th^ yoke a„d SSn to aggrandize themselves at the expense of the Grand SSes thS former masters. Towards the middle of the SivenlhSuTy.theypassed the Wiliajounded the town ofKier- iS^^ind tooBom tL^Russians Braclaw Novg^ ItoSesc. Bielsk, Pinsk, Mozyr, ?« o^'^^' M'nJ'. ^ j^P^^'.^J"' «d Mscislaw. with their extensive dependencies. Rmgold !n. the first of these princes that assumed the dignity of Grand nlie abou the middle of the thirteenth century, flis succes- rSeX or MTndow. harassed by the Teutonic Knights, em- l!!ppirhristianitv about the year 1252, and was declared King SJmnuTand became one of the most cruel enemies of Ae E an name. Gedimin. who ascended the throne of the a«nd Duke (1316,) rendered himself famous by his new con- SS After a series of victories which he gained over the iCnPrt'eUhowere supported bt^^^^^^^^^^ MMPosion of the city and Principality of K-iow U««"-) *«»» Kole of Uie Grand Ltchy of Kiow, and its deP?ndent prmci- Shies on this side the Dnieper, were conquered in succesgion ¥he Grand Dukes of Lithuania, who had become formidaWe to Ki neighbours, weakened their power ^V V-^^-^"^«^'^j Stoies among their sons ; reserving to one. under the t.vle of «r«nrl Duke the right of superiority over the rest, pe mu STslS^swJkh resulted fro^^i t'.ese divisions, gave the Poles SiSSUWlgl the whL of Volhvnia and Podolia. •f which they had deprived the Russians (134».) p^ .,„ Nolhing more then remained of the ancient Russian Empire a, who shtfed UMmf ocM of Rem, Twor, title of Onund Dukot, prineea who w«te et* lese diTisions, together ;ave rise, emboldened • victorious arms into red the whole western to have been of the Lethonians, Livonians, the banks of the rirers state, comprehending alatinates of Troki and to the Russians for a ook off their yoke, and i expense of the Grand rds the middle of the bunded the town of Kier- w, NoTgoTodek, Grodno, , Minsk, Witepsk, Orza, dependencies. Ringold ned the dignity of Grand th century. His succes- le Teutonic Knights, em- !, and was declared King ! afterwards returned to ost cruel enemies of the ended the throne of the famous by his new con- hich he gained over the by the Tartars, he took r of Kiow (1320.) The and its dependent princi- conquered in succession. had become formidable to ower by partitioning their to one, under the title of over the rest. The civil divisions, gave the Poles ties of Leopold, Przemysl, om the Lithuanians and of Voihynia and Podolia, ans (1349.) ! ancient Russian Empire nuoD T. A. o. 1800—1463. IM «ic<|>t tk« Grand Datdiy of Wolodimir, >o called from the town of that name on llie river Kliasma, where the Grand Dukes of B«atera and Northern Russia had their residence, before they had fixed their capital at Moscow ; which happened about the •nd of the thirteenth or the beginning of the fourteenth century. This Grand Dutehy, which lud several dependent and subor- diaate principalities, was conferred by the Khan of Kipzach (1380) on I wan or John Danilovitsh, Prince of Bfoscow, who transmitted it to his descendants. Demetrius Iwanovitsb, grand- son of Iwan, took advantage of the turbulence which distracted the grand horde, and turned his arms against the Tartars. As* sisted by several of the Russian princes his vassals, he gained a signal victory near the Don (1380,) over the Khan Temnic- Mamai, the first which gained the Russians any celebrity, and which procured Demetrius the proud epithet of Domki, or con- queror of the Don. This prince, however, gained little advan- tage by his victory ; and for a long time after, the Tartars gave law to the Russians and made them their tributaries. Toktamish Khan, after having vanquished and humbled Mamai, penetrated as far as Moscow, sacked the city, and massacred a great num- ber of the inhabitants. Demetrius was forced to implore the mercy of the ccnqueror, and to send his son a hostage to the horde in security for his allegiance. The chief residence of the Teutonic Order, which had for- merly been at Verden, was fixed at Marienburg, a city newly built, which from that time became the capital of all Prussia. The Teutonic Knights did not limit their conquests to Prussia ; they took from the Poles Dantzic or Eastern Pomerania (1311,) situated between the Netze, the Vistula, and the Baltic Sea, and known since by the name of Pomerelia. This province was definitively ceded to them, with the territory of Culm, and Michelau, by a treaty of peace which was signed at Kalitz (1343.) The city of Dantzic, which was their capital, increased considerably under the dominion of the Order, and became one of the principal entrepots for the commerce of the Baltic. 01 all the exploits of these Knights, the most enterprising was that which had for its object the conquest of Lithuania. Religion, and a pretended gift of the Emperor Louis of Bavaria, served them as a pretext for attacking the Lithuanians, who were Pa- gans, in a murderous war, which continued almost without in- terruption for the space of a century. The Grand Dukes of Lithuania, always more formidable after their defeat, defended their liberties and independence with a courage and perseverance almost miraculous ; and it was only by taking advantage of the dissensions which had arisen in the family of the Grand Duke, that they .ttcceeded in obtaining ?«••••« ^LL^'SSSm ^ *h.\«H.^ ftf naice which was concluded at IUcianMi«i«.J land, and the «<>«'«"'?\,«/„{^.L^J^^^^^ Cru-aders. S eh .Ceo"!"*'' »'"' r .St'T^uS? S^i.." the fatal consequence of »n'=«'^.''" „"*?;, '" confederacy against cities of Prussia ^nd Pomerania to form a co^t^^^^^^^^ U4W.) roiana vueii «■/ .u* „„„niries now comprehended °';''" fjrTlSfo^de who p^.5,.d,b, mean, ot r"0«Sj mL»o r.e..y .nd f-5S,^Vr£ S Dwarf, having comb ned severa oi ^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^j^^ on of Samogitia, by it Raeknx (l&i.) ^atonic Order under Iter, added to their which was sold to k. >* The Tentonic ess, about the begin> e they were become under their dominion Imerania and the New Ionia and Esthonia. ** of their dominions, a : commerce, seemed to re. Nevertheless, the >f Lithuania with Po- nians to Christianity, ance of the Crusaders, ccelerated their down- issession of Samogitia, by the Tarions treaties letween 1411-1496. Butonic Knights — their le burden of taxation — induced the nobles and i a confederacy against if the Kings of Poland. ng a deed of submission was a long and bloody e till the peace of Thorn sion of Cfulm, Michelau tries now comprehended rhe rest of Prussia was promised, by means of mage for it to the Kings ! Order was then trans* cl until the time when the House of Brandenburg. from this state of weak- ns of Boleslaus III. and slaiis IV. surnamed the hese poncipalities, was 1320.) From that time 1 Poland, and was trans- laus. ^' The immediate Casimir the Great, who ^. ?BtIOD v. A. D. 1300—1453. Ml renounced his righu of sovereignty over Silflftia in favour of the King of Bohemia, and afterwards compensated this loss by the acquisition of several of the provinces of ancient Russia. He likewise took possession of Red Russia (1340.) as also of the provinces of Volhynia, Podolia, Chelm and Belz, which he con- quered from the Grand Dukes of Lithuania (1349,) who had formerly dismembered them from the Russian Empire. Under Casimir the Great, another revolution happened in the government of Poland. That Prince, having no children of his own, and wishing to bequeath the crown to his nephew Louis, his sister's son, by Charles Robert King of Hungary, convoked a general assembly of the nation at Cracow (1339,) and there got the succession of the Hungarian Prince ratified, in opposi- tion to the legitimate rights of the Piast Dynasty, who reigned in Masovia and Silesia. This subversion of the hereditary right of the different branches of the Piasts, gave the Polish Nobles a pretext for interfering in the election of their Kings, until at last the throne became completely elective. It also afforded them an opportunity for limiting the power of their Kings, and laying the foundation of a republican and aristocratic government. Deputies were sent into Hungary (1355,) even during the life of Casimir, who obliged King Louis, his intended successor, to subscribe an act which provided that, on his ac- cession to the crown, he should .bind himself, and his successors, to disburden the Polish nobility of all taxes and contributions ; that be should never, under any pretext, exact subsidies from them ; and that, in travelling, he should claim nothing for the support of his court, in any place during his journey. The an- cient race of the Piast sovereigns of Poland ended with Casimir (1370,) after having occupied the throne of that kingdom for several centuries. His successor in Poland and Hungary was Louis, surnamed the Great. In a Diet assembled in ISsS, he obtained the con- currence of the Poles, in the choice which he had made of Sigis- mund of Luxembourg, as his son-in-law and successor in both kingdoms. But on the death of Louis, which happened imme- diately after, the Poles broke their engagement, and conferred their crown on Hedwiga, a younger daughter of that Prince. It was stipulated, that she should marry Jaaello, Grand Duke of Lithuania, who agreed to incorporate Lithuania with Poland, to renounce Paganism, and embrace Christianity, himself and all his subjects. Jagello was baptised, when he received the name of Uladislaus, and was crowned King of Poland at Cracow (1386.) ** It was on the accession of Jagello, that Poland and Lithuania, long opposed in their interests, and implacable e: ?mies 902 eBARIK TI. T of CMch other, wft* united ioM one body politic under the m- thority of one and the sua* King. Neverthelesa, for nearly two centuries, Lithuanm Btill preserved its own Grand Dulies, who acknowledged the sovereignty of Poland ; and it was not, properly speaking, till the reign of Sirismund Augustus, that U»e union of the two states was finally accomplished (1569.) This important union rendered Poland the preponderatir^ power of the North. It became fatal to the influence of the Teutonic Order, who soon yielded to the united eflbrts of the Poles and Lithuanians. . , , , n ,• u Uladislaus Jagello did not obtain the assent of the Folish nobility to the succession of his son, except by adding new pri- vileges to those which they had obtained from his predecessor. He was the first of the Polish kings who, for the ourpose of im- posing an extraordinary taxation, called in the Nuncios or De- puties of the Nobility to the General Diet (1404,) and established the use of Dietines or provincial diets. His descendants enjoyed the crown until they became extinct, in the sixteenth century. The succession, however, was mixed ; and although the princes of the House of Jagello might regard themselves as hereditary possessors of the kingdom, nevertheless, on every change ol reign, it was necessary that the crown should be conferred by the choice and consent of the nobility. In Hungary, the male race of the ancient kings, descendants of Duke Arpad, had become extinct in Andrew III. (1301.) The Crown was then contested by several competitors, and at length fell into the hands of the House of Anjou, the reigning family of Naples. Charles Robert, grandson of Charles II. King of Naples, by Ma'ry of Hungary, outstripped his rivals, and trans- milted the Crown to his son Louis, surnamed the Ureat (IdWS.) This Prince, characterized by his eminent qualities, made a dis- tinguished figure among the Kings of Hungary. He conquered from the Venetians the whole of Dalmatia, from the frontiers of Istria, as far as Durazzo ; he reduced the Princes of Moldavia, Walachia, Bosnia and Bulgaria, to a state of dependence ; and ot length mounted the throne of Poland on the death of his uncle Casimir the Great. » Mary, his eldest daughter, succeeded him in the kingdom of Hungary (1382.) This Princess mar- ried Sigismund of Luxembourg, who thus united the monarchy of Hungary to the Imperial crown. The reign of Sigismund in Hungary was most unfortunate, and a prey to continual disturbances. He had to sustain the first war against the Ottoman Turks ; and with the Emperor of Constantinople, a« his ally, he assembled a formidable army, with which he undertook the siege of Nicopohs m Bulgaria. riBioD V. A. B. 1300 — 1443. 209 iy politic under the au* Nevertheless, for nearly its own Grand Dukes, Poland ; and it was not, ismund Attffustus, that ly accomplished (1569.) ie preponderating power fluence of the Teutonic iflbrts of the Poles and lie assent of the Polish cept by adding new pri- ;d from his predecessor. 10, for the purpose of im- i in the Nuncios or De- !t (1404,) and established His descendants enjoyed 1 the sixteenth century, und although the princes hemselves as hereditary ess, on every change ol should be conferred by icient kings, descendants A.ndrew III. (1301.) The competitors, and at length rijou, the reigning family J of Charles II. King of ped his rivals, and trans- rnamed the Great (1308.) ent qualities, made a dis- Ii'ngary. He conquered latia, from the frontiers of the Princes of Moldavia, itate of dependence ; and 1 on the death of his uncle dest daughter, succeeded 2.) This Princess mar- thus united the monarchy ry was most unfortunate, He' had to sustain the and with the Emperor of nbled a formidable army, of Nicopolia in Bulgaria. Here he sustained a complete defeat by the Turks. ]n h»" "• ttelt he was compelled to embark on the Danube, and directed Ws flight towa?d.'?onst.ntinori^^ This disaster ^" ol'oj^d bv new misfortunes. The malcontents of Hungry "ff"?? ^f" Sow^to Ladislaus, called the Magnanimous,lC.ng of Naples, who took possession of Dalmatia, which he afterwards surren- dered to the Venetians. Desirous to provide for the defence 'and security of his kingdom. Sigi^-nd^.jeOy treaty wuh the Prince of Serv a, the fortress of Belgrade (14^&,) wnicn, oy U situation aT the confluence of the 5anube and the Save seemed to him a proper bulwark to protect Hungary agams the Tu E He transiSittrd the crown of Hungary to »|'-o"-';-^«-j; Albert of Austria, who reigned on y two years Th« jvar w.th the Turks was renewed under Cladislaus of Poland, son ol Tageio, and Successor to Alber. ,ThatPnnce fought a boody baflle with them near Varna in Bulgaria (1444.) The fjunf "' Tns again sustTined a total defeat, and the King h.mself lost lus Se ^ the action. « The safety of Hungary then depended en- iely on the bravery of the celebralBd John rfunniades governor of L kingdom, during the minority of Lud.slaus, the posthu- mous so^of Albert of Austria. That S«"«-l -^^"f^f J j^-^H ' ^various actions against the Turks, and obliged Mahomet II. " S the Sge of B^grade (1456.) where he lost above twenty- fivVhousand men. and was himself severely wounded. The Greek Empire was gradually approaching its downfall, under the feeble administration of the^House of Paleologus who had occupied the throne of Constantinople since the year 1261. The same vices of which we have already spoken, the grea nowero7the patriarchs and the monks, the rancour of theologies SisDutes, the fury of sectaries and schismatics, and the inlernal Sens ;« to whih they gave rise, aggravated the in-sfortunes ami dlorders of the state, and were instrumental m hasten ng on its final destruction. John I. and his successors, the last Emprors of Constantinople being reduced to th« sad „«cessKy of oavine tribute to the Turks, and marching on raUitary expe- ditfons ft Se command of the Sultans, owed the preservation of the ; shattered and declining Empire, for some time, entirely to hrrevVrses of fortune which had befallen the Ottomans ; and S he dfficulties which the siege of their capital presented to a torbarous nation unacquainted with the arts of blockade. The DOwer of the Qittoman Turks took its 'tse about the end of The Cnih century. A Turkish Etmr. eaUed Ouonj-n. nr Osman was its original founder m Asia Minor. Me was L oS nuSbir of tfose Emirs, who. after the subversion of Z Seiiiians of Roum or Iconium. by the MoguU, shKed ciumt vt. •nioiig Uiem the apoila of their laeient muten. A pert of Bithyakf end the whole country lying round Mount Olympus, fell to the share of Ottoman, who afterwards formed an alliance with the other Emirs, and inraded the possessions of the Greek Empire, under the feeble reign of the Emperor Andronicus II. Prusa, or Bursa, the principal city of Bithynia, was conquered by Ottoman (1327.) He and his successors made it the capital of their new state, which, in course of time, gained the ascen- dency over all the other Turkish sovereignties, formed, like that of Ottoman, from the ruins of Iconium and the Greek Empire. Orchan, the son and successor of Ottoman, instituted the famous Order of the Janissaries, to which in a great measure the Turks owed their success. He took from the Greeks the cities of Nice and Nicomedia in Bithynia ; and, after having subdued most of the Turkish Emirs in Asia Minor, he took the title of Sultan or King, as well as that of Pacha, which is eoui- valent to the title of Emperor. His son Soliman crossed the Hel- lespont, by his orders, near the ruins of ancient Troy, and took the city of Gallipoli, in the Thracian Chersonesus (1358.) The conquest of this place opened a pas^sage for the Turks into Eu- rope, when Thrace and the whole of Greece was soon inundated by these new invaders. Amurath I., the son and successor of Orchan, made himself master of Adrianople and the whole of Thrace (1360;) he next attacked Macedonia, Servia and Bulgaria, and appointed the RtstBeglerbeg, or Governor-general of Romeiia. Several Turkish princes of Asia Minor were obliged to acknowledge his authority ; he made himself master of Kiulaja, the metropolis of Phrygia, which afterwards became the capital of Anatolia, and the residence of the governor of that province (1389.) Amurath was slain at the battle of Cassova, which he fousht with the Despot of Servia, assisted by his nume- rous allies. In this bloody battle the Despot himself was slain, and both sides equally claimed the victory. &\)axet I., the suc- cessor of Amurath, put an end to all the Turkish sovereignties which itili aubeisted in Asia Minor. He completed the reduc- tion of Bulgaria, and maintained the possession of iti|rr the signal victory which he gained at Nicopolis (1396) over Si^- mund. King of Hungary. The Greek Empire woald have yield- ed to Uie persevering efforts of that prince, who bad maintained, for ten yejrs, the siege of Constantinople, had he not baan at- tacked, m the midst of these enterprises, by the fiunouaTimour, the new coiiqaeror of Asia. Timoar.ewBiDonly called Tuaerlane, waa one of thine Mogul Bmin iriio had divided amongst them die sovcnigntjr of Tnuia- oxkuw, after tlie ntinetiM of the Mogul dynasty of Zagutai. i t. ient masten. A part of f round Mount Olympus, "wards formed an alliance i possessions of the Greek Emperor Andronicus II. Bithynia, was conquered lessors made it the capital if time, gained the ascen- reignties, formed, like that I and the Greek Empire. Ottoman, instituted the rhich in a great measure ook from the Greeks the :hynia ; and, after having n Asia Minor, he took the t of Pacha, which is equi- Soliman crossed the Hel> of ancient Troy, and took /hersonesus (13d8.) The ;e for the Turks into Eu- reece was soon inundated the son and successor of drianople and the whole Macedonia, Servia and rbeg, or Governor-general ces of Asia Minor were ; he made himself master which aAcrwards became ice of the governor of that I at the battle of Cassova, rvia, assisted by his numo'- Despot himself was slain, tory. Bajazet I., the sue- the Turkish sovereignties He comjpleted th« reduc- B possession of i^ly the copolis (1396) over Sigiii* Empire woqla have yield- ince, whtt bad maintained, lople, had he not basn at- lea, by the fiunous Timoor. le, was one of those Mogul I Uie so? cieigntjr of Tmui« [ogul dynasty of Zafutai. Loii. «15. 'i - mmm\ ■ '^t^.** . 4 {•' L_ ii um • mi l ) II' mioDV. A. ». 1300— 1483. TraBMxiMM wm the theatre of hit firrt eiploita; there h« ttsttrped Um whole power of the Khan., <>' Emperora of Zm.!^ and ^ed the capital of his new dominioni at *e ci^rt Samareaad (1389.y Persia, the whole of Upper Am, Kipneh. and Hindoiton, were vanquished hy him in succeswonj whwe- ver he inarched, he renewed the same scenes of horror, WooJ- .hed, and carnage, which had marked the footstep, of A« first Mogul conqueror* Timour at length •'"'c^f JJf fj; minions of Baj«2et in Anatolia (1400.) He fought a bloody and decisive battle near Angora, m the ancient GaUogrecm, which proved fatal to the Ottoman Empire. Bajozet sustainea an entire defeat, and fell himself into the hands of the co«p quexor. All Anatolia was then conquered and piHaged by tlie Moguls, and there Timour fixed his winter quarters. Meantime he treated his captive Bajwet with kindness and generosity; and the anecdote of the iron cage, in which he is said to hvn confined his prisoner, merits no credit. Sherefeddin Ah, wlw accompanied Timour in his expedition against Bajazet, makes bo mention of it; on the contrary, he avers that Timour consented to leave him the Empire, and that he granted the investiture of it to him and two of his sons. Baiazet did not long s'^'vive luji misfortune ; he died of an attack of apoplexy (1403,) with which he was struck in the camp of Timour m Caramania. Timour, a short time aher, formed the project of an expedi- tion into China; but he died on the route in 1405. at the agje of sixty-nine. His vast dominions were dismembered after bw death. One of his descendants, named Babour, founded a pow- erful Empire in India, the remains of which are still preserved under the name of the Empire of the Great Mogul. The inTj. sion of Timour retarded for some tune the progress of the Turk- ish Empire. The fatal dissensions, which arose among the sons of Baiuet, set them at open war with each other. At length Amuiith II., the son of Mahomet I., and grandson of Bajazet, succeeded in putting a stop to these dfvisions, and restored the Empire to its primitive splendour. He deprived the GreAs of all tlie places which still remained in their hands on the Black Sea, along the coast of Thrace, in Macedonia and ThessaJy. He even took, by assault, the wall and forts which they had constructed at the entrance of the isthmus of Corinth, and car- ried his ravages to the very centre of the Peloponnesus. The two heroes of the Christians, John Hunni^es and Scan- derbeg, arrested the promea. of the Ottoman Su tan. Tta fonnw! who was Genera of the Hun^ana. boldly repulsed the Sultan of Servia, whom he was ambibous to conquer. X f other, a Greek Prince* who posseased one of the petty atatei or VOL. 1. 18 -vSM-" ■f HI eRArrti vi. AHMnia of which Crojt w»i the c«pit»l, waiited with weewji ilf^^ed atwrks of the Turk-. Supported by a •«n«U km hi* territory was surrounded, he twice compelled Amurainro ilKi^ege of Croia. At length appeared Mah-et I..^he Hon and successor of Amurath, (14fil.) 1 his i nnce, wno wm Tsedlo 1 Ottoman thione in the r"«'«''' >*" "l.^^'J-JSl Tonceired the design of achieving the conquest «/ »J« Jj Jiek »««;«, hv the takinff of Constantinople. He succeeaea m •- »i.:»K apvpnil of his nredesessors had failed, ai me neuu entfre liberty of conscience to the Greeks wno mg to settle there ; and authorized them to J'oc^eJ^" J ^ ^^e lion of a new patriarch, whose dignity ne *.""""u"",^^,„-j TnoJl. and grKleges which Je atuiched to it. He -to ed also the fortiUions of thecuy and by way^^^^^ ^^^^^ airainst the armaments of the Venetians aim «» ,„,,,;[ , TMiitwI with mee iported by a •mail Imt mountain! wilii wliieli ompellcd Amuratli to ared Mahomet II,, tlie This Prince, who wai tielh year of his age, onquest of the Greeic lie. He succeeded in itructed this enterprise, Id failed. At the head combatants, supported B that capital, and com- The besieged having e the superior force of redoubled eflforts of the •three days. The city delirered up to the uii- Constantine, surnamed ors, perished in the first great and opulent city el, on entering the very ast and dismal solitude. titants to this city, which npire, he guaranteed an eeks who might come to proceed to the elec* ity ne enhanced by the hed to it. He restored I, by way of precaution ians and other western ,0 dread, he constructed at the entrance of the of Serria, Bosnia, Alba« ms or Morea, as well as . The Greek Empire of r, submitted in like man* I Darid Commenus, the e Mahometans, and with relations. Such a rapid rm amoHK the powers of b Pope Pius n. held at il association among the 1. A crasade was pub* PBBioD Ti. A. P. 14A3~-1648. Mr by his orders, and !>• was on the point of Mttiag out i« l^artOB at the head of this ciucdition, whea bo wu auddeiilv cot off hy death at Ancona (1464,) .vUere he had appoinloa Ihff general ren<*.eivous of the confed«ra(« troops. This event, mUt od to the terror which the arms of MahoiikJtt i 'd create4 amoi^ the nations of the We'«t, disconcerted the pl«ris of the Croa^ dors, and was the meauu >)( dissolving (hoir confedf^racy. Tho Turkish Empire thue becaoM' firnoly estaMi»hi)d in Europe, and the Tartars of the Crimea put themselves at (fr(^ under the protection of the Porte. CHAPTEIl VII. PBRIOD YI. From the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, to the Peace of Weitphalia.—A. o. 1463—1648. Tub revolutioii which happened in the fiAeenth century eik- tirely changed the face of Europe, and introduced a now system of politics. This revolution was not achieved by any combina- tions of profound policy, nor by the operation of that physical force which generally subverts thrones and governments. It was the result of those progressive changes which had been produced in the ideas and understandings of the nations of Eu- rope, by the improvements and institutions of preceding times ; as well as by the invention of raper and printing, of gunpowder, and the mariner's compass. By means of these, the empire of letters and arts was ffreatly extended, and various salutary im- provements made in tne religion, manners, and governments of Europe. The people by degrees shook off the yoke of barba- rism, superstition, and fanaticism, which the revolution of the fifth century had imposed on them ; and from that time the principal States of Eairope becran to acquire the strength, and gradually to assume the form, which they have since maintained. Several extraordinary events, however, coiupired to accelerate these happy changes. The Belles Lettres and the Fine Arts shone out with new splendour, after the downfall of the Greek Empire. The celebrated Petrarch, and his disciples Boccacio and John of Ravenna, were the first that made the Italians ac- quainted with ancient literatare, as the true source and standard of good taste. They prepared the way for a vast number of tho Gncian literati, who, to escape the barbarity of the Turks, had iM into Italy, where they opened schools, and brought the tKMiij I OHATTBS Till of OiMk literataie into cofuidenble lepnte. The most celelmted of these Greek refugees were, Manuel Chrysoloras, Cardinal Bhssarion, Theodore Gaza, George of Trehismd, John Atgym- pkihis, and Demetrius Chalcondyles. I^tected by the family of the Medieis at Florence, they assisted in forming those fine gwiuses which arose in Italy during the fifteenth century, such aa Le og both hemispheres under tts, was discovered during India and die East, round fi of a fourth quarter of the jng the ancients. We all , according to the assertion Asia and Africa ; and we ived in the reign of Adrian, ice of a fourth continent of i got so much into fashion, B of the Christian era, that It Uiemselves bound in duty l^ing against the antipodes »lou8iies8 of which is now ▼er were-the notions which u to afenrth quarter of the ew it only firom conjector*, ndedsonr. FBUOD TL 14fi&<^1648. The honour of this important diacovery belongs to modem navigators, more especially to Christopher OoluouNU, a native of Genoa. From tm Imowledse which this eelebiated man had aequired in the sciences of Navigation, Astronomy, and Oeo- gnphy, he was persuaded that there must be another liemisphen tying to the westward, and unknown to Eiuopaans, but neces- sary to the equilibrium of the globe. These eoiyeetures he communicated to several of the courts of Europe, vAo dl re- garded him as a visionary ; and it was not till lAer many soli- citations, that Isabella, Queen of Castile, granted him three vessels, with which he set sail in quest of Uie new continent, 3d August 1492. After a perilous navigation of some m«>nths, he reached the Island Guanahani or Cat Island, one of the Lu- cayos or Bahamas, to which he gave the name of St. Salvador. This discovery was followed soon after by that of the blands of St. Domingo and Cuba; and in the second and third voyagve which that navigator undertook to America (1493-1496,) he dis- covered the mainland or continent of the New World, especially the .Miast of Paria, as far as the point of Araya, making part of theprovince known at present by the name of Cumana. The track of the Genoese narlgator was followed by a Flo- rentine merchant, named Amerigo Vesputio. Under the con- duct of a Spanish captain, called Alphonso de Ojeda, he made several voyages to the New World after the year 1497. Diflle- rent coasts of the continent of South America were visited l^ him ; and in the maps of his discoveries which he drew up, he usurped a glory which did not belong to him, by applying his own name to the new continent ; which it has since retained. The Spaniards conquered the islands and a great part of the continent o^' America ; extending their victories along with their discoveries. Stimulated by the Uiirst of gold, whidi Uie New World offered to them in abundance, they coounitted crimes and barbarities which make humanity shudder. Millions of the unfortunate natt es were either massacred or buried in the sea, in spite of the efforts which the Spanish Bishop, Bartholomew de Las Casas, vainly made to arrest the fuiy of his country- men. * In the year after the first discovery of Columbus, Fer- dinand the Catholic, King of Spain, obtained a bull from Pope Alexander VI., by which that Pontiff made him a gift of all the countries discovered, or to be discovered, towards the west and the south ; drawing an imaginary line from one pole to the other, at the distance of a hundred leagues westward of Cape Verd and the Azores. This decision having given oflence to the King of Portugal, who deemed it prejudicial to his discoveries in th* East, an accommodation was contrived between the two courts, 18* .&4> g|g oBAFtu vn. iB.Tiitae of which the same Pope, by another BuM d*®*.) «^ SJSdUie lini in question farther west, to the distance of four KSid Md seventy leagues ; so that aU the cogntnes Ij^ to STSertlwrd of this line should belong to Ae King of Spain, i^lTthMewhich might be discovered to the eastward, should SliSTp^sion oTthe King of Portugd,' .It -« on J" nntmded S^at the Spaniard founded their right to demand SKSssk^ of the AiEiican nations to the Spanish Crown. Ke!?^cipal conquests in the New World commence from Ae wiK the Emjetor Charles V. It was m his name that pTrdSSd CMtes, WU a mere handful of troops, overthrew the ^SXpi^TCxico (1621;) the last f«^f-^ors of jh^, B^ntfiZa and Gatimorin. were slain, and a P'odigious num- W^f SoMericans put to the sword. The conqueror of Peru vl Fmicis pSro^l633.) He entered the country, at he d orSSmfn at thl very'time -1»- Atabdipa or Ata^^^^^ SS. The character of these <»l««i« ^f*'^'^ f™"? ^^^ia ^S Thev applied themselves, in consequence, to vhe SS- A wl«hTd to reserve to themselves exclusively the pro- Cof thymines. Commerce, which at first had been confined ■n oi «iB ""!«= GoviUp fell into the hands of a small EpSo^^d iropolitan Sees Missior. Cjnven s a^^ •i-UipT The Inauisition was also introduced; but the nierar S^Xh w^ founded there, instead of augmcntmg the jy^wer rfUPopel^emained in astato of complete dependence upon *VS1«SJ of Bn«a belongs to the Portuguese. Alvares other BuU (1424,) n- to the distance of four the countries lying to to the King of Spain, |to the eastwturd, should lugal. ' It was on this ~ their rig^t to demand to the Spanish Crown. ^orld conunence from t was in his name that f troops, overthrew the ist Emperors of which, and a prodigious num* The conqueror of Peru red the country, at the Atabalipa or Atahualpa OTereign of Peru. That ibdued bv the Spaniards. tnies and csfablishments d subjected to their do* ies differed from that of e had founded in India, 'reach, in different parts by no means a commer- were the object of their in consequence, to ihe jrroes to labour in them, rocess of time, when the [ these countries, and the it, the Spanish colonists griculture, and in raising ce. What we have now restrictions which were by the Spanish govem- ;lves exclusively the pro- it first had been confined nto the hands of a small lusion of foreigners. As I, they were planted with ions. Convents, and Uni- roduced ; but the hierar- of au^ucnting the power mplete dependence upon lie Portuguese. Alvares PBUOD Ti. A. 0. 1403-~1648. 911 Oabnl, the commander of their fleet, idiiie on his route to India, WW driven, ly contrary winds, on the coaat of Brasil (IfiOO,) and todc possesnon of the country in name of the Kins of For* togal. This colony, in the course of time, hecch¥ called the S^ng^C^^^^^^ which King John changed into that oj^^^ "^^^^ PortuS after twelve years of toils, Vasco di Gama, anotner '^o"*^*^ !5mi™I W the fflory of carrying his natiomd flag as fax as ;Sr 'He landed'rthe Po^/calicut (1^ on ^e M^ Ubar coast, in the third year of the reign of En««J?««'; J^^J^^ 0"di i^ZwdSitlon of the power of the Poi^- Z2 ii India. Francis Almeida defeated Ae flee of Ae Mameluke Sultan of Egypt, in coniunction with that ol me MameiuKe ouiiwi •'Vlfonzo Albuquerque conquered Goa such abundance, as to make them regarded as articles oi aoeo TiBioo ru A.V. 14S3— 1648. 918 igttioD, estaUishfld kit wtam axtremitv of Al> Ictmstnicted at nis own ooutsof Afiricft. From 1, the lalandi of le Asoraa (1431,) and id coloniea; and, ad- ■hores of Africa, they •ts of Ouinea and Ni- iwly diflcorered, were iral of the Popes. The )d by the Spaniards, a kingdoms, in virtue of Spain (1481.) lat the Portuguese ex* most southerly point of iral, was the first who Stormy Cape ; a name 3ood mpe. At length, ma, anomer Portuguese I national flag as far as icut (1498,) on the Ma* I of Emmanuel. Several , such as Almeida, Albu* tro, following the tract of the power of the Portu- efeated the fleet of the inction with that of the iquerque conquered Goa e Portuguese settlements ame time, the Portuguese Islands, with some oppo- ithony Silveira signalized L588.) He repuked the [iman the Great had sent i King of Cambay having :ewi8e a total deieat from 16 whole kingdom of Diu. kingdoms in India, and ature and the industry of ose articles of commerce come an object of luxury ity of the Venetians had tf the world with them in arded as articles of abso- lute neeetdty. This circumstance was the reason why the Por? toguese never formed any other than mercantile establishments in India, which they nected on the coasts, without extending them into the interior. The working of the mines, and the cares of agriculture, were abandoned entirely to the natives. This era produced a total change in tne commerce of the East. Formerly tne Venetians were Uie people that carried on the principal traffic to India. The Jewish or Mahometan merchants purchased at Goa, Calicut, and Cochin, those spiceries and other productions of the East, which they imported mto Syria by the Persian Gulf, and into Egypt by the Red Sea. They were then conveyed by a laborious ana expensive land-carriage, either to the port of Alexandria, or that of Bairout in Syria. ThiUier the Venetians repaired in quest of the luxuries of India ; they fixed their price, and distributed them over all Europe. This commerce proved a source of vast wealth to these republicans : it furnished them with the means of maintaining a formida- ble marine, and of verj' often dictating the law to the other European powers ; but after the discovery of the new passase round the (Jape, and the conquests of the Portuguese in India, the Venetians saw themselves compelled to abandon a trafiSc in which they could not compete with the Portuguese. This was a terrible blow to that republic, and the principal cause of its downfall. The Portuguese, however, did not profit by this ex« elusive commerce as they might have done. They did not, like other nations, constitute Companies, with exclusive commercial privileges ; they carried it on by means of fleets, which the go- vemment regularly despatched at fixed periods. In this manner, the commodities of the East were imported to Lisbon ; but the. indolence of the native merchants left to other nations the care of distributing them throuf^h the markets of Europe. The Dutch were the people that profited most by this branch of industry ; they cultivated it with so mnch success, and under such favour- able circumstances, that they ai length succeeded in excluding the Portuguese themselves from this lucrative traffic, by dis- possessing them of their colonies in the East. If the events which we have now briefly detailed proved fatal to the Venetians, and afflicting to humanity, by the wars and misfortunes which they occasioned, it is nevertheless certain, that commerce and navigation gained prodigiously by these new discoveries. The Portuguese, after having maintained for some time the exclusive possession of the navigation and trade of the East, found afterwards powerftil competitors in the Spaniards, the Dutch, English, French, and Duies, who all established mercantile connexions both in India and America. Hence ia« tSA aunnYu. immMmUe ■ouices of wedth we» opened to *f»*»»jy •{ *f Bwopeans ; and their commerce, formerir hmite* to the Medi- tlm^nT the Bdtk, and the Northern Smb, aad eontoed to a hw cities in Italy, Flandera, and Germany, **• now, Iw means rftheir colonies^in Africa, and the fast and West l«J»s, cn- twded to aU parts of the globe.* The »nterconri« of the Por- toguese with^hina was as early as the year 16". •"J.^* jS«n it began in 1S42. Ferdinand MaaeHan undertook the firrt voyagi round the world (1619,) and his exwnple found afterwd-d^a number of imitators. » By degrees the maritime DOwer of Europe assumed a formidable aspect ; arts and manu- ^tures were multipUed ; and states, formeriy poor, became nch and flourishing. Kingdoms at length found in their commerce, resources for augmentfng their strength and their influence, and carrying into execution their projects of aggrandizement and *°?Eng the causes of this revolution which took place in commerce, it is necessary to take into account a discovery ap- parently of trivial importance, but which cxereised a most ex- traordinary influence over the civilization of Europe, viz. that of horse-pbsts for the conveyance of letters. Before the sixteenth century, the communications between distant countries were few and difficult. Messengers, travelling on short joumeys, on foot or on horseback, were their only couriers. About the be- ginning of the seventeenth century, and during the reigri of Maximilian I., an ItaUan gentleman of the name of Francis de la Tour et Taxis, established the first posts in the Low Coun- tries. Their object at first was merely for the conveyance of letters bv posts or post, for which he provided regular relays. Bv and W, for the sake of despatch, the use of horses was m- trJduced, placed at certain distances. From the Low Countnes this system found its way into Germany, where its profits were secured to the family of Taxis by impernl grants ; and from thence it spread over every civilized country in the world.] A revolution not less important, is that which took place in re- Ugion about the beginning of the sixteenth century. The abuses wTiich disgraced the court of Rome, the excess of the power, and the depravity of the morals of the clergy, had «cited a veryjge- neral aisconlent. A reformation had for a long time *««» deern^ necessary, but there was a diflerence of opinion as to Je me- thod of effecting it. The common notion was, Aat thu. task .»uld be legaUy accomplished only by General Councils^ »- TokedundeVSeauAorityofthe^opes. * ^J** J-y^J^^J to perceive the inefficacy of any remedy left at Ae "»PO»" •* tboM very persons from whom the evU proceeded ; and the nn- to dw minstrj of the )riy Bmited to the ModK- £feM, kad eonined to a ly. WM B0W, hv means aud West Inoies, en* intereoane of the Per- le year 1517, and with [asellan undertook the [and his example found ly degrees the maritime aspect ; arts and manu> rmerly poor, became rich found in their commerce, 1 and their influence, and of aggrandizement and ion which took place in account a discovery ap- lich exercised a most ex* tion of Europe, viz. that ers. Before the sixteenth distant countries were ing on short joumejrs, on couriers. About the be< and during the reign of the name of Francis de posts in the Low Coun* ly for the conveyance of provided regular relays. the use of horses was m- From the Low Countries many, where its profits by imperial gmnts; and zed country in the world.] Iiat which took place in re- inth century. The abuses e excess of the power, and gy, had excited a very ge- r a long time been deemed of opinion as to the me* otion was, that this task T General Councils, ' oni s. It was easy, however, edy left at the disposal of il proceeded ; and Ui« im< nsioD VI. A. 0. 1453—1646. fM Mieoesaful results of the Councils of Constance and Basle, had taught the people, that, in order to obtain redress for the abuses of ndiich they complained, it was necessary to have recourse to some other scheme than that of General Councils. This scheme vras attempted by the Reformers of the sixteenth century, who were persuaded, that, in order to restrain the exorbitant power of the clergy, they ought to reject the infallibility of the Pope, as well as that of General Councils ; admitting no other autho* rity in ecclesiastical matters, than that of the sacred scriptures, interpreted by the lights of reason and sound criticism. The immediate and incidental cause of this change in reli* gion, was the enormous abuse of indulgences. Pope Leo X., who was of the family of the Medicis, and well known for his extensive patronage of literature and the fine arts, having ex- hausted the treasury of the church by his luxAtry and his mu- nificence, had recourse to the expedient of indulgences, which several of his predecessors had already adopted as a means of recruiting their finances. The ostensible reason was, the ba- silica of St. Peter's at Rome, the completion of which was equally interesting to the whole of Christendom. Offices for the sale of indulgences were established in all the different states of Europe. The purchasers of these indulgences ob- tained absolution of their sins, and exemption from the pains of purgatory after death. The excesses committed by the emis- saries who had the charge of those indulgences, and the scan- dalous means which they practised to extort money, brought on the schism to which Ave are about to advert. Two theologians, Martin Ltither, and Ulric Zuingle, opposed these indulgences, and inveighed against them in their sermons and their writings ; the former at Wittemberg in Saxony ; the other, first at Einsiedeln, and aftenvards at Zurich, in Switzer- land. Leo X. at first held these adversaries in contempt. He did not attempt to allay the storm, until the minds of men, ex- asperated by the heat of dispute, were no longer disposed to listen to the voice of calmness and conciliation. The means which he subsequently tried to induce Luther to retract having proved abortive, he issued a thundering Bull arainst him (1620,) which, so far from abating the courage of the Reformer, tended, on the contrary, to embolden him stiU more. He publicly burnt the Pope's Bull, together with the Canon Law, at Wittemberg (10th December,) in presence of a vast concourse of doctors and students firom di£brent nations, whom he had assembled for the purpose. From that moment Luther and Zuingle never ceased to preach against the abuses of the indulgences. They eonqiletely undermined this sjrstem of abominatimi, and eren 11« eSAPTtm vn. .«*mVm1 rmAmu other dogma, and inatitutioM of Ae RoimA SSh aS^JmoSMtic^. the celibacy of »te pneaU. A. S^LTofSe Pope and thee«:le.i«tc^^^^^^^ Th«- twrcelebUd men^ who ^^'f fo lo^r^ C people, opinions, soon •^S^^^fiV;"!^ a yoke which had been so op- long ago P^^PII^^d to "hake ofl ^"J^f ^^j the new presaive, applauded the j«« *•' if* J^, ^g^ns of the press, of Zningle. He was a native oi i y compelled to eave decrees ot the Del of SPir"*'^?'' "Sh ,he ra.«». »">» mie my innovation, in fig.™. «' 'V^'^erf Luthenu.. fhT/;r ntd^S-I^tStT^^ fntou. Die. of Augsburg, held in 1530. revolted from the In this manner o |reat part o^^^^P^^^^^ ^i^^er the doc- Pope and the Romish Church, ana e"r™^, . r^^ h^lf ol TriAes of Luther, or those of Z»J?«»; ^^^^^ and Livonia, Germany, Denmark. Norway, Sweden^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ adopted the Confession "^ ;^X S'<^^l^*^"°f Switzerland, the United Provinces, and »^;j;"Pj£of Zuingle and declared themselves m favour of the opmmnsoi » .^ S"^^^^" J^rr:V^Sw"ni",tht^^^^ France, Hungary, ^^^^l^''''^^^^^ ^.^\„ the Church; it in- utution* of the Romidi EbacT of the prieati, the Mical hierarchy. Theee he greater pert of their ITollowers. The people, which had been so op- leformers; and the new by means of the press, ighout a great part of nearly in the footsteps ^in Picardy, and began to Being compelled to leave withdrew to Switzerland urg, where he was nomi- His erudition and his d gave the name of Cal* called Zuinglians. The >r Calvanists in Germany, in appellation of Protest- ;h they took against the which forbade them to abolish the mass, until The name of Lutherans tose who adhered to the Confession of Faith which ies v., at the famous Diet Surope revolted from the embraced either the doc- and Calvin. The half of len, Prussia, and Livonia, : while England, Scotland, cipal part of Switzerland, e opinions of Zuingle and likewise great progress in lemia, Silesia, and Poland, merely the Church ; it in- le form of government, in le same men who believed es and imperfections in re- abasea with the same free* princes took advantage of own power and authority. Chunh and of the leligion nftioD ▼!. A. B. 1453—1648. flT of their country, they shook off the fetters of priMtly influence ; while the clergy ceased to form a counteracting or controUinff power in the State. The freedom of opinion which characterina the Protestant &ith, awoke the human mind from its intellectml lethargy, inftwed new energy into it, and thus contributed to the progress of civilization and science in Europe. Even the systems of public instruction underwent a considerable change. The schools were reformed, and rendered more perfect. A multitude of new seminaries of education, academies, and universitieB, were founded in all the Protestant States. This revolution, however, was not accomplished without great and various calai||i- ties. A hierarchy, such as that of the Church of Rome, mip« ported by all that was dignified and venerable, could not be attacked, or shaken to its foundation, without involving Europe in the convulsion. Hence we find that wars and factions arose in Germany, France, the Low Countries, Switzerland, Hungary, and Poland. The march of reformation wras every where stain- ed with blood. The means that were employed to bring the quarrels of the Church to an amicable conclusion, tended rather to exasperate than allay the mischief; and if the conferences among the clergy of diflferent persuasions failed, it was not to be expected that a better agreement, or a union of parties, could be founded on the basis of a General Council. The Protestants demanded an un- controlled liberty for the Council. They wished it to be assem- bled by order of the Emperor, in one of the cities of the Empire ; and that their divines should have a voice and a seat in its meet- ings. The Pope was to submit to its authority, and all matters should there be decided according to the rule of the sacred Scrip- tures. These terms were by no means agreeable to the Catho- lics. Pkul HL summoned a Council at Mantua (1587,) and another at Vicenza (1658 ;) but both of these convocations were inefTectuad, as was also the proposed reform in the Court of Rome, made W the same Pontiff. It was resolved at last, at the instance of the Catholic princes (1542,) to convoke the Council of Trent, though the opening of it was deferred till 1545. This famous Council met vrith two interruptions; the fint took place in 1547, when the Pope, who had become alarmed at the success of the Imperial arms, transferred the Council to Bo* logna, len held its mnth and tenth Senions at that oihr. This laMer Goimcil having been dissolvod by I^ul III. (IMS,) if$ VOL. L 19 918 oaAmi vn. fJ coatfaiiNd in • languid atate for the next two yran, wnert Pope Jvliaa III., the toecetsor of Paul, revived it, and transferred it oaoe more to Trent (1551.) Another interruption totric place al the time when Maurice, Elector of Saxony, had made nimself master of Augsburg, and was marching against the Emperor towards Inspruck. It was then agreed to prorogue the Council, now in its sixteenth Session, for two years ; and to assemble again at the end of that period, if peace should happen in the mean time to be established. At length, in 1660, Pius IV., summoned the Council, for the third and last time, to meet at Trent. The session, however, did not commence till 1652 ; and next year its sittings were finally terminated. In this Council, matters wore not treated in the same way as they hod been at Constance and Basle, where each nation delibe- rated separately, and then gave their suflrage in common, so that the general decision was taken according to the votes of the dif* ferent nations. This form of deliberation was not at all palatable to the Court of Rome, who, in order to gain a preponderance in the assembly, thought proper to decide, by a majority of the votes of every individual member of the Council. The Protestant princes rejected entirely the authority of thia Council ; which, far from terminating the dispute, made tb .< schism wider than ever. Its decisions were even condemneii ty several of the Ca- tholic sovereigns. In France, more especiallv, it was never formoUy published, and they expressly excnided such of its acts of disciplme as they considered contrary to the laws of the king- dom, to the .authority of the sovereign, and the maxims of the QaUican Church. It is nevertheless certain that this Council was instrumental in restoring the toUering power of the Roman pontiffs ; which receiv- ed at the same time a new support by the institution of the Order of the Jesuits. The fourl-^r of this order was Ignatius Loyola, who was bom at the Cast'e of Loyola in Ouinuscoa. He made the declaration of his vows in i!.- rhurch of Montmartre at Paris (1634,) and obtained from Paul ill. the confirmation of his new Society. This order was bound, by a particular vow of obedi- ence, more intimately to the Court of Rome ; and became one of the main instnimonts of its enormous power. From Spain the Society waa speedily propagated in all ue other Catholic States ; tkay filled dtaes ami courts with thchr emissaries ; undertook missions to China, Japan, and the Indies ; and under the special pNtaction of the See of Rome, they soon surpassed in credit mat WNikh ovsry other religious order. ~ > tht midst M thme chuiges which took jibee in civil and 1 watltrs, we find a new system arising in the poli- two yean, wnen Pope it, and transfemd it irruption tovk place at |ony, had made nimself against the Emperor lo prorogue the Council, ears ; and to assemble e should happen in the h, in 1660, Pius IV., id last time, to meet at mmence till 1662 ; and ated. ited in the same way aa rhere each nation delibe* Frage in common, so that g to the votes of the dif* n was not at nil palatable gain a preponderance in )y a majority of the votes ouncll. The Protestant of thia Council ; which, e th><. schism wider than leii by several of the Ca- ertpecially, it was never excluded; such of its acts y to the laws of the king- , and the maxims of the tuncil was instrumental in lan pontifTs ; which receiv- le institution of the Order rder was Ignatius Loyola, in Ouipuscoa. He made ch of Montmartre at Paris e confirmation of his new I particular vow of obedi- Elome; and became one of power. From Spain the the other Catholic States ; at emisaariea; undertook ies; and under the special aeon surpaaaed in credit r. ;h todc place in civil and lyatcm ariaing in the poli* FIBIOD. VL A. o. 14S&— 1648. tit tied government of Enrope ; the eonaequence of thoae new tiea and relations which had been eataUished amongit the diSirent Sowers since the close of the fifteenth centurV' Prior to this ate, most of the European States were feeble, because inaukted and detached. Occupied with their own particular interests and quarrels, the nations were little acquainted with each other, and seldom had any influence on their mutual destinies. The faults and imperfections inherent in the feudal system had pervaded all Europe, and crippled the power and the energies of government. The sovereigns, continually at war with their lactious and power- ful vassals, could neither form plans of foreign conquest, nor carry them into execution ; and their military operations were in ge- neral without unity or eflcct. [Hence it happened, that in me middle a^es, changes were produced in the different States, which so little alarmed their neighbours, that it may be said they were scarcely conscious of their existence. Such were the conquestH of the English in France, which might certainly have compromised the independence of Europe.] A combination of causes and circumstances, both physical and moral, produced a revolution in the manners and govern- ments of most of the Continental States. The disorders of feudal anarchy gradually disappeared ; constitutions better or- ganized were introduced ; the temporary levies of vassals were succeeded by regular and peripanent armies ; which contributed to humble the exorbitant power of the nobles and feudal barons. The consequence was, that States formerly weak and exhausted, acquired stren^h ; while their sovereigns, freed from the tur* bulence and intimidation of their vassals, began to extend their )x>litical views, and to form projects of aggrandisement and 'conquest. From this period the reciprocal influence of the European States on each other began to be manifest. Those who were afraid for their indepetidence, would naturally conceive the idea of a balance of power capable of protectine them against the in roads of ambitious and warlike princes. Hence those frequent embassies and negotiations ; those treaties of alliance, subeidies, and guarantees ; those wars carried on by a general comlMna- tion of powers, who deemed themselves obliMd to bear a part in the common cause ; and hence too those projects for estabnsh- ing checks and barriers on each oUier, which oecapied the Hi- ferent courts of Europe. [The s^tem of eqailibriom or the balance of power, origiaated in Italy. That peninsula, sepamted firom the reat of thia wn^inwtf Sr the aea and the Alps, had outatripped the otiier eoantriaa m e career of civilixation. There a moltitade of ' ' b^ .£* gp ItAVTIB TIT. ttiM had bMn foimwl, un«au«l in point of I»w« •»! t";-";; S' ySt of pndeur. wa. the fir.t against «rhKh its efforts jLfCS. Chart- -l F.j«n-. .h« ^l^J,^ CaontriM in iighl of hij """^j.,?'"^',?^; l„ bM«nie heir to Spanish America. To these vast P«?^"»°"" ^^gmitted to Simonial dominions »%AuJm, wbgh w«e ^^^^ j El by his paternal 8n*nif*J« «« ^™^^ j^^^ Alwut the .«ne time (16W0 die Imje^^^ ^^^ ^^^ on Otis prince by Ae electors , ^J^^r^j^yferial ae that iince the time of Charlemagne, a monarchy so powe« int of powtr and •ztont ; ofth to rwiit tho united thorn ; while ot the Hune ibie in point of weaknen, lo. Hence that rivalry and leiMUitly watching over the lOnee, too, a aeriei of wars to maintain some degree of relative proportion, whirh ge and confidence. Tlte in these trmnuctione, em> y foreign powor from inter- The doctrine of political le end of the fiAepnth cen* :h had suddenly riflen to a rat against which its efforts igin from Rodolph of Haps- Sermnuy towards the end of >atnes8 and elevation chieflv erent family alliances which iximilian of Aupiria, son of Marv of Burgundy (147t,) e Rash, last Duke of Buf- Lustna the whole of the Low nt^, Flanders, and Artois. &rriage, espoused the Infanta id Isabella of Castillo. They inand, the former of whom, Charles V., inherited the Low iHp(1606.) On the death of er (1616,) he became heir to lich comprehended the king- uid Sardinia, together with poesessiona were added his , which were transmitted to the Emperor Maximilian I. nperial cugnity was conferred I that Europe had not seen, nonaichy so powerful as that y wiA his brother Ferdinand, leieditary possessions in Ger- Hune the founders of the two r Austria, vis. that of Spain, rauoD Tt. a. B. 1113— IMS. which began with Charlaa V., (calM Charles 1. 1( Spain,) and ended with Charles H. (1700;) and that of Gennany, of whkh Ferdinar I. was the ancestor, and which became extinct in the male line in the Emperor Charles VI. (i740.) These two branches, closek allied to each other, acted in concert for the advancement of'^their reciprocal interests ; moreover they gaimtd each ih r own separate advantases by the marriage connexions which < ^y formed. Ferdinand I. of'^the German line, married Anne ■t'il,) sister of Louis King of Hungary and Bohemia, who having been slain by the Turks at the Mttle of Mohacs (lfiS6,) thase two kingdoms devolved to Ferdinand of the House of Austria. Finally, the marriage which Charles V. contracted with the Infant Isaliella, daughter of Emmanuel, King of Por- tugal, procured Philip II. of Spain, the son of that marriage, the whole Portuguese monai'chy, to which he succeeded on the death of Henry, called the Cardinal (IfiSO.) So vast an ag- Kandizement of power alarmed the sovereigns of Europe, who gan to suspect that the Austrian Princes, of the Spanish and German line, aimed at universal monarchy. The unbounded ambition of Charles V., and his son Philip II., aa well as that of Ferdinand II., grandson of Ferdinand f, tended to confirm these suspicions ; and all felt the necessity of uniting to oppose a barrier to this overwhelming power. For a long time the whole policy of Europe, its wars and alliances, had no other object than to humble the ambition of one nation, whose pre- ponderance seemed to threaten the liberty and independence of the rest. [The system of political equilibrium, which from this period became the leading object of every European cabinet, until it was undermined by unjust and arbitrary interferences, and threatened to bury uie independence of Europe in its ruins, did not aim at maintaining among the different states an equality of power or territonkl possession. This would have been chi- merical. The object of this syptem was to maintain a perfect equality of rights, in virtue of which the weaker might enjoy in security all that they held by a just claim. It was purely a defensive and preservative system ; nor did it affect to put an end to all wars ; it was directed solely against the ambition and usurpation of conquerors. Its fundamental principle was to prevent any one state from acquiring sufficient power to resist the united efforts of the others.] France was the leading power that undertook the task of re- gulating the balance against the House of Austria. Francis I. and Henry II. used every effort to excite combinations against Charles V. Francis was the first sovereign in Europe that 19* :?! Hi CaAFTSB VU. •nterad iato treaties of aHiuiee with tlM Toikr afainst Aintria ; •ad ki thia way tke Porte was, to a certain extent, amalpfamated with the political system of Europe. So long as their object wu to saWert the fSeudal aristocrecy, and the Protestant reli* (Mtn in France, Francis and Henry were strenuous defenders of die Germanic system, and extended their protection to the sovereigns of the Protestant States of the Empire, under the persuasion that all Europe would bend to the Austrian yoke, if the Emperors of that House should succeed in rendering their Ewer absolute and hereditary in the Empire. Henry IV., mis XIII., and the Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin, adopted the same line of policy** They joined in league with the Pkotestant Princes, and armed by turns the greater part of Eu- rope against Austria, and the Emperor Ferdinand II., whose ambitious designs threatened to subvert the constitution of the Empire. This was the grand motive for the famous Thirty Years' War, which was put an end to by the treaties of West- idialia (1648,) and of the Pyrenees (1659.) France succeeded, not however without prodigious efforts, in supporting the ba- koce against Austria; while the federative system of the Empire, consolidated by the former of these treaties, and gua> raateed by France and Sweden, became a sort of artificial bar- rier, for preserving the equilibrium and the general tranquillity •f Europe. It was during this period that almost every kingdom in Eu- rope changed ueir condition, and assumed, by degrees, the form which they have still retained. The German Empire continued to experience those calamities to which every government is exposed, when its internal springs have lost their vigour and activity. Private wars and feuds, which the laws authorized, were then regarded as the chief bulwark of the national liberty ; the noblesse and the petty states in general, knew no other jus- tice than what the swora cHspensed. Oppression, rapine and violence, were become universal ; commerce languished ; and the different provinces of the Empire presented one melan- choly scene of ruin and desolation. The expedients that were tried to remedy these disorders, the truces, the treaties (called the Peace of God,) and the different confederacies of the Im- perial states, served only to palliate, but not tc cure the evil. The efforts which some of the Emperors made to establish the public tranquillity on some solid basis, proved eqtially abortive. It was not until near the end of t.'>e ^fteenth century that the slates of the Empire, impressed with juster notions of govern- ment and civil subordination, consented to the total and entire ditolition of feuds and intestine wars. This was accomplished «MMIMM m. ihm Toikr against Auatria; certain extent, amalpamated So long as their object and the Protestant rsli* were strenuous defenders ided their protection to Uie of the Empire, under the ind to the Austrian yoke, if succeed in rendering their the Empire. Henry IV., lelieu and Mazarin, adopted joined in league with the turns the greater part of Eu- aperor Ferdinand II., whose bvert the constitution of the notive for the famous Thirty d to by the treaties of West* !s (16o9.) France succeeded, eiibrts, in supporting the ba- le federative system of the er of these treaties, and gua- lecame a sort of artificial bar- n and the general tranquillity Imost every kingdom in Eu- assumed, by degrees, the form 'he German Empire continued J which every government is gs have lost their vigour and I, which the laws authorized, ulwark of the national liberty ; in general, knew no other jus- sed. Oppression, rapine and ; commerce languished; and 2mpire presented one melan- a. The expedients that were he truces, the treaties (called erent confederacies of the Im- liate, but not tc cure the evil, mperors made to establish the basis, proved eqtially abortive, f t'le Qfteenth century that the (vith juster notions of /ovem- sented to the total and entire rars. This was accomplished FBEIOO ▼!. A. D. 1403 — 1648. luider the raign of Bfaxfanilian L, hy the Permhui PtMie Ptaee, drawn up at the Diet of Worms in 14,96. All violent means of tedresa anong the memben of the Germanic Body were rigonmsly interdicted ; and all who had any compkints to make against each other, were enjoined to ^fiy to the regahur courts of justice. This ordinance of the Panic Peace, iniich was afterwards renewed and enlarged in several diets, lus been regarded, since that time, as one of the principal and Ainda- mental laws of the Empire. The establishment of the Public Peace rendered a reforma- tion necessary in the administration of justice, which had long been in a languid and disordered state. For this purpose, the Imperial Ch^ber, which sat at first at Sphre, and was after- wards transferred to Wetzlar, was instituted at the Diet of Worms (1496.) Its object was to judge of any dilSerences diat might arise among the immediate members of the Grermanic body; as also to receive any appeals that might be referred to them from the subordinate tribunals. It was composed of a chief or head, called the Judge of the Chamber, and of a cer- tain number of assessors chosen from among the jurists and independent nobility. The institution of the Aulic Council, another sovereign court of the Empire, followed soon after that of the Imperial Chamber. Its origin is generally referred to the Diet of Cologne (1512.) Of the same date also is the plan which they adopted of dividing the Empire into ten Circles, as a [woper expedient for maintaining the public peace, and fisci- litating the execution of the sentences of the two Imperial Courts. Over each of these circles were placed princes, direc- tors, and colonels, whose duty it was to superintend «end com- mand the troops of their respective districts. The custom of Imperial Capitulations was introduced at the time of the accession of Charles V. to the Imperial throne (1519.) The Electors, apprehensive of the formidable power of that prince, thought proper to limit it by a capitulation, which they made him sign and solemnly swear to ol»erve. This compact between the new Emperor and the Electors, renewed under every subsequent reign, has been always considered as the grand char- ter of the liberties of the Germanic body. The dissensions on the score of religion that happened about the beginning of the sixteenth century, gave rise to a long series of troubles and civil wars, which proved of advantage to the House of Austria, by the confirmation of their power in the Em- pire. The first of these is known by the name of the war of Smalcalden, of which the following is a brief sketch. The Em- peror Charles V., in the first diet which he held at Worms (1521,) •"-"" m mm /•-(ii MjUFTBmvn. luul iMMd an edict of proscription apwMt Luther and >» »J^«- SSiVcSining that Aey Aould he treated as enemiM of Ae fflre, widpUcuted to the utmost n8«" o^*' 1 Pm JSi? amffin of Uiis edict was incessanUy urged by the Emperor StTpope^kgates, untU the whole Empire.wa. m a stateof SSbustion: iScathoUcprin^s. at the "fSi??".! SSe nX CRinneffirio. assembled at Ratiabonne (lfi24,) and tliere ^opSrSS^Textreme rigour, for putting tke edi^^^^^ eSon within their respective states. The «we 'ras by no Ss Ae ««ne with the princes and states who adhered to the RSSonrwhogavelttheir protection. To apply the con- S^nr*; edict tfthem, it would have been necessary to comrto a civil war, which the more prudent members of the oSLmiclSdy "ought to avoid. This religious schism was sUU moinS^ted at the Diet of Augsburg, where the Emperor SSJd^we, condemning the Confessionof Faith whicVdie P^^tLit^Ses had presented to him This decree kni^ a time within which they were commanded, m so far as 'egaxaea iTaS "i^Sute, to conform to the doctrines of the Cathohc Ch,^ Thus Jrged to extremities, the Protestaxit leaders de- TeSed to aS^mbfe at Smalcalden before the end of Ais venr !fi« nSw) ^ where they laid the foundation of a Unton, or de- Cii'S^^l^LtLaJerwardsrenew^^^^^^^ S S oS^y, the Catholic princes instituted jhelWy Lague; so called because its object was the defence of the "^ w'S-med to announce a civil war. when an w irroSn T^e Turks into Hungary and Austria, induced the SoUcs to sign, at Nuremberg (1630,) a truce, or accommoda- S^S the^kces of the Union ; in virtue of which, a pea^ K^nthe etotes of the two 'el!gi«n^7'«„^°",tl "^^^^^^^^ moved bv the Emperor; to continue till a General l^o«ncil, or Sme neJ assembl^ should decide othermse. TJus jea e wy renewed in various subequent assemblies. lUe "«tes»ni mam linst Luther and his adhe* treated aa enemies of the rigour of the law. The itly urged by the Emperor le Empire was in a state of at the mstigation of Cardi- ibonne (lSS4,) and Uiere |r, for putting the edict into lies. The case was by no d states who adhered to the tection. To apply the con- d have been necessary to re prudent members of the lis religious schism was still gsburg, where the Emperor nfession of Faith which the him. This decree limited a anded, in so far as regarded the doctrines of the Catholic I, the Protestant leaders de- I before the end of this very lundation of a Union, or de- ds renewed at difierent times. , and Philip, Landgrave of f this Union. In opposition princes instituted the Holy ject was the defence of the ce a civil war, when a new ury and Austria, induced the 530,) a truce, or accommoda- ; in virtue of which, a peace ;ions was concluded, and ap- lue till a General Council, or i otherwise. This peace was issemblies. The Protestant > their reiusal to acknowledge ed by the Popes; and their iccessions, the Emperbr, after : Crepy (1544,) and concluded e Turks, resolved to declare 10, presuming on their union breigii powers, thought them- > the Empire. He issued an it the Elector of Saxony and nuoD Tt. A. s. 14fi3-~1648. the Landgrave of Hease, the two chiefs of the Union ; and having entered into a secret alliance with Duko Maurice, a younger branch of the family of Saxony, and a near relation of the Elector, he succeeded in transferring the theatre of war from the D^ube to the Elbe. The Elector being defeated by the Emperor, in an action which took place at Mecklenburg (1547,) fell mto the hands of the conqueror ; and the Landgrave of Hesse met with the same fate two months after. The Union of Smal- calden was then dissolved, and the Emperor, who now saw him- self master of Germany, assembled a Diet at Augsburg, in which he acted the part of a dictator. A large detachment of his troops, billeted on the city, served as his body guard, while the rest of his army was encamped in the neighbourhood. At this diet, he conferred on Duke Maurice the Electorate of Saxony, of which he had deprived his prisoner, John Frederick. The investiture of the new Elector took place at Augsburg (1548;) and what deserves to be particularly remarked in this diet is, that the Em- peror entered into a scheme for the entire ruin and extirpation of Protestantism, by compelling the princes and states of the Reformation to rejoin the Catholic Church, by means of a formula which he made them adopt, known by the name of the Interim ; and which, by its preliminary arrangement, allowed them only the use of the communion in both kinds, and the marriage of their priests, until the whole matter should be decided by a Council. The victories of Charles V., which seemed to have made him absolute master of the Empire, were soon followed by reverses, which eclipsed all the former glory of his reign. The Elector Maurice, though indebted to him for his new dignity, thought he might take advantage of the distressed condition to which that prince was reduced by the low state of his finances, to make a new attempt to limit his authority, and restore the Protestant religion. With this view, having inlisted some of the princes of ue Empire in his cause, and concluded a secret treaty with Henry IL of Fran . ;, at Chambord, he marched with such rapi- dity against the Emperor, that he nearly surprised him at Ins- pruck, and obliged him to have recourse to the mediation of his raother Ferdinand, when a treaty was concluded with Maurice, which was signed at Ftosau (1552.) There the liber^ of the Protestant worship was sanctioned; and it was affreed that a General Council snould be summoned to draw up the articles of a solid and permanent peace between the states of both reli^ona. This diet, which waa long retarded W political events, did not aaaemUe at Augsburg till the year \oBo. There a definitiTe peace was conclnded on die su^ect of religiooi and it was or ''^^-'■iiwm^Ndk&MNiii^^^wiKli^ ■MB aUPTBE Ttt. dtined that both FrotMtuit and C«th<^ itatM dbrndd wjjoy a pnftet liberty of wtnrahip ; and that uu reanion should orer be attempted by any other than amicaUe means. The seeolari- ■wig of the ecclesiaetiad revenues, which the Protestant princes iMd introduced into their states, was ratified; but there was one of the articles of the treaty T^hich expressly proTided, that every prehte or churd^an, who renounced his ancient faith to embrace the Confession of Augsburg, should lose his benefice. This latter clause, known by the name of Eedetiastieal Baerve, did not pass but with the most determined opposition. Difierences of more kinds than one sprung from this treaty of peace,— the articles of which each party interpreted to their own advantage. Hence those stratagems which at length occasioned a new war— that of the Thirty Years. The Protestant Princes and States, wishing to provide for their own security, and to put an end to those arbitrary measures, of which they thought they had reason to complain, assembled at Heilbrunn (1694,) and there laid the foundation of a new union, which was confirmed in the assemUies held at Halle, in Suabia, in the years 1608 and 1610. The chief promoter of this union was Henry IV. of France, who designed to use it as a check on the ambition of the House of Austria ; and as a means for carrying into execution the grand project which he meditoted with regard to the pacifi- cation of Europe. Ha concluded an alliance with the Princes of the Union, and determined the number of troops to be furnish- ed by each of the contracting parties. The Catholic princes and States, afraid of being taken unawares, renewed their League, which thay signed at Wurtzburg (1609.) The rich dutchy of juliers, which had become vacant this same year, was contested by several claimanto ; and as Austria was equally desirous of possessing it, this was made the occasion of raismg powerful a'^ aies in France, Germany, Italy, and the Low Countries. A considerable number of troops had ahready taken the field, about the beginning of the year 1610, when the unexpected death of Henry IV. cUsconcerted all their measures. This changed the politics of the French court, and also induced the Princes of the Union to conclude a treaty vrith the League, — the articles of which were signed at Munich and Wildstett (1610.) In this manner the resentment of both parties was suspended for the moment ; but the cause of their disunion still remained, which at length (1618) kindled a war that extended from Bdie- mia over all Germany, and involved, in course of time, a great put of Europe. The history of this tedious war, in which poli- ties had as great a share as aed for relirion, inay be divided into fear principal periods, naiuely, the nUatine, die Danirii, w 1 ithdie statM dkoaU «Bjo]r a it nu reunion should ever be lUe means. The secolaii- 'hich the Protestant princes IS ratified; but there was fich expressly provided, that inounced his ancient faith to ■g, should lose his benefice. le o[ Eecletittrtical Bnerve, nined opposition. ic sprung from this treaty of arty interpreted to their own 8 which at length occasioned rs. The Protestant Princes leir own security, and to put of which they thought they at Heilbrunn (1594,) and union, which was confinned Suabia, in the years 1608 this union was Henry IV. of check on the ambition of the for carrying into execution led with regard to the pacifi- an alliance with the Princes umber of troops to be furnish- s. The Catholic princes and irares, renewed their League, 1609.) The rich dutchy of this same year, was contested tria was equally desirous of Kcasion of raismg powerful and the Low Countries. A slready taken the field, about hen the unexpected death of easures. This changed the 10 induced the Princes of the the League,— the articles of Wildstett (1610.) fboth parties was suspended heir disunion still remained, nur that extended from Bdie- id, in course of time, a great is tedious war, in whidi poli> relinon, may be divided into e nUatine, the Danish, die mm ntioo n. A. D. 1453—1649. Swedish, and the Fropeh War. Frederidk V., Elector Palatine, and head of the Protestant Union, haring been raised to the throne by the Bohemian States (1619,) which had rebelled against the Emperor Ferdinand II., engaged in a war with that prince ; but being deserted by his allies, and defeated at the bet- tie of Prague (1620,) he was driven from Bohemia, and stripped of all his dominions. The victorious arms of Austria soon ex> tended their conquests over a great part of the Empire. Christian IV., King of Denmark, who was in alliance with most of the Protestant princes, next undertook the defence of the federal system ; but he was not more fortunate than the Elector Palatine had been. Being defeated by Tilly, at the famous bat< tie of Latter (1626,) he was compelled to abandon the cause of his alliesi and to sign a separate peace with the Emperor at Lubeck (1629.) Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, pursued the career of the Danish monarch. Encouraged by France, he put himself at the head of the Protestant princes, with the \ I iw of checking the ambitious projects of Ferdinand II., who, by means of his general, Wallenstein, whom he had created Duke of Friedland, and invested in the Dutchy of Mecklenburg, was dictating the law to the whole Empire, and even threatening the kingdoms of the North. Nothing could be more splendid tlian the campaigns of the Swedish hero in Germany, and the victories which he obtained at Leipsic (1631,) and Lutter (1632 ;) but having been slain in the latter action, the affairs of the Swedes began to decline ; and they were totally ruined by the defeat which they sustained at Nordiingen (1(534.) From that time the Elector of Saxony, John Geoige 1., renounced the al- liance of Sweden ; and in yielding up Lusac-e to the Emperor, he consented to a separate treaty of peace, which was signed at Prague (1635.) It was at this period that France, which till then had but fee» b).y supported the Swedes and the Protestant Princes, thought it of aavantage to her interests to undertake their defence against Austria. Having declared war against Spain, she marched numerous armies at once into Italy, Spain, Germany, and tite Low Countries. Bernard, Prince of Saxe Weimar, and the three French Generals, Guebriant, Turennc, and the Duke d'Enghien, siffnalized themselves by their exploits in the Imperial war; while the disci^es of Gustavus Adolphus, Banier, Torstenston, and Wrangel, distinguished themselves at the head of the Swe« dish armies, in the various campaigns which took place, from the year 1635 till the conclusion of the peace. Never were ne* gotiations more tedious or more complicated than diose vHiieh preceded the treaty of Westphalia. The preliminaries vere 11 mB Mvi- taurttn vtt. •igMd at Hunlmrffh in 1641 ; bat the qieniog •(/!»• Cf the three bishoprics, Metz, of Alsace. The compensa- was settled in a great mea- md by means of secularizing d benefices. of Wismar, Sweden got the tishopric of Verden. To the ved Upper Pomerania, the ihoprics of Halberstadt, Min- leeklenburg received, in lieu I of Schwerin and Rataeburg. was adjudged to the Land- lice of the bishopric of Osna- luneburg. An eighth Elec- the Elector Bahtine, vriiom livested of his dignity, which, 1 conferred on the jDake of B known by the name of the incient kingdom of Lemine, n»ioo Ti. A. B. 14fll~.164a SM whkh had been united to the German Empire ainee the tenik century. The ivineipal of theae had been acquired by the Dukaa of Buigandyi who made them over, with other estates, to tiie House of Austria (1477.) Charles V. added the provinces of Frieshmd, Oroningen, and Oueldres, to the stat^ to which he had succeeded in Burgundy. He united die seventeen pro- vinces of the Low Countries into one and the same government ; and ordered, by the PragTnatie decree which he puU»hed (1549,) that they should never henceforth be disunited. This same prince, at the diet of Augsburg (1648,) entered into a negotia- tion with the Germanic Body, in virtue of whioh he consented to put these provinces under Aeir protection ; under condition of their observing the public peace, and paying into the exche- Juer of the Empire double the contribution of an Electorate, [e guaranteed to the princes of the Low Countries a vote and a seat at the Diet, as chiefe of the circle of Burgundy. These provinces, moreover, were to be considered as free and indepen- dent sovereignties, without being subject to the jurisdiction eiuer of the Empire or of the Imperial Chamber, who were not au- thorized to proceed against. thi»m, except when they were found in arrears with the payment of their contingent, or when they infringed the law of the public peace. Charles V. having transferred these countries to his son, Philip II. of Spain, they were, then incorporated with the Span- ish monarchy ; and it was under the reign of diis latter pmice that those troubles began which gave rise to the Republic of die United Provinces of the Low Countries. The true origin of these trouUes is to be found in the despotism of Philip if, and in his extravagant and fanatical zeal for the CathoUc religi»< J^^^J wTthere presented this request, wfiich may be considered as Se cSSiJKnent of the ^roubles in the L"* Cou"tn.s. It was on this account that the name o( Gueux ''^ beggar* wu ri^w to the Confederates, which has become so famous in the AlJuf tWs'ILrSne, the populace collected in mobs in seve- J3s of the Low CountnV, and feU upon the churches and monasteries ; and having broken down their alta« ?"* "~8^' SKfinteoduU the exereise of the Protestant re igion bv form ThrtSSrn, however, was cahned; *« Cathohc wo«fi>P wm «l«t«bliphed every where ; and ihe confederacy of the noWes SSJedr^vemrof whom, distrustfal of thj- appajegt t^i- oSliv. retired to foreign countries. WiUiam Pnnce of Orange, & of NMsau, the Counts de Culemburg and Berg, and the cTt de bSoU. were in the number of/h«j emipams. PfcTlin n instead of adopting measures of moderation ano KSJv'iSing to til? afvice of tiie Regent, was deter- IZS^'J^XZnt signal manner, tiiis outm« agamst rJelSrXhe majesty o^throne. , He aent|efcmo«s DukeT Alba or Alva iito tiie Low Countries, at d» head of an 2«;3a).000men(lfi67.) The Itegent Acn g.^ m he^w- SStion. A general terror overspread the eoimtty. Vsat SSot of maSfacturers and meiaiante took refuge, in Eng- kS^S^ytoTlong witii tiiem tiieir arts «»* *«» ""J^S SirffcSmme^ and manufkctare. of the L«w Co^tng, i^ had formerly been Uie most flounshing in Europe, feU "^vZTli.^ immediatoly on hi. ^^^^X^ ttibmnl « court, for investigating *• ««««*»^i^*T Mnmittad dnrinff theae commotions. This eouneO, which tl* ''''^"^^jSS^rMJouiica of Blood," in&imad against aU ^ '''"''^'WMMMiii i a i i t ii ti i fTtwriT fi t ' ir""-''' '*'""''-" ■' '*■" imiiiiirf wr)ii-Mi«*^t ^■i»^.*.*"'^.^>*^^* HP OKArm Tilt «Ml W oommoD OMumt. The paUic emeiM of Um tshuMi iglriinr wM introdaeedl. according to Um foim of Godot*. tkii rinoff lepublie beeomo mon firmlv eitoMidied in con- MOveneo of Mmal advutagoo which the Confodentoo had M&od orer the Spaniards, whoee troops being badly paid, at hagUi mutinied; and breaking out into the greatest disorders, Sot pillaged several cities, among others Antwerp, and laid waMe the whole of the Low Countries. The States-General, dMn assembled at Brussels, implored the assistance of the Prince •r Orange and the Confederates. A negotiation was then opened at Ghent (lff76,) between the States of Brussels, and iSose of Holland and Zeahmd ; where a general union, known W the name of the Paci/katiou of Ghent, was signed. They engaged mutually to assist each other, with the view of expelUng tha Spanlih troops, and never more permitting them to enter the Low Countries. The Confederates, who were in alliance with Queen Elisabeth of England, pursued the Spaniards every where, who soon saw themselves reduced to the single provmces of Luxemburg, Limburg, and Namur. They were on the point of being expelled from these also, ishen Uie government of the Low Countries was intrusted to Alexander Fames^, Prince of Parma. Equally distinguished as a politician and a warrior, this Prince revived the Spanish inte- Msto Taking advantage of the dissensions which had arisen among the Confederates from the diversity of their religious o^ons, he again reduced the provinces of Flanden, Artois, ud Hainault, under the Spanish dominion. He took the city of Maestricht by assault, and entered into a negotiaUon with Ae States-General of the Low Countries at Cologne, under the mediation of the Emperor Rodolph IL, the Pope, and some of tka princes of the Empire. This negotiaUon proved unsuccess- M ; but the Prince of Orange, foreseeinff that the general con- fcderacy could not last, conceived the plan of a more inUmato wion among the Prorinces; which he regarded as the most fit 10 make heS against the Spaniards. He fixed on the maritime piovinces. such\a HoUand, Zealand, and Frieshmd ; and above ■U. on thoee whom the same religious creed, vix. the Calvinistic, bid attached to the same interests. The commerce of Hol- Ind. and Zealand, and Friesland, began to make new promis duly. Amstetdam was rising on the ruins of Antwerp. The flouishing stato of their marine rendered these pronnces for- n A*-'^ by sea; and gave them the means not only of repelluu; Iha efibrta of tfa« Sna^ards, but even «><, I«^*»g *•»••£ taurine provinces which iniAtjom this Umon. Suchweretlie OMtivM Idikk indnead thePrince of Orange to form the special •zeidM of the nfimiMd the fonn of Oeoeira. fimilT etteblithed in con< ' 'i the Confedemtee had )|M being badly peid, at into the greeteet diaorden, othera Antweq), end laid iea. The Statea-Oeneral, the aaaistance of the Prince A negotiation waa then Ithe Statea of Bnuaela, and ire a general union, known Ghent, was signed. They r, with the view of expelling permitting them to enter the , who were in alliance with raued the Spaniards every luced to the single provinces ur. f expelled from these also, Countries was intrusted to I. Equally distinguished as ce revived the Spanish into- issensions which had arisen diversity of their religious rovinces of Flanders, Artois, lominion. He took the city ired into a negotiation with iintries at Cologne, under die li 11.,^ the Pope, and some of legotiation proved unsuccess- Bseeinff that the general con- the plan of a more intimate h he regarded as the most fit s. He fixed on the maritime id, and Friesland ; and above lus creed, via. the Calvinistic, ta. The commerce of Hoi- began to make new progress the ruins of Antwerp. Hie endered theee provinces for* e means not only of lepelUng iven of protecting the neigh- k this Union. Such were the Bf Orange to form the special mioD. TL A. ». 1MB— 16l8r Mi eonfedeney of the Seven Ptovineea, the baaia of which he kid by the fiunoua treaty of Union conehided at Utneht (1079.) lliat Union waa there declared perpetual and indiHohihia ; warn it waa agreed that the Seven Provineea, vis. those of Oueldres* Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Overyaael, Friealand, and Oioniafan, ahould henceforth be considered aa one and the aamo Provinoe. Each of theae, neverthelesa, waa guaranteed in the poaaeaaion of their rights and privileges— that is, their absolute aupariority in every wing regarding toeir own internal adminiatiauoo. [We may remark, however, that these inanrreetioiiary pro- vinces had not oriffinally the design of forming a lepubUe. Their intention, at first, waa only to maintain their politioJ pri- vileges ; and they did not abwlutely shake ofl* tne Spaidah authority until they despaired of reconciliation. M evMMd awry day : and in ISM theT flxtandsd it m fiur m Indit ■ad dM BMtem 8m«. Th* Dutch India Company won ootok* IfalMd in 1608. Boiidoi iho oxelnoiTo commoico of ladUn, wliieh UM jmawnlood to thorn by (heir chartor, thoy boeaaM Ukowiso a pofltieal body, nndor tbo Mveniffnty of the Statoo^onoral of Am Unitod Pravineoo. Supportoo by a formidable marine, they noqnlrod vaat inflnenoe in toe Ea«t by their conqneate orer th« Portagueeo, whom they diepoiMMed by depfrees of all their ptiDC^al eetabliohmenta in India. The Spanwrdt, (indinff their ofttto to reduce the Conledemlee by force of arms ineflectual, oot on loot a negotiation at Antwerp (1600,) under the media* tioB of France and England ; in conwquence of which, a truce ef IwoIto yean was concluded between ^pain and the United nrovincee. It wae chiefly during thii time that the Confede- latoo extended their conunerce over all parts of the globe, while diair marine daily increased in strength and importance ; which aoon raised them to the rank of being the second maritime power, and gare them a decisive influence over the political anairs of Burope. At the expiration of this truce, hostilities were renewed with Spain. The Dutch carried on the war for twentv-five vears with great glory, under the auspices of their Stadtholders, Ibarice andHenry Frederic, Princes of Orange, who discovered mat military talents. One event, which proved favourable for tte Republicans, was the war that broke out between France and Spain, and which was followed by a strict allin nee between Fiance and the States-General. The partition of the Spanish Netherlands was settled by this treaty ; and the allied powers antered into an engagement never to make peace or truce with bjpatn, except by common consent, '^his latter clause, however, did not prevem the'States-Qeneral from concluding at Munster a oeparate peace with Spain, to the exclusion of France (1648.) By tnis peace the King of Spain acknowledged the United Pro- vineas as free and inmpendent States ; he gave up to them all th;^ places which they had seized in Brabant, Flanders and Lim- burg, viz. Bois-Ie-Duc, Bergen-op-Zoom, Brotla, and Maestricht ; aa uso their possessions in the East and West Indies, in Asia, Aftka, and America. The closing of the Scheld, which was granted in favour of the United Provinces, entirely ruined the dty of Antwerp, and shut out the Spanish Netherlands from all maritime commerce. The feudal system of the Swiss, which had originated in the fimxteenth century, acquired a new importance towards the end of tihe fifteenth, %^ reason of the success of the oonfedentot in ■ CmMutf StoiM ia> •xtondad it m ikr M India tdia CompMY WM eomiDMc* of Iniim wbioli t«r, they bacMM UkawiM r of the Staiae^enenl of • formi anee with Fiance, and accede to the Leutie of SwaUa ; ai abo to aahmit themselves to the Imperial Ghamberi and the law of the public peace ; and to furnish their quota for the support P«"'*l^,?°^7„V7j pUed the royalty of Italy, which was considered f mdissokbly Suited to it,'nevertheles8 it was the custom that the Kinp of Germany should have themselves crowned separately. Kings ot Italy at Milan, and Emperors at Rome. Frederic m., haying had certain i^lsons for abiding his coronation at Milan, recW from the hands of Pope Nich^ V., n his own caP»t«J. t^« **« cmwns of Italy and rfome. Maximilian I., being prevented^ the Venetians^rom repairing to Italy "« coronation (IfiO^) Zb content to take the tUle of Emperor Elect, ^J^^h Jus succe*- aors in the Empire have retained till the presen time. Charles V. was the last Emperor to whom the ^'^V^,^,^^^"'''^^ ^^'Z ministered this douSle coronation of King of Italy and Emperor, •* SX^^tlXg. of Naples, the Dukes of Milan and Uj. RepubUcs 01 VeniceTnd Florence, were the P™c|P|^F^«; S2t shared among them the dominion of Italy J»7^ *« J "^ S^ fifteenth ci^tury. The continual wars ^^"ch »he^te8 ™d with each other, added to the weakness of ^e G«m«i S^srors, encouraged foreign powers to form Pl^ / "gP": di«Sent and conquest over tfcese %«^«5; I^^^S!? W France. Charles Vftl., Louis XII., and Francis 1., »«> »way w S; for conquesv undenook ^^r^^^^^f ^.tli |i g^TthoulfflrC^^^^^ th^ntinentVf Italy. Ferdinand the Cathohc deprived the ^TS,lringd2of Naples (IfiOO.) Hi.«ioc««r,Ch«Ies ■■HM rial Chamber umnped an ither of the CanUnu. Ne- ng commenced at Monster «nt their minister or en^oy retic Body at that congress ; mention or France and Swe- e treaty it should be deck- her Swiss Cantons, were in pendent of the Empire, and eror of (Germany, which had ding centuries, languished feeble reign of Frederic III. ire ceremony of coronation, irary and feudal rights, such ial Court continued to grant igh the Imperial dignity im- LS considered as indissolubly e custom diat the Kings of rowned separately, Kings of ome. Frederic Al., haying coronation at Milan, receivea ., in his own capital, the two [lilian I., being prevented by dy for his coronation (1506,) ^or Elect, which his succes- 11 the present time. Charles the Pope, Clement VII., ad- f King of Italy and Emperor, , the Dukes of Milan, and the e, were the principal povrers aion of Italy towards me end tinual wars which these states ^e wealaiess of the Oerman vers to form plans of aggran- le countries. The Kings of , and Francis I., led away by leveral expeditions into Italy, »n ihe kingdom of Naples, or tliwarted in their schemes by already masters of Sicily- aira t also to extend their views to nd the Catholic deprived the IfiOO.) His succeKior, Charles nuoD ru A. o. 1443—1648. v., wqpeUed them frran the Milanois, and oUiged Francis I., by the treaties of Madrid (lfiS6,) Crmbray (1529,) and Crepy (1544,) to give up his pretensions .. the kingdom of Naples, and the dutdiy ofMilan. From this time the Spaniards were ^e predominating uower in Italy for more than a hundred years. In the midst of uiese revolutions there arose three new prin- ciiwlities within that kingdom ; those of Florence, Parma, and Malta. The Republic of Florence held a distinguished rank in Italy during the fifteenth century, both on account of the flour* ishing state of its commerce, and the large extent of its teraitory, which comprehended the greater part of Tuscany, and gave to this RepuUic the means of holding the balance between the other powers of Italy. The opulent family of the Medici here exercised a high degree of influence ; they ruled not by force but by their munificence, and the judicious use which they made of their great riches. The credit and popularity of the Medici, excited envy and persecution against them, and caused them to be several times banished from Florence. They were expelled from this latter place at the same time that Pope Clement VII., who was of this family, was besieged by the Imperialists in Rome (1527.) That Pontiff, in making his peace with Charles V., ob« tained his consent that the Medici should be re-established at Florence, in the state in which they were before their last ban- ishment. The Emperor even promised the Pope to give Alex- ' der de Medici his natural daughter in marriage, with a consid- erable dowry. The Florentines, however, having shown some reluctance to receive the Medici, their city was besieged by the Imperial army, and compelled to surrender by capitulation ( 1530.) The Emperor, by a charter dated at Augsburg on the 28th of August following, preserved to the city of Florence its ancient republican forms. Alexander de Medici was declared govemor- in-chief of the state ; but this dignity was vested in himself and his male descendants, who could only enjoy it according to the order of primogeniture. He was authonzed, moreover, to con- struct a citadel at Florence, by means of which he afterwards exercised an absolute power over his fellow-citizens. As for the ducal dignity with which the new Prince of Florence was vested, it properly belonged to the dutchy of Parma, in the king- dom of Napuw, which ue Emperor had conferred on him. Alexander de Medici did not long enjoy his new honours. He was univenaDy abhoned for his cruelties, and assassinated by Lorenio de Medici, one of his own near relations (1537.) nu succesaor in the dutchy was Cosmo de Medici, who annexra to the territory of Florence that of the ancient republic of Sianna, which the Emperor Charles V. had conquered, and m oiArm vn. eonfemd dent independence about the time when the French and Span* iards disputed the sovereignty of Italy, and the conquest of the Mikinois. Expelled by the Imperialists from the city of Oenoa in 1322, the French had found means to repossess it (1527,) with the assistance of the celebrated Andrew Doria, a noble (Genoese, vrho had been in the service of Fmncis I. This distinguished admiral, supplanted by favourites, and maltreated by the court, abandoned the cause of France in the following year, and es- poused that of the Emperor Charles V. The Ftent-h then laid siege to the city of Naples, which was reduced to the last extremity, and on the point of surrendering, rrhen Doria, having hoisted the Imperial flag, set sail for Naples, Mrith die galleys under his command, and threw abundance of provisions into the besieged city. The French army, now cut off irom all communication by sea, soon began to experience those calamities from which the Imperialists had just been de- livered. Their whole troops beine destroved by famine end con- Spous disease, the expedition to Naples fell to the ground, and the airs of the French in Italy were totally ruined. It is alleged that Charles V., to recompense Doria for thio important service, ofiered him the sovereignty of Genoa ; and that, instead of ac- cepting this honour, that great man stipulated for the liberty of his country, whenever it should be delivered from the yoke of France. Courting the glory of being the liberator of his native eity, he sailed dir^tly for Genoa, of which he made himself oiaster, in«a single pight, without ahedding one drop of blood (10t8.) The Fsedch garrison ratind to the citadel, and were •bHsed to capitulate for want of provisions. ^niis fxpedition procured Doria the title of Father of his Ooontry, which was confemid on him by a decree of the Senate. It was by his advice that a committee of twelve persons was chosen to organise a new scheme of government for tne republic. A register was drawn vp of all those fiunilies who were to com- poae the Grand Connal, which was destined to exercise the adpnoM power. The Doge was to continue in office ten years ; aai gnait oiure was taken to remove diose causes which had pre- ikmlj ucited ftctions and intestine disorders. Hence the artaMnhment of the Genoese aiistoeraey, whose forms have 0ucm been preserved, with some few modifications which were bjNniwed atftarwards, in consequence of certain dissensiona ulrikh had arisen between the ancient and the new nobili^. Venice, dM eldest «f the European lepablics, had raached the at Genoa, aboat the IxSffiii* republic, after having lor a of Bf ilan, recovered its an* hen the French and Span- ly, and the conquest or the iits from the city of Gknoa to repossess it (1527,) with Doria, a noble C^noese, icis I. This distinguished Ind maltreated by the court, the following year, and es- V. i city of Naples, which was n the point of surrendering, 9Tial flag, set sail for Naples, nd, and threw abundance of The French army, now cut L, soon began to experience perialists had just been de- lestroyed by famine and con- )les fell to the ground, and the totally ruined. It is alle^d ia for thio important service, loa ; and that, instead of ac- 1 stipulated for the liberty of I delivered from the yoke of ing the liberator of his native , of which he made himself •bedding one drop of blood tiled to the citadel, and were ovieions. a the title of Father of his dm by a decree of the Senate, mittee of twelve persons was r government for the republic, le fiunilies who were to com* tna destined to exercise the continue in office ten years ; e those causes which had pre- rtine disorder*. Hence the istocraey, whose forms have BW modifications which were aence of certain dissensions lent and the new nobility. Mun repablics, had reached the ntioB yu A*9. 1483—1648. ffiutli of its gieatneas about the end of the fifteenth ceatory, TTie TBst extent of its commeiee, supported by a poweilul ni«f rine, the multiplied sources of its industry, and the monopolv of the trade in the East, had made it one of the richest and most formidable States in Europe. Tasides several porta on the Adriatic, and numerous settfemente which they had in the ArchipeUgo, and the trading towns on the Levant, they gained ground more and more on the continent of Italy, where they formed a considerable territory. Guided by an artful and e«. terprising policy, this Republic seized with marvellous avidity every circumstance which favoured its views of aggrandizement. On ie occasion of their quarrels with the Duke of Ferrara, they obtained possession of the province of Polesino de Rovigo, by a treaty which they concluded with that prince in 1484. Afterwards, having joined the League which the powers of Italy had opposed to Charles VIII. and his projects of conquest, they refused to grant supplies to the King of Naples for the re- covery of his kingdom, except by his consenting to yield up tlie cities of Trani, Otranto, Bn'ndisi, and GallipoU. Louis XIL, being resolved to enforce his claims on the dutchy of Milan, and wishing to gain over this Republic to his interest, gave up to them, by the treaty of Blois (1499,) the town of Cremona, and the whole country lying between the Oglio, the Adda, and the Fo. On the deato of Pope Alexander VI. (1603,) they took that favourable opportunity of wresting from the Ecclesiastical States several towns of Komagna ; among others, Rimiu ^d Faenza. Of edl the acquisitions which the Venetians made, the most important was tnat of Gyiqrus. That island, one of the most considerable in the Mediterranean, had been conquered from thf9 Greeks by. Richard CoBur de Lion, King of Eoglandi who sor* rendered it to Guy of Lusignan (1192,) the lisst Jciug of Jeru- salem, in compensation for the loss of his kingdom. From Ouy of Lusignan descended a long line of Cypriot kings ; the last of whom, John III., left an only daughter, named Charlotte, who succeeded him in that kingdom, and eaua^d her husband, Louis of Savoy, to be also crowned long. There still remained a bM- tard son of John III., called James, who was protected 1^ the Sultan of Egypt, to whom the kinss of Cyprus were tributatifs, and who succe«ded in expelling Charlotte and her husband, 4hf Prince of Savoy, from the throne (1460.) James, wdto was de- sirous of putting himself under the protection of the V«u»ti«iMii mairied Catherme Comaro, daughter of Marco CorneiUs. a i»r trieian of Venice. The Senate, in honour of this rawmfp, ■d^ted Catherine, and deelarcd her daughter of St. mAhVf 'iC Ikt BMDUie. JamM died in 147S, iMTinff « PM^«n«» «"' iHm dtod alM) in the Mcond y«u of hit ■««. . Th» MpuUie Ami coMidering the kinodom of Cyfroi as their own inherit. •BM. took poewnion of the natord children of JomM, end indtteed Queen Catherine, by Tirioua meaiM, to retire to Venice, and there to resign her cnmn into the handa of the Senate, who uaisned her a pension, with the Castle of AmIo, m TwTieano, i^ her residence; and obtained for themselTos the inresUture tg that island from the Sultan of Egypt (14flO.) A career so prosperous was eventually foUowed by a reverse of fortune; and several circumstances concurred to accelerate ths decline of this flourishing republic. They received a ter- rible blow by the discovery of the new passage to India round the Cape, which deprived them of the coinmerce of the East; thus dmng up the principal source of their wealth, as well as of their revenue and their marine. In vain did they put in waetice all the arts of their policy to defeat the commercial en- tanrises of the Portuguese in India ; excitinj? against them, first S?Sultans of Egypt, and afterwards the furkish Emperors. Mid fiimishing these Mahometan powers with supplies. The activity of the Portuguese surmounted all these obstacles. They obtained a firm setUement in the East, where in course of time they became a very formidable power. Lisbon, in place of Venice, became the emporium for the productions of India ; and the Venetians could no longer compete with them in this field of Eastern commerce. Besides, the good fortune which so long •ttmded the undertakings of the republic, had mspired them ;Sf a passion for conquest. They took every opportunUy of nuOcing^croachments on their neighbours ; uid sometimes for- grttinlthe counsels of prudence, they drew down upon them- S^the jealousy and resentment of the principal States ofltoly. To this iealou^ must be attributed the famous L*a«ie, which Ftoe Julius II., the Emperor Manmilian, Loum XU., Ferdinand rfBpain, and Several of the Italian States, conckded at Cam- SaVaSbS for the partition of the Venetian temtonr on Tef^ SSi. Liuii Xn. gained a sigmjl victory over tie renubh- STiar Agnadello, ^ch was foUowed by such a rapiA sue- 2ari^f cSquests.that the Senate «>f Vemcewere sbmck wrth cMsternation ; and the Republic must have been mfclbWy lost, SSTlSSs bJ^n supported K his allies. But the Pof «* ^J Sng of Spain, wfirdieaded the meponderence of the French SSly. sJSde^ly abandoned the League, and ««fl«ded jja- Mte tritiesof peace with the republicans; nor was the Eb^» llSSUloiigrfolkming their example. I»f»;«qu«iwof SaTdTveneSans, after having been menaced with • total MTiof • potdramooi Mm, hia agv. The Reniblie la u their own iimerit* children of Jamee, end meuis, to retire to Venieei hands of the Senate, who tie of Asolo, in TreTisano, themaeWes the inreatituie jrpt (1490.) iiuly followed hy a rererae e« concurred to accelerate >lic. They receiTed a ter^ ew passage to India round he commerce of the East ; of their wealth, as well as In vain did they put in > defeat the commercial en* ; excitintr against them, first ds the Turkish Emperors, owers with supplies. The ed all these obstacles. They St, where in course of time >wer. Lisbon, in place of e productions of India ; and ete with them in this field of good fortune which so long epublic, had inspired them y took every opportunity of l^hbours ; and sometimes for* ney drew down upon them* ftbe principal States of Italy. )d Ae famous League, which ilian, Louis XII., Ferdinand I States, concluded at Cam* Venetian territnvon Terra al victory over tne republi- >llowed by such a rapid sue* B of Venice were struck with ost have been inftJUbly lost, lies. But the Pone and the reponderance of me French eagne, and concluded aepa* licans ; nor was the Emperor example. In consequence of been menaced with • total mwD VI. A. 9. 140^1648. frt h raw, loat onhr, in eoorae of the war, the tenitorr of Cf»- mona and Ohiera a'Addm with the dties and porta of Roawgna and Apulia. But thia lowms lar sorpaaaed fy that vriiioh tt«y experienced in their finaneaa, their commerce and manufiketaraa, >^ on account of the expeaaive eflbrta which they wore oUigod la make in resisting their numerous enemiea. The ruin of this Republie was at length completed by tha prodigious increase of the power of the Ottomans, who took from them, W degrees, their best possessions in the Archipelago ajnd the Mediterranean. Dragved as it were in spite of tJiemselvea, into the war of Charies V. against the Turks, they lost foiu> teen islands in the Arehipekgo ; among others Chios, Pattnoa, JEgina, Nio, Stampalia, and Fbros; and were oblLrad, by the peace of Constantinople (1540,) to surrender to the Turici Mal- vasia and Napoli di Romagna, the mly two places which re- mained to them in the Motea. The Turks also took firom them the isle of Cyprus, the fineat of their possessions in the Mediterranean. The Sultan Selim II., being determined to conquer that place, attacked it with a superior force (1570,) although the Venetians had ffiven him no nound for hostilities. He made himself master of the cities of Nicosia and Famagusta ; and completed the conquest of the whole island, before the succours which the King or Spain and the Pope had granted to the .Venetians, could Join their fleet On the approach of the Christian army, die Turkish fleet re- tired witnm the Oulf of Lepanto, whent they were attacked by the allies under the command of Don John of Austria, a natural son of Charles V. The Christians gained a complete victory (1671.) The whole Turkish fleet was destri yed, and the Cob* federates took immense booty. The news o* thk defeat struck terror into the city of Constantinople, and mude the Grand Sig* nior transfer his court to Adrianople. The Chii?tians, however, reaped no advantage firom their victory. A uisunderstanding arose among the Confederates, and their fleeta dispersed without acconmlishing any thing. The Venetians did not rotum to the isle orCyprus ; and knowing well that they could not reckon on any efiectual aid on thepart of their allies, they determined to make peace with the Turks (1^3.) By this treaty they left the Porte in possession of Cyprus, and consented to pay it a sum of 300,000 ducats, to obtain the restitution of their ancient boundaries in Dalmatia. From this epoch, the republic of Venice dates its entire decay. It was evident, that it must thenceforth resign its pretensions as a leading power, and adopt a sjrstem of neutrality which might put it in condition to main- tain peace with its neighbours. 21* CBAVm Tib Bmhad, M w )u.y mmtioiifld akevtt had baan Um rival tt PiaBMk i^^ule th* ktter now beeaiM the riTal cf Austria. Thia livalrjr eommenead with the marriaga of lla^iawlian of Aaatria, to Matj, danghter and heireM of Charlaa, laat Duke of Burf«n> ^ ; hf which die houae of Auatria raeeeeded to the whole do* minion* of that Prince. The Low Countries, which at that 4fane wen the principal enmorium for the manufactures and corn* •Mice of Europe, formea a part of that opulent succession. Louis XI., King of Fraacoi was unable to prevent the marriage of the Austrian Prince with the heiress of Burgundy ; hut he to<^ advantage of that event to detach from the territories of that princess whatever he found convenient. He seised on the datchy of Burgundy as a vacant fief of his crown, as well as the •eigniories of Auxerrois, Maconnoia, Bar-sur-Seine, and the towns on the Somme ; and these diflerent countries were pre- served to France by the treaties of peace concluded at Arras (1488) and Senlis (1403.) Such was the origin of the rivalry and bloody wars between France and Austria. The theatre of hostilities, which, under Louis XI. had been in the Low Coun- tries, was transferred to Italy, under Charles VIII., Louis XII., and Francis I. From thence it was changed to Germany, in the reign of Henry II. "in iMy, besides this rivalry between the two powers, there was another motive, or pretext, for war, viz. the claims of Fmnce on die kingdom of Naples ant' the dutchy of Milan. The claim of Louis aI. on the kingdom of Naples, had devolved to him with the county of Provence, which he inherited in virtue of the will of Charles, Count of Provence, and the last male descen- dant of the house of Anjou (1481.) Charles VIII., the son tud soccessor of Louis XL, urged on by youthful ambition, was de- termined to enforce this claim. He undertook an expeditien into Italy (1494,) and took possession of the kingdom of Najriea without striking a blow. But being opposed by a formidable eonfederacy of the Italian princes, with Miuumilian at dieir head, he was obliged to abandon his conquests with the fiame facility he had made them ; and he was fortunate in being able to efl^t his retreat, by the famous victory which he gained over the al- lies near Foronuovo, in the dutchy of Parma. The claim to the dutchy of Milan, was founded on the con- Must of marriage between Louis, Duke of Orleans, the grandfa- ther of Louis XIL, and Valentine of Milan. That contract pro- vided, that failing heirs-male of John .G^leas, Duke of Milan, the dutchy should fall to Valentine, and the children of her aarrifi.ge with the Duke of Orleans. Louis XII. claimed the lights of Valentine, his grandmother, in opposition to the princes !▼«, had bMB Um rivtl of rival •fAostrb. Tbia of Matwrilian of Aaitria, loo, last Duke of Burgwi- luceeeded to the whole do- Coontriea, which at that the manufactures and com' f that opulent succeMion. |bl« to prevent the marriage irese of Burgundy ; hut be h from the territoriee of venient. He seized on the of his crown, as well as the is, Bar-sur-Seine, and the iflerent countries were pre- f peace concluded at Arras as the origin of the rivalry id Austria. The theatre of had been in the Low Coun- Charles VIII., Louis XII., as changed to Germany, in veen the two powers, there ar, viz. the claims of France utchy of Milan. The claim 'Naples, had devolved to him he inherited in virtue of the e, and the last male descen- Charles VIII., the son and y youthful ambition, was de* He undertook an expeditien on of the kingdom of Najrfes ling opposed by a formidable 'ith Maximilian at tlieir head, quests with the name facility rtunate in being able to efiect vhich he gained over the al« of Parma. an, was founded on the con- Kike of Orleans, the grandfa- if Milan. That contract pro- ohn Galeae, Duke of Milan, ae, and the children of her ns. Louis XII. claimed the tr, in opposition to the princes ntioD ru A.9. lUft— 164& of tha frraily of Sfana, who had talm poswaeiou of tha datchy of Ifilan, on tha extiaotioB at tko nuJa-hain of tha Viwooti, which huMBod in 1447. The diflntnt anaditioni whkh ha andoitook into Italy, botk far tha ooaqoeat of Milan and tha kingdom of Nules, mat with no batter ■oeeaoe than that of hia prodaoeMor nad dona; in consoqtienee of a new League, called the SUu Lmgut, which Pope Juliua II. raised against him, and into which he drew the Emperor Bfaximilian, the Kings of Arragon and Engbind, with tha Venetians and the Swiss. Louis XII. lost all the advantages of his conquests. The kingdom of Naples fell under the power of Feidinand the Oatholic, and the family of Sforza were reinstated in tha dutchy of Milan. These Italian wan, which were renewed at difleient times under the reign of Francis I., cost France much Mood and im- mense sums. In this struggle she was forced to succumb, and Francis I. bound himself, by the treaty of Crepy, to abandon his chums on Italy in favour of Charles V. The kingdom of Na- Sles and the dutchy of Milan remained incorporated with Uie Ipanish monarchies. Francis I., nevertheless, hod the glory of arresting the pro^ss of his rival, ond eflectually counterbnhn* cing a power which, at that time, made all Europe tremble. Henry II., the son and successor of Francis I., adopted a new line of policy. He attacked the House of Austria, in Germany ; having entered into a league with Maurice, Elector of Saxony, and the Protestant princes of the Empire, to oppose Charles V. That league, which was ratified at Chambord (1662,)procured fot Henry II. possession of the bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun ; and he even succeeded in forcing the Emperor to raise the siege of Metz, which that prince had undertaken about Uie end of the year 1552. A truce of five years was agreed on be- tween these two sovereigns at Vaucelles ; but, in the course of a few months, the war was renewed, and Philip II., who had succeeded his father, Charles V., induced his queen, Mary of England, to join in it. Amonff the events of this war, the most remarkable are the victory of St. Quentin, gained by the Span- iards (1557,) and the conquest of the city of Calais, by Francis, Duke of Guise ; the last possession of the English in France (1558.) The death of Queen Mary prepared the woy for a peace, which was signed at Chateau-Cambresis (1559,) between Prance, England, and Spain. The Duke of Savoy obtained there the restitution of his estates, of which Francis I. had de- prived him in 1536. Calais remained annexed to France. A series of \vars, both civil and religious, broke out under the feeble reigns of the three sons and successors of Henry II. The ♦ mg OUmBTII. wMaUm WM miide the pnlMCt Fimneii U. teTing mmmm ySe BOwmSnt pMMd into the huds of Fnuicto, Duko of Oii£.Sythn3 JtaSdo Lomuno. hk broihw. who wwo tho iSteothw Louii. Princo of Coni-»^«'; hLHnJ«li.ted dlthe le«ler. of that party in Afi'-^S**; i^TS notSkult for the Lorraine prince, to .ecuie the interest of aU the mo«t sealoua Catholiee. . ^^^. The tot epark that kindled the«» ciril wan, wm the cowp^ «cy of AmlSise. The intention of ^•^"•'"^^'•J'jr^^ 23o the Guiws. to bring them to trial.,and throw ^en«»S|P' moTt of aflair- into the Uu of the pn«ce. of the blo«d. The conepiraey having been ditcovered. the pnnce of Cond«, wtoo X .a.pJcted of leing at it. he«i, wa. ane.ted ; f%^J^} hTre belTexecuted. ^ not the premature death of Fnmci. 11. happened in the meantime. The queen-mother, Cayenne de Iiabci,who wa. intrusted with the regency during «J«nu»;'2 ofCharie. IX.. and derirou. of holding the Wa"" J*J?^ £• two partie*. w Conde at liberty, and grantedthe C*l^»»"«* »• ft-* V«»^iM of their reliirion, in the .uburb. and part, lying J^ofX Stil Tlu? Sio.;. edict (Jwuary 16«rocca.ion. 3 the Sit ciS war, the .ignal of which wa. the ma»acre of ''•Si^re^'iZTere have been conunonly rcckone^ jii^t K«? wiS IheM" . .SJ";re of St. Bartholomew, authorized and directed by the King (1672), p-,;*,-. It is of «om/ importance to notice here t^lf »^«/ J^ tian. of Henrv III., of the month of May 1676. Ihe new pnj X;,Sh?c?iiis edict granted to the CalvinisU, enccmraged SeSuiae. to form a league this same year. o»tens Wv for tho m^ntewmce of the Catholic religion, but ''J^^f ""^fe^ Z dethronement of the reigning dyn-^'y; *"J.J»« ^i'J^Srlu the Ouiws. The Duke of Alenson, only brother of Hennr UJ.. Sinff dead and the King of Navarre, who professed the Ctd' SiffSh! haZ became presumptive heir to the crow,, the ^ef. of the Cathofic League no longer made a secret of then • faedoM which diitneMd «iiiM of hoUiUtiM, theofh uieit n. halting MpooMd irtioU poim Mid Mthotity Mnds of Fnneit, Dnk« of , hU brathw, n^o wwtUM f which Umm noblemen en- my, King of Nnmne, end who iniitffined that tlM pre- tern H pnnee* of the blood, r, who might be comideied mer being CalTiniste, nnd t DMty in their cauee, it wm to secure the interest of all , clril Wirt, wm the eonepi- of the conipintora wm to rial, and throw the n»>ia|m- Srinces of the blood. The te prince of Cond<, who inn arretted j and he would (mature death of Francis II. queen-mother, Catherine de regency during the minority ling the balance between the id granted the CalvinisU the the suburbs andparU lying lict (January 1682) occMion- [ whidh WM the massacre of ft commonly reckoned eiffht ir in the reign of Charles lA., he fourth, under Charles IX., ' St. Bartholomew, authorized :e here the Edict of Paci/ka- )f May 1676. The new pri- to the Cttlvinists, encouraged same year, ostensibly for the ion, but whose real object was dynasty, and the elevation of on, only brother of Henry III., arre, who professed the Cti- umptire heir to the crown, the longer made a secret of then rauoD Ti. A. ». 14(0—1648. mMfone. They eooeluded a formal alliance (15S4,) with Plulip II. of Spain, for eaekiding the Bourbons from the throne of France. Henry HI. wm obliged, by the Leaguers, to recom- mence the war against the CalTinisto ; but peroeiTing that the Duke of Quise, and the Cardinal his brother, took every occa- sion to render his government odious, he caused them both to be assMsinated at Blois (IflBB,) and threw himself on the protec- tion of the King of Navarre. In conjunction with that Princo, he undertook the itiese of Paris, during which he wiw himself MSMsinatod at St. Cloud, by a Jacobin of the name of James Clement (168B.) . The dynasty of Valois ended with Henry III., after havmg occupied the throne for two hundred and sixty-one years. Under this dynasty the royal authority had gained considerably, both by the annexation of the great fiefs to the crown-lands, and by the introduction of regubr armies, which put an end to the feu- dal power. Louis Xl. was chiefly instrumental in bringing the grandees ur''-»r subjection, and putting an end to the cruelties and oppressions of anarchy. If these chonges, however, contri- buted to public order, it is nevertheless true that the national liberty eufrered by them ; thot the royal authority daily received new augmentations ; and that, so early as the reign of Lou is XII., it was considered m high treason to speak of the necessity of usembling the States-Generak The practice of these assemblies, however, was renewed under the successors of that prince ; they even became frequent under the last kings of the house of Valois, who eonvoksd tb«m chiefly with the view of demanding supplies. Francis I. augmented his influence over the clergy by (he con- cordat which he concluded with Leo X. (1516,) in virtue of which he obtained the nomination to all vacant prelatures ; leav- ing to the Pope the confirmation of the prelates, and the liberty of receiving the annate. The race of Valois was succeeded by that of the Bourbons, who were descended from Robert Count of Clermont, younger son of St. Louis. Henry IV., the first kingof this dynasty, was related in the twenty-first degree to Henry III., his immediate predeces- sor. That prince, who wm a Calvinist, the more eMily reduced the party of the League, by pui:licly abjuring his religion at St. Denis. He concluded a peace with the Spaniards, who were allies of the League, at Vervins ; and completely tranquilliied the kingdom by £e famous edict of Nantes, which he published in fitvour of the reformed religion. By that edict he guaranteed to the Protestant* perfect liberty of conscience, and the puWc exercise of their worship, with the privilege of filling all offlcei of tnut : hat he xendered them, at the same time, a piece of dit> iJiti' ! OBAPTBK TIL MTfiee, Vy gnuitmg them forfeited placM, under the name of j^lacM of Meority. B^ thus fostering a spirit of puty and intestine ftctioB, he furnished a plausible pretext to their adversaries for giadualhr undermining the edict, and finally proseribmg Uie ex« ercise of the rdfimned reliffion in France. _ That great prince, after having estabUshed the tranquillity of his kingdom at home and abroad, encouraged arts and manufac- tures, and put the administration of his finances into admirable order, was assassinated by Bavaillac (1610,) at the very moment when he was employed in executing the grand scheme which he had projected for the pacification of Europe. Cardinal Richelieu, when he assumed the reins of government under Louis XIII., had nothing so much at heart as the expulsion of the Calvinists from their strongholds. This he accomplished by means of the three wars which he waged against them, and oy the famous siege of Rochelle, which he reduced in 1628. That great states- man next employed his policy against the house of Austria, wh> > ? preponderance gave umbrage to all Europe. He took tbe op- portunity of the vacant succession of Mantua to espouse the cause of the Duke of Nevers against the Courts of Vienna and Mad- rid, who supported the Duke of Guastalla ; and maintained his proteg^ in the dutchy of Mantua, by the treaties of peace which ytiua concluded at natisbon and Querasque (1631.) Having afterwards joined Sweden, he made war against the two branches of Austria, and on this occasion got possession of the places which the Swedes had seized in Alsace. Louis XIV. was only four years and seven montha old when he succeeded his fether (1643.) The queen-mother, Anne of Austria, assumed the regency. She appointed Cardinal Ma- zarin her prime minister, whose adnunistration, during the minority of the King, was a scene of turbulence and distrac- tion. The same external policy which had directed the minis- try of Richelieu, was followed by his successor. He prose- cuted the war against Austria with vigour, in conjunction with Sweden, and their confederates in Germany. By the peace which v/as concluded with the Emperor at Munster, besides the th\ee Inahc^rics of Lorraine, France obtained the Land- graviate of Lower and Upper Alsace, Sungaw, and the pre- Mctare of the ten Imperial cities of Alsace. Spain was ex- cluded fir««i this treaty ; and the vrar continued oetween that kingdom and France until the peace of the Pyrenees, by which the counties of RomaaiUon and Conflans were ceded ^France, as wdl as several cities in Fkndera, Hainault, and Luxemboorg. Apain, which had long been divided into several Stalea, and a itrisnger as it were to the rest of Europe, became all of a rod* Wi »mmmm icM, under ihe name of yluM spirit of party and intestine stezt to tneir adTersarieB for id finally proaeribing the ex- ^rance. .„. , fltablished the tranqmlhty of ncooraged arts and manufac- f his finances into adniiiable ic (1610,) at the Tery moment a the grand scheme which he Europe. Cardinal Richelieu, rermnent under Louis XIII., 3 expulsion of the CalviniBts xomplished by means of the it them, and by the famous in 1628. That great states- t die house of Austria, who ^ I Europe. He took the op- Mantua to espouse the cause B Courts of Vienna and Mad- Juastalla; and maintained his >y the treaties of pace which Querasque (1631.) Having B war against the two bmnches possession of the places which rs and seven months old when The queen-mother, Anne of She appointed Cardinal Ma- ge adnunistration, during the sne of turbulence and distrBc- •which had directed the minis- by his successor. He prose- ith vigour, in conjunction with I in Germany. By the peace I Emperor at Munster, besides e, France obtained the Land- (Usace, Sungaw, and the pre- ss of Alsace. Spain was ex- lie war continued oetween that Mace of the Pyrenees, bjr^wbich Conflans wore ceded >o France, era, Hainault, and Losamhoiirg. divided into several Stataa, sad of EuNpe, became aU of a lad' ntioB yi. A. 0. 1409—1640. den a formidable power, turning the politieal balanee in her own favour. This elevatimi was the work of Ferdumad the Catholic, a priaoe bora for great eiqiloits ; of a profound and fertile geniot ; but taraishinff his bright qualities by perfidy and unlxranded ambition. He was heir to the throne of Arragon, and laid the foundation of his greatness by his marriage with Isabella (1469,) sister to Henry VI. last Kinff of Castillo. That match united the kingdoms of Castillo and Arragon, which were the two principal Christian States in Spain. Henry of Castille had left a daughter, named Jane, but sne being considered as illegi- timate by the Castillians, the throne was conferred on Isabella and her husband Ferdinand (1474.) The Infanta Jane, in order to enforce her claims, betrothed herself to Alphonso V. King of Portugal ; but that prince being defeated by Ferdinand at the battle of Toro (1476,) was obliged to renounce Castille and his marriage with the Infanta. At me accession of Isabella to the throne of Castille, that kingdom was a prey to all the miseries of anarchy. The abuses of the feudahsyst^m were there maintained by violence and in- justice. Ferdinand demolished the fortresses of the nobles who infested the country ; he gave new vigour to the laws ; liberated the people from the oppression of the great ; and, under pretence of extii^ting the Jews and Mahometans, he established the tribunal of the Inquisition (1476,) which spread universal terror by its unheard of cruelties. Torquemada, a Dominican, who was appointed grand Inquisitor (1483,) burnt in the space of four years near 6000 individuals. The Moors still retained the kingdom of Grenada. Ferdinand took advantap" of their dissensions to attempt the conquest of it, in which he ....cceeded, after a vigorous war of eighteen years. Abo Abdeli, the last King of Grenada, fled to Africa. An edict, which was published immediately after, >rd<)red the expul- sion of all the Jews ; about an hundred thousand of whom fled from Spain, and took shelter, some in Portugal, and others in Africa. Ferdinand did not include the Moors in this proscrip- tion, vriiom he thought to gain over to Christianity by means of persecution ; but having revolted in the year 15O0, he then al- lowed them to emigrate. It was this blind and headlong zwd that procnred FenOnand the title of the CatMolie Sng, which Pqie Alexander HI. conferred on him and his successors (14K3.) Tfwt prince also au^ented his power by annexing to his crown the Grand Maatersmp of di« Mililary Cndan of Calatmva, Al* cantAia, and St Jamea of Cmupoatella. Every thing eonspived to anniidiia Fetdinand ; and as if tha OU World had not been Mmcient, a New one was opened to ^ ttinn Td* Hi, if" Inee of anna ; bo that notting wn ^"^^fi,, /«»„- which mite aU Spain under his dominion. The ™>\Vf'.?^%'; f„. he Aould indce common ««» ^^'i^^^^M^fer. w^^^^ to League ««""* ?;:«X^ nrescS Si so severe, that he pieserre neutrahty, ^«y,P'?'?"no Jeek nrotection in France. S?ided between the two "^^if ^ J^dr resSve boundarieT^ «H,n quarrelled with Lou«m^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ Naples. SScrwT^CSi to tS^jL^-h monarchy, in ^e year. ''STi^i'^f Austria, ^^-^j^;^:^^:rk7iz •or in .the Spanish monarchy, added to ^^^^^\ ^^, ,f Countries and F«nche.Comto, wmcnne u •^^'H^^'uto^ ^JfSlS^^jSEJJSLd POT, gundy. He added Wtewise »«« »»'8 . , f juji^ jn Italy, 5a thi continent of A«}enca, wd Ae dutehj^ol » ^ in which he invested his son Ph 1^»™' f^"» "*** ' S^ BU«dedbyhisjnim««ty^i«^^ iHlbg passion for war, he ^'^i;^''^^ Ae Spanish mo- icUy, and Saidinit. He Mge, and of Granada by BnSnR except Navane to The Holy League, which St Louis Xn. (1611.) fur. that kingdom. Entenng mcexted with the King of •h the English had some the King of Navane that th theses of the Holy ince, however, wishing to onditions so severe, that he seek protection in France, of all that part of Navarre velve years before that tune snada, planned with Louis r Naples. Frederic of Ar- igdom, and his States were n i but Ferdinand having their respective boundaries, I the French from Naples, ish monarchy, in \he ye»" r Ferdinand, and his succes- [ed to that crown the Low ch he inherited in right of i gnmdmother Mary of Bur- i^oms of Mexico and Feru, le dutchy of Milan in Italy, ,, after having repeatedly ex- SandlSSd. 1 he derived from his wars lied the greater part of his minst that Prince, and bv his Austed his kingdom, si^ nn- ies resigned the Spanish mo- then comnrdiended the Low lee, SicUy and Sardinia, die poasesriona m Amenia. The UhlMip n. Mgned m 16», oaT be iMaided as the eia ot "JlShTSeleftbimbyW. iofFert«fri.withUielW md AMwfea J but this waa tb« nuoo ▼!. A. ». 1413— 164B. Ml tennination of his prosperity. Hu reign alUv that waa only « succession of misfortunes. Hia revoltiiig deiootism exdted the Belgians to insurrection, and gave birth to the republic of the United Provinces. EUiabeth of England having joined wyk the Confederates of the Low Countries, Philip, out of revenge, equipped a formidable fleet, known W th' name of the Jnvt«c*> Me Armada, which was composed of 1' essels of enormous size, manned with 20,000 soldiers, exclurivr of sailors, and mm- ed with 1360 meces of cannon. On entering the Channel they were defeated ay the English (21st of July 1^,) and the greater part of them destroyed by a storm. From this calamity may be dated the decline of the Spaniak monarchy, which was exhausted by its expensive wars. Philip, at his death, left an enormous debt, and the whole glory of the Spanish nation perished with him. The reigns of his feeble successors are only remarkable for their disasters. Philip III. did irreparable injury to his crown by the expulsion of the Mooia or Morescoes (1610,) which lost Spain nearly a million of her industrious subjects. Nothing can equal the misfortunes which she experienced under the reign of Philip IV. During the war which he had to support against France, the Catalans revolted, and put themselves under the protection of that Cnwn (1640.) Encouraged by their example, the Portuguese likewise shook off the yoke, and replaced the House of Braganza on Uwir throne. Lastly, the Neapolitans, harassed by the Duke d'OH* varez, prime minister of rhilip IV. revohed, and attempted to form themselves into a republic (1647.) These reverses on the part of Spain added to the number of her enemies. The Jhmous Cromwell having entered into an alliance with France (1655,) dispossessed the Spaniards of Jamaica, one of their richest 8et« tlements in America. Towards the end of the fifteenth century, Portugal had reach- ed a high pitch of elevation, which she owed to the astonishing progress of her navigation and her commerce. John II., whose fleets first doubled the Cape of Good Hope, augmented the royal authority, by humUing the exorbitant and tyrannical power of the grandees. In the diet which was assemued at Evora, he retracted the concessioiu which his predecessors had made to the nobles, to the prejudice of the Crown. He abolidied 4lie power of life and death, which the lords exereiaed over their vassals, and subjected their towns and their territories to the jurisdiction of officers app«nnted b^ the Kin^. The noblea, wbf^ were displeased at these innovations, having combined in da- fence of their privile^s, and chosen the Duke of Braganaa fbr their leader, Jonn, without being discmnccrtcd by Uiia oppoaitaoBf ▼«ki. tt V A A- nnW 1«nurlit to a ttW^and his head cut off, wWle hi* S^ih^i-tS?" SteT^T^Ms example of severity mtum- i^ ♦l?!rS3K MdSde them submit to his authority. ^jitbSiTeW'^of pSugal WM that of Emm«»^ and ^^:£'e^Xl^:^'!!i^'oS'no. remain, but %hf liorv of Portugal suffered an eclipse under the feeble «SYsKan!graTdson and i-^f^^ •"'^Xe'/yts; ?g; Prince, who came to ^e J^one^i *« .'g^a Jf^^^^^ had been brought up ^7 the/e8"'«^ T^ »"/^^^^ y^ thi him in, the important "ts f gove^nmem ha<^^^ ^ ^^^^ Sf^Sr*, ^" "^"ll^JSe avLrK^yTa^^^^^^ ^«'«8'^^ higher classes; while avarice, mru^^ their colonies in- on^a u;' -. .^al conupuon. The goy«n>°!!J*^ ^Vl^ -eized the dulgei ^ all srrts of vioJence anl ^nJ^-^'^^V/aitTnoKe^ which was no where more terrible than at <«»• A ^ ^^ . lis head cut off, wlule hb xsmple of severity intimi" sulnnit to his authority. jt that of Emmanuel and rears 1496 and 15ff7. It Portuguese formed their nothing now remains but eclipse under the feeble nediate successor of John. at the age of three years, who instead of instructing nent, had given him the ispired him with a dislike itachment for the crusades, laving requested his assist- liad dethroned him, Sebas- ica in person, carrying with oody battle was fought near 78,) where the Portuguese tian was slain ; and, what is Moluc died a natural death hornet was drowned in the every thing had fallen into ion had begun to degenerate, istinguished them, wm ex- 3, which even infected the iry, and effeminacy, brought ivemors of their colonies in- injustice. They seiaed the lerce. The military force, had kept up in India, was w whole wealth of the colo- » by means of the Inquisition, than at Goa.] aairied, the throne passed at is grand uncle by the lather s I in life. Perceiving his end I involve the kingdom in con- >f the States at Lisbon (IflT?,) rh« States appointed etovga tigate the cktuns of th« dilfe* lifip n. of Spain, who wm «» BMt regard to the decisioo of nftios yu A. D. 1483—1648. the States. No sooner had he kamedtht death of Henry (1060,) than he sent the Duke of Altai »t th« bead of an army, to take possession of Portugal. The Duke &feated the troops of his opponent, ^thony prior of Crato, «me of the cUimants, who had prockumed himself kinff ; pretending that he was the legiti- mate son of the Infant Don Louis, son of Sminanuel. Anthony had no other alternative left than to take shelter in France, and the whole of PortU£^ yielded to the yoke of the Spaniards. An inveterate antipathy, however, subsisted between the two nations, which made the Portuguese detest their Spanish mas- ters. This hatred was still more increased, on account of the losses which the Portuguese sustained, in the meantime, in their commerce and possessions in the East Indies. The lucrative traffic which the Confederates in the Low Countries, called the Dutch, carried on by im^rting the merchandise of the East from Portugal, and nawlung them over the north of Europe, having enabled them to support the war against Spain, Philip 11. thought to strike a fatal blow at their prosperity, by forbidding them all commerce with Portugal. That Prince, however, was deceived in his expectation. The Confederates, deprived of this lucrative branch of their industry, and after having made some unsuccessful attempts to find a north-west passage to India, tdok the resolution of sailing direcdy thither (1595,) under the conduct of Cornells Houtmon and Molinoor, in order to sook, at the founlaia-head, those commodi- ties which were refused them in Portugal. No sooner had they attempted to form settlements in India than the Portuguese de- termined to prevent them, and fouriit with them, near Bantam, a town in Java, a naval battle, miich ended in favour of the Confederates. Encouraged by this first success, the Dutch undertook to de- prive the Portuguese of their princimd possessions in Ihdia. The conquest which diey made of the Moluccas, procured them the spice tmde. They likewise formed settlements in the island of Java, where they founded the city of Batavia, which became Uie capital and emporium of their settlements in India. At length Gba and Diu were the only places that remained to the Portuguese of dieLr numerous possessions in India. These im- S>rtant losses weatly exasperated the Portuguese against the paniards. Whet added still more to their resentment was, that in the court of Madrid they saw a premeditated design to make vassals of the Portuguese ; and to cut*off the most Okdy means of enabling them, sooner or later, to recover their aneioit independence, u was with this view that their army and thdr mame were disorganized, their crown revenues diss^patedi their Brtflity wwduded from the mwiweiMnt of •flkiw, and th« M- dttennuMa tbe "^3*^ . ^f ^^ grandees, m concert ^rZ^^rS^SWhkTioke outon the 1st Decern- tme and lemtimate hewess » J^ "'""" ti^ed to the repos- the Cardinal, »»« 5«*^*f M J'^it^SJeriad been unjustly „«don of thoje riliit. «i7^*^K wSSish himsilf on .toprivedby the SpanMJju JJ^^^J^^S'^th France, the 4he thnme, John concluded ^^^ ^/^Z^^ . but confining Srit«l Provinces the NeA«l«J»t •^J^^wed«.^^ ^ g Us wholeamh^hontoinamtamu^gAe ttcwmii^ ^ ^^^^ ntwD yu A.9. 1488^1648. S07 mt of affiiin, and th* iM« ntt. ppened in 1640, at langth ff the Spanish yoke. A }f the grandees, in concert >ke out on Uie 1st Decern- eight o'clock in the morn- of about four hundred, re- lace of Lisbon, where the )wager of Mantua, resided, State, who exercised the ngdom. Part of them dis* e others sei2ed Vasconcel- 11 a sacrifice to the public m of the vice-queen, and lult or violence. The con- ( of Braganza King, under rrived at Lisbon on the 6th ook place on the 15th. It volution became general in :onfined merely to Portugal, ca. Every wnere the ror- d proclaimed the Duke of ifrica, was the only town of I) retain possession, •ect line nrom Alphonso, na- was created Duke of Bra- King of Portugal, on his ac- le an assembly of the States icknowledge nis right to the ( the fundamental laws of the daughter of the infant Don [ John, having become the throne on the death of Henry V. was entitled to the repos- it princess had been unjustly tetter to establish himself on 1 of peace with France, the , and Sw^en ; but confining the ancient limits of the king- ictive with regard to Spun, Koo* enemiea, waa quite in- ith Tigoor agatnat Portugal. Prince bad entered into with xepablkanafroio ctrntinuing thtir eonotteats in India ; where, in procaaa of tinie, thay atiqp- ped the Fortugueae of tluir fineat aottlmnenta. Bnriand, Ions before thia time, had aniMged firom the atate of ttu'oaMnee and desolation into whidi aha had been plungad by • the deatmctiTe wars of the two Rosea. A new fimuly, that of tlw Tudors, had moanted the throne; Henry VH., who waa ita founder, claimed the crown in right of his mother llaigaret Beaufort, alle^ heireas of the house of Lancaster, or the Red Rose ; and raised an insurrection against Richard IIL, the last King of the House of York. This prince being defeated and shun at the battle of Bosworth (1485,) Henry, who was then proclaimed Kin^ of England, united the titles or claims of the two Roses, by his marriage with Elinbeth, daughter of Edward IV., and heiress of York, or the White Rose. The country be* ing thus restored to tranquillity after thirty years of civil war, every thing assumed a more prosperous appearance. Agricul- ture and commerce began to flourish anew. Henry applied himself to the restoration of order and industry. He humbled the factious nobles, and raised 'the royal authority almost to a atate of absolute despotism. The reformatiom of religion in England began in the reig|n of his son Henry VIII. That Prince, who was of a very capriciooa character, vacillating, continually between virtue and vice, ap- peared at first as the champion of Popery, and publiAed a treatise against Luther, which proctfred him, from the Court of Rome, the title of Defender of the Faith. But a violent passion, which he had conceived for Aane Boleyn, having induced him to attempt a divorce from Catherine of Arragon, daughter of Ferdinand the Catholic, he addressed himself for this purpose to Pope Clement VII., alleging certain scruples of conscience which he felt on ac- count of his marriaee with Catherine, who was within the de- Sees of affinity, prohibited in the sacred Scriptures. The Pope ing afraid to di^lease the Emperor Charles V., who was tfw nephew of Catherine, thought proper to defer judnnent in thia matter ; but the King, impatient of delay, caused his divorce to be jMonounced by Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury {loSZ,) and immediately married Anne Boleyn. The sentence of the Archbishop was annulled by the Pope, whopublished a threatening bull against Henry. This incen^ the King, who caused the Faprad authority in England to be abro- gated by the Parliament, and installed hunself in the capacity of supreme head of the English Church (1534 ;) a title which was conferred on him by the dergy, and confirmed by the Parliament. He also introduced the oath of supremacy, in virtue of which ail who were employed in offices of trust, were obliged to acknow* 22* intr 'Mi tmArmm. klMkiiAMbMulofUMChttich. A court of High Comnujiimi wJettaUished. to judge occlosiMUcia «*««"J" ,"«|?.f *• Idnt. nd from whoio iwrtmco Uiere wut iw tppoul. The con- •utdl to Iho crown (15a6-lfidJ.) Hennr erro bwame a dogmj- Zfai theology; and di«atfding the imnciplet of Uther, m well Mthose of CilTin and Rome, he framed a religion according to Ua own fimcy. Rejecting the worAip of ima«8, rehce, purm- S^tToS TOW. and Ike supreinacT of thel'ope. h* g«ve J^^s ,i2-^ sad likewise received the new legate of the Pope mto England. She inflicted great cruelties on the Protestants, n^any of whom were burnt at the stake; among others, Cranmer Archbshop «f f!«nterb«nr and the Bishops of London and Worcester. WiA ttJl; orlle firmly establishing the CathoUc re igjon iaSr dlinions, she espouid PhUip, presumptive he" to the Spanish monarchy (1664.) The restrictions with which theEj^- SK Parliament fettered his contract of mamage with the Queen, wduJKed that prince, that, finding himself without power or "Sty, he speeiily withdrew from England. M'^'Y " «£» Ued oSy five years': she was succeeded by her sister El™- Crth (1668.) daughter of Henry VIII., by Anne Bole>^. This SfadisWJe mo?e abrogated the auUiority of the tope. ^ SSned to herself the supreme admmistration, both spintua^ STt^ poral, within her Ugdom. Though she adopted the cSviS principles in every thing regarding the doctrme. of Se Church; she retained many of the Bom.sh ceremonies, and Z gSSient of Bishops, 'it was this that gave rise to the coort of High ComraiMiM fttuM in name «f the no KppMl- Tlie con- I and thoir roTmaea confia* try aT«n became a dogma- sildea of Lntlier, aa well led a religion according to Ip of images, relict, pnrn- S.J of the rope, he gave bia Icles, to the doctrine of the [kind, the row of chastity, I and auricular confession ; rho should deny at disobey of the Eni^lish kings thai (,) was involved in me dis- nental powers ; but instead ;e and Austria, he adhered Iharles Y. against France, olitics than by passion, and !ardinal Wolsey, whom the r the hope of the papal tiara, intod in England, did not ''I., his son and immediate lism or Presbyterianism. Catherine of Arragon, on he Catholic religion (16fi3,) e of the Pope into England. E'rotestants, many of whom lers, Cranmer, Archbishop )f London and Worcester, tishing the Catholic religion lip, presumptive heir to the fictions with which the Eng- }f marriage with the Queen, \g himself without power or im England. Mary's reign :eeded by her sister Eliza* [I., by Anne Boleyn. This luthority of the Pope, and [ministration, both spiritual Though she adopted the regarding the doctrines of be Romish ceremonies, and IS this that gave rise to the MBIOD Tl. A. •. 1413—1646. diMtaedM WfPMD tlM A^IMw ISfA Chunk, tnd the (W- Aboot the time iHmb Um High Clraidi party roae in Enghwd, • chang* of feligion took plaee in SeoUand, protaeted by Queen Blinbetli. The regmqr of that kingdom was then vested in the Qoeaiii^oiwafnr, Marjr of Lorraine, the widow of Jamea V., and mother of Mary Stuart, Queen of Scotland and France. That princeaa, who was pfuided solely by the councils of her brothers of Lorraine, had introduced a body of French troopa to repress the followers of the new doctrines, who had formed a new league, under the name of the Congregation, These, re- inforced by the Catholic malecontents, who were apprehensive of falling under a foreign yoke, took Uie resolution of applying for assistance to the English Queen, which it was by no means difficult to obtain. Elisabeth readily foresaw, that so soon as Francis became master of Scothind, he would attempt to enforce Bfary's claims to the throne of England, grounded partly on the assumption of her being illegitimate. A considerable number of English troops were then manhed to Scotland, and having formed a junction with the Scottish malecontents, they besieged the French in the town of Leith, near Edinburgh. The latter were soon obliged to capitulate. By the articles signed at Leith (]560,) the French and English troops were to evacuate Scot- land ; Francis 11. Kin|^ of France, and his wife Mary Stuart, were to renounce the titles and arms of the sovereigns of Eng- land, which they had assumed ; while a I^irliament was to be assembled at Edinburgh for the pacification of the kingdom. The parliament which met soon aAer, ratified the Confession of faith, drawn up and presented by the Presbyterian ministers. The Presbyterian worship was introduced into Scotland ; and the parliament even went so fhr as to prohibit Uie exercise of the Catholic religion. Marv Stuart, on her return to Scot- land (1561,) after the death of her husband Francis, was obliged to acquiesce in all these changes ; and it was with difficulty she was allowed the liberty of having a Catholic chapel attached to her court. This unfortunate princess was afterwards nccused of having caused the assassination of Henry Damley, her se- cond husband ; and being obliged to fly the country, she took shelter in England (1568,) where she was arrested and impri- soned by order of Queen Elizabeth. After a captivity of nme- teen years she was sentenced to death, and beheaded (18th Feb. 1687,) as an accomplice in the difierent plots which had been formed against the life of her royal relative. The troubles which the reformation of religion had excited in Scotland, extended also to Ireland. A kind of corrupt feudal OlAfTBITn* ,yrt«n h.d pwTwW origindly In that U^ Za not been aUe to extirpiUe. The K-f'JJ.rtJy JJ* tMM thmOb of tlw crown, and goreroed W the Uwe of Km- IS po—^d ne»ly on^thlrd of *• jS?l2ffiiiSSS the wtof the island was in the hands of tho WA wowrirton, who. although they acknowledged the eofeirigftty of tfi* Bng. Sh king., preeertid neTertheleje the kwguag* and mannen of Sr naWUnd ; »d were inclined to^ yryry opportunity of shaking off the English yoke, which they deterted. Hence, a contintSd series of%ars and fends, both among the Insh themseWes, and against the English, who on the» part had no other object than to extend their possessionj at the exjwise of the natiies. The kings of England, guided by an injudicious poUcy, for several centuries exhausted their resources in wrpetual Smrs; sometimes against France, sometimes against Scotland, and someUmes against their own subjects, without paying the least attention to IreUnd, of which they anpear to hate known neither the importance nor the effectual advautages which they miftht have reaped from it by means of a wise admmistraUon. The progress of^culture and industry became Aus completely imprSctiSle; a^deep-rooted hatred was estabhshed between Uie islanders and the English, who m fact seemed two disttnct nations, enemies of each other, and formmg no alhances either bv marriage or reciprocal intercourse. , _ ,. . ^The resentment of the Irish against the English government was ajrgravated stUl more, at the time of the Reformation, by the viSrous measures that were taken, subsequently to the reign of Henry VIII., to extend to Ireland the laws framed m Eng- Und ist the court of Rome and the Cajohc ckrgv. A generafinsurrection broke out in Uie reign of El«»l«* (l^SJ') Se chief instigator of which was Hugh O'Neal, head of a clan to the province of Ulster, and Earl o! Tyrone. HavinR gained over the whole Irish Catholics to his cause, he planned an ex- tensive conspiracy, with the design of effef°t*e entire expul- sion of the English from the island. Phibp D., King of Spain, supplied the insurgents with troops and ammunition ; and Pope Cfement VIII. hefl out ample indulgencesin favour of those w£» should enUst under the banners of O'Neal, to combat the EnglUh heretics. This insurgent chief met at ^f with con- Sdfrable success ; he defeatel the Enghsh m a mtched batUe. «d maintained his ground against the Earl of "Essex, whom Elizabeth had despatched to the island with a formidable army. The rebels, however, ultimately failed in their enterprise, after a saneuinuy war which lasted seven years. Charles, Lord Mountjoy, governor of Ireland, drove the insurgents to their kst ■A.»;,'jw!i?*«feiiaisft^w4';i*;i!-«.v-«»,vUJi&e^i l^itUmd, iHiich Henry 11. uih nroprwivnt wlio by the hwt of Bng- le wbmk eoontry; wUm of Um Iriifa proprMton, ■ownigaity of tb« Eng^ bu)|[aag« «Bd mannen of - Min ofory opportuiiity they deteeted. Hence, , both among the Irish Iwho on their part bed no JwMioni at the enmue of yuided by an injudicious eir resources in perpetual letimes against Scotland, jects, without paying the lev appear to have known iial adnuitages which diey of a wise administration, try became thus completely was established between in fact seemed two distinct brming no alliances eiUier St the English goTemment ime of the Reformation, by in, subsequently to the reign 1 the laws framed in Eng- id the Catholic clergy. A ! reign of Elizabeth (1506,) igh O'Neal, head of a ckui }f Tyrone. Having gained s cause, he planned an ex- f effecting the entire expul- Philip n.. King of Smin, md ammunition ; and Pope ilgences in favour of those s of O'Neal, to combat the :hief met at first widi con- English in a mtched battle, the Earl of Essex, whom nd with a formidable army, sd in their enterprise, after ven years. Charles, Lord I the insurgents to their last niiOD VI. A. 0. 1403—1648. tfl , and had the glory of achieving the entire redaction of the island. * The maritime neatnees of England began in the reign of EUabeth. That Princess gave new vigour to industry and commerce ; and her eflbrta were seconded by Uie persecuting wal of the French and Spanish ffovernments. The numerous refugees from France and the Netherlands, found a ready asy* jum in England, under the protection of Elizabeth ; and her kingdom became, as it were, the retreat and principal residence of their arts and manufactures. She encouraged and protected navigation, which the English, by degrees, extended to all parts of the globe. An Englishman, named Richard Chancellor, having discovered the route to Archangel in the Icy Sea (1556,) the Czar, John Basiiowitz IT., granted to an English company the exclusive privilege of trading with Russia (1569.) The commerce of the English with Turkey and the Levant, which began in 1579, was likewise monopolized by a Company of mer- chants. Francis Drake, a distinguished navigator, and the rival of Magellan, was the first Englishman that performed a voyage round the world, between 1577 and 1580. The intercourse be- tween England and the East Indies began in 1591 ; and the East India Company was instituted in 1600. Attempts were also made, about the same time, to form settlements m North America ; and Walter Raleigh, who had obtained a charter from th« Qu««n (1584,) endeavoured to tbumX a colony in that part of the American Continent, now called Virginia, in compliment to Elizabeth. That colony, however, did not, properly speak- ing, take root or flourish till the reign of James I. The compe- tition with Spain, and the destruction of the Invincible Armada of Fhilip II., by the combined fleets of England and Holland, gave a new energy to the English marine, the value of which they had learned to appreciate, not merely in guarding the in- dependence of the kingdom, but in securing me prosperity of their commerce and navigation. The House of Tudor ended in Queen Elizabeth (1603,) after having occupied the throne of England about a hundred and ^hteen years. It was replaced by that of the Stuarts. James VI., King of Scotland, son of Mary Stuart, and Henry Damley, snceeeded to the throne of England, and took the title of King of Great Britain, which his successors still retain. This prince de- rived his right to the crown, from the marriage of his great nand- mother, Margaret Tudor, daughter of Henry VII., with Jamei TV. of Scotland. Vain of his new elevation, and fond of pre- rogative, James constantly occupied himself with projects for augmenting his royal power and authority in England ; and 1^ * tl Hi MumiTit. iaBtUUni th«M prineiplM into hit Mm, h« Ucum Um tnm tNhi« ttct of kU the milNoquoiit miafortuiiM of hii luniM. CluurlM I., the Mm and miceeMor of Jamett Nklom eoav«tn«d dM Puliunont ; and whon they did aMomUoi he provolMd them bv the meaauiea he piopoaed, and waa then obliged to diaaolve them. Being entirely guided hv hit miniaten Laud. Arch> Ushop of Canterimry, the Earls oi Strafford and Hamilton, and his Queen, Henrietta of France, he ventured to Iotv taxes and impositions without the advice of Parliament. This conduct on the part of tibe King produced u general discontent. The flames of civil war began to kindle in Scotland, where Charles had introduced Episcopacy, as more favourable than Presbyte* nanism to royalty. But the Scottish nobility, having formed a confederacy, known by the name of the Covenant, for the main- tenance of their ecclesiasticol liberties, ttbolished Episcopacy (IttSB,) and subsequently took up arms against the King. The Parliament of England, under such circumstances, rose also againiit Charles (1641.) and passed an act that they should not be dissolved without previously obtaining redress for the com- plaints of the nation. This act, which deprived the King of his principal prerogative, proved fatal to the royal dignity. A trial waa instituted by the Parliament affainst ue King's ministers. The Earl of Straflbrd and the Archbishop of Canterbury were beheaded ; and Chules had the wt^nkniiss to sign the death-war- rant of hia fiilthltll servants. The Presbyterians soon became the prevailing party, and ex- cluded the Bishops Irom the Upper House. The management of aflSiirs fell then into the hands of the House of Commons ; Episcopacy Was abolidhed ; and ihe Parliament of England ac- ceded to the Scottish Covenant. War now broke out between the King and the Parliament ; a battle was fought near York, in which the lattor was victorious (1644.) Charles, seeing his aflhirs ruined, took the determination to throw himself into the arms of die Scots (1646,) who, he supposed, miffht still retain an affection for the race of their ancient Kings. He soon found reason, however, to repent of this step ; the Scots did not hesi- tate to sell him to the English Parliament for a sum of £400,000, Sterling, which they Cnimd necessary for the payn«nt of their txoqw. A new revolution, which aoon after hanpened in the Parlia* ment, completed the ruin of the King. The Pjresbyterians, or Pttritans, who had suppressed the Episeopaliana, were crushed, in their turn, by the uidependento. Theae latter were a swrt of fimatics, who aomitled no subordination whatever in the Church, •ntertaiiwd a perfect honor for royalty, and wer« indiiMd for • n. I, h* bwMM Um tnw uchi' • of hia hotue. of Jamoa, Mklom coaT«ia«d MMinble, he provokad them m then oUiged to diaeolve lie miniatera Laud. Arch* Strafford end Hamilton, and ventured to levy taxes and "'arliament. lliie conduct general discontent. The in Scotland, where Charles e favourable than Presbyte- ih nobility, having formed a the Covenant, for the main- ties, nbolished Episcopacy rms against the King. The h circumstances, rose also an act that they should not taining redress for the com- ich deprived the King of his the royal dignity. A trial piinst the King's ministers, ibishop of Canterburv were Irness to sign the death-war- he prevailing party, and ex- ' House. The management of the House of Commons ; ! Parliament of England ac- Var now broke out between title was fought near York, 1644.) Charles, seeing his m to dirow himself into the supposed, miffht still retain lent Kings. He soon found tep ; the Scots did not hesi- ment for a sum of £400,000, ry for the payment of their ler hanpened in the Parlia* ag. Tne Presbyterians, or !piacepalians, were crushed, Theae latter were a sort of ion whatever in the Chuick, Ity, and were inclined for a ntMD TL A. D. 1453—1648. republican or democratic form of government. The head and soul of this faction was the famous Oliver Cromwell, who, with great dexterity, made it an engine for raising himself to the sovereign authority. The whole power of the Legislature fell entirely into the hands of the Independent pHrty ; who, by one act, expelled sixty members from the House of Commons. The Parliament, now completely under their dominion, appointed a commission of a hunored and fifty persons, whom they vested with power to tr)r the King. In vain did the Upper House oppose this resolution ; in vain did the King object to tne Judges named by the House ; the commisxion proceeded, and pronounced the famous sentence, by virtue of which Charles was beheaded on the 30th of January 1649. His family were dispersed, and saved themselves by night. The revolutions in the North of Europe, about the period of which we now speak, were not less important than thoso which agitated the West and the South. These arose chiefly from the dissolution of the Union of Calmar, and the reformation in religion ; both of which happened about the beginning of the sixteenth century. The Union of Calmar, between the three kingdoms of the North, had been renewed several times ; but, being badly cemented from the first, it was at length irreparably broken by Sweden. This latter kingdom had been distracted by intestme feuds, occasioned by the ambition and jealousy of the nobles, which continued during the whole reign of Charles VIII., of the House of Bonde. Ai\er the death of that Prince (1470,) the Swedes, without renouncing the Union, had regu- larly appointed as administrators of the kingdom, from the year 1471 till 1520, three individuals of the family of Sture, viz. Steno Sture, called the Old, Suaute Sture and Steno Sture, called the Young. Meantime, John, King of Denmark, and son of Christian 1., had governed the three kingdoms since 1407, when Steno Sture the elder had re8igned,untiT 1501, when he resumed the admin- istration. At length, however. Christian II., son of John, made war on Steno Stun, sumomed the Young, with a view to enforce the claims which he derived from the act of union. Being victorious at the battle of Bogesund, where Sture lost his Ufe, he succeeded in making himself acknowledged by the Swedes as kinff, and was crowned at Stockholm (15120.) Within a tbott time after this ceremony, he violated the amnesty which he had mil Jcly announced ; and to gratify the ravenge ot Gusat* TUB Troue, .^rchluahop of Upsal, whom tm Swedes had depoited, he cauaed ninety-fivur of the most distinguished personages in the kingdom to be anested, and publicly beheaded at Stockholm. oKirfift vn. This manaore caused a ravolutioot W which Sweden recover' ed its ancient state of independence. Uustams Vasa put him> adf at the head of the Dalecarlians, amlntioas to become the liberator of his country (1^1.) He was declared Regent, and two yeaiA after, King of Sweden. The example of the Swedes was soon followed by the Danes, who, indignant at the excesses and cruelties of CImstian 11., deposed him, and conferred their crown on Frederic, Duke of Holstein, and paternal uncle to that prince. Christian, after having long wandered about the Low Countries, was made prisoner by the Danes, and remained in captivity die rest of his days. The Kings of Denmark having renewed, from time to time, their pretensions to the Swedish throne, and still continued the three crowns on their escutcheon, several wars broke out on this subject between the two nations ; and it was not till the peace of Stettin (1570,) that the Danes acknowledged the entire independence of Sweden. Denmark then lost the ascendency which she had so long maintained in the North. The government of the kingdom un- derwent a radical change. A corrupt aristocracy rose on the ruins of the national liberty. The senate, composed wholly of the nobles, usurped all authority ; they overruled the election of the kings, and appropriated to themselves the powers of the States-General, which they had not convoked since 1536 ; they encroached even on the royal authority, which was curtailed more and more every day ; while the prerogatives of the nobility were extended by the conditions which the Senate prescribed to the kings on their accession to the crown. The reformation of religion took place in Denmark, in the reign of Frederic I., the successor of Christian II. That ^nce employed an eloquent preacher, named John Tausen, and sevenu other diwiples of Luther, to promuk;ate the Protestant doctrines in his kingdom. In a diet held at Odensee (lfi27,) the King made a public pro- fession of the new faith ; and, in spite of the remonstrances of the bishops, he passed a decree, in virtue of which, liberty of conscience was estabUshed, and permission granted to the pnests and monks to marry. These articles were renewed in another diet, assembled at Copenhagen (1630 ;) where the King ratified the Confession of Faith presented to hun by the Protestant min- isters, similar to what had taken place the same year at the diet of Aiigsburg. At length Christian III. who was elected in 1534, brought these chimges in religion to a close. The bishops, during the laat interregnum, had done every thing to atop the progress of the Beformation. The Kin^, desirous of aimihilating their temporal power, colluded with the principal ooUlity to lunre iJI , Inr which Sweden recover* GostaTUs Vasa put him< amUtious to become the was declared Regent, and 'he example of the Swedes 0, indignant at the excesses ed hiui, and conferred their a, and paternal uncle to that ig wandered about the Low i Danes, and remained in Kings of Denmark having iretensions to the Swedish crowns on their escutcheon, ct between the two nations ; ttin (1670,) that the Danes ice of Sweden, icy which she had so long rernment of the kingdom un- upt aristocracy rose on the senate, composed wholly of hey overruled the election of smselves the powers of the ; convoked since 1536 ; they hority, which was curtailed le prerogatives of the nobility nich the Senate prescribed to crown. The reformation of the reign of Frederic I., the irince employed an eloquent nd bevenu other disciples of int doctrines in his kingdom, the King made a public pro- spite of the remonstrances of In virtue of which, liberty of rmission granted to the priests les were renewed in another iSN) ;) where the King ratified to hun by the Protestant min- lace the same year at the diet TU elected in 1634, brought le. The bishcHM, during the tlung to stop the progress of esirotts of aimihilating their principal nd^ty to na»« all mioD Ti. ▲. D. 14fiS— 1648. die biahopa in the kingdom arreated ; and having then i bled a meeting of the States at Copenha|[en, he atolished Epis- copacy, and suppressed the public exercise of the Catholic reli- gion. The castles, fortresses, and vast domains of the prelatea were annexed to the crown ; and the other benefices and reve- nues of the clergy were appropriated to the support of the minis- ters of reliffion, public schools, and the poor. The monks and nuns were left at liberty, either to quit their convents, or remain there during their lives. The bishops were replaced by super- intendents, the nomination of whom was vested in the King; while each coi^negation retained the privilege of choosing ita own pastors. From Denmark this revolution passed to Norway, which at that time, on account of having joined the party of Christian II., who was deposed by the Danes, lost its indepen- dence, and was declared a province of the kingdom of Dennuiric. The House of Oldenburg, which had occupied the throne of Denmark since 1448, was separated in the reign of Christian III. into two powerful branches, viz. the Boyal, descended from that prince ; and the familv of Holstein-Gottorp, descended from his brother the Duke Adolphus. This latter oranch was eStet- wards divided into three others, viz. those of Russia, Sweden and Holstein-Oldenburg. As the law of primogeniture was not established in the dutchies of Sletswick and Holstein, which had fallen into the succession of the House of Oldenburg, Uie Kinga of Denmark soon found themselves under the necessity of divi- ding these dutchies among the younger prmces of their family. The treaty of partition, which was entered into (1644) between Christian III. and his jrother, had been preceded bv a treaty of perpetual union, annexing these dutchies to the kingdom, and intended to preserve the throne, which vros elective, in the Houaa of Oldenburg ; as well as to prevent any portion of these two dutchies from falling into the possession of strangers. The union was to endure as long as tne descendants of Frederic I. reigned in Deiiinark. They promised to settle, by arbitration, whatever differences might arise between the states of the union ; to tiSatA each other mutual succour against every external ene- my ; and to undertdke no war but by common consent. The treaty of 1644 which regulated this partition, made seve- ral exceptions of matters that were to be managed and admini*- tered in common ; such as, the customs, jurisdiction over the nobles, the lushops, and certain cities. This ^ve rise to a soit of oq^artnership of power, common to all the pnnces of the union, BverjT thing retarding either the general safety as stipulated in the treaty, or ton exercise of these iffivileg<)s included m the en- oeptioBs, was to be discussed and settled oy unanimous eonsmt; pTvfi?^ ■:' li ^i) t I, chaftss tii< ad tn this foipose a conncil of regency, an excheqoer, and cMBgRtioa couttB were established. This union and eonumuiity drr^^ were followed, as a natural consequence, by long and desttuctiTe feuds between the Kings of Detimark and the Dukes of Holstein-Gottorp, in which the other powers of the North were also implicated. Christian IV., grandson of Christian III., was distinguished not more by the superiority of his talents, than by the indefati- Sible zeal with which he ap^ied himself to every department of e administration. It was m his reign that the Danes extend- ed their commerce as far as India. He founded the first Danish East India Company (1616,) who formed a settlement in Tran- (jnebar on the Coromandel coast, which had been ceded to them Dy the Rajah of Tanjore. Various manufactories of silk stuffs, paper, and arms, were constructed, and, several towns built un> der the auspices of Christian IV. The sciences were also much indebted to him ; he gave a new lustre to the University of Co- penhagen, and founded the Academy of Soroe in Zealand, be- sides a number of colleges. If he was unsuccessful in his wars against Sweden and Austria, it must be ascribed to the narrow limits of his power, to the influence of the aristocratic spirit, and of the feudal regime which still prevailed in Denmark. He succeeded, however, in excluding the Swedes from access to the Icy Sea, which opened them a way to the coasts of Lapland, by obtaining possession, at the peace of Siorod (1613,) of that part of Lapland which extends along the Northern and Icy Seas, from Titisfiord to Waranger and Wardhuys. The disputes con- cerning the three crowns was settled by the same treaty, in such a way that both sovereigns were permitted to use them, without anliiorizing the King of Denmark to lay any claim to Uie Swe- dish crown. Sweden, which bad long maintained a struggle against Den- moile, at length acquired such a preponderance over her as to threaten, more than once, the entire subversion of the throne. This preponderance was the achievement of two great men, who wae iit toe period we now speak of, viz. Gastavnos Vasa, and his iMndmn Onstavus Adolj^ns. Gustams Yaaa was not merely me Gberator, but. the restorer of Ms country. Elevated to the ttttoneliy die free choice of the nation, he gave Sweden a power «id an influence which it never had Mfore. Every thing uAder him asaumed a new aspect, the goremiaent, Ae religion, ths ftaracet, the eomiueree, me agriculnin, Ae seiencesani die dienlr ef the Swedes. Instead of the asMliiniM of the nobles, to t m ei ^ m oae, and daetnictive of the national uberty, he sub- aUWiW w T Pirtt cooipoeiMl of tat difierent oiden of the State» the ' t Kncy, an excheqow, and his union and eonunnnity consequence, by Uaut and De^unark and the Dukes her powers of the North an III., was distinguished ents, than by the indefati- self to every department of gn that the Danes extend- le founded the first Danish med a settlement in Tran- ch had been ceded to them nanufactories of silk stuiTs, (id, several towns built un- he sciences were also much re to the University of Co- r of Soroe in Zealand, be- as unsuccessful in his wars t be ascribed to the narrow )f the aristocratic spirit, and levailed in Denmark. He s Swedes from access to the to the coasts of Lapland, by Siorod (1613,) of that part le Northern and Icy Seas, irdhuys. The disputes con- l by the same treaty, in such rmitted to use them, without > lay any claim to the Swe- ned a struggle against Den- eponderance over her as to re subversion of the throne, ment of two great men, who viz. GostaTQs Vasa, and his staros Yaaa was not merely I country. Elevated to the n, he gave Sweden a power had before. Every tUng \m goremment, ^e religion, coltdie, die seienceaaiMl die the a8WttMi«| of the noUes, the national uberty, he sub- rent orden of tin State, the ntioD n. AmP. 14G3— 1648. MBT nobility, the cleigy, the citiaena, and the peasantry. By thi» meaw he acquirMa Mw influenoe, of whica he took adnotage to humble die power of the chiudi aud the nobles, which had long been a source of oraression to Sweden. The reformation of religion, which then occupied every mind, appeared to Oustaws a very proper expedient to^ second his views, and introduce a better ormr of things. On his accession to the throne, he authoriied the two brotnera Olaus and Lau- rentius Petri, to preach publicly at Stockholm the doctrines of Luther, and did every thing in nis power to accelerate the pro- gress of the Reformation m his kingdom. The bishops, who were apprehensive for their benefices and their authority, having drawn the greater part of the nobility over to their interest, the king, in the presence of a Diet of the four orders assembled at Westeras, took the determination of formally abdicating the crown. This step threw the Diet into a state of consternation, and encouraged the two lower orders, the citizens and peasants, to declare themselves loudly for the King. The bishops and nobles were obliged to comply ; and the King, resuming the reins of government, succeeded in overruling the deliberations of the Diet. By the authority of a decree, he annexed the strong castles of the bishops to the demesnes of the crown, and retrench- ed from their vast possessions whatever he judged convenient The prelates at the same time were excluded uom the senate ; the ties that bound them to the Court of Rome were broken ; and they were enjoined henceforth to demand confirmation firom the King, and not from the Pope. The revenues of the clergy in general, and those of the convents, were left at the free dis- posal of the king, and the nobles were permitted to brinf forward whatever claims they could adduce over lands granted to these convents by their ancestors. There was nothing now to retard the march of reformation. The Lutheran religion was introdu- ced universallv into Sweden, and that event contributed not a litde to exalt the royal authority-. Gustavus secured the hereditary succession of the crowu in fiivour of his male descendants. The States, anxious to obvi- ate the troubles and disorders which the demise of their kingi had often produced, regulated the succesuon by an act known by the name of the Heniitury Union. It was passed at On- bro (1640,) and ratified anew by the States assembled at WW teres. The Union Act was renewed at the Diet of Nordkopii^ in the reign of Charles IX. (1604,) when the succession ww extended to femaloa. The reign of Gustavus Adolphus, the son of Charles IX., rtiaed die glory of Sweden to its height. The virtuaa and ORApm vn< I of that jjirince, the sagacity of his viewi, the admiiaUe aria which he introduced into eyery branch of the adminiatra- iMm, endeared him to his subjects ; while his military exploits, ■ad hia auperiority in the art of war, fixed upon him the admi- ntion of all Europe. Ghutavus brought the wars, which he had to sustain against die difibrent powers of the North, to a most triumphant conclu- aion. By the peace which he concluded at Stolbova with Sus- aia (16170 he obtained possession of all Ingria, Kexholm, and Rnmian Carelia ; and even cut that Empire off from all com- munication with Europe by the Gulf of Finland and the Baltic Sea. His success was not less brilliant in his campaigns against Sigismund III., King of Poland, who psrsisted in contesting with him his right to the crown of Sweden. He took from the Fides the whole of Livonia, with a part of Prussia ; and kept posaesnon of these conquests by the six years truce which he concluded with die latter at Altmark (1629.) It was about this time that Sweden began to occupy a distin- gnished place among the powers of Europe ; and that she was called on to take the lead in the League which was to protect the Princess and States of the Empire against the ambition of Austria. Gustavus, who was in alliance with France, under- took a task as difficult as it wus glorious. In the short space of two years and a half, he overran two-thirds of Germany with his victorious arms. He vanquished Tilly at the famous battle of Leipsic (1^1,) and extended his conquests from the shores of the Baltic to the Rhine and the Danube. Every thing yield- ed before him, and every place opened its gates to him. This great prince, who had made war a new art, and accustomed his •imy to order, and a system of tactics never before known, pei> iahed at the memorable battle of Lutzen (1632,) whieh the Swedes gained a&er his death, in consequence of the skilful dis- positions he had formed. This war was continued under the minority of Queen Chris- tina, his daughter and heir. It was still carried on, although die Swedes had undertakoi a new war against Denmark, with die view of disengaging themselves fircnn the mediation which (%ristian IV. had undertaken between the Emperor and Swe- dm, at the congress which was to meet at Munster and Osna- imiff. The result of that war was completely to the advantage flf Sweden, which gained by die peace of Bromsbro (1645) the freedom of die Smmd, as also the possession of the provinces •ad islands trf Jamptland, Heriedalen, Gothland, Oeael, and Hal- land. Lasdy, die peace of Westphalia secured to Sweden eon- sideraMepossessions on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea, such as Wismar, Bremen and Verden, and part of Fomerania% his views, the admiiaUe much of the administra- hik lus military exploits, bced upon him the admi- he had to sustain against most triumphant conclu- ed at Stolbova with Rus- all Ingria, Kexhoim, and Empire off from all com- of Finland and the Baltic t in his campaigns against psrsisted in contesting reden. He took from the »art of ftussia ; and kept six years truce which he (1628.) began to occupy a distin- Surope ; and that she was igue which was to protect ire against the ambition of iance with France, under- ous. In the short space of ro-thirds of Germany with Tilly at the famous battle conquests from the shores mube. Every thing yield- led its gates to him. This ew art, and accustomed his ',8 never before known, pei> Lutzen (1632,) which the isequence of the skilful dis- e minority of Queen Chris- is stiU carried on, although war against Denmark, with from the mediation which len the Emperor and Swe- meet at Munster and Osna- omidetely to the advantage ace of Bromsbro (1645) the possession of the provinces 1, Gothkmd, Oeael^and Hal- tlia secured to Sweden con- sro coast of the Baltic Sea, en, and part of Pomeiania. niios Ti. A. 9. 148S— 164S. The power of the Teutonic Kni^^ts, which had been greatly reduced during the preceding j^riod, b^ the defection of a part of Prussia, was completely annihilated in the North, in conse* quence of the (changes introduced hy the reformation of religion. < Albert of Brandeburg, grandson of^the Elector Albert Achilles, on his elevation to the (ugnity of Orand Master of the Order, thought himself obliged to withdraw from Poland that fealty and homage to which &e Knia^ts had bound themselves by the treaty of Thorn in 1466. This refusal furnished matter for a war between them ; which began in 1519, and ended in 15S1, by a truco of four years ; at the expiration of which the Grand Master, who saw the doctrines of Luther disseminated in Prus- sia, and who had himself imbibed these principles in Germany, found means to settle all difierences with the King of P(dand, by a treaty which he concluded with him at Cracow (1521.) He there engaged to db homage and fealty to the crown of Po- land, which he had refused ; and Sigismund 1., who was his maternal uncle, granted him Teutonic Prussia, with the title of Dutchy, as a hereditary fief, both for himself and his male-heirs, and for his brothers of the House of Brandeburg and Franeonia, and their feudal heirs ; reserving the right of reversion in favour of Poland, failing the male-descendants of these princes. The Teutonic Kmghts thus lost Prussia, after having possess- ed it for nearly three hundred years. Retiring to their pos- sessions in Germany, they estabbshed their principal residence at Mergentheim in Franeonia, where they proceeded to the elec- tion of a new Grand Master, in the person of Walter de Cron- berg. The Poles, in getting rid of the Teutonic Knights, whom they had regarded with jeuousy, and stibstituting the House of Brandeburg in their place, never dreamed of adopting an enemy still more dangerous, who would one day concert the ruin and annillilation of their country. Immediately afler the treaty of Cracow, the new Duke of Prussia made a pablic profession of the Lutheran religion, and married a daughter of the King of Denmark. This princess dying without male issue, he married for his second wife a prin- cess of the Brunswick family, by whom he had a son, Albert Frederic, who succeeded him in the dutchy of Prussia. The race of these new dukes of Prussia (1568,^ as well as that of Franeonia, which should have succeeded them, appearing to be nearly extinct, Joachim II., Elector of Brandeburg, obtained from the King of Poland the investiture of Prussia, in fief, con- junctly with the reigning u ikes. This investiture, which was renewed in favour of several of his successors, secured the suc- cession of that dutchy in the electoral family of Brandeburg; to 23* orumt 'm. ii 4*«oh«d on the death of Albert Frederic (1618,) who left mtwuirn deeMaduts. He wm suceeeded W du BUcte* Jehu S%iflaHnd, wlto had been coinveated with hktk in the datel^. That prinee . who had married Aumi eldeet dauj^ter of Auert Frodwict obtained likewise, in right of that princess, part of the succession of Juliers, vis. the dutchy of Cleves, the counties of Maiek and Ravensberg, which had been adjud^ to the hoase of Brandeburg, by the provisional act of partition concluded at Ssjitern (1614,) and converted into a definitive tieahr at Cleves. The grandson of John Sigismund, the Elector Frederic llVllliam, was a prince of superior genius, and the true founder of die greatness of his family. Ulustrious in war as in peace, and respected by all Europe, he acquired b^the treaty of Westphalia, a part of Pomerania, ihe archbishopric of Maede- burff nnder the title of a dutcfav, with the bishoprics of Halber* staw, Minden, and Camin, under the titl» of principalities. His son Frederic was the first King of Prussia. [The Teutonic Knights had nearly lost Liv vonia ana th« Ttotonio Ordmr ahould be nuontUBtd M they wen, and tkkt A* LhwwrieM thonld eoatinne to legnd tke Onnd Bfaaier •• Awir tme heed, and imder him homun and obe- dience. They were faUdden to Mlieit from the Bmperor or the Pope any priviWe inconsistent with their allegiance. It ap> pean, eonaequently, that Walter de Flattenberg did not purchaae the iii^pendence of his Order, but that he remrded thoee ties which existed between it and the Teutonic Order as broken, when Albert of Brandebur^ was declared Duke of Prussia. He next renewed those connexions with the Oerman Empire, which had existed since die thirteenth century ; and was declared by Charles V. (1627) a prince of the Empire, having a vote and a seat in the Diet. It was during the mastership of Plattenberg that the Lutheran doctrines penetrated into Livonia, where they made rapid pro- ffress, especially in the cities. Walter dexterously turned die disturbances caused by the opposition of the clergy to the new tenets, into an occasion for establishing his authority over all Livonia and Esthonia, which the Order had formerly shared with the bishops. The citizens of Riga acknowledged him as their only sovereign, and expelled the archbishop. The bur- gesses 01 Revel followed their example. The clercy were so mghtened at these movements, that the archbishop of Riga, and the bishops of Dorpat, Oesel, Courland and Revel, formally sub- mitted to the Order. The clergy themselves soon after embraced the reformed religion.] The dominion of the Knights Sword-bearers, had continued in Livonia until the time of the famous invasion of that country by the Czar, John Basilovitz IV. That prince, who had laid open the Caspian Sea by his conquest of the Tartar kingdoms of Casan and Astrachan, meditated also that of Livonia, to obtain a communication with Europe by the Baltic. Grotthard Kettler, who was then Grand Master, finding himself unable to cope with an enemy so powerful, implored first the assistance of the Oermanic Body, of which he was a member ; but having got nothing but vague promises, he next addressed himself to Sigis- mund Augustus, King of Poland, and, in concen with the arch- bishop of Riga, he concluded with that prince a treaty of sub- mission at Wilna (1661;) in virtue of which, the whole of Livonia, with Esthonia, Courland and Semigallia, comprising not only what was still in the possession of the Order, but dioee parts which had b3en seized by the enemy, were ceded to the crown of Poland and the Grand Duke of Lithuania, on condi- tion that the use of the Confession of Augsburg should be pre- served on the same footing as it '^hen was, and that all orders of p of the island, who also net of Pilten in Courland. maintained Livonia against e concluded with that power gfgle aflerwards ensued be* lame object, which was not Oliva.(I660.) ich we now treat, assumed leeded in throwing off the :t a conspicuous part on the f Kipzach, called also the «n greatly exhausted by its 'ars which followed ; while powerful accessions by the icipalities, which had for a vereignty of Northern Rus- id the grand ducal throne y, knew weQ how to profit his authority at home, and i of several expeditions, he tvogorod, an ancient ally of for a long time affected an he first sovereign of Russia remony, according to which Ik on foot before the envoys mioD vt. A. D. 1453—1648. 973 that came from the Khan of Kipnch. He even suppressed the residence of Tartar envoys at his court ; and at length shook off their yoke entirely, refusing to pay the tribute which the Grand Dukes had ow«d to the Khans for several centuries. Achmet, Khan of Kipsach, having despatched certain deputies with an order, under ue great seal, to denuind payment of this tribute, die Grand Duke trampled the order under his feet, spit upon it, and then put all the deputies to death except one, whom he sent back to his master. The Khan, with the view of revendng that insult, invaded Russia several times, but the Grand Duke vigorously repulsed all his attacks ; and while he was arresting the progress of his arms on die borders of the Ugra, he despatched a body of troops to the centre of the Grand Horde, who laid every thing desolate (1481.) The Nogai Tartars joined the Russians to finish the destruction of the Grand Horde, whose different settlements on the Wolga they laid completely in ruins ; so that nothing more remained of the powerful empire of Kipzach than a few de- tached hordes, such aa those of Casan, Astracan, Siberia, and the Crimea. Iwan rendered himself formidable to the Tartars ; he subdued the Khans of Casan, and several times disposed of their throne. The entire reduction of that Tartar state was ac- complished by his grandson, John Basilovitz IV., who twice undertook the siege of Casan, and seized and made prisoner of the last Khan (1552.) The fall of Casan was followed by diat of Astracan. But John was bv no means so fortunate in his en- terprises against Livonia, which, as we have already said, he was obhged to abandon to Poland by the peace of Kievorova-Horca. John IV. was inspired with noble views of policy. Being anxious to civilize his subjects, he sent for workmen and artists from England|L_ He requested Charles V. to send him men of talents, well vS^d in the different trades and manufactures. He introduced the art of printing at Moscow, and established the first permanent armv in the countiy, that of the Strditzei, which he employed in keeping the nobles in check. The dis- covery of Siberia is one of the events that belong to his reign. A certain chief of the Don Cossacks, named Jermak, who em- ployed himself in robberies on the borders of the Wolga and the Caspian Sea, being pursued by a detachment of Russian troops, retired to the confines of Siberia. He toon entered these re- gions at the head of seven thousand Cossacksrand having gained several victories over the Tartars of Siberia, and their Khan Ktttachem, he got possession of the city of Sibir, v/hich was their principal fortress (1581.) Jermak, in order to obtain his pardon of the Caar, made him an ofler of all he had conquered ; which WM aiprecd, to by that Prince, and the troops of the Bussiani n !l if:: th«n took p oww w on of Siberia (1068.) The total tedaction of the eoantry, however, did not take plaee until the reign of the Cnr Theodore or Fedor Iwmnoviti, the eon and nicceieor of John, who built the city of Tobolsk (1087,) which ha« einee be- come the capital of Siberia. Fedor Iwanoviti, a prince weak both in mind and body, was entirely under the counsel* of hia brother-in-law Boris Oodunow, who, with the riew of opening a way for himself to the throne, caused the young Demetrius, Fedor 's only brother, to be assas- sinated (1091.) This crime gave rise to a long series of trou- bles, which ended in the death of Fedor (1596.) With him, as he left no children, the reigning family of the ancient sovereigns of Russia, the descendants of Ruric, became extinct ; after having occupied the throne for more than eight hundred years. After this, the Russian Crown was worn by persons of difle- rent houses. Their reigns were disturbed ay various preten- ders, who assumed the name of Demetrius, and were supported by the Poles. During fifteen years Russia presented a shock- ing spectacle of confusion and camajp^e. At length, as a remedy for these disasters, they thought of bestowing the crown on a foreign prince. Some chose Charles Philip, the brother of Gus- tavus Adolphus of Sweden ; and others voted for Uladislaus, the son of Sigismund IV., King of Poland. These resolutions tended only to increase the disorders of the state. The Swedes took ad- vantage of them to seize Ingria and the city of Novogorod ; while the Poles took possession of Smolensko and its dependencies. The Russians, now seeing their monarchy on the edge of a precipice, adopted the plan of electing a new Cmr of their own nation. Their choice fell on Michael Fedrovitz, who became the founder of the new dynasty, that of Romanow (1613,) under whom Russia attained to the zenith of her greatness. That prince, guided by the sage councils of his father, Fedor Roma- now, Archbishop of Rostow, soon rectified all the disorders of the state ; he purchased peace of the Swedes, by surrendering to them Ingria and Russian Carelia. The sacrifices which he made to Poland, were not less consideraUe. By the truce of Divilina (1618,) and the peace of Wiasma (1634,) he ceded to them die vast territories of Smolensko, Tschemigou, and Novo- gorod, with their dependencies. Poland, at this time, presentrid a corrupt aristocracy, which had insensibly degenerated into complete anarchy. The nobles were the only persons diat enjoyed the. rigiits of citizenship; tiiey alone were represented in the Diets, br the noncioa ov m- putws which they elected at the Dietines ; toe honours and dig* nities both in church and state, and in general all prerogativet vdkatever, were reserved for them ; while the buigesMi and I.) The total ndnction of » until the reign of the J tho eon and sncceiior of |fi87,) which hu ainee be* •th in mind and body, was [eMn-law Boris Gominow, for himself to the throne, only brother, to be assas- I to a long series of trou- lor (1698.) With him, as rof the ancient sovereigns came extinct ; after having [ht hundred years. I worn by persons of diffe- iturbed by various preten- itrius, and were supported Russia presented a shock* I. At length, as a remedy wstowing the crown on a Philip, the brother of Gus- voted for Uladislaus, the These resolutions tended ite. The Swedes took ad- city of Novogorod; while iko and its dependencies, lonarchy on the edge of a g a new Cs»r of their own el Fedrovitz, who became »f Bomanow (1613,) under I of her greatness. That »f his father, Fedor Soma* ictified all the disorders of I Swedes, by surrendering The sacrifices which he lerable. By the truce of iasma (1634,) he ceded to , Tschemigou, and Novo* orrupt aristocracy, which ete anarchy. The nobles the. ri^its of citixenship ; lets, hr the nundoa or m* es ; the honours and dig^ a general all premgadve* whik the boifeawsaiid ntioD VL A. ■. 144^1648. Iftf peasantrr alone tapperted the whole burden of expeoMs. This coMtitatton, at the same time, was under the control of a sort of de* mocracy, in a« far as the noUea, without exception, were held to be perfectly equal in their rights and disnities. Imperfect as a government must have been, established on such a nuiis, it still continued, nevertheless, to preserve some degree of vigour ; and Poland supported, though feebly, the character of beinff the ru- ling power of the North, so long as the House of JaffeUon occu- pied the throne. Besides Prussia, of which she had disposses- sed the Teutonic Knights, she acquired Livonia, and maintained it in spite of Russia. The reformation of religion was likewise promulgated in Po- land, where it was particularly patronized by Sigismund II. A great part of the senate, and more than half of the nobility made, with their Kinjf, a profession of the new opinions ; and if the reformation did not take deeper root in that kingdom, or if it had not a more conspicuous influence on the civili/ation of the people, it was from the want of a middle class in the kingdom, by which it could be supported. The male line of Jagellon, having become extinct with Sigis- mund II. (1672,) the throne became purely elective ; and it wns ordained that, during the King's life, no successor could be ap- pointed ; but that the States, on his demise, should enjoy for ever a perfect freedom of election on every vacancy of the throne. Such was the origin of the Diets of Election, which, from their very constitution, could not fail to be always tumultuous in their proceedings. The nobles in a body appeared at these Diets ; thither they repaired in arms and on horseback, ranked accord- ing to the order of the Palatinates, in a Camp prepared for the purpose near Warsaw. The custom of the Pacta Conventa, took its rise about the same time. Henry de Valois, who was elected King on the death of Sigismund II., was the first that swore to these conventional ogreements, [by which he engaged, that no foreigner should be introduced either in a civil or mili- tary department.] These Pacta, which had all the force of a fundamental law, qiecified those conditions under which the throne was confisrred on the new monarch. The royal authori- Swas thus curtailed more and more, and the prerogatives of e nobility exalted in proportion. Poland, in consequence, soon lost its influence ; the ^vem- ment was altered in its (bndamental jninciples, and the kingdom plunged into an tityn of calamities. Among the elective Sings who 'soeeeeded Henrjr de Vahris, the hnt that supported the dig* vitf of the crown aninst Russia, was Uladiriaos iV., the son of flifiiinond III., of ttie House of Vasa. In an expedition which kt untorlMk iolo Am interior of Bussin (M18^) ho ponotnlsd i«umt VII. M (iur M Moceow ; vad m a Mcond which h« made (1634,) ha odBspelied th« Knniani to raiM tha imge of Smolensko ; and ■hut them ap ao cloMly in iheir camp, that they were obliged to ciqtituUte for want of proTisions. He then made a new attack on the capital of R^uaia ; and at the peace of Wiaama, h-j ob- tained conditiout most advantageous to Poland. In the hiatory of Hungary, the moat kplendid era waa th^ reign of Matthias Corvin, who, at the age of scarcely sixteen, had been raised to the throne by the free choice of the nation (1466.) Like his ff^ther the valorous John Hunniades, he was the terror of the T'.uks during his whole rai^ ; he took Bosnia from them, and k<>f>i Tr-.mylvania, Wallachia, Moldavia, Scla> vonia, and Servia in dependence on his crown, in spite of the incessant efforts which the Turks made to rescue these provinces. He lilu-'xise conquerad Moravia, Silesia, and Lusatia ; he even took Austria from the Emperor Frederic III., and came to fix hill residence at Vienna (1486.) It was in tiiat city that he ter* mintited his brilliant career, at the early age of fort v-seven (1490.) That great prince added to his military talents, a love for ele^rant literature, of which, from the first revival of letters, he shov'ed himself a sealous protector. The glory of Mungary suffered an eclipse in the loss of Mat« thias. His su^'-cessors, Uladislaus II., the son of Caflimir IV. King of PolanJ, und Louis the son of Uladislaus, who held at the same time the crown of Bohemia, were weak and indolent princes, who saw Hungary torn by factions, and rav «r;ed with impunity by the Turks. Soliman the Great taking advantage of the youth of Louis, and the distressed state in which Hungary was, conceited his plans for conquering the kiiiftdom. He at- tacked the fortress of Belgrade (1681,) and made nimself master of that important place, before the Hungarihos could maroh to its relief. His first success encouraged him to return to the charae. Having crossed tlie Danube and th» Dr&^e without meeting widi any resistance, he engaged the Hungarians near Mohacz (1688,) m that famous batUe which cost them the lifn of their king and their principal nobility. Twenty-two thousand Hungarians were left on the field of battle, and the whole king- dom lay at the meroy of the conqueror. Soliman now proceedMl as far as the Raab ; out instead of completing the conquest of Hungary aa he miriit have done, be contented himself with the laying Mraate all that part of the country with fin and sword ; and carrying aevaral himdred thousand jprisoners into shivery. The prematuie death of the young King who left no progeny, occasioned a vacaney in the throne ot Hungary and Bohamia. Ferdinand of Austria nho married Anne, sister to Louis, ekdmed tfM roecaasioa ia virtue of the difliRent tnatiM aigncd in tht 1^' 'nvi rn. which h« iMde (1684,) h« • lioga of Bmolensko ; and up, that they were obligvd to He then made a new attack le peace of Wiaama. Uo oh- m to Poland. most Hplendid era wai thi the age of scarcely sixteen, le free choice of the nation us John Hunniades, he was whole reign ; he took Bosnia , Wallachia, Moldsyia, Scla- on his crown, in spite of the ade to rescue these provinces, ilesia, and Lusatia ; he even 'rederic III., and cume to fix It was in liiat city that he ter« arly age of forty-seven ( 1490.) tary talents, a love for elegant revival of letters, he shoved an eclipse in the loss of Mat- 8 II., the son of Casiroir IV. m of Uladislaus, who held at mia, were weak and indolent y factions, and rav i^jed with n the Great taking advantage ressed state in which Hungary luering the kixigdoin. He at- SQl,) and made himself niaster lie Hungarians could march lu mraged him to return to the muhe and th^ Dra<« without ingaged the Hungarians near atUe which cost them the lifn lohility. Twenty-two thousand I of hattle, and the whole king- ueror. Soliman now proceeded i>f completing the conquest of , he contented himself with the B country with fire and sword ; ouaand prisoiMra into slavery. ouBg King who left no jnogeny, ine df Hungary and Bohwnia. id Anae, sister to Louis, ehinMd difliBvent traatiw aignod ia tbt "') ^. > IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) />.*^!^ ^w M* ^ Photografte Sciences Corporation 23 WRST MAIN STREIT WfBSTER,N Y. WS80 (716) •72-4503 CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. s CIHIVI/ICIVIH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques f 1 TBBIOO TI. A. o. 14flB— 1640. ywurs 1463, 1468, 1491, and 1615, between the Aaatriut F">f"" and the lut kings of Hungary. But thouf^ the Benemian States wen disposed to listen to the prataaaions of Ferdinand, it was not so with those of Hungary, who transferred the crown to John de Zapc^ya, Count of Zips, and Faktins of Transylvania. That prince being hudly pressed by Ferdinand, at lengUk de* termined to throw himself under the protection of the Turks. Soliman marched in person to his assistance, and bud siege to the city of Vienna (1529.) In this enterprise, however, he finled, after sacrificing the lives of nearly eighty thousand men. In 1538, a treaty was agreed on between the two competitors, in virtue of which the whole kingdom of Hungary, on the death of John Zapolya, was to devolve on Ferdinand. This treaty was never carried into execution. John at his death havii^ left a son nam«Hl John Sigismund, then an infant in his cradle. Bishop George Martinuzzi, prime minister of the deceased king, prodaimed the young prince, and secured for him the piotM' tion of the Turks. Soliman undertook a new w^editieQ ioflo Hungary in his favour (1541 ;) but by a piece of signal perfidy^ he took this occasion to seiae die city of Buda, the capital of the kingdom, and several other pUu»s ; and banished the jpriobi with his modier the queen-dowager, to Transylvania, which he gave up to Um, with several other districts in Huirnrr. The city of Buda widi the greater part of Hungary aisd Sdavonia remained in the power of the Turks ; and Ferdinand was oViagBi to pay an annual tribute for the protection of that kingdom, tbe possession of which was guaranteed to him by the truce vddeh he concluded wi^ them in 1562. In the midst of these unfortunate events, the Austrian prineee had again die imprudence to alienate the aflbctions of tlw Hun* garians, by the intolerant spirit they displayed, and the effints which diey incessandymade to extirpate the Ptotestant religion from that kingdom. The opinions of Luther and Calvin had already been propagated in Hungary during the reicn of Louis, die predecessor of Ferdinand. They had even made great pro* gress ; especially in Transylvania, where the German language and literature were generally cultivated. The oppressions which the partisans of die new doctrines experienced, added to the a^ tempts which die Austrian princes made, from time to time, to subvert the ancient constitution of the kingdom, excited fresh troubles, and favoured the designs of the discontented and am* bitious, who were watching their opportunity to agitate tlM state, and make encroachments on the government. Stephen Botschkai, Bethlem Gabor, and Geo^ Ragoczi, princes of Transylvania, wjsre successively the chiefs or leaders of theat VOL. I. 24 ^'l il. mdaeontents, in the reigns of Bodolph II., Ferdinand 11., and Pevdinand lU.. Emperors of Germany. According to the Paci* fieadon of Vienna (1606.) and that of Lintz (1646.) as well as by the decrees of the Diet of Odenburg (1622,) and of Presburg (H47t) these princes were compelled to tolerate the public exer- ciae of the retormed religion ; and to redress the political com- phunta of the Hungarian malecontents. The same trouwes on the score of religion, which infested Httogary, extended likewise to Bohemia, where the new doc- trines met with a much better reception, as they were in unison wMl the religious system of the Hussites, who had already nu- merous partisans in that kingdom. It was chiefly under the reign of the mild and tolerant Maximilian II. that Protestantism made its way in Bohemia. All those who were formerly called thrmma^, from their professing the Communion in both kinds, ioaned the followers either of Luther or Calvin. Rodolpfc II., the son and successor of Moximilian.was obliged, at the Diet of I%agae (1600,) to grant them the free exercise of their worship, without distinction of place ; and even to extend this indulgence to die Rotestants of Sitesia and Lusatia by letters-patent, known W the name of LeUen of Majaty ; copies of which were made ai Prague on the 11th of July and 20th of August 1609. These letters were confirmed by King Matthias, on his accession to the throne of Bohemia ; as also by Ferdinand III., when he was at^iKiwledged by the Bohemian States, as the adopted son and ^accessor of Matthias. d'Tha different interpretations which were put on these letters occasioned the war, known in history by the name of the Thirty Years' War. The Emperor Matthias happening to die in the midst of these disturbances, the Bohemian States, regarding their crown as elective, annulled the election of Ferdinand II. (Ifil9,) and conferred the crown on Frederic, the Elector Pala- tine. Being in strict alliance with the States of Silesia, Mora- Tia, and Lusatia, they declared war against Ferdinand, who was suppwrted, on the other hand, by Spain, the Catholic princes of the Empire, and the Elector of Saxony. , „ , ,^ ^, . The famous battle of Prague (1620,) and the full of the Elec- tor Rilatine, brought about a revolution in Bohemia, The ring- leaders of the insurrection were executed at Prague, and their goods confiscated. Ferdinand, who treated that kingdom as a conquered country, declared that the States had forfeited their rights and privileges ; and, in the new constituiion which he gave them, he consented to restore these, only on condition of expressly excepting the rights which they had claimed in the el«*ion of their kings, as well as the Letters of Majesty which [I. r|M«»4 ph n., Ferdinand 11., and ly. According to the Paci- of Lintz (1646,) as well as irg (1622,) and of Presburg i to tolerate the public exer- to redress the political corn- its. of religion, which infested emia, where the new doc-^ tion, as they were in unison ssites, who had already nu- It was chiefly under the nilian II. that Protestantism ise who were formerly called B Communion in both kinds, er or Calvin. Kodolph 11., i,was obliged, at the Djet of ee exercise of their worship, n to extend this indulgence to tia by letters-patent, known copies of which were made K)th of August 1609. These thias, on his accession to the irdinand III., when he was iites, as the adopted son and ich were put on these letters try by the name of the Thirty thias happening to die in the Bohemian States, regarding le election of Ferdinand IL 1 Frederic, the Elector Pala- the States of Silesia, Mora- ' against Ferdinand, who was pain, the Catholic princes of xony. 20,) and the fnll of the Elec- tion in Bohemia. The ring- sxecuted at Prague, and their 10 treated that kingdom as a the States had forfeited their ! new constitution which he 'e these, only on condition of lich they had claimed in the iie Letters of Majesty which nsioD vi. A. 9. 1453—1648. 999 Cted to the Protestants the free exercise of their worship, this prince did not stop with the sappression of their reli- gious liberties, he deprived them also of their tightn of citixen- ship. Laws the most atrocious were published against them, ana he even went so far as to deny them the liberty of making testaments, or contracting legal marriages. AJl their ministers, without exception, were banished the kingdom ; and the most iniouitous means were employed to bring hack the Protestants to the pale of the Catholic Church. At length it was enjoined, by an edict in 1627, that all Protestants who persisted in their opinions should quit the kingdom within six months. Thirty thousand of the best families in the kingdom, of whom a hun- dred and eighty-five were nobility, abandoned Bohemia, trans- porting their talents and their industry to the neighbouring States, such as Saxony, Brandenburg, l4uasia, ke. Ferdinand judged it for his interest to detach the Elector of Saxony from the alliance with Sweden, which he had joined. He concluded a special peace with him at Rmffue, in virtue of which he made over to him the two Lusatias, wnich he had ; '■'' " ■ «^ nadetinft thwnwlwt mhwmy •»»* e«femii»w, Mid •hnt v( in M^«f tfaM* »i3lM^4MHi»4 V iPo^n «ttd •ttnuclB, «d se- «hid«d from rfk eWl .ad mffitwy «ffMft^ contiwted from their Miliert infiuiey aU tli» view bf thmr &th«n, and no lon«r brooffht to the Ihwne tia» TigoiauB and enterpnmng roint, whi^ had beantha a««l of the OtMmian aaiveniinent, and the bnaia of aU theif imtitntuna. Seli«i It, the son of Solun«, waa the fiiat who aat thb &tal example tn hw sucoaMOTS. In hia4ine, the Tuika toakAe Isla of Cypn» f«« ***.X'"?*^ (l«Oi) which thiqr««»^»M»«l « JP» "/ T?^^ifS wtfdEthwaawi^il at tai^nto (iMo ttt«l which waaMw^ W die idtt al thair marine. EHD OF THE FIB8T TOLVHS. ' n. tlMinfincM «f DiulNldr 8yrift,MMlUM, lad put of Ataaf, OMMimV>Alg««i, and JllikmAibm dynMtv. CWjo, Btilei tewrporaled with the if Macfla Ittnwin nibinitted idii U» tdlkw Selkn, niaed 1 nidiirf riMTi Betides the (he raduead dM^pri^nacMt of to of Aimmdmm md iMdo tofhisEmpvK Hi's likewise ft, which kq^MMd, aceoidiBg % toik r AM*. wlNin 4W «if«» ') lii%>iMSw » *Mt I wU«h ko dMed the Impsri- infensd th« eMMs ef Sy#>. la misGtttied, however, in to «ta8WNttdsABC0iuie%tke oi tke^MtitamSieihr* oMifBd mi^bogm wiih tho isatk of le saltans, his.i»ta*BiSS». wr- tnd «ffi»arui»qr« ond «but v]p in their Cinnd Viiien the Mv y wvoMi and ettnnehs, «nd se- y ifun^ contmcted from their ' A^ &tlwn, and no longer oroas and Mit«prising spirit, Ononrnn voivenunent, and the klitti iL,3ls son of Solimw, example to, his socoessors. In 1 of Cwwos from the Venettuis in snke of the terriU* defeat {I8n;) and which was Mowed [RST TOLVME. » . M' -n