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rata

elure,

32X

1 S€»i3

(sr

''huMy/o

No. 92.

I/. S KAVf, 't.

MAR iQ3890

MtlllihAHT'S EXjDHAHGt

: " .1.

ii£^AHCl^^

■^-<^:::^^^^(:;;

P^K^t^OF^a

ICE AND ICE MOVEMENTS

ENSIGN EDWARD SIMPSON, U. S. N.

UNDER THE DIRECTION OF

LIEl'TENANf COMMANDER CllAS. H. STOCKTON. T. S. N.
CoiiiiiiaDtling 11. S. S. "Thetis."

WASHINGTON :

U, S. Hydbogkaphic Office.

1890,

iiaiilili

iHHi

g^^gg

"" > •-* ^^pai.>» mf,f,

. '.( <i iy

' - ■

No. 02.

i«id:i^OFeu"

ICE AND ICl^: MOVEMENTS

ENSIGN EDWARD SIMPSON, U. S. N.

UNDER THE DIUECTION OF

UM TKNANT COMMANDEI! TIIAS II STOCKTON, I!. 8. N.,

i'oiiiiiiiindiii!; li. S. S. " Tliclis."

WASlI1N(iTON:

U. S. llYDKOORAI'HlC OlTUK
1890.

U. S. IlYniKMiitAi'iiic Offick,

Wahiiinoton, D. C, Jamuiry ^, 1800.

The a(!Conipaiiying atrount of Ice and Tc(> Movements in Bering S<'a
and the Arctic Basin is one of a series of vahiable rej)orts received from
the U. S. S. Tfidls, upon the completion of her recent cruise in those
waters.

Those dealing with hydrographic information were publishe<l and dis-
tributed under the form of Notices to Marinei-s, as being the maniuM-
l)est calculated tc reach the maritime community, while those relating to
s|)ecial subjectvS, such as the following, whose importiuicfe to navigators
in the localities mentioned cannot be over-estimated, will appear in
pamphlet form.

Lieutenant Commander Stoc^kton, and officers serving with him, have
greatly contributed to our knowledge of the waters and coasts of North-
western Alaska, and the recent cruis(> of the Thcl'm lias been as remark-
able as it luis been successful in its residts.

Henuv F. PicKiNc, Cajdaln, fL S. N.,

Utjdrofjra^ihcr,

(8)

REMARKS.

In onlcr to make tlic oriiisc of tho V. 8. S. Thrfk, during the sumtnol'
of 1<SH!>, in tlic walorH of Borinji sea and the Arctic ocean as full and
as useful lus [)ossil)!o, I directed several of the oHi('(!rs of the Thdin to
observe and n'port uj)on various suhjeets connected with those watei-s
and llu! portions of NorthweHtern Alaska visite<l by us. The following
ixiport by Kusign Edward Simpson originatwl in that manner.

Cmas. H. Stockton,

Lindcnanl Coinmandcr, (J. ^. N.

', ' __ "■ t ■

U. S. S. Tliclis, (.If Navy Yanl, Mar(> Island, ' '7

JhTrmha- 7-% ISS'.K

(H)

109713

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. S. S. "Thetis,"

Sitka, Alaska, Noveinhei' IS, 1889.

Sir: — In olwHliriK'o to your verluil oixltM- to report on the suhjcH't of
"Ice," as it is found in Horinj; wa and the Arctic (M-oan in the viciniCy
of IJcrinj:; strait, and C'S|)e('ially with rojiard to its movcnicntH under the
influen(!es of the prevailing currents and winds, I have tlie honor to
submit the following report.

In making this report, I have collectal data from the following
sounds: The i-aptains of live steam whalers and elevcMi sailing vessels;
the reiwrts of the "Cruises of the Corwin,'' in 1881 and 1885; "Little
Joe" Tuckfield, of the Mackenzie' river; Mr. Leavitt, of the Cape
Smyth whaling station; Mr. Wolfe, of the Cape Sabine coaling station;
Mr. J. W. Kelly, of the Cape Sabine; and Point Mope stations; l'\ ]5irk
(seaman), of the U. S. S. HoiUjern; Mr. (trey, of the PribyloiV islands;
Mr. U. Neumann, of St. Michaels and Ounalaska; and the exix>ricnces
of the U. S. S. ThetlH during the summers of 1888 and 1889.

ResjMH'tfully submittetl,

Edward ST>fi'soN,

EiiftUjn, U.S. Navy.

To Lieutenant Commander CiiAs. II. Stockton, U. S. Navy,

Comniauding U. S. S. Thdk.

(4)

^^miigigaufmmimtm

ICE AND ICE MOVEMENTS

'*, i88y.

subjoot of
Ik' viciuiCy

iiikKt tlio
:* honor to

following
\\\r, ves-sols;
5; "Little

the Capo
ig station ;
i; F. VArk
\V ishnuls;
xiK'ricncos

)N,

. ^S*. Navy.

hctifi.

Bering Ska and the Arctic Basin.

Report of the ice as found in Bering sea and the Arctic

basin in the vicinity of Bering straits, and its

movements under the influence of the

prevaiUng currents and winds.

General description of the ice in different localities. — The

"Arctic pack" which nevci- inohs, ('((iisists of hard, lihic ice, miulc up of
lichls of v'oniparativoly lovol ice, as much as \ mih\s in {lianictcr, wliich
are snrrouncU'd and interspersed witii hnnunocks, (Vomj 20 to 40 led
hifijh. Ah)ng the ed^(( of the pack "leads" are found rnnninu; into
it for short distances in dill'erent directions; when the ])aek moves it
goes in a body, and theso leads arc continually changint!;, opening and
closing, so as to make it im{H)ssil)l(' for a vessel, once caught in the pack,
to proceed at will. A vessel so caught is uninaiiageal)le, even should she
esejipe being crusluHl, and all the whaling captains agree that, if it is
found imi)ossible to get out before young ice makes, nothing can be done
except to abandon her.

In the spring, with the prevailing southerly winds and northerly cur-
rents, the pack breaks otf from the shore ice and moves north, the
northern limit of its southern edg'- varying in latitude, as will be shown
further on, and is held north until the fall, when it again moves south.
During these siunmer months ice melts, evaporates and disappears, so
that, when the pack returns south, the old lee probably does not come
below the latitude of ley ca})e in a body, unless it does so well offshore.

I can find no record of the old pack being seen from the shore in the
fall below Jcy cape, suc^h portions of the old ice that are found below
that latitude being composed oC detached and nuich broken floes.

(5)

'riio sliore if'o and flaw 'we \h thnt which rcinaiiiM fiLst t« the Hhore aHcr
lh{! paclv moves ofV, and which j;ra(hially hrcaks utl'aml foUows (hi; pack
in fl(K'H and Ihtchcr^jiH. It lau'on'e.s Hcatterc<l and is <|iii(kly aU'ei'ted hy
varying winds and current^, and vessels, fittwl for ice work, (an work
through it (jiiite readily, so long as yoinig ice is not forming.

When a v'ssel has worked into floe ice imtil it Ixfomes too heavy for
her to proceed, she iies np to the ice and awaits a shift of wind. It is
sjir|)rising how (piickly u shift of wind will change the ap|>caranee of
lot? in a few hours, making wide leads whore shortly In-fore tlu! ice was
heavily massed. When young ice is making, it form: very rapidly
between the cakes of tloc ice, joii'ing all in a solid mass, and liK-king a
vessel, so caught, very (piickly.

liarge, luunmocky floes, which drif\ or are foree<l np into shoal water,
and l)('(!om(^ grounded, are known as "ground ice," and it is to these that
vessels secure to seek shelter in gales iVoni fii>t drifting flot^ ice or during
temp(»rary settings in of the j)ack. These piit-es of ground iec> arc;
reeogniziihle, when there is a currenl running, l>y the wake they leave, or
by the height of the "overhang" of theii- former water-line above the
surface of the water.

Vessels, forcing their way through lloe ice, always avoid >triking
ground iee, on account of the great risk of U'ing "stove" on it, and
also the impossibility to move it. One whaling citptain descriin's
makitig fast inshore of a floe of ground ice, showing only a few feet
aljove the water, which was forced inshore by the jMick until it was as
high as his foroyard.

"Young ice" is the nam- given to new ice jnst forming. During
cold weather, when the wind is light or calm, young ice forms very
rapidly. In the vicinity of the pack, with northerly winds in early
October, it can be seen shooting olf in forks from the eilge of the pack
so rapidly that vessels, k('e})ing along its outer edge, are iiut of sight of
the pack in a few hours. When not in the vicinity of the pack, young
iee forms in spots, whicih spread out like oil U|K)n the water an<i soon
join in a solid sheet. It forms first from the pack and floe iee, and then
from the r^hore, and spreads out until the whole ocean is covered in a
few days. During a (!old, calm night it forms to a thickness of from 1
to (! inches. The l)est of the whaling steamers that go inl^' '■ ' Arctic
can probably steam at the rate of !) knots in oj)en water, b(, uiii barely
force their way through young ice of 5 inches in thick ne^^s at 3 knots
an honr.

The ice in Boring sea, although it is made nj) entirely "'' y;>ung ice
every year, may b(! divided into two kinds, viz, that which forms in the

itiic aficr
the piicU
H-ctcHl l>y
nil work

icavv for
-1. "it is
ii-aiiw of
? uv wiw
rapidly
(M'kiii^ a

al water,
Iksc that
)!- (liirii)g
ice a 1*0
leave, or
l)<»ve the

strikiiij;

II it, and
deserilx'S

lew ieet
it was iXH

Dtiriiifj;
rnis very
ill early
the pack
' sight of
k, young
aiKi soon
and then
oreil in a
f from 1
l'- Aivi'w.

III barely
L 3 knots

';'ung ice
us in tlu;

late fail and early wint(>r, and in teleseopcnl and piled into heavy nuiHseH
during the shifting gates, aii<l, secondly, lliat whieli foniis in the late
winter and early spring in the spaces left liy the old ice moving. ThiM
Holid ice prol)alily does not extend t(» the sontinvai'd of St. Mallhew
island, while the ' c helow it as iiir as the southern limit is niad(! up of
the newer ice and detached Hoes of well-hroken ice;.

All tli(! iet! swn in the vicinity of the l*ril)yloir islands is hrokeii lloe
ice that \h intluoncj'd eontinually hy the wind im 'ides. VeMsels forcing
their way north in the spring enter thi.s new kl; rejidily, if it is well
liroken, steamers forcing through it and raMouiiiL'" when lufc-^sary ; and
Hailing vessels, when they have a fair •, i.d, lashing their helms and
Ictf'r;;, the ship find her own way through it under easy sail. 'VUv.
heavy winter iw is always avoided, and tlu newer ice, when in large
floes, is also very dangerous on account of their weight heing sunicient
to si:ik a ship should tlu'y come together,

A ojwe of this occurred May 2">, 1885, when the ship CUizelk tried to
run out a gale hetwceu two ie. fliK's and was crushed aiu^ sunk. Or a
ship may he dclaiued in this ice, a> in the case of the steamer /jV/r/V/c/v,
which wa- nipped and drilled forty-three days in the ice in the western
part of Bering sea.

The heaviest patches of iee in Bering sea arc met in the s[)ring hy
vessels otl'cape Navarin or north of St. Ijsiwrence island; and it is the
iee that forms in the gulf of Anadir, where the strong northeast gales
drive against tli(^ current and keep |)iling, grinding and telescoping the
iee into heavy masses.

Southern limit of the ice. — Although there is a tradition existing
ill Ouualaska that one winter, years ag(», tiie ice came down on llu;
island in heavy masros ; ami in January, 1H7<S, it was down on Akt>utau
island and in Ounimak pass, when several native boats were lost in it.
The southern limit can safely be said to be in latitude 5G° N., about 35
miles south of St. George islaiul. Occasionally, as in LSSIJ, no ice is
seen at the Pribylotf islands, but genei-ally after three weeks of north-
easterly winds it comes down from the Uio itli of the Koskovine river
in very much broken Hoes, and remains in sight, moving to the east-
ward and westward with the winds, until the spring, when a southerly
wind soon drives it north. This generally occurs in the latter part of
April, although in l.SSO it leinained so late that an iron steamer, the
Alaska Commercial (/ompaiiy's steamer fSl. Paul, unlitted for encounter-
ing ice, was unable to elfect a landing until June 1.

Whaling ve>scls, which are sheathed antl litte«l (or ice work, take the
iee about April 7-1 o, although a lew do so as early as March 2o. Those

\\'\

enter! 11}^ Bering sea by Ouniniak pass meet the ice in the latitnde of
St. George island, wiiile those coming throngh Anionghta pass meet it in
longitiido 175° W., latitnde 58° N. In longitnde 180° it is fonnd in
latitnde (30° N. abont April 15. The most sontheru point I have fonnd
vessels reporting ice is latitnde 5G° 10' N., longitnde 171° 30' W., on
April 12, 1889 ; and several report meeting it in latitnde 57° 30' N., in
abont longitnde 175° W., dnring the middle of April. The general
contonr of the sonthern limit of the ice in Jeering sea is from Bristol
bay to about 35 miles sonth of the Pribylort" islands, and then northwest
in the direction of cape Omchinsky.

Spring movements of the ice in Bering sea. — The movements of
the ice upon breaking up in the spring are due altogether to the currents
and winds; and as the currents are greatly aifected by the prevailing
winds, navigators wishing to push north early should be influenced in
their movements largely by them. While the pack remains solid in the
middle of the sea, both sides are found navigable much earlier. This is
due to the breaking up of the ice off' shore by local winds, the northerly
currents, and the currents setting out of the numerous rivers. Whether
the east or west shore is the most open depends largely upon what the
])revailing spring winds have been, strong easterly and northeasterly
winds packing the ice heavily on cape Navarin and breaking it up on
the cast shore, and vice versa. On the west shore the current .sets north-
east well off' shore, and although its speed is increased or diminished by
prevailing winds, it is seldo'm that the current changes its direction to
the southward. In 1886, the bark Sat Breeze dymug a northeast gale
off cape Navarin, furled all sail, made fast to a floe of drifting ice, and
in three days drifted 45 miles to windward. Off cape Navarin the
current splits about 30 miles off shore, one branch following the trend
of the coast in a southwesterly, direction towards cape Omchinsky, and
the other running to the northward into the gulf of Anadir and then
off' to the northeast, running strong between St. Lawrence island and
Indian ])olnt.

In May, 188!), the bark Ahrahaui navker, when about 30 miles .south-
etist of cajje Navarin, encountered a northeast gale and drifted in well
towards cape Omchinsky in the southwest current.

In the spring of 1887, the bark Hunter was nipped in the middle of
the gulf of Anadir and drifted with the i(!0 out of the gulf and to the
northward of St. Lawrence island, passing very close to cape Chibukak.

On the ea.st side of Bering sea, between St. Matthew and Nunivak
islands, the .set of the current is north. W^lth prevailing northeast winds

ititiulo of
meet it in
found in
ivc found
)' W., on
50' N., in
a general
ni Bristol
lorthwest

inients of
i currents
trevailing
lenced in
lid in the
Til is is
northerly
Whether
what the
heasterly
it up on
:ts north-
lished hy
cction to
east gale
J ice, and
^arin the
the trend
sky, and
uid then
and and

2rt soiltil-
in well

liddle of
\ to the
libukak.

Vuuivak
St winds

it sets northwest, and with northwest and southwest winds, northejist.
This northerly current continues past the east side of St. I ^wrence island
to King's island; from there it sets in toward Port Clarence, then fol-
lows the trend of the coast past capes York and Prince of Wales, and
into the Arci ocean. The current on the east side is not as strong as
that on the west side, and north of St. Lawrence island the- west shore
from Indian point to the Diomede islands is invariably clear of ice
before the east shore; consequently Indian point is the first objective
point for vessels pushing their way north in the spring. The action of
these currents is as follows : •

•

Ice clears the Pribyloff islands about May 1. The pack moves north,
the sides clearing ahead of the center, and vessels following the pack
reach cape Navarin about May 10. Here the heavy ice, which forms in
the gulf of Anadir by the young ice piling up under the influence of
northeast winds, is nut coming out of the gulf This ice is set to the
eastward by the spring southerly and westerly winds until it meets the
strong northeast current, when it sets up into the channel between Indian
point and St. Lawrence island; then the main body of it swings around
on the north and northeast side of St. Lawrence island, where it lodges
until the last of it breaks up and goes uoi'th during the middle of July.
Young ice continues to form in Bering sea until May 10, and after that
time it is not looked for. On April 12, 1888, the steamer Orca steamed
for six hours through young ice in about latitude 60° N., longitude 178°
E. It sometimes happens that vessels find a clear lead from cape Nav-
arin to Indian point or St. Lawrence island as early as May 18, but this
occurs only in exceptional seasons. As a rule, vessels that are deter-
mined to keep the west shore follow leads into the gulf of Anadir,
steamers forcing through the broken ice, and sailing vessels hauling
through it with ice hooks and steam winches; the former coming out
into chixr water oif cape Bering about May 2"), and the latter about
June 10. When cape Bering is clear, Indian point can be reached with-
out much difficulty. Should a vessel arriving near cape Navarin find
the ice heavily packed in that vicinity, indicating prevailing easterly
sju-ing winds, she should not be mislead by the space of open water that
generally exists south of the cape, antl which is about 50 by 25 miles in
extent, but shouhl follow the line of the pack to the eastward and try
the eastern shore. By so doing she will probably find the edge of the
pack in tiic h)ngitude of St. Matthew island, in latitude 61t° to 60° ;
from there it will lead her close to the west coast of Nunivak island,
from which |)osition she should work up to the southeast cape of St.
Lawrence island; thence she may work along the south side of the

island and find clear water from (iape Chibukak to Indian point before
the ice is o|)en from cajx) Navarin to cape Bering. It is useless to
attempt to pass to the northward of St. l^awrence island from the cast
side, as the heavy impassable ice, before mentional as coming out of the
gulf of Anadir, exists there much later than it does on the southern
shore.

This eastern route is fre<piently underiaken by the whalemeii; indewl,
some of them always take it in })reference to attempting the western
route, in order to reach open water off Indian point and meet the whales
coming "head on" through the heavy ice t;0 the .sou,thward. It is a
mooted question by which route a vessel < ui get north at the earliest
date ; but I should recommend giving the [)reference to the west shore,
and if that is found heavily blocked, then to lose no time in trying to
force the ice, but follow the southern edge of the pack and attempt the
eastern route, which will probably be found in that case coniparatively
open.

North of St. Lawrence island, the west side of Bering sea clears of
ice much earlier than the east side, and vessels reaching Indian point
find the ice broken into large Hoes around which they can work, outside
of the shore ice, as far as East cajie. The bay and shore ice break up
at a much later date.

As seasons vary to a great extent, due to the prevailing winds, it is
difficult to fix dates for the prol)able arrival of vessels at different
places ; but, as a general rule, steamers reach Indian point about May
25 to June 5, and St. I^awrence bay about June 10-25.

In 1882, the Co no in, sifter protractefl westerly gales, reached St. I^aw-
rence bay May 11, rcmainetl there a few hours and then returned south.
Shortly afVer leaving, an ejisterly w'mil set the pack on again and closed
the bay for six weeks. This shows that vessels which sucoeed in get-
ting so far north at such an early date, only accomplish it under pecu-
liarly favorable circumstances; and even then, at great risks, as the pack
is not sufficiently broken u|) until the middle of rlune, in that vicinity,
to enable vessels to proceed fearlessly.

The prevailing winds north of St. Lawrence island are southerly
afler April 15, and the pack breaks off at that time about G or 8 miles
offshore. It comes in and moves off with the varying winds until June
15, when it breaks up and goes off to the northward.

The natives put their canoes in the water alK)Ut May 15, showing that
young ice has ceased to form. The shore ice and that in the bays breaks
up and moves off from fifteen to twenty days afler the pack disappears.

lit before
i.seless to
1 the east
ut of the
southern

ijulee<],
western
le whales
It is a
e earliest
est shore,
trying to
empt the
arativcly

clears of
an point
:, outside
)reak up

ikIs, it is
different
out May

3t. Law-
xl south,
id closed
1 in get-
er pecu-
(he pack
vicinity,

oudierly

<S miles

itil ,Func

iiig that
s breaks
appears.

11 :

In Norton sound the ice remains later, its time of departure varying
with the strength and direction of the puivailiiig spring winds as much
as three weeks on diflen^nt seasons. Southerly and easterly winds clear
the sound and westerly winds pile the ice in.

Young ice ceases to form in the vicinity of St. Michaels, May 1. The
earliest arrival rcciorded at St. Michaels is May 25, 1875, vvhen a
s(!liooncr, commanded by an exjierienced man, reached that jilace.
Captain M. A. Healy, U. S. R. M., reached St. Michaels during two
suc(!essive seasons on June 5 and 8, and it is generally expecited that
vessels will arrive there June 10-15. The Alaska Commercial Com-
pany's steamers, which are not fitttsd for encountering ice, leave
Ounahuska on their tirst northern trip about June 25, and reach St.
Michaels safely, only encountering patches of drifl ice, through wl ich
they can easily pick their way. ,

In 1880, which was a westerly season, the Corwhi met heavy ice, June
11, in latitude G0° 50' N., and, on July 9, when 16 miles from St.
Michaels, was stopped by heavy ice, which cleared away a few days later.

The heavy ice between St. Lawrence and King's islands remains closely
packed much longer than any other ice in Bering sea. It gradually
melts and breaks up and sets north toward the straits at about 1 knot an
hour, the last of it disappearing from July 5-15.

Fort Clarence being a good harbor, close to the straits and free from
ocean swell, is the rendezvous for the vessels of the Pacific Steam
Whaling Company's ships to meet the tender which supplies them with
coal and provisions, and takes south the results of the spring catch.
This bay, being well enclosed, dears of ice much later than the time of
the departure of the i)ack along the shore. In 1885, the bark Wanderei'
anchored in Port Clarence June 25, which is the earliest date that it has
been navigable for years. As a general rule, the tender to the whaling
fleet arrives there, July 1-5, without encountering any heavy ice.

Spring movements of the ice in Bering straits. — The current
through Bering straits sets north, and, when not influenced by prevailing
winds, its rate is about 2 knits an hour. Protracted northerly gales,
lasting a week or more, are sufficient to change its direction southerly,
but upon the cessation of these winds it quickly sets north again.
Strong s therly winds increase its rate to 3 knots. In the spring the
current on the cast side of the Diomedes is the strongest, but the west
side of the straits, on account of the west shore being cleared by the
northeast current to the southward, is the first to clear of ice, and is
given the preference by vessels pnu'eeding north. *

I J I

In 1889, the Thdis passed between East cape and the Dioniede islands
without sigliting any ico July 3, but on July 6 she met nutuerous patf^hes
of drift ice setting to the northward between cape Prince of Wales and
the Diomedes. Although in 1880 the first vessels passed through the
straits May 22, and in 1881 vessels had reached latitude 68° N. by May
31, these were exceptionally early seasons, the usual time at which
vessels find the straits navigable being June ]')-2i'3. Unless it is an
unusually late spring, vessels are sin-c to be through the straits by July
1, and, once through, the latitude of the Arctic circle is easily reached.

Spring movements of the ice in the Arctic ocean. — After passing
through the straits the current an the east side takes a northeasterly
direction, following the coast line and setting into Kotzebue sound ;
thence northwest, along the coast to point Hope, and around it, fol-
lowing the shore line i p to point Barrow, where it goes off to the
northeast. On the west side of the straits the current branches off to
the northwest and follows the Siberian shore up pa^t cape Serdze and
and Kolintschin island, and thence off toward Herald island. The
action of these (ujrrents is similar to that in the Bering sea, the pa(!k
breaking off first from the shore ice, at distances off shore varying from
2 to 10 milci, working off and on until it breaks up and goes north,
followed later by the shore ice. Mention is sometimes made of an oval
basin of open water, of varying extent, being found in the early spring,
extending in a northwest and southeast direction on the Siberian side in
the latitude of the Arctic cin'le. This jirobably exists every year, due
to the retiring of the Arctic puck, the drift ice setting north from Bering
sea being set off to the northeast and being insufficient in quaiitity to fill
up both sides alike. •

After passing through Bering straits the ice met is heavy, rough,
hummocky ice, and vessels proceed cautiously, following tHe pack, and
not getting between it and the shore ice if it can possibly l)e avoided.
The pack moves north from l)oth shores at about the same time, and
cape Serdze is attainable, probably, a week before point Hope, which, as
a rule, is reached by the first vessels bound north July 4.

Kotzebue sound, like all other enclosed bays, is blocked with ice later
than the shore line to the northward of it, and its time of clearing
depends upon the prevailing winds. A vessel, by following the shore
line closely from cape Prince of Wales to cape Kspt nberg, working
through the drift ice, which sets oif shore, and through Jiering straits,
may reach the sound by July 5, and it is generally navigable July 10. -

In 1880, which was a westerly season, the sound was blocked by ice
Jidy 12, while in 1881 at the same date, there was no i(^e U) be s(nm

1c islands
s patches
^ales and
n\^h the
l)y May
at which
IS it is an
hy July
reacihed.

r passing

lieastt'i'ly

e sound ;

d it, fol-

»if' to the

les off to

srdze and

id. The

the pa(!k

ing from

es north,

f an oval

W spring,

in side in

year, due

111 Bering

ity to fill

y, rough,
)ack, and
avoided,
time, and
which, us

ice later
' clearing
the shore
working
g straits,
ilylO. -
wl hy ice

he s(H'u

there. As a general rule, heavy drift ice coming out of Kotzebile sound
is found l)etw(!en cape l>lossoin and point Hope up to July 12. The
current between these points runs rapidly, wirryiiig the i<'c along at the
rate of fi'om 2 to .'} knots, and hanking it doselv together (xtcuding 10
miles off' shore at point Hope after the pack has moved off from that
vi<!inity.

In the vicinity of point Hop(i and cape Lisbume the pack breaks off
about 3 miles from the shore, from April "> to May 25, and moves off
and (iloses in again with changing winds, gradually working off to the
northward and westward. Young ice forms in the spaces thus left to
about 5 inches in thickness, and gradually gets thinner until it disap-
pears about May 15.

The time of dejiarture of the shore ice varies greatly. In LSSO it
movgd off" July 13, and in 1889, June 14.

By following the shore ice, natives make the trij) from point Hope to
Cxipe Lisburne in canoes as early as June 1, but it is not safe for vessels
to enter the lead thus made until the solid pack has moved to the north-
ward.

Drifl ice remains in sight until July 10-25.

As the prevailing spring winds are southerly, there is always more or
less open water close inshore in the bight to the eastward of cape Lis-
burne after May 1.

On account of the contour of the shore line and the banking of the
Kotzebue sound i("^ around point Hope, with prevailing southwest
v.iiids, vessels can break through the strip of drift ice off cape Lisburne
and find an anchorage off cape Sabine before they can make the jioint
Hope anchorage. Point Hope is the rendezvous of the New Bedford
Whaling Fleet to meet the tender sent up with supplies. The leading
vessels generally reach there July 4, and the tender arrives from «Tuly
5-10, without encountering very niuch ice. •

Vessels have arri' (xl at cape Lisburne as early as June 17, and then
again have been until July 25 getting to point Hope; but these w(!re
exceptional cases, and probably illustrate the extreme cases of opeii and
late seasons.

Whales are seen off point Hojk' as early as April 23, showing tliat
ice-holes must be plentiful at tliat early date.

From cape Beaufort to point Barrow the \)av\< moves gradually north,
clearing from point to j)oiut. Vessels cannot attempt to force it, but
fellow (;losely, being cautious not to get between it and the shore 'we, A
shift "f wind to the westward brings the pack in on shore wli'ii a few

!' I i

liollrs befofo it was -out of sight from the land. Off shore tlie pack
moves to the northward more sU)wly.

The current setting along the Siberian shore changes to the northward
and sets up toward Herald island at the rate of ahont 1 knot an liour,
carrying the ice up in that direction, so that late in the fall it has formed
a ga|) in the pa(!k, extending about 30 miles north of Herald island,
known as "the Hole." The result of this northerly current and the
northeast current along the Alaska shore, combinwl with the i)revailing
sujnmcr southwest and southeast winds, is that the center of the pack in
this Arctic basin moves slower than the sides, and, with the addition of
drifting Hoes, a point of ice is formed, extending well to the southward.
This point is found in from longitude 160° W. to 170° W., and is known
as "Post-Office point," as it makes a natural meeting place for vessels
cruising to the eastward and westward to communicatt; and exchange
news. On very open seasons, with prevailing southwesterly winds,
Post-Office point has been found as far to the eastward as longitude
157° W.

I have been unable to collect much data to determine the spring move-
ments of the pack in the vicinity of Herald island. In 1881, which
was an exceptionally open season to the westward, vessels were within
sight of Herald island July 20, and on July 30 the ( hrwln landed nnui
there, having passed considerable ice midway between there and cjipe
Sabine. On August 12 of the same year she succeeded in forcing her
way through very heavy floe ice and landed men on Wrangel island. In
1885, the Corwin met solid packed ice as far as the eye could reach, in
latitude 69° 32' N., longitude 174'^ 15' W.

Following the coast north of Icy cape, vessels always have to take
more or less risk. If the pack is not far off shore it is liable to shut in
for several days at a time on the different cajjcs, when vessels may anchor
in the bights or moor to ground ice until the pacik sets oil' shore again.

The dates of the j)robable arrival of vessels at different points vary
greatly with different seasons. In 1879, about August 20, the fleet was
8top])etl by the pack at Blossom shoals; a few vessels worked around,
and about 15 miles into the bight to the eastward, but returned within a
week.

On August 9, 1885, there was heavy drift ice on Icy cape, but vessels
worketl through it, and, on August 10, anchorwl at point AFarsh. On
August 14 of the same year the ice was packed in solid on ])()int Frank-
lin, but vessels then between cape Smyth and that point lay safely under
iXie lee of ground ice, and succeeded in getting south by August 1 'J, when

tlic pack

lortliward
t ail liour,

as formed

Id i.sland,
t and tlio

)revailing
10 pack ill

Idition of
outliward.

is known
"or vessels

cxcii.inj^e
ly winds,

longitude

■ingmovc-
81, which
ere within
iiided men
and cape
jrcing her
sland. In
1 reach, in

.ve to take
to shut in
lay anchor
lore again,
oints vary
e fleet was
d around,
1 within a

)nt vessels
irsli. On
nt Frank-
fely under
1 1 9, when

the pack moved olT shore with a shift of wind and cleared the Sea Horse
islands.

In 1881, Ahc pack was in on lilossom shoals July 21, and on July 25
it was in sight from the shore 25 miles to the southward of Icy cape, and
the "blink" was strong to the southwest. This was an average season.

In the vicinity of point Barrow, during the early spring, tlic pack
breaks off from the flaw, or shore ice and moves off and on, young ice
forming in the gap thus made until the middle of May. After the early
part of June, when the pack moves off, it begins to take a northwest
movement and continues to do so until it is gone. This movement, on
and off of the pack, continues until about July 15, after which time
heavily hiassed floe ice, much broken and closely jammed together, may
be looked. for. The shore ice leaves the beach July 15-25, but remains
in sight until the middle of August, or [)erhaps all summer. On excep-
tional seasons the pack remains on the point all the year around. In
1879 and 1886, point Barrow was shut in. ';

In 1888, the steamer Orca reached the point July 4, which was the
earliest arrival on record.

lu 1880, the pack was only 4 miles off the point August 25, when the
first vessels arrived there. These are about the extreme dates of vessels
arriving during seasons when the point is opjii, the average date of
arrival being August 10-12.

To the eastward of point l>arrow the conditions of the ice are very
nuccrtain, and it is advisable for all vessels going out of sight of point
Barrow to be prepared to spend at least one winter in the Arctic. When
the pack moves off shore it does not proceed very far, and the shore and
drift ice is found extending from its edge well in shore.

The currents from the rivers clear the bays of drifting ice, and strong
winds from west to northeast, by way of south, clear the pack from the
different points. ,

Winds from west to northeast, by way of no tli, bring the heavy floe
and pack ice dt)wn on the points, and vessels so shut in are very liable
to be imprisoned, esjiccially should young ice set in before the .southerly
winds arise.

The current running along the west shor'j of Alaska sets off north-
east from point Barrow, and to the eastward of that the movements of
the ice are due entirely to winds, river currents and "witch currents.''

These "witch currents," which is the name given them by the whalers,
seem to be peculiar to this locality. Some mention them as existing in
the neighborhood of Port Clarence, but I believe these to be only

counter tida! t'lirroiits. " Witi^li ciirreiijs " are vi.sil)l(! on tlic Miirtacj' of
i\n' water as swirls and chUIIcs, and are shifting and disappearing. Ves-
sels in close proximity will be moved by these currents in diflerent direc-
tions at the rate of ii or 4 knots.

When the Tlietiti was moored to the ice oW Lion reef, large Hoes of i(!e,
within a radius of half a mile, were observed moving in three different
directions, and were api)arently tniiniluenced by the wind, their motion
being entirely due to strong Iwal currents. At another time, to illus-
trate the danger attached to these currents, when moored to gromid ic(!
and riding head to wind, with the drift ice setting by on either side and
astern, a large floe, under the influence of a " wilch current," moved
rapidly at right angles to the general ice movement, and swung in around
the stern of this vessel before she could be gotten out of the way, com-
pletely eJielosing her in heavy ice. She was worked clear in an hour
and a half; but had young ice been forming at the time, the situation
would have been attendwl with considerable danger.

Vessels have never been far enough off shore to ascertain if these
"witch currents" arc peculiar to shoal water only, but they arc probably
due to the changeable ciu'rents made by the eddies and counter currents
in the wake of large bodies of ground and {)erhaps nicving ice.

The winds to the eastward are generally local, and even when strong
are limited in extent; and vessels well to the eastward have no way
whatever of telling the condition of the ice to the westward of them.
Those who are drawing enough to push on to the eastward, run con;-*d-
erable risk, being guided to some extent by the amount of norths, fly
winds they experience, of finding the different points closed by ice upon
their return. The lo(!al winds affect the ice very rapidly.

On the evening of August 10, 1889, the Thetis moored to ground ice
off Cross island, the drift ice having a })erceptible movement to the
westward. During the night a strong westerly wind sprang up, and by
the next noon the ice was setting in heavy masses to the eastward at
the rate of from 2 to ;} knots. • •

Again, after being shut in off' Cooper's island from August 19 to 24,
by the main pack, which had shut down on point Barrow, thirty-six
hours of light breezes from KNE. to SE, moved the ice off shore and
opened a lead to point Barrow, so that vessels leaving Manning point
four days later than this ship, arrived twelve hours later at point Bar-
row without being forced to ram the ice at all. .J

A glance at the chart shows that Tangent point, cape Halket, Lion
reef and Martin point arc the principal projecting points of the coast,

HUrl'iKH' of

rciit (lircc-

Hoes of" ice,
c (lifforciit
eir motion
, to illiis-
grouiul ice
r .side and
t," moved

; in anuind
wav, com-
n an hour

16 situation

in if these
probably
er currents

hen strong
VG no way
'd of them,
run con.^Jd-
northtcly
)y ice upon

ground ice
lent to the
jp, and by
astward at

1 J to 21,
, thirty-six
sliore and
iiiiig point
point ]Jar-

ilket, Lion
the coast,

and these are the jMjints where the pack is found resting. If they are
found ch-ar, a vessel can procecij, finding the ice well broken and scat-
tered along the bays in t'rjin 5 to 8 fathoms of water.

Hy following this cu irse the Thdifi, in 1H89, reachetl Mactkenzie bay
August 15, finding heavy floe ice off point Tangent, and later the pack;
closely packed rotten ice off cape Ualket; the pack about 4 miles oil'
Lion reef, and about the same distance off Martin point.

In the bays, the "shore" and "floe" ice were found in greater or less
(juanlities close inshore, except in the lagoous, until to the eastward of
llcrschel island.

It is not prudent for sailing vessels to go at all to the eastward of point
Harrow, but when the ice is well open they venture as far as Tangent
point.

An exce[)tionally open season occurred in 1878, when the sailing fleet
all reached Camden bay.

The steam whalers go as far as the ice will allow them, their objective
point being the mouth of the Macken/io river. As a general rule, they
do not get farther than Return reef, and in 188S succeeded in reaching
Manning point. In 1889, which was an exceptionally open season, they
went as far as Shingle point, Mackenzie bay, which is the first time this
has been accomplished since 1850, when MeClure and Coliinson were
searching for traces of Sir John Fraidclin.

•In 1887, the ice was only open for two days from Camden bay to the
Mackenzie river sufTieiently to {jerniit canoes to travel.

To the eastward of ITerschel island clear water is found across
Mackenzie bay. The curr(!iit from the river holds the pack off, and all
the ice in that vicinity is new ice formed every fall. This ice conunences
to break about May 20, and by June 1 it begins to thaw aud the rivers
commence running.

The pack breaks off frou) -lune 5-15, aud the shore ice leaves Jidy 1.
Northerly winds may hold it in sight of the land for a few days, but by
July 15 it is out of sight. This occurs every summer, and the line of
demarcation between dear water and drift ice, bearing to the northward
of llerschcl island, is very pronounced. The natives report that this
clear water extends of!' shore every summer 50 or (JO miles to the east-
ward of the Mackenzie; river.

At llerschcl island there is a perceptible tidal flow, the marks oil the
beach iiulicating a rise and fall of from 2 to ;3 feet.

l''rom .luly 15 until SeptcMd)er 1, Mackenzie; bay is clear of ice, then
young m) forms, gradually increasing in thickness, aud breaking up and

I'lin

moviiif; of!" with variahli! winds. By Scptemlwr 20, it forniH to 2 or 3
inches in thicknesH, aiid by (Jettjhcr 1-6 everything is frozen solid for
the winter.

Northern limit of southern edge of the pack. — During the latter
part of August and the hcginuiiig of SepttMuher the Houthern edge of
the pack reaches its nortiiern limit, the sea to th(! southward being clear
of ice, excepting occasional small drifting floes. The general line of the
pack is from point Barrow, on the east side, to cape North, on the west
side, and is very irregular between these points, varying greatly during
different seasons.

The annexed tracing shows the etlge of the pack as foiuid for the last
five ycjirs and for 1871). From it we see that the northern limit of the
"Hole" in the vicinity of Herald island is, approximately, the same,
while to the eastward different seasons vary as much as 150 miles in
latitude. In 1879, ley cape was the northern limit of the eastern end,
and, this being a very closed sejison, the pack was little broken; 1880
shows an open season, and 1888 is a good example of the irregular line
of the pack. Post-Oftice point is found varying in longitude from 163°
W. to 168 W., and in latitude from 70° 55' N. to 71° 30' N. It shifts
its position during the same season.

Fall movements of the ice in the Arctic ocean. — Young ice forms
earlier to the eastward than to the westward, and to the eastward can.be
seen as early as August 15, making in a thin skim between broken and
floe ice on culm nights and disappearing in the daytime. By Sej)tember
1, it forms to a'l inch in thickness, and after September 20, it forms
rapidly.

The prevailing winds are northerly after the first week in September,
and soon bring the pack down to the eastward of point Barrow. As
soon as this fall movement (commences vessels should proceed to the
westward of the point at once. As a general rule, the steamers return
to point Barrow by Se})tember 10. In 1888, which was a very open
year, the steamer Orca came out from the eastward September 20, but
this was unusually late, the latest on record.

Sailing vessels cruising along the ice pack generally leave point Bar-
row for the westward August 15-25, and steamers September 10.

In the vicinity of ])oint Barrow young ice begins to form around
heavy ice Scjitember 15, and by September 22 it forms in open water,
making rapidly along the beach after September 25. By this time the
pack moves close inshore, scattering ice being found along the beach

illilill

Is U} 2 or .'}
|ii solid for

the latter
Ini edge of
[being cleiir
line of the
|)ii the west
itly during

for the last

iniit of the

, the same,

miles in

iastern end,

ken; 1886

•egidar line

from 163°

It shifts

g ice forms
viin] can.be
broken and
September
0, it forms

September,
rrow. As
eed to the
ers return
very open
)er 20, but

[)oint Bur-
10.

m around
pen water,
H time the
the beach

about Septcral)cr 10. The young ice maken out to the pack September
30, and then the ice is in for the winter.

From October 1 until December 1, the pacik is contimudly coming in
and moving off, from 1 mile to out of sight. Young ice forms in the
space thus made, which grinds and piles on the beac^h upon tlu; return of
the pack. After December 1, the ice makes fast to the bottom and stoj)s
grinding on the beach; a Holid, stationary mass, which is termed the
"flaw," extending from 4 to 8 miles offshore. On the edge of this
flaw the pack continues to grind and pile, at intervals all winter, being
set in by northwest gales, and olV by northeast gales. During these
offsets it moves from 1 mile to out of sight, and remains open from one
to fifleen days, according to the duration of the prevailing gales. When
these movements occur the pack goes in a body with the current. The
curniut in the winter sets, as it does in summer, to the northward during
southerly and easterly winds, and to the southward with northerly and
westerly winds, except that it changes oftcner, generally running three
days each way, there seldom being forty-eight consecutive hours without
any current.

The pack shuts down on Icy caj>e by November 1, and afUn* that time
tlusre is no open water between point Jiarrow arid Icy cape, excejjt when
the Haw opens. During (closed seasons these times may vary, but the
above dates indicate the average season.

I may here mention a peculiar case of drift, which occurred in the
winter of 1888-'8{), which illustrates how the pack in this vicinity is
constantly in motion all winter, and what different dir(!ctions it takes.
On August 3, 1888, during a heavy southwest gale at point liarrow, the
bark Younr/ Phanix lost her rudder and anchors and drifted oil' into the
pa(^k and w^s abandoned. She wjus set off to the eastward and was last
seen that fall 35 miles to the northward and eastward of Return reef
September 11. She was next sighte<l and boarded on July 9, 1889,
about 8 miles to the southward of cape Smyth, being found firndy fixed
in the middle of a floe 2 miles in diameter. From there she was set off
and disaj)peared to the northward I'lid westward. What her track was
during the winter is a subject of conjecture.

Off shore and to the westward, in the vicinity of Herald island and
Herald shoal, the movements of the pack to the southward are very
uncertain after September 20, and are due altogether to the winds.
Strong northeast winds produce a current to the southwest which car-
ries the pack to the southward, and the loose ice to the southwest,
where it is set south along the edge of the western pack. Strong north-

West wiiula onrry tho floe ice townnls tlio strnits, i-losinjj on lH)lh slioros
nhoiit alike.

Young ico commenroH to form to a thickness (if an incli or more; during
the last week in ScplcinluT, and it is not safe for a vesM-l to he north of
Herahl shoal after ()(;tol»er 1. Alter that (kite, arms of the pack are
liuhle to swing togethei' and imprison a vessel ; or Iooh' H(K' ice, which
was navigahle during the day, will In'oome so firndy tixe<l with young
ice in a single night as to render it unnavigahle even for stenmera.

Instances of these kinds occurred in IHSH and 1S79. In tlu' former
ease (see traciing), thirteen vessels were crinsing in the vicinity of Herald
island until Septend)er 27, 1888, when heing wariu-*! I)y the "icehlink"
that the pack was closing to the southward, they prowetknl s(»iith thnuigh
a narrow gap, and found that they were shut in, what they had thought
to b(! clear water to the southward (»uly proving to l>e another hole.
The ice was heavy fhx! ice, frozen together hy young ice, and would
have been impenetrable had not an unusual event cxvnrred for that sea-
son of the year, in the; shape of a southerly jrale, which broke it up.
This was followed almost immediately by a strong northwest gale, and
selecting the weakest point of the pack, the vessels n)anaged, by ciirry-
ing on sail, to forc(! their way out in the latitude of Hendd shoal, longi-
tude 175° W., on Se|)tember ,'>(). The tracing shows that the arm of
the pack, which was found extending to fhe sonthwanl Scptend)er l.'{,
nuist have swung to the westward with northeJLst winds, and joining
with the western pack, formed a double hole, enclosing the vessels.

The other case in which vessels were shut in, in this vicinity, was in
1879. The barks Mt. WoUaston and Vif/ilant were htst seen to the
northward and eastward of Herald island (October 10, and were carrifnl
off in the pack, all hands being lost. Whether they were sjuit in by the
pack or by young ice is uid<nown.

After September 2(5, young ice forms rapidly near Herald shoal, and
after October 1-5, during calm nights or light northerly winds, it forms
in thickness of from 1 to (5 inches in a single night. Being tem))ted
by a scarcity of large ice during some seasons to remain in that vicnnity
a little later, vessels sometimes remain as late as Octolwr 10, or even
later, but at times with disastrous results.

An instance of this occurred in 1871), when, on the night of October
18, the barks Moxury and Helen Mar, having worketl clejii of tloe ice
into open water, were shut in by young ice; it formal so raj>idly that
after it had been decided to abandon the weaker vess<?l, loads of a ton
weight was dragged over the ice by parties of fifteen men, and the

•'I

|l»<»tli sljoroH

liiorc! (lining
'«' nortli of
lie jcK'k an;
|<' i«'(', wliicli
Iwifli y(»iiiig

lllRTS.

|» du' former
>•<>«■ Hcnild
"Ice Mink"

iitli lliroiijrii

i;i(l (ll(H|(r|i(

utiUvv hole.

and would

for that sca-

>rok<' i( up,

'^t pilo, and

<1, In ciirry-

lioal, lorijri-

tJi(! arm of

|)t('ml)('r !,'{,

and

L'S.SC'1.S,

joining

•i(y, was in
seen <o the
vera eariied
lit in by tJio

I slioal, and
lis, it forniH
ng tempted
lat vi(!inity
0, or even

of October
of floe ice
i]>i(lly that
■i of a ton
n, and the

I /r/ca Afar im\y HWOccvAvi] in gefting through the HlraitH, NovemlM'r 1,
by carrying royals during a close; reef gale, and driving throiu;h the
<|iiickly forming ice at the rate of i knot per lionr.

These inslaiuscH show that young lee is more diinger<tiis in the late fall
than the movenients of the solid pack, and the limit of safety for vesselH
(wniHin;; in this vicinity is October 1, at Herald sIkkiI. After that time
they shonld work ^tea^lily (o the southward.

A vessel once caught in the ]>a(k in this vicinity i.s carried off to ihe
n<»rlliward and westward, and if i-^ only a rpicstion of time when she will
be broken Up iuid slink l>y the working and grinding of the ice.

Ill longitude 170" W., the main pack seldom comes in a bctdy below
latitude f)!)*^ S., but vessels coming south in the late liill usually en-
coiiutcr heavy flow ice Ix'tween cape lS<!rdze, on the Siberian shore, an<l
p(»int Hope, on the Alaska shore. The northeasterly and northerly
w iiids drive th(; loose ficK! ice from the edge of the pack along the western
pack and down (tu \\\o Siberian shore. Jiere it takes a turn to the south-
cast and follows the shore, in a southeasterly current thus made, until it
nache.s cape Scrdze, where it is deflected off to the eastward toward
pciiiit Hope, where the current turns it t<i the northward.

This accumulation continues increasing during the fiill until young
i(;e gets too heavy to allow the floe ice to !)<■ inlhuineed by the wind.
It banks heavily on the Siberian shore, and when met by vessels bound
to fh(! southward, is only avoided by working to th(! eastward, vessels
sometimes having to pass very close to ])oint Hope, and, in a lew eases,
well in toward Kotzebiie sound, to pass around and get to the south-
ward of it.

Vessels bound south from Herald shoal, steer to make a landfall at
ca])e liisbiirne or point Hopi , in order to set a course for the straits and
maki' use of soundings, and by so doing they generally avoid this
accumulation of heavy ice. Strong northerly gales drive this loose ice
down in the vicinity of the straits, northeasterly gales banking the west
side, ;ind northwesorly gales both sides alike.

In the vicinity O' cape Sabine, young ice commenees to make October
10-20. It moves off and on with southerly and northerly winds, the
current rapidly changing its direction with shifting gales, until the early
l)art of flaniiarv, when it beeonvs fixed to the shore and remains so

mtil it breaks ui) in the snrinsr

^pri

At jioint Ho|)e the ice forms in the lagoons about September 25, but
young ice in the ocean is as late forming as October 12, being heavy by
October 25. •

'!|'!|1

All the ice in this viciuity, in sight from the shore, is made up of
young ice, which telescopes and piles until it forms heavy floes, the gaps
freezing over with young ice and forming heavy pack ice by early spring.
Occasionally a few scattering floes of old ice are drifted into this vicinity
and held by the young ice, but as a rule it is all new ice.

Under the cliffs between cape Lisburne and point Hope, temperate
springs exist which cut away the sea ice and keep a place of open water
all winter.

Kotzebue sound freezes over and is closed to navigation by October
10-15.

Pall movements of the ice in Bering straits. — The regular set of
the current in Bering straits in the fiill is northerly, being stronger on
the ea.st side; but, the jjrovailing gales at this season being northerly, a
change in the direction of the current to the southward is more common
than in the spring. Northwest gales drive the loose ice down into the
straits on both sides alike, but vessels leaving Herald shoal October 1,
afler passing the ice between cape Serdze and point Hoi)e, seldom find
enough heavy ice in the straits to retard their progress south. More ice
is found on the east than the west side, but the east side is preferred on
account of the contour of the bottom being better suited for soundings
in thick weather.

An instance of the strong southerly current which is found existing in
the straits afler a protracted northwest gale is given b}'^ a whaling captain.
While running from cape Sordze to make the JDiomedes, he raised King's
island instead; thinking it was the Diomcdes, he swung off to the south-
ward, and, when he had run up his distance for King's island, found
himself off northeast cape of St. Lawrence island. This instance shows,
conclusively, a southeast cuirrent on the Siberian coast and a southerly
current in the straits.

All vessels, steamers or sailing vessels, should be out of the Artstic by
October 10. Cases have occurred in late seasons where vessels have vol-
untarily been as late as October 23 passing through the straits; or, in
the case of the Ildcn Mar,\x\ 1879, until November 1 , at which tune
she forced her way through rapidly forming ice with great difficulty ;
but October 10 is as late as safety will permit of a vessel being north of
Bering sea. After that time the ice forms and banks in the straits
rapidly, alternately being solid across and then breaking up in leads and
holes.

During these periods of solid ice the natives coramunicattj across it
from cape Prince of Wales to East cape. Such trips are always acconi-

iL»..

made up of
es, the gaps
arly spring,
lis vicinity

;, temperate
open water

by October

gular set of
stronger on
northerly, a
)re common
wn into the

October 1,

seldom find

More ice

•referred on

soundings

existing in
ng caj)tain.
ised King's

the south-
and, found
nice shows,
I southerJy

i Arctic by
have vol-
lits; or, in
t'hich tune
difficulty;
^ nortii of
he straits
leads and

3 across it
^'s ac(!om-

panied with much danger, but are accoiuplished by the Prince of Wales
natives making a forced march to the "Little" Diomede, where they
meet the natives of the "Big" Diomede, who have in turn been visited
by the natives from East cape. These trips are made annually.

Fall movements of the ice in Bering sea. — In the northern part of
Bering sea young ice commences to form in small ciuanlities in the bays
and along the shore, about October 15, as far south as Indian point. In
St. Lawrence bay, after October 25, when the northerly winds preva'l^ it
forms quite solid along the shore, while it still remains not solid enough
to travel on in deep water. In 1881 it remained in this condition until
November 31, too heavy to work a boat through, but too light to travel
on, when in one night it froze solid. Very few pieces of old ice are
seen, the whole formation being young ice which piles into heavy masses.

December 1, the ice is solid for the winter, the pack breaking off from
(5 to 8 miles off shore, with shifting winds, until the spring southerly
winds start it north. When the pack comes in at these times it forces
the ice up 20 and 30 feet, forming hummocks of heavy ice. Off shore
young ice, of sufficient thickness to impede and perhaps prevent a
steamer's progress, forms from November 1-15, and at St. Lawrence
island Novembe** 25.

On the east, side of Bering sea, in Norton sound, and in the vicinity
of St. Michaels, young ice forms in small (piantities October 12-18, and
by October 25-2H is strong enough to travel on. It forms for a "full
due" for the winter between November 1-10, and St. Michaels is con-
sidered (ilosed to navig'ition for the winter after October 15.

All the ice found in Norton sound is made up of young ice, which
forms every fall and entirely disappears during the following summer.

The ice continues to form, extending farther and farther to the south-
ward, breaking up, piling, and telescoping with variable winds and cui'-
rent«, and so forms the Bering sea pack, which has its limit, as a solid
mass, a little to the southward of St. Matthew island. To the south-
ward of that, the ice found consists of detached floes, which are driven
off from the mouths of the rivers on the Alaska side.

At Pribyloff' islands it takes fully three weeks of iKtrtheasterly winds
to drive the ice down on the islands, a northwest wind I)eiiig "ina(;com-
panietl by ice. This ice is looked for during (lie latter part of December
or early January, and is continually in motion, with variable winds,
being much broken up.

Some years the islands are free of ice.

' .w.

• ■ ill

The farthest south the lee has ever been known to extend is Akoutan
pass, and this occurred about January 15, 1878, when it only remained
a few days.

In order to ilhistratc the comparative dan<^erof the ice in the diiferent
localities, I give the following list of ciisualties which have occurred
from the ice during the last ten years, which list was furnished uw l)y
Mr. J. W. Kelly. Fro.n it we see that the great majority of casualties
have ' jcurred in the fall, by reason of the vessels endeavoring to remain
too long in the Arctic before starting to the southward.

BERING SEA (sPKING),

1882: Bark 8appho stove and sunk off cape Navarin.

1885: April 15, bark Uahihow stove and sunk off cape Navarin.
May 5, bark Napoleon stove and sunk off cape Navarin. May 25, bark
Gazelle stove and sunk to the southward of St. Lawrence island,
attempting to ride out a gale betwc i two ice floes. Bark Eliza stove
off St. Lawrence island and repaired. Bark Dawn stove off St. Law-
rence island and repaired.

188(5: Bark John Carver stove and sunk. Schooner Page stove, con-
demned and sent to San Francisco.

1889: JJark Ladoga stove off cape Navarin and sent to San Francisco.
Bark Ohio (2d) stove and sunk off Nunivak island.

ARCTIC OCEAN (sUMJMOR).

1881 : Daniel Webster crushed 5 miles south of ))oint Barrow, befwoen
pack and shore ice, while [)ushing ahead of" the whaling fleet.

1882 : Steamer Norlh >Sfar crushed l)etween the pack and flaw, in siglit
of and to the soutliward of Cape Smyth station.

1883: Jiark John llowland, stove off point Lay, was abandoned and
set on fire at i)()int Hope.

1884: Steamer i>o?r/i<v/(7 crushed l)et\veen two floes between Icy cape;
and point lielcher. No fires lighted.

1887: Bark }far}i and SuMtn, stove off cape Lisbuine, repaired.
Bark Hunter, stove off Icy c;ipe, repaired.

, , ARCTIC Oi EAN (fAI,l). . ,.

1871 : Thirty-one vessels shut in and abandoned off point Belcher.

1870: Thirteen vessels caught of Sea Horse islands, were drifted (o
the northward and eastward of poinf I'arrow and w<'re abandoned.

187!): IJarks Mt. WoHaxhtH and I'igilaitl carrieil otf in (he pjick to
the northward and eastward of Herald islanil ; were Ia.st seen October

15.

i
I

iwaaaBPXCKonMH

s Akoiitan
remained

le (lifrerent

e occurred

led nu' by

casualties

to remain

3 Navarin.
y 25, 1, :,,•!<
ice island,
J^J/irji stove
Y iSt. Law-

stovo, COIl-

I Francisco.

w, between
iw, in sigiit
idoned and

II I<'y cape
, repaired.

15. Bark Mercury frozen in and abandoned off* Herald shoal October
18. Barks Mabel and Eliza shnt in off point Beldier September 15.
The Mabel was abandoned, the Eliza's crew divided on both ships, a
norther l)roke up the ice, and they brought out both ships.

1883: Baik Abraham Barker lost her rudder by boing forced ashore
by tiie pack on point Barrow. Bark Ifary arid Siusan stove and aban-
doned off Herald island.

1885: Schooner Clara Light, September 14, while being towed from
poirt Barrow by steamer Alliance, was cut down and sunl: by young ice.

1888: Barks Fleetwiny, Young Phivnix and Mary and Susan wrecked
on the bar and in the ice at point Barrow in a gale August 5, and aban-
doned. Schooner Jane Gray lost anchors and stove by the ice in gale
oH' point Barrow, August 5; drifted 60 miles to northward and eastward
of the point, and was found capsized by U. S. S. Thetis; raised and
repaired. Schooner Iiio driven ashore by gale and ice at cape Smyth.

herixct sea (fall).

1885: Bark Amethyst missing; supposed to have been seen from
l*ribyloff islands. A vessel is reported to have been sighted from cape
Lisburne in young ice October 18.

This list does not contain all the wrecks which have taken place in
these waters, but simply those which have been caused by the ice alone.

The compass directions of currents, winds, bearings, &c., given in this
report are magnetic.

In ray opinion, all vessels entering the Arctic ocean and working the
ice for a season, should be provisioned and prepared to spend at least one
winter there, on account of the uncertainty of ice navigation.

In concluding this report, I can only state tiiat the dates given are as
close approximations as I could make, as different seasons vary greatly.
In fact, the only point I have had no difficulty in obtaining a general
agreement on from all parties interviewed is the fact that "No two
seasons are alike in the Arctic."

EDWARD SIMPSON,

Ensign, U. S. Navy.

ix'iciicr.
drifted to
•lied.

c pack to
n October