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BY Prof. WALTER SMITH, State Director of Art Education for Massachusetts. Intended to acconnpiny the Drawing- Books for Intermediate Schools, by the Same Author. TORONTO: ADAM MILLER & CO. V i CONTENTS, PART L' PAGE IlTTBODlTCriOX 6 Oe^teaal Directioks, Aia> FauxcirhEa ako Methods of TEACHING DBAWINO . . . . 19 Stuaioht Lines defined. — How to dbaw them.— Judgino Distances . 36 Straight Lines combined.— Angles.— Triangles. —Quad- bilatebals.— Polygons 63 Kiqht Line Geometrical Designs 70 Plane Curves and Plane Curved Figures.— Designs com- posed OF Straight and Curved Lines . . . . .104 Bevebsed Cubves, and Applications.— Abstract Cubyes . 133 PART n. Introduction . svmmetuv, conventionauzation, and repetition Conventionalization and Applied Design Conventionalization, Historical Ornament, &o. Object Drawing and Historical Forms . . 153 . IGl . 175 . 189 . 200 Decorative Art.— Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Moresque Styles • • • . 224 PART III. Model and Object Drawing. — Its General Featubes AND Principles explained 241 Exercises in Model and Object Dbawino . . . .269 rl Introduction. The size and arrangement of the books belonging to this Intermediate Course are such, it is believed, that the transition from slate-work to drawing in the book will not prove difficult for the young learner. If he has, . during the Primary Course of cards and slates, drawn somewhat on practice- paper, then he will be, in a measure, prepared fo. the sev<^rer exactions of drawing systematically on paper in a book. Even the smallest pupils can easily handle the Intermediate drawing-books, the size so well adapting the books to their hands and desks. Then the earlier exercises require the drawing of no long lines. As a part, too, of these exercises have been taken from the cards, in order to graduate the difficulties in the transition from slate-work to books, the pupil is not obliged to learn, at the same time, both the manipu- lation of new material, and the drawing of new forms. But, after a little, the exercises are almost wholly different from those on the cards, even when they illustrate the same principles of design ; while, as facility in the use of the pencil is gained by practice, the drawings are required to be done on a 6 TEACHERS' MANUAL. much larger scale, for Uie purpose of more fully testing and training the powers of the learner. THE FIRST BOOK. The first book, after attending to the drawing of straight lines, to their division, and to the judging of distances, concerns itself with plane geometrical figures, with geometrical patterns, or designs, for woven fabrics, for covering surfaces, for borders and mouldings, and with objects produced b}- the potter, the silversmith, and the like. The principles of design, as thus applied, were touched upon in the Primary Course, but are more fully explained in this Manual. The drawing-book, which goes into the hands of the pupil, contains copies illustrating all the princi- ples explained in the Manual, which is specially designed for the teacher. Some of the copies the pupil is to reproduce of the same size ; but others to enlarge, that he may thus be trained in pro- portional enlargement. Then the Manual contains a great number of additional copies for dictation and blackboard lessons, — the latter to teach proportional reduction, as the pupil must reproduce them in his book on a much smaller scale ; the former to serve for reviews, for developing the imagination, and for training the pupil to close attention. From time to time the pupil is also required to draw a form from memory. Finally, he must quite often produce an original design according to the principles he has been taught, — best of all proofs that the principles •I INTRODUCTION. 7 are underBtoocl, and that the knowledge acquired is of real worth. Thus the learner, from these five diflferent modes of drawing, cannot fail to obtain a varied and most valuable discipline. The same features are adhered to throughout (ho three books. The paper required for the blackboard, dictation, and memory exercises, and for tlio original designs, is afforded by the blank pages found in each of the books. Detailed directions arc given for filling each blank page. THE SECOND BOOK. The second book, after a fuller explanation than is given in the Primary Course, of conventional forms and of the principles of design, as derived from nature, and employed in decoration, takes up historic ornament, — takes it up in such a way that the learner acquires a clear notion of what is meant by style^ a matter of prime importance in art educa- tion. Some of the leading features which charac- terize the three ancient styles of decorative art, — Eg3'ptian, Greek, Roman, — and distinguish them from one anotl^r, are pointed out and illustrated. Something is also said of the Moresque. There is nothing in all this, when properly done, beyond the ready comprehension of the joung learner. Indeed, he can as well be made acquainted with the forms, the thoughts, and the principles which the ancients embodied in their decorative art, as with their religious myths, their heroic legends, and military exploits. Even the little that is here given will enable the learner to discriminate, in 8 TEACHERS' MANUAL. several important features, between the three historic styles named, and to make original designs charac- teristic of cither, instead of mingling their features in one nondescript mass, a thing which has been not infrequentl}' done by practical designers. With these three ancient styles is laid the foundation for the study of all stj'los, ancient, mediseval, and modern. Unless we possess u knowledge of what has been done, and how it has been done, we cannot work intelligently or with confidence in any new direction, in developing a now style. THE THIRD BOOK. The third book is devoted mainly to model and object drawing. Up to this point the pupil has dealt with only two dimensions, — length and breadth. He now begins to draw models and objects perspec- tively, representing their three dimensions, — length, breadth, and thickness. If he simply reproduces the copies in the drawing-book, then it will still be flat drawing, and not drawing from the solid. The copies must be used, when properly used, in connec- tion with models and objects such as the pub- lishers of this system pf ^rawing have had^made to accompany the books. By using, at first, both flat copies, and solid models and objects, — the former to show what should be the appearance of the latter when properly drawn, — the pupil more readily ap- prehends the principles which he must observe in representing solids. Thus the diflaculties are gradu- ated both for him and for the teacher. But his work is not confined to a reproduction, with the aid I INTRODUCTION. !) ' : of models and objects, of the given flat copies : on the blank pages he is to make dro wings of models and objects, the same as already used, but placed in different positions, or of other solids, artificial or natural. This will be drawing fVom the solid, pure and simple. The models and objects to be drawn consist of regular geometrical solids, or they have marked geometrical features. As the learner who pursues this system begins, in flat drawing, with plane geometrical figures, followed by forms having marked geometrical outlines, so he proceeds in a similar manner when he begins to draw from the solid. Thus he takes the regular before the irregu- lar, the simple before the complex. Unless he can first properly draw regular geometrical solids, he should by no means be set at work upon natural or artificial objects, whose general forms are pretty certain to be geometrical, to which are added nume- rous irregular details. The irregular details are more difficult to draw than the regular general foims, yet are of no consequence, unless tiie latter are correctly rendered. The best possible introduc- tion to drawing from nature and from the human figure is the model and object drawing here de- scribed. This whole course of drawing, ft'om the primary school onwards, is based upon geometry ; bj' which it is not simply meant that the pupil is to draw plane and solid geometrical figures as exercises in themselves, but is to refer all things drawn to regular geometrical forms. Nature follows such forms in 10 TEACHERS ' MAN UAL. all her works, and so does man, either wittingly or unwittingly, in all that ho constructs. The percep- tion of tlioso general forms greatly assistH in drawing the speciiic fornh^ witli all tlieir variable details. Tha most auccessfnl art instruction, whether an in- dustrial or a purely aesthetic result was sought, has always proceeded upon this geometrical basis. The drawing from models and objects in this Intermediate Course is all outline. Tiiere is no shading to consume the time, antl waste the energies, of the pupils. A dozen objects can be drawn in outline, where a single object can be drawn and properly shaded. No amount of shading can niaice a good drawing, when the outline is defective. The outline is of the first importance. Tlierefore, until solids can bo readily represented in outline, it is worse than useless to attempt light and shade. Everywhere good instruction recognizes this fact in the education of young children. . Freehand drawing from the solid requires some knowledge of the principles of perspective. The little that is required in this Intermediate Course can be easily illustrated, and is of such simple char- acter, that quite young pupils can master it without much difficulty. -Faithful instruction on the part of the teacher, with the flat copies and models and objects combined, will soon enable the pupils to work understandingly and with good effect. It will be seen that circular forms are taken before rectan- gular forms, because they involve leso of perspec- tive ditflculties, and are usually more pleasing for children to draw. ,) INTHODUCriON. 11 CHARACTER OF THE MODELS AND OBJECTS. One of the educational cndH to \w attained by drawing; from tiic solid is the development of the imagination, the training of the pupil to " see in space," as it is termed, — to make a clear mental image of a solid, with its lines all in their rigiit positions. The great value of this power is unques- tionable ; and no other study is so well jalcuhited to develop it as model and object drawing. Noav, so far as this development of the imagination is concerned, it matters little whether the forms of the models and objects be graceful or homely. But as the development of the taste, of the power to dis- criminate between that which is beautifid and that which is not, must never be overlooked in drawiiig, it becomes absolutely essential that the models and objects, like the prints, which are placed before the pupils, should be of the most beautiful character possible. The taste cannot be developed, while the eyes are always looking at things that have no beauty. THE PRIMARY COURSE REVIEWED. The first two Intermediate books review the Primary Course. The}' do much more than this, indeed. The' third book deals with features almost wholly new. Hence those who have never drawn at all, but are old enough to draw in a book, can begin with the Intermediate Course. They wil! lose nothing in the way of principles, but will need to work much harder. Thus there jue two places Avhere 12 TEACH EliS' MANUAL. pupils, according to ngo, can begin this system of drawing : they can begin witli tlio Primary cards or witli tiio Intermediate drawing-l)ooks. GRADATION. One of tlio marked features of tliis course of draw- ing is its logical and systematic gradation from the primary to the high school. As it is a conii)reliensive course, embracing live general departments, — Flat Outline Drawing and Designing (freehand), Model and Object Drawing (IVeehand), Plane (ieometrieal Drawing (instrumental), Perspective Drawing (in- strumental), Mechanical Projection and Working- Drawings (instrumental), — the gradation is de- termined, (1) by the reFation which those general departments bear to one another ; (2) by the relation which the leading features and minor details of each department bear toone another ; (3) by the dilHculties which the principles present to the understanding ; (1) by the quality of the manual execution demanded at different stages of progress. The whole arrangement is believed to be according to reason and the best experience. But it is impossible to judge it correctly from any on*^ feature alone. Thus, to say that the gradation is bad, because many of the exercises in the Intermediate books are no more difficult to draw than others on the Primary cards, simply shows an ignorance of one of the things — the quality of the manual execution at different stages of progress — which have had an influence in determining the gradation. In the Intermediate Course the drawings INrnODUCTWN. 13 arc to be mueli better executed than in the Prirnttry Course. It Ih deemed of eliief iniportiuice that the general features of the graihition be right : . errors of detail, indeed, tliere should not be ; but they are of secondary consequence. In a certain sense, even the Primary Course is com- plete by itself; that is, the pupil who goes no farther acquires a good amount of clear-cut knowledge of drawing and design, which, taken alone, is both available and usefid. The same may bo said of the Intermediate Course, and of the (iranunar Course, — said with more emphasis. This results from the fact that the gradation is, in a measure, according' to cycles, and not wholly on a straight line, CERTAIN FEATURES WHICH CHARACTERIZE THE INSTRUCTION. There is no inculcation of arbitrary processes, with the claim that they are the best for all pupils, and under all circumstances. Tjjosc methods arc pre- ferred which the experience of the pfactical draughts- man has shown to be best. Precedence is always given to knowledge, and not to manual execution. The teacher who has, at the end, nothing to show but finely drawn lines, has given poor instruction. Ilis class should be able to sustain a thorough examina- tion, based on the principles which the Manual so fully explains, and which he should impart to his class as they proceed with their drawings. Again : it is regarded as a matter of vital importance, that the pupils, from the outset, and always, draw with con- siderable rapidity, though they draw rudely : other- 14 TEACHERS' MANUAL. wise spirit and boldness, as well as knowledge, will be sacriflced to delicate, laborious finish. This is the rule of the best schools. IMPROPER USE OF THE BLACKBOARD. The uses which can be properly made, and should be made, of the blackboard in teaching drawing are described in the body of the Manual ; hut nothing is said of the improper use to which the blackboard is often put, where the nature of drawing is not well understood. We refer to its employment simply for the purpose of providing the pupils with copies, while they are drawing in blank drawing-books. Now, there are three serious objections to this : — 1. As one of the leading objects to be attained by drawing is development of the taste, and as this cannot be developed unless the pupils are provided with beautiful copies and objects to draw (the more beautiful the better) , it becomes absolutely essential for every teacher of drawing, who is obliged to ^ork without beautiful printed copies in the hands of his pupils, to be an expert draughtsman, or he cannot provide on the blackboard copies having the requisite beauty for even the most elementary instruction. Now, drawing in the public schools must be mainly taught by the regular teachers, or not taught at all. Most of these teachers are not expert draughtsmen, and so cannot teach without printed copies ; but, with such copies in the hands of their pupils, they can do good work, and do it easily. 2. But, even if the regular teachers were all expert draughtsmen, it would still be insufficient. In the INTRODUCTION, 15 first place, they would have neither the time, nor the strength to make all the drawings required. In the second place, even if the drawings were beautifully made on the blackboard, it would not suffice for the development of taste in class instruction. Only the four or five pupils who might chance to sit directly in front of the blackboard drawing would get a proper view of it : all the others would look at it more or less obliquely ; and so for them nearly every line would be distorted, the whole figure losing its beauty, and becoming a teacher of ugliness. There- fore, all good schools of art, where class instruction is given, prohibit the use both of the blackboard and of wall-charts, if the purpose is simply to provide the pupils with drawing-copies. As a rule, the amount of time spent by the teacher at the blackboard in general explanation and sketch- ing should not exceed one-tenth of the whole time given to a lesson. The remaining nine-tenths should be devoted to the individual instruction of the pupils. This precludes the average teacher from making beautiful drawings on the blackboard, which, as already stated, are not necessary when the pupils are provided with accurately drawn copies in their books before them. Indeed, it cannot be too often repeated, that the blackboard should only be used to explain principles, and to illustrate right and wrong methods of work. Its use for pictorial purposes is always to be avoided. 3. Every methodical person will perceive, at a glance, that it is impossible suitably to grade the instruction in drawing, and make it efiective, without 16 TEACHERS' MANUAL. a suitable series of text-books. When such books are lacking, there will be waste of effort on the part of teachers, waste of time on the part of pupils, and good results here and there only b}' chance. DRAWING MATERIAL, AND ITS CARE. In addition to suitable books and models, the pupils should be provided with the best of pencils and rubbers. The best work cannot be done with poor materials. The best pencil is the cheapest. No instruments are needed for this Intermediate Course, be3'ond a cheap rule, such as the school- square prepared for this purpose by the author. Books, pencils, and rubbers should be in charge of the teacher, when the driawing lesson is not in prog- ress. The pencils should all be carefully sharpened by some one appointed to do this work between the lessons ; and the rubbers should be examined as to their cleanliness, a thin shaving being removed from their surface, if that is found to be dirty. Not more than one minute should ever be consumed iti distrib- uting or cojilecting the books, pencils, and rubbers . for a class of forty. THIS MANUAL. The teacher will find in this Manual all needed explanation of principles and of methods of work. The drawings have a black background, as when drawn on the blackboard, where the teacher, for one purpose or another, will have occasion to draw INTRODUCTION. 17 many of tbem. The drawings are small ; but they will serve just as well the purpose for which the Manual is intended ; that is, to aid the teacher in the instruction of pupils who use the drawing-books containing larger copies. It is expected that the teacher will thoroughly instruct his pupils in the methods of work, in the definitions of terms, and in the principles of design, which are given in the Manual, — a thing that cannot be done without frequent reviews. INSTRUCTION BY THE REGULAR TEACHERS. If the introduction of drawing into the public schools is to be at all speed3' and successful, it must be taught in the ungi-aded schools, and in the graded schools below the high, by the regular teachers; that is, by the teachers who give instruction in the other branches. Except where the departmental plan is adopted, it is now the custom for a single teacher to attend to several things at the same time, — to reading, arithmetic, geography, grammar, for example. As it is not deemed necessary', certainly is not deemed practicable, to have special teachers for instructing pupils in any of these studies ; so it is . no more necessar}'^ or practicable to have special teachers to instruct the pupils in drawing. There may, indeed, be special teachers to instruct the regular teachers, and to inspect their work ; but the latter must, and they can best, instruct the pupils. Elementary drawing, when treated in a rational, sj-stematic manner, is one of the easiest and one of 18 TEACHERS' MANUAL, the most (Idiglitful things to teach children. This is the almost universal testimony of those who have fairly tested the matter. But it can be successfully introduced into the public schools only upon certain conditioi^s. Like other studies, it must be made compulsory, and not be left to the decision of the teacher and punil. There must be examination and promotion, as in other branches. Both the practical and educational value of drawing entitle it to such treatment, which every one considers essential to success in all other studies. Satisfactory results in drawing are no more de- pendent upon special artistic gifts on the part of the pupils, than satisfactory results in arithmetic are dependent upon special mathematical gifts. It is only necessary that the pupils set about the study of drawing as they set about the study of arithmetic, geography, grammar. Nor are special gifts required on the part of the teacher. It is by no means imperative that he should be an expert witlu the pencil or crayon in order to teach with success elementary drawing, as presented in this system ; but he should be a good teacher in general, well acquainted with the best principles and methods of instruction. It is presumed that every regular teacher possesses this general knowledge, to which, with a reasonable amount of effort, the special knowledge demanded by elementary drawing can soon be added. CHAPTER I. GENERAL DIRECTIONS, AND PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF TEACHING DRAWING. Pupils who have drawn on the slate only, and have learned to do quite good work with that, are often discouraged by their first attempts at drawing on paper. This is due to difference in material used. Yet pupils who have used the cards of the Primary Course, drawing on the slate, possess a decided advantage over those, who, never having drawn at all, begin at this stage with paper. The advantage consists partly in manual skill, but much more in the training which the eye has received, in a knowledge of how to g / to work, and in a knowl- edge of the principles of drawing and of design. Economizing Instruction. "When pupils of these two grades are thrown to- gether in the same school, they can be taught draw- ing together, though at some disadvantage. As you never expect all the members of a class to show equal proficiency in any other stud}', so never look for it in drawing. Unless, therefore, the diflferences in attainment be very marked, require all the pupils in the school, not only to execute the same drawing 19 20 TEACHERS' MANUAL. at the same time, but require them, when you give the tlescription, to execute the same part at the same time. By thus keeping the pupils together, you will be able to teach all at once, instead of teaching each separately, and so will economize instruction. But you must, of course, give each more or less of individual attention, as opportunity ' serves ; while each should be required, at regular intervals, to draw on the blackboard on a large scale, for such practice is productive of that freedom which should be obtained from fVeehand drawing. Those who draw badly under this class treatment, nevertheless, can be made to draw rapidly, which, in itself, is a thing of prime importance from the out- set of one's drawing career. Fineness of execution comes with practice : it should never be made the leading feature when one is beginning to draw. If it is, then those much more valuable features — freedom, spirit, knowledge — are usually rendered subordinate, the final result being lifeless art and a slow workman. Keep it, indeed, always in mind, that drawing, when properly taught, is much more an exhibition of knowledge than of meic dexterity in the use of the pencil. Body. — Hand. — Pencil. — Book. There is no one way in which it is always best to sit, to place the hand, hold the pencil, and keep the book. As a rule, it may be assumed that the pupil who takes an interest in his work, and is anxious lo do it, will be likely, influenced by this feeling, to put his body in the position that will best enable _y GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 21 him to do as his mind desires. Tiicre can be given, however, a few useful general directions. Wliatever the position of the body, it sliould al- ways be easy and healthy, the eye never any nearer the paper than is essential for a clear view of the lines. Neither the arm nor the fingers should bo constrained or cramped, but at all times perfectly free, that the pencil may bo readily moved, and llio drawing continued for hours, if yecessary, without special fatigue of the muscles. The pencil should be held with the fingers about an inch and a half from the point. The smaller the pupils, however, the nearer the point of the pencil should the fingers come ; thus accommodating the pencil to the fingers. For a horizontal line, hold the pencil as a pen is usually held in writing ; for all other lines, change its position as required in order to draw the differ- ent lines with ease. When lining in a drawing, hold it more nearly upright than when making the sketch. As a rule, the book should lie square in front of the pupil, whether he sits directly facing the desk, or not, — a matter to be determined by comfort, — since that position of the book affords a better view of the drawing than one gets when the book is partly turned. There must, however, always be an un- obstructed view of the space where the line is to be drawn. This is a prime condition, which can be secured in two ways : bj' changing the position of the hand and pencil, as already recommended, or by turning the book. It takes more time, and is more trouble, to do the latter than the former ; and so the former, when it will answer the purpose, is to bo 22 TEACHERS' MANUAL. preferred. But, when you are drawing a curve line, the concave, and not the convex side should be towards the hand ; for this affords much the best view of the line. In order to have it thus, turn the book if necessary. There is no other time when it is decidedly best to turn the book simply for the purpose of drawing a line, since we soon learn to draw lines readily in different directions by so draw- ing them. If, however, any pupil fails to acquire such power after a reasonable amount of practice, permit him to turn his book as he chooses. While, as a rule, the book need not bo turned simplj' for the purpose of drawing lines in different directions, yet it should be turned in order to examine and correct a drawing at different stages in its progress ; since en*ors can bo more easil}' dio- covered when the drawing is viewed on all sides. For the purpose of examination, it is best to hold a drawing vertically' before the eye, and far enougli off to afford a good view of the whole at once. It is the tendency of young pupils, at first, to turn their books when they need not ; that is, to turn them for the purpose of drawing all lines one way, hori- zontally for example. At the same time they neg- lect to turn them when they should ; that is, for the purpose of deliberately, critically viewing the draw- ing on all sides, in order to detect errors. There should be nothing arbitrary- about the methods of the schoolroom : they should, in a word, be those which the practical draughtsman ha3 found it best to employ in the execution of his work, those which Avill enable the pupils to execute their draw- L tJktai- GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 23 ings with the greatest ease and rapidity according to the nature of the work to be done. Lines of Different Lengths. Length of line is a thing always to be con- sidered. Long and short lines cannot be drawn with ease in the same manner; but it is impossi- ble to indicate just the length of line that can be best drawn in one way, and just the length of line that can be best drawn in another way. This much may be said, however, with advantage to the Icurner : — Draw tiie shortest lines with a movement of the fingers alone ; the next longer with a movement of the hand at the wrist ; the next with a movement of the forearm at the elbow ; the next with a move- ment of the whole arm. When drawing very long horizontal lines on the blackboard, carry the body forward with the hand. When drawing vertical lines on the blackboard, stand far enough fVom the board to allow the extended arm to drop easily downwards. Thus we have five movements: the finger, hand, forearm, whole arm, and body move- ments. At the outset the pupils need to be in- structed quite carefully in these movements : aftei: a little they will employ, even without thought, just the right movement for each line. Trial Lines. -' Sketching. — Lining in. — Erasing. Commence to draw a line by making it so faint that it can just be seen. This trial line may be 24 TEACHERS' MANUAL. continiious or discontinuous. If it is found to bo in tlie wrong position, tlien, witliout erasing, draw a second similar faint line, and a third, and a fourth, if necessary. When, at last, you have a trial line in the right position, linish it by going over it again and drawing it dark — not black, but gray — and of the required thickness. Now, and not before, erase the erroneous lines. Sometimes, however, when the lines are numerous, it is well to erase the erroneous ones in part, if not wholly, before finishing, or *' lining in" as it is called. Again: if the trial lines have been made a little too dark, use the rub- ber freely before lining in, rendering the lines just visible, as the drawing can then be more readily and neatly finished. If it is a combination of lines that is to be drawn, as in the case of a design, draw all. the lines faint before making ^ny one heavy, thus producing what is called a sketch. Having got a satisfactory sketch, line in, that is, finish the whole in a line of the requisite character. When this has been done, use the rubber freely, and thus give the drawing a clean appearance. With practice the pupils will consume less and less time in making the prelimi- nar}' sketch, and, after a while, will often be able to execute their drawings without many erasures. Teachers sometimes find, that, if they permit their pupils to erase erroneous lines, many will draw so heedlessly that they will consume a large part of their time in erasing. The result is, of course, very slow drawing, and not necessai'ily good. So they prohibit all erasing whatever, preferring to GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 25 1 to bo in , draw a a fourth, trial line r it again — and of )re, erase when the rroneous shing, or the trial the rnb- lines just adily and e drawn, lies faint ing what isfactory a line of en done, awing a I take the first line sketched ; or, permitting a second to be sketched, have the better one lined in, with no erasure of the other line. The whole figure is left as thus drawn. If your pupils make an injudicious use of the rubber, give them this heroic treatment for a season, when they will learn that only thought- ful drawing can be rapid and good drawing. If you permit erasing, always see that the rubber has a straight and clean edge before the lesson begins, and that the pupil does not moisten and soil this edge by holding the rubber in his hand while drawing. If he does, then he will make dirty work of his erasing. Look carefully after this matter. Delicacy of Touch. — Firmness of Line. When your pupils begin to draw on paper, one of the first things they need carefully to cultivate is delicacy of touch. The inexperienced are apt to make their first lines altogether too heavy, and so, if they are wrong, much time is lost in erasing, while the appearance of the drawing-book is marred. Then, too, the point of the pencil is frequently bro- ken off. On a slate such lines are less objection- able, since they can be readily removed. Do not mistake the application of what is said about delicacy of touch. It does not mean that such a touch is specially needed to produce delicate lines when yovi are finishing a drawing : it means, rather, that it is needed to produce the first lines, which constitute the sketch, and which should be drawn so faintly as to be just fairly visible. When the drawing is lined in, finished, then the line should 26 TEACHERS' MANUAL. always be firm and not weak, bold and not waver- ing and timid. A firm, bold line can be had only when the pupil knows just what he is to do, and then firmly and boldly does it. Look well after this. In order to secure this firmness and boldness of line, which is of so great value, some of the best schools of art require their students to begin to draw with charcoal. But this is found impracticable when children are to be taught in class. They can manage the lead pencil much more easily, and secure much better results. Require your pupils constantly to act upon the suggestion here given, and not waste their efforts in trying to secure a fine, delicate result when lining in their work, instead of that which is firm and bold, even though it may be somewhat rough. Management of the Bye. Do not look directl}^ at the point of the pencil when drawing an original line, as you look at the point of the pen when writing. With inexperienced pupils there is a tendency to keep the eye fixed upon the point of the pencil ; and so j'ou must instruct them otlierwise. Nbt only are there different varie- ties of lines, but, when the}' are drawn freehand, it is commonly under one of three conditions, each of which demands a somewhat different management of the eye. 1. When a line is to be drawn to hit a given point, as is usually the case, keep this point alwa^'s in view, or you can never know whither j'^ou are GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 27 )t waver- lad only flo, and ell after Iness of the best >egin to ctieable liej' can 1 secure istantlj' t waste B result hich is Qewhat m I f going. Imitate the carpenter, who does not look at his hammer, but at the head of the nail he desires to hit. So far as possible, keep the whole space where the line is to be drawn, with the point to be hit, in the field of vision at the same time. 2. When a line is to be drawn without reference to hitting a given point, keep the whole line, as it is drawn, in view. In this way mistakes can be prevented, which is much better than correcting them after they have been made. 3. When one line is to be drawn parallel to an- other, keep both lines — the line drawn and the line being drawn — in view at the same time. By practice 3'ou will learn how to do this. These directions hold good only when j^ou are drawing a line for the first time, not when finishing a line already faintly drawn. In the latter case the eye accompanies the point of the pencil. Rate of Motion of the Pencil. • The motion of the pencil may be as rapid as the eye can distinguish clearly ; but it should not be more rapid, for then the line will be right only by chance. Hand and eye must always work together, the latter directing the former. Again, the motion should always be steady, uniform, from the begin- ning of the line to its end, never hesitating or jerky. Give particular attention to this matter, observing how each pupil handles his pencil. It is expected that these general directions will be given to the pupils, not all at once, but as re- quired, and that they will be repeated until the ^wtr-rfw.i-.i'fT-M- I I 28 TEACHERS' MANUAL. pupils have learned to follow them from habit: when a certain way of thinking or doing has be- come a habit, then, indeed, it is thoroughly mas- tered, and not before. Be very watchful of your pupils when they begin to draw, and keep them, if possible, from acquiring any bad habit, which they must afterwards unlearn. To unlearn is the hardest sort of learning. A Clear Understanding of Technical Terms. Perhaps it ma}' be thought, as jou advance, that undue stress, for drawing, is laid upon the definition of technical terms. But the \irork of the teacher is at all times twofold, — to impart positive knowl- edge, and to train the mind. Even if we regard only the first, we find, that the clearer the under- standing which the learner has of the limitations of the terms used in any study, — in arithmetic, gi'ammar, drawing, for example, — the more readily ho will master the study. "Without this clear under- standing, his knowledge must always be vague, un- certain. If we regard the second, we find that the habit of loose learning, instead of the habit of critical discrimination, once acquired, hinders him in all his other studies, plagues all his subsequent life. All technical terms do not present the same ob- stacles to the learner. To make a comparison : The technical terms of grammar seldom or never have clear-cut limitations when applied, but are subject to numerous exceptions : again, it is diffi- 1 1 habit; 1 has be- 1 lly mas- 1 of 3'oiir 1 them, if -1 ich they M i hardest xHi rms. ice, that iefinition eacher is 3 knowl- e regard e undor- nitations ithmetic, e readily ir under- gue, un- that the abit of lers him )sequent ime ob- )arison ; r never iut are is diffl. GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 29 cult, or quite impossible, to exemplify them with ocular illustrations ; and so, never becoming other than mere abstractions of the mind, it is exceeding- ly hard for young learners to comprehend and appl}' them. Now, just the reverse is true of the greater part of the many technical terms employed in draw- ing. They are clear-cut in their limitations ; they can be exemplified by ocular illustrations, and so do not remain mere abstractions of the mind : hence, quite young pupils, when taught in the right way, come quickly to understand their proper use. Ocular and Verbal Instruction. For all, but especially for children, ocular illus- tration is very much better than verbal explanation. Remember this in your attempts to teach children the exact force of the technical terms used in drawing. It is far from enough for them to learn the definitions of these terms by heart, and to repeat them glibly. Tiiis most children can easily do, with- out understanding one of the terms : it is only what so frequently happens in the case of geograph}', arithmetic, grammar. The pupils must see the defi- nitions illustrated again and again : they will then understand them ; and, provided the^' do clearly understand them, it is of little consequence whether they can repeat them word for word. Learning by Use. We best learn the use of words by using them, and so make no attempt to avoid the use of technical 80 TEACHERS' MANUAL. words when they would be appropriate. Do not, for example, use " level " for " horizontal," " upriglit" for " vertical," with the thought that your pupils will more readily comprehend what they are doing, if it is described by the former words instead of the lat- ter. Repeated use will make the latter, and all technical terms, just as expressive as any possible substitutes, just as instantaneously suggestive to the child-mind, while tliey commonly have the ad- vantage of meaning one thing only. Expect of your pupils, at all times, correct usage of terms. The two principal objections that will be made, if any are made, against carefully teaching the tech- nical terms of drawing, are these : 1 . They are hard to understand. This objection will be founded on the erroneous belief that the length of a word, or the infrequency of its use, makes its meaning hard to understand, — a thing which depends wholly on the meaning itself, as it is not a question of mouth, but of mind. Thus the meaning of the word " wheelbar- row," with all its length, is as easily comprehended as the meaning of the word "cart ; " while it is in- comparably more difficult for a child to understand the meaning of the word " verb," because it is a mere abstraction, than of the word " circumference," which can be fully exemplified by ocular illustration. 2. These terms will not often be used, even if under- stood ; more popular though less exact words being sub- stitutedfor them. But this is a good reason why thej'^ should be thoroughly taught in school, since there are many occasions, out of school as well as in, when their emplojTnent becomes absolutely essential. mm not, for upright " nipils will )ing, if it )f the lat- and all possible estive to the ad- 3t of your be made, the tech- They are 3 founded word, or ling hard lly on the outh, but vheelbar- rehended it is in- stand the s a mere ference," stration. f under- eing sub- vhy the}^ Be there in, when ial. # 1 GENERAL DIRECTIONS. Looking Beyond To-day. 31 In each study the earliest things even should be be taught with reference to all there is to follow, also with reference to the bearing upon other branches of knowledge. The teacher who fails to look beyond just what he is doing to-day must ever fail to give the best instruction. It is in drawing, perhaps, earlier than in any other study, that chil- dren can be reasonably required to consider the exact force and limitation of words. See, therefore, that your pupils, in the outset of their drawing career, acquire, if possible, a habit of critical verbal discrimination, — a habit that will be of so much value to them, not only in the subsequent stages of drawing, but in all other studies. Aside from this habit, the exact knowledge itself of many of the terms employed in drawing will also be of use in various other studies, especially in those based upon geometry, because drawing, when taught according to the plan followed in this system, is itself based upon geometry. Misjudging the Capacity of Children. When we find that children learn certain things with great difficulty, we are too apt to conclude, without trial, that they cannot learn certain other things any better, if at all. In the first case the things to be learned may not be adapted to the age or natural development of the children, and so can- not be easily learned ; but, in the latter case, the opposite may be true, and so, upon trial, the learn- 32 TEACHERS' MANUAL. ing would be found easy. Not having duly medi- tated upon tlie "litness of things," we judge that failure at one point argues failure at all points. Thus, for example, when many children find it a tedious task, as they do, to master the alphabet, with its arbitrary forms and names, all meaningless to them, it is concluded that they cannot profitably use their eyes in the study of botany even, nor profitably use both hands and e^es in the stud}' of drawing. The children having grown somewhat older, the technical terms, the logical abstractions, of grammar, not at all adapted to their age or nat- ural development, confuse and confound them ; and so it is concluded they can do no better with the definitions belonging to any other study, however unlike grammar. It may be that they fail, when beginning to draw, to make beautiful lines ; and so it is concluded they will never do well in" an}' de- partment of drawing, although success in some of the departments, as in original design, one of the most valuable, depends very little upon expert use of the pencil. Thus, by judging from failure in one direction, we are too apt to underrate the capacity of children in other directions. Seeing and Doing. First of all things children love to see and to do. Drawing is both seeing and doing: hence, in its earlier stages, it is better adapted than almost any other study to immature minds. At the outset it makes very slight demand upon the reasoning pow* duly mcdi- judge that ioints. ren find it e alphabet, neanniglcss t profitably even, nor ;he stud}' of 1 somewhat .bstractions, ' age or nat- l them ; and ter with the dy, liowever y fail, when ines ; and so I in' an}' de- in some of , one of the 1 expert use ailurc in one the capacity se and to do. lence, in its 1 almost any ;he outset it .soning pow- gi:neral direct ions. 33 ers : there is no call for connected chains of thought ; while the peculiar force of the technical terms which it employs can be exemplified by ocular illustrations, and thus the eye be made to help the mind. It is hoped that the points presented in this little discourse upon the great art of teaching will be remembered and practised through all the stages of drawing. Dictation, Blackboard, and Memory Lessons, liminary Analysis. — Original Design. Pre- Further along, as jon have occasion to give your pupils dictation, blackboard, and memory lessons, these lessons, which constitute important features in this course of drawing, will be dul}' explained. Explanation will also be given of preliminary analy- sis, and of the different progressive steps to be taken for training your pupils in original design. Use of this Manual. Unless you are already familiar with drawing, and have also had much experience in teaching it, your success will depend almost wholly upon a proper use of this Manual. Before beginning to instruct a class, go through it, if possible, by your- self, carefully studying tho text, and executing the drawings, part on the blackboard, part in the draw- ing-books. With the difficulties and the capabilities of each, you will have thus familiarized j'ourself somewhat before beginning class-instruction. If you have not time to do so much, then keep 34 TEACHERS' MANUAL. ahead of .your pui)ils as far as you can, and bo sure to draw tlic lessoii for the day two or three times before taknii; tlie chiss in hand. Tliese (hawings, for preparation, may be rudely and quicivly done, but should be done exactly in accordance '.vith the printed directions, unless you can Improve upon them. Before your class begin to draw, read to them Ihe directions which go with the copies in their books. Read these directions slowly, and at each step re- quest, each member of the class to raise his !uuid, tlius signifying that ho perceives in the drawing-book before him what it is that ho is required lo do. When you have finished the description, call upon .some ono of the class to repeat it, looking at the drawing in his book. See that all the class follow him, to discover if ho makes a mistake. If ho does make a mistake, request the ono who discovers it to continue the description. And so on until the de- scription has been finished. When jou are satifjfiod that the class understand the figure to be drawn, proceed to draw it. They are now wide awake ; and they have learned so much about the drawing to bo executed that they will save, in its execution, much more time than has been thus expended, while they will have been taught to deliberate upon what they are about to do ; which is one of the best of lessons, and one of the hardest for children, young or old, to learn well. Carefully study the questions at the end of each chapter ; for they refer to the principal points which have been explained in the chapter. They indicate GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 35 the general character of the questions which you should put to your pupils every clay, and which they should be able to answer understandingly when they have completed their drawing-books. QuESTioKs. — What is said of teaching pupils together? Of drawing rapidly? Of the position of the body? Of the position of the pencil? Of turning the hand? Of turning the book ? Describe Mie five movements for drawing lines of different lengths. What is said of delicacy of touch? Of firmness of line? Of sketching and lining in ? Of using the rubber ? Of the management of the eye in drawing different lines? Of the motion of the pencil? Of the use of technical terms? Of ocular and verbal instruction? Of learning the meaning of vs'ords by using them ? Of critical verbal discrim- ination ? Of misjudging the capacity of children ? Of seeing and doing? Of the use of the Manual? Of teaching pupils the steps to be taken before thoy begin to draw a copy ? CHAPTER II. STRAIGHT LINES DEFINED.-HOW TO DRAW THEM. -JUDGING DISTANCES. Every dopartmont of loaniinj? cmploya cortiiin terms ; and they must bo clearly understood, or .sat- isfactory progress cannot be made in nuiHterin^ that to which they relate. Some of these terms not only have their strictly technical meaning, but popular usage also gives them a meaning somewhat din'er- ent. Between the two we must learn to distinguish with the utmost precision. Unless your pupils learn to do this in drawing, they will fail, to say nothing of other loss, in two of the best things, — prelimi- nary analysis of forms to bo drawn, and dictation lessons. A Point. — Lines. — Surfaces. — Solids. Illustrate the definitions which follow by drawings on the blackboard, and by all other available means. Require your pupils not only to repeat the defini- tions, but, above all, to illustrate them. Do not dwell upon them long at any one time ; but, as you advance through the book, often turn back to them, by way of review. A Point. — A point is position only: therefore it has no length, breadth, or thickness. 36 TO DRAW E8. ploys corttiiii Htootl, or HUt- lUHtoring that LTins not only Imt popular icwliat (lUrcr- to (llstinguiuh r pupils Iciirn o say nothing js, — prolimi- :iud dictation iolids. ^ hy drawings liable means, at the definl- jm. Do not but, as you >ack to them, therefore it LfNKS DKFINKD. 37 ■' I This is a scientific definition, ))ut is as readily comprehended by a child as by a philosopher. It is connnon usage to speak of the i)oint of a [)encil, and lo call a dot a point, though both have size. They nuiy be regarded as indicating points. A Line. — A line has lengthy hat no breadth or thickncsf}^ Think of a point as moving, and its path will form a line. In common usage, the mark made by the point of a pencil is called a line ; but this has breadth, and so does not conform to the scientific definition. Lines are right or straight, as 1 ; curved, as 2 ; , and broken, as o. Straight lines arc horizontal, oblique, or vertical. Curved lines are circular, elliptical, &c. Lines are said to be continuous, as 1 and 2 ; or discontinuous, as 4. Two lines are said to be parallel, when the}' lie side by side, and have the same direction ; as 1 and 1, 2 and 2. They are, therefore, at the same distance apart throughout their whole length. It will be seen that a broken line consists of a series of lines, united, but having different directions. Surface. — Space enclosed hy lines is called sur- face: it has, therefore, length and hreadth, hut no thickness. l^tH'^^'f ''""}■'-'■"' ■■■r"'^-^-"^^ TEACHERS' MANUAL. Think of a line as moving sidewise, and its path will form a surface. Illustrate by using a piece of wire, straight or curved, to represent a line ; mov- ing it sidewise through the air. The surface may be a plane, to all parts of which a straight rule can be applied exactly ; or it may be concave, that is, hollow like tlie inside of a bowl ; or convex, that is, bulging like the outside of a bowl or ball. With a rectangular piece of stiif paper, or card- board, 3'ou can illustrate the three delinitions which have been given. The angles, or corners, where the edges meet, will represent points; the edges them- selves will represent lines; and the surface of the paper will show what is meant by a plane. A Solid. — Space enclosed by surfaces is called a solid : it has length, breadth, and thickness. Observe that the word " solid," as thus defined, has no reference whatever to hardness, as it has in pop- ular usage, but only to magnitude, volume, capacitj'. Different varieties of the solid will be described to- wards the end of this Intermediate Course. Thus there is (1) the point, which has no dimen- sion ; (2) the line, which has one dimension, length ; (3) surface, which is bounded by lines, and has two dimensions, length and breadth ; (4) the solid, which is bounded by surfaces, and has three dimensions, length, breadth, height or depth. All these things can be illustrated with a cube. A Horizontal Line. It has already been said that there are three kinds of straight lines, — horizontal, vertical, and oblique. mmmmm and its path g a piece of line ; mov- suiface may ?ht rule can lavc, that is, vex, that is, 11. )er, or caid- litions which rs, where the edges them- irface of the lie. s is called a ess, i defined, has has in pop- ne, capacit}'. [escribed to- •se. IS no diraen- lion, length ; and has two solid, which dimensions, ;hese things three kinds nd oblique. HORIZONTAL LINES. 39 A Horizontal Line. — A horizontal line is a straight line which inclines neither up nor down. A line is said to be horizontal when every part of it has the same level. The floor of the school- room is horizontal ; that is, level. A line either straight or crooked, drawn in any direction on a level floor, is horizontal in an absolute sense, be- cause the floor on which it is drawn is horizontal. But in general usage, and in drawing, the terms hor- izontal, vertical, oblique, are applied only to straight lines as drawn on an upright even surface, like that of a blackboard, against the wall of the schoolroom. Therefore, when , drawing in the drawing-book, imagine it to be in the position, not of the floor, but of an upright blackboard, the upper edge of the book representing the upper edge of the blackboard. A line on the blackboard is said to be horizontal when it runs right and left, keeping the same level throughout its whole length. A line in the drawing- book is said to be horizontal when it has the same direction as the upper edge of the book. Lines may usually be regarded and described in four ways. 1. According ,to their general api)car- ance they are straight, curved, broken, continuous, or discontinuous. 2. According to the relation Ihc}' bear to one another they are perpendicular, oblique, or parallel. 3. According to their position with reference to the centre of the earth thev are horizon- tal, vertical, or oblique. 4. The definitions may be modified somewhat, according to the surface ui)on which the lines are drawn. 40 TEACHERS' MANUAL. DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE I. Horizontal Lines. Directions. — Here we have six liorizontal linos to be drawn in a given space, and at tlie same distance apart. On tlie left-liand side of the space, ina1 the side the pencil g the line I be more tnci bold, the last the lead wajs be VERTICAL LINES. A Vertical Line. 41 A Vertical Line. — A vertical line is a straight line which extends up and down, and does not incline in any direction. . . All vertical lines have the same direction, as do all horizontal lines. But this must be understood as only practically true, — true when the lines are drawn on the black-board or on paper, and not true absolutely. A vertical line, as truly indicated by a cord with a weight suspended from the lower end, while the upper is held in the hand, always points directly to the centre of the earth. No tw » absolutely vertical lines can, therefore, have exactly the same direction. There must be a minute difference, however near to each other they may be drawn. The farther apart they are drawn, the greatei: must be the differ- ence in direction. Suppose a vertical line, drawn at one place, to be continued to the earth's cen- tre; then suppose a similar line to be drawn at another place, one-quarter of the way round tlie earth from the first place : these two lines would meet each other at the centre of the earth, just as two pins stuck into an orange in the same manner would meet at the centre of the orange. Illustrate, and thus give a lesson in geography, as well as in drawing. A line in the drawing-book is said to be vertical, when it has the same direction as the right-hand edge of the book, let the position of the book be what it may. 42 TEACHERS' MANUAL. DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE II. Vertical Lines. Directions. — At. the top of the priven space in the drawing- book, make six very small dots, equidistant, to indicate the upper ends of the required vertical lines. Draw downwards, begin- ning with the line farthest to the left. In order to draw the lines easily, throw the elbow out from the side, and turn the hand somewhat. The larger pupils can draw the lines Mith the hand movement, but better with use of the forearm. Having drawn the lines, divide five of them as indicated, — the second Ime from the left into halves, the next into thirds, the next into fourths, the next into fifths, and the last into sixths. The division of a line into thirds is more difiicult than the division into halves or fourths. To divide a line into four equal parts, first divide it into two equal parts, and then ea .'h of these into two equal parts. To divide a line into six equal parts, first divide it into two equal parts, and then each of these into three equal parts. Proceed in like manner when a larger number of equal parts is required. ^ If it is a composite num- ber, as, nine, twelve, fifteen, begin with the largest divisions that the case will admit, as, halves, thirds, fifths, and then subdivide these until the required number of equal parts has been obtained. Thus, for twelve equal parts, first divide the line into halves, and then each half into halves, giving fourths, and, lastly, each fourth into thirds, giving twelfths. If the number of parts required is prime, as, five, OBLIQUE LINES. 43 n the drawing. 5»-y small (lots, ^(^te the upper Hired vertical "ai-ds, begin- e farthest to ' to draw the H'e elbow out "in the Jiand ?er pupils can th the hand 51' with use of as indicated, f»e next into and the last 'ore difficult ivide a line ' parts, and « a line into Sj and then seven, eleven, this process cannot bo followed : 3'ou must then begin at one end of the line. Frequently ask your pupils how they would divide a line into a certain number of equal parts ; as, ten, lifteen, eighteen, twenty-four. This will be a good exercise in arithmetic, as well as in drawing. An Oblique Line. An Oblique Line. — An oblique line is a straight line lohich inclines more or less. All horizontal and vertical lines, as drawn on the blacliboard or on paper, have the same direc- tion ; but all oblique lines have not, since the de- grees of inclination are numberless. All straight lines drawn in the drawing-book, and not parallel to cither edge, ai-e to be regarded as oblique lines. DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE III. Oblique Lines. Directions. — To draw these eleven oblique lines, first make seven d()t.s,at equal distances apart, on the left side of the given space, and six additional dots at the bottom, to indicate the start- ing-points. Beginning at these points, draw very faint lines up- wards ; the longest first, and all the others parallel to that. This properly ils. See that the pen- tils are long, and well sharpened ; that the slate is kept in the same po- sition throughoiit the exercise, — tlio side, and not the end, towards the pupil. All the nteinbers of the class heing in readiness, require them, working together, lirst to ;uake a dot, indicating the middle of the left end of the slate, i!ien another dot, indicating the middle of the right end; and in like manner indicate the middle of the tipper side, then of the lower side. Now require them to hold the point of the pencil directly over the left-hand dot, keeping it there until yo;; say, One, when they umst carry the pencil steadily forward, without touching the slate, to the right- hand dot. Bequire them to hold the point of the pencil just over the right-hand dot, Until you say, Two, when they must move tlie pencil steadily across the slate, without touching it, 48 TEACHERS' MANUAL. to the left-hand dot again. Kepeat this a half-dozen timen, more or less, requiring tlie pupils to bring the point of the pencil nearer to the slate, without quite touching it, at each repetition. When you think the pupils have thus got the direction of the required line, say, JJmio. They must touch the slate lightly, and move the j^encil from. point to point •with a uniform rate of speed. Itequire them to draw a vertical line in the same way, uniting the upper with the lower dot. llequire them, also, to draw a left oblique line in the same way, connecting the tipi^er left-hand corner of the slate with the lower right-haud corner; and then a right oblique line connecting the other two corners. Finally, require them to draw the lines in any order, as you dictate, with considerable rapidity, that they may learn to distinguish Avith ease one line from another, and to change the position of pencil, hand, and arm, as de- manded by the different lines. After a few exercises of this kind, make an addition to it. "Wlien the lines have been drawn, as already described, re- quire your pupils to divide the end and side halves of the Hiate by dots indicating the centres of these halves; and then to connect these points so as to cover the slate with horizon- tal, vertical, and oblique parallel lines. The given illustra- tion shows the result. This exercise may be profitably repeated at fre- quent intervals, until your pupils have acquired delicacy of touch, which is of so much service when one is drawing on paper, and which they will soon acquire, if you rigidly insist upon their carrying the pencil many times across the slate before drawing the line, with the pencil-point as near the slate as they can get it without touching. If you find some inclined to draw too rapidly, others too slowly, have them draw now and then by count ; have them, for example, di'aw a line across the slate while you count four. CROSS-riATCniNG. 49 Parallel Lines. — Cross-Hatching. Directions. — Draw two parallel Une«, as I ami t, at some distance apart. Halve the space l)etwe«Mi tltciii l»y a third parallel line; as 2. Halve the two spaces by two other paral- lel lines; as :\ and 3. Halve the fonr spacer hylonr «)ther parallel lines. Con- tiniie thns. When the breadth of the lines is ecpial to the breadth of the spaces between them, yon will have what is called "half-tint." In a sindlar nuinner draw the lines obliqnely across the first lines. This will prod nee what is called ^'hatching," and sometimes "cross-hatching." Much shading is done in this way : it is called *' shading with the point." It is a laborious pro- cess : hence easier methods are frequently used in its stead. For certain purposes, cross-hatching is an excel- lent drill-exercise, if rightly practised, and should receive attention from time to time. It gives quick- ness of eye, and steadiness of hand. The lines should always be parallel, never touching, however clo^sely drawn, if the children can attain to this. Neither upon this nor upon any drill-exercise should the pupils be kept engaged more than a few minutes at any one time ; for they will soon grow weary, as such exercises do not, like a design, represent thought. But occasionally revert to them, as you advance through the book. 50 TEACHERS' MANUAL, The Three Historic Lines. Apelles, who lived more tlmn twenty-ono hun- dred years ago, was the most distinguished of Greek painters. Protogcnes, living at the Hamo time, was also a famous Greek painter. The two were fast friends. On a certain occasion Apelles paid a visit to Protogenes, who was then dwelling at Rhodes. When Apelles entered the studio of his friend, he found only a servant there. Taking up a brush, he drew a straight line across a canvas on the easel. As he was about to leave, he said to the servant, " Tell your master, when ho comes mi, that that man" (here he pointed to the lino he had drawn) " wishes to see him." After a little, Protoge- nes returned ; and his servant gave an account of what had happened. Looking at the line, Protoge- nes perceived that his friend Apelles bad come to see him ; for he knew there was no other man in Greece who could draw so beautiful a line. lie took up the brush, and drew a second straight line beside the first, and, going out, said to his servant, " Tell that man" (here he pointed to the line drawn by Apelles), "when he comes in, that that man" (here he pointed to the line drawn by himself) " will be very happy to see him." Upon the return of Apel- les, the servant did as he was directed. Apelles looked at the line drawn by his friend, and saw that he was surpassed. He took the brush again, and, putting his whole soul into the effort, drew a third line between the first two, and more beautiful than either. When Protogenes saw this line, he felt it would be vain to attempt to excel it. Thus runs 77/ a; TiiRhh: msTomr riNns. 51 tho story. But it l« Airtlur ivlatod that the onnvas boariujx thoso tluvo llnosi of siich marvollouM lu»auly was i'arol\illy prosorvoil I'or oouturios at Homo. It in propor to ailil, liowovor, tl>at it is a luatttM* of (lis- puto wliothor tlio line, in tliis anoodoto, nioant a www abstrnot lino, or a skotoh of sonio Huhjoot. An art-studonts' association, of wliioh tho nntlior was ft nuMubor, took tor its motto, — NulluH tliiH siiio lliion; and onoh inombor bound himsoif to comply with it strictly. Tlio association interpreted the ujotto to mean, that no (hiy was to be reirarded as llnished until the drawing: or sketch of some subject had been made. lie who retired to rest without luivinj^ uuulo his line — that is, drawinjjj or sketch (it mijj;ht bo no larger than his thiunb-nail) — was deemed to havo broken his plodj>;e. In this case a line meant many lines, — a pictme of some sort. P^very person, in whatever ho does, no matter how slijjfht the thinjj:, gives some indication of his quality. Unless he can draw a boautiftil lino by itself, ho cannot draw boautiftil lines in combination for a design or for a picture. But do not infer, from the anecdote of tho two Greek painters, that any amount of time and labor can bo profitably spent in drawing nought but meaningless lines. There are teachers who tell their pupils that at least an hour should be given to the freehand drawing of a square, — a fearlVil waste of time imd labor ! When a per- fect square is required, instruments must be used to di'aw it. When the object sought is the power to r 52 TEACHERS' MANUAL. ^\f*> judge of proportion, that can be as well acquired in the execution of drawings which impart knowledge and improve the taste. Avoid all needless con- sumption of time and labor. Hear what Apelles himself has to say about the matter: "My friend Protogenes excels me in all things but one : lie never knows wlien to take his hand from the canvas." By tliis the great painter implied tliat laborious finish is not tlie thing of first importance. Do not, however, conclude that care- ess, slovenly work is ever to be tolerated ; for it is not. Shun extremes. Question's. — What is a point? a line? Describe the differ- ent kinds of lines. When are lines parallel ? What is a sur- face? Describe a plane. Other kinds of surfaces. What is a solid? How many dimensions has a line? a surface? a sol- id? Name the three kiiuls of straight lines. What is a hori- zontal line? a vertical line? an oblique line? How are all these lines regarded as drawn? How is the drawing-book to be regarded? How shouhl you work when tiiiisliiiig a draw- ing? Wliat is said of judging distances V I CHAPTER III. STRAIGHT LINES COMBINED. - ANOLES.-TRI- ANOLES.- QUADRILATERALS. -POLYGONS. We now come to thoso combinations of straight lines which produce angles and plane geometrical figures. Perchance your pupils will not regard the drawing of these as delightful work ; but experience has shown that such work cannot be safely omitted. In ' ' The Primary Manual " it was explained and illus- trated, to some extent, and will be further explained and illustrated, that Nature, whatever she produces, follows, in a general way, regular geometrical forms, deviating from these only in details ; and that good art, especially industrial art, employs only the gen- eral forms of Nature, and follows her general laws of growth. The eye that can readily distinguish the general form of an object can also, with that as a basis for judgment, more readily distinguish its particular form, with its regular or irregular details ; while the hand that can draw the former can more readily draw the latter. Indeed, unless it can first draw the former, it cannot draw the latter with any reasonable approach to accurac}'. Therefore, in drawing the simple, severe forms of geometry, we are taking the first and a most important step to- wards learning to draw any object whatever, natural or ai*tificial. 63 54 TEACHERS' MANUAL. For a long time the elementary schools in Eng- land have been largely under the control of the dif- ferent religious sects. It is some twenty-five years since the education of the working-people in art began to receive special attention throughout that country. The very first to give drawing a conspicu- ous place in the schools under their direction were the Friends, or Quakers. It may strike one as strange, at the first thought, that the}', Avith their plain, practical views of life, should be found among the leaders in English art education. But, wlien we consider the important industrial bearings of such an education, there is no longer room for wonder. It was not for the sake of beautiful pictures or stat- uary, but for the sake of better and more thrifty laborers, that the Friends emphasized art instruc- tion in their schools. As they aimed only at in- dustrial results, so thej' began with the severe course of training essential to secure such results ; ignoring the picture element, which was made the leading feature in so many other schools. But Avhile the Friends, in their elementary work, aimed wholly at practical ends, the result showed that they did just the things essential to secure the highest artistic ends ; for when the boj's and girls trained in their schools entered the art-schools whollv under the supervision of the government, where the end sought was both practical and artistic, they almost invaria- bly outstripped those students who had come from schools where drawing began with Nature and the cast, and not with geometrical forms, conventional ornament, and the use of instruments. I ANGLES J)EFINED. 55 Thus it was demonstrated by this English experi- ence, as it has been demonstrated again and again by the continental experience of Europe, that the plan followed in this system of drawing for American schools is the best for producing either an industrial or purely artistic result. God never intended that the useful and the beautiful should be separated, or sought in different ways. Angles. An Angle. — An angle is the difference in direc- tion of tivo straight lines, which meet, as a and b, or only tend towards each other, as c and d. Observe the exact force of this definition. It is not essential that the lines meet in order to form an angle. An angle is not, strictly speaking, a corner : it is not tlie space between the two lines : it is the difference in their direction. The size of an angle, therefore, does not depend at all upon the length of the lines forming it. Nor does the name of an angle depend- at all upon the position of the lines. Though it is not mathematically correct, yet it is popular usage, to apply the name " angle " to the ver- tex, or point where the two lines meet. For con- venience, we shall frequently use the word in this wa}'. But see that the pupil also understands the strictly scientific usage : otherwise he will not get a clear comprehension of some things. 56 TEACHERS' MANUAL, A Right Angle. — When a vertical line meets a horizontal line, or only tends toioards it, the angle formed is called a right angle. If the vertical line meets the end of the horizon- tal line, then one right angle is formed ; but if the lines meet as in the cut, then a right angle is formed on each side of the ver- tical line, cd. It will be well, sometimes, to jLise other definitions for the pur- pose of illustration. Thus, when one straight line, ah, crosses another straight line, cd, making four equal angles, eacli is called a right angle. Again : the angle formed by the meeting of an^- two straight lines perpendicular to each other is called a right angle. When we simpl}' say that a line is perpendicular, we mean that it is vertical ; but when we say that a line, as ah, is perpendicular to an- other line, as cd, we mean that the two lines form right angles ; and the perpendicular line may be, in an absolute sense, vertical, oblique, or horizontal. See that 3'our pupils clearly understand the two uses of the word " perpendicular." Geometry proper does not employ the terms " hori- zontal" or " vertical," as it knows no up and down, no right and left. It deals with lines only in their re- lations to each other, and hence its straight lines must be either perpendicular or oblique ; the former ANGLES DEFINED. 57 when they are at right angles to each other, the lat- ter when they are at an^^ other angle to each other. An Acute Angle. — Any angle less than a right angle is called an acute angle. (See p. 59.) An Obtuse Angle. — Any angle greater than a right angle is called an obtuse angle. (See p. 59.) While a right angle is always the same, the size of an acute or an obtuse angle is always indefinite. If we wish to give the exact size of any angle, except a right angle, it must be done in de- grees. To illustrate : Draw two straight lines, ab andcd, perpendicular to each other. From the point of intersec- tion, 0, as a centre, strike two circles. The two in- tersecting straight lines, which form four right angles, will divide each circle into four equal parts. Thus the opening of a right angle is equal to one-fourth of a circle, large or small. People have agreed to divide a right angle into ninety equal parts, called degrees, and indicated thus, 90° (ninety degrees). An acute angle is any angle less than 90°. The angle formed by the lines eo and 6o, being one-third of a right angle, is an acute angle of 30° (thirty degrees). An obtuse angle is any angle larger than 90°, but less than 180°. The angle formed by the lines ao and eo, being equal to one right angle and two-thirds of another, is an angle of 150°. But the opening of a right angle is equal to one- 58 TEACHERS' MANUAL. fourth of any circle ; af», ac^ large or small : hence any whole circle has 360 degrees. AVhen a degree measures the difference in direction of any two straight lines, it always means the ninetieth part of a right angle ;.wlien applied to a circle, it always means the three hundi^ed and sixtieth part of tlie circle, and so designates a less or greater absolute distance, according to the size of the circle. Thus a degree of the distance around the earth is about 09^ miles ; while a degree of the distance around an orange or a pencil is only the fraction of an inch. The number 3G0 was fixed upon to designate the degrees into which a circle should be divided, be- cause, being the common multiple of so many num- bers, but few fractions occur when it is used in mak- ing actual calculations; thus, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 20, &c., will divide 360 without a remainder. . If your pupils have not j'et learned, in connection with geograplij', measurement by degrees, they may as well learn it now and here. A judicious employ- ment of familiar illustrations will enable young pupils to comprehend the subject readily-. Take it up at different times, but do not dwell long upon it at an}' one time. The angle formed by the meeting of two planes, as by the floor and wall of the room, is called a dihe- dral angle. All angles may be divided into two classes, — right angles, or those which are formed by lines or planes perpendicular to each other ; and oblique angles, or those which are formed by lines or planes oblique to each other. TRIANGLES DEFINED. 59 DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE IV. Lines forming Angles. Directions. — After what has heen said about drawing straight lines, the pupil will need very few or no directions for drawing the lines which form these auj^les. The lines should he firm, not wavering ; gray, not black ; and of equal size through- out their whole length. See that thiiy are neatly drawn where they meet. Remember that the name of an angle depends upon the relation which the two lines forming it bear to one another, and not at all upon the position in which they uaay be drawn. Triangles. A Triangle. — Any plane surface or figure hounded by three straight lines is called a triangle. Triangles have different names according to the character of their angles. While the comparative sizes of the three angles of the triangle vary as the comparative lengths of the sides varj', yet the combined size of the three angles is always equal to two right angles, or 180°. Show your pupils that this is so. A Right Triangle. — A triangle containing one right angle is called a right-angled triangle^ or right triangle. (See p. 63.) The longest side of this triangle is called the hypotenuse ; the two shorter are called, the one the 60 TEACHERS' MANUAL. base, the other the perpendicular. There is some- thingf very curious about this kind of triangle. If you construct a square on each of its sides, wluitevcr may be their comparative lengtlis, the square on the longest side Avill always bo just as large as both of the other squares. If, as shown in the cut, the shortest side, fto, is three feet long, and the next, aft, is four feet long, men the side oc will be five feet long ; for the square of three (that is 3 X 3) is nine, the square of four i;j sixteen, and the sum of both (9 -}- IC) is 25; •while the square of five is also twenty-five. Multiply these sides by any number, giving sides six, eight, and ten feet long, or twelve, sixteen, and twenty feet long, &c., the figure will remain a right triangle, the squares of whose sides can be expressed in whole numbers. Carpenters, when putting up buildings, frequently make use of this fact in order to place their timbers so as to give a square corner. You can easily illus- trate. Draw a line, a6, on the floor, or on the ground, four feet long. At one end (a) of this line fix one end of a cord five feet long ; swing the cord around, keeping it straight, and on the floor, until its movable end is three feet from the end (6) of the drawn line. Draw a straight line from the end of the cord to the end (6) of the first line, and you will have a right angle, or square corner, where the two lines meet. If your first line is drawn eight feet long. rniANGLi'.H di:hni:d. fii then your cord will need lo bo ten feet, nnd the Hocoiul line hIx feet lonj?. This is wortli icnowinji; ; an»aigin. Leave the pupils to draw the other quadrilaterals accord- ing to their own judgment. From time to time they should thus be left to work by themselves. Polygons. A Polygon. — Any plane figure having more than four straight sides^ and, consequently, more than four angles^ is called « polygon, which means " hav- ing many angles.'* A Regular Pentagon. —^ plane figure having Jive equal straight sides, and five equal angles, is called a regular pentagon. (See p. 67.) A Regular Hexagon. — Jf plane figure Jiaving sim equal straight sides, and six equal angles, is called a regular hexagon, (See p. 68.) PENTAGON, 67 A Regular Octagon. — A plane Jigure having eight equal straight sides, and eight equal angles , is called a regular octagon, (See p. 68.) Polygons maybe irregular, having their sides, arid consequently their angles, unequal. The regular polygon always has the largest area. For our present purpose it is not essential that these figures be drawn with absolute accuracy. When it is essential that they be thus drawn, in- struments must be used. The directions, therefore, for drawing them freehand will be simple, yet such as will enable the learner, with a little practice, to draw them quickly, and with approximate precision. More than this is not required here. f DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE VII. The Pentagon. Directions. — Draw the Iiorizontal line, ab; at its centre, draw the perpenditnilar line, cd, of an indefinite length, only niak- ing sure to have it long enough. On the perpendicular mark a point, o, making od a little less than ab. Have this correut hy measurement. Through o draw ef, of an indolhjito length. Fix the points c, c, /, by judgment of eye, so that when they are united with one another, and with the ends of the line ub, all the sides of the pentagon will be equal. Turn the figure around for ex- amination. Not only must the five sides be equal, but the five diagonals, of which only one is drawn in the copy. ■ 68 TEACHERS' MANUAL. DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE VIII. The Hexagon. Directions. — Draw the horizontal line, «6, in the middle of the given space. Divide tliis line into fonr equal parts. Through the onter i)oiuts of division, draw two vertical lines, of indetinite length, above and helow. Fix the points c and il, by judgment of eye, so that the lines «« and rtd, when drawn, shall he equal to each otlier, and to ce, the distance between the two ver- tical lines. Examine the figure carefully by turuiug it around. See that the opposite sides are paralleL . DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE IX. The Octagon. , Directions. — Mark a point to indicate the centre of the apace {riven in the hook. Above this, about one-third of the dis- tance to the margin of the space, mark a second point, and a third one helow. Through the outer points, draw two horizontal line?«, ah and <:d, of indefinite length. Next draw two vertical lines, e/ and'///t, of indefinite length, and at the same distance apart as the horizontal lines. The intersec- tions of these foiu' lines will form a square, with the Arst point in its centre. Fix, by judgment of eyCr the points a and e, so that the line ae, when drawn, shall equal e//, or the distance between the vertical lines. Thus much done, the other lines composing the octagon can be qtuckJy drawn. REVIEW^ 69 Revert to these geometrical figures until your pupils understand their distinctive features, and can fairly draw them. Do not dwell upon them long at any one time. As so many designs are constructed on a geometrical basis, the pupil w^ill have occasion to draw the given figures quite frequently in the reg- ular course of these lessons. It will be an excellent practice now and then to require your pupils to tell you how the figures should be drawn, step by step, while you draw them on the blackboard. But remember that the drawing of these geo- metrical forms by freehand is in part educational,, and in part to enable the pupil to secure an approx- imate accuracy when instruments are not available, or when perfect accuracy is not required. Every person requiring a perfectly accurate hexagon- or octagon will draw it as only it can be drawn, viz., by mechanical means. Questions. — Why is the drawing of geonietrieal forms a good introduction to the drawing of uatni'al forms V What is said of the Friends in England ? Avhat of the tiseful arid the beautiful? Wliat is an angle? Describe the different kinds. Upon what tloes the size of an angle dei>end? Descvilie a perpendicular line. How many kinds of straight lines are known to geometry proper? How many degrees in a right angle? how many in a circle? Why nq| 301? What is a triangle? Describe tl»e different kinds. What is said of tljp right triangle? What is a quadrilateral? Define a square, its diameter, its diagonal. Define a rhombus, an oblong, a rhomboid. What is a polygon ? Define a pentagon, a hexa- gonj an octagon. CHAPTER rV. RIGHT LINE GEOMETRICAL DESIGNS. For reasons givenin the Introduction, which need not be repealed, the blackboard can be used onlj' to great disadvantage in providing pupils with copies. If there are not, therefore, other objects to be attained, the blackboard should be wholly discarded. But there are other objects ; and they must not be overlooked by the teacher of drawing, especially if he has a large class under his instruc- tion. Blackboard Instruction. A part of their drawings the pupils should make of the same size as the copies, others larger, others smaller. When 3'ou wish to exercise them in mak- ing their drawings smaller than the cop3', when, in- deed, redtiction is the main thing to be taught, then the blackboard can be properly used. In this case the drawings should be simple, should be such that 30U can quickly put them on the blackboard, — such that they will suffer the least possible from bad execution, and from being viewed obliquely bj- the pupils. They should also have exact proportions, that the pupils may be able, from j'our description, to draw them accuratel}-, even when viewed from the side of the room. 70 BLACKBOARD INSTRUCTION. 71 Again : the blackboard can be properlj' employed when you wish to teach principles or methods ; since these can usually bo illustrated sufliciently well by rude drawings, and since they can be as easily explained to a class of fort}-, by the aid of a black- board, as to a single pupil without its aid. Again : the pupils themselves sliould, from lime to time, draw on the blackboard, enlarging to the utmost the copies given in their books. This will not onl^' exercise them in enlargement^ but in the freest kind of freehand drawing. The centre of a >lackboard drawing should always be on a level with the ej'e cf him who makes the drawing, otherwise it must be viewed obliquely. In order that you may examine any drawing prop- erly, the eye must be so far removed, that it can easily take in the whole at once. The distance should not be less than three times the breadth of the drawing. When the drawing is on paper, hold the paper in a vertical position, with the eye directly opposite the centre of the drawing. In this way both the beauties and defects of a clrawing can be readily perceived. When giving a blackboard lesson you can follow one of two general methods : — Directions. — 1. Draw the whole tignie on the bhu'khoaiil prior to the lesson, that the class may see what they are to «lo before they be^in. Then direct them, line by line, how to proceed, causing the whole class to do the same thing at the same time. Occasionally leave the pupils to execute the draw- ing without any directions whatever, each relying on his own judgment for the proportions and mode of procedure. 2. Clearly state what is to be first done ; then do it yourself 72 TEACHERS' }fANUAL. on tlio Mackboftrd. Having allowed tlio class snfTlclenf thno to do it als(», proceed in the same way with tiie next step. This niethod has some special advantaia;os. The pnpils must give strict attenti()n, while they are kept in a perpetual state of expectation as to what is coming next, and of surprise when it does come. When you employ this metlHwl, draw all the lines faintly at tiist, recpiiring your pupils to draw theirs in the same manner. Having made the skelih, line in. After you have done your part of such a lesson, allow your pupils a little time for completing their drawings. Sec Ujc Primary Manual . Chap. VI., for illustra- tions of the nse which can be nia into ei<,'lit eipial parts. On the two parts of each, nearest the centre, construct a square. On each side of this construct a square, and then line in the cross. Tell your class soniethinj; about the House of Savoy, about its past and its present for- tunes. Much that is interesting may be said. A Silver Cup. Directions. —The proportions of this cup must be de- terndned by judgment of eye alone. Put it on the blackboard, adding the numerals to indicate the order in which the lines should be drawn. Leave each pupil to reproduce the cup, without iur- ther help, in the lower right-hand spai'e. Since the blackboard copy is to be the pupil's only guide, you M'ill need to take time to draw it quite accurately before the les- son comes off. In -this case the blackboard copy should be as good as you can well make it. From time to time the pupil should be left, as in this exercise, to draw without specific directions. This is a feature of such importance, that it should never be overlooked in any system of drawing. It enables you to find out what the pupil can, and what he cannot, do by himself. Thus, if he has been re- : TELL THE TRUTH. 79 quired to use his common-sense, and 1ms been tnuglit a simple process of drawing, an exercise now and tlien lilce tiie present will give him a chance to apply the instruction he has received, and will show how much of the instniction is retained. The pupil is also greatl}' profited by a healthy variety, not only in the things drawn, but in the modes of teach- ing, because the faculties receive a more varied training. Indeed, without variety in both subject- matter and method, there can be no intelligent progress in drawing. Tell the Truth. Observe that the lines denoting the junction of the handle with the cup are drawn a little inside the outline of the cup. If they coincided with the out- line, then we should be justified in taking the cup to be square, or the handle to be without thickness ; for that is what the drawing would aotnally repre- sent. However rude a drawing may be in execu- tion, it should alwajs tell the truth, and not a lie. Yet pupils are often set to drawing from books, with numerous copies fundamentally false. Some of them, to take simple illustrations, represent fore- shortened lines of equal length with the actual lines. Others represent ellipses by two segments of a circle. Others fail to represent thickness at all, when it is imperatively demanded b\' the truth. Others make a mixture, one part of the copy representing thick- ness, another part omitting such representation, when it should be all the one, or all the other. Here 80 TKA C/fKltS ' AfA N UAL. WO arc jylvon, for cxainplo, u jjfiito and two poHtH : Olio poHt iH rcproaontod iw iinviiipf thIcUnoHH, llu< otlior not. If wu woro told, in u vorlxd doscription, tlitit one of the posts hud thioUnosH, tlu' otlioi* not, wo s'houhl stmightwav donounoo it uh IuIho. No raoro Hhould wo toloi'uio rulsohood in a fjjnipliici ivp- resentatiou. Tlio ponoil and ilio tongno Mliould eqnall^' adlioro to tliu truth. , Four Concentric SqvmrcB. Divide tho R'H'ond blank pajufo by a vorllcal line, so as to place a thinl of the pa^;e at the IclY of (lie lino. Divide this space by a horizontal line iii^o two ocjual parts. ' Directions. — In the upptu' iMft-tiund «pa«'e ronstnict a Mquttra on ItH (liiiiiiotors, 1 2. W 4, two hu!heH loDjuc. Add MiodiH^on- alM.' On I J, .') 4, uM diuK<»i»lKi, con- Htruct a second s(|Uiu*e. Now di- vide 1 2, .1 4, into six niitial pai'tH each. Through the outer luttntH of division draw liims fMitiliiu a third square, its sides parallel tu the sides of tlie first square. Unite the iuuer poiuta uf division, and thus form a fourth and tlie inner- most . ,]uare, with Its sides par- allel to the Hides of the se(H)nd square. Concentric Figures. — When two or more figures have a common centre^ they are called concentric figures. Parallel circular curves, short or long, arc also said to be concentric : if continued sufficiently far, they would form circles having a connnon centre. f aFMMIlTHICA Tr FORMS, A Hexagon and a Six-Pointed Star. 81 n Directiona. — In ilio cfMilio of ilio towor lofi-liand Npnco IMvtilo it into fout'llH. Tliron|u:li llio OlIltM' poilttH of lllviMlotI (ll'llW tllO lioii/.nnt.iil llni)4, ;i4, Ad, of iiiitolhiito loiijiili. Fi\ lliu pnintH :t iiiul 1. I>y Jiintuto aii^r|<^s tofonn tim two (M|uilat4M'al triaiifjInM. Krane tliu dott«Ml liiM>H. Tim |iitpil i^4 novor to adt'i tlio niiiiioralH to lilulrawln^N: thvy iudicatii Mat ortloi' iu widcli it is lioHl to druw tli« liuen. An Octagon and an Bight-Pointed Star. Directions, — Mai'l< a |)i)int in i\u> lumtro of tlio luMt Mpnon, - tlio two-tliirdH of tla^ Itlanii pa;i;f>. Dmw two voitlcal linos, I 'J, .'I 4, tlio on« an .a<'|i to ila^ loft, tlin ollita'tui inch to tlio ri^lit, of tlio point, ami of indt^llnito leiigtli. Tlioit draw two lioii/.ontal linoN, n (t, 7 H, at tlio HanMMllMtan)'iuts of biHortion draw stnti^lit lint's to the opposite iuikIoh, which strai}j;lit lin«s will fovin u\oh of synniietry. Tho points of tho sniiillest pfMita)^>n an* lialfway from tho t'uniro to tho sidos of thu lftr;j[ost ponta)::on. Yon s<;d space into square.!, ami draw the ohliqiie lines. Among the oldeist and most widely- used ornaments is the simple zigzag, — here given as a copy, - — or some of its modifications. Observe the parallel horizontal lines, one above and one below, without which a border or moulding sel- dom or never produces its best effect. '< DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE XI. The Greek Fret. Directions. — To complete the copy in the drawinjQ;-hook, first extend the liori- zontfel lines, the outer and next to the <)utcr, across the paj;e ; ilien, with ':ertical lines, di- vide nto squares ihe space for the fret ; suh- divide each of these large squares into six- teen small squares, hy drawii'g three horizon- tal anu three vertical lines, the middle one to he drawn first. Line la. THE GREEK FRET. 87 ^ There are few ornamental forms older than the Greek fret : there is not one that has been so widely used. Sometimes it is called the " key ornament," because there are varieties which resemble a key ; sometimes, the "meander," because its lines so frequently change their direction ; sometimes, the *' labyrinth," because of the involved intricacy of certain specimens, especially as elaborated by the Greeks. When the lines are oblique, it is called, a 'M-aking fret." ' Notwitlistanding there are so many varieties of this ornamental form, yet its construction is always sim[)lc, always by the aid of a basis of intersecting straight lines. Its ger- minal form is seen at A. Instead of straight lines, curved lines are soinetimes used. Celtic *art is es- pecially inclined to the use of curved lines. But whether the arrangement of the lines is rectangular, raking, or curved, the leading characteristics of the ornament remain plainly discernible. Thougli the Greek fret is so rigid, so arbitrary, in its character, yet there is something abc it its meandering lines, which always and everj'where pleases the eye. It has been used by all nations and tribes, and is more extensively used today than any other form for enrichment. It may be seen in the decoration of architecture, of textile fabrics, of pottery, glassware, buffalo-robes, shoes, books, &c^. Request your pupils to tell whether they have ever seen it, where, and if like the specimen given in the copy. 88 TEACHERS' MANUAL. DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE XII. Isosceles Triangles Alternately Reversied. Directions. — The pupil shoiild be able to ooiiiplete this in oil 1 ding without 8i)et'ific (I i r e e t i o 11 s : Iieuce uone are given. When this de- sign is viewed in a vertical position, the effect is not agreeable, as it is not seen the right way up. It would not, tlierefore, answer well for a vertical moulding. Geometrical Drawings. A geometrical drawing of an object to represent breadth and iieight does not aim at pictorial effects, because it ignores the principles of perspective, which would give such effects. The object is drawn as though all the rays of light proceeding from it were parallel, and continued parallel forever, instead of converging, and entering the cje ; which the}' arc regarded as doing in a perspective drawing. Tliis will l)e explained towards the close of the book. The two exercises which immediately follow are geometrical drawings of toy-houses. They are not pictures. With a little license we may call the first an end-elevation of a toy-house, the second, a front- elevation. The plan would show the dimensions on the ground, and features of construction.. ..■ ELEVATIONS. 89 DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE XIII. End- Elevation of a Toy-House. Directions. —Draw a Hquare, 12 3 4, on ita diameters,. Extend the vertical diameter up- ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ to 5. HH^|^|HH||H tlie oblique the ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^| Divide equal ^^^^^^^^^^^^^| di- ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^1 par- ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H the the square. ^^^^^^^^^^^^^| lower ^^^^^^^^^^^^1 bot- ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^1 toiM of the upper Aviudows. From ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^| 4 Het off one-tliii*d itanee ^HHJ^^^^IHI^Hil ao, thus obtaining the elevation of the bottom of the lower windows. Finish according to the copy. See that the eaves extend sufficiently beyond the walla. DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE XIV. Front-Elevation of a Toy-House. Directions. — Draw a vertical line, 1 2, and divide into three equal parts at 3 and 1 4. Through 1, 2, 3, and 4 draw horizontal linos a third loyger than 1 2. I »raw r* 5) and 10, and ad you profiT in <1oM) rihiiij; tlut Hi(l(« of this llMllHoV 7'h/»/7«. — OblouK. 'Diii'hct: — Wlmt is tlio nlmpo nf tho roof ? J'iiIiUk. — OMoiiK. Tviivhvv. — HImpc of t.ti« rlilmno.vH, wIikIowh, niul r fonuH do you k(M! V /'»f/>//.v. — Koiir trIiingloH, — thi'eo ov ohllquo, or v«rtJ«'al ? rupih. — Vcirtlt'al. Tcuchci: — Hut it r«iu'osontH tlio end of llio roof ; and tho roof slopes, or inc lines. I'lipiln. — But tluj lino in tho drawhi)^ does not hndlno, and HO is not oblique. Tmrhvr. — Does the lino 7 !> represVe say that such a lino as 7 U is foifuhovtened ; w'hirh means that the fore view, or front A'iew, of the object is Hhorteneil, because it is partly tnrnetl nway from tho eye, and so is seen obliqtiely. When I hohl this peniril, for exanq^le, sijuare ni front of you, the view shows you its full lenfjjth. But now I turn one end froiw y■ Are thei*e any other foreshortened lines in this drawing, besides 7 !», « ? Pvpils. — We think not. Tcudi£r. •— HoWdo you know that the sides of the house would not lean either lowanls or from you, were you stand- ing l)eft)re it, as represented in the ecause they tell men how t • All illustration of what are called working-draw- ings is here given. You can use it as jou deem best. A working-drawing is so called because one can work from it, making whatever is required ; pro- vided always he can read the drawing, that is, tell what it does require. Working-drawings are made to an exact scale^ showing the exact proportions of the different parts of the object. The drawings here given are thus made ; and a caq^enter, calling each sixteenth of an inch one foot, for example, could readily construct the required toy-house. The two drawings at the right are not absolutely essential for our present rude building purpose. They are given for another object. The drawings numbered 1,2, 3, arc called plans ; 4, 5, 6, elevations. A plan supposes the eye to bo at an infinite vertical distance, and looking directly down upon the object, and represents what would then be seen. An elevation supposes the eye to bo at an infinite horizontal distance, and looking at the side of the object. Plans 1 and 2 arc horizontal sections. No. 1 rep- resents what is seen when the toy-house whose front elevation is given at 4, and end elevation at 5, Id cut horizontally across through the middle of th6 lower windows. It shows the position of the door, windows, chimneys, stairway, kitchen, sitting-room, also the thickness of the walls and other parts. No. 2 is a similar representation of a horizontal section through the middle of the upper windows. The • - 94 TEACHERS' MANUAL. stairway, it will be seen, is a winding one, the lower half shown on plan 1, the upper half on plan 2. No. 3 is a plan of the roof and chimnej^-tops, the double dotted lines indicating the walls of the house, which would not be seen by the eye looking directly do^ upon the house. No. 6 is an elevation of the house when viewed at an angle of 45°. as represented in the plan,, from which the elevation is made. Different points' in the elevation are secured by ineans of the dotted lines drawn perpendicularly up- wards from the same points in the plan. Observe that tiie f^l lehgth of the r(k>f is shown by the line a^MM^plmi but} ifi the elevation, a'&' shows it f^eiiiiort^ned:, as it Appe&YB seen at an angle of 45°. Thus the foreshortened lines in the elevation can be obtained from the full line in the plan. • 'ou will need to draw it carefully on the blackboard before the class begin to draw. \ i ; Two Triangles Interwoven. Directions. — In right-hand space (p. 8) dri t an equilat- eral triangle, sides ioxiv inches long. Divide each side into thirds, and through the points of division draw lines to form a second triangle of the same shape and size as the first. Draw the inner triangles parallel to the outer ones. The triangles hav- ing been all sketched complete, in- terweave the bands, when you line in, making each go under, then over, the other, as in the copy. When you have to draw figures, portions of which are invisible, sketch the invisible as well as the visible portions ; then erase the former. By doing thus, you can readily get the visible lines in their right places. See that your pupils do the ei'asing before they begin to line in, or they will make many mistakes, and waste much time with the rubber. 100 TEACHERS' MANUAL. Tw«lve-Pointed Star. Directions. ^Draw a hexagon and triangles, as in the blaclcboard exercise on p. 81. Draw two Otiier triangles by connecting the centres of the alternate sides of the hexagon. Line in. Make snch use of this exercise as you deem best. Remember that the time to make most use of the rubber is just before you begin to line in a drawing. All the lines, and parts of lineSf which do not be- long to the form, should then be carefuly erased, otherwise you will frequently line in portions you should not. Patterns for Covering Even Surfaces. Patterns for covering even surfaces are often called diapers. They are usually based on the tri- angle or square*, two elementary geometrical forms, either of which, when repeated, will cover flat suiface without leaving interstices. By using curved lines instead of straight lines, or b}* using the two combined, you can Easily secure a great variety of patterns, which, to the uneducated eye, will appear to be constructed in ways altogether different. Diaper patterns caii be properly used whenever you have a flat surface to be decorated, as in the case of Woven fabrics, flooi'S, &c. Because they can then be properly used, it does not follow, by any means, that they are always the best form of decora- tion to be employed at such times. COVERING SURFACE, 101 , DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE XV. Hexagons, Repeated for Covering Surface. Directions. — First extend the vertical lines of the copy near to the bottom of the allotted space in the drawing- book ; then draw the horizontal lines. Sketch and line in the hexagons. Since each hexagon can be divided into six equilateral triangles by straight lines drawn iVom all its corners to its centre, we may say that the basis of this pattern is the equilateral triangle. DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE XVI. Octagons and Squares, Repeated for Covering Surface. Directions. — Extend the vertical lines of the copy down- wards ; then draw hor- izontal lines dividing the whole space into squares. Draw the octagons by judgment of eye. The square is the basis of this pattern, as it is also of the next. Were we to use this pattern for a-| marble floor or pave- ment, we would fill the squares with marble of one 102 TEACHERS' MANUAL. color, the octagons with marble of another color. Were we to use the preceding design for the same purpose, only the alternate hexagons would, be of the same color. Such patterns are especiall}* suitable for floors and pavements, as the ornament applied to thorn should always be flat. If it represents relief, then it gives the disagreeable impression that we are walking on a rough surface. DRAWINO-IOOK EXERCISE XVII. Squares and Crosses, Repeated for Covering Surface. Directions. — TSo directions are needed for drawing this pattern. From time to time, pupils sliould be left wholly to themselves to test their capacity, to show whether they re- taiuAvliat they have been taught, and whether they possess any origin- ality. See that you do not require overmuch of your pupils in the way of original, unaided effort ; otherwise they will become disheartened. Avoid, also, giving too much assistance ; for then they will never become original and self-reliant. Just when to help, an^ust how much, is, indeed, one of the most difficult things to determine satisfactorily. When a woixi will save from %i prolonged stupid effort, give it. All effort is not of equal value. When a word will deprive of mental discipline, and of the pleasure of unaided conquest, then withhold the word. *i COVERING SURFACE. 108 ^^ Triangles, Alternately Empty and Filled, for Covering Surface. Directions. — Draw an equilateral triangle, abc. Halve each of its sides. Tlirough tlie points of (li\ision draw lines parallel with the sides of the tilr^jj'e. By the aid of these lines (.onstrnct other triangles, and parts of triangles, inside and outside the first. A larger number of triangles may be reay the side of this mark, also by the side of the transverse diameter. Commencing at the same point, mark off on the same edge of the paper the distance 3 o, or one-half of the conjugate diam- eter. Put the letter c by the side of this mark, also by the side of the conjugate diameter. Lay the strip of paper on the diameters of the proposed ellipse, so that the mark t shall fall on the conjugate diameter c, and the mark c on the transverse diameter t, at the same time. The corner of the paper will give a point in the required curve. Mark it. DRAWING THE ELLIPSE. 113 Change the position of the papeV, observing always to keep t on c, and c on t, until a sufticient ntnnber of points have tliiiH l)een accurately obtained. Througli these points draw tlio curve freehand. Tliis nietliod, which is only in part mechanical, is a very convenient nietliod. Using a stick, instead of a slip of paper, you can thus draw large ellipses on the blackboard. With a few trials, your pupile will become masters of the method. Before an ellipse can be drawn with a good degree of accuracy by the aid of the diameters alone, the eye must become familiar with the figure by look- ing at ellipses accurately drjawn. Therefore, require your pupils, from time to time, to draw ellipses in the manner just described. After they have been thus drawn on paper, or on the blackboard, require them to go carefully over the figures many times with their pencils or crayons. Such practice will at last so work the curve into both hand and eye, that it can be drawn freehand with a good degree of celerity and precision. The definition says the combined distance of each point in the boundary of an ellipse from two points called the foci is always the same. To find the foci, you have only to draw a straight line from an end of the short diameter, on either side, to the long diameter, making each of these lines, as 3/ and 3/', equal to lo, one-half of the long diameter. Where these two lines touch the long diameter, will be the two foci, as /and /'. Now, from any point in the curve, as a, draw a straight line to each focus, and you will have af + af = 3/ + 3/'. This it is that distinguishes the ellipse from all other curves. Why it has this peculiar characteristic, will 114 TEACHERS' MANUAL. be clearly seen by consulting the Primary Manual, and drawing an ellipse as there described. The centre of an ellipse is at the point where the transverse and conjugate diameters cross each other, as at 0. This point will bisect every line drawn through it from one side of the ellipse to the other ; that is, the centre of the ellipse and the centre of the line will coincide. Any straight line thus drawn divides the ellipse into two equal similar parts, just as the circle is divided by its diameter. Hence, by tracing an ellipse on transparent paper, you can easily determine whether it is accurately drawn ; for, if it is, the trace can be exactly applied to the ori- ginal, with ends and sides reversed. Centre of a Plane Curve. — The centre of any plane curve is that point in the plane of the curve which bisects evert/ straight line drawn through it, and ter- minated by the curve. If no point will do this, then the curve has no centre. i/ Centre of a Straight Line. — The centre of a straight line is that point which is equally distant from the extremities of the line. The word '* centre" can be applied to the exact middle of a line, as well as to the exact middle of a circle. The Oval. The oval is not a mathematical figure ; for it has HO properties mathematically defined and fixed. It is named fVom its general appearance, as its name THE OVAL DEFINED. 115 implies. It is simply nn egg-shaped figure ; tliat is, it resembles the longitudinal outline of an egg, or the flat surface that would be obtained on dividing an egg, lengthwise, into two equal parts. As the variations in the shape of eggs are innumerable, so are the variations in the shape of ovals ; but the general appearance, in either case, remains always the same. / The Oval. — The oval is a plane figure hounded by a curve having the shape of an egg viewed side- wise, (See p. 116.) There are different waj'S, of course, to define an oval. Yqu can use any other definition for which you have a preference. Tlie thing of real value is, for the learner to get a con'ect notion of the figure, not simply to memorize a definition. When drawing an oval, we may make its boundary- line circular in part, in part elliptical ; or we may make it wholly of portions of different circles, or of different ellipses ; or we may use curves which are neither circular nor elliptical. It is only essential that the figure be egg-shaped ; that its two parts, when it is divided lengthwise, as the long diameter divides it, be similar and equal, balancing. No other line will thus divide it. The ellipse has two axes of symmetrj' ; the oval, one. In popular usage the ellipse is often called an oval ; but this should never be, for the two figures are quite unlike. If you teach your pupils properly, they will never confound the two. 116 TEACHERS' MANUAL. DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE XIX. -• Drawing the Ellipse and the Oval, Freehand. Directions for an- Ellipse 2X3 (a). —In the middle of tlio left-hand upper spare draw the transverse and conjugate diame- ters of the ellipse, making the former two inches and a quarter long, the latter one inch and a half, which will give an ellipse with the proportions of 2x3. Through each end of the diame- ters draw a portion of the houn- dary-line. When these are satis- factory, unite them hy drawing the intervening portions. See that the ellipse has no abrupt curve anywhere; also see that its sides are not too flat. Compare carefully with the copy. It will be well to require your pupils, before they attempt to draw the ellipse in their books, to draw it on their slates : first by the aid of a slip of paper, as described on p. 112 ; then with the free hand. Observe that each of its diameters divides the el- lipse into two equal and similar parts ; and that both together divide it into four equal and similar parts. By comparing these parts with one another, 3'ou wiH. facilitate the drawing of the ellipse. An Oval (6). — In the nriddle of the upper right-hand space draw a vertical line two inches and a quarter long. Divide it into thirds. Through the upper point of division draw a hor- izontal line equal to two parts of the vertical line, and extend- ing the same distance on either side. On the horizontal line, as a base, draw a semicircle for the large end of the ovaL On the lower two-thirds of the vertical line, draw one-half of an ellipse for the small end of the oval. QVATREFOIL. 117 Observe that only the long diameter divides the oval into two equal and similar parts, balancing. It has, therefore, but one axis of symmetry. Com- pare with the ellipse, which has two. An Ellipse 3 X 7 (c). — Iii the middle of the lower space di'aw the lon^ and Hhort diameters of tlie ellipse, making the former three inches and a half long, the latter one incli and a lialf, which will give an ellipse with the proportions of 3 X 7. Complete as in the lost exercise but one. Do not weary your pupils by keeping them too long at work, at any one time, with the circle, ellipse, and o.*al ; but rather revert to them quite frequently, until they have fairly mastered their diH'erent features. DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE XX. Quatrefoil, Filled. Directions. — Mai*k the centre of the space allotted in the drawing-book. Through this point draw two lines, one vertical, one horizontal, each an inch and a half long, and each bisecting the other. On these two lines, as diameters, construct a square. Extend the diameters one-half of their length beyond each side of the square. On each side of the square draw a senucircle passing through the end of tlio extended diameter. This will complete the copy in the draw- ing-book. Now make of each semicircle a complete circle. Then through each corner of the square draw a semicircle, connecting the centres of the two adjacent sides of the square. Add the other curves in the Manual copy. Draw the figure on the blackboard, as the class draw it in their books. ' 118 TEACHERS' MANUAL. DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE XXI. Quatrefoil, Filled. Directions. — Mark the centre of the space allotted in the drawing-hook. Through this point draw two straight lines, one verti- cal, one horizontal, each two inclies long, and each bisecting the oiber. On these lines, as diame- ters, construct a square ; then unite their cuds to form a smaller square. Draw the diagonals of the larger square. From each corner of tlio smaller square mark off about one-sixth part of the side of the square. On each side <>f the smaller .square draw a semicircle, connecting these points of division, and touching two sides of the larger square. Line in. This gives the copy in the drawing-book. Now draw a circular curve to connect each end of each semicircle with its middle. Next draw a circular curve, convex towards the common centre of the squares, to connect the centres of each two adjacent sides of the smaller sqiiare. Finish. DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE XXII. Trefoil, Filled. Directions. — Mark the centre of the space allotted in the drawing-book. Through this point draw a vertical line two inches long, and divide it into four equal parts. Through tlie upper point of division, /ftnd extending equally on either side of the vertical line, draw a hoiizon- tal line, not quite two inches long, but long enough to form an equilateral triangle when its ends are united by straight lines to the lower end of the vertical line. Divide each side of the triangle into four equal parts. On the two central parts draw semicircles. This gives the re- SYMBOLISM IN ART. 119 suit shown in the drawing-book. Now add the other curves contained in the Manual. Draw on the blackboard as the class draw in their books. Symbolism in Art. When we use an object to convey a meaning which the object itself does not necessarily imply, it becomes a symbol. Thus the letters of the alpha- bet are sjTnbols: by common agreement they are employed to represent sounds which they do not re- semble in the remotest degree. A bundle of rods is a symbolic representation of strength in anion. The stars on the American flag are symbols, each standing for a State. When, however, a man is painted with hammer and tongs, the latter are not sj'mbols : they are the instruments themselves which a blacksmith uses in his labor, and show, without any conventional agreement, that the man holding them is a blacksmith. But, when the human figure is painted with a bridle in the hands, we have a symbol which the ancients employed to represent temperance. Constancj' they indicated by an atti- tude, — by the human figure leaning against a column. Much is made of symbolism in £g3^tian att, and in Christian art of the Middle Ages. Of Christian symbolism we have examples in the trefoil and qua- trefoil figures, which have just been drawn; the former a symbol of the Trinity, the latter a symbol of the four Evangelists. The cross is a symbol of Christianity itself. Indeed, the numbers 3, 5, 7, became sacred, — 3 meaning the Trinity, 5 the five 120 TEACHERS' MANUAL. wounds, 7 the seven sacraments. These numbers were to be seen in the plan of a church, — a nave and two aisles ; in the number of the lights in the windows, in the foils of the tracery, in the number of points or leaflets of sculptured foliage. Thus a Gothic rosette does not have four, six, or eight leaf- lets. Even painting became so far symbolic as to use a special color for the garment of each saint, and a special emblem to denote the sutferings of eap^^art}T. ; Fonan) extended account of symbolism in art and architectute, see chap. vi. of the author's "Art Education," issued by the publishers of this book. DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE XXIII. Moulding of Circular Curves. -- Directions. — Extend the horizontal lines across the page, and divide into squares. Sketch the whole in light lines first. Having se- cured a satisfactory- sketch, line in. If the work is properly done, a series of circles will form apart of the result. This design will appear the right way up when viewed from any point, and repeated any way. Obser^'C how simple are the elements composing this form, -^ two curves onl}', if we omit the outside straight lines. Repetition of these two curves pro- duces the apparently intricate design. An analysis of the different exercises in this book will show, in Ml each instance, that th( by the repetition of t If those elements can figure can be well drawi DRAWINO-BO Moulding of Cii Directions. — Extend tl and divide into squares. Drnw the long curves full ; then erase those parts which go under. The smaller circles occu- py about one-third of the breadth of the moulding^ Tliis design will appear the right way up when viewed from any point* and Avhen repeated up and down, or right and left. The long curves are DRAWINO-BG Moulding of Flower- Directions. — Having e the page, and made the proper divisions, llrst draw throughout the whole the long, contin- uous wave curve. Hav- ing got tliis to your satisfaction, the other curves can then be eas- ily added. Strive to make the curves grace- ful. This design can be seen to best advan- tage only when hoiizontal WLDINGS. 121 3 final result has been secured wo or three simple elements, be well drawn, then the whole a, with a due allowance of time. OK EXERCISE XXIV. rcular Curves Interlaced. be horizontal lines across the page, parts of perfect circles. lOK EXERCISE XXV. •Forms Alternately Reversed. Ktended the horizontal lines across ly repeated on a vertical surface. 122 TEACHERS' MANUAL. Blackboard Lessons. Draw a vertical line so that two-thirds of blank page 13 shall be on the left of this line, and one- third on its right. Draw a horizontal line dividing the one-third into two equal parts. Square, and Interlacing Curves. Directions. — Mark the centre of the largest space on the page by a point ; through this draw the horizontal and vertical diame- ters for a live-inch square. Draw the square, and add its diagonals. Divide the diagonals into thirds. Through the points of division draw equal circular curves, one on each side of each diagonal, and touching the diagonal near its ends, as shown in the copy. Draw the inner parallel curves, making the bauds interlace. Before liuiug in erase the parts not to show when the drawing is done. The Unit of the Dog-Tooth Moulding. Directions. — In the upper right-hand space draw a two- and-a-half-inch square, with sit diameters and diagonals. Add the indentations at the centres of the sides. Line in. By repeating this unit, leaving a slight space be- tween the repeats, and adding par- allel oiitlines, you have the dog- tooth moulding, which is often cut in stone for an architectural orna- ment. The centre of the figure is higher than any other part, each of the four sides t g DRAWING FROM MEMORY. 123 of the figure sloping from the centre to the edge, and so the diagonals represent ridges. This feature cannot be shown without shading, which young pupils should never attempt in the eaiiier stages of their di'awiug career. Rosette of Right and Curved Lines. Directions. — In the lower right-hand space draw a two- and-a-half-inch square, with its diameters and diagonals. Mark the centre of each senii-diagoual, and through the points of division draw the smaller circle. Draw the outer circle so as not quite to touch the sides of the square. Add the foils on the diagonals in the corners of the square. Line in. The centre of a drawing w^hen placed on the blackboard should be on ^ level with' the eye. The lines may extend above and below tJie eye as far as they can be readily drawn. Drawings executed from Memory. Let the pupil fill p. 14, which is blank, with forms drawn from memory-. You can leave him to make his own selections, or you can indicate the ones j^ou would have drawn. Preference should be. given to historical forms, some of which, like the one on the titlcpage of this book, should be drawn iigain and again. Before the pupil begins, he should deter- mine the number of tlie forms, and the size of each to be drawn on the page, and divide the page accord- ingly. After he begins to draw he should not refer to the form he is endeavoring to reproduce, 124 TEACHERS' MANUAL. Blackboard and Dictation Lessons. The figures which follow are intended for black- board and dictation lessons, to be used when you think best. They can be drawn on the blackboard, or in the place of some of the figures which have been designated for the blank pages in the drawing-book. Rosette: Square and Circular Curves. Directions. — Draw a 'square with its diameters and diagon- als. Halve each senii-dianieter, and connect the adjacent points of division by semicircles con a- ex towards the corners of the square. Draw a circle enclosing this quatre- foil, and not quite touching the sides of the square. If this is given as a blackboard lesson, let the pupils draw it large froni the copy without directions. The pupils themselves should quite frequently draw on the blackboard, a thing they usually like to do. The drawings should be large. Rosette: Octagonal Form. Directions. •Draw a square with its diameters and di- agonals. Within the square con- struct an octagon as shown. Halve the semi-diameters of the square, and through the points of division draw a second square having its sides parallel with the sides of the first^square. By the aid of tliis complete the figure. Let the pupils ^raw it from a blackboard copy without directions. The important educational discipline to be got from this practice has been pre- viously explained, and need not be repeated here. i. BLACKBOARD LESSONS. 1^5 .V i-. Diaper Pattern: Squares and Circles. Directions. — Draw any number of connected squares. Add circles circiiniscvibing alter- nate squares. Within the other squares draw circles touching, but not cutting, the first-drawn circles. This will serve as a pat- tern for a pavement, the dif- ferent parts to be filled with different colored marbles. Other curves might be added, thus greatly modifying the appearance of the pattern. But it is better to err, if you err at all, in the way of simplicity, than by an over-abundance of lines. It not infrequently happens that the effect of a design is weakened by too many lines. It is the tendency of the uncultivated ,taste to overdo in Hie application of ornament, whether it consists of form or color. Square Rosette of Interlacing Lines. Directions. —Draw a square, its diameters and diagonals. Divide the diagonals into ten equal parts. Connect the three outer points of division on each semi- diagonal by lines parallel with the sides of the square. Througli the points of division nearest the cen- tra, draw lines parallel with the diameters. Draw the oblique lines for the interlacing. Having thus sketched the form, erase the lines which are not to show when the drawing is done. Also erase the other lines until they are just visible: then line in. ^ ^E*!- ^ ^^P' ROSETTE FORMS. Page of Rosette Forms. 127 Directions. — The geometHcal rosette forma on the opposite page can be used for blackboard lessons at such times as yon may deem best. No one of them needs more than a word of description. It will be seen that the ilrst seven are con- structed on the same basis of two equal concentric squares, the diameters of the one coinciding with the diagonals of the other. Form I . — Draw a square on its diameters. Add its diagon- als. Mark off such parts of the diagonals as will be equal to the diameters of the first square; and on these, as diameters, draw a second square which will be equal to the first. Add the circular curves. Form 2 . — Reproduce Form 1. Continue every other cm-ve to the common centre of the squares. All the curves are parts of circles. Form 3. — Reproduce Form 2. Add the small circle at the centre, and the remaining circular curves. Form 4. — Reproduce Form 1. Next draw the larger inner circle. Finish according to copy. Forms. — Reproduce Form 1, making it large. Draw the larger inner circle, making it equal to one-half the diameter ' of the whole figure. Draw the smaller circles. Form 6. — Reproduce Ftirm 1. Add the parallel lines, and complete the figure. Form 7. — Reproduce Fig. 1, making it large. Draw the interlacing bands. Form 8. — Draw two interlacing triangles, as on* page ^. Add the interlacing circles. Forms 9 and 10. — These are so simple, that no directions at all are needed. Form II. — Draw all the straight lines, and all the circles, full ; then erase the parts not wanted. Form 12. — The drawing of this is too simple to require any directions. All the curves are circles or parts of circles. 128 TEACHERS' MANUAL. Ornaments and Pictures. In the production of an elaborate ornament, we start with a simple germ, perfect in itself. One feature after another is added to this. The additions are made in accordance with the general laws of natural growth, symmetrically about a centre, for example, as Nature, arranges the petals of a flower. With each new addition we have a new design, as illustrated by the progressive steps which lt%d to Form 3, p. 126. Each new design is perfect in it- self, because there is no superfluous line, and no line is wanting to complete the symmetry of the figure. At last, through the different symmetrical progres- sive steps, we reach the elaborate final result that was desired. A picture must have symmetry, indeed, but of its appropriate kind : there must be no regular repeti- tion of lines or features, as in a design for decora- tive purposes. A picture, too, ma}^ have different degrees of elaboration, at an}* one of which, should the painter stop, the picture, nevertheless, would be a complete whole, though not in the highest degree elaborate ; but, as already said, no stage consists of the symmetrical repetition of a particular feature. Here we have one of the things which distinguish an ornament from a picture. But, fhrther: having constructed our ornament, we may repeat it, in some regular order, again and again, without oflTence to the taste ; with delight, ratli6r. Indeed, the regular repetition of an orna- mental form usually increases its pleasing effect. ■ ^■■■■ill WpJ ORNAMENTS AND PICTURES. 129 But who would care to hang upon the walls of his room a score of landscapes, or other pictures, all exactly alike ? Could any arrangement, regular or irregular, make the effect agreeable ? Rather, the feeling would always be one of disgust. Or who would care for half a dozen of the most beautiful marble statues, exactly alike, and symmetrically arranged, as, back to back, in the form of a hexagon ? The effect would be simply ridiculous. Here, then, is^ another thing which distinguishes an ornament from a picture, or piece of statuary. The latter cannot, without offending the taste, be repeated as wholes ; but an ornament can, and so is adapted to the purposes of beautifying in the industrial arts. Single pictures, indeed, may be thus used when the form of the object will permit, and the material of which it is made ; as in the case of porcelain. Rosette: Hexagonal Form, with Interlacing Lines. Divide each of its sides Directions. — Draw a hexagon, into fifths. On this basis con- Hti'iict the figure, drawing all the lines full at first, and then eras- ing parts so as to represent in- terlacing bands. Let your pu- pils draw this form on the black- hoard; or you can nse it in any other manner you please. When it is drawn on the blackboard, the centre should be on a level with the eye, otherwise the form will be viewed obliquely, and so will be dis- torted. I \ ^ p \' J BLACKBOARD LESSONS. Page of Rosettes. 181 Directions. — But little is (lemanded in the way of (111*60- tiouH for poses, they will have to seek secondary or technical instruction in special schools. But we should proceed in teaching drawing on the basis that all children are to learn ; and our instruction must be of this general character, benefiting all by elevating the intelligence, rather than of a special kind, whereby only a few will reap the advantage. Education in public elementary schools should be such as, by its general usefulness to all, will prepare all for their fUture vocations in life as intelligent beings, leaving to technical or secondary education the task of preparing each for his specialty. But the general course must not leave untouched the elementary preparation for a vast class of occupa- tions connected with industry, manufacturing or commercial, or it will incur the charge of being only a class-education, suitable only to the few. And here let it be said, that the reason why drawing should be taught in the primary schools upwards, is that there alone can it be satisfactorily taught to all. If, in any frenzied panic about education, the subject were to be eliminated from all grades of schools but one, or if, in adopting it for the first time, only one grade of schools were to be taught, instead of select- ing the high schools as the most important place for it (which is frequently done) , I should plead for the primary schools as being the places where the greatest good could be obtained from drawing, and INTRODUCTION. 157 where it would have the most general influence upon the pupils and the public. The views here expressed will account for the spirit pervading the instruction given in this Manual. Hand skill is not the most valuable part of drawing, and therefore is never described as the one thing to be attained. The desire of the author is to lift this subject from its past character as a specialty, and place it in its true position as an element in all intelligent education, to desti'oy the false notion that only a few can learn to draw, and relieve it from the air of myster}' with which those who cannot draw have been in the liabit of regarding it. The principle upon which all this instruction is arranged is, that the regular teachers are as well able to impart it as the scholars are to learn it. It is recognized in the world of art, that the artistic expert usuall}' lacks the teacher's instinct. And experience has demonstrated, that, given the prac- tised and successful teacher of general subjects, and you have the best possible material out of which to make a good teacher of drawing. It may be difficult for the teacher who takes up this subject late in life to become an expert in draw- ing ; but it is not difficult, if proper appliances be provided, for any teacher to learn readilj' how to draw well enough to teach it satisfactoril}*. And any teacher who does not possess elasticity and intelligence enough to do this condemns himself as unfitted to have charge of education, which is always progressing, and cannot content Itself with the anti- quated and abandoned standards of the past. 168 TEACHERS' MANUAL, In this section of the instruction, a new feature is introduced into the Manual, for the convenience and guidance of those teachers whose opportunities to study drawing have not been sufficient. Not only are the steps in every lesson described, and illus- trated by diagrams figured for reference, and occur- ring in the text, but the exercises for the blank poges are given in the same way, and engravings of the appearance of the pages in the pupils' books are also given ; so that there can be no possible mistake of what each lesson is to be like, when finished, or the whole page, when the exercises on it are com- plete. This is not, however, intended to prevent indi- vidual teachers from filling up the blank pages in a different way f^om that indicated, if they prefer to do so. Some teachers represent that they have neither time nor skill to invent blackboard or dicta- tion lessons: for them this Manual provides such lessons. Other teachers prefer to design such lessons for themselves, for their own improvement, and in order that they may the better teach from, examples of their own invention. To them the blank pages filled may be suggestions, and arc not intended to cramp their own inventiveness, which is better in tliem than the most scrupulous imitation of others. Pages of lessons for the blackboard, and illus- trations of historical ornament and of objects, are also provided, from which the teacher may select examples to use instead of those given on tlie blank pages, or for additional lessons on slate or black- INTRODUCTION. 159 board. The directions for drawing these are short, because most of them explain their own construc- tion ; and the teacher who employs these copies ought to be able to add all necessary instruction for tlie pupils^ The lessons in this book are so arranged, that most of them can be executed in half an hour, — a time which is long enough for lessons to children. If it be found, however, that, from the pupils' want of previous practice, the drawings cannot be sketched and finished in that time, let them be well sketched in one half-hour, and well finished in another. More time than that spent over one lesson will waste the time of many, if not all, of the pupils. It will be found by observation that either quick or dawdling working is a habit ; and. it is as easy to form one as to fall into the other. If you would keep children happy and well em- ployed, give them enough to do, and let it be of a pleasant sort, employing their curiosity and their constructive faculties. As a matter of fact, children generally work hard either at their play or their amusements ; and nothing so soon kills a child's interest in any thing as loitering over it, or working at it after the freshness of novelty is passed. Make use of this trait of child-character iii 3'our lessons in drawing, and they will then enlist the lively in- terest of your pupils. The more j'ou can all}' your instruction with natural forms or objects, the more will the pupils lay hold of the instruction, and understand it. For this reason, the forms of leaves, and the outlines of 160 TEACHERS' MANUAL. objects, are freely given as copies. These will enable the teacher to point out the characteristics of similar forms not being drawn ; and thus whole fields of education may be illumined. It is believed, that, though appeals to the taste and knowledge of the pupils have not been so insisted on in this book as in some others, the teacher will none the less see ' that one of the objects sought for by teaching drawing is to increase the knowledge, and to refine the taste, and to do it by the almost imperceptible growth of observation, and love of the beautifid in nature and art. / CHAPTER I. y SYMMETRY, CONVENTIONALIZATION, AND REPETITION. In sketching, the pencil should be held loosely with the fingers, and the pupils should be warned against griping the pencil with a pinching grasp, which the}-^ will do unless trained to do differentl}-, Also, let the teacher require the pupils to mark their first lines faintly, so that corrections may be made without involving rubbing out with heavy erasure. Freehand drawing must be done by a hand that feels free, not a hand too strongly controlled. DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE I. Bohemian Glass Pitcher. Directions — The left half of the pitcher is drawn, and the pupil has to complete the pitcher by drawing the right half. Continue the horizontal lines at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, as miich to the right of the central line as they extend to the left. Then complete the outline of the pitcher, observing the egg-shape form of its body be- tween 2 and 3. The handle is not to be repeated ; but, if the teacher finds the exercise too short, a second han- dle may be drawn, symmetrical with that in the copy. Notice in drawing the handle, that, at the points in the neck and body of the pitcher where it is attached to them, it is drawn within the profile. 162 TEACHERS' MANUAL. DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE II. Square Rosette. Directions. — The exercise is intended to show the value and effect of repetition in design. One-eighth of a sqnare is lilled hy a por- tion of a lotus-like flower. The form is first to he re- peated in the triangle to the left of the central line; and the unit of the design filling one-quarter of the square will then he complete. This unit is to he repeated in the three l-emaining quarters of the square ; and the whole ro- sette will then he finished. Thih exercise illustrates repetition about a centre, and in a geometric form. Draw the outer curve near the diagonal, which Avill end near C, and balance that ending in 5. Tlien draw the left half of the central leaflet, ending at 1. Add the berry and stalk. This done, repeat the flower three times in the three triangles, and complete the rosette; the longest lines, those from 5 to G, being the first lines drawn in each triangle. The two copies on this page of the drawing-book will serve as illustrations of two principles in design ; and thej' are exercises which will prepare the pupils for intelligent practice in design, when they are called upon to exercise it. These principles are symmetry and repetition.'* In the pitcher, one repeat gives symmetry : in the rosette, seven repeats form a complete arrangement, illusti'ating the power of repetition. I' \ CONVENTIONAL LEAF. 163 This latter being an exercise in freehand drawing, the pupil draws eveiy part of it without any mechan- ical assistance, because here lie is learning to draw^ and, by drawing, fixing also in his mind the princi- ples which constitute design. When he comes to design, then he will practise it, as in the workshop, by drawing the unit or element of the design, as shown in the half of the flower above, and then mechanicall}' repeating it as often as the arrange- ment requires. The drawing of repetitions like this fixes also in the minds of the pupils by the most effective means, that of drawing, how the form is to be repeated to make a rosette, also, what are the axes of symmetry, and which is the unit of design. In drawing, we must learn through our fingers'- ends more than through our ears : we are more liable to forget ideas than lose skill developed by practice. DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE III. Conventional Leaf. Directions. — One half of a leaf is given, and the pupil is to complete it by drawing the other half. Make the horizontal lines project as far to the right as they do to the left from the central line, or midrib, of the leaf. Draw the right enclosing curve. Divide the horizontal lines into two equal parts, and to these divisions draw the curves forming the lobes of the leaf. The three veins which spring from the midrib, and end in the points of the lobes, must be drawn last. The veins slioidd join the midrib tangeutially, not so as to cut across the midrib, if continued. 164 TEACHERS' MANUAL. The object of giving an exercise like this is to teach the value of sjonmetry. One- half of an object being accurately drawn, the pupil has to balance his work with a perfect half, and thus educate his eye in a very important part of drawing. The exercise is not a difficult one ; and, when given, it may be made the occasion for requiring good manual execu- tion from the pupils. DRAWiNO-BOOK EXERCISE IV. Directions.— Conventional Ivy-Leaf. Draw a central line in the space below the copy, of tlie same length as the leaf above. Divide it into six equal parts, and through the centre draw a hori- zontal line, one-sixth of the central one on either side. Draw the four veins of the leaf, and then, beginning from the top, draw the lobes of the leaf on the left side. Repeat on the right, and com- plete the leaf. The sketches a and h are leaves drawn from Na- ture, — a, the house-ivy ; 6, the hedge- ivy. Another species of ivy, which grows on trees as a parasitical plant (which is the char- acter of ivy wherever it grows) , has a leaf not so short- lobed as the house-ivy, and not so long-lobed as the hedge-ivy, being, therefore, much more like the con- ventional leaf than either a or b. The teacher should point out fh>m the three forms here given. i IVY-LEAF ROSETTE. 165 ^ that conventionalism is a retaining of the general features of leaves, without imitating the peculiarities of individual leaves. The thumb-nail sketches a and b are not intended to be copied by the pupil. DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE V. Ivy- Leaf Rosette. Directions. — Draw the square in the space below, with its diameters and diagonals. Draw the circle at i^.s centre, and in one-fourth of the snnare draw one leaf to fdl it, like tlK copy. Repeat this leaf in the three remaining quarters. Here is an application of a natural form to the purpose of design, and it is one of the simplest arrangements that can be made of a leaf. This treatment is called repetition from or around a centre, and is the principle Nature applies in the construction of a flower ; each petal being a modified leaf, repeated in whorls, or circles, round the seed and reproductive organs, placed in the centre of the flowef. For very young children, a good exercise in mem- ory-drawing is to draw such a design, after hav- ing done it in their books. It will be seen tlmt all there is to remember in the example is the shape of one ivy-leaf, which, b}' repetition, makes, apparent- ly, quite an elaborate composition, though actually the simplest an'angement. Another interesting task for a class is to require each child to bring four leaves of some sort (if at the proper season of tlie year), and having once 166 TEACHERS' MANUAL. seen how tp fill a square, making a rosette, ao in the ivy rosette previously drawn, to make a fresh design by copying the leaves they bring with them. Make them arrange the four natural loaves on* their slr.tes first, to sec how they will look, and then explain, that, if the leaves are different in shape and size in Nature, in ornamental design wc have to make them all the same shape and the same size ; and so they will see the difference between a natural rosette and a conventional one. These experiments on slates will be useful as occasional exercises to vary work on paper, teaching, also, the relationship of Nature to drawing, and drawing to arrangement, or design. BLACKBOARD EXERCISES FOR PAGE 3 OF DRAWING BOOK. Horizontal Repetition. The blank page is to be divided into three equal parts by drawing two horizontal lines at the di- visions, as shown in the illustration oh p. 1 70. In these divisions the three horizontal mouldings arc to be placed as exercises in drawing from the blaclc- board. Heart-shaped Moulding. Directions. — In the top division draw two horizontal lines, an inch and a quar- ter apart; and, start- ing one inch from the left edge of the paper, mark off along the top line five divisions of an inch and a qnarter in length, from which draw vertical lines f HEART-SHAPED MOULDING. 1G7 ^o form five squares. Each of these squares is to contain one heart-shaped leaf. Divide, therefore, the square into two equal parts by a vertical diameter, and sketch the ciirve of the leaf on either side. When all the leaves are completed, add the circle and stem between the leaves. Let the teacher draw but one gf these leaves on the blackboard for a cop}', and then leave tho pupils to repeat the form in tlie other squares, remember- ing, that, in good instruction, the pupil must some- times be left to himself. About a tenth or an eighth part of the time given to a drawing-lesson from the blackboard should be spent by the teacher at the board, in drawing, and in general class instruc- tion, and the rest of the time in examining and correcting the work of individual pupils. The sketches a and b are from the convolvulus and morning-glory leaves, both heart- shaped, and types of a great number of natural leaves hav- ing the same or similar forms. Being simple in character, they are good subjects for de- sign, especially for mouldings ; and the pupils may be required to bring such leaves to the school for material in design: without any great hardship being inflicted on them, they maj' be taught to see how many of the kind arc to be found. The more you can set children to worlv in using their eyes, and the more their eyes arc employed in dis- covering the beautiful forms to be seen in the world of foliage and flowers, the better for thc^ children 168 TEACHERS' MANUAL. now, and the better for their inteligence and happi« ness hereafter. Heart-shaped Moulding. — Running Pattern. Directions. — Lay out the space in the same way as for the last exercise. Let the hori- zontal lines be an inch and a quarter apart, and the five squares therefore on that base. Next divide each square into two equal parts by the vertical diameter, and each half of the square again into two equal parts by a vertical line, as shown in the last division to the rigltt. Tliis gives the central line for the small ovoid form near the bot- tom, and also for the point where the two leading lines cross near the top. Draw the outer leading lines in each half square in three squares, before adding the lower lines or inner lines, on which the cross points are, and then add the latter. Draw the whole of the forms, and then rub out the invisible parts. Finish. Though the squares are five in number, the draw- ing of three will be found sufficient for one lesson, and the completion of the remaining two might be made the subject of another exercise, without further assistance from the teacher. It has always been a special point in the author's instruction to vary both* the method of giving the lessons, and the subjects of them also. Remember we have to educate, not cram ; to develop the intelligence, not teach tricks. If the pupil goes through all this training, and ends by not being able to draw at all, he will yet have learned by it IVY'LEAF MOULDING, 169 to discover what he might do better than b}' any other training. Cultivate intelligence, and let the individual and his individual circumstances deter- mine in what direction it shall be applied. Some- times help the pupil all you can, if the subject or way of treating it be new ; and sometimes studiously refrain from helping him at all, when he knows all he can know about it, and only has to apply his knowledge, and thus develop self-reliance. '' Ivy- Leaf Moulding. Directions.— In a similar manner as in the last two exer- cises, divide the space into five squares on a side of an indi and a quarter. Also divide eacli square vertical- ly by a diameter. In each square draw an ivy-leaf and berries, as shown in the diagram ; the leaf being similar to those already drawn. Draw one complete leaf, and one comjilete clus- ter of berries, on the board, and require the pupils to repeat them the required luimber of times, after their first copy has been corrected a,nd criticised. The half-page illustration of these exercises worked out is given in order to show the teacher how the blank page in the pupil's book will look when completed. Though on a smaller scale than the work will be in the drawing-book, the proportion is exactly the same. Thus the teacher is furnished not only with the process of making each unit of the 170 TEACHERS' MANUAL. ILLUSTRATION OF PAGE 3 OF DUAWING-BOOK. design, but with the appearance of tiie pupil's book, if the instruction given is attended to. EXERCISES FOR PAGE 4 OF DRAWING-BOOK. Drawing from Dictation. Wl^en the teacher dictates a form to the class, each line drawn should be tersely and accurately desci'ibed: if a straight one, both as to position and length ; if a curved one, as to its curvature or altitude. Each step should be simple; and the order to execute it should be as direct and authoritative as if for military drill, whilst the pupils should be required to obey promptly and methodicall}'. It will be evident that this can only be accomplished 1 -I I. VERTICAL REPETITION. 171 by first teaching the definitions of plane geometrical drawing as a basis of preparation. The class must be kept together at any cost. The word of com- mand, when given by the teacher, must be instantly obeyed by the pupils ; and, if the teacher finds they cannot thus follow, it is evident tliat a simpler exer- cise should be taken. Never mind imperfect work, if the effort be made ; the imperfection will disap- pear by degrees: but do mind that every child makes the effort to the best of his ability. Dictation Lesson.— -A Wineglass dictated. Directions. — Divide the blank page (4) of the Drawing- Book into two equal parts by a vertical line in the centre. The left-hand half is to be used for either a dictation or memo- ry exercise. The following is a dictation- lesson, which may be thus dictated to the class : — Draw a central vertical line 1 2, letting it begin at a distance of an inch from the top, and end an inch from the bottom, of the page. Divide this into two equal parts in 3. Through 1 and 2 draw hori- zontal lines equal in length to one-half of 1 2, one-half on either side of 12. Call the' line through 1 by the numerals 4 5; and that through 2, by 7, 4 and 6 being on the left side. Through point 3 draw a horizontal line 8 i), equal to one-half of 1 3^ the first niimeral being always to the left, and the second to the right. Draw 4 8 and 5 {), two oblique lines. Divide 1 3 into two equal parts in 0, and through the division draw a hori- zontal line terminated by the oblique lines. Call this line 11, 12. Draw lines from to 8 and 9, and lines from U to 3, and 12 to 3, leaving out the part between 08 and 3, and between and 3. Divide 3 2 into two equal parts in point 13. 172 TEACHERS' MANUAL. Explain to the class that the subject is a wine- glass, and then draw on the board what 3*ou have' dictated. . Require tliose wlio have gone wrong to put their work right from the copy on the board. Tiicn draw the curve of tlie stem, and add the other details on the board, whicli the pupils may copy. The teacher will find that the prevailing tondoncy will bo to make the stem of the glass too thick : lliorefore it will be better to warn them against this fault before they begin. The author lays great stress upon the importance of teaching by dictation, as one means of securing accuracy of thinking, and clearness of understand- ing; and it is hoped that teachers will not slight these exercises. •' Blackboard Lesson. — Leaf-Moulding. Directions. — The right-hand half of page 4 may be devoteed, or de- veloped in drawing as other things in other studies. In teaching drawing after this manner, ao has fre- quently been said, it is not the showy results in the shape of beautiful work we ^re striving for, so much I I i THE PRACTICE OF ORIGINAL DESIGN. 179 as it is to awaken the mental faculties of construc- tion, origination, and design, which we know to exist in and bo especially valuable to every human being. Doing bad or poor work is a condition of the child which should never distress the teacher, nor cause her to distress the child. Let it go on, rather than frighten or harass the pupil, until the love for making patterns takes root, and then you will have no more trouble. It loill take root in every child sooner or later, it is only a question of time when it will do sc and the poor little things who seem t^ have no faculty for the work are merely in an undeveloped state, or belong to families or races which develop later on in life. Let me say here, that some of the greatest men and women who have ever lived have belonged to this class ; and this con- sideration should make us very indulgent to their representatives of the present, now under our chai'ge. The Practice of Original Design. It may be of use to the teacher if some informa- tion be given concerning the practice of original design in the class-room. The essential feature of the plan of industrial drawing which we are endeavoring to carry out, is, that it 6hall be practica.1 in its objects and its methods ; and we should aim to prepare our pupils for an industrial life by practising them in such work as maj' be solhe time required of them in the workshop, office, or fiitudio. It is one of the essential require- ments of Industrial drawing in either of these places, that it shall be accurate, not approximately accurate 180 TEACHERS' MANUAL. as if (lone by the freehand alone, but as accurate as it can be made by the use of instruments such as the compasses, ruler, square, and scale. Whatever these implements cannot be made to do has to be done b}' the freehand ; but whatever they can be made to do is done by them. Tlicn, also, where one freehand form or detail is repeated, its repetition must be effected by mechauical means. Tluis, if a leaf occurs four times, and that leaf is sjmmetrical, onc-lialf of the leaf is drawn, as at a; and this half is transferred on the opposite side of the central line, as at 6, and then finished. It is then transfciTcd to each quarter ; and thus four times repeated it will be accurate and reliable. In preparing the geometric shapes for design, advantage should be taken of all the mechanical implements available, so as to secure the first condi- tion of industrial drawing ; viz., accurac}'. And, to adopt the economy of time nocessar}' in the work- shop, no freehand form should be drawn more than once by the freehand; audits repetition should be effected either by use of tracing-paper, or by rubbing the pattern, and transferring the design from one side of a line to the other. Remember, then, that in designing, and in work- ing out designs, the (hild should rule every straight line, and strike every curve with the compasses, which can be so drawn. Measurement should be obtained by a scale <.r ruler with inches markcHl on it ; so tliat a line wh.'cli professes to be three inches long is not a guess line, somewhere near it, but a true line, capable of striuding the test of the measure. 1 THE PRACTICE OF ORIGINAL DESIGN. 181 For very young children who have not been taught geometrical drawing, the teacher may insure an approach to accuracy by showing them how to test their squares with the ruler. Thus in drawing a square, if the two diagonals are of the same length, and the four sides are equal, the form must be a square. When a square has been drawn by the child, let him with his ruler subject it to this test. For the repetition of freehand work, one mode is by rubbing. Begin by drawing the unit of rcpotition, as at «, with a black pencil (F or JIB), in the square ^vhich has been already drawn, together with its diagonals and diam- eters. Fold the square on the diago- nal 1 2, and rub the back of the paper, behind the drawing, either with the thumb-nail, or a knife-handle, — any thing hard and smooth. This will transfer the trace as at 6, which is then to be lined in. Fold the square again on the diagonal 3 4, and rub again on the back, making a trace as at c. Line that tracr .i. Next fold the square on the vertical diameter at c, and rub the back to transfer the two leaves to the re- maining quarters, and leave the trace as at d. Fin- ish by lining in the two transfers. This folding and repetition should oe done on 182 TI::A CHERS ' MAN UAL. thin paper, like note paper or thin manilla paper ; and the creasing of it will, of course, destroy the appearance of the sheet on which it is done. To place the design in the drawing-book, the geomet- ric form should be carefully made in the book. Paper on which the design has been drawn should be .placed, face downwards, on the geometrical form, be held very firmly to prevent its shifting, and then be rubbed hard and steadil}' until the whole is transferred in faint lines to the shape marked out in the book. It may then be carefully lined-in or finished. Another method of jnechanical repetition is b}-^ the use of tracing- paper. Let us sup- pose that the form to be filled is a pen- tagon, and the de- sign used as shown at a. First draw the pentagon, and divide it into ten equal parts, by drawing a line from each angle to the centre of the opposite side. Now draw one-tenth of the rosette, and over this unit place a piece of transparent paper, either thin note paper, or tracing-paper as bought in the stores. With a soft pencil (F or H B) trace the design on the paper as it shows .through, and also trace the lines of the triangle enclosing it. Then turi* it over, and transfer to the other side of THE PRACTICE OF ORIGINAL DESIGN. 183 the central line by rubbing, and thus give a trace which will enable you to line-in one complete unit, as at a. Trace the complete unit, and rub it four times round the centre of tlie pentagon, placing the lines of the enclosing triangle on eacli triangle in tlie pentagon whicli has thus to be filled. If any diflSculty is experienced by rubbing the back of the pattern to transfer it, let the pupil go over the lines of the pattern with a hard pencil from the back of the paper, as the design will always show through tlie transparent paper, and the . pressure of tiie pencil on tlie paper will transfer the design as accu- rately as the line is drawn. In thus repeating, there may be inaccuracies from the shifting of the paper, or because the geometric shnpes have not been perfectly accurate. When the transfer is completed, such inaccuracies or accidents may be remedied by the freehand ; or, if the transfer be very faulty, it should be rubbed out, and the faulty portions be transferred again with more care. Then the design is to be lined-in with a sharp pencil, and a clean steady line, having no varia- tions of thickness or blackness. Thj teacher v/ho is not practicallj^ acquainted with the pioceasei described should ask any de- signer or drau3'htsman to show her the operations. The}' ara perfectly simple, and eas}' of accomplish- ment, after having been once seen, though any description in writijig may appear to make them complicated proceedings. Another method of repetition, generally used when color is vrorkod with, is called pricking and poun- 184 TEACHERS' MANUAL. r cing. Designs for carpets, wall-paper, or cotton fabrics, worked in tempera color (which is powdered color mixed with water and giun or isinglass, Ihc latter to make the color adhere), are usually worked out on a colored ground ; and when the complete design has been made, and drawn out accurately on thin paper, the pattern forming the outlines is pricked through at intervals of about the thirty- second part of an inch apart, so as to make a line of little holes, looking like the dotted lines in the illustrations of this Manual. When tlie design has been thus indicated b}- perforation, the paper is placed on the colored ground on which it has to be wrought ; and a pounce, made of Avash-leather charged with finely-powdered color (such as white- lead, or black-lead, or any other powder which is not the color of the ground), is rubbed or dabbed over the perforated paper. Every little hole allows the powder to reach the colored ground below, and thus the pattern appears on the grouiwl. when tlie perforated paper is removed. This is b}- far tlie most ready means of multiplying a i)attern, but more suitable to the designing-room of a fVictory than the class-room of a school, because of the number of appliances required. Draughtsmen, when designing a symmetrical form, often make use of a small rectangular piece of looking-glass, which wheu one of its edges is placed on the central line, and the glass itself held at right angles to the pai)er, repeats the pattern on the opposite side of the line just as it would appear if drawn, and thus enables the draughtsman to see the ' 'I THE PRACTICE OF ORIGINAL DESIGN. 185 effect of his design without the trouble of drawing the repetition. A piece of looking-glass about four inches by three inches would be large enough for the use of a child ; and it saves a great deal of labor, by enabling a faulty arrangement to be corrected without wasting labor on it. If the teacher once comprehends the value of even the simplest exercises in design, it will be easy enough to make the children interested. And a distinction must be made, and made very clearly and emphatically, between the training and benefit obtained through freehand drawing, and that which proceeds from original design. The first is an exer- cise of the eye and the taste ; the second, of tlie hand- skill as a workman, and of originalit}-. The second an industrial application of the first ; and the rules of practice in the two departments should not be confounded. In freehand drawing from copies, the straight lines should not be ruled, nor should tracing or transfer- ring be resorted to. The eye and hand must be here trained into ready and faithful service ; and this cannot be attained without considerable practice, which drawing from copies is thus meant to provide. In the one case, therefore, the pupil must realize that he has to rely upon himself, and his skill of sight and hand, his appreciation, and his ability to execute ; in the other, he has to bring all these to bear upon the arrangement of his design, and work it out like a workman, as though he were already in a factory. Bemember, therefore, that, in copying as an exer- ,.«^'. •a* ▼^.0. ^8^ t IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) -^ %0 i/. 1.0 1.1 ^IM 12.5 ■so m I 2.2 £ us Itio m 1.25 Iju 1 1.6 ■ ^ 6" ► Photographic Sciences brporalion G 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEaSTER,N.Y. 1 4580 (716)872-4303 •N? f\ iV ^\ «■ o^ ^. <^ "^ 4f^ .V^^ 4^0 ^ 186 TEACHERS' MANUAL. else in freehand drawing, it is not right to resort to mechanical help when the object is to train the eye, the hand, and educate the taste ; and that at the same time, when designing is practised, it is right to take advantage of all mechanical help ; for, without it, the exercises will be playing at design, not prac- tising it. Having thus described the processes by which designing may be practised in the schoolroom, an example is given of the variety caused simply by the repetition of units in geometrical foims. \ h- RKPUXITION IN D£S1QN. REPETITION IN DESIGN. 187 The page of figures are given as illustrating to the teacher the inflnence of repetition of the same unit, or element, in va- rious enclosing forms. The unit is a trefoil, or three-pointed leaf, shown at a. It is repeated in (1) an equilateral triangle, (2) a square, (3) a pentagon, (4) a hexagon, (o) a circle, ((}) in squares as a horizontal moulding, (7) in squares as a vertical moulding. The character of the unit is retained, thougli its proportions of width to length are altered. I Such exercises as these form valuable preliminary practice in design, if given from the blackboard. Let the unit, or element of repetition, a, be drawn first by the whole of the class. Then divide the pupils into four groups ; the first gi'oup to draw a triangle ; the second, a square ; the tliird, a penta- gon ; and the- fourth, a hexagon ; which forms are to be the enclosing forms within which to inscribe a design similar to those seen in the rllustratioiis. In teaching the drawing of these rosettes, the enclosing figures being completed, the centre of each should be marked b}*^ a point, and also the centres of each side of the figure. Tlien draw simple curves from the sides to the centres, as shown in the small figures, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, below, and add the pointed foils, or ends of the leaves, in the angles of the figures. The lesson is an easy one, and the teacher can draw one foil, or leaf, in one division of each figure on the blackboaid, requiring the pupils to repeat the unit, as man^' times as the enclosing figure has sides, in the remaining portion. In filling the circle, the circumference should be drawn on vertical and horizontal diameters, two other diameters being drawn bisecting the right angles at the centre, thus dividing it into eight 188 TEACHERS' MANUAL. V equal parts. The unit, or element, is then to be drawn on each semi-diameter as a central line. A series of arcs drawn around the points of the leaves, and usually called cusps, may be added, and the whole be enclosed by an outer circle. The vertical and horizontal mouldings are com- posed of squares continuous in either a vertical or horizontal direction; the unit being placed on the diameters of each square. In the vertical design, half the unit is placed at the side of the central figure, to fill the space. When the filling is com- pleted, parallel lines to the sides of the squares are to be added to give unity to the design. When several independent units of form are grouped together, as in the case of these squares placed side b}' side, or one above another, it is necessary to have lines to unite these parts together, cither cir- cumscribing them, as in i)ol3'gons, or by parallel lines, as-suggested, enclosing many units together. It will be seen in tliis variation of use, the unit is really half (he leaf, s^-mmetry adding the other half. Symmetry' may be said to be repetition on one axis : repetition round a centre is symmetry on many axes. Q&EBTiONti. — Why draw convtiiitional forms before natural foruis? What is said of the f|riven conventional maple-leaf? Of thft pn|>ii sketching his original design before drawing it in his book. Of mechanical aids in original design? Of trans- ferring and tracing? Why not make original designs wholly by Ifnsehuul? What distinction should be made between freelfaiid drawing from copies and original design? What of paralloi iiues euclosing units of ornament? . CHAPTER ni. CONVENTIONALIZATION, HISTOlUCAL ORNA- MENT, &c. In this chapter, for the purposo of implanting in pupils' minds some associations in regard to their exercises, we have introduced forms derived from the Eg} ptian, Greek, Roman, and Moorish styles. ORAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE VII. ^ A L6tU8 Ornament. Directions. — The example is to tie copied the same size as the illustration. Draw in the centre of the space a central line equal in length to 1 2, and a horizontal line, 3 4, of the same length. Draw 3 2, 4 2. Bisect 1 2 in 5, and through 5 draw a horizontal line, cutting the oblique lines in 6 and 7. Draw the double ogee curve, beginning at 3, through 6, to 2, and repeat it on the right side; then the simple curves from 3 and 4 to 5. This giyes the principal form. Continue cen- tral line, 1 2, above 1, and below 2. The flower form above 1 is to be drawn by judgment of the eye, as also the stem between 1 and 6, and below 2. 190 TEACHERS MANUAL. At a and h are two Egyptian renderings of the lotus-flower, the first approaching to the natural form, the second more conven- tionalized, as used in important orna- mentations. The teacher should sketch these illustrations on the board, and tell the pupils about the lotus flower and plant, and its symbolic meaning in Egyptian art. It was the plant which first developed and blos- somed after the annual overflow of the Nile, and was regarded by the Egyptians as wc regard the first violet in spring, or the 3'oung foliage of trees, after the winter is past. But the Egyptians treated their art as s^'mbolic of natural laws and bsauties ; and therefore, to them, the lolus-plant appeared as sj'mbolic of life returning after death, wherever it was used in their ornament. Every detail and feature of Egj'ptian ornament was sym- bolic of something else than itself, and conveyed the idea of which the form was the outward expression. The form given as a drawing exercise is nojt a close adherence to the Egyptian type ; and the in- troduction of the historic element into these lessons is for the puq)ose of arousing the interest of the pupils, not to make them imitators of Egyptian, or any other art. Most children will know enough of Bible history to be interested in Egyptian forms, just as the relici^ of Egjptian art and industry in a museum are invariably the most attractive portions of it to the multiti^de. ' GREEK AND MOORISH ORNAMENT. 191 BLACKBOARD EXERCISES FOR PAGE 7 OF DRAWINO-BOOK. Greek and Moorish Ornament. GREEK FORaS. Directions.— In the left-hand part of this page draw the sprig of ornament given in the illustra- tion, derived from the honeysuckle, 'or antheraion form of the Greek ornament. Begin by drawing a central vertical line from within an inch of the upper margin to within an inch of the lower. One- sixth of the line from the top, draw a horizontal line equalling three-quarters of the vertical line, half on either side. These are all the construction lines re- quired. Next draw the ogee curve forming the outer line of the side leaves, starting from the left and right extremities of the horizontal line, and then the inner curves of the same leaves. Next draw the central leaf, and the two members forming the husk at the base. When the pupils have drawn the construction lines, the teacher should draw the curves, on the blackboard, one step at a time, and point out their delicacy or graceful curvatures, the class following as each is added, until the sketching 4n the books is completed. Then every drawing ought to be examined and corrected before it is lined in or fin- ished. By referring to the specimens of historical ornament, on pages 231, &c., the teaqher will see contrasted some of the features of the four historical styles. ,. •' ill ') MOORISH FORM. The right-hand space is to be devoted to the Mooiish ornament, a variety in the type form of the style, just as 192 TEACHERS' MANUAL. the Greek example is a variety in the type of the Greek honeysuckle. Draw a vertical line one-third of the page from the right edge (dividing the spax^e into two un- equal parts), extending to within an inch of top and bottom of the page. About one-sixtli of tliis line from the bottom, draw a horizontal line equal to the vertical line ; and, at a aue for it. Fix the point 3, wliieh i» not in tlie centre of 1 2, but ratlier nearer the bottom tlian tJie top. Draw 4 Q anil (i 7, horizontal lines de- terniininij the wiiUli uf tlie pairs of lobeM forming the slilos of the leaf. The line i\ 7 ees. The vine-leaf as thus drawn is a good example with itvhich to point out and explain what is meant by a coij>*«ntional leaf, if conventionalism be not yet undersipod. Thus the s'eneral outline and char- acter 6^ a vine-leaf is retained; but many details are omitted in the natural leaf. The edges of the leaf are cut up into many divisions, and the margin is, therefore, called serrate, or saw-like ; and if the leaf were drawn from Nature, or introduced into a picture, th^' minor divisions would have to be shown. For ornamental purposes, such details arc not expressed, as they are liable to weaken or con- GEOMETRICAL FORM, 197 Aise tho ornamental effect ; and this is the origin of conventionalization, — the adapting of a natural form to the uses of industrial art. DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE IX. I Conventional Leaf. Directions.— Draw in tlie space allotted for it a central lino 1 12, and upon it draw faintly tlie general outline of a lieart-sliaped leaf, as shown by the dotted line on the left. When the form is well bal- anced and satisfactory, the small
  • , are to tho left of it. When thi.s has l)eeu dono, draw the profile or contour of the body of the vase, and then add the handle. Point out to the pupils that the bod}' of the vase is ovoid, or egg-shaped, with the lai^e eiid uppermost ; and also state that this form of curvature, 198 TEACHERS' MANUAL. tending to the ellipse or oval, is one of the features of Greek ornament, in opposition to the roundness of Roman, or the flatness of Egyptian ornament. Sketch examples on the board to show the distinc- tion between the three styles. By referring to the ' forms of historical ornament on pages 231, &c., sim- ple examples will be found for this purpose. Draw a detail of an Egjptian, Greek, and Ro- man moulding, — that is one feature, or unit. Use these three blackboard examples to point out what was remarked about the flat, elliptical, and circular character of the three styles of ornament. DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE Xf. Acanthus- Leaf conventionalized. Directions. — The leaf is to be copied tlie full size in the right-liaiul spape. Draw a cen- tral line 1 2 equal in len, the upper line passing through 1. Point !) is lialfway between 3 and 4; and 9 0, the central line of the key-cover, should be drawn so as to make the cover symmetrical. Draw it, and, lastly the keyhole, which may be given as an e^iercise, without proportions being described. See if the pupils will draw a cover which will conceal the ke^'hole, the purpose for which it is made. The poirft ought to be just below the bottom of the ke3*hole, if measured from 9 down the central line towards 2. Then ask them to measure tihe width of the cover in their drawings, and apply it to the widest part of the keyhole, and see if it would protect the hole from wet and dirt by covering it. Practical tests of the usefulness and working capacity of use'ful objects as drawn, are among the best tests of good drawing. 202 TEACHERS' MANUAL. pRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE XIV. Earthenware Pitcher. Directions. — The pitcher is to be drawn the same size as the copy, and in the space he- neath it. Draw the verti(.al line 1 2, and divide it into four equal parts ill 3, 4, o. Tluough 4 draw a horizontal line, (> 7, equal to three parts of I 2. Draw the hori- zontal lines, 8 ?), 10 11, 12 13, 14 16, in their respective places, and length proportionetl to parts of 1 2, as tnily as your eye judges; the two lines, 8 !), and 14 15, being equal and nearly as long as two divisions of 1 2; and those at 10 11, and 12 13, being a little . longer than one division of 1 2. The horizontal lines which mark either the narrowest or widest parts, or the termination of a curve, should be drawn before the outline of the fonn l)e dra^vn. Those which occur between two such divisions, as, for instance, those on the neck of this pitcher, may be addeng for want of close attention and correction in the early stages. Any measurement the teacher wants to get quite true may be obtained by measuring it from the cop3', and doubling it for the enlarged drawing, if, as in this exercise, the drawing is to be made twice the linear size of the copy. The teacher will see, b^' a scrutiny of the lines employed in Moorish ornament, that simple curves, and the compound curve, called the ogee, or line of beauty, are the most frequently-used curves in the style. This will enable the teacher to describe the curvature in words, as well as to illustrate it etfec- tively by means of base lines on the board ; the altitude of each curve being approximately measured by a proportion of the base. For further illustrations of the Moorish style, see the examples on page 237. 204 TEACHERS' MANUAL. EXERCISES FOR PAGE 18 OF DRAWINO-BOOK. The page is to be filled by two exercises ; the first in dictation, the second from the blackboard. Com- mence them by requiring the pupils to divide the page vertically into two equal parts. Dictation Lesson. A Vase. Directions. — In tbo centre of tlie Hpace to the left, • 7', each equal to half of 1 2, Draw 0-, 7 7*, <5' 2, 7 2. Bisect 6- 2 and 7* 2, drawing a compound curve called the ogee, througli the bisection on either side. Through 4 draw 8 9. Divide the lines from 4 to .3, 5, 8, 9, into three equal parts, and, through the divisions nearest to those numerals draw lines at right angles to the central lines of the cross, each equal to a third of 4 8, half on' either side. Complete the cross by joining the extremities of the lines last drawn, [The numei'als are placed on a line at the side; but the teacher is to suppose 1 2 to be the central line of the figure.] The Crown. — The upper division, 1 3, is divided into three equal parts, the riui of the crown taking up the lower third, the spheres and lozenge shapes, the middle, and the bars, the upper third. The ball and cross are added, a little more than a third of 1 3 in height. In this exercise, the curves and upper portions of the crown are to be drawn by jud^ent of the ej'e, both by teacher and pupils ; and, the great propor- tions being given, the details of the rest may well be left to the judgment of the ej^e. Therebj- the pupil acquires a sort of instinctive criticism, which is the only safe guide in after-practice of drawing from nature. Every drawing-lesson should give both exact and inexact proportions, so as to develop the 206 TEACHERS' MANUAL. ' ILLURTIUTI02T OF PAGE 13 OF DnAWINO-BOOK. mental criticism and the judgment of the senses ; and it will be the wholesome and healthy exercise of both of these faculties which will result in intelli- gent skill. EXERCISES FOR PAGE 14 OF DRAWINO-BOOK. Memory Drawing. Directions.— -Draw a vertical Hue on the page, dividing it into two parts, of wliich tlie left space shall be one-third, and the right space two-thirds, o{ the page. Tn the left space give the square ivy-leaf rosette to be drawn twice from mem- ory. Draw two vertical lines near the out- sides of the space, leaving a margin of half an inch on both sides. Divide this space into two equal parts by a horizontal line. Then draw a square in the upper half between these par- allels, aild a second square in the lower half. Draw the diameters and diagonals of both squares, and then remind the pupils of the character of the ivy-leaf, and re- quire them to draw the rosette in each square from memory. If necessary, let them turn to the exercise on the second MEMORY DRAWING AND DESIGN. 207 page, and look well at it, l)efore beginning to draw it; Imt, after tlie work is begun, let no leaf of the book be turned fof reference. Ivy- Leaf Design. Directions. — Let the pupils now apply the knowledge they have of the ivy-leaf to an original treatment of it. In this exercise the teaclier nmy depart from the rosette arrangement, in some cases, letting tlio design be more of symmetrical arran<;enient on a vertical axis. Four examples are given of this manner of treatment; two being simple in char- acter, the third and fourth more elabo- rate. The teacher will note, that, in each, the iirst thing to be clearly dis- cerned is the geometrical shape. Let those pupils who have tried, and have failed to make any kind of a design for themselves, copy one of those here given; though even an iudifFereut arrangement made by the child, itself will be more educational to it than copying the desigixiH^thers. Variations of the Ivy-Leaf Design.* Though a fau'ly good drawing msfy be made by children in the regular hours of study, generally, a design cannot often be made by any one at a fixed time. It is a woric of thought and experiment, and, therefore, the pupil should have time enough given in which to experi- ment. Before the time arrives when the design for this place has to be put in the book, the teacher should set the children to work on 208 TEACBEJtS' MANUAL. their designs, and require them to practise at home as a preparation, bringing their sketches to the teach- er for criticism and sugges- tion. When even a mod- erately satisfttctor}' result is arrived at by the pupil, then let the teacher have it placed in the drawing- book as a privilege. Again let it be said, Beware of in- sisting on too high a standard for children. Keep them interested and happy in their work, even if they do it very badly. Educate the spirit of, and instinct for, constructive work of some sort, and let the time when excellence shall be attained take care of itself. The work in drawing will seldom be better than that of the same child in any other subject. Start- ing on a basis of nothing, when the skill and knowl- edge of the child are at zero, "we have to add, little by lit- tle, to that nothing, and rise by degrees above that zero, through various imperfec- tions, nntil we approximate to the relatively good: the perfect we never reach. Let this thought sober the criti- cism, and restrain the impa- tience, and comfort the dis- tress, of the teacher, when the sorry work of the •If i 9 m m> v >* i 'm' i m' ^ r» MEMORY DRAWING AND DESIGN, 209 ILLUSTUATION FOR PAGE 17 OF DRAWmO-BOOK. pupils is being examined. Let her remember that all the brilliant geniuses before whose names, memories, or shrines, a whole earth bows in admiration, never produced, even in the matjrity of their skill, any thing but imperfect work, and died before they had accomplished more than an approximation to the truth, or even reached a realization of their ideal. With these things in mind, we can aflTord to be toler- ant of the imperfections of young children ; for this imperfection is the claim they have upon us for help and guidance. In tlKj development of originality in pupils, by designing lessons, the teacher will find much encour- agement. Frequently it will be found that pupils who have shown but little interest in the stud)', and have consequently made but indifferent progress, will suddenly awake to enthusiasm when they see its application to design. 210 TEACHER'S MANUAL. DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE XVI. Watering-Can. Directions. — Tli^example Is to l»e dmwn in the space to the riftht, and of the naine size an the (!opy. Draw a central line in tlie niiihlle uf tlie space 1 2, and divide it. into tln-ee equal parts, as shown by stars on iho copy. Lines 3 4 and Ti are each equal to half 1 2, Draw them and the sides l\ 5, 4 0. This gives the cylindrical bmly of the can. Draw its top by a simple curve froni 3 to 4, and mark the opening near 3. Add the handles and spout, measuring their diniensi<2ns by the eye, in compar- ing them with the width and height, 3 4 and 1 2. Thus the liandle to the left projects 1)eyond 3 5 nearly the half of 3 4, and vertically it projects a little above 3, and ends a little below the second star, on line '.i 5. In the same way analyze the i)OHition of the spout before drawing it. This is a cdpy which may be successftill}'^ repro- duced on a large scale on the blackboard by pupils, tlie form being simple in character. Very imperfect work in the books may sometimes be corrected by requiring the class to draw tlie same example sev- eral times. Thus, begin with drawing it on slates ; then draw it for the second time on a large scale on the blackboard, each pupil drawing it the same size as the teacher does ; and, lastl}', let the pupils draw it in their books. Two or three rei)etitions of les- sons in tills manner will much improve the book- work. THE OXFORD PITCHER. %n ORAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE XVII. The Oxford Pitcher. Directions.— The cotiHtrnntion here given, as well an the HAiiie form in the (IrawinR-lKM)k, Rhowft how to begin thiH exereioe. The pnpil iH to complete the <1ia- pxMn given in tlie book, thnst mak- ing a copy tlie size of the illustra- tion. Tlie pitclier is' to be drawn twice as large as the illustration in the npace assigned. In the centre of the space allotted, draw a cen- tral line, 1 2, twice &s long as the same line in the copy. Draw -3 4 and 5(>, also twice as long; i.e., on each side of the central line in the drawing will 1>e a line as long as the whole of 3 4 or of 5 f> in the copy. Then draw 3 5, 4 0. Draw next the horizontal lines. Add the spont at 3, and round off the angles' at 5 and 0. Then draw the handle. The two objects, the watering-can and the pitcher, illustrate one principle of good drawing, which should be earl}' impressed on the pu- pils. It is, that in objects which are, taken alt(^ether, not symmetrical, there will probably be some symmetrical parts, aiid the unsymmetrical parts will be details only, such as handles and spouts. The draughtsman looks for the symmetrical parts, and draws them first, thus securing bal- ance and consistency in the more important portions of the object. 212 TEACHERS' MANUAL. Here comes in the same element in drawing from objects, which is so much insisted oh in drawing from flat copies or ornaments, namely, tlie geometrical basis. Just as the accurate geometrical arrangement of parts in a flat ornament is one of its essential characteristics, so, in the appearance of an object, there will be portions in which solid geometry occurs as a basis ; and the knowledge which enables us to draw the geometric solids will enable us to draw all objects having the geometric solids as the bases of their forms or construction. DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE XVIII. Acanthus Ornament. Directions. — The copy is to be increased in size to twice as large as the example. Draw in the centre of the space, to the right, a vertical line, 1 2, twice as long as 1 2 in the copy. Divide it into two equal parts, and through the division draw 3 4, equal to 1 2. Treat these as the diagonals of a square, and draw the square. First draw the ctirve from 3, through 3, to 4. The large husk is to be then completed by adding the lobes of the leaf-Uke part above 3, 2, 4. This example shows how valuable simple constnic- tional lines are in obtaining proportion. The acan- thus husk is not usually considered as of very simple proportion, yet here it is designed on one of the simplest geometric forms, that of the square ; and every part of the square is useM in fixing the posi- tion of some important feature. iL BLACKBOARD LE880N. 218 DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE XIX. Acanthus Rosette. Directions. — A sqiiare rosette, having in each fourth of the square an acanthus-like husk, will he produced hy repeating the quar- ter given, in the three remaining quarters of the square. Begin hy drawing the long outer line of the husk which commences near the ends of the diameter, and passes to touch the small circle at the centre of the square, in the three quarters not filled; then fill up the points or edgings of the side lohes, and, lastly, those of the central lohe. The teacher might allow those pupils who draw this example well to put half-tint consisting of par- allel lines on the background, tliat is, on the portion of the square not included within the acanthus forms. Half-tint is drawing lines parallel to each other, leaving the width of a line between two lines. But the mere daubing of a surface with lines run- ning every way is not half-tinting it. The lines should all run one waj-, either vertical, horizontal, or oblique, and then the surface will look flat. If there is much difficulty in obtaining this result at first, let half-tinting be practised on the slate or blackboards ; for let it be remembered, that to er-ase faulty half- tinting will spoil any drawing, and, when the pupil is allowed to use this means of distinguishing the parts of a drawing, it must be done firmly and deliber- atel}' at once, and not done to be erased. 214 TEACHERS' MANUAL. EXERCISES FOR PAGE 17 OF DRAWINO-BOOK. Blackboard Lesson. — Conventional Leaves and Flowers. Direction's. — Divide the page into two unequal parts by a vertical line, making the left half slijjlitly tlie larger. In the centre of the left space draw a veriical lino 1 2, leaving a margin of half an inch at the top and bottom of the book. Divide 1 2 into fonr equal parts in 3, 4, 5. Throngh 1 and 5 draw horizontal lines, eqnal to half the vertical, (J 7 and 8 I). Draw the cnrve from (> throngh 4 to 2, and then that from 7 throngh 4 to 2. Next draw the leaf from 7 to 5, and add that below to 5, remembering to make the points of the leaf shaip, and the lobes ronnded. Between 1 and 'i draw the flower, its centre midway between I and 3. Bepeat this flower round H and !) us centres, and then draw the stems of leaves and flowers. The usual method of proceeding in sketching an outline design is to draw the left side first ; but in this case, where the complete leaf occurs on the right side, it will be better to draw the right leaf first. The flower at 8 should,, however, be drawn before that at 9. T\\t pupils might be required, as a home exercise, to adhere to this arrangement of leaves aad flowers whilst taking another subject for a design. Thus the morning-glory, the geranium, the convolvulus, and many other common plants, would be fitting subjects for design, with an arrangement borrowed from the above. DICTATION LESSON. 215 Dictation Lesson. Conventional Ornament. Directions. —In the right space draw a central vertical line the same height as that used for the blackboard lesson on the same page. Divide this line, 1 2, into four equal parts in 3, 4, 5, remembering always to divide it first into two equal parts, and then eacli part into two, thus getting foiir equal parts. Through 4 draw a horizontal line, G 7, equal to two parts of the vertical line, half on each side of it. Draw simple curves from 1 and 2 to 4, on both sides of 1 4 and 2 4, tlieir heights equal to one-eighth of their bases. From fi and 7 draw simple curves to 4 on both sides of 4, 7 4, their heights equal one-sixth their bases. Draw the right line 1 G, and divide it into three equal parts." On the upper two-thirds as base draw a simple curve to the left of the line, its height equal to one-f ourtli its base ; and on the lower third of 1 6, draw a simple curve, its height equal to one-fourth its base. Repeat tliis on the three other lines, 1 7, G 2, 7 2. Divide (> 4 and 4 7 each into two equal parts in 8 and 9, and draw 3 8, 8 5, 3 !), 9 5. Between 3 and 1 draw a circle whose diameter coincides with the line 3 1, and reaches from 3, one-fourth of 3 1. Below 5 repeat a similar (drcle down the line 5 2. -From 8, towards 6, draw a circle on the line 8 G, its diameter beginning at 8, and taking up one- third of the line between 8 and G. Bepeat this circle in a similar position between i) and 7. Erase the parts of the lozenge shape which go behind the conventional leaves, and finish the figure. The constructional lines are divided by points to show every proportion to the teacher. The dictation given above is all that is barely necessary ; but it should be amplified and repeated as much and as often as the teacher thinlvs advisable, so as to give 216 TEACHERS' MANUAL. ILLUSTRATION OF PAOB 17 OF DRAWINO-BOOK. a clear and complete understanding by the language used of the form described. The illustrations above show how the examples, properly drawn, will appear in the drawing-book. Teachers sometimes inquire, why, in this course of lessons, so large a proportion of the exercises are taken from ornamental forms rather than from ob- jects. The reason will be evident, if we remember that few objects can be intelligibly represented, unless drawn as tlie eye sees them ; and this would necessitate a knowledge of perspective, which chil- dren in the primary or intermediate grades can hardly be expected to understand. Again ; the aim of these first exercises is to cultivate the imitative facult}', and give an appreciation of beautiflil curves. Few common objects have beautiful curves in their outline, whilst all good ornament displays such curves. CONVENTIONAL DESIGN. 217 BLACKBOARD EXERCISES FOR PAOC 18 OF DRAWING-BOOK. Conventional Design from the Vine. Directions. — Before beginning to draw, divide the page into two equal parts vertically. The left halt is to be for the de- sign from the vine-leaf. Draw a central line, leaving a mai'gin of half an inch above and below its extremities. Divide it into five eqnal parts. Through the first , division fronj the bottom, draw a liorizoiifal line equal to four-fifths of the central line, half on each side of it The front view of the vine-leaf occupies one-half of the central line. Draw it first, and then the compound curves which form the midribs of the side leaves, and next draw the leaves themselves,. The grapes are circular, and the tendril at the i centre is a spiral. Draw the difiFereut forms in the order i named. The teacher who is not an expert in drawing on tlic board had better draw ono-half of the design on the board, and do it very carefully ; and, when only one-lialf is drawn, it should be the left half. When the pupils have done this in their books, they may be required to add the right half of the pattern, whilst the teacher can devote the rest of the lesson to criticism of individual drawings. In this criti- cism, remember to be very merciful to inequality of thickness in the lines, and let all the corrections be in the shapes of the drawings. Try and get an appreciation of true form, and the beauty of line will take care of itself. At the same time, if the 218 TEACHERS' MANUAL. pupil is able to get the right shape of an example, antl is very rude in the character of the line, the teacher may then wisely criticise the line and work- manship generally. Cdnventional Flower-Form. Directions. — The exercises on pages 18 and 19 of the draw- ing-book are intended to teach, by comparison, tlie difference between a plant conventionally treated and one drawn from Nature. Let tlie teacher compare them with, the po- tato-plant on the opposite page, and point out the difference between nat- ural and conventional forms to tlio pupils. The design: Draw a central verti- cal line in the left-hand space ex- tending to within three-quarters of an inch of the top and bottom edge of the paper. Divide this line into three parts, of which the two lower parts are equal, and the top part slightly shorter than tha others. This gives the chief divisions; the upper being for tlie flower, and the lower for the leaf at the bottom and the point from which all the leaves, flower, and buds spring. Draw the flower on the upper third flrst, and then the heart-shaped leaf on the lower third. Next draw the midribs of the side leaves, and also of the half leaves tending upwards towartls the flower. Goniplete these leaves, and then atld the buds and tendrils. Be careful to keep the outer points of the design within an oval. Direct the pupils' attention to the several features of a plant here represented ; viz., front view of leaf, side view, flower, bud, tendrils. The leaf is heart- shaped, and the flower cruciform ; that is, having four petals arranged in shape of a cross. The example is oiie capable of displacing delicacy of w DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE. 219 ILLUSTRATION OF PAGE 18 OF DRAWINO-BOOK. curvature in the outlines of the leaves, and this sliould be pointed out to the pupils. This is an arrangement Avhich might be made a suitable one for the convolvulus, the leaves and flowers being not unlike these. Look out the details of the convolvulus from a work on botany, and draw them on the board for materials for a design, the pupils to copy them from the board, and produce an original design based on the above arrangement. The arrangements on page 18 of the drawing-book illustrate the simplest form of design ; viz., symmet- rica' treatment of a plant or foliage on a vertical axis, making that which is sometimes called a sprig, and used at various times as a surface decora- tion for walls. When not enclosed within lines geometrically arranged, the ornamentation would be called a powdering : if so enclosed, the pattern is called a diaper. .( 220 TEACHERS' MANUAL. DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE The Potato-Plant. XX. Directions. — The teacher sliould draw this exei'cise on tlie bIack1t)oar(l so as Yo show the order ia wliicli its sev- eral parts are to he copied by the pupils. Draw a rectangular form on the board, having the same proportion of width to height as the space in the book in which tlie example is to be copied, which is one-quarter of the width highei than the width. Suppose tlie teacher draws a base of three feet for the rectangle, the sides will be three feet nine inches high. Complete the rectangle. Then let the teacher draw the example in the space so marked out, the pupil following step by step. Explain to the pupils that the leaf is a com- pound leaf, consisting of several leaflets, or little leaves, ranged along the sides of the midrib, terndnated by one at the extremity. The first line to draw in the leaf will be the stem, or midrib, including the stem itself, by one line only, irrespective of interruptions or breaks made by the leaflets, to get the length and direction of the leaf. Then draw a single line to obtain the position of the flower-stem, observ- ing the angle it makes with the leaf-stem. Beginning at the top of the leaf, draw each pair of leaflets of the larger kind, and afterwards add the smaller ones. In the same way begin with the open flower, and draw it, noticing its Ave petals; then the side view of the flower and the pendent buds. Lastly, draw the balls, or berries, taking care to keep the stems delicate. This copy is, perhaps, more elaborate than any other in the book. It is sometimes advisable to give DRAWING-BOOK EXERCISE. 221 i' pupils an opportunity to show what they have learned b}' practice, or whether they have learned any thing. The potato-plant will probably be but poorly copied; but it will look prett3vwell, whether done well or ill, — a peculiarity generally observed of almost all foliage drawn from Nature. A copy like this gives the children, who have learned to observe, a test worthy of their powers ; and therefore, now and then, it is valuable to raise the standard of examples used for this reason. It has been found in drawing, as in the whole field of general education, that variety in subject is healthier for the pupil, and more conducive to a gen- eral intelligence, than adhering to one subject only. A change of subject often begets fresh interest, besides affording an opportunity for those to whom one subject is distasteful, for success in another. Everj' individual will have preference for one sort of work above all others ; and it takes some people a long time to find out what their predilections are. Variety of work in drawing given early will afford them an opportunity to find out their preferences before much time has been wasted. Not that it is advisable, when a pupil has shown strength in one direction, that he should practise in that direction only ; for this would deprive him of the opportunity of gaining strength in the weak points of his drawing. Better let him have the discipline of doing that which, perhaps, he maj- not like, rather than miss the opportunity of discovering a branch of drawing which he will be strong in. 222 TEACHERS' MANUAL. DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE XXI. Type Forms of Three Styles of Ornament, Egyptian, Greek, and Roman. Directions. — One of the three forma is to ho drawn in the centre of the space, and is to bo enlarji^cd to threo times tlie lineal measurement of the copy. It will be seen that a circio encloses the E$;yptian form ; an ellipse, the Greek; and an ovoid, the Roman. This enclosin<; form is the first to be drawn; the centra' line haA'inj; been placed in the nuddle oi liio space, and heinjj; three times tlte length of that in the example Bep^n by drawing the disc;, from which the mend)er» In the cases of the Greek and lloman, the central mcnd)er or leaf is to he first drawn, and afterwards th(»se of tlie left side, beginning from the uppermost. Make points on the enclosing form (circio, ellipse, or oval), where each mend)er touches the curve, and see that these are opposite to each otlier on the two sides. When the left si«le is complete, then draw tho right side. ly, and then finish firmly. selected, or base, spring Sketch very faint- It is conducive to a knowledge of various styles of ornament to see, side by side, typical modes of treating tlie same subject in different stj'les. It is not ex- pected that joung children will learn more than the names of either the styles or details of FORMS OF ORNAMENT. 223 lyptian, ornament, with tlie first glimmering of a notion of the difference between them, expressed by their own imperfect drawings, a fair measure of their percep- tions. In this page, three examples of an ornamental detail show how the same subject was treated in as many styles ; the subject of the Eg3'ptian being the pai)yrus ; that of the Greek, from tlie honeysuckle ; and the Roman is a treatment of the acanthus-leaf. From the illustrations, it will be seen that the llrst is simple in curve, and straight in line ; the Greek very elaborate in curve, and subtle in line ; whilst th3 Roman is enriched ahnost to the point of con- fusion, and loss of character. In this as in many other details of ornament in the three ancient styles, the golden mean is witli Greek art ; a greater degree of satisfying beauty being there displayed than in other styles, antecedent or subsequent to it. Questions. — What lines are most frequently used in Moor- ish ornament? "What is said of drawing by jiidjpnent of eye? Of pupils drawing their copies on the blackboard before drawing them in their books? Of criticising the work of children? Of half-tint V Of drawing ornamental forms instead of natural forms? Of Greek art as compared with Egyptian and Roman art? CHAPTER V. DECORATIVE ART.-EOYPTIAN, GREEK, ROMAN, MORESQUE STYLES. It is impossible to draw a line, and sa}', All upon this side belongs to fine art ; all upon that side, to decorative art. Certain things can bo named as appropriate to decorative art, which do not belong to fine art at all, — the severely symmetrical treat- ment, and endless repetition of forms, for example. Again : decorative art, but not so fine art, is always emploj'cd for the purpose of beautifying objects created for some end independent of decoration. Therefore ornament, the product of purely decora- tive art, can have no independent existence, but must be subordinate to the object which it beautifies. On the other hand, a product of fine art, as a paint- ing or statue, furnishes, in itself, a sufficient reason for its existence. It is, therefore, a thing of primary- importance : it does not depend upon something else for its l)eing. Requirements of Manufactures. Decorative art, but not fine, art, has always to do with manufactures ; and so decorative art is limited by the necessary conditions of manufactures, as pre- viously stated, while fine art is limited only by its own conditions. The manufacturing conditions result from three things : — DECORATIVE ART. 225 1. TJie material of which the object ia to be made; as, wood, stone, silver, iron, textile fibres. It is clear that all ornaments cannot be equally well wrought in these different materials. 2. The manner in which the object ia to be made; as, by weaving, hammering, turning, carving, cast- ing, sawing, sculpturing. It is self-evident that each mode of manufacture must impose certain conditions peculiar to itself upon decoration. 3. The use to which the manufactured object ia to he jiut. The decoration should haimonize with this use. But use involves position : so decoration must g\\Q heed to that, since an ornament should always bo scon the right way up. Thus it often happens that an ornament suitable for the wall of a room, where it can be viewed only in one way, will not answer for a carpet, where it will bo viewed from all sides. Again : if an ornament is to occupy an ele- vated position, it needs to have more breadth, with less of minute detail, than if it is to occupy a position near the spectator. Intensity of light is also to be considered ; delicate details will not show in gloom. But this is not the place to set forth, with any degree of fulness, the particulars of applied deco- ration : that belongs to a more advanced stage in the learner's progress. It is believed, however, that what has just been said of the general features, together with the few matters now to be mentioned, can be readily comprehended by teachers generally, and that this knowledge will enable them to give a practical character to the instruction, even in quite elementary exercises. / y \. L'!l>i.S. ■ I'l* n 226 TEACHER'S MANUAL. VP< / / The conditionsofjiaaimfacturc require that deco- / /ration should, as a rule, have a geometrical construc- \ I tion, —a basis of triangles, squares, pentagons, &c. Pfnrat.ivf^ art has, in the main, confoani^d tO tliiw. The conditions of manufacture require that the forms employed for decoration should be simjjle, since the accurate reproduction of other forms is impossible by the processes of manufacture. Hence g ood dec orative art makes no use of true natural forms. For the same reason, it has notliing to do /with what is called chiaroscuro^ or the exact ren- ( dering of the effeots of perspectiv4, and of light and ^nd shade. Derivation of Laws of Decorative Art. The general laws of decorative art are derived from Nature, — mainly from the vegetable world. Natural forms are, as already shown, largely cm- ployed ; as, leaves, flovvc]&; buds, sprigs, vines. When such forms are employed, they are always, in good decorative art, conventionalized, and then arranged according to the laws of natural growth. While J^ much of what is natural is omitted, no violence is done to Nature in what is represented. Convention- alization has been quite fully illustrated on the pre- ceding pages. First determine the general shape of the natural form as a whole, which is usually geometrical, and then the gener&l shape of each part. This is the first step towards conventionalizing the form. Nearly all natural forms are, as a whole, symmet- rical. Thus, in the case of most leaves, and of the DECORATIVE ART. 227 human form, the right side balances the left, — an illustration of symmetry. When we come to con- sider the parts, we find that a single feature, like the head, is symmetrical ; while double features, like the arms, arc unsymmetrical, if considered separately, but symmetrical, if considered together, the one balancing the other. Single flowers are usu- ally symmetrical, their petals being regularly ar- ranged about a centre ; but in the case of clusters, of flower-umbels, each flower, separately consid- ered, is often unsymmetrical. Where the natural form, as a whole, is symmetrical, the conventional form is made strictly so. Arrangement of the Parts. in three ways 3'ou can arrange the parts of a dec- orative form, and preserve its symmetry: — 1. You can arrange them about a centre, as of a circle, square, pentagon, or other geometrical figure. It is thus that the parts of snowflakes, of flowers, and many other things, are usually arranged. 2. You can balance the right and left sides, as Nature does in the case of so manj' leaves, animals, and other things. 3. You can arrange the parts so that they will radiate from a point, or stem, like a fan, as do horse-chestnut-leaves, palm-leaves, and the petals of most flowers when viewed sidewise. 4. There is one other kind of arrangement which is quite unlike the above: it is called continuous growth, and is illustrated by the vine. But, like the above, it possesses the great distinguishing >^ A I • X 228 TEACHER'S MANUAL. characteristic of decoratire art: it is rhythmical^ that is, at regular intervals the same features repeat themselves, as do leaves upon a natural vine. It now remains to say a word of the repetition of these decorative forms ; for they must be repeated in order to serve the purposes of manufactures. j( 1. For covering horizontal surfaces, they must be repeated in all directions. X 2. For covering upright surfaces, they must be repeated horizontally, vertically, or obliquely. Rh3'thmical repetition of decorative forms makes their effect more agreeable ; not so in fine art. Page of Mouldings. On the opposite page are given several varieties of mouldings drawn in outline. They illustrate some of the principles of decorative art that have just been described. The forms are all highly con- ventional, and best adapted to the decoration of ver- tical surface, — the fii'st four to be repeated right and left, the last three to be repeated up and down. 1. This is made from the leaf of the Irish shamrock, and from tlie flower of the Scotch thistle. Each form illustrates the balance of sides, right and left. 2. This is a moulding from a three-lohed leaf, — trefoil. 3. This is made from the flower and bud of the lily ; highly conventional. 4. Another moulding, or border, from the flower and bud of the lily. As the flower is viewed in elevation, it illustrates radiation from a point. The form is Assyrian. 6, 6, 7. Observe, that, in these mouldings, the leaves, sepa- rately considered, are not symmetrical, but are symmetrical when taken in groups. The construction of these mouldings is so evident, that no directions need be given for drawing them. 3peat )nof jated eties trate have con- ver- right •wn. and rates 1. ghly bud 'atds epa- rical tno \ 230 TEACHER'S MANUAL. Style in Decorative Art. In decorative art, what is called a style is a thin g ^^ fTTadliP^ yAiirfK» one cannot say just where it begins, or just where it ends. It is eas}' enough, however, to distinguish two styles, when each has been fully developed. Full development is not attained until the same general characteristics mark the decoration of all objects at a given period. Different decorative stj'les may be distinguished from one another (1) by their externals ; (2) by their aims. Externals differ (1) in the motives, or elemental forms, as the acanthus, the lotus, &c., which the dissimilar st^'les employ ; (2) in the man- ner of treatment, which may be more or less con- ventional, bold, timid, elaborate, &c. The aim may be (1) purely aesthetic, or the expression of beauty, strength, grandeur, for the sake of pleasing. Such are tha Greek, Roman, Moresque styles. Or (2) the aim may be symbolic ; that is, to instruct by an appeal to the sensibilities. Such are the Egyptian and Gothic styles, largely ecclesiastical. All good st3'les equally observe certain general principles in the construction, and the application of ornament. For various reasons, it is important that one should be able to distinguish readily between different deco- rative styles. They should not be combined in a design, as is frequently done hy decorators. The four pages of examples which follow will give an idea of the general character of the Egyptian, Greek, Roman, and Moresque styles. They are not to be used as drawing-exercises by the pupils, though EGYPTIAN. 231 [re it has not lark : 232 TEACHER' a MANUAL. it may be well to allow some of the more expert pupils to put them on the blackboard. Such pupils will thus have an opportunity to show what they can do. They are given more especially for the purpose of showing the teacher the practical application of much the pupils have been learning to draw, and that the pupil may see to what their instruction tends. Page of Egyptian Forms. The Eg3'ptians employed a variety of natural ob- jects for decorative purposes. The lotus, or lily of the Nile, together with the papyrus, fi'om which paper was made, were extensively' used. The natu- ral forms are highly conventionalized. The general treatment is severe, showing gi'eat firmness and rigidity of line. Every thing is colored. Egyptian art was at its best about three thousand j-ears B.C. On the preceding page are given five specimens. 1. This is the wave scroll, symbolic of the waves of the Nile. The added detail is from the papyrus. 2. This is a inoulding, or border, made from the flower and bud of the iotns, the Egyptian symbol of renewed life. 3. This is another variety of border, or moulding, made from the flower of the lotus. 4. This is a pattern for the covering of surface. It will be seen that it can be extended in all directions. The four preceding specimens are from mummy cases and the walls of tombs, which were always profusely decorateil. 5. This is an Egyptian capital, or top of a column, from a temple near Thebes. The papyrus-flower furnishes the mo- tive. Compare it with the Greek and Boman capitals which follow. In the high school these forms are to be drawn, and then done in color, just as they were done by Jxpert jl^iipils fy can frpose |ion of and iction 234 TEACHER' 8 MANUAL. the Egyptians. For such work the publishers of this book have already prepared large colored plates, which are in use where sufficient preliminary pro- gress has been made in drawing. Similar plates have been prepared for. other great styles of decora- tive art. Thus the learner is enabled to contrast one style withjinother. Page of Greek Forms. On the preceding page are given six varieties of Greek ornament. A glance wi^l show that the treat- ment is quite different from the Egyptian. Greek art was at its best about three hundred years B.C. 1. This is an ecliinus moultling, soiuetimes called tlie egg and dai't. It was nsnally sculptured. The ctirves are ellip- tical and flat. Compare with the Roman. 2. This is part of a^ sculptured moulding from the Temple of Nemesis at Rhanmus. Tlie lower part of the moulding is called the astragal, and sometimes the hucklehone series. 3. This anthemion (flower) rosette is from the Parthenon. It was done in colors. You will see that it is made from the honeysuckle-flower. 4. This is part of a sculptured moulding from the Temple of Erectheus at Athens. It gives us the honeysuckle-flower and astragal combined. 5. This is a sculptured acanthus-leaf from a capital of the Tower of the Winds. Ohservo that the lohes are move pointed than in the Roman specimens. The acanthus was r.ot so extensively used by the Greeks as by the Romans. n. This is an Ionic capital from the temple at Rassac. The Tonic capital, also the Doric, was more frequently used by the Greeks than the Corinthian. The latter was much used by the Romans. The acantlnis-leaf forhied the decoration of the latter. The Greeks made less use of straight lines than did tlic Eg3'ptians, and less use of circular curves [rs of lates, pro- elates icora- ' * trast ! i 236 TEACHER'S MANUAL. than did the Romans. Obsen^e that their curves incline to the flat and elliptical, and that their deco- ration is exceedingly chaste and gi'aceful. Page of Roman Forms. On the preceding page we have five specimens of Roman decorative art. The Romans employed much the same natural forms as did the Greeks, but treated them in a much more elaborate and luxuriant manner, as will be seen. Roman art was at its best about the time of the Christian era. • 1. Tins is part of an echinus mouldhig. Observe that the curves are rounder than in the Greek. 2. This is part of a sculptured torus — a portion of a column. It is made from the acanthus-leaf, as indicated by the " eyes " and edging. It illustrates continuous growth. 3. This is a sculptured rosette made from the acant'lnis leaf. 4. This is a sculptured moulding from the Temple of Peace at Kome. You see that it is made from the acanthus-leaf, and illustrates continuous growth. 5. This is a capital from the Arch of Titus, at Eome. It is of the composite order, employing the acanthnsrthe scroll, the echinus, and the astragal. It was invented by the Komans, and better represents their luxurious tastes than the more simple and chaste capitals which are the favorites of the Greeks. Compare the three capitals which have now been given, — the Egyptian, the Greek, and the Roman. The acanthus was the favorite decorative ornament among the Romans, as the honeysuckle was among the Gfreeks, and the lotus among the Egyptians. If one will use his Qy^<, he will almost every- where discover applications of the historic decora- tive forms presented oh these pages. The acanthus he will meet on all hands. When other motives are 3UlTes deco- lat the f» of a ted by kvth. ant'lius ' Peace if, and le. It scroll, mans, more )f the been tnonfi^ I, and erj- ora- tlius are t;'<. F 238 TEACHER'S MANUAL. used, he will find them treated according to the prin- ciples here illustrated. Again, when we desire to produce decoration wholly original, our success is promoted by a knowledge of what has been done by others. Page of Moresque Forms. The specimens of Moresqfue ornament given on the preceding page are from the roj'al palace, called the Alhambra, in Grenada, Spain. This palace was completed by the Moors in 1348, having been a hundred years in building. In Moresque ornament leaves, flowers, and other natural forms, appear only in a highly-disguised character when the^' appear at all. But, while there is no imitation of natural forms, curves are often grouped in a flower-like manner, and the general treatment harmonizes with Nature. Interlacing and straplike work abounds. 1, 2, 3, 6. Observe that the two same general forms aro used in these ornaments, moditied to suit eacli individual case. These two forms, leaf and bud, are seen in 5 : simple as they are, they constitute two of the main elements in the exceedingly rich and beautiful Moresque decoration. Note that there is no loop. Almost every thing is colored in Mo- resque decoration. 4, 6. Tl^.ese are two specimens of. interlacing Moresque forms. They need color to set them off. Enough has now been given to show, by contrast, what is meant by stj'le in decorative art. Carefully compare the styles here given for illustration. ■ Questions. — What is said of the difference between deco- rative art and fine art? Of the conditions imposed by manu- factures? Of the three ways to arrange symmetrically the parts of a decorative form? Of style in decorative art? Of Egyptian, Greek, Roman, and Moresque styles? PART III. INTERMEDIATE COURSE. Model. AND Object Drawing. ITS GENERAL FEATURES AND PRINCIPLES EX- PLAINED. None of the drawings given in this course thus far have represented Inore than two dimensions, length and breadth. It is true that objects of tlu'ee dimensions have been occasionally drawn in out- line ; but only two dimensions were represented, though, in a few cases, thickness was necessarily indicated, as in the case of the silver cup, on p. 78, where the handle is drawn lapping over. There has been no attempt at perspective, at pictorial effects : indeed, the drawings might all be called diagrams. Many of the principles of design, as they apply both to the form and to the deco- ration of objects, have not only been explained in words, but have been as fully illustrated as it was deemed profitable at this stage of the pupil's progress. The applications of the kind of draw- ing which has thus far received our attention are mainly practical ; but with no other kind of ele- mentary drawing could the hand and eye have been so well trained, or the tast^ so well developed. Thus general culture and a knowledge of things directly useful have been acquired together. 242 TEACHER'S MANUAL. Light and Shade. ~ Half-Tint Nothing has been done with light and shade, as, indeed, nothing could be without representing the three dimensions. Nothing has been done even with half-tint, which is often employed to produce an impression of solidity, or to indicate an irregu- lar surface, as in sculptured ornament. Of course, half-tint can never represent colo»*, though it ap- pears that some teachers think otherwise, if we ma)' judge from the way they permit their pupils to apply it. Half-tint gives Variety to the drawings, and so tends to make the work mofe pleasing to the young learner. There is, however, serious objec- tion to any thing more than a very limited use of half-tint by the young beginner. The value of the use of half-tint in design is that it enables the de- signer to give prominence to important parts of the design. Again, it enables us to distinguish the ornament from its background by a purely mechanical process, which it is easy to carry out. At the same time, without being exactly a lesson in shading, it prepares the pupil for shading o] epre- senting the three dimensions, in the best way. As the pupil progresses, instruction will be given in the practice ; but the teacher is advised to resort to it only occasionally. Hence it has been deemed much the better way to attend to pure outline, and to secure variety and interest by executing a much larger num- ber of drawings, and .learning much more about the principles of design, than would have been possible if any thing elaborate had been attempted with half-tint. MODEL AND OBJECT DRAWING, 243 In drawing, as in other studies, there is a best time, and a best place, for every thing. Model and Object Drawing. "We now come to an entirely different department of drawing, — to Model and Object Drawing, to one of the modes of representing the three dimensions, that is, length, breadth, and thickness. Some- times it is called " Freehand Perspective." Freehand Perspective and Instrumental Perspec- tive conform to the same laws of vision ; but they are almost wholly different in their processes. Fur- ther along, the pupil should study both kinds of perspective. The Instrumental will help to a more accurate knowledge of the freehand; that is, of Model and Object Drawing. Seeing in Space. / Model and Object Drawing trains one to " see in space," as it is technically called. Thus certain parts of the object to be drawn are invisible ; and the mind must form a correct conception of these, before the visible parts can be properly represented. The latter must be drawn in their just relation to the former. The power which enables one to see, as it were, through a solid, and thus to determine the exact relation of the visible parts to the invisi- ble, is a very valuable power, as one can readily see, for artist, designer, or workman. Ta give it is one of the special aims of Model and Object Drawing. Impress this fact upon your pupils, and omit noth- 244 TEACHER'S MANUAL. ing in the way of needftil explanation and illus- tration. When thej^ have once fairly acquired the power to see in space, together with a few simple principles of perspective, they will make rapid prog- ress in drawing from " the solid," or " the round," as Model and Object Drawing is sometimes designat- ed. It will be seen that there are various names for the same thing. Light and Shade. Model and Object Drawing may be divided into two parts : (I) the drawing of the form of the object ; (2) the adding of light and shade to that form. The full result is the pictorial effect called cliiaroS' euro. Now, it too frequently happens, in drawing from the solid, that the main effort is, from the outset, concentrated upon light and shade ; 3'et no amount of labor thus expended can compensate for defective outline rendiering of general form. Especially should young learners make no attempt at rendering light and shade, until general form has been fairly mastered. Hence the exercises in draw- ing from the solid, which are given in this book, have nothing to do with light and shade. But there is also another reason for such limita- tion. Very few of the schoolrooms in which tliis book will be used wiH be suitably arranged for work in light and shade. Such work requires that there be no cross-lights ; and hence that the light be admitted from only one side of the room. It also requires that the light be steady ; and hence that it be admitted only from the north or north-east. If MODEL AND OBJECT DRAWING. 245 admitted from the south, the light will change as the sun changes its position ; and so the object upon which the pupil is engaged will present a new effect every few moments. The Use of Flat Copies- in Model and Object Drawing. There is no genuine Model and Object Drawing, except drawing from the solid itself. Yet the use of flat copies, that is, printed copies, in connection witli the solids, greatly facilitates the progress of the learner at the outset. Remember that tlie pupil is not to be confined to drawing from the flat copies , alone : they are' to be used simpl}' as introductory aids to drawing from the objects themselves. Re- member, also, that there is not a more stupid exer-; cise, one more deadening to the faculties of the pupil, than the unthinking, mechanical reproduction of a perspective drawing from the flat : therefore see that the pupil understands the reason for every line. The forms to be drawn in the following exer- cises are so simple, and the principles of perspec- tive involved arc so readil}' explained and illustrated, that 3'ou can have no excuse for allowing a pupil to draw a single line in any of the given copies with- out knowing why it should be drawn as represented. If he understands the lines in the flat copies, he will be able to show it by making other and similar drawings from the solids themselves. The drawings from the solids may not be absolutely accurate ; in- deed, absolute accuracy is not possible in Model and Object Drawing; but they will plainly show whether or not the pupil understands the principles 246 TEACHER'S MANUAL. involved. And ^hat is the thing of first importance. If tlie principles are understood, practice will soon lead to satisfactory execution : on tlie other hand, if the principles are not understood, no amount of practice will avail. Above all things, there must first be knowledge. . Geometrical Solids to be first Drawn. When the learner began to draw forms having two dimensions, the first forms drawn were those of plane geometry ; then followed others, based upon these geometrical forms. Now that he is to begin to draw forms that have the three dimensions, he should bo first exercised upon regular geometrical solids. They are simple ; they require but few lines to represent them ; the mind can readily conceive of them in space. As the general form of nearly over}' object, whether manufactured, or found in Nature, is geometrical, and as the general form, or mass, must be correctly drawn first, otherwise the correct drawing of the details will be in vain ; so it is illogi- cal, is contrar}*^ to all sound teaching, to set the learner to drawing irregular objects, natural or arti- ficial, with their great variety of detail, before he is able to draw geometrical solids, and simple objects based upon these solids. See the Introduction for more upon this point. Meaning of Perspective. Let US now consider a few matters of detail, with- out a knowledge of which it is impossible to make satisfactory progress in Model and Object Drawing. =■11. II. '. ^ . MODEL AND OBJECT DRAWING. 247 You will find it well to devote the time of at least one or two lessons to explaining and illustrating these matters, before 3'ou set your class to drawing ; and you will also find it well to revert to them as your class advance with their exercises. Unless they have a clear comprehension of these things, they must inevitably work in the dark. In the first place, sec that your pupils get a clear conception of what is meant by the word " i)er- spective," as employed in drawing; for Model and Object Drawing is freehand perspective, as already staled. Etymologically the word means "seen through;" but this needs illustration. Place an object, as a cube, before the pupil : be- tween the object and -the pupil place a piece of glass, or wire cloth, in a vertical position. Now, request the pupil to close one eye, and, with a soft craj'on, to draw on the glass, or wire cloth, the object just as seen through the glass, or cloth. The position of the eye must not be changed during the progress of the drawing. Objects out of doors may l)e drawn in a similar manner on a pane of glass in the window. Each pupil should make such a draw- ing for himself ; and 3'ou will find it well to have the exercise repeated, since various things essential to Model and Object Drawing can be learned in this better than in almost any other way. An illustration of this kind will show clearly what is meant by a perspective drawing. It will show that the sheet of paper upon which the drawing is made really stands for a transparent vertical plane, and that the drawing represents the object as seen 248 TEACHER'S MANUAL. through the plane, and projected upon it. Any object, however intricate, may, so far as outlines are concerned, be readil}' drawn upon a transparent plane in the manner indicated ; but it is quite a difficult thing to obtain a similar accurate result on paper. Draw What You See, not What You Remember. In Model and Object Drawing, the learner is often simply told to draw what he sees. This direction would seem very easy to follow ; but the first attempt to draw even such a simple object as a cube Avill convince any one that something more explicit is required than this altogether general direction. The truth of the matter is, that, without some special training, we never understand what it is that we really do see. The accurate seeing which drawing requires is seeing not only with the eyes, but with the understanding. When the pupil first undertakes to draw from the actual object, the chances are, that he will draw fronr memory, instead of drawing what he actually sees. For example, set a plate before a class so that they can look down upon it obliquely ; then, without giving them any instruction, request them to draw what they see. Most of the class will, probably, make circular drawings of the plate. They know that plates are circular. They have been accustomed to look directly down upon them at their meals, and thus the picture impressed upon the eye was circu- lar ; and therefore they make their drawings circu- lar, giving a representation of what they have in MODEL AND OBJECT DRAWING. 249 their mcmor}*, instead of making tlie drawings elliptical, which would give what they see at the moment. For the same reason, in drawing a chair viewed obliquel}', they will be apt to make the seat too large, to make it of the remembered shape, in- stead of drawing what is actually seen. And so, if they are given a cube to draw, they will be apt, if they are familiar with the cube, to represent the edges all of the same length, though some may be viewed obliquely, and others not. Indeed, now and then one, remembering that a cube ha^ six sides, will attempt to represent four, five, and even all six, though more than three sides can seldom be seen at once, and never, except in a distorted view. Effect of Distance. Another thing that must be duly considered is the effect of distance. Given to be drawn two ob- jects of the same size, but at unequal distances from the eye, the more distant should be represented the smaller. And so, in the case of two equal parts of the same object, the drawing of the more distant part should be made the smaller. The beginner, knowing that both parts are equal, and drawing what he remembers, and not what he actually sees, will usually draw the two parts of the same size. The apparent size of an object (and it is the apparent size with which we must deal in Model and Object Draw- ing) depends upon the angle of vision. Suppose two equal straight lines, placed as ah and cd in Fig. 1, cut A, with the eye at e. The rays of light from the ends of the lines will enter the eye as indicated 250 TEACHER'S MANUAL. by tlie converging dotted lines. You perceive that the angle of vision aeb is considerably ,'lnrger than tlic angle of vision cet?, and that the apparent length of cd, as compared with ah^ is only equal to c'd'^ov about A one-half of the apparent length of ah. This apparent ditfer- cnce in the length of the two lines is the same at •whatever common point we tak<} the measure of the two angles of vision, as at vp. Now, this apparent difference must be shown in the drawing. To make an application illustrating this effect of distance. In Fig. 2, the line ah is drawn of the same length as ah in Fig. 1, and tlie line cW is drawn of the same length as c'd' in Fig. 1, which is the apparent, or perspective, length of cd as compared with a6, the eye being at e. Now, by drawing straight lines connecting the points a and c', and h and c?', we have the perspective represen- tation of a horizontal rectangular plane, as a floor, for example. We will suppose the floor to be square. Then all the lines in Fig. 2 are in reality of the same length. MODEL AND OBJKCT DRAWING. 251 |o (hat In Fig. 1 , tlic eye is represented on a level with the lines ah and cd: consequently ccZ, when viewed from e, lies directly behind 06, and can only be rep- resented as a part of «&, as shown by c'd'. But 8upi)08e the eye to be raised perpendicularly above c, and then to look obliquely down upon the floor, or square. The lines ah and cd will separate in ap- pearance as they are separated in reality. The more the eye is elevated, the more they will appear to separate, with this limitation : since the floor is assumed to be square, and to be viewed obliquely, the lines atf the right and left, that is,, the conver- ging lines, will never appear to be as long as ah. In Fig. 2 you perceive they have not been represented^ as long. They might have been represented some- what longer than they are represented, or much shorter, since, for our present purpose, it is not necessary to regard the eye as at any particular elevation. The length of these lines will vary as the elevation of the eye varies. To proceed : in Fig. 3 we have, first, what is shown in F'ig. 2, — a perspective view of a square plane. Next, at the point a, the perpendicular line ag is drawn, of the same length as ah; and, at the point c', the perpendicular line c'h is drawn, of the same length as c'd'. Drawing a straight line to connect points g and /i, we have the perspective representation of a vertical rectangular plane, stand- ing on the edge of the horizontal plane. As we called the horizontal plane a square, this must be a square ; and, as we called the horizontal plane a floor, we will call this the side of a room. Observe the 252 TEACHER' a MANUAL, difference between the perspective representations of the two. Remember that every line given is a rep- resentation of the same length, or distance. And now observe that the converging lines, which are all horizontal, and which represent the horizontal edges of the plane retreating from the eye, and which are in reality parallel, upon being continued, meet in the common point o. This point shows the height of the eye. By erecting other perpendicular lines at points h and d' make a/ equal to ae ; (3) draw cd perpendiciilar to ab at a, making ca and ad equal; (4) through the points c, c, d, /, draw an ellipse ; (6) draw c'd' perpen- dicular *o ab at &, making it less than cd; (0) make e'f about the same as ef; (7) draw the farther end of the cylinder; (8) draw the lines cc' and dd' tangents to both ellipses. Observe that the ellipse which represents the farther end of the cylinder is broader than the one which represents the near end. This greater breadth, as compared with the length of the ellipse, is secured by making c'd' shorter than cd, while e'f is made about the same as ef, all of which is done agi-eeably to the laws of perspective; for c'd', being actually of the same length as cd, parallel to cd, but farther from the eye, it should be drawn shorter. For the same reason, e'f shoidd be draAvn shorter than tf, and would be so drawn, but for the effect of foreshortening, which counterbalances, in part at least, the effect of distance. The farther end of the cylin- der is viewed less obliquely than the near end; consequently ^ the foreshortening being less, its comparatiye breadth appears greater. ited. |se of |ipse. in- fipils DRAWING FROM THE SOLID. 273 DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE Ml. Model Drawing from the Solid. Directions for dhawino a Conb from the Solid.— On the left-hand half of p. 3 of the drawing-book, a cone is to be drawn from the solid. Place a cone in sight of all the pupils, above the level of their eyes, with both its base and side plainly visible. Draw the cone in the order that Fig. 1, p. 269, was drawn: (1) the axis; (2) the base; (3) the sides. If the base of the cone is horizontal, then the axis mnst be drawn vertical; bnt, if the former is oblique then the latter must be drawn oblique also. Directions for drawinct a Cvlinde' from the Solid. — The right half of the third page is to bo tilled with the draw- ing of a cylinder from the solid. Place a cylinder in sight of all the pupils, above the level of their eyes, and in a vertical position, as in Fig. 2. The lower end will then be visible; the upper, invisible. The latter, being viewed less obliquely than the former, should be represented by a broader ellipse, — just the reverse of what is seen in Fig. 2. Drav^ in the same order that Fig. 2 was drawn. Each pupil must draw the cone just as he sees it. To one the base will appear more nearly round than to another, and so must be represented by a broader ellipse ; while the axis, if oblique, will appear more oblique to one than to another, and must be so represented. Yet each can best draw what he sees by following the order indicated. See that each pupil, before he begins to draw, has a correct idea of what is required. Question, explain, refer to Fig. 1. If the pupils understood what they were really about when they copied Fig. 1, they will have little trouble with this. Much of this will apply to the drawing of the cylinder. 274 TEACHER'S MANUAL. DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE tV. Objects to be Completed: Figs. 5, 6, 7. Directions for a Greek Vase. -- Fig. 5. Here the left half of the vase is drawn correctly : the pupil is to add the right half. Draw, first, the elliptical curves, beginning at the top, and working downwards; next, draw the contour, s«eing that the contour and the two ellipses on the body of the vase unite tangentially. Observe how the lines representing tlie sides of the vase terminate in tht^ pedestal. It will be seen that the eye is supposed to be higtisr than the top of the vase: hence all the ellipses gradually brc aden from the top down- wanls. Directions for a Greek Tazza. — Fio. 6. The right half of the ta7.za is coiTectly drawn: the left is to be added, and made just like the right. Observe that the tazza is repre- sented as lower than the level of 'he eye. Directions for a Greek Vasi';. — Fig. 7. The right half of the vase being correctly drawn, t^ie left is to be added by OBJECTS TO BE COMPLETED. 275 the pupil. Ohservo tliat tlio \w([y ami pedestal of this vase are not joinevill Ull the spaces agreeably. If suitable objects cannot' be obtained, then have your pupils execute from memory two vases pre- ,viotisly drawn. The pupils having already executed several vases from flat ropies, they should have little trouble in making similar draw- ings from the objects themselves. Drni of die cilbe. These sketches will seire as ftguJkle to ti^ class. ;Qf course each pupil will get a spirnewilwt different view o£ the cube; and each will draw. whttt hli mw, not the sketchM on the black- board. He AvUl d»w^ accord^ to the prindifles which have been explainsd, and wHjLpbta^ bis proportioiis by the aid of his pencil, Or a«caie, held at arm's-length, and at right angles to the central rojr of vision. The right h«lf of the page is to be filled with a representa- tion of a par^Ilopipedon, matte from the solkl, without the aid of blacklxiard sketches. St«nd the oblong block on its square base, so that each pupil will get a vlewdiffexent from the view he had of the cube. Make Certain that the pupils under- stand what they are to do bef ora they begin to draw. Do not p^enait ypar pupllfl to^ begin to draw the figures on p. 281 until they Understand why they arc drawn f» represented. See that they under- stand the eff> Earthenware Pitcher: Fig. aa. DiRECnoKS FOR Fio. 22. —This pitcher is to he drawn of the same size as the copy in the drawing-book. No special instructions are required ; hut tlie pupils will need to exercise much care. Make the two sides of the neck and hody of the pit^;her symmetrical first, and then add the spout and handle. As there are so many ellipses, they will afford au opportunity to show accurate and delicate drawing. If you turn the drawing so as to view it sidewise, 3'ou will find it will help you in judging of the accuracy of the ellipses. BILVER MUO AND SQUARE BLOCK. 289 DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE XVIII. Silver Mug and Square Block: Fig. 23. Directions fch Fio. 23. — Draw first the body of the mug, then the square block on which it stands, lastly the handle of the mug. Better to give two lessons to this exer- cise, and thus have the handle well drawn. The handle, if carefully drawn, Avill be enough for one lesson. By way of preliminaiy analysis, question your pupils abiiut these forms before they begin to^draw them. A score of questions can be readily asked, and should ha readily answered, about the position of the objects, foreshortening, &c. 290 TEACHER'S MANUAL, DRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE XIX. Bowl, and Book with Clasp : Fig. 34. DiiiECTiONs FOB Fig. 24.— Draw the howl first, with all its ellipses complete. Next draw the hook as if it were a block, similar to the one in Ex. xiv. or xviii. When the block has l>een perfe<'tly drawn, convert it into a hook by adding the thickness of covers, and the cla.Hp. By learning to draw simple objects with accuracy, you will acquire the power to draw more elaborate ones in dilficult positions, when you arc required to do so. ■^• ^ i ,*ift!>^ DRAWING FROM OBJECTS. 291 PRAWINO-BOOK EXERCISE XX. Drawing from Objecti. To finish this course of lessons, place one or more (iproups of objects, as a teacup and saucer, on a book, so that eacli pupil can see one group without interruption. The book should be about twice the width of the -saucer, and aliout half as thick aa the teacup 4s high. Tlie drawing Hhould lie on a scale large enough to fill tlie last page of tlie drawing- book. Require each one of your pupils to draw this group of objects without any help from yourself or any one else, and thus show what they have learned about Model and Object Drawing. Exercises enough have now been given for a good beginning in tlic freehand representation of models and oojects, .so far as outline is concerned. The pupil who has advanced thus far, and has been taught the reason of what he has drawn, will hence- forth look at all objects as he never did before. His eyes will have been opened, and he will have taken an important, though a short, step towards the pictorial representation of all objects whatever. r Questions. — How should the sides of a cone be drawn? How two or more parallel circles above one another? How should the farther end, as compared with the nearer end, of a horizontal cylinder, partly turned from the eye, be repre- sented? What is said of using the actual solids before the pupils draw the flat copies? What is said of the use of skeleton solids? When a class are drawing from the solid, what should each pupil draw ? =*-. ON THE UNITARY METHOD. BY JHOMAS KIRKLAND, M.A., SoiBNCE Masxeb Normal School, Toronto, AND •WM. SCOTT, B.A., Head Master Model School, Toronto. INTBNOBD AH AM INTBODUOTOBT Teit-M to HaiDliliB Smith's Aritlietlc. PRIOE 260. ADAM MILLER & CO., PVBUBHBIUI. r KIBKLAHJ) AND SOOTT's BLKHKNTABT ABITHUBTIO. H. M. HIOKS. M.A., Head Matter H. B. Trenton. I kaye examined the elementary arithmetic by Kirkland and Seott and consider it an improvement on the one now authorized, let. in the oral exercises ; 2nd, in a better class of review qnestions. caned Practical Problems ; 8rd, in typographical appearance. AIiBXANDfiB IC BOE, Head Master, Model School, Port Perry. I have earefnlly examined the " Elementary Arithmetic," by Kirkland ft Scott, and am much pleased with the work through- out. The plan of the book is excellent, the exercises are well arranged, practical, and such as will be likely to prevent the pupil using any purely mechanical methods of solution ; while the use of the unitary method, to the exclusion of all others. I consider its strongest recommendation. It is well worthy of a place among our Arithmetical Text Books, as being the best ele- mentary Arithmetic yet prepared for our Public Schools. SANDFIELD DAVIDSON, Principal Model School, Renfrew. I have examined Kirkland ft Scott's elementary Arithmetic, and, for various reasons, think that it is superior to all others, and that it should be at once introduced as a text-book into our Public Schools. My principal reasons are : that it associates oral and writ- ten exercises and employs the same method in both cases, and that these methods are the simplest and most logical that h>ive ever been devised. Itishardto show by means of an Arithmetic how the subject should be taught; but Messrs. Kirkland it Scott, in my humble opinion, have surmounted this difficulty. Before the issue of the Arithmetics by Messrs. Kirkland ft Scott, we had no arithmetic from which the teacher could learn how to teach it ; but now the most inexperienced teacher need not err in method if he studies these works. W. 0. MIDDLETON, B.A., Head Matter of Hawkesbury H. ft P. Schools. Tour Elementary Arithmetic by Kirkland ft Scott presents the subject of which it treats in so simple, progressive and philo- sophical a manner as to render its inlaroduction to ^our Publia Sciiools highly desirable. JAMES BBOWN, Principal Model School, Whitby. In its method, its arrangement and gradation of the different iubjecls I consider Kirkland ft Scott's superio!; to any other Arithmetic I have yet seen, and would be pleased to see it super- cede the present Authorised Book. a. YOUNG SMITH, M.a7lL.B., Inspector, Whitby. I have carefully examined Kirkland ft Scott's Elementary Arithtiietic and am much pleased with it. The arrangement and illustrations are of a simple character and yet sufficient to dmw out the faculties of the pupil and make them understand nrhMt id required at once. This, I consider, a great advantage over the old system, and I should be pleated to see the book at once luci-oduced into our schools. B. KENNET, M.D., Inspector of Public Schools,. District No. 3, Leeds. Tour elementary Arithmetic, by Messrs. Kirkland ft Scott, is superior iu system, arrangement and selection of exercises, to anything yet published on written elementary work, it would make au excelleut introductory text-book to Hamblin Smith's Arithmetic. XIBKLAMD AND SOOTT^S BLBMBNTART ARITHMBTIO. T. O. STEELE, I. P. 8., L'Orignal, Co. Frasoott. I have examined it caref ally and coniider it to be th« bait ele- mentary arithmetio publiBhed in Canada, and think it should be introduced into our public lohooli. JOHN E. BRYANT, M.A., High School. Clinton. I havf no hesitation in deolariuR that I think it will be a tho- roughly useful book. I have not had much experience in teach- ing elementary arithmetic, and I may be wri>ng in my opinions, but I find many ideas which I had conceived in reference to such a text-book embodied in this. JOHN ORAHAM, B.A., Head Master High School, Alexandria, Ontario. I consider Elementary Arithme ic, by Messrs. Kirkland A Scott, an excellent work. It is in every way suited to the require- inents of elementary classes, and possesses advantages over text books now used in having the Unitary method. A. STEELE, H. M., Aylmer H. 8. " Kirkland and Scott's Elementary Aritiunetio" is an excellent work. With the addition of the arithmetic papers, set hithei to 9,% the H.8 entrance examination, it will meet all the needs of the pupil prior to his entering a High School. T. aiBABDOT, t. a. I., North Essex. After a careful perusal of "Kirkland and Scott's Elementary Arithmetic." I do not hesitate to pronounce it a success, not only for its thorough completeness but. as it professes to be. fov being a good "introductory text-book to Hamblin Smith's Arithmetic. I uncerely hope it will meet with all the success it rieally deserves. J. 8. DE \CON, Principal Ingersoll Model SchooL I am pleased with the arrangement of exercises in Kirkland ft Scott's Blemontary Arithmetic. The compound Rules are in their proper place— after Fractions— with Commercial Arithme- tic. The problems throughout the work are suited to Junior classes— simple and easily worked— yet involving tliooght. The Oral exercise" will help |M>me teachers out of their groovea, and the unitary method should produce the same effect. A small matter, but not unworthy of notice. is the illustration of fractions and square and cubic measure. I regard the book as a consider-, able improvement on the present text book, and well worthy of introduction into our Public Schools. J. 8. CABSON, Public School Inspector, West Middlesex. Kirkland ft Scott's Elementary Arithmetic gives reliable internal evidence of being prepared by practical men ; the ar- rangement will meet the approbation of every intelligent teaoher. JOHN BAINE. Perth Model School. 1 have grent pleasuse in congratulating Messrs. Kirkland ft Scott on the character of their Elementary Arithmetic Just issued. I think that it cannot fail to be app««ciated. since the arrange- ment and the practical character of the book are so admirable. D. C. MoHENRT,'M.A..H.M. Cobourg Collegiate Institute. The work aippdanto be admirably suited to our Canadian Schools. I I I k I ANALYSIS THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. If I. PLANT FLEMING. UJL, B.OX. Wira A SuMiioif or ExAMWATioH Pahu noM OUR CAVAMAir Vmnmunm, Bt W. Hoonoa, M.A., EzAMnm n Bhqluh, Tobonto Umitimrt. rOB USE IN PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS AND COLLEQIATB INSTITUTES. PRICE, $1.00. -j QwoMM DIOMOV, B.A^ HtrndMrniUr, Cttkgialt imihtmie, BaiiUhm. " Flemiiig'a Bnglidi Analysia hM been uied !a the Hamilton OoUegtato lasU- lute linoe 1873. " I know of no better t«at book in English Gnuumw lor Um iBtetmedlnU Fonna in our High Schoola and Collegiate Inatitutes." J. SiATB, BJk., Htad Masttr^ CtlUgimU ImtituU^ St. Cmtkarim t i. Fleming's Analyst* has been in use here (or about two ye«rs : II Is ths bisi il I know o( (or advanced pupils— particularly in etynsMOgy.** OSOMB Wauaob, B.A.« HtmdMatU^t H. S^ (FmIms. *' We have used Flemfaig lor nearly one year. It is the best book I have ever taught on the subject durii^ an experience o( two yesit in Canada and ei|^t In English Qrampiar Schools." t. MoISTTRS, 11. A., MemdMmtitr, If. S., IrngtrttU. " Fleming's Analysis has not been introduced into the Hish 8m»ltjttal »nu t. HAMBLIN SMITH'S MATHEMATICAL WORKS in vtn AunMt boiiUuvslt In the Normal and Model Sohools, Toronto; . Upper Canada College ; Hamilton ard Brantford Collegiate Institutes; Bow- manTille, Berlin, Belleville, and a large number of leading High Schools in the Province. HAMBLIN SMITH'S ALGEBRA, With Appendix, bjr AlfNd B»k«r: B.A, MathemaUwI Tutor, Uni- venlty OoU«g«, Ttonmto. Firfoe, 90 oanti. THOMAS KIBKLAIID. ILA, Sdanos MMtor, Nomud SchooL ".nil the text-hook on Alfohra for candidates for leoond-olass eertifloatee, and for the Intermediate Examination. Not the least ▼aluablt part of It is the Appendix Iqr Mr. Baker." GEO. DICKSON, &A, Head Master, Ooll^flate Institute, Hamilton '* Amogement oC subjects good ; explanations and proofs exhaus- tive, oondso and dear ; examples, for the most part from University and College Examination Papers, are numerous, easy and progres- rive. There is no better Algebra in use in our High Schools and OollegiatalnsUttttes.'' WM. B. RIDDSLL, &A, B. Sa, Mathematical Master, Normal School, Ottawa. '*T1m Alfebmls admirable, and well adapted as a general text- W. E. TILLBT, E. A, Mathematica] Master, Bowmanville High School. '* I look on the Algebra as deddedly the best Eaementionr Work on the subject we have. The examples are excellent and well arranged. The expluuitions are easily understood." B. DAWSON, &A., T.O.D., Head Master, High School, Belleville. " With Mr. Baker's admirable Appendix, there would seem to be nothing loft to be desired. We have now a flrst-class book, well adapted in all respects to the wants of pupils of all grades, from the be«nner in our Puldie Schools to the most advanced student in our Oolleglate Institutes and High Schools. Its publication is a great boon to the ovsr-workfld mathematical teachers of the Province." now TO RSAI>. A Drill Book por Corrbct and Bxprrssivb Rbaoino, AoArrsB POR THB USB OP SCHOOLS. By Richard Lbwis, Teacher of Elocution, Author of " Dominion Elocu- tionitt," &c. 3rd Ed., Price 75 Cents. AuihoriMtd by tJie Mini»ter ofEdueation for Ontmrio. AutJtorited oy the Chief 8upt. of Education, Manitoba. D. H. SlIITn, A.M., Inspector of Schools, Colchester Co., N. 8. " Lewis' 'How to Bead,' comes in good time. In no branch of ■tndy la there more deficiency displayed than In that of reading. Many ot our teachers really appear to have no conception as to how reading should be taught, out by a careful study of Lewis' ' How to Bead' they can without any difficulty render themselves fit to give instruction with the utmost latisf action." L. 8. MOBSK, H.A., Inspector 8ohoolR, Annapolis Oo,, N. S. ** Lewis' 'How to Bead' treats of a subject which cannot be too highly recommended. Such a work is much needed in our schools. The art of reading eflectlTelv has been acquired by few teachers, henice they should procure this work and thoroughly and practi- cally master the rules and principles therein contained. J. D. McOILLIVBAY, Inspeo'-«r of Schools, Co. Hants. "Lewis' 'How to Bead,' is the best drill book in elocution for ■obool use that I have seen. I have read it over with a great deal of oave." C. T. ANDBEWS, Inspector for Queen's Co., N. B. "I have examined 'How to Bead,' and have no hesitation in Kuoundng it the best little work on elocution tor teachers that 1 yet come under my notice. A thorough drill in the exercises, with due attention to the elementary sounds of the language as illustnited by the author, and an intelligent conception of the principles and suggestions therein given will insure pleasing and ezpremve reading. It cannot but be hailed with pleasure by every "^ teacher as it supplies in want long felt in our schools, and raves to the important subject of reading its due prominence, as both an art anaa science." A. 0. A. DOANB, Inspector of Sdhooli, Sheltmme Co., N. 8. " How to Bead,' is Just what is needed, both as a school class book and an aid to teachers in the proper training of pupils in the j^rinoiples of effective reading. Bey. JOHN AMBB08E, MJi., Inspector P. Schools, Di^y, N. B. How TO Bead bt Biobabd Lk wis.— "This book, for the sixe of It, is the best by far that I have euer seen on the subject." W. L. DANAOH, Inspector for Cumberland, N. 8. **How to Bead is a seasonable publication. As a drill book for •zpressive reading it sttpplies a desideratum in our schools. It must be admitted that better teaching on this branch is greatly needed. The work showi skill and is highly creditable to the uthor." JOHN T. OUIU, Broad Oov«, Cape Bxatoo, N. 8. - The plan pursued in the arrangements of the work, commen- dntf with elements essential to correct vocalisation, and leading gradually on to principles and practice in some of the purest gems of the language, must oommend itself to every admirer of clear, aspressive English reading. The typographical ' get np ' of the work iBbighljor^tabletotlieeaterpniUigpabUelki " MILLER & CO.'S SERIES OF eLANKS. Used in Nearly all the principal High and Public Schools of Canada. Hughes' Composition Blanks, No. 1— 10c. ^* " " 2-lOc. " " " 3-20C. Canadian Spelling Blanks, a u it No. 1-lOc. 2-lOc. 3-lOc. Dr. Davies' Grammar Blanks, No. 1— 10c. 2-lOc. 3-150. 4-150. If It a u ft u ft ff ff M \ FROM NOVA SCOTIA. J. D. McGILLIVBAY, Inspector, Hunt Co.. Nova Beotla. "I have looked over carefully your Spelling Blanks, Grammar Blanks and Composition Blanks, and consider them excellent. No scliool Can be regarded as fully equipped Tthion is without them, or books like them. I will, with pleasure, direct the attention of Our teachers to them." A. 0. A. DOANE, Inspector of Schools, Shelbume Co., N. 8. " The Exercise Books are well arranged, of convenient sise, and seem suitably adapted for use in all our schools. As helps to correct spelliug. careful writing, and proper analysis and construe- tion sentences they are really invaluable.'' W. S. DABBAGH, M.A., Insp. P. 8., Cumberland Co., Nova Scotia. SPKLIiINO BiJkMES AMD HUGHES' COHPOBITION BOOXS.— " I haVC examined them with much pleasure. It is high, but certainly not exaggerated praise, to say that the books are in point of practical utility unrivalled. I have perfect confidence m reconunending them to the teachers of our widely extended country. D. H. SMITH, VtJL., Insp. Colchester County, Nova Scotia. ExcBCtsB Books.— "They are got up in excellent style, besides effecting on the pupils and teachers a great economy of time. They tend to mcoloate a taste of neatness and care in their work." EXAMINATION PAPERS ARITHMETIC^ By J. A. MoLbllan. LL.D., Inspector High Schools, and Thos. Kirkland, M.A., Science Muster, Normal School, Toronto. PRICE 11.00. From the GUELPH HEROURT. . . . The work li divided into dx ohapters. The first ie on the Unitary Method, and irlvea solutiona Bhowinff Its application to a variety of problems, in Simple and Compound mportion ; Peroentam, Interest, Diacount, Profit and Loss; Proportional Parts, Partnership; Chain Rule, Exchange, Alligation; Commission, Insurance, &c., Htooks, and Miscellaneous Problems. The second is on Elementary Rules, Measures and Multiples, Vulgar and Decimal Fractions. The third contains Examination Papers for entrance into High Schools and Colleg^te Institutes, the fourth for candidates for third-class certifi- cates, the fifth for candidates for the Intermediate Examination and second-class certificates, and the sixth for candidates for third-class certificates and University Honours. It will be observed that tlie work begins with the fundamental rules— those principles to be acquired when a pupil first enters upon the study of Arithmetic, and carries him forward till prepared for the highest class of certificates and (or Honours of the University. . . . Teachers will find in it a necessary help in supplying questions to give their classes. Those who aspire to be teachers cannot have a better guide— indeed ^'here.isnotsogooda one— on the subject with which it is occupied. From the ADVERTISER. ... 19 all who aie groping after some method better than they have at present, this volume will be cordially weicomcxi, and many who have never suspected the possibility of accomplishing so much by independent methods^ will be, by a perusal of the intrmiuc- tory chapter, impelled to think for themselves, and enabled to teach their pupils how to do so. . . . It is far superior to anything of tlie kind ever introduced into this country. . . . The ttrpographicai appearance of the work is of a very high oharacter-rqulte equal, in fact, to anything of the kind issued by the best publishing houses of London or New York. From the TELESCOPE. ... The plan of the wdrk is excellent, the exercises being arranged progressively, each series preparing the student for the next. The problems, are all original, and so constructed as to prevent the student using any purely mechanical methods of solution. . . . MT* should really feel proud of our Csnadhm Authors and publishing houses, when we oonsider the infancy at our eoantry and the progress it has made and is making in educational nutten, and particular)^ lo the recently published educational works. MILLEB'8 NBW SWINTON'S LANGUAGE LE880NS. Adapted to Oanadian Schools, By J. A. MACMILLAN, B.A., Ottawa, OODLEaiATE INSTITUTE, SpeeidHy arranged — 0. CLABKSON, B.A., Head Master. Model Sohool, BrookvUle. I haye examined carefiUly your *' New Swinton's Language Lessons," by Maomillan. The book is excellent. It was a decided improvement to bring it into entire harmony with Mason's. The only diffioulty I experience is to xbkp it out of the Third class, for wbioh no text book is authorized. Pupils use the book pri* ▼ately as an aid to follow the oral teaching. ~ MILLim*! MIW 8WIMT0M*! JJMQVAQM LBMOMl. N. GORDON, Head If aitor, Fod«l Bohoel, Plelon. After a earefnl peruial and oomnnriiioii of the Fifth Edition of "Bwlnton'* Langunge Lenoni,"by Maomillan.irl'h preTloui edition!, I find ohnngat of an important ana bigbly bene* floial rbaraoter, tIi :— -the deflnitloni are the eame as thoie In Mason's Orammai , also the treatment of the Verb, etc., this Is n •tep in the right direction, as the text-books in all our Public Bohools should be so arranged as to make those used in the Junior classes an introduction to those (on the samn subject) used in the senior divisions. I consider the plan highly com- mendable as the changes do not vohibit its use with your other edition of the same excellent little work. JAMES PUNOAN, Prlnclnal Essex Model School. Have carefully examined the Fiftli Edition ot " Miller's Now Bwinton's Language Lessons by Macmillsu,"— The mat- ter is put in c*ear, concise and iiiceresting language, and th t subject IS kept abreast of the age. I consider it an invaluable auxiliary to the Public School Teacher. It in as it profesiies to be " on mtroductory work on Grammar," as we^l as a forerunner of Mason's more advanced text-book. W. J. BUMMEBBT. Principal Kingston Model School. To prevent the loss of much valuable time, the agreement of tbe elementary and advanced text-books, in all essential points, is nn absolute necessity, and I am plnd to fln<1 that,in definitions and general treatnrent, the Fifth Edition of "Bwinton's Lan- guage Lessons," by Maciuillan, is in harmony with Mason's Text- book. SABOJEL D. WRSTBRFELT, H.M.M.S. Mount Forest. As the aim is to make ^t ni^form in definitions and clasifi- eation with Mason's Grammar, and as it is such an excellent Elementary text book, especially for the use of young teachers, I would heartily recommend its introduction. W. F. BITTENHOUSB, Teaeher, Central School, St. Catharines. I consider " Bwinton's Lan juage Lessons," by Maomillan. as the best text book for teaching grammar extant, and the revision, making tht definitions correspond with those in the advanced text book, leaves nothing to be desired. GEO. MILDEN, Head Master, M. B., Comwa& Miller's new " Bwinton's Language Lessons," by MaomiHan, I look npon as an admirable little work, well and carefully got up, and will render valuable assistance to those teachers who are engaged in preparing pupils for the coming examinations. REV. J. MAT. L P. B.. Oo. Oarlton. I hare examined " Bwinton's Language Leeaoni, hj Maemll- Ian," and am of opinion that it wiU pioTO a very iukuI text*book ia onrsohoolii. JAMES McBBIBN, Ins. P. a, Cto. QBt, MOIer'k new "Bwinton's Language LsMons** poMost too la- valnaMe characteristics, gradation and adapkalkNi to yoafh. I would like to see it in all my best school!. ENGLISH GRAMMAR BY C. P. MASON, B.A., F.C.P.. Fellow of University College, London With Examination Papers by W. Houston, M.A. PRICE 75 CENTS. ALKX. SIM, M.A., II. M., II. S., Oakvllle. (Tpwardfl of three ycarii ago I aKkcd a grainninr Rshnol iMipoctor In the old country to ocnd me the best grammar publishod there. Ho Im- mediately sent me Mason. A. P. KNIGHT, M.A., H.M., Kingston Oollogiate Iniitltute. Incomparably the best text book for the Hcuior cLinmcs uf our Mgh ' school* that has yet been offered to the Caiiodiau public. J. KINO, H.A.. LL.D., Principal, Caledonia, II. S. Mason's grammar will be found a most valuable class-books •• pecially for the instruction of advanced classes in English. The chapter on the Analysis of difficult sentences la of itself suHicicnt to |>laee the work far beyond any English trraniinsir hitherto before the Canadian public. RICHARD LEWIS, H. M., Dufferin School Toronto. As a philosophical treatise its discussion of doubtful points and its excellent methods and deflnitions caiuiot fail to give it a high rank in the estimation of the best judges of such works— the school teachers of the country. It has reached a iwenty-flrst edition in England and I have no doubt it will meet with the same high appreciation in this Province. JOHN SHAW, H. M., H. S., Omomee. . . . Mason's Grammar is Just such a book as many teachers have been hoping to see introduced into our schools, iu method being to teach the subject by explanation, definition and abundant illustrations without stereotyped rules thereby making the study even attractive. D. C. MaoHENRY, B.A., H. M. Cobourg Col. Institute. It is an excellent and reliable work. It will be well recoired bf tercbers and advanced pupils. JOHN JOHNSTON, P. S. I., Belleville and South HaaUngi. Of all the grammars that I have Been, I consider Mason's the best. J. MORRISON, M.A., M.D., Head Master, High School, Newmarket. I have ordered it to be used in this school. I oonsider it b|r far the best English grammar for high school purposes that has yet anpeared. With * HasoD " and " Flemine'* notbhur mom «Mm« ., Math. Master Normal School, ^ranrntOk Geo. Baptie, M.D., Scionoe Master Normal Sohotti, Ottawa. R. Lewis, Teacher of Elocution, Toronto. Prof. R. BawBon, Belleville. J. J. Tillay, Inspectur Public Schools, Durham. CANADA SCHOOL JOURNAL IS iWRMd la* of each month fkom the Oflloe of PuhUoatton, 11 Wellington Street West. Toronto. BnbMriptimi fl par j—Xi payable in advaDoa. ADAM MILLER A CO., FallldM